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to P @-@ 40 Tomahawks , No. 3 Squadron took part in the Syria – Lebanon campaign . Jackson became an ace on 25 June , when he destroyed a Potez 630 light bomber ( possibly a misidentified LeO 451 ) of the Vichy French air force . He claimed a Dewoitine D.520 fighter on 10 July . The next day Jackson shared in the destruction of another D.520 with Bobby Gibbes ; the pair tossed a coin to take full credit for it ; Gibbes won to claim his first " kill " .
Jackson was promoted to flight lieutenant on 1 July 1941 . By now his younger brother Ed had been posted to No. 3 Squadron and was serving with him in Palestine . With the campaign in Syria concluding in mid @-@ July , the unit undertook no operations in August and personnel went on leave before returning to action in Egypt the next month . The rural @-@ bred Jackson took to the night life in Alexandria , but his stay at a first @-@ class hotel left him bewildered as to the purpose of the room 's bidet , which he eventually determined was " some feminine arrangement " . Peter Ewer , in Storm Over Kokoda , observed : " There was something of the patrician about John Jackson , but his well @-@ to @-@ do background had a distinctly Australian tinge to it . He liked a game of cards , with a bet on the outcome . " In Whispering Death , Mark Johnston noted that although " tall and blue @-@ eyed " , he " did not have the air of a ' boy 's own ' or movie star pilot " , but rather was " balding , ambling and no extrovert " . Jackson returned to Australia in November 1941 . He was mentioned in despatches , and awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross ( DFC ) for his " marked keenness and determination " during operations with No. 3 Squadron in the Middle East . The former award was promulgated in the London Gazette on 1 January 1942 and the latter , which listed him as " John Henry Jackson " , on 7 April . The DFC was presented to Jackson 's widow Elisabeth , after his death .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Following his return from the Middle East , Jackson was briefly an instructor at No. 1 Service Flying Training School , based at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria . He wrote to his wife , " I just loathe this joint . This training is a tough job and I take my hat off to the boys who have been doing it since war broke out ... every one of these instructors is longing to be sent overseas , but I doubt if they have any chance of ever getting there — they are so valuable here . " In January 1942 , he was posted to No. 4 Squadron , which operated Wirraways in Canberra .
As the Japanese advanced towards New Guinea in early 1942 , the RAAF urgently established three new fighter units for Australia 's northern defence , Nos. 75 , 76 and 77 Squadrons . Jackson was promoted to acting squadron leader and appointed commanding officer ( CO ) of No. 75 Squadron on 19 March , barely two weeks after the unit was formed at Townsville , Queensland . He took over from Wing Commander Peter Jeffrey , who had led No. 3 Squadron in the Middle East and been given the task of preparing No. 75 for operations at Port Moresby , where the local Australian Army garrison was under regular attack by Japanese bombers . Jeffrey later recalled chiding Jackson for his eagerness to return to combat despite having already done enough in the war , to which the latter replied , " What are you fighting for ? King and country ? Well , I 'm fighting for my wife and kids and no Jap bastard 's going to get them ! " On 21 March , Jackson led the squadron 's main force to Seven Mile Aerodrome to take part in the defence of Port Moresby , a crucial early battle in the New Guinea campaign , and what military aviation historian Andrew Thomas called " one of the most gallant episodes in the history of the RAAF " . The unit was equipped with P @-@ 40 Kittyhawks , whose long @-@ awaited arrival had seen them irreverently dubbed " Tomorrowhawks " , " Neverhawks " , and " Mythhawks " by the beleaguered garrison at Moresby . Jackson 's age of thirty @-@ four was considered advanced for a fighter pilot , and he was affectionately known as " Old John " to his men , one of whom was his younger brother Les , now a flight lieutenant . As CO , Jackson 's leadership was to prove inspirational to his pilots , many of whom had received only nine days of training in fighter tactics , and fired their guns just once .
On 22 March , the day after he arrived in New Guinea , Jackson took No. 75 Squadron on a dawn raid against the Japanese airfield at Lae . Rather than attacking directly from the south , he led the Kittyhawks in from the east , where they would not be expected and where the rising sun would hide their approach . Achieving the surprise he had hoped for , Jackson made two strafing passes over the airfield , ignoring standard practice that called for only one such pass to reduce the risk from anti @-@ aircraft fire . The Australians claimed a dozen Japanese planes destroyed on the ground and five more damaged . They also shot down two Mitsubishi Zero fighters in the air , and lost two Kittyhawks over Lae , along with one that had crash @-@ landed on takeoff from Moresby . The Japanese struck back the next day , destroying two Kittyhawks at Seven Mile Aerodrome . With his losses mounting , Jackson was given permission to withdraw the squadron to Horn Island in Far North Queensland , but refused . On 4 April , Jackson made a solo reconnaissance over Lae , after which he led another four Kittyhawks on a raid against the airfield , claiming seven enemy aircraft destroyed on the ground without loss to themselves ; Japanese sources credited the Australians with only two machines destroyed , but seventeen others damaged . Two days later , Les Jackson was forced to ditch his aircraft on a coral reef , but made it to shore with the aid of a life jacket that John dropped to him , not realising at the time that the downed pilot was his younger brother .
Jackson himself had to ditch into the sea on 10 April , when he was shot down after being surprised by three Zeros during another of his solo reconnaissance missions near Lae . After playing dead beside his crashed plane to discourage the Japanese fighters from machine @-@ gunning him , he swam to shore and made his way through jungle for over a week to Wau , with the help of two New Guinea natives . When he arrived back at Port Moresby in a US Douglas Dauntless on 23 April , a Japanese air raid was in progress and a bullet cut off the tip of his right index finger . Having survived his trek through the jungle , he dismissed the wound as " a mere scratch " . On 27 April , Jackson met with his pilots and revealed that some senior RAAF officers had expressed dissatisfaction with the way in which No. 75 Squadron was avoiding dogfighting with the Japanese Zeros . Jackson and his men had generally eschewed such tactics owing to the Zero 's superiority to the Kittyhawk in close combat . The senior officers ' comments had evidently stung him , however , as he declared to his pilots : " Tomorrow I 'm going to show you how " . According to journalist Osmar White , who saw him on the night of the 27th , Jackson 's " hands and eyes were still and rock steady " but he appeared " weary in soul " and " too long in the shadows " . White concluded : " He had done more than conquer fear — he had killed it " . The next day , Jackson led No. 75 Squadron 's five remaining airworthy Kittyhawks to intercept a force of Japanese bombers and their escort . He destroyed an enemy fighter before being shot down and killed . His aircraft hit the side of a mountain and embedded itself six feet ; Jackson was identified only by his size @-@ ten boots and the revolver he habitually wore . His final tally of aerial victories during the war was eight .
= = Legacy = =
Les Jackson took over command of No. 75 Squadron the day after his brother was killed . Although the squadron was no longer an effective fighting unit , it had checked Japan 's attempts to overpower Port Moresby by air attack , and the town continued to function as an important Allied base . John Jackson was survived by his wife and children , and interred in Moresby 's Bomana War Cemetery . His estate was sworn for probate at a value of £ 29 @,@ 780 ( $ 1 @,@ 870 @,@ 800 in 2011 ) . His name appears on panel 104 of the Commemorative Area at the Australian War Memorial ( AWM ) , Canberra . Jackson was a keen amateur film maker , and a four @-@ minute reel of 16 mm footage that he shot in Port Moresby is held by the AWM . Moresby 's Seven Mile Aerodrome was renamed Jackson 's Strip in his honour ; it later became Jacksons International Airport . In a 1989 interview , fellow No. 75 Squadron member Flight Lieutenant Albert Tucker commented , " I would say that had John F. Jackson not existed , the squadron would not have been effective in that defence role for as long as it was ... So the whole spirit of John F 's leadership , and I suppose his final sacrifice , was the thing that made 75 Squadron . " In March 2003 , the St George township erected a monument to Jackson and another local RAAF identity , Aboriginal fighter pilot Len Waters .
= New York 's 20th congressional district special election , 2009 =
The 2009 special election for the 20th congressional district of New York was held on March 31 , 2009 , to fill the vacancy created in January 2009 when the district 's representative , Congresswoman Kirsten Gillibrand , was appointed US senator from New York , replacing Hillary Clinton , who had been appointed Secretary of State in the Obama administration . The two major @-@ party candidates were Democrat Scott Murphy , a private businessman , and Republican Jim Tedisco , the minority leader of the New York State Assembly . A third @-@ party candidate , Libertarian Eric Sundwall , was initially included in the race , but later removed from the ballot .
The 20th district has historically been conservative , and early polls favored Tedisco , but by February 2009 the race was considered a toss @-@ up . The Republican Party considered the election to be a referendum on President Obama 's economic policy and as such , injected significant funding into Tedisco 's campaign , using well @-@ known Republicans such as former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich , Congressional Minority Leader John Boehner , and former New York Governor George Pataki for support . Democrats used Senator Gillibrand , Vice President Joe Biden , and an endorsement from President Barack Obama to support the Murphy campaign .
Major issues brought up during the campaign were the candidates ' positions on President Obama 's stimulus plan , which Tedisco did not take a stance on until late in the race . Murphy supported it while Tedisco eventually opposed it . Tedisco portrayed Murphy 's support of the plan as a potential cause of the AIG bonus scandal . Tedisco 's campaign also brought up Murphy 's failure to pay taxes on a company he founded in the 1990s . A frequent Murphy talking point was that Tedisco 's primary residence was not in the Congressional district .
The race was so close that one early vote count had the candidates tied at 77 @,@ 225 votes each . Absentee ballots decided the election ; ballots were accepted until April 13 . While Tedisco had been ahead in early counts , by April 10 Murphy was leading , and by April 23 Murphy had a 401 @-@ vote advantage . Tedisco conceded the race the following day , and Murphy was sworn in on April 29 . Democratic electoral successes in November 2008 and Murphy 's clear support of the stimulus package were credited for his success .
= = Background = =
New York 's 20th district in 2009 encompassed all or part of Columbia , Dutchess , Delaware , Essex , Greene , Otsego , Rensselaer , Saratoga , Warren , and Washington counties . Traditionally conservative , it had been considered a safe seat for Republicans until Blue Dog Democrat Kirsten Gillibrand defeated incumbent John E. Sweeney in the 2006 election . In November 2008 , the Republican Party held an enrollment advantage of 70 @,@ 632 registered voters across the district , down from a 93 @,@ 337 @-@ voter advantage when the district lines were drawn by the New York State Legislature in 2002 . Although Republican George W. Bush carried the district by an eight @-@ point margin in the 2004 presidential election , Democrat Barack Obama won the district in 2008 by a three @-@ point margin , or approximately 10 @,@ 000 votes of over 330 @,@ 000 cast . Gillibrand was reelected in 2008 by 24 points , a fourfold increase over her 2006 margin .
One of Barack Obama 's first decisions as president @-@ elect was to appoint Hillary Clinton , US Senator from New York and former Democratic presidential primary opponent , as Secretary of State ; Clinton resigned her Senate seat to take the position . The district 's seat became vacant in January 2009 when Governor David Paterson appointed Gillibrand to the United States Senate to replace Clinton . On February 23 , 2009 , Governor Paterson issued a proclamation setting the date for the special election as March 31 , 2009 . Under state law , Paterson was not required to issue a proclamation for a special election until July 2010 . Both the Rothenberg Political Report and the Cook Political Report listed the race as a toss @-@ up .
= = Candidates = =
In lieu of party primaries , the party nominees were chosen by a weighted vote among the county committees . The weight of the vote depended on the population of registered party voters ( Republican or Democrat ) in a given county .
= = = Republican Party = = =
State Senator Betty Little and former state Assembly minority leader and 2006 Republican gubernatorial candidate John Faso had been in the running for the Republican nomination . Richard Wager , a former aide to New York City Mayor Michael Bloomberg , and State Senator Stephen Saland had also been mentioned . Alexander " Sandy " Treadwell , the former New York Secretary of State and 2008 U.S. House challenger , had announced he would not run . On January 24 , State Assembly Minority Leader Jim Tedisco received the endorsement of Saratoga County 's Republican chairman , while the Greene County GOP endorsed Faso .
Jim Tedisco was the eventual Republican nominee , winning the GOP nomination on January 27 , 2009 . Tedisco represented the 110th Assembly District , which includes a significant portion of Saratoga County . Tedisco 's primary residence was not in the congressional district , although he did own a house in Saratoga Springs and much of his assembly district overlapped the congressional district . This issue would become a major talking point during the campaign .
= = = Democratic Party = = =
On January 31 , The Post @-@ Star reported that the Democrats had narrowed the field of potential candidates from over two dozen applicants down to six . The Democratic chairpersons met with all six candidates at a diner in Albany on February 1 , and selected Scott Murphy of Glens Falls , president of the Upstate Venture Association of New York , as their candidate . Other confirmed candidates included Saratoga County Democratic Chairman Larry Bulman , former New York Rangers goaltender Mike Richter , Coxsackie Town Supervisor Alex Betke , and Tracey Brooks , failed candidate for the nomination for the 21st district election in 2008 .
= = = Third parties = = =
New York allows electoral fusion , an arrangement allowing two or more qualified parties to list the same candidate on a ballot . The Conservative Party chose to cross @-@ endorse Tedisco on February 9 , while the Working Families Party gave its endorsement to Murphy on February 17 . On March 1 , the Independence Party , the largest third party in the 20th district , gave its endorsement to Murphy . This was the first time the Independence Party had endorsed a Democrat in the district .
Eric Sundwall , Chair of the New York Libertarian Party , was the Libertarian candidate for the seat . However , he was removed from the ballot on March 25 , after 3 @,@ 786 of the 6 @,@ 730 signatures his campaign had collected were ruled invalid . Under state election law , independent congressional candidates must collect at least 3 @,@ 500 valid signatures to be on the ballot . Two Saratoga County residents challenged over 6 @,@ 000 of Sundwall 's signatures ; Sundwall blamed Tedisco for the effort to have him removed from the ballot . The vast majority of the rejected signatures were from voters who put down their mailing address instead of the municipality in which they physically lived . Votes for Sundwall on absentee ballots , which were mailed out before he was removed from the ballot , were voided . On March 27 , Sundwall announced that he would vote for Murphy in the election and urged his supporters to join him .
= = Campaign = =
The campaigns agreed to hold four debates . The first debate took place on March 2 , between Tedisco and Murphy . The second debate , sponsored by WMHT and the Times Union , took place on March 19 between Murphy and Libertarian candidate Eric Sundwall . Jim Tedisco held a town hall meeting rather than attend , claiming the debate was not one of the four originally agreed upon . The third debate took place on March 23 and the final debate was on March 26 .
Strategists from both parties viewed the outcome of the race as a " referendum on President Obama 's handling of the economy " . Chairman Michael Steele of the Republican National Committee said the special election was the first of three elections that were " incredibly important " for the Republicans to win . The Republican leadership made this race a top priority , and Chairman Steele , former Governor George Pataki , House Minority Leader John Boehner , and former Speaker of the House Newt Gingrich helped Tedisco with fundraising . Steele visited the district twice . On the Democratic side , Senator Gillibrand appeared in commercials and robocalls for Murphy , and Senator Chuck Schumer helped Murphy 's campaign with fundraising . Less than a week before the election , President Obama formally endorsed Murphy in a mass email to supporters and urged supporters to organize and vote for Murphy . A radio ad Vice President Joe Biden recorded for Murphy was released on March 25 . That same day , Democratic National Committee ( DNC ) Chairman Tim Kaine emailed 500 of the party 's top donors asking them to contribute to Murphy 's campaign .
The RNC spent $ 100 @,@ 000 on Tedisco 's behalf . The Democratic Congressional Campaign Committee spent $ 150 @,@ 000 and the Service Employees International Union spent $ 315 @,@ 000 for Murphy . The New York State United Teachers made an effort to call its members on Murphy 's behalf , while the National Right to Life , National Republican Trust and New York State Rifle and Pistol Association organizations paid for ads and mailings supporting Tedisco .
Each candidate aimed to discredit the other by pointing out his opponent 's flaws or mistakes . Republicans called attention to Murphy 's failure to pay taxes on a start @-@ up computer software company he had founded in the 1990s , drawing comparison to three high @-@ profile Obama administration nominees who failed to pay all of their taxes . Tedisco also called attention to Murphy 's failure to regularly vote in elections after the National Republican Congressional Committee ( NRCC ) announced that Murphy had failed to vote in the 2000 presidential election , along with seven other primaries and general elections between 2000 and 2003 . Believing the negative ads run by the NRCC were responsible for his drop in the polls , Tedisco announced that he would take control of campaign advertising from the NRCC .
Murphy spent the first months of the campaign criticizing Tedisco 's early refusal to disclose his position on President Obama 's American Recovery and Reinvestment Act . When Tedisco came out in opposition to the legislation on March 16 , Murphy responded by writing " it 's just shameful it took well over a month for Assemblyman Tedisco to finally admit that he 'd vote ' No ' " . Murphy 's campaign described Tedisco as a career Albany politician .
By mid @-@ March , a provision in the stimulus package that grandfathered in bonuses paid to executives at troubled insurance giant AIG and other TARP recipients became a campaign issue . Tedisco , who had been criticized by Murphy for opposing the package , used the outrage over the AIG bonuses to reframe the debate . On March 19 , Tedisco called for the resignation of Treasury Secretary Tim Geithner over the AIG controversy . Murphy responded by insisting that the stimulus package was necessary for job creation .
= = = Media Endorsements = = =
March 22 , 2009 : Declaring " the upcoming special election in the 20th Congressional District nothing less than a referendum on the Obama economic stimulus plan " , the Kingston @-@ based Daily Freeman endorsed Murphy for his support of the plan .
March 22 , 2009 : Expressing a desire for " having candid , dissenting voices in any political body to keep the majority from going astray " , the Poughkeepsie Journal endorsed Tedisco .
March 26 , 2009 : Calling him " [ not ] ideal ... [ but ] the better candidate " , the Glens Falls @-@ based The Chronicle gave Jim Tedisco its endorsement .
March 26 , 2009 : The New York Post gave its support to Jim Tedisco , calling him " a far better fit for the largely conservative district " .
March 29 , 2009 : While acknowledging Tedisco 's role in creating the STAR Program and his vocal support for a property tax cap , The Times Union endorsed Murphy as " a candidate who would work with Mr. Obama to achieve his goals " .
March 29 , 2009 : Citing the need for " an experienced , effective representative in Congress " , The Post @-@ Star endorsed Tedisco .
March 29 , 2009 : Impressed by his " public service , experience and political philosophy " , as well has his opposition to a union card check bill , The Saratogian endorsed Tedisco .
March 29 , 2009 : Claiming that " Tedisco has the track record that will make him a solid check and balance in Washington " , the Troy Record endorsed Tedisco .
= = = Polling = = =
† Commissioned by Tedisco 's campaign and the NRCC ‡ Commissioned by the DCCC
= = Election = =
With 100 percent of precincts reporting , initial counts from the election had Murphy leading by about 60 votes out of over 150 @,@ 000 cast . Columbia County 's Board of Elections amended its tally the following day , reducing Murphy 's lead to 25 votes . The lead alternated between the two candidates throughout early recanvassing ; at one point the New York State Board of Elections had listed the election at a zero @-@ vote margin , with each candidate having exactly 77 @,@ 225 votes . By April 2 , Tedisco was ahead by 12 votes . He resigned the position of Assembly Minority Leader on April 5 in preparation for a transition to Congress , and was replaced by Brian Kolb the following day . On April 7 , Tedisco was ahead by 97 votes . The close tally meant that absentee ballots would decide the race .
All ballots , absentee ballot envelopes , and voting machines were impounded under a court injunction sought by state Republicans . Under the court order , absentee ballots were counted in central locations rather than individual precincts . Of the 10 @,@ 000 absentee ballots sent out to voters , 6 @,@ 000 were returned . Absentee ballots mailed within the United States had to be received by April 7 to be counted . The deadline for overseas ( including military ) ballots was extended to April 13 after the United States Department of Justice sued the state to ensure they would have a reasonable chance of being counted . Counting of the absentee ballots due by April 7 began on April 8 under a New York State Supreme Court ruling sought by Murphy 's campaign .
The legality of about 600 absentee ballots were contested during the count , including Senator Gillibrand 's ballot . By April 23 , Murphy was ahead by 401 votes , and Tedisco conceded the following day . Murphy was sworn in on April 29 . The official results came out in May and had Murphy winning the election with 80 @,@ 833 votes ( 50 @.@ 23 % ) against Tedisco 's 80 @,@ 107 votes ( 49 @.@ 77 % ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Murphy 's victory was credited to a coattail effect from Barack Obama 's election in 2008 . His support of the stimulus package and Tedisco 's failed attempt at clearly explaining his ( Tedisco 's ) opposition to the package also had an impact . Further explanations for the Republican defeat ranged from accusations that Tedisco " dither [ ed ] on the stimulus bill " , to intimations that Tedisco only became his party 's nominee by manipulating the selection process . In an editorial , the Wall Street Journal contended that being an " Albany careerist " and running confusing campaign ads had hurt Tedisco . Tedisco 's loss immediately made him appear vulnerable to Democrats hoping to capture his seat in the Assembly .
The day after being sworn in , Murphy hired Todd Schulte , his campaign manager , as his new chief of staff . He also hired one of Governor Paterson 's aides , Maggie McKeon , as his communications director . For his district director , Murphy turned to Rob Scholz , a Republican . Scholz had worked on Murphy 's campaign and had received praise from Larry Bulman , the chairman of the Saratoga County Democratic Committee . Within a month of being elected , Murphy opened offices in Saratoga Springs and Hudson . Murphy served the remainder of his term , but lost a reelection bid on November 2 , 2010 , to challenger Chris Gibson , a retired Army colonel .
= Donald Wilson ( general ) =
Donald Wilson ( 25 September 1892 – 21 June 1978 ) was a United States Army Air Forces general during World War II .
Wilson enlisted in the Maryland National Guard as a private in 1916 and served with it on the Mexican border and the Western Front during World War I before transferring to the United States Army Air Service . After the war , he obtained a regular commission . Already qualified as an aerial observer , he became a pilot in 1922 . For many years he was an influential instructor at the Air Corps Tactical School . Wilson became a leading theorist who embraced the doctrine that strategic bombing was the most important aspect of air power . He argued that by attacking vulnerabilities , whole industries could be brought to a halt without necessarily having to destroy all of the factories . The doctrine which Wilson expounded later became the basis for AWPD @-@ 1 , the Army Air Forces ' strategic war plan developed in 1941 .
During World War II , Wilson served as Chief of the Personnel Division ( G @-@ l ) of the War Department General Staff . He became Chief of Staff of the Fifth Air Force in September 1942 , before returning to the United States in 1944 to become Assistant Chief of Staff , United States Army Air Forces for Organization , Commitments and Requirements . For a time he was acting Chief of Staff of Army Air Forces . In February 1945 , Wilson was present at the Battle of Iwo Jima as an official Army Air Forces observer . In June 1945 , he assumed command of the Air Force Proving Ground Command .
After the war , Wilson served as a member of the Gerow Board , which examined the military educational system and instituted a series of long @-@ lasting reforms . In 1947 , he was diagnosed with neurasthenia , and retired with the rank of major general .
= = Early life = =
Donald Wilson was born at Hiner 's Mill in Pendleton County , West Virginia on 25 September 1892 , the third of seven children of John Hamilton Wilson and his wife Martha Jane , née Siple . John Wilson worked a number of odd jobs before becoming a mail carrier with the Baltimore Post Office in 1899 . Donald was educated at Baltimore Polytechnic Institute . In 1910 , he went to work as a surveyor for the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad .
= = World War I = =
In February 1916 , Wilson enlisted as a private in the Maryland National Guard and was posted to Company H , 5th Maryland Infantry . This unit was called to active duty at Laurel , Maryland in June 1916 for service on the Mexican border . It was based at Eagle Pass , Texas , and , like most National Guard units , supported but did not directly participate in the Pancho Villa Expedition , although it did occasionally cross the border into Mexico . Wilson was soon promoted to corporal , and later sergeant . The 5th Maryland Regiment returned to Maryland in February 1917 .
The 5th Maryland Infantry was again called up in April 1917 following the declaration of war by the United States on the German Empire . Wilson was promoted to second lieutenant , effective 9 April 1917 . He was posted to Company C , 5th Maryland Infantry . This time , the regiment moved to Camp McClellan , Alabama , where the 5th Maryland Infantry was absorbed into the 115th Infantry of the 29th Division on 1 October 1917 . While at Camp McClellan , Wilson applied for training as an aerial observer but his request was not accepted . He was promoted to first lieutenant on 23 April 1918 .
In June 1918 , the 29th Division sailed from Hoboken , New Jersey to Brest , France . It travelled across France , entering the front line trenches in the Traubach @-@ le @-@ Bas sector . In France , Wilson once again applied for training as an aerial observer , in response to an appeal from American Expeditionary Forces ( AEF ) headquarters . This time , he was successful and in September 1918 he reported to the Air Service Concentration Barracks at Saint @-@ Maixent . After training there , at Camp de Souge , and at Tours in November 1918 , he was posted to the 2nd Corps Aeronautical School at Châtillon @-@ sur @-@ Seine . He was assigned to the 186th Aero Squadron at Weißenthurm ( Weissenthurm ) in May 1919 , returned to the United States in July , and was discharged from the Army on 15 August 1919 .
= = Between the wars = =
Wilson married Edna Taggert , the older sister of the wife of his best friend in Anniston , in a ceremony in her home in Pittsburgh . After a honeymoon in Miami , Florida , they settled in Baltimore . The couple eventually had two children : Teresa Jane , born in 1921 , and Donald , born in 1923 .
In 1920 , Wilson applied for and received a Regular Army commission in the Air Service , into which he was commissioned as a first lieutenant on 1 July 1920 . He was immediately advanced to captain and posted to the Observation School at Post Field , Oklahoma as a senior instructor . In 1922 , he was sent to Carlstrom Field , Florida for primary pilot training and then to Kelly Field , Texas for advanced training . He also served there as an instructor in observation . From 1924 to 1927 , he served in Washington , DC , in the Office of the Chief of the Air Service . This was followed by a two @-@ year tour of duty in the Philippines as commander of the 2nd Observation Squadron .
On return to the United States in 1929 , Wilson was posted to the Air Corps Tactical School at Langley Field , Virginia as an instructor . In 1931 the school moved to Maxwell Field , Alabama , where he was promoted to major on 1 February 1932 . At the Air Corps Tactical School , Wilson became " one of the leading theorists ... during the thirties " . Like Giulio Douhet , the school embraced the doctrine that strategic bombing was the most important aspect of air power . However , Wilson rejected those parts of Douhet 's doctrine that called for mass bombing of cities to break the morale of the enemy .
Instead , in preparing the training course , Wilson drew on his knowledge that critical breaks in railroad systems could disrupt the entire system . He theorized that this was equally true of other industries , that by attacking vulnerabilities , whole industries could be brought to a halt without necessarily having to destroy all the factories . The school identified transportation , steel , iron ore , and electric power as key economic industries . Wilson termed this doctrine " industrial web theory " .
The formulators of industrial web theory were relatively young junior officers , nearly all of them former reservists commissioned during or immediately after World War I. They viewed war in the abstract and admitted that they had no conclusive proof of their theories , but firmly believed that air power would dominate future warfare , after certain technological limitations had been overcome . Wilson was one of the nine key advocates , all instructors at the Tactical School , who became known as the " Bomber Mafia " : Wilson , Walker , Major Odas Moon ( who died in 1937 ) , and future generals Haywood S. Hansell , Laurence Kuter , Muir Fairchild , Robert Olds , Robert M. Webster , and Harold L. George . They espoused the doctrine in testimony to the Howell Commission on Federal Aviation in 1934 , where it was used as an argument supporting the creation of an independent air force .
Once adopted as doctrine , industrial web theory had a host of effects . To obtain the required accuracy to hit pinpoint targets , bombing had to be done by daylight . An improved bombsight was required : the Norden bombsight Mark XV , appearing in 1931 . Since a pursuit plane did not have the range to accompany the bombers , they had to be able to defend themselves , and new tactics called for formation flying to maximize the defense against hostile pursuit aircraft . The requirement for a better bomber led to the development of the Boeing B @-@ 17 Flying Fortress . Wilson accepted the argument , most forcibly advanced by fellow instructor Kenneth Walker , that fighter aircraft did not have the range or speed to accompany bombers and probably could not shoot them down .
Wilson attended the Command and General Staff School at Fort Leavenworth , Kansas , graduating in June 1934 . He considered the course to be a waste of time , " devoted in large part to the minutiae of ground officers ' duties " and " devoid of serious recognition of the airplane as an instrument of war . " After graduation he returned to the Air Corps Tactical School as Director of the Department of Air Tactics and Strategy , and was promoted to lieutenant colonel on 16 June 1936 . From November 1938 to March 1939 , he was also assistant commandant of the school .
= = World War II = =
Wilson was promoted to colonel on 16 October 1940 . He returned to Washington , DC , where he served in the Office of the Chief of the Air Corps under Brigadier General Carl A. Spaatz , the chief of its Plans Division . In May 1940 , he was transferred to the Plans Division of the War Department General Staff , which was headed by Brigadier General Leonard T. Gerow . Wilson was briefly chief of staff of Major General Walter H. Frank 's Third Air Force in Tampa , Florida but after only two months he was recalled to Washington to again serve on the War Department General Staff , this time in the G @-@ 1 ( Personnel ) Division , which was headed by Major General John H. Hilldring , a Command and General Staff School classmate . Wilson was promoted to brigadier general on 22 June 1942 . In July 1942 , Hilldring left to take over command of the 84th Infantry Division and Wilson became Assistant Chief of Staff , G @-@ 1 .
In September 1942 , Wilson became chief of staff of Major General George Kenney 's Allied Air Forces , Southwest Pacific Area and Fifth Air Force . Kenney had specifically requested General Henry Arnold to send Wilson to replace his chief of staff , Air Vice Marshal William Bostock , an RAAF officer . Wilson had known Kenney for many years and was on a first name basis with him ; but while serving as his chief of staff , Wilson always addressed Kenney respectfully as " general " . The loss of Brigadier General Kenneth N. Walker over Rabaul in January 1943 and then his successor , Brigadier General Howard K. Ramey on a reconnaissance mission in March did not dampen Wilson 's desire to accompany a mission , and he tagged along as a passenger on a B @-@ 24 on a bombing raid on Rabaul . For his service in the Southwest Pacific , Wilson was awarded the Distinguished Service Medal .
In March 1944 , Arnold asked for Kenney to return Wilson to work on his own staff . Wilson took the long way back , visiting the other war theatres in India , China , the Middle East , Italy and England . Wilson found the Army Air Forces Chief of Staff , Lieutenant General Barney Giles anxious for Wilson 's return so Giles could pay a visit to the war theatres . Wilson therefore found himself acting chief of staff . On Giles ' return , Wilson became Assistant Chief of Staff , Organization , Commitments and Requirements . In February 1945 , Wilson was present at the Battle of Iwo Jima as an official Army Air Forces observer . He was promoted to major general on 17 March 1945 .
On 25 June 1945 , Wilson was replaced as assistant chief of staff by Major General Hoyt Vandenberg . For his service in the post , Wilson was awarded an oak leaf cluster to his Distinguished Service Medal . He was appointed to command the Air Force Proving Ground Command . At the time , some 22 @,@ 000 airmen were assigned to this command .
= = Post war = =
Wilson served as a member of the Gerow Board , under his former chief , Lieutenant General Leonard T. Gerow , which examined the military educational system . The board met in Washington , DC , between 3 and 12 January 1946 . Its final report to the Chief of Staff of the United States Army , General of the Army Dwight D. Eisenhower , recommended a system of five joint colleges , which would collectively form a National Security University under the direction of the Joint Chiefs of Staff . In addition to the existing Industrial College and National War College , the board recommended the establishment of a joint administrative college , a joint intelligence college , and a Department of State college . Wilson went further and argued for the establishment of an air university , under the control of the Army Air Forces . Wilson 's proposal was accepted , and the Gerow Board 's recommendations resulted in a multi @-@ tiered educational system still in effect today , with a Squadron Officer School for junior officers ; an Air Command and Staff College for middle level officers ; and an Air University for senior officers . All were created from the old Air Corps Tactical School . Beyond that , air officers would have to participate in joint training with their Army and Navy colleagues at the Industrial College , National War College and Joint Forces Staff College , the last two being creations of the Gerow Board . The first classes began at these two new institutions in September 1946 and January 1947 respectively .
In October 1946 , Wilson was diagnosed with neurasthenia . Discharged on the grounds of disability with the rank of major general , he retired to Carmel , California , where he wrote and published his memoirs , entitled Wooing Peponi , in 1973 . He died on 21 June 1978 . His papers are in the The George C. Marshall Foundation .
= Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitor =
The Admiral Spiridov class were a pair of monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the late 1860s . The sister ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion and remained there for their entire careers . Aside from several accidental collisions and one grounding , their careers were uneventful . They were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads in 1892 before they became training ships in 1900 . The Admiral Spiridovs were stricken from the Navy List in 1907 ; one ship became a stationary target and the other a coal @-@ storage barge . Their ultimate fates are unknown .
= = Design and description = =
By late 1863 , the Russian Admiralty Board had begun planning for the second generation of ironclads to succeed those ships then under construction . They ordered eight ships , two fully rigged seagoing types and six coastal defense ships , in March 1864 . The British shipbuilder Charles Mitchell submitted four different designs for the coastal defense vessels , two broadside ironclads and two turret ships . The Shipbuilding Technical Committee decided in August that the broadside designs would be based on the hull shape of the earlier Pervenets @-@ class ironclad for better seaworthiness , but they would be armed with fewer , but more powerful guns , than the numerous smoothbore guns of the older ships . Two variants were worked out that differed in the fineness of the hull and draft .
In November the committee decided to revise the designs to use three gun turrets , each armed with a pair of massive American @-@ designed 15 @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) Rodman guns , although the armament was changed to 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled muzzle @-@ loading guns two months later . On 4 June 1865 , Admiral Spiridov and Admiral Chichagov were ordered to the shallower @-@ draft version of the two designs . Construction of the ships was repeatedly delayed by design changes and delayed deliveries of components . Both of the most significant design changes were related to the armor protection . Shortly after they were ordered the Admiralty Board realized that the specified 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 114 mm ) armor would be outclassed by the latest rifled gun and decided that the existing armor would be reinforced by an additional 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) armor plate and additional wooden backing inside the existing armor . The additional weight was offset by increasing the height of the hull by 12 inches ( 305 mm ) which also deepened the ships ' draft . The second change occurred after new 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) rifled guns were able to penetrate a replica of the armor scheme in June 1866 . The Admiralty Board decided to significantly thicken the armor of the two ships and removed one gun turret to compensate for the weight of the extra armor in November . Numerous other changes flowed from this decision as the engine and boilers had to be moved forward about 8 @-@ foot ( 2 m ) to maintain the ships ' trim and two transverse bulkheads also had to be moved . This major change added over 270 @,@ 000 rubles to the cost of the ships and added more delays as Russian ironworks had problems rolling the thicker armor plates .
The Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors were significantly larger than their predecessors , the Charodeika class , and were 254 feet ( 77 @.@ 4 m ) long at the waterline . They had a beam of 43 feet ( 13 @.@ 1 m ) and a maximum draft of 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) . The ships were designed to displace 3 @,@ 196 long tons ( 3 @,@ 247 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 3 @,@ 505 to 3 @,@ 587 long tons ( 3 @,@ 561 to 3 @,@ 645 t ) . They were fitted with a plough @-@ shaped ram . The Admiral Spiridovs had a double bottom and their hulls were subdivided by six main watertight bulkheads . Their crew consisted of 280 officers and crewmen .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The Admiral Spiridov class had a single two @-@ cylinder horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engine . It had a bore of 68 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) and a stroke of 36 inches ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) and drove a single three @-@ bladed 14 @-@ foot @-@ 9 @-@ inch ( 4 @.@ 50 m ) propeller . Steam was provided by four rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers at a pressure of 1 @.@ 76 atm ( 178 kPa ; 26 psi ) . The engine was designed to produce a total of 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) which gave the ships speeds between 9 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 5 knots ( 16 @.@ 9 – 17 @.@ 6 km / h ; 10 @.@ 5 – 10 @.@ 9 mph ) when they ran their initial sea trials in 1869 . The monitors also had a donkey boiler for the small steam engine that powered the ventilation fans and pumps . The Admiral Spiridov class carried 280 long tons ( 284 t ) of coal which gave them a range of about 1 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots . They were fitted with a light fore @-@ and @-@ aft sailing rig with three pole masts and a bowsprit . It had an area of 2 @,@ 850 square feet ( 265 m2 ) and its primary purpose was to steady the ships and assist in turning .
= = = Armament = = =
The monitors were ultimately designed to be armed with four Obukhov 9 @-@ inch rifled guns , a pair in each Coles @-@ type turret . An armored bulkhead separated the guns inside each turret . In 1874 – 75 the guns were replaced by a single 11 @-@ inch ( 279 mm ) gun in each turret , based on a Krupp design . During the Russo @-@ Turkish War of 1877 – 78 a 9 @-@ inch mortar was fitted to attack the thin deck armor of enemy ships , but accuracy was poor and they were later removed , probably in the early 1880s . An improved , more powerful , 11 @-@ inch gun was installed aboard Admiral Chichagov during the 1880s , although Admiral Spiridov retained her original guns until 1902 , if not for the rest of her career .
Light guns for use against torpedo boats were added to the Admiral Spiridov @-@ class ships during the Russo @-@ Turkish War when a pair of 4 @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns were mounted on the roofs of each gun turret . Other guns known have been fitted included 2 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 64 mm ) Baranov quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) QF Hotchkiss guns , and 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) QF Hotchkiss five @-@ barreled revolving cannon . The ships could also carry 12 @-@ 15 mines intended to be used to create a secure anchorage .
= = = Armor = = =
The hull of the Admiral Spiridov @-@ class monitors was completely covered by three strakes of wrought iron armor , the upper two were about 3 feet 8 inches ( 1 @.@ 12 m ) high and the lower one , below the waterline , was 3 feet 2 inches ( 0 @.@ 97 m ) high . The middle strake was 6 @.@ 5 inches ( 165 mm ) thick for a length of 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) amidships and the other strakes were generally 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) thick ( the upper strake was 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick abreast the turrets ) . The armor thinned to 3 inches ( 76 mm ) aft and 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 89 mm ) forward of the main belt . This outermost layer of armor was backed by 9 inches of teak reinforced with angle irons and then came the 1 @-@ inch inner armor plates , backed in its turn by another 9 inches of teak .
The turrets had 6 inches of armor , except around the gun ports , where it thickened to 6 @.@ 5 inches , reinforced by 12 inches of teak . The conning tower was 5 inches ( 127 mm ) thick . The deck armor was in two layers with a total thickness of 1 inch that were separated by a layer of cloth or felt to better deflect the glancing hits expected . The upper layer was 0 @.@ 625 inches ( 16 mm ) thick and the lower was 0 @.@ 375 inches ( 10 mm ) .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
After launching , the sisters were transferred to Kronstadt for fitting out as the shallow waters around Saint Petersburg prevented deep @-@ draft ships from being completed . This added more delays as the dockyard there lacked the equipment to efficiently fit out the ships . Both ships were assigned to the Baltic Fleet upon completion . They were not fully equipped until around 1872 and their trials continued until 1873 . Admiral Spiridov accidentally rammed the monitor Admiral Lazarev in Kronstadt harbor in 1871 , and her sister collided with the monitor Veschun four years later ; neither ship was seriously damaged . Several days after the collision , Admiral Chichagov struck a sandbank at full speed . While not damaged in the incident , she was very firmly stuck and early attempts to pull her off failed , during which one seaman was killed and an officer badly wounded . The monitor had to be unloaded as much as possible and her forward guns were removed before she was freed from the sandbank , five days after running aground .
The ships received electric dynamos and searchlights were installed in the late 1870s . Admiral Chichagov served as the flagship for Captain 1st Rank Stepan Makarov during the 1885 naval maneuvers in the approaches to the Gulf of Riga and her boilers were replaced in two years later . Steam @-@ powered steering gear was installed in the sisters in 1887 and they were reclassified as coast @-@ defense ironclads on 13 February 1892 . By this time , their role in Russian war plans was to defend the Gulf of Riga against an anticipated German amphibious landing . In 1900 they were transferred to the Kronstadt Engineering School as training ships before they were transferred to the Port of Kronstadt on 31 March 1907 for disposal . The sisters were stricken on 14 August and Admiral Spiridov became a stationary coal @-@ storage barge while Admiral Chichagov was grounded near Reval and used as a target . Their subsequent fates are unknown .
= Gliese 876 d =
Gliese 876 d is an exoplanet approximately 15 light @-@ years away in the constellation of Aquarius . The planet was the third planet discovered orbiting the red dwarf Gliese 876 . At the time of its discovery , the planet had the lowest mass of any known extrasolar planet apart from the pulsar planets orbiting PSR B1257 + 12 . Due to this low mass , it can be categorized as a super @-@ Earth .
= = Discovery = =
Gliese 876 d was discovered by analysing changes in its star 's radial velocity as a result of the planet 's gravity . The radial velocity measurements were made by observing the Doppler shift in the star 's spectral lines . At the time of discovery , Gliese 876 was known to host two extrasolar planets , designated Gliese 876 b and c , in a 2 : 1 orbital resonance . After the two planets were taken into account , the radial velocity still showed another period , at around two days . The planet , designated Gliese 876 d , was announced on June 13 , 2005 by a team led by Eugenio Rivera and was estimated to have a mass approximately 7 @.@ 5 times that of Earth .
= = Orbit and mass = =
Gliese 876 d is located in an orbit with a semimajor axis of only 0 @.@ 0208 AU ( 3 @.@ 11 million km ) . At this distance from the star , tidal interactions should in theory circularize the orbit ; however , measurements reveal that it has a high eccentricity of 0 @.@ 207 , comparable to that of Mercury in the Solar System .
A limitation of the radial velocity method used to detect Gliese 876 d is that only a lower limit on the mass can be obtained . This is because the measured mass value also depends on the orbital inclination , which in general is unknown . However , models incorporating the gravitational interactions between the resonant outer planets enables the inclination of the orbits to be determined . This reveals that the outer planets are nearly coplanar with an inclination of around 59 ° with respect to the plane of the sky . Assuming that Gliese 876 d orbits in the same plane as the other planets , the true mass of the planet is revealed to be 6 @.@ 83 times the mass of Earth .
Models predict that , if its non @-@ Keplerian orbit could be averaged to a Keplerian eccentricity of 0 @.@ 28 , then tidal heating would play a significant role in the planet 's geology to the point of keeping it completely molten . Predicted total heat flux is approximately 104 – 5 W / m2 at the planet 's surface ; for comparison the surface heat flux for Io is around 3 W / m2 . This is similar to the energy it receives from its parent star of about 40 @,@ 000 W / m2 .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Since Gliese 876 d has only been detected indirectly by its gravitational effects on its star , properties such as its radius , composition , and temperature are unknown . On the assumption of a Venerean distribution of temperature and a maximum albedo of 0 @.@ 8 , the temperature was estimated at 430 – 650 K.
The low mass of the planet has led to suggestions that it may be a terrestrial planet . This type of massive terrestrial planet could be formed in the inner part of the Gliese 876 system from material pushed towards the star by the inward migration of the gas giants .
Alternatively the planet could have formed further from Gliese 876 , as a gas giant , and migrated inwards with the other gas giants . This would result in a composition richer in volatile substances , such as water . As it arrived in range , the star would have blown off the planet 's hydrogen layer via coronal mass ejection . In this model , the planet would have a pressurised ocean of water ( in the form of a supercritical fluid ) separated from the silicate core by a layer of ice kept frozen by the high pressures in the planetary interior . Such a planet would have an atmosphere containing water vapor and free oxygen produced by the breakdown of water by ultraviolet radiation .
Distinguishing between these two models would require more information about the planet 's radius or composition . The planet does not appear to transit its star , which makes obtaining this information impossible with current observational capabilities .
= Alan Keyes =
Alan Lee Keyes ( born August 7 , 1950 ) is an American conservative political activist , author , former diplomat , and perennial candidate for public office . A doctoral graduate of Harvard University , Keyes began his diplomatic career in the U.S. Foreign Service in 1979 at the United States consulate in Bombay , India , and later in the American embassy in Zimbabwe .
He ran for President of the United States in 1996 , 2000 , and 2008 ( founding and serving as the presidential nominee of the America 's Independent Party in 2008 ) , and was a Republican nominee for the U.S. Senate in 1988 , 1992 , and 2004 . Keyes was appointed Ambassador to the Economic and Social Council of the United Nations by President Ronald Reagan , and served as Reagan 's Assistant Secretary of State for International Organization Affairs from 1985 to 1987 ; in his capacities as a UN ambassador , among Keyes 's accomplishments was contributing to the Mexico City Policy .
Keyes also hosted a radio talk show , The Alan Keyes Show : America 's Wake @-@ Up Call , and a television commentary show on the MSNBC cable network , Alan Keyes Is Making Sense .
= = Personal life and family = =
Born in a naval hospital on Long Island , New York , Keyes was the fifth child of mother Gerthina ( Quick ) and father Allison L. Keyes , a U.S. Army sergeant and a teacher . Due to his father 's tours of duty , the Keyes family traveled frequently . Keyes lived in Georgia , Maryland , New Jersey , New York , Texas , Virginia and overseas in Italy .
After high school , Keyes attended Cornell University , where he was a member of the Cornell University Glee Club and The Hangovers . He studied political philosophy with American philosopher and essayist Allan Bloom and has said that Bloom was the professor who influenced him most in his undergraduate studies . Keyes has stated that he received death threats for opposing Vietnam war protesters who seized a campus building . Keyes has stated that a passage of Bloom 's book , The Closing of the American Mind , refers to this incident , speaking of an African @-@ American student " whose life had been threatened by a black faculty member when the student refused to participate in a demonstration " at Cornell . Shortly thereafter , he left the school and spent a year in Paris under a Cornell study abroad program connected with Bloom .
Keyes continued his studies at Harvard University , where he resided in Winthrop House , and completed his Bachelor of Arts degree in government affairs in 1972 . During his first year of graduate school , Keyes 's roommate was William Kristol . In 1988 , Kristol ran Keyes 's unsuccessful U.S. Senate campaign in Maryland .
Keyes earned his Ph.D. in government affairs from Harvard University in 1979 , having written a dissertation on Alexander Hamilton and constitutional theory , under Harvey C. Mansfield . Due to student deferments and a high draft number , Keyes was not drafted to serve in the Vietnam War . Keyes and his family were staunch supporters of the war , in which his father served two tours of duty . Keyes was criticized by opponents of the war in Vietnam , but he says he was supporting his father and his brothers , who were also fighting in the war .
Keyes is married to Jocelyn Marcel Keyes , of East Indian descent , from Calcutta . The couple has three children , Francis , Maya , and Andrew . Keyes is a traditional Catholic and a third @-@ degree Knight of Columbus . He 's also a close friend of Brazilian conservative philosopher and journalist Olavo de Carvalho .
In 2005 , when Maya Keyes was 20 years old , she came out as a lesbian . There were reports her family threw her out of the house and stopped talking to her . In an interview with Metro Weekly , a Washington , D.C. , LGBT newspaper , Maya confirmed that her father " cut off all financial support . " In the same report Maya said , " It doesn 't make much sense for him to be [ financially ] supporting someone who is working against what he believes in . " Alan Keyes contradicted reports about his having disowned his daughter in October 2007 . Keyes said that he loves his daughter and that she knows she has a home with him . He asserted that he never cut her off and never would , because it would be " wrong in the eyes of God . " He also said he would not be coerced into " approving of that which destroys the soul " of his daughter . He contended that he must " stand for the truth [ Jesus Christ ] represents " even if it breaks his heart .
= = Diplomat = =
A year before completing his doctoral studies , Keyes joined the United States Department of State as a protégé of Jeane Kirkpatrick . In 1979 , he was assigned to the consulate in Mumbai , India . The following year , Keyes was sent to serve at the embassy in Zimbabwe .
In 1983 , President Ronald Reagan appointed Keyes as Ambassador to the United Nations Economic and Social Council . In 1985 , he was appointed Assistant Secretary of State for International Organizations , a position he held until 1987 . His stay at the UN provoked some controversy , leading Newsday to say " he has propounded the more unpopular aspects of US policy with all the diplomatic subtlety of the cannon burst in Tchaikovsky 's 1812 Overture . " He also served on the staff of the National Security Council .
At a fundraiser for Keyes 's senate campaign , President Reagan spoke of Keyes 's time as an ambassador , saying that he " did such an extraordinary job ... defending our country against the forces of anti @-@ Americanism . " Reagan continued , " I 've never known a more stout @-@ hearted defender of a strong America than Alan Keyes . " In 1987 Keyes was appointed a resident scholar for the American Enterprise Institute . His principal research for AEI was diplomacy , international relations , and self @-@ government .
Following government service , Ambassador Keyes was President of Citizens Against Government Waste ( CAGW ) from 1989 to 1991 , and founded CAGW 's National Taxpayers ' Action Day . In 1991 , he served as Interim President of Alabama A & M University , in Huntsville , Alabama .
= = Role in the Reagan Administration = =
Among the U.S. delegation to the 1984 World Population Conference in Mexico City , Keyes was selected by Reagan as deputy chairman . In that capacity , Keyes negotiated the language of the Mexico City Policy to withhold federal funds from international organizations that support abortion . Additionally , Keyes fought against an Arab @-@ backed UN resolution calling for investigation of Israeli settlements . The measure passed , 83 – 2 , with 15 abstentions and only Israel and the U.S. voting against it . Reagan again appointed Keyes to represent the U.S. at the 1985 Women 's Conference in Nairobi .
During his time at the United States Department of State , Keyes defended the Reagan policy of not imposing economic sanctions on South Africa as punishment for apartheid . Stated Keyes , " I see the black people in South Africa as the most critical positive factor for eliminating apartheid and building the future of that country ... And that is not something you do with rhetoric , slogans and noninvolvement . It 's not something you will achieve through disinvestment . "
= = Political campaigns = =
= = = 1988 Senate election = = =
In 1988 , Keyes was drafted by the Maryland Republican Party to run for the United States Senate , and received 38 percent of the vote against victorious incumbent Democrat Paul Sarbanes .
= = = 1992 Senate election = = =
Four years later , he ran again for the Senate from Maryland , coming in first in a field of 13 candidates in the Republican primary . Against Democrat Barbara Mikulski , he received 29 percent in the general election .
During the 1992 election , Keyes attracted controversy when he took a $ 8 @,@ 463 / month salary from his campaign fund .
= = = 1996 Presidential election = = =
Keyes sought the Republican presidential nomination in 1996 , and asked other candidates about abortion in those debates in which he participated . Many Republican leaders saw this as unnecessary and divisive . Keyes was particularly critical of Clinton during his campaign , saying , " This guy lies , but he lies with passion . " He questioned whether a Republican candidate who is truthful , yet cold and heartless , had a chance to win against the incumbent . Keyes was also especially critical of Pat Buchanan , once saying during an interview on the Talk from the Heart program with Al Kresta ( simulcast on KJSL St. Louis and WMUZ @-@ FM Detroit ) that Buchanan had a " black heart . " Keyes 's entry into the Republican race after Buchanan had secured victories in New Hampshire and Louisiana led many to believe that Keyes was a stalking horse for neoconservative elements in the Republican Party , since Buchanan had been a well @-@ known ardent foe of abortion and had suffered political fallout for bringing abortion and " cultural war " to the center of the public policy debate . Later during the primaries , Keyes was briefly detained by Atlanta police when he tried to force his way into a debate to which he had been invited , and then uninvited . He was never formally arrested and was eventually picked up 20 minutes later by Atlanta 's mayor at the time , Bill Campbell .
= = = 2000 Presidential election = = =
Keyes again campaigned for the Republican nomination in the 2000 primaries on a pro @-@ life , family values , tax reform plank . In Iowa , he finished 3rd , drawing 14 percent in a crowded field . He stayed in the race after the early rounds and debated the two remaining candidates , John McCain and George W. Bush , in a number of nationally televised debates . He finished second in 8 primaries . His best showing in the presidential primaries was in Utah , where he received 20 percent of the vote . He was also noted for jumping into a mosh pit during a Rage Against the Machine song during the Iowa caucus as part of a segment on Michael Moore 's TV series The Awful Truth .
= = = 2004 Senate election = = =
On August 8 , 2004 — with 86 days to go before the general election — the Illinois Republican Party drafted Alan Keyes to run against Democratic state senator Barack Obama for the U.S. Senate , after the Republican nominee , Jack Ryan , withdrew due to a sex scandal , and other potential draftees ( most notably former Illinois governor Jim Edgar and former Chicago Bears coach Mike Ditka ) declined to run . The Washington Post called Keyes a " carpetbagger " since he " had never lived in Illinois . " When asked to answer charges of carpetbagging in the context of his earlier criticism of Hillary Clinton , he called her campaign " pure and planned selfish ambition " , but stated that in his case he felt a moral obligation to run after being asked to by the Illinois Republican Party . " You are doing what you believe to be required by your respect for God 's will , and I think that that 's what I 'm doing in Illinois " .
Keyes , who opposes abortion in all cases " except as an inadvertent result of efforts to save the mother 's life " , said in a September 7 , 2004 news conference that Jesus Christ would not vote for Obama because of votes that Obama — then a member of the Illinois Senate Judiciary committee and a lecturer in constitutional law at the University of Chicago Law School — cast in 2001 against a package of three anti @-@ abortion bills that Obama argued were too broad and unconstitutional . The legislation , which provided " that a live child born as a result of an abortion shall be fully recognized as a human person , " passed the Republican @-@ controlled Illinois Senate , but failed to pass out of the Democratic @-@ controlled Illinois House Judiciary committee . After the election , Keyes declined to congratulate Obama , explaining that his refusal to congratulate Obama was " not anything personal " , but was meant to make a statement against " extend [ ing ] false congratulations to the triumph of what we have declared to be across the line " of reasonable propriety . He said that Obama 's position on moral issues regarding life and the family had crossed that line . " I 'm supposed to make a call that represents the congratulations toward the triumph of that which I believe ultimately stands for ... a culture evil enough to destroy the very soul and heart of my country ? I cannot do this . And I will not make a false gesture , " Keyes said .
Keyes was also criticized for his views on homosexuality . In an interview with Michelangelo Signorile , a gay radio host , Keyes defined homosexuality as centering in the pursuit of pleasure , literally " selfish hedonism " . When Signorile asked if Mary Cheney , Vice President Dick Cheney 's lesbian daughter , fit the description and was therefore a " selfish hedonist " , Keyes replied , " Of course she is . That goes by definition . " Media sources picked up on the exchange , reporting that Keyes had " trashed " , " attacked , " and " lashed out at " Mary Cheney , and had called her a " sinner " — provoking condemnation of Keyes by LGBT Republicans and several GOP leaders . Keyes noted that it was an interviewer , not he , who brought up Mary Cheney 's name in the above incident , and he told reporters , " You have tried to personalize the discussion of an issue that I did not personalize . The people asking me the question did so , and if that 's inappropriate , blame the media . Do not blame me . "
During the campaign , Keyes outlined an alternative to reparations for slavery . His specific suggestion was that , for a period of one or two generations , African @-@ Americans who were descended from slaves would be exempt from the federal income tax ( though not from the FICA tax that supports Social Security ) . Keyes said the experiment " would become a demonstration project for what I believe needs to be done for the whole country , which is to get rid of the income tax . " He also called for the repeal of the 17th Amendment in order to require that U.S. Senators be appointed by state legislatures , rather than being directly elected .
Keyes finished with 27 % of the vote despite winning a small number of southern Illinois counties .
= = = 2008 Presidential election = = =
On June 5 , 2007 , We Need Alan Keyes for President was formed as a political action committee to encourage Keyes to enter the 2008 presidential election . On September 14 , 2007 , Keyes officially announced his candidacy in an interview with radio show host Janet Parshall . On September 17 , 2007 , Keyes participated in the Values Voter Debate streamed live on Sky Angel , the Values Voter website , and radio . In a straw poll of the attending audience , Keyes placed third among the invited candidates , after Mike Huckabee and Ron Paul . Keyes was excluded from the Republican CNN / YouTube debate on November 28 , 2007 . Keyes 's campaign called the exclusion " arbitrary , unfair , and presumptuous , " arguing that CNN was playing the role of " gatekeeper " for the presidential election .
On December 12 , 2007 , Keyes participated in the Des Moines Register 's Republican presidential debate , televised nationwide by PBS and the cable news networks . This was the first major presidential debate in which Keyes participated during the 2008 election season and the last Republican debate before the Iowa Caucuses . Although Keyes wasn 't listed on the latest national CNN poll leading up to the debate , he registered with at least 1 percent of the Iowa vote in order to participate . During the debate , after the moderator began to ask a question of Texas Congressman Ron Paul , Keyes insisted he wasn 't getting fair treatment . He interrupted the debate moderator at one point , saying that she hadn 't called on him in several rounds and that he had to make an issue of it . He went on the offensive against his opponents during the debate , criticizing Rudy Giuliani 's pro @-@ choice position , as well as Mitt Romney 's recent change in position on the same subject . In answering a question about global warming , he continued his criticisms of other candidates , saying , " I 'm in favor of reducing global warming , because I think the most important emission we need to control is the hot air emission of politicians who pretend one thing and don 't deliver " . He also advocated ending the income tax , establishing state @-@ sanctioned prayer in public schools , and abolishing abortion . Toward the end of the debate , Keyes stated he could not support Giuliani if he were to win the nomination due to the former New York mayor 's position on abortion .
In the Iowa caucuses , Keyes did not appear on any of the election totals . Keyes stated that many of the caucus locations he visited did not list him as a choice . His campaign CEO , Stephen Stone blamed much of this on the media and on Keyes 's decision to enter the race late . Stone explained that the media would not acknowledge Keyes 's candidacy , making it difficult to run an effective campaign .
Keyes supports an amendment to the Constitution barring same @-@ sex marriage . He stated he would not have gone to war in Iraq , but also said that the war was justified and defended President George W. Bush 's decision in one of his 2004 debates . Keyes has stated that troops should stay in Iraq , but also said that he would have turned over operations to the United Nations . However , Keyes has also stated that even while he was an ambassador there he was not a supporter of the United Nations .
After the early states , Keyes exclusively campaigned in Texas , where he finished with 0 @.@ 60 percent of all votes cast .
Following Texas , the Keyes campaign moved to seeking the Constitution Party presidential nomination , but he continued to appear on several Republican ballots . On May 6 , Keyes scored his best showing of the campaign by winning 2 @.@ 7 % for fourth place in North Carolina , earning him two delegates to the Republican National Convention .
= = = = Departure from Republican Party = = = =
Keyes first stated that he was considering leaving the Republican Party during a January 2008 appearance on The Weekly Filibuster radio show . He did not withdraw his candidacy after John McCain won the necessary 1 @,@ 191 delegates to the Republican National Convention , even though he was no longer campaigning for the Republican nomination . On March 27 , 2008 , Keyes 's campaign website began displaying the Constitution Party 's logo , along with a parody of the trademarked GOP logo in the form of a dead elephant . This appeared to be an indication of Keyes 's intentions to quit the Republican party and to begin officially seeking the Constitution Party 's presidential nomination .
On April 15 , Keyes confirmed his split from the Republican Party and his intention to explore the candidacy of the Constitution Party . He lost his bid for the party 's nomination , however , coming in second to 2004 CP vice presidential candidate Chuck Baldwin at the party 's national convention in Kansas City , Missouri , on April 26 , 2008 . During the convention , the party 's founder , Howard Phillips , gave a controversial speech in which he referred to Keyes as " the Neocon candidate " who " lingered in the Republican Party until a week ago . " Following the defeat , Keyes held an interview with Mike Ferguson in which he compared his defeat to an abortion . Later , Keyes told a group of his supporters that he was " prayerfully considering " making a continued bid for the presidency as an independent candidate , and asserted his refusal to endorse Baldwin 's candidacy .
Instead , Keyes ' supporters formed a new third party , America 's Independent Party , for his presidential candidacy . America 's Independent Party gained the affiliation of a faction of California 's American Independent Party . However , the AIP ticket , which had Brian Rohrbough , father of a victim of the Columbine High School massacre , of Colorado as its vice presidential candidate , was only on the ballot in California , Colorado , and Florida .
In the federal election held on November 4 , 2008 , Keyes received 47 @,@ 694 votes nationally to finish seventh . About 86 % ( 40 @,@ 673 ) of the votes he received were cast in California .
= = Obama citizenship lawsuit = =
On November 14 , 2008 , Keyes filed a lawsuit — naming as defendants California Secretary of State Deborah Bowen , President @-@ elect Barack Obama , Vice President @-@ elect Joe Biden , and California 's 55 Democratic electors — challenging Obama 's eligibility for the U.S. Presidency . The suit requested that Obama provide documentation that he is a natural born citizen of the United States .
Following the inauguration , Keyes alleged that President Obama had not been constitutionally inaugurated , refused to call him president , and called him a " usurper " and a " radical communist " . Keyes also claimed that President Obama 's birth certificate had been forged and he was not qualified to be president .
= = Media and advocacy = =
Keyes has worked as a media commentator and talk show personality . In 1994 , he began hosting a syndicated radio show called The Alan Keyes Show : America 's Wake @-@ Up Call from Arlington , Virginia . The show became simulcast on cable 's National Empowerment Television in 1997 . Keyes also launched various web @-@ based organizations — notably Renew America and the Declaration Foundation , both headquartered in Washington , D.C.
Keyes has served on the board of advisors for the Catholic League , a non @-@ profit , Catholic advocacy group headed by William A. Donohue . In 1997 , he was quoted as calling in that capacity the ABC television show Nothing Sacred " propaganda dressed up as entertainment , the way the Nazis used to make movies . The entertainment elite 's belief that there are no moral absolutes deeply contradicts the religious view of Christianity . "
In 2002 , he hosted a live television commentary show , Alan Keyes Is Making Sense , on the MSNBC cable news channel . The network canceled the show in July , citing poor ratings . The cancellation triggered a currently ongoing boycott led by Jewish education website Mesora.org whose reach numbers more than 72 @,@ 000 email subscribers . The show was unsympathetic to supporters of the al @-@ Aqsa Intifadah — whom Keyes frequently debated on the program — and supported the Israeli crackdown on Palestinians . The show also featured critical discussion of homosexuality and of priests accused in the Catholic Church sex abuse scandals . The last episode was broadcast on June 27 , 2002 . As a result of Keyes 's strong advocacy of Israel on his MSNBC show , in July 2002 the state of Israel awarded him a special honor " in appreciation of his journalistic endeavors and his integrity in reporting " and flew him in to meet Prime Minister Ariel Sharon .
In August 2003 , Keyes came out in defense of Alabama Chief Justice Roy Moore , citing both the U.S. Constitution and the Alabama constitution as sanctioning Moore 's ( and Alabama 's ) authority to publicly display the Ten Commandments in the state 's judicial building , in defiance of a court order from U.S. District Judge Myron Thompson . Although the monument was ultimately removed by state authorities , the issue impelled Keyes to spend the next year advocating his understanding of the Constitution 's protection of the right of states to display monuments that reflect the religious sentiments of the people in their states . As a result , he published an essay describing his rationale titled " On the establishment of religion : What the Constitution really says . "
In early 2005 , Keyes sought to intervene in the Terri Schiavo case , arguing that Schiavo 's life was protected by the Florida constitution , and that Governor Jeb Bush had final authority to determine the outcome of the case under state provisions . He attempted to meet with Bush to discuss the provisions of Florida law that authorized the governor to order Schiavo 's feeding tubes reinserted — something Bush claimed he wished to do , but for which he said he lacked authority — but the governor declined to meet with Keyes . Keyes subsequently wrote an essay directed openly at Governor Bush titled " Judicial review and executive responsibility " , days after Schiavo 's feeding tube had been removed .
In November 2006 , Keyes criticized Massachusetts governor Mitt Romney for instituting gay marriage entirely on his own — according to Keyes — with no requirement or authority to do so under Massachusetts law . Keyes said Romney 's actions , which he suggested were due to a complete misunderstanding of his role as governor and of the limitations of the judicial branch of government , were not necessitated by a ruling of the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court in November 2003 that directed the state legislature to institute same @-@ sex marriage . The Massachusetts Supreme Judicial court had ruled that the state law banning same @-@ sex marriage was not constitutional . The court gave the Massachusetts Legislature 180 days to modify the law ; after it failed to do so , Gov. Mitt Romney ordered town clerks to begin issuing marriage licenses on May 17 , 2004 , in compliance with the court ruling .
Commenting on the issue , Keyes asked rhetorically , " Since the legislature has not acted on the subject , you might be wondering how it is that homosexuals are being married in Massachusetts . It 's because Mitt Romney , who is telling people he 's an opponent of same @-@ sex marriage , forced the justices of the peace and others to perform same @-@ sex marriage , all on his own , with no authorization or requirement from the court . Tells you how twisted our politicians have become . "
Keyes , Olavo de Carvalho , author of a dozen books on philosophical and political matters , and Alejandro Peña Esclusa , president of UnoAmerica , met on 3 March 2009 in Washington D.C. for an informal and friendly talk . In July 2010 , Olavo de Carvalho denounces plot against Alejandro Peña Esclusa , was arrested on terrorism @-@ related charges . According to the website of the Venezuelan Ministry of Communications & Information , Alejandro Peña Esclusa was the head of a plan to murder Pope John Paul II during a visit to Venezuela on 13 November 1984 .
On May 8 , 2009 , Keyes and 21 others were arrested while protesting President Barack Obama 's commencement speech at the University of Notre Dame . Keyes was charged with trespassing and released on $ 250 bond . He was arrested a second time on May 16 .
In December 2009 , Keyes authored a column for the World Net Daily critical of evolution and in support of Intelligent Design .
Keyes also made a widely discussed appearance in the 2006 film Borat . In 2010 , About.com , owned by The New York Times Company , named Keyes one of the top 20 conservatives to follow on Twitter .
Keyes has criticised the papal encyclical Laudato si ' , stating that its demands amount to " ... global penal colony under the totalitarian control of a government with unprecedented global powers " . In the same article Keyes likened Pope Francis to " Marx , Stalin or Mao Zedong . "
= 2016 Tour of Flanders =
The 2016 Tour of Flanders was a one @-@ day classic cycling race that took place in Belgium on Sunday 3 April 2016 . It was the 100th edition of the Tour of Flanders ; it was the eighth event of the UCI World Tour and the third of the cobbled one @-@ day classics . It was the second Monument race of the 2016 cycling season .
The race started in Bruges and finished in Oudenaarde . The total distance was 255 kilometres ( 158 mi ) , covering 18 categorized climbs and seven flat cobblestoned sectors . The principal favourites for the overall victory were Fabian Cancellara ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) .
After several riders had abandoned the race due to crashes and injuries , the decisive break was formed with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) to go by Sagan , Michał Kwiatkowski ( Team Sky ) and Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . On the last climb of the Oude Kwaremont , Kwiatkowski was dropped ; on the Paterberg , which followed shortly afterwards and was final climb of the race , Sagan dropped Vanmarcke and set off alone towards the finish . Vanmarcke and Cancellara collaborated in an effort to chase him down , but Sagan was able to ride to the finish alone . Cancellara finished second with Vanmarcke third , both more than 20 seconds behind Sagan .
= = Route = =
The route of the 100th edition was presented on 29 November 2015 at Brussels Airport . It contained small changes from previous editions : the Tiegemberg in West Flanders was omitted , while in the Flemish Ardennes the flat cobbled sector of the Holleweg was cut from the race and replaced with the Jagerij cobbled road . The change was needed to keep the iconic Molenberg climb in the route due to roadworks . The recent tradition of announcing a Dorp van de Ronde ( " Village of the Tour " ) was also abandoned , although the route passed through Kanegem and Aarsele in tribute to Briek Schotte and Roger Decock ( the oldest living winner of the Tour of Flanders ) respectively .
The race started in the Market Square in Bruges with a neutralised zone , leaving the town to the south . The racing started outside the city and took the riders southwest through Torhout to Roeselare , then east through Ardooie and Tielt , then south @-@ east to Oudenaarde , passing across the first cobbled sector of the day , the flat Huisepontweg . After Oudenaarde , the route continued into a series of circuits through the hilly area to the south and east . After 103 kilometres ( 64 mi ) came the first climb , the Oude Kwaremont , a 2 @,@ 200 @-@ metre ( 2 @,@ 400 yd ) , partially cobbled climb that would feature twice more later in the race . The route turned north and , following the climb of the non @-@ cobbled Kortekeer , the riders entered a 20 @-@ kilometre ( 12 mi ) section with several cobbled roads . These included the cobbled climbs of the Eikenberg and the Wolvenberg , then the flat Ruiterstraat , Kerkgate and Jagerij , the climb of the Molenberg , then finally the 2 @,@ 300 metres ( 2 @,@ 500 yd ) of the flat Paddestraat . The route then turned back to the south @-@ west , across the flat Haaghoek cobbles and then the non @-@ cobbled climbs of the Leberg , Berendries , Valkenberg , Kaperij and Kanarieberg . This brought the route back to take on the second ascent of the Oude Kwaremont , followed immediately by the steep cobbled climb of the Paterberg , 360 metres ( 390 yd ) long with an average gradient of 12 @.@ 9 % and sections at over 20 % . At the summit of the Paterberg , there were 51 kilometres ( 32 mi ) left to the finish .
There were six more climbs in the next 40 @-@ kilometre ( 25 mi ) loop . The first of these was the Koppenberg , which includes the steepest roads of the race , with gradients of 22 % . This was followed by the flat cobbles of the Mariaborrestraat and the climbs of the Steenbeekdries and the Taaienberg . The roads took the riders south into Ronse for the climb of the Kruisberg , then north @-@ west to the foot of the Oude Kwaremont . The Oude Kwaremont – Paterberg combination was used for a second time ; at the top of the Paterberg there were 11 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 3 mi ) to the finish . These took place over mainly flat roads , with a long finishing straight on the outskirts of Oudenaarde .
= = = Climbs and cobbled roads = = =
In total , the race included eighteen categorized climbs .
Additionally , there were seven sectors of flat cobbled roads :
= = Participating teams = =
The 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and were obliged to participate in the race . An additional seven UCI Professional Continental teams were given wildcard entries : two Belgian teams ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert and Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) , a Dutch team ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) , a German team ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , a French team ( Direct Énergie ) , an Italian team ( Wilier Triestina – Southeast ) and a Polish team ( CCC – Sprandi – Polkowice ) . With eight on each team , the peloton at the start of the race included 200 riders . Of these , 118 reached the finish line .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The principal favourites for the race were Tom Boonen ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Fabian Cancellara ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , both of whom had won the race on three previous occasions . Cancellara was in strong form , having won the Strade Bianche and having come fourth in E3 Harelbeke and Gent – Wevelgem the previous week . Boonen , however , was not in strong form : he had not won a major classic since 2012 and had not performed strongly in the previous week 's races . Nevertheless , Cycling Weekly wrote " you can never write the three @-@ time Flanders winner off in a race like this . " The other former winners present at the start were Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , the defending champion , and Cancellara 's teammate Stijn Devolder . Kristoff 's strong sprint gave him an advantage if he was in a group that finished together ; he had , however , been ill in the previous week . Devolder , meanwhile , was expected to work for Cancellara .
The other major favourite for the race was Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff ) , the reigning world road race champion . Sagan had come second in E3 Harelbeke and first in Gent – Wevelgem . He had the advantage of being able to follow attacks and also to wait to use his strong sprint if he came to the finish with other riders .
Other riders with a chance of victory included Michał Kwiatkowski ( Team Sky ) , who had won E3 Harelbeke ahead of Sagan and who had a strong team with Geraint Thomas , Ian Stannard and Luke Rowe ; Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) ; Boonen 's teammates Niki Terpstra and Zdeněk Štybar ; Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) ; and Tiesj Benoot ( Lotto – Soudal ) .
= = Race summary = =
Before the race began , there was a minute 's silence in memory of Antoine Demoitié , a Wanty – Groupe Gobert rider who had been killed in a crash with a motorbike during Gent – Wevelgem . After 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) , the riders arrived in Hooglede , the birthplace of Daan Myngheer , a rider for Roubaix – Lille Métropole who had died following a heart attack in the Critérium International ; the peloton rode slowly through the town in memory of him .
The day 's breakaway took a long time to form : over an hour into the day 's racing , with more than 70 kilometres ( 43 mi ) covered , a six @-@ man move broke free . The riders were Hugo Houle ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Federico Zurlo ( Lampre – Merida ) , Imanol Erviti ( Movistar ) , Lukas Pöstlberger ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Gijs Van Hoecke ( Topsport Vlaanderen – Baloise ) and Wesley Kreder ( Roompot – Oranje Peloton ) . They earned a lead of over four minutes , but broke apart as the day 's climbs began .
During the middle part of the race several riders were forced to withdraw after crashes . Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) , the winner of Milan – San Remo , crashed after 100 kilometres ( 62 mi ) , while Marcus Burghardt ( BMC ) and Tiesj Benoot crashed on the Wolvenberg shortly afterwards . Less than 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) later , several BMC riders crashed together and four were forced to withdraw . These included Greg Van Avermaet , who broke his collarbone .
On the Molenberg , with more than 110 kilometres ( 68 mi ) remaining , a hard effort by Tony Martin ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) caused a split in the main peloton , with 25 riders in the front group , but the groups came back together shortly afterwards . André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) and Nils Politt ( Katusha ) then attacked on the Leberg and were allowed to go ; they were followed by Dmitriy Gruzdev ( Astana ) and Dimitri Claeys ( Wanty – Groupe Gobert ) . These four riders joined up with Houle , Erviti and Van Hoecke from the original break ; Houle was dropped soon afterwards to form a six @-@ man leading group , which had a two @-@ minute lead at the foot of the second ascent of the Oude Kwaremont . On the
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climb , Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Dylan van Baarle ( Cannondale – Drapac ) attacked from the peloton . Another group , including Sep Vanmarcke and Ian Stannard , attacked before the Koppenberg . Stannard then went solo over the top of the climb . Meanwhile , Vandenbergh and Van Baarle caught up with the group of leaders .
There were several more attacks before the climb of the Taaienberg , where a small group of favourites formed and quickly caught Stannard . Shortly afterwards , with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) remaining , Michał Kwiatkowski and Peter Sagan attacked together and were joined by Sep Vanmarcke . They crossed the Kruisberg together and caught the remainder of the breakaway with 23 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining , 40 seconds ahead of the peloton . On the final climb of the Oude Kwaremont , Kwiatkowski was unable to follow Sagan and Vanmarcke , while Cancellara rode clear of the peloton . Sagan was first to the summit with Vanmarcke ; Cancellara was twelve seconds behind . Cancellara was then caught by Niki Terpstra , Erviti and Claeys .
On the final climb , the Paterberg , Sagan rode away from Vanmarcke , who was caught by Cancellara at the top of the climb . They rode in pursuit of Sagan , who had a 15 @-@ second lead at the summit . The chasing pair were unable to bring Sagan back and he rode to the finish to win his first Monument . Cancellara finished second , 25 seconds back , with Vanmarcke allowing him to take second place . Kristoff won the sprint for fourth place , ahead of Luke Rowe ( Sky ) , 49 seconds behind Sagan .
= = Result = =
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
= = = Rider reactions = = =
Sagan celebrated his victory by doing a wheelie after the finishing line . He said afterwards that it was the hardest Tour of Flanders he had ever raced , having been " full gas " throughout and suggested that Cancellara had made a mistake by not following the attack he had made with Kwiatkowski and Vanmarcke . Cancellara was emotional after finishing his final Tour of Flanders . He said that he had " missed this one second " , referring to the attack by Sagan . He said that he and Vanmarcke had done all they could in the chase , but that Sagan was too strong . Vanmarcke , meanwhile , said that he had struggled due to crashes in the middle part of the race and then had suffered cramp when Sagan attacked on the Paterberg . He described the move by Sagan and Kwiatkowski as the " decisive moment in the race " .
Boonen , who finished fifteenth , described Sagan as " really strong " and as the " deserved winner " ; he said " The way [ Sagan ] rode up the Paterberg was a good showcase on how to ride a bike " . Boonen , meanwhile , turned his attention to Paris – Roubaix the following week . Van Avermaet described himself as " really disappointed " following his crash , which ruled him out of Paris – Roubaix . Luke Rowe 's fifth place was Team Sky 's best ever performance in the Tour of Flanders ; he praised Kwiatkowski 's move , but said " there ’ s not much you can do when someone has better legs " ; he described Sagan , Cancellara and Vanmarcke as " the three strongest guys in the race " . Imanol Erviti , who had been in the breakaway for 180 kilometres ( 110 mi ) , finished seventh . Cycling Weekly described this as " phenomenal " ; it was Movistar 's best ever result .
= = = World Tour standings = = =
Sagan remained at the top of the 2016 UCI World Tour standings following his victory ; his total of 329 points was more than 100 ahead of the next rider , his teammate Alberto Contador . Cancellara moved up from thirteenth to fourth and Vanmarcke from sixteenth to sixth . Sagan 's total put Slovakia in third place in the nations ' rankings , ahead of Great Britain and Spain , even though he was the only Slovakian to have scored World Tour points .
= Lynn ( MBTA station ) =
Lynn ( signed as Central Square - Lynn ) is a passenger rail station on the MBTA Commuter Rail Newburyport / Rockport Line in downtown Lynn , Massachusetts , located 11 @.@ 5 route miles from North Station . The station consists of a single center island platform serving the two station tracks on an elevated grade that runs through the downtown area of Lynn . A large parking garage is integrated into the station structure . The present station , built in 1992 , is the latest in a series of depots built on approximately the same Central Square site since 1838 . A number of other stations have also been located on several different rail lines in Lynn .
Lynn is also a major bus transfer point serving 12 MBTA Bus routes in the North Shore region , including routes leading to Salem , Marblehead , Wonderland , and the Liberty Tree Mall as well as downtown Boston .
= = History = =
= = = Early history = = =
After the railroads from Boston to Lowell , Worcester , and Providence were chartered in 1830 and 1831 , railroads to other surrounding cities including Newburyport and Portsmouth were proposed . The Eastern Railroad was chartered on April 14 , 1836 . Work began at East Boston in late 1836 ; it reached Lynn in the spring of 1837 , but constructeion was slowed by the Panic of 1837 and did not reach Salem until 1838 . Service from Salem to East Boston began on August 27 , 1838 , with fares half that of competing stagecoaches .
The line through Lynn was built at surface level . A number of stations have served Lynn , including a series of stations near the current location at Central Square as well as a number of other stations around the city . The first depot at the Central Square location , built in 1838 , was a small wooden building .
On June 16 , 1846 , the stockholders authorized the sale of $ 450 @,@ 000 of new stock to fund various branch lines plus new depots at Salem and Lynn . The 1838 @-@ built station was replaced in 1848 by a brick building with a 2 @-@ track train shed , modeled after the 1847 @-@ built station at Salem but smaller and lacking towers .
In 1845 and 1846 , a line from Malden to Salem via Saugus and Lynnfield was proposed but did not pass the legislature due to bitter objections from the Eastern . Instead , the Saugus Branch Railroad opened from Malden to Lynn Common on February 1 , 1853 . Affiliated with the Eastern 's primary rival , the Boston and Maine Railroad ( B & M ) , it did not initially have a connection with the Eastern . In 1855 , the Eastern acquired the majority stock of the Saugus Branch Railroad to keep it away from the B & M. The connection to the B & M at Malden was severed , and it was connected to the Eastern at South Malden ( Everett ) and West Lynn . Lynn became the primary turnback point for the Saugus Branch after 1855 , though a limited number of trains continued to Salem until World War I.
The first horsecars ran to Lynn in 1854 under the Lynn and Boston Street Railway . Its line ran between its namesake cities ; running through Charlestown on Chelsea Street , Chelsea and Revere on Broadway , then along the Salem Turnpike to Lynn . On July 2 , 1888 , the Lynn & Boston became the first electrified trolley line in the Boston area .
= = = Great Lynn Depot War = = =
When the Eastern Railroad prepared to build a new depot in 1865 , a great deal of controversy erupted – an event later known as the " Great Lynn Depot War " . One faction wanted the replacement station built at the same Central Square location , while another wanted it built at Knight 's Crossing , a block southwest at Market Street . The Central Square faction was aided by a bill passed in the Massachusetts legislature on April 29 , 1865 , which disallowed a railroad from abandoning a station that had been in service more than five years , as well as an 1868 bill that specifically directed the Eastern Railroad to build the replacement station at Central Square .
After a case which reached the Supreme Court in 1871 and a subsequent appeal to the United States Court , a decision was ultimately made to construct stations at both locations . Both the Central Square and Market Street stations were in service by mid @-@ 1872 , but it was untenable for the railroad to serve two stations just several hundred feet apart . The Market Street station was demolished in 1873 and replaced with a wooden shelter that served only a handful of trains .
The depot controversy was a setback for the Eastern Railroad in a city where residents were already dissatisfied with poor service . In 1872 , the Boston , Revere Beach & Lynn Railroad was charted as a direct competitor to the Eastern ; service began from Market Street in 1875 and lasted until 1940 . Service to East Boston had been replaced with direct service to Boston via the Grand Junction Railroad in 1854 , but Lynn - East Boston service was run from 1872 to 1880 to compete with the BRB & L. In 1880 the service was cut to a Revere - East Boston shuttle which lasted until 1905 .
From approximately the 1850s to the 1930s , Lynn was the terminus for some short turn Boston commuter trains . From 1881 to 1892 , some of these trains ran via the Chelsea Beach Branch during the summer .
= = = Track elevation = = =
The 1872 Central Square station burned in 1889 and was replaced with a temporary station until a new depot with a 75 @-@ foot clock tower was built in 1895 on the north side of the tracks off Union Street . This station had two side platforms to serve the line 's two tracks . As early as 1901 , the city began planning to eliminate the numerous grade crossings in downtown Lynn . With 150 trains per day on the main line and 40 on the Saugus Branch , some streets were blocked for as long as half of daylight hours . After legal issues , construction of an elevated viaduct began in September 1909 . However , the New Haven Railroad briefly gained control of the Boston and Maine at this time , and intended to fully four @-@ track the line through Lynn in conjunction with plans including a possible railroad tunnel under the harbor . The municipality initially intended to force the railroad to depress the four @-@ track line below grade , but later reached an agreement with the railroad to modify the two @-@ track viaduct for four tracks .
The New Haven 's plan to four @-@ track the line as far as the branch line splits in Salem and Beverly was stymied by the costs to modify the grade crossings in Chelsea and the single @-@ track tunnel at Salem . The only quadruple track to become operational was at Lynn station itself , with two island platforms to serve trains on all tracks . The depot was modified " not for the better " in conjunction with the elevation project . Many of the four @-@ track bridge spans in Lynn , never used operationally , are still extant .
= = = B & M and MBTA eras = = =
Streetcars service to Lynn continued under the Lynn & Boston until 1901 when it became part of the Boston & Northern Street Railway . By the early 20th century , a number of lines crisscrossed Lynn , with a number of them serving the station . The Bay State Street Railway took over operations in 1911 and joined the Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway in 1919 . Trolley service in Lynn lasted until 1938 .
The Boston and Maine Railroad built a new , more modern station in 1952 but reused the 1914 @-@ built platforms . This single @-@ story building , located on the south side of the tracks at Mt . Vernon and Exchange streets , was in the same flat @-@ roofed brick style as Winchester Center and Wedgemere built five years later . The building was the first on the Boston & Maine system to have radiant heat , and also included a restaurant and newsstand . The 1895 @-@ built station was demolished to make room for a parking lot . Saugus Branch service ended in May 1958 , leaving through service on the Eastern Route as the only trains serving Lynn . Around this time , the third and fourth tracks through the station were removed due to reduced traffic , leaving the station with effectively two side platforms serving two tracks .
By the late 1980s , the nearly @-@ 40 @-@ year @-@ old station and the older platforms were crumbling . Since the Newburyport / Rockport line was no longer a freight clearance route past the General Electric plant in West Lynn , a full @-@ length high @-@ level platform was built to replace the 1952 platforms . The wide platform occupies the width of one former island platform plus one track slot , with the line 's two current tracks on each side . The 800 @-@ foot @-@ long platform is located west of the older low platforms , which are still extant on the viaduct . A 930 @-@ space parking garage with a drop @-@ off lane was built off Market Street ; buses continued to use the former busway on Mount Vernon Street at Central Square . Entrances to the platform are available from the garage and from Central Square . The new facility opened on January 21 , 1992 .
In 2003 , the MBTA spent slightly less than $ 100 @,@ 000 to rehabilitate the deteriorated garage and to convert the drop @-@ off lane into a full busway with shelters , benches , and signage . The busway opened on September 9 , 2003 and 21 MBTA Bus routes were rerouted from Central Square . In late 2005 , the MBTA spent $ 168 @,@ 000 for repairs to the garage roof , which frequently leaked during rain . The 1992 station was built with new concrete ties supporting the tracks connecting to the station , which proved less durable than expected . In September 2008 , the MBTA board authorized a $ 1 million tie replacement and slope stabilization project at the station .
An elevator is available to access the elevated platform from the ground level of the parking garage . This is one of a small number of elevators on the MBTA Commuter Rail system , and along with the pair at Framingham is one of the few on the system maintained by the MBTA rather than Amtrak , Massport , or local Regional Transportation Agencies . As of 2015 , the Lynn garage has the lowest utilization rate of MBTA garages , partially due to safety concerns and partially because it was built to support future Blue Line demand . In 2011 , 20 security cameras were added to the station as a reaction to several assaults in the garage .
= = = Future = = =
Lynn is intended to be the terminus of a future extension of the MBTA Blue Line , which would bring the line 4 @.@ 5 additional miles from Wonderland in Revere to Lynn . This extension has been proposed in various forms for over 80 years . The 1926 Report on Improved Transportation Facilities and 1945 – 47 Coolidge Commission Report recommended that the East Boston Tunnel line , which had been converted to rapid transit from streetcars in 1924 , be extended to Lynn via the Boston , Revere Beach & Lynn right @-@ of @-@ way . Ever since the 1954 Revere extension was cut short to Wonderland , a further extension to Lynn has been planned . Following on the 1926 and 1945 @-@ 47 studies , the 1966 Program for Mass Transportation recommended that the Blue Line be extended to Lynn , while the 1969 Recommended Highway and Transit Plan proposed that the extension run as far as Salem . An extension was not present in the 1972 Final Report of the Boston Transportation Planning Review , but the 1974 Transportation Plan revived the project with possible termini of Lynn , Salem , or even Route 128 in Peabody . The 1978 Program for Mass Transportation report and 1983 Transportation Plan both continued support for an extension to Lynn . Despite the continued recommendations , however , other projects like extensions of the Red and Orange lines were given funding instead of the Blue Line .
Despite numerous studies on the project and previous bond bills , there is currently no identified funding source ; due to the MBTA 's constrained finances , construction is not likely to begin soon . The 1992 @-@ built Lynn parking garage , designed for the capacity needed for the Blue Line extension , does not fill fully from commuter rail ridership .
= = = Other Lynn stations = = =
Lynn has also been home to eight other stations on different sites - none of which lasted into the MBTA era - plus a ninth that opened in 1965 . Besides its downtown stops , the Eastern Railroad also served East Lynn from 1880 until Marblehead Branch service ended in June 1959 . Stairways from the Chatham Street to the station site still exist , although no station building remains . The 1896 depot was disassembled in 1912 in preparation for the downtown grade separation . It was moved to Durham , New Hampshire , where it now serves as the University of New Hampshire Dairy Bar and a station stop on Amtrak 's Downeaster service . A West Lynn station was located at Commercial Street at the junction with the Saugus Branch Railroad , and Green Street was briefly located just east of Central Square . Neither the West Lynn nor Green Street buildings survive .
The Boston , Revere Beach & Lynn also served its own Lynn depot ( a block away from the Eastern Railroad station ) at Market Street near Broad Street , as well its own West Lynn station adjacent to the Eastern Railroad station just east of Commercial Street . Neither station is still extant .
Service on the Saugus Branch Railroad began from Boston to Lynn ( via Malden ) in 1853 , serving Central Square and West Lynn plus three new stations in northwest Lynn . These included Lynn Common station at Western Avenue , Raddin 's Station at Summer Street and Raddin Grove Avenue , and East Saugus at Lincoln Avenue on the Saugus / Lynn border . Passenger service on the branch ended in May 1958 ; the branch is now abandoned and being turned into a rail trail . None of the station buildings survive , though the surviving Cliftondale station in Saugus was identical to the East Saugus station .
River Works station is located in West Lynn on the Newburyport / Rockport Line . Opened on September 9 , 1965 as G.E. Works , it is for the sole use of GE Aviation employees . Swampscott , located just outside Lynn in Swampscott , Massachusetts , also serves passengers from East Lynn .
= = Bus connections = =
Lynn serves as a major hub and transfer point for MBTA Bus routes serving the North Shore area . All routes pull into the station busway off Route 1A , though some can be caught at Central Square via the station 's Exchange Street / Central Square entrance as well .
426 Central Square , Lynn - Haymarket Station via Cliftondale
426W Central Square , Lynn - Wonderland Station via Cliftondale Square ( weekend version of 426 )
429 Northgate Shopping Center - Central Square , Lynn via Linden Square & Square One Mall
431 Neptune Towers - Central Square , Lynn via Summer Street
435 Liberty Tree Mall - Central Square , Lynn via Peabody Square
436 Liberty Tree Mall - Central Square , Lynn via Goodwins Circle
439 Bass Point , Nahant - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn
441 Marblehead - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn , Paradise Road & Lynnway
442 Marblehead - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn , Humphrey Street & Lynnway
455 Salem Depot - Wonderland via Central Square , Lynn
456 Salem Depot - Central Square , Lynn via Highland Avenue
459 Salem Depot - Downtown Crossing via Logan Airport & Central Square , Lynn
= Martin Ødegaard =
Martin Ødegaard ( Norwegian pronunciation : [ ˈmɑʈɪn ˈøːdəˌɡɔːɾ ] ; born 17 December 1998 ) is a Norwegian professional footballer who plays as an attacking midfielder for Spanish club Real Madrid Castilla and the Norway national team .
He made his debut for Strømsgodset Toppfotball on 13 April 2014 , becoming the youngest player to feature in Tippeligaen , and became its youngest goalscorer on 16 May . After being a regular part of the team in his first season and training with several foreign clubs , Ødegaard was signed by Real Madrid in January 2015 . He is currently playing for their reserve team , Real Madrid Castilla , but trains mainly with the first team . On 23 May 2015 , he became the youngest player to represent Real Madrid .
Ødegaard made his international debut against the United Arab Emirates on 27 August 2014 , becoming the youngest debutant for the senior team at the age of 15 years and 253 days . On 13 October 2014 , he became the youngest player to feature in a qualifying match for the UEFA European Championship .
= = Club career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Ødegaard spent his first years in the local sports club Drammen Strong . His father , Hans Erik Ødegaard , a former footballer , co @-@ founded a football section in the club , and became the coach of his son 's team . In 2005 , when Ødegaard was six , his parents and others each invested 50 @,@ 000 kroner so that the local club could refit their gravel field , Kjappen , with artificial turf . This has been cited as crucial for his development , as Ødegaard spent countless hours on the field .
Drammen Strong was twice selected by Ødegaard to receive a prize of 50 @,@ 000 kroner ( € 5 @,@ 800 ) , when the young player was given the Statoil talent award for April 2014 and for the 2014 season . Later , in 2015 , Drammen Strong received 250 @,@ 000 kroner , equivalent to approximately € 29 @,@ 000 , as a gift from Strømsgodset Toppfotball when Ødegaard was sold to Real Madrid .
In 2009 , Ødegaard joined the youth division of Strømsgodset . He trained and played with older boys .
The Norwegian FA also organizes young talents in local district teams . Ødegaard played his first matches for the Buskerud team in January 2010 , when he had just turned 11 . The other players on the team , and opponents , were 2 – 3 years older . The coach noted : " Handles things brilliantly . Good choices . Good touch , smart in position game " . Ødegaard trained with this team weekly for the next three years . He mostly played left back , as the coaches felt this would give him a positive experience with many ball touches while still playing against physically much stronger players . In attack , he was given free rein due to his ability to " see solutions and spaces that we as coaches were not even close to thinking about . "
In 2011 , at age 12 , he impressed former football manager Lars Tjærnås during a nationwide tournament for under @-@ 16s :
The best 15 @-@ year @-@ olds in the country were gathered for a tournament between the top clubs ... It was definitely not the first time he had astonished his opponents or the spectators . He was three or four years younger than the others . It was impossible not to realize that we were witnessing something out of the ordinary .
= = = Strømsgodset = = =
Ødegaard began training with the Strømsgodset first team in 2012 , aged 13 . He made his first team debut the same year , in a mid @-@ season friendly against local rivals Mjøndalen IF . He also had short training visits to Bayern Munich and Manchester United . In 2013 , at age 14 , Ødegaard played for both Strømsgodset 's junior team ( normally aged 17 – 19 ) , and the club 's third team at the fifth tier of Norwegian senior football .
In January 2014 , it was agreed that 15 @-@ year @-@ old Ødegaard would be part of Strømsgodset 's first team for the year , but no professional contract was signed . The competition rules state that to play in Tippeligaen , players must have a professional contract to be eligible . However , the club included Ødegaard on the " B @-@ list " for amateur players , which made him eligible for up to three matches per season . Ødegaard was unable to train with Strømsgodset in the daytime since he was still in compulsory education . Thus , as part of the agreement , he trained two evenings a week with Mjøndalen IF , a semi @-@ professional First Division team at the time , where his father was one of the coaches .
He made his league debut for Strømsgodset in a match against Aalesunds FK at Marienlyst Stadion on 13 April 2014 . Aged 15 years and 118 days , he became the youngest footballer ever to play in Tippeligaen . On 5 May , he signed a professional contract with Strømsgodset , lasting until the end of 2015 . This removed the restriction of three matches per season . Eleven days later , he scored his first professional goal and became the youngest goalscorer in Tippeligaen when he scored the fourth goal for Strømsgodset in a 4 – 1 home victory against Sarpsborg 08 FF . He made his European debut on 16 July , replacing Lars Christopher Vilsvik for the final five minutes of the club 's 1 – 0 home defeat to Steaua Bucureşti in the UEFA Champions League second qualifying round .
In late July , an away match at Sandnes Ulf prompted serious discussion in national newspapers VG , Dagbladet and Aftenposten , on his possible call @-@ up to the Norwegian national team . Ødegaard was involved in all three goals for his team , including a goal and an assist . He was also fouled for a penalty which was missed by a teammate . John Arne Riise , the most @-@ capped player on the Norwegian national team , was impressed , and " demanded " Ødegaard should be called up to play against the big nations of Europe . Former manager for Norway , Nils Johan Semb , said after the match that " Martin is one of the best 15 @-@ year @-@ olds in Europe , " but added that he should not be rushed into the national team . Ødegaard himself stated to the press that if he would be asked to play for Norway , he would say yes .
In the away match against IK Start on 15 August the same year , Ødegaard was placed on the right wing , and made all three assists for Strømsgodset , who won 3 – 2 . He scored two goals in a match for the first time in his career in the 2 – 1 win against Lillestrøm SK on 19 October . Strømsgodset finished fourth in the league , qualifying for the first qualifying round of the UEFA Europa League , with Ødegaard having scored 5 goals in 23 league games in addition to 7 assists .
In December 2014 , during the Norwegian close season , he trained with the first teams at Liverpool , Bayern Munich , Manchester United and Manchester City . He also visited Arsenal . In January 2015 , he trained with Real Madrid .
= = = Real Madrid = = =
On 21 January 2015 , Real Madrid reached an agreement to sign Ødegaard from Strømsgodset , for a fee reported by Spanish media as around € 3 million . Norwegian media reported , however , that the fee was 35 million kroner ( approximately € 4 million ) , which could rise to 70 – 75 million kroner ( approximately € 8 – 8 @.@ 5 million ) on certain conditions . In a press conference after the signing , Real Madrid announced that Ødegaard would train with both the club 's first team and the reserves , Real Madrid Castilla . He would play for the latter team , which was managed by Zinedine Zidane at the time .
He made his unofficial debut for the reserves on 4 February , in a 3 – 3 friendly draw with Beijing Guoan . He was subsequently named in the first team 's UEFA Champions League squad . Ødegaard was assigned the number 21 . His official debut for Castilla came on 8 February , coming on in the last 20 minutes as a substitute in the 2 – 2 draw against Athletic Bilbao B in Segunda División B. On 21 February , he scored his first goal for the club in a 4 – 0 win over Barakaldo CF at the Estadio Alfredo Di Stéfano , opening the scoring after seven minutes .
In April , Ødegaard was dropped from Castilla after a run of four defeats , with staff finding problems with him training with the first team while playing for the reserves , in addition to a language barrier . First team manager Carlo Ancelotti called for fans to be patient while Ødegaard settles in a new country . On 29 April , he was included in Real Madrid 's matchday squad for the first time for a home La Liga fixture against UD Almería , as Ancelotti was without Gareth Bale , Luka Modrić and Karim Benzema through injury . However , he did not feature in the 3 – 0 victory .
On 23 May , in the final fixture of the season , he made his debut for Real Madrid , coming @-@ on as a 58th @-@ minute substitute for hat @-@ trick scorer and then @-@ reigning FIFA Ballon d 'Or Cristiano Ronaldo in an eventual 7 – 3 home win over Getafe CF . He became the youngest debutant in the history of the club at 16 years and 157 days old .
Ødegaard was a regular starter for Castilla during the 2015 – 16 season . On 17 April 2016 , he was praised in Diario AS for his performance in a 3 – 0 home win over SD Gernika Club , winning a penalty kick which Mariano scored . The result put the team top of the table . The team won the group ahead of Barakaldo CF on the last day , with Ødegaard scoring his first of the season in a 6 – 1 thrashing of La Roda CF .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth = = =
Martin Ødegaard featured in the starting line @-@ ups for the two home matches of the Norway national under @-@ 15 football team versus Sweden on 17 and 19 September 2013 . Both matches were won by Norway , 2 – 1 and 2 – 0 .
Ødegaard played for the Norway national under @-@ 16 football team in a tournament with Scotland , the United States and France in Turkey in January 2014 . He played the full 90 minutes in all three matches , which resulted in a win versus Scotland and two losses .
He was promoted to the Norway national under @-@ 17 football team for the away match against Iceland on 28 February 2014 . Ødegaard came on as a substitute in the 62nd minute , and helped secure a 2 – 1 win for his country . Subsequently , he was in the starting line @-@ up for the next three away matches ; in the 3 – 0 win against Iceland on 2 March , in the 2 – 3 loss against Turkey on 25 March and finally in the 0 – 3 loss against Greece on 30 March 2014 .
In September 2014 , he was selected for the Norway national under @-@ 21 football team for the final match of the 2015 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualification . He played the full match against Portugal , as a forward , but was unable to prevent the opponents from winning 2 – 1 , despite being named Man of the Match .
An unused substitute for the senior team on 6 September 2015 against Croatia , he joined the under @-@ 21 team again the following day in the 2017 UEFA European Under @-@ 21 Championship qualifying match against England . He played the full 90 minutes in the match , which Norway lost 0 – 1 at home after a penalty goal by James Ward @-@ Prowse .
= = = Senior = = =
On 19 August 2014 , Ødegaard was called up for a senior international against the United Arab Emirates in Stavanger and played the entire goalless draw on 27 August , becoming the youngest player to play for Norway at senior level , at 15 years and 253 days . The record was previously held by Tormod Kjellsen , who was 15 years and 351 days on his debut in 1910 .
On 30 September 2014 , he was called up to Norway 's UEFA Euro 2016 qualifying matches against Malta and Bulgaria . He made his competitive debut in the latter , replacing Mats Møller Dæhli in the 64th minute of a 2 – 1 home win . At the age of 15 years and 300 days , this made him the youngest player to ever play in a European Championship qualifier , breaking a record held since 1983 by Icelander Sigurður Jónsson .
On 29 March 2015 , Ødegaard became the youngest player to start a European Championship qualifier at the age of 16 years and 101 days in a 5 – 1 loss to Croatia . On 8 June , he was man of the match in Norway 's 0 – 0 friendly draw with Scandinavian rivals Sweden in Oslo . After Norway came third in their qualification group , Ødegaard was named in their squad for a play @-@ off against Hungary . Unused in the first leg , he was substituted at half time in the second on 15 November , as Norway lost 2 – 1 on the night and 3 – 1 on aggregate .
= = Playing style = =
An article in the Liverpool Echo described Ødegaard as " an attack @-@ minded midfielder very much in the modern mould . Diminutive , quick @-@ footed , with natural balance , pace and , perhaps surprisingly for one so young , excellent shooting power " . David Nielsen , his manager at Strømsgodset , likened him to David Silva and Lionel Messi . Amidst transfer speculation in December 2014 , he opined that the player would develop better with a second season in Norway .
In September 2014 , international teammate and Rosenborg winger Morten Gamst Pedersen dubbed Ødegaard the most talented player he had ever seen , saying " For his age he is unbelievable – his knowledge of the game is unbelievable and his technical skills are fantastic " . Pedersen also stated that Ødegaard needed time to improve at the physical aspects of the sport .
When describing his son , Hans Erik Ødegaard said , " It 's the pace of the game that makes the difference in adjusting to different levels . We 've used so many hours in working with his first and second touch to take off the pressure . We have worked a lot on bringing the ball closely to his feet , so he can change direction quickly , so even if he 's physically weaker than the others he doesn 't get caught because he 's able to get away . "
After Ødegaard signed for Real Madrid , Norwegian former football scout Tor @-@ Kristian Karlsen praised his mentality , stating that he had " overcome every challenge in front of him " . Karlsen called him " so level @-@ headed and mature " and noted his intelligence and performance at school , while also saying that this could be a disadvantage as " The best footballers tend to have a bit of needle , a bit of fire " . While former Norway international Jan Åge Fjørtoft was supportive of the transfer to Real Madrid due to the opportunity to learn from Zidane , he warned that at the age of 16 he needed time to develop : " Comparing Ødegaard to Messi is nonsense from the media . Messi is a player who can make the difference and Martin can do the same , but any comparisons should not be taken seriously " . Ødegaard reacted to the attention on him by saying " If you get carried away now , you won ’ t get far in 10 years . I 'm supposed to be at my best then , not now . That I know " .
= = Personal life = =
Ødegaard is the son of former footballer Hans Erik Ødegaard , who played as a midfielder for Strømsgodset and Sandefjord Fotball and was assistant manager of Mjøndalen IF from 2009 to 2015 . He was still attending a local lower secondary school when he made his professional debut , but has since completed his compulsory education in Norway . He is a supporter of English team Liverpool , whom he has described as his " dream club " . Ødegaard looked up to Barcelona 's Lionel Messi , although on joining their rivals Real Madrid he was reported to have deleted tweets in which he had praised Messi . Due to his age , Ødegaard was absent from the computer game Football Manager 2015 until his father gave permission to use his son 's likeness .
Ødegaard has grown up in a Christian family and has expressed that religious faith is an important part of his life . He was named in Time 's 30 most influential teenagers of 2015 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
As of 16 May 2016
= = = International = = =
As of 29 March 2016
= = Honours = =
Individual
Tippeligaen Young Player of the Year : 2014
Idrettsgallaen Breakthrough of the Year : 2014
= The Boat Race 1947 =
The 93rd Boat Race took place on 29 March 1947 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames in London . In a race umpired by former Oxford rower D. T. Raikes , Cambridge won by ten lengths in a time of 23 minutes 1 second , taking the overall record in the event to 49 – 43 in their favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Oxford went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1946 race by three lengths , with Cambridge leading overall with 48 victories to Oxford 's 43 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were R. E. Eason ( who rowed for the Dark Blues in the 1924 race ) , P. C. Mallam ( four @-@ time Blue between 1921 and 1924 ) and Guy Oliver Nickalls ( who rowed three times for Oxford between 1921 and 1923 ) . Cambridge were coached by John Houghton Gibbon ( who rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races ) , Hugh Mason ( who represented Cambridge in the 1936 and 1937 races ) and Peter Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue between 1902 and 1905 ) . The umpire for the race was former Oxford rower D. T. Raikes who had represented the Dark Blues in the 1920 , 1921 and 1922 races . Among the spectators were Geoffrey Fisher , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and American actress Paulette Goddard . It was the first year that souvenir programmes were sold , the proceeds of which would help to fund the two boat clubs .
The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that Oxford could win , claiming they had an " embarras de richesse " while Cambridge " started this year with a grievous shortage of material " . In a practice row , the rowing correspondent for The Manchester Guardian stated that " Cambridge showed much better form " while Oxford " did rather more hard work " , including practicing their start from a stakeboat . Oxford were reported as being favourites in the Dundee Courier , with the prediction that the win could be determined by who won the toss . That view was echoed in the Dundee Evening Telegraph , who also suggested that Oxford were favourites yet " abnormal flooding " would favour the crew who won the toss .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 12 st 5 lb ( 78 @.@ 3 kg ) , 5 @.@ 5 pounds ( 2 @.@ 49 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Oxford saw four rowers with Boat Race experience return to the crew , including J. R. W. Gleave , R. M. A. Bourne , P. N. Brodie and stroke A. J. R. Purssell . Cambridge 's boat contained just one crew member who had taken part in the event before , in cox G. H. C. Fisher . The Cambridge University Boat Club president , M. A. Nicholson was declared unfit to row following a series of bouts of asthma . All participants in the race were registered as British .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . The race was started by umpire Raikes at 6 : 15 p.m , in " rain and dismal weather " . Out @-@ rating Oxford by two strokes per minute , the Light Blues took an immediate lead and by Craven Steps they were pulling away from their opponents . As both crews passed the Mile Post , Cambridge were almost clear by two lengths , and despite a spurt from the Dark Blues at the Harrods Furniture Depository , the Light Blues maintained their lead . Oxford trailed Cambridge by three and a half lengths as the Light Blues passed below Hammersmith Bridge and moved into Oxford 's water , effectively ending the race as a contest .
Cambridge continued to build their lead , ahead by six lengths at Chiswick Steps and eight by Barnes Bridge . They passed the finishing post ten lengths ahead in a time of 23 minutes 1 second , their first win since the 1939 race . It was the slowest winning time since the 1877 race and the winning margin was the largest since the 1928 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 49 – 43 in Cambridge 's favour . The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested the " Boat Race was as disappointing as the weather in which it was rowed " .
= Walter de Coutances =
Walter de Coutances or Walter of Coutances ( died 16 November 1207 ) , also called Walter of Rouen , was a medieval Anglo @-@ Norman bishop of Lincoln and archbishop of Rouen . He began his royal service in the government of Henry II , serving as a vice @-@ chancellor . He also accumulated a number of ecclesiastical offices , becoming successively canon of Rouen Cathedral , treasurer of Rouen , and archdeacon of Oxford . King Henry sent him on a number of diplomatic missions and finally rewarded him with the bishopric of Lincoln in 1183 . He did not remain there long , for he was translated to Rouen in late 1184 .
When Richard I , King Henry 's son , became king in 1189 , Coutances absolved Richard for his rebellion against his father and invested him as Duke of Normandy . He then accompanied Richard to Sicily as the king began the Third Crusade , but events in England prompted Richard to send the archbishop back to England to mediate between William Longchamp , the justiciar whom Richard had left in charge of the kingdom , and Prince John , Richard 's younger brother . Coutances succeeded in securing a peace between Longchamp and John , but further actions by Longchamp led to the justiciar 's expulsion from England , replaced in his role by Coutances , even though he never formally used the title . He remained in the office until late 1193 , when he was summoned to Germany by the king , who was being held in captivity there . Coutances became a hostage for the final payment of Richard 's ransom on the king 's release in February 1194 .
Coutances took no further part in English government after returning from Germany . Instead he became involved in Norman affairs , including a dispute with Richard over the ownership of Andely manor , an archiepiscopal property that Richard desired as a fortress . Eventually the archbishop surrendered it to the king in return for two other manors and the seaport of Dieppe . Richard went on to build the castle of Gaillard on the former archiepiscopal manor . After Richard 's death , Coutances invested Prince John as Duke of Normandy , but was forced to pay 2 @,@ 100 Angevin pounds to secure contested rights from the new king . After John lost control of Normandy in 1204 , the archbishop did not resist the new government of King Philip II of France . Coutances died in November 1207 and was buried in his cathedral .
= = Early life = =
Coutances was born in Cornwall , to Reinfrid and Gonilla . His brother was Roger fitzReinfrid , a layman and royal justice during the reign of King Henry II of England . Although the medieval chronicler and churchman Gerald of Wales related that his friend was descended from Trojan heroes who escaped the Sack of Troy and ended up in Cornwall , that was a flattering invention on Gerald 's part . Coutances ' family was of the knightly class , and probably from Normandy originally .
Coutances was usually given the title of magister , which signified that he had received an education in a school ; most likely he attended the schools of Paris . Gerald of Wales said that Coutances was dedicated to learning , and considered him to be a talented courtier .
= = Service to King Henry = =
Coutances started his career as a clerk to King Henry II of England in the royal chamber . He probably owed the position to his brother , who was already in royal service . Coutances may have been associated with the Beaumont family faction at court before beginning work for the king , but this is not certain .
By 1169 Coutances held a canonry in Rouen Cathedral . During the 1170s a group of royal clerks rose to prominence , among them Coutances , Walter Map , Ralph Diceto , John of Oxford , Richard of Ilchester , and Geoffrey Ridel . Coutances was the chaplain to Henry the Young King , eldest living son of King Henry , but when the younger Henry rebelled against his father in 1173 , Coutances returned to King Henry 's service . He became Archdeacon of Oxford , perhaps by 1173 , certainly by 14 March 1176 . He was named vice @-@ chancellor when Ralph de Warneville became Chancellor of England , which occurred in 1173 . In 1176 and 1177 , King Henry sent Coutances on diplomatic missions to Flanders and the French royal court . Arnulf , the Bishop of Lisieux , alleged that Henry allowed Coutances to use all the administrative machinery of Normandy to drive Arnulf from his diocese , so that Coutances might become bishop there . This happened in early 1178 , but the only real evidence for this effort on Coutances ' part comes from Arnulf 's correspondence , and as Coutances was back in England by July 1178 , it does not appear that the attempt was a sustained one .
On his return to England , Coutances was given custody of the abbeys of Wilton and Ramsey , which were being held by King Henry pending the election of new abbots . He thus acquired the right to collect the abbeys ' revenues in the name of the king , who had the regalian rights to that income . In 1180 Henry sent Coutances to France on another diplomatic mission . In February 1182 Coutances witnessed King Henry II 's will , made before the king travelled to Normandy .
= = Bishop of Lincoln and Archbishop of Rouen = =
Coutances was elected to the see of Lincoln on 8 May 1183 , selected by King Henry over three other candidates . He was ordained a priest on 11 June 1183 and consecrated bishop on 3 July 1183 at Angers by Richard of Dover , the Archbishop of Canterbury . He was enthroned at Lincoln Cathedral on 11 December 1183 . While at Lincoln , Coutances took part in the election of Baldwin of Forde as the new Archbishop of Canterbury , which took place at a council held in Westminster in 1184 . Writing about Coutances ' time at Lincoln , Gerald of Wales accused the bishop of increasing the debt of the diocese of Lincoln and of squandering its resources . Coutances helped the schools in the city of Lincoln , acting as the patron for scholars such as John of Tynemouth and Simon of Southwell .
On 17 November 1184 Coutances was translated to the diocese of Rouen , becoming Archbishop of Rouen . The original election to Rouen had taken place in the summer . King Henry had initially rejected the Rouen cathedral chapter 's nominees and put forward three English bishops as the royal candidates . The king also indicated his preference that Coutances be elected , a choice that was confirmed by the pope in November . Coutances hesitated about the translation to Rouen , as the see there was poorer than Lincoln , but as an archbishopric rather than a bishopric it was of a higher status . The medieval chronicler William of Newburgh wrote that eventually Coutances ' ambition overcame his greed , and he agreed to the translation . He was received at Rouen on 3 March 1185 . Coutances remained in Henry 's service however , and continued attend the royal court frequently . During the final 10 years of Henry 's reign , only Ranulf de Glanville witnessed more royal charters , and only William de Humez , the constable , equalled the 16 charters that Coutances witnessed .
In the later part of 1186 , after the death of King Henry 's son Geoffrey – who was Duke of Brittany – King Philip II of France demanded that Geoffrey 's daughters be placed in the French king 's custody , and that the duchy of Brittany , which Geoffrey had ruled in right of his wife , be surrendered into French royal custody . Coutances was one of the negotiators sent by King Henry to secure a settlement , but they had to settle for a temporary truce . In January 1188 Coutances took the cross when he pledged to go on Crusade along with King Henry and King Philip of France .
At Whitsun in 1189 , Coutances was a member of a commission appointed by the papal legate John of Anagni to arbitrate the dispute between King Henry II of England and his son , Richard , who was supported by King Philip II of France . Henry and Richard 's conflict stemmed from Richard 's desire to secure his inheritance to the throne of England , which he believed his father was trying to give to his youngest brother , John . The commission met near Le Mans . Richard and Philip insisted that Richard should be married to Philip 's sister Alice , that Henry name Richard as Henry 's heir , and that Richard 's youngest brother John should go on crusade with Richard . Henry rejected those terms , and neither Philip nor Richard would negotiate , even under the legate 's threat of an interdict on France .
= = Service to King Richard = =
Shortly after Richard took the throne he sought absolution for his sins in rebelling against his father , from Baldwin of Forde and Coutances . The two archbishops absolved Richard in a ceremony in Sees . Coutances also invested Richard as Duke of Normandy in a ceremony held in Rouen , before accompanying Richard to England , where he participated in the new king 's coronation , on 3 September 1189 .
In 1189 Coutances held an ecclesiastical synod which legislated , among other things , that the clergy should not hold secular offices , even though Coutances himself had held and continued to hold such offices . On 9 November 1189 Richard appointed Coutances to a commission tasked with deciding the dispute between Baldwin of Forde and the monks of his cathedral chapter over Baldwin 's plan to create a church dedicated to Thomas Becket , the murdered Archbishop of Canterbury , and to staff this church not with monks , but with canons . The monks of Canterbury Cathedral objected to Baldwin 's plan , fearing that it was part of a plot to transfer the right of election from the monastic cathedral chapter to the new church 's canons . Sitting on the commission with Coutances were Hugh de Puiset , the Bishop of Durham , Godfrey de Lucy , the Bishop of Winchester , Hubert Walter , the Bishop of Salisbury , Peter de Leia , the Bishop of St David 's , Richard fitzNigel , the Bishop @-@ elect of London , William Longchamp , the Bishop @-@ elect of Ely , and some abbots . The commission travelled to Canterbury , and on 29 November 1189 , managed to secure a compromise between the parties , which lasted until Hubert Walter , by then Archbishop of Canterbury , revived the plan . In the compromise , Baldwin agreed to give up the idea of a new monastic foundation around Canterbury and the monks agreed to submit to the archbishop 's authority .
When Richard left England in late 1189 , the archbishop accompanied him to Normandy and then to Sicily , where Richard began the Third Crusade . In October 1190 , Coutances was one of the negotiators between the city of Messina and the crusaders , and later was a guarantor of the peace treaty between King Richard and Tancred , the King of Sicily . The archbishop was also appointed one of the treasurers of the crusading army .
While Richard was still in Sicily , word reached the king of the disputes between William Longchamp , whom Richard had left in England , and John , Richard 's younger brother . On 2 April 1191 Richard sent Coutances back from Sicily to England . The archbishop landed in England on 27 June , after a short detour to Rome . Coutances received a release from his crusading vow , and returned to England in the company of Richard 's mother , Queen Eleanor of Aquitaine . He had a number of royal documents authorising him to settle the disputes , and on 28 July a settlement was reached that left Longchamp in control , although John still retained sufficient power to make Longchamp 's grip on the government somewhat insecure . In September , however , Longchamp imprisoned Richard 's bastard half @-@ brother , Geoffrey , Archbishop of York , who was attempting to return to England after having been banished by the king . The imprisonment renewed memories of the murder of Thomas Becket almost 20 years earlier , and Geoffrey was quickly released . Longchamp was brought to a council , headed by Coutances and a number of the clerical and lay lords of England , which took place on 5 October 1191 at Loddon Bridge on the River Thames . Longchamp was deposed and exiled , largely because Coutances had a royal document ordering the magnates to obey Coutances ' if the archbishop 's advice was resisted by Longchamp , which it had been . Although the medieval chronicler Richard of Devizes accused Coutances of duplicity , and of trying to play both sides against the other , the evidence suggests that Coutances was genuinely trying to solve the dispute in the king 's interest . Longchamp fled to Normandy , and he was excommunicated by Coutances .
= = Acting Justiciar = =
After Longchamp 's exile Coutances was named head of a council of regency , which is sometimes equated to the post of Chief Justiciar , although he never referred to himself as such nor is he titled that in any official document . Most modern historians , however , name him as justiciar . He held that power until about 25 December 1193 , when Hubert Walter was appointed Justiciar .
Coutances had long experience in the chancery , but little experience with judicial matters . Most of his efforts while in the justiciarship were centred on raising Richard 's ransom . As evidence of this emphasis on raising money , Coutances sent out few itinerant justices during his time in power . Six groups of justices were sent out in 1192 , but in 1193 none were sent out , and even the justices based in Westminster held few sessions . Of those justices appointed , like his predecessor in the justiciarship , Coutances used justices from a wide range of backgrounds , and many of those sent out on itinerent rounds were local to the area , rather than the increasingly professional justices used under Coutances ' successor Hubert Walter . The justiciarship during this period was less connected to justice and was more closely tied to the Exchequer , or treasury of England , and most of the power in the office derived from its control of the Exchequer .
A new note in Coutances ' administration was his custom of issuing writs not in his own name , as had previously been the practice , but in the king 's name . The archbishop also stressed that his decisions were made with the advice and consent of many of the leading nobles of the realm , as well as the barons of the Exchequer . This was a reaction against Longchamp 's authoritarian method of government .
The archbishop supervised the election of a new Archbishop of Canterbury , as Baldwin of Forde had died while on Crusade in 1190 . Although both Longchamp and Coutances were considered as possible candidates and rivals for the see , the cathedral chapter of Canterbury elected the Bishop of Bath , Reginald fitzJocelin , in November 1191 . Reginald died a month later and the see remained vacant until March 1193 , when the king 's candidate , Hubert Walter , was elected .
During 1191 the citizens of the city of London managed to acquire from Coutances and Prince John the recognition that the city was self @-@ governing , something they had been attempting to secure for a number of years . This however , was not the grant of a complete charter of liberties , which did not occur until 1199 . In February 1193 Coutances summoned a council to Oxford , to address problems of administration and defence after the recently received news of Richard 's captivity in Germany . The council also took oaths of fealty to Richard . Prince John , however , hearing that Richard was in captivity , immediately went to France and swore homage to King Philip for Richard 's lands , and then returned to England and raised a rebellion . Coutances proceeded to besiege Windsor Castle , which was held by Prince John 's men . When John heard that Richard was going to be freed , he left England and went to France .
In February 1194 Coutances was in Germany , at the court of the German emperor , along with Longchamp , who brought letters to Richard , still in captivity . On 4 February , Coutances became a hostage to the German emperor as surety for the payment of the outstanding portion of Richard 's ransom , and the king was released . The king never paid the final instalment of his ransom , and the archbishop had to pay 10 @,@ 000 marks for his own release . From that point onwards Coutances was no longer involved with English politics or government , and spent the rest of his career on Norman affairs . His record of charter witnessing bears this out ; between 1189 and 1194 Coutances was among the most prolific of the witnesses to the king 's English charters , but not after 1194 .
= = Return to Normandy = =
Coutances returned to Normandy , and in December 1195 attempted to secure compensation for the losses his archdiocese had sustained in the warfare between King Richard and King Phillip . He sought compensation from both kings but obtained no satisfaction , and felt so ill @-@ treated by the kings that he abandoned his see . The English and the French kings had required clergymen to guarantee the January 1196 Treaty of Louviers that the two kings arranged for themselves , with Richard nominating Coutances as his surety , or guarantor that the conditions of the treaty would be fulfilled . Part of the treaty laid out that if the archbishop laid an interdict or excommunicated anyone in the lands of King Philip or any subject of King Richard in the archdiocese of Rouen , then the archiepiscopal manor of Andeli should be forfeit to either king until after a special tribunal had determined if the archbishop 's punishment was valid .
When Coutances returned to his diocese in July 1196 , he found that the king had seized the manor of Andely independently of the treaty provisions , and when the archbishop refused to relinquish it to the king , Richard began to fortify the manor . He also built a castle there , now Château Gaillard . On 7 November 1196 , Coutances set off for Rome , to protest the seizure to the pope . Richard sent a royal embassy , and eventually a settlement was reached . The archbishop was ordered to remove the interdict he had placed on the duchy , and in return for the manor received two others and the seaport of Dieppe . The various lands that Coutances ' received in exchange for Andely were worth £ 1 @,@ 405 a year . This episode marked the end of Coutances ' service to the Angevin kings ; for the rest of his life the archbishop focused on protecting and guarding the archiepiscopal properties and rights .
= = Service to King John = =
When Richard died on 6 April 1199 , the archbishop invested Richard 's youngest brother John as duke of Normandy on 25 April 1199 . At the ceremony , John pledged to protect the Norman church , and soon afterwards confirmed the grant of Dieppe and the other manors to the archdiocese . John contested the right of the archbishop to some jurisdictional rights however , as well as forest rights , forcing Coutances to pay 2 @,@ 100 Angevin pounds to secure most of the contested rights . In May 1200 , Coutances was involved in the peace treaty of Le Goulet between King John and King Philip of France , but took no active part in the Angevin defence of Normandy .
In September 1201 one of Coutances ' suffragan bishops , Lisiard , the Bishop of Sées died . King John objected when the cathedral chapter attempted to elect one of their own members as his successor . Coutances refused to recognise the result of the election , and the chapter divided into two parties , one favouring the elected chapter member , the other party another choice . Both parties appealed to the papacy , who eventually approved of the election of the Archdeacon of Sées , Silvester . Coutances had the right to consecrate the bishop however , and he refused to do so , arguing that the king 's choice had been disregarded . Pope Innocent III then ordered another Norman archbishop to consecrate Silvester , but the king refused to allow Silvester to take possession of his see . This led Innocent to order Normandy laid under an interdict , but eventually Silvester was allowed to take possession of Sees .
In May 1202 Pope Innocent III wrote to Coutances , urging him to impose religious punishments on any rebels against King John 's rule in the duchy of Normandy . When John lost the duchy in 1204 , Coutances did not resist the government of King Philip II , although he did not make his complete peace with Philip until March 1207 . In 1206 – 1207 , Coutances , along with his suffragan bishops , petitioned Philip for special legal procedures relating to patronage , which Philip granted .
= = As archbishop = =
Although Coutances was absent from Rouen for most of the period between 1190 and 1194 , he remained an active archbishop . He secured the continued immunity of clergy from secular jurisdiction , and supervised the administration of the archdiocese . He began the custom of keeping records in registers of episcopal judgements from about 1200 , and he appointed the first officials of Rouen . He also oversaw the rebuilding of Rouen Cathedral , which had begun in 1155 , and restarted the work after a fire in 1200 . His relations with his cathedral chapter were evidently excellent , as they remembered him as " a magnificent benefactor of the church of Rouen " .
= = Death and legacy = =
Coutances died on 16 November 1207 and was buried at Rouen Cathedral , in the chapel of Saints Peter and Paul . The inventory of his personal possessions made after his death included a large number of jewels and vestments . He also owned a large library , which contained not only religious works but also legal texts on canon law and works of classical authors such as Juvenal and Ovid .
Coutances ' nephew , John of Coutances , became Archdeacon of Oxford and Dean of Rouen under Walter 's influence , and later Bishop of Worcester . Other nephews were William , successively a canon at Lincoln Cathedral and an archdeacon at Rouen , and Richard , also an archdeacon at Rouen .
The historian John Gillingham called Coutances " one of the great fixers " of his time . Two other historians have argued that it was probably Coutances ' judgement and stability that persuaded the king to trust him . The medieval poet John of Hauville dedicated a satirical poem in 1184 to Coutances called Architrenius . It was on the tribulations of a poor scholar .
= Tawang Monastery =
Tawang Monastery , in the Indian state of Arunachal Pradesh , is the largest monastery in India and second largest in the world after the Potala Palace in Lhasa , Tibet . It is situated in the valley of the Tawang River , near the small town of the same name in the northwestern part of Arunachal Pradesh , in close proximity to the Tibetan and Bhutanese border .
Tawang Monastery is known in Tibetan as Galden Namgey Lhatse , which translates to " celestial paradise in a clear night . " It was founded by Merak Lama Lodre Gyatso in 1680 @-@ 1681 in accordance with the wishes of the 5th Dalai Lama , Ngawang Lobsang Gyatso . It belongs to the Gelug school of Mahayana Buddhism and had a religious association with Drepung Monastery of Lhasa , which continued during the period of British rule .
The monastery is three stories high . It is enclosed by a 925 feet ( 282 m ) long compound wall . Within the complex there are 65 residential buildings . The library of the monastery has valuable old scriptures , mainly Kangyur and Tengyur . Of all the festivals celebrated in the monastery , Torgya is the most elaborate and colorful .
= = Etymology = =
The full name of the monastery is Tawang Galdan Namgye Lhatse . ' Ta ' means " horse " , ' wang ' means " chosen " , which together forms the word ' Tawang ' , meaning " the location selected by horse " . Further , ' Galdan ' means " paradise " , ' Namgye ' means " celestial " and ' Lhatse ' means " divine " . Thus , the full meaning of the ' Tawang Galdan Namgye Lhatse ' is the " site chosen by the horse is the celestial divine paradise " .
= = Location = =
The monastery is situated near the top of a mountain , at an elevation of about 10 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 000 m ) , with a commanding view of the Tawang River valley , which comprises snow @-@ capped mountains and coniferous forest . It is bounded on its southern and western flanks by steep ravines formed by streams , a narrow spur on the north and a gently sloping ground on the east . The monastery is entered from the northern direction along a sloping spur , which has alpine vegetation . Nearby Tawang Town , named after the monastery , is well connected by road , rail and air services . Bhalukpong , which is the nearest rail head , is 280 kilometres ( 170 mi ) away by road . Tezpur Airport is the nearest airport at a road distance of 350 kilometres ( 220 mi ) .
= = Legends = =
Three legends are narrated to the establishment of the monastery . In the first legend it is said that location of the present Monastery was selected by a horse which belonged to Merag Lama Lodre Gyatso who was on a mission assigned to him by the 5th Dalai Lama to establish a Monastery . After an intense search , when he failed to locate a suitable place , he retired into a cave to offer prayers seeking divine intervention to choose the site . When he came out of the cave , he found his horse missing . He then went in search of the horse and finally found it grazing at the top of a mountain called Tana Mandekhang , which in the past was the palace of King Kala Wangpo . He took this as a divine and auspicious guidance and decided to establish the monastery at that location . Seeking the help of the local people , Mera Lama established the monastery at that location in the latter part of 1681 .
The second legend of the derivation of the name Tawang is linked to Terton Pemalingpa , diviner of treasures . At this location , he is stated to have given " initiations " of Tamdin and Kagyad , which resulted in the name " Tawang " . ‘ Ta ’ is an abbreviated form for " Tamdin " and ‘ Wang ’ means " initiation " .
According to the third legend , a white horse of the Prince of Lhasa had wandered into Monpa region . People , who went in search of the horse , found the horse grazing at the present location of the monastery . The people of the area then worshipped the horse and the location where it was found and venerated it every year . Eventually , to honour the sacred site , the Tawang Monastery was built at the site .
One more legend narrated is about the goddess painted on a thangka in the monastery which is of Palden Lhamo . This female deity is compared to the Hindu Goddess Kali . Like Kali , Palden Lhamo 's thangka is drawn in black colour , with flaming eyes , dressed in skirt made of tiger skin , and a garland of skulls around her neck . A moon disc adorns her hair , similar to the one seen on Shiva . She is also associated with Goddess Saraswati and Ma Tara . Legend also states that in the past she had lived in Sri Lanka as the consort of a demon king who practiced human sacrifice . As she was not supportive of this practice she fled from the kingdom . As she was running away , the king shot her shot with an arrow , which struck the backside of the mule that she was riding . When she drew out the arrow , it left a gaping hole in the mule 's back , and through this gap Palden Lhamo could watch the teachings of Lord Buddha .
= = History = =
The monastery was founded by Merek Lama Lodre Gyamsto in 1680 @-@ 81 at the behest of the 5th Dalai Lama , who was his contemporary . When Merek Lama was experiencing difficulties in building the monastery at the chosen location of Tsosum , the ancient name for Tawang , the 5th Dalai Lama issued directives to the people of the area to provide him all help . To fix the perimeter of the Dzong , the Dalai Lama had also given a ball of yarn , the length of which was to form the limit of the monastery .
Prior to the dominance of the Gelug sect of Buddhism in Tawang , the Nyingmapa or the Black Hat sect of Buddhism was dominant and this resulted in their hegemony and even hostile approach towards the founder , Merek Lama . This problem was compounded by the Drukpas of Bhutan , who also belonged to the Nyingmapa sect , who even tried to invade and take control of Tawang . Hence , when the Tawang monastery was built like a fort structure , a strategic location was chosen from the defense point of view .
In 1844 , Tawang Monastery had entered into two agreements with the East India Company . One agreement , signed on 24 February , pertained to surrender by the Monpas of their right to the Karlapara Duar in return for an annual fee ( posa ) of Rs 5 @,@ 000 , and another , dated 28 May , related to the Shardukpens to abide by any order of the British administration in India in return for an annual fee of Rs 2 @,@ 526 and seven annas . Tawang officials used to travel almost to the plains of Assam to collect monastic contributions . According to Pandit Nain Singh of the Trignometrical Survey of India , who visited the monastery in 1874 @-@ 75 , the monastery had a parliamentary form of administration , known as the Kato , with the Chief Lamas of the monastery as its members . It was not dependent on the Dzonpan ( head of Tsona Monastery ) and Government of Lhasa , and this aspect was supported by G.A. Nevill who had visited the monastery in 1924 .
Until 1914 , this region of India was under the control of Tibet . However , under the Simla Agreement of 1913 @-@ 14 , the area came under the control of the British Raj . Tibet gave up several hundred square miles of its territory , including the whole of the Tawang region and the monastery , to the British . This disputed territory was the bone of contention for the 1962 India China war , when China invaded India on 20 October 1962 from the northeastern border , forcing the Indian army to retreat . They occupied Tawang , including the monastery , for six months , but did not desecrate it . China claimed that Tawang belonged to Tibet . Before this war , in 1959 , the 14th Dalai Lama had fled from Tibet , and after an arduous journey , crossed into India on 30 March 1959 , and had reached Tawang and taken shelter in the monastery for a few days before moving to Tezpur . 50 years later , in spite of strong protests by China , the Dalai Lama 's visit on 8 November 2009 to Tawang Monastery was a monumental event to the people of the region , and the abbot of the monastery greeted him with much fanfare and adulation .
As of 2006 the monastery had 400 monks , and the number was reported to be 450 in 2010 . Tawang Manuscript Conservation Centre was established in the monastery in August 2006 , which has curated 200 manuscripts , and 31 manuscripts have been treated for preservation . In November 2010 , it was reported that the monastery is threatened by possible landslide risk , with the The Times of India reporting " massive landslides around it " . Professor Dave Petley of Durham University in the United Kingdom ( UK ) , an acknowledged landslide expert , wrote : " the northern flank of the site appears to consist of a landslide scarp ... The reasons for this are clear – the river , which flows towards the south , is eroding the toe of the slope due to the site being on the outside of the bend . In the long term , erosion at the toe will need to be prevented if the site is to be preserved . "
The monastery currently has control over 17 gompas in West Kameng district . The monastery has administrative control over two dzongs , each headed by a monk ; the Darana Dzong built in 1831 and the Sanglem Dzong , also known as Talung Gompa , in the south west part of Kameng district . These dzongs not only collect taxes but also preach Buddhism to the Monpas and Sherdukpens of Kameng . The monastery owns cultivable lands in the villages of Soma and Nerguit and a few patches in some other villages which are tilled and cultivated by farmers , who share the produce with the monastery . The present resident head of the monastery is the incarnate Gyalsy Rinpochey .
= = Features = =
= = = Entrance and outer walls = = =
At the entrance to the monastery there is colourful gate structure , known as the Kakaling , which is built in the shape of a " hut @-@ like structure " , with side walls built of stone masonry . The roof of the Kakaling features mandalas , while the interior walls have murals of divinities and saints painted on them . A distinctive mural , the ninth mural from the southwest west corner of the southern wall , is of Ningmecahn , the protector deity of the Bon religion , who is considered the guardian deity of the Tawang region . Ahead of the main gate of the Kakaling , to its south , is another entry , an open gate .
The main entrance to the monastery , to the south of the open gate , has massive doors fitted on the northern wall . This outer wall is 925 feet ( 282 m ) in length , with heights varying from about 10 – 20 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 1 m ) . Apart from the main gate , the southern side of the monastery has another entry gate , which also has a massive door . Nearer to the gate , there are two small openings in the wall which provide complete view of the exterior part of the eastern wall that connects to the Kakaling . According to a legend , the 5th Dalai Lama had given a roll of thread to be bound around the walls of the monastery to denote the extent to which the monastery should be built .
= = = Main buildings = = =
The monastery , built like a large mansion , is triple storied with a large assembly hall , ten other functional structures and with 65 residential quarters for students , Lamas and monks . The monastery has a school and its own water supply facility , and a centre for Buddhist cultural studies .
The ground floor of the monastery is where ritual dances are performed . The walls of the monastery also have a profusion of thangkas of Buddhist deities and saints . Curtains are suspended over the balcony and these are painted with Buddhist symbols . Within the precincts of the monastery there are residential buildings to accommodate about 700 monks , which now houses 450 monks . The abbot of the monastery resides in a house located near the gate at the southeastern corner of the monastery .
A notable feature on the wall of the front porch on the ground floor is a foot print on a stone slab . It is said that this foot print belonged to a resident of the monastery , who was a water carrier , known as Chitenpa . He served in the monastery for a long time and on one fine day he announced that he had completed his service to the monastery and then stamped his left foot on the stone slab which created a dented formation of his step . This step is venerated as a miracle in view of a belief among the people of the region that such an imprint on a stone slab could only be created by a divine person who was a true devotee of the monastery .
= = = = Main temple ( Dukhang ) = = = =
The main temple in the monastery , to the west of the entry gate , is known as the Dukhang ( ' Du ' means " assembly " and ' Khang ' means " building " ) . It was built in 1860 @-@ 61 . A large image of Buddha of 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 m ) height is deified ; it is gilded and decorated , and is in a lotus position . This image is on the northern face of the assembly hall and is installed over a platform and its head extends up to the first floor . Next to the Buddha image there is a silver casket that holds a special thangka of the goddess Sro Devi ( Palden Lhamo ) , which is the guardian deity of the monastery . It is said that it was painted with the blood drawn from the nose of the 5th Dalai Lama , which renders an ethereal " living quality " to the thanka . This thangka image , also known as Dri Devi , was donated to the monastery by the 5th Dalai Lama . The main temple fell into a dilapidated condition and was renovated in 2002 in the traditional Buddhist architectural style . It has been exquisitely decorated with paintings , murals , carvings , sculptures and so forth .
= = = Library and texts = = =
The monastery has a printing press for printing religious books using paper made locally . Wooden blocks are used for printing . The books are used usually by the literate Monpa Lamas who refer to it for conducting religious rituals . The entire second floor houses the library . It contains the scriptures of Gyetengpa , Doduipa , Mamtha , Kangyur , Tengyur and Zungdui , which have been affected due to insect attacks . The collection in the library consists of two printed books of Tengyur ( in 25 volumes ) , which are commentaries on Buddhist teachings ; three sets of Kangyur , the translated version of the canons of Buddhist teachings ; and Chanjia Sangbhums in five volumes . Of the three sets of Kangyur , two are handwritten and one is printed . The printed sets are in 101 volumes . One handwritten set has 131 volumes and the other 125 volumes ; the letters of these 125 books are washed in gold . The religious text , Gyentongpa , has letters washed in gold in all its pages . At some stage , some of the sacred scriptures were lost and the reason was attributed to the monks of the Tsona monastery who used to visit Tawang during winter time . In the past , these monks had demanded that the gilded image of the Buddha be gifted to them . This was not accepted by the Lamas of the Tawang Monastery and as result the Tsona Lamas refused to part with some of the sacred texts and records of the Tawang Monastery which were with them . They again took away more books in 1951 .
= = Customs and festivals = =
Monpas , who belong to the Gelug sect , are the dominant sect of the Kameng region . Many Monpa boys join the monastery and become Lamas . When young boys join the monastery to train , it is on the condition that it is a lifetime commitment . If a monk wishes to leave the monastery , a heavy penalty is levied . According to a past custom , in a family of three sons , the middle son was conscripted to the monastery and in a family of two sons the youngest son was inducted into the monastery .
The main Monpa festivals held in the monastery are the Choksar , Losar , Ajilamu , and Torgya . Choksar is the festival when the Lamas recite religious scriptures in the monasteries . Following the religious recitations , the villagers carry the scriptures on their back and circumambulate their agricultural land seeking blessings for good yield of crops without any infestations by pests and to protect against attack by wild animals . In the Losar festival , which marks the beginning of the Tibetan New Year , people visit the monastery and offer prayers . Torgya , also known as Tawang @-@ Torgya , is an annual festival that is exclusively held in the monastery . It is held according to the Buddhist calendar days of 28th to 30th of Dawachukchipa , which corresponds to 10 to 12 January of the Gregorian calendar , and is a Monpa celebration . The objective of the festival is to ward off evil spirits and ushering all round prosperity and happiness to the people in the ensuing year . During the three @-@ day festival , dances performed by artists in colorful costumes and masks are held in the courtyard , including the Pha Chan and the Losjker Chungiye , the latter of which is performed by the monks of the monastery . Each dance represents a myth and costumes and masks represent animal forms such as cows , tigers , sheep , monkeys and so forth .
= Emmeline Pankhurst =
Emmeline Pankhurst ( née Goulden ; 15 July 1858 – 14 June 1928 ) was a British political activist and leader of the British suffragette movement who helped women win the right to vote . In 1999 Time named Pankhurst as one of the 100 Most Important People of the 20th Century , stating : " she shaped an idea of women for our time ; she shook society into a new pattern from which there could be no going back . " She was widely criticised for her militant tactics , and historians disagree about their effectiveness , but her work is recognised as a crucial element in achieving women 's suffrage in Britain .
Born in Moss Side , Manchester to politically active parents , Pankhurst was introduced at the age of 14 to the women 's suffrage movement . On 18 December 1879 , she married Richard Pankhurst , a barrister 24 years her senior known for supporting women 's right to vote ; they had five children over the next ten years . He supported her activities outside the home , and she founded and became involved with the Women 's Franchise League , which advocated suffrage for both married and unmarried women . When that organisation broke apart , she tried to join the left @-@ leaning Independent Labour Party through her friendship with socialist Keir Hardie but was initially refused membership by the local branch on account of her sex . While working as a Poor Law Guardian , she was shocked at the harsh conditions she encountered in Manchester 's workhouses .
In 1903 , five years after her husband died , Pankhurst founded the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) , an all @-@ women suffrage advocacy organisation dedicated to " deeds , not words . " The group identified as independent from – and often in opposition to – political parties . It became known for physical confrontations : its members smashed windows and assaulted police officers . Pankhurst , her daughters , and other WSPU activists received repeated prison sentences , where they staged hunger strikes to secure better conditions . As Pankhurst 's eldest daughter Christabel took leadership of the WSPU , antagonism between the group and the government grew . Eventually the group adopted arson as a tactic , and more moderate organisations spoke out against the Pankhurst family . In 1913 several prominent individuals left the WSPU , among them Pankhurst 's daughters Adela and Sylvia . Emmeline was so furious that she " gave [ Adela ] a ticket , £ 20 , and a letter of introduction to a suffragette in Australia , and firmly insisted that she emigrate . " Adela complied and the family rift was never healed . Sylvia became a socialist .
With the advent of the First World War , Emmeline and Christabel called an immediate halt to militant suffrage activism in support of the British government 's stand against the " German Peril . " They urged women to aid industrial production and encouraged young men to fight , becoming prominent figures in the white feather movement . In 1918 the Representation of the People Act granted votes to all men over the age of 21 and women over the age of 30 . This discrepancy was intended to ensure that men did not become minority voters as a consequence of the huge number of deaths suffered during the First World War . Pankhurst transformed the WSPU machinery into the Women 's Party , which was dedicated to promoting women 's equality in public life . In her later years , she became concerned with what she perceived as the menace posed by Bolshevism and joined the Conservative Party and was selected as a Conservative Party candidate for Stepney in 1927 . She died on 14 June 1928 , only weeks before the Conservative government 's Representation of the People Act ( 1928 ) extended the vote to all women over 21 years of age on 2 July 1928 . She was commemorated two years later with a statue in London 's Victoria Tower Gardens .
= = Family and birth = =
Emmeline Pankhurst was born on 15 July 1858 in the Manchester suburb of Moss Side . Although her birth certificate states otherwise , she believed that her birthday was a day earlier , on Bastille Day . Most biographies , including those written by her daughters , repeat this claim . Feeling a kinship with the female revolutionaries who stormed the Bastille , she said in 1908 : " I have always thought that the fact that I was born on that day had some kind of influence over my life . " The reason for the discrepancy remains unclear .
The family into which she was born had been steeped in political agitation for generations . Her mother , Sophia Jane Craine , was descended from the Manx people of the Isle of Man and counted among her ancestors men charged with social unrest and slander . In 1881 the Isle of Man was the first country to grant women the right to vote in national elections . Her father , Robert Goulden , came from a modest Manchester merchant family with its own background of political activity . His mother worked with the Anti @-@ Corn Law League , and his father was present at the Peterloo massacre , when cavalry charged and broke up a crowd demanding parliamentary reform .
Their first son died at the age of two , but the Gouldens had ten other children ; Emmeline was the eldest of five daughters . Soon after her birth the family moved to Seedley in Pendleton on the outskirts of Salford , where her father had co @-@ founded a small business . Goulden was active in local politics , serving for several years on the Salford Town Council . He was also an enthusiastic supporter of dramatic organisations including the Manchester Athenaeum and the Dramatic Reading Society . He owned a theatre in Salford for several years , where he played the leads in several plays by William Shakespeare . Pankhurst absorbed an appreciation of drama and theatrics from her father , which she used later in social activism .
= = Childhood = =
The Gouldens included their children in social activism . As part of the movement to end slavery in the US , Goulden welcomed American abolitionist Henry Ward Beecher when he visited Manchester . Sophia Jane Goulden used the novel Uncle Tom 's Cabin – written by Beecher 's sister Harriet Beecher Stowe – as a regular source of bedtime stories for their sons and daughters . In her 1914 autobiography My Own Story , Pankhurst recalls visiting a bazaar at a young age to collect money for newly freed slaves in the United States .
Pankhurst began to read books when she was very young – according to one source , at the age of three . She read the Odyssey at the age of nine and enjoyed the works of John Bunyan , especially his 1678 story The Pilgrim 's Progress . Another of her favourite books was Thomas Carlyle 's three @-@ volume treatise The French Revolution : A History ; she later said the work " remained all my life a source of inspiration . "
Despite her avid consumption of books , however , Emmeline was not given the educational advantages enjoyed by her brothers . Their parents believed that the girls needed most to learn the art of " making home attractive " and other skills desired by potential husbands . The Gouldens deliberated carefully about future plans for their sons ' education , but they expected their daughters to marry young and avoid paid work . Although they supported women 's suffrage and the general advancement of women in society , the Gouldens believed their daughters incapable of the goals of their male peers . Feigning sleep one evening as her father came into her bedroom , Emmeline Goulden heard him pause and say to himself : " What a pity she wasn 't born a lad . "
It was through her parents ' interest in women 's suffrage that Pankhurst was first introduced to the subject . Her mother received and read the Women 's Suffrage Journal , and Pankhurst grew fond of its editor , Lydia Becker . At the age of 14 , she returned home from school one day to find her mother on her way to a public meeting about women 's voting rights . After learning that Becker would be speaking , she insisted on attending . Pankhurst was enthralled by Becker 's address and wrote later : " I left the meeting a conscious and confirmed suffragist . "
A year later she arrived in Paris to attend the École Normale de Neuilly . The school provided its female pupils with classes in chemistry and bookkeeping , in addition to traditionally feminine arts such as embroidery . Her roommate was Noémie , the daughter of Henri Rochefort , who had been imprisoned in New Caledonia for his support of the Paris Commune . The girls shared tales of their parents ' political exploits , and remained good friends for years . Pankhurst was so fond of Noémie and the school that after graduating she returned with her sister Mary as a parlour boarder . Noémie had married a Swiss painter and quickly found a suitable French husband for her English friend . When Robert Goulden refused to provide a dowry for his daughter , the man withdrew his offer of marriage and Pankhurst returned , miserable , to Manchester .
= = Marriage and family = =
In the autumn of 1878 , at the age of 20 , Emmeline Goulden met and began a courtship with Richard Pankhurst , a barrister who had advocated women 's suffrage – and other causes , including freedom of speech and education reform – for years . Richard , 44 years old when they met , had earlier resolved to remain a bachelor to better serve the public . Their mutual affection was powerful , but the couple 's happiness was diminished by the death of his mother the following year . Sophia Jane Goulden chastised her daughter for " throwing herself " at Richard and urged her without success to exhibit more aloofness . Emmeline suggested to Richard that they avoid the legal formalities of marriage by entering into a free union ; he objected on the grounds that she would be excluded from political life as an unmarried woman . He noted that his colleague Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy had faced social condemnation before she formalised her marriage to Ben Elmy . Emmeline Goulden agreed , and they were wed in St Luke 's Church , Pendleton on 18 December 1879 .
During the 1880s , living at the Goulden cottage with her parents in Seedley , Emmeline Pankhurst tended to her husband and children , but still devoted time to political activities . Although she gave birth to five children in ten years , both she and Richard believed that she should not be " a household machine . " Thus a servant was hired to help with the children as Pankhurst involved herself with the Women 's Suffrage Society . Their daughter Christabel was born on 22 September 1880 , less than a year after the wedding . Pankhurst gave birth to another daughter , Estelle Sylvia , in 1882 and their son Francis Henry , nicknamed Frank , in 1884 . Soon afterwards Richard Pankhurst left the Liberal Party . He began expressing more radical socialist views and argued a case in court against several wealthy businessmen . These actions roused Robert Goulden 's ire and the mood in the house became tense . In 1885 the Pankhursts moved to Chorlton @-@ on @-@ Medlock , and their daughter Adela was born . They moved to London the following year , where Richard ran unsuccessfully for election as a Member of Parliament and Pankhurst opened a small fabric shop called Emerson and Company .
In 1888 Francis developed diphtheria and died on 11 September . Overwhelmed with grief , Pankhurst commissioned two portraits of the dead boy but was unable to look at them and hid them in a bedroom cupboard . The family concluded that a faulty drainage system at the back of their house had caused their son 's illness . Pankhurst blamed the poor conditions of the neighbourhood , and the family moved to a more affluent middle class district at Russell Square . She was soon pregnant once more and declared that the child was " Frank coming again . " She gave birth to a son on 7 July 1889 and named him Henry Francis in honour of his deceased brother .
Pankhurst made their Russell Square home into a centre for grieving sisters , attracting activists of many types . She took pleasure in decorating the house – especially with furnishings from Asia – and clothing the family in tasteful apparel . Her daughter Sylvia later wrote : " Beauty and appropriateness in her dress and household appointments seemed to her at all times an indispensable setting to public work . " The Pankhursts hosted a variety of guests including US abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison , Indian MP Dadabhai Naoroji , socialist activists Herbert Burrows and Annie Besant , and French anarchist Louise Michel .
= = Women 's Franchise League = =
In 1888 Britain 's first nationwide coalition of groups advocating women 's right to vote , the National Society for Women 's Suffrage ( NSWS ) , split after a majority of members decided to accept organisations affiliated with political parties . Angry at this decision , some of the group 's leaders , including Lydia Becker and Millicent Fawcett , stormed out of the meeting and created an alternative organisation committed to the " old rules , " called the Great College Street Society after the location of its headquarters . Pankhurst aligned herself with the " new rules " group , which became known as the Parliament Street Society ( PSS ) . Some members of the PSS favoured a piecemeal approach to gaining the vote . Because it was often assumed that married women did not need the vote since their husbands " voted for them , " some PSS members felt that the vote for single women and widows was a practical step along the path to full suffrage . When the reluctance within the PSS to advocate on behalf of married women became clear , Pankhurst and her husband helped organise another new group dedicated to voting rights for all women – married and unmarried .
The inaugural meeting of the Women 's Franchise League ( WFL ) was held on 25 July 1889 , at the Pankhurst home in Russell Square . William Lloyd Garrison spoke at the meeting , warning the audience that the US abolition movement had been hampered by individuals advocating moderation and patience . Early members of the WFL included Josephine Butler , leader of the Ladies National Association for the Repeal of the Contagious Diseases Acts ; the Pankhursts ' friend Elizabeth Wolstenholme Elmy ; and Harriot Eaton Stanton Blatch , daughter of US suffragist Elizabeth Cady Stanton .
The WFL was considered a radical organisation , since in addition to women 's suffrage it supported equal rights for women in the areas of divorce and inheritance . It also advocated trade unionism and sought alliances with socialist organisations . The more conservative group that emerged from the NSWS split spoke out against what they called the " extreme left " wing of the movement . The WFL reacted by ridiculing the " Spinster Suffrage party " and insisting that a wider assault on social inequity was required . The group 's radicalism caused some members to leave ; both Blatch and Elmy resigned from the WFL . The group fell apart one year later .
= = Independent Labour Party = =
Pankhurst 's shop never succeeded and he had trouble attracting business in London . With the family 's finances in jeopardy , Richard travelled regularly to northwest England , where most of his clients were . In 1893 the Pankhursts closed the store and returned to Manchester . They stayed for several months in the seaside town of Southport , then moved briefly to the village of Disley and finally settled into a house in Manchester 's Victoria Park . The girls were enrolled in Manchester Girls ' High School , where they felt confined by the large student population and strictly regimented schedule .
Pankhurst began to work with several political organisations , distinguishing herself for the first time as an activist in her own right and gaining respect in the community . One biographer describes this period as her " emergence from Richard 's shadow . " In addition to her work on behalf of women 's suffrage , she became active with the Women 's Liberal Federation ( WLF ) , an auxiliary of the Liberal Party . She quickly grew disenchanted with the group 's moderate positions , however , especially its unwillingness to support Irish Home Rule and the aristocratic leadership of Archibald Primrose .
In 1888 Pankhurst had met and befriended Keir Hardie , a socialist from Scotland . He was elected to parliament in 1891 and two years later helped to create the Independent Labour Party ( ILP ) . Excited about the range of issues which the ILP pledged to confront , Pankhurst resigned from the WLF and applied to join the ILP . The local branch refused her admission on the grounds of her sex , but she eventually joined the ILP nationally . Christabel later wrote of her mother 's enthusiasm for the party and its organising efforts : " In this movement she hoped there might be the means of righting every political and social wrong . "
One of her first activities with the ILP found Pankhurst distributing food to poor men and women through the Committee for the Relief of the Unemployed . In December 1894 she was elected to the position of Poor Law Guardian in Chorlton @-@ on @-@ Medlock . She was appalled by the conditions she witnessed first @-@ hand in the Manchester workhouse :
The first time I went into the place I was horrified to see little girls seven and eight years old on their knees scrubbing the cold stones of the long corridors ... bronchitis was epidemic among them most of the time ... I found that there were pregnant women in that workhouse , scrubbing floors , doing the hardest kind of work , almost until their babies came into the world ... Of course the babies are very badly protected ... These poor , unprotected mothers and their babies I am sure were potent factors in my education as a militant .
Pankhurst immediately began to change these conditions , and established herself as a successful voice of reform on the Board of Guardians . Her chief opponent was a passionate man named Mainwaring , known for his rudeness . Recognising that his loud anger was hurting his chances of persuading those aligned with Pankhurst , he kept a note nearby during meetings : " Keep your temper ! "
After helping her husband with another unsuccessful parliamentary campaign , Pankhurst faced legal troubles in 1896 when she and two men violated a court order against ILP meetings at Boggart Hole Clough . With Richard 's volunteering his time as legal counsel , they refused to pay fines , and the two men spent a month in prison . The punishment was never ordered for Pankhurst , however , possibly because the magistrate feared public backlash against the imprisonment of a woman so respected in the community . Asked by an ILP reporter if she were prepared to spend time in prison , Pankhurst replied : " Oh , yes , quite . It wouldn 't be so very dreadful , you know , and it would be a valuable experience . " Although ILP meetings were eventually permitted , the episode was a strain on Pankhurst 's health and caused loss of income for their family .
= = = Richard 's death = = =
During the struggle at Boggart Hole Clough , Richard Pankhurst began to experience severe stomach pains . He had developed a gastric ulcer , and his health deteriorated in 1897 . The family moved briefly to Mobberley , with the hope that country air would help his condition . He soon felt well again , and the family returned to Manchester in the autumn . In the summer of 1898 he suffered a sudden relapse . Pankhurst had taken their oldest daughter Christabel to Corsier , Switzerland , to visit her old friend Noémie . A telegram arrived from Richard , reading : " I am not well . Please come home , my love . " Leaving Christabel with Noémie , Pankhurst returned immediately to England . On 5 July , while on a train from London to Manchester , she noticed a newspaper announcing the death of Richard Pankhurst .
The loss of her husband left Pankhurst with new responsibilities and a significant amount of debt . She moved the family to a smaller house , resigned from the Board of Guardians , and was given a paid position as Registrar of Births and Deaths in Chorlton . This work gave her more insight into the conditions of women in the region . She wrote in her autobiography : " They used to tell me their stories , dreadful stories some of them , and all of them pathetic with that patient and uncomplaining pathos of poverty . " Her observations of the differences between the lives of men and women , for example in relation to illegitimacy , reinforced her conviction that women needed the right to vote before their conditions could improve . In 1900 she was elected to the Manchester School Board and saw new examples of women suffering unequal treatment and limited opportunities . During this time she also re @-@ opened her store , with the hope that it would provide additional income for the family .
The individual identities of the Pankhurst children began to emerge around the time of their father 's death . Before long they were all involved in the struggle for women 's suffrage . Christabel enjoyed a privileged status among the daughters , as Sylvia noted in 1931 : " She was our mother 's favourite ; we all knew it , and I , for one , never resented the fact . " Christabel did not share her mother 's fervour for political work , however , until she befriended the suffrage activists Esther Roper and Eva Gore @-@ Booth . She soon became involved with the suffrage movement and joined her mother at speaking events . Sylvia took lessons from a respected local artist , and soon received a scholarship to the Manchester School of Art . She went on to study art in Florence and Venice . The younger children , Adela and Harry , had difficulty finding a path for their studies . Adela was sent to a local boarding school , where she was cut off from her friends and contracted head lice . Harry also had difficulty at school ; he suffered from measles and vision problems .
= = Women 's Social and Political Union = =
By 1903 Pankhurst believed that years of moderate speeches and promises about women 's suffrage from members of parliament ( MPs ) had yielded no progress . Although suffrage bills in 1870 , 1886 , and 1897 had shown promise , each was defeated . She doubted that political parties , with their many agenda items , would ever make women 's suffrage a priority . She even broke with the ILP when it refused to focus on Votes for Women . It was necessary to abandon the patient tactics of existing advocacy groups , she believed , in favour of more militant actions . Thus on 10 October 1903 Pankhurst and several colleagues founded the Women 's Social and Political Union ( WSPU ) , an organisation open only to women and focused on direct action to win the vote . " Deeds , " she wrote later , " not words , was to be our permanent motto . "
The group 's early militancy took non @-@ violent forms . In addition to making speeches and gathering petition signatures , the WSPU organised rallies and published a newsletter called Votes for Women . The group also convened a series of " Women 's Parliaments " to coincide with official government sessions . When a bill for women 's suffrage was filibustered on 12 May 1905 , Pankhurst and other WSPU members began a loud protest outside the Parliament building . Police immediately forced them away from the building , where they regrouped and demanded passage of the bill . Although the bill was never resurrected , Pankhurst considered it a successful demonstration of militancy 's power to capture attention . Pankhurst declared in 1906 : " We are at last recognized as a political party ; we are now in the swim of politics , and are a political force . "
Before long , all three of her daughters became active with the WSPU . Christabel was arrested after spitting at a policeman during a meeting of the Liberal Party in October 1905 ; Adela and Sylvia were arrested a year later during a protest outside Parliament . Pankhurst was arrested for the first time in February 1908 , when she tried to enter Parliament to deliver a protest resolution to Prime Minister H. H. Asquith . She was charged with obstruction and sentenced to six weeks in prison . She spoke out against the conditions of her confinement , including vermin , meagre food , and the " civilised torture of solitary confinement and absolute silence " to which she and others were ordered . Pankhurst saw imprisonment as a means to publicise the urgency of women 's suffrage ; in June 1909 she struck a police officer twice in the face to ensure she would be arrested . Pankhurst was arrested seven times before women 's suffrage was approved . During her trial on 21 October 1908 she told the court : " We are here not because we are law @-@ breakers ; we are here in our efforts to become law @-@ makers . "
The exclusive focus of the WSPU on votes for women was another hallmark of its militancy . While other organisations agreed to work with individual political parties , the WSPU insisted on separating itself from – and in many cases opposing – parties which did not make women 's suffrage a priority . The group protested against all candidates belonging to the party of the ruling government , since it refused to pass women 's suffrage legislation . This brought them into immediate conflict with Liberal Party organisers , particularly since many Liberal candidates supported women 's suffrage . ( One early target of WSPU opposition was future Prime Minister Winston Churchill ; his opponent attributed Churchill 's defeat in part to " those ladies who are sometimes laughed at . " )
Members of the WSPU were sometimes heckled and derided for spoiling elections for Liberal candidates . On 18 January 1908 , Pankhurst and her associate Nellie Martel were attacked by an all @-@ male crowd of Liberal supporters who blamed the WSPU for costing them a recent by @-@ election to the Conservative candidate . The men threw clay , rotten eggs , and stones packed in snow ; the women were beaten and Pankhurst 's ankle was severely bruised . Similar tensions later formed with Labour . Until party leaders made the vote for women a priority , however , the WSPU vowed to continue its militant activism . Pankhurst and others in the union saw party politics as distracting to the goal of women 's suffrage and criticised other organisations for putting party loyalty ahead of women 's votes .
As the WSPU gained recognition and notoriety for its actions , Pankhurst resisted efforts to democratise the organisation itself . In 1907 a small group of members led by Teresa Billington @-@ Greig called for more involvement from the rank @-@ and @-@ file suffragettes at the union 's annual meetings . In response , Pankhurst announced at a WSPU meeting that elements of the organisation 's constitution relating to decision @-@ making were void and cancelled the annual meetings . She also insisted that a small committee chosen by the members in attendance be allowed to co @-@ ordinate WSPU activities . Pankhurst and her daughter Christabel were chosen ( along with Mabel Tuke and Emmeline Pethick Lawrence ) as members of the new committee . Frustrated , several members including Billington @-@ Greig and Charlotte Despard quit to form their own organisation , the Women 's Freedom League . In her 1914 autobiography Pankhurst dismissed criticism of the WSPU 's leadership structure :
if at any time a member , or a group of members , loses faith in our policy ; if any one begins to suggest that some other policy ought to be substituted , or if she tries to confuse the issue by adding other policies , she ceases at once to be a member . Autocratic ? Quite so . But , you may object , a suffrage organisation ought to be democratic . Well the members of the W. S. P. U. do not agree with you . We do not believe in the effectiveness of the ordinary suffrage organisation . The W. S. P. U. is not hampered by a complexity of rules . We have no constitution and by @-@ laws ; nothing to be amended or tinkered with or quarrelled over at an annual meeting ... The W. S. P. U. is simply a suffrage army in the field .
= = = Tactical intensification = = =
On 21 June 1908 500 @,@ 000 activists rallied in Hyde Park to demand votes for women ; Asquith and leading MPs responded with indifference . Angered by this intransigence and abusive police activity , some WSPU members increased the severity of their actions . Soon after the rally , twelve women gathered in Parliament Square and tried to deliver speeches for women 's suffrage . Police officers seized several of the speakers and pushed them into a crowd of opponents who had gathered nearby . Frustrated , two WSPU members – Edith New and Mary Leigh – went to 10 Downing Street and hurled rocks at the windows of the Prime Minister 's home . They insisted their act was independent of WSPU command , but Pankhurst expressed her approval of the action . When a magistrate sentenced New and Leigh to two months ' imprisonment , Pankhurst reminded the court of how various male political agitators had broken windows to win legal and civil rights throughout Britain 's history .
In 1909 the hunger strike was added to the WSPU 's repertoire of resistance . On 24 June Marion Wallace Dunlop was arrested for writing an excerpt from the Bill of Rights ( 1688 or 1689 ) on a wall in the House of Commons . Angered by the conditions of the jail , Dunlop went on a hunger strike . When it proved effective , fourteen women imprisoned for smashing windows began to fast . WSPU members soon became known around the country for holding prolonged hunger strikes to protest their incarceration . Prison authorities frequently force @-@ fed the women , using tubes inserted through the nose or mouth . The painful techniques ( which , in the case of mouth @-@ feeding , required the use of steel gags to force the mouth open ) brought condemnation from suffragists and medical professionals .
These tactics caused some tension between the WSPU and more moderate organisations , which had coalesced into the National Union of Women 's Suffrage Societies ( NUWSS ) . That group 's leader , Millicent Fawcett , originally hailed WSPU members for their courage and dedication to the cause . By 1912 , however , she declared that hunger strikes were mere publicity stunts and that militant activists were " the chief obstacles in the way of success of the suffrage movement in the House of Commons . " The NUWSS refused to join a march of women 's suffrage groups after demanding without success that the WSPU end its support of property destruction . Fawcett 's sister Elizabeth Garrett Anderson later resigned from the WSPU for similar reasons .
Press coverage was mixed ; many journalists noted that crowds of women responded positively to speeches by Pankhurst , while others condemned her radical approach to the issue . The Daily News urged her to endorse a more moderate approach , and other press outlets condemned the breaking of windows by WSPU members . In 1906 Daily Mail journalist Charles Hands referred to militant women using the diminutive term " suffragette " ( rather than the standard " suffragist " ) . Pankhurst and her allies seized the term as their own , and used it to differentiate themselves from moderate groups .
The last half of the century 's first decade was a time of sorrow , loneliness and constant work for Pankhurst . In 1907 she sold her home in Manchester and began an itinerant lifestyle , moving from place to place as she spoke and marched for women 's suffrage . She stayed with friends and in hotels , carrying her few possessions in suitcases . Although she was energised by the struggle – and found joy in giving energy to others – her constant travelling meant separation from her children , especially Christabel , who had become the national coordinator of the WSPU . In 1909 , as Pankhurst planned a speaking tour of the United States , Harry was paralysed after his spinal cord became inflamed . She hesitated to leave the country while he was ill , but she needed money to pay for his treatment and the tour promised to be lucrative . On her return from a successful tour , she sat by Harry 's bedside as he died on 5 January 1910 . Five days later she buried her son , then spoke before 5 @,@ 000 people in Manchester . Liberal Party supporters who had come to heckle her remained quiet as she addressed the crowd .
= = = Conciliation , force @-@ feeding , and arson = = =
After the Liberal losses in the 1910 elections , ILP member and journalist Henry Brailsford helped organise a Conciliation Committee for Women 's Suffrage , which gathered 54 MPs from various parties . The group 's Conciliation Bill looked to be a narrowly defined but still significant possibility to achieve the vote for women . Thus the WSPU agreed to suspend its support for window @-@ breaking and hunger strikes while it was being negotiated . When it became clear that the bill would not pass , Pankhurst declared : " If the Bill , in spite of our efforts , is killed by the Government , then ... I have to say there is an end to the truce . " When it was defeated , Pankhurst led a protest march of 300 women to Parliament Square on 18 November . They were met with aggressive police response , directed by Home Secretary Winston Churchill : officers punched the marchers , twisted arms , and pulled on women 's breasts . Although Pankhurst was allowed to enter Parliament , Prime Minister Asquith refused to meet her . The incident became known as Black Friday .
As subsequent Conciliation Bills were introduced , WSPU leaders advocated a halt to militant tactics . In March 1912 the second bill was in jeopardy and Pankhurst joined a fresh outbreak of window @-@ smashing . Extensive property damage led police to raid the WSPU offices . Pankhurst and Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence were tried at the Old Bailey and convicted of conspiracy to commit property damage . Christabel , who by 1912 was the chief coordinator for the organisation , was also wanted by police . She fled to Paris , where she directed WSPU strategy in exile . Inside Holloway Prison Emmeline Pankhurst staged her first hunger strike to improve conditions for other suffragettes in nearby cells ; she was quickly joined by Pethick @-@ Lawrence and other WSPU members . She described in her autobiography the trauma caused by force @-@ feeding during the strike : " Holloway became a place of horror and torment . Sickening scenes of violence took place almost every hour of the day , as the doctors went from cell to cell performing their hideous office . " When prison officials tried to enter her cell , Pankhurst raised a clay jug over her head and announced : " If any of you dares so much as to take one step inside this cell I shall defend myself . "
Pankhurst was spared further force @-@ feeding attempts after this incident , but she continued to violate the law and – when imprisoned – starve herself in protest . During the following two years she was arrested numerous times but was frequently released after several days because of her ill @-@ health . Later , the Asquith government enacted the Cat and Mouse Act , which allowed similar releases for other suffragettes facing ill @-@ health due to hunger strikes . Prison officials recognised the potential public relations disaster that would erupt if the popular WSPU leader were force @-@ fed or allowed to suffer extensively in jail . Still , police officers arrested her during talks and as she marched . She tried to evade police harassment by wearing disguises and eventually the WSPU established a jujutsu @-@ trained female bodyguard squad to physically protect her against the police . She and other escorts were targeted by police , resulting in violent scuffles as officers tried to detain Pankhurst .
In 1912 WSPU members adopted arson as another tactic to win the vote . After Prime Minister Asquith had visited the Theatre Royal in Dublin , suffragette activists Gladys Evans , Mary Leigh , Lizzie Baker and Mabel Capper of Oxford Street , Manchester attempted to cause an explosion using gunpowder and benzine , which resulted in minimal damage . During the same evening Mary Leigh threw an axe at the carriage containing John Redmond , the Lord Mayor , and Prime Minister Asquith . Over the next two years women set fire to a refreshments building in Regent 's Park , an orchid house at Kew Gardens , pillar boxes , and a railway carriage . Although Pankhurst confirmed that these women had not been commanded by her or Christabel , they both assured the public that they supported the arsonist suffragettes . There were similar incidents around the country . One WSPU member , for example , put a small hatchet into the Prime Minister 's carriage inscribed with the words : " Votes for Women , " and other suffragettes used acid to burn the same slogan into golf courses used by MPs . In 1914 Mary Richardson slashed the Velasquez painting Rokeby Venus to protest against Pankhurst 's imprisonment .
= = = Defection and dismissal = = =
The WSPU 's approval of property destruction led to the departure of several important members . The first were Emmeline Pethick @-@ Lawrence and her husband Frederick . They had long been integral members of the group 's leadership but found themselves in conflict with Christabel about the wisdom of such volatile tactics . After returning from a vacation in Canada they found that Pankhurst had expelled them from the WSPU . The pair found the decision appalling , but to avoid a schism in the movement they continued to praise Pankhurst and the organisation in public . Around the same time , Emmeline 's daughter Adela left the group . She disapproved of WSPU endorsement of property destruction and felt that a heavier emphasis on socialism was necessary . Adela 's relationship with her family – especially Christabel – was also strained as a result .
The deepest rift in the Pankhurst family came in November 1913 when Sylvia spoke at a meeting of socialists and trade unionists in support of labour organiser Jim Larkin . She had been working with the East London Federation of Suffragettes ( ELFS ) , a local branch of the WSPU which had a close relationship with socialists and organised labour . The close connection to labour groups and Sylvia 's appearance on stage with Frederick Pethick @-@ Lawrence – who also addressed the crowd – convinced Christabel that her sister was organising a group that might challenge the WSPU in the suffrage movement . The dispute became public , and members of groups including the WSPU , ILP , and ELFS braced themselves for a showdown .
In January Sylvia was summoned to Paris , where Emmeline and Christabel were waiting . Their mother had just returned from another tour of the US , and Sylvia had just been released from prison . All three women were exhausted and stressed , which added considerably to the tension . In her 1931 book The Suffrage Movement Sylvia describes Christabel as an unreasonable figure , haranguing her for refusing to toe the WSPU line :
She turned to me . " You have your own ideas . We do not want that ; we want all our women to take their instructions and walk in step like an army ! " Too tired , too ill to argue , I made no reply . I was oppressed by a sense of tragedy , grieved by her ruthlessness . Her glorification of autocracy seemed to me remote indeed from the struggle we were waging , the grim fight even now proceeding in the cells . I thought of many others who had been thrust aside for some minor difference .
With their mother 's blessing , Christabel ordered Sylvia 's group to dissociate from the WSPU . Pankhurst tried to persuade the ELFS to remove the word " suffragettes " from its name , since it was inextricably linked to the WSPU . When Sylvia refused , her mother switched to fierce anger in a letter :
You are unreasonable , always have been & I fear always will be . I suppose you were made so ! ... Had you chosen a name which we could approve we could have done much to launch you & advertise your society by name . Now you must take your own way of doing so . I am sorry but you make your own difficulties by an incapacity to look at situations from other people 's point of view as well as your own . Perhaps in time you will learn the lessons that we all have to learn in life .
Adela , unemployed and unsure of her future , had become a worry for Pankhurst as well . She decided that Adela should move to Australia , and paid for her relocation . They never saw one another again .
= = First World War = =
When the First World War began in August 1914 , Emmeline and Christabel considered that the threat posed by Germany was a danger to all humanity , and that the British government needed the support of all citizens . They persuaded the WSPU to halt all militant suffrage activities until fighting on the European mainland ended . It was no time for dissent or agitation ; Christabel wrote later : " This was national militancy . As Suffragists we could not be pacifists at any price . " A truce with the government was established , all WSPU prisoners were released , and Christabel returned to London . Emmeline and Christabel set the WSPU into motion on behalf of the war effort . In her first speech after returning to Britain , Christabel warned of the " German Peril " . She urged the gathered women to follow the example of their French sisters , who – while the men fought – " are able to keep the country going , to get in the harvest , to carry on the industries " . Emmeline urged men to volunteer for the front lines .
Sylvia and Adela , meanwhile , did not share their mother 's enthusiasm for the war . As committed pacifists , they rejected the WSPU 's support for the government . Sylvia 's socialist perspective convinced her that the war was another example of capitalist oligarchs exploiting poor soldiers and workers . Adela , meanwhile , spoke against the war in Australia and made public her opposition to conscription . In a short letter , Emmeline told Sylvia : " I am ashamed to know where you and Adela stand . " She had a similar impatience for dissent within the WSPU ; when long @-@ time member Mary Leigh asked a question during a meeting in October 1915 , Pankhurst replied : " [ T ] hat woman is a pro German and should leave the hall . ... I denounce you as a pro German and wish to forget that such a person ever existed . " Some WSPU members were outraged by this sudden rigid devotion to the government , the leadership 's perceived abandonment of efforts to win the vote for women , and questions about how funds collected on behalf of suffrage were being managed with regard to the organisation 's new focus . Two groups split from the WSPU : The Suffragettes of the Women 's Social and Political Union ( SWSPU ) and the Independent Women 's Social and Political Union ( IWSPU ) , each dedicated to maintaining pressure toward women 's suffrage .
Pankhurst put the same energy and determination she had previously applied to women 's suffrage into patriotic advocacy of the war effort . She organised rallies , toured constantly delivering speeches , and lobbied the government to help women enter the work force while men were overseas fighting . Another issue which concerned her greatly at the time was the plight of so @-@ called war babies , children born to single mothers whose fathers were on the front lines . Pankhurst established an adoption home at Campden Hill designed to employ the Montessori method of childhood education . Some women criticised Pankhurst for offering relief to parents of children born out of wedlock , but she declared indignantly that the welfare of children – whose suffering she had seen firsthand as a Poor Law Guardian – was her only concern . Due to lack of funds , however , the home was soon turned over to Princess Alice . Pankhurst herself adopted four children , whom she renamed Kathleen King , Flora Mary Gordon , Joan Pembridge and Elizabeth Tudor . They lived in London , where – for the first time in many years – she had a permanent home , at Holland Park . Asked how , at the age of 57 and with no steady income , she could take on the burden of bringing up four more children , Pankhurst replied : " My dear , I wonder I didn 't take forty . "
= = = Russian delegation = = =
Pankhurst visited North America in 1916 together with the former Secretary of State for Serbia , Čedomilj Mijatović , whose nation had been at the centre of fighting at the start of the war . They toured the United States and Canada , raising money and urging the US government to support Britain and its Canadian and other allies . Two years later , after the US entered the war , Pankhurst returned to the United States , encouraging suffragettes there – who had not suspended their militancy – to support the war effort by sidelining activities related to the vote . She also spoke about her fears of communist insurgency , which she considered a grave threat to Russian democracy .
By June 1917 the Russian Revolution had strengthened the Bolsheviks , who urged an end to the war . Pankhurst 's translated autobiography had been read widely in Russia , and she saw an opportunity to put pressure on the Russian people . She hoped to convince them not to accept Germany 's conditions for peace , which she saw as a potential defeat for Britain and Russia . UK Prime Minister David Lloyd George agreed to sponsor her trip to Russia , which she took in June . She told one crowd : " I came to Petrograd with a prayer from the English nation to the Russian nation , that you may continue the war on which depends the face of civilisation and freedom . " Press response was divided between left and right wings ; the former depicted her as a tool of capitalism , while the latter praised her devout patriotism .
In August she met with Alexander Kerensky , the Russian Prime Minister . Although she had been active with the socialist @-@ leaning ILP in years past , Pankhurst had begun to see leftist politics as disagreeable , an attitude which intensified while she was in Russia . The meeting was uncomfortable for both parties ; he felt that she was unable to appreciate the class @-@ based conflict driving Russian policy at the time . He concluded by telling her that English women had nothing to teach women in Russia . She later told the New York Times that he was the " biggest fraud of modern times " and that his government could " destroy civilisation . "
= = Accomplishment of suffrage ( 1918 ) = =
When she returned from Russia , Pankhurst was delighted to find that women 's right to vote was finally on its way to becoming a reality . The 1918 Representation of the People Act removed property restrictions on men 's suffrage and granted the vote to women over the age of 30 ( with several restrictions ) . As suffragists and suffragettes celebrated and prepared for its imminent passage , a new schism erupted : should women 's political organisations join forces with those established by men ? Many socialists and moderates supported unity of the sexes in politics , but Emmeline and Christabel Pankhurst saw the best hope in remaining separate . They reinvented the WSPU as the Women 's Party , still open only to women . Women , they said , " can best serve the nation by keeping clear of men 's party political machinery and traditions , which , by universal consent , leave so much to be desired . " The party favoured equal marriage laws , equal pay for equal work , and equal job opportunities for women . These were matters for the post @-@ war era , however . While the fighting continued the Women 's Party demanded no compromise in the defeat of Germany ; the removal from government of anyone with family ties to Germany or pacifist attitudes ; and shorter work hours to forestall labour strikes . This last plank in the party 's platform was meant to discourage potential interest in Bolshevism , about which Pankhurst was increasingly anxious .
= = Post @-@ war activities = =
In the years after the 1918 Armistice , Pankhurst continued to promote her nationalist vision of British unity . She maintained a focus on women 's empowerment , but her days of fighting with government officialdom were over . She defended the presence and reach of the British Empire : " Some talk about the Empire and Imperialism as if it were something to decry and something to be ashamed of . [ I ] t is a great thing to be the inheritors of an Empire like ours ... great in territory , great in potential wealth . ... If we can only realise and use that potential wealth we can destroy thereby poverty , we can remove and destroy ignorance . " For years she travelled around England and North America , rallying support for the British Empire and warning audiences about the dangers of Bolshevism .
Emmeline Pankhurst also became active in political campaigning again when a bill was passed allowing women to run for the House of Commons . Many Women 's Party members urged Pankhurst to stand for election , but she insisted that Christabel was a better choice . She campaigned tirelessly for her daughter , lobbying Prime Minister Lloyd George for his support and at one point delivering a passionate speech in the rain . Christabel lost by a very slim margin to the Labour Party candidate , and the recount showed a difference of 775 votes . One biographer called it " the bitterest disappointment of Emmeline 's life . " The Women 's Party withered from existence soon afterward .
As a result of her many trips to North America , Pankhurst became fond of Canada , stating in an interview that " there seems to be more equality between men and women [ there ] than in any other country I know . " In 1922 she applied for Canadian " permission to land " ( a prerequisite to status as a " British Subject with Canadian Domicile " ) and rented a house in Toronto , where she moved with her four adopted children . She became active with the Canadian National Council for Combating Venereal Diseases ( CNCCVD ) , which worked against the sexual double @-@ standard which Pankhurst considered particularly harmful to women . During a tour of Bathurst , the mayor showed her a new building which would become the Home for Fallen Women . Pankhurst replied : " Ah ! Where is your Home for Fallen Men ? " Before long , however , she grew tired of long Canadian winters , and she ran out of money . She returned to England in late 1925 .
Back in London Emmeline was visited by Sylvia , who had not seen her mother in years . Their politics were by now very different , and Sylvia was living , unmarried , with an Italian anarchist . Sylvia described a moment of familial affection when they met , followed by a sad distance between them . Emmeline 's adopted daughter Mary , however , remembered the meeting differently . According to her version , Emmeline set her teacup down and walked silently out of the room , leaving Sylvia in tears . Christabel , meanwhile , had become a convert to Adventism and devoted much of her time to the church . The British press sometimes made light of the varied paths followed by the once indivisible family .
In 1926 Pankhurst joined the Conservative Party and two years later ran as a candidate for Parliament in Whitechapel and St George 's . Her transformation from a fiery supporter of the ILP and window @-@ smashing radical to an official Conservative Party member surprised many people . She replied succinctly : " My war experience and my experience on the other side of the Atlantic have changed my views considerably . " Her biographers insist that the move was more complex ; she was devoted to a programme of women 's empowerment and anti @-@ communism . Both the Liberal and Labour parties bore grudges for her work against them in the WSPU , and the Conservative Party had a victorious record after the war and a significant majority . Pankhurst 's membership of the Conservative Party may have had as much to do with ensuring her aims of obtaining the vote for women were achieved as with ideology .
= = Illness and death = =
Emmeline Pankhurst 's campaign for Parliament was pre @-@ empted by her ill health and a final scandal involving Sylvia . The years of touring , lectures , imprisonment and hunger strikes had taken their toll ; fatigue and illness became a regular part of Pankhurst 's life . Even more painful , however , was the news in April 1928 that Sylvia had given birth out of wedlock . She had named the child Richard Keir Pethick Pankhurst , in memory of her father , her ILP comrade , and her colleagues from the WSPU respectively . Emmeline was further shocked to see a report from a newspaper in the US that declared that " Miss Pankhurst " – a title usually reserved for Christabel – boasted of her child being a triumph of " eugenics , " since both parents were healthy and intelligent . In the article , Sylvia also spoke of her belief that " marriage without legal union " was the most sensible option for liberated women . These offences against the social dignity which Pankhurst had always valued devastated the elderly woman ; to make matters worse , many people believed the " Miss Pankhurst " in newspaper headlines referred to Christabel . After hearing the news , Emmeline spent an entire day crying ; her campaign for Parliament ended with the scandal .
As her health went downhill , Emmeline Pankhurst moved into a nursing home in Hampstead . She requested that she be treated by the doctor who attended to her during her hunger strikes . His use of the stomach pump had helped her feel better while in prison ; her nurses were sure that the shock of such treatment would severely wound her , but Christabel felt obligated to carry out her mother 's request . Before the procedure could be carried out , however , she fell into a critical condition from which none expected her to recover . On Thursday 14 June 1928 Pankhurst died , at the age of 69 . She was interred in Brompton Cemetery in London .
= = Legacy = =
News of Emmeline Pankhurst 's death was announced around the country , and extensively in North America . Her funeral service on 18 June was filled with her former WSPU colleagues and those who had worked beside her in various capacities . The Daily Mail described the procession as " like a dead general in the midst of a mourning army . " Women wore WSPU sashes and ribbons , and the organisation 's flag was carried alongside the Union Flag . Christabel and Sylvia appeared together at the service , the latter with her child . Adela did not attend . Press coverage around the world recognised her tireless work on behalf of women 's right to vote – even if they didn 't agree on the value of her contributions . The New York Herald Tribune called her " the most remarkable political and social agitator of the early part of the twentieth century and the supreme protagonist of the campaign for the electoral enfranchisement of women . "
Shortly after the funeral , one of Pankhurst 's bodyguards from her WSPU days , Katherine Marshall , began raising funds for a memorial statue . In spring 1930 her efforts bore fruit , and on 6 March her statue in Victoria Tower Gardens was unveiled . A crowd of radicals , former suffragettes , and national dignitaries gathered as former Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin presented the memorial to the public . In his address , Baldwin declared : " I say with no fear of contradiction , that whatever view posterity may take , Mrs. Pankhurst has won for herself a niche in the Temple of Fame which will last for all time . " Sylvia was the only Pankhurst daughter in attendance ; Christabel , touring North America , sent a telegram which was read aloud . While planning the agenda for the day , Marshall had intentionally excluded Sylvia , who in her opinion had hastened Pankhurst 's death .
During the twentieth century Emmeline Pankhurst 's value to the movement for women 's suffrage was debated passionately , and no consensus was achieved . Her daughters Sylvia and Christabel weighed in with books , scornful and laudatory respectively , about their time in the struggle . Sylvia 's 1931 book The Suffrage Movement describes her mother 's political shift at the start of the First World War as the beginning of a betrayal of her family ( especially her father ) and the movement . It set the tone for much of the socialist and activist history written about the WSPU and particularly solidified Emmeline Pankhurst 's reputation as an unreasonable autocrat . Christabel 's " Unshackled : The Story of How We Won the Vote , " released in 1959 , paints her mother as generous and selfless to a fault
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's military junta by founding a paramilitary organisation , " The Movement " . In July 1953 , they launched a failed attack on the Moncada Barracks , during which many militants were killed and Castro was arrested . Placed on trial , he defended his actions and provided his famous " History Will Absolve Me " speech , before being sentenced to 15 years ' imprisonment in the Model Prison on the Isla de Pinos . Renaming his group the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) , Castro was pardoned by Batista 's government in May 1955 , who no longer considered him a political threat . Restructuring the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he fled to Mexico with his brother Raul Castro , where he met with Argentine Marxist @-@ Leninist Che Guevara , and together they put together a small revolutionary force intent on overthrowing Batista .
In November 1956 , Castro and 81 revolutionaries sailed from Mexico aboard the Granma , crash @-@ landing near to Los Cayuelos . Attacked by Batista 's forces , they fled to the Sierra Maestra mountain range , where the 19 survivors set up an encampment from which they waged guerrilla war against the army . Boosted by new recruits that increased the guerilla army 's numbers to 200 , they co @-@ ordinated their attacks with the actions of other revolutionaries across Cuba , and Castro became an international celebrity after being interviewed by The New York Times . In 1958 , Batista launched a counter @-@ offensive , Operation Verano , but his army 's use of conventional warfare was overwhelmed by Castro 's guerrilla tactics , and the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 eventually pushed out of the Sierra Maestra and took control of most of Oriente and Las Villas . Recognising that he was losing the war , Batista fled to the Dominican Republic while military leader Eulogio Cantillo took control of the country . With revolutionary forces controlling most of Cuba , Castro ordered Cantillo 's arrest , before establishing a provisional government with Manuel Urrutia Lleó as President and José Miró Cardona as Prime Minister , ensuring that they enacted laws to erode the power of the Batistanos .
= = The Movement and the Moncada Barracks attack : 1952 – 53 = =
In March 1952 , Cuban military general Fulgencio Batista seized power in a military coup , with the elected President Carlos Prío Socarrás fleeing to Mexico . Declaring himself president , Batista cancelled the planned presidential elections , describing his new system as " disciplined democracy " ; Castro , like many others , considered it a one @-@ man dictatorship . Batista moved to the right , solidifying ties with both the wealthy elite and the United States , severing diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union , suppressing trade unions and persecuting Cuban socialist groups . Intent on opposing Batista 's administration , Castro brought several legal cases against them , arguing that Batista had committed sufficient criminal acts to warrant imprisonment and accusing various ministers of breaching labor laws . His lawsuits coming to nothing , Castro began thinking of alternate ways to oust the new government .
Dissatisfied with the Partido Ortodoxo 's non @-@ violent opposition , Castro formed " The Movement " , a group consisting of both a civil and a military committee . The former agitated through underground newspaper El Acusador ( The Accuser ) , while the latter armed and trained anti @-@ Batista recruits . With Castro as the Movement 's head , the organization was based upon a clandestine cell system , with each cell containing 10 members . A dozen individuals formed the Movement 's nucleus , many also dissatisfied Ortodoxo members , although from July 1952 they went on a recruitment drive , gaining around 1 @,@ 200 members in a year , organized into over a hundred cells , with the majority coming from Havana 's poorer districts . Although he had close ties to revolutionary socialism , Castro avoided an alliance with the communist PSP , fearing it would frighten away political moderates , but kept in contact with several PSP members , including his brother Raúl . He later related that the Movement 's members were simply anti @-@ Batista , and few had strong socialist or anti @-@ imperialist views , something which Castro attributed to " the overwhelming weight of the Yankees ' ideological and advertising machinery " which he believed suppressed class consciousness among Cuba 's working class .
Castro stockpiled weapons for a planned attack on the Moncada Barracks , a military garrison outside Santiago de Cuba , Oriente . Castro 's militants intended to dress in army uniforms and arrive at the base on July 25 , the festival of St James , when many officers would be away . The rebels would seize control , raid the armory and escape before reinforcements arrived . Supplied with new weaponry , Castro intended to arm supporters and spark a revolution among Oriente 's impoverished cane cutters . The plan was to then seize control of a Santiago radio station , broadcasting the Movement 's manifesto , hence promoting further uprisings . Castro 's plan emulated those of the 19th century Cuban independence fighters who had raided Spanish barracks ; Castro saw himself as the heir to independence leader and national hero José Martí .
Castro gathered 165 revolutionaries for the mission ; 138 stationed in Santiago , the other 27 in Bayamo . Mostly young men from Havana and Pinar del Río , Castro insured that – with the exception of himself – none had children , and ordered his troops not to cause bloodshed unless they met armed resistance . The attack took place on July 26 , 1953 , but ran into trouble ; 3 of the 16 cars that had set out from Santiago failed to get there . Reaching the barracks , the alarm was raised , with most of the rebels pinned down outside the base by machine gun fire . Those that got inside faced heavy resistance , and 4 were killed before Castro ordered a retreat . The rebels had suffered 6 fatalities and 15 other casualties , whilst the army suffered 19 dead and 27 wounded .
Meanwhile , some rebels took over a civilian hospital ; subsequently stormed by government soldiers , the rebels were rounded up , tortured and 22 were executed without trial . Those that had escaped , including Fidel and Raúl , assembled at their base where some debated surrender , while others wished to flee to Havana . Accompanied by 19 comrades , Castro decided to set out for Gran Piedra in the rugged Sierra Maestra mountains several miles to the north , where they could establish a guerrilla base . In response to the Moncada attack , Batista 's government proclaimed martial law , ordering a violent crackdown on dissent and imposing strict censorship of the media . Propaganda broadcast misinformation about the event , claiming that the rebels were communists who had killed hospital patients . Despite this censorship , news and photographs soon spread of the army 's use of torture and summary executions in Oriente , causing widespread public and some governmental disapproval .
= = Trial and History Will Absolve Me : 1953 = =
Over the following days , the rebels were rounded up , with some being executed and others – including Castro – transported to a prison north of Santiago . Believing Castro incapable of planning the attack alone , the government accused Ortodoxo and PSP politicians of involvement , putting 122 defendants on trial on September 21 at the Palace of Justice , Santiago . Although censored from reporting on it , journalists were permitted to attend , which proved an embarrassment for the Batista administration . Acting as his own defense council , Castro convinced the 3 judges to overrule the army 's decision to keep all defendants handcuffed in court , proceeding to argue that the charge with which they were accused – of " organizing an uprising of armed persons against the Constitutional Powers of the State " – was incorrect , for they had risen up against Batista , who had seized power in an unconstitutional manner . When asked who was the intellectual author of the attack , Castro claimed that it was the long deceased national icon José Martí , quoting Martí 's works that justified uprisings .
The trial revealed that the army had tortured suspects , utilizing castration and the gouging out of eyes ; the judges agreed to investigate these crimes , embarrassing the army , which tried unsuccessfully to prevent Castro from testifying any further , claiming he was too ill to leave his cell . The trial ended on October 5 , with the acquittal of most defendants ; 55 were sentenced to prison terms of between 7 months and 13 years . Castro was sentenced separately , on October 16 , during which he delivered a speech that would be printed under the title of History Will Absolve Me . Although the maximum penalty for leading an uprising was a 20 years , Castro was sentenced to 15 , being imprisoned in the hospital wing of the Model Prison ( Presidio Modelo ) , a relatively comfortable and modern institution on the Isla de Pinos , 60 miles off of Cuba 's southwest coast .
= = Imprisonment and the 26th of July Movement : 1953 – 55 = =
Imprisoned with 25 fellow conspirators , Castro renamed " The Movement " the " 26th of July Movement " ( MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 ) in memory of the Moncada attack 's date . Forming a school for prisoners , the Abel Santamaría Ideological Academy , Castro organized five hours a day of teaching in ancient and modern history , philosophy and English . He read widely , enjoying the works of Karl Marx , Vladimir Lenin , and Martí but also reading books by Freud , Kant , Shakespeare , Munthe , Maugham and Dostoyevsky , analyzing them within a Marxist framework . He began reading about Roosevelt 's New Deal , believing that something similar should be enacted in Cuba . Corresponding with supporters outside of prison , he maintained control over the Movement and organized the publication of History Will Absolve Me , with an initial print run of 27 @,@ 500 copies . Initially permitted a relatively high amount of freedom within the prison compared to other inmates , he was locked up in solitary confinement after his comrades sang anti @-@ Batista songs on a visit by the President in February 1954 . Meanwhile , Castro 's wife Mirta gained employment in the Ministry of the Interior , having been encouraged to do so by her brother , a friend and ally of Batista 's . This was kept a secret from Castro , who found out through a radio announcement . Appalled , he raged that he would rather die " a thousand times " than " suffer impotently from such an insult " . Both Fidel and Mirta initiated divorce proceedings , with Mirta taking custody of their son Fidelito ; this angered Castro , who did not want his son growing up in a bourgeois environment .
In 1954 , Batista 's government held presidential elections , but no politician had risked standing against him ; he won , but the election was widely considered fraudulent . It had allowed some political opposition to be voiced , and Castro 's supporters had agitated for an amnesty for the Moncada incident 's perpetrators . Some politicians suggested an amnesty would be good publicity , and the Congress and Batista agreed . Backed by the U.S. and major corporations , Batista believed Castro to be no political threat , and on May 15 , 1955 the prisoners were released . Returning to Havana , Castro was carried on the shoulders of supporters , and set about giving radio interviews and press conferences ; the government closely monitored him , curtailing his activities . Now divorced , Castro had sexual affairs with two female supporters , Naty Revuelta and Maria Laborde , each conceiving him a child . Setting about strengthening the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , he established an 11 @-@ person National Directorate ; despite these structural changes , there was still dissent , with some questioning Castro 's autocratic leadership . Castro dismissed calls for the leadership to be transferred to a democratic board , arguing that a successful revolution could not be run by committee . Some then abandoned the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 , labeling Castro a caudillo ( dictator ) , although the majority remained loyal .
= = Mexico and guerrilla training : 1955 – 56 = =
In 1955 , bombings and violent demonstrations led to a crackdown on dissent ; Castro was placed under protective armed guard by supporters , before he and Raúl fled the country . MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members remaining in Cuba were left to prepare cells for revolutionary action and await Castro 's return . He sent a letter to the press , declaring that he was " leaving Cuba because all doors of peaceful struggle have been closed to me . Six weeks after being released from prison I am convinced more than ever of the dictatorship 's intention , masked in many ways , to remain in power for twenty years , ruling as now by the use of terror and crime and ignoring the patience of the Cuban people , which has its limits . As a follower of Martí , I believe the hour has come to take our rights and not beg for them , to fight instead of pleading for them . " The Castros and several comrades traveled to Mexico , which had a long history of offering asylum to leftist exiles . Here , Raúl befriended an Argentine doctor and Marxist @-@ Leninist named Ernesto " Che " Guevara , a proponent of guerrilla warfare keen to join Cuba 's Revolution . Fidel liked him , later describing him as " a more advanced revolutionary than I was . " Castro also associated with the Spaniard Alberto Bayo , a Republican veteran of the Spanish Civil War ; Bayo agreed to teach Fidel 's rebels the necessary skills in guerrilla warfare , clandestinely meeting them at Chapultepec for training .
Requiring funding , Castro toured the U.S. in search of wealthy sympathizers ; Prío contributed $ 100 @,@ 000 . Castro later claimed that he had been monitored by Batista 's agents , who orchestrated a failed assassination against him . Batista 's government bribed Mexican police to arrest the rebels , however with the support of several Mexican politicians who were sympathetic to their cause , they were soon released . Castro kept in contact with the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 in Cuba , where they had gained a large support base in Oriente . Other militant anti @-@ Batista groups had sprung up , primarily from the student movement ; most notable was the Directorio Revolucionario Estudantil ( DRE ) , founded by the Federation of University Students ( FEU ) President José Antonio Echevarría . Antonio traveled to Mexico City to meet with Castro , but they disagreed on tactics ; Antonio thought that it was legitimate to assassinate anyone connected to the government , something Castro thought rash and ineffective .
After purchasing a decrepit yacht , the Granma , on 25 November 1956 Castro set sail from Tuxpan , Veracruz , with 81 revolutionaries armed with 90 rifles , 3 machine guns , around 40 pistols and 2 hand @-@ held anti @-@ tank guns . The 1 @,@ 200 mile crossing to Cuba was harsh , and in the overcrowded conditions of the ship , many suffered seasickness , and food supplies ran low . At some points they had to bail water caused by a leak , and at another a man fell overboard , delaying their journey . The plan had been for the crossing to take 5 days , and on the ship 's scheduled day of arrival , 30 November , MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members under Frank Pais led an armed uprising against government buildings in Santiago , Manzanillo and several other towns . However , the Granma 's journey ultimately lasted 7 days , and with Castro and his men unable to provide reinforcements , Pais and his militants dispersed after two days of intermittent attacks .
= = Guerrilla war in the Sierra Maestra : 1956 – 58 = =
The Granma crash @-@ landed in a mangrove swamp at Playa Las Coloradas , close to Los Cayuelos , on 2 December 1956 . Within a few hours a naval vessel started bombarding the invaders – fleeing inland , they headed for the forested mountain range of Oriente 's Sierra Maestra . At daybreak on 5 December , a detachment of Batista 's Rural Guard attacked them ; the rebels scattered , making their journey to the Sierra Maestra in small groups . Upon arrival , Castro discovered that of the 82 rebels who had arrived on the Granma , only 19 had made it to their destination , the rest having been killed or captured .
Setting up an encampment in the jungle , the survivors , including the Castros , Che Guevara , and Camilo Cienfuegos , began launching raids on small army @-@ posts to obtain weaponry . In January 1957 they overran the outpost near to the beach at La Plata ; Guevara treated the soldiers for any injuries , but the revolutionaries executed the local mayoral ( land @-@ company overseer ) Chicho Osorio , whom the local peasants despised and who boasted of killing one of the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 rebels several weeks previously . Osorio 's execution aided the rebels in gaining the trust of locals , who typically hated the mayorals as enforcers of the wealthy landowners , although they largely remained unenthusiastic and suspicious of the revolutionaries . As trust grew , some locals joined the rebels , although most new recruits came from urban areas . With increasing numbers of volunteers , who now numbered over 200 , in July 1957 Castro divided his army into three columns , keeping charge of one and giving control of the others to his brother and Guevara . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members operating in urban areas continued agitation , sending supplies to Castro , and on 16 February 1957 he met with other senior members to discuss tactics ; here he met Celia Sánchez , who would become a close friend .
Across Cuba , militant groups rose up against Batista , carrying out bombings and acts of sabotage . Police responded with mass arrests , torture and extrajudicial killings , with corpses hung on trees to intimidate dissidents . In March 1957 , Antonio 's DR launched a failed attack on the presidential palace , with Antonio being shot dead ; his death removed a charismatic rival to Castro 's leadership of the revolution . Frank Pais was also killed , leaving Castro the unchallenged leader of the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Castro hid his Marxist @-@ Leninist beliefs , in contrast to Guevara and Raúl , whose beliefs were well known ; in doing so , he hoped to gain the support of less radical dissenters , and in 1957 he met with leading members of the Partido Ortodoxo . Castro and Ortodoxo leaders Raúl Chibás and Felipe Pazos drafted and signed the Sierra Maestra Manifesto , in which they laid out their plans for a post @-@ Batista Cuba . Rejecting the rule of a provisional military junta , it demanded the setting up of a provisional civilian government " supported by all " which would implement moderate agrarian reform , industrialization and a literacy campaign before introducing " truly fair , democratic , impartial , elections " .
Batista 's government censored the Cuban press , and so Castro contacted foreign media to spread his message . Herbert Matthews , a journalist from The New York Times , interviewed Castro , attracting international interest to the rebel 's cause and turning Castro into a celebrity . Other reporters followed , sent by such news agencies as CBS , while a reporter from Paris Match stayed with the rebels for around 4 months , documenting their routine . Castro 's guerrillas increased their attacks on military outposts , forcing the government to withdraw from the Sierra Maestra region , and by spring 1958 the rebels controlled a hospital , schools , a printing press , slaughterhouse , land @-@ mine factory and a cigar @-@ making factory .
= = Batista 's fall and Cantillo 's military junta : 1958 – 1959 = =
Batista had come under increasing pressure by 1958 . His army 's military failures , coupled with his press censorship and the police and army 's use of torture and extrajudicial executions , were increasingly criticized both domestically and abroad . Influenced by anti @-@ Batista sentiment among their citizens , the U.S. government ceased supplying him with weaponry , leading him to buy arms from the United Kingdom . The opposition used this opportunity to call a general strike , accompanied by armed attacks from the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 . Beginning on 9 April , it received strong support in central and eastern Cuba , but little elsewhere .
Batista responded with an all @-@ out @-@ attack on Castro 's guerrillas , Operation Verano ( 28 June to 8 August 1958 ) . The army aerially bombarded forested areas and villages suspected of aiding the militants , while 10 @,@ 000 soldiers under the command of General Eulogio Cantillo surrounded the Sierra Maestra , driving north to the rebel encampments . Despite their numerical and technological superiority , the army had no experience with guerrilla warfare or with the mountainous region . Now with 300 men at his command , Castro avoided open confrontation , using land mines and ambushes to halt the enemy offensive . The army suffered heavy losses and a number of embarrassments ; in June 1958 a battalion surrendered , their weapons were confiscated and they were handed over to the Red Cross . Many of Batista 's soldiers , appalled at the human rights abuses that they were ordered to carry out , defected to Castro 's rebels , who also benefited from popular support in the areas they controlled . In the summer , the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 went on the offensive , pushing the army back , out of the mountain range and into the lowlands , with Castro using his columns in a pincer movement to surround the main army concentration in Santiago . By November , Castro 's forces controlled most of Oriente and Las Villas , and tightened their grip around the capitals of Santiago and Santa Clara . Through control of Las Villas , the rebels divided Cuba in two by closing major roads and rail lines , severely disadvantaging Batista 's forces .
The U.S. realized that Batista would lose the war , and fearing that Castro would displace U.S. interests with socialist reforms , decided to aid Batista 's removal by supporting a rightist military junta , believing that General Cantillo , then commanding most of the country 's armed forces , should lead it . After being approached with this proposal , Cantillo secretly met with Castro , agreeing that the two would call a ceasefire , following which Batista would be apprehended and tried as a war criminal . Double @-@ crossing Castro , Cantillo warned Batista of the revolutionary 's intentions . Wishing to avoid a tribunal , Batista resigned on 31 December 1958 , informing the armed forces that they were now under Cantillo 's control . With his family and closest advisers , Batista fled into exile to the Dominican Republic with over US $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 . Cantillo then entered Havana 's Presidential Palace , proclaimed the Supreme Court judge Carlos Piedra as the new President , and began appointing new members of the government .
Still in Oriente , Castro was furious . Recognizing the establishment of a military junta , he ended the ceasefire and continued on the offensive . The MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 put together a plan to oust the Cantillo @-@ Piedra junta , freeing the high @-@ ranking military officer Colonel Ramón Barquín from the Isle of Pines prison ( where he had been held captive for plotting to overthrow Batista ) , and commanding him to fly to Havana to arrest Cantillo . Accompanying widespread celebrations as news of Batista 's downfall spread across Cuba on 1 January 1959 , Castro ordered the MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 to take responsibility for policing the country , in order to prevent widespread looting and vandalism . Whilst Cienfuegos and Guevara led their columns into Havana on 2 January , Castro entered Santiago , accepting the surrender of the Moncada Barracks and giving a speech invoking the wars of independence . He spoke out against the Cantillo @-@ Piedra junta , called for justice against human rights abusers and proclaimed a better era for women 's rights . Heading toward Havana , he met José Antonio Echevarría 's mother , and greeted cheering crowds in every town , giving press conferences and interviews . Foreign journalists commented on the unprecedented level of public adulation , with Castro striking a heroic " Christ @-@ like figure " and wearing a medallion of the Virgin Mary .
= = Provisional government : 1959 = =
Castro had made his opinion clear that lawyer Manuel Urrutia Lleó should become president , leading a provisional civilian government following Batista 's fall . Politically moderate , Urrutia had defended MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 revolutionaries in court , arguing that the Moncada Barracks attack was legal according to the Cuban constitution . Castro believed Urrutia would make a good leader , being both established yet sympathetic to the revolution . With the leaders of the junta under arrest , Urrutia was proclaimed provisional president , with Castro erroneously announcing he had been selected by " popular election " ; most of Urrutia 's cabinet were MR @-@ 26 @-@ 7 members . On January 8 , 1959 , Castro 's army entered Havana . Proclaiming himself Representative of the Rebel Armed Forces of the Presidency , Castro – along with close aides and family members – set up home and office in the penthouse of the Havana Hilton Hotel , there meeting with journalists , foreign visitors and government ministers .
Officially having no role in the provisional government , Castro exercised a great deal of influence , largely because of his popularity and control of the rebel army . Ensuring the government implemented policies to cut corruption and fight illiteracy , he did not initially force through any radical proposals . Attempting to rid Cuba 's government of Batistanos , the Congress elected under Batista was abolished , and all those elected in the rigged elections of 1954 and 1958 were banned from politics . The government now ruling by decree , Castro pushed the president to issue a temporary ban on all political parties , but repeatedly stated that they would get around to organizing multiparty elections ; this never occurred . He began meeting members of the Popular Socialist Party , believing they had the intellectual capacity to form a socialist government , but repeatedly denied being a communist himself .
In suppressing the revolution , Batista 's government had orchestrated mass human rights abuses , with most estimates for the death toll typically placing it at around 20 @,@ 000 . Popular uproar across Cuba demanded that those figures who had been complicit in the widespread torture and killing of civilians be brought to justice . Although remaining a moderating force and opposing the mass reprisal killings advocated by many , Castro helped set @-@ up trials of many Batistanos , resulting in hundreds of executions . Although widely popular domestically , critics – in particular from the U.S. press – argued that many were not fair trials , and condemned Cuba 's government as being more interested in vengeance than justice . In response , Castro proclaimed that " revolutionary justice is not based on legal precepts , but on moral conviction " , organizing the first Havana trial to take place before a mass audience of 17 @,@ 000 at the Sports Palace stadium . He also intervened in other trials to ensure that what he saw as " revolutionary justice " was carried out ; when a group of aviators accused of bombing a village were found not guilty at a trial in Santiago de Cuba , Castro ordered a retrial in which they were found guilty and sentenced to life imprisonment .
Acclaimed across Latin America , Castro traveled to Venezuela to attend the first @-@ anniversary celebrations of Marcos Pérez Jiménez 's overthrow . Meeting President @-@ elect Rómulo Betancourt , Castro proposed greater relations between the two nations , unsuccessfully requesting a loan of $ 300 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 and a new deal for Venezuelan oil . Returning home , an argument between Castro and senior government figures broke out ; the government had banned the National Lottery and closed down the casinos and brothels , leaving thousands of waiters , croupiers and prostitutes unemployed , infuriating Castro . As a result , Prime Minister José Miró Cardona resigned , going into exile in the U.S. and joining the anti @-@ Castro movement .
= Orjen @-@ class torpedo boat =
The Orjen @-@ class was a class of eight motor torpedo boats built for the Royal Yugoslav Navy ( Jugoslavenska kraljevska ratna mornarica ; JKRM ) . The boats were built by the Lürssen Shipyard based on the German S @-@ 2 motor torpedo boats . At the start of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia , two boats managed to escape to Alexandria in Egypt where they continued serving with Allied forces . The remaining ones were captured by Italian forces and commissioned in the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) .
After the Italian Armistice in September 1943 , the boats were taken over by German forces and commissioned in the Kriegsmarine , until they were finally scuttled in October 1944 . The two boats that had escaped to the Allies in 1941 returned to Yugoslavia after the war . They were commissioned in the new Yugoslav Navy and remained in service until the early 1960s .
= = Background and description = =
During the early 1930s , the Kingdom of Yugoslavia was facing an economic recession brought on by the Great Depression , which was further complicated by internal political instability . In the mid @-@ 1930s the Yugoslav government sought to improve relations with the Kingdom of Italy , and create new economic opportunities by developing closer ties with Nazi Germany . Cooperation with Germany was soon reflected in the acquisition of new ships for the Royal Yugoslav Navy , which had previously been acquired in France and Great Britain . The first such deal came in 1936 when the Navy placed an order for eight motor torpedo boats that were to be built by the Lürssen Shipyard , based on the existing German design of the S @-@ 2 class motor torpedo boat . An additional order for two Type II submarines was planned , but never happened .
The boats measured 28 m ( 91 ft 10 in ) in length overall , with a 4 @.@ 3 m ( 14 ft 1 in ) beam and a draught of 1 @.@ 51 m ( 4 ft 11 in ) . Fully loaded , they displaced 61 @.@ 7 tonnes ( 60 @.@ 7 long tons ) . Main propulsion consisted of three Daimler @-@ Benz petrol engines rated at 3 @,@ 300 hp ( 2 @,@ 500 kW ) , giving the boats a maximum speed of 31 kn ( 57 km / h ; 36 mph ) . An auxiliary engine of unknown power was also installed . Crew size varied between 16 and 22 , depending on the source . Armament consisted of two 550 mm ( 22 in ) torpedo tubes and a single 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun .
= = Boats = =
Source :
= = Service history = =
= = = Royal Yugoslav Navy service = = =
At the start of the Axis invasion of Yugoslavia , all eight Orjen @-@ class boats and the two small Uskok @-@ class boats were assigned to the 2nd Torpedo Division in Šibenik . On 11 April , a naval force consisting of several Orjen @-@ class boats , among other ships , was expected to assist ground forces in attacking the Italian enclave of Zara which the Yugoslav High Command feared would be used as a bridgehead during the invasion . The attack , however , never materialized and the Yugoslav ships were instead attacked by Italian bombers forcing them to retreat to Kotor . By 17 April the complete collapse of Yugoslav defences was imminent , prompting the commander of the 3rd Torpedo Boat Division , Ivan Kern , to suggest that Durmitor , Kajmakčalan , Dinara , Triglav , Rudnik and Suvobor sail out of Boka Kotorska to evade capture by the Axis and continue their fight with Allied forces . Kern approached the commanding officers of Durmitor , Kajmakčalan , Rudnik and Suvobor with the idea , only to be rejected by all of them .
At the same time , unknown perpetrators sabotaged Triglav causing a fire , further deteriorating crew morale already hampered by desertion while Milan Spasić and Sergej Mašera died blowing up the destroyer Zagreb to prevent it from falling into enemy hands . Following this , Kern decided to sail out with just two boats , Durmitor and Kajmakčalan which he deemed had the most trustworthy crews , leaving Boka Kotorska on 17 April . Because both boats were in poor condition and overloaded with personnel , the maximum speed they could achieve was no more than 29 knots . Before passing through the Strait of Otranto , the boats successfully evaded two groups of Italian ships . They finally arrived at Navarino Bay on 19 April before continuing to Souda Bay where they arrived 22 April . In Souda Bay Durmitor and Kajmakčalan were tasked with escorting a convoy to Alexandria protecting it from possible Stuka attacks . Once in Alexandria they reunited with the remaining JKRM forces that managed to escape , forming the JKRM in exile . The boats were first tasked with patrolling the outside of the harbor in anticipation of an attack by Axis coastal craft . In June they operated against Vichy French forces in Syria . In 1944 they were reported as being tasked with escorting convoys between Alexandria and Port Said . However , with time the serviceability of the boats became a problem because of the lack of spare parts needed for their German @-@ built engines .
= = = Axis service = = =
The remaining six boats were captured by Italian forces and commissioned in the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) , receiving designations MAS 3 — 8 D , with " MAS " standing for Motoscafo Armato Silurante ( English : Torpedo Armed Motorboat ) and the prefix D denoting they were captured in Dalmatia . Their designations were once again changed in July 1942 , with the prefix " MAS " being replaced with " MS " and new numerals from 41 to 46 . During their Italian service the boat 's weapons were also changed . The original torpedo armament was replaced with two 21 @.@ 7 in ( 550 mm ) torpedo tubes , while the original 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) gun was removed in favor of two 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) / 65 guns on MS 41 — 44 or one 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) / 43 gun and one 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) / 38 machine gun on MS 45 — 46 . The boats were also equipped to carry 12 to 20 depth charges .
Following the Italian Armistice in September 1943 , the majority of the boats were taken over by the Kriegsmarine . MS 41 was scuttled by its crew on 9 September at Monfalcone . Sources are inconsistent regarding the boat 's aftermath ; according to Italian sources it was raised and repaired by German forces before being sunk by a mine between Porto Corsini and Porto Garibaldi in October 1944 . German sources on the other hand , claim it was never commissioned by the Kriegsmarine . MS 45 was also scuttled by its crew just a few days later , on 18 September at Cattolica . The remaining four boats , MS 42 — 44 and MS 46 were commissioned with the Kriegsmarine as S 2 — 5 . All four were sunk in October 1944 at Salonika .
= = = Post @-@ war service = = =
After the end of the war , Durmitor and Kajmakčalan , along with other JKRM ships and personnel in exile , returned to Šibenik in May 1945 . They were commissioned in the new Yugoslav Navy ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Jugoslavenska ratna mornarica ; JRM ) as TČ 5 and TČ 6 , later being redesignated as TČ 391 and TČ 392 . Both were stricken in 1963 .
= Fantastic Light =
Fantastic Light ( foaled February 13 , 1996 ) is a retired Thoroughbred racehorse and active sire . He was foaled in the United States but was trained in England and Dubai during his racing career , which ran from August 1998 to his retirement following the Breeders ' Cup Turf on October 2001 . He raced in six countries , winning Group One / Grade I races in five of them and was a dual winner of the Emirates World Series Racing Championship . He was named United States Champion Male Turf Horse , European Horse of the Year and European Champion Older Horse in 2001 . He was also well known for his two races against the 2001 Epsom Derby winner Galileo . In August 2012 it was announced that he had been pensioned from stallion duty while in Japan and would return to Dalham Hall in England to live out his days as a pensioner .
In his early racing career , when trained by Michael Stoute , he won the Sandown Classic Trial , the Great Voltigeur Stakes , the Arc Trial and the Dubai Sheema Classic . In 2000 after his transfer to Godolphin he won the Man O ' War Stakes and the Hong Kong Cup . In his championship season in 2001 Fantastic Light won four of his six races ; the Tattersalls Gold Cup , the Prince of Wales 's Stakes , the Irish Champion Stakes and the Breeders ' Cup Turf .
= = Background = =
Fantastic Light , a bay horse with an irregular white blaze and three white feet , was bred in Kentucky by Maktoum Al Maktoum 's Gainsborough Stud .
His sire , Rahy ( 1985 – 2011 ) , sired the winners of over three hundred races , including more than thirty at Group One / Grade I level . Apart from Fantastic Light , his best progeny have included Noverre , Serena 's Song and Hawksley Hill . Fantastic Light 's dam , Jood , a daughter of Nijinsky , failed to win a race , but came from a good family , being closely related to Swain .
Until early 2000 , Fantastic Light raced in the colours of Maktoum Al Maktoum and was trained by Michael Stoute at Newmarket , Suffolk . His ownership was then transferred to Godolphin Racing , and he was trained from that point on by Saeed bin Suroor .
= = Racing career = =
= = = 1998 : two @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Fantastic Light never ran in a maiden race , instead making his debut against more experienced colts in a minor stakes race at Sandown in August 1998 . He started slowly and showed his inexperience ( " ran green " ) before taking the lead in the closing stages and winning by one and three quarter lengths from Sicnee , with the future Diadem Stakes winner , Sampower Star in third . He followed up in a similar event at the same course three weeks later , beating Aesops by three quarters of a length after leading close to the finish . This performance attracted some attention , with one commentator identifying him as " a promising young stayer " . On his last start of the year he was moved up to Listed class , and finished last of the three starters in the Stardom Stakes at Goodwood .
= = = 1999 : three @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Fantastic Light began his three @-@ year @-@ old season with his first Group race win in the Sandown Classic Trial . Ridden by Daryll Holland , he took the lead a furlong out and was eased in the closing stages to win by a short head . Speculation that he might develop into a Derby contender ended in his next race , when he was stepped up to one and a half miles for the first time and finished fourth of the five runners in the Lingfield Derby Trial .
Fantastic Light was brought back to a mile and a quarter , and produced placed efforts on his next two starts . At Royal Ascot in June , he was beaten a head by Lear Spear in the Prince of Wales 's Stakes ( then a Group Two race ) , and at Sandown three weeks later he finished third , beaten a neck and half a length behind Compton Admiral and Xaar in the Group One Eclipse Stakes .
In August Fantastic Light recorded his first win at Group Two level as he led three furlongs out and ran on to win a strongly contested Great Voltigeur Stakes from Bienamado ( Hollywood Turf Cup Stakes , San Juan Capistrano Handicap , Charles Whittingham Memorial Handicap ) and the future St Leger winner Mutafaweq . A month later , he won a third important race by holding off the 1998 Epsom Derby winner High @-@ Rise by three quarters of a length in the Listed Arc Trial at Newbury .
On his final start of the season , Fantastic Light was moved up to the highest level for the Prix de l 'Arc de Triomphe and finished a remote eleventh of the thirteen runners behind Montjeu .
= = = 2000 : four @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
Fantastic Light 's first run of 2000 was also his last for the Stoute stable . He was sent to Dubai for the Sheema Classic , in which he faced a field including runners from Britain , France , Germany , Japan , New Zealand and Argentina . Ridden by Kieren Fallon , he took the lead in the straight ( " far too soon " according to his jockey ) and went clear to beat the German horse Caitano by three lengths , with High @-@ Rise third . In winning , Fantastic Light broke the Nad Al Sheba track record for one and a half miles by more than a second . Shortly after the race it was announced that Fantastic Light would not return to Michael Stoute , but would be transferred to Sheikh Mohammed 's Godolphin Racing team and be trained by Saeed Bin Suroor .
Fantastic Light was then returned to England for a summer campaign . In the Coronation Cup at Epsom in June he finished second to Daliapour and then came fifth of the eight runners behind Giant 's Causeway in the Eclipse Stakes . He was then sent to Ascot for the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes , where he finished second , reversing the Epsom form with Daliapour , but having no chance against the favourite Montjeu .
In Autumn , Godolphin campaigned Fantastic Light in the United States . At Belmont Park in September he started odds @-@ on favourite and won the Man o ' War Stakes " comfortably " , to record his first Grade I victory . In this race he was ridden by Jerry Bailey , who claimed that he had always had the other runners " at his mercy " despite having to come round the outside of the field . In all his remaining ten starts Fantastic Light was ridden by Frankie Dettori . He disappointed in a return to Belmont for the Turf Classic , finishing fourth to John 's Call , a horse he had beaten in the Man o ' War . He then finished to fifth Kalanisi in the Breeders ' Cup Turf at Churchill Downs , although in this case he had a legitimate excuse , having been blocked twice when Dettori attempted to find space for a challenge .
For his last two starts of the year , Fantastic Light was sent to East Asia . In November , in the Japan Cup he stayed on strongly in the closing stages to finish a close third , beaten a neck and a nose by T M Opera O and Meisho Doto . Dettori reportedly felt that the slow pace was the reason for his defeat . Despite three successive defeats , Fantastic Light still managed to end the season with a major victory . In December he was sent to Sha Tin for the Hong Kong Cup and justified favouritism by leading in the straight and staying on strongly to beat Greek Dance and Jim and Tonic . The win earned Fantastic Light top place in the Emirates World Series , a competition in which points were awarded for performances in a number of international races .
= = = 2001 : five @-@ year @-@ old season = = =
= = = = Spring = = = =
Like a previous Godolphin champion , Daylami , Fantastic Light proved himself to be better than ever as a five @-@ year @-@ old ( see Assessment below ) .
In March he attempted to win a second Sheema Classic and almost succeeded , taking the lead a furlong out , but being caught on the line and beaten a nose by the Japanese outsider Stay Gold . Despite the defeat , his connections announced that they were " delighted " with the performance . As in 2000 , Fantastic Light spent the middle of the season racing in Europe . At the end of May he was sent to Ireland where he won the Tattersalls Gold Cup , taking the lead a furlong from the finish and beating Golden Snake by a neck with Kalanisi third . After the race , Godolphin 's racing manager , Simon Crisford , said that Fantastic Light would be aimed at the top middle distance races in Europe , calling him " very special ... a fantastic horse " .
= = = = Summer = = = =
Despite this result , Kalanisi was made favourite when the horses met again in the Prince of Wales 's Stakes ( by this time a Group One race ) at Royal Ascot , a contest that was expected to be one of the best of the meeting . Fantastic Light raced behind the leaders before being moved up by Dettori to take the lead in the straight . He soon went clear with what the Telegraph described as a " ruthless display of speed " , and although Kalanisi attempted to challenge , Fantastic Light stayed on to win " comfortably " by two and a half lengths . After the race , Sheikh Mohammed talked confidently about a meeting with the unbeaten Derby winner Galileo .
Fantastic Light and Galileo did meet at Ascot in the King George VI and Queen Elizabeth Stakes , for which the Aidan O 'Brien @-@ trained three @-@ year @-@ old was sent off the 1 / 2 favourite ahead of Fantastic Light at 7 / 2 . The race was the subject of considerable advance publicity , and was portrayed as a clash between the two most powerful forces in European racing ; Godolphin , represented by Fantastic Light , and Ballydoyle / Coolmore represented by Galileo . As in the Prince of Wales 's Stakes , Dettori settled Fantastic Light in the early stages before moving him out to challenge in the straight . Galileo had already taken the lead but Fantastic Light moved up and went level a furlong out . The two horses raced side @-@ by @-@ side for several strides , but Galileo then pulled ahead to win by two lengths .
= = = = Autumn = = = =
The second meeting between Fantastic Light and Galileo was scheduled for the Irish Champion Stakes at Leopardstown in September and was highly anticipated . This time Dettori rode Fantastic Light more positively as part of an agreed Godolphin plan , sending him past the Ballydoyle pacemaker to take the lead two furlongs out . Michael Kinane immediately brought Galileo to challenge and the two horses raced alongside each other all the way to the line . Galileo appeared to gain a slight advantage , but Fantastic Light , stayed on strongly under pressure to regain the lead and win by a head in a " thrilling " contest . The British Horseracing Authority described the event as " one of the greatest races witnessed throughout the current decade " , whilst readers of the Racing Post placed it seventh ( the third highest for a flat race ) in their list of the 100 Greatest Races .
For Fantastic Light 's final start , he was sent back to America for a second attempt at the Breeders ' Cup , held in October 2001 at Belmont Park . It was expected that he would run against Galileo again in the Classic , while Godolphin 's Prix de l 'Arc de Triomphe winner , Sakhee was aimed for the Breeders ' Cup Turf . Shortly before the race , however , the two Godolphin horses switched targets , the rationale apparently being that Sakhee would be better suited by the dirt surface . In the Turf , Dettori placed Fantastic Light just behind the pace as the race was led first by With Anticipation and then by Timboroa . Making his challenge in the straight , Fantastic Light took the lead just over a furlong out and held off the strong late challenge of the St Leger winner Milan to win by three quarters of a length , with the rest of the runners more than five lengths further back . The time of 2 : 24 @.@ 36 was a new course record . Summarising Fantastic Light 's career , Crisford called him " the ultimate modern @-@ day racehorse . "
A projected run in the Japan Cup did not materialise and his retirement was announced shortly afterwards . He had already amassed sufficient points to secure a second Emirates World Series .
= = Race record = =
= = Assessment , honours and awards = =
From the mid @-@ 1990s the International Classification Committee ( representing Europe ) and the North American Rating Committee drew up an annual International Classification which included all horses who raced in Europe , North America and Japan . These ratings did not include Southern Hemisphere horses and were not therefore , " World " rankings .
In the 2000 International Classification , Fantastic Light was assessed at 124 , placing him fourteenth in the ratings ( eighth in Europe ) , ten pounds below Dubai Millennium . In the 2001 International Classification Fantastic Light was assessed at 129 ( equal with Galileo ) , making him the third highest rated horse behind Sakhee and Point Given .
Fantastic Light was assessed at 134 by Timeform . A rating in excess of 130 is considered the mark of an above average Group One winner .
In 2001 he was named European Champion Older Horse and European Horse of the Year at the Cartier Racing Awards .
In February 2002 Fantastic Light was voted the Eclipse Award for American Champion Male Turf Horse in the Eclipse Awards , beating Val Royal and With Anticipation in the voting .
= = Stud career = =
Retired at the end of the 2001 racing season , Fantastic Light stood for the Darley Stud stud at Dalham Hall in Newmarket , England , before being moved to their Japanese base in Hokkaido for the 2007 season .
He has also been shuttled to stand in Australia for the Southern Hemisphere breeding season . During five seasons at stud in Australia he was the sire of 427 live foals that included Mission Critical , who won the group one Waikato Race Club 's International Stakes .
He has sired the winners of more than three hundred races including Scintillo , winner of the Winter Derby , the Gran Criterium and the Grand Prix de Chantilly ( Group 2 ) .
= = Pedigree = =
Although there is no inbreeding visible in the table above , four of the horses in the fourth generation ( Narsullah , Hail To Reason , Nearctic and Nangela ) are direct descendants of Nearco , who as a result appears twice in the fifth , and twice in the sixth generation of Fantastic Light 's extended pedigree .
= Gjirokastër =
Gjirokastër is a town and a municipality in southern Albania . Lying in the historical region of Epirus , it is the capital of Gjirokastër County . Its old town is a World Heritage Site described as " a rare example of a well @-@ preserved Ottoman town , built by farmers of large estate . " Gjirokastër is situated in a valley between the Gjerë mountains and the Drino , at 300 metres above sea level . The city is overlooked by Gjirokastër Fortress , where the Gjirokastër National Folklore Festival is held every five years . Gjirokastër is the birthplace of former Albanian communist leader Enver Hoxha and notable writer Ismail Kadare . It hosts the Eqrem Çabej University .
The present municipality was formed at the 2015 local government reform by the merger of the former municipalities of Antigonë , Cepo , Gjirokastër , Lazarat , Lunxhëri , Odrie and Picar , that became municipal units . The seat of the municipality is the town Gjirokastër . The total population is 25 @,@ 301 ( 2011 census ) , in a total area of 469 @.@ 25 square kilometres ( 181 @.@ 18 sq mi ) . The population of the former municipality at the 2011 census was 19 @,@ 836 .
The city appears in the historical record in 1336 by its Greek name , Argyrokastro ( Αργυρόκαστρο , often written Argyrocastro or Argyro @-@ Castro ) , as part of the Byzantine Empire . It later became the center of the principality ruled by John Zenevisi ( 1373 @-@ 1417 ) before falling under Ottoman rule for the next five centuries . Taken by the Hellenic Army during the Balkan Wars of 1912 @-@ 3 on account of its large Greek population , it was eventually incorporated into the newly independent state of Albania in 1913 . This proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population , who rebelled ; after several months of guerrilla warfare , the short @-@ lived Autonomous Republic of Northern Epirus was established in 1914 with Gjirokaster as its capital . It was definitively awarded to Albania in 1921 . In more recent years , the city witnessed anti @-@ government protests that lead to the Albanian civil war of 1997 .
Alongside Albanians , the city is home to a substantial Greek minority . Gjirokastër , together with Sarandë , is considered one of the centers of the Greek community in Albania , and there is a consulate of Greece .
= = Etymology = =
The city appeared for the first time in historical records under its medieval Greek name of Argyrocastron ( Greek : Αργυρόκαστρον ) , as mentioned by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336 . The name comes from the Medieval Greek ἀργυρόν ( argyron ) , meaning " silver " , and κάστρον ( kastron ) , from the Latin castrum meaning " castle " or " fortress " , thus " silver castle " . The theory that the city took the name of the Princess Argjiro , a legendary figure about whom 19th century author Kostas Krystallis wrote a short novel and Ismail Kadare wrote a poem in the 1960s . It is considered a folk etymology , since the princess is said to have lived later , in the 15th century .
The definite Albanian form of the name of city is Gjirokastra , while in the Gheg Albanian dialect it is known as Gjinokastër , both of which derive from the Greek name . Alternative spellings found in Western sources are Girokaster and Girokastra . In Aromanian the city is known as Ljurocastru , while in modern Greek it is known Αργυρόκαστρο ( Argyrokastro ) . During the Ottoman era the town was known in Turkish as Ergiri .
= = History = =
Archaeological evidence points out that during the Bronze Age the region was inhabited by populations that probably spoke a northwestern Greek dialect . Archaeologists have found pottery objects of the early Iron Age in Gjirokastër , which first appeared in the late Bronze Age in Pazhok , Elbasan District , and are found throughout Albania . The earliest recorded inhabitants of the area around Gjirokastër were the Greek tribe of the Chaonians .
The city 's walls date from the third century . The high stone walls of the Citadel were built from the sixth to the twelfth century . During this period , Gjirokastër developed into a major commercial center known as Argyropolis ( Ancient Greek : Ἀργυρόπολις , meaning " Silver City " ) or Argyrokastron ( Ancient Greek : Ἀργυρόκαστρον , meaning " Silver Castle " ) .
The city was part of the Despotate of Epirus and was first mentioned by the name Argyrokastro by John VI Kantakouzenos in 1336 . During 1386 – 1418 it became the capital of the Principality of Gjirokastër of John Zenevisi . In 1417 it became part of the Ottoman Empire and in 1419 it became the county town of the Sanjak of Albania . During the Albanian Revolt of 1432 – 36 it was besieged by forces under Thopia Zenevisi , but the rebels were defeated by Ottoman troops led by Turahan Bey In 1570s local nobles Manthos Papagiannis and Panos Kestolikos , discussed as Greek representative of enslaved Greece and Albania with the head of the Holy League , John of Austria and various other European rulers , the possibility of an anti @-@ Ottoman armed struggle , but this initiative was fruitless .
According to Turkish traveller Evliya Çelebi , who visited the city in 1670 , at that time there were 200 houses within the castle , 200 in the Christian eastern neighborhood of Kyçyk Varosh ( meaning small neighborhood outside the castle ) , 150 houses in the Byjyk Varosh ( meaning big neighborhood outside the castle ) , and six additional neighborhoods : Palorto , Vutosh , Dunavat , Manalat , Haxhi Bey , and Memi Bey , extending on eight hills around the castle . According to the traveller , the city had at that time around 2000 houses , eight mosques , three churches , 280 shops , five fountains , and five inns .
In 1811 , Gjirokastër became part of the Pashalik of Yanina , then led by the Albanian @-@ born Ali Pasha , and was transformed into a semi @-@ autonomous fiefdom in the southwestern Balkans until his death in 1822 . After the fall of the pashalik in 1868 , the city was the capital of the sanjak of Ergiri ( the Turkish name for Gjirokastër ) . On 23 July 1880 , southern Albanian committees of the League of Prizren held a congress in the city , in which was decided that if Albanian @-@ populated areas of the Ottoman Empire were ceded to neighbouring countries , they would revolt . During the Albanian National Awakening ( 1831 – 1912 ) , the city was a major centre of the movement , and some groups in the city were reported to carry portraits of Skanderbeg , the national hero of the Albanians during this period .
Given its large Greek population , the city was claimed and taken by Greece during the First Balkan War of 1912 – 1913 , following the retreat of the Ottomans from the region . However , it was awarded to Albania under the terms of the Treaty of London of 1913 and the Protocol of Florence of 17 December 1913 .
This turn of events proved highly unpopular with the local Greek population , and their representatives under Georgios Christakis @-@ Zografos formed the Panepirotic Assembly in Gjirokastër in protest . The Assembly , short of incorporation with Greece , demanded either local autonomy or an international occupation by forces of the Great Powers for the districts of Gjirokastër , Sarandë , and Korçë .
In March 1914 , the Northern Epirote Declaration of Independence was announced in Gjirokastër and it was confirmed in the Protocol of Corfu . The Republic , however , was short @-@ lived , as Albania collapsed at the beginning of World War I. The Greek military returned in October – November 1914 , and again captured Gjirokastër , along with Saranda and Korçë . In April 1916 , the territory referred to by Greeks as Northern Epirus , including Gjirokastër , was annexed to Greece . The Paris Peace Conference , 1919 restored the pre @-@ war status quo , essentially upholding the border line decided in the 1913 Protocol of Florence , and the city was again returned to Albanian control .
In April 1939 , Gjirokastër was occupied by Italy following the Italian invasion of Albania . In December 8 , 1940 , during the Greco @-@ Italian War , the Hellenic Army entered the city and stayed for a five @-@ month period before capitulating to Nazi Germany in April 1941 and returning the city to Italian command . After the capitulation of Italy in the Armistice of Cassibile in September 1943 , the city was taken by German forces and eventually returned to Albanian control in 1944 .
The postwar communist regime developed the city as an industrial and commercial centre . It was elevated to the status of a museum town , as it was the birthplace of the leader of the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania , Enver Hoxha , who had been born there in 1908 . His house was converted into a museum .
The demolition of the monumental statue of the authoritarian leader Enver Hohxa in Gjirokastër by members of the local Greek community in August 1991 marked the end of the one @-@ party state . Gjirokastër suffered severe economic problems following the end of communist rule in 1991 . In the spring of 1993 , the region of Gjirokastër became a center of open conflict between Greek minority members and the Albanian police . The city was particularly affected by the 1997 collapse of a massive pyramid scheme which destabilised the entire Albanian economy . The city became the focus of a rebellion against the government of Sali Berisha ; violent anti @-@ government protests took place which eventually forced Berisha 's resignation . On 16 December 1997 , Hoxha 's house was damaged by unknown attackers , but subsequently restored .
= = Religion and culture = =
In 1925 , Albania became the world center of the Bektashi Order , a Muslim sect . The sect was headquartered in Tirana , and Gjirokastër was one of six districts of the Bektashi Order in Albania , with its center at the tekke of Baba Rexheb . The city retains a large Bektashi and Sunni population . Historically there were 15 and tekkes and mosques , of which 13 were functional in 1945 . Only Gjirokastër Mosque has survived ; the remaining 12 were destroyed or closed during the Cultural Revolution of the communist government in 1967 .
The city is home to a diocese of the Eastern Orthodox Church , part of the Orthodox Autocephalous Church of Albania .
17th @-@ century Ottoman traveller Evliya Çelebi , who visited the city in 1670 , described the city in detail . One Sunday , Çelebi heard the sound of a vajtim , the traditional Albanian lament for the dead , performed by a professional mourner . The traveller found the city so noisy that he dubbed Gjirokastër the " city of wailing " .
The novel Chronicle in Stone by Albanian writer Ismail Kadare tells the history of this city during the Italian and Greek occupation in World War I and II , and expands on the customs of the people of Gjirokastër . At the age of twenty @-@ four , Albanian writer Musine Kokalari wrote an 80 @-@ page collection of ten youthful prose tales in her native Gjirokastrian dialect : As my old mother tells me ( Albanian : Siç me thotë nënua plakë ) , Tirana , 1941 . The book tells the day @-@ by @-@ day struggles of women of Gjirokastër , and describes the prevailing mores of the region .
Gjirokastër , home to both Albanian and Greek polyphonic singing , is also home to the National Folklore Festival ( Albanian : Festivali Folklorik Kombëtar ) that is held every five years . The festival started in 1968 and was most recently held in 2009 , its ninth season . The festival takes place on the premises of Gjirokaster Fortress . Gjirokaster is also where the Greek language newspaper Laiko Vima is published . Founded in 1945 , it was the only Greek @-@ language printed media allowed during the People 's Socialist Republic of Albania .
= = Landmarks = =
The city is built on the slope surrounding the citadel , located on a dominating plateau . Although the city 's walls were built in the third century and the city itself was first mentioned in the 12th century , the majority of the existing buildings date from 17th and 18th centuries . Typical houses consist of a tall stone block structure which can be up to five stories high . There are external and internal staircases that surround the house . It is thought that such design stems from fortified country houses typical in southern Albania . The lower storey of the building contains a cistern and the stable . The upper storey is composed of a guest room and a family room containing a fireplace . Further upper stories are to accommodate extended families and are connected by internal stairs . Since Gjirokastër 's membership to UNESCO , a number of houses have been restored , though others continue to degrade .
Many houses in Gjirokastër have a distinctive local style that has earned the city the nickname " City of Stone " , because most of the old houses have roofs covered with flat dressed stones . A very similar style can be seen in the Pelion district of Greece . The city , along with Berat , was among the few Albanian cities preserved in the 1960s and 1970s from modernizing building programs . Both cities gained the status of " museum town " and are UNESCO World Heritage sites .
Gjirokastër Fortress dominates the town and overlooks the strategically important route along the river valley . It is open to visitors and contains a military museum featuring captured artillery and memorabilia of the Communist resistance against German occupation , as well as a captured United States Air Force plane , to commemorate the Communist regime 's struggle against the imperialist powers . Additions were built during the 19th and 20th centuries by Ali Pasha of Ioannina and the government of King Zog I of Albania . Today it possesses five towers and houses a clock tower , a church , water fountains , horse stables , and many more amenities . The northern part of the castle was turned into a prison by Zog 's government and housed political prisoners during the communist regime .
Gjirokastër features an old Ottoman bazaar which was originally built in the 17th century ; it was rebuilt in the 19th century after a fire . There are more than 500 homes preserved as " cultural monuments " in Gjirokastër today . The Gjirokastër Mosque , built in 1757 , dominates the bazaar .
When the town was first proposed for inclusion on the World Heritage list in 1988 , International Council on Monuments and Sites experts were nonplussed by a number of modern constructions which detracted from the old town 's appearance . The historic core of Gjirokastër was finally inscribed in 2005 , 15 years after its original nomination .
= = Climate = =
Gjirokastër is situated between the lowlands of western Albania and the highlands of the interior , and has thus a hot @-@ summer Mediterranean climate , though , ( as is normal for Albania ) , much heavier rainfall than usual for this climate type .
= = Economy = =
Gjirokastër is principally a commercial center with some industries , notably the production of foodstuffs , leather , and textiles . Recently a regional agricultural market that trades locally produced groceries has been built in the city . Given the potential of southern Albania to supply organically @-@ grown products , and its relationship with Greek counterparts of the nearby city of Ioannina , it is likely that the market will dedicate itself to organic farming in the future . However , currently trademarking and marketing of such products are far from European standards . The Chamber of Commerce of the city , created in 1988 , promotes trade with the Greek border areas . As part of the financial support from Greece to Albania , the Hellenic Armed Forces built a hospital in the city .
In recent years , many traditional houses are being reconstructed and owners lured to come back , thus revitalizing tourism as a potential revenue source for the local economy . However , some houses continue to degrade from lack of investment , abandonment or inappropriate renovations as local craftsmen are not part of these projects . In 2010 , following the Greek economic crisis , the city was one of the first areas in Albania to suffer , since many Albanian emigrants in Greece are becoming unemployed and thus are returning home .
= = Education = =
The first school in the city , a Greek language school , was erected in the city in 1663 . It was sponsored by local merchants and functioned under the supervision of the local bishop . In 1821 , when the Greek War of Independence broke out , it was destroyed , but it was reopened in 1830 . In 1727 a madrasa started to function in the city , and it worked uninterruptedly for 240 years until 1967 , when it was closed due to the Cultural Revolution applied in communist Albania . In 1861 – 1862 a Greek language school for girls was founded , financially supported by the local Greek benefactor Christakis Zografos . The first Albanian school in Gjirokastër was opened in 1886 . Today Gjirokastër has seven grammar schools , two general high schools ( of which one is the Gjirokastër Gymnasium ) , and two professional ones .
The city is home to the Eqrem Çabej University , which opened its doors in 1968 . The university has recently been experiencing low enrollments , and as a result the departments of Physics , Mathematics , Biochemistry , and Kindergarten Education did not function during the 2008 – 2009 academic year . In 2006 , the establishment of a second university in Gjirokastër , a Greek @-@ language one , was agreed upon after discussions between the Albanian and Greek governments . The program had an attendance of 35 students as of 2010 , but was abruptly suspended when the University of Ioannina in Greece refused to provide teachers for the 2010 school year and the Greek government and the Latsis foundation withdrew funding .
= = Sports = =
Football ( soccer ) is popular in Gjirokastër : the city hosts Luftëtari Gjirokastër , a club founded in 1929 . The club has competed in international tournaments and played in the Albanian Superliga until 2006 – 2007 . Currently the team plays in the Albanian First Division . The soccer matches are played in Gjirokastër Stadium , which can hold up to 8 @,@ 500 spectators .
= = Demographics = =
The town has 43 @,@ 000 inhabitants . Gjirokastër is home to an ethnic Greek community that according to one source numbered about 4000 in 1989 , although Greek spokesmen have claimed that up to 34 % of the town is Greek . Gjirokastër is considered the center of the Greek community in Albania . Given the large Greek population in the town and surrounding area , there is a Greek consulate in the town .
= = Transport = =
Gjirokastër is served by the SH4 Highway , which connects it to Tepelenë in the north and the Dropull region and Greek border 30 km ( 19 mi ) to the south .
= = International relations = =
= = = Twin towns – Sister cities = = =
Gjirokastër is twinned with :
Sarandë , Albania
= = Notable people = =
= = Gallery = =
= Giant Schnauzer =
The Giant Schnauzer is a working breed of dog developed in the 17th century in Germany . It is the largest of the three breeds of Schnauzer — the other two breeds being the Standard Schnauzer and the Miniature Schnauzer . Numerous breeds were used in its development , including the black Great Dane , the Bouvier des Flandres , and the German Pinscher . Originally bred to assist on farms by driving livestock to market and guarding the farmer 's property , the breed eventually moved into the city , where it worked guarding breweries , butchers ' shops , stockyards and factories . It was unknown outside of Bavaria until it became popular as a military dog during World War I and World War II .
They have dense coarse coat that protects them from the weather and from vermin . Giant Schnauzers come in two color patterns : Solid black , and a color known as pepper and salt , with banded hairs of alternating white and black , appearing gray hairs at a distance . Where legal , they are shown with cropped ears and docked tails . Like other schnauzers , they have a distinct beard and eyebrows . Today , the Giant Schnauzer participates in numerous dog sports , including Schutzhund . It is also used as a police dog .
= = History = =
The first Giant Schnauzers emerged from Swabia in the German state of Bavaria , and Württemberg in the 17th century . These original Giant Schnauzers were considered a rough @-@ coated version of the German pinscher breeds , and their hair was thought to help them withstand the harsh German winters and bites from vermin . The origins of the breed are unclear , but sources speculate it originated through some combination of black Great Danes , German Shepherds , Rottweilers , Dobermans , Boxers , Bouvier des Flandres , Thuringian Shepherds , and the Standard Schnauzer .
The Giant Schnauzer was originally bred as a multipurpose farm dog for guarding property and driving animals to market . By the turn of the 20th century the Giant Schnauzer was being used as a watchdog at factories , breweries , butcheries , and stockyards throughout Bavaria . It was unknown outside Bavaria until it was used as a military dog in World War I and World War II . The first Giant Schnauzers were imported to America in the 1930s , but they remained rare until the 1960s , when the breed became popular . In 1962 , there were 23 new Giant Schnauzers registered with the American Kennel Club ; in 1974 this number was 386 ; in 1984 it was over 800 and in 1987 it was around 1000 animals . In 2012 , there were 94 new dogs registered , down from 95 in 2011 .
In modern times , the Giant Schnauzer is used as a police dog ; is trained for obedience , dog agility , herding , search and rescue , and schutzhund ; and is shown in conformation shows . They are also used for carting . In Europe , the breed is considered to be more of a working dog than a show dog . The focus in many European Schnauzer clubs is not so much on conformation shows , but on the working ability of the breed . In several countries , including Germany , dogs must achieve a Schutzhund Champion title before they can qualify to be a conformation champion .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Although the Giant Schnauzer is called ' Giant ' , this is not in comparison to other large dog breeds such as the Great Dane or the Rottweiler , but instead in comparison to the Standard and Miniature Schnauzers . The AKC breed standard calls for males to stand from 25 @.@ 5 to 27 @.@ 5 inches ( 65 to 70 cm ) at the withers , and for females to stand from 23 @.@ 5 to 25 @.@ 5 inches ( 60 to 65 cm ) . Giant Schnauzers are square in shape , and should resemble a larger version of the Standard Schnauzer . The tail is long and the ears are small button ears carried high on the head . Where it is legal , it is possibly docked and the ears cropped .
The head is 1 / 2 the length of the dog 's back , when the back is measured from the withers to the base of the tail . The cheeks are flat , but well muscled . The coat is dense , wiry , and weather resistant . The fur on the Giant Schnauzer 's face forms a distinct " beard " and eyebrows . Its stride is long and crisp .
Giant Schnauzers come in two colors : solid black , and a pattern called pepper and salt , where banded hairs of black and white hairs cover the body , giving it the appearance of having been peppered and salted .
= = = Temperament = = =
Giant Schnauzers are usually a quiet breed . Due to its breeding , the Giant Schnauzer is inherently suspicious of strangers and can be very territorial . Once introduced , it is usually accepting of novel people or situations . It has the potential to be aggressive , but Giant Schnauzers are usually reserved - they are " amiable in repose , and a commanding figure when aroused "
Giant Schnauzers have been described as trustworthy with children . They are very intelligent , and can become bored easily . They are also very energetic and highly spirited , which , when coupled with boredom , can lead to unwanted and destructive behavior . They are easily trained , and deeply loyal to their owner . Some breeders believe that pepper and salt colored Giant Schnauzers are more docile than their black @-@ furred counterparts .
= = Health = =
Giant Schnauzers require regular grooming . Their beard can collect drool and food particles , making frequent cleanings essential . If being shown , their coat needs to be stripped every two to four weeks . If they are simply a companion animal , the coat can be clipped instead . Some Giant Schnauzers have an allergy to shampoo .
Hip and elbow dysplasia are common . Giant Schnauzers are also prone to eye problems such as keratoconjunctivitis sicca , glaucoma , cataracts , multifocal retinal dysplasia , and generalized progressive retinal atrophy . They are also prone to skin diseases , such as seasonal flank alopecia , vitiligo , and follicular cysts . Cancer of the skin is common in dark @-@ colored dogs , with the most frequently occurring varieties being melanoma of the limbs and digits , and squamous cell carcinoma of the digit . This susceptibility occurs because melanoma is caused by a defect in the melanocytes , the cells that darken the color of the skin . Noncancerous skin tumors are also common .
Some Giant Schnauzers develop central diabetes insipidus , autosomal recessive hypothyroidism , selective malabsorption of cobalamin , narcolepsy , cataplexy , and various seizure disorders . Some are also sensitive to sulphonamides and gold . Bone diseases and joint problems are also an issue . The most common causes of death in Giant Schnauzers are lymphoma and liver cancer , followed by heart attacks and heart failure .
= Inchoate offences in English law =
Inchoate offences in English law are offences in England and Wales that cover illegal acts which have yet to be committed , primarily attempts to commit crimes , incitement to commit crimes , and conspiracy to commit crimes . Attempts , governed by the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 , are defined as situations where an individual who intends to commit an offence does an act which is " more than merely preparatory " in the offence 's commission . Traditionally this definition has caused problems , with no firm rule on what constitutes a " more than merely preparatory " act , but broad judicial statements give some guidance . Incitement , on the other hand , is an offence under the common law , and covers situations where an individual encourages another person to engage in activities which will result in a criminal act taking place , and intends for this act to occur . As a criminal activity , incitement had a particularly broad remit , covering " a suggestion , proposal , request , exhortation , gesture , argument , persuasion , inducement , goading or the arousal of cupidity " . It was abolished by the Serious Crime Act 2007 , but continues in other offences and as the basis of the new offence of " encouraging or assisting " the commission of a crime .
Conspiracy is both a statutory and common law offence . In its statutory form , under the Criminal Law Act 1977 , it consists of any agreement between two or more people to commit a criminal offence . Common law conspiracy , on the other hand , covers " conspiracy to defraud " and " conspiracy to corrupt public morals " , although the latter has no substantive case law and is not seen as an offence that individuals are likely to be prosecuted for . All three inchoate offences require a mens rea of intent , and upon conviction , the defendant is sentenced as if they had succeeded in committing the attempted , incited or conspired crime in question .
= = Definition = =
Inchoate means " just begun " or " undeveloped " , and is used in English criminal law to refer to situations where , although a substantial offence has not been committed , the defendant has taken steps to commit it , or encouraged others to do so . These situations are generally divided into three categories ; attempts , where the defendant has taken steps " towards carrying out a complete crime " , incitement , where the defendant has encouraged others to commit a crime , and conspiracy , where the defendant has agreed with others to commit a crime . In each case , the defendant " has not himself performed the actus reus but is sufficiently close to doing so , or persuading others to do so , for the law to find it appropriate to punish him " .
= = Offences = =
= = = Attempt = = =
Attempts are governed by the Criminal Attempts Act 1981 , which states that " if , with intent to commit an offence to which [ the act applies ] , a person does an act which is more than merely preparatory to the commission of the offence , he is guilty of attempting to commit the offence " . A required element is intent , or mens rea . In R v Pearman , the Court of Appeal of England and Wales confirmed that the definition of intent in the 1981 Act is the same as the definition in the common law . The common law gives intention " its normal meaning : purpose or aim " , with judges advised not to , in the majority of cases , attempt to complicate the definition . Conditional intent – where somebody has an intent to commit a crime only in certain circumstances – has also been deemed acceptable for an indictment for attempting a crime . In Attorney @-@ General 's Reference ( Nos. 1 and 2 of 1979 ) , the Court of Appeal explained that the intention to steal " anything that was worth stealing could form the basis of an attempt charge if the indictment was drafted carefully " . This was a procedural solution to a previous apparent contradiction , but the suggested drafting may not demonstrate sufficient proximity between the defendant 's actions and what he was planning to steal . A mens rea requirement is added to the attempt of crimes of strict liability ( where there is no intent or merely objective recklessness ) , although the ruling in Attorney General 's Reference ( No. 3 of 1992 ) makes this less certain .
Section 1 ( 1 ) also provides that the actus reus must be " more than merely preparatory " . In practice , academic Jonathan Herring notes that " there is no hard and fast rule about when an act may be more than merely preparatory " , although there are several cases which give broad guidance . In R v Geddes , a man entered the toilets in a school in Brighton with a large knife , some rope and a roll of masking tape ; it was alleged that he was intending to kidnap a pupil . The Court of Appeal confirmed that this was not enough for a conviction . However , certain general rules have been laid down ; if the defendant has committed the last act before completing his offence , it constitutes an attempt , as in R v Jones . This is not , however , necessary in all situations , as in R v Gullefer . The actus reus of the full offence is also taken into account ; in R v Toothill , the defendant was charged with attempted burglary after trespassing into the victim 's garden and knocking on their door . He was found guilty , because he had entered the property – the actus reus for burglary – and his actions were thus more than merely preparatory . The wording " does an act " prevents liability for omissions , a distinction that the Law Commission has looked to remove , at least in the case of attempted murder .
Certain things cannot be attempted . These include conspiracy , under section 1 ( 4 ) of the 1981 Act , assisting a criminal , under section 4 ( 1 ) of the Criminal Law Act 1967 , aiding in the commission of an offence , or most summary offences , with the logic being that they are too minor for attempts to justify a criminal conviction . A small number of separate statutory offences have been created to cover attempts concerning individual summary offences , in which case , usual attempt law and procedure applies .
If someone is found guilty of an attempt , they are sentenced under section 4 ( 1 ) of the 1981 Act . This provides that anyone who attempts to commit an offence will be punished with the same period in prison as if they had succeeded ; since theft carries a maximum penalty of seven years in prison , for example , someone convicted of attempted theft would also find themselves sentenced to a maximum of seven years .
= = = Encouraging or assisting = = =
The offences of " encouraging or assisting a crime " under the Serious Crime Act 2007 are inchoate offences . In each case , the actus reus requirement is that the defendant carry out an act capable of " encouraging or assisting " the commission of another offence . An offence is committed under section 44 , if this is done with intent to do the same ; under section 45 if it is done " believing that the offence will be committed and that the act will encourage or assist its commission " ; or under section 46 where there are multiple possible offences being encouraged or assisted , and at least one is foreseen . There is no need for the defendant to have successfully communicated his thoughts to anyone else . Since this is very wide , the courts will have to narrow it by some criterion , probably by reference to the remoteness of the encouragement to the crime . Failing to act when under a duty to do so would also qualify .
" Encouraging " is not defined in the statute and can be considered in the same way as the previous crime of incitement . It does not matter if the encouragement or assistance has no effect . " Assisting " is likely to be considered similar to " aiding " in accessorial liability . Assistance can be provided indirectly , for example through a third person .
Whereas incitement can only be committed when the defendant incites the principal offender , the crime of " encouraging or assisting " includes helping an accessory . Whilst a section 44 offence can be committed in relation to other inchoate offences ( including itself ) , sections 45 and 46 cannot . Crimes which are , in fact rather than law , impossible to commit yet – but will be – also fall under this offence .
In terms of mens rea , any form of recklessness , including virtual certainty , is insufficient for an offence under Section 44 , in part due to the existence of Section 45 and 46 which aid its interpretation . Offences under Sections 45 and 46 are only committed if the defendant believes that both the crime will be committed , and that the act will encourage or assist the offender : that they might do so is not enough . However , it is also possible to commit these offences if the defendant commits an act capable of encouraging or assisting the commission of a crime , intending or believing that the principal offender would carry out the " act " , where that may not in itself constitute a crime . However , it is necessary that the defendant intend or be reckless to any required circumstances or consequences – for example , that death was a result . Additionally , the prosecution must show that the defendant believed that ( or was reckless to ) whether the act would be done with the required mens rea , or that the defendant himself has the required mens rea for the offence . These amount to very complex provisions .
There is no defence of later withdrawing from the act ; however , there is one of " acting reasonably " under Section 50 . This takes two forms : either that the acts themselves were reasonable ; or that the defendant reasonably believed in circumstances which did not exist and acted reasonably under those circumstances . The existence of this defence has been attacked by Andrew Simester and Bob Sullivan on the grounds it may be acting as a " sop " to counteract excess brevity in other sections of the act . Victims are extended the " Tyrell " defence – that one cannot aid , abet , counsel or procure an offence against oneself – although exactly when a victim is protected can be unclear .
= = = Incitement = = =
The common law offence of inciting the commission of another offence was abolished on 1 October 2008 , except in relation to offences committed wholly or partly before that date . However , the language of incitement is retained in other statutory offences , such as inciting a child under 13 to engage in sexual activity contrary to section 8 of the Sexual Offences Act 2003 . The same rules are applied in these cases as the existing body of law on incitement .
The Court of Appeal considers incitement to consist of a situation in which a defendant " incites another to do or cause to be done an act or acts which , if done , will involve the commission of the offence or offences by the other ; and he intends or believes that the other , if he acts as incited , shall or will do so with the fault required for the offence or offences " . Unlike attempts , incitement is a common law offence . Incitement has a particularly broad actus reus ; it has been interpreted to include " a suggestion , proposal , request , exhortation , gesture , argument , persuasion , inducement , goading or the arousal of cupidity " . While it must include an act of incitement , this can be both express and implied . For an offence to be committed , the incited act must be criminal in nature , and an offence not only for the person doing the incitement but the person incited . Some exceptions are made ; under section 5 ( 7 ) of the Criminal Law Act 1977 , incitement to conspire is not an offence , and incitement to an aid or attempt are similarly not specifically given as criminal acts . In terms of mens rea , the defendant must have intended the incited offence to be committed , and also be aware of the likely consequences . It has been suggested that intent should not be necessary ; if the defendant knew that his advice would be followed , and this would result in a crime , he should be found guilty .
= = = Conspiracy = = =
Statutory conspiracy consists of an agreement between two or more people to commit a criminal offence , under section 5 ( 1 ) and ( 2 ) of the 1977 Act . For statutory conspiracies , there must be three elements : an agreement , to pursue a course of conduct which involves the commission of a crime , where the parties to the agreement intended to commit the crime . Even if the parties later decide not to go through with the plan , since the actus reus is to reach an agreement , they can still be charged . There are certain categories of agreement which cannot amount to a criminal conspiracy , however ; an agreement between a husband and wife is not a conspiracy , under section 2 ( 2 ) ( a ) of the 1977 Act , and neither is an agreement with a person under the age of criminal responsibility , or with the intended victim of the crime .
There is no need , under Churchill v Walton , to show that the conspirators knew that their proposed course of conduct amounted to a crime , but they must have intended the consequences ; if two people conspire to put poison in the victim 's tea , this is not a conspiracy to murder unless the poison was intended to kill the victim . The defendants will similarly not be found guilty if they are unaware that a crime will result ; if two people agree to grow plants , unaware that the plants are illegal , they have not engaged in a conspiracy . On the other hand , if the two people believe the plants to be illegal even though they are not , they could be found guilty .
Common law conspiracies , on the other hand , fall into two categories ; " conspiracy to defraud " and " conspiracy to corrupt public morals " . A third category which existed at the time of the 1977 Act , " conspiracy to outrage public decency " , has now become a statutory offence . Indeed , corrupting public morals may have become a statutory offence ; the situation is unclear . The standard definition of a conspiracy to defraud was provided by Lord Dilhorne in Scott v Metropolitan Police Commissioner , when he said that
it is clearly the law that an agreement by two or more by dishonesty to deprive a person of something which is his or to which he is or would be entitled and an agreement by two or more by dishonesty to injure some proprietary right of his , suffices to constitute the offence of conspiracy to defraud .
Conspiracy to defraud therefore contains two key elements ; that the conspiracy involved dishonesty , and that if the conspiracy was undertaken , the victim 's property rights would be harmed . This does not require the defendants ' actions to directly result in the fraud ; in R v Hollinshead , the House of Lords held that producing devices designed to alter electricity meter readings constituted conspiracy to defraud , even though the actual fraud would be carried out by members of the public rather than the conspirators . In two situations , it will not even be necessary for the actions to directly lead to any kind of financial loss for the victim ; these are when the conspirators plan to deceive a person holding public office into acting counter to their duties , and when the conspirators know that their actions put the victim 's property at risk , even if the risk never materialises . Conspiracy to " corrupt public morals " has no definitive case law ; it is unknown whether or not it is a substantive offence , and Herring sees it as unlikely that conspirators will be prosecuted for this offence .
= = Defence of impossibility = =
Some exceptions are also made for " impossible attempts " , which are divided into legal impossibility , impossibility through ineptitude and physical impossibility . Cases of legal impossibility occur when the defendant attempts to do something which he believes to be illegal , which is in fact not ; this does not constitute a crime . This defence does , however , remain for common law conspiracies . Impossibility through ineptitude is where the defendant attempts to commit a crime with inadequate means , in which case he can be found guilty . However , prosecutors ' discretion is likely to be a factor , since some plans – for example murder through a voodoo doll – may be simply too removed from the attempted crime . Physical impossibility covers situations where not only is the action inadequate , but impossible ; an example is the attempted murder of ( or conspiracy to murder ) someone who is , in fact , already dead . Such actions are governed by section 1 ( 2 ) and 1 ( 3 ) of the 1981 Act , which provides that they do constitute a crime if the actions , were the facts of the case to be as the defendant believed them to be , would have led to a valid attempt ; as Herring states , " if the defendant believes he is dealing in illegal drugs he can be convicted of an attempted drug @-@ dealing offence , even if in fact what he is selling is chalk " . A plan which successfully comes to fruition without the offence the defendant intended coming to pass may also relieve the defendant of liability , although this ruling from Haughton v Smith has proved hard to distinguish from the abolition of other defences of impossibility .
= = Theory = =
As a general principle of the law , criminal liability is normally only imposed upon " a blameworthy actor who causes a prohibited harm " , and while those who attempt crimes may be blameworthy , it can be argued that there is no harm caused ; attempted burglary , for example , does not lead to anything being stolen . Many theorists who make the distinction between successful and failed attempts do still consider the defendant partially liable , for example advocating a lesser punishment . However , there have been two distinct counterarguments advanced against making such a distinction . The first is that when a crime is attempted , there is a harm , namely a threat to security . Individuals have the right to security , both of themselves and their property , and an attempt to commit a crime infringes on this right . The second is that , regardless of the harm principle , criminal liability for attempts can be justified in utilitarian terms . A person who tries to commit a crime has shown themselves to be dangerous , and must be restrained and rehabilitated to provide a deterrence for them and for others . Although a differing approach is taken in some United States jurisdictions , intervention can happen very early in a conspiracy and the defendants can still be held liable . The earlier the liability , the more controversial .
For conspiracy , the standard justification is the " group @-@ danger " rationale , which states that since the objective of the criminal law is to protect harm to the community , and the community is at more risk from a group of people with harmful intentions than an individual with those same intentions , conspiracies themselves must be made a crime . The criminalisation of incitement is justified with the argument that incitement constitutes an attempt at conspiracy ; the inciter 's objective is to persuade others to engage in criminal acts , with his knowledge and cooperation , and as such is " more dangerous than a direct attempt , because it may give rise to that cooperation among criminals which is a special hazard " .
= Sigi Schmid =
Siegfried " Sigi " Schmid ( pronounced [ ˈziːkfʀiːt ˈziːɡiː ʃmiːt ] ; born March 20 , 1953 ) is a German @-@ American soccer coach who most recently coached Seattle Sounders FC in Major League Soccer ( MLS ) . Born in Tübingen , West Germany , he moved to the United States with his family when he was a child . He played college soccer from 1972 to 1975 at the University of California , Los Angeles ( UCLA ) , where he was a starting midfielder in each of his four years . He coached his former college team , the UCLA Bruins , between 1980 and 1999 . During that period , he became one of the most successful collegiate coaches of all time , leading the Bruins to a record of 322 – 63 – 33 ( wins – losses – draws ) . The team made 16 consecutive playoff appearances from 1983 to 1998 , winning the national championship in 1985 , 1990 , and 1997 . Schmid also worked with US Soccer throughout the 1990s .
Schmid coached the Los Angeles Galaxy and the Columbus Crew in MLS , before becoming the head coach of Seattle Sounders FC in 2009 . Despite never having played soccer at a professional level , he has the most coaching wins in MLS history and was the recipient of the MLS Coach of the Year Award in 1999 and 2008 . Throughout his career , Schmid has received praise from critics for his ability to identify new talent . His defensive tactics are also highly regarded in the press and often cited as a factor in his success . However , their deployment in his final two seasons with Los Angeles led directly to the termination of his contract .
With a Bachelor of Economics degree from UCLA and a Master of Business Administration degree from the University of Southern California , he was a Certified Public Accountant ( CPA ) before coaching full @-@ time . Schmid and his wife have four children , and he has a younger brother named Roland Schmid .
= = Early life = =
Sigi Schmid was born in Tübingen , West Germany , on March 20 , 1953 . At the age of four , he moved with his family to the United States ; they took up residence in Torrance , California , in 1962 . Schmid 's father , Fritz , a prisoner of war during World War II , worked at Pabst Brewing ; his mother , Doris , ran a Los Angeles @-@ based German deli , where Schmid worked on weekends . Schmid 's family spoke German at home , making him feel German despite spending so much of his life in America . He began school in the United States with little understanding of English and a stuttering speech disorder he did not overcome until high school . In his youth , Schmid visited Germany every summer , playing soccer with the local children and watching Bundesliga clubs play exhibition matches in neighboring towns . In 1964 , Schmid played for the inaugural American Youth Soccer Organization team , an achievement for which he was inducted into the National Soccer Hall of Fame in 1996 .
Despite Schmid 's early soccer experience , his parents thought a career in the sport was unfeasible and encouraged him to pursue business . He enrolled at UCLA in 1972 and was a starting midfielder for the UCLA Bruins from 1972 to 1975 . In his first two seasons , the Bruins were national runners @-@ up in the championships , and advanced to the national semifinals in 1974 . In his senior year , Schmid was selected to the 1975 All Far @-@ West team . Schmid completed his playing career at UCLA ranked 11th in all @-@ time assists at the school .
He received his Bachelor of Economics degree in 1976 before earning a Master of Business Administration from the University of Southern California . Between 1978 and 1984 , he worked eight months of the year as a Certified Public Accountant ( CPA ) .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = UCLA and US Soccer = = =
Schmid 's first coaching experience was in 1975 for Bishop Montgomery High School . He also founded and coached a small club called the South Bay Vikings . Between 1977 and 1979 , he served as an assistant coach under Steve Gay at UCLA . Schmid took over as head coach after Gay left the position in 1980 . He began focusing solely on coaching before the 1984 season and was named " Coach of the Year " by the magazine Soccer America . UCLA then won the 1985 NCAA Division I championship by defeating American University 1 – 0 after eight periods of overtime . In his first 10 years as coach , the Bruins won or tied 85 percent of their games .
The Bruins won the 1990 national championship by defeating Rutgers 4 – 3 on penalty kicks after a scoreless regulation , two sessions of overtime , and another two periods of sudden @-@ death . During the 22 @-@ game season , UCLA outscored their opponents 61 – 16 . The team continued to thrive in the following season , part of their success coming from Schmid 's decision to move Cobi Jones from a midfield position to forward . Jones later played for Schmid in the MLS and became a top player for the national team . Schmid was named the Mountain Pacific Sports Federation Coach of the Year for three years straight ( 1995 – 97 ) , and NCAA Coach of the Year in 1997 after UCLA defeated the University of Virginia to win a third NCAA championship . A reporter for the Richmond Times @-@ Dispatch wrote that after winning just two titles in 17 postseason appearances , UCLA had finally shed " its ' underachiever ' label " . The writer also applauded Schmid 's decision to move the team 's leading striker into a midfield position which led to the player scoring the winning goal .
Schmid spent 19 seasons as the head coach at UCLA , accumulating a record of 322 – 63 – 33 ( wins – losses – draws ) , and reaching 16 consecutive playoffs between 1983 and 1998 . He earned a reputation for producing some of the nation 's best goalkeepers when David Vanole , Brad Friedel , and Matt Reis came through the university . By 1994 , he had coached 16 players at UCLA who were later selected for the US national team . Schmid avoided recruiting foreign talent to bolster his squad . He relied mainly on players from California , whom he believed to be less physically aggressive but more creative and attacking .
While coaching at UCLA , Schmid began to work with the US national team . He was the assistant coach at the 1991 World University Games and traveled with the team to Germany in the fall of 1992 . In January 1993 , he was selected as an assistant to Bora Milutinović for the 1994 FIFA World Cup , during which five of Schmid 's UCLA players appeared for the national team . He continued as an assistant during the 1995 Pan American Games . After being appointed US Under @-@ 20 national team coach in January 1998 , Schmid built his squad around defensive tactics . The team achieved second place in their group during the 1999 FIFA World Youth Championship , defeating England and Cameroon , but were eliminated by the eventual champions Spain in the opening knockout round . Schmid returned to coach the U @-@ 20 national team at the 2005 FIFA World Youth Championship . The US won the group in the opening stage of the tournament without conceding a goal , but lost to Italy in the first round of the knockout stage . One of the forwards on the national team , Eric Wynalda , said that Schmid 's organization on the field was disciplined . Wynalda commented that Schmid had a " great handle on the defensive side of the game " while he also admired that the strikers were allowed to be creative . Schmid was inducted into the UCLA Hall of Fame in 2004 after working with UCLA , the national team , and the Los Angeles Galaxy .
= = = LA Galaxy = = =
Schmid left UCLA to replace Octavio Zambrano as head coach of the Los Angeles Galaxy five games into the 1999 MLS season . At the time , the team was ranked fifth in the Western Conference with a tally of only three goals . Under Schmid in the remainder of the season , the team had a record of 17 – 9 , finished with the second @-@ best record in the league and won their conference , earning him the MLS Coach of the Year Award . The team 's captain , Robin Fraser , gave credit to Schmid 's emphasis on defense after being named the MLS defender of the year . Los Angeles lost 2 – 0 to D.C. United in that year 's MLS Cup . Schmid made critical comments of the referees after the match ; he received a $ 1 @,@ 000 fine and suspension for the first game of the following season .
In 2000 , Schmid guided Los Angeles to the playoffs but lost in the semifinals to the Kansas City Wizards . The team also played in that year 's CONCACAF Champions ' Cup , a competition consisting of the best clubs from North America , Central America , and the Caribbean . The Galaxy defeated the Honduran champion Olimpia 3 – 2 to win the Cup . Schmid was forced to play an atypical squad since the final was held during the MLS off @-@ season while adjustments to the following season 's lineup were being made .
His successful team of 2001 enjoyed attacking play . The squad included experienced players such as Cobi Jones , Sasha Victorine , Luis Hernández , Simon Elliott , and Mauricio Cienfuegos . The Galaxy won the conference by two points and finished fourth overall with a 14 – 7 – 5 record . The team went on to lose to the San Jose Earthquakes in the MLS Cup , but won the US Open Cup a week later with a 2 – 1 overtime victory against the New England Revolution .
Success followed in 2002 when the Galaxy won the Supporters ' Shield for having the best regular season record in the league . Schmid was lauded for his defensive tactics after adjusting the team 's standard formation to a 3 – 5 – 2 early in the season . The shift allowed Alexi Lalas to play as a sweeper without specific marking responsibilities in the three @-@ man defensive line . Schmid also brought Guatemalan forward Carlos Ruiz to the team ; Ruiz won league Most Valuable Player ( MVP ) award that year . Amidst criticism for failing to win in previous years , the franchise won its first MLS Cup with a 1 – 0 overtime victory against New England . The team again reached the Open Cup final but lost to the Columbus Crew .
Victory in the MLS Cup earned the team another berth in the 2003 CONCACAF Champions ' Cup . Los Angeles advanced past Motagua in the first round but fell against Necaxa in the quarterfinals . In MLS , the club had its first losing season with a 9 – 12 – 9 record and no victories on the road . The Galaxy failed to score goals consistently during the year , managing only a fourth @-@ place finish in the five @-@ team Western Conference . In the first round of the playoffs , Los Angeles defeated San Jose 2 – 0 in the first leg , but during the second leg , conceded five goals in the second half of the match and were eliminated . Schmid was criticized by fans and the press speculated he would not return in 2004 . A local writer put some of the blame on a switch to defensive style of play while some players questioned his tactics . After it was announced that he would remain in his role next season , Schmid expected a year of rebuilding the team . The following year , he was picked to coach the Western Conference in the All @-@ Star game . Midway through the season , with the Galaxy in first place , Schmid was fired after a five @-@ game stretch without any wins , in which the team scored only three goals . General manager Doug Hamilton said that the team had a mission " to compete for and win championships " , and that " a more entertaining and attractive product on the field . " was needed . Schmid left with an overall record of 79 – 53 – 32 with a 16 – 7 – 3 mark in the playoffs .
Reflecting on his demeanor in Los Angeles , Lalas said Schmid had " epic explosions " . One reporter called him " combustible " , while another referred to him as " fiery " . Lalas also commented that playing for Schmid in Los Angeles required professionalism on and off the field .
= = = Columbus Crew = = =
Schmid returned to the league as coach of the Columbus Crew in 2006 , rated by the team 's general manager Mark McCullers as " the best coach in America " . The team contained young talent but lacked depth and had no star players . In August , after a streak of 13 winless matches , Schmid considered resigning . The team suffered from injuries and inconsistent lineups throughout the season , finishing last in the Eastern Conference with just 30 goals , the lowest in the league .
By the start of 2007 , Schmid had rebuilt the roster , keeping only three players he had inherited and acquiring Argentine attacker Guillermo Barros Schelotto . Schmid cut the Crew 's goalkeeper , Jon Busch , who had been with the team for five years . Schmid had concerns over Busch 's playing style and fitness . Busch later criticised Schmid 's management skills , and said he would never work for the coach again , but gave credit to Schmid 's tactical approach . Scheletto 's contributions were crucial to Columbus 's improvement that season , but the team failed to make the playoffs . A writer for ESPN speculated that the Crew suffered because the team management would not spend more money , while Schmid lamented that he could not attract a foreign star to the little @-@ known city of Columbus .
The Crew 's performance improved remarkably in the 2008 season . Schmid adjusted their offensive tactics to be based on ball possession and flank speed . He made Schelotto a central part of the plan in a roaming playmaker position , a role in which Schelotto excelled and the Argentinian was named the league 's MVP . With a 1 – 0 victory over the Houston Dynamo at Crew Stadium on April 26 , Schmid became the second MLS coach to win 100 regular @-@ season games . The Crew went on to win the Supporters ' Shield with the best record in the league . In the playoffs , Columbus defeated the New York Red Bulls 3 – 1 at Schmid 's former home stadium , Los Angeles 's Home Depot Center , to win the MLS Cup . Schmid received the Coach of the Year Award for the second time . Part of the success was attributed to Schmid 's restructuring of the squad in 2006 and 2007 .
Schmid declined a contract offer from Columbus after the 2008 season and became coach of Seattle Sounders FC . The Crew 's ownership believed that Schmid had been in contact with Sounders FC despite being denied permission to talk to other teams during the season . It was also alleged that he shared confidential information with Seattle after his contract with the Crew had ended . The MLS ruled that no tampering had occurred , but ordered Sounders FC to financially compensate the Crew .
= = = Seattle Sounders FC = = =
Schmid was named the first coach of the new expansion franchise , Seattle Sounders FC . In their 2009 inaugural season , Seattle defeated D.C. United to win the US Open Cup . On October 24 , 2009 , Seattle defeated FC Dallas 2 – 1 , giving Schmid his 125th career MLS regular season win ; this win moved Schmid past Bob Bradley for the most wins in MLS history . He led Seattle to the playoffs where , in the first round , the Dynamo defeated the team 1 – 0 in overtime of the second leg . Seattle was the first expansion team to make the playoffs in an inaugural season since the 1998 Chicago Fire , when the league was just two years old .
The team began the 2010 MLS season slowly with injuries to key players that impacted Schmid 's starting lineups . The team had a record of 4 – 8 – 3 over the first 15 games . The Sounders also advanced through the preliminary round of the 2010 – 11 CONCACAF Champions League but failed to get past the group stage . The 2010 US Open Cup campaign culminated in Schmid winning his third championship with a 2 – 1 victory over the Crew at Seattle 's Qwest Field . No MLS team had previously won back @-@ to @-@ back Open Cups . The Sounders rebounded in the second half of the regular season with a 10 – 2 – 3 record to qualify for the playoffs . The team faced Bruce Arena 's Galaxy in the two @-@ legged quarter @-@ final . Both coaches are considered to be among the best in the MLS , and it was the first meeting between the two in the playoffs . The Sounders lost by a 3 – 1 aggregate and Arena moved within one game of Schmid 's MLS postseason record of 19 wins .
In 2011 , Schmid 's Sounders FC had many setbacks and a slow start to the season ( the club won just 3 of its first 10 matches ) . Schmid signed a long @-@ term contract extension on July 14 , 2011 , which could keep him with the club through the 2015 MLS season . The extension is dependent on some club options and performance triggers . Although some fans had become frustrated with what they saw as tactical inflexibility and mismanagement of players , general manager Adrian Hanauer praised Schmid 's professionalism and success . The Sounders went on to finish the regular season with the second @-@ best record in the league at 18 wins , 9 draws , 7 losses , and qualified for the playoffs for a third consecutive year . Schmid again led his club to the final of the U.S. Open Cup tournament . They defeated the Chicago Fire 2 – 0 to become the first team since 1968 to win the tournament three times consecutively . Seattle also advanced to the knock @-@ out stages of the CONCACAF Champions League . However , in the MLS playoffs , Sounders FC was again eliminated from the MLS Cup playoffs in the conference semifinal round by Real Salt Lake .
In 2012 , Seattle lost in the 2 @-@ legged 2011 – 12 CONCACAF Champions League quarter finals by an aggregate score of 7 – 3 to Santos Laguna . The Sounders advanced to the finals of the Open Cup where they were defeated by Sporting Kansas City after penalty kicks . Schmid was furious over what he saw as a controversial call that handed Kansas City the victory . The team finished the regular season with a 15 – 8 – 11 record to make the playoffs where they advanced past Real Salt Lake to reach the conference championship series against the Galaxy . The team played defensive and suffered a 3 – 0 blowout in the first leg . They won on the return leg but lost on aggregate .
The Sounders began the 2013 regular season without a win until their sixth match . After advancing through the early stages of the 2012 – 13 CONCACAF Champions League the year prior , Seattle lost in the semifinals to Santos Laguna . The team was knocked out of the 2013 Open Cup in their first match against the lower division Tampa Bay Rowdies . Seattle would rally during the middle of the season to put the Supporter 's Shield and the regional Cascadia Cup in reach . However , the team ended the season on a skid of seven matches without a win that included substantial losses to both Colorado and rival Vancouver . The Sounders beat Colorado in the knockout round of the 2013 MLS Cup Playoffs before losing two matches against arch @-@ rival Portland . At the end of the season , a poll in The Seattle Times showed that many fans wanted to see Schmid fired . Pundits speculated on the possibility of his termination based on what they saw as poor tactics , a history of mismanaging skilled players , and a fan base that had higher expectations . Owner Joe Roth held a post @-@ season meeting with Hanauer and Schmid . Roth later said that the possibility of Schmid losing his job was " close " , but instead opted for personnel changes to the squad .
After the collapse of the 2013 season , the coach met with Osvaldo Alonso , Clint Dempsey , and Evans since they were a core group of players . The group agreed on the aforementioned changes to the team . Starting striker Eddie Johnson was later traded while a new central defender , winger , midfielder , goalkeeper , and depth at the forward position were brought in . The team played 2014 with Dempsey and Obafemi Martins playing more through the middle as the Sounders won the US Open Cup and the Supporters Shield .
During the first half of the 2016 season , the Sounders failed to meet expectations , placing near the bottom of the league with 6 wins , 12 losses , and 12 draws . After a 3 – 0 loss on July 24 to Sporting Kansas City , in which the Sounders had only one shot , Schmid left the club on mutual terms and replaced by assistant coach Brian Schmetzer .
= = Personal life = =
Schmid lives in Bellevue , Washington , during the football season . He is married to Valerie and has four children : Erik , Lacey , Kurt , and Kyle . Kurt is currently the head scout for Sounders FC . Kyle played as a defender at UC Irvine and was in the USL Premier Development League with Orange County Blue Star . Kyle is now an assistant coach at Cal State Fullerton . Sigi has rarely missed game days in the MLS , but took time off for Lacey and Kurt 's weddings and Kurt 's college graduation . Schmid 's younger brother , Roland , lives in Sammamish , Washington , and having family in the area was one of the factors which persuaded Schmid to accept the job at Seattle . He also has a nephew and a niece named Graham and Mackenze .
= = Honors = =
= = = Individual = = =
National Soccer Hall of Fame : 2015
NCAA Coach of the Year : 1997
MLS Coach of the Year Award : 1999 , 2008
UCLA Athletics Hall of Fame inductee : 1996
= = = Managerial = = =
College Cup : 1985 , 1990 , 1997
CONCACAF Champions ' Cup : 2000
Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup : 2001 , 2009 , 2010 2011 , 2014
MLS Supporters ' Shield : 2002 , 2008 , 2014
MLS Cup : 2002 , 2008
= Michael Scott Paper Company =
" Michael Scott Paper Company " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the fifth season of the television series The Office , and the 95th overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on April 9 , 2009 .
In the episode , Michael , Pam and Ryan try to get their new paper company off the ground , but end up bickering among themselves due to the stress and cramped office space . Meanwhile , Jim tries to do a " rundown " for new boss Charles Miner without admitting he does not know what a rundown is , while Dwight and Andy compete for the affections of the new receptionist , Erin , played by Ellie Kemper .
The episode was written by Justin Spitzer and directed by Gene Stupnitsky . It included a guest appearance by Idris Elba , who played new Dunder Mifflin vice president Charles Miner . The episode aired the same day as the Office episode " Dream Team " ; the debut episode of the new NBC show Parks and Recreation was shown between the two episodes . " Michael Scott Paper Company " included a new title sequence with footage of the series characters in the new Michael Scott Paper Company office setting , rather than the Dunder Mifflin setting from previous episodes . The episode received mostly positive reviews . According to Nielsen ratings , it was watched by 8 million viewers and captured the most viewers in its time slot for adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . " Michael Scott Paper Company " received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation .
= = Synopsis = =
Michael ( Steve Carell ) , Pam ( Jenna Fischer ) , and Ryan ( B. J. Novak ) are struggling to adjust to the work environment of the new Michael Scott Paper Company . The office space used to be a closet ; water pipes run through the room , so they can hear the toilets flush from the Dunder Mifflin bathrooms above them . Ryan openly goofs off in front of Pam and Michael and insults both of them in their presence during phone conversations . Pam and Ryan bicker over who is responsible for making copies until Michael separates them into corners . Pam , who joined the company as a saleswoman , is given the corner where the photocopier sits . She is concerned that Michael will force her to be the receptionist , which is why she quit Dunder Mifflin in the first place . She goes upstairs and asks Charles Miner ( Idris Elba ) for her job back , but Charles has already given the job to a new employee , Kelly " Erin " Hannon ( Ellie Kemper ) .
Michael hosts a pancake luncheon to introduce the company to potential clients , but only one person and the Dunder Mifflin employees show up . When Michael , Pam , and Ryan come close to giving up , the potential client from the luncheon calls asking for paper . Pam closes the sale and the three cheer in celebration .
In the Dunder Mifflin office , Charles asks Jim ( John Krasinski ) for a " rundown " of his client information . Jim does not know what a rundown is , but is too embarrassed to ask because he has been making such a poor impression with Charles . Jim spends much of the day trying to figure out what a rundown is , making several failed attempts to figure it out by chatting vaguely about it with Charles and other coworkers . When he finally finishes what he believes is a rundown , Charles does not look at it and simply asks Jim to fax it to everyone on the distribution list . Jim does not know what the distribution list is either , but rather than asking Charles , he simply faxes the rundown to his father .
Meanwhile , Dwight ( Rainn Wilson ) and Andy ( Ed Helms ) plan a hunting trip , but their new friendship is tested by their mutual romantic interest in Erin . Both make passes at her , but eventually agree their friendship is more valuable than a romantic interest . However , they end up trying simultaneously to impress Erin during a competitive duet of John Denver 's " Take Me Home , Country Roads " , with Andy on a banjo and Dwight playing guitar ; both sing , and Dwight sings part of the song in German . Erin is initially impressed with both of them , but winds up awkwardly sneaking out of the room as they play . The loud duet is finally stopped by a frustrated Toby ( Paul Lieberstein ) . Angela ( Angela Kinsey ) is visibly annoyed by Dwight and Andy 's budding friendship .
= = Production = =
" Michael Scott Paper Company " was written by Justin Spitzer and directed by Gene Stupnitsky . It originally aired April 9 , 2009 , the same day as the episode " Dream Team " ; the debut episode of the new NBC show Parks and Recreation was shown between the two episodes . " Michael Scott Paper Company " was the fourth of six episodes guest starring Idris Elba , best known as Stringer Bell from The Wire . Elba said he did not watch the episode after it aired because " I 'm hypercritical about my work , so I try not to torture myself . " According to the Season 5 DVD episode commentary , B.J. Novak came up with the story idea involving Jim and the " run @-@ down " and worked it into Spitzer 's final script . The episode included a new title sequence with footage of the series characters in the new Michael Scott Paper Company office setting , rather than the Dunder Mifflin setting from the previous episodes . Rainn Wilson and Ed Helms practiced the guitar competition in Ed Helms ' trailer during lunch the day of the filming ; Helms , a proficient bluegrass banjo player , coached Wilson , who is proficient at guitar and drums . Wilson said he proposed doing a full studio cover of the song , with Creed Bratton providing backup guitar and vocals , and selling it on iTunes for charity . Helms said he was happy to have the opportunity to play banjo on screen , but did not feel the instrument made much sense for his character ; Helms said , " It 's so fun and weird , but he 's a Connecticut preppy guy . How did he pick up a banjo ? It 's one of Andy 's many mysteries , not all of which I even understand . "
Prior to the episode 's airing , NBC set up a web site for the new Michael Scott Paper Company at www.michaelscottpapercompany.com , which included a mission statement for the company , photos of the new office space and a downloadable copy of the coupon for " unparalleled customer service " featured in the episode . The official website for The Office included four cut scenes from " Michael Scott Paper Company " within a week of the episode 's original release . In one 85 @-@ second clip , Dwight and Andy pretend to shoot , stab and throw grenades at each other in pantomime in anticipation of their hunting trip ; they pretend to kill Jim and pester him until he plays dead , after which Charles walks in and believes he is napping . A second one @-@ minute clip includes Pam and Ryan fighting around the new office until they are interrupted by a janitor who believes the room is still a closet and leaves water jugs on the floor . In a third , 40 @-@ second clip , Jim asks Charles directly what a " run @-@ down " is , but when an annoyed Charles asks if this is " one of your pranks " , Jim gives up and leaves . The fourth and final clip , which is 85 seconds long , features Andy and Dwight both making passes at Erin ; Andy discusses how easy it would be to learn sign language , while Dwight tells her to be careful not to get her hair or clothes caught in the nearby paper shredder .
= = Cultural references = =
Dwight and Andy sing and perform the John Denver song " Take Me Home , Country Roads " while trying to impress the new receptionist . At one point , Toby is overheard through a vent discussing and praising the FX show Damages while on the phone in a bathroom . He said it is as good as anything on HBO , a premium television channel known for such shows as The Sopranos , Six Feet Under and The Wire . During the workday , Ryan watches a YouTube video of a rap music commercial for Flea Market Montgomery ; the low @-@ budget rap music advertisement for the Montgomery , Alabama flea market gained Internet fame . Michael uses Evite , social @-@ planning website for creating online invitations , to invite people to his pancake luncheon . On a whiteboard , Michael writes a quote of himself quoting Wayne Gretzky , the popular ice hockey player who said " You miss 100 % of the shots you don ’ t take " The new paper company office included Apple computers and a Nerf basketball hoop . During a phone conversation , Ryan said he wants an iPod music player that also serves as a phone , but not an iPhone , which is essentially that very product ; both items are Apple products . Michael listens to " Just Dance " , a Lady Gaga song , while driving his convertible to work , which he mistakes for a Britney Spears song . Near the end of the episode , when Andy states that every song sounds better a cappella , Dwight asks about the songs " Cherry Pie " by Warrant , " Enter Sandman " by Metallica and " Rebel Yell " by Billy Idol .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on April 9 , 2009 , " Michael Scott Paper Company " was watched by 8 million overall viewers , according to Nielsen ratings . The episode earned more ratings than " Dream Team " , the other Office episode of the night , which had 7 @.@ 2 million viewers . It also performed better than the Parks and Recreation pilot , which ran between the two Office episodes and had 6 @.@ 8 million viewers . " Michael Scott Paper Company " , as well as " Dream Team " , had the most viewers in its time slot among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 .
The episode received mostly positive reviews . Travis Fickett of IGN said this and other recent episodes are " proving that the show has plenty of life in it and ( that ) The Office has still got it . " He said the funniest element of the show was the emerging " bro @-@ mance " between Dwight and Andy . Will Leitch of New York magazine said , " The Office kind of needed this sort of shake @-@ up , even if it ’ s something as simple as another room to put all our characters in . " Keith Phipps of The A.V. Club said he liked the plot aspects involve the new company , particularly the pancake breakfast and the first successful sales call : " I know the series probably has to revert to something like the old status quo at some point , but I
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almost wish it could stay in that dank little corner a little longer . " Phipps , who gave the episode a B + grade , said the " rundown " subplot between Jim and Charles was a bit strained by the end . Steven Mullen of The Tuscaloosa News called the episode " stellar " and particularly praised the comedic chemistry between Andy and Dwight .
Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger said he was enjoying the new paper company storyline , but that " Michael Scott Paper Company " was not as funny as " Dream Team " , which aired the same day . Sepinwall praised particular scenes such as Dwight and Andy 's competitive duet and Kelly 's plan to make Charles want her . She criticized the cramped new office space jokes as being less funny than those in previous episodes . Sepinwall also said the storyline between Jim and Charles was getting repetitive and , " It would help if the writers ever gave Idris Elba something funny to do . " Margaret Lions of Entertainment Weekly said , " This episode wasn 't one of my favorites ... No bombs , no bits that failed , and by The Office 's standards , nothing even particularly cringe worthy . But ' TMSPC ' is more groundwork than payoff . " She said Dwight 's rendition of " Take Me Home , Country Roads " in German was " the absolute funniest moment of the episode " .
In her list of the top ten moments from the fifth season of The Office , phillyBurbs.com writer Jen Wielgus ranked Michael 's formation of the Michael Scott Paper Company in the downstairs storage closet as the number one , citing the " Dream Team " , " Michael Scott Paper Company " and " Heavy Competition " episodes in particular . She also said she specifically enjoyed the paper @-@ shaped pancakes from " Michael Scott Paper Company " . " Michael Scott Paper Company " was voted the twelfth highest @-@ rated episode out of 26 from the fifth season , according to an episode poll at the fansite OfficeTally ; the episode was rated 8 @.@ 27 out of 10 .
This episode received a Primetime Emmy Award nomination for Outstanding Sound Mixing for a Comedy or Drama Series ( Half @-@ Hour ) and Animation . " Michael Scott Paper Company " accounted for one of the ten Primetime Emmy Award nominations The Office received for the show 's fifth season at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , which were held on September 20 , 2009 .
= Tropical Storm Debby ( 2012 ) =
Tropical Storm Debby caused extensive flooding in North Florida and Central Florida during late June 2012 . The fourth tropical cyclone and named storm of the 2012 Atlantic hurricane season , Debby developed from a trough of low pressure in the central Gulf of Mexico on June 23 . The formation into a tropical storm was the earliest formation on record of the fourth named storm within the Atlantic basin until this record was beaten by Tropical Storm Danielle in 2016 . Despite a projected track toward landfall in Louisiana or Texas , the storm headed the opposite direction , moving slowly north @-@ northeast and northeastward . The storm slowly strengthened , and at 1800 UTC on June 25 , attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Dry air , westerly wind shear , and upwelling of cold waters prevented further intensification over the next 24 hours . Instead , Debby weakened , and by late on June 26 , it was a minimal tropical storm . At 2100 UTC , the storm made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . Once inland , the system continued to weaken while crossing Florida , and dissipated shortly after emerging into the Atlantic on June 27 .
The storm dropped immense amounts of precipitation near its path . Rainfall peaked at 28 @.@ 78 inches ( 731 mm ) in Curtis Mill , Florida , located in southwestern Wakulla County . The Sopchoppy River , which reached its record height , flooded at least 400 structures in Wakulla County . Additionally , the Suwannee River reached its highest level since Hurricane Dora in 1964 . Further south in Pasco County , the Anclote River and Pithlachascotee River overflowed , flooding communities with " head deep " water and causing damage to 106 homes . An additional 587 homes were inundated after the Black Creek overflowed in Clay County . Several roads and highways in North Florida were left impassable , including Interstate 10 and U.S. Route 90 . U.S. Routes 19 and 98 were also inundated by coastal flooding . In Central and South Florida , damage was primarily caused by tornadoes , one of which caused a fatality . Overall , Debby caused at least $ 250 million in losses and 10 deaths , 8 in Florida and 1 each in Alabama and South Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
During mid @-@ June , the Intertropical Convergence Zone ( ITCZ ) made its annual migration northward into the southern Gulf of Mexico . Coinciding with a Madden – Julian oscillation , a weak surface low pressure area developed on June 19 , and subsequently moved inland over the Yucatán Peninsula . While the system crossed the peninsula , a tropical wave moved through the northwestern Caribbean Sea on June 18 . The wave reached the Gulf of Mexico on June 20 and merged with the low a few days later , spawning a trough of low pressure on June 22 . Located in the southeastern Gulf of Mexico , moderate vertical wind shear caused the system to remain disorganized . Nonetheless , Air Force Reserve Hurricane Hunter aircraft indicated that the trough acquired a low @-@ level circulation on June 23 , while ships in the area reported tropical storm force winds . Thus , it is estimated that Tropical Storm Debby developed at 1200 UTC on June 23 , centered about 290 miles ( 470 km ) south of mouth of the Mississippi River .
Becoming a tropical storm on June 23 , Debby became the earliest fourth named storm in the Atlantic basin , surpassing the old record set by Hurricane Dennis on July 5 , 2005 , however with 2016 's Danielle the record was beaten by three days . Initially , Debby was predicted to curve westward and potentially threaten Texas . A deepening trough would curve the storm westward , while wind shear was predicted to decrease . Although the storm generated very cold cloud tops , much of the convection was located more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) from the center and still displaced to the east . By 1200 UTC on June 24 , the forecast path was shifted from east @-@ central Texas to southeastern Louisiana . Despite persistent wind shear , Debby was strengthening and around that time , the storm attained its maximum sustained wind speed of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) . Later on June 24 , the National Hurricane Center noted in its next advisory that this " is a very difficult and highly uncertain forecast " , citing Debby 's slow movement and widespread computer forecast models .
The forecast track for Debby was shifted significantly to the east late on June 24 , and it was predicted that the storm would move northward and make landfall near Panama City , Florida . Based on a dropsonde estimate , Debby attained its minimum barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( 29 inHg ) at 0000 UTC on June 25 . However , the storm began to weaken due to increasing wind shear , drier air , and upwelling of cold water , caused by Debby 's slow movement . It was initially composed of multiple small swirls , but consolidated into one well @-@ defined low @-@ level circulation by early on June 25 . Due to its excessively slow movement and no prediction for acceleration , the National Hurricane Center remarked that , " the cyclone does not seem to be going anywhere anytime soon . " A burst in deep convection occurred later on June 25 , though adverse environmental conditions prevented re @-@ intensification . Debby began curving east @-@ northeastward and began to speed up on June 26 , in response to a mid @-@ latitude trough digging into the western Atlantic Ocean . While approaching the Florida Big Bend , Debby produced only a small area of deep convection on satellite imagery .
At 2100 UTC June 26 , Debby made landfall near Steinhatchee , Florida with winds of 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) . The storm weakened quickly after moving inland , and by early on June 27 , it was downgraded to a tropical depression , while located about 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of Gainesville , Florida . Debby maintained tropical cyclone status while crossing Florida , but degenerated into a trough of low pressure by 1800 UTC on June 27 . In the final advisory issued by the National Hurricane Center three hours later , the agency noted that Debby could eventually reacquire tropical characteristics . After its dissipation , however , the remnants did not regenerate into a tropical cyclone , but re @-@ developed a new center of circulation and strengthened slightly due to baroclinic conditions . As it accelerated northward , Debby 's remnants became increasingly frontal in nature , and once again degenerated into an open trough at 1800 UTC on June 30 ; at this time , the disturbance was located south of Newfoundland .
= = Preparations = =
Upon development of Debby on June 23 , a tropical storm warning was issued from the mouth of the Pearl River to Morgan City , Louisiana , excluding New Orleans or Lake Pontchartrain . On the following day , a separate tropical storm warning was put into effect from the Mississippi and Alabama border to the mouth of the Ochlockonee River in Florida . At 1500 UTC on June 24 , the tropical storm warning was extended to the mouth of the Suwannee River . Simultaneously , a tropical storm watch was issued from the Suwannee River to Anclote Key . These were all canceled at 1500 UTC on June 25 , though a tropical storm warning was then implemented from Destin to Englewood , Florida . Early on June 26 , a tropical storm warning was issued from Mexico Beach to Englewood , Florida . By 2100 UTC that day , the tropical storm warning was extended to the mouth of Steinhatchee River in Florida . This was discontinued after Debby became a tropical depression .
Several additional preparations took place in addition to tropical cyclone warnings and watches . According to the Federal government of the United States , nearly 25 % of crude oil and natural gas production in the Gulf of Mexico was shutdown . In Louisiana , Governor Bobby Jindal declared a state of emergency . On June 24 , voluntary evacuations were issued for several areas in northwest Florida during the approach of the storm , especially Taylor and Wakulla Counties . Governor of Florida Rick Scott also declared a state of emergency on June 25 . Additionally , mandatory evacuations were issued for St. George Island , Alligator Point , and other low @-@ lying areas of Franklin County .
= = Impact = =
Throughout the Southeastern United States , nine people were killed in relation to Tropical Storm Debby . Of these , seven took place in Florida and one each in Alabama and South Carolina . Throughout Central and South Florida , the outerbands of the storm spawned 13 tornadoes : five in Collier County , two in Glades County , one in Hardee County , two in Highlands County , one in Miami @-@ Dade County , and two in Palm Beach County . Overall , losses from the storm were estimated to have reached at least $ 250 million .
= = = Florida = = =
= = = = North Florida and Panhandle = = = =
Throughout June 25 , an intense complex of thunderstorms developed to the north of Debby 's center and produced torrential rains over the Florida Panhandle for much of the day . Many areas received rainfall in excess of 15 inches ( 380 mm ) . Precipitation peaked at 28 @.@ 78 inches ( 731 mm ) in Curtis Mill , which is located in Wakulla County . In Panacea , a Mesonet station recorded a 24 ‑ hour rainfall of 20 @.@ 63 inches ( 524 mm ) . Rainfall caused numerous small creeks , streams , and rivers to rapidly exceed their banks and flood adjacent communities . The Sopchoppy River crested at 36 @.@ 8 feet ( 11 @.@ 2 m ) , which was a record height . Numerous homes were flooded , some up to the second story . Two bridges were damaged , and numerous roads around the county were washed out or closed . Over 400 structures were affected by flooding , including more than 170 mobile homes and nearly 200 single @-@ family residences . Of these structures , 40 were destroyed , 61 had major flood damage , 41 suffered minor flood damage , and 271 were affected by flooding . Additionally , coastal flooding impacted the county , with a storm surge of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) and tides up 6 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 0 m ) in St. Marks . Numerous roads were underwater and several area businesses received water intrusion in that city . U.S. Route 98 was over @-@ washed just north of St. Marks . As a result , mandatory evacuations were ordered south of U.S. Route 98 and around the Sopchoppy River . In total , 67 people required rescuing . Losses throughout the county were assessed at $ 9 @.@ 09 million .
The storm also produced adverse effects in Franklin County . In Apalachicola , a gust of 65 mph ( 105 km / h ) was observed as well as 6 @.@ 03 inches ( 153 mm ) of rainfall on June 24 , resulting in widespread flash flooding . The John Gorrie Memorial Bridge connecting Apalachicola to Eastpoint was closed on June 24 due to high winds . A wind gust of 66 mph ( 106 km / h ) was reported at the Apalachicola Regional Airport . The St. George Island Bridge , a 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) bridge connecting Eastpoint to St. George Island over the Apalachicola Bay , was also closed on June 24 due to high winds . The bridge was opened later that day as both St. George Island and Alligator Point were put under a mandatory evacuation , requiring all people to leave immediately , and those remaining on the islands subject to arrest . St. George Island , a popular resort community and tourist destination , lost all power on June 24 due to high winds destroying three power poles in the Apalachicola Bay ; a Progress Energy spokesperson stated that it could be days before power was restored because the conditions are too unsafe for workers . In Bay County , moderate beach erosion occurred , with a storm surge reaching 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) and storm tide of 2 @.@ 42 feet ( 0 @.@ 74 m ) in Panama City . Flooding forced the closure of a few roads in Jefferson County , including U.S. Route 27 west of U.S. Route 19 .
In Madison County , one house was surrounded by in overflowing retention pond near the city of Madison . State Road 51 in Lafayette County flooded , caused by the Steinhatchee River exceeding its banks . In Dixie County , several roads north of Cross City experienced flooding , while water entered at least 40 homes along the Steinhatchee River . Moderate coastal flooding occurred in Horseshoe Beach , due to an estimated storm surge of 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) , with tides reaching 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) above normal . Water entered several homes near the coast and surrounded outbuildings by up to 1 @.@ 5 feet ( 0 @.@ 46 m ) . In Columbia County , preliminary losses were placed in excess of $ 20 million as of July 3 and did not take into account hundreds of homes that remained flooded at the time . Several bridges were washed out due to the heavy rain ; both U.S. Route 319 and U.S. Route 98 were closed due to flooding . In Suwannee County , the Suwannee River at Live Oak reached its highest crest since Hurricane Dora in 1964 . Gainesville received its second @-@ highest daily rain total of 6 @.@ 95 inches ( 177 mm ) on June 24 . In Marion County , up to 10 @.@ 25 inches ( 260 mm ) of rain was reported near Fellowship . As a result , State Road 40 was closed due to high water . Additionally , as many as 52 sinkholes were reported to have formed along roadways in the county . Flooding also occurred in Duval County . The public reported that water entered a home on Rose Street in Jacksonville . Streets were flooded in Orange Park , and water approached the doors of houses , forcing some residents to evacuate . The St. Marys River reached historic heights and flooded a lot homes in Baker and Nassau Counties .
= = = = Central Florida = = = =
In Levy County , tropical storm force winds were felt along the coast . Heavy rainfall was reported across the county , with the CoCoRaHS site near Chiefland of receiving 13 @.@ 42 inches ( 341 mm ) . At Cedar Key , tides reached 6 @.@ 78 feet ( 2 @.@ 07 m ) mean lower low water on June 25 . The highest storm surge was estimated to have peaked at 4 @.@ 49 feet ( 1 @.@ 37 m ) mean lower low water . A few buildings were flooded by the storm surge at Cedar Key and Yankeetown . In total , damage to public property was approximately $ 175 @,@ 000 . Rainfall was generally above 9 inches ( 230 mm ) across Citrus County , and peaked at 12 @.@ 07 inches ( 307 mm ) near Hernando . Several homes were flooded with 1 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 30 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) of water . Significant street flooding was reported at Kings Bay , while several streets were inundated by up to 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) of water in Homosassa . Overall , damage was minor , reaching about $ 127 @,@ 000 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in Hernando County , with 15 @.@ 53 inches ( 394 mm ) in Spring Hill . A portion of State Road 589 was shutdown between State Road 50 and U.S. Route 98 , with as much as 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) of standing water on that stretch of the highway . Along the Anclote and Pithlachascotee Rivers in Pasco County , emergency managers ordered mandatory evacuations for 14 @,@ 000 – 20 @,@ 000 people as the rivers rose dramatically . The Anclote River rose from 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) to 27 ft ( 8 @.@ 2 m ) , well above major flood stage , leaving surrounding areas in " head @-@ deep " water . At least 106 homes in the county were damaged by flood waters . Additionally , a tornado near New Port Richey caused major damage to five homes . Throughout the county , damage to private property was $ 1 @.@ 5 million , while public property losses were estimated at $ 26 million .
A man drowned near Lake Dorr in Lake County after his canoe capsized along a river in Ocala National Forest . In Polk County , a woman died after her car hydroplaned on a flooded road . Another person drowned on a river in the after his canoe capsized ; however , it is unknown whether or not his death was attributable to Debby . Throughout Polk County , 115 homes were damaged , mainly as a result of tornadoes , and losses were estimated at $ 5 million . A tornado in Hardee County felled several trees and damaged a tractor and a barn . In Glades County , one tornado caused minor roof damage to a barn in Muce , while the other resulted in no effects . In Highlands County , four homes were destroyed and twenty @-@ four more were damaged to varying degrees by two tornadoes . Losses in the county reached approximately $ 1 @.@ 4 million . Several homes were damaged by the two twisters in Highlands County , with one resulting in a fatality near Venus . In St. Petersburg , a gust of 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) was observed , while 1 @.@ 88 inches ( 48 mm ) of rain fell in a one @-@ hour period . With the substantial loss of beaches , tourism in the region is expected to suffer significantly . Portions of Upham Beach in Pinellas County were completely eroded up to the seawall and other areas in that county had lost 20 to 30 ft ( 6 @.@ 1 to 9 @.@ 1 m ) of sand . On Treasure Island , coastal dunes were eroded by 10 to 15 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) . In Pass @-@ a @-@ Grille , Debby 's storm surge flooded coastal hotels with ankle @-@ deep water as the dunes were washed away . Throughout St. Pete Beach , 30 – 40 homes were damaged by a tornado spawned by Debby . Losses throughout the city were estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million . In Hillsborough County , wind gusts of 39 to 51 mph ( 63 to 82 km / h ) were measured at MacDill Air Force Base . Rainfall was at least 5 inches ( 130 mm ) across much of the county and peaked at 11 @.@ 91 inches ( 303 mm ) near Citrus Park . The storm damage 74 buildings , 6 of which were destroyed . The highest storm surge was estimated to have reached 4 @.@ 07 feet ( 1 @.@ 24 m ) in height . As a result , portions of Bay Shore Boulevard were inundated for three days .
On Anna Maria Island in Manatee County , water reached the retention walls of several condos , some of which were undermined , allowing water to enter beach @-@ side pools . The most significant losses were on the south side of the island where up to half of the dunes were lost . In Sarasota County , as much as 10 @.@ 9 inches ( 280 mm ) of rain fell near the city of Sarasota . Wind and floods damaged 52 structures , with losses reaching $ 540 @,@ 000 . At Lido Beach , high water flooded a parking lot . Damage to area beaches from erosion was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 9 million . A state of emergency was declared due to storm surge damage in the county . The first tornado in Collier County caused minor roof damage to a few structures near Naples on June 23 . A second tornado in the county later that day broke light poles and snapped tree limbs in North Naples , with one person being injured by a falling branch . Three others twisters were spawned in Collier County on June 24 , though damage was no more than a few downed trees . The Charlotte County Airport recorded a 55 mph ( 89 km / h ) wind gust , while the highest rainfall total was 5 @.@ 25 inches ( 133 mm ) near Englewood . Damage reached $ 2 @.@ 5 million and was mostly from beach erosion and coastal flooding . In Lee County , rainfall peaked at 4 @.@ 95 inches ( 126 mm ) in Cape Coral . Rough tides and storm surge caused beach erosion and coastal flooding , especially at Captiva and Sanibel Islands . The county suffered approximately $ 2 @.@ 3 million in losses .
= = = South Florida and Elsewhere = = =
At the Palm Beach International Airport in West Palm Beach , 1 @.@ 51 inches ( 38 mm ) of precipitation fell in only one hour . Further south in Pompano Beach , 4 @.@ 32 inches ( 110 mm ) of rain was reported in a 24 @-@ hour period . A tornado in Palm Beach County damaged a few houses and some vegetation in Lake Worth . The other twister in Palm Beach County snapped some trees , blew a gate across a street , and broke a railroad crossing arm . A waterspout offshore Miami @-@ Dade County moved inland near Golden Beach and twisted three gates and blew open a garage door . Offshore in the Gulf of Mexico , nine oil production platforms and one drilling rig were damaged . Overall , United States oil production decreased by 2 % . On June 25 , 44 % of the daily oil and 33 % of the daily natural gas production in the Gulf of Mexico was shut down . The following day , companies began returning employees to platforms and production was rapidly restored . A man in Orange Beach , Alabama drowned after being swept away by heavy surf . Off the coast of South Carolina , one person went missing and is presumed dead after rescuers failed to find him after several days . Heavy rainfall from Debby extended northward into southern Georgia , peaking at 12 @.@ 7 inches ( 320 mm ) in Fargo . Localized and isolated flooding occurred in nearby Lowndes County , with up to 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water in the parking lot at a Sonny 's restaurant in Lake Park . The remnants of Debby passed about 90 miles ( 140 km ) north of Bermuda on June 29 and produced tropical storm force winds on the island , but caused no damage .
= = Aftermath = =
Following the storm , President of the United States Barack Obama issued a disaster declaration for Baker , Bradford , Citrus , Clay , Columbia , Duval , Franklin , Gilchrist , Hernando , Highlands , Hillsborough , Lafayette , Manatee , Nassau , Pasco , Pinellas , Polk , Sarasota , Suwannee , Taylor , Union , and Wakulla Counties of Florida . In Citrus County , total individual assistance of $ 127 @,@ 000 was paid out to 140 residents , including $ 112 @,@ 000 in damage to housing . A total of 1 @,@ 671 applications for individual assistance were filed in Pinellas County , totaling $ 900 @,@ 000 .
= Cloudy catshark =
The cloudy catshark ( Scyliorhinus torazame ) is a common species of catshark , belonging to the family Scyliorhinidae . It is a bottom @-@ dweller that inhabits rocky reefs in the northwestern Pacific Ocean , from the shore to a depth of 320 m ( 1 @,@ 050 ft ) . Growing up to 50 cm ( 20 in ) long , this small , slim shark has a narrow head with a short blunt snout , no grooves between the nostrils and mouth , and furrows on the lower but not the upper jaw . It is also characterized by extremely rough skin and coloration consisting of a series of dark brown saddles along its back and tail , along with various darker and lighter spots in larger individuals .
The diet of the cloudy catshark consists of molluscs , crustaceans , and bony fishes . It is oviparous , with females laying encapsulated eggs two at a time in nursery areas . The claspers of the male bear numerous hooks that likely serve to facilitate copulation . This harmless shark can be readily maintained in captivity and is used as a model organism for biological research . It is caught incidentally , and generally discarded , by commercial fisheries . These activities do not appear to have negatively affected its population , leading it to be listed under Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) .
= = Taxonomy = =
The original description of the cloudy catshark was published in 1908 by Shigeho Tanaka in the Journal of the Faculty of Science , University of Tokyo . He gave it the specific epithet torazame , which is its Japanese name ( 虎鮫 , literally " tiger shark " ) , and assigned it to the genus Catulus . The type specimen was a 45 cm ( 18 in ) long adult male caught off Misaki , Kanagawa , Japan . Subsequent authors have synonymized Catulus with Scyliorhinus .
= = Description = =
The cloudy catshark reaches 50 cm ( 20 in ) long and has a thin , deep , and firm body . The narrow head makes up slightly under one @-@ sixth of the total length , and is two @-@ thirds as wide as it is long . The snout is short and rounded . The large nostrils are preceded by small , triangular flaps of skin that do not reach the wide mouth . The medium @-@ sized eyes are horizontally oval , equipped with rudimentary nictitating membranes ( protective third eyelids ) , and followed by moderate spiracles . There are no grooves between the nostrils and the mouth . There are furrows extending from the corners of the mouth over the lower jaw only . The small teeth have a long central cusp typically flanked by two pairs of cusplets . The five pairs of gill slits are short , with the fourth pair over the pectoral fin origins .
The two dorsal fins are placed towards the back of the body , with the first originating over the rear of the pelvic fin bases . The first dorsal fin has a rounded apex and is larger than the second dorsal fin , which has a more angular shape . The pectoral and pelvic fins are moderate in size . In males , the inner margins of the pelvic fins are merged to form an " apron " over the long , cylindrical claspers . The origin of the anal fin lies approximately between the dorsal fins . The caudal peduncle is about as deep as the body , and leads to a low caudal fin with an indistinct lower lobe and a ventral notch near the tip of the upper lobe . The skin is thick and very rough due to the dermal denticles , which are large and upright with three backward @-@ pointing teeth . This species is brown on the back and sides , with 6 – 10 indistinct darker dorsal saddles , and plain yellowish on its ventral side . Larger sharks also have many large , irregularly shaped light and dark spots .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The cloudy catshark is common in the northwestern Pacific off Japan , Korea , China , and possibly the Philippines . Bottom @-@ dwelling in nature , this species can be found from the shore out to a depth of 320 m ( 1 @,@ 050 ft ) on the continental shelf and upper continental slope . It favors rocky reefs and does not appear to be migratory .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The cloudy catshark feeds primarily on molluscs , followed by crustaceans and bony fishes . A predator of both this shark and its egg cases is the blotchy swell shark ( Cephaloscyllium umbratile ) . A known parasite of this species is the myxosporidian Chloromyxum scyliorhinum . Reproduction is oviparous ; adult females have a single functional ovary and two functional oviducts . As a prelude to mating , the male bites at the female 's pectoral fin , side , and gill region . Once he has a grip , he wraps his body around hers and inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca . Copulation may last between 15 seconds and 4 minutes . The claspers of the male are unusual in that each has a row of around a hundred hooks running along the inner margin . These hooks likely serve to anchor the male to the female during copulation . The female is capable of storing sperm within her nidamental gland ( an organ that secretes egg cases ) for many months .
Females produce two mature eggs at a time , one per oviduct . The eggs are enclosed in smooth , translucent yellow , vase @-@ shaped capsules measuring 1 @.@ 9 cm ( 0 @.@ 75 in ) across and 5 @.@ 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) long . There are long tendrils at the four corners of the capsule . The eggs are laid in defined nursery areas : One such area is located at a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) off Hakodate . When the embryo is 3 @.@ 6 cm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) long , it has external gills , undeveloped fins , and no pigmentation . At an embryonic length of 5 @.@ 8 cm ( 2 @.@ 3 in ) , the external gills have all but disappeared , and a covering of small denticles is present . By a length of 7 @.@ 9 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) , the embryo has well @-@ developed fins and pigmentation , and generally resembles the adult . The eggs take 15 months to hatch at 11 @.@ 3 ° C ( 52 @.@ 3 ° F ) , and 7 – 9 months to hatch at 14 @.@ 5 ° C ( 58 @.@ 1 ° F ) . The newly hatched shark measures 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 1 in ) long or more . Maturation size tends to increase with decreasing water temperature : Off northerly Hakodate , both sexes mature at over 38 cm ( 15 in ) long , while some females remain immature even at 47 cm ( 19 in ) long . By contrast , off southerly Tsushima Island both sexes mature at around 33 cm ( 13 in ) long . The maximum lifespan is at least 12 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Harmless to humans , the cloudy catshark adapts well to captivity and has reproduced in the aquarium . It is often used as a model organism in physiology research . On September 25 , 1995 , Masuda Motoyashi and colleagues used this species to perform the first successful artificial insemination of a shark or ray . The cloudy catshark is caught incidentally by commercial fisheries with bottom fishing nets including trawls and gillnets , as well as on bottom longlines . Captured individuals are typically discarded , possibly with a high survival rate due to their hardiness . Some 40 % of the fish discarded in Yamaguchi Prefecture fisheries are of this species . The bottom trawl fishery operating off Fukushima Prefecture may catch over a ton of cloudy catsharks annually , which are also discarded .
Despite heavy fishing pressure within its range , the cloudy catshark remains common , perhaps because it may be more biologically productive than most other sharks . As a result , it has been assessed as Least Concern by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . Cloudy catsharks from a number of locations off Japan have been found to be contaminated with polychlorinated biphenyls ( PCBs ) and dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene ( DDEs ) , which they acquire from their food . One likely source of these pollutants is the use of the pesticide DDT by developing nations in southern Asia .
= Performance Review =
" Performance Review " is the eighth episode of the second season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fourteenth episode overall . It was written by Larry Wilmore and directed by Paul Feig . It first aired on November 15 , 2005 on NBC . The episode guest stars Melora Hardin as Jan Levinson .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In this episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) conducts job performance reviews with his employees , and struggles to get Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) to talk about their romantic relationship from the previous episode . Meanwhile , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) trick Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) into thinking that it is Friday , when it is in fact Thursday .
The episode was originally going to be about " weight loss " and be one of the very first episodes of the second season . Several scenes were created due to onset accidents and ad @-@ libbing , such as Dwight 's fitness orb popping and Michael grabbing Jan 's breast accidentally . " Performance Review " contained several pop culture references . It received mostly positive reviews from critics and earned a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 9 in the 18 – 49 demographic , being viewed by 8 million viewers .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) meets with each of his employees to discuss their job performance . He plunders the employee suggestion box for ideas to impress his own boss , Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) , but the ruse backfires and he embarrasses himself . Michael relentlessly pesters Jan about their previous romantic connection but she bluntly rejects him , especially when , during the office 's suggestion box meeting , she discovers that everyone in the Scranton branch is aware of the incident . As Jan storms out of the office , she admonishes Michael before complimenting him and reluctantly stating that she is not ready for a relationship . Meanwhile , the stunned staff listens in .
Meanwhile , Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) attempts to have a successful performance review in order to get a raise . He makes elaborate posters , prepares a ridiculous speech , and pumps himself up in the office 's hallway . Unfortunately for him , Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and Pam Beesley ( Jenna Fischer ) successfully prank him by making him believe that it is a Friday instead of a Thursday . He arrives at the office very late the next day , much to Michael 's annoyance .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The episode was written by Larry Wilmore , making it his first and only writing contribution to the series . Wilmore had previously guest starred in the series as Mr. Brown , the diversity instructor who gives a presentation to the office in the first season episode " Diversity Day " . The episode was originally going to be about " weight loss " and be one of the very first episodes of the second season aired . However , after " The Dundies " and " The Fire " , series creator and developer Greg Daniels decided to hold the episode off and combine it with elements of " The Client " . When " Performance Review " was being formulated , Wilmore had " four different ideas that were scrunched together to make an episode " . One of the ideas was on a card that said " Thursday Friday " . After inquiring about the meaning , Wilmore loved the idea and noted that it " would be great " in the episode and a " real funny thing to pull on Dwight " . Originally , the episode contained a subplot wherein Pam attempts to get a new chair approved by Michael . The scenes , in fact , were shot , but were never aired .
= = = Filming = = =
The episode was directed by Paul Feig , making it his third episode directed for The Office after " Office Olympics " and " Halloween " . During the filming of the episode , Jenna Fischer came down with a cold . Instead of postponing , however , Fischer memorized and performed all her lines , resulting in fellow cast member Angela Kinsey calling her a " trooper " .
Several scenes were created due to onset accidents and ad @-@ libbing . In the cold opening , Dwight tries to impress Jim with his recently purchased " fitness orb " . Initially dismissive , Jim pops the ball after Dwight becomes increasingly obnoxious and troublesome . Before filming , the scene had been successfully rehearsed " about ten times " ; each time , when Krasinski punctured the plastic , the ball slowly deflated . However , when it came time to film the scene , Krasinski accidentally hit the ball " right on the seam " , resulting in Wilson quickly — and dramatically — hitting the carpet . In fact , several of the cast members in the background can be seen laughing , due to the unexpected nature of the shot . Initially , the cut was relegated to the blooper reel , but Wilmore pleaded with Daniels to include it in the finished episode . " The accidental boob grap " scene was based on a mistake made by Carell during a rehearsal . Originally , he was supposed to pat Hardin 's shoulder . Instead , however , he accidentally brushed past her breast . Hardin , finding the accident " hilarious " , demanded that Carell do it during the actual shooting . Furthermore , several of the scenes were improvised beyond the initial lines given to Steve Carell and Melora Hardin , such as the ending wherein Michael and Jan have a discussion about Michael 's flaws . Wilson recounts that he had to sit at his desk for " an hour and a half " due to the ad libbing .
During the suggestion box scene , Larry Wilmore envisioned Dwight as an Ed McMahon @-@ type character , repeating everything Michael said . Paul Lieberstein claimed that figuring out the logistics for the conference room scene was " the heart " of the episode . Hardin recalled that it was extremely difficult to stay in character , due to the humorous nature of the dialogue and the cast members ' reactions . In fact , the cast broke more than usual during filming . During the scene , Michael reads a suggestion from someone named Tom , who asks for better help for people with mental disorders . After inquiring who this mysterious Tom is , Phyllis tells Michael that he worked in accounting several years ago and committed suicide . Wilmore claimed during the DVD commentary for the episode that the writers would be bringing him back in the show 's third season , in which his backstory would be explained , although this never panned out . However , during the Writer 's Block Q & A session at The Office Convention in 2007 , the writers , perhaps sardonically , suggested that Tom 's death was the reason that Ryan was brought in as a temporary worker . Tom 's name is briefly seen on Dwight 's organization chart in the fourth season episode " Did I Stutter " , where his name is revealed to be Tom Peets .
The Season Two DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Michael giving Oscar Martinez ( Oscar Nunez ) his performance review , Dwight giving Jim advice for his performance review , an extension of Dwight psyching himself up in the stairwell , Michael calling Jan 's ex @-@ husband and her reaction , and Michael describing the office with a confused metaphor involving organs of the body .
= = Cultural references = =
To summarize why he deserves a raise , Dwight utilizes a Lex Luthor quote from the " Hothead " episode of Smallville . Writer Jason Kessler was tasked with searching on the internet in order to get the right line . Kinsey was pleased with the inclusion of the Smallville quote . In order to trick Dwight into thinking that Thursday was actually Friday , Pam and Jim discuss who Donald Trump fired on The Apprentice , which was in its fourth season at the time the episode aired . Before his review , Dwight pumps himself up by listening to glam metal band Mötley Crüe .
= = Reception = =
" Performance Review " originally aired on NBC in the United States on November 15 , 2005 . The episode was viewed by 8 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 9 rating / 9 percent share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 9 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . An encore presentation of the episode , on June 6 , 2006 , received 2 @.@ 5 rating / 7 percent share and was viewed by over 4 @.@ 7 million viewers .
" Miss Alli " from Television Without Pity gave the episode an " A – " rating . Dan Phillips of IGN named " Dwight 's First Day Late " as the tenth greatest prank on the show . He noted , " Seeing a disheveled , unshaven Dwight run desperately towards the office in hopes of saving his perfect performance record was enough to land this prank on the list despite its lack of complexity . " Diane Holloway of the Austin American @-@ Statesman wrote positively of the episode , and cited it as an example of how The Office , along with My Name is Earl , has " restored the comedy hour to NBC " . Michael Sciannamea of Huffpost TV wrote that he " liked the idea of having a continuation of a storyline " from " The Client " , but that the subplot of Dwight mistaking a Thursday for a Friday " really didn 't go anywhere . " He also noted that " Dwight 's behavior was over the top again " , a fact which " can really be disconcerting . " Matt Zoller Seitz of Salon named the entry the ninth best episode of the series , praising the comedic confrontation between Michael and Jan , as well as being a " strong Dwight episode " . Furthermore , Seitz praised the cold opening , calling it " a classic Jim prank " .
Erik Adams of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " B " , and wrote that the episode was " squarely invested in advancing the pieces on The Office 's game board — all the while keeping its gaze fixed on the events of the previous episode . " Adams felt that the A @-@ story was largely dramatic , but was successfully balanced by the simplistic yet humorous B @-@ story which " helps that A @-@ story find its best beats . " Ultimately , he felt that " the episode sets up a portion of the season where secrets and snooping become recurring components — fitting for a show grounded in the truth @-@ telling conventions of documentary film .
Holloway highlighted Michael 's review of Angela , wherein he tells her " You 're adequate " , as the best line in the episode . TV Fanatic reviewed several of the quotes for the episode . The site ranked Angela 's monologue about how much she loves being judged , as well as Jim 's revelation that Dwight thinks a Thursday is really a Friday , a four out of five . TV Fanatic awarded the conversation between Stanley and Michael — wherein Stanley tells Michael how to properly listen for subtext in a voicemail — as well as Dwight 's frustration that he went out and got drunk with his laser tag team , a five out of five . Wilson later claimed that Dwight 's line about laser tag caused " quite a buzz " online .
= Harriet Tubman =
Harriet Tubman ( born Araminta Ross ; c . 1822 – March 10 , 1913 ) was an American abolitionist , humanitarian , and an armed scout and spy for the United States Army during the American Civil War . Born into slavery , Tubman escaped and subsequently made some thirteen missions to rescue approximately seventy enslaved families and friends , using the network of antislavery activists and safe houses known as the Underground Railroad . She later helped abolitionist John Brown recruit men for his raid on Harpers Ferry , and in the post @-@ war era was an active participant in the struggle for women 's suffrage .
Born a slave in Dorchester County , Maryland , Tubman was beaten and whipped by her various masters as a child . Early in life , she suffered a traumatic head wound when an irate slave owner threw a heavy metal weight intending to hit another slave and hit her instead . The injury caused dizziness , pain , and spells of hypersomnia , which occurred throughout her life . She was a devout Christian and experienced strange visions and vivid dreams , which she ascribed to premonitions from God .
In 1849 , Tubman escaped to Philadelphia , then immediately returned to Maryland to rescue her family . Slowly , one group at a time , she brought relatives with her out of the state , and eventually guided dozens of other slaves to freedom . Traveling by night and in extreme secrecy , Tubman ( or " Moses " , as she was called ) " never lost a passenger " . After the Fugitive Slave Act of 1850 was passed , she helped guide fugitives farther north into British North America , and helped newly freed slaves find work .
When the Civil War began , Tubman worked for the Union Army , first as a cook and nurse , and then as an armed scout and spy . The first woman to lead an armed expedition in the war , she guided the raid at Combahee Ferry , which liberated more than 700 slaves . After the war , she retired to the family home on property she had purchased in 1859 in Auburn , New York , where she cared for her aging parents . She was active in the women 's suffrage movement until illness overtook her and she had to be admitted to a home for elderly African Americans that she had helped to establish years earlier . After she died in 1913 , she became an icon of American courage and freedom . On April 20 , 2016 , the U.S. Treasury Department announced a plan for Tubman to replace Andrew Jackson as the portrait gracing the $ 20 bill .
= = Early life and education = =
Tubman was born Araminta " Minty " Ross to slave parents , Harriet ( " Rit " ) Green and Ben Ross . Rit was owned by Mary Pattison Brodess ( and later her son Edward ) . Ben was held by Anthony Thompson , who became Mary 's second husband , and who ran a large plantation near Blackwater River in Madison , Maryland . As with many slaves in the United States , neither the exact year nor place of Araminta 's birth is known , and historians differ as to the best estimate . Kate Larson records the year as 1822 , based on a midwife payment and several other historical documents , including her runaway advertisement , while Jean Humez says " the best current evidence suggests that Tubman was born in 1820 , but it might have been a year or two later . " Catherine Clinton notes that Tubman reported the year of her birth as 1825 , while her death certificate lists 1815 and her gravestone lists 1820 . In her Civil War widow 's pension records , Tubman claimed she was born in 1820 , 1822 , and 1825 , an indication , perhaps , that she had only a general idea of when she was born .
Modesty , Tubman 's maternal grandmother , arrived in the United States on a slave ship from Africa ; no information is available about her other ancestors . As a child , Tubman was told that she was of Ashanti lineage ( from what is now Ghana ) , though no evidence exists to confirm or deny this assertion . Her mother Rit ( who may have had a white father ) was a cook for the Brodess family . Her father Ben was a skilled woodsman who managed the timber work on Thompson 's plantation . They married around 1808 and , according to court records , they had nine children together : Linah , Mariah Ritty , Soph , Robert , Minty ( Harriet ) , Ben , Rachel , Henry , and Moses .
Rit struggled to keep her family together as slavery threatened to tear it apart . Edward Brodess sold three of her daughters ( Linah , Mariah Ritty , and Soph ) , separating them from the family forever . When a trader from Georgia approached Brodess about buying Rit 's youngest son , Moses , she hid him for a month , aided by other slaves and free blacks in the community . At one point she confronted her owner about the sale . Finally , Brodess and " the Georgia man " came toward the slave quarters to seize the child , where Rit told them , " You are after my son ; but the first man that comes into my house , I will split his head open . " Brodess backed away and abandoned the sale . Tubman 's biographers agree that stories told about this event within the family influenced her belief in the possibilities of resistance .
= = Childhood = =
Tubman 's mother was assigned to " the big house " and had scarce time for her family ; consequently , as a child Tubman took care of a younger brother and baby , as was typical in large families . When she was five or six years old , Brodess hired her out as a nursemaid to a woman named " Miss Susan " . She was ordered to keep watch on the baby as it slept ; when it woke up and cried , she was whipped . She later recounted a particular day when she was lashed five times before breakfast . She carried the scars for the rest of her life . She found ways to resist , running away for five days , wearing layers of clothing as protection against beatings , and fighting back .
As a child , Tubman also worked at the home of a planter named James Cook . She had to check the muskrat traps in nearby marshes , even after contracting measles . She became so ill that Cook sent her back to Brodess , where her mother nursed her back to health . Brodess then hired her out again . She spoke later of her acute childhood homesickness , comparing herself to " the boy on the Swanee River " , an allusion to Stephen Foster 's song " Old Folks at Home " . As she grew older and stronger , she was assigned to field and forest work , driving oxen , plowing , and hauling logs .
= = = Religion = = =
As an illiterate child , she had been told Bible stories by her mother . The particular variety of her early Christian belief remains unclear , but she acquired a passionate faith in God . She rejected the teachings of the New Testament that urged slaves to be obedient and found guidance in the Old Testament tales of deliverance . Tubman was devout , and when she began experiencing visions and vivid dreams , she interpreted them as revelations from God . This religious perspective informed her actions throughout her life .
= = = Head injury = = =
As a child in Dorchester County , Maryland , Tubman was beaten by masters to whom she was hired out . Early in her life , she suffered a severe head wound when hit by a heavy metal weight . The injury caused disabling epileptic seizures , headaches , powerful visions , and dream experiences , which occurred throughout her life .
One day , the adolescent Tubman was sent to a dry @-@ goods store for supplies . There , she encountered a slave owned by another family , who had left the fields without permission . His overseer , furious , demanded that she help restrain him . She refused , and as he ran away , the overseer threw a two @-@ pound weight at him . He struck her instead , which she said " broke my skull " . She later explained her belief that her hair – which " had never been combed and ... stood out like a bushel basket " – might have saved her life . Bleeding and unconscious , she was returned to her owner 's house and laid on the seat of a loom , where she remained without medical care for two days . She was sent back into the fields , " with blood and sweat rolling down my face until I couldn 't see " . Her boss said she was " not worth a sixpence " and returned her to Brodess , who tried unsuccessfully to sell her . She began having seizures and would seemingly fall unconscious , although she claimed to be aware of her surroundings while appearing to be asleep . These episodes were alarming to her family , who were unable to wake her when she fell asleep suddenly and without warning . This condition remained with her for the rest of her life ; Larson suggests she may have suffered from temporal lobe epilepsy as a result of the injury .
= = Family and marriage = =
By 1840 , Tubman 's father , Ben , was manumitted from slavery at the age of 45 , as stipulated in a former owner 's will , though his actual age was closer to 55 . He continued working as a timber estimator and foreman for the Thompson family , who had held him as a slave . Several years later , Tubman contacted a white attorney and paid him five dollars to investigate her mother 's legal status . The lawyer discovered that a former owner had issued instructions that Rit , like her husband , would be manumitted at the age of 45 . The record showed that a similar provision would apply to Rit 's children , and that any children born after she reached 45 years of age were legally free , but the Pattison and Brodess families had ignored this stipulation when they inherited the slaves . Challenging it legally was an impossible task for Tubman .
Around 1844 , she married a free black man named John Tubman . Although little is known about him or their time together , the union was complicated because of her slave status . Since the mother 's status dictated that of children , any children born to Harriet and John would be enslaved . Such blended marriages – free people of color marrying enslaved people – were not uncommon on the Eastern Shore of Maryland , where by this time , half the black population was free . Most African @-@ American families had both free and enslaved members . Larson suggests that they might have planned to buy Tubman 's freedom .
Tubman changed her name from Araminta to Harriet soon after her marriage , though the exact timing is unclear . Larson suggests this happened right after the wedding , and Clinton suggests that it coincided with Tubman 's plans to escape from slavery . She adopted her mother 's name , possibly as part of a religious conversion , or to honor another relative .
= = Escape from slavery = =
In 1849 , Tubman became ill again , which diminished her value as a slave . Edward Brodess tried to sell her , but could not find a buyer . Angry at him for trying to sell her and for continuing to enslave her relatives , Tubman began to pray for her owner , asking God to make him change his ways . She said later : " I prayed all night long for my master till the first of March ; and all the time he was bringing people to look at me , and trying to sell me . " When it appeared as though a sale was being concluded , " I changed my prayer , " she said . " First of March I began to pray , ' Oh Lord , if you ain 't never going to change that man 's heart , kill him , Lord , and take him out of the way . ' " A week later , Brodess died , and Tubman expressed regret for her earlier sentiments .
As in many estate settlements , Brodess 's death increased the likelihood that Tubman would be sold and her family broken apart . His widow , Eliza , began working to sell the family 's slaves . Tubman refused to wait for the Brodess family to decide her fate , despite her husband 's efforts to dissuade her . " [ T ] here was one of two things I had a right to , " she explained later , " liberty or death ; if I could not have one , I would have the other . "
Tubman and her brothers , Ben and Henry , escaped from slavery on September 17 , 1849 . Tubman had been hired out to Dr. Anthony Thompson , who owned a large plantation in an area called Poplar Neck in neighboring Caroline County ; it is likely her brothers labored for Thompson as well . Because the slaves were hired out to another household , Eliza Brodess probably did not recognize their absence as an escape attempt for some time . Two weeks later , she posted a runaway notice in the Cambridge Democrat , offering a reward of up to 100 dollars for each slave returned . Once they had left , Tubman 's brothers had second thoughts . Ben may have just become a father . The two men went back , forcing Tubman to return with them .
Soon afterward , Tubman escaped again , this time without her brothers . Beforehand , she tried to send word to her mother of her plans . She sang a coded song to Mary , a trusted fellow slave , that was a farewell . " I 'll meet you in the morning , " she intoned , " I 'm bound for the promised land . " While her exact route is unknown , Tubman made use of the network known as the Underground Railroad . This informal but well @-@ organized system was composed of free and enslaved blacks , white abolitionists , and other activists . Most prominent among the latter in Maryland at the time were members of the Religious Society of Friends , often called Quakers . The Preston area near Poplar Neck in Caroline County contained a substantial Quaker community , and was probably an important first stop during Tubman 's escape . From there , she probably took a common route for fleeing slaves – northeast along the Choptank River , through Delaware and then north into Pennsylvania . A journey of nearly 90 miles ( 145 kilometers ) , her traveling by foot would have taken between five days and three weeks .
Tubman had to travel by night , guided by the North Star , and trying to avoid slave catchers eager to collect rewards for fugitive slaves . The " conductors " in the Underground Railroad used deceptions for protection . At an early stop , the lady of the house ordered Tubman to sweep the yard so as to seem to be working for the family . When night fell , the family hid her in a cart and took her to the next friendly house . Given her familiarity with the woods and marshes of the region , Tubman during the day likely hid in these locales . Tubman only later described her routes because other fugitive slaves used them .
Particulars of her first journey remain shrouded in secrecy . She crossed into Pennsylvania with a feeling of relief and awe , and recalled the experience years later :
When I found I had crossed that line , I looked at my hands to see if I was the same person . There was such a glory over everything ; the sun came like gold through the trees , and over the fields , and I felt like I was in Heaven .
= = Nicknamed " Moses " = =
In honor of her courageous efforts to rescue family and friends from slavery , abolitionist William Lloyd Garrison named her " Moses " , alluding to the prophet in the Book of Exodus who led the Hebrews to freedom from Egypt . Though nicknamed " Moses " , Tubman 's daring missions to Maryland remained virtually unknown , and her identity was a carefully guarded secret . She did sing a version of " Go Down Moses " to signal to her refugees along the path to freedom — she changed the tempo to indicate that it was either safe or too dangerous to proceed . Like other Underground Railroad conductors , Tubman used various methods of communication specific to her own needs . Contrary to current popular belief , there were no common " codes " used by conductors . In the north , however , the song " Go Down Moses " was openly sung by Black regiments during the Civil War . After the war , various black @-@ faced minstrels included the song in their acts which helped popularize it . During the 20th century , people of all races sang it as a spiritual to pay tribute to Tubman or to various struggles for freedom .
After reaching Philadelphia , Tubman thought of her family . " I was a stranger in a strange land , " she said later . " [ M ] y father , my mother , my brothers , and sisters , and friends were [ in Maryland ] . But I was free , and they should be free . " She worked odd jobs and saved money . The U.S. Congress meanwhile passed the Fugitive Slave Law of 1850 , which heavily punished abetting escape and forced law enforcement officials — even in states that had outlawed slavery — to assist in their capture . The law increased risks for escaped slaves , more of whom therefore sought refuge in Southern Ontario ( then called the United Province of Canada ) , which , as part of the British Empire , had abolished slavery . Racial tensions were also increasing in Philadelphia as waves of poor Irish immigrants competed with free blacks for work .
In December 1850 , Tubman was warned that her niece Kessiah and her two children , six @-@ year @-@ old James Alfred , and baby Araminta , soon would be sold in Cambridge . Tubman went to Baltimore , where her brother @-@ in @-@ law Tom Tubman hid her until the sale . Kessiah 's husband , a free black man named John Bowley , made the winning bid for his wife . Then , while the auctioneer stepped away to have lunch , John , Kessiah and their children escaped to a nearby safe house . When night fell , Bowley sailed the family on a log canoe 60 miles ( 97 kilometres ) to Baltimore , where they met with Tubman , who brought the family to Philadelphia .
The next spring she returned to Maryland to help guide away other family members . During her second trip , she recovered her brother Moses and two unidentified men . Tubman likely worked with abolitionist Thomas Garrett , a Quaker working in Wilmington , Delaware . Word of her exploits had encouraged her family , and biographers agree that with each trip to Maryland , she became more confident .
While being interviewed by author Wilbur Siebert in 1897 , Tubman named some of the people who helped her and places that she stayed along the Underground Railroad . She stayed with Sam Green , a free black minister living in East New Market , Maryland ; she also hid near her parents ' home at Poplar Neck in Caroline County , Maryland . She would travel from there northeast to Sandtown and Willow Grove , Delaware , and to the Camden area where free black agents , William and Nat Brinkley and Abraham Gibbs , guided her north past Dover , Smyrna , and Blackbird , where other agents would take her across the Chesapeake and Delaware Canal to New Castle and Wilmington . In Wilmington , Quaker Thomas Garrett would secure transportation to William Still 's office or the homes of other Underground Railroad operators in the greater Philadelphia area . Still , a famous black agent , is credited with aiding hundreds of freedom seekers escape to safer places farther north in New York , New England , and present @-@ day Southern Ontario .
In the fall of 1851 , Tubman returned to Dorchester County for the first time since her escape , this time to find her husband , John . She once again saved money from various jobs , purchased a suit for him , and made her way south . John , meanwhile , had married another woman named Caroline . Tubman sent word that he should join her , but he insisted that he was happy where he was . Tubman at first prepared to storm their house and make a scene , but then decided he was not worth the trouble . Suppressing her anger , she found some slaves who wanted to escape and led them to Philadelphia . John and Caroline raised a family together , until he was killed 16 years later in a roadside argument with a white man named Robert Vincent .
Because the Fugitive Slave Law had made the northern United States a more dangerous place for escaped slaves to remain , many escaped slaves began migrating to Southern Ontario . In December 1851 , Tubman guided an unidentified group of 11 fugitives , possibly including the Bowleys and several others she had helped rescue earlier , northward . There is evidence to suggest that Tubman and her group stopped at the home of abolitionist and former slave Frederick Douglass . In his third autobiography , Douglass wrote : " On one occasion I had eleven fugitives at the same time under my roof , and it was necessary for them to remain with me until I could collect sufficient money to get them on to Canada . It was the largest number I ever had at any one time , and I had some difficulty in providing so many with food and shelter .... " The number of travelers and the time of the visit make it likely that this was Tubman 's group .
Douglass and Tubman admired one another greatly as they both struggled against slavery . When an early biography of Tubman was being prepared in 1868 , Douglass wrote a letter to honor her . It read in part :
You ask for what you do not need when you call upon me for a word of commendation . I need such words from you far more than you can need them from me , especially where your superior labors and devotion to the cause of the lately enslaved of our land are known as I know them . The difference between us is very marked . Most that I have done and suffered in the service of our cause has been in public , and I have received much encouragement at every step of the way . You , on the other hand , have labored in a private way . I have wrought in the day — you in the night . ... The midnight sky and the silent stars have been the witnesses of your devotion to freedom and of your heroism . Excepting John Brown — of sacred memory — I know of no one who has willingly encountered more perils and hardships to serve our enslaved people than you have .
= = = Journeys and methods = = =
Over eleven years , Tubman returned repeatedly to the Eastern Shore of Maryland , rescuing some 70 slaves in about thirteen expeditions , including her three other brothers , Henry , Ben , and Robert , their wives and some of their children . She also provided specific instructions to 50 to 60 additional fugitives who escaped to the north . Tubman 's dangerous work required tremendous ingenuity ; she usually worked during winter months , to minimize the likelihood that the group would be seen . One admirer of Tubman said : " She always came in the winter , when the nights are long and dark , and people who have homes stay in them . " Once she had made contact with escaping slaves , they left town on Saturday evenings , since newspapers would not print runaway notices until Monday morning .
Her journeys into the land of slavery put her at tremendous risk , and she used a variety of subterfuges to avoid detection . Tubman once disguised herself with a bonnet and carried two live chickens to give the appearance of running errands . Suddenly finding herself walking toward a former owner in Dorchester County , she yanked the strings holding the birds ' legs , and their agitation allowed her to avoid eye contact . Later she recognized a fellow train passenger as another former master ; she snatched a nearby newspaper and pretended to read . Since Tubman was known to be illiterate , the man ignored her .
Tubman 's religious faith was another important resource as she ventured repeatedly into Maryland . The visions from her childhood head injury continued , and she saw them as divine premonitions . She spoke of " consulting with God " , and trusted that He would keep her safe . Thomas Garrett once said of her , " I never met with any person of any color who had more confidence in the voice of God , as spoken direct to her soul . " Her faith in the divine also provided immediate assistance . She used spirituals as coded messages , warning fellow travelers of danger or to signal a clear path .
Tubman also carried a revolver , and was not afraid to use it . The gun afforded some protection from the ever @-@ present slave catchers and their dogs ; however , she also purportedly threatened to shoot any escaped slave who tried to turn back on the journey since that would threaten the safety of the remaining group . Tubman told the tale of one man who insisted he was going to go back to the plantation when morale got low among a group of fugitive slaves . She pointed the gun at his head and said , " You go on or die . " Several days later , he was with the group as they entered the United Province of Canada .
Slaveholders in the region , meanwhile , never knew that " Minty " , the petite , five @-@ foot @-@ tall , disabled slave who had run away years before and never come back , was behind so many slave escapes in their community . By the late 1850s , they began to suspect a northern white abolitionist was secretly enticing their slaves away . They considered that John Brown himself had come to the Eastern Shore to lure slaves away before his ill @-@ fated raid on Harper 's Ferry in October 1859 .
While a popular legend persists about a reward of US $ 40 @,@ 000 for Tubman 's capture , this is a manufactured figure . In 1868 , in an effort to drum up support for Tubman 's claim for a Civil War military pension , a former abolitionist named Salley Holley wrote an article claiming US $ 40 @,@ 000 " was not too great a reward for Maryland slaveholders to offer for her " . Such a high reward would have garnered national attention , especially at a time when a small farm could be purchased for a mere US $ 400 . No such reward has been found in period newspapers . ( The federal government offered $ 25 @,@ 000 for the capture of each of John Wilkes Booth 's co @-@ conspirators in Lincoln 's assassination . ) A reward offering of US $ 12 @,@ 000 has also been claimed , though no documentation exists for that figure either . Catherine Clinton suggests that the US $ 40 @,@ 000 figure may have been a combined total of the various bounties offered around the region .
Despite the best efforts of the slaveholders , Tubman was never captured , and neither were the fugitives she guided . Years later , she told an audience : " I was conductor of the Underground Railroad for eight years , and I can say what most conductors can 't say – I never ran my train off the track and I never lost a passenger . " One of her last missions into Maryland was to retrieve her aging parents . Her father , Ben , had purchased Rit , her mother , in 1855 from Eliza Brodess for 20 dollars . But even when they were both free , the area became hostile to their presence . Two years later , Tubman received word that her father had harbored a group of eight escaped slaves , and was at risk of arrest . She traveled to the Eastern Shore and led them north to St. Catharines , Ontario , where a community of former slaves ( including Tubman 's brothers , other relatives , and many friends ) had gathered .
= = John Brown and Harpers Ferry = =
In April 1858 , Tubman was introduced to the abolitionist John Brown , an insurgent who advocated the use of violence to destroy slavery in the United States . Although she never advocated violence against whites , she agreed with his course of direct action and supported his goals . Like Tubman , he spoke of being called by God , and trusted the divine to protect him from the wrath of slaveholders . She , meanwhile , claimed to have had a prophetic vision of meeting Brown before their encounter .
Thus , as he began recruiting supporters for an attack on slaveholders , Brown was joined by " General Tubman " , as he called her . Her knowledge of support networks and resources in the border states of Pennsylvania , Maryland and Delaware was invaluable to Brown and his planners . Although other abolitionists like Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison did not endorse his tactics , Brown dreamed of fighting to create a new state for freed slaves , and made preparations for military action . After he began the first battle , he believed , slaves would rise up and carry out a rebellion across the south . He asked Tubman to gather former slaves then living in present @-@ day Southern Ontario who might be willing to join his fighting force , which she did .
On May 8 , 1858 , Brown held a meeting in Chatham @-@ Kent , Ontario , where he unveiled his plan for a raid on Harpers Ferry , Virginia . When word of the plan was leaked to the government , Brown put the scheme on hold and began raising funds for its eventual resumption . Tubman aided him in this effort , and with more detailed plans for the assault .
Tubman was busy during this time , giving talks to abolitionist audiences and tending to her relatives . In the autumn of 1859 , as Brown and his men prepared to launch the attack , Tubman could not be contacted . When the raid on Harpers Ferry took place on October 16 , Tubman was not present . Some historians believe she was in New York at the time , ill with fever related to her childhood head injury . Others propose she may have been recruiting more escaped slaves in Ontario , and Kate Clifford Larson suggests she may have been in Maryland , recruiting for Brown 's raid or attempting to rescue more family members . Larson also notes that Tubman may have begun sharing Frederick Douglass 's doubts about the viability of the plan .
The raid failed ; Brown was convicted of treason and hanged in December . His actions were seen by abolitionists as a symbol of proud resistance , carried out by a noble martyr . Tubman herself was effusive with praise . She later told a friend : " [ H ] e done more in dying , than 100 men would in living . "
= = Auburn and Margaret = =
In early 1859 , abolitionist Republican U.S. Senator William H. Seward sold Tubman a small piece of land on the outskirts of Auburn , New York , for US $ 1 @,@ 200 . The city was a hotbed of antislavery activism , and Tubman seized the opportunity to deliver her parents from the harsh Canadian winters . Returning to the U.S. meant that escaped slaves were at risk of being returned to the south under the Fugitive Slave Law , and Tubman 's siblings expressed reservations . Catherine Clinton suggests that anger over the 1857 Dred Scott decision may have prompted Tubman to return to the U.S. Her land in Auburn became a haven for Tubman 's family and friends . For years , she took in relatives and boarders , offering a safe place for black Americans seeking a better life in the north .
Shortly after acquiring the Auburn property , Tubman went back to Maryland and returned with her " niece , " an eight @-@ year @-@ old light @-@ skinned black girl named Margaret . The circumstances of this expedition remain clouded in mystery . There is great confusion about the identity of Margaret 's parents , although Tubman indicated they were free blacks . The girl had left behind a twin brother and a loving home in Maryland . Years later , Margaret 's daughter Alice called Tubman 's actions selfish , saying , " she had taken the child from a sheltered good home to a place where there was nobody to care for her . " Indeed , Alice described it as a " kidnapping " .
However , both Clinton and Larson present the possibility that Margaret was in fact Tubman 's daughter . Larson points out that the two shared an unusually strong bond , and argues that Tubman – knowing the pain of a child separated from her mother – would never have intentionally caused a free family to be split apart . Clinton presents evidence of strong physical similarities , which Alice herself acknowledged . Both historians agree that no concrete evidence exists for such a possibility , and the mystery of Tubman 's relationship with young Margaret remains to this day .
In November 1860 , Tubman conducted her last rescue mission . Throughout the 1850s , Tubman had been unable to effect the escape of her sister , Rachel , and Rachel 's two children , Ben and Angerine . Upon returning to Dorchester County , Tubman discovered that Rachel had died , and the children could be rescued only if she could pay a US $ 30 bribe . She had no money , so the children remained enslaved . Their fates remain unknown . Never one to waste a trip , Tubman gathered another group , including the Ennalls family , ready and willing to take the risks of the journey north . It took them weeks to safely get away because of slave catchers , forcing them to hide out longer than expected . The weather was unseasonably cold and they had little food . The children were drugged with paregoric to keep them quiet while slave patrols rode by . They safely reached the home of David and Martha Wright in Auburn , New York , on December 28 , 1860 .
= = American Civil War = =
When the American Civil War broke out in 1861 , Tubman saw a Union victory as a key step toward the abolition of slavery . General Benjamin Butler , for instance , aided escaped slaves flooding into Fort Monroe . Butler had declared these fugitives to be " contraband " – property seized by northern forces – and put them to work , initially without pay , in the fort . Tubman hoped to offer her own expertise and skills to the Union cause , too , and soon she joined a group of Boston and Philadelphia abolitionists heading to the Hilton Head District in South Carolina . She became a fixture in the camps , particularly in Port Royal , South Carolina , assisting fugitives .
Tubman met with General David Hunter , a strong supporter of abolition . He declared all of the " contrabands " in the Port Royal district free , and began gathering former slaves for a regiment of black soldiers . U.S. President Abraham Lincoln , however , was not prepared to enforce emancipation on the southern states , and reprimanded Hunter for his actions . Tubman condemned Lincoln 's response and his general unwillingness to consider ending slavery in the U.S. , for both moral and practical reasons . " God won 't let master Lincoln beat the South till he does the right thing , " she said .
Master Lincoln , he 's a great man , and I am a poor negro ; but the negro can tell master Lincoln how to save the money and the young men . He can do it by setting the negro free . Suppose that was an awful big snake down there , on the floor . He bite you . Folks all scared , because you die . You send for a doctor to cut the bite ; but the snake , he rolled up there , and while the doctor doing it , he bite you again . The doctor dug out that bite ; but while the doctor doing it , the snake , he spring up and bite you again ; so he keep doing it , till you kill him . That 's what master Lincoln ought to know .
Tubman served as a nurse in Port Royal , preparing remedies from local plants and aiding soldiers suffering from dysentery . She rendered assistance to men with smallpox ; that she did not contract the disease herself started more rumors that she was blessed by God . At first , she received government rations for her work , but newly freed blacks thought she was getting special treatment . To ease the tension , she gave up her right to these supplies and made money selling pies and root beer , which she made in the evenings .
= = = Scouting and the Combahee River Raid = = =
When President Lincoln finally issued the Emancipation Proclamation in January 1863 , Tubman considered it an important step toward the goal of liberating all black men , women , and children from slavery . She renewed her support for a defeat of the Confederacy , and before long she was leading a band of scouts through the land around Port Royal . The marshes and rivers in South Carolina were similar to those of the Eastern Shore of Maryland ; thus her knowledge of covert travel and subterfuge among potential enemies were put to good use . Her group , working under the orders of Secretary of War Edwin M. Stanton , mapped the unfamiliar terrain and reconnoitered its inhabitants . She later worked alongside Colonel James Montgomery , and provided him with key intelligence that aided the capture of Jacksonville , Florida .
Later that year , Tubman became the first woman to lead an armed assault during the Civil War . When Montgomery and his troops conducted an assault on a collection of plantations along the Combahee River , Tubman served as a key adviser and accompanied the raid . On the morning of June 2 , 1863 , Tubman guided three steamboats around Confederate mines in the waters leading to the shore . Once ashore , the Union troops set fire to the plantations , destroying infrastructure and seizing thousands of dollars worth of food and supplies . When the steamboats sounded their whistles , slaves throughout the area understood that it was being liberated . Tubman watched as slaves stampeded toward the boats . " I never saw such a sight , " she said later , describing a scene of chaos with women carrying still @-@ steaming pots of rice , pigs squealing in bags slung over shoulders , and babies hanging around their parents ' necks . Although their owners , armed with handguns and whips , tried to stop the mass escape , their efforts were nearly useless in the tumult . As Confederate troops raced to the scene , steamboats packed full of slaves took off toward Beaufort .
More than 750 slaves were rescued in the Combahee River Raid . Newspapers heralded Tubman 's " patriotism , sagacity , energy , [ and ] ability " , and she was praised for her recruiting efforts – most of the newly liberated men went on to join the Union army . Tubman later worked with Colonel Robert Gould Shaw at the assault on Fort Wagner , reportedly serving him his last meal . She described the battle by saying : " And then we saw the lightning , and that was the guns ; and then we heard the thunder , and that was the big guns ; and then we heard the rain falling , and that was the drops of blood falling ; and when we came to get the crops , it was dead men that we reaped . "
For two more years , Tubman worked for the Union forces , tending to newly liberated slaves , scouting into Confederate territory , and nursing wounded soldiers in Virginia . She also made periodic trips back to Auburn , to visit her family and care for her parents . The Confederacy surrendered in April 1865 ; after donating several more months of service , Tubman headed home to Auburn , New York .
During a train ride to New York , the conductor told her to move into the smoking car . She refused , explaining her government service . He cursed at her and grabbed her , but she resisted and he summoned two other passengers for help . While she clutched at the railing , they muscled her away , breaking her arm in the process . They threw her into the smoking car , causing more injuries . As these events transpired , other white passengers cursed Tubman and shouted for the conductor to kick her off the train .
Despite her years of service , she had never received a regular salary and was for years denied compensation . Her unofficial status and the unequal payments offered to black soldiers caused great difficulty in documenting her service , and the U.S. government was slow in recognizing its debt to her . Tubman did not receive a pension for her service in the Civil War until 1899 . Her constant humanitarian work for her family and former slaves , meanwhile , kept her in a state of constant poverty , and her difficulties in obtaining a government pension were especially taxing for her .
= = Later life = =
Tubman spent her remaining years in Auburn , tending to her family and other people in need . She worked various jobs to support her elderly parents , and took in boarders to help pay the bills . One of the people Tubman took in was a Civil War veteran named Nelson Davis . He began working in Auburn as a bricklayer , and they soon fell in love . Though he was 22 years younger than she was , on March 18 , 1869 , they were married at the Central Presbyterian Church . They spent the next 20 years together , and in 1874 they adopted a baby girl named Gertie .
Tubman 's friends and supporters from the days of abolition , meanwhile , raised funds to support her . One admirer , Sarah Hopkins Bradford , wrote an authorized biography entitled Scenes in the Life of Harriet Tubman . The 132 @-@ page volume was published in 1869 , and brought Tubman some US $ 1 @,@ 200 in revenue . Criticized by modern biographers for its artistic license and highly subjective point of view , the book nevertheless remains an important source of information and perspective on Tubman 's life . Bradford released another volume in 1886 called Harriet , the Moses of her People , which presented a less caustic view of slavery and the South . It , too , was published as a way to help alleviate Tubman 's poverty .
Facing accumulated debts ( including payments for her property in Auburn ) , Tubman fell prey in 1873 to a swindle involving gold transfer . Two men , one named Stevenson and the other John Thomas , claimed to have in their possession a cache of gold smuggled out of South Carolina . They offered this treasure – worth about US $ 5 @,@ 000 , they claimed – for US $ 2 @,@ 000 in cash . They insisted that they knew a relative of Tubman 's , and she took them into her home , where they stayed for several days . She knew that white people in the South had buried valuables when Union forces threatened the region , and also that black men were frequently assigned to digging duties . Thus the situation seemed plausible , and a combination of her financial woes and her good nature led her to go along with the plan . She borrowed the money from a wealthy friend named Anthony Shimer , and arranged to receive the gold late one night . Once the men had lured her into the woods , however , they attacked her and knocked her out with chloroform , then stole her purse and bound and gagged her . When she was found by her family , she was dazed and injured , and the money was gone .
New York responded with outrage to the incident , and while some criticized Tubman for her naïveté , most sympathized with her economic hardship and lambasted the con men . The incident refreshed the public 's memory of her past service and her economic woes . Representatives Clinton D. MacDougall of New York and Gerry W. Hazelton of Wisconsin introduced a bill ( H.R. 2711 / 3786 ) providing that Tubman be paid " the sum of $ 2 @,@ 000 for services rendered by her to the Union Army as scout , nurse , and spy " . It was defeated .
= = = Suffragist activism = = =
In her later years , Tubman worked to promote the cause of women 's suffrage . A white woman once asked Tubman whether she believed women ought to have the vote , and received the reply : " I suffered enough to believe it . " Tubman began attending meetings of suffragist organizations , and was soon working alongside women such as Susan B. Anthony and Emily Howland .
Tubman traveled to New York , Boston , and Washington , D.C. , to speak out in favor of women 's voting rights . She described her actions during and after the Civil War , and used the sacrifices of countless women throughout modern history as evidence of women 's equality to men . When the National Federation of Afro @-@ American Women was founded in 1896 , Tubman was the keynote speaker at its first meeting .
This wave of activism kindled a new wave of admiration for Tubman among the press in the United States . A publication called The Woman 's Era launched a series of articles on " Eminent Women " with a profile of Tubman . An 1897 suffragist newspaper reported a series of receptions in Boston honoring Tubman and her lifetime of service to the nation . However , her endless contributions to others had left her in poverty , and she had to sell a cow to buy a train ticket to these celebrations .
= = = AME Zion Church , illness , and death = = =
At the turn of the 20th century , Tubman became heavily involved with the African Methodist Episcopal Zion Church in Auburn . In 1903 , she donated a parcel of real estate she owned to the church , under the instruction that it be made into a home for " aged and indigent colored people " . The home did not open for another five years , and Tubman was dismayed when the church ordered residents to pay a $ 100 entrance fee . She said : " [ T ] hey make a rule that nobody should come in without they have a hundred dollars . Now I wanted to make a rule that nobody should come in unless they didn 't have no money at all . " She was frustrated by the new rule but was the guest of honor nonetheless when the Harriet Tubman Home for the Aged celebrated its opening on June 23 , 1908 .
As Tubman aged , the seizures , headaches , and suffering from her childhood head trauma continued to plague her . At some point in the late 1890s , she underwent brain surgery at Boston 's Massachusetts General Hospital . Unable to sleep because of pains and " buzzing " in her head , she asked a doctor if he could operate . He agreed and , in her words , " sawed open my skull , and raised it up , and now it feels more comfortable " . She had received no anesthesia for the procedure and reportedly chose instead to bite down on a bullet , as she had seen Civil War soldiers do when their limbs were amputated .
By 1911 , her body was so frail that she had to be admitted into the rest home named in her honor . A New York newspaper described her as " ill and penniless " , prompting supporters to offer a new round of donations . Surrounded by friends and family members , Harriet Tubman died of pneumonia in 1913 . Just before she died , she told those in the room : " I go to prepare a place for you . "
When she died , Tubman was buried with semi @-@ military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn .
= = Legacy = =
Harriet Tubman , widely known and well @-@ respected while she was alive , became an American icon in the years after she died . A survey at the end of the 20th century named her as one of the most famous civilians in American history before the Civil War , third only to Betsy Ross and Paul Revere . She inspired generations of African Americans struggling for equality and civil rights ; she was praised by leaders across the political spectrum .
When she died , Tubman was buried with semi @-@ military honors at Fort Hill Cemetery in Auburn . The city commemorated her life with a plaque on the courthouse . Although it showed pride for her many achievements , its use of dialect ( " I nebber run my train off de track " ) , apparently chosen for its authenticity , has been criticized for undermining her stature as an American patriot and dedicated humanitarian . Still , the dedication ceremony was a powerful tribute to her memory , and Booker T. Washington delivered the keynote address . The Harriet Tubman home was abandoned after 1920 , but was later renovated by the AME Zion Church . Today , it welcomes visitors as a museum and education center .
Tubman was celebrated in many other ways throughout the nation in the 20th century . Dozens of schools were named in her honor , and both the Harriet Tubman Home in Auburn and the Harriet Tubman Museum in Cambridge serve as monuments to her life . In 1937 the gravestone for Harriet Tubman Davis was erected by the Empire State Federation of Women 's Clubs ; it was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999 . In 1944 , the United States Maritime Commission launched the SS Harriet Tubman , its first Liberty ship ever named for a black woman . In 1978 , the United States Postal Service issued a stamp in honor of Tubman which made her the first African @-@ American woman to be honored on a US Postage stamp . In March 2013 , President Barack Obama signed a proclamation creating Harriet Tubman Underground Railroad National Monument on the Eastern Shore .
Tubman is commemorated together with Elizabeth Cady Stanton , Amelia Bloomer , and Sojourner Truth in the calendar of saints of the Episcopal Church on July 20 . The calendar of saints of the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America remembers Tubman and Sojurner Truth on March 10 .
In 1999 , the Canadian government designated the Salem Chapel , British Methodist Episcopal Church in St. Catharines a National Historic Site because of its association with Tubman . In the same year , the city of Boston , Massachusetts , erected a statue to Tubman ; it was the first memorial to a woman on city @-@ owned land .
In 2002 , scholar Molefi Kete Asante included Harriet Tubman on his list of the 100 Greatest African Americans . In 2008 , Towson University named a new residence hall after Tubman . A statue of Tubman was unveiled in Manhattan in 2008 , and another on the campus of Salisbury University in 2009 .
In 2014 the asteroid ( 241528 ) Tubman was named after Harriet Tubman .
= = = Historiography = = =
Bradford 's biographies were followed by Earl Conrad 's Harriet Tubman : Negro Soldier and Abolitionist . Conrad had experienced great difficulty in finding a publisher – the search took four years – and endured disdain and contempt for his efforts to construct a more objective , detailed account of Tubman 's life for adults . Several highly dramatized versions of Tubman 's life had been written for children , and many more came later , but Conrad wrote in an academic style to document the historical importance of her work for scholars and the nation 's memory . The book was finally published by Carter G. Woodson 's Associated Publishers in 1942 . Despite her popularity and significance , another Tubman biography for adults did not appear for 60 years , until Jean Humez published a close reading of Tubman 's life stories in 2003 , and Larson and Clinton both published their biographies in 2004 .
= = = National Historic Site and Person of Canada = = =
In southern Ontario , the Salem Chapel BME Church was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1999 , on the recommendation of the Historic Sites and Monuments Board of Canada . The chapel , in St. Catharines , Ontario , was a focus of Harriet Tubman 's years in the city , when she lived nearby , in what was a major terminus of the Underground Railroad and center of abolitionist work . In Tubman 's time , the chapel
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the Caló @-@ speaking Romani people in Spain and the Cascarot Romani people of the Northern Basque Country .
= = Name = =
The origin of the name Erromintxela is unclear and may be of relatively recent origin ; Basque speakers had previously grouped the Erromintxela under more general terms for Romani such as ijitoak " Egyptians " , ungrianok " Hungarians " , or buhameak " Bohemians " . However , a number of authors believe it to be a Basque rendering of the French name romanichel or romané @-@ michel , a name attested primarily in the vicinity of the Pyrenees and in particular the Northern Basque Country . Romanichel is in turn a French rendering of the Romani phrase Romani čel " Romani person " . Though now uncommon in France , it is found in the names of the British Ròmanichal and the Scandinavian Romanisæl , all descendants , like the Erromintxela , of a group of Roma who had migrated to France .
Early attestations of the name in Basque include Errama @-@ itçéla , Erroumancel , later errumanzel and erremaitzela . The initial E- is the Basque prosthetic vowel , added because no Basque word may begin with an R- , and the final -a is the absolutive case suffix , used when citing a name . If this etymology is correct , it is a rare case of a native Romani name for themselves ( an endonym ) being borrowed by another language .
The people identify themselves as ijitoak , Basque for " gypsies " , but more specifically as Erromintxela , in contrast to the Caló Romani , whom they refer to as the xango @-@ gorriak , Basque for " red @-@ legs " .
= = State of the language = =
There are currently an estimated 500 speakers in the Southern Basque Country in Spain , approximately 2 % of a population of 21 @,@ 000 Romanis , and another estimated 500 in France . In Spain the remaining fluent speakers are elderly people mostly over the age of 80 ; some are equally fluent in Spanish , Basque , or Caló . Middle @-@ aged Erromintxela are mostly passive bilinguals , and the youngest speak only Basque or Spanish . In the Northern Basque Country , however , the language is still being passed on to children . The percentage of speakers among Spanish Erromintxela are higher than 2 % , as large numbers of Caló @-@ speaking Romanis moved to the Basque Country in the intense period of industrialisation in the 20th century .
= = Literary production = =
To date , there has been little literary production in the language . The most notable works are a poem by Jon Mirande entitled " Kama @-@ goli " in his 1997 anthology Orhoituz and the 1999 novel Agirre zaharraren kartzelaldi berriak by Koldo Izagirre Urreaga with the main character using the language .
= = History = =
The Erromintxela arrived in the Basque Country in the 15th century speaking Kalderash Romani . They integrated much more deeply into Basque society than other Romani groups . In the process , they acquired the Basque language and adopted aspects of Basque culture such as increased rights of women and important traditions such as bertsolaritza ( extemporaneous poetic song ) and pelota ( the national Basque ballgame ) . Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia suspect that the morphological and phonological similarities between Romani and Basque facilitated the adoption of Basque grammar by the bilingual Romanis .
It appears that many Romanis chose to stay in the Basque Country to escape persecution elsewhere in Europe . Nonetheless , even here they were not safe from persecution . For example , the Royal Council of Navarre in 1602 passed an edict to round up all " vagabonds " ( meaning Romani ) , who were to be condemned to 6 years of galley duty . By the 18th century however attitudes had changed , and the emphasis shifted towards integration . In 1780 – 1781 the Courts of Navarre passed Law 23 , which called for " the authorities to take care of them , find them locations for settlement and honest occupations and ways of living ... "
= = Research = =
The oldest account of the language dates to 1855 , when the French ethnographer Justin Cenac @-@ Moncaut located the Erromintxela primarily in the Northern Basque Country . The oldest coherent Erromintxela text , a poem entitled Kama @-@ goli , published by Basque writer Jon Mirande in a collection of Basque poetry , only dates to ca . 1960 .
Alexandre Baudrimont 's 40 @-@ page study Vocabulaire de la langue des Bohémiens habitant les pays basques français of 1862 , the most extensive of the early accounts , covers both vocabulary and aspects of grammar . He worked with two female informants , a mother and her daughter from the Uhart @-@ Mixe area near Saint @-@ Palais , whom he describes as highly fluent . Unfortunately , he was only able to conduct a single session as the women were then told not to cooperate further for the fear of outsiders prying into the secrets of the Romani . There is a certain degree of confusion in Baudrimont 's publication — he himself states that he could not always be certain the correct forms were elicited . For example , most of the verb forms he tried to elicit lack the verbal -tu ending and appear to be participles .
The French sociologist Victor de Rochas refers to the Romani in the Northern Basque Country speaking Basque , rather than French , in his 1876 Les Parias de France et d 'Espagne ( cagots et bohémiens ) . The Canon Jean @-@ Baptiste Daranatz published a wordlist in the periodical Eskualdun Ona in 1906 and in 1921 Berraondo and Oyarbide carried out some research . Although labelled gitano ( Spanish for ' gypsy ' ) or bohémien / gitan ( French for ' gypsy ' ) , some data can also be found in Azkue 's 1905 dictionary and Pierre Lhande 's 1926 dictionary , both of which list a number of words identifiable as Erromintxela .
Little more was done until the late 20th century . In 1986 Federico Krutwig published a short article in the Revista Internacional de Estudios Vascos entitled " Los gitanos vascos " , with a short word list and a brief analysis of the language 's morphology . However , the most detailed research to date was carried out by Basque philologist Josune Muñoz and historian Elias Lopez de Mungia , who began their work in the Southern Basque Country in 1996 at the behest of the Romani organisation Kalé Dor Kayiko , with support from the Euskaltzaindia and the University of the Basque Country . Kalé Dor Kayiko , who had been working to promote the Romani language , was alerted to the existence of Erromintxela in the 1990s through an article by the historian Alizia Stürtze , Agotak , juduak eta ijitoak Euskal Herrian " Agotes , Jews , and Gypsies in the Basque Country " . Kalé Dor Kayiko intends to continue research into the language , attitudes , identity , and history of the Erromintxela people in the less well researched provinces of Navarre and the Northern Basque Country .
= = Linguistic features = =
The research by Muñoz and Lopez de Mungia has confirmed that Erromintxela is not derived from Caló , the mixed Spanish @-@ Romani language spoken throughout Spain , but is instead based on Kalderash Romani and the Basque language . The vocabulary appears to be almost exclusively Romani in origin ; the grammar however , both morphology and syntax , derives from various Basque dialects . Few traces appear to remain of Romani grammatical structures . The language is incomprehensible to speakers of both Basque and of Caló .
Typologically , Erromintxela displays the same features as the Basque dialects it derives its grammatical structures from . Its case marking follows the ergative – absolutive pattern where the subject of an intransitive verb is in the absolutive case ( which is unmarked ) , the same case being used for the direct object of a transitive verb . The subject of a transitive verb is marked with the ergative case . Similarly , auxiliary verbs agree with the subject and any direct object and indirect object present and verb forms are marked for allocutive ( i.e. a marker is used to indicate the gender of the addressee ) .
Since both Erromintxela and Caló derive from Romani , many Erromintxela words are similar to Spanish Caló and Catalan Caló .
= = = Phonology = = =
According to Baudrimont 's description of 1862 and modern southern sources , Erromintxela appears to have , at maximum , the sound system below . Southern speakers appear not to have the rounded vowel / y / or the consonant / θ / , in line with north @-@ south differences in Basque , and it is not clear if the northern distinction between / ɡ / and / ɣ / also exists in the south .
Baudrimont uses a semi @-@ phonetic system with the following diverging conventions :
= = = Morphology = = =
Examples of morphological features in Erromintxela :
= = = Verb formation = = =
Most verbs have a Romani root plus the Basque verb forming suffix -tu . Examples of Erromintxela verbs are given below . ( Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use . Basque is included for comparison . )
Most Erromintxela verbal inflections are virtually identical to those found in Basque dialects :
Negations are formed with na / nagi ( Romani na / níči ) ; cf Basque ez / ezetz . The word for " yes " is ua ( Romani va ) ; cf Basque bai / baietz .
= = = Nouns = = =
The majority of nouns have Romani roots , but frequently attested with Basque suffixes . The variation of nouns cited with or without a final -a is likely due to informants supplying them with or without the absolutive ending . ( Forms given in angle brackets indicate spellings in the sources which are no longer in use . )
= = = Time = = =
According to Baudrimot , the Erromintxela have adopted the Basque names of the months . Note that some of the Basque names represent pre @-@ standardisation names of the months , e.g. August is Abuztua in Standard Basque rather than Agorrila .
Baudrimont claims that subdivisions of the year ( apart from the months ) are formed with the word breja ( bréχa ) " year " : breja kinua " month " and breja kipia " week " .
= = = Numerals = = =
Numerals ( Basque included for contrasting purposes ) :
= = = Adjectives and adverbs = = =
Adjectives and adverbs are also mostly derived from Romani forms :
= = = Pronouns & demonstratives = = =
Pronouns are derived from both languages :
= = Baudrimont 's material = =
Much of Baudrimont 's wordlist is easily related to other Erromintxela sources . However , some of the material collected by Baudrimont deserves a more detailed overview due to its peculiarities . Most of these relate to the verbs and verb forms he collected but some include nouns and other items .
= = = Nouns = = =
His material contains a relatively high number of Basque @-@ derived items .
Certain items are peculiar . Baudrimont lists mintxa as " tooth " . The Kalderash term is dand ( daní in Caló ) but the term given is immediately more reminiscent of Northern Basque mintzo " speech " or mintza " skin " ( with expressive palatalization ) . This , and other similar items , raise the question of whether Baudrimont was simply pointing at items to elicit forms .
The forms he attempted to elicit are questionable in some cases as well . For example he attempted to agricultural terms such as plough , harrow and aftermath from his ( female ) informants and records the suspiciously similar sasta " plough " and xatxa ( shatsha ) " harrow " .
= = = Verb system and pronouns = = =
The verb systems and pronouns recorded by Baudrimont is peculiar in several ways . Apart from his problem of eliciting the citation form of verbs as opposed to participles , he lists pronouns and possessive pronouns that appear to contain Romani roots and an unexpected auxiliary .
The verb ajin for " to have " attested elsewhere although Basque derived forms appear more common overall . Kalderash Romani employs the 3rd person of " to be " and a dative pronoun to express ownership :
1Note that forms like duk ( 3rd pers @-@ have @-@ 2nd per ( male ) ) are the verbal part whereas Erromintxela tuk is a pronoun .
The negative particle na is fairly clear in the forms above . Buter , as Baudrimont notes , is the word for " much , many " and may not be a true pronoun . Kalderash uses the accusative pronouns to express possession but the forms above are more reminiscent of wrongly parsed Kalderash dative forms mangé , tuké , léske , léke etc. and perhaps a different case of " to be " ( the full Kalderash paradigm being sim , san , si , si , sam , san / sen , si ) .
On the whole , it raises questions about the level of communication between Baudrimont and his informants and the quality of ( some of the ) material elicited .
= = Connected examples = =
Examples with interlinear versions ( lexical items of Romani origin marked in bold ) :
= USS Winnebago ( 1863 ) =
USS Winnebago was a double @-@ turret Milwaukee @-@ class river monitor , named for the Winnebago tribe of Siouan Indians , built for the Union Navy during the American Civil War . The ship participated in the Battle of Mobile Bay in 1864 , during which she was lightly damaged , and the bombardments of Forts Gaines and Morgan as Union troops besieged the fortifications defending the bay . In early 1865 , Winnebago again supported Union forces during the Mobile Campaign as they attacked Confederate fortifications defending the city of Mobile , Alabama . She was placed in reserve after the end of the war and sold in 1874 .
= = Description = =
Winnebago was 229 feet ( 69 @.@ 8 m ) long overall and had a beam of 56 feet ( 17 @.@ 1 m ) . The ship had a depth of hold of 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) and a draft of 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) . She was 970 tons burthen and displaced 1 @,@ 300 long tons ( 1 @,@ 300 t ) . Her crew numbered 138 officers and enlisted men .
The ship was powered by two 2 @-@ cylinder horizontal non @-@ condensing steam engines , each driving two propellers , using steam generated by seven tubular boilers . The engines were designed to reach a top speed of 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) . Chickasaw carried 156 long tons ( 159 t ) of coal .
The ship 's main armament consisted of four smoothbore , muzzle @-@ loading 11 @-@ inch Dahlgren guns mounted in two twin @-@ gun turrets . Her forward turret was designed by James Eads and her rear turret by John Ericsson . Each gun weighed approximately 16 @,@ 000 pounds ( 7 @,@ 300 kg ) and could fire a 136 @-@ pound ( 61 @.@ 7 kg ) shell up to a range of 3 @,@ 650 yards ( 3 @,@ 340 m ) at an elevation of + 15 ° .
The cylindrical turrets were protected by eight layers of wrought iron 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) plates . The sides of the hull consisted of three layers of one @-@ inch plates , backed by 15 inches ( 380 mm ) of pine . The deck was heavily cambered to allow headroom for the crew on such a shallow draft and it consisted of iron plates .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The pilothouse , positioned behind and above the fore turret , was protected by 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of armor .
= = Construction and service = =
James Eads was awarded the contracts for all four of the Milwaukee @-@ class ships . He laid down Winnebago at his Union Iron Works Carondelet , St. Louis in 1862 . The first U.S. Navy ship to be named after the Indian tribe , she was launched on 4 July 1863 and commissioned on 27 April 1864 .
Initially assigned to the Mississippi River Squadron , Winnebago operated on the Mississippi River defending Union ships against Confederate raids and ambushes for several months . She was transferred to Rear Admiral David Farragut 's West Gulf Blockading Squadron on 9 July , together with her sister Chickasaw . The ship required some time to refit at New Orleans and prepare for the voyage to Mobile across the Gulf of Mexico , so the two sisters did not depart New Orleans until 29 July . On the voyage down the Mississippi to the Pass A Loutre , Chickasaw was forced to anchor overnight because of steering problems and the two ships did not cross the sandbar at the mouth of the pass until the evening of the following day . Once in the Gulf , Winnebago was taken under tow by the sidewheel gunboat Metacomet for the voyage across the Gulf . Farragut inspected the monitor after her arrival and was dismayed to learn that one of her turrets had jammed . He also preferred to have a more experienced officer in command and appointed Commander Thomas H. Stevens , Jr. as her new captain .
Farragut 's plan for the battle was relatively simple . The larger , more heavily armed monitors Tecumseh and Manhattan were to keep the ironclad ram CSS Tennessee away from the vulnerable wooden ships while they were passing Fort Morgan and then sink her . Chickasaw and Winnebago were to engage the fort until all of the wooden ships had passed . The four monitors would form the starboard column of ships , closest to Fort Morgan , with Winnebago in the rear , while the wooden ships formed a separate column to port . The eastern side of the channel closest to Fort Morgan was free of obstacles , but " torpedoes " , as mines were called at the time , were known to be present west of a prominent black buoy in the channel .
The two Milwaukee @-@ class ships bombarded Fort Morgan for about an hour and a half while the wooden ships passed through the mouth of Mobile Bay ; Winnebago beginning at 07 : 15 even though her forward turret was still jammed in place . About three @-@ quarters of an hour later , Tecumseh struck a " torpedo " and sank rapidly . Winnebago took on board 10 survivors from the ill @-@ fated Tecumseh who had been rescued by a boat from Metacomet under heavy fire and passed Ft . Morgan at 08 : 30 . After Tennessee first attacked Stevens ' former command , the gunboat Oneida , he was able to interpose Winnebago between the two ships in case the Confederate ironclad turned around for another attack , but it disengaged and briefly sought the shelter of Ft . Morgan 's guns . Around 09 : 10 the traversing gear for the rear turret broke down , only five minutes before Winnebago received the order to attack the Tennessee after it had sortied into the middle of Mobile Bay to attack the Union squadron . The monitor was forced to turn the entire ship to bring her guns to bear and did not play a significant part in the second phase of the battle before Tennessee was forced to surrender at 09 : 45 . During the battle , Winnebago was hit 19 times , three of which penetrated the deck near her aft turret , although she suffered no casualties . Despite the problems with her turrets , the ship managed to fire 56 shells , a mixture of solid shot , explosive shells , grapeshot , canister shot , and shrapnel shells .
Winnebago intermittently bombarded Fort Morgan and Fort Gaines until they surrendered , on 24 and 6 August , respectively . On the night of 8 August , Commander Stevens sent a boat crew under the command of Acting Ensign Michael Murphy on a successful mission to cut the telegraph cable between Fort Morgan and the city of Mobile . The fort surrendered on 24 August and the ship remained at Mobile Bay into 1865 supporting Union forces . On 27 March , Union forces advanced on Spanish Fort as the first step in capturing Mobile . The Navy 's role was to bombard the defenses and to interdict their communications with Mobile , but the defenders had sown mines in great numbers in the waterways . The Navy successfully swept many of these , but could not completely clear the rivers .
Winnebago and her sister Milwaukee sailed upriver on 28 March to attack a Confederate transport and forced it to retreat , but Milwaukee struck a mine , in an area previously swept , as they were returning downriver . She remained afloat forward , which permitted her crew to escape without loss . Winnebago later protected a convoy carrying some 13 @,@ 000 troops under Major General Frederick Steele , to Selma and Montgomery , Alabama later in April . By 28 April , the monitor , together with the gunboats USS Octorara and Sebago , was blockading the Confederate ironclad Nashville and the gunboat Morgan up the Tombigbee River , until their surrender .
Winnebago was placed in ordinary on the Algiers side of the Mississippi , across from New Orleans , on 27 September . She was renamed twice during that time , first to Tornado on 15 June 1869 and then she resumed her original name on 10 August 1869 . Winnebago was sold at auction on 12 September 1874 .
= Brad Follmer =
FBI Assistant Director Brad D. Follmer is a fictional character in the American Fox television series The X @-@ Files , a science fiction series about a government conspiracy to hide or deny the truth of Alien existence . Follmer was introduced during the last season of the show , as an ex @-@ lover to main character Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) . Follmer was portrayed by British actor , Cary Elwes .
Federal Bureau of Investigation Assistant Director Follmer made his first appearance in the ninth season episode " Nothing Important Happened Today " ( 2001 ) . At the start of the season , Follmer was unfriendly towards John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) because of his case against Alvin Kersh , the Deputy Director of the FBI . In time , however , he came to respect him .
= = Character arc = =
Follmer was an Assistant Director at the FBI . He had a romantic history with Monica Reyes that he briefly brought up while trying to keep her away from the X @-@ files . His true motives were more political in nature and part of his sycophancy to Alvin Kersh . He did not believe in the X @-@ files and deliberately showed disrespect to John Doggett by calling him " Mr. Doggett " instead of " Agent " .
In 2002 , new evidence concerning the murder of Luke Doggett came to light . Doggett sought Follmer 's assistance because he had worked against organized crime in New York City before coming to Washington . Reyes , however , recalled seeing Follmer accept a bribe from a mobster . Although he tried to play the event off as him paying an informant ( at which he nearly succeeded ) , the truth was as Reyes suspected : Follmer was crooked . Once the truth of Luke 's fate was revealed , Follmer killed the mobster who had nevertheless threatened blackmail concerning Follmer 's bribe acceptance . Follmer 's future at the FBI was left unresolved , although he most likely faced criminal charges for his actions .
= = Conceptual history = =
When creating the character , Chris Carter , one of the executive producers of The X @-@ Files , personally wanted British actor Cary Elwes in the role . Elwes won the role after an audition with Annabeth Gish on August 8 , 2001 . He was chosen because of " the dynamic " and " the energy between the two of them . " Along with announcing the character , he said that the character would only appear in six episodes .
When creating the character , Elwes did not want the character to be looked as " good or bad " , even having discussing it with Carter and Frank Spotnitz , another executive producer of the show . The producers and actors have instead labeled him as " ambiguous " , and a man who wants to see " evidence through logic " and not superstition . When describing his character to The Hollywood Reporter , Elwes said he " is a guy who is a little more buttoned up , a little more polished ; he represents a different kind of FBI . "
There were two reasons for creating the character of Follmer , the first being when making Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) became a main character in the ninth season , they decided to provide a love interest for the character . When introducing Follmer to the show , they wanted to strengthen John Doggett 's ( Robert Patrick ) and Reyes relationship . The second reason was that they wanted to create a character different from Doggett ; according to John Shiban , they wanted from the start to have a character who was basically " anti @-@ Doggett " .
= = Reception = =
John Sellers from Entertainment Weekly reacted overall positive when it was confirmed that Cary Elwes would become a recurring guest actor . Marisa Guthrie from the Boston Herald said Elwes was " fine " as Follmer . Michigan Daily reviewer Christian Smith called the character " unreadable " . An unnamed staff writer of Airlock Alpha felt that Elwes performance was " forced , " concluding his review of Follmer that Elwes did not feel " comfortable with his character . " An unnamed reviewer from Critical Myth felt Follmer 's dialogue in the season premiere , " Nothing Important Happened Today " , especially the scene at the bar did not " make any sense . " While another review from the same site , felt that Follmer 's " characterization " was much " stronger " in " 4 @-@ D " than in the season premiere .
= A Ghost Is Born =
A Ghost Is Born is the fifth studio album by American alternative rock band Wilco . Released on June 22 , 2004 , it features singer Jeff Tweedy on lead guitar more than any previous Wilco album . The band streamed the album online for free , and offered a five song EP to purchasers .
Tweedy entered a rehab clinic shortly before the release of the album , delaying its release by two weeks . It also shortened its promotional tour . Despite this , A Ghost Is Born 's opening week was the best sales week for the band at the time and the album was met with good reviews from major publications such as Rolling Stone and PopMatters . The album earned Wilco a Grammy Award for Best Alternative Music Album .
= = Production = =
Wilco signed a contract with Nonesuch Records in November 2001 after a lengthy dispute with Reprise Records over the release of the band 's fourth album Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Foxtrot was welcomed with positive reviews from The Village Voice — where the album was rated by the critics as the best album of 2002 — and Rolling Stone . It sold over 590 @,@ 000 copies , earning a Gold certification by the Recording Industry Association of America .
= = = Composition = = =
Recording for a new album began in November 2003 under the working title Wilco Happens . The album was produced by Jim O 'Rourke , who mixed Foxtrot and was a member of Wilco side project Loose Fur . O 'Rourke encouraged lead singer Jeff Tweedy to develop his guitar skills for the album ; Tweedy recently became the lead guitarist for the band due to the dismissal of Jay Bennett after the Yankee Hotel Foxtrot recording sessions . Tweedy sought to play solos on the album that were unlike those of jam bands such as Phish and The Grateful Dead . Instead , he performed composed solos influenced by Television such as the one during the coda of " At Least That 's What You Said " . Tweedy refers to the guitar solo at the end of the track as a " musical transcription " of one of his panic attacks . A Ghost Is Born was recorded in a manner different from Foxtrot or 1999 's Summerteeth ; whereas those recordings were performed live in the studio and then overdubbed , A Ghost Is Born was first performed on Pro Tools and only played live once completed . Tweedy was excited about writing an album this way :
An unusual feature of A Ghost Is Born is the fifteen @-@ minute long track " Less Than You Think " . The first part of the song begins as a ballad which references belief systems and atheism which after 3 minutes , fades out . The second part begins at this moment and consists of electronic drones and noise , intended to audibly represent the migraines that lead singer Jeff Tweedy had been suffering from while addicted to pain killers during the recording sessions for A Ghost Is Born . For the song , each band member created a synthesizer noise that mimicked an electronic sound . The installations were simultaneously activated in the room and recorded . The noise , which served as the coda to the song , was remixed to provide dynamics to the track . Calling it " the track that everyone will hate , " Tweedy defended the song 's inclusion on the album :
A Ghost Is Born was the first Wilco album with pianist Mikael Jorgensen ; he had previously worked as an engineer with the band on their collaboration with The Minus 5 . Jeff Tweedy provided lead vocals and acted as lead guitarist for the only time since the band formed . John Stirratt , the only original member aside from Tweedy , played bass and guitar . Glenn Kotche and Jim O 'Rourke , Tweedy 's associates from Loose Fur , acted as drummer and multi @-@ instrumentalist , respectively . Leroy Bach played a variety of keyboards as well as bass guitar . All members of the band contributed with a synthesizer part on " Less Than You Think " .
= = Marketing and promotion = =
Wilco began touring in support of Ghost even before the album had been released . Multi @-@ instrumentalist Leroy Bach left the band after the recording sessions to join a theater production , so Wilco added jazz rock guitarist Nels Cline and multi @-@ instrumentalist Pat Sansone to replace him . Sansone had been playing with The Autumn Defense , a side project led by bassist John Stirratt . However , the tour to support the album had to be abridged . In May 2004 , Tweedy checked himself into a rehabilitation clinic in Chicago , Illinois due to chronic migraine headaches , anxiety attacks , and clinical depression . In the process of treating the ailments , Tweedy became addicted to prescription painkillers . His rehab led to the cancellation of the European stage of the tour and a delay in the album 's release date . Intended for release on June 8 , 2004 , the album was officially released on June 22 , 2004 .
The band also webcast the album in its entirety on the Internet in a promotion with Apple Computer . Nonesuch was willing to allow the MPEG @-@ 4 broadcast due to the success of a similar broadcast in the promotion of Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Additionally , Wilco offered a free EP to purchasers of the album . The EP featured two outtakes from the album — " Panthers " and " Kicking Television " — and live versions of " At Least That 's What You Said " , " The Late Greats " , and " Handshake Drugs " . The EP was later packaged with the album and sold as a " deluxe version " .
= = Reception = =
In its debut week , A Ghost Is Born peaked at # 8 on the Billboard 200 chart and sold over 81 @,@ 000 copies , the highest US chart peak and best sales week ever attained by the band at that time . As of April 13 , 2007 the album has sold over 340 @,@ 000 copies according to Nielsen SoundScan . The album was an international hit as well , peaking at # 24 in Norway , # 29 in Sweden , # 33 in New Zealand , # 34 in Belgium , and # 37 in Ireland .
Like Foxtrot , A Ghost Is Born was well received by critics . On Metacritic , it has been given a score of 81 out of 100 based on " universal acclaim " . Jon Pareles of Rolling Stone called the album " as eerie as anything Wilco have recorded yet " and applauded " Tweedy offers illuminating curiosity about what can happen in a song . " Stylus Magazine gave it an " A " grade , named it " album of the week " , and claimed it was " even more brilliant " than Yankee Hotel Foxtrot . Michael Metevier of PopMatters also supported the notion that Ghost was better than Foxtrot , calling every note " purposeful " and said that the album made him " surprised and delighted enough to last several lifetimes . " James Hunter from The Village Voice gave it a positive review and said , " Wilco 's ideas are unremarkable , but are worked out with intelligence and striking conception . And as it happens , the new organic emphasis tables some of Wilco 's lamer stylistic obsessions . " Billboard also gave it a positive review and called it Wilco 's " most difficult and uncompromising album to date . "
Tiny Mix Tapes gave it all five stars and said that " Unlike the first three Wilco albums and even more than Yankee Hotel Foxtrot , A Ghost is Born requires careful listening . " The A.V. Club gave it a favorable review and said that " For the most part , Ghost channels its shaggy sound into pop music . True , it 's pop music that constantly threatens to erupt into noise or fade into silence , but it 's still hard not to hum along . " E ! Online gave the album a B + and said , " If the album weren 't so agreeably off @-@ kilter--short , whispery tunes alternate with long , rambling epics--its mix of guitars and piano would almost seem like the stuff you 'd hear on rockers like Layla or Abbey Road . " Neumu.net gave it eight stars out of ten and stated , " If Foxtrot ' s songs were fractured pop , then Ghost is just plain fracture , a soft and brutal self @-@ examination that pulls no punches even as it manages to remain carefully elliptical . " Playlouder gave it four stars out of five and said , " This time , as well as simply delivering the goods , Wilco come bearing a basket of extras . " Q gave the album four stars out of five and called it " Even more meandering than its celebrated , if somewhat cold , predecessor . It 's also more confident , more coherent , yielding an all @-@ enveloping warmth that 's entirely resistant to any iPod shuffle function . " Flak Magazine also gave it a favorable review and stated : " It 's in the mournful , captivating , meditative , exasperating , pretentious , masterfully constructed experience of A Ghost Is Born that Tweedy and Wilco become true iconoclasts . " The Austin Chronicle gave it three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five and said the album was " not a lot of fun . Still , it 's an accomplishment , because it 's an angry album . "
Not all publications shared these views about the album . Pitchfork Media , who had given Yankee Hotel Foxtrot a perfect 10 rating , only gave Ghost a 6 @.@ 6 , calling it " wildly uneven " and " less cohesive than any other Wilco release . " Village Voice critic Robert Christgau called the album a " privileged self @-@ indulgence " due to its extreme musical dynamics . Joshua Klein of the Chicago Tribune gave it an average review and said that " the incomplete quality of " A Ghost is Born " can be quite intriguing , more of a side step than a forward leap , but a worthy experiment all the same . " NME gave the album a score of six out of ten and stated : " It 's like Scissor Sisters on tranquilisers . With a bit of ELO . And a dash of Ramones . And , with this eclecticism , a worrying lack of focus . " Alternative Press gave it three stars out of five and said , " It 's important that albums like Ghost exist--but unfortunately , those albums don 't always make the most enjoyable listens . " Trouser Press gave it a mixed review and called it " a textbook example of an album created to fulfill expectations the band doesn 't necessarily share . "
In 2005 , A Ghost Is Born won two Grammy Awards for Best Alternative Music Album and Best Recording Package . Although the band was nominated for Grammys for work on previous albums , this was the first time that they won one .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Jeff Tweedy except where noted .
Side one
" At Least That 's What You Said " – 5 : 33
" Hell Is Chrome " ( Tweedy , Mikael Jorgensen ) – 4 : 38
" Spiders ( Kidsmoke ) " – 10 : 46
Side two
" Muzzle of Bees " – 4 : 56
" Hummingbird " – 3 : 11
" Handshake Drugs " – 6 : 07
Side three
" Wishful Thinking " ( Tweedy , Glenn Kotche ) – 4 : 41
" Company in My Back " – 3 : 46
" I 'm a Wheel " – 2 : 37
" Theologians " ( Tweedy , Jorgensen , Chris Girard ) – 3 : 36
Side four
" Less Than You Think " ( Tweedy , John Stirratt , Kotche , Jorgensen , Leroy Bach , Jim O 'Rourke ) – 15 : 04
" The Late Greats " – 2 : 31
= = Singles = =
" I 'm a Wheel " ( July 26 , 2004 )
7 " vinyl only , " I 'm a Wheel " b / w " Kicking Television "
= = Personnel = =
Wilco :
Jeff Tweedy – vocals , guitar , bass , synthesizer , filters , loops
John Stirratt – bass , guitar , piano , backing vocals , synthesizer , filters , loops
Glenn Kotche – drums , percussion , hammered dulcimer , synthesizer , filters , loops
Leroy Bach – piano , organ , guitar , bass , vibes , synthesizer , filters , loops
Mikael Jorgensen – piano , rocksichord , Farfisa , organ , synthesizer , filters , loops , engineer
Jim O 'Rourke – piano , guitar , bass , ARP 2600 , synthesizer , filters , loops , engineer , mixing , producer
Additional personnel :
Frankie Montuoro – hammered dulcimer , production assistant , technical assistance
Karen Waltuch – viola
Tim Barnes – percussion
Steve Rooke – mastering
Chris Shaw – engineer
TJ Doherty , Tim Iseler – assistant engineers
Stan Doty , Daniel Herbst , Deborah Miles Johnson , Haydn Johnston , Matt Zivich – production assistants , technical assistance
Dan Nadel – graphic design
Peter Smith – graphic design , photography
Mike Schmelling – photography
Gladys Nilsson – drawing
Ken Waagner – digital supervisor
= Einsatzgruppen =
Einsatzgruppen ( German for " task forces " , " deployment groups " ; singular Einsatzgruppe ; official full name Einsatzgruppen der Sicherheitspolizei und des SD ) were Schutzstaffel ( SS ) paramilitary death squads of Nazi Germany that were responsible for mass killings , primarily by shooting , during World War II . The Einsatzgruppen were involved in the murder of much of the intelligentsia and cultural elite of Poland , and had an integral role in the implementation of the so @-@ called " Final Solution to the Jewish question " ( Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ) in territories conquered by Nazi Germany . Almost all of the people they killed were civilians , beginning with the intelligentsia and swiftly progressing to Soviet political commissars , Jews , and Gypsies throughout Eastern Europe .
Under the direction of Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler and the supervision of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich , the Einsatzgruppen operated in territories occupied by the German armed forces following the invasion of Poland in September 1939 and Operation Barbarossa ( the invasion of the Soviet Union ) in June 1941 . The Einsatzgruppen worked hand @-@ in @-@ hand with the Orpo Police Battalions on the Eastern Front to carry out operations ranging from the murder of a few people to operations which lasted over two or more days , such as the massacre at Babi Yar with 33 @,@ 771 Jews killed in two days , and the Rumbula massacre ( with about 25 @,@ 000 killed in two days of shooting ) . As ordered by Nazi leader Adolf Hitler , the Wehrmacht cooperated with the Einsatzgruppen and provided logistical support for their operations . Historian Raul Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related auxiliary troops killed more than two million people , including 1 @.@ 3 million Jews . The total number of Jews murdered during the Holocaust is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to 6 million people .
After the close of World War II , 24 senior leaders of the Einsatzgruppen were prosecuted in the Einsatzgruppen Trial in 1947 – 48 , charged with crimes against humanity and war crimes . Fourteen death sentences and two life sentences were handed out . Four additional Einsatzgruppe leaders were later tried and executed by other nations .
= = Formation and Action T4 = =
The Einsatzgruppen were formed under the direction of SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Reinhard Heydrich and operated by the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) before and during World War II . The Einsatzgruppen had its origins in the ad hoc Einsatzkommando formed by Heydrich to secure government buildings and documents following the Anschluss in Austria in March 1938 . Originally part of the Sicherheitspolizei ( Security Police ; SiPo ) , two units of Einsatzgruppen were stationed in the Sudetenland in October 1938 . When military action turned out not to be necessary because of the Munich Agreement , the Einsatzgruppen were assigned to confiscate government papers and police documents . They also secured government buildings , questioned senior civil servants , and arrested as many as 10 @,@ 000 Czech communists and German citizens . From September 1939 , the Reichssicherheitshauptamt ( Reich Main Security Office ; RSHA ) had overall command of the Einsatzgruppen .
As part of the drive to remove undesirable elements from the German population , from September to December 1939 the Einsatzgruppen and others took part in Action T4 , a programme of systematic murder of the physically and mentally handicapped and psychiatric hospital patients undertaken by the Nazi regime . Action T4 mainly took place from 1939 to 1941 , but continued until the end of the war . Initially the victims were shot by the Einsatzgruppen and others , but gas chambers were put into use by spring 1940 .
= = Invasion of Poland = =
In response to Führer und Reichskanzler Adolf Hitler 's plan to invade Poland , Heydrich re @-@ formed the Einsatzgruppen to travel in the wake of the German armies . Membership at this point was drawn from the SS , the Sicherheitsdienst ( Security Service ; SD ) , and the police . Heydrich placed SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Werner Best in command , who chose leaders for the task forces and their subgroups , called Einsatzkommandos , from among educated people with military experience . Some had previously been members of paramilitary groups such as the Freikorps .
Numbering some 2 @,@ 700 men at this point , the Einsatzgruppen 's mission was the forceful de @-@ politicisation of the Polish people and the elimination of groups most clearly identified with Polish national identity : the intelligentsia , members of the clergy , teachers , and members of the nobility . As stated by Hitler : " ... there must be no Polish leaders ; where Polish leaders exist they must be killed , however harsh that sounds " . The Sonderfahndungsbuch Polen — lists of people to be killed — had been drawn up by the SS as early as May 1939 . The Einsatzgruppen performed these murders with the support of the Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz , a paramilitary group consisting of ethnic Germans living in Poland . Members of the SS , the Wehrmacht , and the Ordnungspolizei ( Order Police ; Orpo ) also shot civilians during the Polish campaign . Approximately 65 @,@ 000 civilians were killed by the end of 1939 . In addition to leaders of Polish society , they killed Jews , prostitutes , Romani people , and the mentally ill . Psychiatric patients in Poland were initially killed by shooting , but by spring 1941 gas vans were widely used .
Seven Einsatzgruppen of battalion strength operated in Poland . Each was subdivided into four Einsatzkommandos of company strength .
Einsatzgruppe I , commanded by SS @-@ Standartenführer Bruno Streckenbach , acted with 14th Army
Einsatzgruppe II , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Emanuel Schäfer , acted with 10th Army
Einsatzgruppe III , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer und Regierungsrat Dr. Herbert Fischer , acted with 8th Army
Einsatzgruppe IV , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Lothar Beutel , acted with 4th Army
Einsatzgruppe V , SS @-@ Standartenfürer Ernst Damzog , acted with 3rd Army
Einsatzgruppe VI , SS @-@ Oberführer Erich Naumann , acted in Wielkopolska
Einsatzgruppe VII , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Udo von Woyrsch and SS @-@ Gruppenführer Otto Rasch , acted in Upper Silesia and Cieszyn Silesia
Though they were formally under the command of the army , the Einsatzgruppen received their orders directly from Heydrich and for the most part acted independently of the army . Many senior army officers were only too glad to leave these genocidal actions to the task forces , as the killings violated the rules of warfare as set down in the Geneva Conventions . However , Hitler had decreed that the army would have to tolerate and even offer logistical support to the Einsatzgruppen when it was tactically possible to do so . Some army commanders complained about unauthorised shootings , looting , and rapes committed by members of the Einsatzgruppen and the Volksdeutscher Selbstschutz , to little effect . For example , when Generaloberst Johannes Blaskowitz sent a memorandum of complaint to Hitler about the atrocities , Hitler dismissed his concerns as " childish " , and Blaskowitz was relieved of his post in May 1940 . He continued to serve in the army but never received promotion to field marshal .
The final task of the Einsatzgruppen in Poland was to round up the remaining Jews and concentrate them in ghettos within major cities with good railway connections . The intention was to eventually remove all the Jews from Poland , but at this point their final destination had not yet been determined . Together , the Wehrmacht and the Einsatzgruppen also drove tens of thousands of Jews eastward into Soviet @-@ controlled territory .
= = Preparations for Operation Barbarossa = =
On 13 March 1941 , in the lead @-@ up to Operation Barbarossa , the planned invasion of the Soviet Union , Hitler dictated his " Guidelines in Special Spheres re : Directive No. 21 ( Operation Barbarossa ) " . Sub @-@ paragraph B specified that Reichsführer @-@ SS Heinrich Himmler would be given " special tasks " on direct orders from the Führer , which he would carry out independently . This directive was intended to prevent friction between the Wehrmacht and the SS in the upcoming offensive . Hitler also specified that criminal acts against civilians perpetrated by members of the Wehrmacht during the upcoming campaign would not be prosecuted in the military courts , and thus would go unpunished .
In a speech to his leading generals on 30 March 1941 , Hitler described his envisioned war against the Soviet Union . General Franz Halder , the Army 's Chief of Staff , described the speech :
Struggle between two ideologies . Scathing evaluation of Bolshevism , equals antisocial criminality . Communism immense future danger ... This a fight to the finish . If we do not accept this , we shall beat the enemy , but in thirty years we shall again confront the Communist foe . We don 't make war to preserve the enemy ... Struggle against Russia : Extermination of Bolshevik Commissars and of the Communist intelligentsia ... Commissars and GPU personnel are criminals and must be treated as such . The struggle will differ from that in the west . In the east harshness now means mildness for the future .
Though General Halder did not record any mention of Jews , German historian Andreas Hillgruber argued that because of Hitler 's frequent contemporary statements about the coming war of annihilation against " Judeo @-@ Bolshevism " , his generals would have understood Hitler 's call for the destruction of the Soviet Union as also comprising a call for the destruction of its Jewish population . The genocide was often described using euphemisms such as " special tasks " and " executive measures " ; Einsatzgruppe victims were often described as having been shot while trying to escape . In May 1941 , Heydrich verbally passed on the order to kill the Soviet Jews to the SiPo NCO School in Pretzsch , where the commanders of the reorganised Einsatzgruppen were being trained for Operation Barbarossa . In spring 1941 , Heydrich and the First Quartermaster of the Wehrmacht Heer , General Eduard Wagner , successfully completed negotiations for co @-@ operation between the Einsatzgruppen and the German Army to allow the implementation of the " special tasks " . Following the Heydrich @-@ Wagner agreement on 28 April 1941 , Field Marshal Walther von Brauchitsch ordered that when Operation Barbarossa began , all German Army commanders were to immediately identify and register all Jews in occupied areas in the Soviet Union , and fully co @-@ operate with the Einsatzgruppen .
In further meetings held in June 1941 Himmler outlined to top SS leaders the regime 's intention to reduce the population of the Soviet Union by 30 million people , not only through direct killing of those considered racially inferior , but by depriving the remainder of food and other necessities of life .
= = = Organisation starting in 1941 = = =
For Operation Barbarossa , initially four Einsatzgruppen were created , each numbering 500 – 990 men to comprise a total force of 3 @,@ 000 . Einsatzgruppen A , B , and C were to be attached to Army Groups North , Centre , and South ; Einsatzgruppe D was assigned to the 11th Army . The Einsatzgruppe for Special Purposes operated in eastern Poland starting in July 1941 . The Einsatzgruppen were under the control of the RSHA , headed by Heydrich and later by his successor , SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Ernst Kaltenbrunner . Heydrich gave them a mandate to secure the offices and papers of the Soviet state and Communist Party ; to liquidate all the higher cadres of the Soviet state ; and to instigate and encourage pogroms against Jewish populations . The men of the Einsatzgruppen were recruited from the SD , Gestapo , Kriminalpolizei ( Kripo ) , Orpo , and Waffen @-@ SS . Each Einsatzgruppe was under the operational control of the Higher SS Police Chiefs in its area of operations . In May 1941 , General Wagner and SS @-@ Brigadeführer Walter Schellenberg agreed that the Einsatzgruppen in front @-@ line areas were to operate under army command , while the army provided the Einsatzgruppen with all necessary logistical support .
Heydrich acted under orders from Reichsführer @-@ SS Himmler , who supplied security forces on an " as needed " basis to the local SS and Police Leaders . Led by SD , Gestapo , and Kripo officers , Einsatzgruppen included recruits from the Orpo , Security Service and Waffen @-@ SS , augmented by uniformed volunteers from the local auxiliary police force . Each Einsatzgruppe was supplemented with a reserve battalion of Orpos and Waffen @-@ SS as well as support personnel such as drivers and radio operators . On average , the Orpo formations were larger and better armed , with heavy machine @-@ gun detachments , which enabled them to carry out operations beyond the capability of the SS . Each death squad followed an assigned army group as they advanced into the Soviet Union . During the course of their operations , the Einsatzgruppen commanders received assistance from the Wehrmacht . Activities ranged from the murder of targeted groups of individuals named on carefully prepared lists , to joint city @-@ wide operations with SS Einsatzgruppen which lasted for two or more days , such as the massacres at Babi Yar , perpetrated by the Orpo Reserve Battalion 45 , and at Rumbula , by Battalion 22 , reinforced by local Schutzmannschaften ( auxiliary police ) . The SS brigades , wrote historian Christopher Browning , were " only the thin cutting edge of German units that became involved in political and racial mass murder . "
Many Einsatzgruppe leaders were highly educated ; for example , nine of seventeen leaders of Einsatzgruppe A held doctorate degrees . Three Einsatzgruppen were commanded by holders of doctorates , one of whom ( SS @-@ Gruppenführer Otto Rasch ) held a double doctorate .
Additional Einsatzgruppen were created as additional territory was conquered . Einsatzgruppe E operated in Independent State of Croatia under three commanders , SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Ludwig Teichmann , SS @-@ Standartenführer Günther Herrmann , and lastly SS @-@ Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs . The unit was subdivided into five Einsatzkommandos located in Vinkovci , Sarajevo , Banja Luka , Knin , and Zagreb . Einsatzgruppe F worked with Army Group South . Einsatzgruppe G operated in Romania , Hungary , and Ukraine , commanded by SS @-@ Standartenführer Dr. Josef Kreuzer . Einsatzgruppe H was assigned to Slovakia . Einsatzgruppen K and L , under SS @-@ Oberführer Dr. Emanuel Schäfer and SS @-@ Standartenführer Dr. Ludwig Hahn , worked alongside 5th and 6th Panzer Armies during the Ardennes offensive . Hahn had previously been in command of Einsatzgruppe Griechenland in Greece .
Other Einsatzgruppen and Einsatzkommandos included Einsatzgruppe Iltis ( operated in Carinthia , on the border between Slovenia and Austria ) under SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel , Einsatzgruppe Jugoslawien ( Yugoslavia ) Einsatzkommando Luxemburg ( Luxembourg ) , Einsatzgruppe Norwegen ( Norway ) commanded by SS @-@ Oberführer Dr. Franz Walter Stahlecker , Einsatzgruppe Serbien ( Yugoslavia ) under SS @-@ Standartenführer Wilhelm Fuchs and SS @-@ Gruppenführer August Meysner , Einsatzkommando Tilsit ( Lithuania , Poland ) , and Einsatzgruppe Tunis ( Tunis ) , commanded by SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Walter Rauff .
= = Killings in the Soviet Union = =
After the invasion of the Soviet Union on 22 June 1941 , the Einsatzgruppen 's main assignment was to kill civilians , as in Poland , but this time its targets specifically included Soviet Communist Party commissars and Jews . In a letter dated 2 July 1941 Heydrich communicated to his SS and Police Leaders that the Einsatzgruppen were to execute all senior and middle ranking Comintern officials ; all senior and middle ranking members of the central , provincial , and district committees of the Communist Party ; extremist and radical Communist Party members ; people 's commissars ; and Jews in party and government posts . Open @-@ ended instructions were given to execute " other radical elements ( saboteurs , propagandists , snipers , assassins , agitators , etc . ) . " He instructed that any pogroms spontaneously initiated by the occupants of the conquered territories were to be quietly encouraged .
On 8 July , Heydrich announced that all Jews were to be regarded as partisans , and gave the order for all male Jews between the ages of 15 and 45 to be shot . On 17 July Heydrich ordered that the Einsatzgruppen were to kill all Jewish Red Army prisoners of war , plus all Red Army prisoners of war from Georgia and Central Asia , as they too might be Jews . Unlike in Germany , where the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 defined as Jewish anyone with at least three Jewish grandparents , the Einsatzgruppen defined as Jewish anyone with at least one Jewish grandparent ; in either case , whether or not the person practised the religion was irrelevant . The unit was also assigned to exterminate Romani people and the mentally ill . It was common practice for the Einsatzgruppen to shoot hostages .
As the invasion began , the Germans pursued the fleeing Red Army , leaving a security vacuum . Reports surfaced of Soviet guerrilla activity in the area , with local Jews immediately suspected of collaboration . Heydrich ordered his officers to incite anti @-@ Jewish pogroms in the newly occupied territories . Pogroms , some of which were orchestrated by the Einsatzgruppen , broke out in Latvia , Lithuania , and Ukraine . Within the first few weeks of Operation Barbarossa , 40 pogroms led to the deaths of 10 @,@ 000 Jews , and by the end of 1941 some 60 pogroms had taken place , claiming as many as 24 @,@ 000 victims . However , SS @-@ Brigadeführer Franz Walter Stahlecker , commander of Einstazgruppe A , reported to his superiors in mid @-@ October that the residents of Kaunas were not spontaneously starting pogroms , and secret assistance by the Germans was required . A similar reticence was noted by Einsatzgruppe B in Russia and Belarus and Einsatzgruppe C in Ukraine ; the further east the Einsatzgruppen travelled , the less likely the residents were to be prompted into killing their Jewish neighbours .
All four main Einsatzgruppen took part in mass shootings from the early days of the war . Initially the targets were adult Jewish men , but by August the net had been widened to include women , children , and the elderly — the entire Jewish population . Initially there was a semblance of legality given to the shootings , with trumped @-@ up charges being read out ( arson , sabotage , black marketeering , or refusal to work , for example ) and victims being killed by a firing squad . As this method proved too slow , the Einsatzkommandos began to take their victims out in larger groups and shot them next to , or even inside , mass graves that had been prepared . Some Einsatzkommandos started to use automatic weapons , with survivors being killed with a pistol shot .
As word of the massacres got out , many Jews fled ; in Ukraine , 70 to 90 per cent of the Jews ran away . This was seen by the leader of Einsatzkommando VI as beneficial , as it would save the regime the costs of deporting the victims further east over the Urals . In other areas the invasion was so successful that the Einsatzgruppen had insufficient forces to immediately kill all the Jews in the conquered territories . A situation report from Einsatzgruppe C in September 1941 noted that not all Jews were members of the Bolshevist apparatus , and suggested that the total elimination of Jewry would have a negative impact on the economy and the food supply . The Nazis began to round their victims up into concentration camps and ghettos and rural districts were for the most part rendered Judenfrei ( free of Jews ) . Jewish councils were set up in major cities and forced labour gangs were established to make use of the Jews as slave labour until they were totally eliminated , a goal that was postponed until 1942 .
Einsatzgruppen used public hangings as a terror tactic on the local population . An Einsatzgruppe B report , dated 9 October 1941 , described one such hanging . Due to suspected partisan activity near Demidov , all male residents aged 15 to 55 were put in a camp to be screened . The screening produced seventeen people identified as " partisans " and " Communists " . Five members of the group were hanged while 400 local residents were assembled to watch ; the rest were shot .
= = = Babi Yar = = =
The largest mass shooting perpetrated by the Einsatzgruppen took place on 29 and 30 September 1941 at Babi Yar , a ravine northwest of Kiev , a city in Ukraine that had fallen to the Germans on 19 September . The perpetrators included a company of Waffen @-@ SS attached to Einsatzgruppe C under Rasch , members of Sonderkommando 4a under SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Friedrich Jeckeln , and some Ukrainian auxiliary police . The Jews of Kiev were told to report to a certain street corner on 29 September ; anyone who disobeyed would be shot . Since word of massacres in other areas had not yet reached Kiev and the assembly point was near the train station , they assumed they were being deported . People showed up at the rendezvous point in large numbers , laden with possessions and food for the journey .
After being marched two miles north @-@ west of the city centre , the victims encountered a barbed wire barrier and numerous Ukrainian police and German troops . Thirty or forty people at a time were told to leave their possessions and were escorted through a narrow passageway lined with soldiers brandishing clubs . Anyone who tried to escape was beaten . Soon the victims reached an open area , where they were forced to strip , and then were herded down into the ravine . People were forced to lie down in rows on top of the bodies of other victims , and they were shot in the back of the head or the neck by members of the execution squads .
The murders continued for two days , claiming a total of 33 @,@ 771 victims . Sand was shovelled and bulldozed over the bodies and the sides of the ravine were dynamited to bring down more material . Anton Heidborn , a member of Sonderkommando 4a , later testified that three days later that there were still people alive among the corpses . Heidborn spent the next few days helping smooth out the " millions " of banknotes taken from the victims ' possessions . The clothing was taken away , destined to be re @-@ used by German citizens . Jeckeln 's troops shot more than 100 @,@ 000 Jews by the end of October .
= = Killings in the Baltic states = =
Einsatzgruppe A operated in the formerly Soviet @-@ occupied Baltic states of Estonia , Latvia , and Lithuania . According to its own reports to Himmler , Einsatzgruppe A killed almost 140 @,@ 000 people in the five months following the invasion : 136 @,@ 421 Jews , 1 @,@ 064 Communists , 653 people with mental illnesses , 56 partisans , 44 Poles , five Gypsies , and one Armenian were reported killed between 22 June and 25 November 1941 .
Upon entering Kaunas , Lithuania , on 25 June 1941 , the Einsatzgruppe released the criminals from the local jail and encouraged them to join the pogrom which was underway . Between 23 – 27 June 1941 , 4 @,@ 000 Jews were killed on the streets of Kaunas and in nearby open pits and ditches . Particularly active in the Kaunas pogrom was the so @-@ called " Death Dealer of Kaunas " , a young man who murdered Jews with a crowbar at the Lietukis Garage before a large crowd that cheered each killing with much applause ; he occasionally paused to play the Lithuanian national anthem " Tautiška giesmė " on his accordion before resuming the killings .
As Einsatzgruppe A advanced into Lithuania , it actively recruited local nationalists and antisemitic groups . In July 1941 , members of the Baltaraisciai movement joined the massacres . A pogrom in Riga in early July killed 400 Jews . Latvian nationalist Viktors Arājs and his supporters undertook a campaign of arson against synagogues . On 2 July , Einsatzgruppe A commander Stahlecker appointed Arājs to head the Arajs Kommando , a Sonderkommando of about 300 men , mostly university students . Together , Einsatzgruppe A and the Arājs Kommando killed 2 @,@ 300 Jews in Riga on 6 – 7 July . Within six months , Arājs and his men would kill about half of Latvia 's Jewish population .
Local officials , the Selbstschutz , and the Hilfspolizei ( Auxiliary Police ) played a key role in rounding up and massacring Jewish Lithuanians , Latvians , and Estonians . These groups helped the Einsatzgruppen and other killing units to quickly identify Jews . The Hilfspolizei , consisting of auxiliary police organised by the Germans and recruited from former Latvian Army and police officers , ex @-@ Aizsargi , members of the Pērkonkrusts , and university students , assisted in the murder of Latvia 's Jewish citizens . Similar units were created elsewhere , and provided much of the manpower for the Holocaust in Eastern Europe .
With the creation of units such as the Arājs Kommando and the Rollkommando Hamann in Lithuania , the attacks changed from the spontaneous mob violence of the pogroms to more systematic massacres . With extensive local help , Einsatzgruppe A was the first Einsatzgruppe to attempt to systematically exterminate all the Jews in its area . Latvian historian Modris Eksteins wrote :
Of the roughly 83 @,@ 000 Jews who fell into German hands in Latvia , not more than 900 survived ; and of the more than 20 @,@ 000 Western Jews sent into Latvia , only some 800 lived through the deportation until liberation . This was the highest percentage of eradication in all of Europe .
In late 1941 , the Einsatzkommandos settled into headquarters in Kovno , Riga , and Tallinn . Einsatzgruppe A grew less mobile and faced problems because of its small size . The Germans relied increasingly on the Arājs Kommando and similar groups to perform massacres of Jews .
Such extensive and enthusiastic collaboration with the Einsatzgruppen has been attributed to several factors . Since the Russian Revolution of 1905 , the Kresy Wschodnie and other borderlands had experienced a political culture of violence . The period of Soviet rule had been profoundly traumatic for residents of the Baltic states and areas that had been part of Poland until 1939 ; the population was brutalised and terrorised by the imposed Soviet rule , and the existing familiar structures of society were destroyed .
Historian Erich Haberer notes that many survived and made sense of the " totalitarian atomization " of society by seeking conformity with communism . As a result , by the time of the German invasion in 1941 , many had come to see conformity with a totalitarian regime as socially acceptable behaviour ; thus , people simply transferred their allegiance to the German regime when it arrived . Some who had collaborated with the Soviet regime sought to divert attention from themselves by naming Jews as collaborators and killing them .
= = = Rumbula = = =
In November 1941 Himmler was dissatisfied with the pace of the exterminations in Latvia , as he intended to move Jews from Germany into the area . He assigned SS @-@ Obergruppenführer Jeckeln , one of the perpetrators of the Babi Yar massacre , to liquidate the Riga ghetto . Jeckeln selected a site about 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) southeast of Riga near the Rumbula railway station , and had 300 Russian prisoners of war prepare the site by digging pits in which to bury the victims . Jeckeln organised around 1 @,@ 700 men , including 300 members of the Arajs Kommando , 50 German SD men , and 50 Latvian guards , most of whom had already participated in mass killings of civilians . These troops were supplemented by Latvians , including members of the Riga city police , battalion police , and ghetto guards . Around 1 @,@ 500 able @-@ bodied Jews would be spared execution so their slave labour could be exploited ; a thousand men were relocated to a fenced @-@ off area within the ghetto and 500 women were temporarily housed in a prison and later moved to a separate nearby ghetto , where they were put to work mending uniforms .
Although Rumbula was on the rail line , Jeckeln decided that the victims should travel on foot from Riga to the execution ground . Trucks and buses were arranged to carry children and the elderly . The victims were told that they were being relocated , and were advised to bring up to 20 kilograms ( 44 lb ) of possessions . The first day of executions , 30 November 1941 , began with the perpetrators rousing and assembling the victims at 4 : 00 am . The victims were moved in columns of a thousand people toward the execution ground . As they walked , some SS men went up and down the line , shooting people who could not keep up the pace or who tried to run away or rest .
When the columns neared the prepared execution site , the victims were driven some 270 metres ( 300 yd ) from the road into the forest , where any possessions that had not yet been abandoned were seized . Here the victims were split into groups of fifty and taken deeper into the forest , near the pits , where they were ordered to strip . The victims were driven into the prepared trenches , made to lie down , and shot in the head or the back of the neck by members of Jeckeln 's bodyguard . Around 13 @,@ 000 Jews from Riga were killed at the pits that day , along with a thousand Jews from Berlin who had just arrived by train . On the second day of the operation , 8 December 1941 , the remaining 10 @,@ 000 Jews of Riga were killed in the same way . About a thousand were killed on the streets of the city or on the way to the site , bringing the total deaths for the two @-@ day extermination to 25 @,@ 000 people . For his part in organising the massacre , Jeckeln was promoted to Leader of the SS Upper Section , Ostland .
= = Second Sweep = =
Einsatzgruppe B , C , and D did not immediately follow Einsatzgruppe A 's example in systematically killing all Jews in their areas . The Einsatzgruppe commanders , with the exception of Einsatzgruppe A 's Stahlecker , were of the opinion by the fall of 1941 that it was impossible to kill the entire Jewish population of the Soviet Union in one sweep , and thought the killings should stop . An Einsatzgruppe report dated 17 September advised that the Germans would be better off using any skilled Jews as labourers rather than shooting them . Also , in some areas poor weather and a lack of transportation led to a slowdown in deportations of Jews from points further west . Thus , an interval passed between the first round of Einsatzgruppen massacres in summer and fall , and what American historian Raul Hilberg called the second sweep , which started in December 1941 and lasted into the summer of 1942 . During the interval , the surviving Jews were forced into ghettos .
Einsatzgruppe A had already murdered almost all Jews in its area , so it shifted its operations into Belarus to assist Einsatzgruppe B. In Dnepropetrovsk in February 1942 , Einsatzgruppe D reduced the city 's Jewish population from 30 @,@ 000 to 702 over the course of four days . The German Order Police and local collaborators provided the extra manpower needed to perform all the shootings . Haberer wrote that , as in the Baltic states , the Germans could not have killed so many Jews so quickly without local help . He points out that the ratio of Order Police to auxiliaries was 1 to 10 in both Ukraine and Belarus . In rural areas the proportion was 1 to 20 . This meant that most Ukrainian and Belarusian Jews were killed by fellow Ukrainians and Belarusians commanded by German officers rather than by Germans .
The second wave of exterminations in the Soviet Union met with armed resistance in some areas , though the chance of success was poor . Weapons were typically primitive or home @-@ made . Communications were impossible between ghettos in various cities , so there was no way to create a unified strategy . Few in the ghetto leadership supported resistance for fear of reprisals on the ghetto residents . Mass break @-@ outs were sometimes attempted , though survival in the forest was nearly impossible due to the lack of food and the fact that escapees were often tracked down and killed .
= = Transition to gassing = =
After a time , Himmler found that the killing methods used by the Einsatzgruppen were inefficient : they were costly , demoralising for the troops , and sometimes did not kill the victims quickly enough . Many of the troops found the massacres to be difficult if not impossible to perform . Some of the perpetrators suffered physical and mental health problems , and many turned to drink . As much as possible , the Einsatzgruppen leaders militarized the genocide . The historian Christian Ingrao notes an attempt was made to make the shootings a collective act without individual responsibility . Framing the shootings in this way was not psychologically sufficient for every perpetrator to feel absolved of guilt . Browning notes three categories of potential perpetrators : those who were eager to participate right from the start , those who participated in spite of moral qualms because they were ordered to do so , and a significant minority who refused to take part . A few men spontaneously became excessively brutal in their killing methods and their zeal for the task . Commander of Einsatzgruppe D , SS @-@ Gruppenführer Otto Ohlendorf , particularly noted this propensity towards excess , and ordered that any man who was too eager to participate or too brutal should not perform any further executions .
During a visit to Minsk in August 1941 , Himmler witnessed an Einsatzgruppen mass execution first @-@ hand and concluded that shooting Jews was too stressful for his men . By November he made arrangements for any SS men suffering ill health from having participated in executions to be provided with rest and mental health care . He also decided a transition should be made to gassing the victims , especially the women and children , and ordered the recruitment of expendable native auxiliaries who could assist with the murders . Gas vans , which had been used previously to kill mental patients , began to see service by all four main Einsatzgruppen from 1942 . However , the gas vans were not popular with the Einsatzkommandos , because removing the dead bodies from the van and burying them was a horrible ordeal . Prisoners or auxiliaries were often assigned to do this task so as to spare the SS men the trauma . Some of the early mass killings at extermination camps used carbon monoxide fumes produced by diesel engines , similar to the method used in gas vans , but by as early as September 1941 experiments were begun at Auschwitz using Zyklon B , a cyanide @-@ based pesticide gas .
Plans for the total eradication of the Jewish population of Europe — eleven million people — were formalised at the Wannsee Conference , held on 20 January 1942 . Some would be worked to death , and the rest would be killed in the implementation of the Final Solution of the Jewish question ( German : Die Endlösung der Judenfrage ) . Permanent killing centres at Auschwitz , Belzec , Sobibor , Treblinka , and other Nazi extermination camps replaced mobile death squads as the primary method of mass killing . The Einsatzgruppen remained active , however , and were put to work fighting partisans , particularly in Belarus .
After the fall of Stalingrad in February 1943 , Himmler realised that Germany would likely lose the war , and ordered the formation of a special task force , Sonderkommando 1005 , under SS @-@ Standartenführer Paul Blobel . The unit 's assignment was to visit mass graves all along the Eastern Front to exhume bodies and burn them in an attempt to cover up the genocide . The task remained unfinished at the end of the war , and many mass graves remain unmarked and unexcavated .
By 1944 the Red Army had begun to push the German forces out of Eastern Europe , and the Einsatzgruppen retreated alongside the Wehrmacht . By late 1944 , most Einsatzgruppen personnel had been folded into Waffen @-@ SS combat units or transferred to permanent death camps . Hilberg estimates that between 1941 and 1945 the Einsatzgruppen and related agencies killed more than two million people , including 1 @.@ 3 million Jews . The total number of Jews murdered during the war is estimated at 5 @.@ 5 to six million people .
= = Plans for the Middle East and Britain = =
According to research by German historians Klaus @-@ Michael Mallmann and Martin Cüppers , an Einsatzgruppe was created in 1942 to kill the half @-@ million Jews living in the British Mandate of Palestine and the 50 @,@ 000 Jews of Egypt . Einsatzgruppe Egypt , standing by in Athens , was prepared to go to Palestine once German forces arrived there . SS @-@ Obersturmbannführer Walter Rauff was to lead the unit . Given its small staff of only 24 men , Einsatzgruppe Egypt would have needed help from local residents and from the Afrika Korps to complete their assignment . Its members planned to enlist collaborators from the local population to perform the killings under German leadership . Former Iraqi prime minister Rashid Ali al @-@ Gaylani and the Grand Mufti of Jerusalem Haj Amin al @-@ Husseini played roles , engaging in antisemitic radio propaganda , preparing to recruit volunteers , and in raising an Arab @-@ German Battalion that would also follow Einsatzgruppe Egypt to the Middle East . Commander of the Afrika Korps Field Marshal Erwin Rommel promised the co @-@ operation of his corps in these assignments . In an agreement signed in July 1942 between the two groups , Rommel promised logistical support for Einsatzgruppe Egypt , which was to serve under command of the Wehrmacht . The group never left Greece , however ; the plans were set aside after the Allied victory at the Battle of El Alamein .
Had Operation Sea Lion , the German plan for an invasion of the United Kingdom been launched , six Einsatzgruppen were scheduled to follow the invasion force into Britain . They were provided with a list called die Sonderfahndungsliste , G.B. ( " Special Search List , G.B " ) , known as The Black Book after the war , of 2 @,@ 300 people to be immediately imprisoned by the Gestapo . The list included Churchill , members of the cabinet , prominent journalists and authors , and members of the Czechoslovak government @-@ in @-@ exile .
= = Jäger Report = =
The Einsatzgruppen kept official records of many of their massacres and provided detailed reports to their superiors . The Jäger Report , filed by Commander SS @-@ Standartenführer Karl Jäger on 1 December 1941 to his superior , Stahlecker ( head of Einsatzgruppe A ) , covers the activities of Einsatzkommando III in Lithuania over the five @-@ month period from 2 July 1941 to 25 November 1941 .
Jäger 's report provides an almost daily running total of the liquidations of 137 @,@ 346 people , the vast majority of them Jews . The report documents the exact date and place of massacres , the number of victims , and their breakdown into categories ( Jews , Communists , criminals , and so on ) . Women were shot from the very beginning , but initially in fewer numbers than men . Children were first included in the tally starting in mid @-@ August , when 3 @,@ 207 people were murdered in Rokiškis on 15 – 16 August 1941 . For the most part the report does not give any military justification for the killings ; people were killed solely because they were Jews . In total , the report lists over 100 executions in 71 different locations . Jäger wrote : " I can state today that the goal of solving the Jewish problem in Lithuania has been reached by Einsatzkommando 3 . There are no more Jews in Lithuania , apart from working Jews and their families . " In a February 1942 addendum to the report , Jäger increased the total number of victims to 138 @,@ 272 , giving a breakdown of 48 @,@ 252 men , 55 @,@ 556 women , and 34 @,@ 464 children . Only 1 @,@ 851 of the victims were non @-@ Jewish .
Jäger escaped capture by the Allies when the war ended . He lived in Heidelberg under his own name until his report was discovered in March 1959 . Arrested and charged , Jäger committed suicide on 22 June 1959 in a Hohenasperg prison while awaiting trial for his crimes .
= = Involvement of the Wehrmacht = =
The killings took place with the knowledge and support of the German Army in the east . On 10 October 1941 Field Marshal Walther von Reichenau drafted an order to be read to the German Sixth Army on the Eastern Front . Now known as the Severity Order , it read in part :
The most important objective of this campaign against the Jewish @-@ Bolshevik system is the complete destruction of its sources of power and the extermination of the Asiatic influence in European civilization ... In this eastern theatre , the soldier is not only a man fighting in accordance with the rules of the art of war , but also the ruthless standard bearer of a national conception ... For this reason the soldier must learn fully to appreciate the necessity for the severe but just retribution that must be meted out to the subhuman species of Jewry .
Field Marshal Gerd von Rundstedt of Army Group South expressed his " complete agreement " with the order . He sent out a circular to the generals under his command urging them to release their own versions and to impress upon their troops the need to exterminate the Jews . General Erich von Manstein , in an order to his troops on 20 November , stated that " the Jewish @-@ Bolshevist system must be exterminated once and for all . " Manstein sent a letter to Einsatzgruppe D commanding officer Ohlendorf complaining that it was unfair that the SS was keeping all of the murdered Jews ' wristwatches for themselves instead of sharing with the army .
Beyond this trivial complaint , the Army and the Einsatzgruppen worked closely and effectively . On 6 July 1941 Einsatzkommando 4b of Einsatzgruppe C reported that " Armed forces surprisingly welcome hostility against the Jews " . On 8 September , Einsatzgruppe D reported that relations with the German Army were " excellent " . In the same month , Stahlecker of Einsatzgruppe A wrote that Army Group North had been exemplary in co @-@ operating with the exterminations and that relations with the 4th Panzer Army , commanded by General Erich Hoepner , were " very close , almost cordial " . In the south , the Romanian Army worked closely with Einsatzgruppe D to massacre Ukrainian Jews , killing around 26 @,@ 000 Jews in the Odessa massacre . The German historian Peter Longerich thinks it probable that the Wehrmacht , along with the Organization of Ukrainian Nationalists ( OUN ) , incited the Lviv pogroms , during which 8 @,@ 500 to 9 @,@ 000 Jews were killed by the native population and Einsatzgruppe C in July 1941 . Moreover , most people on the home front in Germany had some idea of the massacres being committed by the Einsatzgruppen . British historian Hugh Trevor @-@ Roper noted that although Himmler had forbidden photographs of the killings , it was common for both the men of the Einsatzgruppen and for bystanders to take pictures to send to their loved ones , which he felt suggested widespread approval of the massacres .
The Wehrmacht tried to justify their considerable involvement in the Einsatzgruppen massacres as being anti @-@ partisan operations rather than racist attacks , but Hillgruber wrote that this was just an excuse . He states that those German generals who claimed that the Einsatzgruppen were a necessary anti @-@ partisan response were lying , and maintained that the slaughter of about 2 @.@ 2 million defenceless civilians for reasons of racist ideology cannot be justified .
= = Einsatzgruppen Trial = =
After the close of the World War II , 24 senior leaders of the Einsatzgruppen were prosecuted in the Einsatzgruppen Trial in 1947 – 48 , part of the Subsequent Nuremberg Trials held under United States military authority . The men were charged with crimes against humanity , war crimes , and membership in the SS ( which had been declared a criminal organization ) . Fourteen death sentences and two life sentences were among the judgments ; only four executions were carried out , on 7 June 1951 ; the rest were reduced to lesser sentences . Four additional Einsatzgruppe leaders were later tried and executed by other nations .
Several Einsatzgruppen leaders , including Ohlendorf , claimed at the trial to have received an order before Operation Barbarossa requiring them to murder all Soviet Jews . To date no evidence has been found that such an order was ever issued . German prosecutor Alfred Streim noted that if such an order had been given , post @-@ war courts would only have been able to convict the Einsatzgruppen leaders as accomplices to mass murder . However , if it could be established that the Einsatzgruppen had committed mass murder without orders , then they could have been convicted as perpetrators of mass murder , and hence could have received stiffer sentences , including capital punishment .
Streim postulated that the existence of an early comprehensive order was a fabrication created for use in Ohlendorf 's defence . This theory is now widely accepted by historians . Longerich notes that most orders received by the Einsatzgruppen leaders — especially when they were being ordered to carry out criminal activities — were vague , and couched in terminology that had a specific meaning for members of the regime . Leaders were given briefings about the need to be " severe " and " firm " ; all Jews were to be viewed as potential enemies that had to be dealt with ruthlessly . British historian Sir Ian Kershaw argues that Hitler 's apocalyptic remarks before Barbarossa about the necessity for a war without mercy to " annihilate " the forces of " Judeo @-@ Bolshevism " were interpreted by Einsatzgruppen commanders as permission and encouragement to engage in extreme antisemitic violence , with each Einsatzgruppen commander to use his own discretion about how far he was prepared to go .
Most of the perpetrators of Nazi war crimes were never charged , and returned unremarked to civilian life . The West German Central Prosecution Office of Nazi War Criminals only charged about a hundred former Einsatzgruppe members with war crimes . And as time went on , it became more difficult to obtain prosecutions ; witnesses grew older and were less likely to be able to offer valuable testimony . Funding for trials was inadequate , and the governments of Austria and Germany became less interested in obtaining convictions for wartime events , preferring to forget the Nazi past .
= = = Books and journal articles = = =
= = = Online sources = = =
= Action of 10 February 1809 =
The Action of 10 February 1809 was a minor naval engagement of the Napoleonic Wars , in which a British Royal Navy squadron chased and captured the French frigate Junon in the Caribbean Sea . Junon was on a mission to carry trade goods from the Îles des Saintes near Guadeloupe back to France and was part of a succession of French warships sent during 1808 and the early months of 1809 in an effort to break the British blockade of the French Caribbean , which was destroying the economies and morale of the islands . Having landed supplies , Junon 's return cargo was intended to improve the economic situation on Guadeloupe with much needed oceanic trade .
The patrolling British warships first sighted Junon in the Virgin Islands on 8 February . They then chased her north into the Atlantic Ocean for two days until the frigates HMS Horatio and HMS Latona were able to bring her to action . In a bitterly contested running engagement , Junon was badly damaged and suffered heavy casualties before surrendering to the numerically superior British force . She was later commissioned into the Royal Navy under the same name and remained in the Caribbean . Less than a year after her capture , a French convoy to Guadeloupe recaptured and destroyed Junon ; the British subsequently intercepted and defeated the convoy in turn .
= = Background = =
By 1809 , the Napoleonic Wars were six years old and the British Royal Navy was dominant at sea . Blockaded in their home ports by British squadrons , French warships , merchant ships and transports were unable to sail and , as a result , the French colonies in the West Indies were largely cut off from France . These colonies were also closely blockaded themselves and , as a result , their ability to trade independently was severely curtailed , resulting in economic collapse , severe food shortages and social unrest . Messages warning of the deteriorating situation in the colonies had been sent during the summer of 1808 , particularly from the islands of Martinique and Guadeloupe . In response supplies had been sent from France in small convoys and individual frigates in the autumn . The British blockading ships had also intercepted the communications from the island , and relayed the information to the Admiralty in London , who had ordered Vice @-@ Admiral Sir Alexander Cochrane to assemble a force and invade the French colonies before reinforcements and supplies could reach them .
The majority of the French attempts to reach the Caribbean ended in failure . Several ships were intercepted in the Bay of Biscay , while others reached the Caribbean , only to be defeated by ships from Cochrane 's squadron , which was focused on preparations for the invasion of Martinique , planned for February . Only two ships reached the islands safely , the 40 – gun frigates Junon at Guadeloupe and Amphitrite at Martinique . By February 1809 , Martinique was under attack , distracting most of the available British ships from the blockade of Guadeloupe . Taking advantage of the temporary absence of enemy shipping , Junon slipped out of the Îles des Saintes to the south of Guadeloupe on 4 February and sailed north . The French captain , Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Augustin Rousseau , had dropped off his military and food supplies and taken on board large quantities of trade goods for sale in France in an effort to revive the Guadeloupe economy .
= = Battle = =
At 14 : 00 on 8 February , four days after leaving the Îles des Saintes , Junon was spotted passing close to the Virgin Islands by the small British brigs HMS Superieure and HMS Asp , who signalled the approaching ship to halt and prepare for boarding . Ignoring the orders from the smaller ships , Rousseau continued northwards , passing through the Virgin Islands closely followed by Superieure , although Asp was unable to keep up and fell far behind during the night . At 08 : 00 on the morning of 9 February , with Virgin Gorda northwest , Superieure was close enough to open fire , a few long range shots failing to damage the large frigate , which responded with an ineffective broadside . The gunfire attracted other ships , and during the afternoon Superieure was joined by the British frigate HMS Latona , under Captain Hugh Pigot .
The chase continued through a second night , the French frigate making significant gains over her pursuers but still unable to escape them completely . At 10 : 30 on 10 February , two sails appeared in the southeast , set on a course that would cut in front of the French frigate . These were the British frigate HMS Horatio under Captain George Scott and the brig HMS Driver . With enemies on all sides , Rousseau recognised that his only hope of escape lay in defeating Horatio : a swift victory would enable him to outrun pursuit from the east , travelling westwards into the Atlantic . Rapidly closing with the new arrivals , Junon opened fire at 12 : 36 . Horatio immediately responded and then circled the slower French vessel and raked her before Rousseau could respond . Drawing close , the frigates exchanged broadsides at point blank range for 40 minutes . The heavier weight of the French ship soon told , with Scott and his first lieutenant severely wounded and their masts badly damaged . Unable to keep up with the French frigate , whose hull was badly holed but whose masts were only lightly damaged , Horatio fell back .
Rousseau had also been badly wounded in the exchange , and command of Junon passed to Lieutenant Jean @-@ Léon Emeric , who attempted to pull away from his battered adversary . As he did so the small brig Driver was well placed to intervene , but her captain , Charles Claridge , failed to engage the larger frigate , even though Latona was now rapidly approaching from the west and together they could have outnumbered and outmanoeuvred Junon . Superieure was also close by , and her captain , William Ferrie , did approach the larger French ship , his fire causing enough damage to Junon 's sails to prevent her escape . Taking Horatio in tow at 14 : 24 , the brig kept Scott 's frigate in the chase until sufficient repairs were complete . By 14 : 40 Horatio was again sailing independently and Driver finally came close enough to open fire , although at extreme range : Claridge refused to sail any closer to Junon , despite urgent signals from Horatio and Superieure . At 15 : 04 , Superieure was again close enough to the French ship to open fire and at 15 : 25 Latona arrived , her presence finally convincing Claridge to enter the action . Surrounded by enemy ships and his sails in tatters , Emeric made one last effort to escape to the north , the strain of this manoeuvre causing his main and mizen masts to collapse . With both flight and resistance impossible , Junon surrendered at 15 : 40 .
= = Aftermath = =
Officers from Latona were first to board the French frigate but Emeric refused to tender his formal surrender except to an officer of Horatio because he insisted that Horatio had caused the entirety of Junon 's damage . British historians have debated this opinion : William James agreed with this assessment , but also opined that if Horatio had been alone it would have been Scott surrendering rather than the French officers , such was the damage his ship had suffered in the battle . Edward Pelham Brenton , who was a serving officer in the Caribbean at the time , gives most of the credit for the victory to Latona , in a detailed account that James later criticised for its inaccuracies .
The battered Junon was taken in tow to Halifax , Nova Scotia , where she was repaired and later commissioned into the Royal Navy under the same name . The prisoners were also landed in Nova Scotia , including Rousseau , who died from his wounds soon afterwards . The French lost approximately 130 casualties ; British losses were seven killed and 26 wounded on Horatio , six wounded on Latona and one man wounded on Driver .
The British commanders and crews were praised for their actions in the battle , with the exception of Claridge in Driver . Both James and Brenton in their later histories heavily criticised his noted reluctance to engage the enemy . By contrast William Ferrie , commander of Superieure was commended for maintaining combat with the much larger frigate whenever possible . Four decades later , in 1847 , the Admiralty recognized the battle with the clasps " Horatio 10 Feby . 1809 " and " Superieure 10 Feby . 1809 " to the Naval General Service Medal , which it awarded upon application to all British participants then still living .
In the month following the capture of Junon , Guadeloupe was the only French colony in the Caribbean not under attack ; Martinique fell to the British on 24 February and Spanish forces continued their Siege of Santo Domingo . The French did make further attempts to resupply the islands ; a major expedition was defeated off Guadeloupe in April , and elements of this force that reached the island were defeated and captured during June and July . With British forces distracted by the ongoing Reconquista in Santo Domingo , the focus of the campaign moved north , and it was not until a second major expedition arrived in December that significant British forces returned to the Leeward Islands for the final invasion of Guadeloupe . The influx of British reinforcements was too late for HMS Junon ; on 13 December she had been cruising alone to the east of Antigua and been surprised by François Roquebert 's squadron of four French frigates . Outnumbered and surrounded , Junon fought hard but was eventually forced to surrender after Captain John Shortland was mortally wounded . Reduced to a sinking condition in the engagement , Junon was set on fire and abandoned by Roquebert , whose ships were intercepted five days later off Guadeloupe and defeated : two were destroyed and two others returned to France without landing their supplies .
= 69 Squadron ( Israel ) =
The 69 " Hammers " Squadron is an Israeli Air Force squadron operating the F @-@ 15I Thunder out of Hatzerim . It was formed in July 1948 to operate three B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses which the fledgling Israeli Air Force had acquired in the United States . The squadron flew the Flying Fortress , a type credited with propelling the IAF into the realm of modern aerial warfare , during both the 1948 Arab @-@ Israeli War and 1956 Suez Crisis . Disbanded in early 1957 , 69 Squadron reformed in 1969 to fly the F @-@ 4 Phantom II . 69 Squadron operated the Kurnass ( Sledgehammer ) , as the Phantom was known in Israel , for 25 years and its Phantoms saw extensive action during the War of Attrition , Yom Kippur War , First Lebanon War and numerous engagements in between . The squadron often played a central role in IAF suppression of enemy air defences ( SEAD ) efforts and took part in repeated battles against Egyptian and Syrian air defence arrays .
The squadron retired its Phantoms in 1994 but reformed shortly thereafter to operate the F @-@ 15I Thunder . Described as the " long @-@ range , heavy bombing element of Israeli air power " , 69 Squadron is reputed to have carried out Operation Orchard , the 6 September 2007 airstrike on a nuclear site in Syria .
= = Formation and B @-@ 17 years = =
= = = Israeli War of Independence = = =
In early 1948 , with the upcoming end of the British Mandate for Palestine and the looming confrontation with Israel 's Arab neighbors , the leadership of the Yishuv embarked on a worldwide effort to purchase weapons . Despite an American arms embargo , Israeli acquisition agents managed to purchase four commercial B @-@ 17 Flying Fortresses in the US . Assembled in Miami , the first two departed the city on June 12 , followed a day later by a third , and made their way first to Puerto Rico and then across the Atlantic via the Azores to Žatec , Czechoslovakia , where they arrived on June 14 . By June 16 the story had made it to the press and the fourth plane , whose crew only barely managed to elude the FBI , was impounded in the Azores by Portuguese authorities . At Žatec the three B @-@ 17s , missing bomb shackles and sights , oxygen systems and defensive weapons , were militarized and the squadron that was to operate them , at the time referred to as the " Hammers Program " , first took shape . Ray Kurtz , a former B @-@ 17 navigator with 31 missions over Europe , was assigned command of the squadron , staffed by an international crew of World War II veterans who volunteered to fight for Israel . Robert Luttrell , a sailor by trade , flying as a bombardier , recalled that for each mission the B @-@ 17s were given new markings and their armament was altered to lead the enemy to believe Israel possessed an entire squadron of the type .
On July 15 , 1948 , with fighting raging in Israel and Tel Aviv suffering from Royal Egyptian Air Force ( REAF ) raids , the three B @-@ 17s departed Žatec for Israel . Still ill @-@ equipped , the bombers were nevertheless tasked with bombing Egyptian targets en route . Flying south along the Adriatic , near Crete the bombers separated with Bill Katz and Ray Kurtz taking the only Fortress with an oxygen system and a proper sight to bomb the royal palace in Cairo , and the other two B @-@ 17s heading towards the REAF base at El @-@ Arish . While Katz and Kurtz successfully bombed the Abdeen Palace , the other two failed to locate their target and bombed Rafah instead , and all landed that evening at Tel Nof . The three aircraft were back in action at 06 : 30 on the very next day , hitting the REAF base at El @-@ Arish they had missed the previous night . As Tel @-@ Nof was deemed vulnerable to Egyptian attacks , the aircraft then landed at Ramat David , which was to house the squadron for the remainder of the war . In following days , until a UN @-@ brokered ceasefire came into effect on July 18 , the Fortresses struck across three fronts , attacking Majdal , Damascus and Tulkarm . Raising the average bomb load of an IAF sortie from 100 kg per sortie to 743 kg per sortie , the B @-@ 17s are credited with propelling the Israeli Air Force into the realm of modern aerial warfare .
Save for a single mission by all three bombers in support of Operation Shoter on July 20 , combat operations ceased until October 1948 . These three months saw the unit reorganize and by August it had received its official designation as 69 Squadron . With Bill Katz now in command , the squadron spent the truce training , qualifying new airmen and equipping the veteran aircraft . Fighting resumed on October 15 with Operation Yoav , aimed with breaking the Egyptian siege of the Negev . Over the next week the Hammers flew 47 sorties against Egyptian targets in and around Majdal , Gaza , El Arish , Al @-@ Faluja , and Rafah . Missions were flown in either a trio or a pair to maximize defensive firepower , and sometimes with 101 Squadron escorts , but no enemy fighters were ever encountered . In late October a number of sorties were also flown against Tarshiha , in the Upper Galilee , in support of Operation Hiram against Fawzi al @-@ Qawuqji 's Arab Liberation Army .
Operation Yoav had left Faluja as an enclave within Israeli @-@ held territory and during November 1948 the Hammers routinely returned to bomb what became known as the Faluja Pocket . The town would nonetheless hold out until the end of the war . On December 22 Israel launched Operation Horev , its last major offensive of the war , to finally defeat the Egyptian expeditionary force and expel it beyond the borders of Mandatory Palestine . 69 Squadron once again flew in support of Israeli efforts in the south , targeting the air base at El @-@ Arish , Khan Younis , Gaza and Rafah . The squadron also revisited Faluja to prevent an Egyptian sortie from the beleaguered pocket , and on New Year 's Day 1949 flew a failed attempt to bomb an Egyptian Navy flotilla which had shelled Tel Aviv . 69 Squadron flew its last missions of the war in the early morning of January 7 , 1949 , against Rafah . Having evaded Egyptian flak on most occasions , both participating bombers were hit , rendering one unserviceable .
= = = Postwar deactivation = = =
With the end of the 1948 Arab Israeli War , the majority of volunteer airmen returned home , and 69 Squadron once again went through a period of reorganization . From an English @-@ speaking outfit it was transformed into a Hebrew speaking unit . Training was stepped up to qualify Israelis to take over vacated positions and the squadron settled into a peacetime routine , with the B @-@ 17s conducting bombing and cloud seeding tests and participating in IDF exercises . The IAF itself was undergoing major changes , and in early May 1949 69 Squadron relocated to Tel Nof . In October 1951 the squadron moved once more , this time to Hatzor . In December 1952 the three B @-@ 17 was joined by three PBY Catalinas , acquired to guarantee supply to the town of Eilat at Israel 's southern extremity . Utilization of these aircraft , however , was low and they were soon withdrawn from service with the squadron . Spares , meanwhile , were also hampering B @-@ 17 operations and in March 1954 69 Squadron was deactivated and its assests handed over to 103 Squadron , which soon retired the Catalinas but continued to operate the three B @-@ 17s .
= = = Suez Crisis = = =
In 1956 growing diplomatic tensions in the Middle East , tensions that would soon culminate in the Suez Crisis , resulted in the resurrection of 69 Squadron . On April 19 the IAF issued an order reactivating the squadron at Ramat David , with Nahum Efrat as its commanding officer . The squadron was soon tasked with its first mission , allocating two B @-@ 17s for search and rescue operations during Dassault Mystère delivery flights from France to Israel . The reformed squadron once again began training personnel and equipping the aircraft for possible hostilities . As Israel purchased more jet fighters , however , room had to be made for the new arrivals , and in September 1956 the IAF ordered the squadron to send its aircraft into storage and changed its status to reserve . By October 3 the aircraft had been stored at Bedek Aviation ( later Israeli Aircraft Industries ) at Lod , but only three weeks later , on October 25 , the IAF activated the squadron once more .
Only two Fortresses had left Bedek 's storage facility by the time hostilities commenced on October 29 , 1956 . The squadron had not flown a single training sortie before fighting began and had only two full crews ready for battle . Israeli piston @-@ engined aircraft flew few missions in the first two days of the war , but on October 31 , 69 Squadron received an order to bomb Rafah in support of IDF Brigade 27 operations . Arriving over the target early on November 1 , the aircraft could not tell the location of friendly troops and without being able to communicate with the forces on the ground , were forced to dump their bomb loads in the Mediterranean . The B @-@ 17s were back in action the following night , to attack retreating Egyptian forces . A repeat of the previous night 's lack of communications with Israeli forces operating in the same area once again prevented the strike , and the bombers dropped their loads on the outskirts of Gaza . With the threat of Egyptian air power curtailed by Anglo @-@ French strikes against Egyptian air bases , the B @-@ 17s began flying daylight operations . On November 2 the squadron supported the Israeli push towards Sharm el Sheikh , on the southern tip of the Sinai . Two aircraft bombed the local barracks but were met with effective anti @-@ aircraft fire which damaged the lead aircraft . The damaged aircraft managed to return to Ramat David , just as the third B @-@ 17 returned from storage at Bedek . Two aircraft were therefore available for the B @-@ 17s ' final combat sorties with the IAF , another failed strike on Sharm el Sheikh on November 4 .
The squadron had flown a total of 8 sorties throughout the war and dropped 27 tons of bombs . With the conclusion of hostilities the squadron continued training and on November 10 even moved once more to Tel Nof . The B @-@ 17s flew a few more sorties during a January 1957 survey of the Sinai but were soon sent back to storage . 69 Squadron was finally disbanded on March 1 , 1957 . It was initially slated to operate the IAF 's next heavy bomber , the Sud @-@ Ouest Vautour , but these plans were dropped in favour of 110 Squadron .
= = Flying the F @-@ 4 Phantom II = =
= = = War of Attrition = = =
69 Squadron was reactivated at Ramat David on November 1 , 1969 , headed by Major Avihu Ben @-@ Nun . A year earlier Israel had ordered 50 F @-@ 4 Phantoms , enough to equip two squadrons , and ten IAF airmen had spent March to August 1969 training with the 479th Tactical Training Wing at George Air Force Base . These included five 69 Squadron airmen : Ben @-@ Nun , Ehud Hankin , Rami Harpaz , Shaul Levi and Achikar Eyal . Upon their return to Israel , then in the midst of the War of Attrition , the 69 Squadron airmen flew both training and combat missions with 201 Squadron , the IAF 's first Kurnass squadron . On one such mission on November 11 , Hankin and Eyal shot down an Egyptian MiG @-@ 21 to score the Phantom 's first aerial victory with the IAF .
69 Squadron finally received its first four aircraft on November 15 , the third Peace Echo I batch to arrive in Israel . Although still far from the 12 aircraft required to achieve IAF operatioal certification , on November 25 , 1969 , Avihu Ben @-@ Nun led the squadron 's debut operational mission , a combat air patrol ( CAP ) . The first air @-@ to @-@ ground mission came three days later , when two Phantoms struck an Egyptian SA @-@ 2 battery near Fayid . Still busy forming , receiving new aircraft , training and qualifying fresh airmen , the squadron was soon taking an increasingly large part in the IAF 's ongoing battles against Egyptian air defences along the Suez Canal . When the IAF launched Operation Priha ( Blosssom ) against targets in the Egyptian heartland during January 1970 , 69 Squadron was at the forefront of the fighting , and on February 8 , 1970 pilot Aviem Sella and navigator Shabtai Ben @-@ Shoa downed an Egyptian Air Force MiG @-@ 21 . Operations , meanwhile , were also conducted to deter Syria from joing the fight , with Phantoms conducting low level runs over Damascus on January 6 , 1970 , and over 5 major Syrian cities on January 29 . The squadron nevertheless suffered its first combat loss on April 2 , when Gideon Magen and Pinchas Nachmani were shot down by a Syrian MiG @-@ 21 to become prisoners of war .
Israeli aerial supremacy prompted Egypt to turn to the USSR for assistance and by the spring of 1970 an entire Soviet air defence division had deployed to Egypt . The Soviet presence spelled the end of Priha and Egypt regained the initiative , rolling its air defence array towards the Suez Canal . The IAF sought to hamper these advances through a renewed SEAD campaign and 69 Squadron saw repeated action against Egyptian air defences and related infrastructure . Egyptian SAMs , however , soon exacted their toll on the attackers , with Rami Harpaz and Achikar Eyal falling into Egyptian captivity on June 30 , a fate shared by Amos Zamir and Amos Levitov on July 5 . AN / ALQ @-@ 71 Electronic countermeasures ( ECM ) pods were soon rushed to Israel but proved only partially effective against surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles . On July 18 , the IAF attempted to fly eight F @-@ 4 Phantoms in close @-@ knit pod formations thought to maximize the effect of the ECM pods , only to lose 201 Squadron leader Shmuel Hetz , while an injured Avihu Ben @-@ nun was forced to crash land his badly damaged aircraft at Rephidim .
The SEAD campaign was halted , but although the IAF possessed no operational answer to the massive air defence array forming west of the Canal , it nevertheless still enjoyed supremacy in the air @-@ ro @-@ air arena . On July 30 , 69 Squadron took part in Operation Rimon 20 , a ruse designed to draw Soviet @-@ flown MiG @-@ 21s into battle . In the ensuing dogfight , five Soviet fighters were downed , of which one was shot down by Avihu Ben @-@ Nun with Shaul Levi and another by Aviem Sella with Reuven Reshef . With no side securing a clear advantage , yet both able to claim military achievements , American pressure soon bore fruit and a ceasefire marking the end of the war came into effect on August 7 , 1970 .
= = = Reconnaissance = = =
With the next round of the Arab @-@ Israeli conflict deemed a mere matter of time , peacetime saw 69 Squadron engaged in developing new SEAD tactics and weapons and in renewed reconnaissance efforts . New weapons such as the AGM @-@ 45 Shrike and AGM @-@ 12 Bullpup were introduced for the SEAD role , and on September 18 , 1971 , the Hammers flew their first Shrike strike against an Egyptian SA @-@ 2 battery following the downing of an Israeli C @-@ 97 Stratocruiser . As for reconnaissance , the IAF had ordered the RF @-@ 4E reconnaissance variant of the Phantom , but these were not slated for delivery until 1971 . 69 Squadron had already modified two F @-@ 4s in early 1970 for the role by removing their cannons and replacing them with cameras , and after the ceasefire these were joined by a pair of loaned American RF @-@ 4Cs , which were in operation until the squadron received two RF @-@ 4Es in early 1971 . While 119 Squadron , which had transitioned to the F @-@ 4 in 1970 , specialized in high @-@ altitude photography , 69 Squadron adopted low @-@ altitude photography . A mission by reconnaissance Phantoms over northern Syria on September 13 , 1973 , triggered a large scale clash between the two air forces , resulting in the downing of 13 Syrian MiGs ( one at the hands of 69 Squadron 's Amnon Arad ) and the loss of a single Israeli Mirage III .
= = = Yom Kippur War = = =
Experienced and well @-@ trained , 69 Squadron nevertheless entered the Yom Kippur War unready for the challenges brought about by start of the war . Prior to the outbreak of war , the IAF had been preparing for a pre @-@ emptive strike against Egyptian and Syrian positions , but this was rejected by the Israeli government . 69 Squadron aircraft were in the process of re @-@ armament to the air @-@ to @-@ air role when hostilities began at 14 : 00 on October 6 , 1973 . The aircraft were scrambled to perform CAPs , some having to dump their bomb loads in the Mediterranean , yet no aerial opposition was encountered . The squadron flew 37 sorties on the first day of the war , of which only 4 were strike missions , while two aircraft suffered damage from SA @-@ 7s over the Golan Heights .
The next morning saw the squadron participate in Operation Tagar , a SEAD offensive against Egyptian air defences , which began with strikes against Egyptian air bases . Seven Phantoms led by squadron leader Yoram Agmon struck the air base at Gianaclis , and although two defending MiG @-@ 21s were shot down , the strike failed to cause significant damage . Tagar , moreover , was quickly discontinued when the dire situation on the Golan Heights became apparent , and 69 Squadron efforts were redirected north where the IAF staged the ill @-@ fated Operation Doogman 5 . Flying with outdated intelligence and no electronic screening against mobile SAM batteries and heavy flak , 6 IAF Phantoms were lost , including 69 Squadron 's Ehud Hankin and Shaul Levy in Kurnass 123 . Both were killed . The same evening saw appeals for help from the southern front , leading the squadron to fly strike missions against Egyptian bridges and assembly point on the Suez Canal . Another Phantom was lost to surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles , its crew falling into captivity . Four more aircraft were lost on the following day , October 8 . One was lost in an otherwise successful morning strike against the Syrian air base at Dumayr , its crew captured . Another was lost over the Golan Heights , and two more during night strikes against Egyptian bridges across the canal , all falling prey to the SA @-@ 6 . Although four airmen were rescued by Israeli forces , pilot Zvulun Amizi and navigator Zeev Yogev were killed .
Three days into the war 69 Squadron had lost six aircraft , four airmen had been killed and four became prisoners of war . The detailed planning and extensive training undertaken before the war had gone to waste and the sustained campaign required to defeat enemy air defences was abandoned in the face of Egyptian and Syrian advances . Nevertheless , it had been the close air support provided by the IAF that helped Israeli troops on the ground to stem the tide and eventually go on the offensive , first in the north and later in the south . October 10 saw the Hammers strike the Egyptian air base at Quweisna , while two Syrian MiGs were claimed on the northern front . The next day saw the IDF push into Syria , and 69 Squadron was at hand striking fuel depots , SAM sites and the air bases at Dumayr , Nasiriya and Damascus . One aircraft was lost over Lebanon , where its crew were interned until the end of the war . Syria was the primary target for air base strikes on October 12 and 13 as well . Yoram Agmon and Daniel Whittman claimed two aerial victories , one on each of these two days , but the squadron lost another aircraft on October 14 , possibly the result of friendly fire on the southern front , though the crew was rescued . The same day witnessed the IAF begin receiving attrition replacements from USAF stocks . These Phantoms were delivered in their darker Southeast Asia scheme and rushed into service without repainting , gaining the name " Toads " . To ease maintenance , most were retained by 69 Squadron which transferred several of its airframes to 201 Squadron . Unlike Israeli aircraft , the new aircraft were equipped with TISEO targeting equipment , allowing them to launch the AGM @-@ 65 Maverick , another component of the American airlift . 69 Squadron was therefore entrusted with the introduction of the Maverick into Israeli service . No training flights were flown , the first launch occurring in combat , against a Syrian @-@ held bunker on the Hermon . Some 50 missiles were launched in the course of the war . 69 Squadron continued hammering Syrian infrastructure and Egyptian air bases in the following days , and on October 16 Yoram Agmon shot down a Syrian MiG @-@ 21 to become to only pilot to achieve ace status while flying with the squadron . The Hammers flew their final air base strike of the war on October 20 , striking the EAF air base at Khutamiyah . Pilot Doodi Zait and navigator Yoram Rubinstein were hit by a SAM and forced to ejected , becoming POWs in Egypt .
= = = Postwar activity = = =
The Yom Kippur War ended on October 24 . 69 Squadron had flown 789 sorties , had lost 9 aircraft , and had shot down 10 enemy aircraft . Four airmen had been killed and eight had become prisoners of war . The end of the war , however , did not spell an end to the fighting . On December 6 a mixed 69 and 119 squadrons combat air patrol over the Gulf of Suez engaged a flight of MiG @-@ 21s to score one kill , possibly two . The kill was credited to 69 's Yiftach Shadmi and Meir Gur , with the MiG @-@ 21s revealed to be a part of a North Korean contingent had that deployed to Egypt during the war . With the arrival of spring fighting also resumed in the north , where Israel and Syria had yet to sign a disengagement agreement . On April 8 , 1974 , while on patrol against low flying Syrian helicopters , the squadron lost one of its aircraft , probably to a shoulder @-@ launched SA @-@ 7 . The crew , Shadmi and Rafaeli , were interned in Lebanon for a month . Three weeks later , on April 29 , the squadron scored two aerial kills against Syrian MiG @-@ 21s , the squadron 's final victories to date . Fighting only ceased on May 31 .
The postwar years were spent implementing the lessons of the Yom Kippur War . SEAD tactics were improved , training was stepped up and innovative technologies introduced . The Hammers cooperated with Rafael , Israel 's weapon systems development authority , in the introduction of the Tadmit electro @-@ optical fire @-@ and @-@ forget guided bomb , a modified version of the AGM @-@ 62 Walleye II . At the same time , the Phantom 's air @-@ to @-@ air role was diminished with the introduction into service of the F @-@ 15 Eagle and the F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon . The squadron was , nonetheless , the first IAF squadron to introduce Rafael 's Python 3 into service in March 1977 . Air @-@ to @-@ air training continued and on December 29 , 1977 , during combat against a pair of F @-@ 15s , two squadron aircraft collided . Squadron leader Avsha Friedman and navigator Avihu Ikar were killed . The remains of their aircraft , Kurnass 305 , stand as a memorial to the two pilots on the Acre @-@ Carmiel road . On January 20 , 1981 , the squadron lost another pilot in similar circumstances , when Kurnass 222 collided with F @-@ 16 222 . Squadron leader Eliezer Adar ejected , but Dani Weiss was killed , as was the F @-@ 16 pilot , Uri Ben @-@ Amitai .
The Hammers flew 28 support , 13 reconnaissance and 6 combat air patrols during Operation Litani , Israel 's March 1978 invasion of Lebanon . In 1976 the squadron had received two additional RF @-@ 4Es , and was soon flying high @-@ altitude reconnaissance . This led to its participation in the preparations for the 1981 Operation Opera to destroy Iraq 's Osirak nuclear reactor , which the Hammers were initially planned to conduct . The squadron trained for the raid using the Tadmit , but these plans were dropped when the F @-@ 16 entered IAF service in 1980 . On November 12 , 1980 , the squadron carried out the IAF 's longest fighter mission hitherto , when two reconnaissance birds photographed the reactor near Baghdad . The mission witnessed three aerial refuelings , including one over enemy territory . Tensions over Lebanon flared once more in 1981 , and on May 29 , 1981 , the squadron carried out Operation Mole 9 , striking Libyan SA @-@ 9 batteries protecting PLO bases near Beirut .
= = = 1982 Lebanon War = = =
By the spring of 1982 tensions had risen again and the attempted assassination of the Israeli ambassador to London Shlomo Argov on June 3 , 1982 , prompted Israel to launch Operation Peace for Galilee . 69 Squadron flew 27 sorties in the preparation phase for the operation , from June 4 to the actual beginning of the invasion on June 6 . The first of these were carried out on the afternoon of June 4 , when a 4 @-@ ship formation struck the stadium in Beirut , used as a PLO weapons depot . Once Israeli ground forces began pushing into Lebanon , 69 Squadron provided close air support . One aircraft was damaged by enemy flak on the first day of the invasion , and two suffered landing accidents , but with poor weather and a shortage of targets , there was initially little fighting to be done . This changed on June 8 when it became apparent the Syrian forces in Lebanon would have to be engaged , and that same afternoon two squadron Phantoms bombed a Syrian electronic warfare facility on Jabel Barouk .
Syrian SAMs had been a constant threat to IAF operations , and as the war progressed the Syrian SAM array in the Bekaa Valley was bolstered with additional batteries . It was therefore decided to launch a comprehensive assault on the Syrian defences , in order to secure aerial superiority over the area and ensure air support for Israeli ground forces . At 14 : 00 on June 9 the IAF launched Operation Mole Cricket 19 , the culmination of 10 years of planning and preparation . 69 Squadron participated with 13 Tadmit and four follow @-@ up free @-@ fall bombers sent against the Syrians . The former operated individually , targeting Syrian fire control centers and radars , in all engaging seven SAM batteries . Mole Cricket 19 was a resounding success , with 14 out of 19 SAM batteries in the Bekaa destroyed and dozens of Syrian fighters downed in the ensueing dogfights . After the peak of June 9 , during which 29 sorties were flown , activity declined . 12 more sorties were flown on June 10 and 19 on June 11 , when a ceasefire came into effect . The squadron had flown 152 sorties throughout the offensive , of which 71 were close air support , 35 SEAD and 31 reconnaissance .
Once again , the official end of hostilities did not spell an end to fighting and Israel remained engaged in Lebanon for years to come . When the Syrians introduced the SA @-@ 8 Gecko into Lebanon in July 1982 , IAF Phantoms were sent to hunt down four launchers on July 24 and two were claimed by 69 Squadron . Up to its very disbandment in 1994 , the squadron also took part in repeated strikes against terrorist organizations operating from Lebanon . On one such operation on October 16 , 1986 , a bomb exploded immediately after release from Kurnass 306 , forcing both crew to eject . The pilot , Yishai Aviram , was rescued by an IAF AH @-@ 1 Cobra , but navigator Ron Arad was captured by members of the Shi 'a Amal Movement . Initial negotiations for an exchange of prisoners failed and Arad has been missing since and his fate remains unknown .
In early 1986 the squadron introduced the AGM @-@ 142 Popeye into IAF service , and for nearly a decade was the only IAF squadron to operate the missile . In 1987 its Phantoms played the role of Soviet " MiG @-@ 29s " in the film " Iron Eagle II " . Filming coincided with the receipt of several birds from 105 Squadron , which appropriately appeared in the film bearing that unit 's distinctive red flash on the fuselage ( although the IAF markings were replaced with the Soviet red star insignia ) . The squadron trained extensively for possible participation in the 1990 Gulf War , but Israel eventually stayed out of that conflict . In June 1991 the squadron relocated to the air base at Hatzerim , from which it flew 79 sorties during Operation Accountability of April 1993 . In the wake of the Oslo Accords the US finally agreed to supply the IAF with the F @-@ 15E Strike Eagle , and 69 Squadron was disbanded in early 1994 in expectation of its re @-@ equipment with the new aircraft .
= = Thunder Squadron = =
Four Israeli airmen , led by future squadron leader Dror Ben @-@ David , travelled to the US in 1997 for the F @-@ 15E conversion course , and the first two aircraft landed in Hatzerim on January 19 , 1998 . 16 aircraft had arrived by January 1 , 1999 , when the squadron was declared operational , and 10 days later the unit carried out it first operational sorties over southern Lebanon . Deliveries were completed in June 2000 , by which time the squadron had taken part in operations in support of the May 2000 Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon .
The squadron has since undertaken numerous missions during the Second Intifada and Operation Cast Lead . During the Second Lebanon War the Hammers flew 1 @,@ 400 sorties , totalling 2 @,@ 300 flying hours , more than any other IAF combat unit . During this conflict , the Ra 'am 's long range and endurance served it well in the close support role , as the aircraft could carry more munitions and remain on station longer than any other strike aircraft . It is these capabilities that place 69 Squadron at the forefront of Israel 's strategic arm , and it is thus this unit that is reputed to have undertaken Operation Orchard , the destruction of a Syrian nuclear site on September 6 , 2007 . The squadron has also been linked to a possible Israeli strike against the Iranian nuclear program .
Since its reactivation , 69 Squadron has also undertaken multiple deployments abroad . It was the first Israeli unit to participate in exercise Red Flag in October 1998 , and has taken part in several Red Flags since . It has also deployed to Turkey and Italy on several occasions , and three aircraft participated in the 2001 RAF Waddington International Air Show .
= Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps =
Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps , such as Private France Silva who during the Boxer Rebellion became the first Marine of the thirteen Marines of Hispanic descent to be awarded the Medal of Honor , and Private First Class Guy Gabaldon who is credited with capturing over 1 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers and civilians during World War II , have distinguished themselves in combat . Hispanics have participated as members of the United States Marine Corps in the Boxer Rebellion , World War I , the American intervention in Latin America also known as the Banana Wars , World War II , the Korean War , the Vietnam War , the Gulf War and most recently in the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq .
Hispanics are also reaching the top ranks of the Marine Corps , serving their country in sensitive leadership positions on domestic and foreign shores , with Generals such as Major General Angela Salinas and Lieutenant General Pedro del Valle . Many Hispanic Marines went on to distinguished careers outside of the military in different fields such as sports and space exploration .
Hispanics ( sometimes also referred to as " Latinos " ) in the Marine Corps account for the largest minority group of that military institution . Hispanics comprise 18 % of enlisted Marines today , up from 15 % when the Iraq War began . The United States Marine Corps has implemented an aggressive recruitment program directed towards Hispanics , which is the nation 's largest ethnic or minority race ( 2005 Census ) . According to the U.S. Census Bureau the estimated Hispanic population of the United States is over 50 million , or 16 % of the U.S. population . The 2010 U.S. Census estimate of over 50 million Hispanics in the U.S. does not include the 3 @.@ 9 million residents of Puerto Rico .
= = Terminology = =
Hispanic is an ethnic term employed to categorize any citizen or resident of the United States , of any racial background , of any country , and of any religion , who has at least one ancestor from the people of Spain or is of non @-@ Hispanic origin , but has an ancestor from Mexico , Puerto Rico , Cuba , Central or South America , or some other Hispanic origin . The three largest Hispanic groups in the United States are the Mexican @-@ Americans , Puerto Ricans and Cubans .
= = Background = =
Originally organized as the Continental Marines on November 10 , 1775 , as naval infantry , the Marine Corps has evolved in its mission with changing military doctrine and American foreign policy . The Marine Corps has participated in every American armed conflict including the Revolutionary War .
There are various factors which make it difficult to determine when exactly Hispanics began to serve in the Corps . One of these factors is that statistics on Hispanics were not kept by the military until the 1970s when the United States Census Bureau coined the phrase . Before then only unreliable estimates were made . For example , during World War II Hispanic Americans were estimated to comprise 2 @.@ 3 % to 4 @.@ 7 % of the Armed Forces . However , the exact number is unknown , as at the time Hispanics were integrated into the general white population census count . Separate statistics were kept for African @-@ Americans and Asian @-@ Americans . Another factor is that the estimates which have been made only take into account individuals whose surname is of Hispanic origin , when in reality there are many Hispanics with non @-@ Hispanic surnames who have served .
Unlike the United States Army , which had an all Puerto Rican unit ( the 65th Infantry Regiment ) and other units in the Southwest region of the United States mostly made up of Hispanics , the Marines have never had any Hispanic oriented units .
As of 2003 , those who joined the U.S. Armed Forces are not required to identify themselves as Hispanics , therefore a person of Hispanic descent who decides that he or she does not want to be considered as a Hispanic and chooses to identify themselves with any race was not be included in the statistics of the Department of Defense as Hispanics .
= = Boxer Rebellion = =
While specific statistics were not kept on the number of Hispanics in the Marine Corps , history documents instances of their heroic actions . During the Boxer Rebellion , Private France Silva ( 1876 – 1951 ) became the first Marine of Hispanic descent to be awarded the Medal of Honor , the highest military decoration awarded by the United States government .
Private Silva joined the Marines on September 12 , 1899 , in San Francisco . In 1900 , he was a member of the 1st Regiment ( Marines ) under the command of Major Littleton Waller , aboard the USS Newark ( C @-@ 1 ) . On May 20 , 1900 , the USS Newark ( C @-@ 1 ) , a United States Navy protected cruiser and the first modern cruiser in the U.S. fleet , sailed for China to help land reinforcements to relieve the legations under siege by the Boxers at Peking in what is known as the Boxer Rebellion . The Newark arrived at Tientsin on May , 22 . On May , 31 , Captain John T. Myers , USMC , arrived in Peking in overall command of two ship detachments of U.S. Marines . This newly formed Legation Guard consisted of twenty @-@ five Marines from the USS Oregon ( BB @-@ 3 ) along with twenty @-@ three Marines and five sailors from the USS Newark . Private Silva was one of the Newark Marines who were a part of the Legation Guard .
On June 19 , 1900 , the 1st Regiment ( Marines ) attempted to take the city of Tientsin and failed . Then , on June 23 , the Regiment , under the command of Major Waller , entered Tientsin in their second attempt after a Japanese blew open a gate to allow the Chinese to escape . Private Silva , who was seriously wounded and two sailors , Navy Seaman Axel Westermark and Chief Machinist Emil Peterson , were awarded the Medal of Honor for their defense of the civilian compound ( legation ) at Peking – they defended the walled city from June 28 until the fall of the city which occurred on August 17 .
= = World War I = =
During World War I , the Marine Corps ' 2nd Division fought alongside the U.S. Army 's 36th Infantry Division in the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge in Champagne , France . The result of this battle was the expulsion of the Germany Army from the Champagne Region .
Private Joe Nichols Viera of the 78th Company , 6th Regiment , 2nd Marine Division , was awarded the Navy Cross Medal , the second highest medal that can be awarded by the U.S. Navy and which is awarded to members of the U.S. Navy or U.S. Marine Corps for heroism or distinguished service . On October 3 , 1918 , Viera , captured three enemy machine gun nests and with the aid of another Marine captured forty enemy soldiers in the Battle of Blanc Mont Ridge . He was also awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , the United States Army second highest medal , for the same action .
Marine aviation was fairly new , it came into existence on May 22 , 1912 , and the first major expansion of the Marine Corps ' air component , of which Puerto Rico played a major rule , came with America 's entrance into World War I. On January 6 , 1914 , First Lieutenant Bernard L. Smith established the Marine Section of the Navy Flying School in the island municipal Culebra . As the number of Marine Aviators grew so did the avid desire to separate from Naval Aviation . By doing so , the Marine Aviation was designated as separate from the United States Naval Aviation . The creation of a " Marine Corps Aviation Company in Puerto Rico consisted of 10 officers and 40 enlisted men .
In 1915 , Lieutenant Pedro Augusto del Valle , from San Juan , Puerto Rico , graduated from the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland . Lieutenant del Valle helped the Marine Corps in the capture of Santo Domingo , Dominican Republic , in 1916 , for which he was awarded his first Legion of Merit . He commanded the Marine detachment on board the USS Texas ( BB @-@ 35 ) ( BB @-@ 35 ) in the North Atlantic during World War I. In 1919 , del Valle participated in the surrender of the German High Seas Fleet .
= = Second Nicaraguan Campaign 1926 – 1933 = =
Civil war broke out in Nicaragua during the first months of 1926 , and upon the request of the Nicaraguan government , 3 @,@ 000 U.S. Marines were sent to establish a neutral zone for the protection of American citizens . The American intervention was also known as the Banana Wars . Both Captain Pedro del Valle and Private Rafel Toro from Puerto Rico , participated in the Second Nicaraguan Campaign .
In 1926 , Captain del Valle served with the Gendarmerie of Haiti for three years and during that time , he also became active in the war against Augusto Sandino in Nicaragua . In 1927 , Lieutenant Jaime Sabater , from San Juan , Puerto Rico , graduated from United States Naval Academy .
Private Rafel Toro , from Humacao , Puerto Rico , was part of the U.S.
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Marine Corps occupation force in Nicaragua , serving with the Guardia Nacional de Nicaragua . On July 25 , 1927 , Private Toro was on advance guard duty into Nueva Segovia . As he rode into town , he was attacked ; returning fire , he was able to hold back the enemy until reinforcements arrived . He was mortally wounded in this action for which he was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross .
In 1931 , Brigadier General Randolph C. Berkeley appointed Pedro del Valle to the " Landing Operations Text Board " in Quantico , the first organizational step taken by the Marines to develop a working doctrine for amphibious assault . In 1932 , he wrote an essay titled " Ship @-@ to @-@ Shore in Amphibious Operations " which was published in the Marine Corps Gazette . In his essay , he stressed the importance of a coordinated amphibious assault and of an execution of an opposed landing , a principal which the Marine Corps were to put into practice in World War II .
In 1933 , Lieutenant James Rockwell , a native of San Juan , Puerto Rico , became the third Marine of Hispanic ( Puerto Rican ) descent to graduate from the USNA .
= = World War II = =
PFC Richard I. Trujillo was serving aboard the Battleship USS Nevada ( BB @-@ 36 ) when on December 7 , 1941 , the Japanese attacked Pearl Harbor . The Nevada was among the ships which were in the harbor that day . As her gunners opened fire and her engineers got up steam , she was struck by torpedoes and bombs from the Japanese attackers . Fifty men were killed and 109 wounded . Among those killed was Trujillo , who became the first Hispanic Marine casualty of World War II .
After the United States officially entered the war , Hispanic Americans were among the many American citizens who joined the ranks of the United States Marine Corps as volunteers or through the draft . Hispanic Americans in the Marines fought in every major battle in the Pacific Theater of Operations . The battles of Guadalcanal , Tarawa , Saipan , Cape Gloucester , Peleliu , Iwo Jima , and Okinawa saw fierce fighting between U.S. Marines and the Imperial Japanese Army . One Marine of Hispanic descent was awarded the Medal of Honor and 25 Hispanics were awarded the Navy Cross . Fifteen of those Navy Crosses were awarded to Marines . Among them PFC Guy Gabaldon who single @-@ handed captured over 1 @,@ 000 prisoners . It was during this conflict that four Hispanics would also participate as military commanders in the Marine Corps . The two highest @-@ ranking Hispanics in the Marines were Lieutenant General Pedro Augusto del Valle , the first Hispanic to reach the grade of general in the Marines , and Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr ..
Colonel Pedro del Valle ( 1893 – 1978 ) was the Commanding Officer of the 11th Marine Regiment ( artillery ) . Upon the outbreak of World War II , del Valle led his regiment during the seizure and defense of Guadalcanal , providing artillery support for the 1st Marine Division . In the Battle of the Tenaru , the firepower provided by del Valle 's artillery units killed many assaulting Japanese soldiers — almost to the last man — before they reached the Marine positions . As a result of the outcome of the battle the Japanese commander , Colonel Kiyonao Ichiki , committed seppuku shortly afterwards . General Alexander Vandegrift , impressed with del Valle 's leadership , recommended his promotion and on October 1 , 1942 , del Valle became a Brigadier General . Vandegrift retained del Valle as head of the 11th Marines , the only time that the 11th Marines has ever had a general as their commanding officer . In 1943 , he served as Commander of Marine Forces overseeing Guadalcanal , Tulagi , and the Russell and Florida Islands . Sergeant Silvio Sanguedolce was awarded the Navy Cross for their actions in Guadalcanal .
Colonel Jaime Sabater , Sr. ( 1904 – 1955 ) , a United States Naval Academy graduate Class of 1927 , commanded the 1st Battalion , 9th Marines , 3rd Marine Division during the Bougainville amphibious operations . On November 1 , 1943 . The Allies intended to establish a beachhead around Cape Torokina , within which an airfield would be built . Allied forces did not plan , at this time , to try to capture the entire island of Bougainville from Japanese forces . An attempt by the Japanese Navy to attack the U.S. landing forces was defeated in the Battle of Empress Augusta Bay , between November 1 and November 2 . A subsequent attempt by Japanese land forces to attack the Allied beachhead was defeated in the Battle of Koromokina Lagoon .
When the Marines landed in Saipan in 1944 , among the commanders was Lieutenant Colonel Chester J. Salazar . Salazar was the Commanding Officer of the 2d Battalion , 18th Marines . Salazar had in 1943 served as commanding officer of the same unit in the Gilbert Islands which fought in the Battle of Tarawa . During the Battle of Saipan , PFC Guy Gabaldon captured over a 1 @,@ 000 prisoners .
PFC Guy Gabaldon ( 1926 – 2006 ) went to live with the parents of his Japanese @-@ American friend at the age of 12 . At the outbreak of World War II , his adoptive family was placed in a relocation camp . Gabaldon joined the Marines when he was only 17 years old ; he was a Private First Class ( PFC ) when his unit was engaged in the Battle of Saipan in 1944 . Gabaldon , who acted as the Japanese interpreter for the Second Marines , working alone in front of the lines , entered enemy caves , pillboxes , buildings , and jungle brush , frequently in the face of hostile fire , and succeeded in not only obtaining vital military information , but in convincing well over 1 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers and civilians to surrender . He was nominated for the Medal of Honor , but was awarded the Silver Star instead . His medal was later upgraded to the Navy Cross . He turned in more enemy soldiers than Sergeant Alvin York , who was awarded the Medal of Honor during World War I for having captured 132 enemy German soldiers . Gabaldon 's actions on Saipan were later memorialized in the film Hell to Eternity , in which he was portrayed by actor Jeffrey Hunter .
On April 1 , 1944 , Brigadier General Pedro del Valle , as Commanding General of the Third Corps Artillery , III Marine Amphibious Corps , took part in the Battle of Guam and was awarded a Gold Star in lieu of a second Legion of Merit . The men under his command did such a good job with their heavy artillery that no one man could be singled out for commendation . Instead each man was given a letter of commendation by del Valle , which was carried in his record books . Col. Jaime Sabater who had previously participated in the Bougainville campaign and who was now the Executive officer of the 9th Marines in Guam was wounded in action on July 21 , 1944 and awarded the Purple Heart . PFC Abel Bidal Aragon of Company A 1 / 3 3rd Marine Division was awarded the Navy Cross for his heroic actions in the Battle of Guam .
In late October 1944 , Brigadier General Pedro del Valle succeeded Major General William Rupertus as Commanding General of the 1st Marine Division , being personally greeted to his new command by Colonel Lewis Burwell " Chesty " Puller . At the time , the 1st Marine Division was training on the island of Pavuvu for the invasion of Okinawa .
The Battle of Iwo Jima was marked by some of the fiercest fighting of the Pacific campaign . The battle was the first American attack on the Japanese home islands and the Imperial soldiers defended their positions tenaciously . Of the 21 @,@ 000 Japanese soldiers present at the beginning of the battle , over 20 @,@ 000 were killed and only 216 taken prisoner .
On February 23 , 1945 , Antonio F. Moreno witnessed the first flag raising photographed by staff sergeant Louis R. Lowery and the second flag raising photographed by Joe Rosenthal on Mount Suribachi . On March 8 , 1945 , Moreno , a Marine medical corpsman assigned to the 2d Platoon , Company E , 27th Marine Regiment , tried to save the life of Lt. Jack Lummus after he ( Lummus ) had stepped on a land mine a few feet away from Moreno . Lt. Lummus , was a former Baylor University and New York Giants football player who was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor . During this battle five men of Hispanic descent were awarded Navy Crosses . Two were members of the 4th Marine Division , PFC 's Lionel A. Canejo and Robert Manuel Ortiz and three of the 5th Marine Division , Pvt. Salvador Vargas and Corporals Rondo G. Abel and Nicholas Hernandez .
On May 29 , 1945 , Brigadier General Pedro del Valle participated in one of the most important events that led to victory in Okinawa . After five weeks of fighting , del Valle ordered Company A of the 1st Battalion 5th Marines to capture Shuri Castle , a medieval fortress of the ancient Ryukyuan kings . Seizure of Shuri Castle represented a morale blow for the Japanese and was a milestone in the Okinawa campaign . The fighting in Okinawa would continue for 24 more days . Del Valle was awarded a Distinguished Service Medal for his leadership during the battle and the subsequent occupation and reorganization of Okinawa . PFC Harold Gonsalves of the 6th Marine Division became the only Hispanic Marine in World War II to be awarded the Medal of Honor for gallantly giving his life for his fellow Marines . Two Hispanics who were also from the 6th Marine Division were awarded the Navy Cross , PFC Anthony E. Borgia of Company F 2 / 22 and Corporal Edward J. Ruiz of Headquarters 2 / 4 .
PFC Harold Gonsalves ( 1926 – 1945 ) , had enlisted in the Marine Corps Reserve on May 27 , 1943 and was called to active duty on June 17 , 1943 . He was assigned to the 22nd Marines and participated in the assault , capture , and occupation of Engebi and Parry Islands , in the Marshall Islands . PFC Gonsalves accompanied the 22nd Marines to Kwajalein , to Guadalcanal , back to Kwajalein and Eniwetok , then up to Guam in July where he took part in Battle of Guam .
After Guam , the regiment went back to Guadalcanal , where in November they were detached from the 22nd Marines and joined the 15th Marines of the 6th Marine Division . It was with that outfit that PFC Gonsalves landed on Okinawa on April 1 , 1945 .
Two weeks later , on April 15 , the 19 @-@ year @-@ old Marine was a member of an eight @-@ man forward observer team which was engaged in directing artillery fire in support of an attack by the infantry on Japanese positions on Motobu Peninsula . When it finally became necessary for the team to advance to the actual front lines , the officer in charge took PFC Gonsalves and one other man with him . PFC Gonsalves was acting Scout Sergeant of the team . He and the other Marine were to lay telephone lines for communication with the artillery battalion .
As the team advanced to the front , they were brought under heavy enemy rifle , grenade and mortar fire . Just as the three had reached the front lines , a Japanese grenade landed among them . It was less than a foot from the two Marines with PFC Gonsalves . Without a moment 's hesitation , he flung himself on the grenade , taking the full explosion into his own body . He gallantly gave his life for his fellow Marines and his country . The other two were not even touched by grenade fragments and they successfully completed their mission .
In 1945 , when Kwajalein of the Marshall Islands was secured by the U.S. forces , Sergeant Fernando Bernacett was among the Marines who were sent to guard various essential military installations . Bernacett , a combat veteran of the Battle of Midway , guarded the airport and prisoners of war , as well as the atomic bomb as it made its way for Japan .
The following is a list with the names , ranks , units and date of action of the fifteen Hispanic Marines who were awarded the Navy Cross :
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during World War II
Prior to World War II , traditional Hispanic cultural values expected women to be homemakers , thus they rarely left the home to earn an income . As such , women were discouraged from joining the military . Only a small number of Hispanic women joined the military before World War II . However , with the outbreak of World War II , cultural prohibitions began to change . With the creation of the Marine Corps Women 's Reserve , women such as Corporal Maria ( Torres ) Maes could attend to certain administrative duties left open by the men who were reassigned to combat zones . After completing boot camp at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina , she was sent to Quartermaster School and assigned to the Marine Corps Base at Quantico , Virginia .
= = Post World War II = =
The American participation in the Asian theater came to an end on August 14 , 1945 " V @-@ J Day " ( Victory over Japan Day ) when the Japanese surrendered by signing the Japanese Instrument of Surrender . Many of the men and women who were discharged after the war returned to their civilian jobs or did as Antonio F. Moreno and made use of the educational benefits of the G.I. Bill . Others continued in the military as career soldiers and went on to serve in the Korean War . General Pedro del Valle was ordered back to Headquarters Marine Corps , where he was named Inspector General , a position which he held until January 1 , 1948 when he retired with the rank of Lieutenant General . Colonel Jaime Sabater was named Commanding officer of the 3rd Marines , Fleet Marine Force , Western Pacific ( formerly the 3rd Battalion , 4th Marines ) from October 1 , 1947 to April 1 , 1948 in Tsingtao , China .
Among the Hispanics who graduated from the USNA during the 1940s and who would serve in the Marines during the Korean War were Lieutenants Leon J. Hernandez ( Class of ' 44 ) , Baldomero Lopez ( Class of ' 47 ) and George A. Bacas ( Class of ' 48 ) .
= = Korean War = =
The Korean War was an escalation of a civil war between two rival Korean regimes , each of which was supported by external powers , with each trying to topple the other through political and guerrilla tactics . The conflict was expanded by the United States and the Soviet Union 's involvement as part of the larger Cold War . The main hostilities were during the period from June 25 , 1950 until the Korean Armistice Agreement was signed on July 27 , 1953 .
In July 1950 , there were about 20 @,@ 000 Hispanics in the armed forces . Over the next three years , nearly 148 @,@ 000 Hispanic @-@ Americans volunteered for or were drafted into military service . As in other conflicts , Hispanics fought as members of the Armed Forces , most Hispanic @-@ Americans served in the Army and Marine Corps . On September 15 , 1950 , the 1st Marine Division , under the command of Major General Oliver P. Smith , led the first major United Nations force strike in North Korean @-@ occupied territory , with a surprise amphibious assault at Inchon . On November 27 , 1950 , elements of the Chinese Communist People 's Liberation Army struck Marine positions in force . The Chinese and Marine Corps forces engaged in some of the fiercest fighting of the Korean War . Hispanics in the 1st Marine Division distinguished themselves in combat even though they , and their comrades , lacked warm clothing during the cold and harsh winters . Five Marines of Hispanic descent were posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor in the Korean War . All five were members of the 1st Marine Division . They were PFC Fernando Luis Garcia , PFC Edward Gomez , Staff Sergeant Ambrosio Guillen , First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez and PFC Eugene Arnold Obregon . Two of the four Marine Navy Cross recipients were also members of the 1st Marine Division .
First Lieutenant Baldomero Lopez ( 1925 – 1950 ) enlisted in the Navy on July 8 , 1943 , and served until June 11 , 1944 , whereupon he was given a Fleet appointment to the United States Naval Academy . He graduated from the academy in 1947 . On September 15 , 1950 , Lopez participated in the Inchon invasion in Korea as member of the 1st Battalion , 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division ( Rein . ) .
Lopez engaged the enemy immediately after landing with the assault waves . He exposed himself to enemy fire in an attempt to throw a hand grenade into a pillbox whose fire was pinning down that sector of the beach . He was wounded by enemy gun fire and dropped the grenade . Unable to grasp the hand grenade firmly enough to hurl it , he chose to sacrifice himself rather than endanger the lives of his men . He cradled the grenade under him and absorbed the full impact of the explosion , thus saving the lives of his comrades . Lopez was nominated for the Medal of Honor . Lopez however , was not the only Hispanic member of the 5th Marines , 1st Marine Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor . PFC Eugene Arnold Obregon ( 1930 – 1950 ) , who also participated in the Inchon landing , was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions 11 days after Lopez gave his life . Obregon was killed in action while using his body to shield a wounded fellow Marine .
On September 14 , 1951 , PFC Edward Gomez ( 1932 – 1951 ) , an Ammunition Bearer in Company E , 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines , 1st Marine Division , voluntarily moved down an abandoned trench to search for a new location for his machine gun and , when a hostile grenade landed between himself and his weapon , he shouted a warning to those around him as he grasped the activated charge in his hand . Determined to save his comrades , he unhesitatingly chose to sacrifice himself and , diving into a ditch with the deadly missile , absorbed the violence of the explosion in his own body .
PFC Fernando Luis Garcia ( 1929 – 1952 ) , was assigned to Company I , 3rd Battalion , 5th Marines , of the 1st Marine division . On the night of his death , September 5 , 1952 , he was posted about one mile from the enemy lines . The Korean enemies were attacking with grenades , bombs and other types of artillery . Garcia was critically wounded , but he led his team to a supply point to get hand @-@ grenades . An enemy grenade landed nearby , and Garcia covered with his body , sacrificing himself to save the lives of his fellow Marines . Garcia died instantly . Garcia , whose remains were never recovered , became the first Puerto Rican Medal of Honor recipient .
On September 8 , 1952 , Private First Class Ramón Núñez @-@ Juarez ( 1932 – 1952 ) who was assigned as an automatic rifleman to Company E of the 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines ( 2 / 1 ) , 1st Marine Division was manning Outpost Siberia with a squad of 15 men . A company @-@ size Chinese Communist Force ( CCF ) struck the outpost and Nuñez @-@ Juarez and the other the riflemen fought off the enemy for nearly half an hour before withdrawing from their position . Nuñez @-@ Juarez , manning a Browning Automatic Rifle ( BAR ) , was able to halt the enemy 's advance long enough for the remainder of his squad to escape . Nuñez @-@ Juarez was struck by enemy gunfire and died as a result of his wounds . For the next several days the Marines tried to retake Outpost Siberia , but were unable to do so . Nuñez @-@ Juarez was listed as Missing in Action and was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross for his heroic actions .
Major George A. Bacas ( 1916 – 1961 ) was a Marine fighter pilot who flew an F4U Corsair during the war . He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross for his actions in combat . The Distinguished Flying Cross is a medal awarded to any officer or enlisted member of the United States armed forces who distinguishes himself or herself in combat in support of operations by " heroism or extraordinary achievement while participating in an aerial flight . He was also the recipient of the Air Medal with 6 Gold Stars .
Staff Sergeant Ambrosio Guillen ( 1929 – 1953 ) was posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor two days before the Armistice . He was responsible for turning an overwhelming enemy attack into a disorderly retreat . Guillen , who was assigned to Company F , 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division ( Reinforced ) , participated in the defense of an outpost forward of the main line of resistance on July 25 , 1953 . He maneuvered his platoon over unfamiliar terrain in the face of hostile fire and placed his men in fighting positions . With his unit pinned down when the outpost was attacked under cover of darkness by an estimated force of two enemy battalions supported by mortar and artillery fire , he deliberately exposed himself to the heavy barrage and attacks to direct his men in defending their positions and personally supervise the treatment and evacuation of the wounded . Inspired by his leadership , the platoon quickly rallied and engaged the enemy force in fierce hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat . Although critically wounded during the course of the battle , Staff Sergeant Guillen refused medical aid and continued to direct his men throughout the remainder of the engagement until the enemy attack into a disorderly retreat .
Four of those who served in the Korean War were awarded the Navy Cross , they were Private First Class Adolfo Benavides , Private First Class Mario Cardillo , Private First Class Ramon Nunez @-@ Juarez and Private First Class Enrique Romero @-@ Nieves .
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Korean War
The Korean War also witnessed an increase in the recruitment of Hispanic women in the Marine Corps . Among them was Rose Franco who became one of the first female Chief Warrant Officers in the U.S. Marine Corps .
CWO3 Rose Franco , who in 1965 was named Administrative Assistant to the Secretary of the Navy , Paul Henry Nitze by the administration of President Lyndon B. Johnson , surprised her family by announcing that she was leaving college to join the United States Marine Corps upon the outbreak of the Korean War . On February 8 , 1952 , at the age of 20 , Franco enlisted and was sent to Camp Lejeune in North Carolina where she underwent basic training . Upon graduation , she was sent to Camp Lejeune in North Carolina for advanced training . After finishing her advanced training , Rose was assigned to the duties of administrative supply assistant at Camp Pendleton in California . Franco retired from the Marine Corps in 1977 .
In the 1950s , three Hispanics who graduated from the United States Naval Academy became Marines and participated in the Vietnam War . They were Lieutenants John Gonzalez ( later Colonel ) , Class of 1955 , Ramiro Saenz ( later Lieutenant Colonel ) , Class of 1959 and Angelo Fernandez ( later Colonel ) , Class of 1959 .
= = Vietnam War = =
The Marine Corps served an important role in the Vietnam War by participating in such battles as Da Nang , Hue City , and Khe Sanh . Individuals from the USMC operated in the Northern I Corps Regions of South Vietnam . While there , they were constantly engaged in a guerrilla war against the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF ) and an intermittent conventional war against the North Vietnamese Army ( NVA ) . The U.S. government did not begin keeping separate statistics on Hispanics until 1979 . Therefore , the exact number of Hispanics who served in the Marine Corps during the Vietnam War era is unknown . The statistics that were kept by the Department of Defense , in accordance to the Vietnam War Statistics , included Hispanics among Caucasians . However , it is estimated that 170 @,@ 000 Hispanics served in Vietnam and that 3 @,@ 070 ( 5 @.@ 2 % of total ) died there . This total includes those who served in the Marines . Of the 57 Medals of Honor awarded to Marines for actions during the Vietnam War , six were awarded to Marines of Hispanic descent , of which five were posthumous awards . The six Marines were Sergeant Alfredo " Freddy " Gonzalez , Major Jay R. Vargas Jr . , Lance Corporal Jose Francisco Jimenez , PFC Ralph E. Dias , Lance Corporal Emilio A. De La Garza and Lance Corporal Miguel Keith . Of the 360 Navy Crosses awarded to the Marines , 19 were awarded to men of Hispanic descent .
Corporal Angel Mendez ( 1946 – 1967 ) was among the many men who volunteered to join the Marine Corps right after graduating from high school . He was assigned to Company F , 2nd Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division on March 16 , 1967 and conducting a search and destroy mission with his company when his company came under attack from a Viet Cong battalion . Half of a platoon was pinned down under enemy fire and Mendez , volunteered to lead a squad to assist the pinned @-@ down Marines in returning to friendly lines with their two dead and two seriously wounded . Mendez exposed himself and opened fire on the enemy . His Platoon Commander , Lieutenant Ronald Castille was seriously wounded and he fell , unable to move . Mendez shielded him with his body as he applied a dressing to the wound , he picked up the Lieutenant and started to carry him to friendly lines , which were more than seventy @-@ five meters away . Mendez was hit in the shoulder , yet he chose to act as rear man and he continued to shield his Lieutenant with his own body until he was mortally wounded . Mendez was posthumously awarded the Navy Cross and promoted to Sergeant . Sergeant Alfredo " Freddy " Gonzalez ( 1946 – 1968 ) served two tours in Vietnam . He was the Platoon Commander of Company A , 1st Battalion , 1st Marines , United States Marine Corps . On February 4 , 1968 , Sgt. Gonzalez and his platoon engaged the Viet Cong , who were holed up in St. Joan of Arc Catholic Church in Hue City , firing at the Americans with rockets and automatic weapons . Almost single @-@ handedly , Sgt. Gonzalez neutralized the enemy with a barrage of LAW rockets . When it became quiet , it was thought that all of the Viet Cong inside the church had been killed . However , one had survived , and he shot and killed Sgt. Gonzalez .
On April 30 , 1968 , Captain Jay R. Vargas , who was the commander of Company G , 2nd Battalion , 4th Marines , 9th Marine Amphibious Brigade , was sent with his men to an area around the village of Dai Do where two other Marine companies were in a battle with a North Vietnamese Army regiment . Even though Company G hadn ’ t slept for thirty @-@ six hours , they went ashore at about one in the afternoon . The enemy attacked his men and had one of his platoons pinned down . Vargas went to rescue his platoon with a reserve platoon and was wounded by a grenade . He was able to take out three machine guns nests by himself before leading his men in hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat with the enemy soldiers in the nearby village .
He believed that he and his men had secured Dai Do and wasn 't expecting a sudden massive counterattack by the NVA . Company G took cover in the village cemetery and the fight raged through the night . The next morning , the bodies of more than three hundred enemy soldiers lay near their positions . Vargas 's battalion commander arrived on the scene and ordered a renewed assault on the village . He carried to safety a Marine whose arm had been severed , and when the soldier pleaded for his arm , Vargas went back and found it . When the battalion commander , fighting like any other rifleman , was shot in the back three times , Vargas dragged him a hundred yards to an evacuation point , firing at the enemy as he went with an AK @-@ 47 he had picked up on the battlefield . By the end of the third day of battle , the North Vietnamese retreated and Vargas finally allowed himself to be treated for a bullet wound in his side and shrapnel from mortar blasts .
Lance Corporal Jose Francisco Jimenez ( 1946 – 1969 ) was assigned to Company K , 3rd Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division . On August 28 , 1969 his unit came under heavy attack by North Vietnamese Army soldiers concealed in well @-@ camouflaged emplacements at Quang Nam Province . Jimenez personally destroyed several enemy personnel and silenced an antiaircraft weapon . He then maneuvered to within ten feet of hostile soldiers who were firing automatic weapons from a trench and , in the face of vicious enemy fire , destroyed the position . As he moved to attack another enemy soldier , he was mortally wounded .
Lance Corporal Jimenez was not the only Hispanic Marine from the 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division to be awarded the Medal of Honor for his actions in Quang Nam Province . Three months later , on November 12 , 1969 , Private First Class Ralph E. Dias ( 1950 – 1969 ) a Rifleman with Company D , 1st Battalion , 7th Marines , 1st Marine Division , initiated an aggressive assault against an enemy machine gun bunker which was the principal source of hostile fire . He was wounded three times but , was able to crawl and throw a grenade which destroyed the enemy position before he was mortally wounded by another enemy round .
On April 11 , 1970 , Lance Corporal Emilio A. De La Garza ( 1949 – 1970 ) , while serving as a machine gunner on a squad size patrol with the 3rd Platoon of Company E , 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines , 1st Marine Division , was mortally wounded approximately four miles south of Da Nang by a grenade as he placed himself between the blast and two fellow Marines .
A month later on May 8 , 1970 Lance Corporal Miguel Keith ( 1951 – 1970 ) a rifleman with the 1st Combined Action Group , III Marine Amphibious Force was seriously wounded when his platoon was under heavy attack from a numerically superior enemy in the Quang Ngai Province . Despite his wounds , he advanced on the enemy with machine gun fire , killing 3 of the enemy advancing on the command post and dispersing the others . He was severely wounded by a grenade during this charge . In spite of his wounds and loss of blood , he charged a group of 25 attackers , causing them to retreat for cover . He was mortally wounded by enemy fire . His actions contributed significantly to his platoon 's success in routing the enemy .
Lieutenant Colonel Ramiro Saenz , graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1959 . He served two tours in Vietnam and received the Bronze Star Medal with Combat V and other awards for his service in that war . He retired as a Lieutenant Colonel in 1979 .
On April 23 , 1975 , President Gerald Ford gave a televised speech declaring an end to the Vietnam War and all U.S. aid . North Vietnamese tanks breached defenses on the outskirts of Saigon and the song " White Christmas " was broadcast , as the final signal for U.S. withdrawal . Master Sergeant Juan J. Valdez was the noncommissioned officer in charge of the Marine security guard detachment stationed at the US Embassy , Saigon . He had previously served from 1965 to 1967 with Company B , 3d Amphibian Tractor Battalion , attached to 2d Bn , Fourth Marine Regiment and was now on his second tour . On April 30 , 1975 , Valdez was the last U.S. serviceman to leave Vietnam , shutting the embassy gates and boarding the last helicopter out of Saigon .
The following nineteen Marines of Hispanic descent in the table were awarded the Navy Cross for their actions in Vietnam .
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Vietnam War
Women in the Marine Corps did not participate in active combat duty , most were assigned to administrative duties . In the case of Staff Sergeant Norma Alvarado of El Campo , Texas , who enlisted in the Marine Corps in 1973 , she spent three years as a drill instructor and depot inspector at the Women Recruit Training Command at Parris Island , South Carolina .
Joseph V. Medina attended the United States Naval Academy and was commissioned a Second Lieutenant upon his graduation in 1976 .
= = 1983 Beirut Bombing = =
In 1982 , at the request of the Lebanese government , the United States and France established a peacekeeping force between Muslims and Christians in Beirut , Lebanon . The international peacekeeping forces , however were viewed as enemies and were frequently attacked with artillery and mortar . On October 23 , 1983 a large truck loaded with 2 @,@ 500 pounds of TNT crashed through the main gate of the U.S. Marine Headquarters in Beirut , Lebanon killing 241 servicemen ( mostly made up of U.S. Marines ) and wounding 81 . Marines of Hispanic descent accounted for 16 of the deaths . The attack remains the deadliest single attack on Americans overseas since World War II . The Marines were moved offshore where they could not be targeted . On February 7 , 1984 , President Ronald Reagan ordered the Marines to begin withdrawal from Lebanon .
Table : Marines of Hispanic descent who perished in the 1983 Beirut Marine Barracks Bombing
= = Gulf War and Operation Restore Hope = =
On August 2 , 1990 , Saddam Hussein sent an invading force of Iraqi troops into Kuwait . According to the United States government Hussein 's forces would continue south into Saudi Arabia 's oil fields . The United States military deployment to Saudi Arabia , Operation Desert Shield , grew rapidly to become the largest American deployment since the Vietnam War .
On January 22 , 1991 , Captain Manuel Rivera , Jr . ( 1959 – 1991 ) , a Marine aviator , became the first Hispanic soldier to be killed in Operation Desert Shield . Rivera was killed during a support mission over the Persian Gulf when his AV @-@ 8B Harrier smashed into the Omani coastline while approaching the deck of the amphibious assault ship USS Nassau ( LHA @-@ 4 ) for a landing .
Major Michael J. Aguilar , an experienced UH @-@ 1E " Huey " and AH @-@ 1 " Super Cobra " attack helicopter pilot , volunteered to fly combat missions in the desert upon Iraq 's invasion of Kuwait . He immediately joined Marine Aircraft Group 70 , the 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade 's aviation combat element . During Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , he was executive officer of Marine Aircraft Group 16 operating out of Al Jubayl , Saudi Arabia , and later up north near Kuwait . Colonel Christopher Cortez was the Commanding Officer of 1st Bn , 5th Marines , his unit was also deployed with 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade to Saudi Arabia . He sequentially served with the 7th Marines and 3rd Marines during Operation Desert Shield and then with Task Force Ripper ( 7th Marines ) during Operation Desert Storm . Both men were to become generals in the Marines .
Also , among those who participated in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm were United States Naval Academy graduates and future astronauts , Christopher J. " Gus " Loria , Class of 83 ' and George David Zamka , Class of 84 ' . They flew combat missions in support of allied operations during both operations . Loria flew 42 and Zamka flew 66 combat missions .
Operation Restore Hope was an American military operation with the support of the United Nations that was formed to deliver humanitarian aid and restore order to the Northeast African nation of Somalia , which was suffering from a severe famine , anarchy , and domination by a number of warlords following the collapse of Siad Barre 's Marxist government and the outbreak of the Somalian Civil War . On January 30 , 1993 , Private First Class Domingo Arroyo , Jr . ( 1979 – 1993 ) , a Marine from Puerto Rico , became the first of three Marines of Hispanic descent to die in what is known as the Battle of Mogadishu from a total of 45 American soldiers killed during the operation . The other two were Sergeant Lorenzo Ruiz and Lance Corporal Jesus Perez . Ruiz was ambushed in Mogadishu , the capital of Somalia , by Somali warlords . Perez was killed in a training accident involving an 81mm mortar .
Colonel Leonardo G. Hernández ( USMC , Retired ) entered the Marine Corps in 1973 as an infantry officer and served thirty @-@ one years on active duty which included combat in Somalia , El Salvador and Bosnia .
= = Recent events = =
The past 20 years have witnessed dramatic increases in the percentage of Latinos ( of both sexes ) among active duty enlisted personnel . Nearly 15 percent of U.S. Marine Corps enlisted personnel were Hispanic . The various recruitment efforts do have critics , both within and outside the Hispanic community , particularly during this time of war and a growing number of reported Hispanic casualties .
In the military campaigns of Afghanistan and Iraq , in what the United States and its allies refer to as the War on Terrorism . Sergeant Rafael Peralta is among those who have perished .
During the Iraq War , Sgt. Rafael Peralta ( 1979 – 2004 ) was assigned to 1st Battalion , 3rd Marine Regiment , 3rd Marine Division , III Marine Expeditionary Force . On November 15 , 2004 , Peralta and his team were ordered to clear houses in the Operation Phantom Fury . Peralta led his team through a series of house clearings before charging into the fourth house . He found two rooms empty on the ground floor . Peralta opened a third door and was hit multiple times with AK @-@ 47 fire , leaving him severely wounded . He dropped to the floor and moved aside in order to allow the Marines behind him to return fire .
The insurgents responded by throwing a grenade at the Marines . The two Marines with Sgt. Peralta tried to get out of the room but could not . Sgt. Peralta was still conscious on the floor and despite his wounds was able to reach for the grenade and pull it under his body absorbing the majority of the lethal blast and shrapnel which killed him instantly , but saved the lives of his fellow marines .
Sgt. Peralta was under consideration to receive the Medal of Honor. but , was awarded the Navy Cross instead . Secretary of Defense Robert Gates rejected the Marine Corps ' recommendation , concluding that his appointed panel unanimously confirmed that his actions did not meet the standard of " without any possibility of error or doubt " . The central argument posed relates to whether the already mortally wounded Peralta could have intentionally reached for a grenade , shielding his fellow Marines from the blast .
Six Marines of Hispanic descent have been awarded the Navy Cross , they are :
Table : Hispanic Navy Cross Recipients for actions during the Iraq War
On June 10 , 2004 , during Operation Iraqi Freedom Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships . Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG @-@ 3 . From his flagship , the USS Belleau Wood , he then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group ( BWDESG ) through a 6 @-@ month deployment in support of where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58 .
Hispanic women are now more highly represented among enlisted women in the Marine Corps than the other services . Hispanic women are reaching the top echelons of the Marine Corps both in the enlistment and officer ranks . On August 13 , 2004 , MGySgt . Abigail D. Olmos became the first female Master Gunnery Sergeant in the history of the Marine Corps. and on August 2 , 2006 , Brigadier General Angela Salinas , made history when she became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines . To date servicewomen are still restricted from serving in the following positions : Infantry regiments , artillery battalions , all armored units , combat engineer battalions , reconnaissance units , riverine assault craft units , low altitude air defense units , and fleet anti @-@ terrorism security teams . In Operation Iraqi Freedom female Marines have played a prominent role guarding checkpoints and searching Iraqi women and children . This in turn has exposed many of them to dangerous situations which in some cases could cost them their lives . Two Hispanic female Marines have perished in said conflict , they are Lance Corporal Juana Navarro , assigned to 9th Engineer Support Battalion , 3rd Marine Logistics Group , III Marine Expeditionary Force. and Corporal Ramona M. Valdez .
Corporal Ramona M. Valdez ( 1984 – 2005 ) was assigned to Headquarters Battalion , 2nd Marine Division , II Marine Expeditionary Force . Valdez , whose mother immigrated from the Dominican Republic , was a communications specialist . Valdez 's most significant work was with Division 's Counter Improvised Explosive Device Working Group . The success of the tests conducted by CIEDWG was in a large part attributed to Valdez 's knowledge of single @-@ channel radios .
Valdez , who was stationed at Camp Lejeune , N.C. was deployed with her unit to Iraq in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom . Her convoy was on its way back to Camp Fallujah when a suicide bomber drove his car into the convoy , causing a massive explosion that killed Valdez , two other women , three men , and severely burnt seven other women . She was serving with the Female Search Force when she was killed . The Marine Corps honored her memory naming the II MEF Communications Training Center in Camp Lejeune , N.C. the Valdez Training Facility .
= = = Hispanic immigrants in the Marine Corps = = =
Since the American Revolution , when they fought alongside Spanish General Bernardo De Galvez to the modern day conflict in Iraq , Hispanic immigrants have played an important role in the military of the United States .
On July 3 , 2002 , President George W. Bush issued an order to speed up the process of citizenship for immigrants serving in the nation 's military services . Immigrant service members can now qualify for citizenship after serving honorably for one year in the armed forces or for serving on active duty during an authorized period of conflict , among other qualifications listed under the Immigration and Nationality Act , Section 328 . One of the privileges of U.S. citizenship is the opportunity to become a commissioned officer in the Marine Corps . When there is a draft , a non @-@ citizen can be drafted as a resident alien , or can join in the ranks as a foreigner , but cannot be an officer without U.S. citizenship . Lance Corporal Jose Vasquez , a 28 @-@ year @-@ old Marine who was born near Monterrey , Mexico , to the United States as a 3 @-@ month @-@ old baby , growing up in Houston , Texas . He had permanent resident status , but not citizenship . Vasquez said he needed citizenship to land a job as an aviation electrician .
Mexicans comprise the largest immigrant group in the Marine Corps . So far , 59 immigrant casualties have been granted posthumous citizenship . Among those who have been granted posthumous citizenship are three foreign @-@ born Hispanic Marines , Lance Corporal Jesus Suarez del Solar , Corporal Jose Angel Garibay and Lance Corporal Jose Antonio Gutierrez .
On March 21 , 2003 , Lance Corporal José Antonio Gutierrez ( 1981 – 2003 ) , member of the 2nd Battalion , 1st Marines was killed by enemy fire while trying to secure Umm Qasr , a port vital for humanitarian aid .
Gutierrez was born in Guatemala . His mother died when he was three . Five years later his father was dead . He left school to work a series of odd jobs to buy food for himself and his sister , Engracia . He learned about the U.S. from an American aid worker at a shelter . Gutierrez decided to head for America by stowing away on freight trains . He got stuck in Mexico for a couple of years , crossing into California when he was 14 . He slept on park benches and got food from a shelter .
In 2000 , he came to live with Nora and Marcelo Mosquera ( themselves immigrants from Costa Rica and Ecuador ) . A few months after September , 11 , he surprised everyone by announcing he 'd joined the Marines . On March 21 , 2003 , Gutierrez , who come to the United States illegally as a teenager , became one of the first U.S. servicemembers to die in Iraq . He was awarded his American citizenship posthumously . Lance Cpl. José Antonio Gutiérrez is the subject of the 2006 nonfiction film " The Short Life of José Antonio Gutierrez " ; Directed by Heidi Specogna .
= = = Further increases likely = = =
Hispanics comprise 18 percent of enlisted Marines today up from 15 percent when the Iraq war began .
The number of Hispanics in the United States Marine Corps over @-@ represent their percentage of the population . Today the United States Department of Defense faces a nationwide problem in recruiting men for the all volunteer Armed Forces because of the war in Iraq and Afghanistan , yet Hispanic recruiting numbers have not decreased into that service .
The United States Marine Corps has implemented an aggressive recruitment programs directed towards this group . One of those programs involves advertising publications and magazines with the principal aim to attract those who speak Spanish . The strategy of Marine Corps Recruiting Command in advertising is to continue to develop a very strong and positive image of the Marine Corps . The Marine Corps ' has also been successful in marketing by using Hispanic recruiters in areas mostly populated by Hispanics . Among the reasons which have led the Marine Corps to target Hispanics aggressive recruitment programs are the following :
1 . There is widespread support for military service within the Hispanic community .
2 . The propensity to serve in the military ( generally measured by the desires of young people to consider the military as one of their first choices of activities ) – especially in the Marine Corps — is high among Latinos ( Hispanics ) .
3 . Hispanics are more likely to complete boot camp , finish their military service , and to reenlist than any other group of Marines .
Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina has been quoted as saying :
On September 17 , 1968 , President Lyndon B. Johnson designated a week in mid @-@ September as National Hispanic Heritage Week . In 1988 , President Ronald Reagan extended that week to a month @-@ long observance . The National Hispanic Heritage Month is a time for Americans to educate themselves about the influences Hispanic culture has had on society . The Marine Corps has realized that the fastest growing group in both the United States and the Marines are Hispanics , and have joined the rest of the United States in the celebration of the contributions which Hispanics in the United States Marines Corps have made to that military institution by celebrating National Hispanic Heritage Month from September 15 through October 15 .
= = High @-@ ranking Hispanics in the Marine Corps = =
= = = Highest @-@ ranking enlisted personnel = = =
Hispanics are more highly represented among enlisted personnel in the Marine Corps than in the other services . On June 27 , 2003 , Sergeant Major John L. Estrada , originally from the nation of Trinidad and Tobago , became the 15th Sergeant Major of the United States Marine Corps and the first person of Hispanic descent promoted to that rank . Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps is a unique non @-@ commissioned rank in the United States Marine Corps . The holder of this rank and post is the senior enlisted member of the Marine Corps . Estrada enlisted on September 19 , 1973 and has been assigned to various units and positions during the years which he served . From December 2001 to May 2003 , Sergeant Major Estrada served as the Sergeant Major , 3rd Marine Aircraft Wing . During this assignment , he was forward deployed and participated in Operation Southern Watch and Operation Iraqi Freedom . His personal awards include the Bronze Star , the Meritorious Service Medal with three gold stars , the Navy and Marine Corps Commendation Medal , the Joint Service Achievement Medal , and the Navy and Marine Corps Achievement Medal . On April 25 , 2007 , SgtMaj Estrada stepped down from his post as Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps .
Aside from Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps , Master Gunnery Sergeant ( MGySgt ) and Sergeant Major are the highest enlisted ranks in the Marine Corps ; however , there are far fewer Master Gunnery Sergeants than Sergeants Major . One of the major differences between the two E @-@ 9 ranks is that Master Gunnery Sergeants retain their Military Occupational Specialty ( MOS ) , while Sergeants Major are given a new MOS to reflect their general command focus . This reinforces the Master Gunnery Sergeant 's role as a provider of technical military leadership .
MGySgt Guadalupe Denogean is an immigrant from Mexico who has served in the Marine Corps for 25 years . Denogean was wounded in combat in Basra , Iraq . During the time that he received treatment for his wounds , he was asked if he had any requests . His answer was that he had two . First , He wanted a promotion for the corporal who helped rescue him , and the second request was that he wanted to be an American citizen .
MGySgt Frankie Segarra , a veteran of Operation Desert Shield and Desert Storm , is the first Hispanic and for that matter the first Puerto Rican Master Gunnery Sergeant acting as paraloft chief , Landing Support Company , Combat Logistics Regiment 3 , 3rd Marine Logistics Group in Camp Smedley D. Butler located in Okinawa , Japan .
MGySgt Abigail D. Olmos became the first female Master Gunnery Sergeant in the history of the Marine Corps on August 13 , 2004 . Olmos , a native of St. Louis , Missouri , joined the armed services for college money and almost joined the Air Force , but opted for the Marine Corps when she was guaranteed a technical specialty . Her military decoration include four Navy Commendation medals , one Navy Achievement Medal and seven good conducts .
Sergeant Major Jorge F. Sosa , is the acting Sergeant Major for 2nd Force Service Support Group . He served in Kuwait as the Sergeant Major for 2nd Transportation Support Battalion .
Sergeant Major Jose Luis Santiago , who participated in both Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm as member of the 1st Light Armored Infantry Battalion , has the distinction of being the 2nd Battalion 9th Marines first Hispanic Sergeant Major and its first Sergeant Major since its reactivation on July 13 , 2007 .
Sergeant Major Federico Perez Jr . , has served in the Marine Corps for over 30 years in various positions and is currently the Personnel Sergeant Major of the Marine Corps at Marine Corps Headquarters in Quantico , Virginia .
= = = Highest @-@ ranking officers = = =
Hispanics have been underrepresented in the all @-@ volunteer armed forces , especially among officers . Despite the fact that Hispanics make up 18 % of the total Marine population they makeup only 5 @.@ 5 % of the officers corps . This is beginning to change , as increasing numbers of Hispanics enter the military . The Marine Corps , realizing its shortage of Hispanics in the officer ranks , has a program to grow its own and sends young enlisted Marines to college while on active duty to obtain a degree and a commission . Prior to the year 2000 , two Marines of Hispanic descent reached the ranks of Brigadier General and above . Since then , seven Hispanics have been promoted to the rank of Brigadier General and above . One of the seven , Joseph V. Medina , was a graduate of the United States Naval Academy . The other six obtained their commissions after enlisting in the Marines upon receiving their college degrees .
Brigadier General Michael J. Aguilar ( Ret . ) , was a member of the Marine Corps platoon leaders ' class while attending Long Beach State College and the Officers ' Candidate School program . In July 1971 , he was commissioned a second lieutenant and went on active duty . He was sent directly to the Naval Air Training Command , Pensacola , Florida , for flight training . After serving as a combat pilot in Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm , he attended the Naval War College and was promoted to Colonel . He served as senior military assistant to the undersecretary of defense for policy at the Pentagon . In 1999 , he was promoted to the rank of Brigadier General , the third Marine of Hispanic descent to reach such rank . On December of that year , he became deputy commander , U.S. Marine Corps Forces South , Miami , and commander of Fleet Marine Forces South . Aguilar retired in 2002 and was selected to oversee and enforce security at San Diego International Airport at Lindbergh Field .
Major General Christopher Cortez ( Ret . ) , was a graduate of Marietta College in Ohio , and commissioned a second lieutenant via the Platoon Leaders Program in 1971 . His undergraduate program included one semester at the University of Madrid in Spain . He served in various positions during his career which included Commanding Officer of 1st Bn , 5th Marines with 7th Marine Expeditionary Brigade . He served with 7th Marines and 3rd Marines during Operation Desert Shield and then with Task Force Ripper ( 7th Marines ) during Operation Desert Storm . On December 31 , 2004 , Major General Christopher Cortez relinquished his final command and he retired after 33 years of service to the Marine Corps . Upon his retirement Cortez was the highest @-@ ranking Hispanic American serving in the Corps . During the ceremony , Cortez received the Distinguished Service Medal for his successful tour as the commanding general of Marine Corps Recruiting Command . Cortez joined Microsoft Corp. as Managing Director , Government Industry Team , Worldwide Public Sector , reports Wes Poriotis , Chairman of Wesley , Brown & Bartle Co . ( WB & B ) .
Major General William D. Catto served concurrently as Commanding General , Marine Corps Warfighting Laboratory and Vice Chief of Naval Research , Office of Naval Research from June 2000 to June 2002 . Catto earned an undergraduate degree from Bethel College and his M.A. from Webster University . From July 2002 to June 2006 , he assumed duties as the Commanding General , Marine Corps Systems Command . Catto is the Commanding General Marine Corps Systems Command , Chief of Staff , United States European Command .
On August 2 , 2006 , Major General Angela Salinas , made history when she became the first Hispanic female to obtain a general rank in the Marines . Salinas enlisted into the United States Marine Corps in May 1974 . She was subsequently assigned as a legal services clerk at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton , California , Marine Air Reserve Training Detachment , Alameda , California , and the inspector @-@ instructor staff , 4th Reconnaissance Battalion , San Antonio , Texas . In 1977 , she was selected for the Enlisted Commissioning Program and commissioned a second lieutenant after graduation from Dominican College of San Rafael , California with a B.A. in History . She was subsequently assigned to the 2nd Marine Aircraft Wing at MCAS Cherry Point , North Carolina , and served as a legal services officer . Salinas served in various positions prior to her promotion . On August 2 , 2006 , Salinas was promoted to Brigadier General and on August , 4 she assumed command of the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego . She was promoted to the Rank of Major General in 2010 and serves as the Director , Manpower Management , at Headquarters U.S. Marine Corps .
Brigadier General Joseph V. Medina , graduated from the United States Naval Academy in 1976 . His academic accomplishments include a Bachelor of Science ( Physics ) and a Master of Science ( Systems Management ) degrees from the University of Southern California . In 2001 , he was promoted to Brigadier General and assumed command of the newly established Expeditionary Strike Group Three ( ESG @-@ 3 ) in San Diego , California which is an integral part of US Third Fleet . Medina became the first Marine general ever assigned commander of naval ships . On June 10 , 2004 , Medina oversaw the manning and equipping of ESG @-@ 3 . From his flagship , the USS Belleau Wood ( LHA @-@ 3 ) , he led 4 @,@ 000 Marines and Sailors into Pearl Harbor for five days of training . He then led the Belleau Wood Strike Group ( BWDESG ) through a 6 @-@ month deployment in support of Operation Iraqi Freedom where he was assigned as Commander Task Force 58 . His mission was to detect , identify , and disrupt international terrorist organizations and foreign fighters . In April 2007 , BGen . Medina took command of the 3rd Marine Division .
Brigadier General David C. Garza is the Deputy Commander , Marine Forces Central Command . He was nominated on January 16 , 2007 , by the Secretary of Defense Robert M. Gates for appointment to the grade of brigadier general .
Brigadier General Juan G. Ayala was promoted to his current rank on August 8 , 2008 and is currently the Commanding General of 2nd Marine Logistics Group at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . He aerved as the Commanding Officer of 2d Marine Aircraft Wing at Cherry Point , North Carolina , Marine Wing Support Squadron 271 . During this period the Squadron was recognized as the Marine Corps ’ MWSS of the Year for 1998 and received the Marine Corps Aviation Association 's Jim Hatch Award . In 1999 the Squadron 's Aircraft Rescue and Firefighting Section was recognized by the U.S. Navy & Marine Corps Firefighting Association as the best in the Marine Corps and Navy and received the Ogden Award . The Squadron participated in operations and exercises in Lithuania , Norway , Nicaragua , Haiti and counter drug missions along the U.S. Southwest Border .
= = Medal of Honor = =
Thirteen Marines of Hispanic descent have been awarded the Medal of Honor – the highest military decoration of the United States :
This along with the * , indicates that the Medal of Honor was awarded posthumously
= = United States Naval Academy = =
The United States Naval Academy is an institution in Annapolis , Maryland for the undergraduate education of officers of the United States Navy and United States Marine Corps . The following is a list of Hispanic alumni of the USNA who served in the Marine Corps .
= = Notable Marines of Hispanic descent = =
The following is a list of Hispanics who served in the United States Marine Corps and have gained fame through previous or subsequent endeavors or successes :
Joseph M. Acaba — NASA Astronaut : In May 2004 , he became the first person of Puerto Rican heritage to be named as a NASA astronaut candidate when he was selected as a member of NASA Astronaut Training Group 19 . He completed his training on February 10 , 2006 and was assigned to STS @-@ 119 , which flew from March 15 to March 28 , 2009 to deliver the final set of solar arrays to the International Space Station . Acabá was a Sergeant in the United States Marine Corps Reserves where he served for six years .
Enrique Camarena — DEA agent : In 1972 , Camarena joined the United States Marine Corps , where he served for two years . He then joined the DEA at their Calexico , California office . Camarena 's work became well known all over the United States and Latin America before he died . He infiltrated drug trafficking bands and successfully helped break up many of them . He managed to keep his face off the newspapers and other media despite the fact his name was well known . Several movies about him were produced in Mexico , and , in November 1988 , Time magazine had him on their cover . A 1990 U.S television mini @-@ series about Camarena , starring Treat Williams and Benicio del Toro , was produced ( Drug Wars : The Camarena Story ) .
Rod Carew — baseball Hall of Famer : Carew joined the Marine Corps in 1965 , and served on active duty with Headquarters Company , 8th Engineer Support Battalion , 2nd FSSG at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina . He completed his Marine Corps career serving in the reserves from 1966 to 1971 .
Roberto Clemente — baseball Hall of Famer @-@ He joined the Marine Corps on September 12 , 1958 . At Parris Island , Clemente received his basic training with Platoon 346 of the 3rd Recruit Battalion . As an infantryman he served on active duty at Camp Lejeune until 1959 ; he remained in the reserves until September 1964 .
Nicholas Estavillo – NYPD Chief of Patrol ( Ret . ) , In 2002 he became the first Puerto Rican and the first Hispanic in the history of the NYPD to reach the three @-@ star rank of Chief of Patrol . He enlisted in the United States Marine Corps during the Vietnam War and was a member of the 3rd Force , Recon Co. of the Marines Recon Force .
Freddy Fender – was a Mexican @-@ American musician of Tejano , country , and Rock and Roll music who in 1975 had a hit song " Before the Next Teardrop Falls " which gave him national exposure . Born Baldemar Huerta , he joined the Marines in 1953 at the age of 16 and served for three years .
Lieutenant Colonel Christopher J. " Gus " Loria — NASA Astronaut — USMC — USNA Class of 1983 : Loria was born on July 9 , 1960 in Belmont , Massachusetts . His educational background include a Bachelor of Science degree in general engineering from the U.S. Naval Academy ( 1983 ) ; 30 credits from Florida Institute of Technology towards completion of a Master of Science degree in aeronautical engineering ; and a Master in Public Administration from John F. Kennedy School of Government , Harvard University ( 2004 ) . Loria flew 42 combat missions in support of allied operations during Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm . Selected by NASA in April 1996 , Loria completed two years of training and evaluation , he is qualified for flight assignment as a pilot . From September 2002 through July 2003 , he served as the Chief of Flight Test for the Orbital Space Plane Program .
Carlos I. Noriega — NASA Astronaut — USMC : Born in Peru , Noriega is a NASA employee , a former NASA astronaut and a retired U.S. Marine Corps Lieutenant Colonel . Noriega flew on STS @-@ 84 in 1997 and STS @-@ 97 in 2000 . He logged over 461 hours in space , including over 19 EVA hours in 3 space walks . Following STS @-@ 97 , Noriega trained as the backup commander for IIS Expedition 6 and later as a member of the crew of STS @-@ 121 . In January 2005 , Noriega retired from the NASA Astronaut Corps , but continued working for NASA as the Manager , Advanced Projects Office , Constellation Program , Johnson Space Center .
Lee Trevino — PGA Tour golfer and member of the World Golf Hall of Fame : Trevino enlisted in the Marine Corps on his seventeenth birthday in 1956 and went through recruit training at Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego , California . On completion of boot camp and follow @-@ on training , he served as a Machine Gunner with the 9th Marines on Okinawa from July 1957 , until August 1958 , when he was transferred to the 1st Marine Division at Camp Pendleton , California . Trevino served with the division until March 1959 , and was transferred to the 3rd Marine Division . He remained with the 3rd Marine Division until his discharge as a Corporal in November 1960 .
Ted Williams , whose mother was of Mexican heritage enlisted on May 22 , 1942 . Williams received his wings and commission in the Marine Corps on May 2 , 1944 . He was in Hawaii awaiting orders as a replacement pilot when the war ended . Williams returned to the States in December and was discharged from the Marines on January 28 , 1946 . On May 2 , 1952 , Williams was recalled to active duty due to the Korean War . After completing jet refresher training in the F9F Panther at Cherry Point , North Carolina , Williams joined VMF @-@ 311 in Korea . He flew 37 combat missions and had a narrow escape when he crash @-@ landed a flak damaged aircraft . Among the decorations he received was the Air Medal with two Gold Stars for meritorious achievement . Williams returned to the States and relieved from active duty with the rank of Captain on July 28 , 1953 . Williams who played professional baseball with the Boston Red Sox was elected to baseball 's Hall of Fame in 1966 .
Colonel George David Zamka – NASA Astronaut – USMC – USNA Class of 1984 : Born in Jersey City , New Jersey in 1962 , Zamka was raised in New York City ; Irvington , New York ; Medellín , Colombia ; and Rochester Hills , Michigan . He flew 66 combat missions over occupied Kuwait and Iraq during Operation Desert Storm . In June 1998 , Zamka was selected for the astronaut program , and reported for training in August . Zamka served as lead for the shuttle training and procedures division and as supervisor for the astronaut candidate class of 2004 . Zamka completed his first spaceflight as the pilot of STS @-@ 120 ( October , 13 – November 7 , 2007 ) . STS @-@ 120 ( Discovery ) traveled to the International Space Station to deliver the U.S. Node 2 Module , while also reconfiguring part of the station to prepare it for future assembly missions .
= History of Chincoteague , Virginia =
The history of human activity in Chincoteague , on the Eastern Shore of Virginia , begins with the Native Americans . Until European settlers possessed the island in the late 17th century , the Chincoteague Indians used it as a place to gather shellfish , but are not known to have lived there ; Chincoteague Island lacked suitable soil for their agriculture . The island 's name derives from those early visitors : by one popular tale , chincoteague meant " Beautiful land across the water " in their language .
Use of Chincoteague Island by European settlers began in the 17th century , when the island was granted to a Virginia colonist . Legal disputes followed , and it was not until 1691 that title was determined by the courts . Although a few people were living on the island by 1700 , it was primarily used as a place to graze livestock . This was probably the origin of the Chincoteague ponies , feral horses that long roamed in the area . They are no longer present in the wild on Chincoteague Island . During the American Revolutionary War , the islanders supported the new nation 's bid for independence . The local fishing and seafood resources began to be systematically exploited in the early 19th century .
In the Civil War , the islanders supported the Union despite being located in a seceded state , and the war touched Chincoteague only lightly . Oysters became a major industry in the postwar years . Chincoteague 's relative isolation ended in 1876 with the arrival of the railroad at Franklin City , Virginia , across Chincoteague Bay from the island , and the initiation of a dedicated steamboat service between the two settlements . Nevertheless , contemporary visitors found Chincoteague primitive . Part of the island was incorporated as the Town of Chincoteague within Accomack County in 1908 ; the municipality annexed the remainder of the island in 1989 . Automobile traffic could reach the island with the completion of a causeway in 1922 . Two devastating fires in that decade caused the establishment of the Chincoteague Fire Department in 1925 ; the new volunteer company took over the traditional pony penning , and soon had ponies from nearby Assateague Island swim the narrow channel between the two islands as part of that roundup . The carnival , pony swim , and subsequent auction constitute a highlight of the town 's calendar , attracting tens of thousands to the island .
The seafood and poultry industries thrived through much of the 20th century , but neither is important to the island 's economy today . Chincoteague is a major tourist destination on Virginia 's Eastern Shore , with many coming to enjoy the beaches on Assateague Island . The success of Marguerite Henry 's 1947 children 's book Misty of Chincoteague and its sequels helped publicize Chincoteague , as did the 1961 film , Misty .
= = Setting and pre @-@ European use = =
Chincoteague is the name of a town , and the barrier island on which it is located , on Virginia 's Eastern Shore , in the United States . The island is about 8 miles ( 13 km ) long and 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide . Sand forms its soil , with a thin layer of loam above it away from the water , enough to support pine trees and grass . Chincoteague Inlet , a break in the barrier island system , occurs near Chincoteague Island , at the southern end of Assateague Island . Assateague shelters Chincoteague from the Atlantic and stretches north almost 30 miles ( 48 km ) to Ocean City , Maryland .
The local Native Americans , called by Europeans the Chincoteague Indians , did not in fact reside on Chincoteague Island itself , but lived on the mainland , where there was suitable land for hunting and agriculture . They lived near what was at first called Chincoteague Creek , on the mainland , and is today Little Mosquito Creek . The tribe moved to a new village site every few years , and visited Chincoteague Island to obtain shellfish . Although many references state that the name " Chincoteague " is the Native American word for " Beautiful land across the water " , according to local historian Kirk Mariner , this legend is of 20th @-@ century origin , invented to promote a song by that name by an islander . The name , he states , instead derives from the tribe 's word for " large stream " or " inlet " .
The Chincoteague Indians gradually withdrew northwards in the late 17th century as European colonization grew ; most settled on a reservation at present @-@ day Snow Hill , Maryland , with allied tribes of Native Americans , though some may have remained in their traditional area . They were later forced from the reservation , and their descendants are among the Nanticoke people in southern Delaware .
= = Colonial Chincoteague = =
Although Virginia was settled in 1607 with the advent of the Jamestown Colony , it was not until 1680 that Europeans occupied Chincoteague Island . A patent to Chincoteague Island had been granted by the British colonial authorities to Daniel Jenifer in 1671 ; that interest had been transferred to Thomas Welburn , husband of Jenifer 's stepdaughter and prominent local merchant who lived on the mainland side of Chincoteague Bay . To fulfill the terms of the patent and gain title , the holder or his designee had to live on the land for a year — in the contemporary term , to " seat " the land . Welburn and several employees built a house there and cleared land for a small farm . His employee and tenant , Robert Scott , lived there only for the required year . Once it had expired , the house was abandoned , but Welburn , despite considering the land his own , did not register his efforts to perfect title .
Unaware that Welburn had seated the land , the authorities declared Chincoteague Island abandoned and issued another patent for the land in December 1684 to John Clayton , who conveyed it to Colonel William Kendall of Northampton . When Welburn learned that Kendall was planning to seat the land himself , he threatened to shoot trespassers on the island . Instead , Welburn sued , and the case dragged on in the Accomack County courts until the local justices transferred it to the General Court in the capital of Williamsburg . Welburn lost the case , as the General Court ruled in 1691 that as Jenifer had never lived on the island , he had not conveyed a valid patent to Welburn . Fresh patents were then issued , dividing the island between Kendall and another prominent citizen of Northampton , Major John Robins , with the dividing line near present @-@ day Church Street .
Once ownership of the island was settled , it was used mostly as a place to house livestock , since there was no need for fences or other enclosures to prevent the animals from straying , and they could feed off of the marsh grasses . This usage was most likely the origin of the ponies that have made Chincoteague and Assateague Islands famous , though there are legends that the ponies ' ancestors survived a shipwreck of a Spanish vessel . One such ship did run aground on Assateague Island in 1750 , but according to John Amrhein Jr. in his account of his efforts to locate that vessel , " the mystery of the origin of the wild ponies became fused with the oldest memories of the Spanish shipwreck " .
An early inhabitant was Henry Towles , who had seated the island for Kendall in 1686 . He bought land from Kendall on the island , lived there , and sold it in 1709 . The first permanent residents were likely George and Hannah Blake , originally tenants ; their son John bought land from Kendall in the 1690s . Blake 's Point , which extends out into Chincoteague Bay , testifies to their residence on the western side of the island . The will of John Robins , recorded in 1709 , documents the presence of horses on Chincoteague — he bequeaths one , and mentions that his livestock were on the island . He also willed a " mallato [ mulatto boy Charles son of Hannah , which said boy is now on my part of Jengoteague [ sic ] Island " . Through the 18th century the population slowly expanded until by the end of it about 200 people , mostly tenant farmers and squatters , lived on Chincoteague and Assateague .
= = Antebellum period ( 1776 – 1860 ) = =
When the Thirteen Colonies broke away from the British Crown in 1776 , early decrees of the provisional Virginia Convention affected Chincoteague . In May 1776 , the body ordered that the coastal islands be stripped of livestock that might be taken by British ships . The islanders , in June , petitioned for a repeal or exemption , as they had , the petition stated , " the most fervent desire to do everything in their power to defeat the ... enemies of American liberty " , as well as a militia of some forty men able to repel British raiders . The convention allowed Chincoteague and other islands along the Atlantic coast to retain their livestock .
In mid @-@ 1776 , the Virginia Convention voted to fortify Chincoteague 's harbor — it was then being used by ships evading the British blockade of Chesapeake Bay . Smuggled goods were unloaded on the mainland , and taken down the Eastern Shore toward more populated areas . The resulting fort was built on Wallops Island , across the inlet from Chincoteague . The smuggling route maintained its importance as the American Revolutionary War continued , and in August 1779 , the sole action in the area took place — a British privateer , pretending to be a smuggler , disabled the fort 's guns and captured a cargo ship at anchor in Chincoteague Bay . Island legend holds that four men from Chincoteague fought for the Americans at the Battle of Yorktown in October 1781 , and that one was delayed in returning to the island because General George Washington had the soldier transport the battle flag to the general 's home at Mount Vernon .
By 1800 , the original large parcels of land on Chincoteague Island were being broken into plots of 30 acres ( 12 ha ) or larger . There were some 200 people living on Chincoteague or Assateague , but there were no stores or other retail enterprises . A school , unusual for Virginia 's Eastern Shore at the time , was erected sometime before 1804 . Three island families were free African @-@ Americans ; two other households had black servants or slaves . One of the free African @-@ Americans , Ocraw Brinney , became a major island landowner . Born in Africa and transported by slave ship , he was freed in 1787 and was supposedly 130 years old when he died around 1840 , but was more likely aged about 100 . His holdings included what today are the Carnival Grounds , south of downtown Chincoteague .
In the first half of the 19th century , Chincoteague became a source of seafood . As the cities along the eastern seaboard , such as New York and Philadelphia , continued to expand , their local areas could not supply them with enough shellfish . Islanders saw the opportunity , and many abandoned agriculture , instead harvesting the sea . The villagers of Chincoteague petitioned the Virginia General Assembly three times between 1833 and 1851 seeking the repeal of various fishing laws . The first post office was established in 1854 , and the first doctor arrived four years later . By 1860 there were 150 families resident on Chincoteague , 126 oystermen on the island , and others belonging to allied trades . That year , a hotel was operating on the island , located in what today is the downtown area — in the mid @-@ 19th century , that part of the island developed as Chincoteague 's commercial core .
The first accounts of pony penning are from an 1835 letter to the editor published in the Farmer 's Register by Thompson Holmes of " Chincoteague " — that is , the mainland opposite the island , then also called by that name . According to his letter , few horses remained wild on Chincoteague Island , and residents would go over to Assateague to build temporary corrals to place the local herds in . Selected horses were branded , gelded , and sold . Holmes told about an earlier practice , to drive the horses directly into the water , which had been abandoned because too many had drowned . Holmes mourned that the pony pennings of his day were only " a shadow of their former glory " . The pennings , the letter related , nevertheless attracted crowds from far and near .
= = Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) = =
The outbreak of the American Civil War in 1861 left Chincoteague residents with a stark choice . If they left the Union as Virginia sought to do , they might lose access to their seafood markets . Refusal to do so might isolate Chincoteague from the rest of its state . In the referendum on secession held in Virginia on May 23 , 1861 , Northampton County , in the southern Eastern Shore , voted unanimously for secession , and there was also a majority for leaving the Union in Accomack County . Nevertheless , the residents of Chincoteague , along with those on Tangier Island ( part of Accomack ) in the Chesapeake Bay , chose not to leave the Union , in Chincoteague 's case by a vote of 134 or 135 to 1 or 2 — sources differ as to the exact tally . Despite this lopsided tally , some from Chincoteague supported the South , or even fought for it .
Even before the vote , commerce between the North and Virginia had been forbidden by Union officials . Residents sent John A.M. Whealton , a merchant and staunch Union loyalist , to Philadelphia to seek the release of confiscated supplies . He was able to gain the support of local officials and sailed cautiously for home with the goods , aware that the permission of Philadelphia 's mayor did not bind the U.S. Navy . He found the Assateague Lighthouse extinguished by southern sympathizers and the bay again used for smuggling . In September , the USS Louisiana , an ironclad , arrived , with orders to secure the area against smugglers , and within days , one smuggler 's ship was burned in the engagement known as the Battle of Cockle Creek , and another captured two days later . The naval vessel received a warm welcome from the islanders , who promptly took oaths of allegiance to the Union . After a petition on behalf of 800 inhabitants of the island was passed up the chain of command , Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles granted the islanders the right to continue to engage in trade in November 1861 , the same month the Eastern Shore was taken for the North with little bloodshed .
The Louisiana was sent away to more troubled waters in December 1861 , arousing fears by the islanders that they would be abused by Confederate loyalists on the mainland . There were some incidents of this sort , but they ceased as the mainlanders adjusted to the military presence , and the war did not again come near Chincoteague . Union soldiers were stationed on Chincoteague Island for about four months in 1863 and 1864 to guard against a rumored attack on Assateague Lighthouse by sympathizers . Maryland militia were initially used , followed by a regiment of African @-@ American soldiers , but in March 1864 , they were removed and local men in the Eastern Shore Volunteers , formed in 1863 but not called into service until the following year , guarded the island and other local points .
= = Postwar prosperity ( 1865 – 1908 ) = =
The years after the Civil War brought prosperity to Chincoteague with expansion of the oyster trade . As the law required an oysterman to be a Virginia resident for a year before harvesting in Virginia waters , many in that trade bought lots along Main Street , running along the west side of the island , or across the bay in the new village of Greenbackville , Virginia , just south of the Maryland line . Other new residents on the island were freed African @-@ Americans , or Northerners who sought opportunities in the southern states . Chincoteague oysters , especially those from Tom 's Cove at the southern point of the island , gained a reputation for taste , and , marketed across the country as " Chincoteague salt oysters " , became famous .
In 1876 , art student Howard Pyle visited Chincoteague . He wrote of his experiences , including viewing the pony penning ( which took place behind his hotel ) , the following year in Scribner 's Magazine , accompanying the text with the first known contemporary drawings of the event . Pyle was struck by the quaintness of Chincoteague , describing it as " an enchanted island , cut loose from modern progress and left drifting some seventy @-@ five years backward in the ocean of time " . The publicity in a national magazine did nothing to reduce the crowds coming to Chincoteague for the penning .
The island 's status as an isolated backwater began to end in 1876 , when a rail line reached Franklin City , on the shores of the bay and only 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) from Chincoteague Island , with a steamship supplying the remaining connection . This improvement gave oystermen an efficient means of getting their wares to market , and also brought early tourists to Chincoteague , seeking respite from the sweltering summers in the city .
Due to the popularity of oysters , Chincoteague continued to grow ; commercial buildings were built along Main Street . In 1890 , the island acquired its first barbershop , and about 500 barrels of shucked oysters were being sent to the mainland daily on the steamer . Gas illumination arrived by 1900 , the first telephone exchange in 1902 , and rural free delivery by the United States Post Office Department in 1905 . Although there were few shops or public buildings , there was a shoe store and a notary public . The roads were made of dirt , covered with sea shells .
= = Entering the modern era ( 1908 – 46 ) = =
In the early 20th century , according to Mariner , Chincoteague " was a curious mixture of the progressive and the primitive , of worldly @-@ wise townsfolk and isolated country people " . Beginning in about 1900 , the residents sought to be incorporated as a town . Gaining a municipal charter from the General Assembly would allow ordinances to be passed to keep livestock off the streets without seeking redress from the state government in Richmond or the county government in Accomac . In 1908 , the legislature incorporated part of the island as the Town of Chincoteague , and on July 4 , A. Frank Matthews became the first mayor .
The 1910 United States Census showed a population of 3 @,@ 295 for the island , of whom 1 @,@ 419 lived in the town . Few resided in the interior of the island ; most lived in single @-@ family houses , facing the water across roads that ran just above the high tide line . The population of the island had increased to about 3 @,@ 600 as of 1916 ; there were about 100 African @-@ Americans , all of whom lived on the same part of the island . Most islanders of working age were part of or supported the seafood trade . At that time , most houses got their water from shallow @-@ dug wells , located in many cases close by primitive privies . Water from such wells was also used to wash the oysters and to make ice to preserve them . Almost all Chincoteague oysters were sent out of state , and the federal Public Health Service intervened in 1916 to get the mayor and town council to order improved sanitation , with islanders living outside the town line agreeing to abide by the ordinances .
Although dwarfed in population by the neighboring island , Assateague was still populated by a few families . A penning was still held on Assateague along with one on Chincoteague , but the Assateague event was suspended after 1920 as the largest landowner refused to allow access . Beginning in 1923 , the Assateague herd was transported to Chincoteague for a joint penning , most likely by boat , as the idea of swimming the ponies had not yet been adopted . The refusal of the Assateague landowner to allow islanders to cross his land made it difficult for them to get to work , and Assateague became depopulated , with most of the buildings disassembled and rebuilt on Chincoteague Island . Most of Assateague Island was sold to the federal government in 1943 .
In 1919 , John B. Whealton , Chincoteague @-@ born though a Florida resident , persuaded the Virginia General Assembly to grant a charter to his Chincoteague Toll Road and Bridge Company to build a causeway from the mainland to the island . Whealton submitted the winning bid to build the causeway as well as gaining the charter for his company to operate it . The road was originally a toll crossing , and early plans had it reaching the island south of downtown , near the site of today 's Carnival Grounds , but Whealton persuaded the town council to have the terminal point be downtown , near the Atlantic Hotel , the island 's largest . The road was close to completion when a major fire destroyed much of downtown , including the hotel , on February 5 , 1920 . There was then only a small , ill @-@ equipped fire company in Chincoteague , and the fire was fought by men of the Coast Guard from the stations near the island . The hotel was underinsured and not rebuilt , though others took its place , and the council took advantage of the disaster to straighten Main Street . The fire and poor weather in the winters of 1921 and 1922 delayed the causeway , which was officially opened on November 15 , 1922 by Virginia Governor E. Lee Trinkle . Most vehicles on the first day wound up mired in mud once a downpour turned the causeway into a quagmire . Nevertheless , the causeway proved a success , and by year 's end over 100 vehicles were crossing it on an average day . Water from mainland wells was piped along the causeway , allowing the town to offer running water .
The second devastating fire in four years destroyed much of downtown Chincoteague on February 25 , 1924 , and caused the town 's leaders to conclude that a better @-@ organized volunteer fire department was needed to replace Chincoteague 's fire brigade . The Chincoteague Volunteer Fire Company was founded in June 1925 , though it needed much equipment , including a fire truck . To raise funds the fire company took over the 1925 Chincoteague pony penning , which had been declining , and sold some horses at fixed prices ( auctioning began not later than 1932 ) . Fifteen thousand people attended the penning and other festivities . The proceeds from the event were over $ 6 @,@ 000 , enabling the department to buy a pump truck . Public fascination with the pony swim , inaugurated that year at the narrowest point of the channel between the two islands , led to increased attendance in the following years . Except during the war years of 1943 and 1944 , the carnival , pony swim and auction have occurred every year since .
By 1930 , the year the causeway was purchased by the state and the toll removed , the Town of Chincoteague had a population of 2 @,@ 130 . In the 1930s , poultry farming became popular on the island , and by the 1950s , produced over a million birds per year . Although oystering was still a common occupation , the trade was increasingly regulated , causing much of the production and canning to be done by large companies , and many watermen turned to fishing , clamming , and crabbing . Others shot ducks and other waterfowl indigenous to the island . Locals carved duck decoys to aid in the hunt ; these remain a popular collectible and souvenir of the island .
In 1941 , the United States entered World War II ; early the following year , the Germans torpedoed two merchant ships off the Assateague coast . To guard the coast , the United States Army established two small posts on Virginia 's Eastern Shore , one each at Accomac and Chincoteague . The Navy established the Chincoteague Naval Auxiliary Air Station in 1943 , across from Chincoteague on the mainland . One young pilot being trained there , future president George Herbert Walker Bush , got in trouble for " buzzing " the house of a young woman he had met at a dance . The conclusion of the war , in 1945 , brought celebrations in Chincoteague and the reinstatement of the annual July events , now held at the brand @-@ new Carnival Grounds south of downtown .
= = Misty and changes ( 1946 – 62 ) = =
In 1946 , children 's author Marguerite Henry came to Chincoteague for the summer , intending to write about the wild horses of Assateague and the pony penning and auction on Chincoteague Island . With her came illustrator Wesley Dennis , with whom she had previously worked , and who would take photographs to be converted to pen @-@ and @-@ ink drawings .
Staying at the bed and breakfast of Miss Molly Rowley on Main Street , Henry encountered island horse breeder Clarence Beebe , visited his ranch on the southern portion of the island , and met his grandchildren Maureen and Paul . On the Beebe Ranch , Henry saw a young filly named Misty . Henry fell in love with the horse , and tried to persuade " Grandpa " Beebe to sell the filly , promising to include him and his grandchildren in her book . The breeder eventually agreed , on condition Misty remained on the Beebe Ranch until she was weaned , and that the animal was eventually returned to him from Henry 's Illinois home for breeding . Henry made the purchase , and returned to the Midwest with an outline of her story . Several months later , Misty arrived by rail . In 1947 , Henry 's book Misty of Chincoteague was published , about the desire of the Beebe children to have a pony of their own — Misty , daughter of the untamable Phantom . The book became an immediate best seller , and the following year was designated as a Newbery Honor Book by the American Library Association . Following the book 's appearance and success , a steady stream of articles on Chincoteague began to appear in national magazines .
Henry wrote a series of sequels , and hoped to interest the movies , but Hollywood was slow to reach out to the Eastern Shore . It was not until 1960 that filming of Misty began . Almost all of the motion picture was shot locally — though the Beebe Ranch was not used , with a property on the mainland substituted . The film premiered at a Hollywood cinema and at the Roxy Theatre in Chincoteague , with the first showings simultaneous . In a nod to Hollywood , the real @-@ life horse Misty placed her hoof in wet cement outside the Roxy just before the movie ran .
Despite the new source of island fame , many young people left Chincoteague in the years after World War II . There was no beach on Chincoteague ; in an effort to provide one for visitors and townsfolk , local promoters sought the construction of a bridge to Assateague Island , where there is a beach along the Atlantic shoreline . They were led by Wyle Maddox , a wealthy chicken farmer who had significant business interests on Chincoteague Island . First proposed around 1950 , the bridge and roadway across Assateague , by then uninhabited and under federal jurisdiction , took over a decade to approve , and finally opened in September 1962 . The bridge to Assateague is at the east end of Maddox Boulevard , that crosses Chincoteague Island north of downtown , and was developed by Wyle Maddox .
The town remained busy and prosperous in the postwar years , especially by the standards of the rural Eastern Shore , and the locals took pride in this — in the early 1950s , the town twice finished second in a competition for the cleanest community in America , and then won the award for its size classification in 1954 and 1955 . Main Street was so crowded with cars that parking meters were installed . When oyster parasites and overfishing combined to devastate the oyster industry in the 1950s , clams became the island 's major industry . The Burton Clamming Company promoted itself as the largest in the world , sending 1 @.@ 3 million clams to market on a typical day in 1957 .
The final delay in the completion of the Assateague bridge was caused by the Ash Wednesday Storm of March 1962 that devastated both islands , as well as other points along the Atlantic Seaboard . Although no one died on Chincoteague , the storm flooded virtually all buildings on Chincoteague Island and wiped out the poultry industry — not only were an estimated quarter million birds killed , the buildings used in chicken farming were destroyed . An estimated 100 ponies were killed by the storm , both on Assateague Island and at the Beebe Ranch . Misty was pregnant with her third foal ; the Beebes placed her in their kitchen before they were evacuated . Once the ranch could again be reached , Misty was taken to a farm on the mainland just over the Maryland line , where she gave birth to a filly , Stormy . The devastation of the storm brought national attention to Chincoteague , and Stormy 's birth upstaged the visit of Virginia Governor Albertis S. Harrison . Many contributed to the recovery efforts , and Misty — both film and horse — was made available for special benefit showings .
= = Tourist destination ( 1962 – present ) = =
Until the 1950s , most tourists to the island , except during the annual carnival and pony penning , were sportsmen , there to fish or hunt waterfowl . Publicity generated by the Misty franchise , and the easy access to the beach and recreational facilities on Assateague Island , brought many tourists to Chincoteague who were uninterested in shooting the wildlife except with cameras . Combined with the continued decline of the seafood industry , the economy of Chincoteague gradually shifted from being based on harvesting its waters to tourism .
Many souvenir shops and other tourist enterprises were built along Maddox Boulevard , especially in the years after 1962 . At first , the motels were buildings converted from other uses , but by the late 1960s , purpose @-@ built structures were being erected along Maddox Boulevard , some with swimming pools . Although Misty died in 1972 at age 26 , the island continued to be publicized . By the 1990s , tourism was the island 's principal business , bringing in more than $ 100 million annually . National hotel chains , including a Hampton Inn and a Comfort Suites , arrived with the 21st century .
The changes to Chincoteague , including the sale of the Beebe Ranch for development in 1989 and the destruction by fire of the ranch house in 1996 , brought local soul @-@ searching . Islanders were divided by such questions as the establishment of a nudist beach on Assateague ( outlawed by Accomack County ordinance in 1984 ) and the building of a McDonald 's near the bridge between the two islands . The modest homes on Chincoteague Island were supplemented by townhouses and condominiums , many occupied by seasonal residents . With increased real estate prices , many from Chincoteague sold their land and moved to less expensive property on the mainland . The seafood industry ceased to be a major factor in the island 's economy : most of the oyster @-@ shucking houses , which had continued in operation using imported shellfish despite the local decline in oystering , finally closed in the 1980s and 1990s . The clam industry sought bivalves from deeper waters , and Chincoteague by then supplied few shellfish .
In 1989 , the town expanded , by agreement with the Accomack County government , bringing all of Chincoteague Island under town jurisdiction . Despite local opposition , the modest bridge between Chincoteague and Assateague was rebuilt into a four @-@ lane structure in 2010 , the better to accommodate the millions of annual visitors to Assateague . The causeway from the mainland was re @-@ routed , moving the terminal point on Chincoteague Island to a point north of downtown , the intersection of Main Street and Maddox Boulevard . From there , visitors may proceed south to downtown and the Carnival Grounds , or east to the tourist strip along Maddox Boulevard and to the bridge to Assateague Island . The tourist stores on Maddox Boulevard sell souvenirs , local artwork , the necessities for a day at the beach , and pony @-@ related T @-@ shirts and books . As of 2009 , the average foal at the auction sold for $ 1 @,@ 344 . Between 60 and 80 are sold annually ; the auction helps keep the herd at a sustainable population of 150 .
James Tigner Jr. wrote in his 2008 book about Chincoteague Island ,
In the book and in real life , the story of Misty is really of those who loved her unconditionally . For that reason Misty today is a symbol for all that is wonderful and beautiful ... From my visits I know that much of the good that Misty represents can still be found on her little island of Chincoteague .
= James Temple =
James Temple ( 1606 – 1680 ) was a puritan and English Civil War soldier who was convicted of the regicide of Charles I. Born in Rochester , Kent , to a well @-@ connected gentry family , he was the second of two sons of Sir Alexander Temple , although his elder brother died in 1627 . As a child , Temple moved with his father from Rochester to Chadwell St Mary in Essex and then to Etchingham in Sussex , where he settled .
Temple gained military experience as a member of the Duke of Buckingham 's expedition to the Isle of Ré in 1627 . As a puritan , he joined the Parliamentary army at the outbreak of the Civil War and fought at the Battle of Edgehill . He rose to become a colonel and commanded Tilbury Fort , an important defensive position on the approach to London by river . He was elected as a Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Bramber in September 1645 to replace an ejected Royalist . He sided with the army in opposing any compromise with the King , and was appointed as a judge at the trial of King Charles I of England . Temple attended most of the court sessions and was the 28th ( of 59 ) to sign the King 's death warrant . After the restoration of Charles II , he was convicted of regicide , but avoided execution and was imprisoned on Jersey , where he died .
= = Early life = =
Temple was born to Sir Alexander Temple and Mary Sommer while his parents were living in the parish of St. Margaret 's in Rochester , Kent in the house previously owned by his mother 's first husband . His family was closely related to the Temple family of Stowe House . The family belonged to the gentry , having a reasonable income , without being members of the aristocracy . His father had been knighted at the Tower of London by James I following the King 's accession to the English throne - one of many members of the gentry who were knighted during the first years of the King 's reign .
Temple had an older brother ( John ) and a sister ( Susan ) . As a result of his mother 's first marriage , he had two half @-@ brothers ( including Sir Thomas Peniston ) and two half @-@ sisters . He was born into a well connected family . His uncles included Sir Thomas Temple , 1st Baronet , of Stowe and William Fiennes , 1st Viscount Saye and Sele . His sister , Susan Temple , Lady Lister , was the mother of Martin Lister and the grandmother of Sarah Churchill , Duchess of Marlborough .
In 1607 , following his mother 's death , he moved to Longhouse Place ( now known as Chadwell Place ) in Chadwell St Mary , Essex . Both he and his older brother John , were admitted to Lincoln 's Inn in 1622 . In the same year , Temple was given permission by the privy council to travel abroad for up to three years . He was allowed to take a servant with him , but he was strictly forbidden to visit Rome .
While Temple was living in Chadwell St Mary , a number of Temple family portraits were painted by Cornelius Johnson . These may have been part of a family commission . They include Temple 's father ( which hangs in Hagley Hall ) and his sister ( which is in the Tate Gallery ) . These family portraits may have included Temple himself , but no portrait is known to have survived .
In the early 1620s , as a result of his father 's marriage to Mary Bankworth ( who was previously married to John Busbridge ) , he moved , this time to Haremere Hall in Etchingham , Sussex . His father 's third marriage gave him step siblings , including his stepsister , Mary Busbridge to whom Temple was married in March 1627 . Over the next few years , they had six children .
= = = Isle of Ré expedition = = =
In June 1627 , George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham led an expedition to the island of Île de Ré to support the Huguenots besieged in La Rochelle by King Louis XIII of France . With no standing army , Buckingham 's forces were largely volunteers and mercenaries . Since public opinion in England ( particularly among extreme Protestants ) supported the Huguenots , a number of well connected gentry came forward . The volunteers to join Buckingham included Temple , his elder brother John and other members of his family . The expedition to the Isle of Ré , was a disaster and altogether , Buckingham lost more than 5 @,@ 000 men in the campaign out of a force of 7 @,@ 000 . Among those who died was Temple 's brother .
= = = Life in Sussex = = =
When his father died in 1629 , Temple was the main beneficiary of his father 's estate . However , much of his father ’ s property was held via his wife , mortgaged or being used to meet other commitments . Temple had a relatively meagre inheritance - no grand country house , no great estate and certainly no large fortune . His financial affairs were not in good order and were discussed by other members of the family . Margaret Longville , Temple ’ s cousin , wrote to her mother , " my cousin Carew Saunders is broke for forty thousand pounds and is not able to pay five shillings in the pound and James Temple is in too much " . During Charles I 's Personal Rule ( 1629 – 1640 ) , he was part of a network of Puritan gentry in Sussex and in due course became a Sussex Justice of the Peace ( JP ) .
= = Civil War = =
Temple , like most members of his family , was a puritan and supported Parliament against the King . His uncle Lord Saye and Sele was one of the King 's principal opponents . Temple 's military experience became useful when the First English Civil War broke out in August , 1642 . He was appointed captain of a troop of horse raised by Lord Saye and Sele and commanded by Temple 's cousin , John Fiennes . Temple was related to Oliver Cromwell via his kinsman Edward Whalley and was able to secure a commission for Whalley in his uncle 's unit . He saw action close to the Temple family home at Stowe where both Temple and Whalley fought at the Battle of Edgehill in October 1642 . In March 1643 , Temple had returned to Sussex , and along with his stepbrother , John Busbridge , he was appointed by Parliament to the Sussex committee set for the sequestration ( i.e. seizure and administration ) of the assets of prominent Royalists . In December 1643 , Temple was prominent in the defence of the crossing of the River Adur at Bramber Castle against a Royalist attack during Lord Hopton 's attempt to obtain control of Sussex for the King . His actions were described by Dr Cheynell :
" Upon the 12th of December I visited a brave soldier of my acquaintance , Captn Jas Temple , who did that day defend the fort of Bramber against a bold and daring enemy to the wonder of all the country ; and I did not marvel at it , for he is a man that hath his head full of stratagems , his heart full of piety and valour , and his hand as full of success as it is of dexterity . "
As the war progressed , Temple was promoted to colonel and became governor of Tilbury Fort in Essex , a post that had previously been held by his father . The fort was close to Temple 's childhood home at Longhouse Place and was of strategic importance because it controlled the approach to London by river . During the Second Civil War , there were Royalist uprisings in Kent and Essex . Temple 's control of Tilbury Fort for Parliament enabled Lord Fairfax 's troops to cross from Gravesend to Tilbury on route to Colchester for the siege of royalists in that town .
= = Trial of Charles I and Commonwealth = =
In September 1645 , Temple was elected Member of Parliament ( MP ) for Bramber to replace Sir Thomas Bowyer , the royalist member who had been ejected . He belonged to the political and religious group known as Independents who were opposed to any compromise in Parliament 's negotiations with the King . As a result , he was one of the MPs allowed to remain after Pride 's Purge - a military coup that excluded from Parliament roughly three quarters of the MPs , particularly those who were believed to be unsympathetic to the Army . In January 1649 , the army and the Independents decided to bring Charles I to trial . Temple was one of the judges named to the High Court of Justice that conducted the trial . He attended nine sessions of the court in both the Painted Chamber and Westminster Hall . He approved the guilty verdict and signed the King 's death warrant - the 28th of the 59 judges to so .
During the early part of the Commonwealth period , he continued to serve on Parliamentary committees . However , he attracted accusations of corruption . In September 1650 , these accusations led to him giving up his post at Tilbury Fort . It was probably around this time that he married his second wife , Joanna van Tromp .
Temple attracted a number of other accusations of financial impropriety , although apparently nothing was proved . In 1648 , he was ordered by the House of Commons to respond to the legal action of one Elizabeth Willan who had attempted to serve him with two writs in connection with a bond for £ 400 . He " threw them on the ground and spurned them with his foot " . In 1649 , Temple became the guardian of the daughter of one Mrs Eyre . He apparently " inveigled " her to marry his son , Alexander . As a result , Temple acquired the deeds to property in Ireland which he subsequently refused to return . A few years later , he was accused of improperly benefiting from administering the estate of a prominent Sussex catholic - Sir John Shelley - whose heir was a minor .
Following Temple 's marriage , his father had invested in a farming venture by Edward Whalley who was the brother @-@ in @-@ law of Temple 's stepsister - Mary Penistone . Sir Alexander apparently intended this to provide an inheritance for his grandchildren ( the children of James Temple ) . As a younger son himself , Sir Alexander wanted to ensure suitable provision for his own younger son . This investment made by Temple 's father for the benefit of his children had apparently become valueless when Edward Whalley fled to Scotland in the late 1630s . However , in the 1650s , Whalley had become a prominent and successful member of the Puritan establishment and there was a possibility of recovering some money . In the late 1650s , Temple and Whalley went to the Court of Chancery to determine what was due to Temple and his children . However , with the death of Oliver Cromwell and the subsequent restoration of Charles II , both regicides were faced with the possibility of execution and the case appears to have been unresolved .
= = Restoration = =
Temple returned to Parliament with the recall of the Rump and Long Parliaments by General Monck , but following the Restoration in 1660 , he was excluded from the Indemnity and Oblivion Act , because of his role in the trial and execution of Charles I. He was captured in Warwickshire while trying to travel to Ireland , under his first wife 's maiden name of Busbridge . He was held in the Tower of London before being tried as a regicide . He tried to avoid the death penalty by saying that he had only acted as a judge in Charles I 's trial in order to give information to the Royalists . He went on to claim that he had tried to prevent the King 's execution , begging Oliver Cromwell to spare him . He did avoid execution and was sentenced to life imprisonment . As a result of security concerns , a number of regicides , including Temple were sent to Jersey in the Channel Islands . Initially he was imprisoned in Mont Orgueil , and subsequently in Elizabeth Castle , where he is reported to have died on 17 February 1680 .
William Winstanley described him as " not so much famous for his valour as his villainy , being remarkable for nothing but this horrible business of the king 's murther , for which he came into the pack to have a share in the spoyle . "
= St. Mary 's Church , Chesham =
St. Mary 's Church is a Grade 1 listed Anglican church in Chesham , Buckinghamshire , and is part of the Diocese of Oxford . Built on the site of a Bronze Age stone circle of puddingstones , parts of the church building date to the 12th century . Remodelled in the 15th and 17th centuries , the church is architecturally a mixture of English Gothic styles . Weakened by additions to the church tower and undermined by burials in and around the church , by the 19th century the building was structurally unsound . The church was remodelled and strengthened in the 1860s by George Gilbert Scott and again in the 20th century by Robert Potter .
Formerly part of the Diocese of Lincoln , it served what was historically the largest parish in Buckinghamshire , and the church traditionally had two vicars . Initially the advowson ( the right to appoint the vicar ) was held jointly by a pair of prominent local families , but in the wake of the 12th century civil wars of the reign of King Stephen ( 1135 – 1154 ) , the advowsons were granted to the monks of Woburn Abbey and to the Abbey of Saint Mary de Pratis in Leicester , each of whom appointed their own vicars to the parish . After the Dissolution of the Monasteries Woburn Abbey , together with its half of the advowson , was granted to the Earls of Bedford , while the half that had belonged to Leicester Abbey passed through a succession of private owners . In 1769 the Duke of Bedford acquired the Leicester half of the advowson and unified the parish , and from then on the parish was served by a single vicar .
The town of Chesham grew rapidly in the 19th century . After the parish was transferred to the Diocese of Oxford , reforms introduced by the Bishop of Oxford , Samuel Wilberforce , led to the parish being partitioned , eventually becoming four independent parishes ( Chesham , Latimer , Waterside and Ashley Green ) . In 1980 it was decided to reverse this decision , and over the 1980s and 1990s three of these parishes ( Chesham , Waterside and Ashley Green ) were reunited under St. Mary 's Church .
= = Historical background = =
Chesham / ˈtʃɛsəm / is a Buckinghamshire town of around 20 @,@ 000 people , located in the Chiltern Hills at the head of the River Chess , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) north @-@ west of London and 11 miles ( 18 km ) south @-@ east of Aylesbury .
There is archaeological evidence of human habitation during the Mesolithic period circa 8000 BC , of Neolithic farming circa 2500 BC and of Bronze Age settlement circa 1800 BC , during which time a stone circle of puddingstones was built at Chesham . The Catuvellauni tribe occupied and settled the area in around 500 BC , and at nearby Latimer there are remains of a Roman villa and archaeological evidence of Roman vineyards . Following the departure of the Romans the area appears to have been depopulated until Anglo @-@ Saxon colonisation in the 7th century AD .
The first recorded mention of Chesham dates from 970 in the will of Lady Ælfgifu ( identified with the former consort of King Eadwig of England ) , bequeathing Cæstæleshamme , " the water meadow at the pile of stones " , to Abingdon Abbey . The Domesday Book of 1086 lists Cestreham as containing four mills and comprising three adjacent estates , the most important of which were held by Odo of Bayeux and Queen Edith , the widow of Edward the Confessor .
As with much of England , Chesham suffered serious religious unrest in the 16th and 17th centuries , and in 1532 Lollard radical Thomas Harding was burnt at the stake in the town for heresy . From the 17th century Chesham was a focus for dissenters . The first Baptist chapel in the town opened in 1701 , Quakers have met in Chesham since the late 17th century , and John Wesley preached in Chesham in the 1760s .
Chesham Old Town , to the south @-@ east of the present @-@ day town centre , is the oldest part of the town and was the centre of Chesham until the late 19th century ; in 1851 the population stood at 2 @,@ 496 . In 1889 the Metropolitan Railway reached the area as the first phase of a planned extension from Rickmansworth to Berkhamsted , and Chesham railway station was opened to the north @-@ east of the Old Town . Following the Metropolitan Railway 's acquisition of the Aylesbury and Buckingham Railway ( A & B ) in 1891 , the extension to Berkhamsted was abandoned in favour of a connection between the Metropolitan Railway 's station at Chalfont Road ( now Chalfont & Latimer ) to Aylesbury and over the A & B 's route to Verney Junction , and Chesham station was left as the terminus of and sole station on a 3 @.@ 89 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 26 km ) branch from the mainline , a status it retains today .
The new town of present @-@ day Chesham grew between the railway station and the Old Town , leaving the architecture of the Old Town almost untouched . In June 2009 the Old Town and the present @-@ day town centre were added to Historic England 's Conservation Areas at Risk Register , although the local authority claimed that this was owing to a misunderstanding of its responses to English Heritage 's questionnaire .
= = Architecture = =
The existence of the stone circle indicates that a pagan place of worship existed in the area since prehistory , and although no archaeological evidence exists of any pre @-@ Conquest structure on the site of the present @-@ day St. Mary 's Church other than the stone circle itself , it is considered likely that a wooden church was built on the site by the Anglo @-@ Saxons . The earliest evidence of there being a church in Chesham is in the registers of the Diocese of Lincoln , whose 1153 registers mention " the church in Chesham " . In 1257 Hugh de Vere was granted the right to hold an annual three @-@ day fair and a weekly market in Chesham by Henry III . The annual fair was to be held on " the eve , the day and the morrow of the Feast of the Assumption of the Blessed Virgin Mary " , strongly suggesting that Chesham 's church was already dedicated to Mary .
The church is built on the Bronze Age puddingstone circle , which has been incorporated into the foundations of the church . Built of knapped flint with limestone dressings , it has a roughly cruciform shape . The present day church building comprises a chancel , a clerestoried nave , north and south aisles and transepts and a south porch with a tierceron vault . The church is topped by a square central crenellated steeple with an octagonal wooden spire covered with lead . Although the current stone church of St. Mary 's contains a mixture of architectural styles , mainly Gothic and dating from later periods , a Romanesque window between the north transept and north aisle has been dated to the 12th century , indicating that the church was already a stone building by this time .
The building as a whole is 114 feet ( 35 m ) long from east to west and 53 feet ( 16 m ) wide from north to south . The nave ( excluding the aisles ) is 64 feet 6 inches ( 19 @.@ 66 m ) long and 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) wide ; English Gothic aisles and the arcades of the nave were added early in the 13th century . The arcades consist of five bays with octagonal piers and arches with half @-@ pyramid shaped springers , a design described by Nikolaus Pevsner in 1960 as " baffling " . In 1270 the eastern arch of the tower was widened , and in around 1320 the other arches of the tower were also widened . In about 1370 the chancel was rebuilt in the Decorated Gothic style , and a doorway added in the south aisle at around the same time .
= = = 15th- and 17th @-@ century renovation = = =
In the 15th century the clerestory was added to the nave , along with the Perpendicular two @-@ storied south porch ; these reconstruction works necessitated the repositioning of the door on the south aisle , and the building of the present @-@ day western wall of the nave , with a great window and door also in the Perpendicular style . Stained glass windows were installed in the clerestory , but their contents were not recorded , and only small fragments of the mediaeval glass survive today : the arms of the Cheyne family , a human figure , and a shield with fragments of coloured glass , possibly the impaled arms of Woburn and Leicester . A staircase in the porch led to a parvise above ; local tradition holds that Thomas Harding was held in the parvise prior to his execution in 1532 . The porch also contains a stoup dating from the late 14th century , which although much damaged has survived all subsequent restorations and remodellings unaltered .
While the stone tower was completed in the 15th century , the date of the spire is unknown and has been dated to periods ranging from the 16th to 18th centuries . The church is known to have possessed a ring of bells by the 16th century , as the 1552 inventory of church possessions carried out on the instructions of Edward VI lists " v bells in the stepill " . A bell cast in around 1450 by John Sturdy is still used as a Sanctus bell and is regarded as having national historic significance .
In the chaotic climate of religious upheaval during and following the Reformation of the 16th century many of England 's churches fell into disrepair , including St. Mary 's ; the great door of St. Mary 's was damaged during the Civil War and bullet holes from the conflict remain visible today . In 1606 it was decided to renovate St. Mary 's . Two of the bells were re @-@ cast , the pews were replaced , and " a fair new gallery " was built along the south aisle . In the 18th century two further galleries were added to the church ; a north gallery reserved for the exclusive use of " maids and maidservants " , and a west gallery for the use of St. Mary 's band of musicians and choristers , later used to house the church 's organ . The wooden communion table was sold for 3s and a new table added at a cost of 10s 6d ( about £ 109 as of 2016 ) .
= = = 19th @-@ century renovation = = =
Since the widening of the tower arches in 1270 and 1320 the tower of St. Mary 's had been structurally weak . The subsequent addition of the bells and belfry and the lead @-@ covered spire added to the weight of the tower , and the number of burials of local notables within the church and of parishioners immediately outside the church building weakened the structure further . By the 18th century the problems had become severe enough that the west arch of the south transept was blocked up in an effort the strengthen the structure , and a hollow pillar which housed the stairway to the rood loft was filled in . The tower continued to weaken , a situation made worse by the addition in 1812 of a new ring of six bells with a 17 cwt ( 860 kg ) tenor bell , cast by Thomas Mears II of the Whitechapel Bell Foundry . Iron bands were wrapped around the tower to strengthen it but these soon snapped , and by the 19th century large cracks , which had appeared in the tower , were filled with broken bricks and rubble and covered over with roughcast as an interim solution .
By 1867 , church authorities deemed the problems with the tower as severe enough to warrant a major reconstruction of the church . George Gilbert Scott , who had recently designed the monumental London buildings of the Foreign Office and St. Pancras Station , was chosen to lead the project . Scott was a leading advocate of the Gothic Revival and saw the renovation as a chance to return St. Mary 's to a state nearer to its earlier Gothic design .
Scott removed the galleries , the high @-@ sided 1606 pews , and the three @-@ tiered pulpit . The tower was strengthened , the building 's exterior facing of flint and limestone was restored , and the chancel , which had been remodelled in the late 17th century , was restored to its original shape and given a new east window in the Decorated Gothic style , containing Ward and Hughes glass depicting Faith , Hope and Charity , donated by the Duke of Bedford . New wooden pews were installed together with a Gothic style pulpit , and a font of Mansfield Woodhouse stone donated by the Lowndes family .
The north transept , which had previously served as a vestry from which the Poor Law was administered , was used to house the church 's William Hill & Son organ , which had been installed in 1852 in the now @-@ removed western gallery ; the south transept , which up to that date had been used as a mausoleum for the Cavendish family and was completely walled off from the rest of the church and accessible only via its own door from the churchyard , was opened up to the church . In 1890 Cambridge Chimes were added to the tower clock , in commemoration of the Diamond Jubilee of Queen Victoria .
= = = 20th @-@ century renovation = = =
Scott 's alterations proved successful in stabilising the tower and in serving the needs of the church , and the church remained little changed for the next 130 years ; the most notable alterations during this period were the replacement of the glass in the chancel 's two leper windows with stained glass images of Pre @-@ Raphaelite knights by Edward Burne @-@ Jones as a memorial to a young officer killed during the Boer War , and the painting of a mural over the chancel arch by John Ward depicting the events of Holy Week in modern dress and set in the Chilterns . In 1951 the church was Grade A listed .
In 1980 the fourth bell of the ring of six was recast , again by the Whitechapel Foundry . By the 1990s the internal design of the church was beginning to be considered impractical for the needs of the community , and the interior was remodelled to a design by Robert Potter , with the works carried out in 1999 . The west gallery was restored to house the 1852 organ , together with a kitchen and toilet facility , and the north transept was converted into a vestry with a room above it . Underfloor heating was built below a new marble floor and the chancel step replaced by an ovoid raised marble dais . Meanwhile , Scott 's pews were removed altogether and replaced by wooden chairs .
= = Ecclesiastical organisation = =
In the 12th and early 13th centuries the advowson ( the right to appoint the vicar ) of the church was held jointly by two local landowning families , the de Bolbec ( or de Bolebec ) and Sifrewast families ; as a very large parish ( generally considered to have been the largest parish in Buckinghamshire ) twin administrations suited the needs of the parish . Following the civil wars of the reign of King Stephen ( 1135 – 1154 ) England underwent a major upsurge in religious activity and saw a significant growth of monasteries . At some point prior to 1221 the de Bolbec family had included their half of the advowson in a grant to the Cistercians of Woburn Abbey , and the Sifrewasts had granted their half to the Augustinian Abbey of Saint Mary de Pratis in Leicester . From then on , Woburn and Leicester were to share the patronage , each appointing their own vicars to the parish , known as Chesham Woburn and Chesham Leicester .
Following the Dissolution of the Monasteries in the 16th century the advowson of Chesham Woburn remained attached to Woburn Abbey and was transferred , along with the abbey building , to John Russell , 1st Earl of Bedford . The advowson of Chesham Leicester was sold , and from then on had a succession of owners , eventually coming into the ownership of prominent local landowners the Skottowe family , who purchased it from Sir Francis Whichcote , MP for Cambridgeshire . From 1601 onwards , other than a brief period between 1623 – 1660 , the appointees of Chesham Woburn and Chesham Leicester were the same person , and thus the parish was served by a single vicar , although he continued to be appointed by the holders of each advowson separately . In 1769 John Russell , 4th Duke of Bedford , who had inherited Chesham Woburn , also acquired Chesham Leicester and from then on the parish was served by a single vicar assisted by multiple curates ; in 1767 the two halves of the parish were formally unified by an Act of Parliament .
In 1845 Chesham , along with the rest of Buckinghamshire , was transferred from the Diocese of Lincoln , of which for historical reasons it had been a part since the Norman Conquest despite its distance from Lincoln , to the Diocese of Oxford . It thus came under the control of Oxford 's newly appointed dynamic young bishop Samuel Wilberforce , who in turn appointed Adolphus Aylward as vicar in 1847 to oversee the reform of the parish . A second church at Waterside was opened in 1867 , and the huge parish of Chesham was partitioned between St. Mary 's and the new Christ Church , Waterside . As Chesham and the surrounding towns grew following the arrival of the Metropolitan Railway the parish was divided further , leaving a total of four independent parishes : St. Mary 's , Christ Church Waterside , St. John the Evangelist Ashley Green , and Latimer At the end of the 19th century the advowson of the much @-@ reduced parish of St. Mary 's was acquired by the recently created Peache Trust .
In 1980 it was decided to reverse the partition of the parish . Over the course of the 1980s and early 1990s three of the four parishes were reunified into a single parish of Great Chesham , administered by a single Rector , also the Vicar of St. Mary 's , and a team of clergy serving five of the other churches ; the sixth , St. Michael 's Whelpley Hill , was closed .
= = Associated buildings and structures = =
In 1712 Secretary to the Treasury William Lowndes rebuilt Chesham 's manor house , The Bury , immediately to the south of the church . The building still stands today , and currently serves as an office building .
Owing to its unusual advowson , Chesham historically had two vicarages . The Upper Parsonage , also known as Bury Hill House , was built in the 16th century and attached to Chesham Leicester , and was used as a residence by the Skottowe family following their acquisition of Chesham Leicester ; it was a large mansion house immediately north of St. Mary 's Church . In the early 19th century the house was bought and demolished by the Lowndes family .
The Lower Parsonage , attached to Chesham Woburn , stood immediately east of the church , between
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Mona 's possible survival at the end of Max Payne 2 , Rockstar 's Dan Houser stated that Max Payne 3 would " not continue that aspect of the story . We toyed with figuring out some way , or doing something clever , and then [ decided ] ' No , no , just move on from that bit of the story . ' It really didn 't work because there was no way of knowing the choices someone made . "
As a self @-@ described method actress , Kunis " took her job seriously " and " insisted on practicing a lot " , but disliked Mona 's outfit in the film , which was different from what the character wore in the games : " The clothes sucked . Oh my God , it was awful . Mark was like bundled up in jackets and wet suits and coats and turtlenecks and I was in a leather bustier and black pants and 5 inch heels . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Games = = =
The video game version of Mona Sax was critically acclaimed for being one of " relatively complex , non @-@ stereotypical female game characters " . She was included on the 2007 list of 50 greatest female characters in video game history by Tom 's Games , where she was described as " a stone @-@ cold killer who 's incredibly tempting but not entirely trustworthy " and " the perfect female accomplice to Max Payne . " In 2008 , PC Games Hardware also listed her as one of the most important female characters in video games . In 2012 , David Sanchez of GameZone proposed that Mona appear in her own spin @-@ off game , calling her " one of the sexiest femme fatales in all of gaming " , and added , " The fact of the matter is that Mona Sax is one hell of a character — one that hasn 't starred in her very own game , but one that could very well do so and deliver an unforgettable experience . " That same year , Austin Yorski of Blistered Thumbs listed Mona among his personal favorites while discussing the portrayals of video game female characters . In 2013 , Complex ranked her as the 20th best supporting character in video games .
Much of the positive reception came from the characters 's perceived sex appeal . In 2004 , the staff of TeamXbox ranked Mona as number ten on their list of top " Xbox Babes " , calling her " no princess waiting to be saved " and stating that she had replaced their " bad girl " type " childhood crush on G.I. Joe ’ s Baroness . " Polish edition of GameStar included her in their 2006 poll " Miss of the Video Game World " , in which she was voted at 17th place . The sex scene between Max and Mona , described as " actually one of the most fitting ever seen in a video game " , was ranked as the fifth top sexy moment in gaming by Games.net in 2007 . MSN included her on their 2009 list of gaming 's 12 " hottest babes " and wrote that " smart , sexy and dangerous " Mona was " remarkably presented in the game , being given the cold feel of a hired gun , with no regret or remorse " . Mona was also included on the list of nine " sexiest babes " of action games by The Times of India , who commented that she " fits in perfectly in the dark world of Max Payne . " The affair between Max and Mona was ranked as the tenth top video game romance by Joystick Division 's James Hawkins in 2011 , and as the sixth most disastrous game romance by GamesRadar 's Dave Meikleham that same year . They were also listed among the 25 best video game couples by IGN 's Emma Boyes in 2012 .
The character has also received some negative reception . In 2003 , Nick Catucci of The Village Voice called her " a woman carrying more emotional baggage than Witherspoon 's Elle Woods has pink Gucci suitcases " and stated , " And Max 's love interest ? A contract killer who survived being shot in the head , and who you also play : Mona Sax . Who wrote this crap , Ed Wood ? " Tyler Wilde of GamesRadar ranked a cheat to undress Mona nude for her gameplay sections in Max Payne 2 as the fourth rudest cheat in video games .
= = = Film = = =
Critical reception of the film character has been generally negative . For instance , Richard Corliss of TIME wrote Mila Kunis was " not up to the task " and GameZone 's David Sanchez opined that " Mila Kunis ain 't got nothin ' on Kathy Tong " . In 2011 , Complex ranked Kunis as the tenth most miscast action movie hero , because " her character , Mona Sax , is a heart @-@ attack @-@ serious Russian assassin , a description that brings to mind Amazon woman Brigitte Nielsen back in her Red Sonja days ; Kunis , on the other hand , is petite and angelic @-@ faced . " Nevertheless , Kunis was nominated in the category " Choice Movie Actress : Action Adventure " at Teen Choice Awards 2009 for her portrayal of Mona in the film . She was also ranked as the eighth " hottest game girl " by Phil Hornshaw of GameFront in 2010 because the role , along with her enjoyment of World of Warcraft , earned her " some digital street cred " .
= Ibuki @-@ class armored cruiser =
The Ibuki class ( 伊吹型 , Ibuki @-@ gata ) , also called the Kurama class ( 鞍馬型 , Kurama @-@ gata ) , was a ship class of two large armoured cruisers built for the Imperial Japanese Navy after the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 . These ships reflected Japanese experiences during that war as they were designed to fight side @-@ by @-@ side with battleships and were given an armament equal to , or superior to existing Japanese battleships . The development of the battlecruiser the year before Ibuki was completed made her and her sister ship Kurama obsolete before they were completed because the foreign battlecruisers were much more heavily armed and faster .
Both ships played a small role in World War I as they unsuccessfully hunted for the German East Asia Squadron and the commerce @-@ raider SMS Emden and protected troop convoys in the Pacific Ocean shortly after the war began . The ships were sold for scrap in 1923 in accordance with the terms of the Washington Naval Treaty .
= = Design and description = =
The Ibuki @-@ class ships were originally ordered during the Russo @-@ Japanese War , on 31 January 1905 , as Tsukuba @-@ class armored cruisers . Before construction began , however , they were redesigned to incorporate 8 @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) guns in four twin turrets rather than the dozen 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) guns in single mounts of the earlier ships . This required a larger hull to fit the turrets and thus more power from additional boilers to keep the same speed as the Tsukuba @-@ class ships .
These ships were given battleship @-@ grade armament to overpower existing armored cruisers and were intended to fight in the battleline with battleships , much as had the two Kasuga @-@ class armored cruisers had done in the Battles of the Yellow Sea and Tsushima during the Russo @-@ Japanese War . While more powerful than existing armored cruisers , the appearance of the British Invincible class in 1908 with their armament of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns and speed of 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) rendered these ships obsolete before they were commissioned . They were reclassified as battlecruisers in 1912 .
The ships had an overall length of 485 feet ( 147 @.@ 8 m ) and a length between perpendiculars of 450 feet ( 137 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 75 feet 6 inches ( 23 @.@ 0 m ) , and a normal draught of 26 feet 1 inch ( 8 @.@ 0 m ) . They displaced 14 @,@ 636 long tons ( 14 @,@ 871 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 595 long tons ( 15 @,@ 845 t ) at full load , roughly 900 long tons ( 910 t ) more than the earlier ships . The crew numbered about 845 officers and enlisted men . They had a metacentric height of 2 feet 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 0 @.@ 902 m ) .
= = = Propulsion = = =
Both ships were intended to be powered by vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , but the long construction delays suffered by Ibuki made it possible for her to serve as a test @-@ bed for the steam turbine . Four sets of Curtis turbines were ordered from the Fore River Shipbuilding Co . , two each for Ibuki and the battleship Aki . A month later , the Japanese paid $ 100 @,@ 000 for a manufacturing license for the turbines .
Ibuki was equipped with two turbine sets , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 24 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 18 @,@ 000 kW ) , intended to give a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 5 knots ( 41 @.@ 7 km / h ; 25 @.@ 9 mph ) . They used steam provided by 18 mixed @-@ firing , superheater @-@ equipped Miyabara water @-@ tube boilers , with a working pressure of 17 kg / cm2 ( 1 @,@ 667 kPa ; 242 psi ) , that sprayed fuel oil on the coal to increase its burn rate . Performance during Ibuki 's initial sea trials on 12 August 1909 was unsatisfactory as she only reached 20 @.@ 87 knots ( 38 @.@ 65 km / h ; 24 @.@ 02 mph ) despite the turbines exceeding their power rating with 27 @,@ 353 shp ( 20 @,@ 397 kW ) . The turbines were subsequently modified and the propellers were changed in an attempt to rectify the problem , but with only limited success . The ship ran her full @-@ power trials again on 23 June 1910 and reached a speed of 21 @.@ 16 knots ( 39 @.@ 19 km / h ; 24 @.@ 35 mph ) from 28 @,@ 977 shp ( 21 @,@ 608 kW ) .
Kurama used the traditional pair of four @-@ cylinder reciprocating steam engines with a power rating of 22 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 16 @,@ 800 kW ) , 2 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 1 @,@ 500 kW ) more than the older ships . She used the same type of boiler as Ibuki and derived the additional power from the addition of four boilers , for a total of 28 , which required an additional funnel . The ships carried a maximum of 2 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 t ) of coal and an additional 215 long tons ( 218 t ) of fuel oil although their range is unknown .
= = = Armament = = =
The Ibuki @-@ class armored cruisers were armed with four 45 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns , mounted in twin @-@ gun hydraulically powered centreline turrets . The guns had an elevation range of − 3 ° / + 23 ° and normally loaded their rounds at an angle of + 5 ° , although loading at any angle up to + 13 ° was theoretically possible . They fired 850 @-@ pound ( 386 kg ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ( 850 m / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 24 @,@ 000 yd ( 22 @,@ 000 m ) with armour @-@ piercing ( AP ) shells . The intermediate armament was much heavier than the older ships , with four twin @-@ gun turrets equipped with 45 @-@ calibre 8 @-@ inch 41st Year Type guns mounted on each side . The guns could be elevated to + 30 ° which gave them a maximum range of around 23 @,@ 000 yards ( 21 @,@ 000 m ) . Their 254 @-@ pound ( 115 kg ) projectiles were fired at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 495 ft / s ( 760 m / s ) .
Defense against torpedo boats was mainly provided by fourteen 40 @-@ caliber 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch 41st Year Type quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , all but two of which were mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull . The gun fired a 45 @-@ pound ( 20 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 2 @,@ 150 ft / s ( 660 m / s ) . The ships were also equipped with four 40 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder 12 cwt QF guns and four 23 @-@ caliber 12 @-@ pounder QF guns on high @-@ angle mounts . Both of these guns fired 12 @.@ 5 @-@ pound ( 5 @.@ 67 kg ) shells with muzzle velocities of 2 @,@ 300 ft / s ( 700 m / s ) and 1 @,@ 500 feet per second ( 450 m / s ) respectively . In addition , the cruisers were fitted with three submerged 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes , one on each broadside and one in the stern . Each tube was provided with one training torpedo and two normal torpedoes .
= = = Armor = = =
Armor in the Ibuki class was improved compared to the earlier ships . The waterline armor belt of Krupp cemented armour was 7 inches ( 178 mm ) thick between the 12 @-@ inch gun turrets although it was only 4 inches ( 102 mm ) thick fore and aft of the turrets . Above it was a strake of 5 @-@ inch ( 127 mm ) armor that extended between the eight @-@ inch gun turrets and protected the two central 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch casemates . In front of those turrets , the armor was 6 inches ( 152 mm ) thick . The ends of the main armor belt were connected to the main gun barbettes by 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) transverse bulkheads .
The primary gun turrets were protected by armor plates 9 inches ( 229 mm ) thick and they had a 1 @.@ 5 @-@ inch ( 38 mm ) roof . The armour for the eight @-@ inch turrets was six inches thick . The main barbettes were protected by seven inches of armour and the secondary barbettes by five inches , although the armor for those thinned to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) behind the upper armor belt . The thickness of the armored decks was two inches throughout the ship . The sides of the forward conning tower were eight inches thick and its communications tube to the main deck was seven inches in thickness .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and service = =
Construction of both ships was delayed by a lack of facilities at their shipyards , a shortage of appropriately trained workers and their low priority for building . Kurama 's lengthy building time at Yokosuka Naval Arsenal was due to priority given to the building of the battleships Kawachi and Settsu and the repair and reconstruction of the ex @-@ Russian ships captured after the Battle of Tsushima . Ibuki had to wait to have her keel laid until the slipway used by the battleship Aki became available after Aki was launched . Kure Naval Arsenal took advantage of the delay with Ibuki to stockpile material and components and set a record between keel @-@ laying and launching of five months , a figure only bettered by Portsmouth Naval Dockyard when they built the battleship Dreadnought in only four months . The decision to switch from reciprocating engines to turbines in Ibuki and Aki was not made until five days after Ibuki 's launching and thereafter she received priority over the battleship so that she was completed less than two years later , the first ship in the Imperial Japanese Navy to use steam turbines . In fact , construction on Aki was completely halted for about five months in favor of Ibuki because the former 's turbines were late and the cruiser was better suited to serve as the testbed for the new technology .
Ibuki sailed to Thailand in 1911 to represent Japan during the coronation ceremony of King Rama VI Vajiravudh . When World War I began in August 1914 , she was commanded by Captain Kanji Katō . The ship was ordered to Singapore and cooperated with the British to hunt down the light cruiser Emden in the East Indies and Indian Ocean . Ibuki was ordered to New Zealand to escort a large troop convoy of ANZAC troops to the Middle East in late September . She was ordered to guard the convoy , over Katō 's protests , when the presence of the Emden was discovered in the Cocos Islands on 9 November . The Australian light cruiser HMAS Sydney was detached from the convoy to sink the Emden instead . With the ending of the threat to the convoy , Ibuki was transferred to the Second South Seas Squadron at Truk in the Caroline Islands . She was refitted at Kure in 1918 , disarmed in 1922 , and stricken from the Navy List the following year and scrapped in accordance with the Washington Naval Treaty .
Kurama attended the Coronation Fleet Review of King George V in Spithead on 24 June 1911 . She was at Yokosuka in August 1914 and was assigned to the 1st South Seas Squadron to search for the East Asia Squadron . They departed there on 14 September and reached Truk on 11 October as troops carried by the squadron occupied the Carolines . The squadron was based in Suva , Fiji in November in case the East Asia Squadron decided to double back into the Central Pacific . Kurama was flagship of the 2nd Squadron in 1917 and was transferred to the 5th Squadron the following year . Like her sister , she was disarmed in 1922 , stricken in 1923 and subsequently scrapped .
= Pimpin ' ( song ) =
" Pimpin ' " is a song by American rapper Tony Yayo , included as a track on his debut studio album Thoughts of a Predicate Felon ( 2005 ) . The song 's production was handled by record producer LT Moe , who also helped in the writing process with Yayo . Musically , " Pimpin ' " is a rap song expressing Yayo 's desire to be able to legally pimp women . It is backed by an upbeat , " bouncy " production containing elements of digital guitar .
" Pimpin ' " received generally mixed reviews from music critics : although some praised the song 's upbeat production , others called the song " bland " when compared to Yayo 's previous work , which typically covers a darker subject matter . Despite not being released as a single , the song received considerable airplay on US urban contemporary radio stations , which resulted in the song charting at number sixty @-@ six on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . An accompanying music video was filmed for the song , directed by production group Fat Cats .
= = Background and composition = =
" Pimpin ' " was written by Tony Yayo and LT Moe , with Moe also handling production duties . The song was recorded by Moe at Encore Studios – a recording studio in Los Angeles , California . Audio mixing was carried out by Steve Baughman at Right Track Studios , a recording studio in New York City . The song was mastered by Brian " Big Bass " Gardner . It is listed ninth on the track listing for Thoughts of a Predicate Felon and is of three minutes and six seconds in length , consisting of three choruses separated by two verses , all performed by Yayo .
Lyrically , the song describes Yayo 's desire to legally pimp women and treat them with a luxurious lifestyle , and refers to how other men simply chase their pleasures . The lyrics are backed by a " bouncy " production which , according to The Michigan Daily writer Ewan McGarvey , consists of " tiny digital @-@ guitar frets " . Some music critics have described the song to be of a less dark and intense nature to many other songs on Thoughts of a Predicate Falcon , such as " Homicide " , " Drama Setter " and " Live by the Gun " , which invariably chronicle subjects such as murder , prison and drugs .
= = Critical reception = =
" Pimpin ' " received generally mixed reviews from music critics , with some also noting that the song felt out of place on Thoughts of a Predicate Felon when compared to the more intense songs that appear on the album . Allmusic writer David Jeffries named " Pimpin ' " as one of the album 's best songs , along with " So Seductive " , " Drama Setter " and " Dear Suzie " . Pedro Hernandez of RapReviews commended the song 's " bouncy production " , but criticized its concept as " unoriginal " , and for this reason called it a " track that only Yayo fans will appreciate " . Whilst commenting positively on more intense and " brutal " songs such as " Homicide " , Ross McGowan of Stylus Magazine criticized the tempo of " Pimpin ' " , calling it " bland " , and felt that the song 's music video was the only thing making it interesting to listen to , writing that " it ’ s way less fun to hear when it isn 't accompanied by continuous footage of G @-@ Unit ’ s main men wrestling each other for face time " . However , The Michigan Daily writer Ewan McGarvey called " Pimpin ' " one of the " few charming songs " on Thoughts of a Predicate Felon . He noted that " simplicity kind of works for Tony " , but also wrote that " it 's not the real G @-@ Unit manifest destiny " . He concluded that " Yayo 's old mix @-@ tape career gets cannibalized " for the song .
= = Chart performance = =
Despite not being released as a single , " Pimpin ' " debuted at number 11 on the US Billboard Bubbling Under R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles chart issue dated August 6 , 2005 : it went on to spend seven weeks the chart , and peaked at number one . The song then debuted , and peaked , at number 66 on the US Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart for the chart week dated October 1 , 2005 , and went on to spend three weeks on the chart . Chart @-@ position wise , " Pimpin ' " is the second most successful song of Tony Yayo 's career , behind only Thoughts of a Predicate Felon 's first single " So Seductive " , which reached number seven on the corresponding chart and also peaked at number 48 on the US Billboard Hot 100 .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Pimpin ' " was released as a double @-@ music video along with the video for Yayo single " Curious " . Both sections of the video were directed by production group Fat Cats . After three minutes and eight seconds , the video segues from the " Curious " section to the " Pimpin ' " section , which lasts for a further one minute and thirty @-@ six seconds . The " Pimpin ' " section of the video is set in a warehouse , and features Yayo rapping the song 's first verse and first two choruses , with this footage alternating with the other members of G @-@ Unit Records members lip @-@ syncing sections of Yayo 's lyrics . Whilst all this occurs , several girls attired in black dance in the background .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The credits for " Pimpin ' " are adapted from the liner notes of Thoughts of a Predicate Felon .
Recording
Recorded at Encore Studios , California .
Personnel
Tony Yayo – songwriting , vocals
LT Moe – songwriting , production , recording
Steve Baughman – mixing
Brian " Big Bass " Gardner – mastering
= = Charts = =
= John H. Clifford =
John Henry Clifford ( January 16 , 1809 – January 2 , 1876 ) was an American lawyer and politician from New Bedford , Massachusetts . He served as the state 's attorney general for much of the 1850s , retaining the office during administrations dominated by three different political parties . A Whig , he was elected the state 's 21st governor , serving a single term from 1853 to 1854 . He was the first governor of Massachusetts not born in the state .
As attorney general Clifford gained fame by leading the prosecution in one of the most sensational trials of the 19th century , the Parkman – Webster murder case . The case , where both victim and assailant were from the upper crust of Boston society , featured the first use of forensic dentistry to secure a conviction . During the American Civil War Clifford supported the Union cause , and was involved in unsuccessful maneuvers to prosecute Confederate President Jefferson Davis after the war . In his later years he served as president of the Boston and Providence Railroad .
= = Early years = =
John Clifford was born to Benjamin and Achsah ( Wade ) Clifford in Providence , Rhode Island on January 16 , 1809 . He was the sixth of thirteen children . He graduated from Brown University in 1827 , read law with Timothy Coffin in New Bedford , Massachusetts and Theron Metcalf in Dedham , Massachusetts , and then opened a law practice in New Bedford . He maintained that practice , sometimes with partners , for the rest of his life . Clifford married Sarah Parker Allen on January 16 , 1832 . The couple had five children .
In 1835 , Clifford was elected to the Massachusetts legislature , where he sat on a committee that revised the state 's statutes . In 1836 he served as an aide to Governor Edward Everett , a position he held until Everett lost the 1839 election . Everett rewarded Clifford for his service by naming him district attorney for the southern district of the state in 1839 , a post he held for ten years . He was concurrently elected state senator representing Bristol County in 1845 . In 1849 he was appointed state attorney general by Governor George N. Briggs . He was the only major appointed Whig official retained by Democrat George S. Boutwell after he took office in 1851 . Boutwell explained in his memoirs that Clifford " was a good officer and an upright man , but he lacked the quality which enables a man to reach conclusions . This peculiarity made him useful to me . He would investigate a subject , give me the authorities and precedents , and leave the conclusions to me . Next , there was no one in the administration party whom I wished to appoint . Mr. [ Benjamin ] Hallett was the candidate most generally supported . He was full of prejudices and he was not well instructed as a lawyer . In these respects Clifford was his opposite . "
= = Attorney general and governor = =
The first major case that Clifford prosecuted was for the murder of Boston Brahmin George Parkman , and it was one of the most sensational of the 19th century . Parkman had disappeared in November 1849 and Harvard professor John White Webster had been arrested for his murder . The gruesome method of the body 's disposal ( which was not complete ) , the fact that it was a capital crime , and the high status of both victim and accused ensured a great deal of public interest in the case , and the courtroom was packed . Clifford 's case was complicated by the fact that there was no actual body . Assisted by George Bemis , who had been retained by the Parkman family , he resorted instead to dental forensics and strong circumstantial evidence to build the case against Webster . The jury returned a guilty verdict after two and one half hours of deliberation . There was much controversy afterward concerning the jury instructions given by Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw , but Webster was eventually hanged after confessing the crime . The case has continued to interest legal scholars , in part over allegations that the defense ( which included one lawyer lacking significant criminal trial experience ) failed to aggressively dispute the evidence presented , and also did not introduce potentially exculpatory evidence .
In 1852 the state Whig Party parlayed his popularity in the Parkman case into a nomination for the governorship , which Clifford reluctantly accepted . The race was a difficult one , dominated by the presidential contest and candidate stands on the state 's temperance " Maine law " . In addition to Whig support , Clifford was nominated by a party opposed to the Maine law , while one of his opponents , Horace Mann , was running with both Free Soil and pro @-@ Maine law nominations . The Whigs had been divided by their reactions to the Compromise of 1850 , and the national election ( held one week before the state election ) saw many Whigs voting for Democrat Franklin Pierce . In a three way race involving Clifford , Mann , and Democrat Henry W. Bishop , Clifford received 45 % of the vote . A majority requirement still in effect for popular election , he was elected by the state senate 29 – 4 over Bishop , although fractious Whigs demanded the replacement of Senator John Davis in exchange for their support for him .
After his single term as governor , Clifford refused to stand for reelection , preferring to work as a lawyer . His successor , Governor Emory Washburn , reappointed him to be attorney general , an office he held from 1854 to 1858 . This term of service notably included the tenure of Know Nothing Governor Henry J. Gardner . Gardner , who had politically been a Whig before the advent of the Know Nothings , retained Clifford in the office , and the two of them blunted some of anti @-@ immigrant legislation and ( in their view ) extreme reform proposals of the Know Nothing legislature . During Gardner 's tenure , the state constitution was amended so that the office of attorney general was elected rather than appointed . In the election of 1858 , Stephen Henry Phillips was elected to replace Clifford .
= = Later political and legal work = =
The state hired Clifford in 1859 to assist Phillips in prosecuting what turned out to be the final stages of a long @-@ running ( 200 year ) series of issues concerning the state 's boundary with Rhode Island . Phillips and Clifford traveled to Washington , DC in January 1861 to make their appearance before the United States Supreme Court . At the time , tensions between North and South were exceptionally high , and United States Attorney General Edwin Stanton expressed to them concern that Washington might be attacked by rebel forces . Their letter to Massachusetts Governor John Albion Andrew was one of the warnings that prompted Andrew to begin organizing Massachusetts volunteer regiments for the American Civil War .
Clifford was , like other conservative Whigs , politically opposed to the abolitionist movement ; he was described by former slave Frederick Douglass as " pro @-@ slavery " and " about the most aristocratic gentleman in Bristol County " . However , once the Civil War broke out he supported the Union cause and the state 's participation in the conflict . In 1862 he joined in a call for the formation of an antiabolition party to oppose the Republicans . The " People 's Party " was formed primarily by people who had supported the pro @-@ Union Constitutional Union Party of 1860 , and failed to gain traction because of President Abraham Lincoln 's preliminary Emancipation Proclamation issued in September . Clifford was elected to the state senate that year , where he served as its president . Clifford supported Lincoln for reelection in 1864 . In 1868 he was chosen a presidential elector , casting his vote for Ulysses S. Grant .
In 1865 Clifford was chosen to act as one of the special counsels prosecuting former Confederate President Jefferson Davis . Davis was to be prosecuted for treason , but for a variety of reasons the charges were eventually dropped after four years of political and legal wrangling . Clifford contributed to a debate in 1866 over the difficulty of prosecuting Davis in Virginia , noting that without essentially packing the jury , a failed prosecution would result in the awkward outcome of a Virginia jury in some sense overturning the outcome of the war . He resigned from these duties in July 1866 .
= = Later years = =
In 1867 Clifford retired from the legal profession and became president of the Boston and Providence Railroad . During his tenure the railroad constructed a new terminal station in Boston at Park Square . He received the degree of LL.D. from Brown in 1849 , Amherst in 1853 , and Harvard in 1853 . For several years he was president of the Harvard Board of Overseers . After the American Civil War he was appointed by George Peabody to the board of trustees of the Peabody Education Fund , a philanthropic initiative for building educational resources in the post @-@ war South . In his later years he was offered , but turned down , a number of diplomatic postings in Europe , including Ambassador to Russia and Ambassador to the Ottoman Empire . In 1873 and 1875 he traveled to warmer climates in a bid to improve his declining health .
In 1875 Clifford was appointed to a diplomatic commission established pursuant to the 1871 Treaty of Washington with the United Kingdom to resolve fishery issues . However , owing to a delay occasioned by the difficulty in selecting a neutral third commissioner , Clifford never assumed his duties . He died of heart disease , after a short illness , on January 2 , 1876 at his home in New Bedford , and was buried in New Bedford 's Rural Cemetery . Clifford 's Greek Revival mansion still stands on Orchard Street in New Bedford , contributing to the County Street Historic District .
= = Clifford and Melville = =
Clifford had a friendly and collegial relationship with Chief Justice Lemuel Shaw , who was the father @-@ in @-@ law of writer Herman Melville . Clifford and Melville crossed paths on a number of occasions , most notably on Nantucket in the summer of 1852 . On this occasion Clifford recounted to Melville a story about one of his early cases . Melville later wrote him , asking for further details , and Clifford sent Melville journal entries on the case . Melville ended up using the material for Isle of the Cross , a story that was never published .
= Homer 's Enemy =
" Homer 's Enemy " is the twenty @-@ third episode of the eighth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on May 4 , 1997 . The episode 's plot centers on the Springfield Nuclear Power Plant 's hiring a new employee named Frank Grimes . Despite Homer 's attempts to befriend him , Grimes is angered and irritated by Homer 's laziness and incompetence despite leading a comfortable life . He eventually declares himself Homer 's enemy . Meanwhile , Bart buys a run @-@ down factory for a dollar .
" Homer 's Enemy " was directed by Jim Reardon and the script was written by John Swartzwelder , based on an idea pitched by executive producer Bill Oakley . The episode explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic hired for a job where he has to work alongside a man like Homer . He was partially modeled after Michael Douglas as he appeared in the film Falling Down . Hank Azaria provided the voice of Frank Grimes , and based some of the character 's mannerisms on actor William H. Macy . Frank Welker guest stars as the voice of the Executive Vice President dog .
In its original broadcast on the Fox network , " Homer 's Enemy " acquired a 7 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 5 million homes , finishing the week ranked 56th . " Homer 's Enemy " is considered to be one of the darkest episodes of The Simpsons , and it split critical opinion . It is a favorite of several members of the production staff , including Bill Oakley , Josh Weinstein and Matt Groening , but it is one of the least favorite of Mike Reiss . Although Grimes makes his only appearance in this episode , he was later named one of the " Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral characters " by IGN . He has since been referenced several times in the show , most notably in the season fourteen episode " The Great Louse Detective " , in which his son plots to kill Homer .
= = Plot = =
In a new segment of " Kent 's People " , Kent Brockman tells the heartwarming story of Frank Grimes , a man who had to struggle for everything he ever got , including a correspondence degree in nuclear physics . After seeing the show , Springfield Nuclear Power Plant owner Mr. Burns is so touched that he asks Smithers to hire Grimes as his Executive Vice President . However , the following day , Burns sees a sentimental story concerning a heroic dog and demands that it instead be appointed Executive Vice President . Consequently , Grimes is shuffled into Sector 7G , where he must work alongside Homer , Lenny , and Carl . Settling into his new job , Grimes is amazed and aghast at Homer 's bad manners and general irresponsibility . When Grimes prevents Homer from drinking a beaker of sulfuric acid , dramatically slapping it out of Homer 's hands into a wall , a passing Mr. Burns admonishes Grimes for destroying the wall and spilling his acid . Grimes is demoted and later angrily declares to Homer that the two of them are now enemies .
Homer attempts to appease Grimes by inviting him to his home for a lobster dinner in order to make him and his enemy co @-@ worker a friend . Grimes ' visit to the Simpson house only fuels his resentment ; he is incensed by Homer 's ability to live such a comfortable life despite his slothful and ignorant ways . Declaring Homer a " fraud " , a bitter Grimes storms away in anger . The following day , Homer , after getting advice from Marge , makes further attempts to earn Grimes ' respect by acting as a model employee , but his efforts fail . Grimes rants about Homer to Lenny and Carl , both of whom insist that Homer is an essentially decent person . To prove Homer 's lack of intelligence , he tricks Homer into entering a nuclear power plant design contest intended for children , by carefully cutting away all references to them in a promotional poster which he leaves at Homer 's control panel . Homer , unaware that the contest is only open to kids , eagerly takes on the challenge to prove his professionalism . At the contest , Grimes is shocked when Homer 's model , which is almost exactly the same as the current power plant with only a few modifications , easily wins against Ralph Wiggum 's Malibu Stacy dream house , and Martin Prince 's futuristic model that supplies power to the room . The audience 's applause and cheers for Homer cause Grimes to finally snap and he runs amok through the plant , mimicking Homer 's habits . Entering Homer 's office , Grimes sees a machine labeled " Extremely High Voltage " , sarcastically declares that he does not need safety gloves , grabs the high voltage wires and is fatally electrocuted . At Grimes ' funeral , Homer falls asleep and in a drowsy state tells Marge to change the TV channel , causing all the attending mourners to laugh as Grimes ' casket is lowered into the ground .
Meanwhile , Bart becomes bored during a visit to Springfield Town Hall and buys " 35 Industry Way " for a dollar during a foreclosure auction . It turns out to be a run @-@ down old factory , which he and Milhouse spend the day wrecking it until the next morning Bart returns to find it has collapsed during the night while Milhouse was on watch duty , leaving the rats to swarm Moe 's Tavern .
= = Production = =
" Homer 's Enemy " was written by John Swartzwelder , directed by Jim Reardon and executive produced by Bill Oakley and Josh Weinstein . One of the goals of Oakley and Weinstein was to create several episodes in each season which would " push the envelope conceptually . " The idea for the episode was first conceived by Bill Oakley who thought that Homer should have an enemy . The thought evolved into the concept of a " real world " co @-@ worker who would either love or hate Homer . The writers chose the latter as they thought it would have funnier results . The result was the character of Grimes , a man who had to work hard all his life with nothing to show for it and is dismayed and embittered by Homer 's success and comfort in spite of his inherent laziness and ignorance .
" Homer 's Enemy " explores the comic possibilities of a realistic character with a strong work ethic placed alongside Homer in a work environment . In an essay for the book Leaving Springfield , Robert Sloane describes the episode as " an incisive consideration of The Simpsons 's world . Although The Simpsons is known for its self @-@ reflectivity , the show had never looked at ( or critiqued ) itself as directly as it does in [ ' Homer 's Enemy ' ] . " In the episode , Homer is portrayed as an everyman and the embodiment of the American spirit ; however , in some scenes his negative characteristics and silliness are prominently highlighted . By the close of the episode , Grimes , a hard working and persevering " real American hero , " is relegated to the role of antagonist ; the viewer is intended to be pleased that Homer has emerged victorious . In an interview with Simpsons fan site NoHomers.net , Josh Weinstein said :
The animators and character designers had a lot of discussion about what Frank Grimes should look like . He was originally designed as a " burly ex @-@ marine guy with a crew cut " , but would later be modeled after Michael Douglas in the movie Falling Down and director Jim Reardon 's college roommate . Hank Azaria provided the voice of Frank Grimes , even though such a role would normally have been performed by a guest star . The producers decided Azaria was more suitable because the role involved a great deal of frustration and required extensive knowledge of the show . Azaria felt that the role should instead go to William H. Macy . According to Azaria , " I based the character on William Macy . I can 't really copy him vocally , but I tried to get as close as I could and copy his rhythms and the way he has that sort of seething passion underneath that total calm exterior . " The producers worked a lot with Azaria to help him perfect the role , and gave him more guidance than they normally would . Azaria felt that it was the role he worked hardest on , adding " I think it 's the one we did the most takes on , the most emotional , it felt like the one I worked on the hardest from a performance point of view , in preparation and in execution . "
Josh Weinstein has expressed regret about killing off Grimes after only one episode , describing him as " such an amazing character . " In an interview with The Believer , producer George Meyer said , " Grimes 's cardinal sin was that he shined a light on Springfield . He pointed out everything that was wrongheaded and idiotic about that world . And the people who do that tend to become martyrs . He said things that needed to be said , but once they were said , we needed to destroy that person . I 'll admit , we took a certain sadistic glee in his downfall . He was such a righteous person , and that somehow made his demise more satisfying . "
The subplot , where Bart buys a factory , was added so that there would be some lighter scenes to split up the main plot . According to Weinstein , " We wanted to have a Bart or Lisa kids story to contrast the heaviness and reality of Frank Grimes . "
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast on the Fox network , " Homer 's Enemy " acquired a 7 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating . It was viewed in approximately 7 @.@ 5 million homes , finishing the week ranked 56th . The Simpsons was the sixth highest rated show on Fox the week it was broadcast , behind The X @-@ Files , a broadcast of the film The Mask , Melrose Place , King of the Hill and Beverly Hills , 90210 .
According to Josh Weinstein , when the episode was first broadcast , many fans felt it was too dark , lacked humor and that Homer was portrayed as overly bad @-@ mannered . Weinstein considers this episode one of the most controversial of the seasons he ran , as it involves sharp observational humor which he thinks many fans " didn 't get . " Weinstein also talks about a " generation gap " — he believes the episode was originally panned by viewers , but has since become a favorite among fans who grew up with the show .
Critical opinion of the episode is mixed . Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , authors of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , described the episode as " one of the series ' darkest episodes [ that ] ends on a real downer but is nevertheless also one of the wittiest and cleverest in ages . " In 2007 , Vanity Fair called " Homer 's Enemy " the seventh best episode of The Simpsons . John Orvted said it was , " the darkest Simpsons episode ever ... To see [ Grimes ] fail , and ultimately be destroyed , once he enters Homer 's world is hilarious and satisfying . " Comedian Rick Mercer called it a " great episode , and one of the darkest ever produced . "
Jon Bonné of MSNBC used " Homer 's Enemy " as an example of a bad episode of the eighth season and wrote " even now [ in 2000 ] , when subsequent episodes have debased Homer in new and innovative ways , the Grimes episode stands out as painful to watch . " In April 2007 , former Simpsons executive producer Mike Reiss listed " Homer 's Enemy " as one of his two least favorite episodes , stating , " I just think the episode was in bad taste . "
Several members of the staff have included the episode among their favorites . In a 2000 Entertainment Weekly article , Matt Groening ranked it as his sixth favorite Simpsons episode . It is a favorite of Josh Weinstein , who cites the scene when Grimes visits the Simpson home as one of his favorite scenes , while The Office creator Ricky Gervais has called it " the most complete episode . " In her autobiography My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , Nancy Cartwright , the voice of Bart , praises Azaria 's performance as Grimes , and uses it as an example of how " Accent , pitch , pacing , range and intention " can allow an actor to voice many characters . She writes ,
Sometimes [ in voice acting ] , it isn 't even a big change from your regular voice , but the attitude behind it makes all the difference . [ ... ] We were going to have a guest star play Frank Grimes . [ ... ] Hank , at the table @-@ read , just filling in , created such a beautifully crafted character , beautifully psychotic , that no one was used to replace him .
In October 2006 , IGN.com released a list of " The Top 25 Simpsons Peripheral characters " , in which they ranked Frank Grimes at number 17 , making him the only one @-@ time character to appear in that list .
= = Legacy = =
Frank Grimes has since been referenced several times in the show , often showing his tombstone , and occasionally mentioning him by name . In the season fourteen episode " The Great Louse Detective " , it is revealed that he fathered a son named Frank Grimes , Jr . , who tries and fails to kill Homer . The footage of Grimes ' death is also shown during that episode .
During the nuclear power plant design contest , one of the entrants is Ralph Wiggum , whose entry is rejected by Mr. Burns . When Ralph does not leave the stage , Chief Wiggum says " Ralphie , get off the stage , sweetheart . " This line was later used as the chorus in the song " Ralph Wiggum " by the Bloodhound Gang . In February 2000 , the cast of The Simpsons performed a live reading of the episode script at the US Comedy Arts Festival in Aspen , Colorado .
= Stanisław Poniatowski ( 1676 – 1762 ) =
Stanisław Poniatowski ( September 15 , 1676 – August 29 , 1762 ) was a Polish military commander , diplomat , and noble . Throughout his career , Poniatowski served in various military offices , and was a general in both the Swedish and Polish @-@ Lithuanian militaries . He also held numerous civil positions , including those of podstoli of Lithuania and Grand Treasurer of the Lithuanian army in 1722 , voivode of the Masovian Voivodeship in 1731 , regimentarz of the Crown Army in 1728 , and castellan of Kraków in 1752 . Throughout his lifetime , he served in many starost positions .
Poniatowski was also involved in Commonwealth politics , and was a prominent member of the Familia , a faction led by the Czartoryski family . On a number of occasions he was in service of Stanisław Leszczyński , the principal rival of Augustus II for the throne of Poland . Having served under Leszcyński as a military officer and envoy during the Great Northern War , Poniatowski later embraced the Russian @-@ supported Augustus . Subsequently during the War of the Polish Succession , he returned , with the majority of the Familia , to his earlier allegiance . He later effected a reconciliation with Augustus III , and eventually became one of the new king 's chief advisors .
Poniatowski 's fifth son , Stanisław August Poniatowski , reigned as the last king of Poland from 1764 until 1795 , when he abdicated as a result of the Third Partition of Poland by the Russian Empire , the Kingdom of Prussia , and the Holy Roman Empire . His grandson , Prince Józef Antoni Poniatowski , was a Polish general and later a Marshal of the First French Empire , serving under Napoleon I.
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Poniatowski was born on September 15 , 1676 , in the village of Chojnik , part of the Lesser Poland Voivodeship . He was the son of Franciszek Poniatowski ( 1640 / 50 - 1691 @-@ 5 ) , łowczy podlaski in 1680 and cześnik wyszogrodzki in 1690 , and wife ( 1673 / 4 ) Helena Niewiarowska , and the paternal grandson of one Jan Poniatowski , who died before 1676 , though rumors regarding his parentage claimed that he was the son of Hetman Jan Kazimierz Sapieha by an unknown Polish Ashkenazi Jewish woman , later adopted by Franciszek .
He received elementary education in Kraków , at either the Kraków Academy or at the Nowodworski School . At 13 , he was sent to Vienna , capital of the Holy Roman Empire where he spent two years , and afterward traveled to Serbia , then a province of that empire . There , he volunteered to join Imperial forces campaigning against the Ottomans in the Great Turkish War . He served as an adjutant to Michał Franciszek Sapieha , and later commanded a company of cuirassiers . He participated in the Battle of Zenta in 1697 .
After the Treaty of Karlowitz of 1699 , which ended the war , he returned to Lithuania . Upon his return , he wed Teresa Woynianka @-@ Jasieniecka , but their marriage ended abruptly with her death not long afterward . The union , however , raised his social status . In 1700 , he participated in the Lithuanian Civil War as a supporter of the Sapieha family , fighting in the Battle of Olkieniki . Here , he was captured , but managed to escape , and he later served as Sapieha 's emissary to Charles XII , king of Sweden .
= = = The Great Northern War and subsequent Swedish service = = =
In 1702 , Swedish forces invaded the Commonwealth as part of the Great Northern War , which had begun in 1700 between the Swedish Empire and the Tsardom of Russia . Augustus II , king of Poland and Elector of Saxony , was an ally of the Russian tsar Peter I. Augustus 's forces were defeated , and the king himself was forced back to Saxony . He was replaced by Charles with Stanisław Leszczyński , a Polish nobleman and count of the Holy Roman Empire . Poniatowski , serving as a negotiator between the Wielkopolska Confederation and Charles XII , took the side of Leszcyński and distanced himself from the Sapiehas , formerly his patrons .
In 1708 , Leszcyński appointed Poniatowski his personal representative to Charles XII . He participated in the Battle of Holowczyn that year , and served as an aide to Charles XII during his exile in the Ottoman Empire after the Battle of Poltava in 1709 . Here , he worked to establish an alliance between the Ottomans and the Swedes , aiming to bring the Ottomans into the war against Russia . Due to diplomatic efforts on the part of the French , aligned with Sweden , the Ottomans began to campaign against the Russians in 1710 . With this change in Ottoman foreign policy came the dismissal of Çorlulu Ali Pasha , Grand Vizier of Ahmed III . His successor , Köprülü Numan Pasha , was an acquaintance of Poniatowski and had been a supporter of an anti @-@ Russian shift in Ottoman politics .
Poniatowski accompanied the Ottomans during the Pruth River Campaign , but was dissatisfied with the Treaty of the Pruth , which saw the withdrawal of the Ottomans from the war . His attempts to prolong and inflame the conflict failed , resulting in a loss of his status in the Empire and his eventual departure from it in 1713 .
Poniatowski did not return to Poland , as Lesczyński had been forced to retreat to Swedish Pomerania upon the return of Augustus in 1709 . With the support of Russian forces , Augustus had forced Lesczyński from the throne and had retaken the crown in that year . Instead , Poniatowski entered the service of Sweden , serving as a diplomat for both Charles XII and Lesczyński . He was later involved in mediation attempts between Lesczyński and Augustus , and also joined the Swedish army in various campaigns , being wounded during one in 1716 . During the course of his diplomatic activities , he traveled throughout Europe , including to such countries as Prussia , France , and Spain . For his service to Charles XII , he received the position of the governor of the Palatinate @-@ Zweibrücken , then in personal union with Sweden .
= = = Later years : Polish politician and magnate = = =
Upon Charles 's death in 1718 , he continued to serve Leszczynski as a diplomat . In 1719 he was briefly imprisoned in Copenhagen , and requested official leave from the Swedish government , which he received that year , thus ending his service as a Swedish diplomat . He returned to the Commonwealth , where he used the title of a general of cavalry . On 14 September 1720 he married Princess Konstancja Czartoryska ; this marriage brought him significant wealth . Over the next few years , he became increasingly involved in the creation of the Familia political faction , and most of his ensuing actions had the goal of increasing the Familia 's political power . On 5 December 1722 he received the office of Podstoli of Lithuania ( podstoli litewski ) in 1722 , and 16 December , Grand Treasurer of Lithuanian Army ( podskarbi wielki litewski ) , and became increasingly allied with August II On 20 December 1724 he received the military rank of General of the Lithuanian Army ( generał lejtnant wojsk litewskich ) . In 1726 he became the Knight of the Order of the White Eagle . He was also promised the position of Grand Crown Hetman by August II , receiving in 1728 the rank of a Crown regimentarz . During a period in which no Crown hetmans were appointed , he acted as de facto commander of the Polish @-@ Lithuanian army . He enjoyed support from the military , but his forays into politics gained him significant opposition among the szlachta , led by the Potocki family . He became the voivode of the Masovian Voivodeship in 1731 .
After August II 's death in 1733 , he rekindled his old ties with Leszczyński , but made some attempts to secure his own election to the throne . Eventually , however , he decided to grant Leszczyński his full support , doing so during the convocation sejm of 1733 . He again served as Leszczyński 's diplomat during the following War of the Polish Succession .
In 1734 , he switched sides and joined the supported Augustus III . After several years of distrust , August III started treating Poniatowski as one of his major advisers . Over the next few years , throughout the 1740s , he and familiar supported plans for reform and strengthening the Commonwealth , however most of them have failed due to liberum veto disrupting the Sejm proceedings . Those failures likely resulted in the his apathy , and he became much less active on the political scene in the 1750s . On 6 June 1752 he received the office of castellan of Kraków .
Near the end of his life , Poniatowski was among the richest magnates in the Commonwealth , with the value of his estates estimated at about 4 million zlotys . He died in Ryki on 29 August 1762 , shortly after having fallen while walking , suffering an injury .
= = Family = =
He was the son of Franciszek Poniatowski ( 1640 / 1650 – 1691 – 1695 ) , łowczy podlaski in 1680 and cześnik wyszogrodzki in 1690 , and his wife Helena Niewiarowska , who he had married in 1673 or 1674 . His older brother Józef Poniatowski ( 1674 – after 1731 ) was a generał wojsk koronnych and married Helena Otfinowska , without issue . His younger siblings were Michał Jacenty Poniatowski , a Dominican , and Zofia Agnieszka Poniatowska , a Carmelitan Abbess in Kraków . He married firstly shortly after 1701 and divorced Teresa Woynianka @-@ Jasieniecka , who died after 1710 , without issue , and secondly Princess Konstancja Czartoryska on 14 September 1720 . They had eight children .
He was the father of :
Kazimierz Poniatowski ( 15 September 1721 - 13 April 1800 ) , podkomorzy wielki koronny between 1742 and 1773 and generał wojsk koronnych , who was created a Prince on 4 December 1764 and married on 21 January 1751 Apolonia Ustrzycka ( 17 January 1736 - 1814 ) and had issue
Franciszek Poniatowski ( 1723 - 1749 / 1759 ) , canon and provost in the Cathedral of Kraków ( kanonik i proboszcz katedralny krakowski ) , chancellor of Gniezno in 1748
Aleksander Poniatowski ( 1725 - killed in action on 29 June 1744 ) , adiutant of Karl von Lothringen
Ludwika Maria Poniatowska ( 30 November 1728 - 10 February 1781 ) , who married in 1745 Jan Jakub Zamoyski ( ? - 10 February 1790 ) , wojewoda podolski in 1770 , IX ordynat till in 1780 and starosta lubelski , and had female issue ( Urszula Zamoyska ( c . 1750 - 1808 ) , who married firstly and divorced before 1781 Wincenty Potocki ( ? - 1825 ) , podkomorzy wielki koronny , and married secondly Michal Jerzy Mniszech , marszalek wielki koronny )
Izabella Poniatowska , ( 1 July 1730 – 14 February 1808 ) was a Polish noblewoman , countess and princess . She was a sister of Stanisław Antoni Poniatowski , who in 1764 became King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania , and reigned as Stanisław II Augustus . She married , firstly on November 19 , 1748 as his third wife Hetman Jan Klemens Branicki in 1756 , and secondly the Masovian voivode Andrzej Mokronowski , without issue .
Stanisław II August ( Poniatowski ) , the last King of Poland and Grand @-@ Duke of Lithuania , who was crowned in 1764 .
Andrzej Poniatowski ( 16 July 1734 / 5 - Vienna , 3 / 5 March 1773 ) , Austrian General @-@ Lieutenant in 1760 , Austrian Fieldmarshall in 1771 and starost prenski , who was created a Prince on 10 December 1765 , and married on 3 May 1761 Maria Teresa , Countess Kinsky von Wchinitz und Tettau ( 14 February 1740 - 25 September 1806 ) , and had issue
Michał Jerzy Poniatowski ( 12 October 1736 - 12 August 1794 ) , opat tyniecki i czerwinski , Bishop of Plock and koadiutor krakowski in 1773 and Archbishop of Gniezno in 1784 , who was created a Prince on 4 December 1764
= What You Want ( Evanescence song ) =
" What You Want " is a song by American rock band Evanescence . It was released as the lead single from the band 's third eponymous album on August 9 , 2011 through Wind @-@ up Records . The song was written by Amy Lee , Terry Balsamo and Tim McCord and produced by Nick Raskulinecz . Lee described " What You Want " as a departure from the band 's previous sound and said she was inspired to write the song by several experiences she had with her fans . Musically " What You Want " contains a variety of musical elements and it uses drums , guitars , synthesizers and a piano . Lyrically , the song has a theme of freedom .
Upon its release , " What You Want " received positive reviews from music critics who praised its instrumentation , Lee 's vocals and the song 's musical hook ; several of them listed it as an album highlight . The song peaked at number 68 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and achieved higher success in its component charts . It also peaked at number 55 on the Canadian Hot 100 , topped the UK Rock Chart and appeared in eight charts in different countries .
The music video for " What You Want " was filmed in Brooklyn , New York and it was directed by Meiert Avis . It shows the band performing the song live in a small warehouse and Lee running in various locations . The video received positive response from critics who generally praised the imagery . " What You Want " was performed live for the first time on MTV and later on Jimmy Kimmel Live ! . It was added to the set list of the band 's third world tour , Evanescence Tour ( 2011 @-@ 2012 ) .
= = Background and recording = =
" What You Want " was written by Amy Lee , Terry Balsamo , and Tim McCord in New York City and the production was handled by Nick Raskulinecz . During an interview with MTV News in June , Lee talked about the song saying , " [ ... ] the song that I think is the first single is the song that wraps it all up . It 's got a cool meaning , a lot of great lyrics going on , it also just smacks you right in the face and it 's heavy and it 's great . " She noted that the song was a departure from the band 's previous material and acknowledged that they wanted the new single to be " more than a hit " .
Lee stated the song was inspired by and talked about her relationship with the band 's fans , and the realization that following a music career " is what I 'm supposed to do " . She also explained that the theme of the song was freedom , saying that the song 's lyric " Remember who you really are " was " exactly everything you could assume it means " . Another inspiration for the song came from Lee 's life , " That song is me talking to myself about not being afraid and coming back to this thing and living the life I was born to live . Sometimes , it takes a lot to do this . And I do love it very much , but there is always that fear of putting yourself under the microscope . "
Speaking about the sound , Lee described " What You Want " as " very danceable " and her own vocals as " fun and snappy and it gives a cool dynamic [ to the song ] " . Lee stated that the process of recording the song was fun for the band as they had excess time . She said that initially the song was conceived while the band was just recording demo , but as time passed it progressed and grew into something more . She wrote a chorus for " What You Want " and played it on the piano . Lee revealed that she was initially embarrassed when she came up with the lyrics and the melody of the song as she thought the members of her band would think she was Janet Jackson due to the usage of a hook . During an interview with M Music & Musicians Lee revealed that she wouldn 't have recorded the song if it had been brought to her before the recording of Evanescence as she would have thought it was " stupid " .
= = Release = =
On August 22 , 2011 Lee went to Toronto 's Liberty Studios , to preview 5 mastered songs from Evanescence to a selected crowd of thirty people . " What You Want " was one of the five previewed songs . A snippet of " What You Want " premiered on MTV on July 11 , 2011 . During that time it was reported that the band 's new single would be released in early August . After the performance by the band on MTV on August 8 , 2011 , the album version premiered on the channel 's official website . The song was digitally released on August 9 , 2011 exclusively on the iTunes Store , and to all other digital retailers on August 16 . In the United Kingdom , the song was released on August 21 , and a CD single of the song was released on September 9 , 2011 in Germany . The band revealed during an interview that there were a lot of songs they were planning to release as the album 's first single , but it was a " natural choice " to release " What You Want " . To promote the single , the band partnered with SoundTracking and GetGlue . Fans who identified an Evanescence song using the SoundTracking application and shared it to Twitter , using the hashtag # Evcomeback , entered themselves to win an album from the band . If fans checked in to Evanescence using GetGlue , they unlocked an exclusive sticker .
The song was well received by the band 's fans . After James Montgomery from MTV News showed the snippets of the song , he asked the fans on Twitter to share their opinions about it . According to the fans ' tweets , the new songs were well received and praised . Kara Klenk of the same publication also confirmed the positive reception adding , " In the fast @-@ paced music world where artists need to constantly reinvent themselves and pump out music , videos , appearances , and tours to keep their fans happy and interested , it 's rare for a band to take a multi @-@ year hiatus and come back to legions of fans who have anxiously awaited their return . "
= = Composition = =
" What You Want " contains a variety of musical elements and influences of several music genres : industrial rock , rock gothic pop , nu metal , classic synthpop , electro @-@ pop dance and baroque metal along with a pop hook . Several critics noted that some of the gothic and metal elements were prominent in the band 's previous material , mostly due to their songs ' piano @-@ driven melody . Lewis Corner of the website Digital Spy noted that the classical strings present in the song reinforced the band 's medieval influences . Dane Prokofiev of PopMatters further compared the song with Korn 's music while Rick Florino of Artistdirect noted similarities to works by Depeche Mode . The song 's beat was further described as dynamic , " slamming " and loud . As the song progresses , the melody goes through " dramatic crashes " and crescendos .
" What You Want " opens with rapid drums and soon moves into a guitar @-@ driven mode , accompanied by synthesizers . Throughout the song , Lee uses " pseudo operatic " and " poppy " vocals . In the opening lines , she sings : " Do what you , what you want / If you have a dream for better / Do what you , what you want / ' Til you don 't want it anymore . " Those sounds are followed by a hard rock surging guitar and strings which were noted to be part of the band 's characteristic sound . The chorus is instrumentally complete with crashing cymbals , " thrashing , high @-@ wired rawk " guitars , electric guitars , keyboards and piano as Lee sings , " Hello , hello , remember me ? I ’ m everything you can ’ t control / Somewhere beyond the pain there must be a way to believe we can break through . " At the end of the song , Lee shouts the hook " Do what you , what you want , " as her vocals are echoed and eventually fade away . Laurie Tuffrey of NME summarized the song as a " standard goth @-@ pop fare , full of rapid drum breaks , swathes of fuzzy riffing and a catchy , chant @-@ friendly chorus . " Overally , Scott Shetler of Pop Crush described its production as " polished " .
Several critics interpreted the song 's lyrics during their reviews . Its theme was noted to be about freedom . Jason Lipshutz of Billboard said that in the song , Lee is " trying to convince a romantic partner to stop ' spiraling down , down , down ' and help her find a new beginning . " Kerrang ! writer Steve Beebee wrote that Lee reaches a conclusion that " Love will guide you home . " Talking about the lyrical content of the song , Laurie Tuffrey of NME opined : " It 's quite hard to tell what the song 's about , with lots of references to ' the unknown ' and ' the pain ' , and it confusingly switches between suggesting people ' do what you want you want , if you have a dream for better ' in the first verse and the decidedly creepier final chorus where Lee seemingly gets an ex @-@ lover on the blower , only to tell them ' Hello , hello , it ’ s only me , infecting everything you love ' . "
= = Critical reception = =
Scott Shetler of Pop Crush described the song as a " forceful rock track that reminds fans why the group was one of the most successful crossover acts of the past decade " and praised Lee 's " strong @-@ but @-@ pretty vocals " . James Montgomery from MTV News , praised the song saying that the " elastic @-@ yet @-@ lock @-@ step energy not only makes the song the perfect comeback single for a band that 's been gone for far too long , but it manages to capture the very essence of what inspired them to press on . " Tom Goodwyn of the same publication wrote : " A big thumping drumbeat and driving guitar riff kick things off , before giving way to a stomping chorus written with NFL stadiums in mind . " Karen Bliss of the magazine Rolling Stone praised Lee 's " haunting " and " crystalline " vocals in the " industrial @-@ strength sound " of " What You Want " . Nick Catucci of the same publication gave the song three stars writing , " Amy Lee trades anguish for defiance , goosing her wail with welcome sass . Still , she 's nearly overrun by the music , a collision of two @-@ ton guitars , strings and piano . " Steven Hyden of The A. V. Club wrote : " Lee really can sing , and the opener ' What You Want ' shows she has the pipes ( and even the submerged spunk ) to become the new Pat Benatar this generation desperately needs . " Rick Florino of Artistdirect gave the song five out of five stars praising the hook as one of the best in the band 's career adding that it managed to make the song " instantly unforgettable " . Florino further called the song " another classic from Evanescence " which will " revive rock music again " and concluded :
At the heart of this epic , Lee relays another personal story that impacts intensely , especially as the song breaks during the bridge and her voice takes flight like never before . Lyrics like ' Somewhere beyond the pain there must be a way to believe ' sear and soar , as Lee continues to hypnotize like no other singer in rock or pop for that matter .
While reviewing Evanescence as a whole , Catucci of Rolling Stone called the song " pummeling but pretty . " In another review for the same publication , Matthew Perpetua wrote that the " heaviness is less top @-@ heavy " in the song before adding that the band " never sounded so brisk and dynamic " . Camille Dodero of the same publication called " What You Want " a " hair @-@ blowingly grandiose " song . Melissa Maerz of Entertainment Weekly gave the song a B rating and said , " the song 's grinding guitars , massive drums , goth @-@ princess piano frills , and warrior @-@ grrrl vocal rage feel like 2007 all over again . " Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the chorus lines saying that it should have been chosen as a theme song for the film Contagion .
Robert Copsey of Digital Spy described the song as a " hefty slab of dramatic rock which includes the band 's trademark electric guitars with melodic choruses " . In another review , he awarded the song four stars out of five stating " electro it certainly ain 't , but the result is as dancefloor @-@ friendly as it is mosh pit @-@ ready . " He further praised the " catchy @-@ as @-@ cholera " chorus and gave a mixed review about the lyrics and the title saying " fortunately their words seemed to have been a touch overzealous ; though it 's clear from the trailer for the group 's third album that they 've been spending a night or two on the tiles . " Lewis Corner of the same publication concluded : " ' What You Want ' proved ... the band 's melodious rock sensibilities remain firmly in tact " . Tamar Anitai of MTV , Theon Weber of Spin , Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic and Edna Gundersen of USA Today chose the song as an album highlight . Entertainment Weekly 's Kyle Anderson also chose it as a highlight , further describing it as " fierce " . Los Angeles Times ' Mikael Wood wrote that " ' What You Want ' rides its central riff with a bulldozer 's efficiency . " Marc Hirsh of The Boston Globe found a " metallic lurch playing off of Lee 's goth @-@ empress vocals " in the song . Hirsh went on to call the song a " strong declaration " announcing the band 's comeback .
= = Chart performance = =
On the chart issue dated August 20 , 2011 , " What You Want " debuted at number 68 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , selling more than 78 @,@ 000 copies according to SoundScan . The song also debuted at number 32 on the Billboard Rock Songs becoming the " Greatest Gainer " of the week on the same chart . Later , during the digital release of Evanescence , it moved from number 15 to number 13 . It debuted at number 35 on the Billboard Alternative Songs chart in the United States while also peaking at number 7 on the Billboard Mainstream Rock Chart . As of November 2011 , it has sold more than 112 @,@ 000 digital downloads . On the Canadian Hot 100 , " What You Want " debuted at number 55 .
" What You Want " peaked at number 30 on the Brazilian Billboard Brasil chart on August 12 , 2011 . On August 22 , 2011 , the song debuted on the German Singles Chart and peaked at number 84 . It charted for three weeks and left the chart on October 2 , 2011 . On September 3 , the song debuted at number one on the UK Rock Chart , removing Evanescence 's own single " My Immortal " ( 2003 ) from the top spot . That achievement helped the song debut at number 72 on the main UK Singles Chart the same day . " What You Want " debuted at number 86 on the ARIA Singles Chart in Australia on April 2 , 2012 . According to the ARIA Charts ' official website , the song debuted in April , though it was released in Australia in August 2011 .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The filming of the music video for " What You Want " started on July 30 , 2011 in a warehouse in Brooklyn , New York , and it was directed by Meiert Avis . The video featured the band 's fans who played a crowd on a concert by Evanescence . During an interview , Lee revealed that the music video for the song was one of the band 's " realest " videos adding , " [ ... ] this is more a personal video . We 've done a lot in the past that [ were ] very ' fantasy , ' and this is sort of the real us . [ ... ] I just wanted to do something that really felt personal for a change . Obviously , I 'm wearing crazy makeup , and that 's not my everyday , but , you know , I want ... to connect with the fans again . We all do . We miss them . A lot of this record is about them , and that 's why they 're going to be here and be in it , too . " In an interview with MTV News , she described the concept of the video :
" This video is sort of , like , the history of the band . This club [ set ] is emulating old shows we used to play in the beginning — we used to play this club called Vino 's in Little Rock [ Arkansas ] — it 's sort of like back then , the gritty , dirty club , sweaty . And basically , it 's also [ about ] New York , where I 've been , [ and ] where [ bassist ] Tim [ McCord ] lived in the past few years since we 've been gone . And it 's sort of about escaping New York and . [ ... ] coming back out into the world . "
However , before the filming of the video , the band was still finishing the album and when the time to shoot the video came , Lee didn 't conceive an idea about how it should look like . As she felt the song was different for the band , Lee knew that they didn 't want to " go the classic , sort of fantastic , epic [ thing ] . " Lee asked her sister Carrie to help her around the concept of the video . Her sister said that they should film the video for the song in New York and Lee agreed with her idea , " She just started saying things that were right on . She was like , ' This should be in New York . You guys need to do something different , this song feels different . ' And she started talking about running across the Brooklyn Bridge , and it being where I live , and I was like , ' Oh my God , this is great . ' " However , the final shot of the video filmed at Coney Island was Lee 's own idea . The shot represented the band coming back in the world and " heading into the unknown , coming into a new world " .
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with shots of several skyscrapers in New York , which are followed by scenes of the band performing in a warehouse that has been converted into a stage ( similar to Vino 's bar which is where the band used to regularly perform before they became popular ) . The crowd at the concert is seen singing along with the band . The video continually cuts the singer walking through Brooklyn in a dark dress and makeup . She walks through a train station , streets and the Brooklyn Bridge . During the bridge of the song , Lee runs through the Brooklyn Bridge and jumps on the other side , landing on her feet . At the end of the video , the band meet up and walk to the beach where they walk into the sea . The final shot shows the band walking in the sea as the video fades out .
= = = Release and reception = = =
A twenty @-@ two second teaser of the video was released on September 9 , 2011 . The video for the song officially premiered online on September 13 , 2011 and it was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store the same day . James Montgomery from MTV News , said that the video was a departure for the band " eschewing the dark fantasy worlds they 've created in previous videos in favor of good old @-@ fashioned realism : the blood , sweat and tears that not only took them to the top , but have fueled their current comeback , too . " Later , he added that the video " recalls the halcyon days of big @-@ ticket rock videos " and some " claustrophobic , cathartic performance footage . " He called it " a true band clip ; it 's artfully autobiographical and , perhaps most notably , features all of Evanescence . " Entertainment Weekly 's Grady Smith , called the video " heavy goth @-@ rock head @-@ banger " and added that the shots of Lee falling from the bridge were similar to the music video for " Bring Me to Life " ( 2003 ) .
Melinda Newman of the website HitFix compared the video with the movies The Crow ( 1994 ) and Run Lola Run ( 1998 ) . She further praised the lighting , the photographs and the mood which according to her , were " perfection , especially the city scapes at night and the intense looks on the fans faces , as they are enraptured by Lee . It 's a big budget shoot , the kind we don 't see that much of anymore . " Jason Lipshutz of the magazine Billboard praised the video with its " crystal @-@ clear " shots of the concert and the " hazy " shots of Lee running through New York . Nicole James of MTV Buzzyworthy simply said " rock videos + themes = the only kind of math I like " referring to the music video for " What You Want " . A more negative review of the video was given by Laurie Tuffrey of NME who called the video " uninspiring " . He further found CCTV effects and concluded that Lee was " looking for some love to infect " while running through Brooklyn streets .
= = Live performances = =
Evanescence performed the song live for the first time on MTV , on August 8 , 2011 during a broadcast called MTV First : Evanescence . After the performance the band had an exclusive interview with the publication . Writing for the channel 's website , James Montgomery described Lee 's vocals as " powerful " during the performance . On October 15 , 2011 , Evanescence performed the song during a televised appearance on the Jimmy Kimmel Live ! show .
They later added the song to the set list on their third worldwide tour in support of Evanescence , titled Evanescence Tour . While reviewing a concert by the band , Rick Florino of Artistdirect wrote that Lee sounded " pristine and powerful " during the chorus of the song . He further praised Tim McCord 's bass and Terry Balsamo 's guitar , " volleying with Troy McLawhorn as Evanescene 's methodical metallic theatrics hypnotized . " He concluded that the song " proved to be an undeniable anthem echoed throughout the room by every voice present . " Evanescence performed the song during their concert at the 2011 Rock in Rio festival on October 2 , 2011 .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" What You Want " – 3 : 40
CD single
" What You Want " – 3 : 40
" What You Want " ( Elder Jepson Remix ) – 3 : 18
= = Charts = =
= = Release history = =
= Mark Steel 's in Town =
Mark Steel 's in Town is a stand @-@ up comedy show on BBC Radio 4 , co @-@ written and performed by Mark Steel . The series , that was first broadcast on 18 March 2009 , is recorded in various small towns in the United Kingdom . Each episode is tailored to the town it is recorded in and the show is performed in front of a local audience .
The first series of six episodes was recorded in five towns in England ( Skipton , Boston , Lewes , Walsall and the Isle of Portland ) and one in Wales ( Merthyr Tydfil ) . The second series , also of six episodes and first broadcast on 7 April 2010 , was performed in four towns in England ( Dartford , Wilmslow , Penzance and Gateshead ) and two in Scotland ( Dumfries and Kirkwall ) . The third series of six episodes , broadcast between December 2011 and January 2012 , visited four towns in England ( Berwick @-@ upon @-@ Tweed , Basingstoke , Wigan and Bungay ) , one in Wales ( Holyhead ) and one on the Isle of Man ( Douglas ) . A special episode recording during the Edinburgh Festival Fringe covering Leith was broadcast on 21 August 2012 . A fourth series was broadcast between November 2012 and January 2013 . In this series Steel performs in five towns in England ( Whitehaven , Handsworth , Ottery St Mary , Corby and Chipping Norton ) and one in Scotland ( Tobermory ) . A fifth series was broadcast between January and February 2014 and was performed in four towns in England ( Glastonbury , Southall , Birkenhead and Huddersfield ) , one in Wales ( St. Davids ) and one in Northern Ireland ( Derry ) . A sixth series was recorded between March and May 2015 in four towns in England ( Fleetwood , Melton Mowbray , Shrewsbury and Barnard Castle ) , one in Scotland ( Paisley ) and one in the Channel Islands ( Saint Anne , Alderney ) . A Seventh series is planned to air in September 2016 . In this series Steel will perform in five towns in England ( Stockport , Hebden Bridge , Colchester , Kingston Upon Thames
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began work on a short abstract summarising his theory , which he would publish in 1859 as On the Origin of Species .
= = 1859 – 1930s : Darwin and his legacy = =
By the 1850s , whether or not species evolved was a subject of intense debate , with prominent scientists arguing both sides of the issue . The publication of Charles Darwin 's On the Origin of Species fundamentally transformed the discussion over biological origins . Darwin argued that his branching version of evolution explained a wealth of facts in biogeography , anatomy , embryology , and other fields of biology . He also provided the first cogent mechanism by which evolutionary change could persist : his theory of natural selection .
One of the first and most important naturalists to be convinced by Origin of the reality of evolution was the British anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley . Huxley recognized that unlike the earlier transmutational ideas of Jean @-@ Baptiste Lamarck and Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation , Darwin 's theory provided a mechanism for evolution without supernatural involvement , even if Huxley himself was not completely convinced that natural selection was the key evolutionary mechanism . Huxley would make advocacy of evolution a cornerstone of the program of the X Club to reform and professionalise science by displacing natural theology with naturalism and to end the domination of British natural science by the clergy . By the early 1870s in English @-@ speaking countries , thanks partly to these efforts , evolution had become the mainstream scientific explanation for the origin of species . In his campaign for public and scientific acceptance of Darwin 's theory , Huxley made extensive use of new evidence for evolution from paleontology . This included evidence that birds had evolved from reptiles , including the discovery of Archaeopteryx in Europe , and a number of fossils of primitive birds with teeth found in North America . Another important line of evidence was the finding of fossils that helped trace the evolution of the horse from its small five @-@ toed ancestors . However , acceptance of evolution among scientists in non @-@ English speaking nations such as France , and the countries of southern Europe and Latin America was slower . An exception to this was Germany , where both August Weismann and Ernst Haeckel championed this idea : Haeckel used evolution to challenge the established tradition of metaphysical idealism in German biology , much as Huxley used it to challenge natural theology in Britain . Haeckel and other German scientists would take the lead in launching an ambitious programme to reconstruct the evolutionary history of life based on morphology and embryology .
Darwin 's theory succeeded in profoundly altering scientific opinion regarding the development of life and in producing a small philosophical revolution . However , this theory could not explain several critical components of the evolutionary process . Specifically , Darwin was unable to explain the source of variation in traits within a species , and could not identify a mechanism that could pass traits faithfully from one generation to the next . Darwin 's hypothesis of pangenesis , while relying in part on the inheritance of acquired characteristics , proved to be useful for statistical models of evolution that were developed by his cousin Francis Galton and the " biometric " school of evolutionary thought . However , this idea proved to be of little use to other biologists .
= = = Application to humans = = =
Charles Darwin was aware of the severe reaction in some parts of the scientific community against the suggestion made in Vestiges of the Natural History of Creation that humans had arisen from animals by a process of transmutation . Therefore , he almost completely ignored the topic of human evolution in On the Origin of Species . Despite this precaution , the issue featured prominently in the debate that followed the book 's publication . For most of the first half of the 19th century , the scientific community believed that , although geology had shown that the Earth and life were very old , human beings had appeared suddenly just a few thousand years before the present . However , a series of archaeological discoveries in the 1840s and 1850s showed stone tools associated with the remains of extinct animals . By the early 1860s , as summarized in Charles Lyell 's 1863 book Geological Evidences of the Antiquity of Man , it had become widely accepted that humans had existed during a prehistoric period — which stretched many thousands of years before the start of written history . This view of human history was more compatible with an evolutionary origin for humanity than was the older view . On the other hand , at that time there was no fossil evidence to demonstrate human evolution . The only human fossils found before the discovery of Java Man in the 1890s were either of anatomically modern humans or of Neanderthals that were too close , especially in the critical characteristic of cranial capacity , to modern humans for them to be convincing intermediates between humans and other primates .
Therefore , the debate that immediately followed the publication of On the Origin of Species centered on the similarities and differences between humans and modern apes . Carolus Linnaeus had been criticised in the 18th century for grouping humans and apes together as primates in his ground breaking classification system . Richard Owen vigorously defended the classification suggested by Georges Cuvier and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach that placed humans in a separate order from any of the other mammals , which by the early 19th century had become the orthodox view . On the other hand , Thomas Henry Huxley sought to demonstrate a close anatomical relationship between humans and apes . In one famous incident , which became known as the Great Hippocampus Question , Huxley showed that Owen was mistaken in claiming that the brains of gorillas lacked a structure present in human brains . Huxley summarized his argument in his highly influential 1863 book Evidence as to Man 's Place in Nature . Another viewpoint was advocated by Lyell and Alfred Russel Wallace . They agreed that humans shared a common ancestor with apes , but questioned whether any purely materialistic mechanism could account for all the differences between humans and apes , especially some aspects of the human mind .
In 1871 , Darwin published The Descent of Man , and Selection in Relation to Sex , which contained his views on human evolution . Darwin argued that the differences between the human mind and the minds of the higher animals were a matter of degree rather than of kind . For example , he viewed morality as a natural outgrowth of instincts that were beneficial to animals living in social groups . He argued that all the differences between humans and apes were explained by a combination of the selective pressures that came from our ancestors moving from the trees to the plains , and sexual selection . The debate over human origins , and over the degree of human uniqueness continued well into the 20th century .
= = = Alternatives to natural selection = = =
The concept of evolution was widely accepted in scientific circles within a few years of the publication of Origin , but the acceptance of natural selection as its driving mechanism was much less widespread . The four major alternatives to natural selection in the late 19th century were theistic evolution , neo @-@ Lamarckism , orthogenesis , and saltationism .
Theistic evolution was the idea that God intervened in the process of evolution , to guide it in such a way that the living world could still be considered to be designed . The term was promoted by Charles Darwin 's greatest American advocate Asa Gray . However , this idea gradually fell out of favor among scientists , as they became more and more committed to the idea of methodological naturalism and came to believe that direct appeals to supernatural involvement were scientifically unproductive . By 1900 , theistic evolution had largely disappeared from professional scientific discussions , although it retained a strong popular following .
In the late 19th century , the term neo @-@ Lamarckism came to be associated with the position of naturalists who viewed the inheritance of acquired characteristics as the most important evolutionary mechanism . Advocates of this position included the British writer and Darwin critic Samuel Butler , the German biologist Ernst Haeckel , and the American paleontologist Edward Drinker Cope . They considered Lamarckism to be philosophically superior to Darwin 's idea of selection acting on random variation . Cope looked for , and thought he found , patterns of linear progression in the fossil record . Inheritance of acquired characteristics was part of Haeckel 's recapitulation theory of evolution , which held that the embryological development of an organism repeats its evolutionary history . Critics of neo @-@ Lamarckism , such as the German biologist August Weismann and Alfred Russel Wallace , pointed out that no one had ever produced solid evidence for the inheritance of acquired characteristics . Despite these criticisms , neo @-@ Lamarckism remained the most popular alternative to natural selection at the end of the 19th century , and would remain the position of some naturalists well into the 20th century .
Orthogenesis was the hypothesis that life has an innate tendency to change , in a unilinear fashion , towards ever @-@ greater perfection . It had a significant following in the 19th century , and its proponents included the Russian biologist Leo S. Berg and the American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn . Orthogenesis was popular among some paleontologists , who believed that the fossil record showed a gradual and constant unidirectional change .
Saltationism was the idea that new species arise as a result of large mutations . It was seen as a much faster alternative to the Darwinian concept of a gradual process of small random variations being acted on by natural selection , and was popular with early geneticists such as Hugo de Vries , William Bateson , and early in his career , Thomas Hunt Morgan . It became the basis of the mutation theory of evolution .
= = = Mendelian genetics , biometrics , and mutation = = =
The rediscovery of Gregor Mendel 's laws of inheritance in 1900 ignited a fierce debate between two camps of biologists . In one camp were the Mendelians , who were focused on discrete variations and the laws of inheritance . They were led by William Bateson ( who coined the word genetics ) and Hugo de Vries ( who coined the word mutation ) . Their opponents were the biometricians , who were interested in the continuous variation of characteristics within populations . Their leaders , Karl Pearson and Walter Frank Raphael Weldon , followed in the tradition of Francis Galton , who had focused on measurement and statistical analysis of variation within a population . The biometricians rejected Mendelian genetics on the basis that discrete units of heredity , such as genes , could not explain the continuous range of variation seen in real populations . Weldon 's work with crabs and snails provided evidence that selection pressure from the environment could shift the range of variation in wild populations , but the Mendelians maintained that the variations measured by biometricians were too insignificant to account for the evolution of new species .
When Thomas Hunt Morgan began experimenting with breeding the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster , he was a saltationist who hoped to demonstrate that a new species could be created in the lab by mutation alone . Instead , the work at his lab between 1910 and 1915 reconfirmed Mendelian genetics and provided solid experimental evidence linking it to chromosomal inheritance . His work also demonstrated that most mutations had relatively small effects , such as a change in eye color , and that rather than creating a new species in a single step , mutations served to increase variation within the existing population .
= = 1920s – 1940s = =
= = = Population genetics = = =
The Mendelian and biometrician models were eventually reconciled with the development of population genetics . A key step was the work of the British biologist and statistician Ronald Fisher . In a series of papers starting in 1918 and culminating in his 1930 book The Genetical Theory of Natural Selection , Fisher showed that the continuous variation measured by the biometricians could be produced by the combined action of many discrete genes , and that natural selection could change gene frequencies in a population , resulting in evolution . In a series of papers beginning in 1924 , another British geneticist , J. B. S. Haldane , applied statistical analysis to real @-@ world examples of natural selection , such as the evolution of industrial melanism in peppered moths , and showed that natural selection worked at an even faster rate than Fisher assumed .
The American biologist Sewall Wright , who had a background in animal breeding experiments , focused on combinations of interacting genes , and the effects of inbreeding on small , relatively isolated populations that exhibited genetic drift . In 1932 , Wright introduced the concept of an adaptive landscape and argued that genetic drift and inbreeding could drive a small , isolated sub @-@ population away from an adaptive peak , allowing natural selection to drive it towards different adaptive peaks . The work of Fisher , Haldane and Wright founded the discipline of population genetics . This integrated natural selection with Mendelian genetics , which was the critical first step in developing a unified theory of how evolution worked .
= = = Modern evolutionary synthesis = = =
In the first few decades of the 20th century , most field naturalists continued to believe that Lamarckian and orthogenetic mechanisms of evolution provided the best explanation for the complexity they observed in the living world . But as the field of genetics continued to develop , those views became less tenable . Theodosius Dobzhansky , a postdoctoral worker in Thomas Hunt Morgan 's lab , had been influenced by the work on genetic diversity by Russian geneticists such as Sergei Chetverikov . He helped to bridge the divide between the foundations of microevolution developed by the population geneticists and the patterns of macroevolution observed by field biologists , with his 1937 book Genetics and the Origin of Species . Dobzhansky examined the genetic diversity of wild populations and showed that , contrary to the assumptions of the population geneticists , these populations had large amounts of genetic diversity , with marked differences between sub @-@ populations . The book also took the highly mathematical work of the population geneticists and put it into a more accessible form . In Britain , E. B. Ford , the pioneer of ecological genetics , continued throughout the 1930s and 1940s to demonstrate the power of selection due to ecological factors including the ability to maintain genetic diversity through genetic polymorphisms such as human blood types . Ford 's work would contribute to a shift in emphasis during the course of the modern synthesis towards natural selection over genetic drift .
Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr was influenced by the work of the German biologist Bernhard Rensch showing the influence of local environmental factors on the geographic distribution of sub @-@ species and closely related species . Mayr followed up on Dobzhansky 's work with the 1942 book Systematics and the Origin of Species , which emphasized the importance of allopatric speciation in the formation of new species . This form of speciation occurs when the geographical isolation of a sub @-@ population is followed by the development of mechanisms for reproductive isolation . Mayr also formulated the biological species concept that defined a species as a group of interbreeding or potentially interbreeding populations that were reproductively isolated from all other populations .
In the 1944 book Tempo and Mode in Evolution , George Gaylord Simpson showed that the fossil record was consistent with the irregular non @-@ directional pattern predicted by the developing evolutionary synthesis , and that the linear trends that earlier paleontologists had claimed supported orthogenesis and neo @-@ Lamarckism did not hold up to closer examination . In 1950 , G. Ledyard Stebbins published Variation and Evolution in Plants , which helped to integrate botany into the synthesis . The emerging cross @-@ disciplinary consensus on the workings of evolution would be known as the modern evolutionary synthesis . It received its name from the 1942 book Evolution : The Modern Synthesis by Julian Huxley .
The evolutionary synthesis provided a conceptual core — in particular , natural selection and Mendelian population genetics — that tied together many , but not all , biological disciplines . It helped establish the legitimacy of evolutionary biology , a primarily historical science , in a scientific climate that favored experimental methods over historical ones . The synthesis also resulted in a considerable narrowing of the range of mainstream evolutionary thought ( what Stephen Jay Gould called the " hardening of the synthesis " ) : by the 1950s , natural selection acting on genetic variation was virtually the only acceptable mechanism of evolutionary change ( panselectionism ) , and macroevolution was simply considered the result of extensive microevolution .
= = 1940s – 1960s : Molecular biology and evolution = =
The middle decades of the 20th century saw the rise of molecular biology , and with it an understanding of the chemical nature of genes as sequences of DNA and of their relationship — through the genetic code — to protein sequences . At the same time , increasingly powerful techniques for analyzing proteins , such as protein electrophoresis and sequencing , brought biochemical phenomena into realm of the synthetic theory of evolution . In the early 1960s , biochemists Linus Pauling and Emile Zuckerkandl proposed the molecular clock hypothesis ( MCH ) : that sequence differences between homologous proteins could be used to calculate the time since two species diverged . By 1969 , Motoo Kimura and others provided a theoretical basis for the molecular clock , arguing that — at the molecular level at least — most genetic mutations are neither harmful nor helpful and that mutation and genetic drift ( rather than natural selection ) cause a large portion of genetic change : the neutral theory of molecular evolution . Studies of protein differences within species also brought molecular data to bear on population genetics by providing estimates of the level of heterozygosity in natural populations .
From the early 1960s , molecular biology was increasingly seen as a threat to the traditional core of evolutionary biology . Established evolutionary biologists — particularly Ernst Mayr , Theodosius Dobzhansky , and George Gaylord Simpson , three of the architects of the modern synthesis — were extremely skeptical of molecular approaches , especially when it came to the connection ( or lack thereof ) to natural selection . The molecular @-@ clock hypothesis and the neutral theory were particularly controversial , spawning the neutralist @-@ selectionist debate over the relative importance of mutation , drift and selection , which continued into the 1980s without a clear resolution .
= = Late 20th century = =
= = = Gene @-@ centered view = = =
In the mid @-@ 1960s , George C. Williams strongly critiqued explanations of adaptations worded in terms of " survival of the species " ( group selection arguments ) . Such explanations were largely replaced by a gene @-@ centered view of evolution , epitomized by the kin selection arguments of W. D. Hamilton , George R. Price and John Maynard Smith . This viewpoint would be summarized and popularized in the influential 1976 book The Selfish Gene by Richard Dawkins . Models of the period seemed to show that group selection was severely limited in its strength ; though newer models do admit the possibility of significant multi @-@ level selection .
In 1973 , Leigh Van Valen proposed the term " Red Queen , " which he took from Through the Looking @-@ Glass by Lewis Carroll , to describe a scenario where a species involved in one or more evolutionary arms races would have to constantly change just to keep pace with the species with which it was co @-@ evolving . Hamilton , Williams and others suggested that this idea might explain the evolution of sexual reproduction : the increased genetic diversity caused by sexual reproduction would help maintain resistance against rapidly evolving parasites , thus making sexual reproduction common , despite the tremendous cost from the gene @-@ centric point of view of a system where only half of an organism 's genome is passed on during reproduction .
However , contrary to the expectations of the Red Queen hypothesis , Hanley et al. found that the prevalence , abundance and mean intensity of mites was significantly higher in sexual geckos than in asexuals sharing the same habitat . Furthermore , Parker , after reviewing numerous genetic studies on plant disease resistance , failed to find a single example consistent with the concept that pathogens are the primary selective agent responsible for sexual reproduction in their host . At an even more fundamental level , Heng and Gorelick and Heng reviewed evidence that sex , rather than enhancing diversity , acts as a constraint on genetic diversity . They considered that sex acts as a coarse filter , weeding out major genetic changes , such as chromosomal rearrangements , but permitting minor variation , such as changes at the nucleotide or gene level ( that are often neutral ) to pass through the sexual sieve . The adaptive function of sex , today , remains a major unresolved issue in biology . The competing models to explain the adaptive function of sex were reviewed by Birdsell and Wills . A principal alternative view to the Red Queen hypothesis is that sex arose , and is maintained , as a process for repairing DNA damage , and that genetic variation is produced as a byproduct .
The gene @-@ centric view has also led to an increased interest in Charles Darwin 's old idea of sexual selection , and more recently in topics such as sexual conflict and intragenomic conflict .
= = = Sociobiology = = =
W. D. Hamilton 's work on kin selection contributed to the emergence of the discipline of sociobiology . The existence of altruistic behaviors has been a difficult problem for evolutionary theorists from the beginning . Significant progress was made in 1964 when Hamilton formulated the inequality in kin selection known as Hamilton 's rule , which showed how eusociality in insects ( the existence of sterile worker classes ) and many other examples of altruistic behavior could have evolved through kin selection . Other theories followed , some derived from game theory , such as reciprocal altruism . In 1975 , E. O. Wilson published the influential and highly controversial book Sociobiology : The New Synthesis which claimed evolutionary theory could help explain many aspects of animal , including human , behavior . Critics of sociobiology , including Stephen Jay Gould and Richard Lewontin , claimed that sociobiology greatly overstated the degree to which complex human behaviors could be determined by genetic factors . They also claimed that the theories of sociobiologists often reflected their own ideological biases . Despite these criticisms , work has continued in sociobiology and the related discipline of evolutionary psychology , including work on other aspects of the altruism problem .
= = = Evolutionary paths and processes = = =
One of the most prominent debates arising during the 1970s was over the theory of punctuated equilibrium . Niles Eldredge and Stephen Jay Gould proposed that there was a pattern of fossil species that remained largely unchanged for long periods ( what they termed stasis ) , interspersed with relatively brief periods of rapid change during speciation . Improvements in sequencing methods resulted in a large increase of sequenced genomes , allowing the testing and refining of evolutionary theories using this huge amount of genome data . Comparisons between these genomes provide insights into the molecular mechanisms of speciation and adaptation . These genomic analyses have produced fundamental changes in the understanding of the evolutionary history of life , such as the proposal of the three @-@ domain system by Carl Woese . Advances in computational hardware and software allow the testing and extrapolation of increasingly advanced evolutionary models and the development of the field of systems biology . One of the results has been an exchange of ideas between theories of biological evolution and the field of computer science known as evolutionary computation , which attempts to mimic biological evolution for the purpose of developing new computer algorithms . Discoveries in biotechnology now allow the modification of entire genomes , advancing evolutionary studies to the level where future experiments may involve the creation of entirely synthetic organisms .
= = = Microbiology , horizontal gene transfer , and endosymbiosis = = =
Microbiology was largely ignored by early evolutionary theory . This was due to the paucity of morphological traits and the lack of a species concept in microbiology , particularly amongst prokaryotes . Now , evolutionary researchers are taking advantage of their improved understanding of microbial physiology and ecology , produced by the comparative ease of microbial genomics , to explore the taxonomy and evolution of these organisms . These studies are revealing unanticipated levels of diversity amongst microbes .
One important development in the study of microbial evolution came with the discovery in Japan in 1959 of horizontal gene transfer . This transfer of genetic material between different species of bacteria came to the attention of scientists because it played a major role in the spread of antibiotic resistance . More recently , as knowledge of genomes has continued to expand , it has been suggested that lateral transfer of genetic material has played an important role in the evolution of all organisms . These high levels of horizontal gene transfer have led to suggestions that the family tree of today 's organisms , the so @-@ called " tree of life , " is more similar to an interconnected web or net .
Indeed , the endosymbiotic theory for the origin of organelles sees a form of horizontal gene transfer as a critical step in the evolution of eukaryotes such as fungi , plants , and animals . The endosymbiotic theory holds that organelles within the cells of eukorytes such as mitochondria and chloroplasts , had descended from independent bacteria that came to live symbiotically within other cells . It had been suggested in the late 19th century when similarities between mitochondria and bacteria were noted , but largely dismissed until it was revived and championed by Lynn Margulis in the 1960s and 1970s ; Margulis was able to make use of new evidence that such organelles had their own DNA that was inherited independently from that in the cell 's nucleus .
= = = Evolutionary developmental biology = = =
In the 1980s and 1990s , the tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis came under increasing scrutiny . There was a renewal of structuralist themes in evolutionary biology in the work of biologists such as Brian Goodwin and Stuart Kauffman , which incorporated ideas from cybernetics and systems theory , and emphasized the self @-@ organizing processes of development as factors directing the course of evolution . The evolutionary biologist Stephen Jay Gould revived earlier ideas of heterochrony , alterations in the relative rates of developmental processes over the course of evolution , to account for the generation of novel forms , and , with the evolutionary biologist Richard Lewontin , wrote an influential paper in 1979 suggesting that a change in one biological structure , or even a structural novelty , could arise incidentally as an accidental result of selection on another structure , rather than through direct selection for that particular adaptation . They called such incidental structural changes " spandrels " after an architectural feature . Later , Gould and Elisabeth Vrba discussed the acquisition of new functions by novel structures arising in this fashion , calling them " exaptations . "
Molecular data regarding the mechanisms underlying development accumulated rapidly during the 1980s and 1990s . It became clear that the diversity of animal morphology was not the result of different sets of proteins regulating the development of different animals , but from changes in the deployment of a small set of proteins that were common to all animals . These proteins became known as the " developmental @-@ genetic toolkit . " Such perspectives influenced the disciplines of phylogenetics , paleontology and comparative developmental biology , and spawned the new discipline of evolutionary developmental biology also known as evo @-@ devo .
= = 21st century = =
= = = Macroevolution and microevolution = = =
One of the tenets of the modern evolutionary synthesis was that macroevolution ( the evolution of phylogenic clades at the species level and above ) was solely the result of the mechanisms of microevolution ( changes in gene frequency within populations ) operating over an extended period of time . During the last decades of the 20th century some paleontologists raised questions about whether other factors , such as punctuated equilibrium and group selection operating on the level of entire species and even higher level phylogenic clades , needed to be considered to explain patterns in evolution revealed by statistical analysis of the fossil record . Near the end of the 20th century some researchers in evolutionary developmental biology suggested that interactions between the environment and the developmental process might have been the source of some of the structural innovations seen in macroevolution , but other evo @-@ devo researchers maintained that genetic mechanisms visible at the population level are fully sufficient to explain all macroevolution .
= = = Epigenetic inheritance = = =
Epigenetics is the study of heritable changes in gene expression or cellular phenotype caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence . By the first decade of the 21st century it had become accepted that epigenetic mechanisms were a necessary part of the evolutionary origin of cellular differentiation . Although epigenetics in multicellular organisms is generally thought to be a mechanism involved in differentiation , with epigenetic patterns " reset " when organisms reproduce , there have been some observations of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance . This shows that in some cases nongenetic changes to an organism can be inherited and it has been suggested that such inheritance can help with adaptation to local conditions and affect evolution . Some have suggested that in certain cases a form of Lamarckian evolution may occur .
= = Unconventional evolutionary theory = =
= = = Omega Point = = =
Pierre Teilhard de Chardin 's metaphysical Omega Point theory , found in his book The Phenomenon of Man ( 1959 ) , describes the gradual development of the universe from subatomic particles to human society , which he viewed as its final stage and goal .
= = = Gaia hypothesis = = =
Teilhard de Chardin 's ideas have been seen by advocates of the Gaia hypothesis proposed by James Lovelock , which holds that the living and nonliving parts of Earth can be viewed as a complex interacting system with similarities to a single organism , as being connected to Lovelock 's ideas . The Gaia hypothesis has also been viewed by Lynn Margulis and others as an extension of endosymbiosis and exosymbiosis . This modified hypothesis postulates that all living things have a regulatory effect on the Earth 's environment that promotes life overall .
= Smashed ( film ) =
Smashed is a 2012 American drama film directed by James Ponsoldt , written by Ponsoldt and Susan Burke , and starring Mary Elizabeth Winstead and Aaron Paul . Winstead and Paul play a married couple , Kate and Charlie Hannah , both alcoholics . After a series of embarrassing incidents caused by her drinking habit , Kate decides to get sober with the help of a coworker and a sponsor from Alcoholics Anonymous .
The script was partly based on Burke 's own experience of giving up alcohol at a young age , since she felt that her narrative had not yet been told on film . She and Ponsoldt wrote the script over six months , and the main roles were cast in September 2011 . The film 's US $ 500 @,@ 000 budget was financed by independent investors including Minnesota Vikings owner Zygi Wilf . It was shot in Los Angeles in October 2011 . It premiered at the 2012 Sundance Film Festival on January 22 , 2012 and was released by Sony Pictures Classics on October 12 , 2012 . The film received positive reviews , with Winstead 's performance receiving unanimous praise , and was nominated for several awards for her acting .
= = Plot = =
Kate Hannah ( Mary Elizabeth Winstead ) , an elementary school teacher , arrives at work hungover and vomits in front of her class . Asked by a student if she is pregnant , she pretends she is , then continues the lie to the school principal , Mrs. Barnes ( Megan Mullally ) . Her co @-@ worker Dave ( Nick Offerman ) reveals that he knows she has been drinking and she makes him swear not to tell anyone .
Attending a party with her husband Charlie ( Aaron Paul ) and his brother Owen ( Kyle Gallner ) , Kate drinks heavily . While leaving , she meets a woman who asks Kate for a ride . Kate is offered crack and the two get high together . The next morning , Kate wakes alone on the street . She finds her car and drives home , where Charlie acknowledges they both are alcoholics . They get intoxicated and have sex before Charlie passes out . Kate heads out alone to buy wine but is turned down by the cashier . She urinates on the floor because the bathroom door is locked , then steals a bottle of wine .
Waking up , Kate realizes she has passed out again . At work , Dave , a recovering alcoholic , invites her to an Alcoholics Anonymous ( AA ) meeting . There , she befriends Jenny ( Octavia Spencer ) , who has chosen a passion for food and cooking over alcohol . Kate decides to become sober and change her life . Dave drives Kate home , but bluntly makes an offensive comment which upsets her . When Kate and Charlie visit her estranged alcoholic mother , Rochelle ( Mary Kay Place ) , Kate mentions the AA meetings but Rochelle is skeptical ; Kate 's father left them after getting sober and now lives in another state with his " shiny new family " .
Kate is surprised the next day when she is thrown a baby shower by her colleagues . She reconciles with Dave , putting his comments behind them . At home , Kate is angry when it becomes clear Charlie told Owen and his friend about Kate smoking crack . That night , she rebuffs Charlie 's sexual advances . At school , Kate is questioned by a curious student as to why she is not gaining weight . She subsequently feigns a miscarriage and her students accuse her of killing her baby , for which she reprimands them .
Kate tells Charlie she feels she must confess to Mrs. Barnes the truth about her faked pregnancy . Charlie discourages her , warning that she will lose her job , and they begin to fight over financial issues . Kate lashes back that she would never depend on Charlie 's parents ' money and that she has struggled her whole life . Kate decides to tell Mrs. Barnes the truth and is fired . In a bar , she relapses . Jenny and Dave drive her home , where she starts an altercation with Charlie .
After some time , Kate speaks at an AA meeting , celebrating one year of sobriety , while Charlie gets in trouble for riding a bicycle while drunk . Kate visits Charlie and they play croquet . Charlie asks if she would move back in with him if he begins going to AA meetings . Kate says he must get sober for himself , not for her . Charlie then asks Kate to play another round , to give him a chance to redeem himself . The film ends before Kate gives her answer .
= = Cast = =
Mary Elizabeth Winstead as Kate Hannah
Aaron Paul as Charlie Hannah
Octavia Spencer as Jenny
Nick Offerman as Dave Davies
Megan Mullally as Principal Patricia Barnes
Mary Kay Place as Rochelle
Kyle Gallner as Owen Hannah
Bree Turner as Freda
Mackenzie Davis as Millie
Richmond Arquette as Arlo
Natalie Dreyfuss as Amber
Brad Carter as Felix
= = Production = =
Smashed was conceived by James Ponsoldt and Susan Burke after they had a conversation about things they had done while drunk . Some of the story 's details were based on Burke 's own experience ; she was an alcoholic until she was 24 years old , when she started attending Alcoholics Anonymous meetings . Burke felt that her experiences with alcoholism had not been represented on film before , and so she decided to write about a young woman deciding to become sober . Burke and Ponsoldt discussed the story , characters and tone in detail before they began to write the script . Since they lived on opposite sides of the United States , they communicated by email , dividing the script into 15 @-@ page installments which they wrote alternately . The entire writing process took six months .
Casting negotiations for the film 's main roles — played by Mary Elizabeth Winstead , Aaron Paul , Octavia Spencer and Nick Offerman — took place in September 2011 . To prepare for her role , Winstead talked with Burke about her recovery and attended a variety of AA meetings , where she spoke with other young women who had gotten sober . To act drunk , she used Ivana Chubbuck 's method as described in her book The Power of the Actor . Paul said that in preparation for the film he recorded himself " getting severely intoxicated " and studied the footage . In order to build a rapport together , Winstead and Paul got drunk together the night before filming began , which Winstead described as being " very messy " .
Smashed was filmed in Los Angeles over 19 days in October 2011 . It was shot on a $ 500 @,@ 000 budget , which was sourced by producers Jonathan Schwartz and Andrea Sperling of Super Crispy Entertainment from independent financiers , including Minnesota Vikings owner Zygi Wilf .
= = Release = =
= = = Box office = = =
Smashed premiered at the Sundance Film Festival on January 22 , 2012 . It was also screened at the Deauville American Film Festival , the Toronto International Film Festival , the Athens Film Festival , Jameson CineFest , the Stockholm International Film Festival , and the Hamptons International Film Festival .
Sony Pictures Classics bought the film 's distribution rights after its premiere at Sundance and gave it a limited release on October 12 , 2012 . On its opening weekend , the film grossed $ 26 @,@ 943 from four theaters , averaging $ 6 @,@ 736 per theater and ranking number 53 at the box office . The film earned $ 376 @,@ 597 domestically from 13 weeks in release , with a widest release of 50 theaters . It earned $ 123 @,@ 128 internationally for a total gross of $ 499 @,@ 725 .
= = = Critical response = = =
The film received generally positive reviews from critics . On Rotten Tomatoes , it holds a rating of 84 % based on 102 reviews with an average score of 6 @.@ 9 out of 10 . Metacritic gave the film a score of 71 out of 100 , based on 32 reviews .
Variety critic Justin Chang commended Smashed for its " sheer emotional generosity " and Ponsoldt and Burke for their optimistic and sympathetic approach to the story . Stephen Holden of The New York Times praised the film 's neutral and unsentimental tone and its " refus [ al ] to indulge a voyeuristic taste for ... sordid details " . Similarly , Empire magazine 's James White commended the film for avoiding clichés and condescension " by combining a light , frank , comic touch with real emotion and weighty , human performances by all those involved " , and gave it 4 out of 5 stars . In a review for The Hollywood Reporter , Todd McCarthy praised Smashed for its emotional intimacy and realism .
Winstead received critical acclaim for her role . Film critic Roger Ebert , who gave the film 3 @.@ 5 stars out of 4 , wrote that she " is sort of wonderful in this movie , worn and warm " and commended her decision not to portray the character as a victim . Rolling Stone 's Peter Travers described Winstead 's performance as " unmissable and unforgettable " , praising the comedy and intellect she simultaneously brought to the role . Mick LaSalle of the San Francisco Chronicle felt that Winstead was striking as Kate and speculated that Smashed would prove to be " the doorway to great things " in her career .
On the other hand , Michael O 'Sullivan , writing for The Washington Post gave the film 2 out of 4 stars , likening it to " a dramatic public service announcement " rather than an insightful narrative . Slant Magazine 's Chris Cabin also opined that the story was underdeveloped and that the film " offers a cheap and easy sort of inspiration in lieu of genuine inquiry " into the recovery process of alcoholics . Marjorie Baumgarten of The Austin Chronicle did not find the film to be insightful , writing that the filmmakers were " preaching to the choir " with their portrayal of alcoholism and recovery .
= = = Accolades = = =
When Smashed premiered at the Sundance Film Festival , Ponsoldt was nominated for the Grand Jury Prize in the Dramatic category , while producers Andrea Sperling and Jonathan Schwartz received a nomination for the Special Jury Prize for Excellence in Independent Film Producing . Winstead was nominated for the Independent Spirit Award for Best Female Lead . Octavia Spencer received a nomination for Outstanding Supporting Actress at the Black Reel Awards . For their work on the film , casting directors Avy Kaufman and Kim Coleman were nominated for a Casting Society of America Artios Award for a Low Budget Feature in the Comedy or Drama category .
= = Soundtrack = =
A soundtrack to accompany the film was released digitally by Lakeshore Records on October 9 , 2012 . It features a mix of the film 's original score , composed by Andy Cabic and Eric D. Johnson , as well as music from other artists heard throughout various portions of the film .
= USS Michigan ( BB @-@ 27 ) =
USS Michigan ( BB @-@ 27 ) , a South Carolina @-@ class battleship , was the second ship of the United States Navy to be named in honor of the 26th state . She was the second member of her class , the first dreadnought battleships built for the US Navy . She was laid down in December 1906 , launched in May 1908 ; sponsored by Mrs. F. W. Brooks , daughter of Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry ; and commissioned into the fleet 4 January 1910 . Michigan and South Carolina were armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns in superfiring twin gun turrets ; they were the first dreadnoughts to feature this arrangement .
Michigan spent her career in the Atlantic Fleet . She frequently cruised the east coast of the United States and the Caribbean Sea , and in April 1914 took part in the United States occupation of Veracruz during the Mexican Civil War . After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Michigan was employed as a convoy escort and training ship for the rapidly expanding wartime navy . In January 1918 , her forward cage mast collapsed in heavy seas , killing six men . In 1919 , she ferried soldiers back from Europe . The ship conducted training cruises in 1920 and 1921 , but her career was cut short by the Washington Naval Treaty signed in February 1922 , which mandated the disposal of Michigan and South Carolina . Michigan was decommissioned in February 1923 and broken up for scrap the following year .
= = Design = =
Michigan was 452 ft 9 in ( 138 m ) long overall and had a beam of 80 ft 3 in ( 24 m ) and a draft of 24 ft 6 in ( 7 m ) . She displaced 16 @,@ 000 long tons ( 16 @,@ 257 t ) as designed and up to 17 @,@ 617 long tons ( 17 @,@ 900 t ) at full combat load . The ship was powered by two @-@ shaft vertical triple @-@ expansion engines rated at 16 @,@ 500 ihp ( 12 @,@ 304 kW ) and twelve coal @-@ fired Babcock & Wilcox boilers , generating a top speed of 18 @.@ 5 kn ( 34 km / h ; 21 mph ) . The ship had a cruising range of 5 @,@ 000 nmi ( 9 @,@ 260 km ; 5 @,@ 754 mi ) at a speed of 10 kn ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of 869 officers and men .
The ship was armed with a main battery of eight 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) / 45 caliber Mark 5 guns in four twin gun turrets on the centerline , which were placed in two superfiring pairs forward and aft . The secondary battery consisted of twenty @-@ two 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) / 50 guns mounted in casemates along the side of the hull . As was standard for capital ships of the period , she carried a pair of 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedo tubes , submerged in her hull on the broadside . The main armored belt was 12 in ( 305 mm ) thick over the magazines , 10 in ( 254 mm ) over the machinery spaces , and 8 in ( 203 mm ) elsewhere . The armored deck was 1 @.@ 5 to 2 @.@ 5 in ( 38 to 64 mm ) thick . The gun turrets had 12 inch thick faces , while the supporting barbettes had 10 inch thick armor plating . Ten inch thick armor also protected the casemate guns . The conning tower had 12 inch thick sides .
= = Service history = =
Michigan was laid down on 17 December 1906 at the New York Shipbuilding Corporation . Her completed hull was launched on 26 May 1908 ; she was christened after the 26th state by Mrs. F. W. Brooks , daughter of Secretary of the Navy Truman Newberry . Fitting out work was completed by 4 January 1910 , when she was commissioned into the US Navy . After entering service , she was assigned to the Atlantic Fleet . She then began a shakedown cruise down to the Caribbean Sea that lasted until 7 June . Michigan joined training maneuvers off New England beginning on 29 July . A training cruise to Europe followed ; she departed Boston , Massachusetts on 2 November and stops included Portland in the United Kingdom and Cherbourg , France . She arrived in the latter port on 8 December and remained there until the 30th , when she left for the Caribbean . The ship reached Guantanamo Bay , Cuba on 10 January 1911 and continued on to Norfolk , arriving four days later . During this period , future naval aviation pioneer John Henry Towers served aboard the ship as a spotter for the main guns . The long range of the guns , which could shoot further than the horizon , convinced Towers of the need for spotter aircraft .
The ship then cruised the east coast for most of the next two years . On 15 November 1912 , she departed for a longer cruise to the Gulf of Mexico , with stops in Pensacola , Florida , New Orleans , Louisiana , and Galveston , Texas on the way . She then continued further south to Veracruz , Mexico , where she arrived on 12 December . Michigan remained there for two days before beginning the voyage home ; she reached Hampton Roads on 20 December . Patrols off the east coast resumed for the first half of 1913 . On 6 July , she steamed out of Quincy , Massachusetts for another voyage to Mexican waters ; this trip was prompted by the Mexican Civil War , which threatened American interests in the country . She arrived off Tampico on 15 July and thereafter cruised the Mexican coast until 13 January 1914 , when she departed for New York City , arriving seven days later . She then transferred back to Norfolk .
On 14 February , she left the port for a short voyage to Guacanayabo Bay , Cuba , and was back in Hampton Roads by 19 March . Michigan began a third cruise to Mexico on 16 April to support the United States occupation of Veracruz . She reached the city on 22 April and landed a battalion of Marines as part of the occupation force . The ship then patrolled the coast before departing for the United States on 20 June . She reached the Delaware Capes six days later . The normal peacetime routine of cruises off the east coast continued for the next three years . In December 1914 , the ship 's crew experimented with fire control directors to aid in gunlaying ; the experimental directors produced significantly improved results in gunnery tests conducted in early 1915 . In 1916 , one of her forward 12 @-@ inch guns exploded during gunnery training .
= = = World War I = = =
On 6 April 1917 , the United States declared war on Germany over its unrestricted submarine warfare campaign . Due to her slow speed , Michigan was assigned to Battleship Force 2 that day , and was tasked with training naval recruits and escorting convoys . As part of the training mission , she participated in fleet maneuvers and gunnery exercises . On 15 January 1918 , Michigan was cruising off Cape Hatteras on a training exercise on 15 January 1918 when a heavy gale and rough seas knocked over the forward cage mast . The ship had rolled to port in the heavy seas before rolling sharply back to starboard . The rapid change in direction caused the mast to snap at its narrowest point , which had been damaged in the 1916 barrel explosion and patched over . The accident killed six men and injured another thirteen . Michigan steamed to Norfolk and transferred the injured men to the hospital ship Solace . She then went to the Philadelphia Navy Yard for repairs , arriving on 22 January .
By early April , Michigan was back in service ; for the next several months , she primarily trained gunners in the Chesapeake Bay . While on a convoy escort that had left the United States on 30 September , the ship 's port screw fell off . She was forced to leave the convoy on 8 October and return to port for repairs . She was out of service for the rest of the war . In November 1918 , Germany signed the Armistice that ended the fighting in Europe . Michigan was assigned to the Cruiser and Transport Force in late December 1918 to ferry American soldiers back from Europe . She made two round trips in 1919 during the operation , the first from 18 January to 3 March , and the second from 18 March to 16 April . She brought back 1 @,@ 062 men between the two voyages .
= = = Post @-@ war period = = =
In May , Michigan was sent to Philadelphia for an overhaul that lasted through June . She thereafter returned to her peacetime training routine . On 6 August , she was reduced to limited commission and stationed at the Philadelphia Navy Yard . On 19 May 1920 , she steamed to Annapolis to pick up a contingent of midshipmen for a major training cruise . After departing Annapolis , the ship steamed south and transited the Panama Canal before proceeding to Honolulu , Hawaii , where she arrived on 3 July . Michigan visited several naval bases on the west coast of the United States through the summer , before returning to Annapolis on 2 September . Three days later , she was back in Philadelphia , where she was temporarily decommissioned .
Michigan was reactivated in 1921 for another cruise to the Caribbean , departing on 4 April . She returned to Philadelphia on 23 April ; shortly thereafter , the ship became embroiled in a minor scandal . The ship 's commanding officer at the time , Clark Daniel Stearns , instituted a series of sailors ' committees on 3 May to ease tensions between officers and the crew . The commanders of the Atlantic Fleet and Michigan 's squadron decided that the committees were a threat to discipline and evidence of Marxist influences . They contacted the Edwin Denby , then the Secretary of the Navy , who relieved Stearns of command . On 28 May , she picked up another group of midshipmen for another training cruise . This voyage took the ship to Europe , with stops in a number of ports , including Christiana , Norway , Lisbon , Portugal , and Gibraltar . She returned to Hampton Roads via Guantanamo Bay on 22 August .
In the years immediately following the end of the Great War , the United States , Britain , and Japan all launched huge naval construction programs . All three countries decided that a new naval arms race would be ill @-@ advised , and so convened the Washington Naval Conference to discuss arms limitations , which produced the Washington Naval Treaty , signed in February 1922 . Under the terms of Article II of the treaty , Michigan and her sister South Carolina were to be scrapped . Michigan put to sea for the last time on 31 August , bound for the breaker 's yard in Philadelphia . She arrived there on 1 September and was decommissioned on 11 February 1923 . She was stricken from the Naval Vessel Register on 10 November and broken up for scrap the following year .
= Guillermo Endara =
Guillermo David Endara Galimany ( May 12 , 1936 – September 28 , 2009 ) was President of Panama from 1989 to 1994 . Raised in a family allied to Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias , Endara attended school in exile in the United States and Argentina following Arias 's removal from power . Endara later received a law degree in Panama . He subsequently served as a member of Panama 's National Assembly , and briefly as a government minister before heading into exile again following Arias ' third overthrow .
After Arias ' death in 1988 , Endara became a leading opponent of the Manuel Noriega military dictatorship , heading the opposition coalition in the 1989 presidential election . Though his coalition was judged by international observers as having defeated pro @-@ Noriega candidate Carlos Duque , the results were annulled by the government , and Endara and his running mates were attacked in the streets by the paramilitary Dignity Battalions . The assaults received widespread coverage in international media , helping to build support within the U.S. for military action against Noriega . Seven months later , the United States invaded Panama , and swore in Endara as the new president on the first night of the invasion on a U.S. military base .
During his presidency , Endara abolished the Panamanian military and replaced it with a national police force . Endara 's term saw steady economic growth and a return of democratic institutions , but also high unemployment rates . His administration was marked by internal fighting and corruption scandals , and his popularity plummeted . He was succeeded by opposition candidate Ernesto Pérez Balladares on September 1 , 1994 .
Endara ran for office again in 2004 and 2009 , but lost to Democratic Revolutionary Party party candidate Martin Torrijos and to independent candidate Ricardo Martinelli . He died of a heart attack on September 28 , 2009 , several months after his last campaign .
= = Early life and career = =
Endara was born in 1936 in Panama City , Panama . His father , Guillermo Endara Paniza , was an ally of Authentic Panameñista Party founder Arnulfo Arias , and the family went into exile after Arias was overthrown in a 1941 coup . Endara went to school in Argentina and to Black @-@ Foxe Military Institute in Los Angeles in the United States , where he was described as being a " brilliant student " . He later attended the University of Panama Law School , where he graduated first in his class , and New York University .
He returned to Panama in 1963 to practice law , and specialized in labor law . He co @-@ founded the firm of Solis , Endara , Delgado and Guevara , one of Panama 's most successful law firms . He won his first public office in 1964 , but declined to take it due to evidence of voter fraud in the election .
Endara later served two terms in the National Assembly . In 1968 , Endara served as minister of planning and economic policy during Arias 's very brief third term as president . When Arias was overthrown again in October 1968 , Endara went underground , was jailed briefly in 1971 , and joined Arias in exile until 1977 . Endara remained politically engaged and when Arias died in 1988 , Endara became a leading opposition figure .
= = Opposition to Noriega = =
In the presidential election of 1989 , Endara ran as the candidate of the Democratic Alliance of Civic Opposition ( ADOC ) , a coalition of parties opposed to military ruler Manuel Noriega . His rival was Carlos Duque , a candidate selected by Noriega . The US government contributed $ 10 million to Panamanian opposition campaigns , though it was unknown whether Endara received any of this money .
To safeguard against planned vote @-@ rigging by Noriega , ADOC organized a count of results from the country 's election precincts before they were sent to the district centers . It showed Endara trouncing Duque by a nearly 3 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin . Noriega 's cronies took phony tally sheets to the district centers , but by this time the opposition 's count was already out . International observers led by former US President Jimmy Carter and a separate group of observers appointed by US President George H.W. Bush also agreed that Endara had won a decisive victory . Noriega had planned to declare Duque the winner regardless of the actual results , but Duque refused to go along . Regardless , Noriega annulled the results before counting was complete due to " foreign interference . "
The next day , Endara and his running mates , Ricardo Arias Calderón and Guillermo Ford , led a contingent of a thousand supporters to protest the annulment of the elections and urge that the ADOC candidates be recognized as the winners . The protest was attacked by a detachment of Dignity Battalions , a paramilitary group supporting Noriega , and the three candidates were badly beaten . Endara was struck with an iron club , leaving a gash on his head . He was briefly hospitalized and received eight stitches . Images of the attacks on Endara and Ford were carried by media around the world , and were credited with building public support in the US for the invasion that would soon follow .
= = Presidency = =
The US armed forces overthrew Noriega 's government during the US invasion of Panama in December 1989 . Endara had by this time taken refuge in the military bases under US control . American officials told Noriega that if he did not accept the presidency , the only alternative would be an undisguised American occupation . Though Endara had opposed US military action during his campaign , he accepted the presidency , stating later that , " morally , patriotically , civically I had no other choice " . He was certified the winner of the election and inaugurated at Fort Clayton on December 20 , 1989 . Arias was inaugurated as first vice president , and Ford as second vice president . Unlike previous rulers Omar Torrijos and Noriega , Endara appointed only whites to ministerial positions , excluding Panama 's large mestizo population and other ethnicities .
Seen as a restorer of democracy , Endara was later noted for having defended freedom of speech and democratic institutions . He also oversaw a reform of the Panamanian Defense Forces , purging Noriega loyalists , asserting the primacy of the civilian government , and returning the group from military to a national police force . In October 1994 , the National Assembly passed an amendment abolishing the military at Endara 's urging , becoming the second Latin American country to do so .
In early 1991 , the ADOC coalition began to unravel as Endara , Arias , and Ford publicly criticized one another . On April 8 , accusing Arias 's Christian Democratic Party of not rallying to his support during an impeachment vote , Endara dismissed Arias from the cabinet . Arias resigned from the vice presidency on December 17 , 1992 , stating at a news conference that Endara 's government " does not listen to the people , nor does it have the courage to make changes " . Endara responded that Arias 's resignation was " demagoguery " and " merely starting his 1994 political campaign ahead of time " .
Endara 's term in office saw marked economic recovery from the nation 's years of military rule . During his presidency , Panama had an average annual economic growth of 8 % . However , unemployment also rose near 19 % . In February 1990 , the overweight Endara began a hunger strike in the Metropolitan Cathedral to call attention to the nation 's poverty and to pressure US President George H. W. Bush to dispense previously pledged American aid . In the course of the strike , he lost more than thirty of his two hundred and sixty pounds .
By May 1992 , Endara 's public approval rating had fallen from its initial 70 % to only 10 % . The Associated Press later described Endara 's administration as being " tarnished by scandal " . Among other financial scandals , Endara 's wife Ana Mae Diaz was accused of reselling food that had been donated by Italy on the streets of Panama City . In 1992 , Diaz won $ 125 @,@ 000 in the national lottery and indicated that she intended to keep the money rather than donating it ; the incident was also cited as an example of the Endara 's administration 's lack of concern for Panama 's poor .
= = Later career = =
In 2004 , Endara broke with the Arnulfista party over differences of opinion with the party 's leader , Panamanian president Mireya Moscoso , and accused the party of corruption . He ran in the 2004 presidential election as the candidate of the Solidarity Party , on a platform of reducing crime and government corruption . His primary rival was Democratic Revolutionary Party ( PRD ) candidate Martín Torrijos , son of the former military dictator Omar Torrijos . Martín Torrijos ran on a platform of strengthening democracy and negotiating a free trade agreement with the US , and was supported by popular musician and politician Ruben Blades . Endara finished second , receiving 31 % of the vote to Torrijos ' 47 % .
He later founded his own political party , the Moral Vanguard of the Fatherland , and in 2009 was again a candidate for the Panamanian general elections . Ricardo Martinelli of the Democratic Change party won the election with 61 % of the vote , while PRD candidate Balbina Herrera won 37 % . Endara placed a distant third , with 2 % of the vote .
Just a few months later , on September 28 , 2009 , Endara died at the age 73 in his apartment in Panama City , of a heart attack while preparing dinner . He was given a state funeral on September 30 attended by President Martinelli as well as former presidents Perez Balladares , Moscoso , and Torrijos .
= = Personal life = =
Endara married his first wife Marcela , in 1961 ; the couple had one daughter , Marcelita , and three grandchildren , Javier , Marcela Victoria and Jacob . Marcela died of a heart attack in 1989 while Endara was hospitalized from the attack by the Dignity Brigades . He remarried on June 11 , 1990 , at the age of 54 , to Ana Mae Diaz Chen , a 22 @-@ year @-@ old law student of Chinese origin . Endara was reportedly so happy in the marriage that he would even leave cabinet meetings for " a quick cuddle " . The marriage received widespread coverage and mockery in the Panamanian press , including a new nickname for Endara , El Gordo Feliz ( " Happy Fatty " ) .
= When Love Was Blind =
When Love Was Blind is a 1911 American silent short drama film produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film focuses on young blind woman , May Read , who is saved from her burning home by Frank Larson . In the act of saving her , Frank is disfigured , but the two fall and love , marry and have a child . Two years later , the family physician offers to restore May 's sight through a surgery . Frank consents despite his fears that May will not love him if she gazes upon his disfigured face . The surgery is a success and the doctor tells May not to remove the bandages . May ignores this warning and is permanently blinded after attempting to gaze at her husband , but she is content knowing her baby is beautiful . Directed by Lucius J. Henderson and starred Lucille Younge , the film was a critical success . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film is focuses on May Read , the daughter of a wealthy widow , who was blinded by an unknown affliction when she was a child . While her mother is away , a fire starts in the house and May is left in the blaze while the servants flee . Frank Larson makes his way into the burning house and brings May out to the safety of the street , but doing so has disfigured him for life . May and Frank fall in love and the couple are married with the blessing of May 's mother .
Two years pass and couple have their first child . Their family physician offers to perform an operation to restore May 's sight . Despite Frank 's worries that his wife will not love him if she should see his scarred face , Frank consents to the operation . The operation is a success and the doctor warns May not to remove the bandages as she will lose her sight again . May 's desire to see her child is so strong that she removes the bandages and gazes upon her child . Upon trying to gaze upon her husband , who is standing in strong light , May is permanently blinded . The film concludes with May being content with her blindness and knowing that her baby is as beautiful .
= = Production = =
Little is known about the production of the work . The film was shot at the Thanhouser Studio in New Rochelle , New York under the direction of Lucius J. Henderson and starred Lucille Younge as May Read . A surviving film still shows the " disfigured husband " , giving the possibility of identifying the actor who played Frank Larson . The film is presumed lost because it is not known to be held in any archive or by any collector .
= = Release and reception = =
The single reel film , approximately 960 feet long , was released on January 24 , 1911 . Reviews for the film from critics and industry publications were positive . The Billboard gave the film a positive review for its moving story of true love shown by the actors playing the blind wife and facially disfigured husband . The reviewer also noted that the photography was up to the usual high standard of Thanhouser releases . The Moving Picture World opened with the declaration that , " When this picture is past , the wonder will linger long in the memory whether the wife would have loved her husband just the same if she had seen him in the short time when her affliction was alleviated . And it must be admitted that the producers have added materially to the dramatic interest of the film by leaving that question unanswered . " The New York Dramatic Mirror review praised the film for its photography , setting and acting , but highlighted technical inconsistencies in the progression of the fire and the overly drawn out struggle of the father in the smoke . Walton of The Moving Picture News also praised the film , stating that " The situations are well handled ; the acting of the principals shows the true grip of the characters . The work of this firm of late has been not only artistic but throbbing with that clean , human life which is winning high praise . " In local papers , the film was reviewed positively by theater advertisements , owing to the sentimental nature of the film and the technical execution of the fire scene .
= Targeted Killing in International Law =
Targeted Killing in International Law is a book about the legality of targeted killing , written by Nils Melzer . It was first published by Oxford University Press in May 2008 . The book explores the history of targeted killing as a government strategy by multiple countries including the United States , the United Kingdom , Israel , Switzerland and Germany ; for both military and law enforcement purposes . Melzer argues that directly after the September 11 attacks in the United States , perceptions of the tactic became more positive .
Melzer holds a PhD degree in law from University of Zürich . His dissertation dealt with targeted killing and the book updates and revises that work . He had earlier written on the subject for Yearbook of Humanitarian International Law in 2006 . Melzer serves as a legal advisor for the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) . He has lectured at the Master @-@ level at the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights .
The book received a favorable reception and was a joint winner of the 2009 Paul Guggenheim Prize in International Law given by the Geneva Graduate Institute . It garnered positive reviews in publications including the International Criminal Justice Review , the European Journal of International Law , the Leiden Journal of International Law , the Australian Yearbook of International Law , the American Journal of International Law , and in the book Legislating the War on Terror : An Agenda for Reform .
= = Background = =
Nils Melzer graduated summa cum laude from the University of Zürich with a PhD degree in law . Melzer worked for the District Court of Meilen , Zürich , first as a Judicial Clerk and then as Judicial Secretary . Melzer serves as a legal advisor for the International Committee of the Red Cross ( ICRC ) . He lectured at the Master @-@ level at the Geneva Academy of International Humanitarian Law and Human Rights .
Prior to the book , Melzer published " Targeted Killing or Less Harmful Means ? – Israel 's High Court Judgment on Targeted Killing and the Restrictive Function of Military Necessity " in the Yearbook of Humanitarian International Law in 2006 , and a dissertation in 2007 . Melzer also authored " Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law " , published in 2009 by ICRC . Melzer 's research was utilized in Section IX of the ICRC 's Interpretive Guidance on the Notion of Direct Participation in Hostilities under International Humanitarian Law .
Targeted Killing in International Law is part of the series , Oxford Monographs in International Law . The hardback was first published by Oxford University Press on 29 May 2008 , and subsequently in the United States by Oxford University Press , USA in July 2008 . In January 2009 , the work was published online at Oxford Scholarship Online . On 10 September 2009 , Oxford University Press released a paperback in the UK . Oxford University Press , USA released a paperback on 9 November 2009 .
= = Content summary = =
Nils Melzer presents an historical , legal and moral examination of targeted killing . The author observes that after September 11 , the Western world grew more supportive of targeted killing than ever before . The book recounts in depth how state @-@ sanctioned targeted killing is perceived in other countries . He defines targeted killing as the premeditated selection of an individual person not yet in custody for elimination by force . Melzer analyzes all areas of the topic .
The book discusses related legal practices of countries including the United States , the United Kingdom , Israel , Switzerland and Germany . Israel was the first country to publicly acknowledge the practice — in November 2000 . The author connects this policy initiative with Israel 's ongoing conflict with Palestinian militants . Melzer argues that this policy was controversial — the issue came before the Israeli Supreme Court , where the matter was not decided for almost five years . The court 's judgment was issued on 14 December 2006 , but neither forbade nor endorsed the practice . Melzer asserts that it left multiple important legal conundra unresolved . Its significance was that it dealt not with a single incident , but rather with the nature of the policy itself and set forth conditions for examining the legality of future episodes .
Melzer claims that during the Vietnam War the Central Intelligence Agency used targeted killings as part of the Phoenix Program , attempting to eliminate Vietcong sympathizers . Melzer cites a source who contends that some 40 @,@ 000 individuals may have been killed under this program . The author sees the air raids on Muammar Gaddafi in the 1986 bombing of Libya in response to the Lockerbie bombing as another instance . He argues that after September 11 , 2001 , the policy became more acceptable in the U.S. to adopt targeted killings as a tactic .
According to Melzer , after the September 11 attacks , U.S. strategists began to support targeted killings and accepted advice from Israel on how to use such tactics to deal with suicide bombers . Melzer describes an abrupt change where military members were ordered to " shoot to kill " , replacing prior orders to incapacitate . The author asserts that in at least one case in 2005 , a person was killed because they were thought to be a terrorist holding a bomb . It was later revealed that this person suffered from mental illness and may have had a medical history of bipolar disorder . The shooting was determined to be justifiable under the law and criminal charges were not filed .
Melzer discusses the shift in perceptions towards acceptance by United Kingdom law enforcement after September 11 . The Metropolitan Police officially endorsed a " shoot to kill " strategy directly after the attack . Melzer finds this policy shift incongruous , due to the fact that targeted killing had never before been acceptable as police strategy . Prior to the attack , targeted killing was a criminal offense .
= = Reception = =
Targeted Killing in International Law was a joint @-@ winner of the 2009 Paul Guggenheim Prize in International Law given by the Geneva Graduate Institute . In the chapter " Targeted Killing in U.S. Counterterrorism Strategy and Law " authored by Kenneth Anderson as a contributor to the book Legislating the War on Terror : An Agenda for Reform , he characterizes Melzer 's book as an admirable opus on the subject . Anderson describes the book in more depth in a footnote , calling it a complete and thorough academic reference book . He goes on to criticize the perspective of the book for describing and then rejecting objections by the United States to arguments addressed in the work . Anderson writes that the book is both one scholars must have to educate themselves on the subject , while simultaneously lamenting its advocacy for U.S. legal positions . Anderson observes the author covers all facets of targeted killing in the book .
In a review of the book for the journal International Criminal Justice Review , Robert M. Worley of Penn State Altoona comments favorably on the comprehensive nature of Melzer 's research and his descriptions of the differences of the practice of targeted killing in varying countries . Worley comments on the relevance of the book to scholars in various fields , including history , law , law enforcement , and terrorism analysis . Worley concludes his review by recommending the book for those with a fascination in researching criminal justice or the law . William Abresch comments favorably on Targeted Killing in International Law , in a review for the European Journal of International Law . He writes that the book is an important addition to the field of scholarship regarding how international law governs the practice of targeted killing . Abresch calls the author 's writing style logical , and praises the book 's organizational structure including its separate sections on use of targeted in war contrasted with use by police .
A review of the book in the Leiden Journal of International Law by Tamás Hoffmann recommends the work to multiple potential readers , including those who engage in targeting killing , academics , and students . Hoffmann calls it a well @-@ researched monograph and helpful reference work on the subject . The review places the book within the context of addressing legal issues inherent in debating the murky concept of targeted killing . Hoffmann states the book furthers prior attempts to come to a resolution on the question of the practice 's legality . Helen Durhan praises the writing quality of Melzer 's work , in a review for the Australian Yearbook of International Law . Durhan writes the work is organized in an easily readable format and covers the topic with neutrality . She goes on to call the book a work representing the need for concerned discussion prior to implementing any policy involved in eliminating people . Of the author 's focus throughout the work , Durhan observes that the author handles discussion of the legality of targeted killing in a clear and precise manner . The review concludes Melzer 's thorough analysis goes a long way towards furthering scholars ' impressions of legal issues surrounding when it is permitted for sovereign governments to kill people .
Writing in a review for the American Journal of International Law , Michael N. Schmitt observes that the arguments put forth in the book by Melzer are indeed accurate . Schmitt writes that Melzer correctly argues that in the police model sequential events within the legal system lead to precedent for engaging in targeted killing . Schmitt describes the book as an excellent overview of many aspects of law regarding targeted killing . Schmitt concludes , " Targeted Killing in International Law is not just a major contribution to the legal literature , it has justifiably emerged as the premier work on the subject . "
= Meteorological history of Hurricane Mitch =
Hurricane Mitch 's meteorological history began with its origins over Africa as a tropical wave and lasted until its dissipation as an extratropical cyclone north of the United Kingdom . Tropical Depression Thirteen formed on October 22 , 1998 , over the southwestern Caribbean Sea from a tropical wave that exited Africa on October 10 . It executed a small loop , and while doing so intensified into Tropical Storm Mitch . A weakness in a ridge allowed the storm to track slowly to the north . After becoming disorganized due to wind shear from a nearby upper @-@ level low , Mitch quickly intensified in response to improving conditions which included warm waters and good outflow . It became a hurricane on October 24 and developed an eye . After turning to the west , Mitch rapidly intensified , first into a major hurricane on October 25 and then into a Category 5 on
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her the nickname " the girl with the horizontal walk " .
Clothing played an important part in Monroe 's star image . She often wore white to emphasize her blondness , and drew attention by wearing revealing outfits that showed off her figure . Her publicity stunts often revolved around her clothing exposing large amounts of her body or even malfunctioning , such as when one of the shoulder straps of her dress suddenly snapped during a press conference . In press stories , Monroe was portrayed as the embodiment of the American Dream , as a girl who had risen from a miserable childhood to Hollywood stardom . Stories of her time spent in foster families and an orphanage were exaggerated and even partly fabricated in her studio biographies .
Although Monroe 's screen persona as a dim @-@ witted but sexually attractive blonde was a carefully crafted act , audiences and film critics believed it to be her real personality and that she was not acting in her comedies . This became an obstacle in her later career , when she wanted to change her public image and pursue other kinds of roles , or to be respected as a businesswoman . Academic Sarah Churchwell , who has studied narratives about Monroe , has stated :
The biggest myth is that she was dumb . The second is that she was fragile . The third is that she couldn 't act . She was far from dumb , although she was not formally educated , and she was very sensitive about that . But she was very smart indeed – and very tough . She had to be both to beat the Hollywood studio system in the 1950s . [ ... ] The dumb blonde was a role – she was an actress , for heaven 's sake ! Such a good actress that no one now believes she was anything but what she portrayed on screen .
Lois Banner has written that she often subtly parodied her status as a sex symbol in her films and public appearances . Monroe stated that she was influenced by Mae West , saying that she " learned a few tricks from her – that impression of laughing at , or mocking , her own sexuality " . In the 1950s , she also studied comedy in classes given by mime and dancer Lotte Goslar , famous for her comic stage performances , and had her accompany her on film sets to instruct her . In Gentlemen Prefer Blondes , one of the films in which she played an archetypal dumb blonde , Monroe had the sentence " I can be smart when it 's important , but most men don 't like it " added to her character 's lines in the script .
Dyer has stated Monroe 's star image was created mainly for the male gaze and that she usually played " the girl " , who is defined solely by her gender , in her films . Her roles were almost always chorus girls , secretaries , or models ; occupations where " the woman is on show , there for the pleasure of men . " Film scholar Thomas Harris , who analyzed Monroe 's public image in 1957 , wrote that her working class roots and lack of family made her appear more sexually available , " the ideal playmate " , in contrast to her contemporary Grace Kelly , who was also marketed as an attractive blonde , but due to her upper @-@ class background came to be seen as a sophisticated actress , unattainable for the majority of male viewers .
According to Dyer , Monroe became " virtually a household name for sex " in the 1950s and " her image has to be situated in the flux of ideas about morality and sexuality that characterised the fifties in America " , such as Freudian ideas about sex , the Kinsey report ( 1953 ) , and Betty Friedan 's The Feminine Mystique ( 1963 ) . By appearing vulnerable and unaware of her sex appeal , Monroe was the first sex symbol to present sex as natural and without danger , in contrast to the 1940s femme fatales . Spoto likewise describes her as the embodiment of " the postwar ideal of the American girl , soft , transparently needy , worshipful of men , naïve , offering sex without demands " , which is echoed in Molly Haskell 's statement that " she was the fifties fiction , the lie that a woman had no sexual needs , that she is there to cater to , or enhance , a man 's needs . " Monroe 's contemporary Norman Mailer wrote that " Marilyn suggested sex might be difficult and dangerous with others , but ice cream with her " , while Groucho Marx characterized her as " Mae West , Theda Bara , and Bo Peep all rolled into one " . According to Haskell , due to her status as a sex symbol , Monroe was less popular with women than with men , as they " couldn 't identify with her and didn 't support her " , although this would change after her death .
Dyer has also argued that platinum blonde hair became such a defining feature of Monroe because it made her " racially unambiguous " and exclusively white just as the Civil Rights Movement was beginning , and that she should be seen as emblematic of racism in twentieth @-@ century popular culture . Banner agrees that it may not be a coincidence that Monroe launched a trend of platinum blonde actresses during the Civil Rights Movement , but has also criticized Dyer , pointing out that in her highly publicized private life Monroe associated with people who were seen as " white ethnics " , such as Joe DiMaggio ( Italian @-@ American ) and Arthur Miller ( Jewish ) . According to Banner , she sometimes challenged prevailing racial norms in her publicity photographs ; for example , in an image featured in Look in 1951 , she was shown in revealing clothes while practicing with African @-@ American singing coach Phil Moore .
Monroe was perceived as a specifically American star , " a national institution as well known as hot dogs , apple pie , or baseball " according to Photoplay . Banner calls her the symbol of populuxe , a star whose joyful and glamorous public image " helped the nation cope with its paranoia in the 1950s about the Cold War , the atom bomb , and the totalitarian communist Soviet Union " . Historian Fiona Handyside writes that the French female audiences associated whiteness / blondness with American modernity and cleanliness , and so Monroe came to symbolize a modern , " liberated " woman whose life takes place in the public sphere . Film historian Laura Mulvey has written of her as an endorsement for American consumer culture :
If America was to export the democracy of glamour into post @-@ war , impoverished Europe , the movies could be its shop window ... Marilyn Monroe , with her all American attributes and streamlined sexuality , came to epitomise in a single image this complex interface of the economic , the political , and the erotic . By the mid 1950s , she stood for a brand of classless glamour , available to anyone using American cosmetics , nylons and peroxide .
To profit from Monroe 's popularity , 20th Century @-@ Fox cultivated several lookalike actresses , including Jayne Mansfield and Sheree North . Other studios also attempted to create their own Monroes : Universal Pictures with Mamie Van Doren , Columbia Pictures with Kim Novak , and Rank Organisation with Diana Dors .
= = Legacy = =
According to The Guide to United States Popular Culture , " as an icon of American popular culture , Monroe 's few rivals in popularity include Elvis Presley and Mickey Mouse ... no other star has ever inspired such a wide range of emotions – from lust to pity , from envy to remorse . " Art historian Gail Levin has stated that Monroe may have been " the most photographed person of the 20th century " , and The American Film Institute has named her the sixth greatest female screen legend in American film history . The Smithsonian Institution has included her on their list of " 100 Most Significant Americans of All Time " , and both Variety and VH1 have placed her in the top ten in their rankings of the greatest popular culture icons of the twentieth century . Hundreds of books have been written about Monroe , she has been the subject of films , plays , operas , and songs , and has influenced artists and entertainers such as Andy Warhol and Madonna . She also remains a valuable brand : her image and name have been licensed for hundreds of products , and she has been featured in advertising for multinational corporations such as Max Factor , Chanel , Mercedes @-@ Benz , and Absolut Vodka .
Monroe 's enduring popularity is linked to her conflicted public image . On the one hand , she remains a sex symbol , beauty icon and one of the most famous stars of classical Hollywood cinema . On the other , she is also remembered for her troubled private life , unstable childhood , struggle for professional respect , and her death and the conspiracy theories surrounding it . She has been written about by scholars and journalists interested in gender and feminism , such as Gloria Steinem , Jacqueline Rose , Molly Haskell , Sarah Churchwell , and Lois Banner . Some , such as Steinem , have viewed her as a victim of the studio system . Others , such as Haskell , Rose , and Churchwell , have instead stressed Monroe 's proactive role in her career and her participation in the creation of her public persona .
Due to the contrast between her stardom and troubled private life , Monroe is closely linked to broader discussions about modern phenomena such as mass media , fame , and consumer culture . According to academic Susanne Hamscha , because of her continued relevance to ongoing discussions about modern society , Monroe is " never completely situated in one time or place " but has become " a surface on which narratives of American culture can be ( re- ) constructed " , and " functions as a cultural type that can be reproduced , transformed , translated into new contexts , and enacted by other people " . Similarly , Banner has called Monroe the " eternal shapeshifter " who is re @-@ created by " each generation , even each individual ... to their own specifications " .
While Monroe remains a cultural icon , critics are divided on her legacy as an actress . David Thomson called her body of work " insubstantial " and Pauline Kael wrote that she could not act , but rather " used her lack of an actress 's skills to amuse the public . She had the wit or crassness or desperation to turn cheesecake into acting – and vice versa ; she did what others had the ' good taste ' not to do " . In contrast , according to Peter Bradshaw , Monroe was a talented comedian who " understood how comedy achieved its effects " , and Roger Ebert wrote that " Monroe 's eccentricities and neuroses on sets became notorious , but studios put up with her long after any other actress would have been blackballed because what they got back on the screen was magical " . Similarly , Jonathan Rosenbaum stated that " she subtly subverted the sexist content of her material " and that " the difficulty some people have discerning Monroe 's intelligence as an actress seems rooted in the ideology of a repressive era , when superfeminine women weren 't supposed to be smart " .
= = Filmography = =
= The World Without Us =
The World Without Us is a non @-@ fiction book about what would happen to the natural and built environment if humans suddenly disappeared , written by American journalist Alan Weisman and published by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books . It is a book @-@ length expansion of Weisman 's own February 2005 Discover article " Earth Without People " . Written largely as a thought experiment , it outlines , for example , how cities and houses would deteriorate , how long man @-@ made artifacts would last , and how remaining lifeforms would evolve . Weisman concludes that residential neighborhoods would become forests within 500 years , and that radioactive waste , bronze statues , plastics , and Mount Rushmore would be among the longest @-@ lasting evidence of human presence on Earth .
The author of four previous books and numerous articles for magazines , Weisman traveled to interview academics , scientists and other authorities . He used quotations from these interviews to explain the effects of the natural environment and to substantiate predictions . The book has been translated and published in many countries . It was successful in the U.S. , reaching # 6 on the New York Times Best Seller list and # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best @-@ Sellers list in September 2007 . It ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's top 10 non @-@ fiction books of 2007 .
20th Century Fox has purchased the rights to the book with the intent of creating a motion picture .
= = Background = =
The idea of exploring the effects of the depopulating of the Earth is an old one , having been a regular trope in science fiction novels for decades . Post @-@ apocalyptic literature in general had often tried to imagine the fate of civilization and its artifacts after the end of humanity . Indeed , an extremely popular 1949 novel , Earth Abides , portrayed the breakdown of urban systems and structures after a pandemic , through the eyes of a survivor , who muses at the end of the first chapter : " What would happen to the world and its creatures without man ? That he was left to see . "
The World Without Us applies a more ecological view to Earth Abides . Before writing it , the author , Alan Weisman , had written four books , including , Gaviotas : A Village to Reinvent the World , in 1998 , about the eco @-@ village of Gaviotas in Colombia ; and An Echo In My Blood , in 1999 , about his family 's history immigrating from Ukraine to the United States . He has worked as an international journalist for American magazines and newspapers , and at the time of writing the book was an Associate Professor of Journalism and Latin American Studies at the University of Arizona . The position required him to teach only one class in the spring semester , and he was free to travel and conduct research the rest of the year .
The idea for The World Without Us was suggested to Weisman in 2004 by Josie Glausiusz , an editor at Discover . She had pondered the idea for several years and asked Weisman to write a feature on the subject after she re @-@ read " Journey through a Doomed Land " , an article he published in 1994 in Harper 's Magazine about the state of Chernobyl eight years after abandonment . His Discover article , " Earth Without People " , published in the February 2005 issue and re @-@ printed in The Best American Science Writing 2006 anthology , describes how nature has thrived in the abandoned Korean Demilitarized Zone and how nature would overwhelm the built environment of New York City . Using interviews with paleoecologists , the article speculates that megafauna would return and that forest cover , like the Białowieża Forest , would spread over Europe and the eastern United States . The article raises the prospect of failing power plants , chemical plants , dams , and petroleum tanks .
To expand this into a book , Weisman 's agent found an editor and publisher at St. Martin 's Press . Among the 23 @-@ page bibliography are two articles he wrote for the Los Angeles Times Magazine ( " Naked Planet " on persistent organic pollutants , and " The Real Indiana Jones " on the Mayan civilization ) and one published in the Condé Nast Traveler ( " Diamond in the Wild " on diamond mining ) , as well as Discover 's " Earth Without People " . Additional research saw Weisman travel to England , Cyprus , Turkey , Panama , and Kenya . Interviews with academics quoted in the book include biologist E. O. Wilson on the Korean Demilitarized Zone , archaeologist William Rathje on plastics in garbage , forest botanist Oliver Rackham on vegetative cover across Britain , anthropologist Arthur Demarest on the crash of Mayan civilization , paleobiologist Douglas Erwin on evolution , and philosopher Nick Bostrom on Transhumanism .
= = Synopsis = =
The book is divided into 27 chapters , with a prelude , coda , bibliography and index . Each chapter deals with a new topic , such as the potential fates of plastics , petroleum infrastructure , nuclear facilities , and artworks . It is written from the point of view of a science journalist with explanations and testimonies backing his predictions . There is no unifying narrative , cohesive single @-@ chapter overview , or thesis .
Weisman 's thought experiment pursues two themes : how nature would react to the disappearance of humans and what legacy humans would leave behind . To foresee how other life could continue without humans , Weisman reports from areas where the natural environment exists with little human intervention , like the Białowieża Forest , the Kingman Reef , and the Palmyra Atoll . He interviews biologist E. O. Wilson and visits with members of the Korean Federation for Environmental Movement at the Korean Demilitarized Zone where few humans have penetrated since 1953 . He tries to conceive how life may evolve by describing the past evolution of pre @-@ historic plants and animals , but notes Douglas Erwin 's warning that " we can 't predict what the world will be 5 million years later by looking at the survivors " . Several chapters are dedicated to megafauna , which Weisman predicts would proliferate . He profiles soil samples from the past 200 years and extrapolates concentrations of heavy metals and foreign substances into a future without industrial inputs . Carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere and implications for climatic change are likewise examined .
With material from previous articles , Weisman uses the fate of the Mayan civilization to illustrate the possibility of an entrenched society vanishing and how the natural environment quickly conceals evidence . To demonstrate how vegetation could compromise human built infrastructure , Weisman interviewed hydrologists and employees at the Panama Canal , where constant maintenance is required to keep the jungle vegetation and silt away from the dams . To illustrate abandoned cities succumbing to nature , Weisman reports from Chernobyl , Ukraine ( abandoned in 1986 ) and Varosha , Cyprus ( abandoned in 1974 ) . Weisman finds that their structures crumble as weather does unrepaired damage and other life forms create new habitats . In Turkey , Weisman contrasts the construction practices of the rapidly growing Istanbul , as typical for large cities in less developed countries , with the underground cities in Cappadocia . Due to a large demand for housing in Istanbul much of it was developed quickly with whatever material was available and could collapse in a major earthquake or other natural disaster . Cappadocian underground cities were built thousands of years ago out of volcanic tuff , and are likely to survive for centuries to come .
Weisman uses New York City as a model to outline how an unmaintained urban area would deconstruct . He explains that sewers would clog , underground streams would flood subway corridors , and soils under roads would erode and cave in . From interviews with members of the Wildlife Conservation Society and the New York Botanical Gardens Weisman predicts that native vegetation would return , spreading from parks and out @-@ surviving invasive species . Without humans to provide food and warmth , rats and cockroaches would die off .
Weisman explains that a common house would begin to fall apart as water eventually leaks into the roof around the flashings , erodes the wood and rusts the nails , leading to sagging walls and eventual collapse . After 500 years , all that would be left would be aluminum dishwasher parts , stainless steel cookware , and plastic handles . The longest @-@ lasting evidence on Earth of a human presence would be radioactive materials , ceramics , bronze statues , and Mount Rushmore . In space , the Pioneer plaques , the Voyager Golden Record , and radio waves would outlast the Earth itself .
Breaking from the theme of the natural environment after humans , Weisman considers what could lead to the sudden , complete demise of humans without serious damage to the built and natural environment . That scenario , he concludes , is extremely unlikely . He also considers transhumanism , the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement , the Church of Euthanasia and John A. Leslie 's The End of the World : the Science and Ethics of Human Extinction . Weisman concludes the book considering a new version of the one @-@ child policy . While he admits it is a " draconian measure " , he states , " The bottom line is that any species that overstretches its resource base suffers a population crash . Limiting our reproduction would be damn hard , but limiting our consumptive instincts may be even harder . " He responded to criticism of this saying " I knew in advance that I would touch some people 's sensitive spots by bringing up the population issue , but I did so because it 's been missing too long from the discussion of how we must deal with the situation our economic and demographic growth have driven us too ( sic ) " .
= = Publication = =
The book was first published on July 10 , 2007 , as a hardback in the United States by St. Martin 's Thomas Dunne Books , in United Kingdom by Virgin Books and in Canada by HarperCollins . The paperback was released in July 2008 . It has been translated and published in Denmark by Borgen as Verden uden os , France by Groupe Flammarion as Homo disparitus , in Germany by Piper as Die Welt ohne uns , in Portugal by Estrela Polar as O Mundo Sem Nós , in Italy by Einaudi as Il mondo senza di noi , in Poland by CKA as Świat bez nas , and in Japan by Hayakawa Publishing as Jinrui ga kieta sekai .
Pete Garceau designed the cover art for the American release , which one critic said was " a thick layer of sugar @-@ coated sweetness in an effort to not alarm potential readers . ' Yes , I am a book about the environment . But I 'm harmless ! No , really ! ' " The Canadian version , designed by Ellen Cipriano , is similar to the American version but with a photo illustration rather than the disarming cartoon illustration . Cover art for the international releases contrast the natural environment with a decaying built environment . Adam Grupper voiced the ten @-@ hour @-@ long , unabridged English language audiobook which was published by Macmillan Audio and BBC Audiobooks , and released simultaneously with the hardcover book . AudioFile gave the audio presentation its Earphones Award , called Grupper 's reading sincere and balanced , and wrote , " Never veering into sensationalism , always objective and phlegmatic , Grupper takes what could be a depressing topic and makes it a book you just can 't stop listening to " .
= = Reception = =
As the book was released Weisman launched his book tour with stops throughout the United States , Canada and overseas to Lisbon and Brussels . Weisman did television interviews on The Daily Show and The Today Show and radio interviews on Weekend Edition , Talk of the Nation , The Diane Rehm Show , Living on Earth , Marketplace , and As It Happens . Meanwhile , the book debuted on the New York Times Best Seller list for non @-@ fiction hardcovers at # 10 on July 29 and spent nine weeks in the top ten , peaking at # 6 on August 12 and September 9 . In the Canadian market , it spent 10 weeks on The Globe and Mail 's non @-@ fiction best seller list , peaking at # 3 on August 11 . The book reached # 1 on the San Francisco Chronicle Best @-@ Sellers list for non @-@ fiction on September 23 and spent 11 weeks on the USA Today 's Top 150 Best @-@ Selling Books , peaking at # 48 . Reviewers at the Library Journal recommended the book for all environmental collections and the audiobook for most public and academic library audiobook collections . The book ranked # 1 on Time and Entertainment Weekly 's top 10 non @-@ fiction books of 2007 and was listed in the Hudson Booksellers ' " Best Books published in 2007 " . In the Amazon.com " Best Books of 2007 " , it placed # 4 overall in the United States and # 1 in the non @-@ fiction category in Canada .
The writing style was positively received as being vivid and well @-@ written , sometimes grim , but with appropriate language . Even an overall negative review by Michael Grunwald in The Washington Post remarked the writing was " always lucid , sometimes elegant " . In The New York Times Book Review Jennifer Schuessler said Weisman has a " flirtation with religious language , his occasionally portentous impassivity giving way to the familiar rhetoric of eco @-@ hellfire " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times found the writing had " an arid , plain , what @-@ if style " while being " strangely uniform in tone " . On the reporting techniques , Kamiya wrote that " [ Weisman 's ] science reporting , at once lucid and full of wonder ... is the heart and soul of this book " and that it is " written as if by a compassionate and curious observer on another planet " . The Plain Dealer book editor Karen Long said Weisman " uses the precise , unhurried language of a good science writer and shows a knack for unearthing unexpected sources and provocative facts " .
Several critics found the lack of an anthropomorphic point of view hurt the book 's relevance . Robert Braile in The Boston Globe wrote that it has " no real context ... no rationale for probing this fantasy other than [ Weisman 's ] unsubstantiated premise that people find it fascinating " . Michael Grunwald in The Washington Post also questioned the premise : " Imagining the human footprint on a post @-@ human planet might be fun for dormitory potheads who have already settled the questions of God 's existence and Fergie 's hotness , but it 's not clear why the rest of us need this level of documentary evidence " . On the other hand , Alanna Mitchell in the Globe and Mail review found relevance in the context of society 's passiveness to resource depletion combined with an anthropomorphic vanity . She writes the " book [ is ] designed to help us find the how of survival by shaking us out of our passive dance with death " .
The book 's environmental focus was also criticized by some . Christopher Orlet of The American Spectator wrote that it is " a prime example of the wrongheaded , extremist views of the Greens " . Braile agrees that the book could be " an environmentalist 's nightmare , possibly fueling the cheap shots taken at the green movement ... by critics who say environmentalists care more about nature than people " . Environmentalist Alex Steffen found the book presents nothing new , but that using the sudden and clean disappearance of humans provides a unique framework , although extremely unlikely and insensitive . Two critics who call the book a " Jeremiad " ultimately gave it a positive review . The Guardian says " we learn during the course of this book , to feel good about the disappearance of humanity from the Earth " .
Other critics hailed the environmental perspective . Chauncey Mabe of the South Florida Sun @-@ Sentinel calls the book " one of the most satisfying environmental books of recent memory , one devoid of self @-@ righteousness , alarmism or tiresome doomsaying " . Tom Spears of the CanWest News Service concludes " it 's more a portrait of ourselves , taken through an odd lens " and " [ s ] ometimes an obituary is the best biography " .
= = Genre = =
The book is categorized as non @-@ fiction science but some commentators emphasize it may be better described as speculative fiction . The World Without Us is grounded in environmental and science journalism . Like other environmental books , it discusses the impact that the human race has had on the planet . Weisman 's thought experiment removes the judgments and sufferings of humans by focusing on a hypothetical post @-@ human world . This approach to the genre , which " throw [ s ] the spotlight on the earth itself " , was found to be creative and objective . There have been other books that address similar topics , such as Gregory Benford 's 1999 book Deep Time : How Humanity Communicates Across Millennia . Science fiction writers such as H. G. Wells ( The War of the Worlds , 1898 ) and John Wyndham ( The Day of the Triffids , 1951 ) had earlier touched upon the possible fate of cities and other man @-@ made structures after the sudden removal of their creators . Similar parallels in the decay of civilization are detailed in 1949 post @-@ apocalyptic science fiction novel by Berkeley English professor George R. Stewart , Earth Abides .
Addressing his approach , Weisman said that eliminating the human element eliminated the " fear factor " that people are doing something wrong or that they will die ; it is meant to be read as a fantasy , according to the author . Josie Appleton of Spiked related the book to " today 's romanticisation of nature " in that it linked " the decadence and detachment of a modern consumerist society " with an ignorance of the efforts required to produce products so easily disposed . Appleton also felt the book countered the " Nature knows best " notion by highlighting the randomness of natural forces .
Weisman 's science journalism style uses interviews with academic and professional authorities to substantiate conclusions , while maintaining the " cool and dispassionate [ tone ] ... of a scientific observer rather than an activist " . Weisman said he purposely avoided the activist label : " Some of our finest science and nature writers only get read by people who already agree with them . It 's nice to get some affirmation for whatever it is you believe is true , even if it 's quite sobering , but I wanted to write something that people would read ... without minimizing the significance of what 's going on , nor trivializing it , nor oversimplifying it . " Richard Fortey compares the book to the works of Jared Diamond , Tim Flannery and E.O. Wilson , and writes that The World Without Us " narrowly avoids engendering the gloom @-@ and @-@ doom ennui that tends to engulf the poor reader after reading a catalogue of human rapacity " . Mark Lynas in the New Statesman noted that " whereas most environmental books sag under the weight of their accumulated bad news , The World Without Us seems refreshingly positive " . Demonstrating the optimism on the grim subject matter Appleton quotes an ecologist from the book saying " if the planet can recover from the Permian , it can recover from the human " .
= Mystery Date ( Mad Men ) =
" Mystery Date " is the fourth episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 56th episode of the series overall . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Victor Levin , and directed by Matt Shakman . It originally aired on the AMC channel in the United States on April 8 , 2012 .
The episode takes place in July 1966 , featuring much discussion among the characters about the then @-@ unsolved Richard Speck murders in Chicago . Don runs into an ex @-@ lover and cannot seem to escape her presence . Joan 's husband , Greg , returns from his tour of duty in Vietnam only to reveal that he is being sent back for another year of service . Sally becomes frightened after reading stories on the Speck murders , leading her step @-@ grandmother to educate her on the concepts of fear and defense . Dawn spends the night at Peggy 's apartment after becoming too afraid to return home because of racial violence near Harlem .
The episode 's title is derived from the 1965 Milton Bradley board game for teenage girls , Mystery Date , wherein several female players draw cards to advance to opening a door , hoping to find one of a variety of desirable male dates on the other side , while simultaneously hoping to avoid the lone undesirable one . A vintage television commercial for the game is viewed by Don 's daughter Sally during the episode .
The storylines involving Joan , Sally , and Peggy were well received , although some felt the dream sequence was a heavy @-@ handed way to have Don deal with his past infidelities . " Mystery Date " had consistent viewership with the previous week , with 2 @.@ 8 million overall viewers and 1 @.@ 0 million viewers in the 18 @-@ 49 demographic . Critics noted the dark atmosphere of the episode , with Weiner comparing it to a horror movie . The episode carried themes of sexual violence and the concept of masculinity .
= = Plot = =
Joyce Ramsay walks into Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce with graphic photos of the recently committed murders of eight nurses in Chicago . There were nine possible victims , with the one survivor hiding under the bed until the murderer left . Ginsberg reacts in disgust to the other employees ' fascination with the murder photos .
Don Draper , on the elevator to SCDP 's offices with Megan , is coughing profusely , sweaty , and feverish . A flirty former lover , Andrea Rhodes , walks into the elevator and starts to home in on Don before Don introduces Megan as his wife . Don tries to assuage a slightly perturbed Megan , who is upset over how many of Don 's old flames they run into in Manhattan . Don works with new hire Michael Ginsberg and Ken Cosgrove on the pitch to Butler Footwear . Ginsberg goes rogue during the presentation and ends up pitching a commercial based on Cinderella , which the group had earlier rejected as being too cliche - although that was what the executives were expecting , and they reject the pitch they had earlier approved in favor of a Cinderella campaign . Don is enraged and admonishes Ginsberg for the act ; Ginsberg doesn 't seem to realize the seriousness of his transgression until Ken points out he was on the verge of being fired . Afterwards , Don returns home early to an empty house and collapses on his bed in a weakened state .
Don awakens to a knock on the door . It 's Andrea , still in her tight yellow dress . Don directs her to leave immediately and forces her to go out through the apartment 's service elevator . After Don returns to bed , Andrea walks into his bedroom again , having entered through the unlocked back door . She seduces Don and the two end up having sex in his bed . In a post @-@ coital moment , Andrea declares to Don that he will continue meeting her for trysts because he can 't change who he is . Don flies off the handle and chokes her to death . Panicking , he kicks her under the bed , but one of her red shoes remains visible , recalling both the visual of Ginsberg 's Cinderella pitch and the lone survivor from the Richard Speck murders . Don awakens the next morning to realize he was having a fever dream . He says nothing of his vision to Megan and tells her she doesn 't need to worry about him .
Sally 's overbearing step @-@ grandmother Pauline is babysitting Sally while Betty and Henry are out of town . Sally overhears Pauline having a telephone conversation about the murders in Chicago . After stealing a newspaper out of the garbage and reading about the murder , Sally becomes frightened and unable to sleep . Pauline comforts Sally by suggesting the nurses asked for their fate for presumed lasciviousness . Pauline takes out a butcher knife , intending to use it for protection , and splits a Seconal with Sally . Betty and Henry return home the next day to find Pauline asleep on a couch with the butcher knife on a table by her side . Sally is asleep underneath the couch , once again recalling the visual of the Speck survivor .
Roger asks Peggy to devise a new Mohawk Airlines campaign over the weekend , in an attempt to cover for the fact that he had neglected to put the creative team on that task a week earlier . Peggy , realizing that for once she has the upper hand , agrees to the favor only after Roger hands over all the cash in his wallet ( $ 410 , an exorbitant amount in 1966 ) , rejecting the ten dollars which Roger initially offered her ( explaining that " the work is ten dollars ; the lie is extra . " ) . While working late , Peggy discovers Dawn sleeping in Don 's office . Peggy offers Dawn a spot on her couch at home , as Dawn worries about returning to her own home in Harlem due to racial tension in the area . Peggy and Dawn drink beers at Peggy 's apartment , while Peggy reveals insecurity over whether she " acts like a man " or not . While leaving her apartment 's living room , Peggy has an awkward moment with Dawn when Peggy realizes that her purse ( with Roger 's cash still inside ) is alone on the table next to Dawn . Peggy cleans up and leaves the purse next to Dawn . Peggy wakes up the next morning to find a note from Dawn apologizing for inconveniencing Peggy .
Joan 's husband Greg returns home from the Vietnam War after a year of service , greeting their new baby boy , and spending an afternoon with Joan in bed . Afterwards , Greg breaks bad news to Joan — he is being shipped back out again for another year . Joan complains about the government 's lies , but Greg backs up his duty to the country . During a dinner at a fancy restaurant with Joan 's mother and Greg 's parents , Greg is forced by his mother to reveal that he in fact volunteered to go back , sending Joan into a rage . She is absolutely horrified that Greg would abandon his duties as a father to head back to war , where he " feels like a good man " . The next morning , Joan sits him down and tells him to leave . Through her teeth , she proclaims that he was " never a good man " , subtly referring to the time he raped her back in the second season . Greg storms out , and Joan informs her mother that " it 's over " . Joan spends the night lying awake next to her sleeping mother and child .
= = Production = =
" Mystery Date " was written by creator Matthew Weiner and co @-@ executive producer Victor Levin . The episode was also directed by Matt Shakman . Director Matt Shakman had never worked on an episode of Mad Men before this episode . This was also the first episode of the series that co @-@ writer Victor Levin had penned . Levin had actually worked in advertising before becoming a television writer . He was the Associate Creative Director at both the Young and Rubicam advertising agency as well as BBDO . Both agencies had been either mentioned or depicted on Mad Men in the past . Levin also won two Clio awards for his work in advertising , which was an award Don won last season in the episode " Waldorf Stories " .
" The theme of sexual violence , of what it means to be a man , is a big part of that episode , " creator Matthew Weiner said of " Mystery Date " . " There 's this idea of this carnal , dangerous impulsive male . Of the dream sequence , Hamm said , " Unlike a lot of things on our show , it 's very visceral and immediate and scary and weird " with Hamm noting that Weiner compared the episode to a horror film . The scene in which Peggy blackmails Roger was one of Elisabeth Moss 's favorite moments , with Moss saying that she was " playing Roger Sterling " in that scene .
Weiner was fascinated by the presences of the Richard Speck murders in the media , despite the 40 race riots occurring in America around the same time . " Part of that force is the sex drive . No one wants to be a victim of that , but when you look at Pauline 's interest in the murders , it 's sexual . It 's such a deep touchstone of creepiness , " he noted .
The footage of Don returning to bed after kicking Andrea out of the apartment was actually reverse footage of Don getting out of bed only minutes before , which led some to believe that this was a directorial touch by Shakman to help the viewer discern the dream sequence by including unreal footage .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Mystery Date " received steady viewership that was consistent with the ratings for the previous week . It received 2 @.@ 8 million viewers , down only from 2 @.@ 9 from " Tea Leaves " . The episode also received a 1 @.@ 0 rating in the important 18 @-@ 49 demographic , the same rating as the week before .
= = = Critical reception = = =
While the portions of the episode focusing on Joan , Peggy , and Sally were critically acclaimed , some critics were mixed on the value of the dream sequence . One writer for Zap2it declared the episode one of the best episodes yet . Alan Sepinwall , writing for Hitfix said that the episode was " full of nightmares and self @-@ realizations " as well as " horrifying images " . Sepinwall wrote that the " only way the strangulation scene would have been acceptable to me was with the understanding going in that it was a dream . Had the show not telegraphed that — or had I not figured it out — and Don woke up the next morning with no corpse on the floor , I 'd have been irked . " One writer for Paste Magazine noted that the " brilliantly shot " episode had a " Hitchcockian feel " , and pointed to the use of " reverse point @-@ of @-@ view shots " and " close @-@ ups of hands on doorknobs that added an air of suspense not usually present on Mad Men . " Eric Goldman of IGN declared it the " best episode yet for Season 5 , with some very good material for Joan , Peggy , Don and Sally packed into a busy hour . " Goldman praised the resolution to the Harris marriage , crediting Weiner with mastering " the slow burn on this show , and it was just so gratifying to finally have this issue be dealt with . "
Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post called the episode " deeply unsettling " on purpose . She said that " Violence against women was inescapable in this episode , but what made Mad Men 's exploration of the topic worthwhile and compelling was the fact that two women in this episode asserted their power and control over their lives . It wasn 't a story about helplessness and victimization ; it was an episode about everything from sweaty discomfort to outright terror , and how we deal with those emotions . " John Swansburg , writing for Slate , said the episode was a " dud , " with the fever dream a " very obvious ( and not particularly enlightening ) way to depict Don wrestling with his infidelity issues . " Jordan Bartel of the Baltimore Sun compared " Mystery Date " to a Stephen King novel . Meredith Blake of the Los Angeles Times admitted that the dream sequence was " heavy @-@ handed " but that " there ’ s also something terribly convincing about the link ' Mystery Date ' posits between Don ’ s seemingly insatiable sexual appetite and his personal demons . If only these things dissipated as easily as a fever . " Rolling Stone writer Sarene Leeds praised Christina Hendricks ' performance and the dream sequence , asking " even though it wasn 't " real , " what makes Don Draper any different from Richard Speck , the student @-@ nurse murderer ? "
= Freida Pinto =
Freida Selena Pinto ( born 18 October 1984 ) is an Indian actress who has appeared mainly in American and British films . She was born and raised in Mumbai , India , and decided when young that she would become an actress . As a student at St. Xavier 's College , Mumbai , she took part in amateur plays . After graduation , she briefly worked as a model and then as a television presenter .
Pinto rose to prominence through the 2008 British drama Slumdog Millionaire , her first appearance in a film . She won the Breakthrough Performance Award at the Palm Springs International Film Festival and was nominated for various awards at the British Academy Film Awards , the MTV Movie Awards and the Teen Choice Awards . She has appeared in several American and British productions , often playing supporting roles . Her biggest commercial success came with the 2011 science fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes . Pinto received major attention for portraying the title character in Michael Winterbottom 's Trishna ( 2011 ) . Her performance in the biographical drama Desert Dancer ( 2014 ) received critical acclaim .
Although the Indian media has credited Pinto with breaking the stereotypical image of an Indian woman in foreign films , she has been a lesser @-@ known figure in Indian cinema . Along with her film career , she promotes humanitarian causes and is vocal about women 's empowerment .
= = Early life and background = =
Pinto was born on 18 October 1984 in Bombay ( now Mumbai ) , into a family of Mangalorean Catholics , a community originating in the former Portuguese colony of Goa . Her mother Sylvia Pinto was the principal of St. John 's Universal School in Goregaon , Mumbai , and her father Frederick Pinto was a senior branch manager for the Bank of Baroda . Her elder sister , Sharon , works for NDTV .
Pinto had a middle class upbringing in the suburb of Malad . She first wanted to be an actress when she was five years old , often dressing up and imitating television actors during her childhood . She later recalled being inspired by Sushmita Sen 's victory in the 1994 Miss Universe competition , explaining that " the country was really proud of her , and I was like , one day , I want to do the same " . Pinto attended the Carmel of St. Joseph School in Malad , and then studied at St. Xavier 's College , Mumbai . Her major was in English literature , with minors in psychology and economics . At college , she participated in amateur theatre , but declined acting and modeling assignments until her graduation in 2005 .
Despite her interest in acting from an early age , Pinto was undecided on which career path to take until watching Monster ( 2003 ) while at college . She stated : " I guess it was when I watched Monster ... I pretty much knew . I had to find a way . I had to do something like that , something completely transformational . " In 2005 , Pinto began a modeling career and joined Elite Model Management India , with whom she worked for two and a half years . She was featured in several television and print advertisements for products such as Wrigley 's Chewing Gum , Škoda , Vodafone India , Airtel , Visa , eBay , and De Beers .
Around the same time , Pinto began going to auditions for films and television shows . She was chosen to host Full Circle , an international travel show that aired on Zee International Asia Pacific between 2006 and 2008 . The show took her to countries all over the world , including Afghanistan , Fiji , Malaysia , Singapore , and Thailand . Her auditions for both Bollywood and Hollywood productions , including for the role of Bond girl Camille Montes in Marc Forster 's Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) , were largely unsuccessful . Pinto later claimed that it was a good learning experience , stating that she was " glad things happened the way they happened . I needed to be rejected , and I needed to learn that it 's part of the game ... I can have 100 rejections , but I 'm sure there 's going to be one particular thing that is almost destined for me to have . "
= = Acting career = =
= = = Beginnings and breakthrough ( 2008 – 10 ) = = =
In 2007 , Pinto 's modeling agency selected her and six other models to audition for the female lead in Danny Boyle 's film Slumdog Millionaire ( 2008 ) after a request by its casting director . After undergoing six months of extensive auditions , Pinto won the role of Latika , the love interest of the main character Jamal , played by Dev Patel . During the post @-@ production phase , she attended an acting course at the Barry John Acting Studio in Mumbai . Although the course taught her about the " technical aspects " of acting , she stated that " in terms of the actual experience , there 's nothing like going out there and actually playing the part ... So for me , my favorite acting school was the six months of auditioning with Danny Boyle " . Acclaimed particularly for its plot and soundtrack , Slumdog Millionaire emerged as a sleeper hit ; made on a budget of $ 15 million , the film grossed US $ 377 @.@ 9 million worldwide . It was the most successful film at the 81st Academy Awards : it was nominated for ten awards , of which it won eight , including the award for Best Picture . Pinto won the Breakthrough Performance Award at the Palm Springs International Film Festival , and the Screen Actors Guild Award for Outstanding Performance by a Cast in a Motion Picture , along with other cast members from the film . She was also nominated for Best Actress in a Supporting Role at the BAFTA Awards . Pinto 's performance in the film drew little attention from critics as her screen presence in the film was limited . The Telegraph ( Calcutta ) opined " it 's difficult to form an opinion " on her character ; its columnist Bharathi S. Pradhan noted " Slumdog Millionaire wasn 't really a test of Freida 's acting abilities . "
Following the success of Slumdog Millionaire , Pinto signed up for two art house productions . In Woody Allen 's comedy @-@ drama You Will Meet a Tall Dark Stranger ( 2010 ) , she acted alongside Antonio Banderas , Josh Brolin , Anthony Hopkins , Anupam Kher and Naomi Watts . She played a " mystery woman " who draws the attention of the character played by Brolin . Premiering at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival , the film received mixed reviews upon its release . Pinto then starred in Julian Schnabel 's Miral ( 2010 ) , based on a semi @-@ biographical novel by Rula Jebreal , playing an orphaned Palestinian woman who grew up in a refugee camp in Israel . Before the film 's production began in the Palestinian territories , Pinto prepared for the role by visiting several refugee camps in the area . She stated that she could relate to her character 's experiences because of her knowledge about her relatives ' experiences during the partition of India in the 1940s . The film received largely negative reviews , and Pinto 's performance divided critics : Geoffrey Macnab of The Independent wrote that " Miral ... is played very engagingly by Freida Pinto " , while Peter Bradshaw of The Guardian stated that " [ Pinto ] looks uneasy and miscast " .
= = = 2011 – present = = =
Pinto had four releases in 2011 . The first was the science fiction film Rise of the Planet of the Apes , a reboot of the Planet of the Apes series . She played the role of Caroline Aranha , a primatologist who falls in love with the main character , played by James Franco . To prepare for her role , she researched the career of English anthropologist Jane Goodall . The film went on to gross US $ 481 @.@ 8 million worldwide ; it remains her highest @-@ grossing film as of April 2016 . Pinto 's character received criticism for being too one @-@ dimensional : Anthony Quinn of The Independent called it a " failure " , and Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter described the character as the most " boringly decorous tag @-@ along girlfriend seen onscreen in years . " Pinto 's second screen appearance of the year was playing the title character in Michael Winterbottom 's Trishna . The film , based on Thomas Hardy 's novel Tess of the d 'Urbervilles , gave Pinto the role of a teenage Rajasthani peasant , who leaves her family to work for a British @-@ born Indian hotelier , played by Riz Ahmed . It premiered at the 2011 Toronto International Film Festival and gained a mixed response from critics . Nishat Bari of India Today called Pinto 's role her " most substantial " one to that point . Philip French of The Guardian stated that Pinto " captivates " in the lead role , while Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times called her performance " touchingly beautiful " . In contrast , Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote that Pinto is " one of [ the film 's ] loveliest attractions , but she and her director haven 't been able to give Trishna a pulse " .
Pinto 's third film role in 2011 was playing Princess Lailah in the poorly received independent film Day of the Falcon , a period drama set in the 1930s Middle East , where she was cast alongside Antonio Banderas , Mark Strong and Liya Kebede . Despite overall negative reviews , Andy Webster of The New York Times described Pinto and Kebede as " refreshing " and praised their " independent presences amid the stiflingly male @-@ dominated milieu " . Pinto 's final screen appearance of the year was in the fantasy @-@ action film Immortals , in which she played the oracle priestess Phaedra . Despite receiving mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from critics , the film grossed US $ 226 @.@ 9 million worldwide . Writing for The Hollywood Reporter , Todd McCarthy remarked that Phaedra was " capably embodied " by Pinto .
After 2011 , Pinto had no new film releases for two years . In 2013 , she appeared in the music video for Bruno Mars ' single " Gorilla " . She was criticised by the Indian media for appearing in the video ; The Times of India and Hindustan Times dismissed it as little more than " dirty dancing " . The same year , Pinto was also one of the narrators in the documentary film Girl Rising , produced for the campaign of the same name which promotes access to education for girls all over the world .
Pinto 's first cinematic appearance in two years was in the biographical drama Desert Dancer ( 2014 ) , which was about the life of Iranian choreographer Afshin Ghaffarian . She played the heroin @-@ addicted Elaheh , the love interest of the lead character played by Reece Ritchie . The role required her to do dance training consisting of eight hours of rehearsals a day for 14 weeks . She also attended a few sessions at rehabilitation centres in the United States to prepare for her role . It received largely negative reviews , although Andy Webster of The New York Times noted that " Pinto , even with an unfocused and underwritten role , is captivating " .
Pinto 's first film of 2015 was Terrence Malick 's Knight of Cups , an experimental film that featured an ensemble cast including Christian Bale , Cate Blanchett , Natalie Portman , and Antonio Banderas . She played Helen , a model with whom Bale embarks on a " dalliance " . She talked about acting without a script : " It is definitely a bit nerve @-@ racking on the first day because you don 't know where you are going to go . But once you figure that out , then it doesn 't really matter . It is actually very relaxing . It is fun and liberating . It is an experience that I completely embrace " . Premiering at the competition section of the 65th Berlin International Film Festival , the film received average to mixed reviews from critics . The film was released in the United States in March 2016 . She was among the 100 narrators of Unity ( 2015 ) , a documentary that explores the relationships between Earth 's species . Her third release of that year was the Colombian action film Blunt Force Trauma , in which she starred opposite Ryan Kwanten and Mickey Rourke as a woman looking for her brother 's murderer . John DeFore of The Hollywood Reporter criticised the film , stating that it " takes itself much more seriously than viewers will . " As of October 2015 , Pinto is working on Andy Serkis ' Jungle Book , a motion capture adventure fantasy film based on Rudyard Kipling 's The Jungle Book . She will portray Mowgli 's adoptive mother in the film .
= = Personal life = =
Before beginning her film career , Pinto was engaged to Rohan Antao , who had been her publicist at one point . She ended the relationship in January 2009 and began dating her Slumdog Millionaire co @-@ star Dev Patel , who is six years her junior . In 2012 , Pinto stated that she does not want to act with Patel again as she feels that they would not be able to replicate the " chemistry " they had in their debut film . After a six @-@ year relationship , the couple separated amicably in December 2014 . After the success of Slumdog Millionaire , Pinto had " no fixed address " , but instead split her time between Mumbai , London , and Los Angeles . In a 2015 interview with USA Today , she stated that she lives in Los Angeles .
Feminism to me is equality . There is no man over woman and vice versa . Feminism is a very misconstrued and misunderstood topic . As soon as we say feminism , it does not mean all men should become subordinate and women should be the ones who rule the world . The only way we can have a progressive and successful country or world is when men and women treat each other as equals
Alongside her acting career , Pinto has been actively involved with several humanitarian causes and is vocal about the uplifting of women and underprivileged children . She has cited Angelina Jolie and Malala Yousafzai as " massive " inspirations in this regard . In 2010 , Pinto joined Andre Agassi and Steffi Graf in support of their philanthropic organisation , the Agassi Foundation . She raised $ 75 @,@ 000 for their annual fund raiser — " The 15th Grand Slam for Children " — which was aimed at providing education for underprivileged children . Two years later , she was appointed as the global ambassador of Plan International 's Because I am a Girl , a campaign that promotes gender equality with the aim of lifting millions of girls out of poverty .
In 2013 , Pinto appeared in a video clip for Gucci 's " Chime for Change " campaign to raise funds and awareness of women 's issues in terms of education , health , and justice . The following year , she participated at the " Girls ' rights summit " in London , where she called for more progress toward the end of female genital mutilation and child marriage . In March 2015 , she spoke out against the Indian government 's ban on India 's Daughter , Leslee Udwin 's documentary on the 2012 Delhi gang rape . During its premier at the United States , she said the film needs to reach the public as it is not a " shame @-@ India documentary " . In a 2015 interview , she stated : " This film in no way is propagating violence in order to solve the problem . In fact , what we 're saying is let 's do this in the most civilized possible way ever " .
In February 2016 , Pinto announced that she would be a part of a nonprofit organisation called " We Do It Together " , which provides finance for feature films , documentaries , and television shows that focus on women 's empowerment .
= = Media image = =
Although she played a small role in Slumdog Millionaire , the film catapulted Pinto to widespread recognition . The media has often speculated about her roles and earnings . In March 2009 , The Daily Telegraph reported Pinto as the highest @-@ paid Indian actress , although she had not appeared in a Bollywood film to that point . CNN @-@ IBN called her " India 's best export to [ the ] West " , while The Telegraph ( Calcutta ) described her as " arguably the biggest global star from India " .
Pinto has been frequently included in beauty and fashion polls conducted by various magazines . She was featured in People magazine 's annual lists — " World 's Most Beautiful People " and " World 's Best Dressed Women " in 2009 . That year , she was also included in Vogue 's list of the " top ten most stylish women " . In 2011 , Pinto was included as the only Indian celebrity among the " 50 Most Beautiful Women in Film " , a list compiled by Los Angeles Times Magazine . The following year , People named her one of the " Most Beautiful at Every Age " . She was featured in the " Top 99 Most Desirable Women " poll conducted by AskMen , consecutively from 2010 to 2012 .
In 2009 , Pinto was made a spokeswoman for L 'Oréal Paris . Two years later , a controversy arose when she appeared in an advert promoting a L 'Oréal product ; it showed Pinto in what was perceived to be a lighter skin tone due to make @-@ up or editing . The company denied claims of retouching Pinto 's picture .
A popular actress in Hollywood , Pinto remains a relatively little @-@ known figure in India ; critics and analysts have attributed the fact to the failure of Slumdog Millionaire in the country . Indian sociologist Ashis Nandy remarked : " My periscope does not pick her up " , while journalist Khalid Mohamed stated : " She is not a factor in Mumbai . " The Indian media has criticised her " fluctuating " accents — in Hindi and English — and attributed her inability to find roles in Bollywood to her dark complexion . Despite these criticisms , Pinto has been credited by the media for having avoided being stereotyped as an Indian in Hollywood , as she often plays characters of other nationalities . In a 2012 interview with Hindustan Times , she said she consciously avoids roles that depict stereotypes .
Pinto balances out her career by working in " big budget Hollywood blockbusters " alongside " smart independent films " . When asked about her preference for Hollywood , she replied : " I just wanted to become an actor . As an actor , you don 't have to limit yourself to a particular culture or ethnicity . I want to spread my tentacles everywhere and am ready for a film offer from any part of the world . "
= = Filmography = =
= = = Music video appearances = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Molecular diagnostics =
Molecular diagnostics is a collection of techniques used to analyse biological markers in the genome and proteome — the individual 's genetic code and how their cells express their genes as proteins — by applying molecular biology to medical testing . The technique is used to diagnose and monitor disease , detect risk , and decide which therapies will work best for individual patients .
By analysing the specifics of the patient and their disease , molecular diagnostics offers the prospect of personalised medicine .
These tests are useful in a range of medical specialisms , including infectious disease , oncology , human leukocyte antigen typing ( which investigates and predicts immune function ) , coagulation , and pharmacogenomics — the genetic prediction of which drugs will work best . They overlap with clinical chemistry ( medical tests on bodily fluids ) .
= = History = =
The field of molecular biology grew in the late twentieth century , as did its clinical application . In 1980 , Yuet Wai Kan et al. suggested a prenatal genetic test for Thalassemia that did not rely upon DNA sequencing — then in its infancy — but on restriction enzymes that cut DNA where they recognised specific short sequences , creating different lengths of DNA strand depending on which allele ( genetic variation ) the fetus possessed . In the 1980s , the phrase was used in the names of companies such asMolecular Diagnostics Incorporated and Bethseda Research Laboraties Molecular Diagnostics .
During the 1990s , the identification of newly discovered genes and new techniques for DNA sequencing led to the appearance of a distinct field of molecular and genomic laboratory medicine ; in 1995 , the Association for Molecular Pathology ( AMP ) was formed to give it structure . In 1999 , the AMP co @-@ founded The Journal of Medical Diagnostics . Informa Healthcare launched Expert Reviews in Medical Diagnostics in 2001 . From 2002 onwards , the HapMap Project aggregated information on the one @-@ letter genetic differences that recur in the human population — the single nucleotide polymorphisms — and their relationship with disease . In 2012 , molecular diagnostic techniques for Thalassemia use genetic hybridization tests to identify the specific single nucleotide polymorphism causing an individual 's disease .
As the commercial application of molecular diagnostics has become more important , so has the debate about patenting of the genetic discoveries at its heart . In 1998 , the European Union 's Directive 98 / 44 / ECclarified that patents on DNA sequences were allowable . In 2010 in the US , AMP sued Myriad Genetics to challenge the latter 's patents regarding two genes , BRCA1 , BRCA2 , which are associated with breast cancer . In 2013 , the U.S. Supreme Court partially agreed , ruling that a naturally occurring gene sequence could not be patented .
= = Techniques = =
= = = Development from research tools = = =
The industrialisation of molecular biology assay tools has made it practical to use them in clinics . Miniaturisation into a single handheld device can bring medical diagnostics into the clinic and into the office or home . The clinical laboratory requires high standards of reliability ; diagnostics may require accreditation or fall under medical device regulations . As of 2011 , some US clinical laboratories nevertheless used assays sold for " research use only " .
Laboratory processes need to adhere to regulations , for example Clinical Laboratory Improvement Amendments , Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act , Good Laboratory Practice , and Food and Drug Administration specifications in the United States . Laboratory Information Management Systems help by tracking these processes . Regulation applies to both staff and supplies . As of 2012 , twelve US states require molecular pathologists to be licensed ; several boards such as the American Board of Medical Genetics and the American Board of Pathology certify technologists , supervisors , and laboratory directors .
Automation maximises throughput and reduces the possibility of error or contamination during manual handling . Single devices to do the assay from beginning to end are now available .
= = = Assays = = =
Molecular diagnostics uses biological assays such as PCR @-@ ELISA or Fluorescence in situ hybridization . The assay detects a molecule , often in low concentrations , that is a marker of disease or risk in a sample taken from a patient . Preservation of the sample before analysis is critical . Manual handling should be minimised . The fragile RNA molecule poses certain challenges . As part of the cellular process of expressing genes as proteins , it offers a measure of gene expression but it is vulnerable to hydrolysis and breakdown by ever @-@ present RNAse enzymes . Samples can be snap @-@ frozen in liquid nitrogen or incubated in preservation agents .
Because molecular diagnostics can detect slighter markers , it is less intrusive than a biopsy . For example , because cell @-@ free nucleic acids exist in human plasma , a simple blood sample can be enough to sample genetic information from tumours , transplants or an unborn fetus . Molecular diagnostics based on nucleic acids use polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) to vastly increase the number of nucleic acid molecules and amplify the target . The detection of the marker might use real time PCR , direct sequencing , or microarray chips — prefabricated chips that test many markers at once . The same principle applies to the proteome and the genome . High @-@ throughput protein arrays can use complementary DNA or antibodies to bind and hence can detect many different proteins in parallel .
= = Applications = =
= = = Prenatal = = =
Conventional prenatal tests for chromosomal abnormalities such as Down Syndrome rely on analysing the number and appearance of the chromosomes — the karyotype . Molecular diagnostics tests such as microarray comparative genomic hybridisation test a sample of DNA instead , and because of cell @-@ free DNA in plasma , could be less invasive , but as of 2013 it is still an adjunct to the conventional tests .
= = = Treatment = = =
Some of a patient 's single nucleotide polymorphisms — slight differences in their DNA — can help predict how quickly they will metabolise particular drugs ; this is called pharmacogenomics . For example , the enzyme CYP2C19 metabolises several drugs , such as the anti @-@ clotting agent Clopidogrel , into their active forms . Some patients possess polymorphisms in specific places on the 2C19 gene that make poor metabolisers of those drugs ; physicians can test for these polymorphisms and find out whether the drugs will be fully effective for that patient . Advances in molecular biology have helped show that some syndromes that were previously classed as a single disease are actually multiple subtypes with entirely different causes and treatments . Molecular diagnostics can help diagnose the subtype — for example of infections and cancers — or the genetic analysis of a disease with an inherited component , such as Silver @-@ Russell syndrome .
= = = Infectious disease = = =
Molecular diagnostics are used to identify infectious diseases such as chlamydia , influenza virus and tuberculosis ; or specific strains such as H1N1 virus . Genetic identification can be swift ; for example a loop @-@ mediated isothermal amplification test diagnoses the malaria parasite and is rugged enough for developing countries . But despite these advances in genome analysis , in 2013 infections are still more often identified by other means — their proteome , bacteriophage , or chromatographic profile . Molecular diagnostics are also used to understand the specific strain of the pathogen — for example by detecting which drug resistance genes it possesses — and hence which therapies to avoid .
= = = Disease risk management = = =
A patient 's genome may include an inherited or random mutation which affects the probability of developing a disease in the future . For example , Lynch syndrome is a genetic disease that predisposes patients to colorectal and other cancers ; early detection can lead to close monitoring that improves the patient 's chances of a good outcome . Cardiovascular risk is indicated by biological markers and screening can measure the risk that a child will be born with a genetic disease such as Cystic fibrosis . Genetic testing is ethically complex : patients may not want the stress of knowing their risk . In countries without universal healthcare , a known risk may raise insurance premiums .
= = = Cancer = = =
Cancer is a change in the cellular processes that cause a tumour to grow out of control . Cancerous cells sometimes have mutations in oncogenes , such as KRAS and CTNNB1 ( β @-@ catenin ) . Analysing the molecular signature of cancerous cells — the DNA and its levels of expression via messenger RNA — enables physicians to characterise the cancer and to choose the best therapy for their patients . As of 2010 , assays that incorporate an array of antibodies against specific protein marker molecules are an emerging technology ; there are hopes for these multiplex assays that could measure many markers at once . Other potential future biomarkers include micro RNA molecules , which cancerous cells express more of than healthy ones .
= Lecrae =
Lecrae Devaughn Moore ( born October 9 , 1979 ) , mononymously known as Lecrae , is an American Christian hip hop artist , songwriter , record producer and actor . He is the president , co @-@ owner and co @-@ founder of the independent record label Reach Records , and the co @-@ founder and president of the non @-@ profit organization ReachLife Ministries . To date , he has released seven studio albums and three mixtapes as a solo artist , and has released three studio albums , a remix album , and one EP as the leader of the hip hop group 116 Clique . He produced much of his earlier material along with other early Reach Records releases . Lecrae , in reference to his label as a Christian rapper , has stated that his music is just hip hop , though it reflects his Christian faith . In May 2016 , Lecrae signed to Columbia Records in a joint deal between his label and Columbia .
Lecrae debuted with Real Talk in 2004 through Reach Records . His third solo album , Rebel , released in 2008 , became the first Christian hip hop album to reach No. 1 on the Billboard Gospel chart . Rehab followed in 2010 , and Lecrae began attracting mainstream attention when he performed at the 2011 BET Hip Hop Awards Cypher and appeared on the Statik Selektah song " Live & Let Live " from Population Control . On May 10 , 2012 , Lecrae released his first mixtape , Church Clothes , which was hosted by DJ Don Cannon . Considered his breakthrough into mainstream hip hop , the mixtape was downloaded over 100 @,@ 000 times in less than 48 hours . His sixth studio album , Gravity , came out on September 4 , 2012 , and has been called the most important album in Christian hip hop history by Rapzilla and Atlanta Daily World . The album debuted as the best @-@ selling album overall in the iTunes Store , No. 3 on the Billboard 200 and won the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Album at the 2013 Grammy Awards , marking the first time that a hip hop artist received this award . Lecrae released his seventh album , Anomaly , on September 9 , 2014 . It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 with 88 @,@ 587 copies sold through the first week , the first album to top both the Billboard 200 and the Gospel chart simultaneously .
Lecrae received nominations for Artist of the Year at the 43rd , 44th , 45th , and 46th GMA Dove Awards , the last of which he won , and for Best Gospel Artist at the 2013 and 2015 BET Awards , the latter of which he won , a first for a rap artist . Lecrae 's filmography includes a role in the television film A Cross to Bear ( 2012 ) and a brief role as Dr. Malmquist in the comedy film Believe Me ( 2014 ) . In the social sphere , Lecrae has advocated for the preservation of responsibility and fatherhood as a value among men in the United States , and in 2013 partnered with Dwyane Wade and Joshua DuBois in the multimedia initiative This Is Fatherhood as part of the Obama administration 's Fatherhood and Mentoring Initiative . He has also contributed articles to Billboard discussing racial tension and injustice in the United States , where he has called for willingness to listen to the oppressed as well as pointing out a need for spiritual healing .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life = = =
Born and raised by his single mother in Southern Houston , Texas , Lecrae moved often early in life , living in San Diego , Denver , and Dallas . He has stated that he would go to church with his Christian grandmother , but considered it for " older people " and said it " wasn 't for me . " Lecrae never met his father , who ended up becoming a drug addict . In the song " Good , Bad , Ugly " , Lecrae reveals that when he was almost eight , a female baby sitter sexually molested him , an incident which Lecrae believes distorted his view of sexuality , influencing his later promiscuous lifestyle . Experiencing abuse and neglect during his childhood , Lecrae used his ability to rap as a source of significance . According to Lecrae , his grandmother would not allow him to watch rap music videos on television , but he would sneak in late at night . It was in these videos that Lecrae found individuals to look up to . Lecrae states that " there were no Martin Luther Kings or Malcolm Xs , they had all passed away so I had Tupac . " After being shown a gun by his uncle , Lecrae began looking up to gangsters and turned to a life of crime . Lecrae remembers taking a BB gun and standing in the street pointing it to a car , frightening the female driver , simply for fun . At the age of 16 , he started taking drugs , fighting , was arrested in high school for stealing , and eventually ended up on a gang list . Lecrae tried " pretty much every drug there was to try " except for heroin and crack cocaine .
According to CNN , he became a drug dealer and used the Bible that his grandmother gave him as a good luck charm . After being arrested for drug possession , the officer saw the Bible and let Lecrae go on a promise that he would agree to live by it . He eventually turned from drugs to alcohol consumption and a party lifestyle and became a " misfit of a person . " He has described himself during this period as a thrill @-@ seeker , he would pull stunts such as jumping from a third @-@ story building , and gained the nickname " Crazy ' Crae " . Encouraged by his concerned mother to read his Bible , Lecrae said that " I remember ripping the pages out of the Bible and throwing it on the floor . I don 't want this Bible . I couldn 't wrap my hands around this being true or real . " He began to drink and smoke more and look for more women " as the emptiness became more profound . " At age 17 , his personal , financial , and relationship troubles convinced him that he was at a " dead end . " Wanting to do what he considered the mature thing , through the influence of his grandmother , he desired to start attending church . A girl Lecrae attended high school with was there , and she invited him to a Bible study , where he met Darragh , his future wife . Lecrae was surprised to find that the members of the Bible study " were just people like me . They read the same books and listened to the same music . Their character was just different . They were loving and that 's really what drew me in . " Lecrae says that it was at age 19 that he finally decided to live for God , though " it wasn 't overnight " and he " spent a lot of time making bad decisions . "
= = = = Conversion = = = =
Lecrae attended a conference after being invited by a friend , though Lecrae admits that his interest was to meet girls and experience the big city . When he arrived at the conference , Lecrae was awed by the performance of the Christian hip @-@ hop group The Cross Movement . Lecrae says that he saw " guys who had been shot from being in gangs , girls who were extremely promiscuous in the past , I see rappers , dancers and singers ; I see people who came from the same background I came from , and they still embodied who they were culturally , but they were all in love with Jesus and I had never seen that before . " After hearing Pastor James White of Christ Our King Community Church speak on how Christians are bought with a price and the suffering that Jesus underwent in the Crucifixion , Lecrae says that he remembers articulating " God get me out of this , don 't kill me ; do whatever you have to do to get me out of this , just don 't kill me . " Later , Lecrae was driving on a highway when he turned too quickly and his car went into a roll . He had no seatbelt and the roof and windshield of the car caved in , his glasses were molded into the frame of the car , but he survived completely uninjured . Lecrae cites this incident as the one which convinced him to commit his life to Christ . Lecrae went back to his college , the University of North Texas , with a printed version of his testimony to pass out on campus . He started volunteering and performing at a juvenile detention center , and the reception he received convinced him that offering " hope and encouragement " through music was what he wanted to do . However , Lecrae still struggled in his faith − as revealed in " Good , Bad , Ugly " , in 2002 he impregnated a then @-@ girlfriend . Rather than risk scandal , he and his girlfriend had the baby aborted , a decision he says he now deeply regrets .
= = = Early career , Real Talk , and After the Music Stops ( 2004 – 07 ) = = =
Five years after his conversion , Lecrae teamed up with Ben Washer to found Reach Records , and at the age of 25 he released his first album , Real Talk . The following year it was re @-@ released by Cross Movement Records and reached No. 29 on the Billboard Gospel Albums chart , staying on the chart for 12 weeks . The album later received a nomination at the 2007 Stellar Awards . In 2005 , Lecrae co @-@ founded the non @-@ profit organization ReachLife Ministries , which equips local Christian leaders with tools , media , curriculum , and conferences that are based on the teachings of the Bible and relevant to hip @-@ hop culture . Also in 2005 , the debut album of 116 Clique , The Compilation Album , was released .
After the success of Real Talk , Lecrae released his second studio album on August 15 , 2006 . After the Music Stops charted at No. 5 on the Billboard Gospel Albums chart , No. 7 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and No. 16 on the Billboard Heatseeker Album charts , and received a nomination for a Dove Award , as was the single " Jesus Muzik " , featuring Trip Lee . In 2007 , 116 Clique released its second album , 13 Letters , reaching No. 10 on the Gospel Albums chart and No. 29 on the Christian Albums chart . 116 Clique also released the remix EP Amped , which peaked at No. 24 on the Gospel Albums chart .
= = = Rebel ( 2008 – 09 ) = = =
On October 8 , 2008 , Lecrae 's third album , Rebel , entered the Billboard charts at No. 60 with 9 @,@ 800 units sold and topped the Billboard Gospel Album charts for two weeks , the first hip @-@ hop album to do so . It also charted at No. 2 on the Christian Albums chart and No. 15 on the Top Independent charts . In 2009 , the album received a nomination at the 40th Dove Awards , as did the Flame song " Joyful Noise " , which featured Lecrae and John Reilly . 2009 also saw Lecrae 's first film role , when he appeared in the documentary Uprise Presents : Word from the Street by the UK @-@ based TV channel OHTV .
= = = Rehab series ( 2010 – 11 ) = = =
On February 5 , 2010 , Lecrae released a charity single entitled " Far Away " , a tribute to the victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake . Lecrae promised that all proceeds from the single 's sales would go directly to the Haiti relief effort .
On July 7 , Lecrae announced on the Reach Records website that the title of his new album would be Rehab . On August 5 , 2010 , Rapzilla released a new song from Lecrae called " Amp It Up " . Lecrae subsequently clarified on his Twitter account that the song was not a single from Rehab , but rather a theme song for Kanakuk Kamps , a chain of Christian camps for which he writes songs annually . On August 31 , 2010 , Reach Records revealed the track list for Rehab , released it for preorder , and premiered a promotional video " Idols " . A second promotional video , entitled " I Am Dust " , debuted on September 9 , 2010 . Upon its release , Rehab hit No. 16 on the Billboard 200 chart , making it one of the highest selling Christian hip hop albums at that time .
On September 22 , 2010 , Rapzilla reported that the Rehab packaging came with an advertisement encouraging buyers to purchase another upcoming album , Rehab : The Overdose , which saw release on January 11 , 2011 . It included 11 new songs and featured several other Christian artists such as Thi 'sl and Swoope . Rehab : The Overdose debuted at No. 15 on the Billboard 200 . On August 29 , 2011 , Lecrae announced through Twitter that on September 27 , 2011 , he would release a special edition of Rehab , entitled Rehab : Deluxe Edition . On the same day , 116 Clique released their fourth album , entitled Man Up .
On September 7 , 2011 , Rapzilla announced that Lecrae would be featured on the BET Hip Hop Awards Cypher on October 11 , 2011 . Lecrae gained popularity after his verse on the cypher trended nationwide on Twitter and was featured on AllHipHop . Lecrae then appeared as a feature on Statik Selektah 's song " Live and Let Live " from his Population Control album .
= = = Mainstream breakthrough , Gravity , and Church Clothes series ( 2012 – 13 ) = = =
On February 16 , 2012 , Rapzilla announced that Lecrae was preparing to release his first mixtape , Church Clothes . On May 3 , 2012 , Lecrae premiered his music video for the title track of his Church Clothes mixtape online on XXL . The video was noted for including cameos by Kendrick Lamar and DJ Premier , and attracted almost 20 @,@ 000 views in less than a day . Hosted by Don Cannon , the mixtape featured the song Darkest Hour , in which Lecrae collaborated with No Malice of Clipse . Church Clothes was downloaded more than 100 @,@ 000 times in less than 48 hours on DatPiff.com , and in less than a month reached 250 @,@ 000 downloads , a platinum rating on the website . On June 25 , 2012 , a remastered version of the mixtape , without DJ Don Cannon , was released as an EP for sale on iTunes . Due to issues with sampling , this version was much shorter with only seven songs . Upon its release , the EP debuted on the Billboard charts at No. 10 on both the Christian Albums and Gospel Albums charts for the week of July 14 , 2012 .
On April 27 , Lecrae announced that his next album , Gravity , was to be released in late 2012 , and recording sessions began in May . On June 21 , 2012 Lecrae appeared live at the Apple Store in Chicago for Black Music Month . The release date for Gravity , September 4 , 2012 , as well as the album artwork was announced on July 19 , 2012 via Rapzilla .
On August 30 , 2012 , the rapper Saigon announced that Lecrae would be one of the featured artists on his upcoming album The Greatest Story Never Told Chapter 2 : Bread and Circuses , due November 6 , 2012 .
Gravity was released on September 4 , 2012 to critical acclaim . Upon its release , Gravity debuted at No. 3 on the Billboard 200 , with 72 @,@ 000 units sold . The album also debuted at No. 1 on the Christian , Gospel , Independent , and Rap Album charts , No. 3 on the Digital Albums chart , and 24 on the Canadian Albums Chart . After the iTunes deluxe version of the album hit No. 1 on that vendors charts , and the regular version at number No. 2 , Time wrote an article about Lecrae and his success with the album .
On November 7 , 2013 , Lecrae released his second mixtape , entitled Church Clothes Vol . 2 , hosted once again by Don Cannon . The mixtape debuted at No. 21 on the Billboard 200 , No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums and Gospel Albums charts , and No. 3 on the Rap Albums chart . On Datpiff.com , the album was download over 146 @,@ 000 times by November 26 , 2013 .
= = = Anomaly , Church Clothes 3 , first book , and new record deal ( 2014 – present ) = = =
On June 3 , 2014 Lecrae announced through social media that his seventh studio album would be titled Anomaly . The album released on September 9 , 2014 . It is supported by the single " Nuthin " . It debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard 200 with over 88 @,@ 000 copies sold through the first week . It is the first time an album tops both the Billboard 200 and the Gospel Albums chart . Lecrae also became the fifth artist following Chris Tomlin ( 2013 ) , TobyMac ( 2012 ) , LeAnn Rimes ( 1997 ) and Bob Carlisle ( 1997 ) to score a number one album on both Christian Albums and the Billboard 200 . Anomaly also marks the sixth time that Lecrae topped the Gospel Albums chart and the fifth time he topped the Christian Albums chart . In its second week of sales , the album sold 31 @,@ 000 copies , bringing the total to 120 @,@ 000 copies sold . In its third week of sales , the album sold another 17 @,@ 000 copies , bringing the total to 137 @,@ 000 copies . As a reward to fans for their support in helping his album go No. 1 on Billboard , Lecrae released a new song , " Non @-@ Fiction " , as a free download on September 17 . The song was subsequently released on October 21 , 2014 in the iTunes store . In August 2015 , Lecrae announced that he will be releasing a memoir titled Unashamed , it was released in May 2016 . On January 15 , 2016 , Lecrae released his third mixtape Church Clothes 3 . In May 2016 , Lecrae signed to Columbia Records , which will release future recordings in conjunction with Reach .
= = Influences and musical style = =
Lecrae 's musical genre is predominantly Southern hip hop , and has been described as falling under the styles of crunk , gangsta rap , and hardcore hip hop . On his third release , Rebel , Lecrae slowed down his style on many songs . Rehab was noted for its stylistic diversity , particularly on the song " Children of the Light " , which featured Dillavou and Sonny Sandoval and incorporated rock , and reggae influences . With the release Gravity , Billboard described Lecrae as incorporating reggae and soul influences into his " signature brash sound . "
Regarding which musical artists have influenced him , Lecrae , in an interview with Essence , cited Tupac , Nas , DJ Quik , Scarface , and The Cross Movement . In an interview with The Christian Post , Lecrae listed his top favorite five hip hop artists as Tupac , Nas , The Ambassador , Snoop Dogg , and , though for his business approach rather than his music , Jay Z. Lecrae also names Outkast and Lauryn Hill as major influences , particularly their albums Aquemini and The Miseducation of Lauryn Hill , respectively , and considers Hill 's song " Adam Lives in Theory " as the top song that nourishes him spiritually . In the song " Non @-@ Fiction " , he lists the Tunnel Rats alongside The Cross Movement as an influence when he was newly converted to Christianity . Theologically , Lecrae follows the Reformed tradition of theology and is considered an influential figure in the New Calvinist movement . He cites Tommy Nelson , John MacArthur , and John Piper , among others , as early influences on his Christian faith , and Lecrae even titled one of his hit songs , " Don 't Waste Your Life " , after the book of the same name by Piper . Lecrae explains that through Nelson , MacArthur , and Piper , he subsequently discovered Spurgeon , Calvin , and Francis Schaeffer , the last of whom Lecrae calls his " personal hero " . Other theologians cited by Lecrae include Tim Keller , Andy Crouch , Randy Alcorn , and Abraham Kuyper . He also looks to Martin Luther King , Jr. for inspiration on working out faith in social issues .
He frequently tells the press that " My music is not Christian , Lecrae is . " He told Miami New Times 's Crossfade that " I think Christian is a wonderful noun , but a terrible adjective . Are there Christian shoes , Christian clothes , Christian plumbers , Christian pipes ? I think if you 're going to , you should label it hip @-@ hop ... hip @-@ hop is a particular poetic style . Labeling it with the faith assumes that the song is going to be some kind of sermon , but there 's a lot of social and political things that I don 't think make it gospel or Christian music . " He also stated , " I like to wrap my mind around a total situation . I 'm a social anthropologist . If I never been homeless , let me try to be homeless for a week and soak up that information . More like a method actor . So for me it 's spending time with people and talking about things from their perspective . "
= = Popular culture = =
Charlotte Hornets guard Jeremy Lin recommended Lecrae and Hillsong in an interview when asked about his pre @-@ game music . Former NFL quarterback Tim Tebow and professional wrestler Ezekiel Jackson have also endorsed Lecrae . During March 2014 , Lecrae signed a ten @-@ day contract with the Atlanta Hawks , and on April 4 , 2014 , he performed live at Philips Arena after the Hawks game . " Dum Dum , " a song by Tedashii featuring Lecrae , was used on an episode of So You Think You Can Dance .
= = Social activism = =
In 2011 , 116 Clique and ReachLife Ministries , both headed by Lecrae , launched a media campaign entitled Man Up , intended to mentor male urban youths on fatherhood and biblical manhood . It features concert tours and a curriculum centered on a short film and a studio album , both titled Man Up , and since 2012 has also featured a string of conference events .
In May 2013 , Lecrae partnered with NBA player Dwyane Wade , filmmaker Art Hooker , and Joshua DuBois , the former head of the Office of Faith Based and Neighborhood Partnerships under the Obama administration , to create the national media campaign This Is Fatherhood , an initiative " devoted to restoring America 's commitment to healthy fatherhood . " The campaign began on May 1 with a " This is Fatherhood Challenge " , in which contestants could submit videos , songs , and essays about fatherhood through June 10 . The winners received cash prizes and a trip to Washington , D.C. , for a ceremony on Father 's Day . In addition , Lecrae offered studio time and mentoring to the grand prize winner . Lecrae , Wade , DuBois , Jay Z , and U.S. President Barack Obama all made appearances in the campaign 's promotional public service announcements .
Lecrae has also contributed op @-@ ed articles to Billboard on the 2014 Ferguson unrest and the 2015 Charleston church shooting , and has called for understanding and empathy across racial divides and willingness to listen to the oppressed , and also pointed out the need for spiritual healing through Jesus Christ .
= = Personal life = =
Lecrae currently resides in Atlanta since relocating there from Memphis in 2009 , and is married to Darragh Moore . The couple has three children together . Darragh handles the administration for Lecrae 's tours . Lecrae is a graduate of University of North Texas . In an interview with Hip Hop DX , Lecrae stated that Clipse member No Malice sought him out as a spiritual advisor .
On March 14 , 2016 , Canada Christian College bestowed an honorary Doctorate of Music to Lecrae whilst visiting Toronto on his Higher Learning Tour , making him the youngest recipient of such a degree from the college .
= = Discography = =
Real Talk ( 2004 )
After the Music Stops ( 2006 )
Rebel ( 2008 )
Rehab ( 2010 )
Rehab : The Overdose ( 2011 )
Gravity ( 2012 )
Anomaly ( 2014 )
= = Production discography = =
Self @-@ release – Real Talk ( 2004 )
Json – The Seasoning with So Hot Productions and C.I. ( 2005 )
Self @-@ release – After the Music Stops with So Hot Productions , Mac the Doulous , DJ Official , and Tony Stone ( 2006 )
Trip Lee – If They Only Knew with DJ Official , Tony Stone , Mac the Doulous , So Hot Productions ( 2006 )
Tedashii – Kingdom People with Ben Washer ( 2006 )
02 . " Houston We Have a Problem "
04 . " Off Da Hook "
09 . " Lifestyle "
15 . " No More "
19 . " In Ya Hood ( Cypha Remix ) "
Sho Baraka – Turn My Life Up with Bobby Taylor , DJ Official , BenJah , and So Hot Productions ( 2007 )
Self @-@ release – Rebel ( 2008 )
09 . " Change "
Self @-@ release – Gravity ( 2012 )
Self @-@ release – Anomaly ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
Lecrae has won many music awards over the space of his career , including two Grammy Awards and seven Dove Awards . In 2013 , he became the first hip hop artist to win the Grammy Award for Best Gospel Album , which was awarded to his sixth album , Gravity , and in 2015 became the first rapper to win the BET Award for Best Gospel Artist .
= Cliff Burton =
Clifford Lee " Cliff " Burton ( February 10 , 1962 – September 27 , 1986 ) was an American musician , best known as the second bass guitarist for the American thrash metal band Metallica from December 1982 until his death in September 1986 .
Burton joined Metallica in 1982 and performed on the band 's first three studio albums : Kill ' Em All , Ride the Lightning and Master of Puppets . He also received a posthumous writing credit for the song " To Live Is to Die " from the band 's fourth studio album , ... And Justice for All .
On September 27 , 1986 , Burton was killed in a bus accident in Kronoberg County , a rural area of southern Sweden , as the band was touring in support of the Master of Puppets album . Burton was replaced by bassist Jason Newsted the following month . He was also posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame with Metallica on April 4 , 2009 . He was selected as the ninth greatest bassist of all time in an online reader poll organized by Rolling Stone magazine in 2011 .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Clifford Lee Burton was born in Castro Valley , California , to Ray and Jan Burton . He had two elder siblings , Scott and Connie , and a niece , Nicole . Burton 's interest in music began when his father introduced him to classical music and he began taking piano lessons .
In his teenage years , Burton had an interest in rock , classical , and eventually heavy metal . He began playing the bass at age 13 , after the death of his brother . His parents quoted him as saying , " I 'm going to be the best bassist for my brother . " He practiced up to six hours per day ( even after he joined Metallica ) . Along with classical and jazz , Burton 's other early influences varied from southern rock and country to the blues .
Burton cited Geddy Lee , Geezer Butler , Stanley Clarke , Lemmy Kilmister and Phil Lynott as major influences on his style of bass playing .
= = = Career = = =
While still a student at Castro Valley High School , Burton formed his first band called EZ @-@ Street . The band took its name from a Bay Area topless bar . Other members of EZ Street included future Faith No More guitarist " Big " Jim Martin as well as Faith No More and Ozzy Osbourne drummer Mike Bordin . Burton and Martin continued their musical collaboration after becoming students at Chabot College in Hayward , California . Their second band , Agents of Misfortune , entered the Hayward Area Recreation Department 's Battle of the Bands contest in 1981 . Their audition was recorded on video and features some of the earliest footage of Burton 's trademark playing style . The video also shows Burton playing parts of what would soon be two Metallica songs : his signature bass solo , " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " , and the chromatic intro to " For Whom the Bell Tolls " . Burton joined his first major band , Trauma , in 1982 . Burton recorded the track " Such a Shame " with the band on the second Metal massacre compilation .
In 1982 , Trauma traveled to Los Angeles to perform at the Whisky a Go Go . Among those in attendance were James Hetfield and Lars Ulrich , both members of Metallica , which had formed the previous year . Upon hearing , as Hetfield described it , " this amazing shredding " ( which later became " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " ) , the two went in search of what they thought was an amazing guitar player . When they learned that what they had heard was a bass solo by Burton , they decided to recruit him for their own band . They asked him to replace departed bassist Ron McGovney , and since Burton thought that Trauma was " starting to get a little commercial " , he agreed . The idea of having to move to Los Angeles did not sit well with him , and said he would join only if the band would relocate from Los Angeles to his native San Francisco Bay Area . Metallica , eager to have Burton in the band , left their origin of Los Angeles to make a home in El Cerrito , a town located across the bay from San Francisco .
Burton 's first recording with Metallica was the Megaforce demo . A demo tape the band had made prior to Burton 's joining , No Life ' til Leather , managed to come into the hands of John Zazula , owner of Megaforce Records . The band relocated to Old Bridge , New Jersey and quickly secured a recording contract with Zazula 's label . Its debut album , Kill ' Em All , features Burton 's famous solo piece , " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " , which showcased his use of effects , such as a wah @-@ wah pedal , not commonly used by bass guitarists .
Metallica 's debut album , Kill ' Em All , was originally intended to inherit the name of one of their earlier demo releases ( predating Burton 's participation ) , which was Metal Up Your Ass , but the record company did not like the title and insisted on changing it . After the band learned of the change , Burton said " We should just kill ' em all , man , " which gave the band members an idea for the new title . The album was released on July 25 , 1983 through Megaforce Records .
The band 's second studio album , Ride the Lightning , showcased the band 's increasing musical growth . Burton 's songwriting abilities were growing , and he received credit on six of the album 's eight songs . Burton 's playing style and use of effects is showcased on two tracks : the chromatic intro to " For Whom the Bell Tolls " , and the " lead bass " on " The Call of Ktulu " .
The increase of musicianship on Ride the Lightning caught the attention of major record labels . Metallica was signed to Elektra Records , and began working on its third album , Master of Puppets , which is considered by most critics to be a landmark album in heavy metal . Burton is featured heavily on a number of tracks , most notably the instrumental " Orion " , which again featured Burton 's lead bass playing style . The album also contained Burton 's favorite Metallica song " Master of Puppets " . Master of Puppets was the band 's commercial breakthrough , but it would be Burton 's final album with Metallica .
Burton 's final performance was in Stockholm , Sweden , at the Solnahallen Arena on September 26 , 1986 , one day before his death .
= = = Death = = =
During the European leg of the Damage Inc. tour in support of Master of Puppets , the band complained that the sleeping cubicles on their tour bus were unsatisfactory and uncomfortable . To decide who received pick of the bunks , Kirk Hammett and Burton drew cards . On the evening of September 26 , 1986 , Burton won the game with an ace of spades , thereby getting the first choice of bunk and pointed at Hammett and exclaimed , " I want your bunk ! " Hammett replied , " Fine , take my bunk , I 'll sleep up front , it 's probably better up there anyway . " Burton was sleeping shortly before 7 am on September 27 when , according to the driver , the bus skidded off the road ( the E4 , 12 miles north of Ljungby ) , and flipped onto the grass in Kronoberg County Burton was thrown through the window of the bus , which fell on top of him , resulting in his death .
James Hetfield later stated that he first believed the bus flipped because the driver was drunk . Hetfield stated that he walked long distances down the road looking for black ice and found none . Local freelance photographer Lennart Wennberg ( who attended the crash scene the following morning ) , later asked in an interview about the likelihood that black ice caused the accident , said it was ' out of the question ' because the road was dry and the temperature around 2 ° C ( 36 ° F ) . This was confirmed by police who found no ice on the road . Ljungby detective Arne Pettersson was reported in a local newspaper to have said the tracks at the accident site were exactly like ones seen when drivers fall asleep at the wheel . However , the driver stated under oath that he had slept during the day and was fully rested ; his testimony was confirmed by the driver of a second tour bus that was carrying the band 's crew and equipment . The driver was determined not at fault for the accident and no charges were brought against him .
= = Legacy = =
Burton 's body was cremated and the ashes scattered at the Maxwell Ranch . At the ceremony , the song " Orion " was played . The lyrics " ... cannot the Kingdom of Salvation take me home " from " To Live Is to Die " are written on Burton 's memorial stone . Shortly after Burton 's death , Jason Newsted from Flotsam and Jetsam became Metallica 's new bassist , a position he held until his resignation in 2001 . The role has since been filled by producer and studio musician Bob Rock and by the former bassist of Suicidal Tendencies and Ozzy Osbourne , Robert Trujillo .
Metallica wrote a tribute to Burton titled " To Live Is to Die " for ... And Justice for All . Burton also received a writing credit for the lyrics and bass parts that were taken from unused bass recordings done by Burton which were re @-@ recorded by Jason Newsted . A non @-@ Metallica tribute to Burton is the song " In My Darkest Hour " by thrash metal band Megadeth . According to Dave Mustaine , due to hearing of Burton 's death , he sat down and wrote the music for the song in one sitting . The lyrics , however , are unrelated to Burton 's death . Mustaine was Metallica 's lead guitarist in the early days and was a close friend of Burton at the time .
On October 3 , 2006 , a memorial stone was unveiled in Sweden near the scene of the fatal crash . It is located by the parking lot to Gyllene Rasten .
Thrash metal band Anthrax dedicated its album Among the Living to him , as did Metal Church with The Dark .
On April 4 , 2009 , Burton was posthumously inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame , with fellow Metallica bandmates James Hetfield , Lars Ulrich and Kirk Hammett . Future bassists Jason Newsted and Robert Trujillo were inducted as well . During the ceremony , the induction was accepted by his father Ray Burton , who shared the stage with the band and mentioned that Cliff 's mother was actually Metallica 's biggest fan .
A biography , To Live Is to Die : The Life and Death of Metallica 's Cliff Burton , written by Joel McIver , was published by Jawbone Press in June 2009 . Hammett provided the book 's foreword .
= = Equipment = =
= = Cliff Burton Signature Bass = =
In January 2013 , guitar manufacturer Aria revealed through Metallica 's official website that they would be releasing a replica of Burton 's bass , called the Aria Pro II Cliff Burton Signature Bass . They had received permission from Burton 's family and former bandmates from Metallica to authorize the production of the instrument . The bass guitar was officially unveiled at Winter NAMM in Anaheim , California . On January 25 , 2013 , Burton 's father Ray attended the press conference where he signed autographs and talked about Burton and the instrument . Current Metallica bassist Robert Trujillo was also present and was the first to try out the bass , playing parts of " ( Anesthesia ) - Pulling Teeth " . It is unknown whether any other members of Metallica attended the event . Ray Burton was quoted as saying , ' " What a beautiful instrument and a wonderful tribute to Cliff . "
Specifications
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
Kill ' Em All ( 1983 )
Ride the Lightning ( 1984 )
Master of Puppets ( 1986 )
... And Justice for All ( 1988 ) ( Posthumous writing credit on " To Live Is to Die " )
Garage Inc . ( 1998 ) ( Featured on " Am I Evil ? " & " Blitzkrieg " only )
= = = Demos = = =
No Life ' til Leather ( 1982 ) ( credited but does not play )
Megaforce ( 1983 )
Ride the Lightning ( 1983 )
Master of Puppets ( 1985 )
= = = Compilations = = =
Metal Massacre Vol.II ( with Trauma )
= Heather Chasen =
Heather Jean Chasen ( born 20 July 1927 ) is a Singapore @-@ born English actress . Chasen is known for her roles in soap operas ; playing Valerie Pollard in the ITV soap opera Crossroads from 1982 – 86 and guest roles in Doctors , Holby City and Family Affairs . Chasen also played many roles in BBC Radio 2 's The Navy Lark from 1959 – 77 , and appeared in the television series Marked Personal from 1973 – 74 . She played Lydia Simmonds in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , a role which received positive reviews from critics , EastEnders cast members and crew . Furthermore , she has appeared extensively in theatre productions and film ; in 2012 , she appeared in a film version of Les Misérables .
= = Early and personal life = =
Chasen was born on 20 July 1927 , in Singapore . Chasen 's father , F.N. Chasen was an English ornithologist , who fought in World War I under the Norfolk Yeomanry as a trooper . In 1921 , he left England , to work at the Raffles Library and Museum in Singapore , marrying Chasen 's mother , Agnes H McCullock , in 1926 . After Chasen 's birth , her parents had another daughter , Christine Elizabeth , on 4 May 1931 . Her parents split in 1938 , and both remarried . Before the Japanese occupation , which led to the Battle of Singapore during World War II , Chasen and her mother left Singapore on the last boat before the occupation . Her father , on a separate ship , HMS Giang Bee , perished however , when it was sunk by the Japanese on 12 February 1942 , and Chasen 's new stepfather , G.C.R Franks , too perished fighting , a month later , on the 22 March . Chasen and her mother moved to England and Chasen trained at Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , where she then acted on stage and went on a tour with Frankie Howerd in Hotel Paradiso . She also appeared with Sybil Thorndike in Call Me Jacky , as well as going on tour with Douglas Fairbanks , Jr. in The Pleasure of his Company , in Toronto . Chasen is good friends with , and previously had a relationship with , Amanda Barrie . In 1949 , she married John Webster in Surrey and has one son with him , Rupert , born in Kensington , 1955 .
= = Career = =
= = = Crossroads and EastEnders = = =
In 2011 , Chasen was cast as Lydia Simmonds , Janine Butcher ( Charlie Brooks ) ' s maternal grandmother and Norman Simmonds ' ( George Layton ) mother , in the BBC soap opera EastEnders , after the original actress Margaret Tyzack had to pull out of the role due to personal reasons . Two episodes featuring Tyzack had already been broadcast , and she featured in a further one on 14 April . The producers wanted to keep Lydia in the show as they had plans for her , so Chasen was cast and she replaced Tyzack in the role , beginning filming on 15 April for scenes broadcast from 21 April . EastEnders ' executive producer , Bryan Kirkwood , added : " In order to continue the current storyline we 've taken the decision for Heather Chasen to take over the role of Lydia . " The character died on @-@ screen and Chasen made her last appearance on 13 June 2011 , and , though not credited for it , did a voice @-@ over for the 14 and 28 June episodes . Kirkwood later said " Lydia 's storyline was perfect " and that Chasen had made the part her own after Tyzack 's departure . Brooks said of the storyline as a whole , " I absolutely loved exploring Janine 's background . I was really proud with the scenes with Heather Chasen [ Lydia ] . It was really hard work , but worth it . "
= = = Other work = = =
Chasen has appeared in other television programmes such as The Bill and The Harry Hill Show . She has had guest roles in Z @-@ Cars and Dixon of Dock Green and has voiced a number of characters in the radio show The Navy Lark , most notably WREN Heather Chasen and " battle axe " Ramona Povey . In soaps , she has had four separate stints in the BBC soap opera Doctors , with her most recent stint in 2014 , reprising her role as Grace Barberry from 2012 , played Sylvie Leigh in Holby City and played Madge Bennet in the Channel 5 soap opera , Family Affairs , for five episodes . More earlier credits include , playing " rich bitches " Caroline Kerr , in The Newcomers and Isabel Neal in Marked Personal , alongside Stephanie Beacham . She also played the " evil " headmistress in Schoolgirls in Uniform at the Battersea Arts Centre . In stage and theatre , Chasen appeared in The Rat Trap . Michael Billington from The Guardian described Chasen 's character , Burrage the maid , as " trundling " , rating the play three stars . Other than this , she has appeared in Pardon Ma Prime Minister alongside Gerald Flood and Paul Curran , written by Edward Taylor and John Graham who created the BBC radio series The Men from the Ministry . The Birmingham Mail described the play as " hilarious " and " promising " . One of Chasen 's more recent plays was My Three Angels in which she played Madame Parole , other plays include , The Man Who Came to Dinner , Who Bombed Birmingham playing Margaret Thatcher , and The Lizard of Rock , in which she played the main role , appearing alongside actor Jack Hawkins . Chasen opined that she had a " lovely time " playing Miss Marple in A Murder is Announced alongside Richard Todd and Barbara Murray . In 2009 , Chasen appeared in the award @-@ winning Anglo @-@ Russian feature film Season of Mists , playing Jane . Chasen appeared alongside Marina Blake , Sergei Chonishvili , Ifan Huw Dafydd and ex @-@ EastEnders actor Dudley Sutton . Other films Chasen has appeared in include , The Kiss of Tosca in 2000 , The Toybox in 2003 and Cat Run , a 2011 film .
= = Awards and nominations = =
Chasen was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Performance by a Featured Actress in a Musical , while she appeared in the New York adaptation of A Severed Head between 1963 @-@ 65 . She appeared the cast of the Seasons of Mists which won a number of awards internationally .
= = Filmography = =
Television
Film
Radio
Stage / Theatre
= Roman Republic =
The Roman Republic ( Latin : Res publica Romana ; Classical Latin : [ ˈreːs ˈpuːb.lɪ.ka roːˈmaː.na ] ) was the period of ancient Roman civilization beginning with the overthrow of the Roman Kingdom , traditionally dated to 509 BC , and ending in 27 BC with the establishment of the Roman Empire . It was during this period that Rome 's control expanded from the city 's immediate surroundings to hegemony over the entire Mediterranean world .
During the first two centuries of its existence , the Roman Republic expanded through a combination of conquest and alliance , from central Italy to the entire Italian peninsula . By the following century , it included North Africa , Spain , and what is now southern France . Two centuries after that , towards the end of the 1st century BC , it included the rest of modern France , Greece , and much of the eastern Mediterranean . By this time , internal tensions led to a series of civil wars , culminating with the assassination of Julius Caesar , which led to the transition from republic to empire . The exact date of transition can be a matter of interpretation . Historians have variously proposed Julius Caesar 's crossing of the Rubicon River in 49 BC , Caesar 's appointment as dictator for life in 44 BC , and the defeat of Mark Antony and Cleopatra at the Battle of Actium in 31 BC . However , most use the same date as did the ancient Romans themselves , the Roman Senate 's grant of extraordinary powers to Octavian and his adopting the title Augustus in 27 BC , as the defining event ending the Republic .
Roman government was headed by two consuls , elected annually by the citizens and advised by a senate composed of appointed magistrates . As Roman society was very hierarchical by modern standards , the evolution of the Roman government was heavily influenced by the struggle between the patricians , Rome 's land @-@ holding aristocracy , who traced their ancestry to the founding of Rome , and the plebeians , the far more numerous citizen @-@ commoners . Over time , the laws that gave patricians exclusive rights to Rome 's highest offices were repealed or weakened , and leading plebeian families became full members of the aristocracy . The leaders of the Republic developed a strong tradition and morality requiring public service and patronage in peace and war , making military and political success inextricably linked . Many of Rome 's legal and legislative structures ( later codified into the Justinian Code , and again into the Napoleonic Code ) can still be observed throughout Europe and much of the world in modern nation states and international organizations .
= = Military history = =
The exact causes and motivations for Rome 's military conflicts and expansions during the republic are subject to wide debate . While they can be seen as motivated by outright aggression and imperialism , historians typically take a much more nuanced view . They argue that Rome 's expansion was driven by short @-@ term defensive and inter @-@ state factors ( that is , relations with city @-@ states and kingdoms outside Rome 's hegemony ) , and the new contingencies that these decisions created . In its early history , as Rome successfully defended itself against foreign threats in central and then northern Italy , neighboring city @-@ states sought the protection a Roman alliance would bring . As such , early republican Rome was not an " empire " or " state " in the modern sense , but an alliance of independent city @-@ states ( similar to the Greek hegemonies of the same period ) with varying degrees of genuine independence ( which itself changed over time ) engaged in an alliance of mutual self @-@ protection , but led by Rome . With some important exceptions , successful wars in early republican Rome generally led not to annexation or military occupation , but to the restoration of the way things were . But the defeated city would be weakened ( sometimes with outright land concessions ) and thus less able to resist Romanizing influences , such as Roman settlers seeking land or trade with the growing Roman confederacy . It was also less able to defend itself against its non @-@ Roman enemies , which made attack by these enemies more likely . It was , therefore , more likely to seek an alliance of protection with Rome .
This growing coalition expanded the potential enemies that Rome might face , and moved Rome closer to confrontation with major powers . The result was more alliance @-@ seeking , on the part of both the Roman confederacy and city @-@ states seeking membership ( and protection ) within that confederacy . While there were exceptions to this ( such as military rule of Sicily after the First Punic War ) , it was not until after the Second Punic War that these alliances started to harden into something more like an empire , at least in certain locations . This shift mainly took place in parts of the west , such as the southern Italian towns that sided with Hannibal .
In contrast , Roman expansion into Spain and Gaul occurred as a mix of alliance @-@ seeking and military occupation . In the 2nd century BC , Roman involvement in the Greek east remained a matter of alliance @-@ seeking , but this time in the face of major powers that could rival Rome . According to Polybius , who sought to trace how Rome came to dominate the Greek east in less than a century , this was mainly a matter of several Greek city @-@ states seeking Roman protection against the Macedonian kingdom and Seleucid Empire in the face of destabilisation created by the weakening of Ptolemaic Egypt . In contrast to the west , the Greek east had been dominated by major empires for centuries , and Roman influence and alliance @-@ seeking led to wars with these empires that further weakened them and therefore created an unstable power vacuum that only Rome could fill . This had some important similarities to ( and important differences from ) the events in Italy centuries earlier , but this time on a global scale .
Historians see the growing Roman influence over the east , as with the west , as not a matter of intentional empire @-@ building , but constant crisis management narrowly focused on short @-@ term goals within a highly unstable , unpredictable , and inter @-@ dependent network of alliances and dependencies . With some major exceptions of outright military rule , the Roman Republic remained an alliance of independent city @-@ states and kingdoms ( with varying degrees of independence , both de jure and de facto ) until it transitioned into the Roman Empire . It was not until the time of the Roman Empire that the entire Roman world was organized into provinces under explicit Roman control .
= = = Early Republic ( 458 – 274 BC ) = = =
= = = = Early Italian campaigns ( 458 – 396 BC ) = = = =
The first Roman republican wars were wars of both expansion and defence , aimed at protecting Rome itself from neighbouring cities and nations and establishing its territory in the region . Initially , Rome 's immediate neighbours were either Latin towns and villages , or else tribal Sabines from the Apennine hills beyond . One by one Rome defeated both the persistent Sabines and the local cities , both those under Etruscan control and those that had cast off their Etruscan rulers . Rome defeated Latin cities in the Battle of Lake Regillus in 496 BC , the Battle of Mons Algidus in 458 BC , the Battle of Corbione in 446 BC , the Battle of Aricia , and especially the Battle of the Cremera in 477 BC wherein it fought against the most important Etruscan city of Veii .
By the end of this period , Rome had effectively completed the conquest of their immediate Etruscan and Latin neighbours , and also secured their position against the immediate threat posed by the nearby Apennine hill tribes .
= = = = Celtic invasion of Italy ( 390 – 387 BC ) = = = =
By 390 BC , several Gallic tribes were invading Italy from the north as their culture expanded throughout Europe . The Romans were alerted to this when a particularly warlike tribe invaded two Etruscan towns close to Rome 's sphere of influence . These towns , overwhelmed by the enemy 's numbers and ferocity , called on Rome for help . The Romans met the Gauls in pitched battle at the Battle of Allia River around 390 – 387 BC . The Gauls , led by chieftain Brennus , defeated the Roman army of approximately 15 @,@ 000 troops , pursued the fleeing Romans back to Rome , and sacked the city before being either driven off or bought off . Romans and Gauls continued to war intermittently in Italy for more than two centuries .
= = = = Roman expansion into Italy ( 343 – 282 BC ) = = = =
After recovering surprisingly fast from the sack of Rome , the Romans immediately resumed their expansion within Italy . The First Samnite War from 343 BC to 341 BC was relatively short : the Romans beat the Samnites in two battles , but were forced to withdraw before they could pursue the conflict further due to the revolt of several of their Latin allies in the Latin War . Rome beat the Latins in the Battle of Vesuvius and again in the Battle of Trifanum , after which the Latin cities were obliged to submit to Roman rule .
The Second Samnite War , from 327 BC to 304 BC , was much longer and more serious for both Romans and Samnites . The fortunes of the two sides fluctuated throughout its course . But the Romans won the Battle of Bovianum , and the tide turned strongly against the Samnites from 314 BC onwards , leading them to sue for peace with progressively less generous terms . By 304 BC , the Romans had effectively annexed the greater degree of the Samnite territory , founding several colonies .
Seven years after their defeat , with Roman dominance of the area looking assured , the Samnites rose again and defeated a Roman army in 298 BC , to open the Third Samnite War . Following this success they built a coalition of several previous enemies of Rome . At the Battle of Populonia in 282 BC Rome finished off the last vestiges of Etruscan power in the region .
= = = = Pyrrhic War ( 280 – 275 BC ) = = = =
By the beginning of the 3rd century , Rome had established itself as a major power on the Italian Peninsula , but had not yet come into conflict with the dominant military powers in the Mediterranean Basin at the time : Carthage and the Greek kingdoms .
When a diplomatic dispute between Rome and a Greek colony in Italy erupted into open warfare in a naval confrontation , the Greek colony appealed for military aid to Pyrrhus , ruler of the northwestern Greek kingdom of Epirus . Motivated by a personal desire for military accomplishment , Pyrrhus landed a Greek army of some 25 @,@ 000 men on Italian soil in 280 BC .
Despite early victories , Pyrrhus found his position in Italy untenable . Rome steadfastly refused to negotiate with Pyrrhus as long as his army remained in Italy . Facing unacceptably heavy losses from each encounter with the Roman army , Pyrrhus withdrew from the peninsula ( hence the term " Pyrrhic victory " ) . In 275 BC , Pyrrhus again met the Roman army at the Battle of Beneventum . While Beneventum was indecisive , Pyrrhus realised his army had been exhausted and reduced by years of foreign campaigns . Seeing little hope for further gains , he withdrew completely from Italy .
The conflicts with Pyrrhus would have a great effect on Rome . Rome had shown it was capable of pitting its armies successfully against the dominant military powers of the Mediterranean , and that the Greek kingdoms were incapable of defending their colonies in Italy and abroad . Rome quickly moved into southern Italia , subjugating and dividing the Greek colonies . Now , Rome effectively dominated the Italian peninsula , and won an international military reputation .
= = = Mid @-@ Republic ( 264 – 133 BC ) = = =
= = = = Punic Wars ( 264 – 146 BC ) = = = =
The First Punic War began in 264 BC when inhabitants of Sicily began to appeal to the two powers between which they lay – Rome and Carthage – to resolve internal conflicts . The war saw land battles in Sicily early on , but the theatre shifted to naval battles around Sicily and Africa . Before the First Punic War there was no Roman navy to speak of . The new war in Sicily against Carthage , a great naval power , forced Rome to quickly build a fleet and train sailors .
The first few naval battles were disasters for Rome . However , after training more sailors and inventing a grappling engine , a Roman naval force was able to defeat a Carthaginian fleet , and further naval victories followed . The Carthaginians then hired Xanthippus of Carthage , a Spartan mercenary general , to reorganise and lead their army . He cut off the Roman army from its base by re @-@ establishing Carthaginian naval supremacy . The Romans then again defeated the Carthaginians in naval battle at the Battle of the Aegates Islands and left Carthage with neither a fleet nor sufficient financial means to raise one . For a maritime power the loss of their access to the Mediterranean stung financially and psychologically , and the Carthaginians sued for peace .
Continuing distrust led to the renewal of hostilities in the Second Punic War when Hannibal Barca attacked an Iberian town which had diplomatic ties to Rome . Hannibal then crossed the Italian Alps to invade Italy . Hannibal 's successes in Italy began immediately , and reached an early climax at the Battle of Cannae , where 70 @,@ 000 Romans were killed .
The Romans held off Hannibal in three battles , but then Hannibal smashed a succession of Roman consular armies . By this time Hannibal 's brother Hasdrubal Barca sought to cross the Alps into Italy and join his brother with a second army . Hasdrubal managed to break through into Italy only to be defeated decisively on the Metaurus River . Unable to defeat Hannibal on Italian soil , the Romans boldly sent an army to Africa under Scipio Africanus to threaten the Carthaginian capital . Hannibal was recalled to Africa , and defeated at the Battle of Zama .
Carthage never recovered militarily after the Second Punic War , but quickly did so economically and the Third Punic War that followed was in reality a simple punitive mission after the neighbouring Numidians allied to Rome robbed / attacked Carthaginian merchants . Treaties had forbidden any war with Roman allies , and defence against robbing / pirates was considered as " war action " : Rome decided to annihilate the city of Carthage . Carthage was almost defenceless , and submitted when besieged . However , the Romans demanded complete surrender and removal of the city into the ( desert ) inland far off any coastal or harbour region , and the Carthaginians refused . The city was besieged , stormed , and completely destroyed .
Ultimately , all of Carthage 's North African and Iberian territories were acquired by Rome . Note that " Carthage " was not an ' empire ' , but a league of Punic colonies ( port cities in the western Mediterranean ) like the 1st and 2nd Athenian ( " Attic " ) leagues , under leadership of Carthage . Punic Carthage was gone , but the other Punic cities in the western Mediterranean flourished under Roman rule .
= = = = Kingdom of Macedonia , the Greek poleis , and Illyria ( 215 – 148 BC ) = = = =
Rome 's preoccupation with its war with Carthage provided an opportunity for Philip V of the kingdom of Macedonia , located in the north of the Greek peninsula , to attempt to extend his power westward . Philip sent ambassadors to Hannibal 's camp in Italy , to negotiate an alliance as common enemies of Rome . However , Rome discovered the agreement when Philip 's emissaries were captured by a Roman fleet . The First Macedonian War saw the Romans involved directly in only limited land operations , but they ultimately achieved their objective of pre @-@ occupying Philip and preventing him from aiding Hannibal .
The past century had seen the Greek world dominated by the three primary successor kingdoms of Alexander the Great 's empire : Ptolemaic Egypt , Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire . In 202 BC , internal problems led to a weakening of Egypt 's position , thereby disrupting the power balance among the successor states . Macedonia and the Seleucid Empire agreed to an alliance to conquer and divide Egypt . Fearing this increasingly unstable situation , several small Greek kingdoms sent delegations to Rome to seek an alliance . The delegation succeeded , even though prior Greek attempts to involve Rome in Greek affairs had been met with Roman apathy . Our primary source about these events , the surviving works of Polybius , do not state Rome 's reason for getting involved . Rome gave Philip an ultimatum to cease his campaigns against Rome 's new Greek allies . Doubting Rome 's strength ( a reasonable doubt , given Rome 's performance in the First Macedonian War ) Philip ignored the request , and Rome sent an army of Romans and Greek allies , beginning the Second Macedonian War . Despite his recent successes against the Greeks and earlier successes against Rome , Philip 's army buckled under the pressure from the Roman @-@ Greek army . In 197 BC , the Romans decisively defeated Philip at the Battle of Cynoscephalae , and Philip was forced to give up his recent Greek conquests . The Romans declared the " Peace of the Greeks " , believing that Philip 's defeat now meant that Greece would be stable . They pulled out of Greece entirely , maintaining minimal contacts with their Greek allies .
With Egypt and Macedonia weakened , the Seleucid Empire made increasingly aggressive and successful attempts to conquer the entire Greek world . Now not only Rome 's allies against Philip , but even Philip himself , sought a Roman alliance against the Seleucids . The situation was made worse by the fact that Hannibal was now a chief military advisor to the Seleucid emperor , and the two were believed to be planning an outright conquest not just of Greece , but of Rome itself . The Seleucids were much stronger than the Macedonians had ever been , because they controlled much of the former Persian Empire , and by now had almost entirely reassembled Alexander the Great 's former empire .
Fearing the worst , the Romans began a major mobilization , all but pulling out of recently pacified Spain and Gaul . They even established a major garrison in Sicily in case the Seleucids ever got to Italy . This fear was shared by Rome 's Greek allies , who had largely ignored Rome in the years after the Second Macedonian War , but now followed Rome again for the first time since that war . A major Roman @-@ Greek force was mobilized under the command of the great hero of the Second Punic War , Scipio Africanus , and set out for Greece , beginning the Roman @-@ Syrian War . After initial fighting that revealed serious Seleucid weaknesses , the Seleucids tried to turn the Roman strength against them at the Battle of Thermopylae ( as they believed the 300 Spartans had done centuries earlier ) . Like the Spartans , the Seleucids lost the battle , and were forced to evacuate Greece . The Romans pursued the Seleucids by crossing the Hellespont , which marked the first time a Roman army had ever entered Asia . The decisive engagement was fought at the Battle of Magnesia , resulting in a complete Roman victory . The Seleucids sued for peace , and Rome forced them to give up their recent Greek conquests . Although they still controlled a great deal of territory , this defeat marked the decline of their empire , as they were to begin facing increasingly aggressive subjects in the east ( the Parthians ) and the west ( the Greeks ) . Their empire disintegrated into a rump over the course of the next century , when it was eclipsed by Pontus . Following Magnesia , Rome again withdrew from Greece , assuming ( or hoping ) that the lack of a major Greek power would ensure a stable peace . In fact , it did the opposite .
In 179 BC Philip died . His talented and ambitious son , Perseus , took the throne and showed a renewed
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( AI ) players were not bots meant to replace humans , but " a different class of character in the game " . Each team supports up to 12 AI players alongside the human players ' autonomous mode Titans , for close to 50 active characters per game . The AI players were designed to enliven the battlefield environment with a greater sense of scale and drama , and to increase the game 's complexity with new opportunities for strategy and cannon fodder for Titans . McCoy said the team 's foremost goal was to make the game fun .
Respawn chose to build Titanfall on the Source game engine early in their production cycle due to their developers ' familiarity and its ability to maintain 60 frames per second on both the Xbox 360 and PlayStation 3 . In an interview , Respawn software engineer Richard Baker said the company chose Source since Portal 2 performed well on the PlayStation 3 with it , and the console was " the riskiest platform in seventh generation " . The company built upon the engine during development in features such as lighting , rendering , visibility , networking , and tools pipelines . The game also uses Microsoft Azure cloud computing platform for multiplayer servers , physics , and artificial intelligence . Offloading this non @-@ player activity frees the local console for visual rendering tasks and better graphics , and the developers for game development ( instead of backend maintenance ) . This arrangement determines world events in the cloud instead of locally , so position and movement data is downloaded simultaneously by all player @-@ clients . The studio 's cloud server access is considered vital to the game 's viability , and Respawn artist Joel Emslie said they would not have attempted this game without the cloud support . The team ran a small alpha test and followed up with a large beta test to stress test the new Xbox Live compute platform as one of the first games to use the network . The platform broke for seven hours at one point of the test . Lead programmer Jon Shiring figured that the ten problems they found during the test were ten problems they didn 't need to find at launch . Respawn felt that Kinect support did not suit the game and chose not to support the peripheral . The development team reported considerable interest in support for esports competitive play , and while such features were not prioritized for the initial release , Respawn indicated that esports accommodations were under consideration for future iterations .
The game was feature complete as of December 2013 , and the Respawn team continued to address game bugs and balancing issues before launch . Respawn ran a closed beta test with an open registration in February 2014 that saw two million unique users . An Xbox One patch to bring support for Twitch streaming video was designed to coincide with Titanfall 's release . Respawn announced that the release version was finalized for distribution ( " gone gold " ) on February 26 , 2014 .
= = Audio = =
Titanfall 's composer Stephen Barton had previously worked on Call of Duty soundtracks and with Metal Gear Solid composer Harry Gregson @-@ Williams . Barton joined the project in early 2013 . The game 's E3 demo had sparse , placeholder audio and did not feature any final mixes , which were expected to be completed by November 2013 . Barton sought to make the soundtrack " distinctive " , with several main themes that build through the game . The music was designed " as commentary " , to not compete with the action . As a multiplayer game , Barton produced a large number of tracks to avoid repetition . The sound ranges from " a very abused hurdy @-@ gurdy to heavy electronics " to " Morricone @-@ esque baritone guitars " . Barton emphasized " taking sounds out of their context " to match the game 's lawless futuristic setting . The two opposing Titanfall teams each have their own musical identities . Titanfall 's soundtrack was recorded at Abbey Road Studios in London , with some specialty ethnic instrumentation recorded in Los Angeles .
= = Release and marketing = =
Titanfall was released on Xbox One and Windows PC ( via Origin ) in North America on March 11 , 2014 , in Europe and Australia on 13 , and in the United Kingdom and New Zealand on 14 . The game 's South African release was cancelled due to poor connectivity performance during the beta and no nearby Microsoft Azure data center in the region . Australia , in a similar predicament , used Singapore 's servers at the time of launch . The delayed Xbox 360 release developed by Bluepoint Games was released on April 8 , 2014 in North America , and on April 11 , 2014 in Europe . The Xbox 360 version is functionally identical to the other releases , albeit with lower @-@ quality graphics . A downloadable Xbox Live Games on Demand option was not available at launch but was implemented later . The PC version did not include modding tools at launch , though it did support the Xbox 360 controller . Microsoft hosted over 6 @,@ 000 midnight launch events worldwide to prepare for the release .
Respawn produced both free and paid post @-@ release downloadable content and offered a season pass discount for pre @-@ purchasing . Three DLC packs are expected with the season pass . The first Titanfall downloadable content ( DLC ) pack , Expedition , was announced at PAX East 2014 for release in May 2014 . Its story occurs after the campaign in the ancient alien ruins of " Swampland " , water " Runoff " , and training simulator " War Games " maps . Upcoming DLC will likely not change the number of Titan chassis . Electronic Arts designed the game 's digital strategy to coexist with their other shooter , Battlefield 4 , and the game does not use microtransactions . The free updates include features such as private matches that were left out of the original release for time restrictions . The private match feature was added in April 2014 . An additional , free update will bring new burn cards and multiplayer modes , and an upcoming PC patch will add 4K video and Nvidia graphics processing unit support . The company is also planning a companion smartphone app .
Following release , Respawn tracked user cheating habits with FairFight software and began to dole out community bans for PC users who used exploits such as " aimbots " and " wallhacks " on March 21 , 2014 . FairFight checks gameplay against statistical markers and flags players for graduated penalty levels . Flagged players are restricted to games with other cheaters , as " the Wimbledon of aimbot contests " . Respawn rolled out multiplayer matchmaking tweaks around the same time that prioritized fair matches of player skill .
The collector 's edition includes a Titan statue set in a LED @-@ lit diorama , an art book , and a poster . A limited edition Xbox One wireless controller designed after the game 's C @-@ 101 carbine weapon launched alongside the game . It was built to feel like " a piece of military spec hardware transported from the universe of Titanfall ... into players ' hands " . An Xbox One console bundle was released simultaneously with the game , and includes a digital copy of Titanfall and a month of Xbox Live at the price of the standalone console .
K 'Nex announced a toy marketing tie @-@ in for 2014 . Respawn announced other marketing tie @-@ ins in late January including apparel , Jinx clothing , Mad Catz peripherals ( keyboards , mice , mouse pads , headsets ) , posters , Prima strategy guides , a Titan Books art book , Turtle Beach Xbox One headsets , USB flash drives . Before release , Electronic Arts and Respawn unveiled a browser game collection of three Atari games ( Asteroids , Missile Command , and Centipede ) with an added Titanfall theme . Respawn also announced forthcoming Titanfall live action content from a partnership with Canadian post @-@ production studio Playfight . Figurine manufacturer Threezero announced in March 2014 that they will produce 1 / 12 to 1 / 6 scale models of Titanfall Titans and pilots . A worldwide marketing campaign included large statues of Titans across multiple cities , and an advertising campaign that spanned billboards , television commercials , Twitch , the web , and YouTube .
Respawn released a Deluxe Edition for Windows , Xbox One , and Xbox 360 platforms in late 2014 . The expanded game includes all three downloadable content expansions alongside the main game . Around the same time , Respawn announced that over seven million people had played Titanfall across all platforms .
= = Reception = =
Titanfall took over 60 awards at its E3 2013 reveal , including a record @-@ breaking six E3 Critics Awards : Best in Show , Best Original Game , Best Console Game , Best PC Game , Best Action Game , and Best Online Multiplayer . The game also won Best in Show from IGN , Destructoid , Game Informer , and Electronic Gaming Monthly . Reporting for Polygon at E3 , Arthur Gies praised the " dynamism " between the Titan 's brute force and the pilots ' objective @-@ based stealth as the game 's greatest asset . IGN 's Ryan McCaffrey declared Titanfall both " Microsoft 's killer app " and multiplayer gaming 's " next big thing " , adding , " You will buy an Xbox One for Titanfall , and you should . " Forbes 's Erik Kain similarly predicted the game to be a " huge selling point " for the Xbox One . The game won Best Next Generation Console Game and Best Xbox Game at Gamescom 2013 . The game was introduced to Japan at the 2013 Tokyo Game Show , where the response was " overwhelmingly positive " and it won a Future Award . Titanfall won " Most Anticipated Game " at VGX 2013 . Many critics considered Titanfall to be the next step for the first @-@ person shooter genre , and the game received abundant " hype " and publicity from video game journalists .
Titanfall received " generally favorable " reviews , according to video game review aggregator Metacritic . Critics praised the game 's pilot – Titan balance , its Smart Pistol , fast @-@ paced player mobility , and accessibility for players of all skill sets . Reviewers complained that the AI grunts were too unintelligent , that private match and community support features were lacking , and that the game had shipped with too few multiplayer modes . Multiple reviewers cited the Titan 's feeling of grandiosity in the player experience — specifically , the thrill of watching a summoned Titan fall from the sky , but also the feeling of entering the Titan exoskeleton and of scaling a Titan to take it down .
Arthur Gies of Polygon wrote that the game 's controls felt streamlined and natural . He felt empowered by his awareness of his potential strengths and vulnerabilities behind his choices . IGN 's Ryan McCaffrey praised the balance between weapons . He called the Smart Pistol his " favorite sidearm since the Halo 1 pistol " , but noted that its range and several @-@ second lock @-@ on balanced the gun 's fairness . GameSpot 's Chris Watters thought the pistol was a " neat twist on the humble sidearm " . Dan Whitehead , writing for Eurogamer , compared the Smart Pistol to the inventive weapons of the Resistance series and otherwise wasn 't impressed with the weapons . Gies of Polygon wished for more customization options and IGN 's McCaffrey praised the maps , which ranged from " very good to great " — from the fast @-@ action ziplines in the very good desert " Boneyard " to the great tiny village " Colony " with crowded houses to exchange gunfire across varied heights .
VG247 's Dave Cook wrote that simplifying the game as " just Call of Duty with mechs " was unjustified given its freshness and innovation , though The Verge 's Andrew Webster said " just Call of Duty with mechs " is essentially what it is . Cook added that the parkour elements " turn the Call of Duty format on its head " and that Titanfall addressed all issues with Call of Duty 's game balance . Multiple reviewers referred to Titanfall as Call of Duty : Future Warfare or a variant whereof . Edge noted that the parkour elements made them approach at an angle instead of rushing directly at the dots on the mini @-@ map , and GameSpot 's Chris Watters said simple player movement was both a pleasure and a challenge . The Verge 's Vlad Savov wrote that wall running " hasn 't felt this good since ... the Prince of Persia series " . Eurogamer 's Whitehead said other shooters felt " leaden and limited " after playing Titanfall .
Reviewers found the campaign poorly executed . Edge called it " nonsense " , and Dan Whitehead of Eurogamer said it was " as clichéd as it is shallow " . IGN 's McCaffrey wrote that the story became " background noise " in an otherwise chaotic game . Writing for The Verge , Adi Robertson compared the plot to the backstory on 1990s CD @-@ ROM user manuals , and OXM 's Mikel Reparaz felt his actions were unimportant to the narrative . Ars Technica 's Peter Bright called the campaign 's voice acting " some of the worst ... [ he 's ] ever heard — flat and uninspired " . Reviewers noted how the game borrowed from games in other genres , such as DOTA and League of Legends . McCaffrey of IGN considered the AI soldiers both a valuable game mechanic and " worthless fodder " at once . Edge called Titanfall " a game of time management " , spent planning when timers will deplete and activate powers . Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that the nature of the Titan timers turned every mode into a deathmatch , regardless of objective . IGN 's McCaffrey referred to the experience point " grind " and the Titanfall timer as the game 's " two economies " . He also praised Respawn for not using microtransactions with the game , especially with burn cards . Writing for Edge , Neil Long compared burn cards to FIFA Ultimate Team 's power @-@ ups . Whitehead of Eurogamer wrote that the game begins to drag after level 25 and slows into a grind , though its flow overall is effortlessly cool , like a " first @-@ person Crackdown " .
Edge wrote that Titanfall 's major issue was the Xbox One , which performed less admirably compared to the PC version . GameSpot 's Chris Watters acknowledged that the PC 's higher resolution was expected and that the Xbox 360 version had an even lower resolution , frame rate issues , and texture pop @-@ in , though it still handled the game well . Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that the game 's visuals were " lacking " , with flat lighting and static environments . OXM 's Mikel Reparaz thought that the title should have been a launch release , where it would have been easier to overlook its sparse content . Minding the processing power behind the battles , the reviewers were not particularly impressed by the graphics . Eurogamer 's Dan Whitehead compared the game 's aesthetics to Pacific Rim and District 9 .
Reviewers thought Titanfall was a successful evolution of the genre , with GameSpot 's Chris Watters calling it " a great leap forward for shooters " and EGM 's Chris Holzworth declaring the game " unquestionably worthy of all the praises sung about it " , but Eurogamer 's Whitehead concluded that the game 's " more of a step forward ... than a leap " . Polygon 's Arthur Gies said Titanfall was not the " kind sea change Modern Warfare started " . Peter Bright of Ars Technica wrote that the game 's multiplayer was " not groundbreaking " and did not surpass Call of Duty 's , and Edge decided that Titanfall " might not be Xbox One 's killer app " . Reflecting on a lack of sales data a month after release , Paul Tassi wrote that the " buzz " surrounding Titanfall 's release " seemed to fade abnormally quickly " and that the game hasn 't " capitalized on the goodwill it had ahead of , and even during , launch " . While EA COO Peter Moore told investors on a May 2014 call that the game had sold 925 @,@ 000 retail copies in the United States during its launch month , that number came from an external NPD Group report that Titanfall was March 's top @-@ selling game . NPD Group reported it was April 's top @-@ selling game as well . As of May 2014 , EA had not released figures on Titanfall 's sales , an uncommon practice that drew skepticism from journalists such as Paul Tassi . IGN reported that Titanfall sold ten million copies as of October 2015 , but other sources could not conclude whether the Vince Zampella source tweet meant ten million units sold or unique players .
= = Sequel = =
Jaz Rignall of USgamer revisited Titanfall in late 2015 and found the game still worthy of its original praise , though he noted that its technical details — namely graphics and framerate — showed some age . He felt that the game 's content issues , apart from the light campaign , were resolved by the free additional maps . Overall , Rignall said that Titanfall had been replaced by newer shooter games .
On March 12 , 2015 , Respawn confirmed that a sequel is in development for Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One . Respawn also announced that the company is working with Nexon to develop multiple Titanfall games for iOS and Android on October 29 , 2015 . Unlike its predecessor , Titanfall 2 will have a traditional single @-@ player campaign . On April 11 , 2016 , Respawn released a teaser trailer for Titanfall 2 , stating that more information will be released at E3 2016 .
= Elmer Stricklett =
Elmer Griffin Stricklett ( August 29 , 1876 – June 7 , 1964 ) was an American professional baseball pitcher . He pitched in Major League Baseball for the Chicago White Sox and Brooklyn Superbas from 1904 through 1907 . Including his time in minor league baseball , Stricklett pitched professionally from 1897 through 1912 .
Stricklett is considered one of the pioneers of the spitball . He learned the pitch while playing in the minor leagues . He later taught the spitball to Ed Walsh and Jack Chesbro , both of whom were elected to the National Baseball Hall of Fame .
= = Career = =
Stricklett attended Santa Clara University , where he played college baseball for the Santa Clara Broncos baseball team . He began his professional career in minor league baseball with the Topeka Colts of the Kansas State League in 1897 . In 1898 , he pitched for the Salina Blues and Atchison Huskers of the Kansas State League , before joining the Dallas Colts of the Class @-@ C Texas League later that year . He pitched for the Rock Island – Moline Islanders of the Class @-@ B Western Association and Kansas City Blues of the Class @-@ A Western League in 1899 . Despite pitching to a 14 – 1 win – loss record in 1899 , Kansas City released Stricklett to the Wheeling Stogies of the Class @-@ B Interstate League in 1900 .
Stricklett split the 1900 season with Wheeling and the Toledo Mud Hens , also of the Interstate League , pitching to a 13 @-@ 8 record . In 1901 , Stricklett pitched for the Toledo Swamp Angels of the Western Association and Sacramento Senators of the California League , compiling a 27 @-@ 22 record . In 1902 , he pitched for the Newark Sailors of the Class @-@ A Eastern League and the Sacramento Gilt Edges of the California League , finishing the season with a 23 @-@ 22 record . While pitching for Sacramento , Stricklett mastered the spitball . In 1903 , Stricklett pitched for Los Angeles and the Seattle Chinooks of the Pacific National League , going 24 @-@ 8 .
The Chicago White Sox of the American League ( AL ) invited Stricklett to spring training in 1904 , where he roomed with Ed Walsh . Stricklett taught Walsh the spitball . After pitching in one game for the White Sox , allowing eight earned runs in seven IP , he received his release , and pitched for the Milwaukee Brewers of the Class @-@ A American Association for the remainder of the season , where he pitched to a 24 @-@ 11 record in 267 innings pitched ( IP ) . The Boston Americans of the AL purchased the rights to Stricklett in August 1904 , but allowed him to remain in Milwaukee .
The Brooklyn Superbas of the National League ( NL ) chose Stricklett from Milwaukee after the 1904 season in the Rule 5 draft . He debuted with the Superbas in the 1905 season , pitching to a 9 – 18 record and a 3 @.@ 34 earned run average ( ERA ) in 237 1 ⁄ 3 IP . His 18 losses were ninth most in the league . Among NL pitchers , only Stricklett and Deacon Phillippe allowed no home runs that season . In 1906 , Stricklett went 14 – 18 with a 2 @.@ 72 ERA in 291 2 ⁄ 3 IP , the ninth most losses and IP in the NL that season . He appeared in 41 games , tied for fifth in the NL with Vic Willis and Jake Weimer , and his 28 complete games and five shutouts were both tied for tenth most in the NL . However , he also allowed 88 earned runs , sixth most in the league .
Stricklett pitched on Opening Day for the Superbas in 1907 , a game the Superbas lost . That year , Stricklett had a 12 – 14 record and a 2 @.@ 27 ERA in 229 2 ⁄ 3 IP . His 25 complete games were eighth best in the NL , while his four shutouts tied for tenth . In four MLB seasons , Stricklett went 35 – 51 with a 2 @.@ 84 ERA and 10 shutouts .
After the 1907 season , Stricklett returned to the California League to pitch for the San Jose Prune Prickers and Sacramento Sacts , and refused to report to Brooklyn in 1908 as his wife wanted him to remain closer to their California home . As the California League was not recognized in organized baseball at this time , Stricklett was banned by MLB for four years . Though he applied for reinstatement , his banishment was upheld . Stricklett continued to pitch for San Jose through 1910 , pitching to a 23 @-@ 12 record in 1909 and a 19 @-@ 14 record in 1910 .
After the 1910 season , Stricklett he retired from baseball . However , he applied for reinstatement in 1912 , which was granted by the National Commission . Stricklett was fined $ 100 ( $ 2 @,@ 452 in current dollar terms ) for playing outside organized baseball for the previous three years . The Superbas sold his rights to the Binghamton Bingoes of the New York State League , and he pitched for the team . In minor league baseball , Stricklett won 20 games in a season at least five times , compiling a 169 @-@ 99 record across nine seasons .
= = = Spitball = = =
Stricklett denied inventing the spitball , though he claimed to be the first pitcher to master the spitball and to feature it exclusively . To achieve the pitch , he would moisten the ball with a spot the size of two of his fingers . The pitch would act " exactly the same way as reverse English does on a billiard ball " .
Stricklett learned the spitball from minor league teammate George Hildebrand in 1902 , who learned about it from Frank Corridon . Stricklett played an important role in popularizing the spitball . Stricklett taught the spitball to Jack Chesbro , who saw him use the pitch while pitching in minor league baseball . Though Chesbro had experimented with the pitch in the minor leagues , Stricklett showed him how to master it in 1904 . Stricklett taught it to Ed Walsh while they roomed together with the White Sox .
= = Later life = =
Stricklett retired to Mountain View , California , where he grew apricots on a ranch . He died in Santa Cruz , California , at the age of 87 .
= Battle of Fort Cumberland =
The Battle of Fort Cumberland ( also known as the Eddy Rebellion ) was an attempt by a small number of militia commanded by Jonathan Eddy to bring the American Revolutionary War to Nova Scotia in late 1776 . With minimal logistical support from Massachusetts and four to five hundred volunteer militia and Natives , Eddy attempted to besiege and storm Fort Cumberland in central Nova Scotia ( near the present @-@ day border between Nova Scotia and New Brunswick ) in November 1776 .
The fort 's defenders , the Royal Fencible American Regiment led by Joseph Goreham , a veteran of the French and Indian War , successfully repelled several attempts by Eddy 's militia to storm the fort , and the siege was ultimately relieved when the RFA plus Royal Marine reinforcements drove off the besiegers on November 29 . In retaliation for the role of locals who supported the siege , numerous homes and farms were destroyed , and Patriot sympathizers were driven out of the area . The successful defense of Fort Cumberland preserved the territorial integrity of the British Maritime possessions , and Nova Scotia remained loyal throughout the war .
= = Background = =
Nova Scotia was generally poorly defended in the early stages of the American Revolutionary War , and unrest in the eastern regions provoked fears of an American @-@ led uprising . Although some reinforcements had reached Halifax by early 1776 , the frontiers of the province were only lightly defended .
Fort Cumberland was located on the Isthmus of Chignecto , which connects modern mainland Nova Scotia with New Brunswick . The area was strategically important in earlier conflicts between the French colony of Acadia and British @-@ controlled Nova Scotia . Originally built by the French in 1750 as Fort Beauséjour , Fort Cumberland was in deplorable condition . Won from the French in the Battle of Fort Beauséjour in 1755 , the fortifications had been minimally garrisoned by the British after the Seven Years ' War and abandoned in 1768 . As early as June 1775 , Colonel Joseph Goreham had been ordered by General Thomas Gage to raise the Royal Fencible American Regiment of Foot and natives in Nova Scotia for the defense of the province against Patriot activity . Arriving at the fort in the summer of 1776 , Colonel Goreham and a garrison of 200 Loyalist troops of the RFA did what they could to restore the premises to a defensible condition . But Goreham had not been adequately provisioned and his men lacked everything from victuals to uniforms . Furthermore , the locals were generally sympathetic to the Patriot cause , and refused to assist in rehabilitating the fort , even trying to induce members of the garrison to defect .
= = Discontent in Nova Scotia = =
Jonathan Eddy was a Massachusetts @-@ born resident of Cumberland County , Nova Scotia , where the fort was located . He and John Allan , both of whom served in the provincial assembly , were the prime movers of Patriot activity in the area , which was one of several hotbeds of agitation in Nova Scotia . The other major areas of Patriot activity were Maugerville in the St. John River valley of Sunbury County ( present @-@ day New Brunswick ) , and Cobequid , and there were also pockets of activity in Pictou and the Passamaquoddy Bay area , which separates present @-@ day Maine and New Brunswick . Patriots in these communities were in contact with each other , and those of Cumberland and Maugerville were active in trying to interest nearby natives ( Passamaquoddy , Maliseet , and Mi 'kmaq ) in their cause .
Eddy believed that with military assistance from the Thirteen Colonies , he might be able to bring down the strongly Loyalist administration of Nova Scotia . Early in 1776 , Eddy went to Massachusetts in an attempt to interest political and military leaders there in supporting action in Nova Scotia , while Allan worked to raise interest in Nova Scotia . Allan 's work was made more difficult by the arrival of Colonel Goreham and his troops to refortify Fort Cumberland , and by the activities of Michael Francklin , a former Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia and a vocal Loyalist . Eddy returned empty @-@ handed to Nova Scotia in June 1776 , only to learn that Goreham had put a price on his head . The activities of Goreham 's Fencibles in the Cumberland area were successful enough that Patriot activities there were effectively forced underground ; the center of these activities was shifted to Maugerville in part as a consequence of this . Goreham , a veteran of the French and Indian War , was also able to blunt Patriot inroads in the native communities , where the Mi 'kmaq refused to take sides , and the Maliseet and Passamaquoddy , at first supportive of the Patriots , ultimately did not turn out in the numbers Eddy had hoped for or been promised .
Eddy returned to Massachusetts in August . While the Second Continental Congress and George Washington would not authorize , fund , or otherwise support military activities in Nova Scotia , Eddy was able to convince the Massachusetts Provincial Congress to provide some material support ( primarily muskets , ammunition , powder , and other military supplies ) for an attempt on Fort Cumberland . It also allowed Eddy to engage in recruiting in the District of Maine .
= = Raising the militia = =
Eddy left Boston in September and sailed to Machias , where he recruited about 20 men . On October 13 , this party sailed from Machias for Passamaquoddy Bay . Coincidentally , John Allan , who was working on a longer @-@ term plan for military action , sailed from Campobello Island for Machias the same day . The two parties met at sea , where Allan attempted to dissuade Eddy from his plan , informing him that the Mi 'kmaq ( the largest tribe in Nova Scotia ) would not help him . Allan extracted a promise from Eddy to wait at Campobello while he went to Machias to meet with the council there . When the Machias council learned of how little native support there was , they sent a letter to Eddy urging him to give up the effort . Eddy persisted , and left Campobello , having added nine Passamaquoddy recruits to his band .
From Campobello , Eddy sailed up the Saint John River to Maugerville , where 27 men were recruited , and then up to the Maliseet settlement at Aukpaque ( just upriver from present @-@ day Fredericton ) . There he learned the bad news that Pierre Tomah , the main Maliseet chief , was not interested in taking up the hatchet . Eddy was able to convince Ambroise St. Aubin , one of Tomah 's competitors , and 15 men to join the expedition in exchange for an agreement with the Maugerville community to support the families of those men . In another disappointment , none of the local Acadians joined , contrary to assertions St. Aubin had made to Eddy during a previous visit to the area .
= = Prelude = =
With a force now numbering about 72 , Eddy sailed up the Bay of Fundy to Shepody Outpost . The exact location of this outpost , established probably by Joseph Goreham in September , is subject to debate . It may have been present @-@ day Hopewell Cape , New Brunswick on the Bay 's western side , or it may have been Fort Folly Point on its eastern side . In any case , it was there that Eddy captured a patrol of Goreham 's Fencibles on October 25 , killing one and wounding another . The prisoners were shipped back to Machias , and Eddy sent some of his men to Cocagne in a largely fruitless effort to enlist Mi 'kmaqs in the cause . Eddy himself continued on to Memramcook , where about two dozen of the Acadian locals joined him . This enlarged force marched to Sackville , where more settlers joined the force , swelling it ( by Eddy 's account ) to about 180 men . Goreham was finally alerted to Eddy 's actions on November 4 , when a boat sent with supplies for the Shepody patrol was informed of Eddy 's activities by locals . Goreham heightened the guard on the fort , but did not immediately attempt to notify Halifax or Windsor , since he was uncertain what routes away from the fort might have been blocked by Eddy .
On October 31 , the frigate Juno escorted the supply sloop Polly to Fort Cumberland , where she docked below the fort on the Aulac River . The Polly was laden with supplies to last the fort through the winter , and work began immediately to unload those supplies . Juno , easily visible from Sackville , was a concern to Eddy , since her presence added to the fort 's defenses . Fortunately for Eddy , she sailed on November 3 , leaving Polly docked below the fort . On November 6 , Eddy 's patrols began ranging closer to the fort , alerting Goreham to the approaching force . Goreham took no additional steps to protect the Polly , and any attempts to get word of his predicament out were again delayed by his decision to await the return of scouts he had dispatched earlier . ( The fate of the scouts is uncertain ; they did not return before the fort was invested . ) That evening , thirty of Eddy 's men surprised the sleepy guards aboard the Polly , taking thirteen prisoners . They also seized another ship , owned by a Patriot sympathizer , that happened to be anchored nearby .
On the morning of November 7 Goreham decided that it was time to get a message to Windsor . He sent a party of men down to the dock that morning . These men , numbering about 30 , were taken prisoner by Eddy 's men as rapidly as they arrived due to their unawareness that Eddy had control of the ship . The Polly was then sailed to Fort Lawrence , to the east of Fort Cumberland , where the supplies were landed . Sentries in the fort spotted the move , and Goreham , realizing Eddy had taken the ship , fired an ineffectual cannonade against the ship .
= = Siege = =
Goreham took stock of his situation . Nearly one quarter of his garrison ( more than 60 men ) had been captured by Eddy , along with critical fuel and other supplies that had not been unloaded from the Polly before her seizure . His defenses consisted of a hastily constructed palisade that encompassed most of the fort , and six cannons , for which his men had only completed three mounts . The fort 's military complement was 176 men , including officers and artillerymen . Over the next few days , local militia arrived to raise the garrison 's size to about 200 , although this included individuals not effective for combat due to illness . On both November 7 and 8 he again attempted to get messengers out of Eddy 's cordon , without success .
On November 8 Eddy was joined by about 200 men from Cobequid and Pictou , and he finally felt ready to act on November 10 . Eddy sent a letter demanding that Goreham surrender his garrison . Goreham refused , suggesting in retort that Eddy surrender .
The next day authorities outside the area learned of Eddy 's activities . Michael Francklin , patrolling in the Bay of Fundy for privateers , recovered a ferry that had been taken , and learned from its passengers that Eddy was active . When the news reached Halifax through the efforts of Thomas Dixson , Lieutenant Governor Marriot Arbuthnot responded by dispatching orders on the 15th for any available ship based at Annapolis to go to Fort Edward in Windsor , to convoy troops to relieve the siege .
Commodore Sir George Collier had previously dispatched the HMS Vulture into the Bay of Fundy on rumors of privateering activity there , so he ordered the HMS Hope to locate the Vulture so that she could assist . However , the Hope captured a prize and returned to Halifax ; she was then sent out again to accompany a supply ship to Fort Cumberland . In the meantime , the Vulture fortuitously arrived at Windsor , where she took on some marines and Fencibles .
Lacking artillery , the rebels attempted to storm the fort on the night of November 12 , attempting a feint to draw Goreham 's strength away from the weak points of the defenses . The experienced Goreham saw through the feint and repulsed the attack . One of Eddy 's Maliseet warriors sneaked into the fort and very nearly opened a gate but was stopped at the last moment . Following the failed attack , Eddy effectively lost control of the expedition , as a council of leaders formed against him . Night attacks ordered by the council on November 22 and 23 succeeded in capturing and burning several buildings , but Goreham grimly held his ground , and the invaders were again repulsed .
On November 27 , the Vulture arrived . Rather than retreat in the face of arriving relief , the rebels increased their guard ; Goreham , with some intelligence about the size of the force opposing him , planned a sortie . Early on the morning of November 29 , Major Thomas Batt led 150 men from the Vulture 's Royal Marine contingent and the Royal Fencible Americans , and scattered Eddy 's men , killing and wounding several , at the cost of two dead and three wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Batt 's men chased Eddy 's , but bad weather and the lack of adequate footwear eventually caused him to call off the pursuit . Eddy 's forces scattered , with many retreating overland to Maugerville . Some of the Massachusetts men took more than two months to reach Machias . Homes and farms of rebel supporters were burned in reprisal but British authorities took a lenient approach toward captured rebels , including Richard John Uniacke , who went on to become Attorney General of Nova Scotia . Goreham issued an offer of pardon for those who would surrender their arms , which more than 100 locals accepted . This prompted Major Batt to file charges against Goreham for neglect of duty ; Goreham was exonerated .
The victory at Fort Cumberland strengthened the British presence in Nova Scotia , in part by driving Patriot sympathizers like Allan and Eddy out of the province , but also by cowing those that remained , often by requiring people to make pledges to the Crown . Some unrest continued for the remainder of the war ( e.g. , the Battle at Miramichi ) , although no further large scale military threat occurred . The most significant attempt occurred in the summer of 1777 , when John Allan was authorized by Congress to take actions in Nova Scotia ; however , only a small number of forces were raised for this effort at Saint John , and a British show of force put an end to the attempt . Eddy appears to have been involved with Allan 's work , but his movements prior to August 1777 are uncertain . Commodore Collier followed up by attacking Machias , intending to break Allan 's plans . Eddy led the defense of Machias during the battle on August 13 – 15 , 1777 . ( Collier 's action was in fact unnecessary ; the Massachusetts Provisional Congress had in early August voted to disband forces recruited for Allan 's expedition , because of the imminent threat posed by the army of General John Burgoyne in upstate New York . )
The Battle of Fort Cumberland was poorly documented in 19th @-@ century histories of Nova Scotia and New Brunswick , often receiving only minimal mention . The involvement of local inhabitants ( natives , Acadians , and English @-@ speakers ) in the siege was generally understated or unknown . The site of Fort Cumberland has been preserved as a National Historic Site of Canada , and is administered by Parks Canada .
= Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver =
Pokémon HeartGold Version and SoulSilver Version ( ポケットモンスター ハートゴールド & ソウルシルバー , Poketto Monsutā Hātogōrudo & Sōrushirubā , " Pocket Monsters : HeartGold & SoulSilver ) are enhanced remakes of the 1999 video games Pokémon Gold and Silver , including the features in Pokémon Crystal . The games are part of the Pokémon series of role @-@ playing video games , and were developed by Game Freak and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS . First released in Japan on September 12 , 2009 , the games were later released to North America , Australia , and Europe during March 2010 .
HeartGold and SoulSilver take place in the Johto region of the franchise 's fictional universe , which features special creatures called Pokémon . The basic goal of the game is to become the best Pokémon trainer in the Johto and Kanto regions , which is done by raising and cataloging Pokémon and defeating other trainers .
Game director Shigeki Morimoto aimed to respect the feelings of those who played the previous games , while also ensuring that it felt like a new game to those that were introduced to the series in more recent years . Reception to the games was highly positive , with the two being amongst the highest rated DS games of all time on Metacritic . As of March 2014 , the games ' combined sales have reached 12 @.@ 72 million , putting the titles amongst the best selling Nintendo DS games .
= = Plot and setting = =
Similar to Pokémon Gold and Silver , HeartGold and SoulSilver take place in the Johto and Kanto regions of the franchise 's fictional universe . The universe centers on the existence of creatures , called Pokémon , with special abilities . The silent protagonist is a young Pokémon trainer who lives in New Bark Town . At the beginning of the games , the player chooses either a Chikorita , Cyndaquil , or Totodile as their starter Pokémon from Professor Elm . After performing a delivery for the professor and obtaining a Pokédex , he decides to let the player keep the Pokémon and start them on a journey .
The goal of the game is to become the best trainer in Johto and Kanto , which is done by raising Pokémon , completing a catalogue of Pokémon called a Pokédex , defeating the eight Gym Leaders in Johto for Gym Badges , challenging the best trainers in the region known as the Elite Four and the Champion , and then defeating the eight Gym Leaders in the Kanto region . Finally , the player may face off against Red atop Mt . Silver , who serves as the game 's final boss .
Throughout the game , the player will battle against members of Team Rocket , a criminal organization originally from Kanto . They were originally defeated by the protagonist of FireRed and LeafGreen , and have attempted to come back as an organization , while awaiting the return of their leader , Giovanni . To attempt to contact him , they take over the radio tower and broadcast a message calling out to him .
While being the remakes of Gold and Silver , the games tie in plot elements of Crystal as well , such as the added emphasis on Suicune over the other legendary beasts , as well as the post @-@ ending Battle Frontier . ( In Crystal , only the Battle Tower was available . ) Additionally , Johto and Kanto were given Generation IV features such as Pal Park .
During certain points in the game , the player 's rival will battle the protagonist in a test of skills . Throughout the game , the player encounters Kimono Girls . After battling all of them in a row , they allow the player to encounter a legendary bird specific to each game ( Ho @-@ Oh in HeartGold , and Lugia in SoulSilver ) . As per the originals , the other Pokémon can be obtained later on .
= = Gameplay = =
Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver are role @-@ playing video games with adventure elements . The basic mechanics of the games are largely the same as their predecessors ' . As with all Pokémon games for hand @-@ held consoles , gameplay is viewed from a third @-@ person overhead perspective , and consists of three basic screens : a field map , in which the player navigates the main character ; a battle screen ; and the menu , in which the player configures his party , items , or gameplay settings . The player begins the game with one Pokémon and can capture more using Poké Balls . The player can also use the Pokémon to battle or deceive others , often forming alliances or trends via the Team Rocket networks .
When the player encounters a wild Pokémon or is challenged by a trainer to a battle , the screen switches to a turn @-@ based battle screen where the Pokémon fight . During battle , the player may fight , use an item , switch the active Pokémon , or flee ( the last is not an option in battles against trainers ) . Pokémon have hit points ( HP ) , which is displayed during combat ; when a Pokémon 's HP is reduced to zero , it faints and cannot battle unless taken to a Pokémon Center or healed or revived with a Pokémon skill or item . If the player 's Pokémon defeats the opposing Pokémon ( causes it to faint ) , it receives experience points . After accumulating enough experience points , it will level up ; most Pokémon evolve into a new species of Pokémon when they reach a certain level , or when certain conditions are met ( commonly , how much a Pokémon statistically ' likes ' its trainer ) .
= = = New features = = =
HeartGold and SoulSilver allow the first Pokémon in the player 's party to follow them , echoing a mechanic in Pokémon Yellow in which Pikachu follows the player . Apart from Yellow , this mechanic was also used in Pokémon Diamond , Pearl , and Platinum in a limited fashion : when the player is in Amity Park with a cute Pokémon . The player may talk to the Pokémon to see or check on how that Pokémon is feeling , and occasionally it may pick up items . A new minigame called the Pokéathlon ( called Pokéthlon in Japan ) uses the Nintendo DS touchscreen and allows Pokémon to compete in events such as hurdling . The Japanese versions retain slot machines found in previous games , while the international releases of the titles replace the slot machines with a new game called " Voltorb Flip " , described as a cross between Minesweeper and Picross . Another new item , the GB Sounds , changes the background music to the original 8 @-@ bit music from Pokémon Gold and Silver .
= = = Connectivity to other devices = = =
HeartGold and SoulSilver can access the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection to trade , battle , and interact with other players of the games , as well as players of Pokémon Diamond , Pearl , and Platinum . After completing a special Wi @-@ Fi mission download on Pokémon Ranger : Guardian Signs , the player can send a Deoxys to HeartGold and SoulSilver .
= = Development = =
HeartGold and SoulSilver were released in 2009 , ten years after Gold and Silver 's release for the Game Boy Color . Shigeki Morimoto , the games ' director , commented on the development of the remakes : " The first thing that I knew I needed to bear in mind was to respect the feelings of those people who 'd played Gold and Silver ten years before . I think that players have very strong memories of the game , so they 'd think things like ' Ah , this trainer is still strong ' and ' If I do this here , this is going to happen ' . I knew I needed to respect these feelings . " However , Morimoto also needed to make sure that the games would feel as new games to players who began playing Pokémon in recent years on the Game Boy Advance or the Nintendo DS . An in @-@ game author surrogate of Game Freak 's President in Celadon City states that the team strove to make a game that would appeal to players with fond memories without " redoing the same thing " . He also states that making the game was a " rewarding challenge " . HeartGold and SoulSilver introduced many new features that were absent in the original Gold and Silver . Several of these features came from the previously released Nintendo DS Pokémon games , such as Diamond ( 2006 ) , Pearl ( 2006 ) , and Platinum ( 2008 ) .
= = = Marketing and release = = =
An initial rumor started in early May 2009 that Nintendo planned to remake Pokémon Gold and Silver after the Japanese television show Pokémon Sunday ended by announcing a " world @-@ exclusive first announcement " that would be made on its next show . Kris Pigna of 1UP.com speculated that this alluded to a possible remake of Gold and Silver for the Nintendo DS , due to gold and silver disco balls hanging in the background . Pigna further reasoned that this would be consistent with the previously released titles Pokémon FireRed and LeafGreen which were enhanced remakes of the original Pokémon Red and Blue . Several days later , Nintendo officially confirmed that Gold and Silver were being remade as HeartGold and SoulSilver and released their official logos . It also announced that the games would contain numerous updates , although declined to reveal any specifics . The games were released for the Nintendo DS on September 12 , 2009 in Japan to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the original Gold and Silver release . Junichi Masuda stated on his blog that " we , Game Freak have spent long and firm time developing above two titles [ sic ] " , and that " ' Pokémon Gold & Silver ' will be back with far more excitement . "
At the 2009 Pokémon World Championships , Nintendo stated that HeartGold and SoulSilver would be released in North America between the months of January and March , Europe sometime around May and June , and Australia in April . " Announcing these much @-@ anticipated game launches at The Pokémon World Championships allows us to give the news directly to the legions of fans who represent the true heart and soul of Pokémon , " a spokesperson said . Nintendo updated the official Pokémon English website with information about the new titles , telling readers that the games would feature revamped audiovisual effects , interaction with the DS touch screen , and more " surprises " . From February 27 to March 13 , 2010 , video game retailer GameStop hosted a promotion in which players of Pokémon Diamond , Pearl , or Platinum could use the games ' " Mystery Gift " feature to download a free Jirachi Pokémon to their game . A " Pikachu @-@ colored Pichu " could be downloaded using Wi @-@ Fi that , when taken to the Ilex Forest in @-@ game , unlocked a " Spiky @-@ eared Pichu " .
= = Audio = =
Nintendo DS Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver Music Super Complete ( ニンテンドーDS ポケモン ハートゴールド & ソウルシルバー ミュージック ・ スーパーコンプリート , Nintendō DS Pokemon Hātogōrudo ando Sōrushirubā Myūjikku Sūpā Konpurīto ) , a three @-@ disc soundtrack featuring music scored by Junichi Masuda , Go Ichinose , Hitomi Sato , Shota Kageyama and Takuto Kitsuta , was released in Japan on October 28 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
In response to the news confirming the development of HeartGold and SoulSilver , fans posted their reactions and commentary on the Internet . In particular , IGN editor Jack DeVries reasoned that the primary reason for the updated games was to be compatible with Pokémon Diamond and Pearl , allowing players to collect old Pokémon species that were previously unobtainable in the new games . He also expressed skepticism that the new titles could match the quality of the originals ; stating , " For me , Gold / Silver were amazing because they introduced so many new features that have since become standards for the series . It was the first , and only , time the Pokémon games have made such a significant expansion . These days we 're lucky if we get a new feature that invisibly changes the strategic elements of the game . " He reminisced over the qualities that made Gold and Silver truly unique , including the full color support , internal clock , Pokémon breeding , and PokéGear . Several months later , after DeVries had played through some of the game , he wrote , " so far I like what I see , even if it all feels very familiar and formulaic at this point . "
The games ' reception has been highly positive , having an aggregate score of 87 on Metacritic . The titles are among the Top 20 rated DS games in the site 's database . Japanese gaming magazine Famitsu awarded the games a composite score of 37 out of 40 based on four individual reviews , of which the ratings were 9 , 10 , 9 , and 9 . The reviewers praised the games for retaining much of the quality that drew them to the original Gold and Silver . The only drawback mentioned was that the games brought " no major surprises " . Nintendo Power gave the games one of the highest scores , remarking on its replay value though criticizing shortly about no improvement in graphic animation for Pokémon sprites . Official Nintendo Magazine stated that they were the best Pokémon games yet . Game Informer 's Annette Gonzalez stated " Even though the classic Pokémon formula still works as evidenced by HeartGold . I can ’ t help but hope for a new Pokémon title that breaks some new ground . "
IGN 's Craig Harris said that the titles were " like a gap filler to make the wait for a new Pokémon game just a little more bearable " . Jim Sterling of Destructoid stated , " While it is , at its core , the same game that you 've played many years ago , it still manages to feel new and the updated features bolster the original experience in a manner that never intrudes and only enhances " . 1UP.com 's Justin Haywald stated that " HeartGold / SoulSilver is easily the best Pokémon game yet " . VideoGamer.com reviewer Jamin Smith said , " With HeartGold and SoulSilver the Pokémon series has reached a point where it can 't get any better . " Eurogamer 's Keza MacDonald gave the games a 9 / 10 , stating " They combine everything that was best about the older Pokémon games " , citing the Pokémon designs and improved graphics and battle system . GamePro 's McKinley Noble stated that " it 's clear that this is a perfect experience for both old @-@ school trainers and the newest generation of Pokémon fans . " GameZone 's Cliff Bakehorn III said , " There is not a doubt in my mind : Pokémon HeartGold and SoulSilver are the pinnacle of the entire series . " Nathan Meunier of GameSpot gave the games one of the lower scores , criticizing them for a lack of innovation . GamesRadar attributed the game 's success to being a remake of classic games .
= = = Sales = = =
In Japan , the games sold over 1 @.@ 48 million units within the first two days of release , topping the Japanese sales chart that week . Within two weeks , the games had sold a combined total of over 2 @.@ 00 million units . By December 18 , 2009 , the games ' Japanese sales totals had surpassed 3 @.@ 22 million . In Australia , over 50 @,@ 000 units sold in one week . In the United States , the games managed collective sales of 1 @.@ 73 million in their first month , with the SoulSilver version selling 1 @.@ 01 million and HeartGold selling 0 @.@ 76 million units . The combined sales of the two games made them the highest @-@ selling games of March 2010 . As of May 6 , 2010 , the games sold 8 @.@ 40 million units worldwide . The games reached 10 million sales worldwide by the end of July 2010 . As of March 2014 , the games ' combined sales have reached 12 @.@ 72 million .
= Cookie ( video game ) =
Cookie is an action @-@ platform video game developed and published by Ultimate Play The Game that was released exclusively for the ZX Spectrum in 1983 . In the game , Charlie the Chef has to bake a cake , however his five ingredients are sentient and attempt to escape his pantry , enabling his quest to re @-@ capture them .
The game was written by Chris Stamper , and graphics were designed by Tim Stamper . Cookie was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game ( the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes ) . A version was also created for the BBC Micro , but was not commercially released . The game received mixed reviews upon release , with critics praising the graphics , but criticising the hard difficulty and its similarities to Pssst .
= = Gameplay = =
The game is presented from a single , 2D perspective , and the main objective involves Charlie the Chef baking a cake from evil , sentient ingredients . The five ingredients vary from Mixed Peel , Chunky Chocolate , Crafty Cheese , Sneaky Sugar and Colonel Custard , who will all jump out of the pantry and try and avoid the player whenever possible .
The player starts the game with three lives . Several ingredients will fly around the screen simultaneously , and if the player touches an ingredient with their body , a life will be deducted . The player 's objective is to put the ingredients into the cooking bowl before they either fall into the dustbins on either side or knock the player into the bowl . As a defence , Charlie the Cook can shoot flour sacks , which will push the ingredients further in the direction they are moving in . Bombs may also spawn in the game , which will allow the player to push the ingredients further than conventional flour sacks . The player has to push the right variety of ingredients into the bowl , which changes for each level . When the right amount of ingredients has been put in the bowl , a cake is baked and a new level begins .
= = Background = =
Ashby Computers and Graphics was founded by brothers Tim and Chris Stamper , along with Tim 's wife , Carol , in Ashby @-@ de @-@ la @-@ Zouch , England in 1982 . Under the trading name Ultimate Play The Game , they began producing video games for the ZX Spectrum throughout the early 1980s . Prior to founding Ultimate , the Stamper brothers had designed arcade machines , but had no marketing experience in the video game sector . The company was known for its reluctance to reveal details about its operations and upcoming projects . Little was known about their development process except that they used to work in " separate teams " : one team would work on development , while the other would concentrate on other aspects such as sound or graphics .
Cookie was one of the few Spectrum games also available in ROM format for use with the Interface 2 , allowing " instantaneous " loading of the game ( the normal method of cassette loading could take several minutes ) . A version was also created for the BBC Micro and was scheduled for release in 1984 ; however , it was never commercially released . The game was released as Crazy Kitchen in Italian markets and as Chef , Lo in Croatia .
= = Reception = =
Matthew Uffindell of Crash praised the game overall , despite thinking it was overshadowed by Ultimate 's Tranz Am , which was bundled with Cookie during its initial release . Uffindell stated the gameplay was addictive and challenging , despite thinking it was similar to its predecessor , Pssst . Lloyd Mangram of Crash considered the game to be overlooked and underrated , despite him suggesting that it was the most difficult of all games developed by Ultimate . Mangram praised the graphics as detailed , fast and " amusing " , owing to the game 's sentient ingredients . Reviewers of Home Computing Weekly similarly praised the graphics and sound , stating that they " are well up to Ultimate 's standards " .
A reviewer from Sinclair User stated that the graphics were of " arcade and cartoon " quality , and criticised the game 's concept , suggesting that the player would lose interest after completing a few levels . Mangham , however , praised its playability , heralding that it was " great fun " to play and easy to adapt to . Sinclair User opined that first impressions of the game were important to the customer , and stated that the player may feel cheated due to the game 's similarities to Pssst .
= Forward exchange rate =
The forward exchange rate ( also referred to as forward rate or forward price ) is the exchange rate at which a bank agrees to exchange one currency for another at a future date when it enters into a forward contract with an investor . Multinational corporations , banks , and other financial institutions enter into forward contracts to take advantage of the forward rate for hedging purposes . The forward exchange rate is determined by a parity relationship among the spot exchange rate and differences in interest rates between two countries , which reflects an economic equilibrium in the foreign exchange market under which arbitrage opportunities are eliminated . When in equilibrium , and when interest rates vary across two countries , the parity condition implies that the forward rate includes a premium or discount reflecting the interest rate differential . Forward exchange rates have important theoretical implications for forecasting future spot exchange rates . Financial economists have put forth a hypothesis that the forward rate accurately predicts the future spot rate , for which empirical evidence is mixed .
= = Introduction = =
The forward exchange rate is the rate at which a commercial bank is willing to commit to exchange one currency for another at some specified future date . The forward exchange rate is a type of forward price . It is the exchange rate negotiated today between a bank and a client upon entering into a forward contract agreeing to buy or sell some amount of foreign currency in the future . Multinational corporations and financial institutions often use the forward market to hedge future payables or receivables denominated in a foreign currency against foreign exchange risk by using a forward contract to lock in a forward exchange rate . Hedging with forward contracts is typically used for larger transactions , while futures contracts are used for smaller transactions . This is due to the customization afforded to banks by forward contracts traded over @-@ the @-@ counter , versus the standardization of futures contracts which are traded on an exchange . Banks typically quote forward rates for major currencies in maturities of one , three , six , nine , or twelve months , however in some cases quotations for greater maturities are available up to five or ten years .
= = Relation to covered interest rate parity = =
Covered interest rate parity is a no @-@ arbitrage condition in foreign exchange markets which depends on the availability of the forward market . It can be rearranged to give the forward exchange rate as a function of the other variables . The forward exchange rate depends on three known variables : the spot exchange rate , the domestic interest rate , and the foreign interest rate . This effectively means that the forward rate is the price of a forward contract , which derives its value from the pricing of spot contracts and the addition of information on available interest rates .
The following equation represents covered interest rate parity , a condition under which investors eliminate exposure to foreign exchange risk ( unanticipated changes in exchange rates ) with the use of a forward contract – the exchange rate risk is effectively covered . Under this condition , a domestic investor would earn equal returns from investing in domestic assets or converting currency at the spot exchange rate , investing in foreign currency assets in a country with a different interest rate , and exchanging the foreign currency for domestic currency at the negotiated forward exchange rate . Investors will be indifferent to the interest rates on deposits in these countries due to the equilibrium resulting from the forward exchange rate . The condition allows for no arbitrage opportunities because the return on domestic deposits , 1 + id , is equal to the return on foreign deposits , [ S / F ] ( 1 + if ) . If these two returns weren 't equalized by the use of a forward contract , there would be a potential arbitrage opportunity in which , for example , an investor could borrow currency in the country with the lower interest rate , convert to the foreign currency at today 's spot exchange rate , and invest in the foreign country with the higher interest rate .
<formula>
where
F is the forward exchange rate
S is the current spot exchange rate
id is the interest rate in domestic currency ( base currency )
if is the interest rate in foreign currency ( quoted currency )
This equation can be arranged such that it solves for the forward rate :
<formula>
= = Forward premium or discount = =
The equilibrium that results from the relationship between forward and spot exchange rates within the context of covered interest rate parity is responsible for eliminating or correcting for market inefficiencies that would create potential for arbitrage profits . As such , arbitrage opportunities are fleeting . In order for this equilibrium to hold under differences in interest rates between two countries , the forward exchange rate must generally differ from the spot exchange rate , such that a no @-@ arbitrage condition is sustained . Therefore , the forward rate is said to contain a premium or discount , reflecting the interest rate differential between two countries . The following equations demonstrate how the forward premium or discount is calculated .
The forward exchange rate differs by a premium or discount of the spot exchange rate :
<formula>
where
P is the premium ( if positive ) or discount ( if negative )
The equation can be rearranged as follows to solve for the forward premium / discount :
<formula>
In practice , forward premiums and discounts are quoted as annualized percentage deviations from the spot exchange rate , in which case it is necessary to account for the number of days to delivery as in the following example .
<formula>
where
N represents the maturity of a given forward exchange rate quote
d represents the number of days to delivery
For example , to calculate the 6 @-@ month forward premium or discount for the euro versus the dollar deliverable in 30 days , given a spot rate quote of 1 @.@ 2238 $ / € and a 6 @-@ month forward rate quote of 1 @.@ 2260 $ / € :
<formula>
The resulting 0 @.@ 021572 is positive , so one would say that the euro is trading at a 0 @.@ 021572 or 2 @.@ 16 % premium against the dollar for delivery in 30 days . Conversely , if one were to work this example in euro terms rather than dollar terms , the perspective would be reversed and one would say that the dollar is trading at a discount against the Euro .
= = Forecasting future spot exchange rates = =
= = = Unbiasedness hypothesis = = =
The unbiasedness hypothesis states that given conditions of rational expectations and risk neutrality , the forward exchange rate is an unbiased predictor of the future spot exchange rate . Without introducing a foreign exchange risk premium ( due to the assumption of risk neutrality ) , the following equation illustrates the unbiasedness hypothesis .
<formula>
where
<formula> is the forward exchange rate at time t
<formula> is the expected future spot exchange rate at time t + k
k is the number of periods into the future from time t
The empirical rejection of the unbiasedness hypothesis is a well @-@ recognized puzzle among finance researchers . Empirical evidence for cointegration between the forward rate and the future spot rate is mixed . Researchers have published papers demonstrating empirical failure of the hypothesis by conducting regression analyses of the realized changes in spot exchange rates on forward premiums and finding negative slope coefficients . These researchers offer numerous rationales for such failure . One rationale centers around the relaxation of risk neutrality , while still assuming rational expectations , such that a foreign exchange risk premium may exist that can account for differences between the forward rate and the future spot rate .
The following equation represents the forward rate as being equal to a future spot rate and a risk premium ( not to be confused with a forward premium ) :
<formula>
The current spot rate can be introduced so that the equation solves for the forward @-@ spot differential ( the difference between the forward rate and the current spot rate ) :
<formula>
Eugene Fama concluded that large positive correlations of the difference between the forward exchange rate and the current spot exchange rate signal variations over time in the premium component of the forward @-@ spot differential <formula> or in the forecast of the expected change in the spot exchange rate . Fama suggested that slope coefficients in the regressions of the difference between the forward rate and the future spot rate <formula> , and the expected change in the spot rate <formula> , on the forward @-@ spot differential <formula> which are different from zero imply variations over time in both components of the forward @-@ spot differential : the premium and the expected change in the spot rate . Fama 's findings were sought to be empirically validated by a significant body of research , ultimately finding that large variance in expected changes in the spot rate could only be accounted for by risk aversion coefficients that were deemed " unacceptably high . " Other researchers have found that the unbiasedness hypothesis has been rejected in both cases where there is evidence of risk premia varying over time and cases where risk premia are constant .
Other rationales for the failure of the forward rate unbiasedness hypothesis include considering the conditional bias to be an exogenous variable explained by a policy aimed at smoothing interest rates and stabilizing exchange rates , or considering that an economy allowing for discrete changes could facilitate excess returns in the forward market . Some researchers have contested empirical failures of the hypothesis and have sought to explain conflicting evidence as resulting from contaminated data and even inappropriate selections of the time length of forward contracts . Economists demonstrated that the forward rate could serve as a useful proxy for future spot exchange rates between currencies with liquidity premia that average out to zero during the onset of floating exchange rate regimes in the 1970s . Research examining the introduction of endogenous breaks to test the structural stability of cointegrated spot and forward exchange rate time series have found some evidence to support forward rate unbiasedness in both the short and long term .
= Turuma =
A turuma ( from the Finnish word " Turunmaa " ) was a type of warship built for the Swedish archipelago fleet in the late 18th century . It was specifically developed for warfare in the Archipelago Sea and along the coasts of Svealand and Finland . The turuma was designed by the prolific naval architect Fredrik Henrik af Chapman for use in an area of mostly shallow waters and groups of islands and islets that extend from Stockholm all the way to the Gulf of Finland .
It was designed to replace the galleys that made up the core of the fleets that operated along the coasts and in the archipelagos of the Baltic Sea . The turuma had a bigger draft , was somewhat slower under oars , but offered superior accommodation for its crew , was more seaworthy and had roughly ten times the number of heavy guns . It could be propelled with either sails or oars and was both smaller and more manoeuvrable than most sailing warships which made it suitable for operations in shallow , confined waters .
Between 1761 and 1790 , 14 @-@ 15 turumas were built , including Amphion , a modified version used by King Gustav III as both a pleasure craft and command ship . The turuma was among the heaviest in the arsenal of the archipelago fleet and a number of them served in the Russo @-@ Swedish War of 1788 – 90 . It had three masts , two decks and was equipped with 16 – 22 pairs of oars along with a crew of about 220 – 260 . Its length was 35 – 39 m , width 9 m and the draft 3 @,@ 3 m . The armament consisted of 24 – 28 heavy guns with up to 24 swivel guns for close @-@ quarter combat .
= = Background = =
In the early 18th century , the establishment of Russian naval power in the Baltic challenged the interests of Sweden , at the time one of the major powers in the Baltic . The Swedish Empire at the time included territory in Northern Germany , all of modern Finland and most of the Baltic states , a dominion held together by the Baltic sea routes . Russian Tsar Peter the Great had established a new capital and naval base in Saint Petersburg in 1703 . During the Great Northern War 1700 – 1721 Sweden lost its Baltic state territories , and experienced destructive Russian raiding in Finland and along the chain of islands and archipelagos that stretched all the way from the Gulf of Finland to the capital of Stockholm . The traumatic experience led to the establishment of inshore flotillas of shallow @-@ draft vessels . The first of these consisted mainly of smaller versions of the traditional Mediterranean warship , the galleys . Most of these more akin to galiots and were complemented with gun prams . The disastrous war against Russia 1741 @-@ 43 and the minor involvement in Prussia in the Pomeranian War 1757 – 62 showed the need for further expansion and development of the inshore flotillas with more specialized vessels .
Traditional galleys were effective as troop transports for amphibious operations , but were severely under @-@ gunned , especially in relation to their large crews ; a galley with a 250 @-@ man crew , most of whom were rowers , would typically be armed with only one 24 @-@ pounder cannon and two 6 @-@ pounders , all in the bow . However , they were undecked and lacked adequate shelter for the rower @-@ soldiers , great numbers of which succumbed to illness in the 1741 – 43 war .
= = = The archipelago fleet = = =
After the defeat against Russia , a commission was assigned to identify weaknesses in the eastern defenses . In 1747 , it came to the conclusion that the fortifications in southeastern Finland needed to be improved and expanded and that a strong coastal navy should be built . The artillery officer Augustin Ehrensvärd was the driving force behind these changes and many of the conclusions and decisions of the committee were based on his ideas for improvements . In 1756 , a dedicated archipelago fleet was founded and put under the command of Krigskollegium , the army department , with Ehrensvärd as highest commander and the official name arméns flotta ( " the fleet of the army " ) . Over two decades the archipelago fleet went through several changes caused by the competition between the Hats and the Caps , the dominant political fractions at the time , and because of rivalries between army and navy . With the parliamentary victory of the Hats in the riksdag of 1769 – 70 and the coup d 'état by Gustav III in 1772 , the archipelago fleet 's status as an independent organization within the army was secured . From 1770 , it was given the Finnish squadron ( Finska eskadern ) based in Sveaborg and in 1777 the galley fleet based in Stockholm was included in the archipelago fleet as the Swedish squadron ( Svenska eskadern ) . The Swedish military invested considerable resources into the new army branch and made it a professional , independent organization . The archipelago fleet attracted the social and cultural elite that enjoyed the protection and patronage of King Gustav III who had strengthened his authority as an absolute monarch in the 1772 coup .
The base of the archipelago fleet was initially traditional galleys , but the war of 1741 – 43 and the war in Pomerania 1757 – 62 had revealed some inherent weaknesses : their firepower was inadequate , they were inefficient in terms of manpower , had poor protection for the crew and were not particularly seaworthy . During the Pomeranian War " gun barges " ( skottpråmar ) , heavily armed , oar @-@ driven , flat @-@ bottomed broadside vessels with a shallow draft , had been tried to compensate for the lack of firepower in the galleys , but had proven far too slow to be effective .
Ehrensvärd suggested that new archipelago vessels should be developed that combined sufficient firepower , maneuverability , seaworthiness and decent crew accommodations . He started a successful collaboration with shipbuilder and naval architect Fredrik Henrik Chapman ( ennobled " af Chapman " in 1772 ) and together they developed five new vessels : a type of gunboat with a 12 @-@ pounder gun , schooner rigging and 7 @-@ 8 pairs of oars , as well four types of " archipelago frigates " ( skärgårdsfregatter ) : turuma udema , pojama , and hemmema . These vessels were specifically designed for use in the archipelago off the south coast of Finland and were named after the Finnish provinces of Uusimaa , Pohjanmaa ( Österbotten ) , Turunmaa ( Åboland ) och Hämeenmaa ( Tavastland ) .
All four types have been called " archipelago frigates " in Swedish and English historical literature , though the smaller udema and pojama have also been described as " archipelago corvettes " .
= = Design = =
The first turuma was completed in 1761 . Along with the hemmema , it was the type of " archipelago frigate " that closest fit the description , showing considerable similarities with small ocean @-@ going frigates . It had a low hull with no forecastle , only a low quarterdeck and no poop deck . It had three masts that were initially rigged with lateen sails , like a galley , which was later replaced with a conventional square frigate rig , but with combined top and topgallant masts . This improved its performance under sail and made it the best sailer in the archipelago fleet , though it was still slower than ordinary sailing vessels .
The first turuma , Norden , was c . 35 m ( 116 ft ) long and 8 m ( 26 @.@ 5 ft ) wide with a draft of 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) . By the third ship , the Lodbrok ( 1771 ) , the hull had been expanded to 38 @.@ 5 m ( 126 ft ) by 9 @.@ 5 m ( 31 ft ) and remained roughly the same . The armament was considerably heavier than that of the galleys , or the smaller udemas and pojomas . It had one full gundeck of 22 ( 24 in the ships built before 1790 ) 12 @-@ pounders in a regular broadside arrangement , firing through gunports . On the forecastle deck facing straight forward were two 18 @-@ pounders . For close @-@ range action it carried another up to 24 3 @-@ pound swivel guns along the railings . In addition , there was also two 12 @-@ pound stern chasers .
For additional maneuverability , the turuma carried 19 pairs ( 16 in the first two ships ) of oars with four men per oar . Oarsmen rowed sitting on the weather deck , above the gun deck , with the oarports attached to a rectangular outrigger that was designed to improve the leverage . Despite this , turumas performed poorly under oars and were very difficult to move in any kind of contrary wind . In calm weather the average speed with oars was reported as low as half a knot .
The turuma 's design was very similar to one of the other types of archipelago frigates , the hemmema . The primary difference was that hemmemas were rowed from the gundeck , providing the oarsmen with better leverage by placing them closer to the waterline . The later hemmemas were also considerably larger , more heavily armed and of a more robust construction . Naval historian Jan Glete has gone as describing them as variations on the same type , especially when considering the pre @-@ war designs . The crew varied between 220 and 266 , depending on the model . Between 128 and 152 of these were required to man all the oars .
The concept of hybrid frigates with oar propulsion capabilities was not new . Small " galleasses " had been built for the English Tudor navy as early as the mid @-@ 16th century . The Royal Navy , its successor , later equipped the equivalent of sixth rates with oar ports on or below the gundeck as early as the 1660s . " Shebecks " , Baltic variations on the Mediterranean xebecs , had been introduced in the Russian navy for inshore duties during the 18th century . Both of these have been suggested as possible inspirations for af Chapman 's new designs . Though not identical to the Mediterranean @-@ inspired vessel , the Russian navy considered turumas similar enough in function to their own " shebecks " to use this terminology when referring to Swedish prizes ( captured ships ) .
= = = Special @-@ purpose ships = = =
In 1777 , Chapman designed a special turuma , the royal yacht Amphion . It was 33 @.@ 5 m ( 110 ft ) long and 6 @.@ 8 m ( 22 @.@ 25 ft ) wide and was schooner @-@ rigged with only two masts ( later changed to a brigantine rig ) . Chapman intended for the craft to carry a broadside armament similar to that of the regular turumas , but this was rejected by Gustav who ordered the craft to be built with an armament consisting of only light swivel guns . Amphion was decorated in the more stringent version of Rococo that in Sweden is defined as " Gustavian " , and was fitted with a great cabin with a skylight that was well @-@ suited for royal audiences and conferences . Amphion served as Gustav III 's staff ship in the war of 1788 – 90 , but was such a poor sailer that the king and his retinue abandoned it during the dramatic escape from Vyborg Bay in 1790 .
= = Service = =
Seven turumas were built for the Swedish navy before the Russian war of 1788 @-@ 90 , and another six were complete during the war , with one more built after 1790 . Altogether fourteen turumas were completed , making it the most common of the four archipelago frigate types . At the outbreak of war in 1788 , they formed the core of the archipelago flotilla in Finland . They were used to support amphibious operations and to conduct raids on the Russian archipelago fleet , while at the same time acting as a sea @-@ borne flank support for the Swedish army on the Finnish mainland . Turumas fought in both the first and second battles of Svensksund . In the first in August 1789 , six turumas made up the bulk of the firepower of the larger Swedish vessels , while at the second in July 1790 , it was reduced to just one ship .
Like the other specialized archipelago vessels , the turuma had only limited advantages . While it had superior firepower , its sailing qualities were only average and they were slow under oars . It had the potential to be an effective weapon against galleys , matching their forward firepower and severely outgunning them with its broadside armament . Inside an enemy galley formation , it could wreak considerable havoc , but such a maneuver was never achieved in an actual battle , leaving that tactical role untested . Like the hemmema , the turuma was effective in defensive formations , but lacked the mobility that was often needed in offensive archipelago warfare . In 1790 , after the war ended , two were converted into hospital ships . The second battle of Svensksund had clearly showed that the smaller and nimble gunboats and gunsloops were far more efficient in coastal warfare and had all but displaced " archipelago frigates " in the inshore squadrons by the Finnish War of 1808 – 09 .
= = Ships = =
Fourteen or fifteen turumas were built for the Swedish archipelago fleet . All vessels except Amphion are listed below along with the basic information to the extent it has been recorded . Specifications that are identical to vessels listed directly abov are marked with a dash . Three " shebecks " were also built for the Russian Baltic fleet in 1788 – 89 that were based directly on the turumas rather than the Mediterranean xebecs .
= Julia Baird =
Julia Baird ( née Dykins ) ( born 5 March 1947 ) is the younger half @-@ sister of English musician John Lennon and is the eldest daughter of John ' Bobby ' Albert Dykins ( 1918 – December 1965 ) and Julia Lennon ( 12 March 1914 – 15 July 1958 ) . she also had an older half @-@ sister , Ingrid Pedersen . Her younger sister was Jacqueline ' Jackie ' Dykins ( born 26 October 1949 ) .
Lennon started visiting the Dykins ' house in 1951 . After the death of Julia Lennon in 1958 , Harriet and Norman Birch were appointed guardians of Julia and Jackie , ignoring Dykins ' parentage , as he had never legally married their mother . Lennon invited the Dykins sisters to visit after the success of the Beatles , when he was living in Kenwood , Weybridge , with his then @-@ wife , Cynthia Lennon .
Julia Dykins ( Baird ) married Allen Baird in 1968 and moved to Belfast . They had three children together but were divorced in 1981 . Baird worked as a special needs teacher , and after Lennon 's death she wrote John Lennon , My Brother ( with Geoffrey Giuliano ) and gave up working in 2004 to write Imagine This – Growing up with my brother John Lennon . She is now a director of Cavern City Tours in Liverpool .
= = Early years = =
Baird 's mother , Julia Lennon , was the fourth of five children in the Stanley family : Mary , known as ' Mimi ' ( 1906 – 1991 ) , Elizabeth ' Mater ' ( 1908 – 1976 ) , Anne ' Nanny ' ( 1911 – 1988 ) , Julia ' Judy ' ( 1914 – 1958 ) , and Harriet ' Harrie ' ( 1916 – 1972 ) .
John Lennon was Julia 's first child by Alfred Lennon , although she later had a daughter called Victoria ( renamed Ingrid ) after an affair with a Welsh soldier while Alfred was at sea . Julia was forced to give up the child for adoption after intense pressure from her father and her sisters . Although they had known each other previously , Julia started dating Dykins while working in a café near Mosspits , which was Lennon 's primary school . Dykins was said to be a good @-@ looking , well @-@ dressed man who was several years older than Julia and worked at the Adelphi Hotel in Liverpool as a wine steward . Julia later moved into a small flat in Gateacre with Dykins , who had access to rationed goods like alcohol , chocolate , silks and cigarettes . The Stanley sisters called Dykins a " spiv " , because of his pencil @-@ thin moustache , margarine @-@ coated hair , and pork @-@ pie hat , but the young Lennon called him " Twitchy " because of a physical tic and nervous cough Dykins had . Although Julia never divorced Alfred Lennon , she was the common @-@ law wife of Dykins , although Paul McCartney admitted to being sarcastic to Lennon about his mother living in sin while Julia was still married . Julia 's sister , Mimi , called Julia and Dykins ' home — at 1 Blomfield Road , Liverpool — " The House of Sin " and her own house ( where Lennon lived ) " The House of Correction " . When Jackie was born prematurely on 26 October 1949 , Julia went back to the hospital every day to see her , although she was often not allowed ( by Mimi ) to visit Lennon .
Dykins later managed several bars in Liverpool , which allowed Julia to stay at home at Blomfield Road , to look after Baird , Jackie , a cat named " Elvis " , and the 11 @-@ year @-@ old Lennon , who had started to visit and occasionally stayed overnight . Baird would give up her bed to Lennon , and share Jackie 's double bed . Dykins used to give Lennon weekly pocket money ( one shilling ) for doing odd jobs , such as collecting golf balls on the local course , on top of the five shillings that Lennon 's Aunt Mimi gave him . During Lennon 's visits , he would climb trees with Baird and Jackie , test Baird 's spelling , and once gave Baird half @-@ a @-@ crown to leave him alone when he wanted to kiss his first girlfriend . Baird remembered that after Lennon had visited them , her mother would often play a record called , My Son John , To Me You Are So Wonderful , " by some old crooner , and sit and listen to it " . " My Son John " — sung by David Whitfield — was released in 1956 . Although Mimi sent Lennon to his Aunt 's croft in Sango Bay , Durness , Scotland , for his holidays , he later persuaded Mimi to let him take short holidays in North Wales with the Dykins family . Julia took Baird and Jackie to Rosebury Street , Liverpool , to watch Lennon play with The Quarrymen on the back of a flatbed coal truck on 22 June 1957 . Baird was allowed to sit on the back , but as the music was too loud she asked to be taken off . The Quarrymen played twice that day as part of a celebration to mark the 750th anniversary of the granting of Liverpool 's charter by King John . Lennon and McCartney would later rehearse in the bathroom of Blomfield Road because they said the acoustics " sounded like a recording studio " .
= = = Legal guardian = = =
Baird 's mother was struck and killed on 15 July 1958 , just outside Mimi 's home , by a Standard Vanguard car driven by an off @-@ duty constable , PC Eric Clague , who was a learner @-@ driver . Clague later said : " Mrs Lennon just ran straight out in front of me . I just couldn 't avoid her . I was not speeding , I swear it . It was just one of those terrible things that happen . " Baird and Jackie ( aged eleven and eight respectively ) were sent straightway to stay in Edinburgh at their Aunt Mater 's , and were not allowed to attend the funeral . They were told two months later by Norman Birch ( Lennon 's uncle ) that their mother had died . Lennon 's Aunt Harriet and Uncle Norman Birch were made legal guardians of the girls — ignoring Dykins ' parentage , as he had never legally married Julia . Julia was buried in the Allerton Cemetery , in Liverpool . Her grave is unmarked , and over the years its location was forgotten until it was recently identified by Jackie as " CE ( Church of England ) 38 @-@ 805 " .
Baird and Jackie were taken to live with the Birches and their son at The Dairy Cottage , which was owned by Mimi 's husband , George Smith . At the age of 14 Baird was allowed to go into Liverpool city centre by herself , where she drank cappuccino coffee in the Kardomah Coffee House , although Baird and her friends called it " frothy coffee " . At 16 , Baird started to hitch @-@ hike to London , although her Aunt never knew , as she would never have allowed it . Baird talked about the trips to London , and how relatively safe they were : " Hitching was easy then . It was a way of life . Everything was becoming more free . We 'd start chatting to people in the Tube station and get invited to parties . People always gave us a place to stay – we were never harmed . "
Baird and Jackie were asked to visit Lennon at Kenwood which was his home in Weybridge in 1964 . Cynthia Lennon — Lennon 's wife at the time — took them both out shopping in Knightsbridge , buying them expensive clothes . During the same visit , The Beatles played at the Finsbury Park Astoria , and the sisters asked to be allowed to stand near the front , but had to be pulled out of the audience by security guards because of the crush . In December 1965 , Dykins was killed in a car crash at the bottom of Penny Lane . Lennon was not told about his death for months afterwards . Dykins had married again , but Baird acknowledges that she and Jackie had very little contact with his wife , and did not attend their father 's funeral .
In 1968 , Lennon was told The Dairy Cottage was too cramped for them all , so he told Birch to buy a house , and he found a 4 @-@ bedroom house in Gateacre Park Drive , Liverpool . Lennon told Birch to furnish and decorate it , and to send all the bills to him . The Dykinses heard nothing from Lennon for years , until he phoned Baird in 1975 , and asked for mementos of his childhood life , such as his school tie and photographs . He sent £ 3 @,@ 000 to cover the cost of shipping and as a gift , but wrote , " Don 't tell Mimi " . Lennon continued to call Baird until 1976 , when the calls stopped . Jackie worked as a shop assistant during the 1970s , but battled against a heroin addiction . In the 1980s , and fully recovered , Jackie gave birth to her son , John , later working as a hairstylist . After Lennon and Harriet died , Yoko Ono wanted to sell the house — as it was still in Lennon 's name — but later gave it to the Salvation Army on 2 November 1993 , even though Lennon had once written : " I always thought of the house he 's in [ Birch ] as my contribution towards looking after Julia [ Baird ] and Jackie . I would prefer the girls to use it . "
= = Later years = =
Julia married Allen Baird in 1968 , they moved to Belfast and kept her family history a secret . The Bairds had three children : Nicholas ( b . 1971 ) , Sara ( b . 1972 ) and David ( b . 1980 ) , and were divorced in 1981 . Baird went to university and gained an MA in philosophy of education , and during her the course of her degree she spent a year off in France , hitch @-@ hiked around Europe , and protested against the war in Vietnam in Paris alongside Simone de Beauvoir . Baird later taught French and English before working as a special needs teacher with teenagers in deprived areas of Chester , until she retired to write books and become a director of Cavern City Tours .
Baird and Jackie met their half @-@ sister Ingrid Pedersen for the first time when they were present at the ceremony to place a Blue Heritage plaque on Mimi 's house , commemorating the fact that Lennon had lived there . Baird and Jackie had only recently found out who Pedersen was , after being told by journalist Bill Smithies of the Liverpool Echo . Baird was shocked that Pedersen did not look anything like the Stanley or the Lennon family , having pale blue eyes and fair hair .
After releasing the book , John Lennon , My Brother — written with Giuliano , and a foreword by McCartney — Baird travelled to New York during 1989 to appear at a Beatlefest convention , and was asked if she could prove she was really Lennon 's half @-@ sister . Baird declined , saying she was not going to produce her passport , and the audience would just have to take her word for it . In 2000 , Baird was present at the unveiling of six road signs , erected on major routes into Liverpool , saying , " Liverpool welcomes you – to the birthplace of THE BEATLES " , and in October she planted a tree in Liverpool 's Peace Gardens to commemorate Lennon 's birthday .
Baird retired in 2004 , and published a book called Imagine This – Growing up with my brother John Lennon , in February 2007 .
From 28 to 30 September 2007 , Durness held the John Lennon Northern Lights Festival which was attended by Baird ( who read from Lennon 's writings and her own books ) and Stanley Parkes ( Lennon 's Scottish cousin ) . Parkes said , " Me and Julia [ Baird ] are going to be going to the old family croft to tell stories " . Musicians , painters and poets from across the UK performed at the festival . Baird now lives in Chester with her partner , Roger Keys .
Baird claims she was never told that her mother was buried in the Allerton Cemetery , in Liverpool , although the graveyard 's location is approximately 1 @.@ 19 miles east of 1 Blomfield Road . The grave was unmarked , but was recently identified as " CE ( Church of England ) 38 @-@ 805 " . The Stanley family finally put a headstone on her mother 's grave . The headstone reads :
Mummy
John
Victoria
Julie
Jackie .
= SS Gothenburg =
The SS Gothenburg was a steamship that operated along the British and then later the Australian and New Zealand coastlines . In February 1875 , she left Darwin , Australia en route to Adelaide when she encountered a cyclone @-@ strength storm off the north Queensland coast . The ship was wrecked on the Great Barrier Reef north @-@ west of Holbourne Island on 24 February 1875 . Survivors in one of the lifeboats were rescued two days later by the Leichhardt , while the occupants of two other lifeboats that managed to reach Holbourne Island were rescued several days later . Twenty @-@ two men survived , while between 98 and 112 others died , including a number of high @-@ profile civil servants and dignitaries .
= = Description and history = =
The Gothenburg was commissioned in 1855 following her construction at Lungley 's building yards in Millwall , London . She was a 501 @-@ ton , 197 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 60 m ) vessel , with a 120 @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) , coal @-@ burning engine . She was rigged as barquentine , with her funnel set well aft between the main and mizzen masts . She was fitted with four lifeboats , two port and two starboard .
Her first owner , the North of Europe Steam Navigation Company , operated her between Irongate Wharf , near the Tower of London , and Sweden . In 1857 , she was acquired by the Union Castle Line and renamed as RMS Celt . In June 1862 , McMerkan , Blackwood and Co. of Melbourne purchased her for the Australian trade and in that year she made a protracted voyage from England to Australia by sail . She was one of the most modern vessels working around the Australian coastline in the 1860s , and became a popular ship as she was considered reliable . After many years on the Australia @-@ New Zealand run , her owners transferred her to the Australian coastal service .
In 1873 , she was lengthened and refitted in Adelaide to enable longer distances under steam and greater passenger and cargo capacity . Following her modifications , her name reverted once again to Gothenburg .
In November 1874 , several shipowners were contracted for two years from the South Australian government to provide ten round trips between the colonial capital of Adelaide and its furthest outpost , Port Darwin . Port Darwin was feeling the effects of a gold rush at Pine Creek and growing quickly as a trade post with the Dutch East Indies . However , all the local banks sent their money , together with government paperwork and the Royal Mail , around the east coast to Adelaide . On successful completion of each voyage , the South Australian government would pay the owners £ 1000 sterling .
When the Gothenburg left Port Darwin on Wednesday , 17 February 1875 , Captain James Pearce was under orders to make best possible speed . Pearce had been her captain on the Adelaide @-@ Darwin run for some time and had built up a solid reputation . He was a man of the sea , a man of sobriety and kindness and was well respected by his fellow sea captains .
Amongst the approximately 98 passengers and 37 crew ( surviving records vary ) were government officials , circuit court judges , Darwin residents taking their first furlough and miners . Also aboard was the French Vice Consul Eduard Durand and James Millner , the medical officer in George W. Goyder 's 1869 expedition to found the first colony at Port Darwin . There were also several prisoners aboard , bound for the Adelaide jail . Locked in the Captain 's cabin was approximately 93 kilograms ( 3 @,@ 000 ozt ) of gold valued at £ 40 @,@ 000 consigned to the ES & A Bank in Adelaide . ( approx US $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 2008 ) . Durand reportedly also carried a tin box with him containing gold sovereigns and coins worth in excess of £ 3 @,@ 000 .
In three days of fine weather , the Gothenburg travelled 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 900 mi ) from Palmerston ( Darwin ) to Somerset on Cape York . The weather began to worsen so the ship stopped to take on ballast at Somerset . While she was anchored , conditions deteriorated to a point where both anchor chains parted . After the loss of the anchors , the Gothenburg was forced to prematurely steam out 13 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 0 nmi ) because of strong currents ; at that point , she brought up for the night .
Two days later , Tuesday 23 February , the Gothenburg passed Cooktown at about 2 : 00 pm . The wind and rain severely increased and cloud cover became so thick it blocked out the sun . Despite this , she continued the journey south into worsening weather , in a deep water passage between the North Queensland coastline and the Great Barrier Reef , known as the inner route . Although taking this route provided some protection from the open sea , captains had to navigate and thread their way through a number of then uncharted reefs . All passengers and crew expected to be in Newcastle on Sunday evening for a scheduled stopover .
= = Shipwreck = =
On the evening of 24 February 1875 , the ship was still heading south in almost cyclonic conditions with fore , top and mainsails set and the steam engines running at full speed . Flooding rains lashed the entire Queensland coast and Captain Pearce reportedly could not see land or sun . At approximately 7 : 00 pm , and for reasons undetermined , he altered course and shortly afterwards , at full speed ( 11 to 12 knots ) , hit a section of the Great Barrier Reef at low tide 31 miles ( 50 km ) north west of Holbourne Island . The Gothenburg struck with such force that she was left high up on the reef . Immediately , an order came out to lower the sails . At first , there was no panic and many passengers returned to their cabin bunks expecting the Gothenburg would come off the reef at high tide .
In an attempt to refloat her , Captain Pearce ordered the Gothenburg to be lightened forward . Water casks used as ballast and passengers were positioned aft in an endeavour to refloat her as the tide rose , but without success . Finally , a fatal attempt was made to refloat her , by reversing the engine hard . The vessel came half off the reef , but holed herself badly and then slewed broadside to the waves , in a much worse position . However , with the tide rising and some cargo now being dumped overboard , all aboard still expected the Gothenburg to float free . With strong winds changing direction and seas increasing , the boiler fires were extinguished by water rising through the damaged stern . Around midnight , the chief engineer came on deck to report that the engine room was flooded and the engine was of no further use . With heavy seas now rushing down hatchways and into the cabins , the Gothenburg was doomed and Captain Pearce was forced to admit that the situation had become desperate .
The storm made launching the lifeboats almost impossible . At about 3 : 00 am , Captain Pearce ordered the two port lifeboats lowered , each with four crew on board . While being passed astern one of the boats broke the painter and became adrift . Its crew tried hard to pull up to the ship 's side , but it was impossible in the heavy squall . The other was accidentally let go and both boats , in heavy seas , were unable to be retrieved .
At about 3 : 30 am on Thursday , 25 February , the Gothenburg continued to heel over . The deck became so steep that passengers and crew had to climb over the rails to get on her side . At about 4 : 00 am , the two remaining starboard lifeboats were lowered and were rushed by the passengers . One starboard lifeboat , crammed with women and children , capsized when others tried to board it . Some half dozen men righted her in the water , but , damaged and without oars , food or water , it quickly drifted away and was never found . The second starboard lifeboat also capsized when the sea crashed over , washing all the occupants into the sea . One passenger recalled the sea on the downwind side of the ship being covered with human heads bobbing up and down like corks . Five or six men and one woman climbed onto the upturned hull . The boat was still connected to its painter , but it was unable to be recovered from the heavy sea and wind which swept the woman off and drowned her . A passenger , John Cleland , swam to the connected , but upturned lifeboat and further secured it with a rope tied to the Gothenburg . In less than fifteen minutes , nearly 100 people had drowned ; washed away or trapped in their water @-@ filled cabins . By this time , several sharks were circling the wreck .
Those still on board the Gothenburg tried to cling to the rigging , but throughout the early morning of 25 February , several more people were drowned after they were swept overboard by large broadside waves . Many passengers associated with the gold diggings were unwilling to let go of their gold and money belts , as it was probably their life savings , insisted on keeping them tied and once overboard reportedly drowned very quickly .
= = = Survivors = = =
By morning of the 25 February , only the masts were visible protruding from the water , with 14 people clinging to the rigging , where they remained for the next twenty four hours in cyclonic weather . At low tide , the Gothenburg ground and twisted and broke her back between the fore and main masts . However , the remaining starboard lifeboat , which had capsized , was still held by her painter and the rope attached by Cleland . At first light on 26 February the weather eased and the survivors managed to right the boat and bail it out ; they prepared a makeshift sail and paddled for the mainland . About seven hours later they realised they could not make mainland , so they altered course for an island that could be seen in the distance . When they arrived , they were met by four of the crew from one of the port lifeboats . Their lifeboat had been severely damaged on the rocks on the opposite side of the island in an attempt to land there the day before .
The other port lifeboat , with four crew on board , was picked up by the steamer Leichhardt at an island at the entrance to Whitsunday Passage two days after the disaster . The steamer immediately reversed course back towards the wreck , which she reached at approximately 3 @.@ 30 pm on Friday , 26 February . Gothenburg was a complete wreck ; the funnel was gone and she had sunk to the eyes of the lower rigging . The Leichhardt 's Chief Officer and four hands went alongside , but nothing other than her masts could be seen above the water except for the body of a naked man floating nearby . They assumed the other victims had been taken by sharks . The Leichhardt searched for survivors until last light and then made way for Bowen where the alarm was raised .
At Holbourne Island , the other 18 survivors were living off raw bird 's eggs and rain water that had pooled in the island rocks . Because rescue was uncertain , they engraved ship details and their names on the concave side of a large turtle shell , in the hope that it would be found in the future . On Sunday , 28 February 15 of them set off in the starboard lifeboat for an island about 20 miles away to the south , which appeared to be closer to the main shipping lane . A rescue ship , sent looking for survivors , picked up the group and took them safely to Bowen . Another rescue ship called the Bunyip from Townsville subsequently returned to Holbourne Island and rescued the three remaining survivors .
= = Aftermath = =
Although reports vary , records show that between 98 and 112 people drowned . Most records state the death toll at 102 . Only 22 people survived ( 12 crew and 10 passengers ) . All 25 women and children aboard and all the officers died .
Edward W. Price , Magistrate and Commissioner Circuit Court of the Northern Territory , who remained behind in Darwin , lost his wife and six children . Devastated by the news , he was given six months leave on full pay by the government . The retired fifth Premier of South Australia , Thomas Reynolds and his wife , Anne , both drowned as did Eduard Durand , the French Vice Consul .
Other notable passengers who died were Dr James Millner and his family , Justice William A. Wearing QC , Circuit Court Judge ; Joseph Whitby , acting South Australian Crown Solicitor ; Richard Wells , NT Times & Gazette editor ; Lionel Pelham , a senior public servant ; Commander Andrew Ross of the Royal Navy ; C. J. Lyons , Justice Wearing 's senior assistant ; William Shoobridge , Secretary to several mining companies ; A. L. McKay , Government Surveyor ; and several Overland Telegraph employees .
Never before in Australian history had so many high @-@ profile public servants , dignitaries and diplomats died in a single tragedy . Many passengers who died were Darwin residents and news of the tragedy severely affected the small community , reportedly taking several years to recover . Most of Gothenburg 's crew were from Melbourne and as a result of the shipwreck , 11 widows and 34 children were left destitute in Victoria .
At Bowen , twelve survivors left with Captain Lake on the ship Victoria headed for Sydney . They all got free passage from McMerkan , Blackwood and Co , the owners of Gothenburg . The four survivors from the second port lifeboat that were picked up by the steamer Leichhardt , remained with that ship and subsequently made way for Brisbane .
Two weeks later a hard @-@ hat diver , sent down to recover the gold and other valuables , found the bodies of two women at the foot of the saloon staircase , one with her arm around the other . The diver tried to reach them to take a lock of hair or some other personal item that could be identified by their loved ones , but the restriction of the air line made it impossible . The gold in the Captain 's cabin was recovered after much difficulty . While recovering the gold , several sharks that were caught near the wreck were found to contain human bones , remains and jewellery .
There were three heroes identified that tragic night , all attested to by all the other survivors , for their attempts to save other passengers . In recognition of their bravery , on 26 July 1875 , the Governor of South Australia , Sir Anthony Musgrave , presented passengers James Fitzgerald and John Cleland and crewman Robert Brazil with gold medals and a gold watch . The Gothenburg Relief Fund Committee also presented each of them with a gold chain .
= = = Report = = =
The report of the Marine Board of Queensland determined that :
= = = Lifeboats = = =
There was also much speculation at the time in the Adelaide and Melbourne press on why the lifeboats had not been launched earlier . Survivor James Fitzgerald pointed out in his recollection that , had the lifeboats been filled to capacity , no one would have survived the severe weather conditions experienced . He also commented that passenger vessels were not required to carry enough lifeboats , concluding that there were insufficient places for all Gothenburg 's passengers and crew . It was not until RMS Titanic sank some 37 years later in 1912 , that it was made compulsory for all British registered ships to carry sufficient lifeboats for everyone on board .
= = Present day = =
Today , only parts of the deteriorated iron hull and the coal fired square boilers of the SS Gothenburg remain . The wreck lies between 9 and approximately 16 metres ( 52 ft ) of water on the western side of Old Reef , 130 kilometres ( 81 mi ) southeast of Townsville . The Gothenburg shipwreck is registered on the Queensland National Estate ( place ID # 8923 ) as a Heritage site , and is protected under Section 7 of the ( Commonwealth ) Historic Shipwrecks Act 1976 , which requires that divers have a permit to enter the 200m protected zone that has been declared around the wreck . Its official location is : Old Reef , Great Barrier Reef , 75 kilometres ( 47 mi ) north @-@ east of Ayr , at 19 ° 22 ′ 0
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of prominent hot spots at the northern edge of the Equatorial Zone . The Galileo Probe descended into one of those equatorial spots . Each equatorial spot is associated with a bright cloudy plume located to the west of it and reaching up to 10 @,@ 000 km in size . Hot spots generally have round shapes , although they do not resemble vortexes .
The origin of hot spots is not clear . They can be either downdrafts , where the descending air is adiabatically heated and dried or , alternatively , they can be a manifestation of planetary scale waves . The latter hypotheses explains the periodical pattern of the equatorial spots .
= = Observational history = =
Early astronomers , using small telescopes , recorded the changing appearance of Jupiter 's atmosphere . Their descriptive terms — belts and zones , brown spots and red spots , plumes , barges , festoons , and streamers — are still used . Other terms such as vorticity , vertical motion , cloud heights have entered in use later , in the 20th century .
The first observations of the Jovian atmosphere at higher resolution than possible with Earth @-@ based telescopes were taken by the Pioneer 10 and 11 spacecraft . The first truly detailed images of Jupiter 's atmosphere were provided by the Voyagers . The two spacecraft were able to image details at a resolution as low as 5 km in size in various spectra , and also able to create " approach movies " of the atmosphere in motion . The Galileo Probe , which suffered an antenna problem , saw less of Jupiter 's atmosphere but at a better average resolution and a wider spectral bandwidth .
Today , astronomers have access to a continuous record of Jupiter 's atmospheric activity thanks to telescopes such as Hubble Space Telescope . These show that the atmosphere is occasionally wracked by massive disturbances , but that , overall , it is remarkably stable . The vertical motion of Jupiter 's atmosphere was largely determined by the identification of trace gases by ground @-@ based telescopes . Spectroscopic studies after the collision of Comet Shoemaker – Levy 9 gave a glimpse of the Jupiter 's composition beneath the cloud tops . The presence of diatomic sulfur ( S2 ) and carbon disulfide ( CS2 ) was recorded — the first detection of either in Jupiter , and only the second detection of S2 in any astronomical object — together with other molecules such as ammonia ( NH3 ) and hydrogen sulfide ( H2S ) , while oxygen @-@ bearing molecules such as sulfur dioxide were not detected , to the surprise of astronomers .
The Galileo atmospheric probe , as it plunged into Jupiter , measured the wind , temperature , composition , clouds , and radiation levels down to 22 bar . However , below 1 bar elsewhere on Jupiter there is uncertainty in the quantities .
= = = Great Red Spot studies = = =
The first sighting of the GRS is often credited to Robert Hooke , who described a spot on the planet in May 1664 ; however , it is likely that Hooke 's spot was in the wrong belt altogether ( the North Equatorial Belt , versus the current location in the South Equatorial Belt ) . Much more convincing is Giovanni Cassini 's description of a " permanent spot " in the following year . With fluctuations in visibility , Cassini 's spot was observed from 1665 to 1713 .
A minor mystery concerns a Jovian spot depicted around 1700 on a canvas by Donato Creti , which is exhibited in the Vatican . It is a part of a series of panels in which different ( magnified ) heavenly bodies serve as backdrops for various Italian scenes , the creation of all of them overseen by the astronomer Eustachio Manfredi for accuracy . Creti 's painting is the first known to depict the GRS as red . No Jovian feature was officially described as red before the late 19th century .
The present GRS was first seen only after 1830 and well @-@ studied only after a prominent apparition in 1879 . A 118 @-@ year gap separates the observations made after 1830 from its 17th @-@ century discovery ; whether the original spot dissipated and re @-@ formed , whether it faded , or even if the observational record was simply poor are unknown . The older spots had a short observational history and slower motion than that of the modern spot , which make their identity unlikely .
On February 25 , 1979 , when the Voyager 1 spacecraft was 9 @.@ 2 million kilometers from Jupiter it transmitted the first detailed image of the Great Red Spot back to Earth . Cloud details as small as 160 km across were visible . The colorful , wavy cloud pattern seen to the west ( left ) of the GRS is the spot 's wake region , where extraordinarily complex and variable cloud motions are observed .
= = = White ovals = = =
The white ovals that were to become Oval BA formed in 1939 . They covered almost 90 degrees of longitude shortly after their formation , but contracted rapidly during their first decade ; their length stabilized at 10 degrees or less after 1965 . Although they originated as segments of the STZ , they evolved to become completely embedded in the South Temperate Belt , suggesting that they moved north , " digging " a niche into the STB . Indeed , much like the GRS , their circulations were confined by two opposing jet streams on their northern and southern boundaries , with an eastward jet to their north and a retrograde westward one to the south .
The longitudinal movement of the ovals seemed to be influenced by two factors : Jupiter 's position in its orbit ( they became faster at aphelion ) , and their proximity to the GRS ( they accelerated when within 50 degrees of the Spot ) . The overall trend of the white oval drift rate was deceleration , with a decrease by half between 1940 and 1990 .
During the Voyager fly @-@ bys , the ovals extended roughly 9000 km from east to west , 5000 km from north to south , and rotated every five days ( compared to six for the GRS at the time ) .
= = Cited sources = =
= December 2000 nor 'easter =
The December 2000 nor 'easter was a significant winter storm that impacted the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England regions of the United States around the end of the month . It began as an Alberta clipper that moved southeastward through the central United States and weakened over the Ohio Valley . However , it redeveloped off the coast of North Carolina and moved northward as it intensified . It moved into central Long Island and eventually tracked northward into New England . The storm dropped heavy precipitation throughout the Northeast , especially in northern New Jersey and eastern New York , where snowfall often exceeded 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) . Even so , as it struck on a weekend , its effects were generally minor and mostly limited to travel delays , traffic accidents , and business closures .
= = Synoptic history = =
The storm developed as an Alberta clipper @-@ type low pressure area that moved southeastward across the Great Plains and Midwest . Throughout North Dakota , Minnesota and Iowa , moderate snowfall accompanied the system . After weakening over the Ohio Valley , the storm redeveloped off the coast of North Carolina . In the days preceding the event , a cyclone over eastern Canada circulated cold air southward . Computer models indicated the potential for a major storm up to seven days in advance ; however , initially , certain forecasts suggested that a separate storm over the southern U.S. would merge with the clipper . Instead , this feature moved out to sea .
As the secondary storm began to intensify offshore , precipitation rapidly expanded and tracked northward towards southern Virginia , eastern Maryland and Delaware , largely in the form of freezing rain , ice , and snow . From 0200 UTC on December 30 to 1200 UTC , the cyclone intensified by 13 mbar , and continued to deepen for several more hours . Snowfall reached southern New Jersey between 0600 and 0800 UTC , and New York City at around 1000 UTC . Thundersnow developed within heavy bands in some areas . The significant snow was characterized by a sharp western cutoff ; for example , in Chester County , accumulations ranged from around 6 inches in the far eastern parts of the county to only an inch along its western border with Lancaster County .
While located off the New Jersey coast , the storm stopped strengthening and slowly moved northward . The center was situated near central Long Island at 2100 UTC . Across eastern Long Island and parts of eastern New England , snow mixed with and , in some cases , changed over to rain . The surface low had moved into eastern Connecticut by early on December 31 . As it continued to head northeastward , a new center of low pressure developed near Boston and moved towards coastal Maine . The storm system had abated by January 1 .
= = Impact = =
The storm produced moderate to heavy snowfall from eastern Pennsylvania through New Jersey , New York , and New England , extending as far north as Maine . As much as 30 in ( 0 @.@ 76 m ) fell west of the New York City metropolitan region , which generally reported 10 to 16 in ( 0 @.@ 25 to 0 @.@ 41 m ) of snow , making it the biggest snowstorm at the time since the North American blizzard of 1996 . Washington , D.C. and Baltimore recorded little or no snowfall , while 10 in ( 25 cm ) impacted Philadelphia . Eastern New York , especially the Hudson Valley and Catskill Mountains , western Connecticut , western and central Massachusetts , Vermont , New Hampshire and Maine also picked up heavy snowfall . Eastern New England received up to 1 ft ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) before dry air from the south reduced the duration of the snow .
About 30 flights were canceled at the Philadelphia International Airport , and the city declared a snow emergency . Amtrak canceled Metroliner service along the northeast corridor from Washington , D.C. to New York City . Numerous businesses throughout eastern Pennsylvania closed on December 30 , although because the storm struck on a weekend , the number of traffic accidents was fairly low .
In New Jersey , increasing winds caused blowing and drifting of the snow and led to near @-@ blizzard conditions . Behind the storm , very cold and gusty weather lingered . New Jersey Transit shut down bus service in northern portions of the state , and rail lines had 20 @-@ minute delays . Most injuries in the state were related to physical strain while shoveling , snow blower accidents or slips and falls . As the snowfall was of a light nature , few trees limbs and electrical wires were downed by the storm . GPU Energy reported only around 5 @,@ 500 power outages . A countywide state of emergency was declared in Sussex County , as vehicles were sliding off roadways . Several other traffic accidents and delays were reported throughout the state , and in Somerset County , a few roads were closed due to the snow . A Red Cross shelter was opened for residents of a Spotswood trailer park .
In New York State , the heaviest snow peaked at 29 in ( 0 @.@ 74 m ) in Platte Cove , Greene County . Despite 50 flight cancellations at the Albany International Airport and several traffic accidents , no major damage or injuries were reported . Although heavy snow fell in the state , no major damage was reported in Connecticut . In Massachusetts and Rhode Island , high winds , gusting to as high as 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) buffeted the coast .
= Ned Flanders =
Nedward " Ned " Flanders , Jr. is a recurring fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . He is voiced by Harry Shearer , and first appeared in the series premiere episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . He is the good @-@ natured , cheery next @-@ door neighbor to the Simpson family and is generally loathed by Homer Simpson . A devout Evangelical Christian with an annoyingly perfect family , he is among the friendliest and most compassionate of Springfield 's citizens and is generally considered a pillar of the Springfield community .
He was one of the first characters outside of the immediate Simpson family to appear on the show , and has since been central to several episodes , the first being season two 's " Dead Putting Society " . His last name comes from Flanders St. in Portland , Oregon , the hometown of Simpsons creator Matt Groening . When he was created , he was intended to just be a neighbor who was very nice , but whom Homer loathed .
In May 2015 , Harry Shearer announced that he had quit the role and that the role would be recast . However , on July 7 , it was announced Fox signed all of its main cast members , including Shearer .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
Ned is a genuinely well @-@ meaning good @-@ natured person and is one of the few in Springfield to whom that description applies . Firmly religious , he can be timid and something of a pushover . He is a Republican and a devout Evangelical Christian who strictly follows the Bible literally and is easily shocked when challenged on any point of dogma . This has led to his frequent calls to Reverend Lovejoy , who has become increasingly frustrated with and uninterested in Flanders .
Ned grew up in New York and was the son of " freaky beatniks " who did not discipline Ned and let him run wild . Eventually they took him to Dr. Foster , a psychiatrist , who put the young Ned through the University of Minnesota Spankalogical Protocol , which involved eight months of continuous spanking . The treatment worked so well that it rendered Flanders unable to express any anger at all and resulted in his trademark nonsensical jabbering at moments when he was particularly close to losing his temper , causing Ned to unknowingly repress his anger .
Ned got his diploma from Oral Roberts University in an unspecified field and worked as a salesman in the pharmaceuticals industry for the bulk of his adult life . Having saved much of his earnings , Flanders decided to quit his job and invested his family 's life savings into a store in the Springfield mall called " The Leftorium " specializing in products for left @-@ handed people . Despite a meek outward appearance , Ned hides an exceptionally well @-@ toned physique . In the episode " Hurricane Neddy " a flashback to 30 years earlier shows Ned as a young child despite the fact that he is later said to be 60 years old , attributing his youthful appearance to his conformity to the " three Cs " — " clean living , chewing thoroughly , and a daily dose of vitamin church " .
Ned is very honest and sincere in carrying out the Christian doctrines of charity , kindness , and compassion . He is frequently shown doing volunteer work , and is rigorously honest and upright , even going so far as to spend an entire day tracking down a Leftorium customer in order to give him the extra change that he had forgotten to hand over . In " Homer 's Triple Bypass " , he donates a kidney and a lung out of the goodness of his heart to whoever needs them first . He also is a good neighbor to the Simpsons , regularly offering his assistance . Ned ’ s dogged friendship inspires the loyalty of others ; when his Leftorium appeared on the verge of bankruptcy shortly after it opened , Homer arranged a George Bailey @-@ esque bailout with the help of many people in Springfield .
Ned is a widower , having been married to the equally religious Maude . They had two children together ; the sheltered and naive Rod and Todd Flanders . In the eleventh season , Maude dies an untimely death in a freak accident involving a T @-@ shirt cannon ( caused and aggravated by Homer ) , leaving Flanders alone and grieving . While still married to Maude , Ned married Ginger , while on a drunken bender in Las Vegas . Ginger came to live with Ned and his sons for a brief period following Maude 's death in a later episode , but she quickly grew tired of the Flanders ' sickly @-@ sweet personalities and fled . Despite his outward nerdishness , Flanders has also been connected romantically with a beautiful Christian @-@ rock singer , Rachel Jordan , movie star Sara Sloane and eventually marrying local teacher Edna Krabappel .
In the early years of The Simpsons , Homer Simpson generally loathed Ned , because Ned 's family , job , health and self @-@ discipline are of higher quality than he could ever hope to attain himself . Homer is often shown borrowing ( or stealing ) items from Flanders , such as a weather vane , a camcorder , a diploma , a toothbrush and an air conditioning unit . Even the Simpsons ' couch came from " the curb outside Flanders ' house " . Homer has since come to have a love @-@ hate relationship with Ned , sometimes being his best friend , partly due to Ned 's selfless tolerance of him , and other times treating Ned with complete disregard . Homer seems to genuinely care for Ned , despite still expressing and often acting on feelings of loathing . Nowadays Homer seems to regard Ned as more of a nuisance . An early running joke was that Marge considers Flanders to be a perfect neighbor and usually sides with him instead of her husband , which always enrages Homer . Flanders is normally oblivious to Homer 's disdain for him , although on occasions he has snapped at Homer after being pushed too far .
Flanders has been shown to call Reverend Lovejoy for advice often , even over minuscule things , to the point that Lovejoy has stopped caring and has even suggested that Flanders try a different religion . This was a running joke in the early seasons , but has been used less in the later episodes . In the eighth season , the episode " In Marge We Trust " would examine the relationship between Lovejoy and Flanders , and shows the history of their relationship and how Lovejoy became increasingly uninterested in Flanders ' problems . Flanders is shown to have a room in his house filled with memorabilia of The Beatles . He claims that this is because they were " bigger than Jesus " .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Ned Flanders , who was designed by Rich Moore , first appeared in the season one episode " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . The episode was the series premiere , but not the first episode produced . The first episode in which Flanders and his family were prominent is season two 's " Dead Putting Society " , which also contained the first appearance of Maude and Rod Flanders . Flanders was named after Flanders St. in Portland , Oregon , the hometown of Simpsons creator Matt Groening . Groening described the inspiration for Flanders as " just a guy who was truly nice , that Homer had no justifiable reason to loathe , but then did " . It was not until after the first few episodes that it was decided Flanders would be a faithful Christian . Mike Scully noted that Flanders is " everything Homer would love to be , although he 'll never admit it " . Flanders had been meant to be just a neighbor that Homer was jealous of , but Harry Shearer used " such a sweet voice " and Flanders was broadened to become a Christian and a sweet guy that someone would prefer to live next to over Homer . Flanders is known for his nonsensical jabbering . His first use of the word " diddly " was in " The Call of the Simpsons " .
= = = Development = = =
Ned Flanders was not religious in his first few appearances and in the first few seasons he was only mildly religious and his primary role was to be so " cloyingly perfect as to annoy and shame the Simpsons " , whereas Homer Simpson has always hated Ned Flanders and always tries to undermine him . There has been a consistent effort among the show 's writers to make him not just " goody good and an unsympathetic person " . In the later seasons , Flanders has become more of a caricature of the Christian right , and his role as an irritating " perfect neighbor " has been lessened . For example , some recent episodes Flanders has appeared to show rather prejudice attitudes against gays and people of religions other than Christianity .
Ned 's store " The Leftorium " first appeared in " When Flanders Failed " . It was suggested by George Meyer , who had had a friend who had owned a left @-@ handed specialty store which failed . The episode " Hurricane Neddy " shows Ned 's faith being tested and the writers also used the episode as a chance to examine what makes him tick .
There have been two occasions where Flanders was not voiced by Harry Shearer . In " Bart of Darkness " , Flanders 's high pitched scream was performed by Tress MacNeille and in " Homer to the Max " , Flanders comments about cartoons being easily able to change voice actors and on that occasion he was voiced by Karl Wiedergott .
= = = " The Adventures of Ned Flanders " = = =
The Adventures of Ned Flanders is a short film that appears at the end of the fourth season Simpsons episode " The Front " . The only one to ever exist and titled Love that God , it highlights Flanders ' dedication to religion and perfect family niceness by showing Ned nearly scolding Rod and Todd after they refuse to get ready for church – only to have them inform him that it is , in fact , Saturday . Ned laughs at his mistake with a trademark " okely dokely do ! " The segment was added when " The Front " was too short and the producers had already tried " every trick in the book " to lengthen it . Although the episode was scripted by Adam I. Lapidus , " Love That God " was written by Mike Reiss , Al Jean and Sam Simon .
Generally , fans reacted with confusion as to why the short existed . Bill Oakley and several other writers loved the short so much that they wanted to do more , but time limitations prevented them . As a result , Oakley and Josh Weinstein decided to produce an entire episode that was nothing but loosely associated shorts , which became the season seven episode " 22 Short Films about Springfield " . The Flanders / Lovejoy segment of that episode was written by David X. Cohen . " 22 Short Films about Springfield " in turn inspired the Futurama episode " Three Hundred Big Boys " .
= = Reception = =
Although in more recent seasons Flanders has become a caricature of the Christian right , he is still a favorite of many Christian viewers . Dr. Rowan Williams , a former Archbishop of Canterbury , is a confessed Simpsons fan , and likes Flanders . Ned 's " unbearable piousness " has been described as " The Simpsons ' sharpest critique of organized religion . The show 's implicit argument seems to be that humorless obsessives like Ned have hijacked religious institutions , removing them from the center of society to a place where only those who know their brides of Beth Chedruharazzeb from their wells of Zohassadar can seek solace . " Steve Goddard of the website Ship of Fools said , " Ned is an innocent abroad in a world of cynicism and compromise . We love him because we know what it 's like to be classed as a nerd — and to come out smiling at the end of it . "
= = Cultural influence = =
Ned Flanders has been described as " The United States ' most well @-@ known evangelical " . According to Christianity Today , " today on American college and high school campuses , the name most associated with the word Christian — other than Jesus — is not the Pope or Mother Teresa or even Billy Graham . Instead , it 's a goofy @-@ looking guy named Ned Flanders on the animated sitcom known as The Simpsons . The mustache , thick glasses , green sweater , and irrepressibly cheerful demeanor of Ned Flanders , Homer Simpson 's next @-@ door neighbor , have made him an indelible figure , the evangelical known most intimately to nonevangelicals . " Former Montreal Canadiens goaltender Peter Budaj had an image of Ned Flanders painted on the back of his helmet .
In 2001 and 2002 , the Greenbelt festival , a British Christian music and arts fest , held a special " Ned Flanders Night " . The 2001 event featured a look @-@ alike contest , as well as the tribute band " Ned Zeppelin " . It was held in a 500 @-@ seat venue that was filled to capacity , and an extra 1500 people were turned away at the door . A second event was held in 2002 , with Ned Zeppelin reappearing .
Another tribute band , Okilly Dokilly , plays heavy metal music .
= = = Merchandise = = =
Flanders has been included in The Simpsons merchandise . In 2008 , the Flanders ' Book of Faith , part of the Simpsons Library of Wisdom was released by HarperCollins . The book takes a look at Flanders ' life and his ever enduring faith .
= Gene Wilder =
Jerome Silberman ( born June 11 , 1933 ) , known professionally as Gene Wilder , is an American stage and screen comic actor , screenwriter , and author .
Wilder began his career on stage , and made his screen debut in the TV @-@ series Armstrong Circle Theatre in 1962 . Although his first film role was portraying a hostage in the 1967 motion picture Bonnie and Clyde , Wilder 's first major role was as Leopold Bloom in the 1968 film The Producers for which he was nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . This was the first in a series of collaborations with writer / director Mel Brooks , including 1974 's Blazing Saddles and Young Frankenstein , which Wilder co @-@ wrote , garnering the pair an Academy Award nomination for Best Adapted Screenplay . Wilder is known for his portrayal of Willy Wonka in Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory ( 1971 ) and for his four films with Richard Pryor : Silver Streak ( 1976 ) , Stir Crazy ( 1980 ) , See No Evil , Hear No Evil ( 1989 ) , and Another You ( 1991 ) . Wilder has directed and written several of his films , including The Woman in Red ( 1984 ) .
His third wife was actress Gilda Radner , with whom he starred in three films . Her death from ovarian cancer led to his active involvement in promoting cancer awareness and treatment , helping found the Gilda Radner Ovarian Cancer Detection Center in Los Angeles and co @-@ founding Gilda 's Club .
Since his most recent contribution to acting in 2003 , Wilder has turned his attention to writing . He has produced a memoir in 2005 , Kiss Me Like a Stranger : My Search for Love and Art ; a collection of stories , What Is This Thing Called Love ? ( 2010 ) ; and the novels My French Whore ( 2007 ) , The Woman Who Wouldn 't ( 2008 ) and Something to Remember You By ( 2013 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Born Jerome Silberman in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , on June 11 , 1933 , Wilder is the son of William J. and Jeanne ( Baer ) Silberman . He adopted " Gene Wilder " for his professional name at the age of 26 , later explaining , " I had always liked Gene because of Thomas Wolfe 's character Eugene Gant in Look Homeward , Angel and Of Time and the River . And I was always a great admirer of Thornton Wilder . " Wilder first became interested in acting at age 8 , when his mother was diagnosed with rheumatic fever and the doctor told him to " try and make her laugh . "
At the age of 11 , he saw his sister , who was studying acting , performing onstage , and was enthralled by the experience . He asked her teacher if he could become his student , and the teacher said that if he were still interested at age 13 , he would take Wilder on as a student . The day after Wilder turned 13 , he called the teacher , who accepted him ; Wilder studied with him for two years .
When Jeanne Silberman felt that her son 's potential was not being fully realized in Wisconsin , she sent him to Black @-@ Foxe , a military institute in Hollywood , where he wrote that he was bullied and sexually assaulted , primarily because he was the only Jewish boy in the school . After an unsuccessful short stay at Black @-@ Foxe , Wilder returned home and became increasingly involved with the local theatre community . At age 15 , he performed for the first time in front of a paying audience , as Balthasar ( Romeo 's manservant ) in a production of Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet . Gene Wilder graduated from Washington High School in Milwaukee in 1951 .
Wilder was raised Jewish , but holds only the Golden Rule as his philosophy . He described himself as a " Jewish @-@ Buddhist @-@ Atheist " in an interview published in 2005 .
= = Acting career = =
= = = Early starts : Old Vic and Army = = =
Wilder studied Communication and Theatre Arts at the University of Iowa , where he was a member of the Alpha Epsilon Pi Fraternity . Following his 1955 graduation from Iowa , he was accepted at the Bristol Old Vic Theatre School in Bristol , England . After six months of studying fencing , Wilder became the first freshman to win the All @-@ School Fencing Championship . Desiring to study Stanislavski 's system , he returned to the U.S. , living with his sister and her family in Queens . Wilder enrolled at the HB Studio .
Wilder was drafted into the Army on September 10 , 1956 . At the end of recruit training , he was assigned to the medical corps and sent to Fort Sam Houston for training . He was then given the opportunity to choose any post that was open , and wanting to stay near New York City to attend acting classes at the HB Studio , he chose to serve as paramedic in the Department of Psychiatry and Neurology at Valley Forge Army Hospital , in Phoenixville , Pennsylvania . In November 1957 , his mother died from ovarian cancer . He was discharged from the army a year later and returned to New York . A scholarship to the HB Studio allowed him to become a full @-@ time student . At first living on unemployment insurance and some savings , he later supported himself with odd jobs such as a limousine driver and fencing instructor . Wilder 's first professional acting job was in Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he played the Second Officer in Herbert Berghof 's production of Twelfth Night . He also served as a fencing choreographer .
After three years of study with Berghof and Uta Hagen at the HB Studio , Charles Grodin told Wilder about Lee Strasberg 's method acting . Grodin persuaded him to leave the studio and begin studying with Strasberg in his private class . Several months later , Wilder was accepted into the Actors Studio . Feeling that " Jerry Silberman in Macbeth " did not have the right ring to it , he adopted a stage name . He chose " Wilder " because it reminded him of Our Town author Thornton Wilder , while " Gene " came from Thomas Wolfe 's first novel , Look Homeward , Angel . He also liked " Gene " because as a boy , he was impressed by a distant relative , a World War II bomber navigator who was " handsome and looked great in his leather flight jacket . " He later said that he could not see Gene Wilder playing Macbeth , either . After joining the Actors Studio , he slowly began to be noticed in the off @-@ Broadway scene , thanks to performances in Sir Arnold Wesker 's Roots and in Graham Greene 's The Complaisant Lover , for which Wilder received the Clarence Derwent Award for " Best Performance by an Actor in a Nonfeatured Role . "
= = = Mel Brooks = = =
In 1963 , Wilder was cast in a leading role in Mother Courage and Her Children , a production starring Anne Bancroft , who introduced Wilder to her boyfriend Mel Brooks . A few months later , Brooks mentioned that he was working on a screenplay called Springtime for Hitler , for which he thought Wilder would be perfect in the role of Leo Bloom . Brooks elicited a promise from Wilder that he would check with him before making any long @-@ term commitments . Months went by , and Wilder toured the country with different theatre productions , participated in a televised CBS presentation of Death of a Salesman , and was cast for his first role in a film — a minor role in Arthur Penn 's 1967 Bonnie and Clyde . After three years of not hearing from Brooks , Wilder was called for a reading with Zero Mostel , who was to be the star of Springtime for Hitler and had approval of his co @-@ star . Mostel approved , and Wilder was cast for his first leading role in a feature film , 1968 's The Producers .
The Producers eventually became a cult comedy classic , with Mel Brooks winning an Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and Wilder being nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor . Nevertheless , Brooks ' first directorial effort did not do well at the box office and was not well received by all critics ; New York Times critic Renata Adler reviewed the film and described it as " black college humor " .
In 1969 , Wilder relocated to Paris , accepting a leading role in Bud Yorkin 's Start the Revolution Without Me , a comedy that took place during the French Revolution . After shooting ended , Wilder returned to New York , where he read the script for Quackser Fortune Has a Cousin in the Bronx and immediately called Sidney Glazier , who produced The Producers . Both men began searching for the perfect director for the film . Jean Renoir was the first candidate , but he would not be able to do the film for at least a year , so British @-@ Indian director Waris Hussein was hired .
= = = Willy Wonka , Young Frankenstein , and Richard Pryor = = =
In 1971 , Wilder auditioned to play Willy Wonka in Mel Stuart 's film adaptation of Roald Dahl 's Charlie and the Chocolate Factory . After reciting some lines , Wilder prepared to leave the auditioning station , but Mel Stuart ( who was a Gene Wilder fan ) ran after him , offering the role to Wilder immediately . Wilder was initially hesitant when he learned more on the role , but finally accepted the role under one condition :
When I make my first entrance , I 'd like to come out of the door carrying a cane and then walk toward the crowd with a limp . After the crowd sees Willy Wonka is a cripple , they all whisper to themselves and then become deathly quiet . As I walk toward them , my cane sinks into one of the cobblestones I 'm walking on and stands straight up , by itself ... but I keep on walking , until I realize that I no longer have my cane . I start to fall forward , and just before I hit the ground , I do a beautiful forward somersault and bounce back up , to great applause .
When Stuart asked why , Wilder replied , " Because from that time on , no one will know if I 'm lying or telling the truth . "
All three films Wilder did after The Producers were box office failures : Start the Revolution and Quackser seemed to audiences poor copies of Mel Brooks films , while Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory was not a commercial success , seeming , to some parents , a moral story " too cruel " for children to understand , thus failing to attract family audiences . Willy Wonka did gain a cult following and an Oscar nomination for Best Score , as well as a Golden Globe award nomination for Wilder . When Woody Allen offered him a role in one segment of Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * ( * But Were Afraid to Ask ) , Wilder accepted , hoping this would be the hit to put an end to his series of flops . Everything ... was a hit , grossing over $ 18 million in the United States alone against a $ 2 @-@ million budget .
After Everything You Always Wanted to Know About Sex * ( * But Were Afraid to Ask ) , Wilder began working on a script he called Young Frankenstein . After he wrote a two @-@ page scenario , and called Mel Brooks , who told him that it seemed like a " cute " idea , but showed little interest . A few months later , Wilder received a call from his agent , Mike Medavoy , who asked if he had anything where he could include Peter Boyle and Marty Feldman , his two new clients . Having just seen Feldman on television , Wilder was inspired to write a scene that takes place at Transylvania Station , where Igor and Frederick meet for the first time . The scene was later included in the film almost verbatim . Medavoy liked the idea and called Brooks , asking him to direct . Brooks was not convinced , but having spent four years working on two box @-@ office failures , he decided to accept . While working on the Young Frankenstein script , Wilder was offered the part of the Fox in the musical film adaptation of Saint Exupéry 's classic book , The Little Prince . When filming was about to begin in London , Wilder received an urgent call from Brooks , who was filming Blazing Saddles , offering Wilder the role of the " Waco Kid " after Dan Dailey dropped out at the last minute , while Gig Young became too ill to continue . Wilder shot his scenes for Blazing Saddles and immediately afterwards filmed The Little Prince .
After Young Frankenstein was written , the rights were to be sold to Columbia Pictures , but after having trouble agreeing on the budget , Wilder , Brooks , and producer Michael Gruskoff went with 20th Century Fox , where both Brooks and Wilder had to sign five @-@ year contracts . Young Frankenstein was a commercial success , with Wilder and Brooks receiving Best Adapted Screenplay nominations at the 1975 Oscars , losing to Francis Coppola and Mario Puzo for their adaptation of The Godfather Part II . While filming Young Frankenstein , Wilder had an idea for a romantic musical comedy about a brother of Sherlock Holmes . Marty Feldman and Madeline Kahn agreed to participate in the project , and Wilder began writing what became his directorial début , 1975 's The Adventure of Sherlock Holmes ' Smarter Brother .
In 1975 , Wilder 's agent sent him a script for a film called Super Chief . Wilder accepted , but told the film 's producers that he thought the only person who could keep the film from being offensive was Richard Pryor . Pryor accepted the role in the film , which had been renamed Silver Streak , the first film to team Wilder and Pryor . While filming Silver Streak , Wilder began working on a script for The World 's Greatest Lover , inspired by Fellini 's The White Sheik . Wilder wrote , produced , and directed The World 's Greatest Lover , which premièred in 1977 , but was a critical failure . The Frisco Kid ( 1979 ) was Wilder 's next project . The film was to star John Wayne , but he dropped out when the Warner Brothers executives tried to dissuade him from charging the studio his usual $ 1 @-@ million fee . Wayne also was ill for many years and died in June 1979 . Harrison Ford , then an up @-@ and @-@ coming actor , was hired for the role .
= = = Sidney Poitier and Gilda Radner = = =
In 1980 , Sidney Poitier and producer Hannah Weinstein persuaded Wilder and Richard Pryor to do another film together . Bruce Jay Friedman wrote the script for Stir Crazy , with Poitier directing , for Columbia Pictures . Pryor was struggling with a severe cocaine addiction , and filming became difficult , but once the film premiered , it became an international success . New York magazine listed " Skip Donahue " ( Wilder ) and " Harry Monroe " ( Pryor ) as number nine on their 2007 list of " The Fifteen Most Dynamic Duos in Pop Culture History " , and the film has often appeared in " best comedy " lists and rankings .
Poitier and Wilder became friends , with the pair working together on a script called Traces — which became 1982 's Hanky Panky , the film where Wilder met comedian Gilda Radner . Through the remainder of the decade , Wilder and Radner worked in several projects together . After Hanky Panky , Wilder directed his third film , 1984 's The Woman in Red , which starred Wilder , Radner , and Kelly Le Brock . The Woman in Red was not well received by the critics , nor was their next project , 1986 's Haunted Honeymoon , which failed to attract audiences . The Woman in Red did win an Academy Award for Best Original Song for Stevie Wonder 's song " I Just Called to Say I Love You " .
TriStar Pictures wanted to produce another film starring Wilder and Pryor , and Wilder agreed to do See No Evil , Hear No Evil only if he were allowed to rewrite the script . The studio agreed , and See No Evil , Hear No Evil premiered on May 1989 to mostly negative reviews . Many critics praised Wilder and Pryor , as well as Kevin Spacey 's performance , but they mostly agreed that the script was terrible . Roger Ebert called it " a real dud " ; the Deseret Morning News described the film as " stupid " , with an " idiotic script " that had a " contrived story " and too many " juvenile gags " , while Vincent Canby called it " by far the most successful co @-@ starring vehicle for Mr. Pryor and Mr. Wilder " , also acknowledging that " this is not elegant movie making , and not all of the gags are equally clever " .
= = = 1990s – 2000s = = =
After starring as a political cartoonist who falls in love in the 1990 film Funny About Love , Wilder did one final movie with Pryor , the 1991 feature Another You , in which Pryor 's physical deterioration from multiple sclerosis was clearly noticeable . It was Pryor 's last starring role in a film ( he appeared in a few cameos before his death in 2005 ) and also marked Wilder 's last appearance to date in a feature film . Neither of his last two movies was financially successful . His remaining work has consisted of television movies and guest appearances in TV shows .
In 1994 , Wilder starred in the NBC sitcom Something Wilder . The show received poor reviews and lasted only one season . He went back to the small screen in 1999 , appearing in three television movies , one of which was the NBC adaptation of Alice in Wonderland . The other two , Murder in a Small Town and The Lady in Question , were mystery movies for A & E TV that were cowritten by Wilder , in which he played a theatre director turned amateur detective . Three years later , Wilder guest @-@ starred on two episodes of NBC 's Will & Grace , winning a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Guest Actor on a Comedy Series for his role as Mr. Stein , Will Truman 's boss .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Relationships = = =
Wilder met his first wife , Mary Mercier , while studying at the HB Studio in New York . Although the couple had not been together long , they married on July 22 , 1960 . They spent long periods of time apart , eventually divorcing in 1965 . A few months later , Wilder began dating Mary Joan Schutz , a friend of his sister . Schutz had a daughter , Katharine , from a previous marriage . When Katharine started calling Wilder " Dad , " he decided to do what he felt was " the right thing to do , " marrying Schutz on October 27 , 1967 , and adopting Katharine that same year . Schutz and Wilder separated after seven years of marriage , with Katharine thinking that Wilder was having an affair with his Young Frankenstein co @-@ star , Madeline Kahn . After the divorce , he briefly dated his other Frankenstein co @-@ star , Teri Garr . Wilder eventually became estranged from Katharine .
Wilder met Saturday Night Live actress Gilda Radner on August 13 , 1981 , while filming Sidney Poitier 's Hanky Panky . Radner was married to guitarist G. E. Smith at the time , but Wilder and she became inseparable friends . When the filming of Hanky Panky ended , Wilder found himself missing Radner , so he called her . The relationship grew , and Radner eventually divorced Smith in 1982 . She moved in with Wilder , and the couple married on September 14 , 1984 , in the south of France . The couple wanted to have children , but Radner suffered miscarriages , and doctors could not determine the problem . After experiencing severe fatigue and suffering from pain in her upper legs on the set of Haunted Honeymoon , Radner sought medical treatment . Following a number of false diagnoses , she was found to have ovarian cancer in October 1986 . Over the next year and a half , Radner battled the disease , receiving chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatments . The disease finally went into remission , giving the pair a respite , during which time Wilder filmed See No Evil , Hear No Evil . By May 1989 , the cancer returned and had metastasized . Radner died on May 20 , 1989 . Wilder later stated , " I always thought she 'd pull through . "
Following Radner 's death , Wilder became active in promoting cancer awareness and treatment , helping found the Gilda Radner Ovarian Cancer Detection Center in Los Angeles and co @-@ founding Gilda 's Club , a support group to raise awareness of cancer that began in New York City and now has branches throughout the country .
While preparing for his role as a deaf man in See No Evil , Hear No Evil , Wilder met Karen Webb ( née Boyer ) , who was a clinical supervisor for the New York League for the Hard of Hearing . Webb coached him in lip reading . Following Gilda Radner 's death , Wilder and Webb reconnected , and on September 8 , 1991 , they married . The two live in Stamford , Connecticut , in the 1734 Colonial home that he shared with Radner .
= = = Political views = = =
Wilder is a supporter of the Democratic Party , and has staunchly opposed U.S. actions in the Vietnam War and the Iraq War . He supported Eugene McCarthy in the 1968 presidential election . In terms of being politically active himself , Wilder stated , " I 'm quietly political . I don 't like advertising . Giving money to someone or support , but not getting on a bandstand . I don 't want to run for president in 2008 . I will write another book instead . "
= = = Semiretirement and authorship = = =
The Wilders spend most of their time painting watercolors , writing , and participating in charitable efforts .
In 1998 , Wilder collaborated on the book Gilda 's Disease with oncologist Steven Piver , sharing personal experiences of Radner 's struggle with ovarian cancer . Wilder himself was hospitalized with non @-@ Hodgkin lymphoma in 1999 , but confirmed in March 2005 that the cancer was in complete remission following chemotherapy and a stem cell transplant .
In October 2001 , he read from Charlie and the Chocolate Factory as part of a special benefit performance held at the Westport Country Playhouse to aid families affected by the September 11 attacks . Also in 2001 , Wilder donated a collection of scripts , correspondences , documents , photographs , and clipped images to the University of Iowa Libraries .
On March 1 , 2005 , Wilder released his highly personal memoir , Kiss Me Like a Stranger : My Search for Love and Art , an account of his life covering everything from his childhood up to Radner 's death . Two years later , in March 2007 , Wilder released his first novel , My French Whore , which is set during World War I. His second novel , The Woman Who Wouldn 't , was released in March 2008 .
In a 2008 Turner Classic Movies special , Role Model : Gene Wilder , where Alec Baldwin interviewed Wilder about his career , Wilder said that he was basically retired from acting for good . " I don 't like show business , I realized , " he explained . " I like show , but I don 't like the business . "
In 2010 , Wilder released a collection of stories called What Is This Thing Called Love ? . His third novel , Something to Remember You By : A Perilous Romance , was released in April 2013 .
When asked in a 2013 Time Out New York magazine interview whether he would act again if a suitable film project came his way , Wilder responded , " I ’ m tired of watching the bombing , shooting , killing , swearing and 3 @-@ D. I get 52 movies a year sent to me , and maybe there are three good [ ones ] . That ’ s why I went into writing . It ’ s not that I wouldn ’ t act again . I ’ d say , ' Give me the script . If it ’ s something wonderful , I ’ ll do it . ' But I don ’ t get anything like that . "
= = Work = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
Voice for The Electric Company 's segment The Adventures of Letterman ( 60 episodes , 1972 – 1977 )
Something Wilder ( 1994 – 1995 )
Will & Grace Episodes " Boardroom and a Parked Place " ( 2002 ) and " Sex , Losers & Videotape " ( 2003 ) ; ( Guest Star – Mr. Stein )
= = = Stage = = =
The Complaisant Lover ( Broadway , 1962 )
Mother Courage and Her Children ( Broadway , 1963 )
One Flew Over the Cuckoo 's Nest ( Broadway , 1963 )
The White House ( Broadway , 1964 )
Luv ( Broadway , 1966 )
Laughter on the 23rd Floor ( London , 1996 )
= = = Documentaries = = =
" Expo : Magic of the White City " ( 2005 )
= = = Publications = = =
Piver , M. Steven and Gene Wilder . Gilda 's Disease : Sharing Personal Experiences and a Medical Perspective on Ovarian Cancer . Broadway Books , 1998 . ISBN 0 @-@ 7679 @-@ 0138 @-@ X
Wilder , Gene . Kiss Me Like a Stranger : My Search for Love and Art . St. Martin 's Press , 2005 . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 33706 @-@ X
Wilder , Gene . My French Whore . St. Martin 's Press , 2007 . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 36057 @-@ 6
Wilder , Gene . The Woman Who Wouldn 't . St. Martin 's Press , 2008 . ISBN 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 37578 @-@ 6
Wilder , Gene . What Is This Thing Called Love ? . St. Martin 's Press , 2010 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 312 @-@ 59890 @-@ 7
Wilder , Gene . Something to Remember You By . St. Martin 's Press , 2013 . ISBN 9780312598914
= White Dog =
White Dog is a 1982 American drama film directed by Samuel Fuller using a screenplay written by Fuller and Curtis Hanson loosely based on Romain Gary 's 1970 novel of the same title . The film depicts the struggle of a dog trainer named Keys ( Paul Winfield ) , who is black , trying to retrain a stray dog found by a young actress ( Kristy McNichol ) , that is a " white dog " — a dog trained to viciously attack any black person . Fuller uses the film as a platform to deliver an anti @-@ racist message as it examines the question of whether racism is a treatable problem or an incurable condition .
The film 's theatrical release was suppressed in the United States by Paramount Pictures out of concern of negative press after rumors began circulating that the film was racist . It was released internationally in France and the United Kingdom in 1982 , and broadcast on various American cable television channels . Its first official American release came in December 2008 when The Criterion Collection released the original uncut film to DVD .
Critics praised the film 's hard line look at racism and Fuller 's use of melodrama and metaphors to present his argument , and its somewhat disheartening ending that leaves the impression that while racism is learned , it cannot be cured . Reviewers consistently questioned the film 's lack of wide release in the United States when it was completed and applauded its belated release by Criterion .
= = Plot = =
Young actress Julie Sawyer ( Kristy McNichol ) accidentally runs over a stray White German Shepherd Dog one night . After the dog is treated by a vet , Julie takes him home while trying to find his owners . A rapist breaks into her house and tries to attack her , but the dog protects her so she decides to adopt him , against the wishes of her boyfriend ( Jameson Parker ) . Unbeknown to her , the dog was trained by a white racist to attack any and all black people on sight . It sneaks out of the house one night and kills a black truck driver in an attack . Later , when Julie takes the dog to work with her , it attacks a black actress on the set .
Realizing something is not right with the dog , Julie takes him to a dog trainer , Carruthers ( Burl Ives ) , who tells her to kill the dog . Another dog trainer named Keys ( Paul Winfield ) , who is black himself , undertakes re @-@ educating the dog as a personal challenge . He dons protective gear and keeps the dog in a large enclosure , taking him out on a chain and exposing himself to the dog each day and making sure he is the only one to feed or care for the dog .
The dog manages to escape , and kills an elderly black man in a church , after which Keys manages to recover him , and opts not to turn the dog in to the authorities , but to continue the training , over Julie 's protests . He warns her that the training has reached a critical point , where the dog might be cured or go insane . He believes that curing the dog will discourage white racists from training dogs like this , though there is no indication in the story that this is any kind of national problem ( the film is set well after the civil rights era , the setting of the original novel ) .
After a lengthy time , it seems as if the dog is cured , in that he is now friendly towards Keys . Julie confronts the dog 's original owner , who has come to claim him , and who presumably trained him to attack black people . She angrily tells him in front of his grandchildren , who only know the dog as a loving family pet , that the dog has been cured by a black man .
Just as Julie and Keys celebrate their victory , the dog , without warning , turns its attention to Carruthers and brutally attacks him . The dog had not previously shown any aggression towards him — no explanation for this is given , but the implication is that the dog 's programming has somehow been reversed , though that was never Keys ' intention . To save his employer 's life , Keys is forced to shoot the dog , and the film ends with the image of the dog 's body lying in the center of the training enclosure .
= = Themes = =
White Dog is a " blunt , highly cinematic parable about race relations " that questions whether racism is a curable mental illness or learned behavior , or if it is an untreatable disease . The unnamed white German Shepherd is the metaphor of racism , with his radically contrasting moments of innocent , typical dog behavior when not around black persons , and his snarling viciousness when he sees a target . Paul Winfield 's character Keys , who believes he can help the dog unlearn this behavior , represents the view that racism can be unlearned . Keys ' attempts to reprogram the dog become a " bold literalization of the race war " , and as the film progresses Keys becomes obsessed with the idea that he can cure the dog . Much like Captain Ahab , he declares that if he fails with this dog , he will find another and another until he succeeds . Keys ' counterpart , Carruthers , a white trainer , believes the dog is irredeemable and should be killed , representing the view that racism cannot be cured .
The snarling dog , its white fur stained with bright red stage blood , becomes a typically imposing , outscale Fuller image - the embodiment of snarling , irrational and implacable hatred . Typical , too , is the way Fuller emphasizes the radical contrast between the dog in its innocent , unaroused state – big brown eyes staring up at McNichol – and its plunging , salivating attack mode .
Scenes showing Kristy McNichol innocently burying her hands in the dog 's fur and his normal loving behavior when alone with her provides a stark image of " how hatred can be familiar , reassuringly close " . J. Hoberman argues that the film " naturalizes racism in an unnatural way " in the contrasting depictions of white characters horrified by the dog 's behavior , and black characters who grimly accept it as a fact of life . The film 's ending has been argued to emphasize Fuller 's own view that racism is something that is learned , but that once learned is a " poison " that can never truly " be banished from those it infects " . But on the other hand , the dog is actually cured of attacking blacks , but not cured of his own hatred since the last thing he does is to , unprovoked , attack a white man . The ending implies therefore that it is hatred ( and not racism ) that cannot be banished from those it infects .
In the original Romain Gary novel , this was not the story that was told — the dog started to attack white people because a black man embittered by white racism deliberately retrained him to do so .
= = Production = =
White Dog 's roots lie with a 1970 autobiographical novel written by Romain Gary of the same name . The story was purchased for use by Paramount in 1975 , with Curtis Hanson selected to write the screenplay and Roman Polanski hired to direct . Before shooting commenced , Polanski was charged with statutory rape and fled the country , leaving the production in limbo . Over a span of six years , the project was given to various writers and producers , who all focused on the stray dog story from Gary 's original work . Gary 's activist wife was replaced in the script with a young , unmarried actress because Paramount wanted to contrast the dog 's random attacks with a loving relationship between the protagonist and the dog . Paramount executives noted that they wanted a " Jaws with paws " and indicated that they wanted any racial elements to be downplayed . In one memo , the company noted : " Given the organic elements of this story , it is imperative that we never overtly address through attitude or statement the issue of racism per se " .
By 1981 , Gary 's wife and then Gary himself had committed suicide . At the same time , Hollywood was under threat of strikes by both the writer and director guilds . Needing enough films to carry the studio through in case the strikes happened , White Dog was one of thirteen films considered to be far enough along to be completable in a short time frame . With a push from Michael Eisner , White Dog was one of seven that Paramount put on a fast track for production . Eisner pushed for the film to be one of the selected ones because of its social message that hate was learned . Producer Jon Davison was less certain and questioned the film 's marketing early on . Hanson , back on board as the film 's screenwriter , suggested Samuel Fuller be named the film 's director as he felt Fuller was the only one available with the experience needed to complete the film on such a short schedule and with a low budget , while still doing so responsibly with regard to the sensitive material . Davison agreed after visiting Fuller and seeing Fuller act out how he would shoot the film .
Fuller readily agreed , having focused much of his career on racial issues . Already familiar with the novel and with the concept of " white dogs " , he was tasked with " reconceptualizing " the film to have the conflict depicted in the book occur within the dog rather than the people . In an earlier Variety magazine interview , Fuller stated that viewers would " see a dog slowly go insane and then come back to sanity " . Before filming began , the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) , the Black Anti @-@ Defamation Coalition ( BADC ) , and other civil @-@ rights leaders began voicing concerns that the film would spur racial violence . In an editorial in the Los Angeles Times , Robert Price , executive director of the BADC , criticized the studio for producing the film based on a book by a white man and using a primarily white cast and crew , rather than producing the film with African Americans in key positions . He also considered Gary 's work to be a " second @-@ rate novel " and questioned its use when " book shelves are laden with quality novels by black writers who explore the same social and psychological areas with far more subtlety ? "
Fuller was confident in his work and the idea that the film would be strongly antiracist , particularly with the changes he had made to the original work . The novel 's hate @-@ filled Muslim black trainer , who deliberately retrained the dog to attack white people , was converted into the character of Keys , who genuinely wished to cure the animal . Fuller also changed the novel 's original ending into a more pessimistic film ending . The film was shot in only forty @-@ five days at a cost of $ 7 million . Five white German Shepherd Dogs played the unnamed central character .
After filming commenced Paramount Pictures brought in two African @-@ American consultants to review and approve the depiction of the black characters : Willis Edwards , vice president of the local NAACP chapter and David L. Crippens , the vice president and stage manager of the local PBS affiliate . In the end , they walked away with different views of the film . Crippens did not find the film to have any racist connotations , while Edwards found it inflammatory and felt it should not have been made , particularly during that year when a series of murders of black children was occurring in Atlanta . The two men provided a write @-@ up of their views for the studio executives , which were passed to Davison along with warnings that the studio feared a film boycott . Fuller was not told of these discussions nor given the notes until two weeks before filming was slated to conclude . Known for being a staunch integrationist and for his regularly giving black actors non @-@ stereotypical roles , Fuller was furious , finding the studio 's actions insulting . He reportedly had both representatives banned from the set afterwards , though he did integrate some of the suggested changes into the film .
The film was completed in 1981 , but Paramount was hesitant to release the film out of continuing concerns that the film would be misconstrued . Though no one from the organization had viewed the completed film , the NAACP threatened boycotts . In early 1982 , the studio finally held preview screenings in Seattle , Washington and Denver , Colorado , with mixed responses . That fall , another test run was held in Detroit , Michigan , which resulted in praise from critics but little public interest . The film was finally left unreleased , with Paramount feeling it did not have enough earnings potential to go against the threatened boycotts and possible bad publicity . Dumbfounded and hurt by the film 's shelving , Fuller moved to France , and never directed another American film .
= = Distribution = =
Paramount felt the film was too controversial for release , giving it only a few limited preview runs before shelving it . The film 's first theatrical release occurred in France on July 7 , 1982 . In the United Kingdom , it was part of the 37th Edinburgh International Film Festival and the 27th London Film Festival in 1983 , and was released late that year by United International Pictures . It received positive reviews in both countries . Lisa Dombrowski of Film Comment notes , " In the end , Sam Fuller 's White Dog was muzzled by a collision of historically specific economic and political interests , as support for freedom of expression took a backseat to Paramount 's bottom line and the NAACP 's ongoing battles with Hollywood over representation and employment . A Sam Fuller thriller was simply not the kind of antiracist picture that a major studio knew how to market in 1981 or that African @-@ American organizations wanted Hollywood to make at the time " .
In 1983 , White Dog was edited for a direct @-@ to @-@ television broadcast and made available purchase by cable channels . The following year , NBC bought broadcast rights for $ 2 @.@ 5 million and slated the film to air during the February sweeps , then canceled the broadcast two days later due to pressure from the continuing NAACP campaign and concerns of a negative reaction by both viewers and advertisers . The film was eventually aired on other cable channels sporadically and without fanfare . It was also infrequently screened at independent film houses and film festivals .
Its first official American release came on December 2 , 2008 , when The Criterion Collection released the film to DVD . The DVD has the uncut version of the film , video interviews from the original producer and writer , an interview with the trainer of the dog used in the film , and a booklet of critical essays . The National Society of Film Critics bestowed the distributor with a special film heritage award for releasing the film .
= = Reception = =
Due to its limited release , it only grossed $ 46 @,@ 509 . While today the film is generally seen as a B @-@ movie , it was initially praised by critics upon its release , particularly for its treatment of racism and Fuller 's directorial talents . Dave Kehr , of the Chicago Tribune , praised Fuller for " pulling no punches " in the film and for his use of metaphors to present racism " as a mental disease , for which there may or may not be a cure " . Kehr considered the film less melodramatic or bizarre than Fuller 's earlier works , which was also positive since it left the film " clean and uncluttered with a single , concentrated line of development mounting toward a single , crushingly pessimistic moral insight " . Entertainment Weekly 's Kim Moran called it a " uncompromising , poignant examination of racism " and felt it was one of Fuller 's most inspired films and a " gripping , meditative , and ultimately beautiful achievement " . Video Business reviewer Cyril Pearl called it " bombastic , odd and quite chilling " and felt the film was an antiracist work that " deserve [ d ] an audience " .
Charles Taylor , writing for The New York Times , lambasted the film 's original suppression due to " the stupidity of pressure groups " that wrongly labeled the film as racist when it is , in his words , " a profoundly antiracist film , though a despairing one " . He praised Winfield 's tense performance and Fuller 's use of melodrama to create one of his " most potent " films . Lisa Dombrowski , the author The Films of Samuel Fuller : If You Die , I 'll Kill You ! and an associate professor of film studies at Wesleyan University , referred to the film as " an impassioned attack on racial hatred " . Another New York Times reviewer , Janet Maslin , praised Fuller 's " command of stark , spooky imagery " , " B @-@ style bluntness " , and the way the cinematography , scene setting , and soundtrack combine to give the film " the blunt , unnerving power of a horror story " . She also commended Paul Winfield 's performance as Keys , feeling the actor turned what might have been a boring character into one audiences would find interesting . Slant Magazine 's Fernando F. Croce felt the film was " part marauding @-@ animal horror movie , part Afterschool Special , [ and ] part tragic @-@ sardonic agitprop " B @-@ movie that is " searing confrontation of the irrationality of prejudice " .
In The Magic Hour : Film at Fin de Siècle , J. Hoberman referred to the film as an " unusually blunt and suggestive metaphoric account of American racism " . Though he felt the film was a " sad waste " of Fuller 's talent , he praised the director 's treatment of the work , including the changes made to the source material , noting that " filmed in headlines , framed as allegory , White Dog combines hard @-@ boiled sentimentality and hysterical violence . " He praised the musical score used in the film for lending dignity to the " iconic visuals and cartoon dialogue . "
= The Seven Crystal Balls =
The Seven Crystal Balls ( French : Les Sept Boules de Cristal ) is the thirteenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from December 1943 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . The story was cancelled abruptly following the Allied liberation in September 1944 , when Hergé was accused of collaborating with the occupying Germans and banned from working . After he was cleared two years later , the story was then serialised weekly in the new Tintin magazine from September 1946 to April 1948 . The story revolves around the investigations of a young reporter Tintin and his friend Captain Haddock into the abduction of their friend Professor Calculus and its connection to a mysterious illness which has afflicted the members of an archaeological expedition to Peru .
The Seven Crystal Balls was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman shortly after its conclusion . Hergé concluded the arc begun in this story with Prisoners of the Sun , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . Critics have ranked The Seven Crystal Balls as one of the best Adventures of Tintin , describing it as the most frightening instalment in the series . The story was adapted for the 1969 Belvision film , Tintin and the Temple of the Sun and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
Young reporter Tintin , his dog Snowy , and his friend Captain Haddock spend an evening at the music hall . There , they witness the performance of a clairvoyant , Madame Yamilah , who predicts the illness of one of the Sanders @-@ Hardiman expedition members , who recently returned from an archaeological expedition to the Andes mountains . They also view the act of a knife thrower whom Tintin recognises as General Alcazar , former President of San Theodoros . Meeting him backstage , Alcazar introduces them to his Indio assistant , Chiquito , and learn that he was deposed ( once again ) by his rival General Tapioca .
The next day , they learn that the members of the Sanders @-@ Hardiman expedition are falling into comas , with fragments of a shattered crystal ball found near each victim . Concerned , Tintin , Haddock , and their friend Professor Calculus visit Calculus 's old friend Professor Hercules Tarragon , the only expedition member yet to be affected . Professor Tarragon is under police guard , and he shows his visitors the mummified body of Inca king Rascar Capac , which the expedition brought back with them from Peru . A lightning storm strikes the house and sends ball lightning down the chimney and onto the mummy — which evaporates . Worried , Tarragon states that this reflects the culmination of Capac 's prophecy , which declares that punishment will descend upon those who desecrate his tomb . Spending the stormy night at Tarragon 's house , Tintin , Haddock , and Calculus are each awoken by a dream involving Capac 's mummy . They find Tarragon comatose in his bed , with the accompanying crystal shards nearby ; the attacker had bypassed the guards by climbing in via the chimney . The next day , Calculus is walking on the grounds of Tarragon 's house when he discovers one of the mummy 's bracelets , which he places on himself .
Tintin and Haddock later realise that Calculus has gone missing , and surmise that he has been kidnapped by the same individual who placed Tarragon in a coma . The police set up road blocks , but the kidnappers switch cars and are able to evade them . Tintin visits a hospital where the seven stricken members of the Sanders @-@ Hardiman expedition are housed ; he is astonished that at a precise time of day , all awaken and scream about figures attacking them before slipping back into their comas . Haddock is dejected by Calculus ' abduction , but upon learning that police have spotted the kidnapper 's car at a port , he and Tintin race there , believing that the abductors seek to board a boat with Calculus and take him abroad . At the docks , they spot Alcazar boarding a ship to South America ; he reveals that Chiquito has disappeared and that he was one of the last descendants of the Inca , with Tintin surmising that Chiquito must be one of Calculus ' captors .
Having lost Calculus ' trail , Tintin and Haddock decide to pay a visit to Haddock 's old friend Chester , who has docked at another nearby port . They miss Chester , but instead discover Calculus ' hat on the docks , indicating that he was taken to sea from here . Investigating , they realise that Calculus must be aboard the Pachacamac , a ship headed to Peru , and board a flight , intent on intercepting its arrival .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had accepted a position working for Le Soir , Belgian 's largest Francophone daily newspaper . Confiscated from its original owners , the German authorities permitted Le Soir to reopen under the directorship of Belgian editor Raymond de Becker , although it remained firmly under Nazi control , supporting the German war effort and espousing anti @-@ Semitism . Joining Le Soir on 15 October 1940 , Hergé was aided by old friend Paul Jamin and the cartoonist Jacques Van Melkebeke . Some Belgians were upset that Hergé was willing to work for a newspaper controlled by the occupying Nazi administration , although he was heavily enticed by the size of Le Soir 's readership , which reached 600 @,@ 000 . Faced with the reality of Nazi oversight , Hergé abandoned the overt political themes that had pervaded much of his earlier work , instead adopting a policy of neutrality . Without the need to satirise political types , entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson observed that " Hergé was now concentrating more on plot and on developing a new style of character comedy . The public reacted positively . "
Following the culmination of his previous Tintin adventure , Red Rackham 's Treasure , Hergé had agreed to a proposal that the newspaper could include a detective story revolving around his characters , Thomson and Thompson . Titled Dupont et Dupond , détectives ( " Thomson and Thompson , Detectives " ) , Hergé provided the illustrations while the story was authored by the Le Soir crime writer Paul Kinnet . While this was being serialised , Hergé began contemplating ideas for his new Tintin adventure , toying with the idea of a story surrounding a dangerous invention that Calculus had developed . The story was probably inspired by an article authored by Le Soir 's science correspondent , Bernard Heuvelmans , and while Hergé did not use it at the time , he revived it a decade later as the basis for The Calculus Affair .
As with Hergé 's two previous stories , The Secret of the Unicorn and Red Rackham 's Treasure , The Seven Crystal Balls was designed as part of a twofold story arc , to be concluded with the then yet unnamed Prisoners of the Sun . Hergé planned for the former story to outline a mystery , while the latter would see his characters undertake an expedition to solve it . His use of an ancient mummy 's curse around which the narrative revolved was inspired by tales of a curse of the pharaohs which had been unearthed during the archaeologist Howard Carter 's 1922 discovery of Pharaoh Tutankhamun 's tomb . This was not the first time that Hergé had been inspired by this tabloid story , having previously done so when authoring Cigars of the Pharaoh .
In autumn 1943 , Hergé decided that he wanted Edgar P. Jacobs , a fellow cartoonist , to collaborate with him on The Adventures of Tintin . Although initially hesitant , Jacobs eventually agreed , adopting the paid position in January 1944 . The two became close friends and artistic collaborators , with Jacobs aiding him in developing various aspects of the plot , for instance developing the idea of the crystal balls and the story 's title . Although stylistically they were different both in forms of illustration and narrative , they influenced each other greatly . He used Jacobs as a life model from whom he drew various poses that characters adopt in the story . He also used Jacobs as a researcher , sending him to the Cinquantenaire Museum to study its collections of Incan material , and it was the mummified Incan corpse in their collection that was used as the basis for the mummy of Rascar Capac .
The museum 's director , Professor Capart , exhibited similarities with Professor Tarragon , a new character that Hergé had developed for the story . He also included a number of characters who had previously appeared in earlier adventures , among them Professor Cantonneau from The Shooting Star , General Alcazar from The Broken Ear , and Bianca Castafiore from King Ottokar 's Sceptre .
The scenery and background of the story was meticulously copied from existing sources ; car model types like the Opel Olympia 38 in which Calculus ' abductors escaped the police were drawn from real examples , while Hergé closely adhered to the reality of the port and docks at Saint @-@ Nazaire . Professor Tarragon 's house was drawn from a real house in Avenue Delleur , Boitsfort , which Jacobs had identified for Hergé 's purposes . Hergé and Jacobs stationed themselves outside the house and completed a sketch of the building . Immediately after , two grey cars containing German soldiers pulled up ; the house had been requisitioned by the Schutzstaffel ( SS ) . Hergé realised that , had he and Jacobs been discovered sketching , they would have been interrogated .
= = = Publication = = =
The story began serialisation in Le Soir under the title of Les Sept Boules de Cristal on 16 December 1943 . However , Hergé 's health declined , as he was afflicted with flu , sinusitis , and ear ache . This was accompanied by general exhaustion , depression , and fear that upon the imminent collapse of German administration , he would face retribution as a collaborator ; many accused of being collaborators had already been killed by the Belgian Resistance . Experiencing a breakdown , he took a hiatus from producing The Seven Crystal Balls between 6 May and 6 July 1944 , during which a message was posted in Le Soir stating :
They 're coming ! Who ? Why , Tintin and Snowy , of course ! Perhaps , since you have not heard anything about them lately , you have been afraid , dear readers , that something bad had happened to them ? Nothing of the sort ! Tintin and Snowy were simply waiting for our excellent associate and friend Hergé to return to better health , as he was sick for a few weeks .
The story returned to its serialisation in Le Soir on 7 July , starting with a summary of the story so far . However , it would be interrupted again on 2 September 1944 . Brussels was liberated from German occupation by the Allied forces on 3 September , upon which Le Soir immediately ceased publication . Hergé had been forced to abandon the story after 152 strips , equivalent to fifty pages of the later published book volume . The story had been left hanging after the scene in which Tintin leaves the hospital after seeing the seven members of the expedition having a simultaneous fit . Three days later the entire staff were fired and a new editorial team introduced .
Hergé was arrested on 3 September , having been named as a collaborator in a Resistance document known as the " Gallery of Traitors " . This would be the first of four incidents in which Hergé was arrested and freed : by the State Security , the Judiciary Police , the Belgian National Movement , and the Front for Independence , during which he spent one night in jail . On 8 September the Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force issued a proclamation announcing that " any journalist who had helped produce a newspaper during the occupation was for the time being barred from practising his profession . " Blacklisted , Hergé was now unemployed . A newspaper closely associated with the Belgian Resistance , La Patrie , issued a strip titled The Adventures of Tintin in the Land of the Nazis , in which Hergé was lampooned as a collaborator .
The period witnessed widespread allegations against accused collaborators , with military courts condemning 30 @,@ 000 on minor charges and 25 @,@ 000 on more serious charges ; of those , 5 @,@ 500 were sentenced to life imprisonment or capital punishment . A judiciary inquiry into Hergé 's case was launched by the deputy public prosecutor , Mr Vinçotte , although in his report he urged lenience , stating that " I am inclined to close the case . I believe it would bring ridicule on the judicial system to go after an inoffensive children 's book author and illustrator . On the other hand , Hergé worked for Le Soir during the war , and his illustrations are what made people buy the newspaper . " Unable to work for the press , Hergé worked from home re @-@ drawing , and Jacobs colouring , the older Adventures of Tintin for publication by his book publisher Casterman , completing the second version of Tintin in the Congo and starting on King Ottokar 's Sceptre . Casterman
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supported Hergé throughout his ordeal , for which he always remained grateful . He and Jacobs produced a comic strip under the pseudonym of " Olav " , although no publishers accepted it . Although this period allowed him an escape from the pressure of daily production which had affected most of his working life , he also had family problems to deal with ; his brother Paul returned to Brussels from a German prisoner @-@ of @-@ war camp and their mother had become highly delusional and was moved to a psychiatric hospital .
In October 1945 , Hergé was approached by Raymond Leblanc , a former member of a conservative Resistance group , the National Royalist Movement ( MNR ) , and his associates André Sinave and Albert Debaty . The trio were planning on launching a weekly magazine for children . Leblanc , who had fond childhood memories of Tintin in the Land of the Soviets , thought Hergé would be ideal for it . Hergé agreed , and Leblanc obtained clearance papers for him , allowing him to work . Concerned about the judicial investigation into Hergé 's wartime affiliations , Leblanc convinced William Ugeux , a leader of the Belgian Resistance who was now in charge of censorship and certificates of good citizenship , to look into the comic creator 's file . Ugeux concluded that Hergé had been " a blunderer rather than a traitor " for his work at Le Soir . The decision whether Hergé would stand trial belonged to the general auditor of the Military Tribunal , Walter Ganshof van der Meersch . He closed the case on 22 December 1945 , declaring that " in regard to the particularly inoffensive character of the drawings published by Remi , bringing him before a war tribunal would be inappropriate and risky " .
Now free from threat of prosecution , he continued to support his colleagues at Le Soir who were being charged as collaborators ; six of them were sentenced to death , and others to lengthy prison sentences . Among those sentenced to death was Hergé 's friend , Paul Jamin , although his sentence was commuted to life imprisonment . In May 1946 , Hergé was issued a certificate of good citizenship , which became largely necessary to obtain employment in post @-@ war Belgium . Celebrations were marred by his mother 's death at age 60 in April 1946 . Harry Thompson has described this post @-@ war period as the " greatest upheaval " of Hergé 's life . Hergé later described it as " an experience of absolute intolerance . It was horrible , horrible ! " He considered the post @-@ war trials of collaborators a great injustice inflicted upon many innocent people , and never forgave Belgian society for the way that he had been treated , although he hid this from his public persona .
Leblanc 's new magazine was titled Tintin at the advice of Sinave , who believed that this would help attract a wide audience . Adopting the slogan of " The Newspaper for the Young Aged 7 to 77 " , the magazine 's logo featured the Tintin character himself . Inspired by the example set by Le Petit Vingtième , Tintin magazine was to be a weekly , centred on the eponymous hero . The Adventures of Tintin would be serialised two pages per week , accompanied by other Franco @-@ Belgian comics . For the first time , the Adventures would be in colour from the outset . Hergé assembled a team of artists for the purpose , including Edgar P. Jacobs and Jacques Van Melkebeke , who became the magazine 's first editor . Hergé continued at the point where he had left The Seven Crystal Balls , prior to embarking on Prisoners of the Sun , although both were published under the title of Le Temple du Soleil ( The Temple of the Sun ) . Rather than re @-@ serialising the story from its beginning , he began the new magazine with a summary of the story so far , presented as a press clipping . The magazine was an instant success , soon gaining a weekly circulation of 100 @,@ 000 in Belgium and the Netherlands . The Seven Crystal Balls serialisation finally concluded on 22 April 1948 , four and a half years after it had begun .
= = = Republication = = =
As with previous adventures , it then began serialisation in the French Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants , from 19 May 1946 . After the story had finished serialisation , the publishing company Casterman divided it into two volumes , Les Sept Boules de Cristal and Le Temple du Soleil , which they released in 1948 and 1949 respectively . One of the scenes that had been found in Le Soir , in which Haddock is humiliated by the clairvoyant at the theatre , was removed from the story when it was being reformatted in book form . The book contained additional backgrounds not found in the original serialised story which had been drawn by Jacobs .
When translated into English for a publication by Methuen in 1963 , a number of Francophone place @-@ names were changed ; for instance , the port of Saint @-@ Nazaire was renamed Westermouth , which , according to author Michael Farr , was probably inspired by the real English coastal town of Weymouth . As the English @-@ language translation was published after the English translation of other Tintin adventures , which had actually been authored later than The Seven Crystal Balls , in the English version , references are made to events that would occur in The Calculus Affair and The Red Sea Sharks .
= = Critical analysis = =
Biographer Benoît Peeters described The Seven Crystal Balls as " the most terrifying of The Adventures of Tintin " . He believed that in this story , Hergé had come under the clear influence of Jacobs , in that the " décor grows more lush ; the details clearer . No more streets suggested by a few lines , monochromatic posters , or characters walking on the edge of the frame . " Elsewhere , he noted that in this story , Hergé " produced a gripping tale that went further than any other in the direction of the supernatural . " Fellow biographer Pierre Assouline believed that The Seven Crystal Balls achieved " a more complete integration of narrative and illustrations " than previous adventures , and that from that point on , his books " begin to form a coherent body of work , an oeuvre . "
Harry Thompson stated that the " overriding theme " of The Seven Crystal Balls was " fear of the unknown " , adding that while it did blend humour with menace , it remained " Hergé 's most frightening book " . He noted that the story marks the complete transition of Captain Haddock from the " pitiable drunk " which he was introduced as in The Crab with the Golden Claws to the position of " chief sidekick and comic attraction " , with Snowy being relegated to the position of " normal dog " .
Michael Farr described both The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun as " classic middle @-@ period Tintin " , commenting on their " surprisingly well @-@ balanced narrative " and noting that they exhibited scant evidence of Hergé 's turbulent personal life . He felt that The Seven Crystal Balls encapsulated the " air of doom " which pervaded the mood of Europe at the time to an even greater extent than Hergé had done in his earlier work , The Shooting Star . At the same time , Farr thought it to be " a simple detective story " , comparing Tintin 's hunt for clues regarding Calculus ' disappearance to Arthur Conan Doyle 's stories of fictional detective Sherlock Holmes . He thought that the story was " truly Hitchcockian in its suspense and quite cinematic in its presentation " , comparing the use of the music hall in the story with its use in Hitchcock 's film , The 39 Steps ( 1935 ) . Farr suggested that in the scene in which Haddock dejectedly sits around Marlinspike awaiting news of Calculus , " Hergé had allowed himself to step for a moment into Haddock 's shoes and to be autobiographical " .
Jean @-@ Marc Lofficier and Randy Lofficier believed that the two @-@ story arc represents " one more leap forward in Hergé 's graphic and narrative skills " as a result of the transition to full colour double pages as the initial means of publication . They noted that The Seven Crystal Balls is " bathed in the surreal atmosphere that Hergé knew how to create so well " , with Tintin confronting " a dark and oppressive force " that was " worthy of a Hammer film . " They asserted that the character of Professor Tarragon was " to archaeology what Haddock is to the sea " , adding that Mark Falconer ( Marc Chalet ) resembled an older Tintin with darker hair . Ultimately , they awarded both halves of the story arc five out of five .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy praised the character of Tarragon , stating that he exudes a presence " far beyond what we might expect from a novelist , let alone a cartoonist " . He then compared the scenario in which Tarragon was trapped within his home to that in The Calculus Affair in which Professor Topolino was tied up in his house . He also identified elements within the story that he believed reflected recurring themes within The Adventures of Tintin . He argued that the way in which Alcazar was presented as Tintin 's friend in this story was a manifestation of the recurring theme of friendship . He thought that the appearance of Rascar Capac 's jewels reflected Hergé 's use of jewels as a theme throughout the series , while the mummy 's removal from its tomb was a manifestation of the recurring concept of the tomb .
In his psychoanalytical study of the Adventures of Tintin , the academic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès believed that The Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun arc reflects a confrontation between civilisations , and between the sacred and the secular . He also discussed Haddock 's position in the story , noting that the scene at the theatre in which a bull 's head mask falls onto Haddock 's head reflects " one of Hergé 's most constant themes : the union of human and animal " . He further added the opinion that Haddock 's transformation from seaman to country gentleman was not believable . He suggested that the appearance of Yamila and Castafiore at the start of the story injected " a feminine element " into the story , which represented an attempt to " round out Haddock 's family " , which was dominated by the male figures of Tintin , Calculus , and Snowy . He further argued that Calculus ' kidnapping represented a " rite of passage " that would allow him to join Tintin and Haddock 's family .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1969 , the animation company Belvision Studios , which had produced the 1956 – 57 television series Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , released its first feature @-@ length animated film , Tintin and the Temple of the Sun , adapted from the Seven Crystal Balls @-@ Prisoners of the Sun story arc . Produced by Raymond Leblanc and directed by Eddie Lateste , it was written by Lateste , the cartoonist Greg , Jos Marissen , and Laszló Molnár . Music was by François Rauber and Zorrino 's song was composed by Jacques Brel . Lofficier and Lofficier commented that the part of the film based on The Seven Crystal Balls " suffers from being overly condensed for timing reasons . "
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . The Seven Crystal Balls was the eleventh story to be adapted and was divided into two thirty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
The video game Prisoners of the Sun was developed and published by the French company Infogrames in 1997 , based on The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun .
At the turn of the new century , Tintin remained popular . In 2001 , The Seven Crystal Balls and Prisoners of the Sun were adapted into a theatrical musical , Kuifje – De Zonnetempel ( Tintin – The Temple of the Sun ) , which premiered at the Stadsschouwburg in Antwerp in the Dutch language on 15 September . The production , directed by Dirk de Caluwé , adapted by Seth Gaaikema and Frank Van Laecke with music by Dirk Brossé , featured Tom Van Landuyt as Tintin . The musical was adapted by Didier Van Cauwelaert into French and premiered a year later in Charleroi as Tintin – Le Temple du Soleil . From there , the production was scheduled for Paris in 2003 but was cancelled . It returned for a brief run in Antwerp on 18 October 2007 .
= Unlocked ( Alexandra Stan album ) =
Unlocked is the second studio album recorded by Romanian recording artist Alexandra Stan . It was made available for digital download on 27 August 2014 through Victor Entertainment as a follow @-@ up to her 2011 album , Saxobeats , and its reissue , Cliché ( Hush Hush ) ( 2013 ) . Stan collaborated with several record producers on this album , including Andreas Schuller , Sebastian Jacome , Chrishan Prince , Erik Lidbom and Gabriel Huiban . She also took part at the FonoCamp 2013 , the first international songwriting camp held in Romania , where she further worked on material featured on this album . Unlocked premiered following an alleged physical altercation with her former manager , Marcel Prodan , over compensation , which caused Stan 's short career hiatus in 2013 .
The music of Unlocked draws from the EDM and dance @-@ pop styles of her previous material , while also incorporating different forms of instrumentation from her previous releases , such as Bhangra and Caucasian music in the songs " Kiss Me Goodbye " and " Give Me Your Everything " , respectively . Lyrically , the album approaches themes that delve on issuance , retrieval and a new beginning , while also speaking on Stan 's volatile relationship with her unidentified boyfriend . The record received generally positive reviews from music critics , many of whom praising its material for being " catchy " and " infectious " . Unlocked also drew comparisons to the works of American singer Britney Spears , Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and Australian performer Sia .
Upon its release , Unlocked debuted and peaked at number 21 on the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart , selling 3 @,@ 859 copies in its first week of release . As of September 2014 , the album has sold more than 17 @,@ 000 units , according to the Recording Industry Association of Japan ( RIAJ ) . Six tracks from the album were released as singles , of which three ( " Cherry Pop " , " Dance " and " We Wanna " ) charted on the Japan Hot 100 . " Dance " reached the top 10 in Turkey , while " We Wanna " reached the top thirty in Argentina , Poland and Turkey , and the top sixty in Italy , Romania and Slovakia . To promote Unlocked , Stan embarked on two tours throughout 2014 , Cherry Pop Summer Tour and Unlocked Tour , in Russia , Mexico , Japan and Turkey .
= = Background and development = =
Shortly after releasing her debut album Saxobeats ( 2011 ) which featured her worldwide breakthrough single , " Mr. Saxobeat " , Stan started to work on new material for a new record with Marcel Prodan and Andrei Nemirschi , her long @-@ time composers and managers . " Lemonade " , " Cliché ( Hush Hush ) " and " All My People " were subsequently released worldwide as singles through 2012 and 2013 , and were intended for her then @-@ untitled second studio album . The album was intended for a September 2013 release , but following an alleged physical altercation with her former manager Prodan over compensation , the recording was delayed . Following this , Stan accused him of physically attacking and blackmailing her . After her recovery , Stan was sued by Prodan for using his songs in her live performances without his permission . Stan won the copyright battle in June 2014 . Cliché ( Hush Hush ) , Stan 's last album under Prodan 's label , Maan Records , was released in October 2013 . It was a re @-@ issue of Saxobeats with the addition of the three songs intended for Stan 's second studio album . Cliché ( Hush Hush ) was only released in Japan ; it failed to gain much success , although it did enter the top sixty on the Oricon Albums Chart . In late 2013 , Stan continued the work on her second studio album with a new team , including record producers and songwriters Alex Cotoi and Erik Lidbom . She also switched from Prodan 's label and signed a new deal with Fonogram Records . " Thanks for Leaving " , the first single from Unlocked , was released on 28 April 2014 . In the following four months , Stan released three more singles , " Cherry Pop " , " Dance " and " Give Me Your Everything " , under Roton and Fonogram Records . Stan took part at the FonoCamp 2013 , the first international songwriting camp in Romania , held in Azuga , where she further worked on Unlocked with fellow Romanian singers and producers .
= = Recordings and artwork = =
Stan was involved in the writing process of all the songs featured on Unlocked , with the exception of " Thanks for Leaving " , " Set Me Free " and " Trumpet Blows " . During interviews , she expressed that the lyrical content of " Thanks for Leaving " refers to her recovery following her violent incident with Prodan , making the song very personal to her . The music of Unlocked drew influences by several geners and subgeners , including dance , techno , pop , rhythm and blues , EDM , Bhangra , Caucasian @-@ flavoured music and German club music . Lyrically , the album revolves around Stan 's relationship with her love interest and approaches themes such as issuance , retrieval and a new beginning . " Vanilla Chocolat " and " We Wanna " feature lyrics written in French and Spanish , respectively . The official cover sleeve for Unlocked was a photograph by Dimitri Caceaune and shows Stan sporting a multicoloured jacket and standing in front of a neon light . An alternative artwork for the Japanese edition of the album portrayed her in sepia , with only one of her eyes being visible , as the left one is covered by her hair . During an interview , Stan expressed that " [ Japanese people ] are very obsessed with big eyes , so the photo sessions that [ she had ] prepared for the Japanese version of Unlocked feature [ her ] eyes being enlarged by make @-@ up . "
= = Reception = =
Unlocked opened the Japanese Oricon Albums Chart at number 21 , selling 3 @,@ 859 copies in its debut charting week . It fell to number 39 after two weeks , bringing sales to 4 @,@ 550 copies . The album continued to fall down the Japanese Albums Chart over the following weeks , falling from number 39 to number 83 . However , it climbed five positions higher to number 78 on the week ending on 7 October 2014 , selling 1 @,@ 030 copies . The record exited the Japanese Albums Chart after spending 17 non @-@ consecutive weeks , bringing total sales to 17 @,@ 045 copies . Music website Pop Shock described Unlocked as a " good old @-@ fashioned Europop " record . They praised its " infectious production , catchy absurd hooks and glossy vocals " , and called the album 's package and visuals " stunning " . " Vanilla Chocolat " and " Holding Aces " were described as the best tracks of Unlocked ; Pop Shock wrote that the latter one was good enough to be an X Factor , a reality television music competition , winner 's single . Robin Catling of website Everything Express wrote a mixed review for Unlocked , stating that it was clearly influenced by the works of American singer Britney Spears , Barbadian recording artist Rihanna and Australian singer Sia . " Dance " and " Little Lies " were compared to French disc jockey David Guetta and Spears ' Britney Jean ( 2013 ) album , respectively . Everything Express suggested that " Thanks for Leaving " could score highly at a Eurovision Song Contest , an annual musical competition . The review concluded , " Unlocked has some highlights amongst the derivative , magpie @-@ collected sparkle of pilfered pop , you might just find it difficult to remember by the end . "
= = Promotion = =
" Thanks For Leaving " was released on 28 April 2014 as the first single from Unlocked simultaneously with its accompanying music video . The track peaked at number 42 on the Romanian Radio Airplay Chart , and at number one on the Ukraine Pop 100 . On 28 May 2014 , " Cherry Pop " was announced as the sophomore single from the record . In order to promote it , an official music video shot by Khaled Mokhtar in Buftea , Romania was launched . The video shows Stan playing tennis against herself in a futuristic setting . The track was successful in Japan , where it charted at number 64 on the Japan Hot 100 . The most successful track of the record on the Japan Hot 100 , " Dance " , premiered as the third release on 18 July 2014 . The music video for the song was again shot by Khaled Moktar . The recording peaked at number 25 in Japan . It also reached number seventy on the Austrian Singles Chart . The album 's fourth single , " Give Me Your Everything " , was launched on 27 August 2014 . The accompanying controversial music video directed by Khaled Mokhtar portrays Stan chasing a man in a dark landscape . Upon its release , the video aroused controversy for a scene in which Stan is wearing a white robe with masonic symbols inscribed on its back . Particularly , website Urban.ro named the clip " her most bizarre video ever " . " Vanilla Chocolat " was released on 24 December 2014 as the fifth song from Unlocked and it includes vocal collaboration from Connect @-@ R , a Romanian rapper . The accompanying selfie video sees Stan singing and performing in various live shows , as well as shots of her and Connect @-@ R at Roton Music . A bonus single only made available for purchase on the German version of the record , " We Wanna " , featured fellow Romanian recording artist , Inna , and American reggaeton performer Daddy Yankee . The track reached the top thirty in Argentina , Poland and Turkey , and the top sixty in Italy , Romania and Slovakia .
= = Track listing = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unlocked .
Sample credits
" Little Lies " contains elements from the Fleetwood Mac recording of the same name , written by Christine McVie and Eddy Quintela , and produced by Lindsey Buckingham and Richard Dashut .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Unlocked .
= = Charts and sales = =
= = Release history = =
= History of Pittsburgh =
The history of Pittsburgh began with centuries of Native American civilization in the modern Pittsburgh region . Eventually French and British explorers encountered the strategic confluence where the Allegheny and Monongahela Rivers meet to form the Ohio , which leads to the Mississippi River . The area became a battleground when France and Britain fought for control in the 1750s . When the British were victorious , the French ceded control of territories east of the Mississippi .
Following American independence in 1783 , the village around Fort Pitt continued to grow . The region saw the short @-@ lived Whiskey Rebellion , when farmers rebelled against federal taxes on whiskey . The War of 1812 cut off the supply of British goods , stimulating American manufacture . By 1815 , Pittsburgh was producing large quantities of iron , brass , tin , and glass products . By the 1840s , Pittsburgh had grown to one of the largest cities west of the Allegheny Mountains . Production of steel began in 1875 . During the 1877 railway riots it was the site of the most violence and damage in any city affected by the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 . Workers protested cuts in wages , burning down buildings at the railyards , including 100 train engines and more than 1 @,@ 000 cars . Forty men were killed , most of them strikers . By 1911 , Pittsburgh was producing half the nation 's steel . Pittsburgh was a Republican party stronghold until 1932 . The soaring unemployment of the Great Depression , the New Deal relief programs and the rise of powerful labor unions in the 1930s turned the city into a liberal stronghold of the New Deal Coalition under powerful Democratic mayors . In World War II , it was the center of the " Arsenal of Democracy " , producing munitions for the Allied war effort as prosperity returned .
Following World War II , Pittsburgh launched a clean air and civic revitalization project known as the " Renaissance . " The industrial base continued to expand through the 1960s , but after 1970 foreign competition led to the collapse of the steel industry , with massive layoffs and mill closures . Top corporate headquarters moved out in the 1980s . In 2007 the city lost its status as a major transportation hub . The population of the Pittsburgh metropolitan area is holding steady at 2 @.@ 4 million ; it is 65 % white and 35 % minority .
= = Native American era = =
For thousands of years , Native Americans inhabited the region where the Allegheny and the Monongahela join to form the Ohio . Paleo @-@ Indians conducted a hunter @-@ gatherer lifestyle in the region perhaps as early as 19 @,@ 000 years ago . Meadowcroft Rockshelter , an archaeological site west of Pittsburgh , provides evidence that these first Americans lived in the region from that date . During the Adena culture that followed , Mound Builders erected a large Indian Mound at the future site of McKees Rocks , about three miles ( 5 km ) from the head of the Ohio . The Indian Mound , a burial site , was augmented in later years by members of the Hopewell culture .
By 1700 the Iroquois Confederacy , the Five Nations @-@ based south of the Great Lakes in present @-@ day New York , held dominion over the upper Ohio valley , reserving it for hunting grounds . Other tribes included the Lenape ( known by the English as Delaware ) , who had been displaced from eastern Pennsylvania by European settlement , and the Shawnee , who had migrated up from the south . With the arrival of European explorers , these tribes and others had been devastated by European infectious diseases , such as smallpox , measles , influenza , and malaria , to which they had no immunity .
In 1748 , when Conrad Weiser visited Logstown , 18 miles ( 29 km ) downriver from Pittsburgh , he counted 789 warriors gathered : the Iroquois included 163 Seneca , 74 Mohawk , 35 Onondaga , 20 Cayuga , and 15 Oneida . Other tribes were 165 Lenape , 162 Shawnee , 100 Wyandot , 40 Tisagechroami , and 15 Mohican .
Shannopin 's Town , a Seneca tribe village on the east bank of the Allegheny , was the home village of Queen Aliquippa . It was deserted after 1749 . Sawcunk , on the mouth of the Beaver River , was a Lenape ( Delaware ) settlement and the principal residence of Shingas , a chief of theirs . Chartier 's Town was a Shawnee town established in 1734 by Peter Chartier . Kittanning was a Lenape and Shawnee village on the Allegheny , with an estimated 300 – 400 residents .
= = Early colonization ( 1747 – 1763 ) = =
The first Europeans arrived in the 1710s as traders . Michael Bezallion was the first to describe the forks of the Ohio in a manuscript in 1717 , and later that year European traders established posts and settlements in the area . Europeans first began to settle in the region in 1748 , when the first Ohio Company , an English land speculation company , won a grant of 200 @,@ 000 acres ( 800 km ² ) in the upper Ohio Valley . From a post at present @-@ day Cumberland , Maryland , the company began to construct an 80 @-@ mile ( 130 km ) wagon road to the Monongahela River employing a Delaware Indian chief named Nemacolin and a party of settlers headed by Capt. Michael Cresap to begin widening the track into a road . It mostly followed the same route as an ancient Amerindian trail which is now known as Nemacolin 's Trail . The river crossing and flats at Redstone creek , was the earliest point and shortest distance for the descent of a wagon road . Later in the war , the site fortified as Fort Burd ( now Brownsville ) was one of several possible destinations . Another alternative was the divergent route that became Braddock 's Road a few years later through present @-@ day New Stanton . In the event , the colonists did not succeed in improving the Amerindian path to a wagon road much beyond the Cumberland Narrows pass before they were confronted by hostile Native Americans . The colonists later mounted a series of expeditions in order to accomplish piecemeal improvements to the track .
The French had built nearby Logstown as a trade and council center for the Native Americans to increase their influence in the Ohio Valley . Between June 15 and November 10 , 1749 , an expedition headed by Celeron de Bienville , a French officer , traveled down the Allegheny and Ohio to bolster the French claim to the region . De Bienville warned away English traders and posted markers claiming the territory .
In 1753 , Marquis Duquesne , the Governor of New France , sent another , larger expedition . At present @-@ day Erie , Pennsylvania , an advance party built Fort Presque Isle . They also cut a road through the woods and built Fort Le Boeuf on French Creek , from which it was possible at high water to float to the Allegheny . By summer , an expedition of 1 @,@ 500 French and Native American men descended the Allegheny . Some wintered at the confluence of French Creek and the Allegheny . The following year , they built Fort Machault at that site .
Alarmed at these French incursions in the Ohio Valley , Governor Dinwiddie of Virginia sent Major George Washington to warn the French to withdraw . Accompanied by Christopher Gist , Washington arrived at the Forks of the Ohio on November 25 , 1753 .
Proceeding up the Allegheny , Washington presented Dinwiddie 's letter to the French commanders first at Venango , and then Fort Le Boeuf . The French officers received Washington with wine and courtesy , but did not withdraw .
Governor Dinwiddie sent Captain William Trent to build a fort at the Forks of the Ohio . On February 17 , 1754 , Trent began construction of the fort , the first European habitation at the site of present @-@ day Pittsburgh . The fort , named Fort Prince George , was only half @-@ built by April 1754 , when over 500 French forces arrived and ordered the 40 @-@ some colonials back to Virginia . The French tore down the British fortification and built Fort Duquesne .
Governor Dinwiddie launched another expedition . Colonel Joshua Fry commanded the regiment with his second @-@ in @-@ command , George Washington , leading an advance column . On May 28 , 1754 , Washington 's unit clashed with the French in the Battle of Jumonville Glen , during which 13 French soldiers were killed and 21 were taken prisoner . After the battle , Washington 's ally , Seneca chief Tanaghrisson , unexpectedly executed the French commanding officer , Ensign Joseph Coulon de Jumonville . The French pursued Washington and on July 3 , 1754 , George Washington surrendered following the Battle of Fort Necessity . These frontier actions contributed to the start of the French and Indian War ( 1754 – 1763 ) , or , the Seven Years ' War , an imperial confrontation between England and France fought in both hemispheres .
In 1755 , George Washington accompanied British General Braddock 's expedition . Two regiments marched from Fort Cumberland across the Allegheny Mountains and into western Pennsylvania . Following a path Washington surveyed , over 3 @,@ 000 men built a wagon road 12 feet ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) wide , that when complete , was the first road to cross the Appalachian Mountains . Braddock 's Road , as it was known , blazed the way for the future National Road ( US40 ) . The expedition crossed the Monongahela River on July 9 , 1755 . French troops from Fort Duquesne ambushed Braddock 's expedition at Braddock 's Field , nine miles ( 14 km ) from Fort Duquesne . In the Battle of the Monongahela , the French inflicted heavy losses on the British , and Braddock was mortally wounded . The surviving British and colonial forces retreated . This left the French and their Native American allies with dominion over the upper Ohio valley .
On September 8 , 1756 , an expedition of 300 militiamen destroyed the Shawnee and Lenape village of Kittanning , and in the summer of 1758 , British General John Forbes began a campaign to capture Fort Duquesne . At the head of 7 @,@ 000 regular and colonial troops , Forbes built Fort Ligonier and Fort Bedford , from where he cut a wagon road over the Allegheny Mountains , later known as Forbes ' Road . On the night of September 13 – 14 , 1758 , an advance column under Major James Grant was massacred in the Battle of Fort Duquesne . The battleground , the high hill east of the Point , was named Grant 's Hill in his memory . With this defeat , Forbes decided to wait until spring . But when he heard that the French had lost Fort Frontenac and largely evacuated Fort Duquesne , he planned an immediate attack . Hopelessly outnumbered , the French abandoned and razed Fort Duquesne . Forbes occupied the burned fort on November 25 , 1758 and ordered the construction of Fort Pitt , named after British Secretary of State William Pitt the Elder . He also named the settlement between the rivers , " Pittsborough " ( see Etymology of Pittsburgh ) . The British garrison at Fort Pitt made substantial improvements to its fortification . The French never attacked Fort Pitt and the war soon ended with the Treaty of Paris and French defeat . They ceded their territories east of the Mississippi River .
= = Gateway to the West ( 1763 – 1799 ) = =
In 1760 , the first considerable European settlement around Fort Pitt began to grow . Traders and settlers built two groups of houses and cabins , the " lower town , " near the fort 's ramparts , and the " upper town , " along the Monongahela as far as present @-@ day Market Street . In April 1761 , a census ordered by Colonel Henry Bouquet counted 332 people and 104 houses .
In a final Native American attempt to drive out the British west of the Appalachians , Pontiac 's Rebellion began with an assault on British forts in May 1763 . Ohio Valley and Great Lakes tribes overran many forts ; one of their most important targets was Fort Pitt . Receiving warning of the coming attack , Captain Simeon Ecuyer , the Swiss officer in command of the garrison , prepared for a siege . He leveled the houses outside the ramparts and ordered all settlers into the fort : 330 men , 104 women , and 196 children sought refuge inside its ramparts . Captain Ecuyer also gathered stores , which included hundreds of barrels of pork and beef . Pontiac 's forces attacked the fort on June 22 , 1763 . The siege of Fort Pitt lasted for two months . Pontiac 's warriors kept up a continuous , though ineffective , fire on it from July 27 through August 1 , 1763 . They drew off to confront the relieving party under Colonel Bouquet , which defeated them in the Battle of Bushy Run . This victory sealed British dominion over the forks of the Ohio , if not the entire Ohio valley . In 1764 Colonel Bouquet added a redoubt , the Fort Pitt Blockhouse , which still stands , the sole remaining structure from Fort Pitt and the oldest authenticated building west of the Allegheny Mountains .
The Iroquois signed the Fort Stanwix Treaty of 1768 , ceding the lands south of the Ohio to the British . European expansion into the upper Ohio valley increased . An estimated 4 @,@ 000 to 5 @,@ 000 families settled in western Pennsylvania between 1768 and 1770 . Of these settlers , about a third were English , a third were Scotch @-@ Irish , and the rest were Welsh , German and others . These groups tended to settle together in small farming communities , but often their households were not within hailing distance . The life of a settler family was one of relentless hard work : clearing the forest , stumping the fields , building cabins and barns , planting , weeding , and harvesting . In addition , almost everything was manufactured by hand , including furniture , tools , candles , buttons , and needles . Settlers had to deal with harsh winters , and with snakes , black bears , mountain lions , and timber wolves . Because of the fear of raids by Native Americans , the settlers often built their cabins near , or even on top of , springs , to ensure access to water . They also built blockhouses , where neighbors would rally during conflicts .
Increasing violence , especially by the Shawnee , Miami , and Wyandot tribes , led to Dunmore 's War in 1774 . Conflict with Native Americans continued throughout the American Revolution , as some hoped that the war would end with expulsion of the settlers from their territory . In 1777 , Fort Pitt became a United States fort , when Brigadier General Edward Hand took command . In 1779 , Colonel Daniel Brodhead led 600 men from Fort Pitt to destroy Seneca villages along the upper Allegheny .
With the war still ongoing , in 1780 Virginia and Pennsylvania came to an agreement on their mutual borders , creating the state lines known today and determining finally that the jurisdiction of Pittsburgh region was Pennsylvanian . In 1783 , the Revolutionary War ended , which also brought at least a temporary cessation of border warfare . In the 1784 Treaty of Fort Stanwix , the Iroquois ceded the land north of the Purchase Line to Pennsylvania .
After the Revolution , the village of Pittsburgh continued to grow . One of its earliest industries was boat building . Flatboats could used to carry large numbers of pioneers and goods downriver , while keelboats were capable of traveling upriver .
The village began to develop vital institutions . Hugh Henry Brackenridge , a Pittsburgh resident and state legislator , introduced a bill that resulted in a gift deed of land and a charter for the Pittsburgh Academy on February 28 , 1787 . The Academy later developed as the University of Western Pennsylvania ( 1819 ) and since 1908 has been known as the University of Pittsburgh .
Many farmers distilled their corn harvest into whiskey , increasing its value while lowering its transportation costs . At that time , whiskey was used as a form of currency on the frontier . When the federal government imposed an excise tax on whiskey , Western Pennsylvania farmers felt victimized , leading to the Whiskey Rebellion in 1794 . Farmers from the region rallied at Braddock 's Field and marched on Pittsburgh . The short @-@ lived rebellion was put down , however , when President George Washington sent in militias from several states .
The town continued to grow in manufacturing capability . In 1792 , the boatyards in Pittsburgh built a sloop , Western Experiment . During the next decades , the yards produced other large boats . By the 19th century , they were building ocean @-@ going vessels that shipped goods as far as Europe . In 1794 , the town 's first courthouse was built ; it was a wooden structure on Market Square . In 1797 , the manufacture of glass began .
= = Iron City ( 1800 – 1859 ) = =
Commerce continued to be an essential part of the economy of early Pittsburgh , but increasingly , manufacture began to grow in importance . Pittsburgh was located in the middle of one of the most productive coalfields in the country ; the region was also rich in petroleum , natural gas , lumber , and farm goods . Blacksmiths forged iron implements , from horse shoes to nails . By 1800 , the town , with a population of 1 @,@ 565 persons , had over 60 shops , including general stores , bakeries , and hat and shoe shops .
The 1810s were a critical decade in Pittsburgh 's growth . In 1811 , the first steamboat was built in Pittsburgh . Increasingly , commerce would also flow upriver . The War of 1812 catalyzed growth of the Iron City . The war with Britain , the manufacturing center of the world , cut off the supply of British goods , stimulating American manufacture . Also , the British blockade of the American coast increased inland trade , so that goods flowed through Pittsburgh from all four directions . By 1815 , Pittsburgh was producing $ 764K in iron ; $ 249K in brass and tin , and $ 235K in glass products . When , on March 18 , 1816 , Pittsburgh was incorporated as a city , it had already taken on some of its defining characteristics : commerce , manufacture , and a constant cloud of coal dust .
Other emerging towns challenged Pittsburgh . In 1818 , the first segment of the National Road was completed , from Baltimore to Wheeling , bypassing Pittsburgh . This threatened to render the town less essential in east @-@ west commerce . In the coming decade , however , many improvements were made to the transportation infrastructure . In 1818 , the region 's first river bridge , the Smithfield Street Bridge , opened , the first step in developing the " City of bridges " over its two rivers . On October 1 , 1840 , the original Pennsylvania Turnpike was completed , connecting Pittsburgh and the eastern port city of Philadelphia . In 1834 , the Pennsylvania Main Line Canal was completed , making Pittsburgh part of a transportation system that included rivers , roads , and canals .
Manufacture continued to grow . In 1835 , McClurg , Wade and Co. built the first locomotive west of the Alleghenies . Already , Pittsburgh was capable of manufacturing the most essential machines of its age . By the 1840s , Pittsburgh was one of the largest cities west of the mountains . In 1841 , the Second Court House , on Grant 's Hill , was completed . Made from polished gray sandstone , the court house had a rotunda 60 feet ( 18 m ) in diameter and 80 feet ( 24 m ) high .
Like many burgeoning cities of its day , Pittsburgh 's growth outstripped some of its necessary infrastructure , such as a water supply with dependable pressure . Because of this , on April 10 , 1845 , a great fire burned out of control , destroying over a thousand buildings and causing $ 9M in damages . As the city rebuilt , the age of rails arrived . In 1851 , the Ohio and Pennsylvania Railroad began service between Cleveland and Allegheny City ( present @-@ day North Side ) . In 1854 , the Pennsylvania Railroad began service between Pittsburgh and Philadelphia .
Despite many challenges , Pittsburgh had grown into an industrial powerhouse . An 1857 article provided a snapshot of the Iron City :
939 factories in Pittsburgh and Allegheny City
employing more than 10K workers
producing almost $ 12M in goods
using 400 steam engines
Total coal consumed — 22M bushels
Total iron consumed — 127K tons
In steam tonnage , third busiest port in the nation , surpassed only by New York City and New Orleans .
= = Steel City ( 1859 – 1946 ) = =
The iron and steel industry developed rapidly after 1830 and became one of the dominant factors in industrial America by the 1860s .
= = = Scotch Irish leadership = = =
Ingham ( 1978 ) examined the leadership of the industry in its most important center , Pittsburgh , as well as smaller cities . He concludes that the leadership of the iron and steel industry nationwide was " largely Scotch Irish " . Ingham finds that the Scotch Irish held together cohesively throughout the 19th century and " developed their own sense of uniqueness . "
Indeed , new immigrants after 1800 made Pittsburgh a major Scotch Irish stronghold . For example , Thomas Mellon ( b . Ulster 1813 – 1908 ) left Ireland in 1823 and became the founder of the famous Mellon family , which played a central role in banking and industries such as aluminum and oil . As Barnhisel ( 2005 ) finds , industrialists like James H. Laughlin ( b . Ulster 1806 – 1882 ) of Jones and Laughlin Steel Company comprised the " Scots @-@ Irish Presbyterian ruling stratum of Pittsburgh society . "
= = = Technology = = =
In 1859 , the Clinton and Soho iron furnaces introduced coke @-@ fire smelting to the region . The American Civil War boosted the city 's economy with increased production of iron and armaments , especially at the Allegheny Arsenal and the Fort Pitt Foundry . Arms manufacture included iron @-@ clad warships and the world 's first 21 " gun . By war 's end , over one @-@ half of the steel and more than one @-@ third of all U.S. glass was produced in Pittsburgh . A milestone in steel production was achieved in 1875 , when the Edgar Thomson Works in Braddock began to make steel rail using the new Bessemer process .
Industrialists such as Andrew Carnegie , Henry Clay Frick , Andrew W. Mellon , and Charles M. Schwab built their fortunes in Pittsburgh . Also based in Pittsburgh was George Westinghouse , credited with such advancements as the air brake and founder of over 60 companies , including Westinghouse Air and Brake Company ( 1869 ) , Union Switch & Signal ( 1881 ) , and Westinghouse Electric Company ( 1886 ) . Banks played a key role in Pittsburgh 's development as these industrialists sought massive loans to upgrade plants , integrate industries and fund technological advances . For example , T. Mellon & Sons Bank , founded in 1869 , helped to finance an aluminum reduction company that became Alcoa .
Ingham ( 1991 ) shows how small , independent iron and steel manufacturers survived and prospered from the 1870s through the 1950s , despite competition from much larger , standardized production firms . These smaller firms were built on a culture that valued local markets and the beneficial role of business in the local community . Small firms concentrated on specialized products , particularly structural steel , where the economies of scale of larger firms were no advantage . They embraced technological change more cautiously than larger firms . They also had less antagonistic relations with workers and employed a higher percentage of highly skilled workers than their mass @-@ production counterparts .
= = = Geography of industrialization = = =
Beginning in the 1870s , entrepreneurs transformed the economy from small , craft @-@ organized factories located inside the city limits to a large integrated industrial region stretching 50 miles across Allegheny County . The new industrial Pittsburgh was based on integrated mills , mass production , and modern management organization in steel and other industries . Many manufacturers searched for large sites with railroad and river accessibility . They purchased land , designed modern plants , and sometimes built towns for workers . Other firms bought into new communities that began as speculative industrial real estate ventures . Some owners removed their plants from the central city 's labor unions to exert greater control over workers . The region 's rugged topography and dispersed natural resources of coal and gas accentuated this dispersal . The rapid growth of steel , glass , railroad equipment , and coke industries resulted in both large mass @-@ production plants and numerous smaller firms . As capital deepened and interdependence grew , participants multiplied , economies accrued , the division of labor increased , and localized production systems formed around these industries . Transportation , capital , labor markets , and the division of labor in production bound the scattered industrial plants and communities into a sprawling metropolitan district . By 1910 the Pittsburgh district was a complex urban landscape with a dominant central city , surrounded by proximate residential communities , mill towns , satellite cities , and hundreds of mining towns .
Representative of the new industrial suburbs was the model town of Vandergrift , according to Mosher ( 1995 ) . Caught up in a dramatic round of industrial restructuring and labor tension , Pittsburgh steelmaker George McMurtry hired Frederick Law Olmsted 's landscape architectural firm in 1895 to design Vandergrift as a model town . McMurtry believed in what was later known as welfare capitalism , with the company going beyond paychecks to provide for the social needs of the workers ; he believed that a benign physical environment made for happier and more productive workers . A strike and lockout at McMurtry 's steelworks in Apollo , Pennsylvania , prompted him to build the new town . Wanting a loyal workforce , he developed a town agenda that drew upon environmentalism as well as popular attitudes toward capital 's treatment of labor . The Olmsted firm translated this agenda into an urban design that included a unique combination of social reform , comprehensive infrastructure planning , and private homeownership principles . The rates of homeownership and cordial relationships between the steel company and Vandergrift residents fostered loyalty among McMurtry 's skilled workers and led to McMurtry 's greatest success . In 1901 he used Vandergrift 's worker @-@ residents to break the first major strike against the United States Steel Corporation .
= = = Germans = = =
During the mid @-@ 19th century , Pittsburgh witnessed a dramatic influx of German immigrants , including a brick mason whose son , Henry J. Heinz , founded the H.J. Heinz Company in 1872 . Heinz was at the forefront of reform efforts to improve food purity , working conditions , hours , and wages , but the company bitterly opposed the formation of an independent labor union .
= = = Labor unions = = =
As a manufacturing center , Pittsburgh also became an arena for intense labor strife . During the Great Railroad Strike of 1877 , Pittsburgh workers protested and had massive demonstrations that erupted into widespread violence , known as the Pittsburgh Railway Riots . Militia and federal troops were called to the city to suppress the strike . Forty men died , most of them workers , and more than 40 buildings were burned down , including the Union Depot of the Pennsylvania Railroad . Strikers also burned and destroyed rolling stock : more than 100 train engines and 1000 railcars were destroyed . It was the city with the most violence of any affected by the strikes .
In 1892 , a confrontation in the steel industry resulted in 10 deaths ( 3 detectives , 7 workers ) when Carnegie Steel Company 's manager Henry Clay Frick sent in Pinkertons to break the Homestead Strike . Labor strife continued into the years of the Great Depression , as workers sought to protect their jobs and improve working conditions . Unions organized H.J. Heinz workers , with the assistance of the Catholic Radical Alliance .
= = = Carnegie = = =
Andrew Carnegie , an immigrant from Scotland , a former Pennsylvania Railroad executive turned steel magnate , founded the Carnegie Steel Company . He proceeded to play a key role in the development of the U.S. steel industry . He became a philanthropist : in 1890 , he established the first Carnegie Library , in a program to establish libraries in numerous cities and towns by the incentive of matching funds . In 1895 , he founded the Carnegie Institute . In 1901 , as the U.S. Steel Corporation formed , he sold his mills to J.P. Morgan for $ 250 million , making him one of the world 's richest men . Carnegie once wrote that a man who dies rich , dies disgraced . He devoted the rest of his life to public service , establishing libraries , trusts , and foundations . In Pittsburgh , he founded the Carnegie Institute of Technology ( now Carnegie Mellon University ) and the Carnegie Museums of Pittsburgh .
The third ( and present ) Allegheny County Courthouse and Jail was completed in 1886 . In 1890 , trolleys began operations . In 1907 , Pittsburgh annexed Allegheny City , which is now known as the North Shore .
= = Early 20th century = =
By 1911 , Pittsburgh had grown into an industrial and commercial powerhouse :
Nexus of a vast railway system , with freight yards capable of handling 60K cars
27 @.@ 2 miles ( 43 @.@ 8 km ) of harbor
Yearly river traffic in excess of 9M tons
Value of factory products more than $ 211M ( with Allegheny City )
Allegheny county produced , as percentage of national output , about :
24 % of the pig iron
34 % of the Bessemer steel
44 % of the open hearth steel
53 % of the crucible steel
24 % of the steel rails
59 % of the structural shapes
= = = Prohibition = = =
During the Prohibition era , 1920 to 1933 , Pittsburgh was a hotbed of bootlegging and illicit alcohol consumption . Several factors fed into resistance to Prohibition , including a large immigrant population , anti @-@ establishment animosity dating to the Whiskey Rebellion , fragmented local government , and pervasive corruption . The Pittsburgh crime family controlled significant portions of the illegal alcohol trade .
During that time , Prohibition Administrator John Pennington and his federal agents engaged in 15 @,@ 000 raids , arrested over 18 @,@ 000 people and closed down over 3 @,@ 000 distilleries , 16 regular breweries , and 400 ' wildcat ' breweries . Even the term " Speakeasy , " meaning an illegal drinking establishment , is said to have been coined at the Blind Pig in nearby McKeesport , Pennsylvania .
The last distillery in Pittsburgh , Joseph S. Finch 's distillery , located at South Second and McKean streets , closed in the 1920s . In 2012 , Wigle Whiskey opened , becoming the first since the closure of Finch 's distillery .
The Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette produced a large web feature on this period in the city 's history .
= = = Environment = = =
During the late 19th century , city leaders debated the responsibility and expense of creating a waterworks system and disposal of sewage . Downstream users complained about Pittsburgh 's dumping of sewage into the Ohio River . Allegheny County cities did not stop discharging raw sewage into rivers until 1939 . Pittsburgh 's smoke pollution , seen in the 1890s as a sign of prosperity , was recognized as a problem in the Progressive Era and was cleared up in the 1930s – 1940s . With little regard for beauty , steel plants deposited mountains of slag until 1972 , especially in Nine Mile Run Valley .
In November 1927 , 28 people were killed and hundreds were wounded in an explosion of a gas tank .
To escape the soot of the city , many of the wealthy lived in the Shadyside and East End neighborhoods , a few miles east of downtown . Fifth Avenue was dubbed " Millionaire 's Row " because of the many mansions lining the street .
On March 17 and 18 , 1936 , Pittsburgh witnessed the worst flood in its history , with flood levels peaking at 46 feet . This catastrophe killed 69 victims , destroyed thousands of buildings , caused $ 3B ( 2006 dollars ) in damages , and put over 60 @,@ 000 steelworkers out of work .
= = = High culture = = =
Oakland became the city 's predominant cultural and educational center , including three universities , multiple museums , a library , a music hall , and a botanical conservatory . Oakland 's University of Pittsburgh erected what today is still the world 's second @-@ tallest educational building , the 42 @-@ story Cathedral of Learning . It towered over Forbes Field , where the Pittsburgh Pirates played from 1909 – 1970 .
= = = New immigrants = = =
Between 1870 and 1920 , the population of Pittsburgh grew almost sevenfold . Many of the new residents were immigrants who sought employment in the factories and mills and introduced new traditions , languages , and cultures to the city . Ethnic neighborhoods emerged on densely populated hillsides and valleys , such as South Side , Polish Hill , Bloomfield , and Squirrel Hill , home to 28 % of the city 's almost 21 @,@ 000 Jewish households . The Strip District , the city 's produce distribution center , still boasts many restaurants and clubs that showcase these multicultural traditions of Pittsburghers .
The years 1916 – 1930 marked the largest migration of African @-@ Americans to Pittsburgh . Known as the cultural nucleus of Black Pittsburgh , Wylie Avenue in the Hill District was an important jazz mecca . Jazz greats such as Duke Ellington and Pittsburgh natives Billy Strayhorn and Earl Hines played there . Two of the Negro League 's greatest rivals , the Pittsburgh Crawfords and the Homestead Grays , often competed in the Hill District . The teams dominated the Negro National League in the 1930s and 1940s .
= = = 1930s = = =
Pittsburgh was a Republican stronghold starting in the 1880s , and the Republican governments provided jobs and assistance for the new immigrants in return for their votes . But the Great Depression starting in 1929 ruined the GOP in the city . The Democratic victory of 1932 meant an end to Republican patronage jobs and assistance . As the Depression worsened , Pittsburgh ethnics voted heavily for the Democrats , especially in 1934 , making the city a stronghold of the New Deal Coalition . By 1936 , Democratic programs for relief and jobs , especially the WPA , were so popular with the ethnics that a large majority voted for the Democrats .
Joseph Guffey , statewide leader of the Democrats , and his local lieutenant David Lawrence gained control of all federal patronage in Pittsburgh after Roosevelt 's landslide in 1932 and the election of a Democratic mayor in 1933 . Guffey and Lawrence used the New Deal programs to increase their political power and build up a Democratic machine that superseded the decaying Republican machine . Guffey himself acknowledged that a high rate of people on relief was not only " a challenge " but also " an opportunity . " He regarded each relief job as Democratic patronage .
= = = 1940s = = =
Pittsburgh was at the center of the " Arsenal of Democracy " that provided steel , aluminum , munitions and machinery for the U.S. and the Allies during World War II . Pittsburgh 's mills contributed 95 million tons of steel to the war effort .
= = = Postwar = = =
David Lawrence , a Democrat , served as mayor of Pittsburgh from 1946 to 1959 and as Pennsylvania 's governor from 1959 to 1963 . Lawrence used his political power to transform Pittsburgh 's political machine into a modern governmental unit that could run the city well and honestly . In 1946 Lawrence decided to enforce the Smoke Control Ordinance of 1941 because he believed smoke abatement was crucial for the city 's future economic development . However , enforcement placed a substantial burden on the city 's working @-@ class because smoky bituminous coal was much less expensive than smokeless fuels . One round of protests came from Italian @-@ American organizations , which called for delay in enforcing it . Enforcement raised their cost of living and threatened the jobs of their relatives in nearby bituminous coal mines . Despite dislike of the smoke abatement program , Italian Americans strongly supported the reelection of Lawrence in 1949 , in part because many of them were on the city payroll .
= = Renaissance I ( 1946 – 1973 ) = =
Rich and productive , Pittsburgh was also the " Smoky City , " with smog sometimes so thick that streetlights burned during the day as well as rivers that resembled open sewers . Civic leaders , notably Mayor David L. Lawrence , elected in 1945 , Richard K. Mellon , chairman of Mellon Bank and John P. Robin began smoke control and urban revitalization , also known as Urban Renewal projects that transformed the city in unforeseen ways .
" Renaissance I " began in 1946 . Title One of the Housing Act of 1949 provided the means in which to begin . By 1950 , vast swaths of buildings and land near the Point were demolished for Gateway Center . 1953 saw the opening of the ( since demolished ) Greater Pittsburgh Municipal Airport terminal .
In the late 1950s and early 1960s , the lower Hill District , an area inhabited predominantly by people of African descent , was completely destroyed . Ninety @-@ five acres of the lower Hill District were cleared using eminent domain , forcibly displacing hundreds of small businesses and more than 8 @,@ 000 people ( 1 @,@ 239 black families , 312 white ) , to make room for a cultural center that included the Civic Arena , which opened in 1961 . Other than one apartment building , none of the other buildings planned for the cultural center were ever built .
In the early 1960s , the neighborhood of East Liberty was also included in Renaissance I Urban Renewal plans , with over 125 acres ( 0 @.@ 51 km2 ) of the neighborhood being demolished and replaced with garden apartments , three 20 @-@ story public housing apartments , and a convoluted road @-@ way system that circled a pedestrianized shopping district . In the span of just a few years during the mid @-@ 1960s , East Liberty became a blighted neighborhood . There were some 575 businesses in East Liberty in 1959 , but only 292 in 1970 , and just 98 in 1979 .
Preservation efforts by the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation , along with community neighborhood groups , resisted the demolition plans . The neighborhoods containing rich architectural heritage , including the Mexican War Streets , Allegheny West , and Manchester , were spared . The center of Allegheny City , with its culturally and socially important buildings , was not as lucky . All of the buildings , with the exception of the Old U.S. Post Office , the Carnegie Library , and Buhl Planetarium were destroyed and replaced with the " pedestrianized " Allegheny Center Mall and apartments .
The city 's industrial base continued to grow in the post @-@ war era partly assisted by the area 's first agency entirely devoted to industrial development , the RIDC . Jones and Laughlin Steel Company expanded its plant on the Southside . H.J. Heinz , Pittsburgh Plate Glass , Alcoa , Westinghouse , U.S. Steel and its new division , the Pittsburgh Chemical Company and many other companies also continued robust operations through the 1960s . 1970 marked the completion of the final building projects of Renaissance I : the U.S. Steel Tower and Three Rivers Stadium . In 1974 , with the addition of the fountain at the tip of the Golden Triangle , Point State Park was completed . Although air quality was dramatically improved , and Pittsburgh 's manufacturing base seemed solid , questions abound about the negative effects Urban Renewal continues to have on the social fabric of Pittsburgh . Pittsburgh , however , was about to undergo one of its most dramatic transformations .
Like most major cities , Pittsburgh experienced several days of rioting following the assassination of Martin Luther King in April 1968 . There were no further major riots , although tension remained high in the inner @-@ city black neighborhoods .
= = Reinvention ( 1973 – present ) = =
During the 1970s and 1980s , the U.S. steel industry came under increasing pressure from foreign competition and from American mini @-@ mills that had much lower overhead by using salvaged steel . Manufacture in Germany and Japan was booming . Foreign mills and factories , built with the latest technology , benefited from lower labor costs and powerful government @-@ corporate partnerships , allowing them to capture increasing market shares of steel and steel products . Separately , demand for steel softened due to recessions , the 1973 oil crisis , and increasing use of other materials . The era began with the RIDC 's " Building on Basics " report in 1974 .
= = = Collapse of steel = = =
Free market pressures exposed the U.S. steel industry 's own internal problems , which included a now @-@ outdated manufacturing base that had been over @-@ expanded in the 1950s and 1960s , hostile management and labor relationships , the inflexibility of United Steelworkers regarding wage cuts and work @-@ rule reforms , oligarchic management styles , and poor strategic planning by both unions and management . In particular , Pittsburgh faced its own challenges . Local coke and iron ore deposits were depleted , raising material costs . The large mills in the Pittsburgh region also faced competition from newer , more profitable " mini @-@ mills " and non @-@ union mills with lower labor costs .
Beginning in the late 1970s and early 1980s , the steel industry in Pittsburgh began to implode along with the deindustrialization of the U.S. Following the 1981 – 1982 recession , for example , the mills laid off 153 @,@ 000 workers . The steel mills began to shut down . These closures caused a ripple effect , as railroads , mines , and other factories across the region lost business and closed . The local economy suffered a depression , marked by high unemployment and underemployment , as laid @-@ off workers took lower @-@ paying , non @-@ union jobs . Pittsburgh suffered as elsewhere in the Rust Belt with a declining population , and like many other U.S. cities , it also saw white flight to the suburbs .
In 1984 the Homestead Works was demolished , replaced in 1999 by The Waterfront shopping mall . As a direct result of the loss of mill employment , the number of people living in Homestead dwindled . By the time of the 2000 census , the borough population was 3 @,@ 569 . The borough began financially recovering in 2002 , with the enlarging retail tax base .
= = = Corporations = = =
Top corporate headquarters such as Gulf Oil ( 1985 ) , Koppers ( 1987 ) , Westinghouse ( 1996 ) and Rockwell International ( 1989 ) were bought out by larger firms , with the loss of high paying , white collar headquarters and research personnel ( the " brain drain " ) as well as massive charitable contributions by the " home based " companies to local cultural and educational institutions . At the time of the Gulf Oil merger in 1985 it was the largest buyout in world history involving the company that was No. 7 on the Fortune 500 just six years earlier . Over 1 @,@ 000 high paying white collar corporate and PhD research jobs were lost in one day .
Today , there are no steel mills within the city limits of Pittsburgh , although manufacture continues at regional mills , such as the Edgar Thomson Works in nearby Braddock .
= = = Higher education = = =
Pittsburgh is home to three universities that are included in most under @-@ graduate and graduate school national rankings , The University of Pittsburgh , Carnegie Mellon University and Duquesne University . Carnegie Mellon University and the University of Pittsburgh had evolved in the mid @-@ 20th century along lines that followed the needs of the heavy industries that financed and directed their development . The collapse of steel put pressure on those two universities to reinvent themselves as research centers in science and technology which acted to pull the regional economy toward high @-@ technology fields . Other regional collegiate institutions include Robert Morris University , Chatham University , Carlow University , Point Park University , La Roche College , Pittsburgh Theological Seminary , and the Community College of Allegheny County .
Beginning in the 1980s , Pittsburgh 's economy shifted from heavy industry to services , medicine , higher education , tourism , banking , corporate headquarters , and high technology . Today , the top two private employers in the city are the University of Pittsburgh Medical Center ( 26 @,@ 000 employees ) and the West Penn Allegheny Health System ( 13 @,@ 000 employees ) .
= = = Civic improvements = = =
Despite the economic turmoil , civic improvements continued . In the mid @-@ 1970s , Arthur P. Ziegler , Jr. and the Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation ( Landmarks ) wanted to demonstrate that historic preservation could be used to drive economic development without the use of eminent domain or public subsidies . Landmarks acquired the former terminal buildings and yards of the Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad , a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) long property at the base of Mt . Washington facing the City of Pittsburgh . In 1976 , Landmarks developed the site as a mixed @-@ use historic adaptive reuse development that gave the foundation the opportunity to put its urban planning principles into practice . Aided by an initial generous gift from the Allegheny Foundation in 1976 , Landmarks adapted five historic Pittsburgh and Lake Erie Railroad buildings for new uses and added a hotel , a dock for the Gateway Clipper fleet , and parking areas . Now shops , offices , restaurants , and entertainment anchor the historic riverfront site on the south shore of the Monongahela River , opposite the Golden Triangle ( Pittsburgh ) . Station Square is Pittsburgh 's premiere attraction generating over 3 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 visitors a year . It reflects a $ 100 million investment from all sources , with the lowest public cost and highest taxpayer return of any major renewal project in the Pittsburgh region since the 1950s . In 1994 , Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation sold Station Square in to Forest City Enterprises which created an endowment to help support its restoration efforts and educational programs . Each year the staff and docents of Pittsburgh History and Landmarks Foundation introduce more than 10 @,@ 000 people – teachers , students , adults , and visitors – to the architectural heritage of the Pittsburgh region and to the value of historic preservation .
During this period , Pittsburgh also became a national model for community development , through the work of activists such as Dorothy Mae Richardson , who founded Neighborhood Housing Services in 1968 , an organization that became the model for the nationwide NeighborWorks America . Activists such a Richardson shared the aim of Landmarks to rehabilitate Pittsburgh 's existing built landscape rather than to demolish and redevelop .
In 1985 , the J & L Steel site on the north side of the Monongahela river was cleared and a publicly subsidized High Technology Center was built . The Pittsburgh Technology Center , home to many major technology companies , is planning major expansion in the area soon . In the 1980s , the " Renaissance II " urban revitalization created numerous new structures , such as PPG Place . In the 1990s , the former sites of the Homestead , Duquesne and South Side J & L mills were cleared . In 1992 , the new terminal at Pittsburgh International Airport opened . In 2001 , the aging Three Rivers Stadium was replaced by Heinz Field and PNC Park , despite being rejected by voter referendum .
Also in 1985 , Al Michaels revealed to a national TV audience how Pittsburgh had transformed itself from an industrial rust belt city .
= = = Pittsburgh today = = =
Present @-@ day Pittsburgh , with a diversified economy , a low cost of living , and a rich infrastructure for education and culture , has been ranked as one of the World 's Most Livable Cities . Tourism has recently boomed in Pittsburgh with nearly 3 @,@ 000 new hotel rooms opening since 2004 and holding a consistently higher occupancy than in comparable cities . Meanwhile , Apple , Google , Uber , and Intel have joined the 1 @,@ 600 technology firms choosing to operate out of Pittsburgh . The region has also become a leader in green environmental design , a movement exemplified by the city 's convention center . In the last twenty years the region has seen a small but influential group of Asian immigrants , including from the Indian sub @-@ continent .
= = Jurisdiction Timeline = =
1669 Claimed for the French Empire by René @-@ Robert Cavelier , Sieur de La Salle .
1681 King Charles claims the forks for Pennsylvania with 5 degrees west of the Delaware .
1694 Arnout Viele a Dutch trader explores the area .
1717 Settled by English traders , primarily Pennsylvanians some dispute between Virginia and Pennsylvania .
1727 Joncaire visits with a small French force .
1748 Both Pennsylvanian Conrad Weiser visits and the King approves the Ohio Company for Virginia .
1749 Frenchman Louis Blainville deCeleron sails by on the Allegheny and Ohio burying lead plates claiming the area for France .
1750 Cumberland County Pennsylvania founded , though its jurisdiction is not governable .
1753 George Washington visits en route to Fort LeBeouf .
1754 French Forces occupy the area and construct Fort Duquesne .
1757 Jesuit Father Claude Francis Virot founded Catholic Mission at Beaver .
1758 British Forces regain the area and establish Fort Pitt though some dispute over claims between the colonies of Pennsylvania ( Cumberland County ) and Virginia ( Augusta County ) .
1761 Ayr Township , Cumberland County , Pennsylvania .
1763 The Proclamation of 1763 grants Quebec rights to all lands west of the Alleghenies and North of the Ohio River .
1767 Bedford Township , Cumberland County , Pennsylvania .
1770 George Washington visits for Virginia .
1771 ( March 9 ) Bedford County , Pennsylvania .
1771 ( April 16 ) Pitt Township founded .
1773 ( February 26 ) part of Westmoreland County , Pennsylvania .
1778 ( December 16 ) part of Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
1792 ( June ) Petition for a Pittsburgh Township at the forks .
1792 ( September 6 ) Pittsburgh Township , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
1794 ( April 22 ) Pittsburgh borough , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
1816 ( March 18 ) City of Pittsburgh , Allegheny County , Pennsylvania .
= Bluntnose stingray =
The bluntnose stingray or Say 's stingray ( Dasyatis say , often misspelled sayi ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , native to the coastal waters of the western Atlantic Ocean from the U.S. state of Massachusetts to Venezuela . It is a bottom @-@ dwelling species that prefers sandy or muddy habitats 1 – 10 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 32 @.@ 8 ft ) deep , and is migratory in the northern portion of its range . Typically growing to 78 cm ( 31 in ) across , the bluntnose stingray is characterized by a rhomboid pectoral fin disc with broadly rounded outer corners and an obtuse @-@ angled snout . It has a whip @-@ like tail with both an upper keel and a lower fin fold , and a line of small tubercles along the middle of its back .
More active at night than during the day when it is usually buried in sediment , the bluntnose stingray is a predator of small benthic invertebrates and bony fishes . This species is aplacental viviparous , in which the unborn young are nourished initially by yolk , and later histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by their mother . Females give birth to 1 – 6 pups every May after a gestation period of 11 – 12 months , most of which consists of a period of arrested embryonic development . The venomous tail spine of the bluntnose stingray is potentially dangerous to unwary beachgoers . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has listed this species under Least Concern , as it is widely distributed , common , and minimally threatened by commercial fisheries .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
French naturalist Charles Alexandre Lesueur originally described the bluntnose stingray from specimens collected in Little Egg Harbor off the U.S. State of New Jersey . He published his account in an 1817 volume of the Journal of the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia , and named the new species Raja say in honor of Thomas Say , one of the founding members of the Academy . The species was moved to the genus Dasyatis by subsequent authors . In 1841 , German biologists Johannes Peter Müller and Friedrich Gustav Jakob Henle erroneously gave the specific epithet as sayi in their Systematische Beschreibung der Plagiostomen , which thereafter became the typical spelling used in literature . Recently , there has been a push to use the correct original spelling again , though it has also been proposed that the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature ( ICZN ) officially emend the spelling to sayi , for consistency with previous usage .
Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphological characters , found that the bluntnose stingray is one of the more basal members of its genus , and that it is a sister species to the diamond stingray ( D. dipterura ) of the western Pacific Ocean . The two species likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama , some three million years ago .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The bluntnose stingray is found in the western Atlantic Ocean , from Chesapeake Bay southward through the Florida Keys , the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the Greater and Lesser Antilles ; on rare occasions it is found as far north as New Jersey and Massachusetts , as far south as Venezuela , and as far west as Mexico . It is absent from the southern Gulf of Mexico and the Caribbean coast of Central America . Reports of this species from off Brazil and Argentina likely represent misidentifications of the groovebelly stingray ( D. hypostigma ) .
Common in coastal habitats such as bays , lagoons , and estuaries , the bluntnose stingray is a bottom @-@ dwelling species usually found at a depth of 1 – 10 m ( 3 @.@ 3 – 32 @.@ 8 ft ) , though it has been recorded from as deep as 20 m ( 66 ft ) . It frequents sandy or muddy flats , preferring water with a salinity of 25 – 43 ppt and a temperature of 12 – 33 ° C ( 54 – 91 ° F ) . Adult bluntnose stingrays are seldom found in seagrass meadows or shoals , though the latter serves as a habitat for young rays . Along the U.S. East Coast , schools of bluntnose stingrays migrate long distances northward into bays and estuaries to spend the summer , and move back to southern offshore waters for winter .
= = Description = =
The bluntnose stingray has a diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc about a sixth wider than long , with broadly rounded outer corners . The leading margins of the disc are nearly straight and converge at the tip of the snout at up to a 130 ° angle ; the anterior disc shape distinguishes this species from the similar Atlantic stingray ( D. sabina ) , which has a longer , more acute snout . The mouth is curved , with a central projection on the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw . There is a row of five papillae across the floor of the mouth , with the outermost pair smaller and set apart from the others . There are 36 – 50 upper tooth rows ; the teeth have quadrangular bases and are arranged with a quincunx pattern into flattened surfaces . The tooth crowns are rounded in females and juveniles , while those of males in breeding condition are triangular and pointed . The pelvic fins are triangular with rounded tips .
The whip @-@ like tail measures over one and a half times as long as the disc and bears one or two long , serrated stinging spines on top , about a quarter of the tail length back from the base . The second spine , if present , is a replacement that periodically grows in front of the existing spine . Behind the spine , there are well @-@ developed upper and lower fin folds , with the lower fold longer and wider than the upper . Small thorns or tubercles are found in a midline row from behind the eyes to the base of the tail spine , increasing in number with age . Adults also have prickles before and behind the eyes and on the outer parts of the disc . The dorsal coloration is grayish , reddish , or greenish brown ; some individuals also possess bluish spots , are darker towards the sides and rear , or have a thin white disc margin . The ventral surface is whitish , sometimes with a dark disc margin or dark blotches . A record off French Guyana gives the maximum disc width of this species as 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) , but that specimen may have been misidentified and other sources give a maximum disc width of no more than 0 @.@ 78 m ( 2 @.@ 6 ft ) . Females grow larger than males .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The bluntnose stingray has generally nocturnal habits and spends much of the day buried in the substrate . It has been known to follow the rising tide to forage in water barely deep enough to cover its body . This species preys upon small invertebrates , including crustaceans , annelid worms , and bivalve and gastropod molluscs , and bony fishes . It mainly targets benthic and burrowing organisms , but also opportunistically takes free @-@ swimming prey . In Delaware Bay , this species feeds predominantly on the shrimp Cragon septemspinosa and the blood worm Glycera dibranchiata , and its overall dietary composition is virtually identical to that of the roughtail stingray ( D. centroura ) , with which it shares the bay . The bluntnose stingray is preyed upon by larger fishes such as the bull shark ( Carcharhinus leucas ) . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium brevissime and Kotorella pronosoma , the monogenean Listrocephalos corona , and the trematodes Monocotyle pricei and Multicalyx cristata .
Like other stingrays , the bluntnose stingray is aplacental viviparous. with the embryos initially sustained by yolk . Later in development , finger @-@ like extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " surround the embryo and deliver protein and lipid @-@ rich histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Only the left ovary and uterus in adult females are functional . Mating occurs during a well @-@ defined period from April to June , peaking in May , with the males presumably using their pointed teeth to grasp the females for copulation . However , embryonic development halts at the blastoderm stage , shortly after the formation of the zygote , and does not resume for approximately ten months . In the spring of the following year , the embryos rapidly mature over a period of 10 – 12 weeks . This period of embryonic diapause may reflect the greater availability of food in the spring .
Including the extended period of diapause , the gestation period lasts around 11 – 12 months , with 1 – 6 young being born in mid to late May . In 1941 , in a shallow channel between Chincoteague Island and Cape Charles , Virginia , several large bluntnose stingrays were observed repeatedly breaking the surface and swimming rapidly in straight lines , some with their tails thrashing in the air ; others were seen rising slowly to the surface and " hanging " for several minutes . One of the rays was hooked and the shock of capture caused it to release five near @-@ term fetuses , suggesting that this activity may have been related to parturition . The aborted young were pale with small yolk sacs , and a swelling in the place of their tail spines . Females begin ovulating a new batch of eggs immediately after giving birth , indicating that they have an annual reproductive cycle . Newborn rays measure 15 – 17 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 6 @.@ 7 in ) across and weigh 170 – 250 g ( 6 @.@ 0 – 8 @.@ 8 oz ) . Males mature sexually at disc width of 30 – 36 cm ( 12 – 14 in ) and a weight of 3 – 6 kg ( 6 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 2 lb ) , while females mature at a disc width of 50 – 54 cm ( 20 – 21 in ) and a weight of 7 – 15 kg ( 15 – 33 lb ) .
= = Human interactions = =
The bluntnose stingray is not aggressive , though it will defend itself if stepped on or otherwise incited . Its tail spine can inflict an excruciating injury , and can easily pierce leather or rubber footwear . The paralytic venom delivered may have potentially life @-@ threatening effects on those with heart or respiratory problems , and is the subject of biomedical and neurobiological research . This species is popular with ecotourist divers . Abundant and widespread , the bluntnose stingray is caught incidentally by commercial trawl and gillnet fisheries operating in nearshore U.S. waters ; these activities are not a threat to its population , as most captured rays are released alive . The impact of fishing in the southern parts of its range is uncertain , but is unlikely to significantly affect the species as a whole as these activities occur outside its centers of distribution . As a result , the International Union for Conservation of Nature has listed the bluntnose stingray as of Least Concern .
= Siege of Trsat =
The Siege of Trsat ( Croatian : Opsada Trsata ) was a battle fought over possession of the town of Trsat ( Latin : Tarsatica ) in Liburnia , near the Croatian – Frankish border . The battle was fought in the autumn of 799 between the defending forces of the Dalmatian Croatia under the leadership of Croatian duke Višeslav and the invading Frankish army of the Carolingian Empire led by Eric of Friuli . The battle was a Croatian victory , and the Frankish commander Eric was killed during the siege .
The Frankish invasion of Croatia , the destruction of Tarsatica , the coronation of Charlemagne as Holy Roman Emperor , and negotiations from 802 – 815 between the Franks and Byzantines led to a stalemate . The Dalmatian Croatia consequently peacefully accepted a limited Frankish overlordship .
= = Background = =
Charlemagne , King of the Franks from 768 until his death in 814 , expanded the Frankish kingdom into an empire that incorporated much of western and central Europe . He brought the Frankish state face to face with the Slavs to the northeast and the Avars and Slavs to the southeast of the Frankish empire . The Croats lived in Pannonian Croatia and Dalmatian Croatia ( Littoral Croatia ) to the southeast of the Frankish Empire . Dalmatian Croatia was ruled by Duke Višeslav , one of the first known Croatian dukes .
While fighting the Avars , the Franks called for Slavic @-@ Croatian support . Croatian Prince Vojnomir of Pannonian Croatia launched a joint counterattack with the help of Frankish troops under Charlemagne in 791 . The offensive was successful and the Avars were driven out of Croatia . In return for the help of Charlemagne , Vojnomir was obliged to recognize Frankish sovereignty , convert to Christianity , and have his territory named Pannonian Croatia . Charlemagne again campaigned against the Avars and won a major victory in 796 . Prince Vojnomir aided him , and the Franks became overlords of the Croatians of northern Dalmatia , Slavonia , and Pannonia . The Franks placed Pannonian Croats under Eric , the margrave of Friuli , who then tried to extend his rule over the Croatians of Dalmatia .
The conquest of Istria by the Franks brought the realm of Charlemagne adjacent to Dalmatia . Dalmatia at that time included both Roman cities and a Slavic @-@ Croatian hinterland that was loosely subject to the rule of the Byzantine Empire . In the treaty of 798 , the Franks acknowledged Byzantine rights over the Slavs , but in the following years both Croatian Župans ( dukes ) and Roman communities recognized an opportunity to win full independence from both Imperial powers .
As the eldest son of Gerold of Vinzgouw and as a high ranking Frankish commander , Eric was titled from 789 to his death the Duke of Friuli ( dux Foroiulensis ) . He was appointed governor of Istria , Fruli , and neighbouring areas by Charlemagne . Eric wanted to extend his dominion by conquering Dalmatian Croatia . In the autumn of 799 , Eric marched from Istria along the seacoast of Liburnia towards the town of Trsat , which is today part of the city of Rijeka . Meanwhile his opponent , duke Višeslav , gathered his forces and moved north from his governing center at Nin .
= = Siege = =
Upon arriving at the foot of the settlement , Eric besieged and attacked the city , but was repelled . Led by duke Višeslav , the inhabitants of Trsat threw spears , shot arrows , and hurled huge stones on the enemy , and managed to kill many of them . Eric 's forces fled their positions , and were subsequently routed by the forces of Višeslav in an ambush . Eric was among those killed , and his death and defeat proved to be a great blow for the Carolingian Empire . Aquileian Patriarch Saint Paulinus II cursed the land in which the hero was killed , and wrote Carmen de regula fidei , the rhythmus or elegy for his death .
According to contemporary Frankish scholar and courtier Einhard , Eric was killed at Trsat ( Tarsatch ) , a town on the coast of Liburnia by the treachery of the inhabitants . Due to a lack of primary materials , it is uncertain who killed Duke Eric . Most of historians point at Croats , while some point at Byzantines . Einhard also notes the death of Gerold , Prefect of Bavaria , another Frankish commander who was slain in Pannonia in the same year . Croatian historian Nenad Labus refers to this event as a successful assassination attempt by Avars and Slavs . Historian Pierre Riché believes that Dalmatian Croats ( Guduscani ) killed Eric in collusion with Avars .
Besides the Royal Frankish Annals ( Annales Regni Francorum ) , there is another primary source compiled in c . 950 , the historical work De administrando imperio , ascribed to Constantine Porphyrogenitus , which refers to Croatian @-@ Frankish relations . Constantine notes that for a number of years the Croats of Dalmatia were subjects of the Franks , who treated them brutally . The Croats revolted and slew their princes . In an act of revenge , a large army from Francia invaded Croatia . After seven years of war , the Croats managed to defeat the Franks , killing a large portion of the invading army along with its commander . Although Constantine describes a chain of events that are analogous to the ' Siege of Trsat ' , he does not mention Tarsatica or the exact year of these events .
= = Aftermath = =
In 800 , Eric 's successor Cadolah of Friuli invaded the Dalmatian Croatia by the order of Charlemagne , but without considerable military success . Still , Tarsatica was burned down . Tarsatica 's surviving inhabitants moved to a more protected hill , where they established a new settlement called Trsat . Višeslav continued to rule over the Dalmatian Croatia and warred against the Franks , avoiding defeat upon his death in 802 . He was succeeded by his son Borna , who later become a Frankish ally .
On Christmas Day in 800 , Pope Leo III crowned Charlemagne as Imperator Romanorum ( Holy Roman Emperor ) in Saint Peter 's Basilica . This was a direct challenge to Byzantium 's claim to be the one - the Roman - empire . Nicephorus I of the Byzantine Empire and Charlemagne of the Holy Roman Empire settled their imperial boundaries in 803 . Dalmatian Croatia peacefully accepted a limited Frankish overlordship . The peace of Aache in 812 confirmed Dalmatia , except for the Byzantine cities and islands , as under Frankish domain .
Ljudevit Posavski , Croatian Duke of Pannonian Croatia , led a resistance to Frankish domination . Ljudevit also had to fight against Dalmatian Croatia , as their prince Borna was a Frankish ally . After unsuccessful resistance by Ljudevit and Pannonian Croats , the Franks again controlled Istria , Dalmatia , and Pannonia . Nevertheless , Dalmatian Croatia remained a semi @-@ independent duchy between the two Empires , as they had a right to elect their own prince .
= Yugoslav destroyer Split =
The Yugoslav destroyer Split was a large destroyer designed for the Royal Yugoslav Navy in the late 1930s . Construction began in 1939 , but she was captured incomplete by the Italians during the Invasion of Yugoslavia in April 1941 . They continued to build the ship , barring a brief hiatus , but she was not completed before she was scuttled after the Italian surrender in September 1943 . The Germans occupied Split and refloated the destroyer later that year , but made no efforts to continue work . The ship was scuttled again before the city was taken over by the Yugoslav Partisans in late 1944 . Split was refloated once more , but the new Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia was able to do little with her before the Tito – Stalin Split in 1948 halted most work . Aid and equipment from the United States and Great Britain finally allowed her to be completed 20 years after construction began . She was commissioned in July 1958 and served as the navy 's flagship for most of her career . Split became a training ship in the late 1970s after a boiler explosion ; she was decommissioned in 1980 , and scrapped six years later .
= = Design = =
The Yugoslav Navy decided to order a single large destroyer rather than a repeat pair of smaller Beograd @-@ class destroyers in the late 1930s because the Navy 's planners didn 't believe that the smaller ships could adequately support the raiding strategy that it intended to conduct in the event of a war with Italy . The staff decided on a much larger equivalent of the flotilla leader Dubrovnik that could out @-@ gun any Italian destroyer and cover the escape and return to base of the raiding forces . The French company Ateliers et Chantiers de la Loire was selected and based the new ship on their design for the 2 @,@ 610 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 2 @,@ 570 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Le Fantasque @-@ class destroyer . She was built by Yarrow Shipbuilders at their shipyard in Split and was named after her place of construction .
The Yugoslavs chose to buy the components from a variety of different nations . The pairs of geared steam turbines and Yarrow boilers were intended to give the ship a speed of 37 knots ( 69 km / h ; 43 mph ) from 55 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 000 kW ) and were purchased from Great Britain . The fire @-@ control system , with two directors , and radios were French while the armament was supplied by the Škoda Works of Czechoslovakia and Bofors of Sweden .
The ship 's designed armament was five 56 @-@ caliber Škoda 12 @.@ 7 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 0 in ) guns in single mounts , five single 43 @-@ caliber Bofors 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns , four single 15 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) ZB vz.60 anti @-@ aircraft machineguns , and two triple mounts for 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes .
The Yugoslav emphasis on anti @-@ aircraft defense meant that Split could only have a single funnel to allow the guns as much freedom to fire as possible , which dictated that the boiler rooms were adjacent to the engine room . This meant that a single torpedo hit in the machinery spaces could immobilize the ship .
= = Construction = =
The ship was laid down in July 1939 with her launching scheduled for the following year and completion by the end of 1942 . By the time the Italians joined the Germans in invading France in May 1940 , only 600 metric tons ( 590 long tons ) of the 1 @,@ 100 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 083 long tons ) of material necessary to launch her had been delivered . The British government embargoed her machinery in 1940 , despite French protests , when it discovered surreptitious contacts between the Yugoslav and Soviet governments . The Swedish government embargoed the Bofors guns due to the war and the German control of the Škoda Works meant that the Yugoslavs had to suspend construction of Split .
When the city of Split was captured by the Italians on 14 April 1941 , the hull remained undamaged and the Regia Marina decided to complete the ship after a delay of several months . They renamed the ship Spalato , the Italian name for the city of Split . New machinery was ordered from Franco Tosi , and five 45 @-@ caliber 13 @.@ 5 cm ( 5 @.@ 3 in ) guns , as many Breda 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) AA guns as could be fitted , and four twin mounts for Breda 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) light AA guns replaced the Czech and Swedish weapons . One torpedo tube mount was removed and the Italians planned to add depth charge throwers and racks , the capacity for 40 mines and an EC @-@ 3 ter Gufo radar .
The ship was lightly damaged by saboteurs in December which disrupted progress and the Regia Marina decided to suspend construction in April 1942 as she remained nearly two years from completion . By late 1942 , the Regia Marina 's shortage of destroyers had reached a point that every possible hull was needed and construction restarted at a high priority . This allowed her to be launched on 18 July 1943 , but shortly afterwards a change in the Italian leadership caused any further work to be suspended in August and the resources used in her construction to be diverted to finish a large group of small wooden minesweepers . During the fighting between the Germans and the Italians after the Italian surrender on 9 September , Spalato was scuttled in Split harbor on 24 September . The Germans occupied Split three days later , refloated the ship several weeks later and stripped her of any valuable material . As part of their scorched @-@ earth strategy as they abandoned Split , the Germans scuttled Spalato and wrecked the shipyard before the Yugoslav Partisans occupied the port on 27 October 1944 .
= = = Postwar completion = = =
The new communist government of Yugoslavia lacked any sizable warships after the end of the war and decided to resurrect Split as the centerpiece of their new navy . The Yugoslav Navy ordered replacement parts for the machinery from Franco Tosi and contacted Škoda in 1948 to get delivery of her original main armament , which had sat out the war in a warehouse . The damage to the shipyard meant that the navy had to tow the ship to the Kvarner Shipyard ( formerly the Cantieri navali del Quarnaro ) in Rijeka . Shortly afterwards , however , the Tito @-@ Stalin split deprived the ship of her main armament and the technical assistance needed to complete her .
The Yugoslavs re @-@ launched Split in March 1950 to free up the slipway , but no other work was done . In 1953 there was a rapprochement with the NATO powers and the American and the British agreed to help complete the ship . The Tosi machinery ordered earlier had been used for other ships so the British agreed to furnish her propulsion machinery while the Americans provided the ship 's armament , fire @-@ control equipment and electronics .
= = Description = =
Split had an overall length of 120 meters ( 393 ft 8 in ) , a beam of 12 meters ( 39 ft 4 in ) , and a draft of 3 @.@ 7 meters ( 12 ft 2 in ) . The ships displaced 2 @,@ 400 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 362 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 953 long tons ) at deep load . She was powered by two Parsons geared steam turbines , each driving one propeller shaft , using steam provided by two Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . The turbines were designed to produce 50 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 37 @,@ 000 kW ) , which would propel the ship at 31 @.@ 5 knots ( 58 @.@ 3 km / h ; 36 @.@ 2 mph ) . Split carried 590 metric tons ( 581 long tons ) of fuel oil , although her range is unknown , and had a crew of 240 .
The main armament of Split consisted of four 38 @-@ caliber 5 @-@ inch ( 13 cm ) guns in single mounts , one superfiring pair each fore and aft of the superstructure . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four twin @-@ gun and four single mounts for license @-@ built Bofors 40 mm guns . The ship carried one quintuple set of 21 @-@ inch torpedo tubes and retained her capacity for 40 mines . For anti @-@ submarine combat , Split was equipped with two Hedgehog spigot mortars , six depth @-@ charge throwers and two depth @-@ charge racks . The ship was fitted with a Mk 37 fire @-@ control director for the 5 @-@ inch guns and a Mk 51 director for the AA guns . The Mk 37 director was equipped with a Mk 12 fire @-@ control radar and a Mk 22 height @-@ finding radar . SC and SG @-@ 1 search radars completed her radar suite .
= = Service = =
Construction proceeded at a snail 's pace and the ship was finally commissioned on 4 July 1958 , although she did not enter service until 1959 . She immediately became the navy 's flagship and retained that position for most of her career . Split proved to be top @-@ heavy , short ranged , slow and very cramped for in service . She accidentally collided with the ex @-@ Italian torpedo boat Biokovo in 1963 , damaging the latter so badly that she was immediately struck from the Navy List . In the late 1970s , an explosion of one of Split 's main boiler steam lines killed all of the men standing watch in the boiler room . The boiler was not repaired and she was limited to a speed of 24 knots ( 44 km / h ; 28 mph ) . The ship became a stationary training ship afterwards . She was decommissioned in 1980 , struck on 2 February 1984 and scrapped in 1986 .
= U.S. Route 12 in Michigan =
US Highway 12 ( US 12 ) is a US Highway that runs from Aberdeen , Washington , to Detroit , Michigan . In Michigan it runs for 210 miles ( 338 km ) between New Buffalo and Detroit as a state trunkline highway and Pure Michigan Byway . On its western end , the highway is mostly a two @-@ lane road that runs through the southern tier of counties roughly parallel to the Indiana state line . It forms part of the Niles Bypass , a four @-@ lane expressway south of Niles in the southwestern part of the state , and it runs concurrently with the Interstate 94 ( I @-@ 94 ) freeway around the south side of Ypsilanti in the southeastern . In between Coldwater and the Ann Arbor area , the highway angles northeasterly and passes the Michigan International Speedway . East of Ypsilanti , US 12 follows a divided highway routing on Michigan Avenue into Detroit , where it terminates at an intersection with Cass Avenue .
When US 12 was designated in Michigan on November 11 , 1926 , along with the other original US Highways , it ran along a more northerly course . It originally replaced sections of the original M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 17 along Michigan Avenue in the state , the route of the much older St. Joseph Trail , a footpath used by Native Americans before European settlement in the area . It entered from Indiana as it does now , but it followed the Lake Michigan shoreline farther north to Benton Harbor – St. Joseph before turning eastward to run through Kalamazoo , Battle Creek and Jackson . In the Ann Arbor area , it followed a more northerly path into Detroit before terminating downtown . In the 1940s and 1950s , sections of the highway were converted into expressways and freeways . Starting in 1959 , these freeway segments were renumbered as part of I @-@ 94 , and in January 1962 , US 12 was shifted to replace US Highway 112 ( US 112 ) . That highway , when it was designated in 1926 replaced the original M @-@ 23 along the Chicago Road . Later , US 112 replaced the first M @-@ 151 when the former was extended to New Buffalo in the mid @-@ 1930s . Since 1962 , the highway has remained relatively unchanged aside from minor truncations in the city of Detroit . US 112 previously had two business loops , both of which were renumbered Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) in 1962 . In 2010 , the Niles business loop was decommissioned , but the one in Ypsilanti remains . One section of the former US 112 was renumbered US 112S for a few years in the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
Between the state line near Michiana and the interchange with I @-@ 94 near New Buffalo , US 12 forms a portion of the Lake Michigan Circle Tour ( LMCT ) . The full length of the highway in the state is also a Pure Michigan Historic Byway . Outside of the various cities , most of US 12 is a rural , two @-@ lane state highway . One section runs concurrently with I @-@ 94 south of Ypsilanti . From there eastward , the US 12 is a divided highway and then a boulevard into the Detroit area . The entire length of the highway east of Coldwater is listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the US 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = = Southwest Michigan = = =
US 12 enters the state of Michigan southwest of New Buffalo near the town of Michiana . The highway runs a bit inland and parallel to the Lake Michigan shore on Red Arrow Highway past the community of Grand Beach before turning eastward away from the lake on the north side of New Buffalo . US 12 intersects I @-@ 94 less than a mile east of this turn and continues due east along Pulaski Highway through rural farmland . The highway is the main east – west street as it crosses through Three Oaks in southern Berrien County . East of Galien , the highway dips southward around Dayton Lake before passing south of Buchanan . The highway continues eastward , intersecting US 31 ( St. Joseph Valley Parkway ) near Niles . East of that freeway , US 12 expands into an expressway as the Niles Bypass . This bypass intersects M @-@ 139 , crosses the St. Joseph River and intersects M @-@ 51 on the south side of Niles . US 12 turns northeasterly along the bypass east of downtown and then departs to the southeast at an interchange with Main Street and M @-@ 60 just across the county line with Cass County .
Continuing through southern Cass County , US 12 runs roughly parallel to the state line . It turns northeasterly to run into Edwardsburg , where it intersects M @-@ 62 . The highway turns southeasterly and runs to the south of Eagle Lake before entering the community of Adamsville . The highway continues on this southeasterly course until it intersects the former M @-@ 205 and M @-@ 217 ( Michiana Parkway ) near Union and turns to the northeast . US 12 intersects the southern end of M @-@ 40 before crossing into St. Joseph County at the eastern crossing of the St. Joseph River .
On the eastern side of the river , US 12 enters Mottville and intersects M @-@ 103 . The highway continues as Chicago Road through farmland and intersects US 131 near White Pigeon . It runs along the south side of Klinger Lake and continues to a junction with M @-@ 66 in Sturgis ; the two highways run concurrently for about eight blocks through town . East of Sturgis , US 12 turns northeasterly into Branch County . Still named Chicago Road , it passes through Bronson and Batavia . Northeast of Batavia , US 12 intersects the eastern end of M @-@ 86 near Branch County Memorial Airport . The airport is on the western edge of Coldwater , and after crossing the Coldwater River between Cemetery and South lakes , the highway runs through residential neighborhoods and into downtown . East of Division Street , Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) follows US 12 through downtown and out to an interchange with I @-@ 69 on the east side of Coldwater . The highway continues past retail businesses and parallel to the Sauk River . US 12 passes through the town of Quincy before crossing into Hillsdale County .
= = = Southeast Michigan = = =
East of Hillsdale County line , US 12 runs easterly into Allen , where it intersects M @-@ 49 . The highway continues northeastward through farmland to Jonesville , where it runs concurrently with M @-@ 99 through downtown and across a different St. Joseph River . The trunkline continues northeasterly through northern Hillsdale County , crossing the South Branch of the Kalamazoo River in Moscow . US 12 runs along the south side of Lake LeAnn in Somerset Center in the northeastern corner of the county . East of Somerset , the highway crosses into northern Lenawee County .
Immediately east of the Lenawee County line , US 12 intersects US 127 in the Irish Hills region . South of Brooklyn in Cambridge Junction , it passes the Michigan International Speedway and crosses the River Raisin next to a junction with M @-@ 50 . East of the racetrack , the highway meanders through an area dotted by several smaller lakes until it intersects M @-@ 124 at Walter J. Hayes State Park . Continuing as Michigan Avenue , US 12 angles northeasterly from the park until it hits the Lenawee – Washtenaw county line . The highway follows the line for several miles before reentering Lenawee County . It continues through an intersection with M @-@ 52 and into Clinton before turning northeasterly and fully crossing into Washtenaw County .
In Washtenaw County , US 12 passes through Benton in a rural southern section of the county . At Saline , the highway enters the suburban edge of the Ann Arbor – Ypsilanti metro area . US 12 follows Michigan Avenue northeasterly through Saline and across an interchange with US 23 before intersecting I @-@ 94 in Pittsfield and Ypsilanti townships . US 12 leaves Michigan Avenue to follow I @-@ 94 at that freeway 's exit 181 ; Michigan Avenue continues into downtown Ypsilanti as a city street . I @-@ 94 / US 12 skirts around the south side of the city and intersects the western end of Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) at Huron Street south of downtown . The freeway continues around the south side of the city and rounds the north end of Ford Lake . It is bounded by residential neighborhoods , and it crosses the Huron River on the eastern side of Ypsilanti . Near the Willow Run industrial complex and airport , US 12 separates from I @-@ 94 and turns northeasterly along an expressway on the north side of the airport . There are three interchanges , including one for the eastern end of M @-@ 17 before US 12 crosses into Wayne County and intersects the eastern end of Bus . US 12 .
= = = East into Detroit = = =
Once US 12 intersects the eastern end of its business loop , it returns to Michigan Avenue for the remainder of its routing in the state . The roadway is a boulevard in this area , a street divided by a central median . It runs through Canton Township and parallel to the Lower River Rouge . US 12 intersects I @-@ 275 on the eastern side of the township before crossing into Wayne . The highway is bounded by a mix of industrial and commercial properties in suburban Metro Detroit . In downtown Wayne , the two sides of Michigan Avenue split apart , surrounding the central business district of the city and separated by two to three city blocks . East of this split , Michigan Avenue crosses a section of Westland before entering Inkster .
In Dearborn , US 12 intersects US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) at an interchange on the western side of the city , and M @-@ 39 ( Southfield Freeway ) on the eastern side near the River Rouge crossing and Greenfield Village . On the Dearborn – Detroit city border , US 12 pass through a complex interchange with I @-@ 94 ( Edsel Ford Freeway ) and M @-@ 153 ( Ford Road / Wyoming Avenue ) . Michigan Avenue continues northeasterly parallel to I @-@ 94 for a short distance before it turns due east . Once it makes the direction change , it forms the 0 Mile of Detroit 's Mile Road System . US 12 continues through residential areas on Detroit 's West Side , passing through the interchange that connects I @-@ 75 with I @-@ 96 's eastern terminus near the Ambassador Bridge . The highway runs through Corktown , Detroit and beside the site of the former Tiger Stadium at the corner of Michigan and Trumbull . East of the former stadium , US 12 crosses M @-@ 10 ( Lodge Freeway ) near the MGM Grand Detroit casino . East of M @-@ 10 , Michigan Avenue enters Downtown Detroit . At the corner of Michigan and Cass , US 12 ends while Michigan Avenue continues several blocks further to terminate at Campus Martius Park at Woodward Avenue .
= = History = =
= = = Before 1926 = = =
The first major overland transportation corridors in the future state of Michigan were the Indian trails . Two of these trails are relevant to US 12 . The St. Joseph Trail ran between the Benton Harbor – St. Joseph area and Detroit by way of what is now Kalamazoo , Battle Creek , Jackson and Ann Arbor . The second , the Sauk Trail , ran further south through what is now Niles , and Coldwater to the Ann Arbor area .
The Town of Detroit created 120 @-@ foot @-@ wide ( 37 m ) rights @-@ of @-@ way for the principal streets of the city in 1805 , including Michigan Avenue . This street plan was devised by Augustus Woodward and others following a devastating fire in Detroit , with a mandate from the territorial governor to improve on the previous plan . The wide width of the avenues was an emulation of the street plan for Washington , DC , and intended to make Detroit the " Paris of the West " .
The southern of these two Indian trails later became the Chicago Road . Father Gabriel Richard , the first priest to serve in the U.S. House of Representatives , petitioned Congress to fund a highway between Detroit and Chicago in March 1824 . A year later , the road was established in federal law , and it was surveyed by the end of 1825 . Construction started in 1829 , and the road was finished across Michigan in 1833 . The northern Indian trail was established as an unnamed territorial road in 1829 .
The State Trunkline Highway System was created on May 13 , 1913 , by an act of the Michigan Legislature ; at the time , two of the system 's divisions corresponded to the original US 12 . Division 5 had a segment from New Buffalo to Benton Harbor and Watervliet while Division 6 connected Watervliet through Kalamazoo , Jackson and Ann Arbor to Detroit . No divisions corresponded to the future US 112 . In 1919 , the Michigan State Highway Department ( MSHD ) signposted the highway system for the first time , and the future US 12 corridor was assigned two numbers . From the state line north through Benton Harbor to Watervliet , it carried the original M @-@ 11 designation , and from Watervliet eastward it was the original M @-@ 17 . From Dearborn into Detroit , the original M @-@ 10 ran concurrently along M @-@ 17 .
The future US 112 along the Chicago Road had two different numbers in the original highway plan . Between New Buffalo and Niles , the highway was numbered M @-@ 60 , and from Union to Ypsilanti , it was M @-@ 23 . East of Ypsilanti , the corridor was part of M @-@ 17 and M @-@ 10 . In November 1926 , these two highway corridors were renumbered as part of the United States Numbered Highway System .
= = = Original US Highway : 1926 – 62 = = =
On November 11 , 1926 , the United States Numbered Highway System was approved by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) , and US 12 was the designation assigned to a highway running northeasterly from Indiana near Lake Michigan to Benton Harbor – St. Joseph and turning east to Detroit through Kalamazoo , Jackson and Ann Arbor . This designation replaced sections of the original M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 17 through the southern part of the state . By the end of the next year , the MSHD rerouted the highway between Sawyer and Stevensville , and Downtown Stevensville was bypassed in 1928 . Additional work to fully bypass Stevensville was finished in 1929 .
In 1931 , the original routing of US 12 along a section of Michigan Avenue between Kalamazoo and Comstock was renumbered US 12A , and a new routing along King Highway south of the original opened . By 1936 , another US 12A debuted in Battle Creek , and by the end of the year , the main highway was rerouted between Augusta and Battle Creek . Another new segment of highway opened that same year east of Jackson , bypassing Leoni and Grass Lake to the north . This new bypass was extended eastward from Sylvan to bypass Chelsea to the south the following year , filling a gap in " super highway " segments between Jackson and Ann Arbor . The last routing change in the 1930s was the opening of Stadium Drive in Kalamazoo , after which US 12 was rerouted to follow it west of downtown .
In 1940 , a southern bypass of Battle Creek opened along Columbia Avenue , and the former routing through downtown on Michigan Avenue became a Business US 12 ( Bus . US 12 ) . In late 1951 or early 1952 , a northerly bypass of Jackson opened , and the former route through downtown on Michigan Avenue became another Bus . US 12 . By the next year , the western half of the Jackson bypass opened , including a bypass of Parma . In 1954 , a new bypass of Kalamazoo and Galesburg opened ; US 12 was rerouted to follow the new highway while M @-@ 96 replaced part of the old route and the US 12A in the area .
In 1956 , several changes were made to US 12 's routing . A southern bypass of Ann Arbor and Ypsilanti was converted to a freeway . US 12 was rerouted to follow the bypass , supplanting the M @-@ 17 and Bypass US 112 designations used previously on the bypass . US 112 was also rerouted , and it runs concurrently with US 12 along the bypass . The former route of US 12 along Plymouth Road from Ann Arbor east to Detroit was renumbered M @-@ 14 , and the M @-@ 112 designation on the Willow Run and Detroit Industrial expressways was replaced by US 12 . At the same time as these changes were made , the Jackson bypass was upgraded to a full freeway . By the middle of 1958 , the Kalamazoo bypass was converted to a full freeway .
Previously delayed so that the designations could be finalized , the MSHD started numbering its Interstate Highways in 1959 , adding I @-@ 94 to the sections of US 12 freeway . Later that year , additional segments of I @-@ 94 / US 12 were opened , starting with a 10 @-@ mile ( 16 km ) section from Hartford to Coloma , then another from Paw Paw to Kalamazoo which connected with a segment between Galesburg to Battle Creek . The overall 45 @-@ mile ( 72 km ) section from Paw Paw to Battle Creek was dedicated on December 7 , 1959 . By the middle of 1960 , US 12 followed the I @-@ 94 freeway from Coloma to Watervliet and from Paw Paw to the east side of Jackson . It was also routed along the freeway from the west side of Ann Arbor into Detroit , where it followed the southern end of the Lodge Freeway . By the middle of 1961 , the Watervliet – Paw Paw and Jackson – Ann Arbor freeway gaps were completed , and the freeway was extended westward to Stevensville ; By the end of the year , I @-@ 94 / US 12 extended all the way to New Buffalo . In January 1962 , the state made the biggest rerouting change of all to US 12 : the designation was removed from the I @-@ 94 freeway from New Buffalo to Detroit and shifted to completely replace US 112 .
= = = US Highway 112 : 1926 – 62 = = =
In 1925 , US 112 was originally proposed to run from Oshkosh to Fremont , Wisconsin , on what later became U.S. Route 110 . When it was initially designated in November 1926 , US 112 made a sharp turn to the southwest to connect to US 20 in Elkhart , Indiana . In 1931 , a new trunkline highway was designated between M @-@ 60 at Niles and US 112 at Union . This highway was numbered M @-@ 151 . In 1933 , the section of US 112 from Union to Elkhart was renumbered US 112S . M @-@ 151 and US 112S each lasted until 1935 when US 112 was extended to replace M @-@ 151 . US 112 was also extended to run concurrently with M @-@ 60 to New Buffalo , and US 112S was renumbered M @-@ 205 .
In 1936 , the section of US 112 along Michigan Avenue east of Ypsilanti was expanded into a " super highway " . In 1955 , a realignment of US 127 in southern Jackson County removed a short concurrency with US 112 from Somerset Center in Hillsdale County and the current intersection in northwestern Lenawee County .
On December 1 , 1956 , the highway department opened the first 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) of a new four @-@ lane divided highway around the south side of Niles , with the final 1 @.@ 6 miles ( 2 @.@ 6 km ) of the bypass opening early the next year . Consequently , they converted the former route through town into a business loop numbered Bus . US 112 back to US 112 / M @-@ 60 . At the end of the decade , another highway concurrency was removed
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The final escalation towards war began in early January 1918 , as each military or political act of the Reds or the Whites resulted in a corresponding counteraction by their opponents . Both sides justified these acts as defensive measures , particularly to their own supporters . On the left , the vanguard of the war was the most active , urban Red Guards from Helsinki , Kotka and Turku ; they led the rural Reds , and convinced the socialist leaders who wavered between peace and war to support revolution . On the right , the vanguard of the conflict was the Finnish " Jägers " who had been moved to Finland by the end of 1917 , and the most active volunteer White Guards of Viipuri province in the southeastern corner of Finland , southwestern Finland and southern Ostrobothnia . The first local battles were fought during 9 – 21 January in southern and southeastern Finland , mainly to win the race for weapons and for controlling the Viipuri town .
The Svinhufvud Senate and the Parliament decided , on 12 January 1918 to create a " State power of internal order and discipline " , leaning on the White forces . On 15 January , Carl Gustaf Emil Mannerheim , a competent former general of the Imperial Russian Army , was appointed supreme commander of the White Guards . He established a major power base in Vaasa @-@ Seinäjoki area . The Senate renamed the White Guards the Finnish White Army and the White Order to engage was issued , on 25 January . The Whites gained weaponry by disarmament of Russian garrisons during 21 – 28 January , in particular in southern Ostrobothnia .
The Red Guards , led by Ali Aaltonen , refused to recognise the Whites Guard 's power status , and decided to establish a military authority of their own . Aaltonen placed the Red power base in Helsinki . The Red Order of Revolution was issued on 26 January 1918 , and a red lantern , a symbolic indicator of the Uprising , was lit in the tower of the Helsinki Workers ' Hall . The large scale mobilization of the Reds began in the late evening of 27 January , with the Helsinki Guard and some of the Guards located along the Viipuri @-@ Tampere railway having become active between 23 – 26 January , in order to safeguard vital positions and escort a heavy railroad shipment of Bolsheviks ' weapons from Petrograd to Finland . White troops tried to capture the shipment ; 20 – 30 Finns , Red and White , died in the " Battle of the Rahja Trains " in the Karelian Isthmus on 27 January 1918 .
The third and final culmination of the Finnish power struggle and the disintegration of the society had begun .
= = = Finland divided into White and Red = = =
At the beginning of the war , a discontinuous front line ran through southern Finland from west to east , dividing the country into White Finland and Red Finland . The Red Guards controlled the area to the south , including nearly all the major towns and industrial centres , and the largest estates and farms with high numbers of crofters and tenant farmers . The White Army controlled the area to the north , which was predominantly agrarian with small or medium @-@ sized farms and tenant farmers , and where crofters were few , or held a better social position than in the south . Enclaves of the opposing forces existed on both sides of the front line : within the White area lay the industrial towns of Varkaus , Kuopio , Oulu , Raahe , Kemi and Tornio ; within the Red area lay Porvoo , Kirkkonummi and Uusikaupunki . The elimination of these strongholds was a priority for both armies in February 1918 .
Red Finland , called also the Finnish Socialist Workers ' Republic , was led by the People 's Delegation , established on 28 January , in Helsinki . The delegation sought democratic socialism based on the Finnish Social Democratic ethos ; their visions differed from Lenin 's dictatorship of the proletariat . Otto Ville Kuusinen formulated a proposal for a new constitution , influenced by those of Switzerland and the United States . Political power was to be concentrated to Parliament , with a lesser role for Senate . The proposal included a multi @-@ party system , freedom of assembly , freedom of speech and press , and the use of referenda in political decision making . In order to ensure the power of the labour movement , the common people would have a right to " continuous revolution " .
The Reds ' plans concerning private property rights were in conflict with their plans for an " ultrademocratic " and free society ; the state and local administration of municipalities would have had true property rights . In agriculture the crofters were liberated from the control of the landowners at the beginning of the war , but they were allowed a right of containment of the farms under the plans of a later general socialization in the country . All these plans , including the new constitution , remained unfulfilled , as the Reds lost the 1918 war .
In foreign policy Red Finland leaned on Bolshevist Russia . A Finnish @-@ Russian Red treaty and peace agreement was signed on 1 March 1918 . The negotiations for the treaty revealed , that , as in World War I in general , nationalism was more important for both sides than the principles of international socialism . The Red Finns did not accept alliance with the Bolsheviks and major disputes appeared e.g. over demarcation of the border between Red Finland and Soviet Russia . The bargaining sides exchanged land areas ; an artillery base , Ino , located in the Karelian Isthmus , was transferred to Russia , while Finland received Petsamo in north @-@ eastern Lapland . The significance of the Russian @-@ Finnish Treaty evaporated soon , due to the signing of the Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk between the Bolsheviks and the German Empire on 3 March 1918 .
V. I. Lenin 's policy of the right of nations to self @-@ determination aimed at preventing the disintegration of Russia during the period of military weakness . He tried to utilize the power vacuums and political rivalries commonly formed inside fledgling nations as they separated from major , splintering countries . Lenin expected that in the political circumstances of Europe at the time , the proletariat of free nations would carry out socialist revolutions , and unite with Soviet Russia later . The majority of the Finnish labor movement supported Finland 's independence . The Finnish Bolsheviks , influential though few in number , favoured annexation of Finland by Russia . The question of annexation , in the aftermath of WWI , was resolved by the defeat of Red Finland and weakness of Russia .
The government of White Finland , Pehr Evind Svinhufvud 's first senate , was called the Vaasa Senate after relocation to the west @-@ coast city of Vaasa , acting as the capital of the Whites from 29 January to 3 May . In domestic policy the White Senate 's main goal was to return the political right to power in Finland . The conservatives planned a monarchist political system , with a lesser role for Parliament . A section of the conservatives had always been against democracy ; others approved parliamentarianism since the revolutionary reform of 1906 , but after the crisis of 1917 and the outbreak of the 1918 war concluded , that empowering the common people would not work . Social liberals and reformist , moderate non @-@ socialists opposed any restriction of parliamentarianism . They initially resisted German military help , but the prolonged warfare changed their stance .
In foreign policy , the Vaasa Senate leaned on the German Empire for military and political aid , in order to defeat the Finnish Red Guards , end the influence of Bolshevist Russia in Finland , and expand Finnish territory to Russian Karelia , which held geopolitical significance , and was home to people speaking Finno @-@ Ugric languages ( Irredentist campaigns / Heimosodat ) . The weakness of Russia induced an idea of Greater Finland among the expansive factions of both the right and left ; the Reds had claims concerning the same areas . General Mannerheim agreed on the need to take over eastern Karelia and for German weapons , but opposed German intervention in Finland . Mannerheim recognized the lack of combat skills of the Finnish Red Guards , and he leaned on the high military skills of the Finnish Jägers . As a former Russian army officer , Mannerheim was well aware of the demoralization of the Russian army . He co @-@ operated with White Russian officers in Finland and Russia .
The competing parties ' war propaganda aimed to prove their support of democracy and liberty and their ability to represent the whole Finnish nation . Both failed by allowing the political crisis to end up in the bloody Civil War and a comprehensive terror , instead of reaching a compromise to accomplish a peaceful political settlement .
= = = = Soldiers on rails = = = =
The number of Finnish troops on each side varied from 70 @,@ 000 to 90 @,@ 000 ; both sides had around 100 @,@ 000 rifles , 300 @-@ 400 machine guns and a few hundred cannons . While the Red Guards consisted mostly of volunteers ( wages paid at the beginning of the war ) , the White Army contained only 11 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 volunteers , the remainder being conscripts . The main motives for volunteering were economic factors ( salary , food ) , idealism , and peer pressure . The Red Guards included 2 @,@ 000 female troops , mostly girls recruited from the industrial centres of southern Finland . Urban and agricultural workers constituted the majority of the Red Guards , whereas land @-@ owning farmers and well @-@ educated people formed the backbone of the White Army .
Both armies used child soldiers , mainly between 14 and 17 years of age . The usage of juvenile soldiers was not rare in World War I ; children of that time were under the absolute authority of adults and generally were not shielded against exploitation . In the Finnish case , chaotic conditions , particularly at the start of the war , provided an additional reason to recruit child soldiers ; military leaders took whoever they could get their hands on . In the Red Guards there was also the chance for salary and food supplies .
The Finnish Civil War was fought primarily along the railways , the vital means of transporting troops and supplies . One of the most important objectives for both Guards was the seizure of Haapamäki , a railway junction northeast of Tampere which connected both western @-@ eastern and southern @-@ northern Finland . The Whites captured the junction at the end of January 1918 , leading to fierce battles at Vilppula . The Whites ' bridgehead south of the River Vuoksi at Antrea on the Karelian Isthmus threatened the railway connection Viipuri @-@ Petrograd also . The other vital railway junctions during the war were Kouvola , Riihimäki , Tampere and Toijala . The significance of the railways is well symbolized by the most frightening weapon used in the turmoil : armoured train , carrying light cannons and heavy machine guns .
= = = Red Guards and the Russian troops = = =
The Finnish Red Guards seized the early initiative in the war , taking control of Helsinki on 28 January , and with a general attack phase lasting from February till early March 1918 . The Reds were relatively well armed , but a chronic shortage of skilled leaders , both at command level and in the field , left them unable to capitalize on their initial momentum , and most of the offensives came to nothing . The military order chain functioned relatively well at Red company and platoon level , but leadership and authority were weak , as most of the field commanders were chosen by the vote of the troopers . The common troopers were more or less armed civilians , whose military training , discipline and combat morale were both inadequate and low .
Ali Aaltonen found himself rapidly replaced in command of the Red troops by Eero Haapalainen , who in turn was replaced by the triumvirate of Eino Rahja , Adolf Taimi and Evert Eloranta . The last commander of the Red Guards was Kullervo Manner , who led the final retreat into Russia . Some talented men with a high sense of responsibility such as Hugo Salmela rose up to take the lead , but they could not change the course of the war . The Red Guards achieved victories , only at local level , as they retreated from southern Finland towards Russia ; they won German troops in the fierce battles on 28 – 29 April 1918 at Hauho and Tuulos , Syrjäntaka , where female Red Guard platoons played a combat role .
Although some 60 @,@ 000 Russian soldiers of the former Czar 's army remained stationed in Finland at the start of the Civil War , the Russian contribution to the Reds ' cause was negligible . V.I. Lenin tried to commit the troops on behalf of Red Finland , but the soldiers were demoralized , war @-@ weary and home @-@ sick after years of World War I. The majority of the troops returned to Russia by the end of March 1918 . In total 7 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 soldiers participated in the 1918 war , of which around 4 @,@ 000 , in separate smaller units of 100 – 1 @,@ 000 men , could be persuaded to fight in the front line .
The Russian revolutions split the Russian army officers politically and their attitude toward the Finnish civil war varied ; Mikhail Svechnikov led Finnish Red troops in western Finland in February and Konstantin Yeremejev the Russian forces in the Karelian Isthmus , while other officers were mistrustful of their revolutionary underlings and co @-@ operated with their former colleague General Mannerheim , assisting the Whites in the disarmament of the Russian garrisons in Finland . On 30 January 1918 Mannerheim proclaimed to Russian soldiers in Finland that the White army did not fight against Russia : the goal of the White campaign was to beat the Finnish Red rebels and the Russian troops supporting them .
The number of Russian soldiers active in the Civil War declined markedly once Germany attacked Russia on 18 February 1918 . The German @-@ Russian Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk of 3 March , restricted the Bolsheviks ' support to the Finnish Reds to weapons and supplies . The Russians remained active on the south @-@ eastern front , defending the approaches to Petrograd .
= = = White Guards and Sweden 's role = = =
While the conflict has been called by some " The War of the Amateurs " , the White Army had two major advantages over the Red Guards in the war : the professional military leadership of General Mannerheim and his staff — which included 84 Swedish volunteer officers and former Finnish officers of the Czar 's army — and 1 @,@ 450 soldiers of the 1 @,@ 900 @-@ strong , elite Jäger ( Jääkärit ) battalion . This battalion was trained in Germany during 1915 – 1917 , and battle @-@ hardened on the Eastern Front . The main part of the battalion arrived in Vaasa on 25 February 1918 .
On the battlefield the Jägers provided strong leadership that made disciplined action by the common White soldiers possible . The White troopers were similar to those of the Red Guards : most of them had brief and inadequate training . At the beginning of the war , the leadership of the White Guards had little authority over volunteer White Guard platoons and companies , which obeyed only their dominant , local leaders . In the end of February , the Jägers started rapid training of six Jäger Regiments , with conscripts .
Even the Jäger battalion was divided in the same way that the rest of the country was : 450 mostly socialist Jägers remained stationed in Germany as they could have chosen the Red side in the conflict . The leaders of the White Guards faced a similar problem with drafting young men to the army in February 1918 : 30 @,@ 000 obvious supporters of the Finnish labor movement never showed up . It was also uncertain whether common troopers drafted from the small @-@ sized and poor farms of central and northern Finland had strong enough motivation to fight the Finnish Reds ; the White 's propaganda promoted a nationalist war against the Red , Bolshevist Russians , and belittled the significance of the Red Finns .
Social divisions did appear both between southern and northern Finland and within rural Finland . The economy and society of the north had modernized more slowly than those of the south , there was a more pronounced conflict between Christianity and socialism in the north , and farmland had a major social status ; ownership of even a small parcel of land created a motivation to fight against the Reds .
Sweden declared neutrality during WWI and the Finnish Civil War . The general opinion , in particular among the Swedish elite was divided between supporters of the Allies and the Central powers , Germanism being somewhat more popular . Three war @-@ time priorities determined pragmatic policy of the Swedish liberal @-@ social democratic government ; sound economics , via export of iron @-@ ore and foodstuff to Germany , sustaining tranquility of the Swedish society and geopolitics . The government accepted participation of Swedish volunteer officers and soldiers in the Finnish Civil War , on the White side , in order to block expansion of revolutionary unrest to Scandinavia .
A 800 – 1 @,@ 000 @-@ strong " Swedish Brigade " , led by Hjalmar Frisell , took part in the battles of Tampere and those fought in the area south of the town . In February 1918 , the Swedish Navy escorted the German naval squadron , transporting Finnish Jägers and German weapons , and allowed it to pass through Swedish territorial waters . The Swedish socialists did not aid the Finnish Reds but tried to open peace negotiations between the Whites and Reds . The weakness of Finland gave Sweden a chance to take @-@ over geopolitically vital Finnish Åland islands , east of Stockholm , but the German army 's Finland @-@ operation stalled the plan .
= = = = Battle of Tampere = = = =
In February 1918 General Mannerheim weighed the question of where to focus the general offensive of the Whites , between two strategically vital enemy strongholds : Tampere , Finland 's major industrial town in the south @-@ west , and Viipuri , Karelia 's main city . Although seizing Viipuri offered major advantages , the lack of combat skills of his army and potential for a major counterattack by the enemy in the area or in the south @-@ west made it too risky .
Mannerheim decided to strike first at Tampere . He launched the attack on 16 March at Längelmäki , 65 km north @-@ east of the town . At the same time , the White Army began advancing along a northern and north @-@ western frontline , through Vilppula – Kuru – Kyröskoski – Suodenniemi . Many Red Guard units collapsed and retreated in panic under the weight of the assault , while some detachments defended their posts relentlessly , and were able to slow the advance of the White Guards , who were unaccustomed to offensive warfare . Eventually , the Whites lay siege to Tampere . They cut off the Reds southward connection in Lempäälä on 24 March and westward in Siuro ( Nokia , Finland ) and Ylöjärvi on 25 March .
The battle for Tampere was fought between 16 @,@ 000 White and 14 @,@ 000 Red soldiers . It was Finland 's first large scale urban battle , and , along with the battles of Helsinki and Viipuri , one of the three decisive military engagements of the 1918 war . The fight for the Tampere town area began on 28 March , on the eve of Easter 1918 , later called the " Bloody Maundy Thursday " , in the Kalevankangas graveyard . After this fierce combat , won by the Whites , with more than 50 % losses in some of the attacking units , the White army re @-@ organized the troops and plans , and attacked the town centre , in the early hours of 3 April .
After a heavy , concentrated artillery barrage , the White Guards began advancing from house to house and street to street , as the Red Guards retreated . In the late evening of 3 April the Whites reached the eastern river banks of Tammerkoski . The Reds ' major attempts to break the siege of Tampere from outside , along the Helsinki @-@ Tampere railway , failed . The Red Guards lost the western parts of the town between 4 and 5 April . The Tampere City Hall was among the last strongholds of the Red troops . The battle ended 6 April 1918 with the surrender of Red forces in the Pyynikki and Pispala sections of Tampere .
In the battle , the Reds , now on the defensive , had shown markedly increased motivation to fight . General Mannerheim had been compelled to deploy parts of his best trained detachments , the fresh Jäger regiments , which he had initially hoped to conserve for later use in the Viipuri area . The fighting in Tampere was purely a civil war — Finn against Finn , " brother rising against brother " — as most of the Russian army had retreated to Russia in March and the German troops had yet to arrive in Finland . The Battle of Tampere was the bloodiest action of the Civil War . The White Army lost 700 – 900 men , including 50 Jägers , the highest number of deaths the former Jäger battalion suffered in a single battle of the 1918 war . The Red Guards lost 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 500 soldiers , with a further 11 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 captured . 71 civilians died , mainly due to artillery fire . The eastern parts of the city , consisting mostly of wooden buildings , were destroyed completely .
After their defeat in Tampere , the Red Guards began a slow retreat eastwards . As the German army seized Helsinki , the White Army shifted the military focus to Viipuri , taking it on 29 April 1918 with a major attack of 18 @,@ 500 men , against 15 @,@ 000 Red troopers . 500 – 800 Reds died , and 12 @,@ 000 – 15 @,@ 000 were imprisoned .
= = = German intervention = = =
The German Empire intervened in the Finnish Civil War on the side of the White Army in March 1918 . The Finnish Activists leaning on Germanism had been seeking German aid in freeing Finland from Russian hegemony since Autumn 1917 , but the Germans did not want to prejudice their armistice and peace negotiations with Russia because of the pressure they were facing at the Western front . The German stance changed after 10 February when Leon Trotsky , despite the weakness of the Bolsheviks ' position , broke off negotiations , hoping revolutions would break out in the German Empire and change everything . The German government promptly decided to teach Russia a lesson and , as a pretext for aggression , invited " requests for help " from the smaller countries west of Russia . Representatives of White Finland in Berlin duly requested help on 14 February ; on 13 February the German Imperial Military Council had made the decision to send troops to Finland .
The Germans attacked Russia on 18 February ; the offensive led to a rapid collapse and retreat of the Russian troops and to signature of the first Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk by the Bolsheviks on 3 March 1918 . Finland , the Baltic countries , Poland and Ukraine were transferred to the German power sphere . The economic and political investments that Germany had made in Vladimir Lenin had paid off . The German army did not alter the military plans concerning Finland after the peace treaty with the Bolsheviks because the Civil War of the Finns opened an easy access with low costs to Fennoscandia , where the geopolitical status altered as troops of a British Naval squadron invaded the harbour of Murmansk on the northwestern coast of Russia by the Arctic Ocean on 9 March 1918 .
On 5 March a German naval squadron landed in the southwestern archipelago of Finland , on the Åland Islands , which the Swedish military expedition took over in mid @-@ February ( departed in May ) . On 3 April 1918 , the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Baltic Sea Division , led by Rüdiger von der Goltz , launched the main attack , west of Helsinki at Hanko , followed on 7 April by the 3 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Detachment Brandenstein taking the town of Loviisa on the south @-@ eastern coast . The main German formations advanced rapidly eastwards from Hanko and took Helsinki on 12 – 13 April . The Brigade Brandenstein overran the town of Lahti on 19 April , cutting the connection between the western and eastern Red Guards . The main German detachment advanced northwards from Helsinki and took Hyvinkää and Riihimäki on 21 – 22 April , followed by Hämeenlinna on 26 April . The efficient performance of the German top detachments contrasted strikingly with that of the demoralized Russian troops . The final blow to the cause of the Finnish Reds was dealt when the Bolsheviks broke off the peace negotiations at Brest @-@ Litovsk , leading to the German eastern offensive in February 1918 .
= = = = Battle of Helsinki = = = =
After peace talks between the Germans and the Finnish Reds were broken off on 11 April , the true battle for the capital of Finland began . On 12 April , at 5 a.m. 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 German soldiers from the Brigade von Tshirsky attacked the city from the north @-@ west , supported via the Helsinki @-@ Turku railway . The Germans broke through the area between Munkkiniemi and Pasila , and advanced on the central @-@ western parts of the town . The German naval squadron Meurer blocked the city harbour , bombarded the southern town area , and landed naval troops at Katajanokka .
Around 7 @,@ 000 Finnish Reds defended Helsinki , but their best troops fought on the main fronts of the war . The main strongholds of the Red defence were the Workers Hall , the Railway station , the Red Headquarters of " Smolna " ( the former palace of the Russian governor @-@ general , in southern Esplanade ) , the Senate @-@ University area , and the former Russian garrisons in Helsinki . By the late evening of 12 April most of the major southern parts and all the western area of the city had been occupied by the Germans , who cleared the city house by house , street by street . Local Helsinki White Guards , hidden in the city during the war , joined the battle as the Germans advanced through the town .
On 13 April German troops took over the Market Square , " Smolna " , the Presidential Palace , and the Senate @-@ Ritarihuone area . Toward the end , the Brigade Wolff with 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 soldiers joined the battle . The units rushed from north to the eastern parts of Helsinki , pushing into the working @-@ class neighborhoods of Hermanni , Kallio and Sörnäinen . German artillery bombarded and destroyed the Helsinki Workers ' Hall , and put out the Red lantern of the Finnish revolution . The eastern parts of the town surrendered around 2 p.m. , 13 April ; a white flag was raised in the tower of the Kallio Church , but sporadic fighting lasted until the evening . In total , 60 Germans , 300 – 400 Reds and 23 White Guard troopers were killed in the battle . Around 7 @,@ 000 Reds were captured . The German army celebrated the victory and demonstrated its might with a major military parade in the centre of Helsinki on 14 April 1918 .
= = = Red and White terror = = =
During the civil war , the White Army and the Red Guards both perpetrated acts of terror , called the Red terror and White terror . The threshold of political violence had been crossed in the primarily peaceful Grand Duchy of Finland during the first period of Russification 1899 – 1905 ; the Finnish Activists murdered a Russian governor @-@ general , police officers and a Finnish civil servant . World War I enhanced the potential of terror as it was widespread between the Allies and the Central Powers . The February Revolution in 1917 initiated a comprehensive terror in Finland ; the Russian army common soldiers murdered several Russian army officers in March 1917 . The first Finnish socialist victim was killed at the beginning of August and the first non @-@ socialist victim was killed at the end of September 1917 . The general strike in November 1917 led to a marked political terror ; the Workers ' Guards murdered 27 Finns .
During the war of 1918 there were two kinds of Red and White political violence : ( i ) a calculated part of the general warfare , ( ii ) local , personal murders and corresponding acts of revenge . In the former , the highest staffs of both sides planned and organized these actions and gave orders to the lower level . At least a third of the Red terror and most of the White terror was centrally led . At first the governments of White Finland and Red Finland officially opposed acts of terror , but such operational decisions were made at the military level .
The main purpose of the Red and White terror was to destroy the power structure of the opponent , clear and secure the areas governed by the armies since the beginning of the war and the areas seized and occupied by the common units during the conflict . Another goal of the terror was to create shock and fear among the civil population and the opposing soldiers . The common troopers ' paramilitary nature and lack of combat skills , in the both armies , led and created the opportunity to use terror as a military weapon . Terror achieved some of the intended military objectives , but also gave additional motivation to each side to fight against an enemy perceived to be inhuman and cruel . The propaganda of the Reds and Whites utilized the terror acts of the opponent effectively , which increased the local political violence and the spiral of revenge .
The number of casualties and the timing of the terror differed markedly between the Reds and Whites .
The level of killings by the Red Guards varied over the months because the Reds could never seize and occupy new areas outside Red Finland , and they had to focus their efforts on the industrialized southern Finland , where they faced the establishment of Finland , and because in the end the Reds retreated from southern Finland . The Red Guards were less organized than the White army in respect to the political terror . The level of killings by the Whites varied over the months of the war because they occupied southern Finland , and initially did not encounter marked resistance from the area of White Finland . The comprehensive White terror started with the general offensive of the Whites in March 1918 , increased constantly , culminated in the end of the war , and ceased soon after the enemy had been sent to the prison camps .
The Red Guards executed the representatives of economic and / or social power in Finland , including politicians , major landowners , industrialists , police officers , civil servants , teachers , and leaders and members of the White Guards . Ten priests of the Evangelical Lutheran Church of Finland and 90 ( moderate ) socialists were executed also . The two major sites of the Red terror were Toijala and Kouvola . There 300 – 350 Whites were executed between February and April 1918 .
The White Guards executed Red Guard and party leaders , Social Democratic representatives of the Finnish parliament and local Red administrations , members of the Red tribunals and police , and common troopers of the Red Guards , and those who had participated in a way or another to the Red Terror . During the peak of the White terror , between the end of April and the beginning of May , 200 Reds were shot per day . The White terror hit particularly strong against the Russian soldiers who fought with the Finnish Red Guards , and several Russian non @-@ socialist civilians were executed in the aftermath of the Battle for Viipuri .
Most of the terror was undertaken by " flying detachments " deployed by the both armies . These were cavalry units , usually consisting of 10 to 80 soldiers aged 15 to 20 , under the absolute authority of an experienced adult leader . The detachments , specialising in search @-@ and @-@ destroy operations behind the front lines and during and after battles , have been described as death squads . They resembled German Sturmbattalions and Russian Assault units organized during WWI .
In total , 1 @,@ 650 Whites died in the Red terror , while 10 @,@ 000 Reds perished in the White terror , which eventually became political cleansing , typical for victors of many civil wars . The White victims have been recorded quite exactly , but there are questions and permanent uncertainty about the Red victims of the terror . It is unclear which of the victims died in the battles and which of them were executed immediately after the battles . Together with the prison camp experiences of the Reds later in 1918 , the terror caused the deepest mental wounds and scars of the Civil War among the majority of the Finns regardless of their political allegiance . Some of those , who carried out the terror were seriously traumatized , a phenomenon that was later to become well @-@ documented .
= = = End = = =
After the defeat in Tampere and under the threat of invasion by the German division on the south coast , the People 's Delegation retreated from Helsinki to Viipuri on 8 April . After the loss of Helsinki , most of them , only Edvard Gylling standing by his warriors , moved to Petrograd on 25 April 1918 . The escape of the Red leadership made the ranks of the Red soldiers bitter and resentful . At the end of April , thousands of them , without true leadership , tried to flee to Petrograd from Red Finland , but the majority of the refugees were besieged by the White and the German troops . The Reds surrendered on 1 – 2 May in the Lahti area .
The long caravans of the Reds included women and children , who experienced a desperate , chaotic escape with several human losses due to the attacks of the enemy . It was a " road of tears " for the Reds , for the Whites the long enemy caravans heading east was a victorious scene . The Red Guards ' last stronghold in south @-@ east Finland , the area between Kouvola and Kotka , fell by 5 May . The war of 1918 ended on 15 May , when the Whites took over Ino , a Russian coastal artillery base on the Karelian Isthmus , from the Russian troops . White Finland and General Mannerheim celebrated the victory with a large military parade in Helsinki on 16 May 1918 .
The Red Guards had been defeated . The initially pacifist Finnish labour movement had lost the Civil War , several military leaders committed suicide and a majority of the Reds were sent to prison camps . The Vaasa Senate returned to Helsinki on 4 May 1918 , but the capital was under the control of the German army . White Finland had become a protectorate of the German Empire . General Rüdiger von der Goltz was called " the true Regent of Finland . " No armistice or peace negotiations were carried out between the Whites and Reds , and an official peace treaty in order to end the Finnish Civil War was never signed .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Bitter legacy = = =
The Civil War was a catastrophe for Finland ; around 36 @,@ 000 people , 1 @.@ 2 percent of the nation 's total population , perished . The war left about 15 @,@ 000 children orphaned . As is often the case during ( civil ) war , most of the deaths occurred outside the battlefields , in the terror campaigns and from the appalling conditions in the prison camps . Many Reds fled to Russia at the end of the war and during the period that followed . The traumatic war deepened the divisions within Finnish society , many moderate @-@ neutral Finns identifying themselves as " citizens of two nations . "
The war of 1918 led to disintegration within both socialist and the non @-@ socialist factions . The power political shift toward the right caused a dispute between conservatives and liberals on the best system of government for Finland to adopt : the former demanded monarchy and restricted parliamentarianism , the latter demanded a Finnish republic with full @-@ scale democracy and social reforms . Both sides justified their views via political and legal grounds .
The monarchists leaned on the Swedish regime 's year 1772 monarchist constitution , belittled the Declaration of Independence 1917 and proposed a modernized monarchist constitution for Finland . The republicans argued that the 1772 law , accepted by Russia in 1809 , lost its status in the February Revolution , the might of the Russian Czar was assumed by the Finnish Parliament on 15 November 1917 and Finnish republic was accepted on 6 December . The republicans were able to postpone processing of the monarchists ' proposal in the parliament , and in the end a new monarchist constitution was not accepted in Finland . The monarchists responded by applying directly the 1772 law to select a new monarch for the country .
A major consequence of the 1918 conflict was the breakup of the Finnish labour movement into three parts : moderate Social Democrats and left @-@ wing socialists in Finland , and communists acting in Soviet Russia with the support of the Bolsheviks . The Social Democratic Party had the first official party meeting after the civil war on 25 December 1918 . The party proclaimed commitment to parliamentary means and disclaimed Bolshevism and communism . The leaders of Red Finland , who had fled to Russia established the Communist Party of Finland in Moscow on 29 August 1918 . After the power struggle of 1917 and the bloody civil war , the former Fennomans and Social Democrats , who had supported " ultrademocratic " means in Red Finland , declared to have committed to revolutionary Bolshevism @-@ communism and to dictatorship of proletariat , under the control of V.I. Lenin .
A conservative @-@ monarchist Senate was formed by JK Paasikivi in May 1918 . All members of the Parliament , who had taken part in the red uprising were removed from office . Eventually three Social Democrats continued there ; the Parliament was called a " Rump Parliament " . In May 1918 , the Senate asked the German troops to remain in Finland , but overall the 3 March Treaty of Brest @-@ Litovsk and the 7 March 1918 German @-@ Finnish agreements bound White Finland to the power sphere of the German Empire . General Mannerheim resigned his post on 25 May after disagreements with the Senate about German hegemony over Finland , and about his planned attacks on Petrograd to repulse the Bolsheviks , and to Russian Karelia . The Germans opposed these attacks under the peace treaties they had signed with Russia .
On 9 October 1918 , under pressure by Germany , the Senate and Parliament elected a German prince , Friedrich Karl , brother @-@ in @-@ law of German Emperor William II , to become the King of Finland . Eventually , General Rüdiger von der Goltz was able to utilize the weakness of Finland for the power political benefit of the German Empire . All of these measures diminished Finnish sovereignty . The Finns , both right and left , had achieved independence on 6 December 1917 without a gunshot , but then compromised that independence by allowing the Germans to enter the country without difficulty during the Civil War .
The economic condition of the country had deteriorated so drastically that recovery to pre @-@ conflict levels was not achieved until 1925 . The most acute crisis was in the food supply , already deficient in 1917 , though starvation had at that time been avoided in southern Finland . The Civil War , according to the leaders of Red Finland and White Finland , would solve all past problems ; instead it led to starvation in southern Finland too . Late in 1918 , Finnish politician Rudolf Holsti appealed for relief to Herbert Hoover , the American chairman of the Committee for Relief in Belgium : Hoover arranged for food shipments and persuaded the Allies to relax their blockade of the Baltic Sea , which had obstructed food supplies to Finland , to allow the food in .
= = = = Prison camps = = = =
The White Army and the German troops captured around 80 @,@ 000 Red war prisoners , including 5 @,@ 000 women , 1 @,@ 500 children and 8 @,@ 000 Russians . The largest prison camps were Suomenlinna , an island facing Helsinki , Hämeenlinna , Lahti , Riihimäki , Tammisaari ( Ekenäs ) , Tampere and Viipuri . The Senate decided to keep the prisoners detained until each person 's guilt could be investigated ; a law for a Tribunal of Treason was enacted on 29 May 1918 . The Tribunal did not meet all the standards of neutral justice , due to the mental atmosphere of White Finland after the war . In total 76 @,@ 000 cases were examined and 68 @,@ 000 Reds were convicted , primarily for complicity to treason ; 39 @,@ 000 got out on parole and mean punishment of the rest was 2 – 4 years in penitentiary . 555 people were sentenced to death , of which 113 were executed . The trials revealed that also some innocent adults had been imprisoned .
Combined with the severe food shortage , the mass imprisonment led to high mortality rates in the camps , and the catastrophe was compounded by a mentality of punishment , anger and indifference on the part of the victors . Many prisoners felt that they were abandoned by their own leaders , who had fled to Russia . The physical and mental condition of the prisoners declined rapidly in May as food supplies had disrupted during the Red Guards ' chaotic retreat in April , and a high number of Red prisoners had been sent to the less organized prison camps already during the first half of April in Tampere and Helsinki . As a consequence , in June 2 @,@ 900 starved to death or died as a result of diseases caused by malnutrition and Spanish flu , 5 @,@ 000 in July , 2 @,@ 200 in August , and 1 @,@ 000 in September . The mortality rate was highest in the Tammisaari camp at 34 percent , while in the others the rate varied between 5 percent and 20 percent . In total around 13 @,@ 000 Finns perished ( 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 due to Spanish influenza ) . The dead were buried in mass graves near the camps .
The majority of the prisoners were paroled or pardoned by the end of 1918 , after the change in the political situation . There were 6 @,@ 100 Red prisoners left at the end of the year , 4 @,@ 000 at the end of 1919 ( 3 @,@ 000 pardoned in January 1920 , at the same time civil rights were given back to 40 @,@ 000 prisoners ) , 500 in 1923 , and in 1927 the last 50 prisoners were pardoned by the Social Democratic government led by Väinö Tanner . In 1973 , the Finnish government paid reparations to 11 @,@ 600 persons imprisoned in the camps after the civil war . Several reasons for the long @-@ term and relatively high support of communism in Finland can be found ; for the civil war generation of the left , the traumatic hardships of the prison camps were decisive .
= = = Compromise = = =
Just as the fate of the Finns was decided outside Finland in Saint Petersburg on 15 March 1917 , so it was decided outside Finland again on 11 November 1918 , this time in Berlin , as Germany accepted defeat in World War I. The grand plans of the German Empire had come to nothing , and revolution had spread among the German people due to lack of food , war @-@ weariness , and defeat in the battles on the Western Front . General Rüdiger von der Goltz and the German troops left Helsinki on 16 December , and Prince Friedrich Karl , who had not yet been crowned , left his post on 20 December . Finland 's status altered from a monarchist protectorate of the German Empire to an independent democratic republic , with a modernizing civil society . The system of government , the primary Constitution of Finland , was confirmed on 17 July 1919 .
The first local elections based on universal suffrage in the history of Finland were held during 17 – 28 December 1918 , and the first parliamentary election after the Civil War on 3 March 1919 . The United States and the United Kingdom recognised Finnish sovereignty on 6 – 7 May 1919 . The Western powers demanded establishment of democratic republics in post @-@ war Europe in order to calm down the widespread revolutionary movements in Europe . The Finnish @-@ Russian Treaty of Tartu ( Russian @-@ Finnish ) signed on 14 October 1920 aimed to stabilize the political relations and settle the border line between the former Grand Duchy and its mainland .
In April 1918 , the leading Finnish social liberal , the eventual first president of Finland , Kaarlo Juho Ståhlberg wrote : " It is urgent to get the life and development in this country back on the path that we had already reached in 1906 and which the turmoil of war turned us away from . " A moderate Social Democrat , Väinö Voionmaa agonised in 1919 : " Those who still trust in the future of this nation must have an exceptionally strong faith . This young independent country has lost almost everything due to the war .... " He was a vital companion for the leader of the reformed Social Democratic Party , Väinö Tanner .
Santeri Alkio supported moderate politics . His party colleague Kyösti Kallio urged in his Nivala address on 5 May 1918 : " We must rebuild a Finnish nation , which is not divided into the Reds and Whites .... We have to establish a democratic Finnish republic , where all the Finns can feel that we are true citizens and members of this society . " In the end , many of the moderate Finnish conservatives followed the thinking of Lauri Ingman , who wrote in spring 1918 : " A political turn more to the right will not help us now , instead it would strengthen the support of socialism in this country . "
Together with the other broader @-@ minded Finns , the new partnership constructed a Finnish compromise which eventually delivered stable and broad parliamentary democracy . This compromise was based both on the defeat of the Reds in the 1918 war and the fact that most of the Whites ' political goals had not been achieved . After the foreign forces left Finland , the militant factions of the Red and White lost their backup , while the pre @-@ 1918 cultural and national integrity , and the legacy of Fennomania , stood out among the Finns .
The weakness of both Germany and Russia after World War I empowered Finland and made a peaceful , domestic Finnish social and political settlement possible . The reconciliation led to a slow and painful , but steady , national unification . In the end , the power vacuum and interregnum of 1917 – 1919 gave way to the Finnish compromise . From 1919 to 1991 , the democracy and sovereignty of the Finns withstood challenges from right @-@ wing and left @-@ wing political radicalism , the crisis of World War II , and pressure from the Soviet Union during the Cold War .
= = In popular culture = =
Between 1918 and 1950s the mainstream of literature and poetry presented the 1918 war from the point of view of the White victors ; e.g. " Psalm of the Cannons " ( Finnish : Tykkien virsi ) by Arvi Järventaus in 1918 . In poetry , Bertel Gripenberg , who had volunteered for the White army , celebrated its cause in " The Great Age " ( Swedish : Den stora tiden ) in 1928 and V.A. Koskenniemi in " Young Anthony " ( Finnish : Nuori Anssi ) in 1918 . The war tales of the Red side were kept in silence or hidden at home or inside spheres of the workers .
The first neutral @-@ critical books were written soon after the war : " Devout Misery " ( Finnish : Hurskas kurjuus ) written by the Nobel Laureate in Literature Frans Emil Sillanpää in 1919 , " Dead Apple trees " ( Finnish : Kuolleet omenapuut ) by Joel Lehtonen in 1918 and " Home coming " ( Swedish : Hemkomsten ) by Runar Schildt in 1919 . They were followed by Jarl Hemmer in 1931 with the book " A man and his conscience " ( Swedish : En man och hans samvete ) and Oiva Paloheimo in 1942 with " Restless childhood " ( Finnish : Levoton lapsuus ) . Lauri Viita 's book " Scrambled ground " ( Finnish : Moreeni ) from 1950 , presented life and experiences of a worker family in Tampere in 1918 , including a point of view of outsiders in the Civil War .
Between 1959 and 1962 , Väinö Linna , in his trilogy " Under the North Star " ( Finnish : Täällä Pohjantähden alla ) , described the Civil War and World war II from the point of view of the common people . Part II of Linna 's work markedly opened the larger view and the tales of the Reds in the 1918 war , and it had a significant mental effect in Finland . At the same time , a new point of view for the war was opened by the books of Paavo Haavikko " Private matters " ( Finnish : Yksityisiä asioita ) , by Veijo Meri " The events of 1918 " ( Finnish : Vuoden 1918 tapahtumat ) and Paavo Rintala " My grandmother and Mannerheim " ( Finnish : Mummoni ja Mannerheim ) , all published in 1960 .
In poetry Viljo Kajava , who had experienced the horrors of the Battle of Tampere at the age of nine , presented a pacifist view of the civil war in his " Poems of Tampere 1918 " ( Finnish : Tampereen runot ) in 1966 . The similar point of view , in the same battle , is emphasized in the novel " Corpse bearer " ( Finnish : Kylmien kyytimies ) by Antti Tuuri from 2007 . Väinö Linna 's trilogy turned the general tide , and several books were written mainly from the point of view of the Red side in 1918 : e.g. Tampere @-@ trilogy by Erkki Lepokorpi in 1977 , " John " ( Finnish : Juho ) by Juhani Syrjä in 1998 and " The Command " ( Finnish : Käsky ) by Leena Lander in 2003 . Kjell Westö 's epic novel " Where We Once Went " ( Swedish : Där vi en gång gått ) published in 2006 deals with period of 1915 @-@ 1930 , from both the Red and the White point of views . Kjell Westö 's book " Mirage 38 " ( Swedish : Hägring 38 ) from 2013 describes Finnish pre @-@ World War II mental atmosphere and post @-@ war traumas of the 1918 war . F.E. Sillanpää 's , Väinö Linna 's , Lauri Viita 's , Jarl Hemmer 's , Paavo Rintala 's , Leena Lander 's and Kjell Westö 's stories have been utilized in motion picture and in theatre .
= Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City =
The Seattle SuperSonics relocation to Oklahoma City was a successful effort by the ownership group of the Seattle SuperSonics to move the team from Seattle to Oklahoma City . The team began play as the Oklahoma City Thunder in the 2008 – 2009 basketball season after becoming the third National Basketball Association ( NBA ) franchise to relocate in the 2000s .
After efforts to persuade Washington state government officials to provide funding to update KeyArena failed , the SuperSonics ' ownership group , led by Howard Schultz , sold the team to the Professional Basketball Club LLC ( PBC ) , an investment group headed by Oklahoma City businessman Clay Bennett . After failing to persuade local governments to fund a US $ 500 million arena complex , Bennett 's group notified the NBA that it intended to move the team to Oklahoma City and requested arbitration with the city of Seattle to be released from its lease with KeyArena . When the request was rejected by a judge , Seattle sued Bennett 's group to enforce the lease that required the team to play in KeyArena through 2010 . On July 2 , 2008 , a settlement was reached that allowed the team to move under certain conditions .
In months prior to the settlement , Seattle publicly released email conversations that took place within Bennett 's ownership group and alleged that they indicated at least some members of the group had a desire to move the team to Oklahoma City prior to the purchase in 2006 . The city used the conversations to argue that the ownership failed to negotiate in good faith , and as a result , Schultz filed a lawsuit seeking to rescind the sale of the team and transfer the ownership to a court @-@ appointed receiver . The NBA claimed the lawsuit was void because Schultz signed a release forbidding himself to sue Bennett 's group , but also argued that the proposal would have violated league ownership rules . Schultz dropped the case before the start of the 2008 – 09 NBA season .
= = Sale of team = =
On July 18 , 2006 , the Basketball Club of Seattle , led by Howard Schultz , sold the Seattle SuperSonics and Seattle Storm after failing to reach an agreement with the city of Seattle over a publicly funded $ 220 million expansion of KeyArena , which was remodeled in 1995 and was the NBA 's smallest venue , with a seating capacity of 17 @,@ 072 . After failing to find a local ownership group to sell the team to , Schultz talked to ownership groups from Kansas City , St. Louis , Las Vegas , San Jose and Anaheim before agreeing to sell the team to an ownership group from Oklahoma City , which pursued an NBA franchise after hosting the New Orleans Hornets franchise successfully for two seasons as New Orleans rebuilt from Hurricane Katrina . The sale to Clay Bennett 's group for US $ 350 million was approved by NBA owners on October 24 , 2006 . Terms of the sale required the new ownership group to " use good faith best efforts " for the term of 12 months in securing a new arena lease or venue in the Seattle metropolitan area .
On February 12 , 2007 , Bennett proposed using tax money to pay for a new $ 500 million arena in Renton , Washington , a suburb of Seattle . After failing to reach a deal by the end of the legislative session , Bennett gave up his attempt in April 2007 . On November 2 , 2007 the team announced it would move to Oklahoma City as soon as it could get free of its KeyArena lease . Seattle 's mayor , Greg Nickels , maintained the stance that the Sonics were expected to stay in Seattle until their lease expired in 2010 and said that the city did not intend to make it easy for Bennett to move the team early . Over concerns that the city would accept a buyout of the lease , a grassroots group filed a citywide initiative that sought to prevent the city from accepting such an offer from Bennett 's group . The Seattle City Council later unanimously passed an ordinance modeled after the initiative .
On August 13 , 2007 , Aubrey McClendon , a minor partner of Bennett 's ownership group , said in an interview with The Journal Record ( an Oklahoma City newspaper ) that the team was not purchased to keep it in Seattle but to relocate it to Oklahoma City . Bennett later denied such intentions , saying McClendon " was not speaking on behalf of the ownership group " . Due to his comments , McClendon was fined $ 250 @,@ 000 by the NBA .
= = Relocation effort = =
On September 21 , 2007 , Bennett applied for arbitration on the issue of whether the team could break its lease in 2008 . Arguing that the lease does not allow for arbitration on the issue of occupancy , the city of Seattle filed for declaratory relief on September 24 . The motion asked the King County Superior court to reject the arbitration request and enforce the Specific Performance Clause of the Sonics ' lease , which required the team to play at KeyArena through 2010 . United States District Court Judge Ricardo Martinez denied the request for arbitration on October 29 , saying that the " arguments ignore the clear language of Article II , which states that PBC ’ s use and occupancy rights with respect to the Premises and the Term of this Agreement shall end on September 30 , 2010 . ”
Two days after Bennett 's October 31 , 2007 deadline passed for public financing of a new arena , he informed NBA commissioner David Stern that the ownership group intended to move the Sonics to Oklahoma City as soon as it was legally possible . The timing of the announcement , one day after the Sonics ' home opener , drew critical comments from Tom Carr , Seattle 's attorney , who said " Mr. Bennett 's announcement today is a transparent attempt to alienate the Seattle fan base and follow through on his plan to move the team to Oklahoma City ... Making this move now continues the current ownership 's insulting behavior toward the Sonics ' dedicated fans and the citizens of the city . " Bennett also reiterated that the team was not for sale and dismissed attempts by local groups to repurchase the team .
On February 15 , 2008 , the Sonics ' ownership group gave the city of Seattle a one @-@ day deadline to accept a $ 26 @.@ 5 million offer that would buy out the Sonics ' lease in KeyArena and pay off what the ownership group claimed was the value of debts on the arena . The city rejected the offer .
The prospect of expanding KeyArena resurfaced on March 6 , 2008 , when Microsoft CEO Steve Ballmer promised that his investor group would pay half of the $ 300 million needed for an extensive renovation ; the rest was to be provided by the city and county . However , when the state legislature did not give approval for the county to provide funds by an April 10 deadline , Seattle Mayor Greg Nickels said that the effort had failed and the city 's hopes rested in its lawsuit .
= = = Oklahoma City 's preparations = = =
In anticipation of an NBA team , and led by Mayor Mick Cornett , who had successfully lobbied for the previous temporary relocation of the New Orleans Hornets to Oklahoma City , the voters of that city approved a $ 120 million renovation of the Ford Center on March 3 , 2008 , including construction of a new NBA practice facility . After a tour of downtown Oklahoma City , a subcommittee of three NBA owners recommended that the league approve the move . On March 14 , Bennett reached a preliminary agreement with Oklahoma City on a 15 @-@ year lease of the Ford Center that was finalized by the Oklahoma City Council and the Sonics ’ ownership group two weeks later . The Oklahoma State Legislature later approved a bill to provide tax breaks and other incentives if the team relocated .
NBA owners gave approval of a potential SuperSonics ' relocation to Oklahoma City on April 18 in a 28 – 2 vote by the league 's Board of Governors ; only Mark Cuban of the Dallas Mavericks and Paul Allen of the Portland Trail Blazers voted against the move . The approval meant the Sonics would be allowed to move to Oklahoma City 's Ford Center for the 2008 – 2009 season after reaching a settlement with the city of Seattle .
= = = Popular opposition in Seattle = = =
In 2006 , a group of Seattle residents created Save Our Sonics and Storm ( " SOS " ) to rally support for a permanent professional basketball presence in Seattle . The " and Storm " portion of the name was dropped when the WNBA Storm was sold to local ownership . On June 16 , 2008 , the group organized a well @-@ publicized rally , which reportedly drew over 3 @,@ 000 participants , at the U.S. District Courthouse in Seattle to protest the proposed relocation of the team . The rally was held on the first day of the city of Seattle 's lawsuit against the PBC to enforce the remaining two years on the KeyArena lease .
= = Lawsuits = =
= = = City of Seattle v. Professional Basketball Club LLC = = =
Seattle filed a lawsuit on September 23 , 2007 in an attempt to keep the Sonics from leaving before the end of their lease in 2010 . The trial was set for June 16 , 2008 . On April 10 , 2008 , Seattle asked the Federal District Court to order the NBA to release documents related to the financial situation of each team , the claim that the SuperSonics ' lease with KeyArena was financially unworkable , and the league 's involvement in requiring PBC to make a good @-@ faith effort to stay in Seattle . On April 28 , the trial 's presiding judge , Loretta Preska , ruled that the NBA must supply the internal documents about the possible relocation of the Sonics that the city of Seattle had requested . In addition , the judge said that Stern could be deposed at a later day should the need arise . The city hoped the documents would aid in building its legal case , and cited an email conversation among members of the ownership group that suggested they were privately discussing intent to move the team while publicly insisting that they would not attempt to do so .
The ownership group filed a motion saying that the lawsuit and the release of the emails by the city were meant to drive up the cost of leaving Seattle and force the ownership group to sell the team . The motion requested that all emails and other records be released to the team . Slade Gorton , lead attorney for the city , responded by pointing out that it was PBC that started the fight that led to the lawsuit when they filed for arbitration to break the lease . The motion was denied by the presiding judge , who said the team failed to make a " good @-@ faith effort " to resolve the dispute and that it failed to show that trial preparations were hindered by the records not being made public . However , the ruling also said the team could bring up the issue again if it could prove the relevance or the confidentiality of the records .
On April 21 , 2008 , Gorton said he would be open to a settlement if the league promised a replacement team for Seattle . He said it was " highly unlikely " that the Sonics would stay and indicated the city should instead focus on gaining a replacement team , but noted that local governments would need to be willing to fund an expansion of KeyArena first .
When Bennett 's group requested that the trial also decide the team 's financial obligations to KeyArena should its lease be broken , Seattle 's lawyers requested a six @-@ month delay in the trial date in order to prepare for the additional issues , arguing that the ownership group 's request would " dramatically change the scope " of the case and would require considerable preparation time to determine damages . The trial 's presiding judge denied the motion by Bennett 's group on March 6 , noting that the team would have needed to make the request at the scheduling conference . A second trial would therefore need to have been held to determine the team 's financial obligations .
Attorneys made their closing arguments in the city 's case on June 26 and Judge Marsha J. Pechman announced that she would issue her ruling on the following Wednesday . On July 2 , hours before Judge Pechman was to release her ruling , it was announced that the team and the city had reached a settlement where PBC would pay the city $ 45 million immediately in exchange for breaking the lease , and an additional $ 30 million if Seattle was not given a replacement team in five years . According to the conditions of the settlement , the Sonics ' name and colors could not be used by the team in Oklahoma City , but could be taken by a future team in Seattle , although no promises for a replacement team were given . The OKC team would retain the franchise history of the SuperSonics , which could be " shared " with any future NBA team in Seattle . The team moved to Oklahoma City immediately and announced it would begin play in the 2008 – 09 season .
= = = Basketball Club of Seattle LLC v. Professional Basketball Club LLC = = =
The release of email conversations between members of Bennett 's group prompted former Sonics ' owner Howard Schultz to file a lawsuit that sought to rescind the sale of the team and alleged that Bennett 's group used fraud and misrepresentation to purchase the Sonics without making a " good faith best effort " to keep them in Seattle as mandated by the original sales contract . Bennett said the emails were misinterpreted and that he had spent millions of dollars in attempting to keep the team in Seattle .
The lawsuit was filed on April 22 , 2008 at the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington . It sought , among other things , an injunction to prevent the Sonics from being relocated from Seattle to Oklahoma City . The suit further requested that the franchise be placed in a constructive trust and no longer in the ownership of PBC . On May 20 , 2008 , Schultz 's attorney added alleged a breach of contract as a third cause of action against Bennett . Chicago @-@ based attorney and ESPN senior writer Lester Munson said that while the remedies Schultz sought were " without precedent in the sports industry " , he did believe that both the Schultz case and Seattle 's lease case presented " serious problems " for Bennett .
On May 9 , 2008 , Oklahoma City officials declared intent to sue for damages and a forced relocation of the SuperSonics if Schultz 's lawsuit succeeded and the subsequent ownership did not relocate . In a legal letter to Schultz , Oklahoma City 's attorney said that the Sonics were legally bound to relocate to Oklahoma City at the end of the KeyArena lease regardless of who owned the team . The letter stated that the city had " valid and enforceable agreements with the Team requiring it relocate to Oklahoma City at the end of the current lease with the city of Seattle . " Schultz 's attorney replied to the letter saying the lease agreement was with PBC , not BCOS , and that the city began improvements on Ford Center at their own risk prior to conclusion of the pending litigation .
The NBA filed a motion to intervene with Seattle 's federal court on July 9 , 2008 , claiming that Schultz 's lawsuit would interfere with the stable operation of the franchise and the transfer of ownership would violate NBA regulations unless the team was put under control of NBA Commissioner David Stern . The league also claimed that Schultz signed a release forbidding him to sue Bennett 's ownership group as a condition of the NBA 's approval of the original sale . Weeks later , Schultz requested that two separate trials be used to determine whether Bennett 's group committed fraud and subsequently determine a remedy . On August 29 , 2008 , shortly after the court denied his request and ruled that the NBA could intervene in the case , Schultz said his legal team no longer believed the case could be won . He announced he would drop the lawsuit , saying in a prepared statement , " The prevailing wisdom of many in the Seattle community and the advice of key members of the BCOS is that Seattle 's best chance for a professional basketball franchise is to end this litigation and allow the City , State Legislature and other parties to begin the necessary fence mending with the NBA . "
= = Distribution of assets = =
According to the terms detailed in the settlement agreement , items associated with the SuperSonics ' history in Seattle , including trophies , banners , and retired jerseys , stayed in the city and were placed in the Museum of History & Industry ( MOHAI ) . Other items such as televisions , radios , headphones , CDs , chairs , and equipment were shipped to Oklahoma City after the Seattle Storm finished the 2008 WNBA season .
= = Chronicles = =
In 2009 , Seattle @-@ based filmmakers released " Sonicsgate " , a documentary about the relocation of the Sonics .
In 2012 , the book " Big League City : Oklahoma City 's Rise to the NBA " by David Holt chronicled the story from Oklahoma City 's perspective .
= Wood turtle =
The wood turtle ( Glyptemys insculpta ) is a turtle endemic to North America . It is in the genus Glyptemys , a designation given to only one other turtle : the bog turtle . The wood turtle reaches a carapace length of 14 to 20 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) , its defining characteristic being the pyramidal pattern on its upper shell . Morphologically , it is similar to the bog turtle , spotted turtle , and Blanding 's turtle . The wood turtle exists in a broad range extending from Nova Scotia in the north ( and east ) to Minnesota in the west and Virginia in the south . In the past , it was forced south by encroaching glaciers : skeletal remains have been found as far south as Georgia .
It spends a great deal of time in or near the water of wide rivers , preferring shallow , clear streams with compacted and sandy bottoms . The wood turtle can also be found in forests and grasslands , but will rarely be seen more than several hundred meters from flowing water . It is diurnal and is not overtly territorial . It spends the winter in hibernation and the hottest parts of the summer in estivation .
The wood turtle is omnivorous and is capable of eating on land or in water . On an average day , a wood turtle will move 108 meters ( 354 ft ) , a decidedly long distance . Many other animals that live in its habitat pose a threat to it . Raccoons are over @-@ abundant in many places and are a direct threat to all life stages of this species . Inadvertently , humans cause a large number of deaths through habitat destruction , road traffic , farming accidents , and illegal collection . When unharmed , it can live for up to 40 years in the wild and 58 years in captivity .
= = Taxonomy = =
Formerly in the genus Clemmys , the wood turtle is now a member of Glyptemys , a classification that wood turtles share with only the bog turtle . It and the bog turtle have a similar genetic makeup , which is marginally different from that of the spotted turtle , the only current member of the Clemmys genus . It has undergone extensive name changes by various scientists over the course of its history . Today , there are several prominent common names for the wood turtle , including sculptured tortoise , red @-@ legged tortoise , and redleg .
Although no subspecies are recognized , there are morphological differences in wood turtles between areas . Individuals found in the west of its range ( areas like the Great Lakes and the Midwest United States ) have a paler complexion on the inside of their legs and underside of their necks than ones found in the east ( places including the Appalachian Mountains , New York , and Pennsylvania ) . Genetic analysis has also revealed that southern populations have less genetic diversity than the northern ; however , both exhibit a fair amount of diversity considering the decline in numbers that have occurred during previous ice ages .
= = Description = =
Wood turtles grow to between 14 and 20 centimeters ( 5 @.@ 5 and 7 @.@ 9 in ) in length , and reach a maximum of 23 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) . They have a rough carapace that is a tan , grayish brown or brown color , with a central ridge ( called a keel ) made up of a pyramidal pattern of ridges and grooves . Older turtles typically display an abraded or worn carapace . Fully grown , they weigh 1 kilogram ( 35 oz ) . The wood turtle 's karyotype consists of 50 chromosomes .
The larger scutes display a pattern of black or yellow lines . The wood turtle 's plastron ( ventral shell ) is yellowish in color and has dark patches . The posterior margin of the plastron terminates in a V @-@ shaped notch . Although sometimes speckled with yellowish spots , the upper surface of the head is often a dark gray to solid black . The ventral surfaces of the neck , chin , and legs are orange to red with faint yellow stripes along the lower jaw of some individuals . Seasonal variation in color vibrancy have been known to occur .
At maturity , males , who reach a maximum length of 23 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 9 @.@ 2 in ) , are larger than females , who have been recorded to reach 20 @.@ 4 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 0 in ) . Males also have larger claws , a larger head , a concave plastron , a more dome @-@ like carapace , and longer tails than females . The plastron of females and juveniles is flat while in males it gains concavity with age . The posterior marginal scutes of females and juveniles ( of either gender ) radiate outward more than in mature males . The coloration on the neck , chin , and inner legs is more vibrant in males than in females who display a pale yellowish color in those areas . Hatchlings range in size from 2 @.@ 8 to 3 @.@ 8 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 1 to 1 @.@ 5 in ) in length ( straight carapace measurement ) . The plastrons of hatchlings are dull gray to brown . Their tail usually equals the length of the carapace and their neck and legs lack the bright coloration found in adults . Hatchling 's carapaces also are as wide as they are long and lack the pyramidal pattern found in older turtles .
The eastern box turtle and Blanding 's turtle are similar in appearance to the wood turtle and all three live in overlapping habitats . However , unlike the wood turtle , both the Blanding 's turtle and members of the box turtle family have hinged plastrons that allow them to completely close their shells . The diamondback terrapin has a shell closely resembling the wood turtle 's ; however its skin is gray in color , and it inhabits coastal brackish and saltwater marshes . The bog turtle and spotted turtle are also similar , but neither of these have the specific sculptured pattern found on the carapaces of the wood turtle .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The wood turtle is found in most New England states , Nova Scotia , west to Michigan , northern Indiana and Minnesota , and south to Virginia . Overall , the distribution is disjunct with populations often being small and isolated . Roughly 30 % of its total population is in Canada . It prefers slow @-@ moving streams containing a sandy bottom and heavily vegetated banks . The soft bottoms and muddy shores of these streams are ideal for overwintering . Also , the areas bordering the streams ( usually with open canopies ) are used for nesting . Spring to summer is spent in open areas including forests , fields , bogs , wet meadows , and beaver ponds . The rest of the year is spent in the aforementioned waterways .
The densities of wood turtle populations have also been studied . In the northern portion of its range ( Quebec and other areas of Canada ) , populations are fairly dilute , containing an average of 0 @.@ 44 individuals per 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) , while in the south , over the same area , the densities varied largely from 6 to 90 turtles . In addition to this , it has been found that colonies often have more females than males .
In the western portion of its range , wood turtles are more aquatic . In the east , wood turtles are decidedly more terrestrial , especially during the summer . During this time , they can be found in wooded areas with wide open canopies . However , even here , they are never far from water and will enter it every few days .
= = = Evolutionary history = = =
In the past , wood turtle populations were forced south by extending glaciers . Remains from the Rancholabrean period ( 300 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 000 years ago ) have been found in states such as Georgia and Tennessee , both of which are well south of their current range . After the receding of the ice , wood turtle colonies were able to re @-@ inhabit their customary northern range ( areas like New Brunswick and Nova Scotia ) .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
During the spring , the wood turtle is active during the daytime ( usually from about 7 : 00 a.m. and 7 : 00 p.m. ) and will almost always be found within several hundred metres of a stream . The early morning and late afternoon are preferred foraging periods . Throughout this season , the wood turtle use logs , sandy shores , or banks to bask in sunlight . In order to maintain its body temperatures through thermoregulation , it spends a considerable amount of time basking , most of which takes place in the late morning and late afternoon . The wood turtle reaches a peak body temperature of 37 ° C ( 99 ° F ) after basking . During times of extreme heat , it has been known to estivate . Several reports mention individuals resting under vegetation , fallen debris and in shallow puddles . During the summer , the wood turtle is considered a largely terrestrial animal . At night , its average body temperature drops to between 15 and 20 ° C ( 59 and 68 ° F ) and it will rest in small creeks or nearby land ( usually in areas containing some sort of underbrush or grass ) .
During warmer weather , the wood turtle stays in the water for a larger percentage of the time . For this reason , during the winter months ( and the late fall and early spring ) it is considered an aquatic turtle . November through February or March is spent in hibernation at the bottom of a small , flowing river . The wood turtle may hibernate alone or in large groups . During this period , individuals bury themselves in the thick mud at the bottom of the river and rarely move . During hibernation , it is vulnerable to flash floods . Emergence does not occur until March or sometimes April , months that mark the beginning of its activation period ( males are typically more active than females at this time ) .
Males are known to be aggressive , with larger and older turtles being more dominant . Larger males rank higher on the social hierarchy often created by wood turtle colonies . In the wild , the submissive turtle is either forced to flee , or is bombarded with physical abuses , which include biting , shoving , and ramming . Larger and more dominant males will sometimes try to remove a subordinate male while he is mating with a female . The defender will , if he does not successfully fight for his position , lose the female to the larger male . Therefore , among males , there is a direct relationship between copulation opportunities and social rank . However , the outcome of encounters between two turtles is more aggression @-@ dependent than size @-@ dependent . The wood turtle that is more protective of his or her area is the victor . Physical bouts between wood turtles ( regardless of gender ) increases marginally during the fall and spring ( times of mating ) .
The wood turtle is omnivorous , feeding mainly on plant matter and animals both on land and in water . It eats prey such as beetles , millipedes , and slugs . Also , wood turtles consume specific fungi ( Amanita muscaria and Leccinum arcolatum ) , mosses , grasses , various insects , and also carrion . On occasion , it can be seen stomping the ground with alternating hits of the left and right front feet . This behavior is thought to imitate the sound of falling rain , sometimes causing earthworms to rise to the surface where they quickly become easy prey . When hunting , the wood turtle pokes its head into such areas as dead and decaying logs , the bottoms of bushes , and in other vegetation . In the water , it exhibits similar behavior , searching algae beds and cavities along the sides of the stream or river .
Many different animals are predators of or otherwise pose a threat to the wood turtle . They include snapping turtles , porcupines , raccoons , otters , foxes , and cats . All of these species destroy unhatched eggs and prey upon hatchlings and juveniles . Several animals that often target wood turtle eggs are the common raven and coyote , which may completely destroy the nests they encounter . Evidence of predatory attacks ( wounds to the skin and such ) are common on individuals , but the northern populations tend to display more scarring than the southern ones . In addition to these threats , wood turtles also suffer from leech infestations .
= = = Movement = = =
The wood turtle can travel at a relatively fast speed ( upwards of 0 @.@ 32 kilometers per hour ( 0 @.@ 20 mph ) ) ; it also travels long distances during the months that it is active . In one instance , of nine turtles studied , the average distance covered in a 24 @-@ hour period was 108 meters ( 354 ft ) , with a net displacement of 60 meters ( 197 ft ) .
The wood turtle , an intelligent animal , has homing capabilities . Its mental capacity for directional movement was discovered after the completion of an experiment that involved an individual finding food in a maze . The results proved that these turtles have locating abilities similar to that of a rat . This was also proved by another , separate experiment . One male wood turtle was displaced 2 @.@ 4 kilometers ( 1 @.@ 5 mi ) after being captured , and within five weeks , it returned to the original location . The homing ability of the wood turtle does not vary among genders , age groups , or directions of travel .
= = = Life cycle = = =
The wood turtle takes a long time to reach sexual maturity , has a low fecundity ( ability to reproduce ) , but has a high adult survival rate . However , the high survival rates are not true of juveniles or hatchlings . Although males establish hierarchies , they are not territorial . The wood turtle becomes sexually mature between 14 and 18 years of age . Mating activity among wood turtles peaks in the spring and again in the fall , although it is known to mate throughout the portion of the year they are active . However , it has been observed mating in December . In one rare instance , a female wood turtle hybridized with a male Blanding 's turtle .
The courtship ritual consists of several hours of ' dancing , ' which usually occurs on the edge of a small stream . Males often initiate this behavior : starting by nudging the females shell , head , tail , and legs . Because of this behavior , the female may flee from the area , in which case the male will follow . After the chase ( if it occurs ) , the male and female approach and back away from each other as they continually raise and extend their heads . After some time , they lower their heads and swing them from left to right . Once it is certain that the two individuals will mate , the male will gently bite the female 's head and mount her . Intercourse lasts between 22 and 33 minutes . Actual copulation takes place in the water , between depths between 0 @.@ 1 and 1 @.@ 2 meters ( 0 and 4 ft ) . Although unusual , copulation does occur on land . During the two prominent times of mating ( spring and fall ) , females are mounted anywhere from one to eight times , with several of these causing impregnation . For this reason , a number of wood turtle clutches have been found to have hatchlings from more than one male .
Nesting occurs from May until July . Nesting areas receive ample sunlight , contain soft soil , are free from flooding , and are devoid of rocks and disruptively large vegetation . These sites however , can be limited among wood turtle colonies , forcing females to travel long distances in search of a suitable site , sometimes a 250 meters ( 820 ft ) trip . Before laying her eggs , the female may prepare several false nests . After a proper area is found , she will dig out a small cavity , lay about seven eggs ( but anywhere from three to 20 is common ) , and fill in the area with earth . Oval and white , the eggs average 3 @.@ 7 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) in length and 2 @.@ 36 centimeters ( 0 @.@ 93 in ) in width , and weigh about 12 @.@ 7 grams ( 0 @.@ 45 oz ) . The nests themselves are 5 to 10 centimeters ( 2 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 9 in ) deep , and digging and filling it may take a total of four hours . Hatchlings emerge from the nest between August and October with overwintering being rare although entirely possible . An average length of 3 @.@ 65 centimeters ( 1 @.@ 44 in ) , the hatchlings lack the vibrant coloration of the adults . Female wood turtles in general lay one clutch per year and tend to congregate around optimum nesting areas .
The wood turtle , throughout the first years of its life , is a rapid grower . Five years after hatching , it already measures 11 @.@ 5 centimeters ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) , at age 16 , it is a full 16 @.@ 5 to 17 centimeters ( 6 @.@ 5 to 6 @.@ 7 in ) , depending on gender . The wood turtle can be expected to live for 40 years in the wild , with captives living up to 58 years .
= = Conservation = =
Despite many sightings and a seemingly large and diverse distribution , wood turtle numbers are in decline . A large number of deaths caused by humans result from : habitat destruction , farming accidents , and road traffic . Also , it is commonly collected illegally for the international pet trade . These combined threats have caused many areas where they live to enact laws protecting it . Despite legislation , enforcement of the laws and education of the public regarding the species are minimal .
For proper protection of the wood turtle , in @-@ depth land surveys of its habitat to establish population numbers are needed . One emerging solution to the highway mortality problem , which primarily affects nesting females , is the construction of under @-@ road channels . These tunnels allow the wood turtle to pass under the road , a solution that helps prevent accidental deaths . Brochures and other media that warn people to avoid keeping the wood turtle as a pet are currently being distributed . Next , leaving nests undisturbed , especially common nesting sites and populations , is the best solution to enable the wood turtle 's survival .
= Iowa Highway 25 =
Iowa Highway 25 ( Iowa 25 ) is a north – south highway in the southwest and west @-@ central portion of the state . It begins at Iowa 2 seven miles ( 11 km ) south of Clearfield . It heads north along a two @-@ lane road through Creston , Greenfield , and Guthrie Center on its way to its northern end at U.S. Route 30 ( US 30 ) near Scranton .
Iowa 25 was created in 1926 as a replacement for Primary Road No. 16 , which was redesignated further east . It originally connected US 30 to US 34 in Creston . In the early 1930s , it was extended south to Blockton by absorbing all of Iowa 184 . By the end of the 1930s , the highway reached the Missouri state line , where it ended for over 40 years . In the late 1970s and early 1980s , the highway south of Iowa 2 was turned over to local jurisdictions .
= = Route description = =
Iowa 25 begins at a T intersection with Iowa 2 along the Taylor – Ringgold county line south of Clearfield . Eastbound Iowa 2 comes from the south along the county line and turns east into Ringgold County while Iowa 25 heads north from the intersection along the county line . It passes through Clearfield , which lies in Taylor County , and continues north towards the quadripoint of Taylor , Adams , Union , and Ringgold counties ( counter @-@ clockwise from the southwest ) .
North of the quadripoint , Iowa 25 runs along the Adams – Union county line . It crosses the Platte River south of the unincorporated community of Kent . North of Kent , the highway meets U.S. Route 34 ( US 34 ) and the two routes head east together towards Creston . Shortly after crossing into Union County , the two routes turn to the northeast . In southern Creston , the two routes split with US 34 continuing to the east and Iowa 25 heading north along Sumner Street through the western part of town . Near Southwestern Community College , the route turns to the west along Townline Road . It crosses Summit Lake , a reservoir created by damming the Platte River . West of Summit Lake , the highway turns 90 degrees to the north and passes close to Green Valley State Park .
Iowa 25 crosses into Adair County near the source of the East Nodaway River . At Orient , the highway turns to the west , but west of the town , it turns back to the north . It heads through rural Adair County , occasionally passing a roadside farmhouse . The highway enters Greenfield on the town 's eastern side and intersects Iowa 92 . The section of the route from Creston to Greenfield is part of the Mormon Pioneer Trail , which roughly marks the trail used by Mormons on their exodus to Utah . North of Greenfield , Iowa 25 passes through land equally as rural as that south of the town . In the northern part of the county , the highway passes Freedom Rock , a large boulder painted every year to honor U.S. veterans and their families . Just north of Freedom Rock , it meets Interstate 80 ( I @-@ 80 ) and US 6 at a diamond interchange adjacent to a golf course .
North of the interchange , Iowa 25 enters Guthrie County and briefly overlaps part of the White Pole Road by heading west towards Casey . The concurrency ends as the White Pole Road curves to the southwest while Iowa 25 turns to the north . Continuing north through the rolling hills of Guthrie County , Iowa 25 eases to the west through a series of S curves which aligns the road with 5th Street , the main north – south road in Guthrie Center . Just before it enters the city , the highway crosses the South Raccoon River . In downtown Guthrie Center , it meets Iowa 44 at a four @-@ way stop . North of Guthrie Center , the highway crosses Brushy Creek , a tributary of the South Raccoon River . Near Springbrook State Park , it crosses the Middle Raccoon River . Further north , between the communities of Bayard and Bagley , Iowa 25 intersects Iowa 141 . The two routes head west towards Bayard and split on the eastern side of town .
North of Bayard , Iowa 25 crosses into Greene County , the final county through which it passes . The highway heads due north through farmland , passing a few houses along the way to Scranton . Just south of Scranton , it picks up the Lincoln Highway Heritage Byway , a designation it carries to its end . The route goes through the west side of Scranton and continues north to its endpoint at US 30 . North of US 30 , the roadway becomes County Road N65 ( CR N65 ) , which carries the Lincoln Highway Heritage Byway .
= = History = =
The original Primary Road No. 25 was designated with the rest of the Iowa Primary Highway System in 1920 . It spanned 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Adel to Winterset . This designation only lasted a few years ; it was absorbed by Primary Road No. 16 in 1926 . When the Adel – to – Winterset route changed numbers in 1926 , it was not paved at all , but the segment in Madison County was graded , the first step in becoming a paved road .
The second iteration of Iowa 25 was created in 1925 during the time when the Iowa State Highway Commission was designating the new U.S. Highway System on the state 's primary road network . In order to avoid driver confusion , the commission reorganized various route numbers to simplify the system and to remove any duplicated numbers , i.e. US 30 and Primary Road No. 30 . Interestingly , Iowa 25 was allocated along a section of former Primary Road No. 16 from Scranton to Creston . Iowa 16 was rerouted to the east , absorbing all of the previous incarnation of Primary Road No. 25 .
A few years later , the highway commission created Iowa 184 , which ran from US 34 south to Blockton . In early 1933 , Iowa 25 was extended southward along US 34 and absorbed all of Iowa 184 . In 1938 , it was extended an additional four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the Missouri state line . Iowa 357 was created as a short spur route into Blockton .
Iowa 25 stayed largely the same for over 40 years . By 1980 , it was truncated at County Road J55 ( formerly Iowa 357 ) near Blockton . Two years later , it trimmed back to its northern junction with Iowa 2 , where it remains today .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Related routes = =
Iowa 184 was the 27 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 43 km ) route that connected Blockton to US 34 . It was designated in 1931 and absorbed into Iowa 25 two years later .
Iowa 357 was a short spur that entered Blockton after Iowa 25 was extended to the Missouri state line in 1938 . It was turned over to Taylor County in 1964 .
= Office of Strategic Influence ( album ) =
Office of Strategic Influence is the first album by American progressive rock band OSI , released by InsideOut Music on February 18 , 2003 . The album was recorded in June 2002 and mixed in August 2002 at the Carriage House Studios in Stamford , Connecticut .
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally recruited Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy to work on a progressive metal album . When keyboardist and vocalist Kevin Moore ( founder of Chroma Key and former Dream Theater member ) joined the project , the musical direction of the album changed to become more focused on soundscapes and composition than musicianship . Sean Malone ( of Cynic and Gordian Knot ) and Steven Wilson ( of Porcupine Tree ) also performed on the album .
The album is named after the Office of Strategic Influence , an organization set up after the September 11 attacks to spread misinformation and plant false news items in the media , among other functions . The Office was shut after The New York Times published a story on it ; many of its operations were transferred to the Information Operations Task Force . The album 's lyrics were written by Moore in reaction to the September 11 attacks .
Critical reception of the album was generally positive , praising the band 's musicianship . Critics compared the band 's sound to Porcupine Tree . Portnoy was ultimately dissatisfied with the experience of making the album . He performed on the second OSI album , Free , but was replaced by Gavin Harrison for Blood , the band 's third album .
= = Background = =
Fates Warning guitarist Jim Matheos originally started work on Office of Strategic Influence as a side project while his bandmates took a break before starting work on their next album . Matheos decided to work with Dream Theater drummer Mike Portnoy because the two had wanted to work on a project together for some time . They originally planned to form a supergroup , envisaging the album as " straight prog metal " .
Matheos spent seven months writing material for the album . He then sent Kevin Moore ( who was living in Costa Rica ) some MP3 files of the music he had written and asked him to write some keyboard parts . Moore ( known as a founding member of Dream Theater and for his solo career as Chroma Key ) had previously performed on three Fates Warning albums , and Matheos was expecting him to write keyboard parts as he had for the Fates Warning album . Instead , Moore " messed with [ Matheos ' ] tracks and switched things around and put vocals to it and stuff like that . " He said that he no longer considered the keyboard , bass and guitar parts separate from each other : " I don 't write like that any more as much as I 'm composing a whole song . " The resulting track would become " Hello , Helicopter ! "
Moore emailed his work back to Matheos , who was " pleasantly surprised " to be sent something completely different from what he expected . Matheos wanted to create a heavy album ; before deciding to takes Moore 's ideas further , Matheos and Moore wrote what would become " OSI " . Moore said that after that , " [ Matheos ] was pretty much comfortable with whatever I wanted to do . " This new song format was very different from what Portnoy and Matheos originally planned : the already @-@ written long tracks were split into multiple short songs , closer to Moore 's project Chroma Key than traditional progressive metal . " The Thing That Never Was " , a track on the bonus disc , shows the direction Matheos and Portnoy originally planned to take the album in .
Matheos and Portnoy initially considered having a different vocalist perform on each track ; this idea was scrapped as they decided the constant change in vocalist would disrupt the flow of the album . Vocalists considered included Steve Walsh , Steve Hogarth , Steven Wilson and John Arch . Portnoy particularly pushed for Daniel Gildenlöw to sing on the album . Early on in the album 's production , Gildenlöw wrote some vocal melodies and lyrics for two songs and completely wrote another song . Matheos liked Gildenlöw 's ideas , but did not want to take the music in the same direction Gildenlöw did . Moore ended up performing most of the vocals on the album . In order to keep the album from becoming too similar to Chroma Key , Matheos and Portnoy decided to feature a guest vocalist on one track . Steven Wilson ( of Porcupine Tree ) wrote lyrics and performed vocals on the track " ShutDOWN " . He was chosen because his music in Porcupine Tree was similar in style to the music on the album . Port
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with semi @-@ industrial patches and often being closer to Nine Inch Nails than ' vintage ' melodic prog . " Hash praised Moore 's vocals , noting they " fit in well with all of the instrumental textures " . In contrast , Sander criticized Moore 's voice as " dull " : " the many added distortion and echo effects cannot always make it more interesting . His voice is okay for one or two tracks ... but it 's too flat to keep you tied to the speakers for much longer . " He cited Moore 's vocals as the main weakness of some tracks .
Sander considered " ShutDOWN " as " the absolute highlight of the album " , comparing it to the Porcupine Tree track " Russia on Ice " . Bollenberg listed his favorite track as " Hello , Helicopter ! " : " it once again gets so very close to authentic Porcupine Tree with Portnoy introducing some tribal rhythms that go ever so well with the rest of the material . I simply melt once that superb sound of the Fender Rhodes enters , taking turns with synthesizer tweaks . " Gordon described the instrumental parts of the album as " powerful and purposeful : an integral part of each composition rather than an excuse to merely ' jam . ' " Sander praised the tracks " The New Math " and " Dirt from a Holy Place " , but criticized the more experimental " Horseshoes and B @-@ 52s " : " to me it sometimes sounds like some random cutting and pasting was done on this track , leaving out a couple of seconds here and there . " He criticized the track 's video as " nearly unbearable to watch . If some video games are bad for people with epilepsy , this video is going to instantly kill them . "
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore , except where noted .
= = = Limited edition bonus CD = = =
= = Personnel = =
Jim Matheos – guitars , keyboards , programming , producer , engineering
Kevin Moore – vocals , keyboards , programming , producer
Sean Malone – bass guitar , Chapman stick
Mike Portnoy – drums
Steven Wilson – vocals on " ShutDOWN "
Produced by Jim Matheos and Kevin Moore
Mixed by Phil Magnotti
Engineered by Phil Magnotti , Steven Wilson , Sean Malone and Jim Matheos
= = Chart positions = =
= Banksia attenuata =
Banksia attenuata , commonly known as the candlestick banksia , slender banksia or biara as known by the Nyoongar Aboriginal people , is a species of plant in the proteaceae family . Commonly a tree , it reaches 10 m ( 33 ft ) high , but is often a shrub in dryer areas 0 @.@ 4 to 2 m ( 1 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) high . It has long narrow serrated leaves and bright yellow inflorescences , or flower spikes , held above the foliage , which appear in spring and summer . The flower spikes age to grey and swell with the development of the woody follicles . It is found across much of the southwest of Western Australia , from north of Kalbarri National Park down to Cape Leeuwin and across to Fitzgerald River National Park .
John Lindley had named material collected by James Drummond Banksia cylindrostachya in 1840 , but this proved to be the same as the species named Banksia attenuata by Robert Brown 30 years earlier in 1810 , and thus Brown 's name took precedence . Within the genus Banksia , the close relationships and exact position of B. attenuata is unclear .
The candlestick banksia is pollinated by and provides food for a wide array of vertebrate and invertebrate animals in summer months . Several species of honeyeater visit the flower spikes , as does the honey possum , which has an important role as a pollinator . It regenerates from bushfire by regrowing from its woody base known as a lignotuber , or from epicormic buds within its trunk . Plants may have a lifespan of 300 years . It has been widely used as a street tree and for amenities planting in urban Western Australia , though its large size generally precludes use in small gardens . A dwarf form is commercially available in nurseries .
= = Description = =
Banksia attenuata is generally encountered as a tree up to 10 m ( 30 ft ) tall . In the north of its range as the climate becomes warmer and dryer , it is often a stunted multistemmed shrub 0 @.@ 4 to 2 m ( 1 @.@ 3 to 6 @.@ 6 ft ) tall . Both forms occur in the vicinity of Hill River but there is otherwise a marked demarcation . In the Wheatbelt and east of the Stirling Range , it is a stunted tree . Tree forms have a solid trunk , generally wavy or bent , with 1 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick crumbly orange @-@ grey bark which is a red @-@ brown underneath . It regenerates from fire via lignotuber or epicormic buds from its fire @-@ tolerant trunk . It has long narrow shiny green linear leaves 4 to 27 cm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 10 @.@ 6 in ) long and 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 20 to 0 @.@ 63 in ) wide . The leaf margins have v- or u @-@ shaped serrations along their length . The new growth is a pale grey @-@ green , and occurs mainly in the late spring and summer , often after flowering . The brilliant yellow inflorescences ( flower spikes ) occur from spring into summer and are up 5 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) wide and up to 25 – 30 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 – 11 @.@ 8 in ) tall . They are made up of many small individual flowers ; a study at Mount Adams 330 km ( 210 mi ) north of Perth revealed a count of 1933 ( ± a standard error of 88 ) flowers per inflorescence , and another in the Fitzgerald River National Park yielded a count of 1720 ( ± 76 ) flowers . Anthesis proceeds up the flower spike over about 10 to 20 days , and is asynchronous . That is , a plant produces flower spikes over a several week period and will thus have spikes at different stages of development over the flowering season . Often bright green in bud stage , they are terminal , occurring at the ends of one- to three @-@ year @-@ old branches , and displayed prominently above the foliage . The smell of the open flowers has been likened to a peppery Shiraz wine . Over time , the spikes fade to brown and then grey , and the individual flowers shrivel and lie against the spikes . This coincides with the development of dark furry oval follicles , which measure 2 – 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 – 1 @.@ 38 in ) long , 1 – 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 39 – 0 @.@ 59 in ) high , and 1 @.@ 4 – 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 55 – 0 @.@ 79 in ) wide . However , only a very small percentage ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) of flowers develop into follicles ; the field study at Mount Adams yielded a count of 3 @.@ 6 ± 1 @.@ 2 per cone . The follicles develop and mature over seven to eight months , from February to December , while seed development occurs over four months from September to December .
= = Taxonomy = =
Banksia attenuata was first collected by Robert Brown from King George Sound in December 1801 , and published by him in 1810 . The specific epithet is the Latin adjective attenuatus " narrowed " , and refers to the leaves narrowing towards the base . The species has had a fairly uneventful taxonomic history . It has only two synonyms , and no subspecies or varieties have been published ; George reviewed the variation in form in the species , and felt that the tree and shrub forms differed only in size and hence were not distinct enough to represent separate taxa . In 1840 , John Lindley published a putative new species , Banksia cylindrostachya , in his A Sketch of the Vegetation of the Swan River Colony ; this has now be shown to be a taxonomic synonym of B. attenuata . In 1891 , Otto Kuntze made a failed attempt to transfer Banksia to the new generic name Sirmuellera . In the process he published the name Sirmuellera attenuata , which is now considered a nomenclatural synonym of B. attenuata . Common names include slender banksia , candle banksia and candlestick banksia . Piara ( alternately spelled biara ) is an aboriginal name from the Melville region of Perth .
The relationships of Banksia attenuata within the genus are unclear . When Carl Meissner published his infrageneric arrangement of Banksia in 1856 , he placed B. attenuata in section Eubanksia because its inflorescence is a spike rather than a domed head , and in series Salicinae , a large series that is now considered quite heterogeneous . This series was discarded in the 1870 arrangement of George Bentham ; instead , B. attenuata was placed in section Cyrtostylis , a group of species which did not fit easily into one of the other sections .
In 1981 , Alex George published a revised arrangement that placed B. attenuata in the subgenus Banksia because of its flower spike , section Banksia because its styles are straight rather than hooked , and the series Cyrtostylis , a large and rather heterogenous series of twelve species . He conceded its large emarginate cotyledons ( having a notch in their apex ) were quite different from other members , and that it had similarities in flower architecture to another anomalous member B. elegans . He felt B. attenuata to have affinities to B. lindleyana and B. media .
George 's arrangement remained current until 1996 , when Kevin Thiele and Pauline Ladiges published an arrangement informed by a cladistic analysis of morphological characteristics . They calculated B. attenuata to lie at the base of a large B. attenuata – B.ashbyi clade , but conceded further work was needed before its relationships could be determined , and left it as incertae sedis ( i.e. Its exact placement is unclear . ) . Questioning the emphasis on cladistics in Thiele and Ladiges ' arrangement , George published a slightly modified version of his 1981 arrangement in his 1999 treatment of Banksia for the Flora of Australia series of monographs . To date , this remains the most recent comprehensive arrangement . The placement of B. attenuata in George 's 1999 arrangement may be summarised as follows :
Banksia
B. subg . Banksia
B. sect . Banksia
B. ser . Cyrtostylis
B. media
B. praemorsa
B. epica
B. pilostylis
B. attenuata
B. ashbyi
B. benthamiana
B. audax
B. lullfitzii
B. elderiana
B. laevigata
B. laevigata subsp. laevigata
B. laevigata subsp. fuscolutea
B. elegans
B. lindleyana
Since 1998 , American botanist Austin Mast and co @-@ authors have been publishing results of ongoing cladistic analyses of DNA sequence data for the subtribe Banksiinae , which then comprised genera Banksia and Dryandra . Their analyses suggest a phylogeny that differs greatly from George 's taxonomic arrangement . Banksia attenuata resolves as a basal member of and next closest relative , or ' sister ' , to a clade containing B. elegans and , within that , a monophyletic B. subg . Isostylis . An Eocene fossil cone named Banksia archaeocarpa , around 50 million years old , resembles that of B. attenuata .
Early in 2007 , Mast and Thiele rearranged the genus Banksia by merging Dryandra into it , and published B. subg . Spathulatae for the taxa having spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons ; thus B. subg . Banksia was redefined as encompassing taxa lacking spoon @-@ shaped cotyledons . They foreshadowed publishing a full arrangement once DNA sampling of Dryandra was complete ; in the meantime , if Mast and Thiele 's nomenclatural changes are taken as an interim arrangement , then B. attenuata is placed in B. subg . Banksia .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The most widely distributed of all western banksias , Banksia attenuata occurs across a broad swathe of southwest of Western Australia , from Kalbarri National Park and the Murchison River ( with an outlying population in Zuytdorp National Park ) southwards right to the southwestern corner of the state at Augusta and Cape Leeuwin , and then eastwards across the south to the western edge of Fitzgerald River National Park . Along the eastern border northwards it is found at Lake Grace , Lake Magenta north of Jerramungup , and the Wongan Hills . It is restricted to various sandy soils , including white , yellow or brown sands , and sand over either laterite or limestone . It forms an important component of open Eucalyptus woodland as a dominant or understory tree or tall shrub . To the north , it is a shrubby component of shrubland . It does not grow on heavy ( clay @-@ based ) soils , and is hence only found in sandy pockets . Within open woodland , it is found alongside B. menziesii , B. ilicifolia , B. prionotes , Allocasuarina fraseriana , Eucalyptus marginata , or E. gomphocephala . The annual rainfall within its distribution varies from 300 to 900 mm ( 12 to 35 in ) .
= = Ecology = =
Like many plants in south @-@ west Western Australia , B. attenuata is adapted to an environment in which bushfire events are relatively frequent . Most Banksia species can be placed in one of two broad groups according to their response to fire : reseeders are killed by fire , but fire also triggers the release of their canopy seed bank , thus promoting recruitment of the next generation ; resprouters survive fire , resprouting from a lignotuber or , more rarely , epicormic buds protected by thick bark . Bearing epicormic buds and a lignotuber , B. attenuata is one of the latter group , with follicles that may open spontaneously or by fire . It is moderately serotinous , storing only one tenth the number of seeds in its seed bank as the reseeding B. hookeriana which it coexists with on sand dunes in scrub at Eneabba north of Perth . Even then , many of its follicles do not release seed after a fire , but instead after successive autumn rains . An experiment simulating wet weather following a fire saw a series of Banksia attenuata cones with follicles subjected to twice weekly immersions in water after being heated in a ring Bunsen flame to around 500 – 600 ° C ( 932 – 1 @,@ 112 ° F ) for two minutes . Cones that had been exposed to water for more weeks had more seed released from follicles over time ; around 40 % released at three weeks , increasing steadily to almost 90 % at ten weeks , compared with a series of controls ( which were kept dry ) of which fewer than 10 % of seed released . Thus , the seed remains in the follicles until successive rains result in seed dispersal in the wetter winter ( instead of dryer summer ) , increasing the chance of survival . After the follicle is split , the seed and separator are exposed to the elements . The wings of the woody separator are hygroscopic , and move together when wet , and spread and curl apart when dry . The seed is gradually drawn out by the movement with each wetting . Once released , seed germinates at temperatures between 15 and 20 ° C ( 59 and 68 ° F ) to optimise timing with autumn and winter rains and hence maximise chance of survival . Still , many seedlings die off in the hot and dry summer months . Seedling survival for the species is lower than for banksias which regenerate by seeding over time . Despite this , the longevity of mature plants allows for maintenance of population until favourable years enable better survival of young plants . As they mature , plants are less likely to perish , and estimated to live for 300 years or more . Analyzing the seed bank and longitudinal results over fifteen years on the Eneabba sandplain showed that B. attenuata would become more abundant over time with fire intervals averaging between 6 and 20 years , peaking with intervals around 10 to 12 years , compared with longer intervals for the reseeders B. hookeriana and B. prionotes . Placed against its rivals , B. attenuata would be dominant between 8 and 10 or 11 years , but at longer intervals is outcompeted by B. hookeriana . Variability in the timing between fires allows all three species to coexist . Exaggerated good and bad weather conditions favours B. attenuata over the reseeding species , which suffer more .
Despite having relatively heavy seed , seed from Banksia attenuata has a high rate of long distance dispersal . A genetic study of populations in Eneabba showed that over 5 % of plants had originated up to 2 @.@ 6 km ( 1 @.@ 6 mi ) away ( similar rates to Banksia hookeriana , the seed of which only weighs half as much ) . The mechanism for this is unclear , although Byron Lamont has proposed the short @-@ billed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus latirostris ) as a vector ; the species seeks out Banksia attenuata cones after bushfire , possibly because the large seeds and greater chance of grubs in the cone make them more nutritious . Flowering has been recorded one to two years after a bushfire .
Many bird species were recorded by the national Banksia Atlas survey , including the New Holland honeyeater ( Phylidonyris novaehollandiae ) , brown honeyeater ( Lichmera indistincta ) , singing honeyeater ( Lichenostomus virescens ) , western spinebill ( Acanthorhynchus superciliosus ) , twenty @-@ eight parrot ( Barnardius zonarius semitorquatus ) and red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus banksii ) . Black cockatoos have been observed feeding upon the seed of B. attenuata , although it is not clear which species of black cockatoo was observed , the short @-@ billed or long @-@ billed black cockatoo ( Calyptorhynchus baudinii ) . At a site near Jandakot , short @-@ billed black cockatoos were observed selecting immature infructescences which bore signs of infestation by the weevil Alphitopis nivea , the larvae of which tunnel in banksia spikes and eat the seed . They extract the larvae and drop the cones .
A 1978 field study conducted around Albany found the honey possum ( Tarsipes rostratus ) was a major pollinator of Banksia attenuata , both feeding directly on the pollen and drinking the nectar . The flower structure is suited to passing pollen onto the possum as it feeds , unlike honeyeaters whose bills are too long for this to occur readily . Coupled with the flower spike 's musky odour , these findings suggest Banksia attenuata is highly adapted to be pollinated primarily by this mammal species . Furthermore , Petroc Sumner and colleagues have investigated the cone photoreceptor cells of honey possums and compared them with the colour changes of B. attenuata . They found that the possum is trichromatic ( like humans and possibly many marsupials ) and propose that its L ( long wavelength ) cones help it discern B. attenuata flower spikes , and the M ( or medium wavelength ) cones could help it distinguish ripe inflorescences with nectar from recently finished spikes ( a difficult task for human vision ) . There is some evidence for other mammals as pollinators ; B. attenuata @-@ like pollen was recovered from museum skins of dunnarts ( Sminthopsis spp . ) and pygmy possums ( Cercartetus spp . ) , and the sugar glider ( Petaurus breviceps ) visited flower spikes in captivity .
Seventeen species from several orders of slime molds ( myxomycetes ) have been isolated from the bark of Banksia attenuata . Over half ( nine ) were from the order Stemonitales , and Echinosteliales and Liceales were also common . The abundance of the first two orders may be due to the acidity of the bark . Another order , the Physarales , was unusually rare — other studies have demonstrated that the order is typically abundant on the bark of various species of tree around the world .
All banksias have developed proteoid or cluster roots in response to the nutrient @-@ poor conditions of Australian soils ( particularly lacking in phosphorus ) . These have been measured in Eneabba extending to a depth of 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) below the soil surface . The plant develops masses of fine lateral roots which form a mat @-@ like structure underneath the soil surface , and enable it to extract nutrients as efficiently possible out of the soil . A study of three co @-@ occurring species in Banksia woodland in southwestern Australia — Banksia menziesii , B. attenuata and B. ilicifolia — found that all three develop fresh roots in September after winter rainfall , and that the bacteria populations associated with the root systems of B. menziesii differ from the other two , and that they also change depending on the age of the roots . Another study on root architecture of Banksia hookeriana , B. menziesii and B. attenuata found the overall structure of all three to be similar , with proteoid mats more active and growing in wetter months ( winter @-@ spring ) . Plants send out several sinker roots which descend to reach the water table , and the original tap root may or may not have died off . Along with B. menziesii , B. attenuata is a facultative phreatophyte . The two species are less strictly tied to the water table and hence able to grow in a wider variety of places within Banksia woodland habitat around Perth than the co @-@ occurring B. ilicifolia and B. littoralis . A study at a rehabilitation site on a sand mine north of Perth found that the broadleaved species B. attenuata and B. hookeriana were harder to establish than the fine @-@ leaved B. leptophylla there , due to increased impedance of the disturbed soil . Analysis of native plant species at a remnant of banksia woodland in suburban Perth which had been invaded by two herbaceous weed species ( Ehrharta calycina and Pelargonium capitatum ) found increased phosphorus levels in native foliage . Although B. attenuata leaves did not have increased phosphorus , they did have reduced levels of manganese — an element which is absorbed into the plant by its proteoid roots , the formation of which can be inhibited by raised levels of phosphorus .
In a 1985 study inoculating cultivated plants , Banksia attenuata showed moderate to high susceptibility to Phytophthora cinnamomi dieback ; and at least some field and cultivation evidence points to it being highly susceptible . P. cinnamomi spreads from plant to plant via lateral roots , advancing at a rate of around a metre a year . The symptoms of infection in Banksia attenuata include yellowing of the leaves in the tree crown , and lesions at the base of the trunk . The red healthy roots become discoloured brown . A study of Banksia attenuata woodland 400 km ( 250 mi ) southeast of Perth across 16 years and following a wave of P. cinnamomi infestation showed that B. attenuata populations still existed but were significantly reduced in diseased areas . Injecting a solution of phosphite into the trunks of affected B. attenuata trees at a disease front in Banksia woodland can delay morbidity from dieback for five years . Injecting and spraying phosphite also reduces the rate of spread of a dieback front for around five years . A bushfire did not influence this slowing . A 2003 study found that drenching the soil with 0 @.@ 50 mM benzoic acid significantly reduced the size of P. cinnamomi lesions . Research into dieback in Western Australia has identified a new species , P. multivora , isolated from ailing eucalypts and B. attenuata in 2009 .
= = Cultivation and cultural use = =
The well @-@ displayed bright yellow spikes are an attractive feature , with shrubby dwarf forms more versatile horticulturally . All forms of Banksia attenuata require good drainage , sandy soil and a sunny position to do well , with a pH between 5 @.@ 5 and 7 @.@ 0 . They are sensitive to dieback , and do not fare well in humid climates . Seeds do not require any treatment , and take 16 to 49 days to germinate . Seedlings are highly vulnerable to damping off . Plants take from four to six years to flower from seed . There has been little success with other methods of improving adaptability to humid climates such as grafting . -- > Flower spikes in late bud are used in the cut flower industry , primarily in Western Australia .
Aboriginal people , particularly the Nyoongar and Yamatji , placed the flower spike in a paperbark @-@ lined hole filled with water to make a sweet drink . Both this species and B. aemula have been credited with the inspiration behind May Gibbs ' Big Bad Banksia Men ; this species was familiar to Gibbs in her childhood and likely gave her the initial inspiration , although the depictions resemble the latter species . Artist Marianne North produced a highly regarded painting of B. attenuata during her stay in Australia in 1880 – 81 .
= Murphy Pakiam =
Tan Sri Datuk Murphy Nicholas Xavier Pakiam ( born 6 December 1938 ) is the third metropolitan archbishop of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Kuala Lumpur , Malaysia .
Pakiam was born in Tapah , Perak and was ordained into the priesthood on 10 May 1964 . He was appointed metropolitan archbishop of Kuala Lumpur on 24 May 2003 , and was installed five days later . Pakiam is the former president of the Catholic Bishops ' Conference of Malaysia , Singapore and Brunei ; and the publisher of the Catholic weekly newspaper , The Herald .
In 2007 , Pakiam filed for a judicial review after The Herald was ordered to stop using the Arabic word " Allah " in its publication by the Malaysian government . In 2009 , the High Court overturned the government 's ban of the word . In 2010 , he accepted the public apology of Al @-@ Islam magazine , which had sent two reporters to a Catholic church the year before , where they desecrated the Eucharist .
= = Background = =
Pakiam was born in Tapah , Perak , on the feast day of the popular saint of children , St. Nicholas . Educated at the Sultan Yusuf School in Batu Gajah , he entered the minor seminary in 1955 and started his priestly formation at the College General in Penang three years later . Pakiam was ordained a priest on 10 May 1964 , and served as assistant priest at the Church of St. Louis , Taiping . The following year , he was posted to the Church of St. Francis Xavier in Penang and became the Parish Priest of the Church of Our Lady of Lourdes , Silibin , Ipoh from 1970 – 72 .
Pakiam completed his studies for a Masters in Moral Theology ( Ethics ) at the Lateran University in Rome in 1974 , and upon his return to Malaysia , became a lecturer at Penang 's College General . In 1978 , he was appointed Rector of the College General and served two terms . In 1989 , he received his Masters in Guidance and Counselling from the De La Salle University , Manila , Philippines . He then served as Parish Priest of the Church of the Nativity in Butterworth from 1989 – 95 .
He was appointed as the auxiliary bishop of Kuala Lumpur and titular bishop of Chunavia on 1 April 1995 , and ordained titular bishop of Chunavia , Epirus Nova , known as an Episcopal Ordination , on 4 October 1995 at the College General in Penang .
On 24 May 2003 , Pakiam succeeded Anthony Soter Fernandez , who resigned due to poor health , as metropolitan archbishop of Kuala Lumpur . His installation took place five days later , on 29 May 2003 . His principal consecrator was Archbishop Anthony Fernandez and principal co @-@ consecrators were Bishop James Chan Soon Cheong and Bishop Anthony Selvanayagam . He was the president of the Catholic Bishops ' Conference of Malaysia , Singapore and Brunei .
On 13 December 2013 , the Pope accepted the resignation of Archbishop Pakiam upon his 75th birthday . In practice , the Bishop of Rome may decide to immediately accept the resignation letter , or keep the bishop in service until a successor is chosen . The Pope decided to accept Archbishop Pakiam 's resignation as soon as he received it even though his successor , Archbishop Julian Leow Beng Kim , was only appointed on 3 July 2014 .
= = Coat of arms = =
Hat & Tassels : Symbols of an Archbishop of the Roman Catholic Church.Cross on yellow background : Symbol of Jesus , the Light of the world.Blue wavy lines : Symbol of the Holy Spirit , the river of Living Waters.Chalice & Host : The Sacraments of the Church.Bible : The Word of God.The letter ' M ' : Mary , Mother of the Church , representing all the saints.Keys : Symbol of the Apostolic authority in the Church.Green background : Symbolises the new life obtained through the Mercy and Peace of God .
= = Allah judicial review = =
By virtue of his position as archbishop of Kuala Lumpur , Pakiam is the publisher of The Herald , a weekly Catholic newspaper . In 2007 , The Herald and Pakiam , as its publisher , filed for a judicial review after it was ordered to stop using the Arabic word " Allah " in its publication by the Malaysian Ministry of Home Affairs . Malaysia 's home minister has the power to impose prohibition as a condition under the Printing Presses and Publication Act of 1984 . In the case of The Herald , Home Minister Datuk Seri Syed Hamid Albar prohibited the usage of the word " Allah " on the grounds of national security and to avoid misunderstanding and confusion among Muslims .
On 31 December 2009 , the High Court overturned the government ban on the use of the word " Allah " by The Herald . Justice Lau Bee Lan quashed the Home Minister 's prohibition against The Herald to use the word " Allah " , declaring the order as " illegal , null and void " . She declared that under Article 3 ( 1 ) of the Federal Constitution , applicant Archbishop Tan Sri Pakiam had the constitutional right to use " Allah " in The Herald in the exercise of his right that religions other than Islam might be practised in peace and harmony in the country .
= = Al @-@ Islam magazine = =
In 2009 , two Muslim reporters from Al @-@ Islam , a small Malaysian magazine , participated in a Catholic Mass and received Holy Communion , which they then spat out and photographed . The resulting photo was then published in their May 2009 edition . The magazine , which is owned by Utusan Karya , part of the Utusan Malaysia Group , sent its reporters including one Muhd Ridwan Abdul Jalil , to two churches in the Klang Valley , as part of a special investigative report . The act of desecration occurred at St Anthony 's Church in Jalan Robertson , Kuala Lumpur .
Pakiam , the Catholic Lawyers Society , as well as numerous editorials in the media , criticised the Attorney @-@ General for its failure to take any action on the desecration .
Nine months later , in March 2010 , Al @-@ Islam published an apology to the Roman Catholic Church and Christians for the article . The public apology was posted on the website of its publisher . Pakiam accepted the apology and said that no further legal action would be taken against the magazine or its publishers .
= = Honours = =
In 2005 , the King of Malaysia , the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong Tuanku Syed Sirajuddin , made Pakiam a Member of the Order for Important Services or " Panglima Jasa Negara " ( PJN ) , which carries the title " Datuk " . In 2008 , the Yang di @-@ Pertuan Agong Tuanku Mizan Zainal Abidin made him Commander of the Order of Loyalty to the Crown of Malaysia , or Panglima Setia Mahkota ( PSM ) , which allows the recipients to use the title " Tan Sri " . This title is the second most senior federal title in Malaysia , and there may only be up to a maximum of 250 living PSM holders at any time .
= Eleanor Norcross =
Eleanor Norcross , born Ella Augusta Norcross ( 1854 – 1923 ) , was an American painter who studied under William Merritt Chase and Alfred Stevens . She lived the majority of her adult life in Paris , France as an artist and collector and spent the summers in her hometown of Fitchburg , Massachusetts . Norcross painted Impressionist portraits and still lifes , and is better known for her paintings of genteel interiors .
Her father provided her a comfortable living , under the proviso that she would not sell her paintings . With a life mission to provide people from her hometown the ability to view great works of art , Norcross collected art , made copies of paintings of Old Masters , and systematically documented decorative arts from the 12th through the 19th century . Her funding and art collection were used to establish the Fitchburg Art Museum .
In 1924 , her works were shown posthumously in Paris at the Louvre and Salon d 'Automne , where Norcross was the first American to have had a retrospective . Her works were also shown the following year at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston .
= = Early life = =
Ella Augusta Norcross was born in Fitchburg , Massachusetts , about 50 miles ( 80 km ) west of Boston , to Amasa Norcross and Susan Augusta Norcross . Her father was an attorney , Fitchburg 's first mayor , state senator , and United States representative . Her mother , Susan , had been a school teacher in the Fitchburg area and during the Civil War was a leader of the Ladies ' Soldiers Aid Society , which provided clothing , blankets , and other supplies to soldiers from Fitchburg and other locations in the state of Massachusetts . In 1863 , her three @-@ year @-@ old brother Nelson died of scarlet fever , and when she was 14 , her mother died of consumption . Norcross and her father , the remaining household members , had a close relationship .
Norcross was afforded a privileged education that was not available to many young ladies of her generation . At 16 years of age , she graduated from Fitchburg High School , and , beginning in 1870 , she attended Wheaton Female Seminary , now Wheaton College . When she was 16 and 17 years old she wrote essays for Rushlight , the school 's literary journal . The nature of her essays provide insight into the woman she would become : one who would successfully operate in a male @-@ oriented society , had an interest in bettering the plight of others , and appreciated historical things . She graduated in 1872 . Frances Vose Emerson was a classmate at Wheaton , good friend from childhood , and ultimately a trustee for the Fitchburg Art Museum .
= = Education and early career = =
Norcross studied at Boston 's Massachusetts Normal Art School , now the Massachusetts College of Art and Design , to prepare to teach art . Living in Fitchburg , she commuted by train to the school in Boston . Norcross earned her teaching certificate by 1876 and taught drawing in the Fitchburg schools for a year . Norcross moved with her father to Washington when he was elected to the House of Representatives . A " witty and lively conversationalist " , she acted as his hostess in the capital and beginning in 1878 , Norcross studied art in New York City under William Merritt Chase at the Art Students League of New York for up to five years . In June 1883 , she sailed for Paris to study with Alfred Stevens at Chase 's suggestion . She and a few other women studied with the Belgian artist during the winters of 1883 and 1884 .
= = Career = =
= = = Father 's influence = = =
Her father provided financial support that allowed Norcross to live comfortably . She exhibited her works in salons , according to the agreement with her father that she would not sell any of them ; he believed that women should give their works away and not enter into the male @-@ oriented business world . Any paintings that she wanted to give away , Mr. Norcross offered to have " handsomely framed " .
She lived in Paris for 40 years , and traveled throughout Europe . Her father lived with her during the winters after his retirement and until 1898 , when he died . Joined by his daughter , Amasa Norcross spent his summers in Fitchburg .
= = = Style and paintings = = =
Norcross painted portraits and still lifes , and she made copies of Old Masters . Her portraits and later interiors were executed with " delicate brush strokes " . She had an adept sense of color and the ability to portray reflections and textures , like metal 's gleam , satin 's sheen , and velvet 's texture . The compositions of her interiors are positioned in a way that leads the viewer to consider what might be through a door or around a corner , as in Carpeaux Sevres .
Her painting , Woman in a Garden , reflects influences of Chase , Monet and French Impressionism combined with the skill to draw with a paintbrush learned from Alfred Stevens . Reminiscent of Chase 's en plein air paintings , the dark background contrasts with the enigmatic , illuminated woman . My Studio ( 1891 ) — which depicts her father in an room with " elaborately patterned textiles " , antique and oriental furnishings , and flowers — is " the most impressive " of her works at the Fitchburg Art Museum . It was also her image of an " ideal home " . Of it , Ann H. Murray writes :
... the painting itself is reminiscent of Chase in the informality and candidness that pervade the composition . The vacant chair , the mirror reflecting spaces not directly perceivable , and the abundance of rectangular units that impose a geographic organization on the wall — all these features occur also in Chase 's paintings , as well as in those of Degas and Cassatt who were , along with Monet , Renoir and Rodin , among her personal acquaintances .
She exhibited from 1887 until her death in Champ de Mars ' Société Nationale des Beaux @-@ Arts , which was made possible through her close friendship with Puvis de Chavannes . Her works were also shown in Boston , Chicago , and New York City . Norcross shared a studio with Alix d 'Anethan , whose paintings , influenced by Puvis , were of pastoral and contemporary life .
Norcross began to collect historical European artwork , particularly to be shown in public places in or near her hometown . After 1905 , she made copies of paintings by great artists , like Hals , Velázquez , and Botticelli . At roughly the same time , she began making paintings of French decorative art from 12th century Gothic art through the 19th century that she saw in galleries , including interior scenes of the Louvre . Norcross 's interiors provided insight into European decorative arts :
Her gift was for mellow , loving , quiet observation of cozy spaces that close out the rest of the world . She wasn 't merely recording decor , though . Her surfaces are loose and brushy , clearly influenced by Impressionism .
The 1914 Musée des Arts Décoratifs ( in the Louvre ) was to have exhibited her works , but the show was cancelled due to the commencement of World War I. She was known for being welcoming to art students from the United States and lived in the Rue de Bellchase the final 12 years of her life .
= = = Collection = = =
She began purchasing art objects with the intention of sending them to America , so that people that were not afforded the luxury of traveling to Europe could view good works of art . Norcross collected furniture , textiles , porcelains , and other objects during visits to quiet French villages .
Works from her collection were given to Wheaton College in 1922 during her 50th @-@ year reunion , including an oil sketch by Alix d 'Anethan and a seascape by Alfred Stevens . She loaned her paintings to the Worcester Art Museum , and the Fitchburg Public Library was a beneficiary of photographs , prints , engravings , textiles , dishes , and furniture . She was involved in the placement of art at the library so that visitors to every department would have the opportunity to view the works of art , including European prints and rare engravings that span several centuries .
= = Museum = =
To implement her plan to establish a cultural center in Fitchburg , Norcross shipped works of art from her collection to her hometown and left $ 10 @,@ 000 or $ 100 @,@ 000 in her will , with the provision that the town raise an equal amount to provide a healthy endowment , otherwise the monies would go to Wheaton Seminary .
[ Norcross ] was an artist , collector , and philanthropist who sought to inspire , educate , and improve society through cultural enrichment in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries .
Friends Frances Vose Emerson and Providence art teacher Sophia Lord Pitman were identified in the will as trustees for the museum . An old brick stable was purchased in 1924 and was remodeled by Howe , Manning & Almy , Inc . , a Boston firm of women architects , into a French Provincial building . In 1929 , the Fitchburg Art Center opened , it was later renamed Fitchburg Art Museum . Most of the collection and the building were destroyed in a fire in 1934 . The museum now has 20 @,@ 000 square feet of exhibition space over four buildings and works of art from the pre @-@ Columbian era to the 20th century . The works of art — which include paintings , prints , illustrated books , drawings and photographs — originated in Europe , the Americas , Asia , and Africa . The Fitchburg Art Museum has a collection of Norcross 's work , along with works of John Singer Sargent , William Merritt Chase , and other American and European artists . Traute M. Marshall , author of Art Museums Plus , said , " [ S ] he stands up well against the more famous competition . "
= = Death = =
Norcross died of kidney failure on October 19 , 1923 .
= = Posthumous exhibitions = =
Shows of her paintings were held after her death . The memorial exhibition at the Louvre , opened by American ambassador Myron T. Herrick , included 53 of her paintings in 1924 . The Louvre retained two paintings Norcross made of the Musée des Arts Décoratifs 's interior . Sixteen of her works were exhibited at the Salon d 'Automne the same year ; Norcross was the first American to have had a retrospective of her work there . A show was also held at the Museum of Fine Arts , Boston in 1925 .
= Fanny Imlay =
Frances " Fanny " Imlay ( 14 May 1794 – 9 October 1816 ) , also known as Fanny Godwin and Frances Wollstonecraft , was the daughter , born out of wedlock , of the British feminist Mary Wollstonecraft and the American commercial speculator Gilbert Imlay . Fanny 's mother wrote about her frequently in her later works , and Percy Bysshe Shelley composed a poem on her death . Fanny grew up in the household of anarchist political philosopher William Godwin , and her half @-@ sister Mary later wrote Frankenstein and married Percy Bysshe Shelley , a leading Romantic poet .
Although Gilbert Imlay and Mary Wollstonecraft lived together happily for brief periods before and after the birth of Fanny , he left Wollstonecraft in France in the midst of the French Revolution . In an attempt to revive their relationship , Wollstonecraft travelled to Scandinavia on business for him , taking the one @-@ year @-@ old Fanny with her , but the affair never rekindled . After falling in love with and marrying the philosopher William Godwin , Wollstonecraft died soon after giving birth in 1797 , leaving the three @-@ year @-@ old Fanny in the hands of Godwin , along with the newborn Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin ( the future author of Frankenstein ) .
Four years later , Godwin remarried and his new wife , Mary Jane Clairmont , brought two children of her own into the marriage , most significantly — from Fanny Imlay and Mary Godwin 's perspective — Claire Clairmont . Wollstonecraft 's daughters resented the new Mrs Godwin and the attention she paid to her own daughter . The Godwin household became an increasingly uncomfortable place to live as tensions rose and debts mounted . The teenage Mary and Claire escaped by running off to the Continent with the Romantic poet Percy Bysshe Shelley in 1814 . Fanny , left behind , bore the brunt of her stepfather 's anger . She became increasingly isolated from her family and committed suicide in 1816 .
= = Life = =
= = = Birth = = =
Fanny Imlay was the daughter of the British feminist writer Mary Wollstonecraft and the American entrepreneur Gilbert Imlay . Both had moved to France during the French Revolution , Wollstonecraft to practise the principles laid out in her seminal work A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1792 ) and Imlay to engage in speculative business ventures . The two met and fell in love . At one point during Wollstonecraft and Imlay 's relationship , the couple could meet only at a tollbooth between Paris and Neuilly , and it was there that their daughter was conceived ; Fanny was therefore , in Godwin 's words , a " barrier child " . Frances " Fanny " Imlay , Wollstonecraft 's first child , was born in Le Havre on 14 May 1794 , or , as the birth certificate stated , on the 25th day of Floreal in the Second Year of the Republic , and named after Fanny Blood , her mother 's closest friend . Although Imlay never married Wollstonecraft , he registered her as his wife at the American consulate to protect her once Britain and France went to war in February 1793 . Most people , including Wollstonecraft 's sisters , assumed they were married — and thus , by extension , that Fanny was legitimate — and she was registered as such in France .
= = = Infancy and early childhood = = =
Initially , the couple 's life together was idyllic . Wollstonecraft playfully wrote to one friend : " My little Girl begins to suck so manfully that her father reckons saucily on her writing the second part of the R [ igh ] ts of Woman " [ emphasis in original ] . Imlay soon tired of Wollstonecraft and domestic life and left her for long periods of time . Her letters to him are full of needy expostulations , explained by most critics as the expressions of a deeply depressed woman but by some as a result of her circumstances — alone with an infant in the middle of the French Revolution .
Wollstonecraft returned to London in April 1795 , seeking Imlay , but he rejected her ; the next month she attempted to commit suicide , but he saved her life ( it is unclear how ) . In a last attempt to win him back , she embarked upon a hazardous trip to Scandinavia from June to September 1795 , with only her one @-@ year @-@ old daughter and a maid , in order to conduct some business for him . Wollstonecraft 's journey was daunting not only because she was travelling to what some considered a nearly uncivilized region during a time of war , but also because she was travelling without a male escort . When she returned to England and realized that her relationship with Imlay was over , she attempted suicide a second time . She went out on a rainy night , walked around to soak her clothes , and then jumped into the River Thames , where a stranger rescued her .
Using her diaries and letters from her journey to Scandinavia , Wollstonecraft wrote a rumination on her travels and her relationship — Letters Written in Sweden , Norway , and Denmark ( 1796 ) — in which , among other things , she celebrated motherhood . Her maternal connection to her daughter prompted her to reflect on a woman 's place in the world :
You know that as a female I am particularly attached to her — I feel more than a mother 's fondness and anxiety , when I reflect on the dependent and oppressed state of her sex . I dread lest she should be forced to sacrifice her heart to her principles , or principles to her heart . With trembling hand I shall cultivate sensibility , and cherish delicacy of sentiment , lest , whilst I lend fresh blushes to the rose , I sharpen the thorns that will wound the breast I would fain guard — I dread to unfold her mind , lest it should render her unfit for the world she is to inhabit — Hapless woman ! what a fate is thine !
Wollstonecraft lavished love and attention on her daughter . She began two books , drawn from her own experience , related to Fanny 's care : a parenting manual entitled " Letters on the Management of Infants " and a reading primer entitled " Lessons " . In one section of " Lessons " , she describes weaning :
When you were hungry , you began to cry , because you could not speak . You were seven months without teeth , always sucking . But after you got one , you began to gnaw a crust of bread . It was not long before another came pop . At ten months you had four pretty white teeth , and you used to bite me . Poor mamma ! Still I did not cry , because I am not a child , but you hurt me very much . So I said to papa , it is time the little girl should eat . She is not naughty , yet she hurts me . I have given her a crust of bread , and I must look for some other milk .
In 1797 , Wollstonecraft fell in love with and married the philosopher William Godwin ( she had become pregnant with his child ) . Godwin grew to love Fanny during his affair with Wollstonecraft ; he brought her back a mug from Josiah Wedgwood 's pottery factory with an " F " on it that delighted both mother and daughter . Wollstonecraft died in September of the same year , from complications giving birth to Mary Wollstonecraft Godwin , who survived . Three @-@ year @-@ old Fanny , who had been scarred from smallpox , was unofficially adopted by her stepfather and given the name of Godwin . Her copy of Wollstonecraft 's only completed children 's book , Original Stories from Real Life ( 1788 ) , has the initials " F. G. " written in large print in it . According to the dominant interpretation of Godwin 's diary , it was not until Fanny turned twelve that she was informed in an important conversation with Godwin that he was not her natural father . In the only biography of Fanny , Janet Todd disputes this reading , arguing instead that the conversation was about Fanny 's future . She finds it unlikely that Fanny would have been unaware of her origins in the open and liberal Godwin household .
After Wollstonecraft 's death , Godwin and Joseph Johnson , Wollstonecraft 's publisher and close friend , contacted Fanny 's father , but he was uninterested in raising his child . ( Neither Wollstonecraft nor her daughter ever saw Gilbert Imlay after 1796 . ) Wollstonecraft 's two sisters , Eliza Bishop and Everina Wollstonecraft , Fanny 's only two living female relatives , were anxious to care for her ; Godwin , disliking them , turned down their offer . Several times throughout Fanny 's childhood Wollstonecraft 's sisters asked Godwin to allow them to raise their niece and each time he refused . Godwin himself did not seem particularly ready for parenthood and he now had two small children to raise and no steady source of income . However , he was determined to care for them . During these early years of Fanny 's life , Joseph Johnson served as an " unofficial trustee " for her as he had occasionally for her mother . He even willed her £ 200 , but Godwin owed Johnson so much money upon his death in 1809 that Johnson 's heirs demanded Godwin pay the money back as part of his arrears .
= = = Childhood = = =
Although Godwin was fond of his children , he was , in many ways , ill @-@ equipped to care for them . As Todd explains , he was constantly annoyed by their noise , demanding silence while he worked . However , when he took a trip to Dublin to visit Wollstonecraft 's sisters , he missed the girls immensely and wrote to them frequently .
On 21 December 1801 , when Fanny was seven , Godwin married Mary Jane Clairmont , a neighbour with two children of her own : three @-@ year @-@ old Claire and six @-@ year @-@ old Charles . She had never been married and was looking , like Godwin , for financial stability . Although Clairmont was well @-@ educated and well @-@ travelled , most of Godwin 's friends despised her , finding her vulgar and dishonest . They were astonished that Godwin could replace Mary Wollstonecraft with her . Fanny and her half @-@ sister Mary disliked their stepmother and complained that she preferred her own children to them . On 28 March 1803 , baby William was born to the couple .
Although Godwin admired Wollstonecraft 's writings , he did not agree with her that women should receive the same education as men . Therefore , he occasionally read to Fanny and Mary from Sarah Trimmer 's Fabulous Histories ( 1786 ) and Anna Laetitia Barbauld 's Lessons for Children ( 1778 – 79 ) , but , according to Todd , he did not take great pains with their educations and disregarded the books Wollstonecraft had written for Fanny . William St Clair , in his biography of the Godwins and the Shelleys , argues that Godwin and Wollstonecraft spoke extensively about the education they wanted for their children and that Godwin 's writings in The Enquirer reflect these discussions . He contends that after Wollstonecraft 's death Godwin wrote to a former pupil to whom she had been close , now Lady Mountcashell , asking her advice on how to raise and educate his daughters . In her biography of Mary Shelley , Miranda Seymour agrees with St Clair , arguing that " everything we know about his daughter 's [ Mary 's and presumably Fanny 's ] early years suggests that she was being taught in a way of which her mother would have approved " , pointing out that she had a governess , a tutor , a French @-@ speaking stepmother , and a father who wrote children 's books whose drafts he read to his own first . It was the new Mrs Godwin who was primarily responsible for the education given to the girls , but she taught her own daughter more , including French . Fanny received no formal education after her stepfather 's marriage . Yet , the adult Imlay is described by C. Kegan Paul , one of Godwin 's earliest biographers , as " well educated , sprightly , clever , a good letter @-@ writer , and an excellent domestic manager " . Fanny excelled in drawing and was taught music . Despite Godwin 's atheism , all of the children were taken to an Anglican church .
The Godwins were constantly in debt , so Godwin returned to writing to support the family . He and his wife started a Juvenile Library for which he wrote children 's books . In 1807 , when Fanny was 13 , they moved from the Polygon , where Godwin had lived with Wollstonecraft , to 41 Skinner Street , near Clerkenwell , in the city 's bookselling district . This took the family away from the fresh country air and into the dirty , smelly , inner streets of London . Although initially successful , the business gradually failed . The Godwins also continued to borrow more money than they could afford from generous friends such as publisher Joseph Johnson and Godwin devotee Francis Place .
As Fanny Imlay grew up , her father increasingly relied on her to placate tradespeople who demanded bills be paid and to solicit money from men such as Place . According to Todd and Seymour , Imlay believed in Godwin 's theory that great thinkers and artists should be supported by patrons and she believed Godwin to be both a great novelist and a great philosopher . Throughout her life , she wrote letters asking Place and others for money to support Godwin 's " genius " and she helped run the household so that he could work .
= = = Teenage years = = =
Godwin , never one to mince words , wrote about the differences he perceived between his two daughters :
My own daughter [ Mary ] is considerably superior in capacity to the one her mother had before . Fanny , the eldest , is of a quiet , modest , unshowy disposition , somewhat given to indolence , which is her greatest fault , but sober , observing , peculiarly clear and distinct in the faculty of memory , and disposed to exercise her own thoughts and follow her own judgment . Mary , my daughter , is the reverse of her in many particulars . She is singularly bold , somewhat imperious , and active of mind . Her desire for knowledge is great , and her perseverance in everything she undertakes is almost invincible . My own daughter is , I believe , very pretty ; Fanny is by no means handsome , but in general prepossessing .
The intellectual world of the girls was widened by their exposure to the literary and political circles in which Godwin moved . For example , during former American vice @-@ president Aaron Burr 's self @-@ imposed exile from the United States after his acquittal on treason charges , he often spent time with the Godwins . He greatly admired the works of Wollstonecraft and had educated his daughter according to the precepts of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman . He was anxious to meet the daughters of the woman he revered and referred to Fanny , Mary , and Claire as " goddesses " . He spent most of his time talking with Imlay about political and educational topics . Burr was impressed by the Lancastrian teaching method and took Fanny to see a model school in 1811 .
= = = = Percy , Mary , and Claire = = = =
It was not Burr , but the Romantic poet and writer Percy Bysshe Shelley who had the greatest impact on Imlay and her sisters ' lives . Impressed by Godwin 's Political Justice , Shelley wrote to him and the two started corresponding . In 1812 , Shelley asked if Imlay , then 18 and the daughter of one of his heroes , Mary Wollstonecraft , could come live with him , his new wife , and her sister . Having never actually met Shelley and being sceptical of his motivations ( Shelley had eloped to marry his wife , Harriet ) , Godwin refused . When Shelley finally came to visit the Godwins , all three girls were enamoured of him , particularly Imlay . Both Shelley and Imlay were interested in discussing radical politics ; for example , Shelley liked to act as if class were irrelevant , but she argued that it was significant in daily affairs .
In 1814 , Shelley spent a considerable amount of time at the Godwins ' and he and Imlay may have fallen in love . Later , Claire Clairmont claimed that they had been . Imlay was sent to Wales in May of that year ; Todd speculates that Godwin was trying to separate her from Shelley while Seymour hints that Mrs Godwin was trying to improve her despondent mood . Meanwhile , the Godwin household became even more uncomfortable as Godwin sank further into debt and as relations between Mary and her stepmother became increasingly hostile . Mary Godwin consoled herself with Shelley and the two started a passionate love affair . When Shelley declared to Godwin that the two were in love , Godwin exploded in anger . However , he needed the money that Shelley , as an aristocrat , could and was willing to provide . Frustrated with the entire situation , Mary Godwin , Shelley , and Claire Clairmont ran off to Europe together on 28 June 1814 . Godwin hurriedly summoned Imlay home from Wales to help him handle the situation . Her stepmother wrote that Imlay 's " emotion was deep when she heard of the sad fate of the two girls ; she cannot get over it " . In the middle of this disaster , one of Godwin 's protégés killed himself , and young William Godwin ran away from home and was missing for two days . When news of the girls ' escapade became public , Godwin was pilloried in the press . Life in the Godwin household became increasingly strained .
When Mary Godwin , Claire Clairmont , and Shelley returned from the Continent in September 1814 , they took a house together in London , enraging Godwin still further . Imlay felt pulled between the two households : she felt loyal both to her sisters and to her father . Both despised her decision not to choose a side in the family drama . As Seymour explains , Imlay was in a difficult position : the Godwin household felt Shelley was a dangerous influence and the Shelley household ridiculed her fear of violating social conventions . Also , her aunts were considering her for a teaching position at this time , but were reluctant because of Godwin 's shocking Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman ( 1798 ) . Seymour writes , the " few timid visits Fanny made to see Mary and [ Claire ] in London were acts of great courage ; she got little thanks for them " . Although instructed by Godwin not to speak to Shelley and her sisters , Imlay warned them of creditors who knew of Shelley 's return ( he also was in debt ) . Her attempts to persuade Clairmont to return to the Godwins ' convinced Shelley that she was of Godwin 's party and he began to distrust her . Imlay was also still responsible for soliciting money from Shelley in order to repay her father 's debts ; despite Shelley 's essential elopement with two of his daughters , Godwin agreed to accept £ 1 @,@ 200 from Shelley . When Mary Godwin gave birth to a daughter in February 1815 , she immediately sent for Imlay , particularly as both she and the infant were ill . Godwin chastised Imlay for disobeying his orders not to see her half @-@ sister and her misery increased . After the death of the child , Imlay paid more frequent visits to the couple .
Soon after , Clairmont became a lover of the Romantic poet Lord Byron , and Mary Godwin and Shelley had a second child on 24 January 1816 , who was named William after Godwin . In February , Imlay went to visit the Shelleys , who had settled in Bishopsgate . Godwin 's debts continued to mount , and while he demanded money from Shelley , Godwin still refused to see either him or his daughter . At this time , Charles Clairmont ( Imlay 's step @-@ brother ) , frustrated with the tension in the Godwin household , left for France and refused to help the family any further . At around the same time , Claire Clairmont , Mary Godwin , and Shelley left for the Continent , seeking Byron . Godwin was aghast . He relied on Shelley 's money , and the stain on his family 's reputation only increased when the public learned that the group had left to join the rakish Byron .
Amidst all of this family turmoil , Imlay still found time to ponder larger social issues . The utopian socialist Robert Owen came to visit Godwin in the summer of 1816 and he and Imlay discussed the plight of the working poor in Britain . She agreed with many of Owen 's proposals , but not all of them . She decided , in the end , that his utopian scheme was too " romantic " , because it depended heavily on the goodwill of the rich to sacrifice their wealth . That same summer , George Blood — the brother of Fanny Imlay 's namesake — came to meet her for the first time and told her stories of her mother . After this meeting she wrote to Mary Godwin and Shelley : " I have determined never to live to be a disgrace to such a mother ... I have found that if I will endeavour to overcome my faults I shall find being 's [ sic ] to love and esteem me " [ emphasis in original ] .
Before Mary Godwin , Clairmont , and Shelley had left for the Continent , Imlay and Mary had had a major argument and no chance to come to a reconciliation . Imlay attempted in her letters to Mary to smooth over the relationship , but her sense of loneliness and isolation in London was palpable . She wrote to Mary of " the dreadful state of mind I generally labour under & which I in vain endeavour to get rid of " . Many scholars attribute Imlay 's increasing unhappiness to Mrs Godwin 's hostility towards her . Kegan , and others , contend that Imlay was subject to the same " extreme depression to which her mother had been subject , and which marked other members of the Wollstonecraft family " . Wandering amongst the mountains of Switzerland , frustrated with her relationship with Shelley , and engrossed by the writing of Frankenstein , her sister was unsympathetic .
The group returned from the Continent , with a pregnant Clairmont , and settled in Bath ( to protect her reputation , they attempted to hide the pregnancy ) . Imlay saw Shelley twice in September 1816 ; according to Todd 's interpretation of Fanny 's letters , Fanny had earlier tried to solicit an invitation to join the group in Europe and she repeated these appeals when she saw Shelley in London . Todd believes that Imlay begged to be allowed to stay with them because life in Godwin 's house was unbearable , with the constant financial worries and Mrs Godwin 's insistent haranguing , and that Shelley refused , concerned with anyone learning about Clairmont 's condition , most of all someone he believed might inform Godwin ( Shelley was being sued by his wife and was worried about his own reputation ) . After Shelley left , Todd explains that Imlay wrote to Mary " to make clear again her longing to be rescued " .
= = Death = =
= = = Theories = = =
In early October 1816 , Imlay left Godwin 's house in London and committed suicide on 9 October by taking an overdose of laudanum at an inn in Swansea , Wales ; she was 22 . The details surrounding her death and her motivations are disputed . Most of the letters regarding the incident were destroyed or are missing . In his 1965 article " Fanny Godwin 's Suicide Re @-@ examined " , B. R. Pollin lays out the major theories that had been put forward regarding her suicide and which continue to be used today :
Imlay had just learned of her illegitimate birth .
Mrs Godwin became more cruel to Imlay after Mary Godwin and Claire Clairmont ran off with Percy Shelley .
Imlay had been refused a position at her aunts ' school in Ireland .
Imlay was depressive , and her condition was aggravated by the state of the Godwin household .
Imlay was in love with Percy Shelley and distraught that Mary and he had fallen in love .
Pollin dismisses the first of these , as have most later biographers , arguing that Imlay had access to her mother 's writings and Godwin 's Memoirs of the Author of A Vindication of the Rights of Woman which openly discuss the circumstances of her birth . Imlay herself even makes this distinction in letters to her half @-@ sister Mary Godwin .
Pollin is also sceptical of the second explanation , pointing to Imlay 's letter to Mary of 3 October 1816 in which she defended her step @-@ mother : " Mrs. Godwin would never do either of you a deliberate injury . Mamma and I are not great friends , but always alive to her virtues , I am anxious to defend her from a charge so foreign to her character . "
Pollin finds no evidence that Imlay had been refused a position at her aunts ' school , only that such a scheme may have been " in contemplation " , as Godwin later wrote , although Seymour grants this explanation some plausibility . St Clair claims that Imlay was on her way to join her maternal aunts in Ireland when she decided to commit suicide . He believes that it was to be a probationary visit , to see if she could be a teacher in their school . Godwin 's modern biographer , Richard Holmes , dismisses this story .
In his survey of the letters of the Godwins and the Shelleys , Pollin comes to the conclusion that Imlay was not depressive . She is frequently described as happy and looking toward the future and describes herself this way . The mentions of melancholia and sadness are specific and related to particular events and illness . Richard Holmes , in his biography of Percy Shelley , argues that " her agonizing and loveless suspension between the Godwin and Shelley households was clearly the root circumstance " of her suicide . Locke argues that " most probably because she could absorb no more of the miseries of Skinner Street , her father 's inability to pay his debts or write his books , her mother 's unending irritability and spitefulness " , all of which she blamed on herself , she committed suicide .
Pollin largely agrees with Todd , speculating that Imlay saw Percy Shelley in Bath and he " somehow failed her " , causing her to commit suicide . Seymour and others speculate that Shelley 's only failure was to live up to his financial promises to Godwin and it was this that helped push Imlay over the edge ; she was convinced , like her father , " that the worthy have an absolute right to be supported by those who have the worth to give " . Todd , on the other hand , agrees with Pollin and speculates that Imlay went to see Mary Godwin and Shelley . Todd argues that Imlay had affection for Shelley and felt that his home was her only haven . Relying on scraps of poetry that Shelley may have written after Imlay 's death , Todd concludes that Shelley saw her in Bath and rejected her pleas because he needed to protect Claire 's reputation as well as his own at this time . Todd also notes that Imlay had worn her mother 's stays , which were embroidered with the initials " M.W. " , and the nicest clothes she owned . She had adorned herself with a Swiss gold watch sent to her from Geneva by the Shelleys and a necklace , in order to make a good impression . After Shelley rejected her , Todd concludes , Imlay decided to commit suicide .
= = = Suicide and aftermath = = =
On the night of 9 October , Imlay checked into the Mackworth Arms Inn in Swansea and instructed the chambermaid not to disturb her . The same night Mary Godwin , staying in Bath with Shelley , received a letter Imlay had mailed earlier from Bristol . Her father in London also received a letter . The alarming nature of the letters prompted both Godwin and Shelley to set out for Bristol at once ( although they travelled separately ) . By the time they tracked her to Swansea on 11 October , they were too late . Imlay was found dead in her room on 10 October , having taken a fatal dose of laudanum , and it was only Shelley who stayed to deal with the situation . Imlay left behind an unaddressed note , describing herself as " unfortunate " , perhaps referring to Mary Wollstonecraft 's description of her as " my unfortunate girl " in the note she wrote on " Lessons " before she herself attempted suicide :
I have long determined that the best thing I could do was to put an end to the existence of a being whose birth was unfortunate , and whose life has only been a series of pain to those persons who have hurt their health in endeavouring to promote her welfare . Perhaps to hear of my death will give you pain , but you will soon have the blessing of forgetting that such a creature ever existed as
The note appears to have originally been signed , but the name was torn off or burned off so that her body could not be identified . When the announcement was printed in the local newspaper , The Cambrian , therefore , it did not refer to Imlay specifically .
At the inquest , Imlay was declared " dead " , rather than a suicide or an insanity victim , which saved her body from various indignities . Todd speculates that Shelley arranged for Imlay to be declared " dead " ( an appellation more common for the well @-@ to @-@ do ) and removed any identifying items , such as her name on the note . She also concludes that to protect the rest of the family , he refused to claim her body . No one else claimed Imlay 's body and it was probably buried in a pauper 's grave . In fact , Godwin wrote to Percy Shelley :
Do nothing to destroy the obscurity she so much desired , that now rests upon the event . It was , as I said , her last wish ... Think what is the situation of my wife & myself , now deprived of all our children but the youngest [ William ] ; & do not expose us to those idle questions , which to a mind in anguish is one of the severest trials .
We are at this moment in doubt whether during the first shock we shall not say she is gone to Ireland to her aunts , a thing that had been in contemplation ... What I have most of all in horror is the public papers ; & I thank you for your caution as it might act on this .
Because suicide was considered scandalous , disreputable , and sinful at the time , which might have damaged Godwin 's business , the family told various stories regarding Imlay 's death in order to cover up the truth , including that she had gone on vacation , that she had died of a cold in Wales , that she had died of an " inflammatory fever " , that she was living with her mother 's sisters , or , if forced to admit suicide , that Imlay killed herself because Shelley loved Mary Godwin and not her . Neither Percy nor Mary mention Imlay 's death in their surviving letters from this time . Claire Clairmont claimed in a letter to Byron that Percy became ill because of her death , but as Holmes notes , there is no other evidence for this assertion . Yet Locke writes that Shelley told Byron he felt " a far severer anguish " over Imlay 's suicide than over Harriet 's ( his wife 's ) suicide just two months later .
While there is no known image of Imlay , a few months after her death , Shelley penned the poem quoted at the beginning of this article . As Seymour writes , " [ p ] ublished by Mary without comment , it has always been supposed to allude to his last meeting with her half @-@ sister . "
= = Family tree = =
= Chinese Indonesians =
Chinese Indonesians ( Indonesian : Orang Tionghoa @-@ Indonesia ; Chinese : trad 印度尼西亞華人 , simp 印度尼西亚华人 , pin Yìndùníxīyà Huárén ) , are Indonesians descended from various Chinese ethnic groups , particularly Han .
Chinese came to Indonesia as workers both directly and through Maritime Southeast Asia . Their population grew rapidly during the colonial period when workers were contracted from their home provinces in southern China . Under the Dutch ethnic classification policy , Chinese Indonesians were considered " foreign orientals " ; as such , they struggled to enter the colonial and national sociopolitical scene , despite successes in their economic endeavors .
Evidence of discrimination against Chinese Indonesians can be found throughout the history of Indonesia , although government policies implemented since 1998 have attempted to redress this . Resentment of ethnic Chinese economic aptitude grew in the 1950s as native Indonesian merchants felt they could not remain competitive . In some cases , government action only propagated the stereotype that ethnic Chinese @-@ owned conglomerates were corrupt . Although the 1997 Asian financial crisis severely disrupted their business activities , reform of government policy and legislation removed a number of political and social restrictions on Chinese Indonesians .
Indonesia 's 2010 census reported more than 2 @.@ 8 million self @-@ identified ethnic Chinese : 1 @.@ 20 percent of the country 's population . However other source stated that there are about 10 to 12 million Chinese living in the country , mostly are half Chinese like Peranakan , Straits Chinese , etc. and other Indonesians who have Chinese descendant , making up 5 @-@ 6 % of Indonesia population .
The development of local Chinese society and culture is based upon three pillars : clan associations , ethnic media , and Chinese @-@ language schools . These flourished during the period of Chinese nationalism in the final years of China 's Qing Dynasty and through the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War ; however , differences in the object of nationalist sentiments brought about a split in the population . One group supported political reforms in mainland China , while others worked towards improved status in local politics . The New Order government ( 1967 – 1998 ) dismantled the pillars of ethnic Chinese identity in favor of assimilation policies as a solution to the " Chinese Problem " . Patterns of assimilation and ethnic interaction can be found in Indonesia 's literature , architecture , and cuisine .
The Chinese Indonesian population of Java accounts for nearly half of the group 's national population . Although they are generally more urbanized than Indonesia 's indigenous population , significant rural and agricultural communities exist throughout the country . Declining fertility rates have resulted in an upward shift in the population pyramid , as the median age increases . Emigration has contributed to a shrinking population , and communities have emerged in more industrialized nations in the second half of the 20th century . Some have participated in repatriation programs to the People 's Republic of China , while others emigrated to Western countries to escape anti @-@ Chinese sentiment . Among the overseas residents , their identities are noticeably more Indonesian than Chinese .
= = History = =
= = = Early interactions = = =
The first recorded movement of people from China into Maritime Southeast Asia was the arrival of Mongol forces under Kublai Khan that culminated in the invasion of Java in 1293 . The Mongols introduced Chinese technologies to the island , including shipbuilding and coinage . Their intervention hastened the decline of the classical kingdoms such as Singhasari and precipitated the rise of the Majapahit empire . Some Chinese and Portuguese sources indicate that Chinese traders were the first to arrive on Ternate and Tidore in the Maluku Islands to buy cloves , but they were later driven out by Javanese traders as Majapahit expanded .
Chinese Muslim traders from the eastern coast of China arrived at the coastal towns of Indonesia and Malaysia in the early 15th century . They were led by the mariner Zheng He , who commanded several expeditions to southeastern Asia between 1405 and 1430 . In the book Yingya Shenglan , his translator Ma Huan documented the activities of the Chinese Muslims in the archipelago and the legacy left by Zheng He and his men . These traders settled along the northern coast of Java , but there is no documentation of their settlements beyond the 16th century . The Chinese Muslims were likely to have been absorbed into the majority Muslim population . Between 1450 and 1520 , the Ming Dynasty 's interest in southeastern Asia reached a low point and trade , both legal and illegal , rarely reached the archipelago . The Portuguese made no mention of any resident Chinese minority population when they arrived in Indonesia in the early 16th century . Trade from the north was re @-@ established when China legalized private trade in 1567 through licensing 50 junks a year . Several years later silver began flowing into the region , from Japan , Mexico , and Europe , and trade flourished once again . Distinct Chinese colonies emerged in hundreds of ports throughout southeastern Asia , including the pepper port of Banten .
Chinese traders boycotted Portuguese Malacca after it fell to the Portuguese in the 1511 Capture of Malacca . The Chinese engaged in business with Malays and Javanese instead of the Portuguese . Some Chinese in Java assisted in Muslim attempts to reconquer the city using ships . The Javanese – Chinese participation in retaking Malacca was recorded in " The Malay Annals of Semarang and Cerbon " .
= = = Colonial attitudes ( 1600 – 1900 ) = = =
By the time the Dutch arrived in the early 17th century , major Chinese settlements existed along the north coast of Java . Most were traders and merchants , but they also practiced agriculture in inland areas . The Dutch contracted many of these immigrants as skilled artisans in the construction of Batavia ( Jakarta ) on the northwestern coast of Java . A recently created harbor was selected as the new headquarters of the Dutch East India Company ( Vereenigde Oost @-@ Indische Compagnie , VOC ) in 1609 by Jan Pieterszoon Coen . It grew into a major hub for trade with China and India . Batavia became home to the largest Chinese community in the archipelago and remains so in the 21st century . Coen and other early Governors @-@ General promoted the entry of Chinese immigrants to new settlements " for the benefit of those places and for the purpose of gathering spices like cloves , nutmeg , and mace " . The port 's Chinese population of 300 – 400 in 1619 had grown to at least 10 @,@ 000 by 1740 . The Dutch , however , introduced a racial classification system that separated residents of Chinese ancestry from those of other ancestry .
Most of those who settled in the archipelago had already severed their ties with the mainland and welcomed favorable treatment and protection under the Dutch . Some became " revenue farmers " , middlemen within the corporate structure of the VOC , tasked with collecting export – import duties and managing the harvest of natural resources ; although this was highly profitable , it earned the enmity of the pribumi population . Others worked as opium farmers . Following the 1740 Batavia massacre and ensuing war , in which the Chinese rebelled against the Dutch , the Dutch attempted to place a quota on the number of Chinese who could enter the Indies . Amoy was designated as the only immigration port to the archipelago , and ships were limited to a specified number of crew and passengers depending on size . This quota was adjusted at times to meet demand for overseas workers , such as in July 1802 when sugar mills near Batavia were in need of workers .
When the VOC was nationalized on 31 December 1799 , many freedoms the Chinese experienced under the corporation were eliminated by the Dutch government . Among them was the Chinese monopoly on the salt trade which had been granted by the VOC administration . An 1816 regulation introduced a requirement for the indigenous population and Chinese traveling within the territory to obtain a travel permit . Those who did not carry a permit faced arrest by security officers . The Governor @-@ General also introduced a resolution in 1825 which forbade " foreign Asians in Java such as Malays , Buginese and Chinese " from living within the same neighborhood as the native population . Following the costly Java War ( 1825 – 1830 ) the Dutch introduced a new agrarian and cultivation system that required farmers to " yield up a portion of their fields and cultivate crops suitable for the European market " . Compulsory cultivation restored the economy of the colony , but ended the system of revenue farms established under the VOC .
The Chinese were perceived as temporary residents and encountered difficulties in obtaining land rights . Europeans were prioritized in the choice of plantation areas , while colonial officials believed the remaining plots must be protected and preserved for the indigenous population . Short @-@ term and renewable leases of varying lengths were later introduced as a temporary measure , but many Chinese remained on these lands upon expiration of their contracts and became squatters . In the second half of the 19th century the colonial government began experimenting with the idea of an " Ethical Policy " to protect the indigenous population , casting the Chinese as the " foremost enemy of the state " . Under the new policy the administration increased restrictions on Chinese economic activities , which they believed exploited the native population .
In western Borneo the Chinese established their first major mining settlement in 1760 . Ousting Dutch settlers and the local Malay princes , they joined into a new republic known as Lanfang . By 1819 they came into conflict with the new Dutch government and were seen as " incompatible " with its objectives , yet indispensable for the development of the region . The Bangka – Belitung Islands also became examples of major settlements in rural areas . In 1851 28 Chinese were recorded on the islands and by 1915 the population had risen to nearly 40 @,@ 000 and fishing and tobacco industries had developed . Coolies brought into the region after the end of the 19th century were mostly hired from the Straits Settlements owing to recruiting obstacles that existed in China .
= = = Divided nationalism ( 1900 – 1949 ) = = =
The Chinese revolutionary figure Sun Yat @-@ sen visited southeast Asia in 1900 , and later that year the socio @-@ religious organization Tiong Hoa Hwe Koan ( 中華 會館 ) , also known as the Chinese Association , was founded . Their goal was to urge ethnic Chinese in the Indies to support the revolutionary movement in China . In its effort to build Chinese @-@ speaking schools the association argued that the teaching of the English and Chinese languages should be prioritized over Dutch , to provide themselves with the means of taking , in the words of Phoa Keng Hek , " a two or three @-@ day voyage ( Java – Singapore ) into a wider world where they can move freely " and overcome restrictions of their activities . Several years later the Dutch authorities abandoned its segregation policies , abolished travel permits for the ethnic Chinese , and allowed them to freely move throughout the colony . The 1911 Xinhai Revolution and the 1912 founding of the Republic of China coincided with a growing Chinese @-@ nationalist movement within the Indies .
Although there was no recognizable nationalist movement among the indigenous population until 1908 , Dutch authorities feared that nationalist sentiments would spread with the growth of ethnically mixed associations , known as kongsi . In 1911 some Javanese members of the Kong Sing association in Surakarta broke away and clashed with the ethnic Chinese . This incident led to the creation of Sarekat Islam , the first organized popular nationalist movement in the Indies . Indigenous groups saw the Chinese nationalist sentiment as " haughty " , leading to mutual antagonism . The anti @-@ Chinese sentiment spread throughout Java in 1918 and led to mass violence orchestrated by members of Sarekat Islam on the ethnic Chinese in Kudus . Following this incident the left @-@ wing Chinese nationalist daily Sin Po called on both sides to work together to improve living conditions because it considered most ethnic Chinese , like most of the indigenous population , to be poor .
Sin Po first went into print in 1910 and began gaining momentum as the leading advocate of Chinese political nationalism in 1917 . The ethnic Chinese who followed its stream of thought refused any involvement with local institutions and would only participate in politics relating to mainland China . A second stream was later formed by wealthy ethnic Chinese who received an education at Dutch @-@ run schools . This Dutch @-@ oriented group wished for increased participation in local politics , Dutch education for the ethnic Chinese , and the furthering of ethnic Chinese economic standing within the colonial economy . Championed by the Volksraad 's Chinese representatives , such as Hok Hoei Kan , Phoa Liong Gie and Loa Sek Hie , this movement gained momentum and reached its peak with the Chung Hwa Congress of 1927 and the 1928 formation of the Chung Hwa Hui party , which elected Kan as its president . The editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the Madjallah Panorama news magazine criticized Sin Po for misguiding the ethnic Chinese by pressuring them into a Chinese @-@ nationalist stance .
In 1932 pro @-@ Indonesian counterparts founded the Partai Tionghoa Indonesia to support absorption of the ethnic Chinese into the Javanese population and support the call for self @-@ government of Indonesia . Members of this group were primarily peranakan . This division resurfaced at the end of the period of Japanese occupation ( 1942 – 1945 ) . Under the occupation ethnic Chinese communities were attacked by Japanese forces , in part owing to suspicions that they contained sympathizers of the Kuomintang as a consequence of the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . When the Dutch returned , following the end of World War II , the chaos caused by advancing forces and retreating revolutionaries also saw radical Muslim groups attack ethnic Chinese communities .
Although revolutionary leaders were sympathetic toward the ethnic Chinese , they were unable to stop the sporadic violence . Those who were affected fled from the rural areas to Dutch @-@ controlled cities , a move many Indonesians saw as proof of pro @-@ Dutch sentiments . There was evidence , however , that Chinese Indonesians were represented and participated in independence efforts . Four members of the Committee for the Investigation of the Preparation for Indonesian Independence ( Badan Penyelidik Usaha Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia , BPUPKI ) and one member on the Preparatory Committee for Indonesian Independence ( Panitia Persiapan Kemerdekaan Indonesia , PPKI ) had Chinese names .
= = = Loyalty in question ( 1950 – 1966 ) = = =
The Netherlands relinquished its territorial claims in the archipelago ( with the exception of West Papua ) following the 1949 Round Table Conference , which is the same year that the Kuomintang retreated to Taiwan , allowing the Communist Party of China to take control of mainland China . Most Chinese Indonesians considered a communist China less attractive than a newly independent Indonesia , but in the archipelago their loyalties were questioned . Ethnic Chinese born in the Dutch East Indies whose parents were domiciled under Dutch administration were regarded as citizens of the new state according to the principle of jus soli , or " right of the soil " . However , Chinese law considered a person as a Chinese citizen according to the principle of jus sanguinis , or right of blood . This meant that all Indonesian citizens of Chinese descent were also claimed as citizens by the People 's Republic of China . After several attempts by both governments to resolve this issue , Indonesia and China signed a Dual Nationality Treaty on the sidelines of the 1955 Asian – African Conference in Bandung . One of its provisions was the ability to renounce Chinese citizenship for those who wished to solely remain Indonesian citizens .
As many as 390 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese , two @-@ thirds of those with rightful claims to Indonesian citizenship renounced their Chinese status when the treaty came into effect in 1962 . On the other hand , an estimated 60 @,@ 000 ethnic Chinese students left for the People 's Republic of China in the 1950s and early 1960s . The first wave of students were almost entirely educated in Chinese @-@ language schools , but were not able to find opportunities for tertiary education in Indonesia . Seeking quality scientific professions , they entered China with high hopes for their future and that of the mainland . Subsequent migrations occurred in 1960 as part of a repatriation program and in 1965 – 1966 following a series of anti @-@ communist violence that also drew anger toward the ethnic Chinese . As many as 80 percent of the original students who entered the mainland eventually became refugees in Hong Kong . Under the programs of China 's Cultural Revolution ( 1966 – 1976 ) , the returned overseas Chinese were questioned for their loyalty because of their foreign connections . As most had grown up in an urban environment they were sent to the countryside , told to " rebel against their own class background " , and eventually lost contact with their families . They were attacked as " imperialists " , " capitalists " , " spies " , " half @-@ breeds " , and " foreign devils " .
In 1959 , following the introduction of soft @-@ authoritarian rule through Guided Democracy , the Indonesian government and military began placing restrictions on alien residence and trade . These regulations culminated in the enactment of Presidential Regulation 10 in November 1959 , banning retail services by non @-@ indigenous persons in rural areas . Ethnic Chinese , Arab , and Dutch businessmen were specifically targeted during its enforcement to provide a more favorable market for indigenous businesses . This move was met with protests from the Chinese government and some circles of Indonesian society . Javanese writer Pramoedya Ananta Toer later criticized the policies in his 1961 book Hoakiau di Indonesia . An integrationist movement , led by the Chinese @-@ Indonesian political party Baperki ( Badan Permusjawaratan Kewarganegaraan Indonesia ) , began to gather interest in 1963 , including that of President Sukarno . However , a series of attacks on ethnic Chinese communities in West Java in May proved it to be short @-@ lived , despite the government 's condemnation of the violence . When Baperki was branded a communist organization in 1965 the ethnic Chinese were implicated by association ; this was exacerbated in the public mind by the People 's Republic of China 's communism . As many as 500 @,@ 000 people , the majority of them Javanese Abangan Muslims and Balinese Indonesians but including a minority of several thousand ethnic Chinese , were killed in the anti @-@ communist purge which followed the failed coup d 'état , suspected as being communist @-@ led , on 30 September 1965 .
= = = Managing the " Chinese Problem " ( 1967 – 1998 ) = = =
When the New Order government of General Suharto came into power in 1966 – 1967 , it introduced a political system based only on the Pancasila ( five principles ) ideology . To prevent the ideological battles that occurred during Sukarno 's presidency from resurfacing , Suharto 's " Pancasila democracy " sought a depoliticized system in which discussions of forming a cohesive ethnic Chinese identity were no longer allowed . A government committee was formed in 1967 to examine various aspects of the " Chinese Problem " ( Masalah Cina ) and agreed that forced emigration of whole communities was not a solution : " The challenge was to take advantage of their economic aptitude whilst eliminating their perceived economic dominance . " The semi @-@ governmental Institute for the Promotion of National Unity ( Lembaga Pembina Kesatuan Bangsa , LPKB ) was formed to advise the government on facilitating assimilation of Chinese Indonesians . This process was done through highlighting the differences between the ethnic Chinese and the indigenous pribumi , rather than seeking similarities . Expressions of Chinese culture through language , religion , and traditional festivals were banned and the ethnic Chinese were pressured to adopt Indonesian @-@ sounding names .
During the 1970s and 1980s Suharto and his government brought in Chinese Indonesian businesses to participate in the economic development programs of the New Order , while keeping them highly vulnerable to strengthen the central authority and restrict political freedoms . Patron @-@ client relationships , mainly through the exchange of money for security , became an accepted norm among the ethnic Chinese as they maintained a social contract through which they could claim a sense of belonging in the country . A minority of the economic elite of Indonesian society , both those who were and were not ethnic Chinese , secured relationships with Suharto 's family members and members of the military for protection , while small business owners relied on local law enforcement officials . Stereotypes of the wealthy minority became accepted as generalized facts , but failed to acknowledge that said businessmen were few in number compared to the small traders and shop owners . In a 1989 interview conducted by scholar Adam Schwarz for his book A Nation in Waiting : Indonesia 's Search for Stability , an interviewee stated that , " to most Indonesians , the word ' Chinese ' is synonymous with corruption " . The economic role of the ethnic Chinese was contradictory because it did not translate to acceptance of their status in the greater society . They were politically weak and often faced social harassment .
Anti @-@ Chinese sentiment gathered intensity through the 1990s . President Suharto gathered the most powerful businessmen — mostly Chinese Indonesians — in a nationally televised 1990 meeting at his private ranch , calling on them to contribute 25 percent of their shares to cooperatives . Commentators described the spectacle as " good theatre " , as it only served to reinforce resentment and suspicion of the ethnic Chinese among the indigenous population . Major riots broke out in Situbondo ( October 1996 ) , Tasikmalaya ( December 1996 ) , and Rengasdengklok ( January 1997 ) .
When Suharto entered his seventh term as president , following an uncontested election on 10 March 1998 , Indonesian students began a series of major demonstrations in protest of the New Order regime which continued for weeks and culminated in the shootings of four students by security forces at Trisakti University in May . The incident sparked major violence in several cities during 12 – 15 May . Property and businesses owned by Chinese Indonesians were targeted by mobs , and over 100 women were sexually assaulted ; this aspect of the riots , though generally accepted as true , has been denied by several Indonesian groups . In the absence of security forces , large groups of men , women , and children looted and burned the numerous shopping malls in major cities . In Jakarta and Surakarta over 1 @,@ 000 people — both Chinese and non @-@ Chinese — died inside shopping malls . Tens of thousands of ethnic Chinese fled the country following these events , and bankers estimated that US $ 20 billion of capital had left the country in 1997 – 1999 to overseas destinations such as Singapore , Hong Kong , and the United States .
= = = Social policy reforms ( 1999 – present ) = = =
Suharto unexpectedly resigned on 21 May 1998 , one week after he returned from a Group of 15 meeting in Cairo , which took place during the riots . The reform government formed by his successor Bacharuddin Jusuf Habibie began a campaign to rebuild the confidence of Chinese Indonesians who had fled the country , particularly businessmen . Along with one of his envoys James Riady , son of financial magnate Mochtar Riady , Habibie appealed to Chinese Indonesians seeking refuge throughout East Asia , Australia , and North America to return and promised security from various government ministries as well as other political figures , such as Abdurrahman Wahid and Amien Rais . Despite Habibie 's efforts he was met with skepticism because of remarks he made , as Vice President and as President , which suggested that the message was insincere . One special envoy described Chinese Indonesians as the key to restoring " badly needed " capital and economic activity , prioritizing businessmen as the target of their pleas . Others , including economist Kwik Kian Gie , saw the government 's efforts as perpetuating the myth of Chinese economic domination rather than affirming the ethnic Chinese identity .
Symbolic reforms to Chinese Indonesian rights under Habibie 's administration were made through two Presidential Instructions . The first abolished the use of the terms " pribumi " and " non @-@ pribumi " in official government documents and business . The second abolished the ban on the study of Mandarin Chinese and reaffirmed a 1996 instruction that abolished the use of the SBKRI to identify citizens of Chinese descent . Habibie established a task force to investigate the May 1998 violence , although his government later dismissed its findings . As an additional legal gesture Indonesia ratified the 1965 Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination on 25 May 1999 . In 2000 the newly elected President Wahid abolished the ban on public displays of Chinese culture and allowed Chinese traditions to be practised freely , without the need of a permit . Two years later President Megawati Sukarnoputri declared that the Chinese New Year ( Imlek ) would be marked as a national holiday from 2003 . In addition to Habibie 's directive on the term " pribumi " , the legislature passed a new citizenship law in 2006 defining the word asli ( " indigenous " ) in the Constitution as a natural born person , allowing Chinese Indonesians to be eligible to run for president . The law further stipulates that children of foreigners born in Indonesia are eligible to apply for Indonesian citizenship .
The post @-@ Suharto era saw the end of discriminatory policy against Chinese Indonesians . Since then , numbers of Chinese Indonesians began to took parts in the nation 's politics , government and administrative sector . Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono presidency ( 2004 @-@ 2014 ) saw the first female Chinese Indonesian minister Mari Elka Pangestu as Minister of Trade ( 2004 @-@ 2011 ) and Minister of Tourism and Creative Economy ( 2011 @-@ 2014 ) . Another notable Chinese Indonesian in Indonesian politics is Basuki Cahaya Purnama or popularly known as Ahok . Former Regent of East Belitung ( 2005 @-@ 2006 ) and the first Chinese Indonesian Governor of Jakarta ( 2014 – present ) .
= = Origins = =
Chinese immigrants to the Indonesian archipelago almost entirely originated from ethnic Han groups of what are now the Fujian and Guangdong provinces in southern China , areas known for their regional diversity . Large numbers of Han Chinese , the largest ethnic group in the world , live in Southeast Asia . Nearly all Chinese Indonesians are either patrilineal descendants of these early immigrants , or new immigrants born in mainland China .
As the first group of Chinese people to settle in large numbers , the Hokkien of southern Fujian became the dominant immigrant group until the middle of the 19th century . Their maritime @-@ mercantile culture comes from their trade occupations whilst in Indonesia . Descendants of Hokkiens are the dominant group in eastern Indonesia , Central and East Java , and the western coast of Sumatra . Teochews , southern neighbors of the Hokkien , are found throughout the eastern coast of Sumatra , in the Riau Archipelago , and in western Borneo . They were preferred as plantation laborers in Sumatra , but have become traders in regions where the Hokkien are not well represented .
The Hakka , unlike the Hokkien and the Teochew , originate from the mountainous inland regions of Guangdong and do not have a maritime culture . Owing to the unproductive terrain of their home region , the Hakka emigrated out of economic necessity in several waves from 1850 to 1930 and were the poorest of the Chinese immigrant groups . Although they initially populated the mining centers of western Borneo and Bangka Island , Hakkas became attracted to the rapid growth of Batavia and West Java in the late 19th century .
Cantonese people , like the Hakka , were well known throughout Southeast Asia as mineworkers . Their migration in the 19th century was largely directed toward the tin mines of Bangka , off the east coast of Sumatra . Notable traditionally as skilled artisans , the Cantonese benefited from close contact with Europeans in Guangdong and Hong Kong by learning about machinery and industrial success . They migrated to Java about the same time as the Hakka , but for different reasons . In Indonesia 's cities they became artisans , machine workers , and owners of small businesses such as restaurants and hotel @-@ keeping services . The Cantonese are evenly dispersed throughout the archipelago , and number far less than the Hokkien or the Hakka . Consequently , their roles are of secondary importance in the Chinese communities .
= = Demographics = =
Indonesia 's 2000 census reported 2 @,@ 411 @,@ 503 citizens ( 1 @.@ 20 percent of the total population ) as ethnic Chinese . An additional 93 @,@ 717 ( 0 @.@ 05 percent ) ethnic Chinese living in Indonesia were reported as foreign citizens , mostly those of the People 's Republic of China and Republic of China , who may not be able to pay the cost of becoming an Indonesian citizen . Because the census employed the method of self @-@ identification , those who refused to identify themselves as ethnic Chinese , or had assumed the identity of other ethnic groups , were recorded as non @-@ Chinese . It is also likely that some did not identify themselves for fear of repercussions in the wake of anti @-@ Chinese violence in 1998 . According to 2010 population census , the self @-@ identified Chinese Indonesian population is 2 @,@ 832 @,@ 510 . There is a growth of 17 @.@ 5 % from 2000 census .
Past estimates on the exact number of Chinese Indonesians relied on the 1930 Dutch East Indies census , which collected direct information on ethnicity . This census reported 1 @.@ 23 million self @-@ identified ethnic Chinese living in the colony , representing 2 @.@ 03 percent of the total population , and was perceived to be an accurate account of the group 's population . Ethnic information would not be collected again until the 2000 census and so was deduced from other census data , such as language spoken and religious affiliation , during the intermediate years . In an early survey of the Chinese Indonesian minority , anthropologist G. William Skinner estimated that between 2 @.@ 3 million ( 2 @.@ 4 percent ) and 2 @.@ 6 million ( 2 @.@ 7 percent ) lived in Indonesia in 1961 . Former foreign minister Adam Malik provided a figure of 5 million in a report published in the Harian Indonesia daily in 1973 . Many media and academic sources subsequently estimated between 4 and 5 percent of the total population as ethnic Chinese regardless of the year . Estimates during the 2000s have placed the figure between 6 and 7 million , and the Overseas Compatriot Affairs Commission of the Republic of China estimated a population as high as 7 @.@ 67 million in 2006 .
According to 2010 population census , 22 @.@ 3 percent of Chinese Indonesians lived in the capital city of Jakarta , located on the island of Java . When the island 's other provinces — Banten , West Java , Central Java , Yogyakarta , and East Java — are included , this population accounted for around half ( 51 @.@ 8 percent ) of all Chinese Indonesians . This data doesn 't count the number of ethnic Chinese that has foreign citizenship . West Kalimantan have about 8 @.@ 15 percent of population is ethnic Chinese , followed by Bangka – Belitung Islands ( 8 @.@ 14 percent ) , Riau Islands ( 7 @.@ 66 percent ) , Jakarta ( 6 @.@ 58 percent ) , North Sumatra ( 2 @.@ 62 percent ) , Riau ( 1 @.@ 84 percent ) . In each of the remaining provinces , Chinese Indonesians account for 1 percent or less of the provincial population . Most Chinese Indonesians in North Sumatra lived in the provincial capital of Medan , but they constituted only a small percentage because of the relatively large population of the province . Bangka – Belitung , West Kalimantan , and Riau are grouped around the hub of ethnic Chinese economic activity in Singapore and , with the exception of Bangka – Belitung , these settlements existed long before Singapore 's founding in 1819 .
The ethnic Chinese population in Indonesia grew by an average of 4 @.@ 3 percent annually between 1920 and 1930 . It then slowed owing to the effects of the Great Depression and many areas experienced a net emigration . Falling growth rates were also attributed to a significant decrease in the number of Chinese immigrants admitted into Indonesia since the 1950s . The population is relatively old according to the 2000 census , having the lowest percentage of population under 14 years old nationwide and the second @-@ highest percentage of population over 65 . Their population pyramid had a narrow base with a rapid increase until the 15 – 19 age group , indicating a rapid decline in total fertility rates . This was evidenced by a decline in the absolute number of births since 1980 . In Jakarta and West Java the population peak occurred in the 20 – 24 age group , indicating that the decline in fertility rates began as early as 1975 . The upper portion of the pyramid exhibited a smooth decline with increasing population age . It is estimated that 60 @.@ 7 percent of the Chinese Indonesian population in 2000 constitute the generation which experienced political and social pressures under the New Order government . With an average life expectancy of 75 years , those who spent their formative years prior to this regime will completely disappear by 2032 .
= = = Emigrant communities = = =
New migrants began moving from Indonesia and other Southeast Asian countries to more industrialized regions around the world in the second half of the 20th century . Although these migrants possess a Chinese heritage , they often were not identified as such ; this trend has continued into the modern day . There have been several independent estimates made on the Chinese Indonesian population living in other countries . James Jupp 's The Australian People encyclopedia estimated that half of over 30 @,@ 000 Indonesians living in Australia in the late 1990s are ethnic Chinese , and they have since merged with other Chinese communities . In New Zealand , many migrants reside in the suburbs of Auckland after some 1 @,@ 500 sought asylum from the 1998 upheaval , of which two @-@ thirds were granted residency .
Australian scholar Charles Coppel believes Chinese Indonesian migrants also constitute a large majority of returned overseas Chinese living in Hong Kong . Though it is impossible to accurately count this number , news sources have provided estimates ranging from 100 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 .
Of the 57 @,@ 000 Indonesians living in the United States in 2000 , one @-@ third were estimated to be ethnic Chinese . Locally knowledgeable migrants in Southern California estimate that 60 percent of Indonesian Americans living in the area are of Chinese descent . Their families usually resided in Indonesia for several generations and may have intermarried with " pribumi " . In Canada , only a minority of the emigrant Chinese Indonesian community speak Chinese . Although families are interested in rediscovering their ethnic traditions , their Canadian @-@ born children are often reluctant to learn either Indonesian or Chinese .
= = Society = =
It may be stated as a general rule that if a given area of Indonesia was settled by Chinese in appreciable numbers prior to this [ 20th ] century , Chinese society there is in some degree dichotomous today . In one sector of the society , adults as well as children are Indonesia @-@ born , the orientation toward China is attenuated , and the influence of the individual culture is apparent . In the other sector of the society , the population consists of twentieth @-@ century immigrants and their immediate descendants , who are less acculturated and more strongly oriented toward China . The significance and pervasiveness of the social line between the two sectors varies from one part of Indonesia to another .
Scholars who study Chinese Indonesians often distinguish members of the group according to their racial and sociocultural background : the " totok " and the " peranakan " . The two terms were initially used to racially distinguish the pure @-@ blooded Chinese from those with mixed ancestry . A secondary meaning to the terms later arose that meant the " totok " were born in China , and anyone born in Indonesia was considered " peranakan " . Segmentation within " totok " communities occurs through division in speech groups , a pattern that has become less apparent since the turn of the 20th century . Among the indigenized " peranakan " segmentation occurs through social class , which is graded according to education and family standing rather than wealth .
= = = Gender and kinship = = =
Kinship structure in the " totok " community follows the patrilineal , patrilocal , and patriarchal traditions of Chinese society , a practice which has lost emphasis in " peranakan " familial relationships . Instead , kinship patterns in indigenized families have incorporated elements of matrilocal , matrilineal , and matrifocal traditions found in Javanese society . Within this community , both sons and daughters can inherit the family fortune , including ancestral tablets and ashes . Political , social , and economic authority in " peranakan " families is more evenly distributed between the two genders than in " totok " families . Kin terms do not distinguish between maternal and paternal relatives , and polygyny is strongly frowned upon . Western influence in " peranakan " society is evidenced
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several years , other conglomerates struggled to repay international and domestic debts . Reforms introduced following 1998 were meant to steer the economy away from oligarchic arrangements established under the New Order ; however , plans for reform proved too optimistic . When President B. J. Habibie announced in a 19 July 1998 interview with The Washington Post that Indonesia was not dependent on ethnic Chinese businessmen , the rupiah 's value plunged 5 percent . This unexpected reaction prompted immediate changes in policies , and Habibie soon began enticing conglomerates for their support in the reform plans . Most were initially fearful of democratization , but the process of social demarginalization meant that the ethnic Chinese were regarded as equal members of society for the first time in the nation 's history . Increased regional autonomy allowed surviving conglomerates to explore new opportunities in the outer provinces , and economic reforms created a freer market .
= = = Political activity = = =
Between the 18th and early 20th centuries , ethnic Chinese communities were dominated by the " peranakan " presence . This period was followed by the growth of " totok " society . As part of a resinicization effort by the indigenized ethnic Chinese community , a new pan @-@ Chinese movement emerged with the goal of a unified Chinese political identity . The movement later split in the 1920s when " peranakan " elites resisted the leadership of the " totok " in the nationalist movement , and the two groups developed their own objectives . When it became apparent that unification was being achieved on " totok " terms , " peranakan " leaders chose to align their community with the Dutch , who had abandoned the segregation policies in 1908 . The two communities once again found common ground in opposition to the invading Japanese when the occupying forces treated all Chinese groups with contempt .
The issue of nationality , following independence , politicized the ethnic Chinese and led to the formation of Baperki in 1954 , as the first and largest Chinese Indonesian political party or mass organization . Baperki and its majority " peranakan " membership led the opposition against a draft law that would have restricted the number of ethnic Chinese who could gain Indonesian citizenship . This movement was met by the Islamic Masyumi Party in 1956 when it called for the implementation of affirmative action for indigenous businesses . During the 1955 legislative election , Baperki received 178 @,@ 887 votes and gained a seat on the People 's Representative Council ( DPR ) . Later that year , two Baperki candidates were also elected to the Constitutional Assembly .
Ethnic @-@ based political parties were banned under the government of President Suharto , leaving only the three indigenous @-@ dominated parties of Golkar , the United Development Party ( PPP ) , and the Indonesian Democratic Party ( PDI ) . The depoliticizing of Indonesian society confined ethnic Chinese activities to the economic sector . Chinese Indonesian critics of the regime were mostly " peranakan " and projected themselves as Indonesians , leaving the ethnic Chinese with no visible leaders . On the eve of the 1999 legislative election , after Suharto 's resignation , the news magazine Tempo conducted a survey of likely Chinese Indonesian voters on their political party of choice for the election . Although respondents were able to choose more than one party , 70 percent favored the Indonesian Democratic Party – Struggle ( PDI – P ) , whose image of a nationalist party was considered favorable toward the ethnic Chinese . The party also benefited from the presence of economist Kwik Kian Gie , who was well respected by both ethnic Chinese and non @-@ ethnic @-@ Chinese voters .
New ethnic political parties such as the Chinese Indonesian Reform Party ( Partai Reformasi Tionghoa Indonesia , PARTI ) and the Indonesian Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Party ( Partai Bhinneka Tunggal Ika Indonesia , PBI ) failed to garner much support in the 1999 election . Despite this result , the number of Chinese Indonesian candidates standing in national election increased from fewer than 50 in 1999 to almost 150 in 2004 . Of the 58 candidates of Chinese descent who ran for office as representatives from Jakarta in the 2009 legislative election , two won seats .
= = Culture = =
= = = Language = = =
Four major Chinese @-@ speech groups are represented in Indonesia : Hokkien , Mandarin , Hakka , and Cantonese . In addition to these , the Teochew speak a dialect that is mutually intelligible with the Hokkien . Distinctions between the two , however , are accentuated outside of their regions of origin . There were an estimated 2 million native speakers of various Chinese varieties in Indonesia in 1982 : 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 speakers of Southern Min varieties ( including Hokkien and Teochew dialect ) ; 640 @,@ 000 Hakka speakers ; 460 @,@ 000 Mandarin speakers ; 180 @,@ 000 Cantonese speakers ; and 20 @,@ 000 speakers of the Eastern Min Chinese ( including Fuzhou dialect ) . Additionally , an estimated 20 @,@ 000 spoke varieties of the Indonesian language .
The Chinese along the North @-@ Eastern coast of Sumatra , especially in North Sumatra , Riau , Jambi are predominantly Hokkien speakers , there are also two different variant of Hokkien speaking such as Medan Hokkien who based on the Zhangzhou dialect and Riau Hokkien who based Quanzhou dialect . There are also Hokkien speaker in Java , Sulawesi , Kalimantan . Meanwhile , the Hakka speaker is majority in Aceh , Bangka @-@ Belitung , and West Kalimantan north of Pontianak . Some Hakka speakers live in Java . The Cantonese speakers mainly living in big cities like Medan , Jakarta , Batam , Surabaya , and Pontianak . The Teochew speakers become majority in West Kalimantan especially in Central to Southern area such as Ketapang , Kendawangan , and Pontianak , as well as in Riau Islands surround Batam . There are some Hokchia speakers in East Java , especially in Surabaya .
Many Indonesians , including the ethnic Chinese , believe in the existence of a dialect of Malay language , Chinese Malay , known locally as Melayu Tionghoa or Melayu Cina . The growth of " peranakan " literature in the second half of the 19th century gave rise to such a variant , popularized through silat ( martial arts ) stories translated from Chinese or written in Malay and Indonesian . However , scholars argue it is different from the mixture of spoken Javanese and Malay that is perceived to be " spoken exclusively by ethnic Chinese " .
[ E ] xcept for a few loan words from Chinese , nothing about ' Chinese Malay ' is uniquely Chinese . The language was simply low , bazaar Malay , the common tongue of Java 's streets and markets , especially of its cities , spoken by all ethnic groups in the urban and multi @-@ ethnic environment . Because Chinese were a dominant element in the cities and markets , the language was associated with them , but government officials , Eurasians , migrant traders , or people from different language areas , all resorted to this form of Malay to communicate .
Academic literature discussing Chinese Malay commonly note that ethnic Chinese do not speak the same dialect of Malay throughout the archipelago . Furthermore , although the Dutch colonial government first introduced the Malay orthography in 1901 , Chinese newspapers did not follow this standard until after independence . Because of these factors , the ethnic Chinese play a " significant role " in the development of the modern Indonesian language as the largest group during the colonial period to communicate in a variety of Malay dialects .
= = = Literature = = =
Chinese cultural influences can be seen in local Chinese Malay literature , which dates back to the late 19th century . One of the earliest and most comprehensive works on this subject , Claudine Salmon 's 1981 book Literature in Malay by the Chinese of Indonesia : A Provisional Annotated Bibliography , lists over 3 @,@ 000 works . Samples of this literature were also published in a six @-@ volume collection titled Kesastraan Melayu Tionghoa dan Kebangsaan Indonesia ( " Chinese Malay Literature and the Indonesian Nation " ) .
Kho Ping Hoo or Asmaraman Sukowati Kho Ping Hoo is a beloved Indonesian author of Chinese ethnicity . He is well known in Indonesia for his martial art fiction set in the background of China or Java . During his 30 years career , at least 120 stories has been published ( according to Leo Suryadinata ) . However , Forum magazine claimed at least Kho Ping Hoo had 400 stories with the background of China and 50 stories with the background of Java .
= = = Media = = =
All Chinese @-@ language publications were prohibited under the assimilation policy of the Suharto period , with the exception of the government @-@ controlled daily newspaper Harian Indonesia . The lifting of the Chinese @-@ language ban after 1998 prompted the older generation of Chinese Indonesians to promote its use to the younger generation ; according to Malaysian @-@ Chinese researcher of the Chinese diaspora , Chang @-@ Yau Hoon , they believed they would " be influenced by the virtues of Chinese culture and Confucian values " . One debate took place in the media in 2003 , discussing the Chinese " mu yu " ( 母語 , " mother tongue " ) and the Indonesian " guo yu " ( 國語 , " national language " ) . Nostalgia was a common theme in the Chinese @-@ language press in the period immediately following Suharto 's government . The rise of China 's political and economic standing at the turn of the 21st century became an impetus for their attempt to attract younger readers who seek to rediscover their cultural roots .
During the first three decades of the 20th century , ethnic Chinese owned most , if not all , movie theaters in cities throughout the Dutch East Indies . Films from China were being imported by the 1920s , and a film industry began to emerge in 1928 with the arrival of the three Wong brothers from Shanghai — their films would dominate the market through the 1930s . These earliest films almost exclusively focused on the ethnic Chinese community , although a few examined inter @-@ ethnic relations as a main theme . The later ban on the public use of Chinese language meant that imported films and television programs were required to be dubbed in English with subtitles in Indonesian . When martial arts serials began appearing on national television in 1988 , they were dubbed in Indonesian . One exception was the showing of films from Hong Kong in Chinese — limited to ethnic Chinese districts and their surroundings — because of an agreement between importers and the film censor board .
= = = Religion = = =
There is little scholarly work devoted to the religious life of Chinese Indonesians . The 1977 French book Les Chinois de Jakarta : Temples et Vie Collective ( " The Chinese of Jakarta : Temples and Collective Life " ) is the only major study to assess ethnic Chinese religious life in Indonesia . The Ministry of Religious Affairs grants official status to six religions : Islam , Catholicism , Protestantism , Hinduism , Buddhism , and Confucianism . A 2006 civil registration law does not allow Indonesians to identify themselves as a member of any other religion on their identity cards .
According to the 2000 census data , almost 90 percent of Chinese Indonesians were Buddhist or Christian ( Catholic and Protestant ) . Conversion from the " Chinese religion " to Christianity often occurs in the younger generations , and it is not uncommon to find Christian children whose parents adhere to their traditional religion . The first wave of conversions occurred in the 1950s and 1960s , in response to intolerance against Chinese culture , and the number of ethnic Chinese Catholics during this period quadrupled . The second wave followed after the government withdrew Confucianism 's status as a recognized religion in the 1970s . Roderick Brazier , assistant country representative in Indonesia for the Asia Foundation , reported in 2006 that 70 percent of the ethnic Chinese population was Christian , and that there was active proselytism from international churches . Demographer Aris Ananta reported in 2008 that " anecdotal evidence suggests that more Buddhist Chinese have become Christians as they increased their standards of education " .
In a country where nearly 90 percent of the population are Muslims , the ethnic Chinese Muslims form a small minority of the ethnic Chinese population . The 2000 census counted 5 @.@ 41 percent of Chinese Indonesians were followers of Islam . Associations such as the Organization of Chinese Muslims of Indonesia ( Persatuan Islam Tionghoa Indonesia , PITI ) had been in existence in the late 19th century . PITI was re @-@ established in 1963 as a modern organization , but occasionally experienced periods of inactivity . Confucians were included in the category of other religions in 2000 and accounted for 3 @.@ 91 percent of the Chinese Indonesian population . The Supreme Council for Confucian Religion in Indonesia ( Majelis Tinggi Agama Khonghucu Indonesia , MATAKIN ) estimated that 95 percent of Confucians are ethnic Chinese ; most of the remaining 5 percent are ethnic Javanese converts . Although the government has restored Confucianism 's status as a recognized religion , many local authorities do not abide by it and have refused to allow ethnic Chinese from listing it as a religion on their identity cards . Local officials remained largely unaware that the civil registration law legally allowed citizens to leave the religion section on their identity cards blank .
= = = Architecture = = =
Various forms of Chinese architecture exist throughout Indonesia with marked differences between urban and rural areas and among the different islands . Architectural developments by the Chinese in Southeast Asia differ from those in mainland China . By blending local and European ( Dutch ) design patterns , numerous variations of fusion styles emerged . Chinese architecture in Indonesia has manifested in three forms : religious temples , study halls , and houses . Cities during the colonial period were divided into three racial districts : European , oriental ( Arabs , Chinese , and other Asians ) , and indigenous . There usually were no physical boundaries among the zones , except for rivers , walls , or roads in some cases . Such legal boundaries promoted high growths in urban density within each zone , especially in the Chinese quarters , often leading to poor environmental conditions .
Early settlers did not adhere to traditional architectural practices when constructing houses , but instead adapted to living conditions in Indonesia . Although the earliest houses are no longer standing , they were likely built from wood or bamboo with thatched roofs , resembling indigenous houses found throughout Sumatra , Borneo , and Java . More permanent constructions replaced these settlements in the 19th century . Segregation policies under the Dutch forbade the use of European architectural styles by non @-@ European ethnic groups . The ethnic Chinese and other foreign and indigenous groups lived according to their own cultures . Chinese houses along the north coast of Java were renovated to include Chinese ornamentation . As racial segregation eased at the turn of the 20th century , the ethnic Chinese who had lost their identity embraced European culture and began removing ethnic ornaments from their buildings . The policies implemented by the New Order government which prohibited the public display of Chinese culture have also accelerated the transition toward local and Western architecture .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Chinese culinary culture is particularly evident in Indonesian cuisine through the Hokkien , Hakka , and Cantonese loanwords used for various dishes . Words beginning with bak ( 肉 ) signify the presence of meat , e.g. bakpau ( " meat bun " ) ; words ending with cai ( 菜 ) signify vegetables , e.g. pecai ( " Chinese white cabbage " ) and cap cai . The words mi or mie ( 麵 ) signify noodle as in mi goreng .
Most of these loanwords for food dishes and their ingredients are Hokkien in origin , and are used throughout the Indonesian language and vernacular speech of large cities . Because they have become an integral part of the local language , many Indonesians and ethnic Chinese do not recognize their Hokkien origins . Some popular Indonesian dishes such as nasi goreng , lumpia , and bakpia can trace their origin to Chinese influence . Some food and ingredients are part of the daily diet of both the indigenous and ethnic Chinese populations as side dishes to accompany rice , the staple food of most of the country . Among ethnic Chinese families , both peranakan and totok , pork is generally preferred as meat ; this is in contrast with traditional Indonesian cuisine , which in majority @-@ Muslim areas avoids the meat . The consumption of pork has , however , decreased in recent years owing to a recognition of its contribution to health hazards such as high cholesterol levels and heart disease .
In a 1997 restaurant listing published by the English @-@ language daily The Jakarta Post , which largely caters to expatriates and middle class Indonesians , at least 80 locations within the city can be considered Chinese out of the 10 @-@ page list . Additionally , major hotels generally operate one or two Chinese restaurants , and many more can be found in large shopping centers . Upscale Chinese restaurants in Jakarta , where the urban character of the ethnic Chinese is well established , can be found serving delicacies such as shark fin soup and bird 's nest soup . Food considered to have healing properties , including ingredients in traditional Chinese medicine , are in high demand .
= = = Education = = =
Citizens of the Republic of China ( Taiwan ) residing in Indonesia are served by two international schools : Jakarta Taipei School , which was the first Chinese @-@ language school in Indonesia since the Indonesian government ended its ban on the Chinese language , and the Surabaya Taipei International School ( 印尼泗水臺灣學校 ) .
= Skinner 's Sense of Snow =
" Skinner 's Sense of Snow " is the eighth episode of The Simpsons ' twelfth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 2000 . In the episode , a snowstorm traps the students with principal Seymour Skinner and Groundskeeper Willie in Springfield Elementary . When Skinner uses his army skills to control the students , they overthrow him and take over the school . Meanwhile , Homer and Ned set out to rescue the children using Ned 's car .
" Skinner 's Sense of Snow " was written by Tim Long and directed by Lance Kramer . While the episode 's premise is based on an occurrence in Long 's childhood , the setpiece came from staff writer Matt Selman . Because the episode takes place in winter , Kramer found it difficult to animate . It features references to Smilla 's Sense of Snow , The Deer Hunter and Kristi Yamaguchi , among other things . In its original broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately 8 @.@ 8 million viewers , finishing in 33rd place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the home video release , the episode received mostly positive reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
While the Simpsons attend a French Canadian circus called " Cirque de Purée " , a wild blizzard hits Springfield , turning it into a snowsquall overnight . However , Springfield Elementary School stays open regardless of the storm , even though every other local school closes . Only some students , including the classmates of Bart and Lisa , show up while Skinner and Willie are the only faculty members at the school that day . To pass the time , Skinner plays his professed favourite film , a very low @-@ budget , long @-@ running , 1938 holiday movie called " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " . When the kids try to leave school , however , snow has piled up , trapping the kids inside with Skinner and Groundskeeper Willie , much to their horror .
Skinner tries to keep the children under control , forcing them to stay together in the cafeteria and eat apples , relish and ( only if they behave well enough ) mayonnaise and will not let them go home until the snow melts . After Nelson tries to escape , Skinner unearths his U.S. Army memorabilia and is reminded of the days when he commanded respect from his troops . Skinner tries to command respect from the students , and briefly succeeds after threatening to hang them in their clothes on hooks on the wall if they rebel . Bart tries to tunnel his way out , but Skinner stops him , and after Willie refuses to destroy the tunnel , Skinner tries to , but is stuck in the resulting cave @-@ in . The students rebel and eventually tie Skinner up in a dodge ball bag . They then set about ' going nuts ' such as racing trolleys in the school hallway , even burning numerous books in the school 's library .
Meanwhile , Homer , with the help of Ned Flanders , sets out to rescue the children but crashes Flanders ' car into a fire hydrant , which sprays water that freezes the car in place . Homer 's repeated gunning of the accelerator causes carbon monoxide to flood the front of the car . Flanders and Homer get high from the fumes and wildly hallucinate . While the trapped children go wild with power , Skinner uses the school hamster , named Nibbles , to get a message to the outside world . Nibbles makes it to Ned and Homer , breaking the window and reviving them : they crash into a salt silo , melting the snow around the school and badly rusting the car but freeing the kids in the process .
Superintendent Chalmers appears and is ready to blame Skinner for the school 's current poor state when Bart takes the place , amending things with Skinner . As he and Lisa leave with Homer and Ned , Homer starts hallucinating again making him see Lisa as a camel and Bart as a dancing girl . Homer tries to kiss Bart , who tries his best to escape , causing the car to lose control and crash , and camel Lisa , then says " Merry Christmas from the Simpsons " !
= = Production = =
" Skinner 's Sense of Snow " was written by Tim Long and directed by Lance Kramer . It was first broadcast on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 2000 . The idea for the episode came from Long . One winter during his childhood , Exeter , Ontario , where Long lived , was hit by a blizzard . Much to his dismay , Long found out that all schools except Exeter Public School , which he went to , got closed ( in the U.S. , schools are closed entirely at the County or District level , so the real @-@ life situation did not apply here , as it was shown Principal Skinner had the authority to open the school and even to have Otto work his usual bus route ) . Eventually , Long and his classmates were snowed in with the school 's staff . " It was hellish , but then became a sweet thing " , he said . " A couple of the dads braved the cold and brought us food on snowmobiles . So it was sweet . " Two years after Long pitched the premise , staff writer Matt Selman pitched the episodes setpiece , which revolves around the Simpsons ' visit to Cirque du Purée . " I pitched [ the setpiece ] to Tim [ Long ] when we were pitching around ideas " , Selman said in the episode 's DVD commentary . " And I said , ' What about a Cirque du Soleil parody ? ' " The staff then decided to combine the two stories , and production on " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " ensued .
In order to make a faithful rendition of the circus , director Kramer asked the animators to watch a showing of Cirque du Soleil in Santa Monica , but they declined the offer . Regardless , executive producer and former showrunner Mike Scully found that the animators did an " amazing " job animating the setpiece . Because the episode takes place in winter , the animators faced some challenges that they would not have with any other episode . " It just adds another element " , Kramer said about episodes taking place in winter , " People 's clothes have to get tugged in the wind if it 's windy . And you have to make sure the snow is consistent because [ ... ] It 's like a character . If it 's a big snowflake in one scene and then tiny ones where it 's snowing too hard in the next scene ... It 's not gonna work . " The scratches and bad quality of " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " were added in by the Post @-@ Production Department , led by Alex Duke . " Our Post @-@ Production Department never gets enough credit , " Scully said , " But they 'll take a film like [ ' The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was ' ] and make it all scratchy and make it look really old . They always do a great job . " The woman in " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " was portrayed by Tress MacNeille , while the clown in the Cirque du Purée was voiced by Hank Azaria . The song that plays when Homer and Ned are driving to the school is " Feel Like Makin ' Love " by English rock band Bad Company . Originally , the series ' staff wanted to use " Rock and Roll All Nite " by American rock band Kiss , but they failed to obtain the rights to use it .
= = Cultural references = =
Although the episode 's title is a reference to the Danish mystery novel Smilla 's Sense of Snow , there are no other allusions to the book in the episode . In the episode 's setpiece , the Simpsons visit a circus called Cirque du Puree . The circus is a reference to the Canadian entertainment company Cirque du Soleil . In the film " The Christmas That Almost Wasn 't , But Then Was " , one of the hobgoblins has a similar singing voice as American singer Nelson Eddy . Having just found out that they are trapped in the school , Skinner says " I don 't care if you 're Kristi Yamaguchi - no one leaves the building " . According to Long , the line was written by either Dana Gould or George Meyer , both of whom are former staff writers . While wreaking havoc in the school , Milhouse can be seen doodling a mustache on a picture of Warren G. Harding , the 29th President of the United States . While ordering Skinner to humiliate himself , Bart says " Di , di , mau " . This is a reference to the 1978 drama film The Deer Hunter , in which the Vietcong says the line to their captives . One of the books that the children burn in the school 's library is the 1944 children 's novel Johnny Tremain by Esther Forbes .
= = Release = =
In its original American broadcast on December 17 , 2000 , " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " received an 8 @.@ 7 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 8 @.@ 8 million viewers . The episode finished in 33rd place in the ratings for the week of December 11 @-@ 17 , 2000 , tying with an episode of the ABC sitcom The Drew Carey Show . Since its broadcast , the episode has been released twice on home video . On November 2 , 2004 , it was released along with " Homer vs. Dignity " , " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " and " ' Tis the 15th Season " as part of a DVD set entitled The Simpsons - Christmas 2 . On August 18 , 2009 , the episode was again released as part of a DVD set called The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season . Matt Groening , Mike Scully , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Tim Long , Matt Selman , David Mirkin , Max Pross and Lance Kramer participated in the audio commentary for the episode .
Following its home video release , " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " received mostly positive reviews from critics . In his review of The Simpsons : The Complete Twelfth Season , DVD Verdict 's Mac McEntire wrote that , while he prefers " down @-@ to @-@ Earth " episodes , the more " outrageous " episodes like " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " are the ones that are " standouts " . He added that the episode " provides a lot of solid ' cool kids versus dorky adults ' comedy " , and that the setpiece was the best part of the episode . Matt Haigh of Den of Geek described the episode as " gold " , and considers it to be one of the season 's best episodes . The staff of The Journal , while reviewing The Simpsons - Christmas 2 DVD set , described the episode as " memorable " , and John McMurtrie of the San Francisco Chronicle cited it as " great " . Elizabeth Skipper , another reviewer for DVD Verdict , wrote that most episodes that center around Skinner are " a sure thing " , and that " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " is no exception . Both Aaron Beierle and Jason Bailey of DVD Talk argued that " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " is one of the best episodes of the season . On the other hand , giving the episode a mixed review , Colin Jacobsson of DVD Movie Guide described the episode as " mediocre " . Although he found the children 's revolt against Skinner amusing , he argued that the premise was not used to its full potential . He concluded his review by calling it " a fairly average program " .
= New York State Route 252 =
New York State Route 252 ( NY 252 ) is an east – west state highway south of Rochester in Monroe County , New York , in the United States . The western terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 33A in Chili and the eastern terminus is at a junction with NY 64 and NY 96 in the village of Pittsford . NY 252 passes through the center of the town of Henrietta 's commercial district , where it intersects NY 15 . The route passes through three distinct areas : a lightly populated , rural area of Chili west of the Genesee River , the heavily developed commercial district centered on NY 252 's intersections with NY 15 and NY 15A , and a mostly residential area of the town of Pittsford .
When NY 252 was assigned in the early 1930s , it extended from Scottsville Road ( NY 383 ) in Chili to the village of Pittsford . NY 252 was extended northwest to Chili Center in 1949 by way of modern NY 252A , and east to Bushnell 's Basin in the mid @-@ 1950s after NY 96 was realigned onto part of the Eastern Expressway . The route was shifted southward onto its present alignment through Chili in the late 1950s and cut back to Pittsford c . 1961 . The segment of NY 252 west of NY 383 was initially county @-@ maintained ; however , ownership and maintenance of it was transferred to the state of New York in 2007 .
= = Route description = =
NY 252 begins at an intersection with NY 33A in the Monroe County town of Chili . The route heads eastward , following Beaver Road through a sparsely populated area of Chili . About 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) from NY 33A , NY 252 intersects NY 386 . The highway continues onward , partially paralleling Black Creek eastward to an intersection with Archer Road . Here , Beaver Road comes to an end while NY 252 adopts the Archer Road name and heads southeastward , crossing over Black Creek as it approaches Ballantyne Road . At Ballantyne Road , Archer Road terminates and NY 252 changes names once more to Ballantyne Road .
As Ballantyne Road , the route progresses northeastward , paralleling Black Creek as it crosses the Rochester and Southern Railroad . Roughly 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) past the railroad crossing , the road curves to the southeast , entering a residential area as it approaches the Genesee River and NY 383 ( Scottsville Road ) , which runs along the river 's western bank . At NY 383 , NY 252 becomes Jefferson Road , a name that follows NY 252 eastward to its terminus in the village of Pittsford . NY 252 traverses the river and enters the town of Henrietta by way of the Ballantyne Bridge . On the opposite bank of the river , NY 252 intersects East River Road , Scottsville Road 's counterpart on the eastern river bank .
Just east of the river , the route passes north of the campus of the Rochester Institute of Technology , one of largest colleges in the Rochester area . NY 252 connects to the college by way of Lomb Memorial Drive and Lowenthal Road before proceeding eastward into an area of Henrietta dominated by commercial establishments . From Brighton – Henrietta Town Line Road east to South Winton Road , NY 252 is at least four lanes wide and is lined with plazas , stores and shopping centers . The approximate center of Henrietta 's commercial district is situated near the modified diamond interchange that links NY 252 to NY 15 . The Marketplace Mall and South Town Plaza , the two largest shopping centers in the area , are both located in the vicinity of this intersection . NY 252 intersects NY 15A and meets Interstate 390 ( I @-@ 390 ) at an interchange prior to intersecting Winton Road .
East of Winton Road , NY 252 narrows to two lanes and enters a highly residential neighborhood . At the Henrietta – Pittsford town line , the route passes the Locust Hill Country Club . Past Locust Hill , NY 252 continues past a series of residential neighborhoods to an intersection with NY 65 . East of NY 65 , NY 252 becomes West Jefferson Road and briefly enters an area of open , cultivated fields before entering the village of Pittsford . The route heads east for four blocks as a residential street , passing Pittsford Sutherland High School before ending at an intersection with South Main Street ( NY 64 and NY 96 ) .
= = History = =
= = = Designation and maintenance = = =
NY 252 was assigned in the early 1930s to the portion of its modern alignment east of Scottsville Road ( current NY 383 ) in Chili . It was extended northwest to NY 33A and then @-@ NY 251 ( now NY 386 ) in the hamlet of Chili Center via Scottsville and Paul roads on January 1 , 1949 , replacing NY 198 . In the mid @-@ 1950s , NY 96 was realigned onto the new Eastern Expressway from Bushnell 's Basin to East Rochester . Its former surface routing between the village of Pittsford and Bushnell 's Basin became part of an extended NY 252 . The west end of NY 252 was altered in the late 1950s to follow Ballantyne , Archer , and Beaver Roads between NY 33A and NY 383 , while the east end was truncated back to Pittsford c . 1961 when the Eastern Expressway was redesignated as I @-@ 490 . The former routing of NY 252 along Paul Road was redesignated as NY 252A .
The portion of NY 252 west of NY 383 was originally maintained by Monroe County . This section was concurrent with three different county route designations , one for each of the three different road names along this stretch . The portion of NY 252 on Ballantyne Road was designated by Monroe County as County Route 125 ( CR 125 ) while the Beaver Road segment was CR 127 and the Archer Road piece was CR 129 . In 2007 , ownership and maintenance of NY 252 west of NY 383 was transferred from Monroe County to the state of New York as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . A bill ( S4856 , 2007 ) to enact the swap was introduced in the New York State Senate on April 23 and passed by both the Senate and the New York State Assembly on June 20 . The act was signed into law by Governor Eliot Spitzer on August 28 . Under the terms of the act , it took effect 90 days after it was signed into law ; thus , the maintenance swap officially took place on November 26 , 2007 . The entirety of NY 252 is now maintained by the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) .
= = = Widening projects = = =
In August 2008 , construction began on a $ 5 @.@ 5 million project to improve the intersection between Clover Street ( NY 65 ) and Jefferson Road ( NY 252 ) in the town of Pittsford . The project , which had been in development for a decade , involved the widening of Jefferson Road from two to four lanes in the vicinity of the intersection , the addition of green arrow signal lights for all left @-@ hand turns , and the installation of sidewalks alongside both Clover Street and Jefferson Road . Work on the project was temporarily halted during the winter months ; however , it resumed on April 1 , 2009 . The project was completed in late 2009 .
The portion of NY 252 in Henrietta between Marketplace Drive and Ridgeland Road was widened from four to six lanes as part of a multi @-@ year , $ 15 @.@ 6 million project that began in mid @-@ 2009 . Phase one of the five @-@ phase project , completed during the second half of 2009 , involved the relocation of utility poles and water mains . The next four phases involved the actual widening of the highway . During phase two , all traffic on Jefferson Road was routed along the eastbound lanes while the westbound half of the road was reconstructed and widened ; this was reversed during phase three . A raised median between the two directions , which prohibited left @-@ hand turns at all points except signalized intersections , was constructed during phase four , and phase five covered the finishing touches of the project . As part of the project , the intersection between Jefferson Road and East Henrietta Road ( NY 15A ) was widened to have two dedicated left turn lanes in all four directions . Work on the last four phases began on March 29 , 2010 , and was expected to be fully completed in November 2011 . Construction did get completed in November 2011 , but at the cost of $ 16 @.@ 5 million ( 2012 USD ) instead of the original $ 15 @.@ 6 million .
= = NY 252A = =
NY 252A ( 4 @.@ 40 miles or 7 @.@ 08 kilometres ) was an alternate route of NY 252 along Paul Road in the town of Chili . It extended from the eastern terminus of the overlap between NY 33A and NY 386 in the hamlet of Chili Center to NY 383 in the vicinity of the Greater Rochester International Airport . Despite its designation , NY 252A never connected to NY 252 . The route existed from the late 1950s to 2009 . Its former alignment is now maintained by Monroe County as part of CR 168 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Monroe County .
= Margaritaville ( South Park ) =
" Margaritaville " is the third episode of the thirteenth season of the American animated television series South Park . The 184th overall episode of the series , it originally aired on Comedy Central in the United States on March 25 , 2009 as an Easter special . The episode is a satire and commentary on the global recession affecting much of the industrialized world at the time of the episode 's broadcast . Kyle is portrayed as a Jesus @-@ like savior working to save the economy , and Stan spends much of the episode trying to return a personal Jimmy Buffett Margaritaville machine .
The episode was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker , and was rated TV @-@ MA L in the United States . Parker and Stone long planned to create an episode about the economy and considered making it the season premiere , but decided they needed more time to craft the script , and instead opened the season with " The Ring " , a spoof of the Jonas Brothers boy band . In their original idea for an economy episode , Parker and Stone considered having Cartman dress as a superhero who fights the economy . That idea was ultimately scrapped , and elements were transferred to the season 's second episode , " The Coon " .
" Margaritaville " reflected Parker and Stone 's belief that most Americans view the economy in the same way as religion , in that it is seldom understood but seen as an important , elusive entity . The Margaritaville blender featured in the episode serves as a metaphor for American consumerism , as well as the housing bubble . The script proved challenging for Parker and Stone , and they did not finish writing it until the night before the episode first aired . Parker and Stone themselves were not entirely pleased with the final product of " Margaritaville " , but it received generally positive reviews by television critics .
According to Nielsen Media Research , the episode was seen by 2 @.@ 77 million households in its original airing , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . " Margaritaville " won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming Less Than One Hour . " Margaritaville " was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray along with the rest of the thirteenth season on March 16 , 2010 .
= = Plot = =
Stan tries to save money by depositing it into the bank but it " disappears " moments after when the bank manager invests the money in a " money @-@ market mutual fund . " When Randy complains to the manager , he invests money in a portfolio , but the money also disappears ; a recession then hits the nation and South Park . At dinner , Randy explains to Stan that the economy is failing due to people spending their money on luxuries , and ironically , he continues his tirade while making himself a margarita in a Margaritaville @-@ brand mixer , the noise of which drowns out his voice for part of the tirade .
People in South Park are struggling with the recent economic downturn , and many people on the street are castigating those whom they would blame ; Cartman predictably blames the Jews , claiming they hid the money in a " Jew Cave " , but Randy convinces everyone to reduce their spending to only the " bare essentials " in order to propitiate the economy , defending his own frivolous purchase by adding that the essentials include margaritas . His recommended changes make the town resemble first @-@ century Galilee .
Kyle becomes annoyed , responding that the economy is not actually angry with them , and that they should be out spending money , and continues to preach that the economy only exists as a mental construct , and that people have lost their faith in it because of the recession . He then convinces his friends that if they want the economy to be strong , they must have faith in it . Upon hearing of this heresy , Randy and his makeshift economic council decide that they must kill Kyle . Cartman , in his desire to obtain a copy of Grand Theft Auto : Chinatown Wars , says that he will deliver Kyle to Randy and his friends in exchange for the game .
In a scene resembling that of the Last Supper , Kyle and his friends go out for pizza where he laments that he feels they will not be able to get together like this anymore because he thinks one of his friends will betray him . The next day , Kyle sets up a table with a credit card machine in the town and begins " paying everybody 's debts " with his American Express Platinum Card . Kyle 's mother begs him to stop because he will be in debt for life , but Kyle feels he must to help everybody in the town . After paying for the debts , he passes out and the people carry him to his bed .
Soon enough , the economy takes a turn for the better . Malls and shops start opening again for business and the now debt free people start purchasing again . Randy is shown buying the new Margaritaville . The news acknowledges President Barack Obama for the sacrifices he made and credits him for bringing these improvements in the economy leaving Kyle infuriated shouting " Come on ! " .
As a subplot , Stan spends most of the episode trying to return the aforementioned Margaritaville mixer ; the trendy retailer Sur La Table will not accept the return because it was bought on a payment plan . He tries to find out to whom he can return it , each person saying the debt has been packaged and sold to someone else ( much like real @-@ life mortgage @-@ backed securities ) . Eventually he goes all the way to the United States Treasury , where a group of associates " consult the charts " and tell him the mixer is worth $ 90 trillion . One of the three treasury workers then says that another insurance company is failing and asks what they should do . They say they have to " consult the charts " again . Stan follows the men inside , and he sees a round lit @-@ up game show style board , where the men cut off a chicken 's head and let the decapitated chicken run on the board while one of them plays a tune similar to Yakety Sax on a kazoo . The chicken falls on the " bailout ! " spot , so that is what the men do . In anger at the ridiculousness of the system , Stan breaks the mixer on the platform by the chicken and walks off .
= = Production = =
" Margaritaville " was written and directed by series co @-@ founder Trey Parker . It first aired on March 25 , 2009 in the United States on Comedy Central . Parker and fellow co @-@ creator Matt Stone said they had long planned to do an episode about the global recession , and they argued over whether to start the season with an episode about the economy , or " The Ring , " an episode mocking the Jonas Brothers , a boy band which had recently grown in popularity . Stone argued the season premiere should focus on the economy because it was the biggest news item at the time , but Parker felt they needed more time to craft the script , and that the Jonas Brothers would be a funny season opener . Stone ultimately agreed , and later admitted it was the right decision . During an interview a few weeks before the episode aired , Stone said , " That 's one of those big things we want to get right . We 'll be talking about what kind of social commentary we want to make and do it right . "
Parker and Stone originally planned for their economy @-@ related episode to involve Cartman dressing as a superhero named " The Coon " and fighting the recession . Eventually , Cartman would discover the recession stemmed from the sale of Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville blenders , and he would have to battle singer @-@ songwriter Jimmy Buffett and investor Warren Buffett , who would be portrayed as Jimmy 's brother . Eventually , the idea was scrapped , and the superhero elements were incorporated into the episode " The Coon " , which aired just before " Margaritaville " . The opening scene of " The Coon " , in which Cartman discussed the poor economic state of the nation and the election of U.S. President Barack Obama , were left remnants of the original economy @-@ related idea . Certain elements of the original idea , such as the Margaritaville blenders , were eventually incorporated into " Margaritaville " .
As with most South Park episodes , Parker , Stone , and their team created the episode within a week of its broadcast date . The script was not finished until late March 24 , the night before the episode aired . " Margaritaville " featured a 70 @-@ second shot which panned over several characters speaking about the recession on pedestals before finally settling on Randy wearing robes and preaching about the economy . It was the longest shot in South Park history to that point , although it would be surpassed later in the season by " Dances with Smurfs " , which featured an 86 @-@ second single shot in which a South Park elementary student is murdered while reading the morning announcements .
Within a week of " Margaritaville 's " original broadcast date , the online retailer Zazzle and South Park Studios , the official South Park website , released T @-@ shirts and hooded sweatshirts based on " Margaritaville " , including shirts with Randy dressed in rags saying " Finger pointing gets us nowhere ! " and " We must mock The Economy no longer ! " Other shirts included the finance company executive saying " Ooh , yeah , no , you know what , yeah , no ... " and an image of The Last Supper @-@ inspired pizza dinner between Kyle and his friends .
= = Theme = =
" Margaritaville " is a satire and commentary on the global recession affecting much of the industrialized world at the time of the episode 's broadcast on March 25 , 2009 . Parker and Stone believed many viewed the economy as an important , elusive entity without truly understanding how it works , and felt it mirrored faith in religion . The duo had difficulty writing the script due to their limited familiarity with religion and Christian history , and they relied heavily on executive producer Anne Garefino for help . In describing the economic elements of the episode , they sought assistance from Stone 's father , who works as an economist . The scenes in which Stan explains how his Margaritaville blender was purchased on a payment plan that was eventually combined into securities sold to the banks required particular assistance from Stone 's father . Parker said the dialogue proved so difficult , they were working on the script right up until the night before the episode was first broadcast .
The Margaritaville blender itself served as a metaphor for consumerism and the tendency of Americans to buy luxuries that they do not need . Stone said , " We didn 't want to make an episode where it was like , ' Oh , those Wall Street guys took our money . ' It was one of those things where we all screwed up and nobody really knows what 's going on , but it has something to do with buying shit like Margaritavilles . " The Margaritaville also serves as a metaphor for the housing bubble . Parker himself actually owns a Margaritaville , of which he said , " It 's pretty stupid because it really is just a blender " .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode 's title comes from the Jimmy Buffett 's Margaritaville blender featured in the episode , which serves as a metaphor for the housing bubble . " Margaritaville " is also the name of a popular 1977 song by Jimmy Buffett , who has been the butt of South Park humor in the past . In " Margaritaville " , Kyle is portrayed as a Jesus @-@ like savior who makes a tremendous sacrifice to save the economy . A dinner he has with his friends is portrayed as the Last Supper , the final meal Jesus had with his Twelve Apostles before his death . Almost inevitably Cartman takes on the role of Judas Iscariot , the disciple who betrayed Jesus ( in the Last Supper scene he even sits in the same position as Judas in da Vinci 's painting ) , while some of the South Park residents form a council . Kyle uses a platinum American Express card to pay off the debts of all South Park residents .
Cartman says he wants the soon @-@ to @-@ be @-@ released Grand Theft Auto : Chinatown Wars game for the handheld game console Nintendo DS . The game was released within a week of the original " Margaritaville " broadcast date . Representatives from game developer Rockstar Games told video game blog Kotaku they liked the reference , and did not know in advance it would be in the episode .
= = Reception = =
Parker and Stone themselves were not entirely pleased with the final result of " Margaritaville " . Although they liked the idea , they felt the main storyline involving the economy and the subplot involving Stan and the Margaritaville blender did not come together in the end as the duo originally hoped they would when they started writing the script . Parker said of the episode , " I give the concept on this an A , and the execution like a C- . " In its original American broadcast , " Margaritaville " was watched by 2 @.@ 77 million overall households , according to the Nielsen Media Research , making it the most @-@ watched Comedy Central production of the week . The episode received generally positive reviews from television critics . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly said of the episode , " The episode was the most back @-@ handed endorsement imaginable of President Obama 's economic bailout plan . Or the most withering dismantling of it . As usual , South Park had it both ways . " Tucker also said of Cartman 's blaming the Jews for the recession , " Among its many achievements , South Park has exposed anti @-@ Semitism to such relentless ridicule over the years , it deserves some sort of humanitarian award . "
Financial writer Roger Nusbaum said the episode was not only " humorous " but provided a decent analysis of the recession . He particularly praised Randy 's inclusion of margaritas with the barest of necessities ; Nusbaum said most people tend to take on absurd expenses that they fail to realize are unnecessary , even as they discuss the plight of the economy . Brad Trechak of TV Squad called " Margaritaville " a highlight of the season . Mike Fahey of Kotaku said the episode had " a clever little plot " . Zac Bissonnette of BloggingStocks said of the episode , " It isn 't quite as trenchant as some of the other Wall Street satire that 's been making the rounds , but it 's definitely worth watching . " Carlos Delgado of If magazine said the episode included many excellent moments , including the headless chicken method of making economic decisions , but otherwise felt " Margaritaville " was not as strong as previous episodes like " The Ring " . Delgado said , " Maybe I 'm too depressed about the current economic situation , who knows , but although ' Margaritaville ' was well written and poignant , I wasn 't bursting out in laughter every two minutes . "
= = Emmy Award = =
Parker and Stone decided to submit " Margaritaville " for an Emmy Award because they had received a large amount of positive feedback about the episode from adults and older viewers . Since most Emmy voters are older , they decided " Margaritaville " stood the best chance of winning . Stone joked , " If an Emmy voter were to watch this , they might think the show was smarter than it was , so they might be fooled into voting for us . " " Margaritaville " ultimately won the 2009 Emmy Award for Outstanding Animated Program for Programming Less Than One Hour . It competed against Robot Chicken , The Simpsons and American Dad ! at the 61st Primetime Emmy Awards , which was held September 12 , 2009 .
= = Home release = =
" Margaritaville " , along with the thirteen other episodes from South Park 's thirteenth season , were released on a three @-@ disc DVD set and two @-@ disc Blu @-@ ray set in the United States on March 16 , 2010 . The sets included brief audio commentaries by Parker and Stone for each episode , a collection of deleted scenes , and a special mini @-@ feature Inside Xbox : A Behind @-@ the @-@ Scenes Tour of South Park Studios , which discussed the process behind animating the show with Inside Xbox host Major Nelson .
= Henry Bell Gilkeson =
Henry Bell Gilkeson ( June 6 , 1850 – September 29 , 1921 ) was an American lawyer , politician , school administrator , and banker in West Virginia .
Gilkeson was born in Moorefield , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) , the eldest child of a dry goods merchant , and was raised in Romney . Following his graduation from Hampden – Sydney College , Gilkeson became a schoolteacher and served as superintendent of the Hampshire County Schools district from 1877 to 1879 . Gilkeson later studied law and started a law practice in Romney . Following the death of John Collins Covell in 1887 , Gilkeson served as the principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind until 1888 .
Gilkeson served in the West Virginia Legislature as a state senator representing the 12th District in the West Virginia Senate ( 1890 – 93 ) and as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates ( 1883 – 85 and 1909 – 11 ) . Gilkeson served as the mayor of Romney beginning in 1885 , and the first president of the Bank of Romney ( 1888 – 1913 ) .
= = Early life and education = =
Henry Bell Gilkeson was born in Moorefield , Virginia ( now West Virginia ) on June 6 , 1850 . He was the eldest child of Robert B. Gilkeson and his wife , Sarah E. Gilkeson , both of Scottish ancestry . His father was a prominent dry goods merchant in Romney , where Henry and his brother , Edward , were raised .
Gilkeson graduated from Hampden – Sydney College in Hampden Sydney , Virginia , in 1872 . While a student , he was inducted as a member of the Beta Theta Pi fraternity . Gilkeson completed a special course in engineering at Yale University . He also received further education in Germany .
= = Academic career = =
Following his graduation from Hampden – Sydney College , Gilkeson became a schoolteacher and later served as superintendent of the Hampshire County Schools district from 1877 to 1879 . Before 1886 , Gilkeson was elected a member of the Romney Literary Society together with his brother .
= = = West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind = = =
From 1876 to 1888 , Gilkeson served as a member and secretary of the fourth , fifth , and sixth Board of Regents of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , a position that enabled him to become familiar with the school 's efforts to educate its deaf and blind students .
In 1887 , upon the death of the schools ' principal , John Collins Covell , Gilkeson was selected by the Board of Regents to serve as principal of the institution . The Board of Regents had reservations about selecting an immediate successor to Covell and requested that Gilkeson fill the position temporarily until the board could find a permanent replacement . Gilkeson left his lucrative law practice and accepted the position under the condition that he serve as interim principal while the Board of Regents sought a more suitable candidate to build upon Covell 's initiatives and reforms . Gilkeson believed that only administrators and educators fluent in sign language should be appointed to serve in the School for the Deaf , and during his tenure as principal he found that personnel who relied on interpreters did not receive " satisfactory results " . After he had spent a few weeks as acting principal , the Board of Regents reconvened and appointed him to stay on permanently .
During his tenure , the position of principal included the roles of clerk , bookkeeper , steward , and final arbiter of matters in the classroom . While Gilkeson lacked special training for the position , his business experience allowed him to run the schools in an economically efficient manner , which pleased the schools ' Board of Regents .
In the summer of 1888 , Gilkeson was delegated by the Board to Regents to attend the Conference of Superintendents and Principals of American Schools for the Deaf in New York City and select the most fitting candidate present at the conference or recommended someone to replace him as principal of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Gilkeson tendered an offer to C. H. Hill , then an instructor at the Maryland School for the Deaf , and upon Gilkeson 's return to Romney he recommended Hill and resigned from his post as principal . Hill was subsequently appointed by the Board to fill the position . While the Board of Regents was pleased with Gilkeson 's performance as principal and wished for him to stay on in the position , but he preferred to return to his professional law and political career in the end .
Gilkeson resumed the practice of law and pursued a political career , but he continued his involvement with , and advocacy for , the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , especially through his influence as a prominent lawyer and state legislator . Gilkeson used his position as a state legislator to condemn and hold accountable the officials responsible for the mismanagement of the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind , and often interceded on the schools ' behalf following Hill 's retirement due to political reasons . Gilkeson was displeased with the state 's political interference in the schools , and the " multiplication " of positions within the institution that were filled with personnel who had political or business ties but lacked prior knowledge or experience with deaf and blind education .
= = Law and political careers = =
Following his tenure as superintendent of Hampshire County Schools , Gilkeson undertook the study of law and started a law practice in Romney ; he subsequently became a prominent lawyer in the community . His law office was located on Main Street in Romney , two blocks from the West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind . Due to his preeminence in the legal field and high standing in the community , Gilkeson served as dean of the Hampshire County Bar Association .
Gilkeson was twice elected to represent Hampshire County as a member of the West Virginia House of Delegates for the 1883 – 85 and 1909 – 11 legislative sessions . As the leadership of the House of Delegates was being determined at the 1884 Democratic Party State Convention in Wheeling , Gilkeson was a leading contender for a speaker candidacy , but fellow Romney native Robert White was selected as the party 's candidate instead .
On August 13 , 1890 , the Twelfth Senatorial District Democratic Convention nominated Gilkeson to fill the vacant West Virginia State Senate seat of Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . Gilkeson was elected to fill the seat during the general election of 1890 and served the remainder of Flournoy 's senate term until 1893 . At the time of his appointment , the Twelfth Senatorial District consisted of Grant , Hampshire , Hardy , Mineral , and Pendleton counties . In 1892 , Gilkeson was appointed to the Committees on the Judiciary , Public Buildings and Humane Institutions , Federal Relations , Forfeited , Delinquent , and Unappropriated Lands , and Clerks Office . In addition to serving in the state senate , Gilkeson also held the position of mayor of Romney , West Virginia , beginning in 1885 .
= = Banking and business career = =
Gilkeson served on the board of directors as the first president of the Bank of Romney after it was granted its charter by the West Virginia Legislature on September 3 , 1888 , and was opened later on December 20 , 1888 . During Gilkeson 's tenure as president , the Bank of Romney occupied two rooms on the ground floor of the Wirgman Building , where the city 's previous bank , the Bank of the Valley of Virginia , was located prior to the American Civil War . Gilkeson served as the president of the Bank of Romney until his retirement in 1913 , when he was succeeded by John J. Cornwell , 15th Governor of West Virginia . In November 1906 , Gilkeson , R. W. Dailey , Jr . , P. J. Ruckman , and Joshua Soule Zimmerman were incorporators of the Mill Mountain Orchard Company , which operated orchards along the top of Mill Creek Mountain west of Romney .
= = Later life and death = =
Gilkeson resided in Romney for the majority of his life and was involved in most of the community 's organizations as either a leader , officer , or stockholder . Gilkeson 's son Henry Bell Gilkeson , Jr . , died on November 16 , 1901 , from injuries sustained by falling against a piece of sharp iron , which penetrated his stomach . Gilkeson 's wife , Mary Katherine , predeceased him in February 1910 following the effects of a surgical procedure she had undergone in Cumberland , Maryland .
In his later years , Gilkeson suffered from allergic rhinitis and experienced a " physical breakdown " following the death of his son , Robert William Gilkeson , on October 2 , 1918 , during the Meuse @-@ Argonne Offensive of World War I and shortly before the Armistice with Germany . Robert William Gilkeson was a second lieutenant in Company C of the 316 Engineers , and was interred in the Meuse @-@ Argonne American Cemetery and Memorial near Romagne @-@ sous @-@ Montfaucon . Robert William Gilkeson was a 1907 graduate of his father 's alma mater , Hampden – Sydney College .
On account of his increasingly failing health , Gilkeson spent the summer of 1921 in Mountain Lake Park , Maryland , to recuperate . About a week before his death , Gilkeson fell down a flight of porch steps at his vacation residence , fracturing a number of bones . He died on September 29 , 1921 , in Mountain Lake Park , and his funeral was held on the anniversary of his son 's death on October 2 , 1921 . Gilkeson is interred with his wife Mary Katherine and son Henry , Jr . , at Indian Mound Cemetery in Romney , West Virginia .
In recounting Gilkeson 's achievements to the Conference of Superintendents and Principals of American Schools for the Deaf following his death , West Virginia Schools for the Deaf and Blind instructor Charles D. Seaton said of Gilkeson :
In 1980 , Gilkeson 's son @-@ in @-@ law George Sloan Arnold bequeathed the $ 1 @.@ 5 @-@ million George S. Arnold Trust to Hampden – Sydney College , his shared alma mater with his father @-@ in @-@ law and brother @-@ in @-@ law Robert William Gilkeson . At the time , it was the largest amount given by a living person and the institution 's second @-@ largest gift in its 204 @-@ year history . Arnold gave the trust in honor of the Gilkeson family .
= = Religious activities = =
Gilkeson was active in the Presbyterian Church in Hampshire County and served as a trustee for the Presbytery of Winchester along with Samuel Lightfoot Flournoy . In 1881 , Gilkeson and his fellow trustees were instrumental in securing from Amos L. and Allie G. Pugh a house and a large , partially wooded land lot in Capon Bridge for use by the Presbytery as a centrally located manse in Hampshire County . Gilkeson remained a trustee of the Presbytery from 1876 until his death in 1921 . He was also a commissioner of the General Assembly of the Presbyterian Church in the United States representing the Presbytery of Winchester , and attended the assembly 's meeting in Jackson , Mississippi , May 15 – 25 , 1902 .
= = Marriage and family = =
Gilkeson was married on November 19 , 1884 , to Mary Katherine Paxton ( 1853 – 1910 ) , daughter of Jordan J. and E. J. Paxton of Iron Gate , Virginia . Their wedding ceremony was officiated by Reverend George W. Finley of Romney at the residence of Mary Ann Lipscomb at 1537 I Street , N.W. in Washington , D.C. Mary Katherine had been employed as a teacher under Lipscomb at Waverly Seminary . Following the ceremony , Gilkeson and his wife embarked upon a tour of the Northern United States . Gilkeson and his wife Mary Katherine had three children together :
Laura Paxton Gilkeson Arnold ( August 18 , 1885 – 1973 ) , married Romney lawyer George Sloan Arnold ( 1885 – 1986 )
Robert William Gilkeson ( July 25 , 1887 – October 2 , 1918 )
Henry Bell Gilkeson , Jr . ( February 8 , 1890 – November 16 , 1901 )
= Elvy Kalep =
Alviine @-@ Johanna Kalep ( 26 June 1899 – 15 August 1989 ) , known as Elvy Kalep , was an Estonian aviator and the country 's first female pilot , as well as an artist , toy designer and a one @-@ time children 's author .
Kalep grew up in Estonia and Russia , and subsequently moved to China to escape the Russian Civil War . She worked briefly as an interpreter for military officials in China before settling in Paris to study art with Alexandre Jacovleff . In 1931 , she qualified as a pilot in Germany , becoming the first Estonian female pilot . Befriending American aviatrix Amelia Earhart , she joined the Ninety @-@ Nines and took up the cause of encouraging other women to take up aviation . She wrote and illustrated a children 's book about flying , Air Babies , which was first published in 1936 .
After settling in the United States , Kalep founded a toy manufacturing business in New York . Although she was forced to close the business in 1946 due to her poor health , she made a living through the 1950s by selling patents to toy designs to larger businesses . In later decades , she created artworks out of leather , which she exhibited across the United States . She died in Florida in 1989 .
= = Early life = =
Kalep was born on 26 June 1899 in the village of Taali in Tori Parish , Pärnu County . She was the only child of Joanna ( née Liidemann ) and locksmith Aksel Emil , who both died when she was a young girl . She attended Tallinna Tütarlaste Kommertsgümnaasium , a girls ' secondary school in Tallinn . As a teenager , Kalep moved to Russia to live with an aunt in Saint Petersburg . She witnessed the events that sparked the February Revolution in 1917 , and spent a night in police detention as an eyewitness . She made a failed attempt to flee at the outset of the revolution , during which time she witnessed six men being shot while waiting in line to buy train tickets out of the country . She and her aunt moved to Vladivostok , where she married a Russian general , Count Slastšov , and had a son . She lived in Vladivostok for eight years , during which time she made numerous escape efforts , before her new family was able to successfully flee to China , a refuge they chose because of Slastšov 's ties to Zhang Zuolin .
Within a year of arriving in Harbin , China , Kalep 's son died and her husband disappeared . Kalep was able to support herself by working as an interpreter — she spoke Russian , German , English and Chinese — for a British general in Shenyang . She was also employed by Zhang Zuolin and later his son , Zhang Xueliang , but decided to return to Estonia in 1925 . She traveled through Indonesia , Italy and France before eventually arriving in Tallinn in 1926 . Soon afterwards she settled in Paris , where she studied the art of oil painting with Russian painter Alexandre Jacovleff . She married Rolf Baron von Hoeningen @-@ Bergendorff , who was of German or Austrian descent .
= = Aviation career = =
Kalep took up flying in the late 1920s , when she met Dutch aviator Anthony Fokker while holidaying in St. Moritz and asked him to teach her to fly a plane . She completed five hours of flying with Fokker and , after breaking her arm during a sledding accident in the winter of 1931 , took her pilot 's test in Germany on 1 August 1931 . She passed , becoming the first qualified female pilot from Estonia , and the seventh woman to pass the exam in Germany . Soon after receiving her license , Kalep and Valter Mayer , a German mechanic , co @-@ piloted a small Klemm plane from Berlin through Eastern Europe , stopping in Szczecin , Gdańsk , Kaunas , Jelgava and Riga , finally landing in Tallinn on 18 August . Upon her arrival in Tallinn , Kalep was greeted by a crowd of journalists and officers of the Estonian Air Force ; she briefly visited relatives in Nõmme before beginning her return journey to Amsterdam .
In May 1932 , Kalep traveled from France to New York on the steamship SS Paris with the intention of flying back to Europe across the Atlantic Ocean ; at the time , no woman had made a solo transatlantic flight . She befriended American aviation pioneer Amelia Earhart , who , unbeknownst to Kalep , was planning a similar feat . After Earhart 's successful flight from Canada to Ireland on 20 May , Kalep decided that it would not be worthwhile to make her own attempt at flying across the Atlantic , since she would no longer be the first woman to do so . She continued to encourage other women to enter the field of aviation , however , and became a member of the Ninety @-@ Nines , an international organisation for women pilots which was founded by Earhart and 98 other female aviators . In August 1932 , Kalep planned to fly with Roger Q. Williams from Los Angeles to Athens to celebrate the former city 's hosting of the 1932 Summer Olympics , but their flight was canceled . Soon after , it was reported that Kalep had remarried to W. E. Hutton @-@ Miller , an American stockbroker .
In 1936 , Kalep published the first edition of Air Babies , a children 's book that she wrote and illustrated to teach children about flying . The story followed two young planes , Happy Wings and Speedy , and a 1938 reprint included a foreword from Earhart , who embarked on her last flight three days after writing the piece ; she disappeared while flying in 1937 . Kalep later said of Earhart 's disappearance : " I miss her very much . When I heard that Amelia had disappeared , well , I fell apart . " She visited the 1939 New York World 's Fair to promote Air Babies on television and to speak at the National Woman 's Party luncheon .
= = Art and design career = =
After the outbreak of World War II in 1939 , and with the dissolution of her third marriage , Kalep began a new business venture in the American toy market . She designed a doll named Patsie Parachute which , when thrown into the air , would fall down slowly as a parachutist would . The dolls were produced in a New York factory where Kalep herself was forced to work to sustain the business . Her health deteriorated , however , and her profits from the business were spent almost entirely on medical costs ; she was forced to close the factory in 1946 . She had recovered by 1950 and made a living by selling patents for toy designs to larger businesses . One of her successful designs was Scribbles Dolls — toy dolls with blank faces that could be individually decorated by children — which was inspired by the 50 @,@ 000 doll heads she had left over from the closure of the Patsie Parachute factory .
In the 1960s , while living in Palm Beach , Florida , Kalep began creating leather artworks which she sold to her neighbours to make a living . She created three @-@ dimensional paintings made out of small pieces of coloured leather imported from France . Throughout the 1970s she showcased her art in exhibitions across the United States and sold works to high @-@ profile customers including Eugene Ormandy .
= = Death = =
Kalep died on 15 August 1989 , aged 90 , in the Regency Health Care Center of Lake Worth , Florida . She had lived in the facility since 1986 . She had been married three times but had no surviving family at the time of her death . Obituaries for Kalep were published in the Florida newspaper the Sun @-@ Sentinel and Vaba Eesti Sõna , an Estonian @-@ language newspaper published in New York .
= Ryan Crowther =
Ryan John Crowther ( born 17 September 1988 ) is an English semi @-@ professional footballer who plays for Ashton United as a winger . He started his career with his local side Stockport County , where he stayed for 10 years before moving to Liverpool in 2007 . After spending two years at Liverpool , he left by mutual consent having made no first team appearances .
Crowther went on several trials before joining Stalybridge Celtic in August 2010 . He left the club in September , having been sentenced to four months in prison , for a drunken attack on a taxi driver in Watford . After his release from prison he joined Ashton United , where he stayed until the end of the 2010 – 11 season , before Hyde , and later Fleetwood Town . Following his release from Fleetwood , Crowther joined non @-@ League side FC Halifax Town . At the end of the 2013 – 14 season he left Halifax Town after just 4 months at the club .
= = Career = =
= = = Stockport County and Liverpool = = =
Born in Stockport , Greater Manchester , Crowther spent nine years at his local club Stockport County moving through the youth system , before making his first team debut for the club on 2 January 2006 in a 2 – 2 draw against Cheltenham Town , where aged just 17 , he came on as a substitute and was made captain , making him the youngest captain in the club 's history . He went on to make one other senior appearance for Stockport before the club were approached by Liverpool requesting an opportunity to take both Crowther and Greg Tansey on trial with a view to take them to a tournament in Milan , and agreed deals with Stockport for both players subject to satisfactory performances from the players at the tournament . The players both went to the tournament and Crowther joined Liverpool on 9 July 2007 , with Tansey deciding to stay at Stockport . Crowther featured for the successful Liverpool reserve team during the 2007 – 08 season . On 18 August 2009 , it was confirmed that he had left Liverpool by mutual consent .
Just one week after leaving Liverpool he went on trial at Bournemouth . He also returned to Stockport where he played in a pre @-@ season friendly but was not offered a contract . In October 2009 he went on trial with Grimsby Town but again was not offered a contract .
= = = Drop into non @-@ League = = =
After several trials , he joined Stalybridge Celtic in August 2010 , making his debut for the club on 28 of that month in a Conference North match against Nuneaton Town . After just one more appearance , as a substitute , in a 1 – 0 defeat to Harrogate Town , he left the club to serve four months in prison after being convicted of assault . On his release from prison , he joined Northern Premier League outfit Ashton United . He scored his first goal for the club , in a Manchester Premier Cup game against Irlam Town , which Crowther 's side won 7 – 0 . He scored his first league goal for the club on the following weekend , as his side were beaten 6 – 3 by Frickley Athletic . He played 25 games in the 2010 – 11 season in total , scoring four goals . However , Crowther joined Ashton 's neighbours Hyde in June 2011 . He made his debut on the opening day of the 2011 – 12 season as his side beat Worcester City 2 – 1 , Crowther scored the opening goal . He scored one more goal in August as Hyde came out as 4 – 0 winners over Hinckley United . Crowther played a total of 17 games , in which he scored nine goals , during his short spell with Hyde .
= = = Fleetwood Town = = =
On 18 November 2011 , he left Hyde in order to join Conference National club Fleetwood Town on a free transfer . He made his Fleetwood debut a day later as a second @-@ half substitute as his side beat Crowther 's former team Stockport 2 – 1 .
In January 2012 he returned to former club Hyde on a three @-@ month loan , with a recall possible after 28 days . He returned to Fleetwood after playing 14 games scoring two goals , and he played in Fleetwood 's game against Cambridge United , in which they lost . He re @-@ joined Hyde on loan for the second time , in August 2012 . Making his third debut for the club away at Forest Green Rovers , scoring in a 3 – 1 defeat . He scored the winner for Hyde in October as his side won 1 – 0 away at Cambridge United . He scored twice in two games in November scoring in a 3 – 2 win over Grimsby Town , and a 3 – 2 defeat at Ebbsfleet United respectively . He returned to Fleetwood in January 2013 playing 18 times scoring four times in his third spell with the club .
He made a goal scoring return for Fleetwood , scoring on his first game after returning from Hyde , in a 3 – 0 win over Oxford United . He scored his second goal for the club again against Oxford United three games later . He finished the 2012 – 13 season having played 18 times scoring four goals for Hyde , and 15 games scoring two goals for Fleetwood .
On 30 January 2014 , Crowther was released from Fleetwood Town .
= = = FC Halifax Town = = =
Following his release from Fleetwood , Crowther joined Conference Premier side FC Halifax Town . Crowther scored on his Halifax debut in the 3 – 1 away defeat to Lincoln City on 1 February 2014 .
= = Personal life = =
In an interview with Liverpool Football Club , he stated that if he wasn 't a footballer he would have been a physio . On 12 September 2010 , he was jailed for four months over a drunken attack on a taxi driver which had taken place on 9 August 2009 in Watford , Hertfordshire . He was tried for racially aggravated assault occasioning actual bodily harm but a jury acquitted him of that charge , but found him guilty of an alternative charge of assaulting the taxi driver .
= = Career statistics = =
As of 11 February 2014
= John Slessor =
Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir John Cotesworth Slessor , GCB , DSO , MC ( 3 June 1897 – 12 July 1979 ) , sometimes known as Jack Slessor , was a senior commander in the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) , serving as Chief of the Air Staff from 1950 to 1952 . As a pilot in the Royal Flying Corps during the First World War , he saw action with No. 17 Squadron in the Middle East , earning the Military Cross , and with No. 5 Squadron on the Western Front , where he was awarded the Belgian Croix de Guerre . Between the wars he commanded No. 4 Squadron in England , and No. 3 ( Indian ) Wing , earning the Distinguished Service Order for operations with the latter in Waziristan . In 1936 , he published Air Power and Armies , which examined the use of air power against targets on and behind the battlefield .
Slessor held several operational commands in the Second World War . As Air Officer Commanding Coastal Command in 1943 and 1944 , he was credited with doing much to turn the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic through his use of long @-@ range bombers against German U @-@ boats . He was knighted in June 1943 . In the closing stages of the war he became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Mediterranean and Middle East and deputy to Lieutenant General Ira Eaker as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Mediterranean Allied Air Forces , conducting operations in the Italian Campaign and Yugoslavia . Slessor went on to serve in the RAF 's most senior post , Chief of the Air Staff , in the early 1950s , and was considered a strong proponent of strategic bombing and the nuclear deterrent . In retirement he published two more books , including an autobiography , and held ceremonial appointments in Somerset .
= = Early life and First World War = =
The son of Major Arthur Kerr Slessor and Adelaide Slessor ( née Cotesworth ) , Slessor was born in Ranikhet , India , on 3 June 1897 , and educated at Haileybury . Lame in both legs as a result of polio , he was rejected for army service in 1914 and only received a commission as a second lieutenant in the Royal Flying Corps on 6 July 1915 with the help of family connections . He was appointed to the Special Reserve as a flying officer on 9 September 1915 , and confirmed in his rank of second lieutenant on 28 September . Slessor saw action with No. 17 Squadron in Egypt and the Sudan , where he was credited with arresting the escape of Sultan Ali Dinar and 2 @,@ 000 men on 23 May 1916 , following the Sultan 's defeat at Beringia . He was mentioned in despatches on 25 October before being wounded in the thigh and invalided back to England .
Slessor was promoted to the temporary rank of captain on 1 December 1916 . Awarded the Military Cross on 1 January 1917 , he returned to combat in April as a flight commander with No. 5 Squadron on the Western Front . The squadron converted from Royal Aircraft Factory BE.2s to R.E.8s soon afterwards . Promoted to the substantive rank of lieutenant on 1 July 1917 , Slessor was appointed a Chevalier of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 24 September , and awarded the Belgian Croix de Guerre on 11 March 1918 . He transferred to the newly formed Royal Air Force in April 1918 and , having been promoted to the temporary rank of major on 3 July 1918 , was posted to the Central Flying School at Upavon as an instructor on 14 July 1918 .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
Having left the RAF as a flight lieutenant on 21 August 1919 , Slessor applied to rejoin and was offered a short @-@ service commission at the same rank on 24 February 1920 . In May 1921 , he became a flight commander with No. 20 Squadron , which operated Bristol Fighters on the North @-@ West Frontier of India . He joined the staff at the Directorate of Training and Staff Duties in the Air Ministry in February 1923 . The same year , he married Hermione Grace Guinness ; they had a son and a daughter . He attended the RAF Staff College , Andover , in 1924 , and was promoted squadron leader on 1 January 1925 .
Slessor commanded No. 4 ( Army Cooperation ) Squadron , which flew Bristol Fighters out of RAF Farnborough , from April 1925 to October 1928 , when he joined the air planning staff at the Directorate of Operations and Intelligence at the Air Ministry . He attended the Staff College , Camberley , in 1931 , and was appointed RAF Directing Staff Officer there in January 1932 . Slessor was promoted acting wing commander on 1 January 1932 ( substantive on 1 July ) . He became Officer Commanding No. 3 ( Indian ) Wing at Quetta in March 1935 , and was awarded the Distinguished Service Order for operations in Waziristan between 25 November 1936 and 16 January 1937 .
In 1936 , Slessor published Air Power and Armies , an examination of the use of air power against targets on and behind the battlefield . In this work he advocated army co @-@ operation , interdiction to cut off enemy reinforcements and supply , and the use of aerial bombardment as a weapon against enemy morale . He did , however , acknowledge the limitations of his theory , stating :
... the conditions envisaged throughout [ this book ] are those of a campaign on the land in which the primary problem at the time is the defeat of an enemy army in the field . ... in a war against a great Naval power at sea , or when the principle threat to the Empire at the time is the action of hostile air forces against this country or its possessions , the aim and objectives of the air forces of the Empire will not be the same as described in this book .
On 17 May 1937 , following his posting to India , Slessor was promoted acting group captain , and appointed Deputy Director of Plans at the Air Ministry . He was promoted to substantive group captain on 1 July 1937 . Mentioned in despatches on 18 February 1938 , he took over as Director of Plans on 22 December 1938 . He was appointed Air Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to the King on 1 January 1939 .
= = Second World War = =
Slessor was promoted air commodore on the first day of the Second World War , 1 September 1939 , and was succeeded as Air Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp by Group Captain Ralph Cochrane . On 10 January 1941 , he was raised to temporary air vice marshal ( made permanent in April 1942 ) and became Air Officer Commanding ( AOC ) No.5 ( Bomber ) Group in May 1941 . Appointed a Companion of the Order of the Bath and mentioned in despatches in January 1942 , he was appointed Assistant Chief of the Air Staff in April 1942 . Slessor was closely involved in planning the combined Allied air offensive in Europe . At the Casablanca Conference in January 1943 , he was able to influence Britain 's Secretary for Air , Sir Archibald Sinclair , and Chief of the Air Staff , Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Portal , to agree to USAAF proposals that led to a " round @-@ the clock " bombing policy against Germany , with the US mounting daylight precision attacks and the RAF conducting area bombing at night .
Appointed AOC Coastal Command with the acting rank of air marshal on 5 February 1943 , Slessor had at his disposal sixty squadrons , two of which were equipped with B @-@ 24 Liberator heavy bombers . He was credited with doing much to turn the tide of the Battle of the Atlantic in the Allies ' favour by employing his thinly stretched long @-@ range bomber force against the U @-@ boat threat , in close cooperation with naval forces . Promoted temporary air marshal on 1 June 1943 , he was advanced to Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in the 1943 Birthday Honours . Slessor became Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief RAF Mediterranean and Middle East in January 1944 , and deputy to Lieutenant General Ira Eaker as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Mediterranean Allied Air Forces . In this role he conducted operations in the Italian Campaign and Yugoslavia , establishing the Balkan Air Force in the latter theatre . Slessor joined the Air Council as Air Member for Personnel on 5 April 1945 . His rank of air marshal became substantive on 6 June . He was awarded the Grand Cross of the Greek Order of the Phoenix on 6 September 1946 . His war service also earned him appointment as a Commander of the Belgian Order of Leopold on 27 August 1948 , and a Knight Grand Cross of the Norwegian Order of St. Olav on 6 March 1953 .
= = Post @-@ war career = =
Slessor was promoted air chief marshal on 1 January 1946 . He continued to serve as Air Member for Personnel , responsible for overseeing the demobilisation of the wartime RAF , until 1 October 1947 . At the urging of the @-@ then Chief of the Air Staff , Marshal of the Royal Air Force Sir Arthur Tedder , Slessor succeeded General Sir William Slim as Commandant of the Imperial Defence College . Slessor had been dubious about accepting the position , and sought assurances from Tedder that he would be next in line for the post of Chief of the Air Staff , particularly in light of Tedder 's preference for Air Chief Marshal Sir Ralph Cochrane to succeed him . Meanwhile , Slessor was appointed a Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath on 10 June 1948 , and became Principal Air Aide @-@ de @-@ Camp to the King on 1 July . In the event , he took over from Tedder as Chief of the Air Staff on 1 January 1950 , and chose Cochrane as his Vice Chief of the Air Staff . Slessor was promoted Marshal of the Royal Air Force on 8 June 1950 . In late 1951 , he reluctantly became involved in the Australian Government 's quest for a suitable RAF officer to serve as Chief of the Air Staff of the Royal Australian Air Force . He eventually selected Air Marshal Donald Hardman as the " outstanding candidate " for the Australian post , trying to avoid what he called " the follies of some years ago " , referring to Air Chief Marshal Sir Charles Burnett 's controversial tenure as Chief of the Air Staff in Australia on secondment from Britain in the early years of the Second World War .
As leader of the RAF , Slessor coined the term " V @-@ Force " to denote its planned trio of strategic jet bombers — the Vickers Valiant , Handley Page Victor , and Avro Vulcan — and contributed to the decision to build all three designs . He played a key role in promoting nuclear weapons as an effective instrument of deterrence in early Cold War British strategy . In 1952 , the RAF argued that , because bombers were such an important deterrent , conventional forces could be drastically reduced at a time when the Government was seeking significant public expenditure savings . Slessor believed it unlikely that the United Kingdom would be able to meet a communist offensive without resorting to the use of tactical nuclear weapons . He became one of the key propagandists of the " Great Deterrent " ( which he employed as the title of a book he wrote after he retired ) on both sides of the Atlantic . Slessor 's term as Chief of the Air Staff was dominated by the Korean War .
= = Later life = =
Completing his term as Chief of the Air Staff on 31 December 1952 , Slessor was succeeded by Air Chief Marshal Sir William Dickson and retired from the RAF on 29 January 1953 . He attended the coronation of Queen Elizabeth II in June 1953 . In retirement he published two books : his autobiography , The Central Blue ( 1956 ) , and The Great Deterrent ( 1957 ) . He served as Honorary Air Commodore of No. 3 ( County of Devon ) Maritime Headquarters Unit , Royal Auxiliary Air Force , from 23 May 1963 to 5 May 1969 . His wife , Lady Hermione , was appointed a Serving Sister of the Most Venerable Order of the Hospital of St. John of Jerusalem on 2 July 1963 .
On 24 March 1965 , Slessor was appointed Sheriff of Somerset for the following year . He was commissioned a Deputy Lieutenant of Somerset in April 1969 . Slessor was also a director of Blackburn Aircraft and governor of several schools . After Hermione 's death , he married Marcella Florence Priest ( née Spurgeon ) in 1971 . Slessor died at the Princess Alexandra Hospital , Wroughton , in Wiltshire on 12 July 1979 . His son John also joined the RAF , rising to the rank of group captain .
= John Key =
John Phillip Key ( born 9 August 1961 ) is the 38th Prime Minister of New Zealand , in office since 2008 . He has led the New Zealand National Party since 2006 .
Born in Auckland before moving to Christchurch when he was a child , Key attended the University of Canterbury and graduated in 1981 with a bachelor of commerce . He began a career in the foreign exchange market in New Zealand before moving overseas to work for Merrill Lynch , in which he became head of global foreign exchange in 1995 , a position he would hold for six years . In 1999 he was appointed a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York until leaving in 2001 .
Key entered the New Zealand Parliament representing the Auckland electorate of Helensville as one of the few new National members of parliament in the election of 2002 following National 's significant defeat of that year . He has held the seat since then . In 2004 , he was appointed Finance Spokesman for National and eventually succeeded Don Brash as the National Party leader in 2006 . After two years as Leader of the Opposition , Key led his party to victory at the November 2008 general election , and repeated this feat at both the November 2011 general election and September 2014 general election .
As Prime Minister , Key leads the Fifth National Government of New Zealand which entered government at the beginning of the late @-@ 2000s recession in 2008 . In his first term , Key 's government implemented a GST rise and personal tax cuts . In February 2011 , a major earthquake in Christchurch , the nation 's second largest city , significantly affected the national economy and the government formed the Canterbury Earthquake Recovery Authority in response . In its second term , Key 's government announced a policy of partial privatisation of five state @-@ owned enterprises ; while the policy was enacted , voters in a citizens @-@ initiated referendum on the issue were 2 to 1 opposed to the policy . In foreign policy , Key announced the withdrawal of New Zealand Defence Force personnel from their deployment in the war in Afghanistan , signed the Wellington Declaration with the United States and pushed for more nations to join the Trans @-@ Pacific Strategic Economic Partnership .
= = Personal life = =
Key was born in Auckland , New Zealand , to George Key ( 1914 – 1969 ) and Ruth Key ( née Lazar ; 1922 – 2000 ) , on 9 August 1961 . His father was an English immigrant and a veteran of the Spanish Civil War and World War II . Key and his two sisters were raised in a state house in the Christchurch suburb of Bryndwr , by his mother , an Austrian Jewish immigrant .
He attended Aorangi School , and then Burnside High School from 1975 to 1979 . Then he attended the University of Canterbury and earned a Bachelor of Commerce degree in accounting in 1981 . He has attended management studies courses at Harvard University .
Key met his wife Bronagh when they were both students at Burnside High School . They married in 1984 . She also has a BCom degree , and worked as a personnel consultant before becoming a full @-@ time mother . They have two children , Stephie and Max . Max is the new night @-@ time radio host for George FM , and is also a singer .
On 25 July 2008 , Key was added to the New Zealand National Business Review ( NBR ) Rich List for the first time . The list details the wealthiest New Zealand individuals and family groups . Key had an estimated wealth of NZ $ 50 million . Key is the wealthiest New Zealand Member of Parliament .
= = Before politics = =
Key 's first job was in 1982 , as an auditor at McCulloch Menzies , and he then moved to be a project manager at Christchurch @-@ based clothing manufacturer Lane Walker Rudkin for two years . Key began working as a foreign exchange dealer at Elders Finance in Wellington , and rose to the position of head foreign exchange trader two years later , then moved to Auckland @-@ based Bankers Trust in 1988 .
In 1995 , he joined Merrill Lynch as head of Asian foreign exchange in Singapore . That same year he was promoted to Merrill 's global head of foreign exchange , based in London , where he may have earned around US $ 2 @.@ 25 million a year including bonuses , which is about NZ $ 5 million at 2001 exchange rates . Some co @-@ workers called him " the smiling assassin " for maintaining his usual cheerfulness while sacking dozens ( some say hundreds ) of staff after heavy losses from the 1998 Russian financial crisis . He was a member of the Foreign Exchange Committee of the New York Federal Reserve Bank from 1999 to 2001 .
In 1998 , on learning of his interest in pursuing a political career , the National Party president John Slater began working actively to recruit him . Former party leader Jenny Shipley describes him as one of the people she " deliberately sought out and put my head on the line – either privately or publicly – to get them in there " .
= = Member of Parliament = =
Auckland 's population growth , as evidenced in the 2001 census , led to the formation for the 2002 General Election of a new electorate called Helensville , which covered the north @-@ western corner of the Auckland urban area . Key beat long @-@ serving National MP Brian Neeson ( whose own Waitakere seat had moved on paper to being a Labour seat through the boundary changes ) for the National Party Helensville selection . At the 2002 elections Key won the seat with a majority of 1 @,@ 705 , ahead of Labour 's Gary Russell , with Neeson , now standing as an independent , coming third . Key won re @-@ election with ease at the 2005 election garnering 63 % of votes cast in Helensville , and increased his majority again in 2008 , gaining 73 % of the electorate vote .
= = = Finance spokesman = = =
In 2004 the National Party Parliamentary leader Don Brash promoted Key to the Opposition front benches and appointed him the party spokesman for finance . In late 2006 Brash resigned as leader , citing damaging speculation over his future as the reason . His resignation followed controversies over an extramarital affair , and over leaked internal National Party documents later published in the book The Hollow Men .
= = = Leader of the Opposition = = =
In his maiden speech as National Party leader on 28 November 2006 , Key talked of an " underclass " that had been " allowed to develop " in New Zealand , a theme which received a large amount of media coverage . Key followed up on this speech in February 2007 by committing his party to a programme which would provide food in the poorest schools in New Zealand .
He relented on his stance in opposition to Sue Bradford 's Child Discipline Bill , which sought to remove " reasonable force " as a defence for parents charged with prima facie assault of their children . Many parents saw this bill as an attempt to ban smacking outright . Key and Prime Minister Helen Clark agreed a compromise – giving police the discretion to overlook smacking they regarded as " inconsequential " .
In August 2007 Key came in for criticism when he changed his position regarding the Therapeutic Products and Medicine Bill :
" John Key had finally slipped up . National 's leader had told the Herald on Tuesday he would have signed up to a New Zealand First @-@ initiated compromise on the stalled Therapeutic Products and Medicines Bill had he seen it – and was still willing to sign up – only to change his mind yesterday after his remarks appeared in print . "
Also in August 2007 , Labour 's Trevor Mallard hinted in Parliament that Labour would try to link Key to the 1987 " H @-@ Fee " scandal , which involved Key 's former employer Elders Merchant Finance and a payment to Equiticorp Chief Executive Allan Hawkins . Hawkins and Elders executive Ken Jarrett were later jailed for fraud . Key forestalled the accusation by declaring that he had left Elders months before the event , that he had no knowledge of the deal , and that his interview with the Serious Fraud Office ( SFO ) during the investigation into the affair could only have helped to convict the people involved . Then @-@ SFO director Charles Sturt publicly supported Key 's statement .
Labour MPs criticised Key for not releasing specific policy information at their annual conference . Key responded that National would set its own policy agenda and that there was adequate time before the next election for voters to digest National Party policy proposals .
= = = Prime Minister = = =
Key became Prime Minister following the general election on 8 November 2008 which signalled an end to the Labour @-@ led government of nine years under Helen Clark . The National Party , promoting a policy of " change " , won 45 % of the party vote and 59 of the 122 seats in Parliament ( including a two @-@ seat overhang ) , a substantial margin over the Labour Party , which won 43 seats .
Key was sworn in as Prime Minister and Minister of Tourism and also appointed as a member of the Executive Council on 19 November 2008 with his new cabinet . His first international outing as Prime Minister was the 20th APEC meeting in Peru the following day .
Arriving at the Ngapuhi Te Tii Waitangi Marae the day before Waitangi Day 2009 , Key was briefly shoved and grabbed by two protesters before diplomatic protection officers pulled them off . He told reporters he was " quite shocked " but continued onto the marae and spoke , while police took the two men away and charged them with assault .
Key has also been tied with the National Cycleway Project since its conception at the national Job Summit in early 2009 . He proposed it , and as Minister for Tourism , was instrumental in getting NZ $ 50 million approved for initial construction work .
In January 2009 , after addressing Chinese New Year celebrations at the Greenlane ASB Showgrounds , Key tripped after coming down a small set of stairs in front of cameras leaving him with a broken right arm and " embarrassed " .
= = = Controversies = = =
During his first term in office , National remained high in the polls and one commentator described support for John Key as " stratospheric " . In 2011 he was nicknamed " Teflon John " , as nothing damaging to his reputation seemed to " stick " to him . Coming up to the election in 2011 , the gloss began to come off . In October that year , Key was caught up in a controversy over the replacement of 34 three @-@ year @-@ old Government BMW limousines with new ones at a time of economic restraint . Initially , Key denied any knowledge of the plan , although reports later surfaced showing that his office was aware of the deal . Key was accused of hypocrisy ; he eventually apologised , calling it a ' sloppy ' deal , effectively placing most of the blame on his chief of staff .
That same month , Key made a statement in which he claimed that Standard and Poor 's had said that " if there was a change of Government , that downgrade would be much more likely " . S & P contradicted the claim , bringing Key 's credibility into question . National won the election , but New Zealand 's credit rating was subsequently downgraded anyway – by two different agencies – Standard and Poor 's and Fitch Group .
The real turning @-@ point in the public 's perception of Mr Key began with the teapot tapes . Just before the election in November 2011 , a recording was made of a conversation between John Key and ACT Party candidate John Banks that they considered private – despite the fact that the meeting took place in a cafe and the media were invited to attend . Mr Key made a complaint to the police and compared the incident to illegal hacking in the News of the World scandal in Britain . He refused to answer media questions about what was said and the incident dominated media discussion in the days before the election . The unreleased recording allegedly concerns the leadership of ACT and disparaging remarks about elderly New Zealand First supporters .
The event causing perhaps the most embarrassment to John Key was the arrest of Kim Dotcom and the subsequent revelations that the New Zealand Government Communications Security Bureau ( GCSB ) had illegally spied on Dotcom . As Prime Minister , John Key is directly responsible for the GCSB , which is not allowed to spy on New Zealand citizens – and Dotcom had been granted permanent residency . Three days later , the Prime Minister John Key apologised for the illegal spying . " I apologize to Mr Dotcom . I apologize to New Zealanders because every New Zealander … is entitled to be protected from the law when it comes to the GCSB , and we failed to provide that appropriate protection for him . " It subsequently came to light that deputy Prime Minister Bill English had been asked to sign a " ministerial certificate " suppressing details of the GCSB 's involvement in the case while Mr Key was overseas – the only time this had been done in the last ten years .
In November 2012 , Key told students at St Hilda 's Collegiate in Dunedin that football star David Beckham was " thick as batshit " . The comments were picked up by UK papers The Daily Mirror and The Sun . On the same day , there was controversy over Key 's comments to a radio host that his shirt was " gay " . " You 're munted mate , you 're never gonna make it , you ’ ve got that gay red top on there " , he told host Jamie Mackay on RadioSport 's Farming Show . The following day , Lord of the Rings actor Sir Ian McKellen said in a blog entry that Key should " watch his language " .
The potential fallout from Dotcom 's arrest continued in December 2012 when the High Court ordered the GCSB to " confirm all entities " to which it gave information opening the door for Dotcom to sue for damages – against the spy agency and the police . Later that month , John Key 's rating as preferred PM dropped to 39 % – the first time in his four years as prime minister that his rating had slipped below 40 % .
In March 2013 it emerged that Key has known Ian Fletcher , head of the GCSB , since they were at school , but he denied that the pair were friends . But in early April it was revealed that Key had personally picked Fletcher for the role at the GCSB , encouraging Fletcher to apply for the role . Despite Key 's office claiming Fletcher was " the best candidate for the job " , Fletcher was in fact the only candidate interviewed . Key said he hadn 't originally mentioned the phone call because he " forgot " . Political commentator Bryce Edwards called it the " most appalling political management since he became Prime Minister back in 2008 " . Key was critical of reporting on the GSCB saga , calling journalists " knuckleheads " in a radio interview .
In April 2013 whilst visiting Chinese president Xi Jinping in Beijing , Key made headlines by suggesting New Zealand would back any United States or Australian military action against North Korea . The following day he backtracked , saying the chance of New Zealand troops entering North Korea was " so far off the planet " .
In May 2014 Key justified the use of New Zealand intelligence that resulted in innocent civilians falling to American targeted killings .
In April 2015 a waitress claimed and Key acknowledged that he had pulled her ponytail multiple times over several months ; when Key learnt she had taken
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offence , he apologised . International media have reported the incident as " ponytail @-@ gate " .
= = = UN Security Council bid = = =
Key launched New Zealand 's campaign for a Security Council seat at the UN General Assembly meeting in September 2009 . He met briefly with US President Barack Obama and former US President Bill Clinton . While in New York , Key appeared on the Late Show with David Letterman . He read out the Top Ten list , ' Top Ten Reasons You Should Visit New Zealand ' .
Key continued New Zealand 's push for a spot on the Security Council while in New York in 2013 . There he accused rival candidates Spain and Turkey of using aid money to buy votes from small African countries , and said New Zealand would not be spending its way onto the Council . While in New York , Key suddenly fell ill , but recovered in time for meetings with representatives from other countries ahead of the General Assembly .
= = = Intelligence reform = = =
On 6 October 2014 , John Key created a new ministerial portfolio called the Minister of National Security and Intelligence . The Minister of National Security and Intelligence will be responsible for setting national security and intelligence police and legislation , and will also head a newly established Cabinet National Security Committee . The Prime Minister will assume the new portfolio while the Attorney General Christopher Finlayson will assume the portfolios of Minister Responsible for the Government Communications Security Bureau ( GCSB ) and Minister in Charge of the New Zealand Security Intelligence Service ( NZSIS ) , which have traditionally been held by the Prime Minister .
= = Political views = =
Key 's views are largely aligned with his own party 's view . However he also notes that his differences from his predecessor are more of style and focus rather than view . Key has in the past noted others ' concern at the pace of asset sales , but argued that the arguments against selling assets in the 1980s were largely irrational . In a 2002 interview he said " some form of orientation towards privatisation " in health , education and superannuation , such as giving firms tax breaks for employer super schemes , made sense . After leading the National party to victory in the 2011 election , Key rejected that the National Party lacks a mandate to partially sell off state @-@ owned assets , he acknowledged that some New Zealanders were anxious about the mixed ownership model . " But I think we got a mandate . "
Key has a mixed voting record on social issues : he voted against the bill creating civil unions , claiming that this represented his constituents ' views but he supports them personally . He was part of a large block of MPs voting to defeat a bill that defined marriage as being between a man and a woman . Key has also stated that he does not oppose gay adoption . He voted for the Marriage ( Definition of Marriage ) Amendment Act 2013 .
In 2008 Key voted for an ill @-@ fated attempt to raise the legal drinking age from 18 back to 20 but subsequently ignored a Law Commission recommendation to increase levies on alcohol . He claimed there was ' no appetite ' for such a move . A ' suppressed ' report on public attitudes to alcohol law reform eventually came to light indicating that in 2010 , when he made this claim , 56 % of New Zealanders supported a price increase .
Key says that he believes that global warming is a real phenomenon , and that the Government needs to implement measures to reduce human contribution to global warming . Key has committed the National Party to working towards reducing greenhouse emissions in New Zealand by 50 % within the next fifty years . Commentators note that as recently as 2005 , Key made statements indicating that he was sceptical of the effects and impact of climate change .
Critics note that Key has changed his views on the Iraq war since becoming leader of the opposition . In 2003 , as an opposition MP , Key emphasised National 's position of supporting New Zealand 's traditional allies , the United States and Australia . Key came under fire in the New Zealand Parliament in August 2007 , when the Government claimed that had Key been Prime Minister at the time , he would have sent troops to Iraq .
Like his predecessor Helen Clark , Key views a New Zealand republic as " inevitable " , although probably not for another decade . " If Australia becomes a republic there is no question it will set off quite an intense debate on this side of the Tasman , " he said , " We would have to have a referendum if we wanted to move towards it . " Key later stated that he is a monarchist , and that a New Zealand republic would " Not [ happen ] under my watch " . Key is a supporter of changing the Flag of New Zealand , and during the 2014 general election campaign promised a referendum on the issue . Following the election he stated he hoped the referendum would be completed in 2015 .
= = Religious views = =
Key attends church frequently with his children , but is an agnostic . He has stated that he does not believe in an afterlife , and sees religion as " doing the right thing " . Key 's wife , Bronagh ( née Dougan ) Key , is the daughter of Northern Irish emigrants of mixed religious descent . Key is the third prime minister or premier of New Zealand ( after Julius Vogel and Francis Bell ) with Jewish ancestry .
= On a Clear Night =
On a Clear Night is the second studio album by Australian singer @-@ songwriter Missy Higgins , released by Eleven on 28 April 2007 . Higgins started work on the album straight after finishing her 2004 debut , The Sound of White . She spent six months of 2006 in Broome , Western Australia , writing new material . She composed songs inspired by the landscape , and by past relationships . She wrote more material while touring the US and at the end of the year travelled to Los Angeles to record with Mitchell Froom .
The album was released on 28 April 2007 in Australia , with three singles ; " Steer " , " Where I Stood " and " Peachy " . The album went to No. 1 on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) albums chart and was certified triple platinum . " Steer " topped the ARIA singles chart and " Where I Stood " went to No. 10 . To help her break into the US market , Higgins ' manager and Eleven 's president John Watson endeavored to get her songs featured in US television shows . " Where I Stood " was used in shows including Grey 's Anatomy , One Tree Hill and So You Think You Can Dance .
On a Clear Night drew mixed reviews from critics both in Australia and abroad . More positive reviews compared Higgins to Sarah McLachlan and Alanis Morissette , and praised the album 's maturity and assertiveness compared to The Sound of White . Less complimentary reviews said that On a Clear Night fails to lift Higgins above the level of her peers . Higgins was nominated for four awards at the 2007 ARIA Music Awards and won ' Best Female Artist ' .
= = Background and recording = =
Higgins started writing tracks for her second album as soon as she had finished recording The Sound of White , which was released in 2004 . She said , " I started quite early because I knew there would a lot of pressure for the second album and I didn 't want to write songs under anyone 's stopwatch . " " 100 Round the Bends " was written while she was still recording the first album . During 2006 , Higgins spent six months living in Broome , Western Australia , away from the distractions of the entertainment industry . Here she was able to relax and focus on creating new material for her next album . The landscape around Broome inspired the lyrics for " Going North " . She said , " It was the first place I 'd ever felt honestly connected with my country , with the physical land of my country " . The lyrics for " Steer " were inspired when Higgins looked up at the night sky on a Broome beach : " It dawned on me how small we are , how short life is ... I felt so liberated to have finally figured that out . "
Several of the songs on the album drew their lyrics from real life relationships . " Peachy " documents the permanent breakup of a relationship that had inspired her 2004 single " Ten Days " . " Where I Stood " , which Higgins calls " a pretty sad love song " , describes the end of another relationship . She said it portrays " one of those situations where you just feel that leaving this person is something you have to do to get to know yourself again . " " Secret " was about an ex @-@ girlfriend who was uncomfortable about going public with their relationship ; " I was so head over heels in love with her I kind of wanted to shout it out to the world , so it was just a song about keeping something under the covers ... keeping it away locked in a little room . "
She left Broome to tour the United States , and continued to write material on the road . While much of the her first album revolved around the piano , most of the songs from On a Clear Night were guitar @-@ based . This was because Higgins had easier access to a guitar than keyboards while touring . She said , " I hadn 't been playing guitar very long for the first album so I think I 'm definitely a better guitar player , and probably a worse piano player because I haven 't been able to play it much over the last few years " .
In the second half of 2006 , Higgins moved to Los Angeles to record On a Clear Night with American musician and producer Mitchell Froom , an experience Higgins described as " really easy and really fun . " They spent three months recording in Froom 's home studio with session musicians including Matt Chamberlain ( drums ) , Davey Faragher ( bass ) and Greg Leisz ( mandolin ) . Neil Finn of Crowded House played guitar on " Peachy " and sang backing vocals on " Going North " .
= = Release and promotion = =
On a Clear Night was released 28 April 2007 on Eleven . It debuted at No. 1 on the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) albums chart and stayed on the chart for 39 weeks . By 12 June it had sold 35 @,@ 627 units and was eventually certified triple platinum . It peaked at No. 14 on the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) albums chart . The first single from the album was " Steer " , released as an extended play ( EP ) on 14 April 2007 . It debuted on the ARIA singles chart at No. 1 and stayed on the chart for 11 weeks . " Where I Stood " was released 4 August and entered the chart ( and peaked ) at No. 10 . " Peachy " was released for digital download only on 10 November 2007 . Higgins spent November and December promoting the album in Australia on her For One Night Only Tour , taking in Cairns , Sydney and Perth . She was joined on some dates by You Am I lead singer , Tim Rogers .
Eleven 's president and Higgins ' manager John Watson noted that her first album , The Sound of White had achieved limited success in North America . He said , " There 's high name recognition there ... but not a high song recognition . " To promote On a Clear Night , he sought placement of its songs in US films and television shows . " Where I Stood " featured in Grey 's Anatomy , One Tree Hill , Brothers & Sisters , Lipstick Jungle , Smallville , The Hills , Men in Trees and So You Think You Can Dance . Higgins toured the US from July – October 2007 with her new material . The album was released in the US on 26 February 2008 on the Warner Bros. label . It reached No. 193 on the Billboard 200 . Higgins then spent 10 months of 2008 in the US promoting the album and toured as a support act with the Indigo Girls and then Ben Folds .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical = = =
The album received mixed reviews in Australia . Writing for the Sydney Morning Herald , Bernard Zuel said that Higgins ' second album was the chance to prove herself as a " special one " , but that she had failed to do so . He called the album " attractive , in a comfortable way " and said that it would appeal to her fans , but said that Higgins is " no better or worse " than many other similar artists . Andrew Murfett for The Age was more positive and called the album " a convincing return " . He cited " Secret " as a highlight and called the song " remarkably forthright " . He also praised Froom 's production .
In the US , reviews were also mixed but generally positive . Andrew Leahey of Allmusic said that On a Clear Night marks a development from The Sound of White and that the second album combines " sass with sweet sentiment " although at times is " a bit too calculated " . He compared Higgins to Sarah McLachlan and Amy Winehouse , calling her " family friendly " but said that her popularity in Australia has not successfully spread to the US . A reviewer for Billboard noted that with this album , Higgins was trying to broaden her market and said that On a Clear Night would appeal to fans of KT Tunstall and the " Grey 's Anatomy @-@ soundtrack crowd " . They said that " Steer " was a highlight and that Higgins sounded assured . Writing for Mix , Sarah Benzuly commented on Higgins ' increased assertiveness with her second album and compared her to Sarah McLachlan and Alanis Morissette . She called the album lyrically rich and " beautifully stirring " .
= = = Awards = = =
At the 2007 ARIA Music Awards Higgins was nominated for ' Best Pop Release ' , ' Highest Selling Album ' and ' Best Female Artist ' for On a Clear Night and ' Highest Selling Single ' for " Steer " . She won the award for ' Best Female Artist ' . It was her seventh ARIA .
= = Track listing = =
All songs were written by Missy Higgins .
" Where I Stood " – 4 : 17
" 100 Round the Bends " – 2 : 58
" Steer " – 3 : 50
" Sugarcane " – 3 : 17
" Secret " – 4 : 07
" Warm Whispers " – 3 : 12
" The Wrong Girl " – 3 : 31
" Angela " – 3 : 03
" Peachy " – 2 : 39
" Going North " – 2 : 48
" Forgive Me " – 4 : 05
Limited Edition Tour DVD Edition
The Making Of " On A Clear Night " Documentary
" Steer " ( Video )
" Where I Stood " ( Video )
" Peachy " ( Video )
" Steer " [ Director 's Cut ] ( Video )
= = Personnel = =
= Madame Tussauds Hong Kong =
Madame Tussauds Hong Kong , part of the renowned chain of wax museums founded by Marie Tussaud of France , is located at the Peak Tower on Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong . It is the first Madame Tussauds museums in Asia , the other being the Shanghai branch , which opened in 2006 and the third branch at Singapore which opened in 2014 . The Hong Kong branch houses nearly 100 wax figures of internationally known personalities , with Asian figures taking up more than a third of the total , of which sixteen were Hong Kongers . The wax figures are featured in a range of themed settings such as Hong Kong Glamour , Music Icons , Historical and National Heroes , The Champions and World Premiere .
= = History = =
In the late 1990s , Madame Tussauds had outlets spanning worldwide in major cities such as London , Amsterdam and Las Vegas , but none was in the Asia @-@ Pacific region . When the " Madame Tussaud 's Touring Attraction " ran in Asian cities of Singapore and Australia , proving to be highly popular , the Tussauds Group decided to open a permanent outlet in Asia to cater to such demand , and Hong Kong was chosen for its proximity to the Asian markets .
Madame Tussauds Hong Kong opens at The Peak in 2000 , and features nearly 100 wax figures of internationally known personalities and local celebrities to date – with Asian figures taking up more than a third of the total , of which sixteen were Hong Kongers . Asian celebrities and superstars have often graced the unveiling of their wax likenesses with sizeable groups of their fans tagging along . In September 2005 , it began its renovation in its effort to bring an interactive and immersive entertainment experience to visitors . It re @-@ opened at a cost of HK $ 20 million ( US $ 2 @.@ 6 million ) on 18 May 2006 , adding a further 700 square metres ( 7 @,@ 500 sq ft ) of exhibition space on three floors and five themed areas . Visitors can journey through the attraction , stopping to mingle with the ' stars ' in a range of themed settings including Hong Kong Glamour , Music Icons , Historical and National Heroes , The Champions and World Premiere .
As of 2008 , the museum is headed by Bret Pidgeon , who is currently the general manager of Madame Tussauds Hong Kong and Shanghai . He has worked for eight years for Madame Tussauds in New York previously . The museum is accessible from Central via minibus , taxi or Peak Tram and opens all year round from 10 am to 10 pm daily . Admission fee is HK $ 140 ( US $ 18 ) for adults and HK $ 70 for children aged between 3 and 11 years old .
= = Wax figure making process = =
In over one or more sittings , a highly skilled sculptor from Madame Tussauds Studios who is given direct access to the celebrity will record the colours of the hair and eyes , and over 500 precise body measurements are referenced . Most important is to capture the look of the celebrity to reflect the personality of each unique individual . The next task is to make a clay model of the head and body which is used to create a mould . Wax cast of the head and hands are made from the mould , and the eyes are inserted . Each eye is hand @-@ painted to achieve a perfect match of the original . Real human hair is then inserted painstakingly strand by strand .
The head and hands are coloured using a blend of oil , water and acrylic colour . From the mould , the body is cast in fibreglass , and the head and hands are fitted to the fiberglass body and dressed in clothes that are often donated by the celebrity . The pose , clothes and expression on the face all contribute to making the figure as realistic as possible . The whole process usually takes up to six months by a team of 20 people to create and cost about HK $ 1 million each .
= = Unique figures = =
The figure of Miriam Yeung , unveiled on November 2006 , is the first in the world designed to giggle via in @-@ built sensors . Miriam is well known for her fun @-@ loving and bubbly personality , and Madame Tussauds want to capture that essence in her figure .
The figure of Connie Chan , unveiled on August 2006 , was the first figure to appear in full Chinese regalia . The model 's costume was inspired by the musical Only You , set in the Yuan Dynasty , in which Chan formerly starred .
The figure of Bae Yong @-@ joon , unveiled on May 2006 , is the first Korean star to be included in a Madame Tussauds exhibition .
The figure of Andy Lau , unveiled on April 2005 , was the outlet first animatronic model that was crafted out of silicone rather than wax . Lau 's animatronic heartbeat was modelled on a similar system installed in a replica of Brad Pitt at Madame Tussauds Amsterdam .
= = Featured personalities = =
The list of featured celebrities sorted according to on @-@ site themes are :
= = Madame Tussauds Shanghai = =
The second Asian outlet is located in the Chinese city of Shanghai . Attracted by Shanghai 's growing reputation and tourism volume in East Asia , the Tussauds Group approached Shanghai authorities to discuss the possibility of opening its second Asian location in early 2004 . The Shanghai authorities agreed with the proposal and Madame Tussauds Shanghai ( 上海杜莎夫人臘像館 ) was opened on 1 May 2006 on the 10th floor of the New World Department Store at West Nanjing Road .
The Shanghai outlet houses nearly 75 wax figures of local and internationally known celebrities to date , and will add more in its second and third phases . The museum opens all year round from 10 am to 10 pm daily and it is divided up into seven themed sections : Glamour , Behind the Scenes , History and Heroes , Music , Film , Speed and Sport . Admission fee is RMB 135 ( US $ 20 ) for adults and RMB 100 for students . Madame Tussauds Shanghai is the Tussauds Group 's sixth waxwork museum after London , Amsterdam , Las Vegas , New York City and Hong Kong .
= Haakon IV of Norway =
Haakon Haakonsson ( c . March / April 1204 – 16 December 1263 ) ( Old Norse : Hákon Hákonarson ; Norwegian : Håkon Håkonsson ) , sometimes called Haakon the Old in contrast to his son with the same name , and known in modern regnal lists as Haakon IV , was the King of Norway from 1217 to 1263 . His reign lasted for 46 years , longer than any Norwegian king since Harald I. Haakon was born into the troubled civil war era in Norway , but his reign eventually managed to put an end to the internal conflicts . At the start of his reign , during his minority , his later rival Earl Skule Bårdsson served as regent . As a king of the birkebeiner faction , Haakon defeated the uprising of the final bagler royal pretender , Sigurd Ribbung , in 1227 . He put a definitive end to the civil war era when he had Skule Bårdsson killed in 1240 , a year after he had himself proclaimed king in opposition to Haakon . Haakon thereafter formally appointed his own son as his co @-@ regent .
Under Haakon 's rule , medieval Norway is considered to have reached its zenith or golden age . His reputation and formidable naval fleet allowed him to maintain friendships with both the Pope and the Holy Roman Emperor , despite their conflict . He was at different points offered the Imperial Crown by the Pope , the Irish High Kingship by a delegation of Irish kings , and the command of the French crusader fleet by the French king . He amplified the influence of European culture in Norway by importing and translating contemporary European literature into Old Norse , and by constructing monumental European @-@ style stone buildings . In conjunction with this he employed an active and aggressive foreign policy , and at the end of his rule added Iceland and the Norse Greenland community to his kingdom , leaving Norway at its territorial height . Although he for the moment managed to secure Norwegian control of the islands off the northern and western shores of Great Britain , he fell ill and died when wintering in Orkney following some military engagements with the expanding Scottish kingdom .
= = Historical sources = =
The main source of information concerning Haakon is the Saga of Haakon Haakonsson which was written in the immediate years following his death . Commissioned by his son Magnus , it was written by the Icelandic writer and politician Sturla Þórðarson ( nephew of the famous historian Snorri Sturluson ) . Having come into conflict with the royal representative in Iceland , Sturla came to Norway in 1263 in an attempt to reconcile with Haakon . When he arrived , he learned that Haakon was in Scotland , and that Magnus ruled Norway in his place . While Magnus initially took an unfriendly attitude towards Sturla , his talents as a story @-@ teller and skald eventually won him the favour of Magnus and his men . The saga is considered the most detailed and reliable of all sagas concerning Norwegian kings , building on both written archive material and oral information from individuals who had been close to Haakon . It is nonetheless written openly in support of the political program of the House of Sverre , and the legitimacy of Haakon 's kingship .
= = Background and childhood = =
Haakon was born in Folkenborg ( now in Eidsberg ) to Inga of Varteig in the summer of 1204 , probably in March or April . The father was widely regarded to have been King Haakon Sverresson , the leader of the birkebeiner faction in the ongoing civil war against the bagler , as Inga had been with Haakon in his hostel in Borg ( now Sarpsborg ) in late 1203 . Haakon Sverresson was dead by the time his son Haakon was born , but Inga 's claim was supported by several of Haakon Sverresson 's followers . Haakon was born in bagler @-@ controlled territory , and his mother 's claim placed them in a dangerous position . While the bagler started hunting Haakon , a group of birkebeiner warriors fled with the child in the winter of 1205 / 06 , heading for King Inge Bårdson , the new birkebeiner king in Nidaros ( now Trondheim ) . As the party was struck by a blizzard , two of the best birkebeiner skiers , Torstein Skevla and Skjervald Skrukka , carried on with the child over the mountain from Lillehammer to Østerdalen . They eventually managed to bring Haakon to safety with King Inge ; this particular event is commemorated in modern @-@ day Norway by the popular annual skiing event Birkebeinerrennet . Haakon 's dramatic childhood was often parallelled with that of former king Olaf Tryggvasson ( who introduced Christianity to Norway ) , as well as with the gospels and Child Jesus , which served as an important ideological function for his kingship .
In the saga , Haakon is described as bright and witty , and as being small for his age . When he was three years old , Haakon was captured by the bagler but refused to call the bagler king Philip Simonsson his lord ( he nonetheless came from the capture unharmed ) . When he learned at the age of eight that King Inge and his brother Earl Haakon the Crazy had made an agreement of the succession to the throne that excluded himself , he pointed out that the agreement was invalid due to his attorney not having been present . He subsequently identified his attorney as " God and Saint Olaf . " Haakon was notably the first Norwegian king to receive formal education at a school . From the late civil war era , the government administration relied increasingly on written communication , which in turn demanded literate leaders . When Haakon was in Bergen under the care of Haakon the Crazy , he started receiving education from the age of seven , likely at the Bergen Cathedral School . He continued his education under King Inge at the Trondheim Cathedral School after the Earl 's death in 1214 . Haakon was brought up alongside Inge 's son Guttorm , and they were treated as the same . When he was eleven , some of Haakon 's friends provoked the king by asking him to give Haakon a region to govern . When Haakon was approached by the men and was urged to take up arms against Inge , he rejected it in part because of his young age and its bad prospects , as well as because he believed it would be morally wrong to fight Inge and thus split the birkebeiner . He instead said that he prayed that God would give him his share of his father 's inheritance when the time was right .
= = Reign = =
= = = Succession struggle = = =
After King Inge 's death in 1217 , a dispute erupted over who was to become his successor . In addition to Haakon who gained the support of the majority of the birkebeiners including the veterans who had served under his father and grandfather , candidates included Inge 's illegitimate son Guttorm ( who dropped out very soon ) , Inge 's half @-@ brother Earl Skule Bårdsson who had been appointed leader of the king 's hird at Inge 's deathbed and was supported by the Archbishop of Nidaros as well as part of the birkebeiners , and Haakon the Crazy 's son Knut Haakonsson . With his widespread popular support in Trøndelag and in Western Norway , Haakon was proclaimed king at Øyrating in June 1217 . He was later the same year hailed as king at Gulating in Bergen , and at Haugating , Borgarting and local things east of Elven ( Göta Älv ) . While Skule 's supporters initially had attempted to cast doubt about Haakon 's royal ancestry , they eventually suspended open resistance to his candidacy . As the dispute could have threatened to split the birkebeiners in two , Skule settled on becoming regent for Haakon during his minority .
In connection with the dispute over the royal election , Haakon 's mother Inga had to prove his parentage through a trial by ordeal in Bergen in 1218 . The result of the trial strengthened the legal basis for his kingship , and improved his relationship with the church . The saga 's claim that Haakon already had been generally accepted as king in 1217 / 18 has however been contested by modern historians such as Sverre Bagge . Skule and Haakon increasingly drifted apart in their administration , and Skule focused mainly on governing Eastern Norway after 1220 , which he had gained the right to rule in 1218 as his third of the Norwegian kingdom . From 1221 to 1223 , Haakon and Skule separately issued letters as rulers of Norway , and maintained official contacts abroad . In 1223 a great meeting of bishops , clergy , secular nobles and other high @-@ ranking figures from all across the country was held in Bergen to finally decide on Haakon 's right to the throne . Other candidates to the throne were present either personally or through attorneys , but Haakon was in the end unanimously confirmed as King of Norway by the court .
The last bagler king Philip Simonsson died in 1217 . Speedy political and military manoeuvering by Skule led to a reconciliation between the birkebeiner and bagler , and thus the reunification of the kingdom . However , some discontented elements among the bagler found a new royal pretender , Sigurd Ribbung , and launched a new rising from 1219 . The rising only gained support in parts of Eastern Norway , and were unable to gain control of Viken and Opplandene as the bagler formerly had done . In the summer of 1223 Skule eventually managed to force the Ribbungar to surrender . The great meeting in Bergen soon after however renewed the division of the Norwegian kingdom with Skule , who thereafter gained control of the northern third of the country instead of the east , in what marked a setback despite his military victory . In 1224 , Ribbung who had been in Skule 's custody escaped , and Haakon was left to fight him alone as the new ruler of Eastern Norway . Skule remained passive throughout the rest of the war , and his support for Haakon was lukewarm at best . Assuming the military lead in the fight , Haakon nevertheless defeated Ribbung through comprehensive and organisationally demanding warfare over the next years . As part of the campaign , Haakon additionally led a large army into Värmland , Sweden in 1225 in order to punish the inhabitants for their support of Ribbung . While Ribbung died in 1226 , the revolt was finally quashed in 1227 after the surrender of the last leader of the uprising , Haakon the Crazy 's son Knut Haakonsson . This left Haakon more or less uncontested monarch .
Haakon 's councillors had sought to reconcile Haakon and Skule by proposing marriage between Haakon and Skule 's daughter Margrete in 1219 . Haakon accepted the proposal ( although he did not think it would change much politically ) , but the marriage between Haakon and Margrete did not take place before 1225 , partly due to the conflict with Ribbung . The relationship between Haakon and Skule nevertheless deteriorated further during the 1230s , and attempts of settlements at meetings in 1233 and 1236 only distanced them more from each other . Periodically , the two nonetheless reconciled and spent a great amount of time together , only to have their friendship destroyed , according to the saga by intrigues derived from rumours and slander by men who played the two against each other . Skule was the first person ever in Norway to be titled Duke ( hertug ) in 1237 , but instead of control over a region gained the rights to the incomes from a third of the syssels scattered across the whole of Norway . This was part of an attempt by Haakon to limit Skule 's power . In 1239 the conflict between the two erupted into open warfare when Skule had himself proclaimed king . Although he had some support in Trøndelag , Opplandene and in eastern Viken , he could not stand up to Haakon 's forces . The rebellion ended when Skule was killed in 1240 , leaving Haakon the undisputed king of Norway . This revolt is generally taken to mark the final end of Norway 's civil war era .
= = = Recognition by the Pope = = =
While the church in Norway initially had refused to recognise Haakon as King of Norway , it had largely turned to support his claim to the throne by the 1223 meeting , although later disagreements occurred . Despite additionally having become the undisputed ruler of Norway after 1240 , Haakon had still not been approved as king by the Pope due to his illegitimate birth . He nonetheless had a strong personal desire to be approved fully as a European king . Several papal commissions were appointed to investigate the matter , and Haakon declared his legitimate son Haakon the Young his successor instead of an older living illegitimate son . Although Haakon had children with his mistress Kanga the Young prior to his marriage with Margrete , it was his children with Margrete that was designated as his successors in accordance with a papal recognition . The Catholic principle of legitimacy was thus established in the Norwegian order of succession , although Haakon 's new law still maintained that illegitimate children could be designated as successor in the absence of any legitimate children or grandchildren — contrary to Catholic principles . While his strong position allowed him to set boundaries to the church 's political influence , he was on the other hand prepared to give the church much autonomy in internal affairs and relations with the rural society .
Haakon also attempted to strengthen his ties with the papacy by issuing a vow of crusade . In 1241 he however converted this into a vow of engaging in warfare against pagan peoples in the north in light of the Mongol invasion of Europe . When a group of Karelians ( " Bjarmians " ) had been forced westwards by the Mongols , Haakon allowed them to stay in Malangen and had them Christianized — something that would please the papacy . Later , in 1248 , Louis IX of France proposed ( by Matthew Paris as messenger ) to Haakon to join him for a crusade , with Haakon as commander of the fleet , but Haakon turned the offer down . While Haakon had been unsuccessful in gaining the recognition of Pope Gregory IX , he quickly gained the support from Pope Innocent IV who sought alliances in his struggle with Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . Haakon finally achieved royal recognition by Pope Innocent in 1246 , and Cardinal William of Sabina was sent to Bergen and crowned Haakon in 1247 .
= = = Cultural influence and legal reforms = = =
After consolidating his position in 1240 , Haakon focused on displaying the supremacy of the kingship , influenced by the increasingly closer contact with European culture . He started constructing several monumental royal buildings , primarily in the royal estate in Bergen where he built a European @-@ style stone palace . He used a grand fleet with stately royal ships when meeting with other Scandinavian rulers , and actively sent letters and gifts to other European rulers ; his most far @-@ reaching contact was achieved when he sent gyrfalcons with an embassy to the Sultan of Tunis .
The royal court in Bergen also started importing and translating the first true European literature that became available to a wider Norwegian audience . The literature which was popular then was heroic @-@ romantic literature derived from the French and in turn English courts , notably chansons de geste around Charlemagne ( the Matter of France ) and tales of King Arthur ( the Matter of Britain ) . The first work that was translated into Old Norse was reportedly the Arthurian romantic story Tristan and Iseult , which was finished in 1226 after orders from the young and newly @-@ wed Haakon . Hákon 's programme seems to have been the spark for the emergence of a new Norse genre of chivalric sagas .
Haakon also had the popular religious text Visio Tnugdali translated into Old Norse as Duggals leiðsla . The literature also appealed to women , and both Haakon 's wife Margrete and his daughter Kristina owned richly illustrated psalters .
Haakon also initiated legal reforms which were crucial for the development of justice in Norway . Haakon 's " New Law " written around 1260 was a breakthrough for both the idea and practice of public justice , as opposed to the traditional Norwegian customs for feuds and revenge . The influence of the reforms is also apparent in Haakon 's King 's Mirror ( Konungs skuggsjá ) , an educational text intended for his son Magnus , which was probably written in cooperation with the royal court in the mid @-@ 1250s .
= = = Involvements abroad = = =
Relations were hostile with both Sweden and Denmark from the start . During his rivalry with Earl Skule , Skule attempted to gain the support of Valdemar II of Denmark , but any aid was made impossible after Valdemar 's capture by one of his vassals . Since the Danes wanted overlordship of Norway and supported the Guelphs ( those supporting the Pope over the Holy Roman Emperor ) , Haakon in turn sought closer ties with the Ghibelline Emperor Frederick II , who sent ambassadors to Norway . As Haakon had gained a powerful reputation due to the strength of his fleet , other European rulers wanted to benefit from his friendship . Despite the struggle between the Pope and the Emperor , Haakon was able to maintain friendships with both . According to an English chronicler , the Pope wanted Haakon to become Holy Roman Emperor . It has been suggested that Haakon hesitated to leave Norway due to the Mongol threat .
Haakon pursued a foreign policy that was active in all directions ( although foremost to the west and south @-@ east ) . In the north @-@ east , the relationship with Novgorod had been tense due to a dispute over the right to tax the Sami people , as well as raiding from both Norwegian and Karelian sides . Eventually , the Mongol threat drove Prince Alexander Nevsky to negotiations with Haakon that likely strengthened Norwegian control of Troms and Finnmark . An embassy from Novgorod one time asked for Haakon 's daughter Christina for a marriage , but Haakon refused due to the Mongol threat . Due to the Elven @-@ based Norwegian presence in the seas around the south of Sweden and into the Baltic Sea , Norway increasingly relied on Baltic grain from Lübeck . The import was however halted in the late 1240s due to the plundering of Norwegian ships in Danish seas by ships from Lübeck . In 1250 , Haakon made a peace and trade agreement with Lübeck , which eventually also opened the city of Bergen to the Hanseatic League . During the conflict , Haakon had reportedly been offered control over the city by Holy Roman Emperor Frederick II . In any case , Haakon 's policy regarding Northern German ports largely derived from his strategy of attempting to exploit the internal turmoil that had erupted in Denmark following the death of King Valdemar II in 1241 .
In Scandinavia , Haakon regularly met with neighbouring rulers in the border @-@ area around Elven from the late 1240s through the 1250s . Using grand fleets as envoys , Haakon 's fleet at most reportedly counted over 300 ships . Haakon sought to expand his kingdom southwards of Elven into the Danish province of Halland . He thus looked for alliance with the Swedes , as well as ties with opponents of the ruling line of monarchs of Denmark . Haakon made a deal with Swedish leader Earl Birger in 1249 about a joint Swedish @-@ Norwegian invasion into Halland and Scania , but the agreement was eventually abandoned by the Swedes ( see Treaty of Lödöse ) . Haakon claimed Halland in 1253 , and finally invaded the province on his own in 1256 , demanding it as compensation for the looting of Norwegian ships in Danish seas . He was however forced to renounce his claims in 1257 after a peace agreement was made with Christopher I of Denmark . Haakon thereafter negotiated a marriage between his only remaining son Magnus and Ingeborg , daughter of former Danish king Eric Ploughpenny . Haakon had also reconciled with the Swedes when he had his son Haakon the Young marry a daughter of Earl Birger . Haakon 's Nordic policies initiated the build @-@ up to the later personal unions ( called the Kalmar Union ) , that in the end had dire consequences for Norway as it did not have the economic and military resources to persevere and maintain Haakon 's aggressive policies .
More distantly , Haakon sought an alliance with Alfonso X of Castile , a potential next Holy Roman Emperor — chiefly as it would guarantee new supplies of grain in light of rising prices in England , and possibly giving access to Baltic grain through Norwegian control of Lübeck . Alfonso in turn sought to expand his influence in Northern Europe , as well as to gain Norwegian naval assistance for the campaign or crusade he had proposed in Morocco ( seeing that the Iberian Moors received backing overseas from North Africa ) . Haakon could thus potentially also fulfill his papal vow of crusade , although he likely did not intend to . He sent an embassy to Castile in 1255 , and the accompanying Castilian ambassador on the return to Norway proposed to establish the " strongest ties of friendship " with Haakon . At the request of Alfonso , Haakon gave his consent that his daughter Christina could go to Castile and marry one of Alfonso 's brothers . Christina 's death four years after the childless marriage , however , marked an effective end of the short @-@ lived " alliance " , and the proposed crusade fell into the blue .
= = = The Scottish expedition and death = = =
Haakon employed an active and aggressive foreign policy towards strengthening Norwegian ties in the west . His policy relied on friendship and trade with the English king ; the first known Norwegian trade agreements were made with England in the years 1217 – 23 ( England 's first commercial treaties were also made with Norway ) , and the friendship with Henry III of England was a cornerstone in Haakon 's foreign policy . As they had become kings around the same time , Haakon wrote to Henry in 1224 that he wished they could maintain the friendship that had existed between their fathers . Haakon sought to defend the Norwegian sovereignty over the islands in the west , namely the Hebrides and Man ( under the Kingdom of Mann and the Isles ) , Shetland and Orkney ( under the Earldom of Orkney ) , and the Faroe Islands . Further , the Norse community in Greenland agreed to submit to the Norwegian king in 1261 , and in 1262 Haakon achieved one of his long @-@ standing ambitions when he managed to incorporate Iceland into his kingdom by utilising the island 's internal conflicts in his favour . The dependency on Norwegian maritime trade and their subordination to the Nidaros ecclesiastical province were some of the key reasons which allowed Haakon to assert sovereignty over the islands . The Norwegian kingdom was at the largest it has ever been by the end of Haakon 's reign .
Norwegian control over the Faroe Islands and Shetland was strong due to the importance of Bergen as a trading centre , while Orkney , the Hebrides and Man had more natural ties with the Scottish mainland . Although traditionally having had ties with the community of Norse settlers in northern Scotland , Scottish rulers had increasingly asserted their sovereignty over the entire mainland . Haakon had at the same time gained stronger control of the Hebrides and Man than any Norwegian ruler since Magnus Barefoot . As part of a new development the Scottish king Alexander II claimed the Hebrides and requested to buy the islands from Norway , but Haakon staunchly rejected the proposals . Following Alexander II 's death , his son Alexander III continued and stepped up his father 's policy by sending an embassy to Norway in 1261 , and thereafter attacking the Hebrides .
In 1263 the dispute with the Scottish king over the Hebrides induced Haakon to undertake an expedition to the islands . Having learned in 1262 that Scottish nobles had raided the Hebrides and that Alexander III planned to conquer the islands , Haakon went on an expedition with his formidable leidang fleet of at least 120 ships in 1263 , having become accustomed to negotiating backed by an intimidating fleet . The fleet left Bergen in July , and reached Shetland and Orkney in August where they were joined by chieftains from the Hebrides and Man . Negotiations were started by Alexander following Norwegian landings on the Scottish mainland , but were purposely prolonged by the Scots . Having waited until September / October for weather that caused trouble for Haakon 's fleet , a clash occurred between a smaller Norwegian force and a Scottish division at the Battle of Largs . Although inconclusive and of a limited impact , Haakon withdrew to Orkney for the winter . A delegation of Irish kings invited Haakon to help them rid Ireland of English settlers as High King of Ireland , but this was apparently rejected against Haakon 's wish .
Haakon over @-@ wintered at the Bishop 's Palace in Kirkwall , Orkney , with plans to resume his campaign the next year . During his stay in Kirkwall he however fell ill , and died in the early hours of 16 December 1263 . Haakon was buried in the St Magnus Cathedral in Kirkwall for the winter , and when spring came he was exhumed and his body taken back to Norway , where he was buried in the Old Cathedral in his capital Bergen . Centuries later , in 1531 , the cathedral was demolished by the Danish feudal overlord Eske Bille for military purposes in connection with the Protestant Reformation , and the graves of Haakon and other Norwegian kings buried there were apparently destroyed in the process .
= = Views on Haakon 's reign = =
Norwegian historians have held strongly differing views on Haakon 's reign . In the 19th century , historian P. A. Munch portrayed Haakon as a mighty , almost flawless ruler , which in turn influenced Henrik Ibsen in his 1863 play The Pretenders . In the early 20th century , poet Hans E. Kinck countered and viewed Haakon as an insignificant king subordinated to forces outside of his control , a view which influenced historians such as Halvdan Koht and Edvard Bull , Sr .. Haakon has often been compared with Skule Bårdsson , and historians have taken sides in the old conflict . While Munch saw Skule as a traitor to the rightful Norwegian king , Koht viewed Skule as a heroic figure . On more sketchy grounds , Kinck praised Skule as representing the original and dying Norse culture , and Haakon as a superficial emulator of foreign culture . Since the 1960s , historians including Narve Bjørgo , Per Sveaas Andersen , Knut Helle , Svein Haga and Kåre Lunden have in turn professed a reaction against Koht 's view . According to Sverre Bagge , modern historians tend to follow Koht when it comes to see Skule 's rebellion as a last desperate attempt to stop Haakon from enroaching his power , but lean closer to Munch 's overall evaluation of the two men .
Knut Helle interprets the saga to leave an impression of Skule as a skilled warrior and politician , while noting that the author of the saga purposely created a diffuse image of his role in the conflict with Haakon . On the other hand , Helle notes that Skule was outmaneuvered with relative ease by Haakon 's supporters in the immediate years after 1217 , and that this may suggest some limited abilities . While neither giving a clear picture of Haakon , Helle maintains that Haakon " obviously " learned to master the political game in his early years . He interprets Haakon as an independent and willstrong ruler whom he assigns a " significant personal responsibility " for the policies pursued during his reign — notably regarding the internal consolidation of the kingship , the orientation towards European culture and the aggressive foreign policy . In his article in Norsk biografisk leksikon , Knut Helle acknowledges that Haakon was empowered by the strong institutional position of the kingship at the end of his reign ( which it should be noted that he had developed himself ) , and that his policies were not always successful . It nonetheless recognises the substantial political abilities and powerful determination Haakon must have had in order to progress from the difficult position in which he started his reign .
= = Children and marriage = =
Haakon had two illegitimate children with his mistress Kanga the Young ( who is only known by name ) before 1225 . They were :
Sigurd ( died 1252 ) .
Cecilia ( died 1248 ) . Married lendmann Gregorius Andresson , a nephew of the last bagler king Philip Simonsson in 1241 . Widowed in 1246 , she married Harald Olafsson , King of Mann and the Isles in 1248 . They both drowned the same year on the return voyage to Great Britain .
Haakon married Margrete Skulesdatter on 25 May 1225 , daughter of his rival Earl Skule Bårdsson . Their children were :
Olav ( born 1226 ) . Died in infancy .
Haakon the Young ( 1232 – 1257 ) . Married Rikissa Birgersdotter , daughter of the Swedish statesman Earl Birger in 1251 . He was appointed king and co @-@ ruler by his father in 1240 , but predeceased his father .
Christina ( 1234 – 1262 ) . Married Infante Philip of Castile , brother of Alfonso X of Castile in 1258 . She died childless .
Magnus VI of Norway ( 1238 – 1280 ) . Married Ingeborg , daughter of Eric IV of Denmark in 1261 . Was appointed king and co @-@ ruler following the death of Haakon the Young . Succeeded his father as King of Norway following his father 's death .
= = Olympic Mascot = =
Håkon and Kristin are the mascots of the 1994 Winter Olympics . Håkon is named after Haakon IV of Norway and Kristin after Christina of Norway .
= = Ancestry = =
= Saudi Arabia women 's national football team =
The Saudi Arabia women 's national football team would be the national team representing the kingdom in international football . However , the team does not yet exist because of influence of religious leaders in Saudi Arabia and systematic discrimination against women 's sport , active opposition of political leaders and sport administrators . International pressure has come to bear on the country to field a women 's team , and FIFA now allows the hijab to be worn in competition . A meeting at the College of Business Administration in Jeddah was seen as a possible first step in a team eventually being created .
Despite a lack of official support for a national team and women 's football in general , women have self @-@ organised their own teams and play games out of the sight of men . Created in 2006 , King 's United women football club was the first women 's football club in the country . No official data is kept regarding participation rates for women football players .
= = Team = =
In 1985 , almost no country in the world had a women 's national football team including Saudi Arabia , who have not played in a FIFA @-@ recognised match as of June 2012 . In 2008 , based on the influence of conservative religious leaders in the country , the creation of a FIFA recognised women 's national team was banned by law . In June 2012 the team was not ranked in the world by FIFA and no team from the country has ever been FIFA ranked .
Growing the game and having an opportunity to have a women 's national team has been hindered by the systematic discrimination that all women 's sport is subject to in the country . Saudi Arabia 's Olympic Committee head Nawaf bin Faisal is quoted as saying that the committee should " not be endorsing any female participation at the moment " . In November 2011 , Ahmad Eid Al @-@ Harbi , vice president of the Player Status Committee for the Saudi Arabian Football Federation , said of the creation of a women 's national team : " Saudi society is a very conservative one , even when it comes to men ’ s clubs . No one can imagine his daughter playing in front of thousands of people wearing shorts , such as in soccer . " Leaders in Saudi Arabian sport held a meeting in mid @-@ 2011 at the College of Business Administration in Jeddah where they discussed women 's sport and possible participation of women as part of the Saudi Arabian national team at the Olympic Games . They were inspired by the example of seven other Arab nations having successfully created women 's national football teams . During 2012 opposition to women 's participation in sport softened with the national Olympic Committee and the Saudi Embassy in London announcing that women 's participation at the 2012 Summer Olympics would be permitted if they were invited .
No Saudi women 's national football team will be competing at the 2012 London Olympics , despite extensive pressure from the International Olympic Committee . Still , in 2012 , the national federation was quietly arguing with the International Football Association Board not to allow women 's participation if they were wearing the hijab while playing . The logic they followed was that if FIFA allowed women to wear the hijab in recognised matches , it would be much more difficult for the federation to prevent a national team from being created . There is a lot of pressure being put on the sporting community to allow for national representation of women on the international team as the kingdom will likely be the last nation in the world to prohibit women from competing at the Olympics . If the Saudis can successfully argue the hijab cannot be worn in competition , it would make them less isolated internationally as other teams in the Arab world would be less likely to compete in the upcoming FIFA Women 's Under @-@ 17 World Cup . PRI 's The World said in late 2011 : " Who knows . In 10 years Saudi Arabia might just have a formidable national women 's soccer team . " A current female football player in the country said of the situation as it pertains to the national team : " Our generation started the game , the leagues , the structure . The next generation will have it on a silver platter . We may not get to play for a national team but we 're laying the groundwork . "
= = Background and development = =
The national federation was created in 1956 and became a FIFA affiliate in 1956 . However women 's football is not included in the country 's FIFA coordinated Goals ! project . By 2011 , inside the Saudi Arabia Football Federation , there has been an effort to create women 's football programs at universities . Input had been sought on how to do this from other national federations including ones from the United States , Germany , Brazil and the United Kingdom . On the men 's side of the game , the national federation has funded efforts to improve the quality of the Saudi Arabia men 's national football team .
Founded in 2006 , King 's United women football club was the first women 's football club in the country . In 2009 , they trained in Jeddah . The team was initially sponsored by Prince Alwaleed bin Talal but facing scrutiny in the face of intense media coverage , he withdrew his support in 2009 . In 2012 , the team trained three times a week outside the sight of men , with players wearing traditional football kit of short sleeved shirts and shorts . The team is coached by Reema Abdullah who also is the team 's striker . It has 35 players who range in age from 13 to 35 . Other women 's teams have been created in the country in cities like Riyadh and Dammam and a tournament was held in 2008 , with seven teams competing and the event being won by King 's United . The first match between two female teams in the country occurred in January 2008 when the Prince Mohammad bin Fahd University team beat Al @-@ Yamamah College in a match played at Dammam 's 35 @,@ 000 @-@ spectator capacity Prince Mohamed bin Fahd Stadium in a shootout victory before an all @-@ women audience . The player of the match was Al @-@ Yamamah College 's goalkeeper . In March 2009 , a women 's charity football match was held between a team called " University " and a team called " Barcelona " that was attended by 400 female fans and no men . The game was won 2 – 1 by University and earned SR81,000 ( $ 21 @,@ 598 ) to go towards people with disabilities in the eastern part of the kingdom .
As of 2006 , no data was available for the number of women 's football players in the country . In 2006 , there was international uproar when Saudi authorities sought to prevent women from attending a game between the Saudi Arabia national football team and the Sweden national football team . In 2008 , the situation for women 's football in the Middle East was said by author Gary Brecher to be up there in popularity of freedom and democracy in the region . An all @-@ women 's school sporting competition was held at Effat University in 2010 . The tournament was investigated by Saudi authorities because , according to Ahmed al @-@ Zahrani , director of the Girls Education Department in Jeddah , the country does not have " any regulations that say that it 's okay for girl schools to hold sports classes or training " . In 2011 , women 's football was seen as a way to combat a growing problem of obesity in the country .
= Ajtony =
Ajtony , Ahtum or Achtum ( Hungarian : Ajtony , Bulgarian : Охтум , Romanian : Ahtum , Serbian : Ахтум ) was an early @-@ 11th @-@ century ruler in the territory now known as Banat in present Romania and Serbia . His primary source is the Long Life of Saint Gerard , a 14th @-@ century hagiography . Ajtony was a powerful ruler who owned many horses , cattle and sheep and was baptised according to the Orthodox rite in Vidin . He taxed salt which was transferred to King Stephen I of Hungary on the Mureș River . The king sent Csanád , Ajtony 's former commander @-@ in @-@ chief , against him at the head of a large army . Csanád defeated and killed Ajtony , occupying his realm . In the territory , at least one county and a Roman Catholic diocese were established .
Historians disagree on the year of Ajtony 's defeat ; it may have occurred in 1002 , 1008 or between 1027 and 1030 . His ethnicity is also a subject of historical debate ; he may have been Hungarian , Kabar , Pecheneg or Romanian . In Romanian historiography Ajtony is viewed as the last member of a Romanian ruling family founded by Glad , lord of Banat around 900 according to the Gesta Hungarorum .
= = Background = =
The Magyars ( or Hungarians ) , who had lived on the Pontic steppe for decades , invaded the Carpathian Basin after their defeat by a coalition of Bulgarians and Pechenegs about 895 AD . Byzantine Emperor Constantine Porphyrogenitus wrote that the seven Magyar tribes formed a confederation with the Kabars . Although the Kabars had originally lived in the Khazar Khaganate , they rebelled against the Khazars and joined the Magyars on the Pontic steppe .
According to churchman Regino of Prüm , Constantine Porphyrogenitus and other contemporary sources , the Magyars fought the Bavarians , Bulgarians , Carinthians , Franks and Moravians in the Carpathian Basin . Among the Magyars ' opponents the same sources noted many local rulers , including Svatopluk I of Moravia , Luitpold of Bavaria and Braslav , Duke of Lower Pannonia . The Gesta Hungarorum — the earliest extant Hungarian chronicle , written after 1150 — instead mentioned Glad , lord of the lands between the Danube and the Mureș ( now known as the Banat in Romania and Serbia ) and other local rulers absent from the earlier sources . Therefore , the credibility of the Gesta reports is a subject of scholarly debate . Although Vlad Georgescu , Ioan Aurel Pop and other historians describe Glad as one of the local Romanian rulers who attempted to resist the invading Hungarians , other scholars — including Pál Engel and György Györffy — call him one of the dozen " imaginary figures " invented by Anonymus ( author of the Gesta ) as foes in the Hungarian conquest of the Carpathian Basin .
Constantine Porphyrogenitus identified " the whole settlement of Turkey " ( Hungary ) with the basins of five rivers — the Criș , Mureș , Timiș , Tisza and the unidentified " Toutis " — around 950 , indicating that the land east of the Tisza was ruled by the Hungarians at that time . The emperor apparently received information about the Carpathian Basin situation from Termatzus , Bulcsú and Gylas , three Hungarian chieftains who visited Constantinople during the mid @-@ 10th century . According to Byzantine historian John Skylitzes , Bulcsú and Gylas were baptised during their visit . Bulcsú , Skylitzes wrote , still " violated his contract with God and often invaded " the Byzantine Empire ; Gylas , however , " remained faithful to Christianity " and made no further inroads against the empire . Skylitzes also mentioned a Greek monk , Hierotheos , who was ordained bishop for the Hungarians . Hierotheos accompanied Gylas back to Hungary and " converted many from the barbaric fallacy to Christianity " . Most 10th @-@ century Byzantine coins and artifacts have been unearthed around the confluence of the Tisza and the Mureș , particularly in the Banat . Tudor Sălăgean , Florin Curta and other historians posit that Gylas 's lands must have been in these territories , but their theory is not universally accepted .
Unlike Gylas , who chose the Eastern Orthodox Church , Géza , Grand Prince of the Hungarians , opted for Western Christianity and a cleric from the Holy Roman Empire ( according to most scholars , Bruno from the Abbey of Saint Gall ) baptised him during the 970s . Thietmar of Merseburg and other 11th @-@ century authors emphasized that Géza was a cruel ruler , suggesting that the unification of the Hungarian chieftains ' lands began under him . Géza was succeeded by his son , Stephen , who was crowned the first king of Hungary in 1000 or 1001 .
= = In primary sources = =
The principal source of Ajtony 's life is the Long Life of Saint Gerard , compiled from a number of earlier sources in the early 14th century . According to modern historians ( including Carlile Aylmer Macartney and Florin Curta ) , all information on Ajtony incorporated into the Long Life was based on a ballad about the heroic deeds of Csanád — Ajtony 's former commander @-@ in @-@ chief — because a shorter version of Bishop Gerard of Csanád 's life does not mention Ajtony . Most historians agree that the ballad was composed shortly after Ajtony 's death . In addition to the Long Life , Ajtony is mentioned in the Gesta Hungarorum ; the Hungarian chronicle was written after around 1150 . According to the Gesta , Ajtony was descended from Glad ( in the same source , lord of the Banat ) ; however , its credibility is questioned . In a 1499 sermon the Franciscan Osvát Laskai wrote that Ajtony was from the Nyírség region , but no evidence exists to indicate that Laskai knew his place of birth .
Ajtony 's name , recorded in the earliest sources as " Ohtun " or " Achtum " , is of Turkic origin . According to linguist Loránd Benkő , his name is rooted in the Turkic word for golden ( altun ) and changed in Hungarian . Place names also echo his name ; an abbey named Ahtunmonustura ( Ajtony 's monastery ) existed in Csanád County and a village ( Ahthon ) in Krassó County , and a settlement named Aiton exists in Romania .
According to the Long Life , Ajtony 's seat was a stronghold on the Mureș ( urbs Morisena ) . His realm extended from the Criș in the north to the Danube in the south , and from the Tisza in the west to Transylvania in the east . Ajtony was a wealthy ruler who owned horses , cattle and sheep , and was powerful enough to establish customs offices and guards along the Mureș and tax salt carried to Stephen I of Hungary on the river .
Originally a pagan , Ajtony was baptised according to the Greek rite in Vidin . Shortly after his baptism , he established a monastery for Greek monks at his seat which was dedicated to John the Baptist . Ajtony remained polygamous , with seven wives after his baptism . In the Long Life Ajtony " had taken his power from the Greeks " , suggesting that he accepted the Byzantine emperor 's suzerainty .
Ajtony 's commander @-@ in @-@ chief was Csanád , described in the Gesta Hungarorum as the " son of Doboka and nephew " of King Stephen . Accused of conspiring against Ajtony , Csanád fled to Stephen ; the king prepared to conquer Ajtony 's realm , placing Csanád at the head of a large army . After crossing the Tisza , the royal army engaged Ajtony 's troops but was forced to withdraw . In a second battle , Stephen 's army routed Ajtony 's troops near modern Banatsko Aranđelovo or at Tomnatic . Csanád killed Ajtony , either on the battlefield ( according to the Long Life ) or in his stronghold on the Mureș ( according to the Gesta Hungarorum ) . In the Long Life Csanád cut out Ajtony 's tongue after his death , enabling him to prove that he had killed Ajtony ( and exposing Gyula , who had taken credit for the deed in Stephen 's presence ) . Archaeologist István Erdélyi said that the Treasure of Sânnicolau Mare , excavated near Ajtony 's seat , was connected to the ruler ; however , his view has not been universally accepted by scholars .
King Stephen granted large estates to Csanád in the lands Ajtony had ruled . Ajtony 's stronghold , now known as Cenad ( Hungarian : Csanád ) , was named for Stephen 's commander . The king also appointed Csanád the head ( or ispán ) of the county made up of Ajtony 's former realm . Stephen established a Roman Catholic diocese in Cenad , with the Venetian monk Gerard its first bishop . The Greek monks from Cenad were transferred to a new monastery built by Csanád at Banatsko Aranđelovo . Ajtony 's descendants owned land in the region , indicating that King Stephen had not confiscated all of his predecessor 's domain .
= = In modern historiography = =
Ajtony 's ethnicity is debated . Historian Paul Stephenson described him as a Magyar chieftain ; according to historian László Makkai , he was of Kabar origin and his Turkic name may imply that he was a Pecheneg . In Romanian historiography , Ajtony has been considered the last member of a Romanian dynasty descended from Glad ; historian Alexandru Madgearu wrote that the Latin name of Ajtony 's seat ( urbs Morisena ) preserved a Romanian form .
The date of Ajtony 's conquest is also uncertain . His close contacts with the Byzantine Empire , including his " Greek rite " baptism in Vidin , show that he ruled after the Byzantine Emperor Basil II seized Vidin from the Bulgarians in 1002 . The conflict between Ajtony and King Stephen must have occurred before the king appointed Gerard the first bishop of Csanád in 1030 . Alexandru Madgearu , who called Ajtony an ally of Samuel of Bulgaria rather than Emperor Basil II , wrote that Stephen I 's army occupied Ajtony 's realm in parallel with Basil II 's 1002 conquest of Vidin . Makkai placed the conquest of Ajtony 's realm in 1008 . According to Pop , Stephen I decided to invade the Banat after a 1027 Pecheneg raid on the Byzantine Empire and Emperor Constantine VIII 's death the following year . Pop also writes that Ajtony 's former duchy was not fully incorporated into the Kingdom of Hungary until the 13th century because frequent internal conflicts had enabled the Romanians to preserve their idea of a " Romanian country " . Curta rejected the Long Life account of Ajtony altogether , calling it a " family legend " from a 14th @-@ century hagiography .
= = = Primary = = =
= = = Secondary = = =
= Ferugliotherium =
Ferugliotherium is a genus of fossil mammals from the Campanian and / or Maastrichtian ( Late Cretaceous , around 70 million years ago ) of Argentina in the family Ferugliotheriidae . It contains a single species , Ferugliotherium windhauseni , which was first described in 1986 . Originally interpreted as a member of Multituberculata , an extinct group of small , rodent @-@ like mammals , on the basis of a single brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) molar , it was recognized as related to the hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) Sudamericidae after the discovery of additional material in the early 1990s . After a jaw of the sudamericid Sudamerica was described in 1999 , these animals ( collectively known as Gondwanatheria ) were no longer considered to be multituberculates and a few fossils that were previously considered to be Ferugliotherium were assigned to unspecified multituberculates instead . Since 2005 , a relationship between gondwanatheres and multituberculates has again received support . A closely related animal , Trapalcotherium , was described in 2009 on the basis of a single tooth .
About twenty teeth and a jaw fragment have been referred to Ferugliotherium , but the assignment of many of these is controversial or has been superseded . The upper and lower incisors are long and rodent @-@ like and have enamel on only one side of the crown . A fragment of the lower jaw shows that the tooth socket of the lower incisor was very long , extending below the fourth premolar ( p4 ) . The p4 is preserved in this fragment . It is blade @-@ shaped and resembles multituberculate p4s . However , the determination of this fossil as Ferugliotherium is in question . The identity of a few additional isolated premolars assigned to Ferugliotherium , some resembling multituberculates , is also uncertain . The first lower molariform ( molar @-@ like tooth ; mf1 ) is known from four examples , of which two were originally identified as upper molars of a different species ( Vucetichia gracilis ) , which is now considered a synonym of Ferugliotherium . They bear two longitudinal rows of three or four cusps and transverse crests and furrows . A single example each of the second lower ( mf2 ) and first upper molariform ( MF1 ) show that these teeth also had longitudinal cusp rows and transverse furrows and crests , but the mf2 had only two or perhaps three cusps per row and the MF1 had three longitudinal rows .
Although Ferugliotherium teeth are much lower @-@ crowned than those of the Sudamericidae , they share an essentially similar pattern on the occlusal ( chewing ) surface of mf1 and mf2 , similar incisors , backward jaw movement during chewing , and enamel with small prisms . Ferugliotherium is thought to have been a small animal , with a body mass of about 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) , and may have eaten insects and plant material . Its remains have been found in two geological formations of southern Argentina , where it is part of a mammal fauna that also includes the sudamericid Gondwanatherium and a variety of dryolestoids .
= = Taxonomy = =
Ferugliotherium windhauseni was named in 1986 by Argentinean paleontologist José Bonaparte on the basis of a single second lower molar ( m2 ) from the Late Cretaceous Los Alamitos Formation of Argentina . Both the generic name , Ferugliotherium , and the specific name , windhauseni , honor geologists who studied the geology of Patagonia : Egidio Feruglio and Anselmo Windhausen , respectively . Bonaparte created a new family , Ferugliotheriidae , for the new species and tentatively assigned it to Multituberculata , an extinct group of mammals that was diverse during the late Cretaceous , mostly in the northern continents ( Laurasia ) . In subsequent years , other finds permitted a more confident assignment to Multituberculata . In 1990 , Bonaparte described Vucetichia gracilis on the basis of what he interpreted as two upper molars of a relative of Gondwanatherium within the order Gondwanatheria , a small mammalian group that was at the time known only from Argentinean fossils and thought to be related to xenarthrans as part of a group called Paratheria . The generic name , Vucetichia , commemorates Argentinean paleontologist Guiomar Vucetich , and the specific name , gracilis ( Latin for " slender " ) , refers to the animal 's small size .
However , in 1990 David W. Krause and Bonaparte argued that Gondwanatheria , including Ferugliotherium ( family Ferugliotheriidae ) , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica ( family Sudamericidae ) , should be placed within Multituberculata . Two years later , Krause , Bonaparte , and Zofia Kielan @-@ Jaworowska described additional material of Ferugliotherium ( which they tentatively placed in the multituberculate suborder Plagiaulacoidea ) and suggested that the supposed upper molars of Vucetichia were in fact heavily worn first lower molariforms ( mf1 ) of Ferugliotherium . In 1993 , Krause described an unworn mf1 of Ferugliotherium and confirmed that Vucetichia was based on worn specimens of Ferugliotherium and therefore a synonym of the latter . In the same year , he and Bonaparte argued once again that Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica formed a closely related group of multituberculates , which they called the superfamily Gondwanatherioidea . Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte described a lower jaw fragment with a multituberculate @-@ like lower fourth premolar ( p4 ) from Los Alamitos in 1996 and tentatively identified it as Ferugliotherium . On the basis of the morphological features of the jaw fragment , they argued that gondwanatherians were not closely related to any other multituberculate group , and consequently placed them in a suborder of their own , Gondwanatheria .
In 1999 , Rosendo Pascual and colleagues described a jaw of Sudamerica . Because some of this jaw 's features were thought to be incompatible with a multituberculate identity , they regarded gondwanatheres ( including Ferugliotherium ) as Mammalia incertae sedis . However , in 2009 Yamila Gurovich and Robin Beck argued in favor of a close relationship between gondwanatheres ( including Ferugliotherium ) and multituberculates . The controversy is partially due to disagreement over the assignment of two upper premolars and the jaw fragment described by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996 ; Gurovich and Beck identify these as Ferugliotherium , while Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and others regard them as indeterminate multituberculates .
In the 2000s , some possible close relatives of Ferugliotherium were discovered . An enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Peru , LACM 149371 , was described in 2004 as possibly related to the family Ferugliotheriidae . Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues described a p4 from the La Colonia Formation ( Late Cretaceous of Argentina ) as a new multituberculate genus , Argentodites , in 2007 , but Gurovich and Beck noted close similarities between this p4 and the p4 in the possible jaw fragment of Ferugliotherium and suggested that it represented Ferugliotherium or a closely related species . A single mf1 from the Allen Formation ( Late Cretaceous of Argentina ) was described as another ferugliotheriid genus , Trapalcotherium , in 2009 .
= = Description = =
Ferugliotherium is known from isolated teeth , the assignment of some of which is controversial . The material from the Los Alamitos Formation , which is mostly in the Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales Bernardino Rivadavia ( MACN ) in Buenos Aires , with one tooth in the Museo de La Plata ( MLP ) in La Plata , Argentina , has been thoroughly described ; while there are additional Ferugliotherium fossils from the La Colonia Formation , they have not been described in detail . Although the fragmentary nature of the known fossils of Ferugliotherium makes it impossible to determine its dental formula with certainty , Gurovich suggested that it had one incisor ( possibly two in the upper jaw ) , no canines , one or two premolars , and two molars on each side of the lower and upper jaws . However , on the basis of comparisons with Sudamerica , which is known to have had four lower molariforms ( molar @-@ like teeth , either premolars or molars ) in its lower jaw , Pascual and Ortiz @-@ Jaureguizar suggested in 2007 that Ferugliotherium may also have had four lower molars .
Ferugliotherium was much smaller than the sudamericids Gondwanatherium and Sudamerica , and its body mass is estimated to have been about 70 g ( 2 @.@ 5 oz ) . Unlike the hypsodont ( high @-@ crowned ) sudamericids , Ferugliotherium has brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) molariform teeth that are supported by at least two roots , not a single massive root . The direction of wear on the teeth indicates that Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica all had palinal jaw movement ( i.e. , the lower jaw moved backwards during the power stroke of chewing ) — a feature otherwise only seen in multituberculates among mammals .
= = = Incisors = = =
Three fragmentary Ferugliotherium lower incisors ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 701A , 701B , and 701C ) are known from the Los Alamitos Formation . Another incisor , MACN Pv @-@ RN 970 , was assigned to Ferugliotherium by Bonaparte in 1990 , but it is much larger than the other three incisors , which are otherwise similar , and probably represents Gondwanatherium instead . Only the tips of the three incisors are preserved . They are laterally compressed , with an estimated width of 1 @.@ 3 mm and height of 2 @.@ 4 mm in 701A . The medial side ( towards the middle of the mouth ) is flat , but the lateral side ( towards the sides ) is convex . There is enamel only on the lower ( ventral ) side . A large wear facet is present at the tip , forming an angle of about 35 ° with the ventral margin in 701A . The three incisor fragments are identified as Ferugliotherium because of their size and provenance and the presence of a restricted enamel band . They show features , such as lateral compression , an acute angle at the tip , small curvature , and an irregular cross section , that are usually seen in lower , not upper incisors in mammals with procumbent incisors , such as rodents and taeniolabidoid multituberculates .
Four specimens ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 702A through 702D ) are thought to represent second upper incisors ( I2 ) of Ferugliotherium . 702A ( height 1 @.@ 5 mm ; width 1 @.@ 1 mm ) and 702B are slightly larger than 702C ( height 1 @.@ 2 mm ; width 0 @.@ 9 mm ) and 702D . The smaller incisors cannot be lateral incisors ( I3 ) , because 702C 's wear facet is stronger than would be expected in an I3 ; therefore , all four upper incisors are identified as central incisors ( I2 ) . To explain the size difference , Krause and colleagues suggested that Ferugliotherium was variable in size or that the smaller incisors were deciduous precursors of the larger permanent tooth . They considered it less likely that multiple species with similar incisors were present . The upper incisors have enamel only on the dorsal side . The wear facet at the tip is preserved only in 702C , forming an angle of 52 ° with the dorsal side , and is more concave than the facet in the lower incisors . 702A – D are recognizable as upper incisors because they have a less acute angle at the tip and are less laterally compressed , more curved , and elliptical in cross section .
Incisors of Ferugliotherium and Gondwanatherium are similar in overall shape and share a restricted band of enamel — a feature otherwise seen only in multituberculates among Mesozoic mammals . The incisors of Sudamerica are also similar .
= = = Mandible with lower premolar = = =
MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , a fragment of the mandible ( lower jaw ) preserving one premolar , was discovered in 1991 and tentatively identified as Ferugliotherium by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte in 1996 , but this assignment remains controversial . The poorly preserved and worn premolar is a bladelike tooth , resembling multituberculate fourth lower premolars ( p4 ) . The premolar is 4 @.@ 8 mm long and bears eight faint ridges on both the labial ( towards the lips ) and lingual ( towards the tongue ) sides . On the labial side , the four ridges at the back are more widely separated than the four in front of them . The back and front margins of the tooth are parallel and there is no small cusp on the labial side . There are two roots ; the one at the front is larger than the one at the back and bears a furrow . The lower border of the enamel cover is marked by two semicircular extensions of the enamel on the front side , but there is only one such extension at the back . By its size , the number of ridges , and apparently greater length than height , it differs from all known multituberculate first , second , and third lower premolars , indicating that it is a p4 .
The dentary ( lower jaw bone ) itself is robust and short . The length axis of the p4 makes an angle of about 58 ° with the length axis of the jawbone . The bone is concave on the lingual , but convex on the labial side . There is a diastema ( gap ) between the p4 and the incisor that would have been in front of it , as in the jaw of Sudamerica . Gurovich estimated the length of the diastema as 2 @.@ 5 mm . There is a rounded mental foramen ( an opening in the labial side of the jawbone ) , with a diameter of 0 @.@ 7 mm , located about 0 @.@ 8 mm below the dorsal margin of the bone and 1 @.@ 5 mm in front of the p4 . Although the incisor itself is not preserved , its alveolus ( the housing of the root ) is in part . As in Sudamerica , it extends far into the dentary , passing below p4 . The alveolus is 1 @.@ 5 mm wide below the front root of p4 and 1 @.@ 4 mm at the back of the jaw fragment . Although the height of the alveolus cannot be determined because the lower side is broken away , the incisor must have been quite deep .
When it was discovered that Sudamerica had four molariform teeth and no bladelike premolar in its lower jaw , Pascual , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska , and colleagues removed MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 from Ferugliotherium , which they expected to have the same dental formula as its fellow gondwanathere Sudamerica , and identified it as an indeterminate multituberculate instead . Pascual and colleagues argued that molariform teeth as seen in Sudamerica could not have evolved from the bladelike p4 of Ferugliotherium , and that it was unlikely that additional molars had been added in Sudamerica . In 2004 and 2007 , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues aligned the dentary with the multituberculate suborder " Plagiaulacida " because the p4 is rectangular in labial view , not curved as in the suborder Cimolodonta . This feature was also used to distinguish MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 from the single p4 assigned to Argentodites , which was tentatively placed in Cimolodonta .
Gurovich , Guillermo Rougier , and colleagues , on the other hand , maintain that the dentary is referable to Ferugliotherium and that the p4s of Argentodites and MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 are very similar . The alveolus of MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 fits the lower incisors attributed to Ferugliotherium in size and the blade @-@ like premolar is of the size expected for an animal with molariforms the size of Ferugliotherium teeth . If the dentary and premolars ( whose identification has been similarly controversial ; see below ) do not belong to Ferugliotherium , then , Gurovich and Beck argue , the Los Alamitos Formation would contain two mammals ( Ferugliotherium and a multituberculate ) similar in size and morphology , and therefore presumably occupying similar ecological niches — and one of those would be represented only by molariforms and incisors and the other only by premolars and a jaw fragment among the available fossils . Furthermore , they noted that the transition from blade @-@ like to molariform premolars had actually been observed in the fossil record of the extinct sthenurine kangaroos , and that the first molariform in Sudamerica and Gondwanatherium is laterally compressed , suggesting that it may have derived from a blade @-@ like tooth . Gurovich and Beck attributed the difference in shape between the MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 and Argentodites p4s to the extensive wear of the former , and suggested that the two are similar enough that they probably represent at least closely related species .
= = = Other premolars = = =
Krause and colleagues identified a single tooth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 251 , as a possible deciduous anterior ( i.e. , not p4 or dp4 , the deciduous version of p4 ) lower premolar of Ferugliotherium . It is minuscule , with a length of 0 @.@ 85 mm and width of 0 @.@ 5 mm ( assuming the tooth is oriented correctly ) . It bears two serrations ( small projections ) at the tip of the crown — one around the middle of the crown and the other at what may be the back of the crown , where it is highest . Two prominent ridges descend from each serration towards the front down the sides of the tooth . No roots are preserved , but the rounded surface of the lower side of the tooth suggests they may have been resorbed , which would indicate that the tooth is deciduous . Krause and colleagues suggested that the tooth may have been the frontmost premolar , whether deciduous or permanent . However , Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and Bonaparte wrote that this tooth does not match the partial jaw MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , which has no alveoli in front of p4 , and Pascual and colleagues agreed in 1999 that the tooth probably does not belong to Ferugliotherium .
Bonaparte had identified another tooth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 252 , as a possible Ferugliotherium lower premolar in 1990 , but this fossil is very fragmentary and according to Krause and colleagues , it cannot even be proven to be a mammalian tooth .
Krause and colleagues identified two teeth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 249 and 250 , as anterior upper premolars . 249 bears two longitudinal rows of cusps . One row ( row A ; possibly the lingual one ) includes four cusps , the other ( row B ) includes at least two , but is damaged . In row A , there are three ridges ( at the front , middle , and back ) extending from the tip of the base of each cusp . The second and third cusps are largest and most widely separated from each other . In row B , one cusp bears three ridges , of which one extends towards the other cusp in the row and the two others towards row A ) and the other cusp is damaged . 250 is more fragmentary , but bears at least five cusps and may represent the same tooth position as 249 , though it would come from the opposite side of the mouth . The microstructure of the enamel of this tooth has been studied . With a width of about 55 μm near the tip of a cusp , the enamel is thin . The enamel prisms are straight , small , and rounded and there is little material between the prisms . Small , rounded prisms are also seen in Gondwanatherium , Sudamerica , and other gondwanatheres , but in few multituberculates . Even in those multituberculates that do have small prisms , the prism sheath is closed , but the sheath is incomplete in Gondwanatherium and possibly Ferugliotherium .
Krause and colleagues wrote that these two teeth resemble multituberculate deciduous anterior upper premolars , particularly second and third premolars ( P2 and P3 ) , and used this as one of their arguments for identifying Ferugliotherium as a multituberculate . However , as with the dentary MACN Pv @-@ RN 975 , the two upper premolars were excluded from Ferugliotherium and identified as multituberculates by Kielan @-@ Jaworowska and colleagues after the discovery of the jaw of Sudamerica . Gurovich continues to identify them as Ferugliotherium on the basis of their size and provenance and other similarities between Ferugliotherium and multituberculates .
= = = Lower molariforms = = =
Five putative lower molariforms of Ferugliotherium are known from the Los Alamitos Formation ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 20 , 174 , 175 , and 253 and MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 ) . These teeth include the holotypes of Ferugliotherium windhauseni ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 20 , the only second lower molariform , or m2 ) and Vucetichia gracilis ( MACN Pv @-@ RN 174 ) .
The best @-@ preserved mf1 is MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 . The crown is unworn and complete and there are no roots , suggesting that the tooth had not yet erupted when its owner died . Krause , who first described the tooth in 1993 , identified it as a right molar , but the subsequent discovery of the jaw of Sudamerica made it clear that Ferugliotherium molariforms had been reversed , and MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 is actually from the left side of the jaw . The tooth is 2 @.@ 2 mm long and 1 @.@ 5 mm wide . The crown is roughly rectangular , with rounded corners , and bears two longitudinal rows of cusps . The lingual row consists of four cusps , which are smaller and lower than the three labial ones . The cusps in this row become smaller and lower from the front to the back . Two ridges descend from the tip of each cusp to the lingual and labial sides . The labial ridges on the first and fourth cusp only reach the base of the cusp , but those on the second and third cusps join ridges descending from the first and second labial cusp . In the first three cusps , the lingual ridge extends to near the lingual margin of the tooth and then turns backward ; the end of the ridge is lingual to the next cusp . In the fourth cusp , the ridge hardly extends posteriorly , but rather labially , forming the posterior margin of the tooth and joining a ridge descending from the last labial cusp . The labial cusp row includes three , larger cusps , each of which bears two ridges that descend lingually into the valley between the two cusp rows . The front ridge of each pair ends in the central valley , and the back ridge joins a ridge from a lingual cusp . The ridge pattern results in the presence of three transverse furrows between the main cusps .
Another mf1 , MACN Pv @-@ RN 253 , is almost unworn , but damaged : only the front two lingual cusps and the first two cusps and part of the third in the labial row are preserved . This tooth is similar to MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 in all respects . However , Gurovich suggests that it may also be an m2 . MACN Pv @-@ RN 174 , which is heavily worn , and MACN Pv @-@ RN 175 , which is not only heavily worn but has also undergone severe abrasion , were originally identified as upper molars of Vucetichia gracilis by Bonaparte in 1990 . The roots of MACN Pv @-@ RN 174 are preserved ; at the front and back of the tooth , there is a pair of roots , which are fused near their bases . It has small enamel prisms . Krause and colleagues suggested in 1992 that 174 and 175 were mf1s of Ferugliotherium on the basis of similarities with 253 , and Krause confirmed this in 1993 by describing the complete mf1 MLP 88 @-@ III @-@ 28 @-@ 1 . The related ferugliotheriid genus Trapalcotherium is known from a single mf1 , which is similar to Ferugliotherium mf1s but different in some morphological details ( see Trapalcotherium : Relationships ) .
The holotype , MACN Pv @-@ RN 20 , is a right mf2 according to both Krause and colleagues ( 1992 ) and Gurovich ( 2005 ) , but Gurovich considered the side that Krause and colleagues thought was lingual to be labial , and vice versa . The latter interpretation is used in the following description . It is almost square , but at the front it is slightly narrower than at the back . The labial side of the tooth is taller and less worn than the lingual side . There are two rows of cusps , and each lingual cusp is connected to each labial cusp by a broad crest , with one or more fossas in the middle . One of the two labial cusps may have been divided into two smaller cusps . The two crests are separated by a deep furrow . The enamel prisms of this tooth are small , like those of the premolar MACN Pv @-@ RN 250 .
Transverse ridges between the cusps , as seen in Ferugliotherium , are known in only one multituberculate , Essonodon , but the ridge pattern in Essonodon is more complicated and the animal lacks the prominent furrows of Ferugliotherium and differs in numerous other features . On the other hand , overall patterns of cusps and ridges are essentially similar among Ferugliotherium , Gondwanatherium , and Sudamerica , indicating that the three are closely related .
= = = Upper molariforms = = =
A single tooth , MACN Pv @-@ RN 248 , is currently identified as a Ferugliotherium upper molariform . In 1992 , Krause and colleagues labeled it as a right MF1 , but Gurovich identifies it as a left MF1 or possibly even a right mf1 . LACM 149371 , an enigmatic tooth from the Paleogene of Santa Rosa , Peru , may represent an upper molar of an animal related to Ferugliotherium . Like the latter , it has cusps that are compressed from front to back and that are connected to the center of the crown by low crests .
MACN Pv @-@ RN 248 is somewhat damaged and almost rectangular , but slightly narrower at the back than
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000 gross registered ton ( grt ) ships were bought for £ 60 @,@ 000 in May 1898 , and renamed Manchester Enterprise and Manchester Trader . The Trader made the shipping line 's first voyage , setting out from Avonmouth for Montreal on 26 May , before docking in Manchester with a cargo of grain .
The two secondhand vessels were joined in January 1899 by the newly built Manchester City of 7 @,@ 696 grt , constructed by Raylton Dixon & Co of Middlesbrough . This steamship carried 1 @,@ 170 long tons ( 1 @,@ 190 t ) of coal , burned at 70 long tons ( 71 t ) per day , giving a speed of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) , fast for her day . She was a refrigerated vessel , designed to carry frozen meat and live cattle , and was claimed to be one of the largest meat @-@ carrying ships then afloat . She made a successful maiden voyage from Canada and up the new canal to Manchester , taking two days and stopping overnight at Irlam to give the crew a rest . The Manchester Guardian reported on 16 January 1899 that " there were many shakings of the head , not only in Liverpool , at the audacity of the attempt " and that " the canal pilots , on reaching Irlam , looked as if they had not been in bed for a week , as their eyes were bleared with exhaustion " . The City discharged 450 cattle and 150 sheep at Manchester Corporation 's Foreign Animals Wharf near the Mode Wheel locks in Salford . With an overall length of 467 feet ( 142 m ) , she was by far the largest vessel to have ventured up the waterway , and her successful navigation disproved the claim of Liverpool owners that only ships of 350 feet ( 110 m ) or less could safely reach Manchester . The vessel continued to Manchester docks for further unloading , where she was met by the Lord Mayor , accompanied by a band and a festive crowd . This successful voyage did much to encourage other shipowners to use the new port . On her first voyage to Halifax , Nova Scotia in March 1899 , the City took nine days and sixteen hours ; and arrived before the mail boat , which had left the Mersey twelve hours ahead of her .
The ML fleet was joined by two new smaller 5 @,@ 600 grt vessels , the Manchester Port and Manchester Merchant during 1899 and 1900 , and further new vessels followed quickly thereafter . The basic sailing pattern to Canada was St John , New Brunswick , year @-@ round and to Montreal when the St Lawrence River was ice @-@ free .
Between 1899 and 1902 , four Manchester ships and their crews were requisitioned by the United Kingdom government to transport troops , horses , and supplies to South Africa during the Boer War and its aftermath . Collecting points for horses and mules included Galveston and New Orleans ( USA ) and Buenos Aires and Montevideo in South America . Manchester Port made its second voyage to the Cape in 1900 , then continued to Australia to bring troops to the conflict . On the first voyage after her return to ML , in January 1903 , the first Manchester Merchant was lost while on passage from New Orleans to Manchester . A serious fire developed in her cotton cargo , and she was scuttled in Dingle Bay on the west coast of Ireland to douse the flames , but subsequently broke up in bad weather .
By 1904 the line was operating fourteen steamships of between four and seven thousand tons , several built by the associated Furness Withy shipyards . Services to ports in eastern Canada were supplemented by regular sailings to Boston , Philadelphia , and the southern US cotton ports of New Orleans and Galveston . Between 1904 and 1908 ML deployed three vessels including the Manchester City to the River Plate route , serving other UK ports as well Manchester . The main return cargo was frozen and chilled meat , and the City set a record for the largest meat consignment up to that time . Lord Furness , as he had become , died in 1912 and was succeeded as ML 's chairman by R. B. Stoker until his death in 1919 . ML 's fleet was maintained at 14 vessels during the last few years before the First World War . Eleven of their ships were deployed on the Canadian routes , carrying mainly manufactured goods outwards and meat and grain inbound .
= = Operations during the First World War = =
At the start of the war in July 1914 , ML had a fleet of fifteen ships . Most of the fleet continued to operate services to ports in eastern Canada and to USA including Baltimore , returning with war and other supplies . In August 1914 , the Manchester Miller ( 1903 ) and Manchester Civilian ( 1913 ) were requisitioned as supply ships and sent with coal to the Falkland Islands to refuel the battlecruisers HMS Inflexible and HMS Invincible . As the Civilian was coaling the cruisers , the German vessels approached and the British warships cast off immediately to engage them . In the ensuing battle Admiral Von Spee 's battleships Scharnhost and Gneisenau , plus escorting cruisers , were sunk . The Civilian was later equipped with minesweeping gear . She returned in 1916 carrying supplies and equipment from Canada to the troops in France .
All vessels were fitted with defensive guns at the bow and stern . In June 1917 Manchester Port ( 1904 ) beat off a submarine attack with gunfire near Cape Wrath . Manchester Commerce ( 1899 ) , outward @-@ bound for Quebec City was sunk off northwest Ireland on 26 October 1914 , with the loss of 14 crew , becoming the first merchant ship to be sunk by a mine . On 4 June 1917 the second Manchester Trader , en route from Souda Bay in Crete to Algiers , was engaged in a running battle with U @-@ boat U 65 before she was captured and sunk near Pantellaria island , with the loss of one crewmember . The master , Captain F. D. Struss , was awarded the Distinguished Service Cross , and went on to complete 40 years service with the line after surviving another sinking in the Second World War . A further nine ships were sunk by U @-@ boats , seven of the losses occurring in 1917 .
ML acquired seven ships between 1916 and 1918 , four of which were sunk in 1917 . Manchester Engineer , acquired secondhand in 1917 , had a short but eventful career with ML . On 18 June , when bound for Archangel , she was chased by a U @-@ boat but escaped when her naval escort arrived . On 16 August when sailing from the Tyne to St Nazaire with coal , she was torpedoed five miles off Flamborough Head and sunk . Manchester Division achieved fame on her maiden voyage from West Hartlepool to join a westbound Atlantic convoy at Plymouth when she rammed and sank a German submarine off Flamborough Head in October 1918 . At the end of the war in November 1918 , ML had twelve surviving vessels on strength .
= = Peacetime operations 1919 – 39 = =
In 1921 – 22 , ML 's fleet was augmented by two second @-@ hand vessels . Sailings were resumed to New Orleans , and the Baltimore service was extended to Norfolk , Virginia . Some ships including the Manchester Civilian and Manchester Spinner became regular carriers in the coal trade from Sydney , Nova Scotia . The Civilian made several round trips from the USA to Japan in 1923 , carrying relief supplies after the Japanese earthquake . ML took delivery of the 7 @,@ 930 tons steam turbine Manchester Regiment in 1922 , constructed on the Tees by the Furness Shipbuilding Company . This 12 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 23 @.@ 2 km / h ; 14 @.@ 4 mph ) ship with a crew of 65 was the largest operated to date , carrying 512 cattle , plus hold cargo and was equipped with large derricks to assist in heavy goods handling . The Regiment 's record from the Mersey Bar to Quebec was seven days nine hours . In 1925 her captain won the gold @-@ headed cane traditionally awarded each Spring to the master of the first ship to break through the St Lawrence ice to reach Montreal , a feat repeated later by several other ML captains . ML 's old head office in Deansgate , Manchester became inadequate and was replaced in August 1922 by a purpose @-@ built five @-@ storey modern building located in St Ann 's Square next to the Royal Exchange .
The line acquired two new vessels in 1925 , but later that year its fortunes were adversely affected by competition from subsidised American firms on the North Atlantic routes ; ML disposed of seven ships between late 1925 and 1930 , reducing its fleet to ten vessels . The Regiment steamed 160 miles through a gale in 1929 to reach the sinking Glasgow steamer Volumnia . A lifeboat was launched to rescue the crew of forty @-@ five . On return home , King George V awarded the Regiment 's lifeboat crew the Silver Medal for Gallantry in Saving Life at Sea and Manchester 's Lord Mayor presented a silver salver from the Board of Trade to Captain Linton . In 1933 , amid the Great Depression , several ships were laid up ; the Manchester Merchant of 1904 was disposed of for breaking up and the Manchester Civilian was sold to Greek owners . The public sailing programme for the 1933 summer season listed six ships as allocated to the weekly " Fast Freight Service " to Quebec and Montreal . The six steamers were advertised as being " fitted with fan or forced ventilation and all have cold storage accommodation " . Most vessels were also able to carry up to twelve passengers . After a ten @-@ year gap , three new vessels were commissioned between 1935 and 1938 as trade started to recover , maintaining the fleet at ten ships . The trio were equipped with automatic stokers for their coal @-@ fired boilers and had greatly improved accommodation for the passengers and the crew .
= = Operations during the Second World War = =
ML had ten vessels at the start of World War II , but early in the conflict lost Manchester Regiment in December 1939 , when outbound with general cargo for St John , New Brunswick . She was proceeding without lights when she was run down by the Pacific Steam Navigation 's Oropesa , which had been detached from an eastbound convoy . While the ML fleet continued to be deployed on the North Atlantic routes during the war , the company 's vessels also undertook a wide variety of roles elsewhere during the conflict . Manchester City became a minelayer , then a naval auxiliary ship , working in the Far East . Manchester Progress was one of the last ships to leave Rangoon in 1941 before the Japanese conquest of Burma . Manchester Commerce ( 1925 ) was deployed on Mediterranean convoys in 1942 / 43 and next year transported mules from South Africa to India for the Burma Campaign . Manchester Trader ( 1941 ) was fitted with extra crew quarters for use as a commodore ship on Atlantic convoys . Except for two supply runs to Bone , Algeria , she remained in the Atlantic theatre and served ML until 1963 . Manchester Brigade , having survived the first World War , was sunk on 26 September 1940 after being torpedoed by U @-@ 137 when bound for Montreal in convoy off Malin Head , to the north of Ireland ; 58 crew were lost .
Manchester Merchant , completed in May 1940 , quickly became involved in " Operation Fish " , transporting Britain 's gold reserves to Canada , making two voyages with bullion valued in total at £ 4 @.@ 5 million . In late 1942 she was deployed on Operation Torch as a supply ship to North Africa . On 25 February 1943 , she was torpedoed by " U 628 " while part of an outbound Atlantic convoy ; 36 of the crew of 65 including gunners were lost , but Captain Struss again survived , and received the OBE . Manchester Division ( 1918 ) bound for Table Bay was directed to assist the Blue Star Line 's Dunedin Star which had beached on Namibia 's rugged coast . The Division stood by in heavy swell for three days , rescuing 40 passengers and crew , before taking them to Cape Town . Manchester Citizen ( 1925 ) was also sunk by a U @-@ boat , whilst on passage to Lagos on 9 July 1943 after surviving several supply runs for the Eighth Army . The last vessel to be " lost " , albeit deliberately , was Manchester Spinner ( 1918 ) , which had taken military supplies to India in 1942 . On 7 June 1944 , shortly after D @-@ Day , manned by a volunteer crew , she led a line of Mulberry Harbour blockships and was sunk off Juno Beach Normandy to act as a breakwater , whilst troop reinforcements and stores were landed on the beaches . Her superstructure was then armed with anti @-@ aircraft guns .
= = Peacetime operations 1945 – 68 = =
At the war 's end , ML had a fleet of eight vessels built between 1918 and 1943 , and these continued to operate the traditional service to eastern Canada for a further two years before new vessels could be acquired . In 1946 the Manchester Shipper became the first merchant ship to be fitted with radar , and to navigate the St Lawrence with its aid . In the same year the company carried Manchester 's Lord Mayor and party to Canada on a goodwill and trade mission . Manchester Exporter was sold in 1947 and replaced by the newly built larger Manchester Regiment . Two further 7 @,@ 000 ton 14 @-@ knot ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) ships were commissioned in 1952 , which meant that the Manchester Division , veteran of both wars , could be sold for scrapping after a record 35 years service with the line . In 1952 , Robert B. Stoker , grandson of the second chairman , became the third generation of his family to be appointed an executive director of ML . He had joined the line in 1932 and in turn became chairman in 1968 .
Manchester Shipper was used to transport WWII German aircraft to Canada . It left Ellesmere Port on the 23rd of August 1946 arriving in Montreal September 1 . Its cargo included two Me 262s ( WNr500210 , WNr111690 ) . Manchester Commerce also carried Second World War German aircraft to Canada , leaving Seaforth Docks on 26 August and arriving on 9 September with two He 162s ( WNr 120076 , WNr 120086 ) and two Me 163s ( WNr191454 , WNr191914 ) .
ML contracted Cammell Laird of Birkenhead to build two smaller vessels of 1 @,@ 800 tons . Commissioned in 1952 , they were named the Manchester Pioneer and Explorer . They were joined by the secondhand 1 @,@ 400 @-@ ton Manchester Prospector . The trio were the first of a size able to pass through the restricted @-@ size canals and locks leading directly to Toronto and the other Great Lakes ports as far as Detroit , Michigan . This initiative , the first by a British line , and taken well ahead of the 1959 completion of the Saint Lawrence Seaway , gave the line a head start in the direct trade to the Midwest ports . During the winter months , when thick ice prevented navigation on the lakes , the trio were employed elsewhere , sometimes on charter to other lines .
Manchester Progress , 5 @,@ 620 grt , opened a regular mid @-@ summer service to Churchill , Manitoba on Hudson Bay in 1954 , during the short ice @-@ free season , bringing back grain shipped to the port by rail from the Canadian Prairies . Captain F. Struss , survivor of sinkings in both wars , retired in March 1954 after forty years service , the last ML Commodore who had gained his master 's ticket in sail . That same year the Great Lakes service was extended to Chicago , and ML 's pre @-@ 1914 service to the southern US ports of Charleston , Savannah , and Jacksonville was resumed .
A USAF RB @-@ 36 " Peacemaker " ten @-@ engined strategic bomber suffered engine fires on 5 August 1954 , while en route from Travis AFB California to RAF Lakenheath Suffolk . The crew of twenty @-@ three were ordered to bail out 450 miles ( 720 km ) west of Ireland at 03 : 40 . The Manchester Shipper , inbound from Montreal , and the outbound Manchester Pioneer , diverted to the scene and despite bad weather were able to rescue the four surviving crew . The USAF 's HQ Third Air Force sent messages commending the ship masters and crews efforts under adverse circumstances .
ML 's first two motor vessels , with engines and accommodation located aft , were commissioned in April 1956 . The Manchester Vanguard and Venture , 1 @,@ 662 grt , were designed for the Great Lakes service . Two larger motor vessels , the Manchester Faith and Fame , 4 @,@ 460 grt , were commissioned in April 1959 , and the Faith quickly became the first commercial vessel to transit the newly opened St Lawrence Seaway with its larger locks .
Two ML vessels were involved in a successful mid @-@ Atlantic rescue of airliner passengers on 23 September 1962 . A Flying Tiger Line Lockheed Super Constellation was en route from McGuire AFB New Jersey to Frankfurt Airport with 76 persons aboard . Two out of four engines failed and the airliner changed course for Shannon Airport Ireland . After a further hour , a third engine failed and Captain John Murray made a successful ditching in darkness 560 nautical miles ( 1 @,@ 040 km ; 640 mi ) west of Shannon . All occupants evacuated the aircraft before it sank . The larger Manchester Progress acted as a radio relay ship , while Manchester Faith picked up 48 survivors . The other 28 persons on board the aircraft were lost when their rafts sank in heavy seas .
= = Switch to containers 1968 – 78 = =
Manchester Liners House , the company 's new headquarters in Salford Docks was officially opened on 12 December 1969 by the High Commissioner for Canada . The design was advanced for its day and it remains basically unchanged today except for re @-@ glazing . The unusual curved facade of the ten @-@ storey building was designed to echo the bridge shape of the Manchester Miller . Later renamed Furness House , it was built on the former Manchester Ship Canal railway sidings between Nos. 8 and 9 Docks .
By the late 1960s rising shore costs , dock workers strikes , restrictive practices on both sides of the Atlantic , and subsidised competition from American shipping lines , persuaded Manchester Liners to switch its future fleet to container ships only . An example of the delaying effect of the strikes in the Canadian ports , with consequent impact on operating costs , was an extended ninety @-@ day return voyage to Quebec City in early 1967 by the new Manchester Progress .
Initially , three new ships were ordered from Smiths Dock Company in Middlesbrough , the first of which , Manchester Challenge , was delivered in 1968 , becoming the first British @-@ built and operated cellular container ship . The Challenge and her two sisters Manchester Courage and Concorde were followed from the Tees in 1971 by the Crusade . UK manufacturers supplied 10 @,@ 000 containers . The four ships each had the capacity to carry five hundred 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) containers , all of them below deck . A new regular container route started in November 1968 , with a twice @-@ weekly service to Montreal , where the containers were transferred to smaller vessels which could navigate to the ports of the Great Lakes . The four new powerful ( 16 @,@ 000 hp ) 19 @.@ 5 @-@ knot ( 36 @.@ 1 km / h ; 22 @.@ 4 mph ) vessels were constructed to a standard exceeding Lloyds class 1 ice @-@ stiffening , with additional aft protection over the rudder to permit reversing through ice .
On her second voyage in early 1969 , Manchester Challenge lived up to her name by entering the heavily iced Montreal harbour , discharging , reloading and departing only two days late . Another thirty @-@ seven conventional vessels were stuck at the port for a month . The quartet 's ice @-@ breaking capability often resulted them in leading a convoy of other vessels into Montreal during the winter months . The four ships of 12 @,@ 039 gross tons were of the maximum size able to navigate the Manchester Ship Canal .
To obtain the greatest operational efficiency , ML constructed two dedicated container terminals with their own gantry cranes , spreaders etc . The Manchester terminal was built on an open site next to the western end of No. 9 Dock . A second container berth was added in 1972 . The other terminal was created at Montreal , with similar equipment , where the containers were trans @-@ shipped to a dedicated liner train operated by Canadian National Railways , which carried them onwards to Toronto and further destinations .
ML inaugurated a container service to the Mediterranean in 1971 using smaller ships . Initial destinations included Malta , Cyprus and Israel . Later in the decade , the countries served were extended to include Italy , Greece , Lebanon and Syria . To further improve service to shippers , two large road hauliers were acquired in 1971 and 1972 , enabling a " door @-@ to @-@ door " container operation to be introduced . Facilities for container storage and repair were also acquired . Following its successful pioneering of the UK container trade , ML was given the Queen 's Award for Export in 1971 , the first to be given to a shipping company ; every ship in the fleet flew the award flag .
In 1974 ML carried 783 @,@ 000 long tons ( 796 @,@ 000 t ) out of the total 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 long tons ( 2 @,@ 900 @,@ 000 t ) of dry cargo handled on the ship canal ( 27 % ) . During the same year , ML acquired Manchester Dry Docks Ltd , which operated three large and one small dry docks on the canal adjacent to MLs berths in Salford Docks . These facilities assisted greatly in keeping the fleet fully operational . Manchester Challenge completed her 100th round voyage to Montreal in 1975 having carried 95 @,@ 000 containers weighing 1 @,@ 440 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 460 @,@ 000 t ) a distance of 554 @,@ 000 miles ( 892 @,@ 000 km ) – the equivalent of a round trip to the moon . During 1976 MLs Manchester to Canada route had three sailings per week .
= = Decline and closure = =
Manchester Liners had been partly owned by Furness Withy from the beginning , and they became a subsidiary in 1970 . Furness Withy was itself taken over in 1980 by the C. Y. Tung Group of Hong Kong . Robert B. Stoker retired in 1979 as Chairman of Manchester Liners after 47 years service with the company .
Severe competition following the building of excess container shipping capacity by many companies badly affected ML 's trade and profitability . The company 's vessels were by then smaller than average in the industry , leading to higher operating costs per unit of cargo carried . Their operations were further severely affected during the mid @-@ 1970s by both official and unofficial strikes by dock workers . The service to Canada ended in 1979 , and by the early 1980s only five " Manchester " ships remained – the 30 @,@ 000 ton container vessel Manchester Challenge and four 1 @,@ 600 – 4 @,@ 000 ton vessels : Manchester Crown , Manchester Trader , Manchester Faith and Manchester City . The line had by then ceased using the Port of Manchester , and the four smaller vessels were operating to the Mediterranean out of Ellesmere Port , 33 miles ( 53 km ) closer to the sea on the lower reaches of the ship canal .
In 1981 , ML jointly with the Canadian Pacific Steamship Company and the Dart Container Line , instituted a weekly containership service from Felixstowe , Suffolk , to Montreal . MLs contribution to the service was the large Manchester Challenge . The last of Manchester Liners ' ships was sold in 1985 , and in 1988 the services formerly operated by the company were taken over by the Orient Overseas Container Line , successor to the Tung Group .
= = Ship naming policy , house and flag colours = =
The company 's ship @-@ naming policy throughout its 87 @-@ year period of operations was to use its home port 's name plus a suffix word , often a trade or occupation . The most frequently used name was Manchester Trader , applied to six different vessels between 1898 and cessation of operations in 1985 . Some names used appropriately during the First World War , such as Manchester Hero , Manchester Brigade and Manchester Division were not reused after the disposal or loss of those vessels . Some ships operated short @-@ term or on charter retained their original names and did not receive the Manchester prefix .
From the earliest days , the line 's colours were : funnels – dark red with black top and thin black band ; hulls – black with white boot topping . During the Second World War , ships were painted in battleship grey and the names were deleted for security , except when in friendly ports . From the 1960s onwards , some ships ' hulls were painted light grey and others red .
The line 's flag colours were a red oval , placed horizontally , with white " ML " lettering in the centre , imposed on an overall white background .
= Mickie James =
Mickie Laree James @-@ Aldis ( born August 31 , 1979 ) better known as Mickie James , is an American professional wrestler , actress , model and country singer signed with Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) .
James began her wrestling career in 1999 as a valet on the independent circuit , where she was known under the name Alexis Laree . She trained in several camps to improve her wrestling abilities before working for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( NWA : TNA ) in June 2002 , where she gained national attention . After only a few appearances , she joined a stable called The Gathering and was written into storylines with the group . She is also the only woman to be involved in Clockwork Orange House of Fun matches .
James appeared in World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) in October 2005 and was placed in a storyline with Trish Stratus , in which James ' gimmick was that of Stratus ' biggest fan turned obsessed stalker , an angle which ran over eight months . She received a push , and she won her first WWE Women 's Championship at WrestleMania 22 , a title she has held a total of five times . James also won her first Divas Championship at Night of Champions in 2009 to become the second of five Divas to hold both the Women 's and Divas titles . She was released from the company on April 22 , 2010 , after which she returned to Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) .
In Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) , James won the TNA Knockouts Championship three times and the 2013 TNA World Cup with Team USA . She left TNA in September 2013 . Between WWE and TNA , James is a nine @-@ time champion , which is a national record and is also the only female to hold the WWE Women 's , WWE Divas and TNA Knockouts Championships in wrestling history . Pro Wrestling Illustrated ranked James as the number one female wrestler in 2009 , and she was also voted Woman of the Year twice , first in 2009 and again in 2011 by readers of PWI magazine .
= = Early life = =
James was born at Richmond Memorial Hospital in 1979 to Stuart James , a retired wastewater @-@ treatment worker and landscaper , and Sandra Knuckles , a Hanover County teacher and real @-@ estate agent . Her parents divorced while she was young . She has a sister , a half @-@ sister , a half @-@ brother , and three stepbrothers . She grew up in Montpelier , Virginia and graduated from Patrick Henry High School in 1997 . While growing up , she spent a lot of time on her grandmother 's horse farm , and developed a keen interest in equestrian sports . She played violin for five years .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Independent circuit ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
A fan of professional wrestling from an early age , James attended a professional wrestling school in the Washington , D.C. area at the suggestion of a friend . She made her professional debut on the independent circuit in 1999 , as a valet for KYDA Pro Wrestling under the ring name Alexis Laree , a name created as the result of a combination of her stage name from when she was a dancer and her middle name . Laree went on to manage several male wrestlers , including managing Tommy Dreamer to win the KYDA Pro Heavyweight Championship . In March , she wrestled in her first match , an intergender tag team match with Jake Damian against American Mike Brown and Candie . She trained to improve her wrestling abilities by attending training camps such as the Funking Conservatory , a workshop run by Dory Funk Jr . , and an Extreme Championship Wrestling ( ECW ) dojo . She also started competing for Maryland Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) , where she trained at camps run by Ricky Morton and Bobby Eaton . Beginning in 2002 , she also made appearances for Ring of Honor .
Due to the low salary of the independent shows , James supplemented her income by working as a waitress at a Olive Garden restaurant , and posing nude for the magazines Leg Show and Naughty Neighbors in the mid 2000s before gaining fame for the in WWE .
= = = Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( 2002 – 2003 ) = = =
While working in Ring of Honor for a year , James also debuted as Alexis Laree in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) on the company 's second ever weekly pay @-@ per @-@ view , as a participant in a lingerie battle royal . She was not prominently featured until March 26 , 2003 , when she teamed with Amazing Red as part of his feud against the X Division Champion Kid Kash and Trinity . Laree competed in her first singles match with the promotion on April 2 , 2003 in a losing effort against Trinity . Weeks later , she became the first member of The Gathering , a stable led by Raven in his feud against NWA World Heavyweight Champion Jeff Jarrett . On April 16 , Laree became the first ( and thus far , only ) woman to compete in a Clockwork Orange House of Fun match , after the Gathering challenged and defeated Jarrett . She continued to wrestle with the stable while they feuded with The Disciples of the New Church , taking part in an angle with Father James Mitchell burning her with a fireball and wrestling in another Clockwork Orange House of Fun match before leaving the company .
= = = World Wrestling Entertainment / WWE = = =
= = = = Ohio Valley Wrestling ( 2003 – 2005 ) = = = =
After two years of sending tapes and making phone calls , as well as wrestling a tryout dark match with Dawn Marie , James was signed to a developmental contract with World Wrestling Entertainment ( WWE ) , who sent her to train at Ohio Valley Wrestling ( OVW ) , their then @-@ developmental territory , in August . Still using the ring name Alexis Laree , she began making television appearances for OVW on January 29 , 2004 and competed in several tag team matches throughout the year . She also won a Halloween costume contest on October 30 , and defeated Jillian Hall in a $ 1 @,@ 000 match on November 12 .
On May 17 , 2005 , Laree was placed into a tournament for the OVW Television Championship . She defeated Mike Mondo in the first round , only to lose to Blaster Lashley in the next round . She began a feud with Beth Phoenix on July 20 after Phoenix interrupted Laree during an interview , setting up a match on July 29 , which Laree lost . Their angle continued into September , with Shelly Martinez being added to the storyline to side with Phoenix against Laree . On October 12 , she appeared in OVW under her real name , and finished the year on the losing end of matches against Martinez and Jillian Hall .
= = = = Storyline with Trish Stratus ( 2005 – 2006 ) = = = =
James , under her real name , debuted in WWE on the October 10 , 2005 episode of Raw as a face , under the gimmick of WWE Women 's Champion Trish Stratus 's biggest fan . The angle had the two Divas competing together in tag team matches , with James ' character becoming increasingly obsessed with Stratus . The storyline included a Halloween costume contest , in which James was dressed like Stratus and helped Stratus retain the Women 's Championship in a Fulfill Your Fantasy battle royal at Taboo Tuesday by eliminating herself and Victoria at the same time . James even began utilizing Stratus ' signature finishing moves as her own during matches . James later became the number one contender for the WWE Women 's Championship on December 12 , by defeating Victoria in a match to determine who would face Stratus at New Year 's Revolution . Subsequently , the storyline between James and Stratus developed into a lesbian angle , after James kissed Stratus under a sprig of mistletoe . In the championship match at the pay @-@ per @-@ view , James lost to Stratus , but continued to be enamored of her the next night on Raw .
Despite the defeat , James continued to be enamored of Stratus , which made Stratus feel uncomfortable . On March 6 , 2006 , the storyline had Stratus confronting James , telling her that they needed time apart from each other . Through the early part of 2006 , James would attack Ashley Massaro several times due to Massaro calling her " crazy " . At the Royal Rumble pay @-@ per @-@ view , James defeated Massaro with then @-@ Women 's Champion , Trish Stratus , as the special guest referee . James would also confess her love for Stratus at the event . Massaro got her revenge on her one @-@ week later by pinning James in a rematch on Raw .
James and Stratus teamed together at the March 18 , 2006 episode of Saturday Night 's Main Event to defeat Candice Michelle and Victoria . After the match , James agreed to honor Stratus 's wishes and attempted to kiss her . After Stratus pushed her away , James attacked Stratus and vowed to destroy her , becoming a villain in the process . The feud between James and Stratus culminated in a Women 's Championship match at WrestleMania 22 , which James won , to earn her first Women 's Championship . Her angle with Stratus continued into Backlash during a rematch , after Stratus legitimately dislocated her shoulder when James threw her out of the ring . The feud would come to an end on the June 26 episode of Raw , when James defeated Stratus in a Women 's Championship match . The storyline is widely regarded as one of the best women 's feuds in WWE history .
= = = = Women 's Champion ( 2006 – 2008 ) = = = =
James dropped the WWE Women 's Championship on August 14 to Lita , after Lita hit James with the title belt . After the Women 's Championship was vacated due to the retirement of Trish Stratus , James entered a tournament to determine the new champion . She defeated Victoria and Melina en route to the finals at Cyber Sunday , where she lost to Lita . James transitioned into a face after her and Lita wrestled in a series of matches in which Lita chose stipulations to hinder James ' wrestling ability . The feud between James and Lita ended at Survivor Series , where James defeated Lita , in the latter 's retirement match , to win her second Women 's Championship .
James then began an angle with Melina on January 29 , 2007 , when Melina became the number one contender for the Women 's Championship . Following a successful title defense on February 5 , James teamed with Super Crazy in a mixed tag team match against Melina and Johnny Nitro . After Melina pinned James for the victory , she challenged her to a rematch for the title . James would subsequently lose the Women 's Championship to Melina on February 19 and , in continuation of their storyline feud , failed to regain the title during the first women 's Falls Count Anywhere match in WWE history . During the finish of the match , James fell from the top turnbuckle and landed on her neck , which resulted in a rushed finish . James , however , was not seriously injured in the incident .
The scripted feud between James and Melina was rekindled on April 2 , when James interrupted and attacked Melina during her photo op on Raw . At a house show in Paris , France on April 24 , James won her third Women 's Championship during a triple threat match that also involved Victoria . Since James pinned Victoria , however , and not Melina , Jonathan Coachman announced that a rematch would take place immediately . James dropped the title to Melina , giving her the shortest Women ’ s Championship reign in WWE history . James later received a rematch for the title at Backlash , but was unsuccessful . After Backlash , James would only make sporadic appearances on television , wrestling occasionally in tag @-@ matches and rarely in singles competition . On the November 26 episode of Raw , James defeated Melina in a number one contender 's match for Beth Phoenix 's Women 's Championship , setting up a title match between the two at Armageddon , in which Phoenix retained the title .
On the April 14 , 2008 episode of Raw , held in London , England , James defeated Beth Phoenix to win her fourth Women 's Championship . At Judgment Day , James successfully defended her title against Melina and Beth Phoenix in a triple @-@ threat match . James re @-@ entered the feud against Phoenix in mid @-@ 2008 , where she and Kofi Kingston teamed up against Phoenix and Santino Marella at SummerSlam in a Winner Takes All tag team match for both the Women 's and Intercontinental Championships , in which James and Kingston lost their titles to Phoenix and Marella . After James lost the championship , she had two rematches for the title , but was unsuccessful in regaining it .
= = = = Divas Champion and feud with LayCool ( 2009 – 2010 ) = = = =
Following an appearance in the 25 @-@ Diva battle royal at WrestleMania XXV , James began feuding with the WWE Divas Champion Maryse heading into Night of Champions on July 26 . At the event , James defeated Maryse to win her first Divas Championship , becoming only the second Diva in history to have held both the Women 's and Divas titles . Throughout the Summer , James successfully defended the title against Gail Kim and Beth Phoenix on episodes of Raw , and against Alicia Fox at the Hell in a Cell pay @-@ per @-@ view on October 4 . Two weeks later on Raw , James lost the title to Jillian Hall after an approximate three month title reign . After the show , James was traded to the SmackDown brand for the first time in her career , due to a Diva trade made by Raw guest host Nancy O 'Dell .
James made her debut with the brand on the October 23 episode of SmackDown , defeating Layla . On the October 30 episode of SmackDown , a controversial angle began that saw WWE Women 's Champion Michelle McCool and Layla , collectively known as LayCool , bully James . On the November 20 episode of SmackDown , after James defeated Layla , McCool gave James the nickname " Piggy James " , that sent James to tears , resulting in a five @-@ on @-@ five elimination tag team match at the November pay @-@ per @-@ view Survivor Series , where James ' team prevailed over McCool 's team , with James and Melina as the sole survivors . On the December 4 episode of SmackDown , James became the number one contender for McCool 's Women 's Championship by defeating Beth Phoenix and Natalya in a triple threat match . The following week , James challenged McCool for the championship at TLC : Tables , Ladders & Chairs , but was unsuccessful after interference from Layla . The storyline feud continued into the Royal Rumble on January 31 , 2010 where James finally defeated McCool , in 20 seconds , to become a five @-@ time Women 's Champion . Over the following couple of weeks , SmackDown consultant Vickie Guerrero was introduced into the rivalry , choosing to side with LayCool over James . On the February 26 episode of SmackDown , McCool used her rematch clause to face James for the Women 's Championship , with Guerrero acting as special guest referee . After Guerrero slapped James , McCool pinned her to regain the title .
On March 9 , WWE.com announced that James had been diagnosed with a staph infection on her right knee , and that she would be out of action for three weeks . She returned on the March 22 episode of Raw , where alongside Kelly Kelly , she accompanied Eve Torres , Beth Phoenix and Gail Kim in their losing effort against McCool , Maryse and Layla , who had Vickie Guerrero and Alicia Fox in their corner . This set up a 10 @-@ Diva tag team match at WrestleMania XXVI , in which James made an unsuccessful in @-@ ring return after Vickie pinned Kelly . James made her last appearance on Raw during a rematch , where her team was victorious . James ' final match in WWE aired on the April 23 episode of SmackDown where she teamed with former long @-@ time rival Beth Phoenix against LayCool in a losing effort when she was pinned by Layla . James was released from WWE one day earlier on April 22 , having pre @-@ taped her SmackDown match . According to James , WWE explained the decision as due to desiring to " move in a new direction with their women 's division " .
In November 2013 , James served as guest trainer at the WWE Performance Center in Orlando , Florida for a week , training WWE NXT 's female wrestlers . James also attended that week 's NXT live event in Tampa , Florida .
= = = Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = =
On June 18 , 2011 , James made her debut for the Mexican promotion Asistencia Asesoría y Administración ( AAA ) at Triplemanía XIX , where she teamed with Angelina Love , Sexy Star and Velvet Sky to defeat Cynthia Moreno , Faby Apache , Lolita and Mari Apache in an eight @-@ woman tag team match . James returned to AAA on July 9 , teaming with Sexy Star to defeat the Apaches in a tag team match , after which she challenged Mari to a match for her AAA Reina de Reinas Championship . On July 31 at Verano de Escándalo , James competed in an eight – way match for the Reina de Reinas Championship , becoming the last person eliminated by the new champion , Pimpinela Escarlata .
= = = Return to TNA = = =
= = = = Feud with Madison Rayne ( 2010 – 2011 ) = = = =
On September 22 , 2010 , it was reported that James had signed a contract with Total Nonstop Action Wrestling ( TNA ) . James returned to the promotion on October 7 's Before The Glory special episode of Impact ! , announcing that she would be the special guest referee for the TNA Knockouts Championship match between Angelina Love , Velvet Sky , Madison Rayne and Tara at Bound for Glory . At the pay @-@ per @-@ view , James counted the pinfall which made Tara the new Knockouts Champion , prompting Rayne to shove James amidst an argument with Tara , and James replying with a punch . On the following episode of Impact ! , Tara lost the title to Rayne , while James made her intentions for the Knockouts title clear , after a confrontation with the new champion . James wrestled her return match the following week , defeating Sarita , before being attacked by Rayne 's ally , Tara . James wrestled her first TNA pay @-@ per @-@ view match at Turning Point , where she battled Tara to a double disqualification .
On the November 18 episode of Impact ! James defeated Angelina Love to become the number one contender to the championship . At Final Resolution , James was defeated by Tara in a Falls Count Anywhere match , following interference from Madison Rayne after she sprayed a fire extinguisher and hit James with the Knockouts title belt . On the following episode of Impact ! , James defeated Tara in a steel cage match . On January 9 , 2011 at Genesis , James lost her match against Rayne for the Knockouts Championship due to interference from Tara . The following month at Against All Odds , James once again failed to win the Knockouts Championship , this time losing to Rayne in a Last Knockout Standing match , after another interference by Tara . On the March 17 episode of Impact ! , Rayne agreed to give James another title match at Lockdown , with the added stipulation that should James fail to win the title , she would have to shave her hair off . On March 18 , James legitimately separated her shoulder at a TNA house show in Jacksonville , Florida . James 's injury was put into a storyline , where it was caused by Rayne and Tara running over her with Tara 's motorcycle .
= = = = Knockouts Championship reigns ( 2011 – 2013 ) = = = =
On April 17 , James defeated Madison Rayne in a steel cage match , which lasted less than a minute , to win the TNA Knockouts Championship for the first time . With the win , James became the first woman in history to have held the WWE Women 's Championship , the WWE Divas Championship , and the TNA Knockouts Championship . On the May 5 episode of Impact ! , James made her first successful title defense against Ms. Tessmacher . On May 15 at Sacrifice , James successfully defended her title against Madison Rayne and in the process helped Tara get a release from her alliance with Rayne . The following month at Slammiversary IX , James successfully defended her title against Angelina Love , however after the match both Love and Winter attacked her . On the June 23 episode of Impact Wrestling , James was defeated by Winter in a non @-@ title Street Fight , following outside interference from Love . This led to a match on August 7 at Hardcore Justice , where James lost the Knockouts Championship to Winter , following multiple interferences from Love and a red mist from Winter . On the following episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Madison Rayne to earn a rematch for the title . On the September 1 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Winter to win her second TNA Knockouts Championship . On September 11 at No Surrender , James dropped the title back to Winter . On the September 22 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Ms. Tessmacher to earn another shot at the championship at Bound for Glory , in a four @-@ way match with defending champion Winter , Madison Rayne and Velvet Sky , which Sky would win .
On the November 17 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated nine other Knockouts in a gauntlet match to earn a championship match with the new champion , Gail Kim . On December 11 at Final Resolution , Gail defeated James to retain the championship , following a distraction from Madison Rayne . In the main event of the December 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , James challenged Kim for the championship , but was defeated following interference from Rayne . On the January 5 , 2012 , episode of Impact Wrestling , James and Traci Brooks failed to capture the TNA Knockouts Tag Team Championship from Kim and Rayne . Three days later at Genesis , James lost another championship match against Kim , after being disqualified for using the brass knuckles that were thrown into the ring by Rayne , who was locked in a cage suspended in the air during the match . On the January 19 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Rayne in a steel cage match . On the January 26 episode of Impact Wrestling , James and Velvet Sky were defeated by Tara in a triple @-@ threat number one contender 's match for the Knockouts Championship . On the April 5 episode of Impact Wrestling , James was defeated by Sky in a six @-@ way number one contenders match , also involving Angelina Love , Madison Rayne , Tara , and Winter . On the June 7 episode of Impact Wrestling , James again failed to earn a shot at the Knockouts Championship when she was defeated by Ms. Tessmacher in a four @-@ way match that also included Tara and Velvet Sky , while also showing signs of a heel turn due to jealousy of Sky . On the June 21 episode of Impact Wrestling , James was chosen over Sky as the next challenger for the Knockouts Championship , but failed to recapture the title from Ms. Tessmacher . James ' storyline with Sky ended abruptly the following month , when Sky was granted her release from TNA . On the August 2 episode of Impact Wrestling , James unsuccessfully competed in a four @-@ way number one contenders match involving Gail Kim , Tara and the eventual winner Madison Rayne . After a three @-@ month absence , James returned on the November 15 episode of Impact Wrestling , winning a Knockouts battle royal to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . On December 9 at Final Resolution , James was unsuccessful in winning the championship from Tara after a distraction from her boyfriend Jesse . James received another shot at the championship on the December 20 episode of Impact Wrestling , but was again defeated by Tara . On January 13 , 2013 , at the Genesis pay @-@ per @-@ view , James competed in a five @-@ woman gauntlet match to determine the number one contender to the Knockout Championship , but was eliminated by Gail Kim .
On the April 18 of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Ms. Tessmacher to become the number one contender to the Knockouts Championship . James received her title match the following week , but was defeated by defending champion Velvet Sky . On the May 23 episode of Impact Wrestling , James defeated Sky after attacking her injured knee to become a three @-@ time Knockouts Champion . The following week , James began portraying a villainous persona by calling out Velvet Sky , acting sarcastic and pompous towards her , and also did not help Sky when she was attacked by Gail Kim . James turned into a villainess on the June 13 episode of Impact Wrestling , when she attacked Sky after Sky announced that she was ready for a rematch . James and Sky had their rematch on the June 27 episode of Impact Wrestling , where James retained her championship . On the July 4 episode of Impact Wrestling , James justified her actions by claiming that getting to the top of the Knockouts division requires " clawing and scratching your way to the top " ; James also claimed that " no woman would ever be as great as her " and she 'll " stand atop the division as the greatest Knockouts Champion of all time " . On the July 25 episode of Impact Wrestling , James successfully defended the championship against Gail Kim . At the September 6 airing of Knockout Knockdown , James defeated Serena Deeb to qualify for the gauntlet battle royal finals , in which James was lastly eliminated by Gail Kim . James lost the Knockouts Championship on the September 19 episode of Impact Wrestling to ODB . Four days later , it was announced that James had failed to come to terms on a contract renewal with TNA . James later stated in an interview that she technically wasn 't under contract with TNA , but she did not confirm that she was gone . On November 15 , 2013 , James appeared in an interview on WWE.com , discussing her history with WWE and the possibility of making a return to the company . At the December 6 airing of World Cup of Wrestling , James was announced as a member of Team USA , along with James Storm , Christopher Daniels , Kazarian and Kenny King . James was defeated by Team Aces & Eights ' Ivelisse Vélez following interference from the other members of Aces & Eights . Team USA would go on to defeat Team Aces & Eights in a 5 @-@ on @-@ 5 elimination tag team match , in which James gained a measure of retribution by eliminating Vélez during the match . James and Storm were presented with the trophy afterwards .
= = = Return to the independent circuit ( 2010 – 2016 ) = = =
James made her return to the independent circuit in April 2010 , as part of World Wrestling Council ( WWC ) , teaming with Carlito to defeat the team of ODB and Christopher Daniels . James won the bout after pinning Daniels . On July 11 , as part of their Anniversary weekend , she defeated ODB in a singles match . On the last day of that month , James returned to one of her early promotions , Maryland Championship Wrestling ( MCW ) , to wrestle Mia Yim in a winning effort . The following month , she contested for the Women Superstars Uncensored ( WSU ) Championship against Mercedes Martinez , but she was unsuccessful . She also returned to Dory Funk 's promotion , recording a tag team match for ! Bang ! TV . James also accompanied Dory Funk Jr. during his match , and sung " The Star @-@ Spangled Banner " during ! Bang ! TV 's tribute to the troops . On September 18 , James served as a special guest referee for a three @-@ way match between ODB , Persephone and Kristin Flake for the SCWA Ladie 's Title during Southern California Wrestling Association 's ( SCWA ) ' CAGED event in Wentworth , North Carolina , where all matches took place in a cage .
In early 2011 , James began appearing for Covey Promotions . At All or Nothing 5 on April 30 , James defeated Hannah Blossom to become the first Covey Pro Women 's Champion . During her time with TNA , James made several appearances for independent wrestling promotions such as Pro Championship Wrestling , Legends of the Ring , Northeast Wrestling and National Wrestling Superstars . On November 11 , 2011 , James lost the Covey Pro Women 's Championship to the debuting Jessie Belle Smothers .
James made her debut for Pro Wrestling Elite ( PWE ) in Ayr , South Ayrshire , Scotland on September 15 , 2012 at History Is Born , where she fought Kay Lee Ray to a no contest . After the match , James teamed up with Ray in a winning effort against Carmel and Nikki Storm . The following night , James competed against Carmel in a winning effort . James returned to Pro Wrestling Elite at their two @-@ year anniversary event Elite Bro on July 20 , 2013 , in a winning effort against Nikki Storm . On September 21 , James made an appearance at the Wrestling Spectacular 2 all @-@ female event in Edison , New Jersey , alongside many former WWE and TNA female wrestlers , such as Angelina Love , Katarina Waters , Rosita and Brooke Adams . James and Love fought in the main event , with Candice Michelle as the special guest referee , where Love pinned James after an interference from Velvet Sky . James made an appearance for Big Time Wrestling in August 2013 , wrestling Reby Sky several times in different dates and locations , winning in all bouts against Sky . On October 12 , Mickie again appeared for the promotion , beating Quebec 's Midianne in Bristol , Connecticut . On February 8 , 2014 , James returned to Maryland Championship Wrestling for the Anniversary 2014 event in Joppa , Maryland to face Angelina Love , promoted as " Battle of the Bombshells " . Although originally promoted as a singles match , interference by MCW 's Renee Michelles ' and Jessie Kayes ' rivalry occurred during the match , resulting in the match being turned into a tag team match with Mickie and Michelle facing Angelina and Kayes , which James and Michelle won .
On April 25 , 2014 at the Berkeley Springs High School theater in West Virginia , James headlined the Covey Promotion 3rd Annual Hall Of Fame Induction Ceremony , as she was inducted into the Covey Pro Hall Of Hame Class of 2014 . The next day , during the All or Nothing 8 ! event which was aired on May 17 as the 154th episode of Covey Pro TV , James was interrupted during an interview by Amber Rodriguez , who mocked James on her legitimate pregnancy and gave her a pie as a tease , and in return , James shoved the pie in Amber 's face . Jessie Belle Smothers came to the rescue and battled Rodriguez as James was escorted out by security . Two months after giving birth to her child , James returned to in @-@ ring competition at Queens Of Combat 3 on November 30 , where she defeated Tessa Blanchard . On May 16 , James debuted for ( 1CW ) First State Championship Wrestling unsuccessfully challenging Kacee Carlisle for the 1CW Women 's Championship after getting herself disqualified . On June 19 , 2015 , at Maryland Championship Wrestling 's Ladies Night event , James defeated Amber Rodriguez with Lisa Marie Varon as the special guest referee to win the MCW Women 's Championship , despite James being attacked by villainous enforcer Melina during the match . On November 13 , Kimber Lee defeated James to win the MCW Women 's Championship after interference from Amber Rodriguez . The following night , James gained a measure of revenge by defeating Rodriguez in a Loser Leaves MCW match , causing Rodriguez to leave the company . On February 2 , 2016 , James made an appearance for Chikara in a losing effort against Grand Champion Princess Kimber Lee . On April 1 , 2016 , James returned to Queens of Combat and defeated LuFisto at Queens of Combat 10 .
= = = Second return to TNA ( 2015 ) = = =
James made a surprise return to TNA as a fan favorite , after a year and a half absence from the company , on January 30 , 2015 , during the tapings of Impact Wrestling in Glasgow , Scotland . James would then have several confrontations with Bram over his actions towards her real life fiancé , Magnus . On the April 24 episode of Impact Wrestling , James announced her retirement from wrestling to focus on becoming a full @-@ time mother , only to have James Storm talk her into having one more match . On the June 3 episode of Impact Wrestling , James declined an offer by Storm to join The Revolution , which resulted in him intentionally shoving her onto a train track in the storyline , which sparked controversy . This was done to write off James from television , as she had no more dates set with the company at the time . James made her return on the July 1 episode of Impact Wrestling , confronting Storm and challenging him to a mixed tag team match . On the July 29 episode of Impact Wrestling , James and Magnus defeated Storm and his partner Serena , when James pinned Serena .
= = = Global Force Wrestling ( 2015 – present ) = = =
On July 7 , 2015 , it was announced that James had signed with Global Force Wrestling ( GFW ) . On July 24 , at GFW 's inaugural tapings in Las Vegas , Nevada , James lost a three @-@ way GFW Women 's Championship tournament qualifying match that also included Lei 'D Tapa , and was ultimately won by Christina Von Eerie . At the September 3 event in Cedar Rapids , Iowa , James defeated ODB . On October 28 , during the GFW UK Invasion Tour , James defeated Nikki Storm in Grimsby , Lincolnshire , and defeated Toni Storm on October 30 in King 's Lynn , Norfolk . On January 22 , Christina Von Eerie defeated James and Kimber Lee to retain the GFW Women 's Championship .
= = Music career = =
James ' first country music album , Strangers & Angels , was released on May 18 , 2010 on iTunes . The album was self @-@ released with an independent team . On December 2 , 2010 , James released another single called , " Hardcore Country " , which is also used as her entrance music with TNA and on the independent circuit . A music video for the single was first shown during James 's first appearance on TNA Spin Cycle . For her second album , James joined a Kickstarter campaign in order to partially fund the album . Fans who contributed donations received special items from the campaign . The online campaign was a success , with a total pledge of $ 16 @,@ 500 out of a $ 5 @,@ 000 goal . The funds helped to produce the first six songs from the album . The album , called " Somebody 's Gonna Pay " was released on May 7 , 2013 under the label Entertainment One ( eOne ) Music , and debuted on the music charts at # 15 on the Billboards Heatseekers charts . James has also filmed a music video for the song " Somebody 's Gonna Pay " , from her second album of the same name . The video features former WWE Women 's Champion , Trish Stratus and her fiancé Magnus . TNA founder , Jeff Jarrett , was also on set of the video in Nashville , Tennessee . Jarrett did not appear in the video , but taught James how to swing a guitar . While she worked for TNA , James also toured around the United States , holding small concerts at various venues .
James has opened shows for Montgomery Gentry , Randy Houser , Gretchen Wilson and Rascal Flatts . James also performed at the 2011 CMA Music Festival . James again performed at CMA Fest in 2013 , where Eric Young and James Storm also made appearances at the event . Other musical appearances James has made are the 2013 Esophageal Cancer Awareness Association ( ECAA ) benefit concert on August 24 , 2013 and World Chicken Festival in London , Kentucky on September 28 , 2013 . In 2014 , James collaborated with country artist Cowboy Troy and TNA wrestler James Storm on a song titled " Is Everybody Doing OK " , which is featured on Cowboy Troy 's album , King of Clubs .
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = = Strangers & Angels = = = =
= = = = Somebody 's Gonna Pay = = = =
= = = Guest work = = =
= = Other media = =
James , along with Ken Anderson , represented WWE at the 2008 Republican National Convention , in an effort to persuade fans to register to vote in the 2008 Presidential election . On April 13 , 2008 , James , along with Layla , Melina and Kelly Kelly , appeared as guest trainers in an episode of Celebrity Fit Club Boot Camp . On September 5 of that same year , James appeared on the USA Network show Psych , portraying a villainous roller derby girl called Rita " Lethal Weapon " Westwood , in the episode " Talk Derby to Me " . James made a special appearance on Redemption Song which is hosted by Chris Jericho along with Candice Michelle , Maryse , and Eve Torres . It was originally aired on November 12 , 2008 . In 2012 , James was featured in Bucky Covington 's music video for his song " Drinking Side of Country " . In June 2013 , James starred in a Dr Pepper advert , which featured " One of a Kind " individuals talking about the role of Dr. Pepper in their lives . As part of the WWE roster , James made appearances in five WWE video games as a playable character .
= = Personal life = =
When she is finished with her wrestling career , James plans to own a farm and be an equine trainer . James owns three Morgan horses named Rhapsody , Bunny and Casanova . James also owns two dogs , one named Butch and a Miniature Pinscher named Elvis . Outside of wrestling , James received her Associate of Arts degree in business administration , and studied for her Bachelor of Arts degree in operations management .
James is part Native American of the Powhatan tribe . James has two tattoos : a symbol meaning ' love ' on her ankle , and a dragon that wraps around it . James is a fan of Equine sports and American Football , and is a fan of the Dallas Cowboys .
In 2007 , James was engaged to wrestler Kenny Dykstra . On September 25 , 2014 , James and Nick Aldis , better known by his ring name Magnus , welcomed their first child , a boy named Donovan Patrick Aldis . In December 2014 , James announced her engagement to Aldis , and the two were married on December 31 , 2015 ( New Year 's Eve ) .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
As Mickie James
Mick Kick ( Roundhouse kick ) – 2006 ; parodied from Trish Stratus
Cross @-@ legged STF – 2013 – present
Long Kiss Goodnight ( Reverse roundhouse kick , sometimes preceded by a kiss to the opponent 's lips ) – 2005 – present
Mickie @-@ DT ( Standing tornado DDT or a jumping DDT , with theatrics ) – 2005 – present
Stratusfaction ( Springboard bulldog , with theatrics ) – 2005 – 2006 ; parodied from Trish Stratus
As Alexis Laree
Laree DDT ( Standing tornado DDT or a jumping DDT )
Signature moves
Flapjack , sometimes followed by a kip @-@ up
Implant DDT
Mick @-@ a @-@ rana ( Rope aided hurricanrana from out of the corner )
Multiple pin variations
Crucifix
Jackknife
Roll @-@ up
Victory roll
Snapmare , followed by a running low – angle front dropkick to the opponent 's front or back
Thesz press , followed by multiple punches , sometimes from the top rope
Wrestlers managed
A.J. Styles
Christian York
Amazing Red
Chris Cage
CM Punk
Joey Matthews
Julio Dinero
Raven
Tommy Dreamer
Trish Stratus
Super Crazy
Kofi Kingston
Entrance themes
" Girlfriend " by Dale Oliver ( TNA )
" Day Dreamin ' Fazes " by Kottonmouth Kings ( ROH )
" Just a Girl " by No Doubt ( OVW )
" Ice Breaker " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Obsession " by Jim Johnston ( WWE )
" Hardcore Country " by Mickie James and Serg Salinas ( TNA / AAA / Independent circuits )
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Covey Promotions
Covey Pro Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Covey Pro Hall of Fame ( 2014 )
CyberSpace Wrestling Federation
CSWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Dynamite Championship Wrestling
DCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Impact Championship Wrestling
ICW Super Juniors Championship ( 1 time )
Maryland Championship Wrestling
MCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Premier Wrestling Federation
PWF Universal Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Woman of the Year ( 2009 , 2011 )
PWI ranked her No. 1 of the best 50 female wrestlers in the PWI Female 50 in 2009
Southern Championship Wrestling
SCW Diva Championship ( 1 time )
Total Nonstop Action Wrestling
TNA Knockouts Championship ( 3 times )
TNA World Cup of Wrestling ( 2013 ) – with Christopher Daniels , James Storm , Kazarian and Kenny King
Ultimate Championship Wrestling
UCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Ultimate Wrestling Federation
UWF Women 's Championship ( 2 times )
World Wrestling Entertainment
WWE Women 's Championship ( 5 times )
WWE Divas Championship ( 1 time )
= = = Luchas de Apuestas record = = =
= Metalloid =
A metalloid is any chemical element which has properties in between those of metals and nonmetals , or that has a mixture of them . There is neither a standard definition of a metalloid nor complete agreement on the elements appropriately classified as such . Despite the lack of specificity , the term remains in use in the literature of chemistry .
The six commonly recognised metalloids are boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic , antimony , and tellurium . Five elements are less frequently so classified : carbon , aluminium , selenium , polonium , and astatine . On a standard periodic table , all eleven are in a diagonal area in the p @-@ block extending from boron at the upper left to astatine at lower right , along the dividing line between metals and nonmetals shown on some periodic tables .
Typical metalloids have a metallic appearance , but they are brittle and only fair conductors of electricity . Chemically , they behave mostly as nonmetals . They can form alloys with metals . Most of their other physical and chemical properties are intermediate in nature . Metalloids are usually too brittle to have any structural uses . They and their compounds are used in alloys , biological agents , catalysts , flame retardants , glasses , optical storage and optoelectronics , pyrotechnics , semiconductors , and electronics .
The electrical properties of silicon and germanium enabled the establishment of the semiconductor industry in the 1950s and the development of solid @-@ state electronics from the early 1960s .
The term metalloid originally referred to nonmetals . Its more recent meaning , as a category of elements with intermediate or hybrid properties , became widespread in 1940 – 1960 . Metalloids sometimes are called semimetals , a practice that has been discouraged , as the term semimetal has a different meaning in physics than in chemistry . In physics it more specifically refers to the electronic band structure of a substance .
= = Definitions = =
= = = Judgement @-@ based = = =
A metalloid is an element with properties in between , or that are a mixture of , those of metals and nonmetals , and which is therefore hard to classify as either a metal or a nonmetal . This is a generic definition that draws on metalloid attributes consistently cited in the literature . Difficulty of categorisation is a key attribute . Most elements have a mixture of metallic and nonmetallic properties , and can be classified according to which set of properties is more pronounced . Only the elements at or near the margins , lacking a sufficiently clear preponderance of either metallic or nonmetallic properties , are classified as metalloids .
Boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic , antimony , and tellurium are recognised commonly as metalloids . Depending on the author , one or more from selenium , polonium , or astatine sometimes are added to the list . Boron sometimes is excluded , by itself , or with silicon . Sometimes tellurium is not regarded as a metalloid . The inclusion of antimony , polonium , and astatine as metalloids also has been questioned .
Other elements occasionally are classified as metalloids . These elements include hydrogen , beryllium , nitrogen , phosphorus , sulfur , zinc , gallium , tin , iodine , lead , bismuth , and radon . The term metalloid also has been used for elements that exhibit metallic lustre and electrical conductivity , and that are amphoteric , such as arsenic , antimony , vanadium , chromium , molybdenum , tungsten , tin , lead , and aluminium . The p @-@ block metals , and nonmetals ( such as carbon or nitrogen ) that can form alloys with metals or modify their properties also have occasionally been considered as metalloids .
= = = Criteria @-@ based = = =
No widely accepted definition of a metalloid exists , nor any division of the periodic table into metals , metalloids and nonmetals ; Hawkes questioned the feasibility of establishing a specific definition , noting that anomalies can be found in several attempted constructs . Classifying an element as a metalloid has been described by Sharp as " arbitrary " .
The number and identities of metalloids depend on what classification criteria are used . Emsley recognised four metalloids ( germanium , arsenic , antimony and tellurium ) ; James et al. listed twelve ( Emsley 's plus boron , carbon , silicon , selenium , bismuth , polonium , ununpentium and livermorium ) . On average , seven elements are included in such lists ; individual classification arrangements tend to share common ground and vary in the ill @-@ defined margins .
A single quantitative criterion such as electronegativity is commonly used , metalloids having electronegativity values from 1 @.@ 8 or 1 @.@ 9 to 2 @.@ 2 . Further examples include packing efficiency ( the fraction of volume in a crystal structure occupied by atoms ) and the Goldhammer @-@ Herzfeld criterion ratio . The commonly recognised metalloids have packing efficiencies of between 34 % and 41 % . The Goldhammer @-@ Herzfeld ratio , roughly equal to the cube of the atomic radius divided by the molar volume , is a simple measure of how metallic an element is , the recognised metalloids having ratios from around 0 @.@ 85 to 1 @.@ 1 and averaging 1 @.@ 0 . Other authors have relied on , for example , atomic conductance or bulk coordination number .
Jones , writing on the role of classification in science , observed that " [ classes ] are usually defined by more than two attributes " . Masterton and Slowinski used three criteria to describe the six elements commonly recognised as metalloids : metalloids have ionization energies around 200 kcal / mol ( 837 kJ / mol ) and electronegativity values close to 2 @.@ 0 . They also said that metalloids are typically semiconductors , though antimony and arsenic ( semimetals from a physics perspective ) have electrical conductivities approaching those of metals . Selenium and polonium are suspected as not in this scheme , while astatine 's status is uncertain .
= = Periodic table territory = =
= = = Location = = =
Metalloids lie on either side of the dividing line between metals and nonmetals . This can be found , in varying configurations , on some periodic tables . Elements to the lower left of the line generally display increasing metallic behaviour ; elements to the upper right display increasing nonmetallic behaviour . When presented as a regular stairstep , elements with the highest critical temperature for their groups ( Li , Be , Al , Ge , Sb , Po ) lie just below the line .
The diagonal positioning of the metalloids represents an exception to the observation that elements with similar properties tend to occur in vertical groups . A related effect can be seen in other diagonal similarities between some elements and their lower right neighbours , specifically lithium @-@ magnesium , beryllium @-@ aluminium , and boron @-@ silicon . Rayner @-@ Canham has argued that these similarities extend to carbon @-@ phosphorus , nitrogen @-@ sulfur , and into three d @-@ block series .
This exception arises due to competing horizontal and vertical trends in the nuclear charge . Going along a period , the nuclear charge increases with atomic number as do the number of electrons . The additional pull on outer electrons as nuclear charge increases generally outweighs the screening effect of having more electrons . With some irregularities , atoms therefore become smaller , ionization energy increases , and there is a gradual change in character , across a period , from strongly metallic , to weakly metallic , to weakly nonmetallic , to strongly nonmetallic elements . Going down a main group , the effect of increasing nuclear charge is generally outweighed by the effect of additional electrons being further away from the nucleus . Atoms generally become larger , ionization energy falls , and metallic character increases . The net effect is that the location of the metal – nonmetal transition zone shifts to the right in going down a group , and analogous diagonal similarities are seen elsewhere in the periodic table , as noted .
= = = Alternative treatments = = =
Depictions of metalloids vary according to the author . Some do not classify elements bordering the metal – nonmetal dividing line as metalloids , noting that a binary classification can facilitate the establishment of rules for determining bond types between metals and nonmetals . Metalloids are variously grouped with metals , regarded as nonmetals or treated as a sub @-@ category of nonmetals . Other authors have suggested that classifying some elements as metalloids " emphasizes that properties change gradually rather than abruptly as one moves across or down the periodic table " . Some periodic tables distinguish elements that are metalloids and display no formal dividing line between metals and nonmetals . Metalloids are shown as occurring in a diagonal band or diffuse region .
= = Properties = =
Metalloids usually look like metals but behave largely like nonmetals . Physically , they are shiny , brittle solids with intermediate to relatively good electrical conductivity and the electronic band structure of a semimetal or semiconductor . Chemically , they mostly behave as ( weak ) nonmetals , have intermediate ionization energies and electronegativity values , and amphoteric or weakly acidic oxides . They can form alloys with metals . Most of their other physical and chemical properties are intermediate in nature .
= = = Compared to metals and nonmetals = = =
Characteristic properties of metals , metalloids and nonmetals are summarized in the table . Physical properties are listed in order of ease of determination ; chemical properties run from general to specific , and then to descriptive .
The above table reflects the hybrid nature of metalloids . The properties of form , appearance , and behaviour when mixed with metals are more like metals . Elasticity and general chemical behaviour are more like nonmetals . Electrical conductivity , band structure , ionization energy , electronegativity , and oxides are intermediate between the two .
= = Common applications = =
The focus of this section is on the recognised metalloids . Elements less often recognised as metalloids are ordinarily classified as either metals or nonmetals ; some of these are included here for comparative purposes .
Metalloids are too brittle to have any structural uses in their pure forms . They and their compounds are used as ( or in ) alloying components , biological agents ( toxicological , nutritional and medicinal ) , catalysts , flame retardants , glasses ( oxide and metallic ) , optical storage media and optoelectronics , pyrotechnics , semiconductors and electronics .
= = = Alloys = = =
Writing early in the history of intermetallic compounds , the British metallurgist Cecil Desch observed that " certain non @-@ metallic elements are capable of forming compounds of distinctly metallic character with metals , and these elements may therefore enter into the composition of alloys " . He associated silicon , arsenic and tellurium , in particular , with the alloy @-@ forming elements . Phillips and Williams suggested that compounds of silicon , germanium , arsenic and antimony with B metals , " are probably best classed as alloys " .
Among the lighter metalloids , alloys with transition metals are well @-@ represented . Boron can form intermetallic compounds and alloys with such metals of the composition MnB , if n > 2 . Ferroboron ( 15 % boron ) is used to introduce boron into steel ; nickel @-@ boron alloys are ingredients in welding alloys and case hardening compositions for the engineering industry . Alloys of silicon with iron and with aluminium are widely used by the steel and automotive industries , respectively . Germanium forms many alloys , most importantly with the coinage metals .
The heavier metalloids continue the theme . Arsenic can form alloys with metals , including platinum and copper ; it is also added to copper and its alloys to improve corrosion resistance and appears to confer the same benefit when added to magnesium . Antimony is well known as an alloy @-@ former , including with the coinage metals . Its alloys include pewter ( a tin alloy with up to 20 % antimony ) and type metal ( a lead alloy with up to 25 % antimony ) . Tellurium readily alloys with iron , as ferrotellurium ( 50 – 58 % tellurium ) , and with copper , in the form of copper tellurium ( 40 – 50 % tellurium ) . Ferrotellurium is used as a stabilizer for carbon in steel casting . Of the non @-@ metallic elements less often recognised as metalloids , selenium — in the form of ferroselenium ( 50 – 58 % selenium ) — is used to improve the machinability of stainless steels .
= = = Biological agents = = =
All six of the elements commonly recognised as metalloids have toxic , dietary or medicinal properties . Arsenic and antimony compounds are especially toxic ; boron , silicon , and possibly arsenic , are essential trace elements . Boron , silicon , arsenic and antimony have medical applications , and germanium and tellurium are thought to have potential .
Boron is used in insecticides and herbicides . It is an essential trace element . As boric acid , it has antiseptic , antifungal , and antiviral properties .
Silicon is present in silatrane , a highly toxic rodenticide . Long @-@ term inhalation of silica dust causes silicosis , a fatal disease of the lungs . Silicon is an essential trace element . Silicone gel can be applied to badly burned patients to reduce scarring .
Salts of germanium are potentially harmful to humans and animals if ingested on a prolonged basis . There is interest in the pharmacological actions of germanium compounds but no licensed medicine as yet .
Arsenic is notoriously poisonous and may also be an essential element in ultratrace amounts . During World War I , both sides used " arsenic @-@ based sneezing and vomiting agents … to force enemy soldiers to remove their gas masks before firing mustard or phosgene at them in a second salvo . It has been used as a pharmaceutical agent since antiquity , including for the treatment of syphilis before the development of antibiotics . Arsenic is also a component of melarsoprol , a medicinal drug used in the treatment of human African trypanosomiasis or sleeping sickness . In 2003 , arsenic trioxide ( under the trade name Trisenox ) was re @-@ introduced for the treatment of acute promyelocytic leukaemia , a cancer of the blood and bone marrow . Arsenic in drinking water , which causes lung and bladder cancer , has been associated with a reduction in breast cancer mortality rates .
Metallic antimony is relatively non @-@ toxic , but most antimony compounds are poisonous . Two antimony compounds , sodium stibogluconate and stibophen , are used as antiparasitical drugs .
Elemental tellurium is not considered particularly toxic ; two grams of sodium tellurate , if administered , can be lethal . People exposed to small amounts of airborne tellurium exude a foul and persistent garlic @-@ like odour . Tellurium dioxide has been used to treat seborrhoeic dermatitis ; other tellurium compounds were used as antimicrobial agents before the development of antibiotics . In the future , such compounds may need to be substituted for antibiotics that have become ineffective due to bacterial resistance .
Of the elements less often recognised as metalloids , beryllium and lead are noted for their toxicity ; lead arsenate has been extensively used as an insecticide . Sulfur is one of the oldest of the fungicides and pesticides . Phosphorus , sulfur , zinc , selenium and iodine are essential nutrients , and aluminium , tin and lead may be . Sulfur , gallium , selenium , iodine and bismuth have medicinal applications . Sulfur is a constituent of sulfonamide drugs , still widely used for conditions such as acne and urinary tract infections . Gallium nitrate is used to treat the side effects of cancer ; gallium citrate , a radiopharmaceutical , facilitates imaging of inflamed body areas . Selenium sulfide is used in medicinal shampoos and to treat skin infections such as tinea versicolor . Iodine is used as a disinfectant in various forms . Bismuth is an ingredient in some antibacterials .
= = = Catalysts = = =
Boron trifluoride and trichloride are used as catalysts in organic synthesis and electronics ; the tribromide is used in the manufacture of diborane . Non @-@ toxic boron ligands can replace toxic phosphorus ligands in transition metal catalysts . Silica sulfuric acid ( SiO2OSO3H ) is used in organic reactions . Germanium dioxide is sometimes used as a catalyst in the production of PET plastic for containers ; cheaper antimony compounds , such as the trioxide or triacetate , are more commonly employed for the same purpose despite concerns about antimony contamination of food and drinks . Arsenic trioxide has been used in the production of natural gas , to boost the removal of carbon dioxide , as have selenous acid and tellurous acid . Selenium acts as a catalyst in some microorganisms . Tellurium , and its dioxide and tetrachloride , are strong catalysts for air oxidation of carbon above 500 ° C. Graphite oxide can be used as a catalyst in the synthesis of imines and their derivatives . Activated carbon and alumina have been used as catalysts for the removal of sulfur contaminants from natural gas . Titanium doped aluminium has been identified as a substitute for expensive noble metal catalysts used in the production of industrial chemicals .
= = = Flame retardants = = =
Compounds of boron , silicon , arsenic and antimony have been used as flame retardants . Boron , in the form of borax , has been used as a textile flame retardant since at least the 18th century . Silicon compounds such as silicones , silanes , silsesquioxane , silica and silicates , some of which were developed as alternatives to more toxic halogenated products , can considerably improve the flame retardancy of plastic materials . Arsenic compounds such as sodium arsenite or sodium arsenate are effective flame retardants for wood but have been less frequently used due to their toxicity . Antimony trioxide is a flame retardant . Aluminium hydroxide has been used as a wood @-@ fibre , rubber , plastic and textile flame retardant since the 1890s . Apart from aluminium hydroxide , use of phosphorus based flame @-@ retardants — in the form of , for example , organophosphates — now exceeds that of any of the other main retardant types . These employ boron , antimony or halogenated hydrocarbon compounds .
= = = Glass formation = = =
The oxides B2O3 , SiO2 , GeO2 , As2O3 and Sb2O3 readily form glasses . TeO2 forms a glass but this requires a " heroic quench rate " or the addition of an impurity , otherwise the crystalline form results . These compounds are used in chemical , domestic and industrial glassware and optics . Boron trioxide is used as a glass fibre additive , and is also a component of borosilicate glass , widely used for laboratory glassware and domestic ovenware for its low thermal expansion . Most ordinary glassware is made from silicon dioxide . Germanium dioxide is used as a glass fibre additive , as well as in infrared optical systems . Arsenic trioxide is used in the glass industry as a decolourizing and fining agent ( for the removal of bubbles ) , as is antimony trioxide . Tellurium dioxide finds application in laser and nonlinear optics .
Amorphous metallic glasses are generally most easily prepared if one of the components is a metalloid or " near metalloid " such as boron , carbon , silicon , phosphorus or germanium . Aside from thin films deposited at very low temperatures , the first known metallic glass was an alloy of composition Au75Si25 reported in 1960 . A metallic glass having a strength and toughness not previously seen , of composition Pd82.5P6Si9.5Ge2 , was reported in 2011 .
Phosphorus , selenium and lead , which are less often recognised as metalloids , are also used in glasses . Phosphate glass has a substrate of phosphorus pentoxide ( P2O5 ) , rather than the silica ( SiO2 ) of conventional silicate glasses . It is used , for example , to make sodium lamps . Selenium compounds can be used both as decolourising agents and to add a red colour to glass . Decorative glassware made of traditional lead glass contains at least 30 % lead ( II ) oxide ( PbO ) ; lead glass used for radiation shielding may have up to 65 % PbO . Lead @-@ based glasses have also been extensively used in electronics components ; enamelling ; sealing and glazing materials ; and solar cells . Bismuth based oxide glasses have emerged as a less toxic replacement for lead in many of these applications .
= = = Optical storage and optoelectronics = = =
Varying compositions of GeSbTe ( " GST alloys " ) and Ag- and In- doped Sb2Te ( " AIST alloys " ) , being examples of phase @-@ change materials , are widely used in rewritable optical discs and phase @-@ change memory devices . By applying heat , they can be switched between amorphous ( glassy ) and crystalline states . The change in optical and electrical properties can be used for information storage purposes . Future applications for GeSbTe may include , " ultrafast , entirely solid @-@ state displays with nanometre @-@ scale pixels , semi @-@ transparent " smart " glasses , " smart " contact lenses and artificial retina devices . "
= = = Pyrotechnics = = =
The recognised metalloids have either pyrotechnic applications or associated properties . Boron and silicon are commonly encountered ; they act somewhat like metal fuels . Boron is used in pyrotechnic initiator compositions ( for igniting other hard @-@ to @-@ start compositions ) , and in delay compositions that burn at a constant rate . Boron carbide has been identified as a possible replacement for more toxic barium or hexachloroethane mixtures in smoke munitions , signal flares and fireworks . Silicon , like boron , is a component of initiator and delay mixtures . Doped germanium can act as a variable speed thermite fuel . Arsenic trisulfide As2S3 was used in old naval signal lights ; in fireworks to make white stars ; in yellow smoke screen mixtures ; and in initiator compositions . Antimony trisulfide Sb2S3 is found in white @-@ light fireworks and in flash and sound mixtures . Tellurium has been used in delay mixtures and in blasting cap initiator compositions .
Carbon , aluminium , phosphorus and selenium continue the theme . Carbon , in black powder , is a constituent of fireworks rocket propellants , bursting charges , and effects mixtures , and military delay fuses and igniters . Aluminium is a common pyrotechnic ingredient , and is widely employed for its capacity to generate light and heat , including in thermite mixtures . Phosphorus can be found in smoke and incendiary munitions , paper caps used in toy guns , and party poppers . Selenium has been used in the same way as tellurium .
= = = Semiconductors and electronics = = =
All the elements commonly recognised as metalloids ( or their compounds ) have been used in the semiconductor or solid @-@ state electronic industries .
Some properties of boron have limited its use as a semiconductor . It has a high melting point , single crystals are relatively hard to obtain , and introducing and retaining controlled impurities is difficult .
Silicon is the leading commercial semiconductor ; it forms the basis of modern electronics ( including standard solar cells ) and information and communication technologies . This was despite the study of semiconductors , early in the 20th century , having been regarded as the " physics of dirt " and not deserving of close attention .
Germanium has largely been replaced by silicon in semiconducting devices , being cheaper , more resilient at higher operating temperatures , and easier to work during the microelectronic fabrication process . Germanium is still a constituent of semiconducting silicon @-@ germanium " alloys " and these have been growing in use , particularly for wireless communication devices ; such alloys exploit the higher carrier mobility of germanium . The synthesis of gram @-@ scale quantities of semiconducting germanane was reported in 2013 . This comprises one @-@ atom thick sheets of hydrogen @-@ terminated germanium atoms , analogous to graphane . It conducts electrons more than ten times faster than silicon and five times faster than germanium , and is thought to have potential for optoelectronic and sensing applications . The development of a germanium @-@ wire based anode that more than doubles the capacity of lithium @-@ ion batteries was reported in 2014 . In the same year , Lee at al. reported that defect @-@ free crystals of graphene large enough to have electronic uses could be grown on , and removed from , a germanium substrate .
Arsenic and antimony are not semiconductors in their standard states . Both form type III @-@ V semiconductors ( such as GaAs , AlSb or GaInAsSb ) in which the average number of valence electrons per atom is the same as that of Group 14 elements . These compounds are preferred for some special applications . Antimony nanocrystals may enable lithium @-@ ion batteries to be replaced by more powerful sodium ion batteries .
Tellurium , which is a semiconductor in its standard state , is used mainly as a component in type II / VI semiconducting @-@ chalcogenides ; these have applications in electro @-@ optics and electronics . Cadmium telluride ( CdTe ) is used in solar modules for its high conversion efficiency , low manufacturing costs , and large band gap of 1 @.@ 44 eV , letting it absorb a wide range of wavelengths . Bismuth telluride ( Bi2Te3 ) , alloyed with selenium and antimony , is a component of thermoelectric devices used for refrigeration or portable power generation .
Five metalloids — boron , silicon , germanium , arsenic and antimony — can be found in cell phones ( along with at least 39 other metals and nonmetals ) . Tellurium is expected to find such use . Of the less often recognised metalloids , phosphorus , gallium ( in particular ) and selenium have semiconductor applications . Phosphorus is used in trace amounts as a dopant for n @-@ type semiconductors . The commercial use of gallium compounds is dominated by semiconductor applications — in integrated circuits ; cell phones ; laser diodes ; light @-@ emitting diodes ; photodetectors ; and solar cells . Selenium is used in the production of solar cells and in high @-@ energy surge protectors .
Boron , silicon , germanium , antimony and tellurium , as well as heavier metals and metalloids such as Sm , Hg , Tl , Pb , Bi and Se , can be found in topological insulators . These are alloys or compounds which , at ultracold temperatures or room temperature ( depending on their composition ) , are metallic conductors on their surfaces but insulators through their interiors . Cadmium arsenide Cd3As2 , at about 1 K , is a Dirac @-@ semimetal — a bulk electronic analogue of graphene — in which electrons travel effectively as massless particles . These two classes of material are thought to have potential quantum computing applications .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
= = = Derivation and other names = = =
The word metalloid comes from the Latin metallum ( " metal " ) and the Greek oeides ( " resembling in form or appearance " ) . Several names are sometimes used synonymously although some of these have other meanings that are not necessarily interchangeable : amphoteric element , boundary element , half @-@ metal , half @-@ way element , near metal , meta @-@ metal , semiconductor , semimetal and submetal . " Amphoteric element " is sometimes used more broadly to include transition metals capable of forming oxyanions , such as chromium and manganese . " Half @-@ metal " is used in physics to refer to a compound ( such as chromium dioxide ) or alloy that can act as a conductor and an insulator . " Meta @-@ metal " is sometimes used instead to refer to certain metals ( Be , Zn , Cd , Hg , In , Tl , β @-@ Sn , Pb ) located just to the left of the metalloids on standard periodic tables . These metals are mostly diamagnetic and tend to have distorted crystalline structures , electrical conductivity values at the lower end of those of metals , and amphoteric ( weakly basic ) oxides . " Semimetal " sometimes refers , loosely or explicitly , to metals with incomplete metallic character in crystalline structure , electrical conductivity or electronic structure . Examples include gallium , ytterbium , bismuth and neptunium . The names amphoteric element and semiconductor are problematic as some elements referred to as metalloids do not show marked amphoteric behaviour ( bismuth , for example ) or semiconductivity ( polonium ) in their most stable forms .
= = = Origin and usage = = =
The origin and usage of the term metalloid is convoluted . Its origin lies in attempts , dating from antiquity , to describe metals and to distinguish between typical and less typical forms . It was first applied in the early 19th century to metals that floated on water ( sodium and potassium ) , and then more popularly to nonmetals . Earlier usage in mineralogy , to describe a mineral having a metallic appearance , can be sourced to as early as 1800 . Since the mid @-@ 20th century it has been used to refer to intermediate or borderline chemical elements . The International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry ( IUPAC ) previously recommended abandoning the term metalloid , and suggested using the term semimetal instead . Use of this latter term has more recently been discouraged by Atkins et al. as it has a different meaning in physics — one that more specifically refers to the electronic band structure of a substance rather than the overall classification of an element . The most recent IUPAC publications on nomenclature and terminology do not include any recommendations on the usage of the terms metalloid or semimetal .
= = Elements commonly recognised as metalloids = =
Properties noted in this section refer to the elements in their most thermodynamically stable forms under ambient conditions .
= = = Boron = = =
Pure boron is a shiny , silver @-@ grey crystalline solid . It is less dense than aluminium ( 2 @.@ 34 vs. 2 @.@ 70 g / cm3 ) , and is hard and brittle . It is barely reactive under normal conditions , except for attack by fluorine , and has a melting point of 2076 ° C ( cf. steel ~ 1370 ° C ) . Boron is a semiconductor ; its room temperature electrical conductivity is 1 @.@ 5 × 10 − 6 S • cm − 1 ( about 200 times less than that of tap water ) and it has a band gap of about 1 @.@ 56 eV .
The structural chemistry of boron is dominated by its small atomic size , and relatively high ionization energy . With only three valence electrons per boron atom , simple covalent bonding cannot fulfil the octet rule . Metallic bonding is the usual result among the heavier congenors of boron but this generally requires low ionization energies . Instead , because of its small size and high ionization energies , the basic structural unit of boron ( and nearly all of its allotropes ) is the icosahedral B12 cluster . Of the 36 electrons associated with 12 boron atoms , 26 reside in 13 delocalized molecular orbitals ; the other 10 electrons are used to form two- and three @-@ centre covalent bonds between icosahedra . The same motif can be seen , as are deltahedral variants or fragments , in metal borides and hydride derivatives , and in some halides .
The bonding in boron has been described as being characteristic of behaviour intermediate between metals and nonmetallic covalent network solids ( such as diamond ) . The energy required to transform B , C , N , Si and P from nonmetallic to metallic states has been estimated as 30 , 100 , 240 , 33 and 50 kJ / mol , respectively . This indicates the proximity of boron to the metal @-@ nonmetal borderline .
Most of the chemistry of boron is nonmetallic in nature . Unlike its heavier congeners , it is not known to form a simple B3 + or hydrated [ B ( H2O ) 4 ] 3 + cation . The small size of the boron atom enables the preparation of many interstitial alloy @-@ type borides . Analogies between boron and transition metals have been noted in the formation of complexes , and adducts ( for example , BH3 + CO → BH3CO and , similarly , Fe ( CO ) 4 + CO → Fe ( CO ) 5 ) , as well as in the geometric and electronic structures of cluster species such as [ B6H6 ] 2 − and [ Ru6 ( CO ) 18 ] 2 − . The aqueous chemistry of boron is characterised by the formation of many different polyborate anions . Given its high charge @-@ to @-@ size ratio , boron bonds covalently in nearly all of its compounds ; the exceptions are the borides as these include , depending on their composition , covalent , ionic and metallic bonding components . Simple binary compounds , such as boron trichloride are Lewis acids as the formation of three covalent bonds leaves a hole in the octet which can be filled by an electron @-@ pair donated by a Lewis base . Boron has a strong affinity for oxygen and a duly extensive borate chemistry . The oxide B2O3 is polymeric in structure , weakly acidic , and a glass former . Organometallic compounds of boron have been known since the 19th century ( see organoboron chemistry ) .
= = = Silicon = = =
Silicon is a crystalline solid with a blue @-@ grey metallic lustre . Like boron , it is less dense ( at 2 @.@ 33 g / cm3 ) than aluminium , and is hard and brittle . It is a relatively unreactive element . According to Rochow , the massive crystalline form ( especially if pure ) is " remarkably inert to all acids , including hydrofluoric " . Less pure silicon , and the powdered form , are variously susceptible to attack by strong or heated acids , as well as by steam and fluorine . Silicon dissolves in hot aqueous alkalis with the evolution of hydrogen , as do metals such as beryllium , aluminium , zinc , gallium or indium . It melts at 1414 ° C. Silicon is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of 10 − 4 S • cm − 1 and a band gap of about 1 @.@ 11 eV . When it melts , silicon becomes a reasonable metal with an electrical conductivity of 1 @.@ 0 – 1 @.@ 3 × 104 S • cm − 1 , similar to that of liquid mercury .
The chemistry of silicon is generally nonmetallic ( covalent ) in nature . It is not known to form a cation . Silicon can form alloys with metals such as iron and copper . It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . The high strength of the silicon @-@ oxygen bond dominates the chemical behaviour of silicon . Polymeric silicates , built up by tetrahedral SiO4 units sharing their oxygen atoms , are the most abundant and important compounds of silicon . The polymeric borates , comprising linked trigonal and tetrahedral BO3 or BO4 units , are built on similar structural principles . The oxide SiO2 is polymeric in structure , weakly acidic , and a glass former . Traditional organometallic chemistry includes the carbon compounds of silicon ( see organosilicon ) .
= = = Germanium = = =
Germanium is a shiny grey @-@ white solid . It has a density of 5 @.@ 323 g / cm3 and is hard and brittle . It is mostly unreactive at room temperature but is slowly attacked by hot concentrated sulfuric or nitric acid . Germanium also reacts with molten caustic soda to yield sodium germanate Na2GeO3 and hydrogen gas . It melts at 938 ° C. Germanium is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of around 2 × 10 − 2 S • cm − 1 and a band gap of 0 @.@ 67 eV . Liquid germanium is a metallic conductor , with an electrical conductivity similar to that of liquid mercury .
Most of the chemistry of germanium is characteristic of a nonmetal . Whether or not germanium forms a cation is unclear , aside from the reported existence of the Ge2 + ion in a few esoteric compounds . It can form alloys with metals such as aluminium and gold . It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Germanium generally forms tetravalent ( IV ) compounds , and it can also form less stable divalent ( II ) compounds , in which it behaves more like a metal . Germanium analogues of all of the major types of silicates have been prepared . The metallic character of germanium is also suggested by the formation of various oxoacid salts . A phosphate [ ( HPO4 ) 2Ge · H2O ] and highly stable trifluoroacetate Ge ( OCOCF3 ) 4 have been described , as have Ge2 ( SO4 ) 2 , Ge ( ClO4 ) 4 and GeH2 ( C2O4 ) 3 . The oxide GeO2 is polymeric , amphoteric , and a glass former . The dioxide is soluble in acidic solutions ( the monoxide GeO , is even more so ) , and this is sometimes used to classify germanium as a metal . Up to the 1930s germanium was considered to be a poorly conducting metal ; it has occasionally been classified as a metal by later writers . As with all the elements commonly recognised as metalloids , germanium has an established organometallic chemistry ( see organogermanium chemistry ) .
= = = Arsenic = = =
Arsenic is a grey , metallic looking solid . It has a density of 5 @.@ 727 g / cm3 and is brittle , and moderately hard ( more than aluminium ; less than iron ) . It is stable in dry air but develops a golden bronze patina in moist air , which blackens on further exposure . Arsenic is attacked by nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid . It reacts with fused caustic soda to give the arsenate Na3AsO3 and hydrogen gas . Arsenic sublimes at 615 ° C. The vapour is lemon @-@ yellow and smells like garlic . Arsenic only melts under a pressure of 38 @.@ 6 atm , at 817 ° C. It is a semimetal with an electrical conductivity of around 3 @.@ 9 × 104 S • cm − 1 and a band overlap of 0 @.@ 5 eV . Liquid arsenic is a semiconductor with a band gap of 0 @.@ 15 eV .
The chemistry of arsenic is predominately nonmetallic . Whether or not arsenic forms a cation is unclear . Its many metal alloys are mostly brittle . It shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Arsenic generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of + 3 or + 5 . The halides , and the oxides and their derivatives are illustrative examples . In the trivalent state , arsenic shows some incipient metallic properties . The halides are hydrolysed by water but these reactions , particularly those of the chloride , are reversible with the addition of a hydrohalic acid . The oxide is acidic but , as noted below , ( weakly ) amphoteric . The higher , less stable , pentavalent state has strongly acidic ( nonmetallic ) properties . Compared to phosphorus , the stronger metallic character of arsenic is indicated by the formation of oxoacid salts such as AsPO4 , As2 ( SO4 ) 3 and arsenic acetate As ( CH3COO ) 3 . The oxide As2O3 is polymeric , amphoteric , and a glass former . Arsenic has an extensive organometallic chemistry ( see organoarsenic chemistry ) .
= = = Antimony = = =
Antimony is a silver @-@ white solid with a blue tint and a brilliant lustre . It has a density of 6 @.@ 697 g / cm3 and is brittle , and moderately hard ( more so than arsenic ; less so than iron ; about the same as copper ) . It is stable in air and moisture at room temperature . It is attacked by concentrated nitric acid , yielding the hydrated pentoxide Sb2O5 . Aqua regia gives the pentachloride SbCl5 and hot concentrated sulfuric acid results in the sulfate Sb2 ( SO4 ) 3 . It is not affected by molten alkali . Antimony is capable of displacing hydrogen from water , when heated : 2 Sb + 3 H2O → Sb2O3 + 3 H2 . It melts at 631 ° C. Antimony is a semimetal with an electrical conductivity of around 3 @.@ 1 × 104 S • cm − 1 and a band overlap of 0 @.@ 16 eV . Liquid antimony is a metallic conductor with an electrical conductivity of around 5 @.@ 3 × 104 S • cm − 1 .
Most of the chemistry of antimony is characteristic of a nonmetal . Antimony has some definite cationic chemistry , SbO + and Sb ( OH ) 2 + being present in acidic aqueous solution ; the compound Sb8 ( GaCl4 ) 2 , which contains the homopolycation , Sb82 + , was prepared in 2004 . It can form alloys with one or more metals such as aluminium , iron , nickel , copper , zinc , tin , lead and bismuth . Antimony has fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Like arsenic , antimony generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of + 3 or + 5 . The halides , and the oxides and their derivatives are illustrative examples . The + 5 state is less stable than the + 3 , but relatively easier to attain than with arsenic . This is explained by the poor shielding afforded the arsenic nucleus by its 3d10 electrons . In comparison , the tendency of antimony ( being a heavier atom ) to oxidize more easily partially offsets the effect of its 4d10 shell . Tripositive antimony is amphoteric ; pentapositive antimony is ( predominately ) acidic . Consistent with an increase in metallic character down group 15 , antimony forms salts or salt @-@ like compounds including a nitrate Sb ( NO3 ) 3 , phosphate SbPO4 , sulfate Sb2 ( SO4 ) 3 and perchlorate Sb ( ClO4 ) 3 . The otherwise acidic pentoxide Sb2O5 shows some basic ( metallic ) behaviour in that it can be dissolved in very acidic solutions , with the formation of the oxycation SbO +
2 . The oxide Sb2O3 is polymeric , amphoteric , and a glass former . Antimony has an extensive organometallic chemistry ( see organoantimony chemistry ) .
= = = Tellurium = = =
Tellurium is a silvery @-@ white shiny solid . It has a density of 6 @.@ 24 g / cm3 , is brittle , and is the softest of the commonly recognised metalloids , being marginally harder than sulfur . Large pieces of tellurium are stable in air . The finely powdered form is oxidized by air in the presence of moisture . Tellurium reacts with boiling water , or when freshly precipitated even at 50 ° C , to give the dioxide and hydrogen : Te + 2 H2O → TeO2 + 2 H2 . It reacts ( to varying degrees ) with nitric , sulfuric and hydrochloric acids to give compounds such as the sulfoxide TeSO3 or tellurous acid H2TeO3 , the basic nitrate ( Te2O4H ) + ( NO3 ) − , or the oxide sulfate Te2O3 ( SO4 ) . It dissolves in boiling alkalis , to give the tellurite and telluride : 3 Te + 6 KOH = K2TeO3 + 2 K2Te + 3 H2O , a reaction that proceeds or is reversible with increasing or decreasing temperature .
At higher temperatures tellurium is sufficiently plastic to extrude . It melts at 449 @.@ 51 ° C. Crystalline tellurium has a structure consisting of parallel infinite spiral chains . The bonding between adjacent atoms in a chain is covalent , but there is evidence of a weak metallic interaction between the neighbouring atoms of different chains . Tellurium is a semiconductor with an electrical conductivity of around 1 @.@ 0 S • cm − 1 and a band gap of 0 @.@ 32 to 0 @.@ 38 eV . Liquid tellurium is a semiconductor , with an electrical conductivity , on melting , of around 1 @.@ 9 × 103 S • cm − 1 Superheated liquid tellurium is a metallic conductor .
Most of the chemistry of tellurium is characteristic of a nonmetal . It shows some cationic behaviour . The dioxide dissolves in acid to yield the trihydroxotellurium ( IV ) Te ( OH ) 3 + ion ; the red Te42 + and yellow @-@ orange Te62 + ions form when tellurium is oxidized in fluorosulfuric acid ( HSO3F ) , or liquid sulfur dioxide ( SO2 ) , respectively . It can form alloys with aluminium , silver and tin . Tellurium shows fewer tendencies to anionic behaviour than ordinary nonmetals . Its solution chemistry is characterised by the formation of oxyanions . Tellurium generally forms compounds in which it has an oxidation state of − 2 , + 4 or + 6 . The + 4 state is the most stable . Tellurides of composition XxTey are easily formed with most other elements and represent the most common tellurium minerals . Nonstoichiometry is pervasive , especially with transition metals . Many tellurides can be regarded as metallic alloys . The increase in metallic character evident in tellurium , as compared to the lighter chalcogens , is further reflected in the reported formation of various other oxyacid salts , such as a basic selenate 2TeO2 · SeO3 and an analogous perchlorate and periodate 2TeO2 · HXO4 . Tellurium forms a polymeric , amphoteric , glass @-@ forming oxide TeO2 . It is a " conditional " glass @-@ forming oxide — it forms a glass with a very small amount of additive . Tellurium has an extensive organometallic chemistry ( see organotellurium chemistry ) .
= = Elements less commonly recognised as metalloids = =
= = = Carbon = = =
Carbon is ordinarily classified as a nonmetal but has some metallic properties and is occasionally classified as a metalloid . Hexagonal graphitic carbon ( graphite ) is the most thermodynamically stable allotrope of carbon under ambient conditions . It has a lustrous appearance and is a fairly good electrical conductor . Graphite has a layered structure . Each layer comprises carbon atoms bonded to three other carbon atoms in a honeycomb lattice arrangement . The layers are stacked together and held loosely by van der Waals forces and delocalized valence electrons .
Like a metal , the conductivity of graphite in the direction of its planes decreases as the temperature is raised ; it has the electronic band structure of a semimetal . The allotropes of carbon , including graphite , can accept foreign atoms or compounds into their structures via substitution , intercalation or doping . The resulting materials are referred to as " carbon alloys " . Carbon can form ionic salts , including a hydrogen sulfate , perchlorate , and nitrate ( C +
24X − .2HX , where X = HSO4 , ClO4 ; and C +
24NO –
3.3HNO3 ) . In organic chemistry , carbon can form complex cations — termed carbocations — in which the positive charge is on the carbon atom ; examples are CH +
3 and CH +
5 , and their derivatives .
Carbon is brittle , and behaves as a semiconductor in a direction perpendicular to its planes . Most of its chemistry is nonmetallic ; it has a relatively high ionization energy and , compared to most metals , a relatively high electronegativity . Carbon can form anions such as C4 − ( methanide ) , C2 –
2 ( acetylide ) and C3 –
4 ( sesquicarbide or allylenide ) , in compounds with metals of main groups 1 – 3 , and with the lanthanides and actinides . Its oxide CO2 forms carbonic acid H2CO3 .
= = = Aluminium = = =
Aluminium is ordinarily classified as a metal . It is lustrous , malleable and ductile , and has high electrical and thermal conductivity . Like most metals it has a close @-@ packed crystalline structure , and forms a cation in aqueous solution .
It has some properties that are unusual for a metal ; taken together , these are sometimes used as a basis to classify aluminium as a metalloid . Its crystalline structure shows some evidence of directional bonding . Aluminium bonds covalently in most compounds . The oxide Al2O3 is amphoteric , and a conditional glass @-@ former . Aluminium can form anionic aluminates , such behaviour being considered nonmetallic in character .
Classifying aluminium as a metalloid has been disputed given its many metallic properties . It is therefore , arguably , an exception to the mnemonic that elements adjacent to the metal – nonmetal dividing line are metalloids .
Stott labels aluminium as a weak metal . It has the physical properties of a metal but some of the chemical properties of a nonmetal . Steele notes the paradoxical chemical behaviour of aluminium : " It resembles a weak metal in its amphoteric oxide and in the covalent character of many of its compounds ... Yet it is a highly electropositive metal ... [ with ] a high negative electrode potential " . Moody says that , " aluminium is on the ' diagonal borderland ' between metals and non @-@ metals in the chemical sense . "
= = = Selenium = = =
Selenium shows borderline metalloid or nonmetal behaviour .
Its most stable form , the grey trigonal allotrope , is sometimes called " metallic " selenium because its electrical conductivity is several orders of magnitude greater than that of the red monoclinic form . The metallic character of selenium is further shown by its lustre , and its crystalline structure , which is thought to include weakly " metallic " interchain bonding . Selenium can be drawn into thin threads when molten and viscous . It shows reluctance to acquire " the high positive oxidation numbers characteristic of nonmetals " . It can form cyclic polycations ( such as Se2 +
8 ) when dissolved in oleums ( an attribute it shares with sulfur and tellurium ) , and a hydrolysed cationic salt in the form of trihydroxoselenium ( IV ) perchlorate [ Se ( OH ) 3 ] + · ClO –
4 .
The nonmetallic character of selenium is shown by its brittleness and the low electrical conductivity ( ~ 10 − 9 to 10 − 12 S • cm − 1 ) of its highly purified form . This is comparable to or less than that of bromine ( 7 @.@ 95 × 10 – 12 S • cm − 1 ) , a nonmetal . Selenium has the electronic band structure of a semiconductor and retains its semiconducting properties in liquid form . It has a relatively high electronegativity ( 2 @.@ 55 revised Pauling scale ) . Its reaction chemistry is mainly that of its nonmetallic anionic forms Se2 − , SeO2 −
3 and SeO2 −
4 .
Selenium is commonly described as a metalloid in the environmental chemistry literature . It moves through the aquatic environment similarly to arsenic and antimony ; its water @-@ soluble salts , in higher concentrations , have a similar toxicological profile to that of arsenic .
= = = Polonium = = =
Polonium is " distinctly metallic " in some ways . Both of its allotropic forms are metallic conductors . It is soluble in acids , forming the rose @-@ coloured Po2 + cation and displacing hydrogen : Po + 2 H + → Po2 + + H2 . Many polonium salts are known . The oxide PoO2 is predominantly basic in nature . Polonium is a reluctant oxidizing agent , unlike its lighter congener oxygen : highly reducing conditions are required for the formation of the Po2 − anion in aqueous solution .
Whether polonium is ductile or brittle is unclear . It is predicted to be ductile based on its calculated elastic constants . It has a simple cubic crystalline structure . Such a structure has few slip systems and " leads to very low ductility and hence low fracture resistance " .
Polonium shows nonmetallic character in its halides , and by the existence of polonides . The halides have properties generally characteristic of nonmetal halides ( being volatile , easily hydrolyzed , and soluble in organic solvents ) . Many metal polonides , obtained by heating the elements together at 500 – 1 @,@ 000 ° C , and containing the Po2 − anion , are also known .
= = = Astatine = = =
As a halogen , astatine tends to be classified as a nonmetal . It has some marked metallic properties and is sometimes instead classified as either a metalloid or ( less often ) as a metal . Immediately following its production in 1940 , early investigators considered it a metal . In 1949 it was called the most noble ( difficult to reduce ) nonmetal as well as being a relatively noble ( difficult to oxidize ) metal . In 1950 astatine was described as a halogen and ( therefore ) a reactive nonmetal . In 2013 , on the basis of relativistic modelling , astatine was predicted to be a monatomic metal , with a face @-@ centred cubic crystalline structure .
Several authors have commented on the metallic nature of some of the properties of astatine . Since iodine is a semiconductor in the direction of its planes , and since the halogens become more metallic with increasing atomic number , it has been presumed that astatine would be a metal if it could form a condensed phase . Astatine may be metallic in the liquid state on the basis that elements with an enthalpy of vaporization ( ∆ Hvap ) greater than ~ 42 kJ / mol are metallic when liquid . Such elements include boron , silicon , germanium , antimony , selenium and tellurium . Estimated values for ∆ Hvap of diatomic astatine are 50 kJ / mol or higher ; diatomic iodine , with a ∆ Hvap of 41 @.@ 71 , falls just short of the threshold figure .
" Like typical metals , it [ astatine ] is precipitated by hydrogen sulfide even from strongly acid solutions and is displaced in a free form from sulfate solutions ; it is deposited on the cathode on electrolysis . " Further indications of a tendency for astatine to behave like a ( heavy ) metal are : " ... the formation of pseudohalide compounds ... complexes of astatine cations ... complex anions of trivalent astatine ... as well as complexes with a variety of organic solvents " . It has also been argued that astatine demonstrates cationic behaviour , by way of stable At + and AtO + forms , in strongly acidic aqueous solutions .
Some of astatine 's reported properties are nonmetallic . It has the narrow liquid range ordinarily associated with nonmetals ( mp 302 ° C ; bp 337 ° C ) . Batsanov gives a calculated band gap energy for astatine of 0 @.@ 7 eV ; this is consistent with nonmetals ( in physics ) having separated valence and conduction bands and thereby being either semiconductors or insulators . The chemistry of astatine in aqueous solution is mainly characterised by the formation of various anionic species . Most of its known compounds resemble those of iodine , which is a halogen and a nonmetal . Such compounds include astatides ( XAt ) , astatates ( XAtO3 ) , and monovalent interhalogen compounds .
Restrepo et al. reported that astatine appeared to be more polonium @-@ like than halogen @-@ like . They did so on the basis of detailed comparative studies of the known and interpolated properties of 72 elements .
= = Related concepts = =
= = = Near metalloids = = =
In the periodic table , some of the elements adjacent to the commonly recognised metalloids , although usually classified as either metals or nonmetals , are occasionally referred to as near @-@ metalloids or noted for their metalloidal character . To the left of the metal – nonmetal dividing line , such elements include gallium , tin and bismuth . They show unusual packing structures , marked covalent chemistry ( molecular or polymeric ) , and amphoterism . To the right of the dividing line are carbon , phosphorus , selenium and iodine . They exhibit metallic lustre , semiconducting properties and bonding or valence bands with delocalized character . This applies to their most thermodynamically stable forms under ambient conditions : carbon as graphite ; phosphorus as black phosphorus ; and selenium as grey selenium .
= = = Allotropes = = =
Different crystalline forms of an element are called allotropes . Some allotropes , particularly those of elements located ( in periodic table terms ) alongside or near the notional dividing line between metals and nonmetals , exhibit more pronounced metallic , metalloidal or nonmetallic behaviour than others . The existence of such allotropes can complicate the classification of the elements involved .
Tin , for example , has two allotropes : tetragonal " white " β @-@ tin and cubic " grey " α @-@ tin . White tin is a very shiny , ductile and malleable metal . It is the stable form at or above room temperature and has an electrical conductivity of 9 @.@ 17 × 104 S · cm − 1 ( ~ 1 / 6th that of copper ) . Grey tin usually has the appearance of a grey micro @-@ crystalline powder , and can also be prepared in brittle semi @-@ lustrous crystalline or polycrystalline forms . It is the stable form below 13 @.@ 2 ° C and has an electrical conductivity of between ( 2 – 5 ) × 102 S · cm − 1 ( ~ 1 / 250th that of white tin ) . Grey tin has the same crystalline structure as that of diamond . It behaves as a semiconductor ( with a band gap of 0 @.@ 08 eV ) , but has the electronic band structure of a semimetal . It has been referred to as either a very poor metal , a metalloid , a nonmetal or a near metalloid .
The diamond allotrope of carbon is clearly nonmetallic , being translucent and having a low electrical conductivity of 10 − 14 to 10 − 16 S · cm − 1 . Graphite has an electrical conductivity of 3 × 104 S · cm − 1 , a figure more characteristic of a metal . Phosphorus , sulfur , arsenic , selenium , antimony and bismuth also have less stable allotropes that display different behaviours .
= = Abundance , extraction and cost = =
= = = Abundance = = =
The table gives crustal abundances of the elements commonly to rarely recognised as metalloids . Some other elements are included for comparison : oxygen and xenon ( the most and least abundant elements with stable isotopes ) ; iron and the coinage metals copper , silver and gold ; and rhenium , the least abundant stable metal ( aluminium is normally the most abundant metal ) . Various abundance estimates have been published ; these often disagree to some extent .
= = = Extraction = = =
The recognised metalloids can be obtained by chemical reduction of either their oxides or their sulfides . Simpler or more complex extraction methods may be employed depending on the starting form and economic factors . Boron is routinely obtained by reducing the trioxide with magnesium : B2O3 + 3 Mg → 2 B + 3MgO ; after secondary processing the resulting brown powder has a purity of up to 97 % . Boron of higher purity ( > 99 % ) is prepared by heating volatile boron compounds , such as BCl3 or BBr3 , either in a hydrogen atmosphere ( 2 BX3 + 3 H2 → 2 B + 6 HX ) or to the point of thermal decomposition . Silicon and germanium are obtained from their oxides by heating the oxide with carbon or hydrogen : SiO2 + C → Si + CO2 ; GeO2 + 2 H2 → Ge + 2 H2O . Arsenic is isolated from its pyrite ( FeAsS ) or arsenical pyrite ( FeAs2 ) by heating ; alternatively , it can be obtained from its oxide by reduction with carbon : 2 As2O3 + 3 C → 2 As + 3 CO2 . Antimony is derived from its sulfide by reduction with iron : Sb2S3 → 2 Sb + 3 FeS . Tellurium is prepared from its oxide by dissolving it in aqueous NaOH , yielding tellurite , then by electrolytic reduction : TeO2 + 2 NaOH → Na2TeO3 + H2O ; Na2TeO3 + H2O → Te + 2 NaOH + O2 . Another option is reduction of the oxide by roasting with carbon : TeO2 + C → Te + CO2 .
Production methods for the elements less frequently recognised as metalloids involve natural processing , electrolytic or chemical reduction , or irradiation . Carbon ( as graphite ) occurs naturally and is extracted by crushing the parent rock and floating the lighter graphite to the surface . Aluminium is extracted by dissolving its oxide Al2O3 in molten cryolite Na3AlF6 and then by high temperature electrolytic reduction . Selenium is produced by roasting its coinage metal selenides X2Se ( X = Cu , Ag , Au ) with soda ash to give the selenite : X2Se + O2 + Na2CO3 → Na2SeO3 + 2 X + CO2 ; the selenide is neutralized by sulfuric acid H2SO4 to give selenous acid H2SeO3 ; this is reduced by bubbling with SO2 to yield elemental selenium . Polonium and astatine are produced in minute quantities by irradiating bismuth .
= = = Cost = = =
The recognised metalloids and their closer neighbours mostly cost less than silver ; only polonium and astatine are more expensive than gold . As of 5 April 2014 , prices for small samples ( up to 100 g ) of silicon , antimony and tellurium , and graphite , aluminium and selenium , average around one third the cost of silver ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 per gram or about $ 45 an ounce ) . Boron , germanium and arsenic samples average about three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half times the cost of silver . Polonium is available for about $ 100 per microgram , which is $ 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 a gram . Zalutsky and Pruszynski estimate a similar cost for producing astatine . Prices for the applicable elements traded as commodities tend to range from two to three times cheaper than the sample price ( Ge ) , to nearly three thousand times cheaper ( As ) .
= Paranoid Android =
" Paranoid Android " is a song by the English alternative rock band Radiohead from on their third album OK Computer ( 1997 ) . The darkly humourous lyrics were written primarily by singer Thom Yorke following an unpleasant experience in a Los Angeles bar . The song is more than six minutes long and contains four distinct sections . " Paranoid Android " takes its name from Marvin the Paranoid Android of Douglas Adams ' The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series .
Released as the lead single from OK Computer , " Paranoid Android " charted at number three on the UK Singles Chart . It was well received by music critics . It track has appeared regularly on lists of the best songs of all time , including Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time . Its animated music video , directed by Magnus Carlsson , was placed on heavy rotation on MTV , although the network censored portions containing nudity in the US . At the 1998 Brit Awards , the song was nominated for Best British Single . Since its release , the track has been covered by numerous artists working in a variety of musical genres . The song was included in the 2008 Radiohead : The Best Of collection .
= = Background and recording = =
Radiohead fused together parts from three different songs , each written by a different member of the band . The idea to combine the pieces into a single track was inspired in part by the structure of The Beatles ' " Happiness Is a Warm Gun " .
" Basically an excuse to weld loads of half @-@ finished songs together , Abbey Road @-@ style . It 's Radiohead , pissed and having a party . I wasn 't there when it was all stuck together – I 'd been sent to sleep it off . What 's it all about ? The fall of the Roman Empire . " – Thom Yorke
Colin Greenwood admitted that the band , in attempting it to make the disparate elements work together , " felt like irresponsible schoolboys who were doing this ... naughty thing , ' cause nobody does a six @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute song with all these changes . It 's ridiculous " . The song was at first intended to be humorous , and took its title from Marvin the Paranoid Android in Douglas Adams ' The Hitchhiker 's Guide to the Galaxy series of books . Yorke said the title " was chosen as a joke . It was like , ' Oh , I 'm so depressed . ' And I just thought , that 's great . That 's how people would like me to be . And that was the end of writing about anything personal in the song . The rest of the song is not personal at all . " In an early interview , Colin Greenwood described it " just a joke , a laugh , getting wasted together over a couple of evenings and putting some different pieces together " . The band used Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " and the work of the Pixies as reference points while writing ; yet Ed O 'Brien denies they wrote " a ' Bohemian Rhapsody ' for the nineties " , and Jonny Greenwood considers it too tense and simple to rival Queen 's song .
" Paranoid Android " was recorded in actress Jane Seymour 's 15th century mansion near the village of St Catherine , near Bath , Somerset . The first edit was over 14 minutes long and included a long organ interlude performed by Jonny Greenwood . Radiohead played this extended version during a tour with Alanis Morissette in September 1996 . " When we started playing it live , it was completely hilarious , " recalled O 'Brien . " There was a rave down section and a Hammond organ outro , and we 'd be pissing ourselves while we played . We 'd bring out the glockenspiel and it would be really , really funny . " Before the song 's first live performance , Yorke told audiences that " [ i ] f you can have sex to this one , you 're fucking weird . " He also sarcastically referred to the version of the song played during the tour as " a Pink Floyd cover " .
Inspired by the editing of The Beatles ' Magical Mystery Tour ( described by Colin Greenwood as " brutal " ) , Radiohead shortened the song to a final six and a half minutes , a process that led to Jonny Greenwood 's organ section being replaced by a substantially shorter guitar fade out . However , it took the band a year and a half to learn how to play the final version in live performance .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" Paranoid Android " is a song described as alternative rock , art rock and progressive rock . It has four distinct sections , each played in standard tuning , and a 4 / 4 time signature , although several three @-@ bar segments in the second section are played in 7 / 8 timing . The opening segment is played in the key of C minor with a tempo of 84 beats per minute ( BPM ) , and begins with a mid @-@ tempo acoustic guitar backed by shaken percussion before layered with electric guitar and Yorke 's vocals . The melody of the opening vocal lines span an octave and a third . The second section is written in the key of A minor and begins about two minutes into the song . Although the second section retains the tempo of the first , it differs rhythmically . Ending the second section is a distorted guitar solo played by Jonny Greenwood , which lasts from 2 : 43 to 3 : 33 . The third section was written by Jonny Greenwood , and reduces the tempo to 63 BPM . The harmonies form a looped chord progression resembling a Baroque passacaglia , with the tonality split between C minor and D minor . This section uses multi @-@ tracked , choral vocal arrangement and according
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Android " charted at number three on the UK Singles Chart , giving Radiohead their highest singles chart position . As the song 's popularity grew , Radio 1 played it up to 12 times a day . Yorke described the song 's appearance on Radio 1 as one of his proudest moments of the OK Computer era . The track also spent two weeks on Australia 's ARIA Singles Chart , where it charted at number 29 .
" Paranoid Android " was favourably reviewed by critics . NME chose it as its " Single of the Week " , and journalist Simon Williams described how the song " [ s ] prawls out like a plump man on a small sofa , featuring all manner of crypto @-@ flamenco shufflings , medieval wailings , furiously wrenched guitars and ravishingly over @-@ ambitious ideas . Possesses one of the most unorthodox ' axe ' solos known to mankind . " The style of the song was compared to that of Queen by Rolling Stone 's Mark Kemp , while other critics , including David Browne of Entertainment Weekly , Jon Lusk of the BBC and Simon Williams of NME wrote about its similarity to Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " . Williams described the song as being " not unlike ' Bohemian Rhapsody ' being played backwards by a bunch of Vietnam vets high on Kings Cross @-@ quality crack " . Kemp praised the song 's mix of acoustic and electronic instrumentation , which he believed were melded to produce " complex tempo changes , touches of dissonance , ancient choral music and a King Crimson @-@ like melodic structure " . Meanwhile Browne wrote of " celestial call @-@ and @-@ response vocal passages , dynamically varied sections , and Thom Yorke 's high @-@ voiced bleat " . The A.V. Club called the song unforgettable and an " amazing epic single " .
Several reviewers noted the record 's ambition . Slant Magazine described the song 's lyrics as a " multipart anti @-@ yuppie anthem whose ambition is anything but ugly " , and Andy Gill wrote in The Independent that " Paranoid Android " could be the most ambitious single since Richard Harris ' " MacArthur Park " . Craig McLean of The Sydney Morning Herald described " Paranoid Android " as " a titanic guitar opera in three movements and 6 [ and a half ] minutes " . PopMatters ' Evan Sawdey called the song OK Computer 's " sweeping , multi @-@ tiered centerpiece " , Peter and Jonathan Buckley wrote in The Rough Guide to Rock that it was the album 's " breathtaking high point " . Allmusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine called " Paranoid Android " " complex , multi @-@ segmented ... tight , melodic , and muscular " , and said it displayed Radiohead at their most adventurous . Browne admitted that , partially because of " Paranoid Android " , OK Computer was significantly more expansive than The Bends . Rolling Stone placed the song at number 256 on its 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list , and Pitchfork Media included the song at number 4 on their Top 200 Tracks of the 90s .
= = Music video = =
Remarking on the band 's goals for the " Paranoid Android " music video , Yorke said that , " When it came time to make the video for that song , we had lots of people saying , ' Yeah , great , we can have another video like " Street Spirit " , all moody and black and dark . Well , no . We had really good fun doing this song , so the video should make you laugh . I mean , it should be sick , too . " Magnus Carlsson , Swedish creator of the animated series Robin , was commissioned by the band to make the video . Radiohead were fans of the show , and connected with the Robin character ; Jonny Greenwood described him as " affectionate " and " vulnerable " , while Yorke admitted that he found Robin " quite the vulnerable character , but he 's also violently cynical and quite tough and would always get up again . " At first Carlsson sought to work on a video for " No Surprises " and was uncertain as to how to approach " Paranoid Android " . Eventually he devised a scenario to the band 's liking after he locked himself in his office for over 12 hours to stare out of the window , while listening to the song on repeat while jotting down visual ideas . As Carlsson did not have access to the lyrics at the time , the concept for the video was based entirely on the song 's sound . According to Yorke , the band " deliberately didn 't send Magnus the lyrics " because they " didn 't want [ the video ] to be too literal . "
Like Robin , the " Paranoid Android " video is drawn in a simplistic style that emphasises bold colours and clear , strong lines . It features Robin and his friend Benjamin venturing into the world , running into miserable EU representatives , bullying pub patrons , a prostitute , two kissing leathermen , a drug addict , deranged businessmen , mermaids and an angel who plays table tennis with Robin . The band appears in cameo at a bar , where they are shown drinking while watching a man with a head coming out of his belly dancing on their table . However , in this cameo only the versions of Yorke and Jonny Greenwood resemble themselves ; O 'Brien said " If you freeze @-@ frame it on the video , the guy with the five strands of hair slicked back , that 's Colin . It looks nothing like him . " Colin Greenwood said " there was no way that we could appear in it to perform in it because that would be so Spinal Tap " and that having animations that did not resemble the band members allowed the video to be " twisted and colorful which is how the song is anyway " . Yorke was ultimately pleased with the video , saying that it " is really about the violence around [ Robin ] , which is exactly like the song . Not the same specific violence as in the lyrics , but everything going on around him is deeply troubling and violent , but he 's just drinking himself into oblivion . He 's there , but he 's not there . That 's why it works . And that 's why it does my head in every time I see it . "
While the single did not receive significant radio play in the US , MTV placed its video on high rotation . The version most often shown was edited to remove the mermaids ' bare breasts . Greenwood said , " we would 've understood if they had a problem with some guy chopping his arms and legs off , but I mean , a woman 's breasts ! And mermaids as well ! It 's fucked up . " MTV Europe played the video uncut for two weeks because the channel 's official censor was ill and unable to work ; after that time the channel ran the cut version of the video . A later US version of the video saw the mermaids wear bathing suits , while the uncut version was later compiled along with other Radiohead videos on the DVD and home video release 7 Television Commercials and The Best Of DVD .
Evan Sawdey of PopMatters described the video as " bizarre @-@ yet @-@ fitting " , and Melody Maker said it represented a stunning " psycho @-@ cartoon " . Adrian Glover of Circus called the animation incredible and the video " really cool " . MTV vice president of music Lewis Largent told Spin " You can watch ' Paranoid Android ' a hundred times and not figure it all out . "
= = Packaging = =
Stanley Donwood worked with Yorke to design the artwork for most of the " Paranoid Android " releases , although both the images and design were ultimately credited to " dumb computers " . The cover illustration accompanying the single depicts a hand @-@ drawn dome contains the phrase " God loves his children , yeah ! " , the last line of the song , written above on the uppermost plane . Images from the OK Computer artwork reappear , including a pig and two human figures shaking hands . Writer Tim Footman suggested that these images are borrowed from Pink Floyd , respectively corresponding to the Pink Floyd pigs and Wish You Were Here cover . The cover of the CD2 single is tinted differently from the CD1 single . The UK vinyl release did not include the dome artwork found on the CD singles , but feature images taken from the OK Computer release across the top banner area .
The two versions of the single have different messages on the reverse . Both the CD1 and Japanese releases state :
To kill a demon made of wet sawdust . This sort of demon is almost impossible to kill the only way to do it is to cover its face with wet bread and karate chop its head off otherwise you are in trouble and so is the neighbourhood . Wet sawdust demons like to terrorise . N.B. pressing its face into wet bread that is on the ground works best though you can get a result just by throwing the bread at its face .
Written on the back of the CD2 single is :
A cathedral of white in a suburban shanty town two up two down houses with just the asbestos and the skeletons left .
Each release of " Paranoid Android " included one or more B @-@ sides . " Polyethylene ( Parts 1 & 2 ) " , included on the CD1 , 7 @-@ inch vinyl , and Japanese releases of the single , were a multi @-@ section piece formatted much like " Paranoid Android " itself . The first part of the song consists of Yorke 's vocals over acoustic guitar ; the second part contains distorted guitar and organ and uses complex time signature changes . " Pearly * " , featured on the CD1 and Japanese releases of the single , was described by Yorke as a " dirty song for people who use sex for dirty things " . " A Reminder " , which appears on the CD2 release , features fuzzed guitar , thumping drums , and electric piano . According to Yorke , this song was inspired by " this idea of someone writing a song , sending it to someone , and saying : ' If I ever lose it , you just pick up the phone and play this song back to remind me . ' " " Melatonin " , also on the CD2 release , is a synthesiser @-@ based song with lyrics similar to that of a lullaby , but with an undercurrent of menace in lines like " Death to all who stand in your way " . The OK Computer track " Let Down " is also included on the Japanese single .
= = Cover versions = =
YouTube cover artist Mike Massé recorded a live acoustic version of " Paranoid Android " with Jeff Hall on 9 / 8 / 08 at the Pie Pizzeria in Salt Lake City , Utah .
Jazz pianist Brad Mehldau recorded a nine @-@ minute cover of " Paranoid Android " on his album Largo ( 2002 ) , featuring percussionists Jim Keltner and Matt Chamberlain , as well as a horn section . Additionally , Mehldau performed a 19 @-@ minute version of the song on Live in Tokyo ( 2004 ) .
The University of Massachusetts Amherst Minuteman Marching Band covered the song live in a version featuring xylophones , chimes , snare drums , cymbals , bass drum and timpani .
Numerous Radiohead tribute albums include a version of " Paranoid Android " , including Rockabye Baby ! Lullaby Renditions of Radiohead and Plastic Mutations : The Electronic Tribute to Radiohead .
The reggae group Easy Star All @-@ Stars covered OK Computer in its entirety for Radiodread ( 2006 ) . Producer Michael G noted that " Paranoid Android " was particularly difficult to arrange for reggae , saying " There are songs like ' Paranoid Android ' , which flips between 4 / 4 time and 7 / 8 time about 13 times , and I also had to think about other ways to reinterpret those parts with horns , melodica , organ ... it was a great challenge . "
Sia Furler covered the song for the neo soul tribute Exit Music : Songs with Radio Heads ( 2006 ) , and this version later appeared on The O.C. episode " The Chrismukk @-@ huh ? " .
" Paranoid Android " has also been covered by classical musicians . Christopher O 'Riley arranged " Paranoid Android " for a single piano and performed the song on Hold Me to This ( 2005 ) .
Los Angeles string quartet The Section recorded the song for Strung Out on OK Computer : The String Quartet Tribute to Radiohead ( 2001 ) ; half of this quartet went on to form the Section Quartet , who performed " Paranoid Android " and the rest of OK Computer during two concerts in October 2006 .
Weezer covered " Paranoid Android " in both a live studio version released as a YouTube video and in concerts during their 2011 summer tour . Pitchfork 's Tom Breihan called the Weezer cover " a fucking weird experience " , and Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone criticised the song as " mainly boring " for not venturing far enough from Weezer 's traditional sound .
= = Track listings = =
All songs written by Thom Yorke , Jonny Greenwood , Ed O 'Brien , Colin Greenwood , and Phil Selway .
= = Personnel = =
Thom Yorke - vocals , acoustic guitar , laptop
Jonny Greenwood - electric guitar , electric piano , synthesizers , mellotron
Ed O 'Brien - electric guitar , effects , cabasa , backing vocals
Colin Greenwood - bass guitar , claves
Phil Selway - drums and percussion
= = Charts = =
= Zoo TV Tour =
The Zoo TV Tour ( also written as ZooTV , ZOO TV or ZOOTV ) was a worldwide concert tour by rock band U2 . Staged in support of their 1991 album Achtung Baby , the tour visited arenas and stadiums from 1992 to 1993 . To mirror the new musical direction that the group took with Achtung Baby , the tour was intended to deviate from their past and confound expectations of the band . In contrast to U2 's austere stage setups from previous tours , the Zoo TV Tour was an elaborately staged multimedia event . It satirised television and media oversaturation by attempting to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . To escape their reputation for being overly serious , U2 embraced a more lighthearted and self @-@ deprecating image on tour . Zoo TV and Achtung Baby were central to the group 's 1990s reinvention .
The tour 's concept was inspired by disparate television programming , the desensitising effect of mass media , and " morning zoo " radio shows . The stage featured dozens of large video screens that showed visual effects , video clips , and flashing text phrases . Live satellite link @-@ ups , channel surfing , prank calls , and video confessionals were incorporated into the shows . Whereas U2 were known for their earnest live act in the 1980s , the group 's Zoo TV performances were intentionally ironic and theatrical ; on stage , Bono portrayed several characters he conceived , including " The Fly " , " Mirror Ball Man " , and " MacPhisto " . In contrast to other U2 tours , each of the Zoo TV shows opened with six to eight consecutive new songs before older material was played .
Comprising five legs and 157 shows , the tour began in Lakeland , Florida , on 29 February 1992 and finished in Tokyo , Japan , on 10 December 1993 . The first four legs alternated between North America and Europe , before the final leg visited Australasia and Japan . After two arena legs , the show 's production was expanded for stadiums for the final three legs , which were branded " Outside Broadcast " , " Zooropa " , and " Zoomerang / New Zooland " , respectively . Although the tour provoked a range of reactions from music critics , it was generally well received . Along with being the highest @-@ grossing North American tour of 1992 , Zoo TV sold around 5 @.@ 3 million tickets over its five legs . The band 's 1993 album Zooropa , which expanded on Zoo TV 's mass media themes , was recorded during a break in the tour , and its songs were played in 1993 . The tour was depicted in the Grammy Award – winning 1994 concert film Zoo TV : Live from Sydney . Critics regard the Zoo TV Tour as one of rock 's most memorable tours — in 2002 , Q 's Tom Doyle called it " the most spectacular rock tour staged by any band " .
= = Background = =
U2 's 1987 album The Joshua Tree and the supporting Joshua Tree Tour brought them to a new level of commercial and critical success , particularly in the United States . Like their previous tours , the Joshua Tree Tour was a minimalistic , austere production , and they used this outlet for addressing political and social concerns . As a result , the band earned a reputation for being earnest and serious , an image that became a target for derision after their much @-@ maligned 1988 motion picture and companion album Rattle and Hum , which documented their exploration of American roots music . The project was criticised as being " pretentious " , and " misguided and bombastic " , and U2 were accused of being grandiose and self @-@ righteous . Their 1989 Lovetown Tour did not visit the United States , and at the end of the tour , lead vocalist Bono announced on @-@ stage that it was " the end of something for U2 " and that " we have to go away and ... just dream it all up again " , foreshadowing changes for the group .
= = Conception = =
U2 's first ideas for Zoo TV emerged during the Lovetown Tour in 1989 , when various aspects of radio programming intrigued the group , particularly the large radio audience their Dublin concerts reached . The wild antics of " morning zoo " radio programmes inspired the band to consider taking a pirate radio station on tour . They were also interested in using video as a way of making themselves less accessible to their audiences . The band developed these ideas in late 1990 while recording Achtung Baby in Berlin at Hansa Studios . While in Berlin , they watched television coverage of the Gulf War on Sky News , which was the only English programming available . When they became tired of hearing about the conflict , they tuned into local programming to see " bad German soap operas " and automobile advertisements . The band believed that cable television had blurred the lines between news , entertainment , and home shopping over the previous decade , and they wanted to represent this on their next tour .
The juxtaposition of such disparate programming inspired U2 and Achtung Baby co @-@ producer Brian Eno to conceive an " audio @-@ visual show " that would display a rapidly changing mix of live and pre @-@ recorded video on monitors . The idea was intended to mock the desensitising effect of mass media . Eno , who was credited in the tour programme for the " Video Staging Concept " , explained his vision for the tour : " the idea to make a stage set with a lot of different video sources was mine , to make a chaos of uncoordinated material happening together ... The idea of getting away from video being a way of helping people to see the band more easily ... this is video as a way of obscuring them , losing them sometimes in just a network of material . "
While on a break from recording , the band invited production designer Willie Williams to join them in Tenerife in February 1991 . Williams had recently worked on David Bowie 's Sound + Vision Tour , which used film projection and video content , and he was keen to " take rock show video to a level as yet undreamed of " . The band played Williams some of their new music — inspired by alternative rock , industrial music , and electronic dance music — and they told him about the " Zoo TV " phrase that Bono liked . Williams also learned about the band 's affection for the Trabant , an East German automobile that derisively became a symbol for the fall of Communism . Williams thought their fondness for the car was " deeply , deeply bizarre " , but nonetheless , he incorporated it into his ideas for the tour . In May , he brainstormed the idea to construct a lighting system using Trabants by hanging them from the ceiling and hollowing them to carry spotlights .
On 14 June 1991 , the first tour production meeting was held , with Williams , the band , manager Paul McGuinness , artist Catherine Owens , and production managers Steve Iredale and Jake Kennedy in attendance . Williams presented his ideas , which included the Trabant lighting system and the placement of video monitors all over the stage ; both notions were well received . Eno 's original idea was to have the video screens on wheels and constantly in motion , although this was impractical . Williams and the group proposed many ideas that did not make it to the final stage design . One such proposal , dubbed " Motorway Madness " , would have placed billboards advertising real products across the stage , similar to their placement beside highways . The idea was intended to be ironic , but was ultimately scrapped out of fear that the band would be accused of selling out . Another proposed idea building a giant doll of an " achtung baby " , complete with an inflatable penis that would spray on the audience , but it was deemed too expensive and was abandoned .
By August , a prototype of a single Trabant for the lighting system was completed , with the innards gutted and retrofitted with lighting equipment , and a paint job on the exterior . Williams spent most of the second half of 1991 designing the stage . Owens was insistent that her ideas be given priority , as she thought that men had been making all of U2 's creative decisions and were using male @-@ centred designs . With bassist Adam Clayton 's support , she recruited visual artists from Europe and the United States to arrange images for use on the display screens . These people included video artist Mark Pellington , photo / conceptual artist David Wojnarowicz , and satirical group Emergency Broadcast Network , who digitally manipulate sampled image and sound . Pellington envisaged a collection of text phrases into the visual displays , inspired by his working with artist Jenny Holzer . The idea was first put into practice in the video for Achtung Baby 's lead single , " The Fly " . Bono devised and collected numerous phrases during development of the album and the tour . Additional pre @-@ recorded video content was created by Eno , Williams , Kevin Godley , Carol Dodds , and Philip Owens .
On 13 November , U2 settled on the " Zoo TV Tour " name and the plans to place video screens across the stage and build a lighting system out of Trabants . McGuinness led a trip to East Germany to buy Trabants from a recently closed factory in Chemnitz , and in January 1992 , Catherine Owens began to paint the cars . As she described , " The basic idea was that the imagery on the cars should have nothing to do with the car itself . " One such design was the " fertility car " , which sported blown @-@ up newspaper personal ads and a drawing of a woman giving birth while holding string tied to her husband 's testicles . Williams and Chilean artist Rene Castro also provided artwork on the cars .
= = Stage design and show production = =
The Zoo TV stages were designed by Willie Williams , U2 's stage designer since the War Tour of 1982 – 1983 . In place of U2 's austere and minimalist productions of the 1980s , the Zoo TV stage was a complex setup , designed to instill " sensory overload " in its audience . The set 's giant video screens showed not only close @-@ ups of the band members performing , but also pre @-@ recorded video , live television transmissions ( intercepted by a satellite dish the group brought on tour ) , and text phrases . Electronic , tabloid @-@ style headlines ran on scrawls at the ends of the stage . The band 's embracing of such technology was meant as a radical departure in form , and as a commentary on the pervasive nature of technology . This led many critics to describe the show as " ironic " .
Several versions of the stage were used during the tour . The first two legs of 1992 were indoors and used the smallest of the sets , which included four Vidiwalls ( Philips @-@ branded giant television screens ) ; six painted Trabants suspended above the stage ; 36 television monitors ; and a B @-@ stage , a small remote platform connected to the main stage by a ramp . A seventh Trabant by the B @-@ stage doubled as a DJ booth and a mirror ball .
To redesign the set for the 1992 North American stadium leg — dubbed " Outside Broadcast " — Williams collaborated with stage designers Mark Fisher and Jonathan Park , both of whom had worked on The Rolling Stones ' Steel Wheels Tour stage set . The set was expanded to include a 248 @-@ by @-@ 80 @-@ foot ( 76 by 24 m ) stage , and the Vidiwalls were supplemented by four larger mega @-@ video screens . Williams faced difficulties in designing the outdoor lighting system , as the stage did not have a roof . He settled on using the venues ' house spotlights and strategically placed lights in the structure behind the band . The spires of the stage , intended to resemble transmission towers , were tall enough that the Federal Aviation Administration required them to have blinking warning lights . The stage 's appearance was compared to the techno @-@ future cityscapes from Blade Runner and the works of cyberpunk writer William Gibson . The B @-@ stage was located at the end of a 150 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 46 m ) catwalk . The larger set used 176 speaker enclosures , 312 18 @-@ inch ( 46 cm ) subwoofers , 592 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) mid @-@ range speakers , 18 projectors , 26 on @-@ stage microphones , two Betacam and two Video @-@ 8 handheld video cameras , and 11 Trabants suspended by cranes over the stage . The outdoor stage used for the 1993 legs of the tour was smaller due to budget concerns , and it discarded the Trabants hung from cranes , instead featuring three cars hanging behind the drum kit . All of the projection screens were replaced with " video cubes " , as the projectors were not bright enough for the European summer nights , when daylight remained later into the evening .
To accommodate the video production , the equivalent of a television studio control room — costing US $ 3 @.@ 5 million — was built for the tour . Beneath the stage , Dodds , the video director , operated a system custom @-@ built by Philips called CD @-@ i . It used five broadcast camera systems , 12 Laser Disc players , and a satellite dish , and it required 12 directors , 19 video crew members , and two separate mix stations to operate . Despite the production 's complexity , the group decided that flexibility in the shows ' length and content was a priority . Guitarist The Edge said , " That was one of the more important decisions we made early on , that we wouldn 't sacrifice flexibility , so we designed a system that is both extremely complicated and high @-@ tech but also incredibly simple and hands @-@ on , controlled by human beings ... in that sense , it 's still a live performance . " This flexibility allowed for improvisations and deviations from the planned programme . Eno recommended that U2 film its own video tapes so that they could be edited and looped into the video displays more easily , instead of relying entirely on pre @-@ sequenced video . Eno explained , " their show depends on some kind of response to what 's happening at the moment in that place . So if it turns out they want to do a song for five minutes longer , they can actually loop through the material again so that you 're not suddenly stuck with black screens halfway through the fifth verse . " The band shot new video for the displays over the course of the tour .
The 180 @-@ person crew travelled in 12 buses and a chartered jet known as the Zoo Plane . For the American stadium shows , 52 trucks were required to transport 1 @,@ 200 short tons ( 1 @,@ 089 tonnes ) of equipment , 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) of cabling , 12 forklifts , and a 40 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 36 t ) crane ; the million @-@ dollar stage was constructed in a 40 @-@ hour process with the help of 200 local labourers . The sound system used over one million watts and weighed 30 short tons ( 27 t ) .
= = Planning , itinerary , and ticketing = =
Rehearsals for the tour began in December 1991 at The Factory in Dublin . During this time , Eno consulted U2 on the visual aspects of the show . The band found it challenging to recreate all the sounds from the new album . They considered using additional musicians , but their sentimental attachment to a four @-@ piece prevailed . They left Dublin on 19 February 1992 to set up at Lakeland Civic Center in Lakeland , Florida for rehearsals before the opening show at the venue on 29 February .
Unlike many of the group 's previous tours , which began ahead of or coincident with the release of a new album , Zoo TV started four months after Achtung Baby was released , giving fans more time to familiarise themselves with the new songs . By opening night , the album had already sold three million copies in the US and seven million worldwide . The first two legs of the 1992 tour were indoor arena shows , comprising 32 concerts in North America from February to April and 25 in Europe from May to June . While the band had toured North America every year between 1980 and 1987 , they were absent from the North American tour circuit for over four years before Zoo TV . The US concert business was in a slump at the time , and the routing of the first two legs generally allowed only one show per city . This was intended to announce the band 's return to major cities , to gauge demand for ticket sales , and to re @-@ introduce the notion of a " hot ticket " to concertgoers . Tickets for the opening show in Florida sold out over the phone in four minutes , demand exceeding supply by a factor of 10 to 1 . To combat ticket scalping , the band avoided selling tickets in box offices as much as possible , preferring to sell over the telephone instead . Several cities ' telephone systems were overwhelmed when Zoo TV tickets went on sale ; Los Angeles telephone company Pacific Bell reported 54 million calls in a four @-@ hour period , while Boston 's telephone system was temporarily shut down .
In Europe , ticketing details were kept secret until radio advertisements announced that tickets had gone on sale at box offices . In many cases , tickets were limited to two @-@ per @-@ person to deter scalping . Due to the production costs and relatively small arena crowds , the European arena leg lost money . McGuinness had planned larger outdoor concerts in Berlin , Turin , Poland , and Vienna to help the tour break even , but only the Vienna concert occurred .
Two stadium legs were tentatively planned and dependent on the success of the arena tour : the North American " Outside Broadcast " leg from August – November 1992 , and the European " Zooropa " leg from May – August 1993 . While their playing stadiums was motivated by pragmatic concerns , U2 saw it as an artistic challenge as well , imagining what Salvador Dalí or Andy Warhol would do with such spaces . Rehearsals for " Outside Broadcast " began in Hersheypark Stadium in Hershey , Pennsylvania in early August 1992 ; a public rehearsal show was held on 7 August . Technical problems and pacing issues forced refinement to the show . Six days before the official leg @-@ opening Giants Stadium show , the group delayed the concert by a day , due to the difficulty of assembling the large outdoor production and the destruction of the largest screen in a windstorm . By the time " Outside Broadcast " began , Achtung Baby had sold four million copies in the US . Tickets for the " Zooropa " leg went on sale in November 1992 . The leg , which began in May 1993 , was the band 's first full stadium tour of Europe and marked the first time they had visited certain areas . Scheduling for the " Zoomerang " stadium leg in the Pacific from November – December 1993 afforded the band more off @-@ days between shows than previous legs , but this amplified the exhaustion and restlessness that had set in by the tour 's end .
Although the tour was listed as co @-@ sponsored by MTV , the group decided against explicit corporate sponsorship ; band members , especially drummer Larry Mullen , Jr . , were uncertain that the tour would be profitable . The daily cost of producing the tour was US $ 125 @,@ 000 , regardless of whether a show was held on a given day . An attempt to convince Philips to donate the video equipment was unsuccessful , and the band had to pay for it themselves . In order to defray the heavy expenses of the Pacific shows , U2 asked for large guarantees from local promoters up front , rather than sharing the financial burden as they had in the past . This sometimes caused promoters to raise ticket prices above usual levels , which in turn sometimes resulted in less than full houses . Profit margin was a slim four to five percent at most sold @-@ out shows .
= = Show overview = =
= = = Pre @-@ show = = =
Between the support acts and U2 's performance , a disc jockey played records . For the 1992 legs , Irish rock journalist and radio presenter BP Fallon filled the role . Originally hired to write the Zoo TV tour programme , he played music from inside a Trabant on the B @-@ stage , while providing commentary and wearing a cape and top hat . His official title was " Guru , Viber and DJ " . He hosted Zoo Radio , a November 1992 distributed radio special that showcased select live performances , audio oddities , and half @-@ serious interviews with members of U2 and the opening acts . At the group 's suggestion , Fallon eventually published a book about the tour entitled U2 Faraway So Close . Paul Oakenfold , who became one of the world 's most prominent club DJs by the decade 's end , replaced him later on the tour .
Beginning with the group 's 24 May 1992 show , Fallon played " Television , the Drug of the Nation " by hip @-@ hop artists The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy as the last song before the venue darkened and U2 took the stage . U2 saw the song , a commentary on mass media culture , as encapsulating some of the tour 's principal themes . The Disposable Heroes of Hiphoprisy became one of the supporting acts for the " Outside Broadcast " leg , and after their supporting stint , " Television " was retained as the pre @-@ show closer until the tour 's conclusion . After the venue darkened , one of several audio @-@ video pieces was played to accompany the group taking the stage . During the " Outside Broadcast " leg , the piece was one by Emergency Broadcast Network that reorganised video clips of American President George H. W. Bush to make him sing Queen 's " We Will Rock You " . A different piece , created by Ned O 'Hanlon and Maurice Linnane of Dreamchaser video productions , was used on the 1993 legs ; it wove looped video from Leni Riefenstahl 's films Triumph of the Will and Olympia with various video clips featuring war and news .
= = = Main set = = =
The concert began with a fixed sequence of six to eight consecutive Achtung Baby songs , a further sign that they were no longer the U2 of the 1980s . For the opening song , " Zoo Station " , Bono entered as his primary stage persona , " The Fly " , appearing silhouetted against a giant screen of blue and white video noise interwoven with glimpses of xerox animations of the band members . " The Fly " usually followed , with the video monitors flashing a rapidly changing array of textual words and aphorisms . Some of these included " Taste is the enemy of art " , " Religion is a club " , " Ignorance is bliss " , " Watch more TV " , " Believe " with letters fading out to leave " lie " , and " Everything you know is wrong " . ( During the first week of the tour , media outlets incorrectly reported that the words shown included " Bomb Japan Now " , forcing the band to issue a statement denying the claim . ) Before " Even Better Than the Real Thing " , Bono channel surfed through live television programming , and during the song , as random images from television and pop culture flashed on screen , he filmed himself and the band with a camcorder .
In a Zoo Radio interview , The Edge described the visual material that accompanied the first three songs :
" ' Zoo Station ' is four minutes of a television that 's not tuned into any station , but giving you interference and shash and almost a TV picture . ' The Fly ' is information meltdown — text , sayings , truisms , untruisms , oxymorons , soothsayings , etc . , all blasted at high speed , just fast enough so it 's impossible to actually read what 's being said . ' Even Better Than the Real Thing ' is whatever happens to be flying around the stratosphere on that night . Satellite TV pictures , the weather , shopping channel , cubic zirconium diamond rings , religious channels , soap operas ... "
" Mysterious Ways " featured a belly dancer on @-@ stage . For the 1992 indoor legs , Florida resident Christina Petro was the dancer . Tour choreographer Morleigh Steinberg assumed the role starting with the " Outside Broadcast " leg . " One " was accompanied by the title word shown in many languages , as well as Mark Pellington @-@ directed video clips of buffalos leading to a still image of David Wojnarowicz 's " Falling Buffalo " photograph . For " Until the End of the World " , Bono often played with a camera , kissing the lens and thrusting it into his crotch , a stark contrast from his more earnest stage behaviour of the past . Beginning with " Outside Broadcast " , the band began playing " New Year 's Day " afterwards . During " Tryin ' to Throw Your Arms Around the World " , Bono danced with a young female fan from the crowd ( a ritual he had done more solemnly on past tours ) , shared camcorder video filming duties with her , and sprayed champagne . At this point in the show , Mullen sometimes sang a solo performance of " Dirty Old Town " .
The group played many Achtung Baby songs very similarly to the way they had appeared on record . Since this material was complex and layered , most numbers featuring pre @-@ recorded or offstage percussion , keyboard , or guitar elements underlying the U2 members ' live instrumentals and vocals . U2 had used backing tracks in live performance before , but with the need to sync live performance to Zoo TV 's high @-@ tech visuals , almost the entire show was synced and sequenced . This practice has continued on their subsequent tours .
Zoo TV was one of the first large @-@ scale concerts to feature a B @-@ stage , where performances were intended " to be the antidote to Zoo TV " . The idea had been inspired by the successful informality of the Elvis Presley ' 68 Comeback Special . Here , the band played quieter songs , such as acoustic arrangements of " Angel of Harlem " , " When Love Comes to Town " , " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " , and Lou Reed 's " Satellite of Love " . Many critics compared the B @-@ stage performances to " busking " and singled them out as the shows ' highlights .
After leaving the B @-@ stage , U2 often played " Bad " or " Sunday Bloody Sunday " , with performances of " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Running to Stand Still " following . For " Bullet the Blue Sky " , the video screens displayed burning crosses and swastikas ; during " Running to Stand Still " , Bono mimed the actions of a heroin addict from the B @-@ stage , rolling up his sleeves and then spiking his arm during the final lyric . Afterwards , red and yellow smoke flares came out from either end of the B @-@ stage , before the band re @-@ grouped on the main stage for U2 classics played straight . " Where the Streets Have No Name " was accompanied by sped @-@ up video of the group in the desert from The Joshua Tree 's photo shoot . U2 often finished their set with " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " while a clip from Martin Luther King , Jr . ' s famed " I 've Been to the Mountaintop " speech was played on the video screens . The group was initially unconvinced that the leap from the rest of the show 's irony and artifice to something more sincere would be successful , but they thought that it was important to demonstrate that certain ideals were so strong and true that they could be held onto no matter the circumstance . The group alternated performances of " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " in acoustic form on the B @-@ stage with using it to close the main set .
= = = Encore = = =
Commencing with the " Outside Broadcast " leg , clips from the tour 's " video confessional booth " were displayed on the set 's screens between the main set and the encore . Concertgoers were encouraged to visit the booth prior to the concert and say whatever they wanted . These " confessions " varied from a woman flashing her breasts to a man revealing he had killed his friend in a car accident . Once the encore began , Bono would return as a different alter ego — Mirror Ball Man in 1992 , and MacPhisto in 1993 . Performances of " Desire " were accompanied by images of Richard Nixon , Margaret Thatcher , Paul Gascoigne , and Jimmy Swaggart , and were meant as a criticism of greed ; cash rained the stage and Bono often portrayed Mirror Ball Man as an interpretation of the greedy preacher described in the song 's lyrics . Bono often made a crank call from the stage as his persona of the time . Such calls included dialing a phone sex line , calling a taxi cab , ordering 10 @,@ 000 pizzas ( the Detroit pizza parlor delivered 100 pizzas during the show ) , or calling a local politician . Bono regularly called the White House in an attempt to contact President Bush . Though Bono never reached the President , Bush did acknowledge the calls during a press conference .
" Ultraviolet ( Light My Way ) " and " With or Without You " were frequently played afterwards . Concerts initially ended with Achtung Baby 's slower " Love Is Blindness " . Beginning with the " Outside Broadcast " shows , it was often followed by Bono 's falsetto take on Elvis Presley 's long @-@ time show @-@ closing ballad , " Can 't Help Falling in Love " , culminating in Bono softly stating that " Elvis is still in the building " . Both songs presented a low @-@ key , introspective conclusion to the show , in contrast to the dynamic , aggressive opening ; the group also wanted to move away from its tradition of ending concerts with the fan sing @-@ along favourite " 40 " . The night finished with a single video message being displayed : " Thanks for shopping at Zoo TV " .
= = = Guest appearances = = =
On 11 June 1992 , Benny Andersson and Björn Ulvaeus of ABBA appeared on @-@ stage in Stockholm for the first time in years to perform " Dancing Queen " with the band , which U2 had frequently performed on the tour up to that point . Other guest performers on the tour included Axl Rose , Jo Shankar , and Daniel Lanois .
On 19 June 1992 , during the European indoor leg , U2 played the " Stop Sellafield " concert in Manchester , alongside Kraftwerk , Public Enemy , and Big Audio Dynamite II , to protest the operation of a second nuclear reactor at Sellafield . For the group 's performance , the stage was made to resemble their Zoo TV stage . The following day , the band participated in a demonstration organised by Greenpeace in which protesters landed on the beach at Sellafield in rubber dinghies and displayed 700 placards for the waiting media .
At the first " Outside Broadcast " show on 12 August 1992 at Giants Stadium , Lou Reed performed " Satellite of Love " with the band ; he and Bono dueted using their contrasting vocal styles . Bono re @-@ confirmed the singer 's influence on the band by announcing , " Every song we 've ever written was a rip @-@ off of a Lou Reed song . " For the second show and the remainder of the tour , a taping of Reed singing the song was used for a virtual duet between him and Bono .
Novelist Salman Rushdie joined the band on stage in London 's Wembley Stadium on 11 August 1993 , despite the death fatwā against the author and the risk of violence arising from his controversial novel The Satanic Verses . In reference to the novel 's satanic references , Rushdie , when confronted by Bono 's MacPhisto character , observed that " real devils don 't wear horns " . In 2010 , Clayton recalled that " Bono had been calling Salman Rushdie from the stage every night on the Zoo TV tour . When we played Wembley , Salman showed up in person and the stadium erupted . You [ could ] tell from Larry 's face that we weren 't expecting it . Salman was a regular visitor after that . He had a backstage pass and he used it as often as possible . For a man who was supposed to be in hiding , it was remarkably easy to see him around the place . "
= = Sarajevo satellite link @-@ ups = =
As the " Zooropa " leg unfolded in 1993 , U2 became concerned about the volatile political situation in post @-@ communist Europe and the resurgence of radical nationalism . The opening of the show was modified to reflect this , with sounds from Lenin 's Favourite Songs mixed with " Ode to Joy " mixed with monotone voices asking " What do you want ? " in different European languages . A visual of the Flag of Europe was presented which then crumbled after one of the stars fell off .
A number of these European shows featured live satellite link @-@ ups with people living in war @-@ torn Sarajevo during the siege of Sarajevo / Bosnian War . The transmissions were arranged with help from American aid worker Bill Carter . Before their 3 July show in Verona , Italy , the band met with Carter to give an interview about Bosnia for Radio Televizija Bosne I Hercegovina . Carter described his experiences helping Sarajevans while surviving the dangerous living conditions . While in Sarajevo , Carter had seen a television interview on MTV in which Bono mentioned the theme of the " Zooropa " leg was a unified Europe . Feeling that such an aim was empty if Bosnia went overlooked , Carter sought Bono 's help . He requested that U2 visit Sarajevo to bring attention to the war and break the " media fatigue " that had occurred from covering the conflict . Bono wanted the band to play a concert in the city , but their tour schedule prevented this , and McGuinness believed that a concert there would make them and their audience targets for the Serbian aggressors .
Instead , the group agreed to use the tour 's satellite dish to conduct live video transmissions between their concerts and Carter in Sarajevo . Carter returned to the city and was able to assemble a video unit . The band had to purchase a satellite dish to be sent to Sarajevo and had to pay a £ 100 @,@ 000 fee to join the European Broadcasting Union . Once set up , the band began satellite link @-@ ups to Sarajevo on a near nightly basis , the first airing on 17 July 1993 in Bologna , Italy . To connect with the EBU satellite feeds , Carter and two co @-@ workers had to traverse " Sniper Alley " at night to reach the Sarajevo television station , and they had to film with as little light as possible to avoid the attention of snipers . This was done a total of ten times over the course of a month . Carter discussed the deteriorating situation in the city , and Bosnians often spoke to U2 and their audience . These grim interviews deviated from the rest of the show , and they were completely unscripted , leaving the group unsure of who would be speaking or what they would say . U2 stopped the broadcasts in August 1993 after learning that the siege of Sarajevo was being reported on the front of many British newspapers . Though this trend had begun before the first link @-@ up , Nathan Jackson suggested that U2 's actions had brought awareness of the situation to their fans , and to the British public indirectly .
Reactions to the transmissions were mixed , triggering a media debate concerning the ethical implications of mixing rock entertainment with human tragedy . The Edge said , " A lot of nights it felt like quite an abrupt interruption that was probably not particularly welcomed by a lot of people in the audience . You were grabbed out of a rock concert and given a really strong dose of reality and it was quite hard sometimes to get back to something as frivolous as a show having watched five or ten minutes of real human suffering . " Mullen worried that the band were exploiting the Bosnians ' suffering for entertainment . In 2002 , he said , " I can 't remember anything more excruciating than those Sarajevo link @-@ ups . It was like throwing a bucket of cold water over everybody . You could see your audience going , ' What the fuck are these guys doing ? ' But I 'm proud to have been a part of a group who were trying to do something . " During a transmission for the band 's concert at Wembley Stadium , three women in Sarajevo told Bono via satellite , " We know you 're not going to do anything for us . You 're going to go back to a rock show . You 're going to forget that we even exist . And we 're all going to die . " Some people close to the band joined the War Child charity project , including Brian Eno . Writer Bill Flanagan believes that the link @-@ ups accomplished Bono 's goal for Zoo TV of " illustrating onstage the obscenity of idly flipping from a war on CNN to rock videos on MTV " . U2 vowed to perform in Sarajevo someday , eventually fulfilling this commitment on their 1997 PopMart Tour .
= = Bono 's stage personae = =
Bono assumed a number of costumed alter egos during Zoo TV performances . The three main personae that he used on stage were " The Fly " , " Mirror Ball Man " , and " MacPhisto " . Additionally , during performances of " Bullet the Blue Sky " and " Running to Stand Still " , he appeared on @-@ stage wearing a military utility vest and cap , and a microphone headset . As this character , he ranted and raved in an act he said was set in the Vietnam War .
To escape their reputation for being overly serious and self @-@ righteous , U2 decided to alter their image by being more facetious . Bono said , " All through the Eighties we tried to be ourselves and failed when the lights were on . Which is what set us up for Zoo TV . We decided to have some fun being other people , or at least other versions of ourselves . " The Edge said , " We were quite thrilled at the prospect of smashing U2 and starting all over again . " The group viewed humour as the appropriate response to their negative perception and that although their message would not change , they needed to change how they delivered it to their audience .
= = = The Fly = = =
Bono conceived his " Fly " persona during the writing of the song of the same name . The character began with Bono wearing an oversized pair of blaxploitation sunglasses , given to him by wardrobe manager Fintan Fitzgerald , to lighten the mood in the studio . Bono wrote the song 's lyrics as this character , composing a sequence of " single @-@ line aphorisms " . He developed the persona into a leather @-@ clad egomaniac , describing his outfit as having Lou Reed 's glasses , Elvis Presley 's jacket , and Jim Morrison 's leather pants . To match the character 's dark fashion , Bono dyed his naturally brown hair black .
Bono began each concert as The Fly and continued to play the character for most of the first half of the concert . In contrast to his earnest self of the 1980s , as The Fly , Bono strutted around the stage with " swagger and style " , exhibiting mannerisms of an egotistical rock star . He adopted the mindset that he was " licensed to be an egomaniac " . He often stayed in character away from the tour stage , including for public appearances and when staying in hotels . He said , " That rather cracked character could say things that I couldn 't " , and that it offered him a greater freedom of speech .
= = = Mirror Ball Man = = =
As the Mirror Ball Man , Bono dressed in a shining silver lamé suit with matching shoes and cowboy hat . The character was meant to parody greedy American televangelists , showmen , and car salesman , and was inspired by Phil Ochs ' Elvis persona from his 1970 tour . Bono said that he represented " a kind of showman America . He had the confidence and charm to pick up a mirror and look at himself and give the glass a big kiss . He loved cash and in his mind success was God 's blessing . If he 's made money , he can 't have made any mistakes . " As the character , Bono spoke with an exaggerated Southern American accent . Mirror Ball Man appeared during the show 's encore and made nightly prank calls , often to the White House . Bono portrayed this alter ego on the first three legs of the tour , but replaced him with MacPhisto for the 1993 legs .
= = = MacPhisto = = =
MacPhisto was created to parody the devil and was named after Mephistopheles of the Faust legend . Initially called " Mr. Gold " , MacPhisto wore a gold lame suit with gold platform shoes , pale make @-@ up , lipstick , and devil 's horns atop his head . As MacPhisto , Bono spoke with an exaggerated upper @-@ class English accent , similar to that of a down @-@ on @-@ his @-@ luck character actor . The character was created as a European replacement for the American @-@ influenced Mirror Ball Man . The initial inspiration for MacPhisto came from the stage musical The Black Rider . Realisation of the character did not come about until rehearsal the night before the first of the 1993 shows . According to Bono , " We came up with a sort of old English Devil , a pop star long past his prime returning regularly from sessions on The Strip in Vegas and regaling anyone who would listen to him at cocktail hour with stories from the good old , bad old days . " MacPhisto sang the closing " Can 't Help Falling in Love " with an oddly childlike manner that many reviewers found one of the most poignant moments of the show .
Bono continued making crank calls as MacPhisto , but the targets changed with the location of each concert . Many of them were local politicians that Bono wished to mock by engaging them in character as the devil . He enjoyed making these calls , saying , " When you 're dressed as the Devil , your conversation is immediately loaded , so if you tell somebody you really like what they 're doing , you know it 's not a compliment . " The band intended for MacPhisto to add humour while making a point . Said The Edge , " That character was a great device for saying the opposite of what you meant . It made the point so easily and with real humor . " A female Cardiff fan who was pulled on @-@ stage questioned Bono 's motives for dressing as the devil , prompting the singer to compare his act to the plot of the C. S. Lewis novel The Screwtape Letters .
= = Recording and release of Zooropa = =
U2 recorded their next album , Zooropa , from February to May 1993 during an extended break between the third and fourth legs of the tour . The album was intended as a companion EP to Achtung Baby , but soon expanded into a full LP . Recording could not be completed before the tour restarted , and for the first month of the " Zooropa " leg , the band flew home after shows , recording until the early morning and working on their off @-@ days , before travelling to their next destination . Clayton called the process " about the craziest thing you could do to yourself " , while Mullen said of it , " It was mad , but it was mad good , as opposed to mad bad . " McGuinness later said the band had nearly wrecked themselves in the process . The album was released on 5 July 1993 . Influenced by the tour 's themes of technology and mass media , Zooropa was an even greater departure in style from their earlier recordings than Achtung Baby was , incorporating further dance music influences and electronic effects into their sound . A number of songs from the album were incorporated into the subsequent " Zooropa " and " Zoomerang " legs , most frequently " Numb " and " Stay ( Faraway , So Close ! ) " . For the " Zoomerang " leg , " Daddy 's Gonna Pay For Your Crashed Car " and " Lemon " were added to the encore and " Dirty Day " to the main set .
= = Broadcasts , recordings , and releases = =
On 9 September 1992 , a portion of U2 's performance at the Pontiac Silverdome was broadcast live to the 1992 MTV Video Music Awards . The band performed " Even Better Than the Real Thing " while VMA host Dana Carvey , dressed as his Wayne 's World Garth persona , accompanied the band on drums in Los Angeles . A Zoo Radio special included live selections from 1992 shows from Toronto , Dallas , Tempe , and New York City . On 28 and 29 November 1992 , a TV special entitled Zoo TV Featuring U2 was aired , featuring portions of several " Outside Broadcast " leg shows as well as William S. Burroughs ' reading of the sardonic poem " Thanksgiving Prayer " ; directed by Kevin Godley , the programme was broadcast in North America on Fox , and in Europe via Channel 4 , Premiere , France 2 , Rai Uno , RTVE , TV1000 , and Veronica . Several 1992 shows , including the 11 June concert in Stockholm and 27 October concert in El Paso , were broadcast into the homes of fans who had won contests . In October 1992 , U2 released Achtung Baby : The Videos , The Cameos , and a Whole Lot of Interference from Zoo TV , a VHS compilation of nine music videos from Achtung Baby . Interspersed between the music videos were clips of so @-@ called " interference " , comprising documentary footage , media clips , and other video similar to what was displayed on tour .
Two November 1993 " Zoomerang " shows in Sydney were filmed as part of a worldwide television broadcast . The 26 November show was to be a rehearsal for the production crew for the official filming the following night ; however , Clayton , who began drinking excessively on the latter stages of the tour , suffered an alcoholic blackout from the previous night and was unable to perform . Bass guitar technician Stuart Morgan filled in for him , marking the first time any member of U2 had missed a show . Clayton recovered in time to play the 27 November show , which was broadcast and was the only show used in the resulting video release . The concert was broadcast in the United States on tape @-@ delayed pay @-@ per @-@ view . U2 originally planned to produce the concert with MTV for a January 1994 " triplecast " that would have offered three different perspectives of the show on three separate channels . However , the group cancelled the " triplecast " after realising they had not fully developed the concept . The show was subsequently released as the concert video Zoo TV : Live from Sydney in 1994 , and the double CD Zoo TV Live in 2006 to subscribing members of U2 's website . The video won the Grammy Award for Best Long Form Music Video at the 37th Annual Grammy Awards ceremony .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical response = = =
Reviews written during the initial arena legs reflected the dramatic change in U2 's approach . Many critics published favourable reviews about the tour ; the San Francisco Chronicle praised the special effects for supplementing the music . The reviewer wrote , " The often @-@ surrealistic effects always served the songs , not the other way around . " The review concluded , " this magnificent multimedia production will serve as a pinnacle in rock 's onstage history for sometime [ sic ] to come " . Edna Gundersen of USA Today said that U2 was dismantling its myth and wrote that the show was " a trippy and decadent concert of bedazzling visuals and adventurous music " . Melody Maker 's Jon Wiederhorn wrote that he expected to dislike the show based upon their past stage history , " But , alas , I cannot be negative about U2 tonight . Their Zoo TV show is visually stunning , musically unparalleled , downright moving and , dammit , truly entertaining . " Hot Press ' Bill Graham said of the show , " U2 don 't so much use every trick in the book as invent a whole new style of rock performance art . " For Graham , the tour resolved any doubts he had about the band — particularly about Bono — following their reinvention with Achtung Baby .
Other critics indicated befuddlement as to U2 's purpose . The Asbury Park Press wrote that the long string of Achtung Baby song presentations that opened the show made one forget about the band 's past , and that " almost everything you knew about U2 a couple years ago is , in fact , wrong now " . The Star @-@ Ledger said that the band shortchanged its music with its video presentations and that especially during the opening sequence , " one was only aware of the music as a soundtrack to the real ' show ' " . It concluded by saying that the group had lost the sense of mystery and yearning that made it great and that they had succumbed to the style of music videos . Jon Pareles of The New York Times acknowledged that U2 was trying to break its former earnest image and that they were a " vastly improved band " for being " trendy " and " funny " ; yet , he commented , " U2 wants to have its artifice and its sincerity at the same time — no easy thing — and it hasn 't yet made the breakthrough that will unite them . "
The stadium legs of the tour received more consistent praise than the arena shows . Critics noted that while the show and its setlist were largely the same as before , the tour mostly benefited from the increased scale . The New York Daily News said that the stage " looked like a city made of television sets — an electronic Oz " and that " glitz was used not as a mere distraction ( as it has been by so many video @-@ age artists ) , but as a determined conceit " . Gundersen also made the comparison to Oz , saying that even though the band was dwarfed by the setting , their adventurous musicianship still shone through . She concluded that the group had " deliver [ ed ] a brilliant high @-@ wire act " between mocking and exploiting rock music clichés , a comparison also made by stage designer Williams . Robert Hilburn of the Los Angeles Times said of the outdoor American leg , " Zoo TV is the yardstick by which all other stadium shows will be measured . " David Fricke of Rolling Stone said that the band had " regained critical and commercial favor by negotiating an inspired balance between rock 's cheap thrills and its own sense of moral burden " . He praised the band for " retool [ ing ] themselves as wiseacres with heart and elephant bucks to burn " . Fricke noted that the increased visual effects for the " Outside Broadcast " leg increased the shows ' " mind @-@ fuck " factor . Many critics described the tour as " post @-@ modern " . The writers of Rolling Stone , in a best @-@ of @-@ 1992 issue , named U2 co @-@ winners of " Best Band " , while awarding the Zoo TV Tour honours for both " Best Tour " and " Worst Tour " .
The Independent praised the " Zooropa " leg , with the reviewer stating , " I came as a sceptic , and left believing I had witnessed the most sophisticated meeting of technical wizardry and mojo priestcraft ever mounted . " Dave Fanning of The Irish Times praised the " Zooropa " leg , stating , " If this is the show by which all other rock circuses must be measured , then God help the new music . " Fanning observed that the group , particularly Bono , exhibited " style , sex and self @-@ assurance " . Billboard wrote , " No one is dancing on the edges of rock 'n'roll 's contradictions as effectively these days as U2 . " The stadium legs had their detractors , as NME called the shows a " two @-@ hour post @-@ modernist pot noodle advert made by politically naive , culturally unaware squares with the help of some cool , arty people " . Graham thought that the scale of the stadium shows led to more predictability and less interaction with the audiences .
= = = Fan reaction = = =
The group and the music industry were unsure how fans would receive the tour beforehand . During the first week of shows , Bono said , " This show is a real roller coaster ride , and some people will want to get off , I 'm sure . " He remained optimistic that their devoted fans would continue following them , but cautioned he had no intention of resisting the glamour and fame : " Oh , but it 's fun to be carried away by the hype . Where would you be without the hype ? ... You can 't pretend all the promotion and all the fanfare is not happening . " Some hardcore fans , particularly in the US , objected to the tour as a blatant sellout to commercial values , while others misinterpreted the tour 's mocking of excess , believing that , according to VH1 's Legends , " U2 had ' lost it ' and that Bono had become an egomaniac " . Many Christian fans were offended the band 's antics and believed they had abandoned their religious faith .
By the outdoor legs , many fans knew what to expect , and Pareles observed that Bono 's admonitions to never cheer a rock star were greeted with idolatrous applause ; he concluded that the show 's message of scepticism was somewhat lost on the audience and that , " No matter what Bono tells his fans , they seem likely to trust him anyway . " By the end of the tour 's first year , U2 had won over many fans . In a 1992 end @-@ of @-@ year poll , readers of Q voted U2 " The Best Act in the World Today " . The band 's almost clean sweep of Rolling Stone 's end @-@ of @-@ year readers ' poll — which included " Best Artist " , " Best Tour " , and Bono as " Sexiest Male Artist " — reconfirmed for the magazine they were the " world 's biggest rock band " .
= = = Commercial performance = = =
On the opening leg , U2 sold 528 @,@ 763 tickets and grossed US $ 13 @,@ 215 @,@ 414 in 32 shows . They grossed US $ 67 million overall in 73 North American shows in 1992 , easily the highest amount for any touring artist that year . At the time , this was the third @-@ highest gross for a North American tour , behind The Rolling Stones ' 1989 Steel Wheels Tour and New Kids on the Block 's 1990 Magic Summer Tour . For 1992 , Zoo TV ticket sales in America and Europe totalled 2 @.@ 9 million . The " Zooropa " stadium leg the following year played to more than 2 @.@ 1 million people over 43 dates between 9 May and 28 August . In total , the Zoo TV Tour played to about 5 @.@ 3 million people . The band incurred heavy expenses to produce the tour , leading to only a small profit . According to McGuinness , " We grossed $ 30 million in T @-@ shirt sales . Without those we 'd be fucked . " Bono later said , " When we built Zoo TV , we were so close to bankruptcy that if five percent fewer people went , U2 was bankrupt . Even in our irresponsible , youthful and fatal disregard of such material matters , it was terrifying . "
= = Impact and legacy = =
For the Zoo TV Tour , U2 embraced the " rock star " identity they had struggled with and were reluctant to accept throughout the 1980s . They drew the attention of celebrities , including American presidential candidate Bill Clinton , and they began partying more than they had in the past . During parts of the tour , the band attracted the fashion crowd ; Clayton 's romantic relationship with supermodel Naomi Campbell and Bono 's friendship with supermodel Christy Turlington made them the subjects of unwanted tabloid attention . By the " Zoomerang " leg , Clayton 's relationship with Campbell was fracturing and he was drinking frequently . After missing the group 's 26 November 1993 show in Sydney from an alcoholic blackout , Clayton quit drinking altogether . The incident resulted in tensions within the group in the tour 's final weeks . The Edge began dating the belly dancer Morleigh Steinberg during the tour , and the two later married in 2002 .
The tour 's two @-@ year length , then U2 's longest , exhausted the band as the final legs unfolded . Following the conclusion of Zoo TV , U2 took an extended break from recording as a group . Mullen and Clayton moved into Manhattan apartments in New York City , where they sought out music lessons to become better musicians . The Edge and Bono spent most of 1994 living in newly renovated houses in the South of France .
After the tour , although The Fly character was retired , Bono began to wear tinted glasses , similar to his Fly sunglasses , in most public appearances . The glasses have since become a stylistic trademark of the singer in both his musical and activist roles . The Fly and MacPhisto characters appeared in the animated music video to U2 's 1995 song " Hold Me , Thrill Me , Kiss Me , Kill Me " from the soundtrack to Batman Forever . Author Višnja Cogan wrote that " the video crystallises and concludes the Zoo TV period and the changes that occurred " . Director Joel Schumacher attempted to create a role for Bono as MacPhisto in Batman Forever , but both later agreed it was not suitable .
As the tour drew to a close , the group entered prolonged discussions about creating a Zoo TV television channel in partnership with MTV . This never materialised , but in 1997 , MTV ran a brief miniseries called Zoo @-@ TV , which featured Emergency Broadcast Network extending their tour role in creating contemporary surrealist satirical video . U2 endorsed the effort as a representation of what the tour would have been like as a news magazine , but their direct role was limited to providing half @-@ financing and outtakes from the Zooropa album . Wired magazine said the series " pushe [ d ] the edge of commercial — even comprehensible — television " .
U2 's subsequent concert tour , 1997 's PopMart Tour , followed in Zoo TV 's footsteps by mocking another social trend , this time consumerism . Paul McGuinness said the group wanted " the production [ of PopMart ] to beat Zoo TV " , and accordingly , the tour 's spectacle was a further shift away from their austere stage shows of the 1980s ; PopMart 's stage featured a 150 @-@ foot @-@ long ( 46 m ) LED screen , a 100 @-@ foot @-@ tall ( 30 m ) golden arch containing the sound system , and a mirrorball lemon that served as a transport to the B @-@ stage . Although critics were much less receptive to PopMart , in a 2009 interview , Bono said that he considers that tour to be their best : " Pop ( Mart ) is our finest hour . It 's better than Zoo TV aesthetically , and as an art project it is a clearer thought . "
The Pixies ' stint as a support act produced a controversy that partially contributed to their break @-@ up . In July 1992 , Spin featured a controversial cover story titled " U2 On Tour : The Story They Didn 't Want You to Read " , which detailed author Jim Greer 's travels on the tour 's first weeks with his unidentified girlfriend ( who turned out to be Pixies ' bassist Kim Deal ) . The article featured their criticisms of U2 for the supposed poor treatment the Pixies received . Both U2 and the Pixies disagreed and were livid at Deal , particularly Pixies frontman Black Francis . In 1993 , following tensions within the group , Francis announced the Pixies had dissolved .
In 2005 , during their Vertigo Tour , the group often played a short set of songs as a homage to the Zoo TV Tour — " Zoo Station " , " The Fly " , and " Mysterious Ways " — as part of the first encore ; performances of " Zoo Station " included the interference in the background visual effects , and " The Fly " used flashing text effects on the LED screens similar to the Zoo TV visuals .
Critics regard the Zoo TV Tour as one of rock 's most memorable tours . During the " Zooropa " leg of the tour , Guy Garcia of Time called Zoo TV " one of the most electrifying rock shows ever staged " . In 1997 , Robert Hilburn wrote that " It 's not unreasonable to think of it as the Sgt. Pepper 's of rock tours . " In 2002 , Tom Doyle of Q called it " still the most spectacular rock tour staged by any band " , and in 2013 , the magazine listed it as one of the " ten greatest gigs of all time " . In 2009 , critic Greg Kot said , " Zoo TV remains the finest supersized tour mounted by any band in the last two decades . " Ryan Dombal of Pitchfork wrote in a review of Achtung Baby 's 20th anniversary reissue , " Even 20 years on , the tour looks like something to behold , a singularly inventive experience that no band — including U2 itself — has been able to really expound upon in a meaningful way . " The Edge said , " as a band I think it stretched us all . We were a different band after that and touring was different . " Producer Nellee Hooper later told Bono that Zoo TV " ruined irony for everyone " .
= = Tour dates = =
= The Bishop Revival =
" The Bishop Revival " is the 14th episode of the second season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode 's storyline followed Nazi scientist Alfred Hoffman ( Craig Robert Young ) as he specially designed airborne toxins to kill only surrounding people with similar genetic traits , such as people with brown eyes .
It was written by Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta , and directed by Adam Davidson . Along with Young and a number of small guest parts , the episode featured another guest appearance by Clark Middleton as rare book seller Edward Markham . " The Bishop Revival " first aired in the United States on January 28 , 2010 on the Fox network to an estimated 9 @.@ 153 million viewers . Critical reception for the episode ranged from positive to mixed , as reviewers were divided on the episode 's villain .
= = Plot = =
15 people suffocate at a Jewish wedding , appearing to have asphyxiated from the inside out . When the Fringe team arrives , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) identifies that all the victims were from the groom 's side , whose grandmother was a Holocaust survivor - and Walter ( John Noble ) surmises that they were all killed via their shared genetic traits . Later , a similar mass death occurs at a coffee shop , in which Walter recognizes the victims all had brown eyes , another common genetic trait . From fingerprints found at the scene , they discover the culprit is Alfred Hoffman ( Craig Robert Young ) , a Nazi scientist apparently somehow over 100 years old . Walter realizes that the man likely worked with his own father , Robert Bishoff ( a German scientist who defected to the US in 1943 and anglicised his name ) , in creating a chemical agent that , once heated as a gas , could be used to target any specific trait using DNA from the target subject - especially those not of the master race . Though Walter originally had his father 's files on the subject , his son Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , 10 years earlier , had sold them ; Peter tries to recover the files but finds some have been used by an artist to create sensationalism art , causing Walter to become distraught .
They trace Hoffman to his home , finding his equipment used to create the chemical agent downstairs but no sign of Hoffman . Walter nearly suffocates from an agent left by Hoffman , but Olivia and Peter are able to save him in time . As the FBI search the premises , they find evidence that points to a convention being held to promote world equality . Olivia and Peter depart to try to find Hoffman , while Walter remains behind , examining Hoffman 's equipment .
At the convention , Hoffman has replaced the heating elements for the chafing @-@ dishes with his own . Olivia and Peter struggle with locating Hoffman before Walter and Astrid ( Jasika Nicole ) arrive . Walter uses a fogger to distribute his own chemical agent , this time specific to Hoffman , and soon the man is found dying . As the team regroups , Walter fully admits to killing Hoffman , a crime in itself , but Broyles ( Lance Reddick ) decides to let Walter go . Later , Peter has been able to recover the rest of his grandfather 's work and returns it to Walter ; Walter then goes through the files , finding an old photo of his father and Hoffman working together .
= = Production = =
" The Bishop Revival " was the third episode to be written by writing partners Glen Whitman and Robert Chiappetta . It was the only Fringe episode directed by Adam Davidson .
" The Bishop Revival " revealed that the seahorse shown in promotions since the series began was in fact a genetically encoded " signature " created by Walter 's father Dr. Robert Bishop . In an interview after the episode 's broadcast , consulting producer Akiva Goldsman cited " The Bishop Revival " when discussing the use of flashbacks in Fringe ; he stated his disinclination to use too many flashbacks in the series , explaining " I think flashbacks are really useful and there are a couple of places where it will be useful . But fundamentally , no , I don 't think we 're a show that will be doing a lot of jumping back in time despite the single horde of calls for the ' Walter 's Grandfather Nazi Hunting ' series . I think not , but it was fun to do [ in the ' Peter ' episode ] . "
Guest stars for the episode included Craig Robert Young , Max Train , Sierra Pitkin , Brendon Zub , Barbara Kottmeier , John Macintyre , Lauren Attadia , Al Miro , Aaron Brooks , Magda Harout , Leonard Tenisci , Alberta Mayne , Nancy Linari , and Dan Joffre . Clark Middleton , who was last seen in the first season episode " Ability " , made his second guest appearance in " The Bishop Revival " as rare bookseller Edward Markham .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode contained two pieces of music from the 19th century German composer Johannes Brahms : his Piano Quartet No. 1 , Op.25 in G Major : III . Andante Con Moto @-@ Animato and Piano Quartet No. 1 , Op.25 in G Minor : II . Intermezzo : Allegro Ma Non Troppo @-@ Trio : Animato . Also in the episode , someone is seen holding a Dharma Initiative tea bag , a reference to the mysterious organization on the science fiction series Lost .
The Nazi in this episode appears to be Reichsführer of the Schutzstaffel , Heinrich Himmler . Aside from looking like the character , Himmler was also both a Nordicist and a Nazi Occultist . At one point in the episode , a scared elderly woman points at him screaming , " It 's him ... it 's him ... ! " This has a double meaning , as she could have been saying " It 's him ! " or she could have been trying to say " It 's Himmler ! "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
In a Thursday night filled mostly with repeats , Fox 's airing of new episodes Bones and Fringe finished # 1 among adults aged 18 – 49 , with an estimated 9 @.@ 153 million viewers tuning in . Fringe was up fifteen percent from the previous week with a 3 @.@ 0 rating , tying its highest 18 – 49 ratings share for the season . It was the second most viewed episode of the season after the season premiere " A New Day in the Old Town " .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics . Jane Boursaw of TV Squad wasn 't sure what to think about " The Bishop Revival " , but loved the plotline about Walter 's dad being a German spy working for the US government . Alternately , Annalee Newitz of io9 called the episode " surprisingly meh " ; while appreciating " all the weird family revelations about the Bishops " , she believed the revelations about Walter 's father to be " too much " because " we didn 't need that extra backstory " . Newitz wished Fringe had brought back Olivia 's childhood subplot and its ties with Walter and Peter . The A.V. Club columnist Noel Murray was also critical of the episode , explaining " Plotwise , there wasn 't much going on in ' The Bishop Revival . ' ... The FD tracked down a criminal and felled that criminal ; that 's really it . " Murray did however praise the killer 's methods and " Aryan aloofness " as " cool " and " delightfully old @-@ school " . Like Newitz , Tim Grierson of the magazine New York believed the episode contained " stupid revelations " ; for instance , the Nazi connection of Walter 's father " just felt like a variation on season one 's episodes in which bizarre phenomena could always magically be linked back to Walter 's work for the government . Obviously , this info about Peter 's grandfather was supposed to be ' shocking , ' showing how the Bishop family 's scientific work can so easily be perverted for evil , but by this point it just seems like a very artificial , unnecessary ploy to keep us engaged . "
Other than a few minor complaints with the episode 's logic , IGN writer Ramsey Isler thought positively about " The Bishop Revival " and the Nazi story element in particular , stating " there 's a definite unique Fringe flavor that makes this story work " . Isler disliked the unsolved mystery of Hoffman however , writing the " story really had the feel of one of those intriguing but ultimately disposable stories in the Fringe library " . Jennifer Walker from TV Fanatic called the episode " amazing " and a " heart stopper " , while Andrew Hanson of the Los Angeles Times enjoyed the father @-@ son dynamic . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly wrote " The Bishop Revival " was " one of the series ' most satisfying stand @-@ alone episodes " because it featured a " good threat " and gave more information about the Bishop family 's backstory . Tucker praised John Noble 's performance , as his " portrayal of Walter encompasses everything from endearing daffiness to ferocious concentration and commitment " . MTV 's Josh Wigler believed the episode was " terrific , " but wished there was more of a balance between the show 's three leads , and that Olivia was featured on a regular basis . He , Hanson , and other critics agreed that this and the previous week 's episode gave Fringe some strong momentum heading into the winter finale . Though normally skeptical of the series ' many fringe cases , Popular Mechanics called the episode Fringe 's " most plausible case yet " .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
At the 2011 Young Artist Awards , Sierra Pitkin received a nomination for Best Performance in a TV Series under the category " Guest Starring Young Actress Ten and Under " .
= George F. Kennan =
George Frost Kennan ( February 16 , 1904 – March 17 , 2005 ) was an American diplomat and historian . He was known best as an advocate of a policy of containment of Soviet expansion during the Cold War on which he later reversed himself . He lectured widely and wrote scholarly histories of the relations between USSR and the United States . He was also one of the group of foreign policy elders known as " The Wise Men " .
During the late 1940s , his writings inspired the Truman Doctrine and the U.S. foreign policy of " containing " the Soviet Union . His " Long Telegram " from Moscow during 1946 and the subsequent 1947 article " The Sources of Soviet Conduct " argued that the Soviet regime was inherently expansionist and that its influence had to be " contained " in areas of vital strategic importance to the United States . These texts provided justification for the Truman administration 's new anti @-@ Soviet policy . Kennan played a major role in the development of definitive Cold War programs and institutions , notably the Marshall Plan .
Soon after his concepts had become U.S. policy , Kennan began to criticize the foreign policies that he had seemingly helped begin . Subsequently , prior to the end of 1948 , Kennan became confident that positive dialogue could commence with the Soviet government . His proposals were discounted by the Truman administration and Kennan 's influence was marginalized , particularly after Dean Acheson was appointed Secretary of State during 1949 . Soon thereafter , U.S. Cold War strategy assumed a more assertive and militaristic quality , causing Kennan to lament about what he believed was an abrogation of his previous assessments .
During 1950 , Kennan left the Department of State — except for two brief ambassadorial stints in Moscow and Yugoslavia — and became a realist critic of U.S. foreign policy . He continued to analyze international affairs as a faculty member of the Institute for Advanced Study from 1956 until his death at age 101 .
He was a member of the Founding Council of the Rothermere American Institute at the University of Oxford .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and career = = =
Kennan was born in Milwaukee , Wisconsin , to Kossuth Kent Kennan , a lawyer specializing in tax law , a descendant of dirt @-@ poor Scotch @-@ Irish settlers of 18th @-@ century Connecticut and Massachusetts , who was named after the Hungarian patriot Lajos Kossuth ( 1802 – 94 ) , and Florence James Kennan . Mrs. Kennan died two months later due to peritonitis from a ruptured appendix , though Kennan long believed that she died after giving birth to him . The boy always lamented not having a mother ; he was never close to his father or stepmother , however , he was close to his older sisters .
At the age of eight he went to Germany to stay with his stepmother in order to learn German . He attended St. John 's Military Academy in Delafield , Wisconsin , and arrived at Princeton University in the second half of 1921 . Unaccustomed to the elite atmosphere of the Ivy League , the shy and introverted Kennan found his undergraduate years difficult and lonely . After receiving his bachelor 's degree in 1925 , Kennan considered applying to law school , but decided it was too expensive and instead opted to apply to the newly formed U.S. Foreign Service . He passed the qualifying examination and after seven months of study at the Foreign Service School in Washington he gained his first job as a vice consul in Geneva , Switzerland . Within a year he was transferred to a post in Hamburg , Germany . During 1928 Kennan considered quitting the Foreign Service to attend college , but was selected for a linguist training program that would give him three years of graduate @-@ level study without having to quit the service .
In 1929 Kennan began his program on history , politics , culture , and the Russian language at the University of Berlin 's Oriental Institute . In doing so , he would follow in the footsteps of his grandfather 's younger cousin , George Kennan ( 1845 – 1924 ) , a major 19th century expert on Imperial Russia and author of Siberia and the Exile System , a well @-@ received 1891 account of the Czarist prison system . During the course of his diplomatic career , Kennan would master a number of other languages , including German , French , Polish , Czech , Portuguese , and Norwegian .
In 1931 Kennan was stationed at the legation in Riga , Latvia , where , as third secretary , he worked on Soviet economic affairs . From his job , Kennan " grew to mature interest in Russian affairs " . When the U.S. began formal diplomacy with the Soviet government during 1933 after the election of President Franklin D. Roosevelt , Kennan accompanied ambassador William C. Bullitt to Moscow . By the mid @-@ 1930s Kennan was among the professionally trained Russian experts of the staff of the embassy in Moscow , along with Charles E. Bohlen and Loy W. Henderson . These officials had been influenced by the long @-@ time director of the State Department 's division of East European Affairs , Robert F. Kelley . They believed that there was little basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union , even against potential adversaries . Meanwhile , Kennan studied Stalin 's Great Purge , which would affect his opinion of the internal dynamics of the Soviet regime for the rest of his life .
Kennan found himself in strong disagreement with Joseph E. Davies , Bullitt 's successor as ambassador to the Soviet Union , who defended the Great Purge and other aspects of Stalin 's rule . Kennan did not have any influence on Davies 's decisions , and the latter even suggested that Kennan be transferred out of Moscow for " his health " . Kennan again contemplated resigning from the service , but instead decided to accept the Russian desk at the State Department in Washington . By September 1938 , Kennan had been reassigned to a job at the legation in Prague . After the occupation of the Czechoslovak Republic by Nazi Germany at the beginning of World War II , Kennan was assigned to Berlin . There , he endorsed the United States ' Lend @-@ Lease policy , but warned against displaying any notion of American endorsement for the Soviets , whom he considered to be an unfit ally . He was interned in Germany for six months after Germany , followed by the other Axis states , declared war on the United Statesin December 1941 .
In September 1942 Kennan was assigned as a counselor in Lisbon , Portugal , where he begrudgingly performed a job administrating intelligence and base operations . In January 1944 he was sent to London , where he served as counselor of the American delegation to the European Advisory Commission , which worked to prepare Allied policy in Europe . There , Kennan became even more disenchanted with the State Department , which he believed was ignoring his qualifications as a trained specialist . However , within months of beginning the job , he was appointed deputy chief of the mission in Moscow upon request of W. Averell Harriman , the ambassador to the U.S.S.R.
= = = Cold War = = =
= = = = The " long telegram " = = = =
In Moscow , Kennan again felt that his opinions were being ignored by Harry S. Truman and policymakers in Washington . Kennan tried repeatedly to persuade policymakers to abandon plans for cooperation with the Soviet government in favor of a sphere of influence policy in Europe to reduce the Soviets ' power there . Kennan believed that a federation needed to be established in western Europe to counter Soviet influence in the region and to compete against the Soviet stronghold in eastern Europe .
Kennan served as deputy head of the mission in Moscow until April 1946 . Near the end of that term , the Treasury Department requested that the State Department explain recent Soviet behavior , such as its disinclination to endorse the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank . Kennan responded on February 22 , 1946 , by sending a lengthy 5 @,@ 500 @-@ word telegram ( sometimes cited as being more than 8 @,@ 000 words ) from Moscow to Secretary of State James Byrnes outlining a new strategy for diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union . At the " bottom of the Kremlin 's neurotic view of world affairs is the traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity " . After the Russian Revolution , this sense of insecurity became mixed with communist ideology and " Oriental secretiveness and conspiracy " .
Soviet international behavior depended mainly on the internal necessities of Joseph Stalin 's regime ; according to Kennan , Stalin needed a hostile world in order to legitimize his autocratic rule . Stalin thus used Marxism @-@ Leninism as a " justification for the Soviet Union 's instinctive fear of the outside world , for the dictatorship without which they did not know how to rule , for cruelties they did not dare not to inflict , for sacrifice they felt bound to demand ... Today they cannot dispense with it . It is the fig leaf of their moral and intellectual respectability " .
The solution was to strengthen Western institutions in order to render them invulnerable to the Soviet challenge , while awaiting the mellowing of the Soviet regime .
Kennan 's new policy of containment was that Soviet pressure had to " be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points " .
This dispatch brought Kennan to the attention of Secretary of the Navy James Forrestal , a major advocate of a confrontational policy with regard to the Soviets , the United States ' former wartime ally . Forrestal helped bring Kennan back to Washington , where he served as the first deputy for foreign affairs at the National War College and then strongly influenced his decision to publish the " X " article .
The goal of his policy was to withdraw all the U.S. forces from Europe . The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union , tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise .
Meanwhile , during March 1947 , Truman appeared before Congress to request funding for the Truman Doctrine to fight Communism in Greece . " I believe that it must be the policy of the United States to support free peoples who are resisting attempted subjugation by armed minorities or by outside pressures . "
= = = = " X " = = = =
Unlike the " long telegram " , Kennan 's well @-@ timed article appearing in the July 1947 issue of Foreign Affairs with the pseudonym " X " , entitled " The Sources of Soviet Conduct " , did not begin by emphasizing " traditional and instinctive Russian sense of insecurity " ; instead it asserted that Stalin 's policy was shaped by a combination of Marxist – Leninist ideology , which advocated revolution to defeat the capitalist forces in the outside world and Stalin 's determination to use the notion of " capitalist encirclement " in order to legitimize his regimentation of Soviet society so that he could consolidate his political power . Kennan argued that Stalin would not ( and moreover could not ) moderate the supposed Soviet determination to overthrow Western governments . Thus ,
" the main element of any United States policy toward the Soviet Union must be a long @-@ term , patient but firm and vigilant containment of Russian expansive tendencies ... Soviet pressure against the free institutions of the Western world is something that can be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counterforce at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points , corresponding to the shifts and manoeuvers of Soviet policy , but which cannot be charmed or talked out of existence . "
His new policy of containment declared that Soviet pressure had to " be contained by the adroit and vigilant application of counter @-@ force at a series of constantly shifting geographical and political points " . The goal of his policy was to withdraw all the U.S. forces from Europe . " The settlement reached would give the Kremlin sufficient reassurance against the establishment of regimes in Eastern Europe hostile to the Soviet Union , tempering the degree of control over that area that the Soviet leaders felt it necessary to exercise " .
Kennan further argued that the United States would have to perform this containment alone but if it could do so without undermining its own economic health and political stability , the Soviet party structure would undergo a period of immense strain eventually resulting in " either the break @-@ up or the gradual mellowing of Soviet power " .
The publication of the " X " article soon began one of the more intense debates of the Cold War . Walter Lippmann , a leading American commentator on international affairs , strongly criticized the " X " article . Lippmann argued that Kennan 's strategy of containment was " a strategic monstrosity " that could " be implemented only by recruiting , subsidizing and supporting a heterogeneous array of satellites , clients , dependents , and puppets " . Lippmann argued that diplomacy should be the basis of relations with the Soviets ; he suggested that the U.S. withdraw its forces from Europe and reunify and demilitarize Germany . Meanwhile , it was soon revealed informally that " X " was indeed Kennan . This information seemed to give the " X " article the status of an official document expressing the Truman administration 's new policy toward Moscow .
Kennan had not intended the " X " article as a prescription for policy . For the rest of his life , Kennan continued to reiterate that the article did not imply an automatic commitment to resist Soviet " expansionism " wherever it occurred , with little distinction of primary and secondary interests . The article did not make it obvious that Kennan favored employing political and economic rather than military methods as the chief agent of containment . " My thoughts about containment " said Kennan in a 1996 interview to CNN , " were of course distorted by the people who understood it and pursued it exclusively as a military concept ; and I think that that , as much as any other cause , led to [ the ] 40 years of unnecessary , fearfully expensive and disoriented process of the Cold War " .
Additionally , the administration made few attempts to explain the distinction between Soviet influence and international Communism to the U.S. public . " In part , this failure reflected the belief of many in Washington " , writes historian John Lewis Gaddis , " that only the prospect of an undifferentiated global threat could shake Americans out of their isolationist tendencies that remained latent among them " .
In a PBS television interview with David Gergen during 1996 , Kennan again reiterated that he did not regard the Soviets as primarily a military threat , noting that " they were not like Hitler " . Kennan 's opinion was that this misunderstanding :
" all came down to one sentence in the " X " article where I said that wherever these people , meaning the Soviet leadership , confronted us with dangerous hostility anywhere in the world , we should do everything possible to contain it and not let them expand any further . I should have explained that I didn 't suspect them of any desire to launch an attack on us . This was right after the war , and it was absurd to suppose that they were going to turn around and attack the United States . I didn 't think I needed to explain that , but I obviously should have done it . "
The " X " article meant sudden fame for Kennan . After the long telegram , he recalled later , " My official loneliness came in fact to an end ... My reputation was made . My voice now carried . "
= = = = Influence under Marshall = = = =
Between April 1947 and December 1948 , when George C. Marshall was Secretary of State , Kennan was more influential than he was at any other period in his career . Marshall valued his strategic sense and had him create and direct what is now named the Policy Planning Staff , the State Department 's internal think tank . Kennan became the first Director of Policy Planning . Marshall relied heavily on him to prepare policy recommendations . Kennan played a central role in the drafting of the Marshall Plan .
Although Kennan regarded the Soviet Union as too weak to risk war , he nonetheless considered it an enemy capable of expanding into Western Europe through subversion , given the popular support for communist parties in Western Europe , which remained demoralized by the devastation of the Second World War . To counter this potential source of Soviet influence , Kennan 's solution was to direct economic aid and covert political help to Japan and Western Europe to revive Western governments and assist international capitalism ; by doing so the United States would help to rebuild the balance of power . During June 1948 , Kennan proposed covert assistance to left @-@ wing parties not oriented toward Moscow and to labor unions in Western Europe in order to engineer a rift between Moscow and working @-@ class movements in Western Europe .
As the United States was initiating the Marshall Plan , Kennan and the Truman administration hoped that the Soviet Union 's rejection of Marshall aid would strain its relations with its Communist allies in Eastern Europe . Kennan initiated a series of efforts to exploit the schism between the Soviets and Josip Broz Tito 's Yugoslavia . Kennan proposed conducting covert action in the Balkans to further decrease Moscow 's influence .
The administration 's new vigorously anti @-@ Soviet policy also became evident when , at Kennan 's suggestion , the U.S. changed its hostility to Francisco Franco 's anti @-@ communists regime in Spain in order to secure U.S. influence in the Mediterranean . Kennan had observed during 1947 that the Truman Doctrine implied a new consideration of Franco . His suggestion soon helped begin a new phase of U.S. – Spanish relations , which ended with military cooperation after 1950 .
= = = = Differences with Acheson = = = =
Kennan 's influence rapidly decreased when Dean Acheson became Secretary of State , succeeding the ailing George Marshall during 1949 and 1950 . Acheson did not regard the Soviet " threat " as chiefly political , and he saw the Berlin blockade starting during June 1948 , the first Soviet test of a nuclear weapon during August 1949 , the Communist revolution in China a month later , and the beginning of the Korean War during June 1950 as evidence . Truman and Acheson decided to delineate the Western sphere of influence and to create a system of alliances .
This policy was realized as NSC @-@ 68 , a classified report issued by the United States National Security Council during April 1950 and written by Paul Nitze , Kennan 's successor as director of policy planning . Kennan and Charles Bohlen , another State Department expert on Russia , argued about the wording of NSC @-@ 68 , which became the basis of Cold War policy . Kennan rejected the idea that Stalin had a grand design for world conquest implicit in Nitze 's report and argued that he actually feared overextending Russian power . Kennan even argued that NSC @-@ 68 should not have been drafted at all , as it would make U.S. policies too rigid , simplistic , and militaristic . Acheson overruled Kennan and Bohlen , endorsing the assumption of Soviet menace implied by NSC @-@ 68 .
Kennan opposed the building of the hydrogen bomb and the rearmament of Germany , which were policies encouraged by the assumptions of NSC @-@ 68 . During the Korean War ( which began when North Korea invaded South Korea during June 1950 ) , when rumors started circulating in the State Department that plans were being made to advance beyond the 38th parallel into North Korea , an act that Kennan considered dangerous , he engaged in intense arguments with Assistant Secretary of State for the Far East Dean Rusk , who apparently endorsed Acheson 's goal to forcibly unite the Koreas .
Kennan lost influence with Acheson , who in any case relied much less on his staff than Marshall had . Kennan resigned as director of policy planning during December 1949 but stayed in the department as counselor until June 1950 . Acheson replaced Kennan with Nitze during January 1950 , who was much more comfortable with the calculus of military power . Afterwards , Kennan accepted an appointment as Visitor to the Institute for Advanced Study from fellow moderate Robert Oppenheimer , Director of the Institute .
Despite his influence , Kennan was never really comfortable in government . He always regarded himself as an outsider and had little patience with critics . W. Averell Harriman , the U.S. ambassador in Moscow when Kennan was deputy between 1944 and 1946 , remarked that Kennan was " a man who understood Russia but not the United States " .
= = = = Ambassador to the Soviet Union = = = =
During December 1951 , President Truman nominated Kennan to be the next United States ambassador to the USSR . His appointment was endorsed strongly by the Senate .
In many respects ( to Kennan 's consternation ) the priorities of the administration emphasized creating alliances against the Soviets more than negotiating differences with them . In his memoirs , Kennan recalled , " So far as I could see , we were expecting to be able to gain our objectives ... without making any concessions though , only ' if we were really all @-@ powerful , and could hope to get away with it . ' I very much doubted that this was the case . "
At Moscow , Kennan found the atmosphere even more regimented than on his previous trips , with police guards following him everywhere , discouraging contact with Soviet citizens . At the time , Soviet propaganda charged the U.S. with preparing for war , which Kennan did not wholly dismiss . " I began to ask myself whether ... we had not contributed ... by the overmilitarization of our policies and statements ... to a belief in Moscow that it was war we were after , that we had settled for its inevitability , that it was only a matter of time before we would unleash it . "
During September 1952 , Kennan made a statement that cost him his ambassadorship . In an answer to a question at a press conference , Kennan compared his conditions at the ambassador 's residence in Moscow to those he had encountered while interned in Berlin during the first few months of the Second World War . While his statement was not unfounded , the Soviets interpreted it as an implied analogy with Nazi Germany . The Soviets then declared Kennan persona non grata and refused to allow him to re @-@ enter the USSR . Kennan acknowledged retrospectively that it was a " foolish thing for me to have said " .
= = = = Kennan and the Eisenhower administration = = = =
Kennan returned to Washington , where he became embroiled in disagreements with Dwight D. Eisenhower 's hawkish Secretary of State , John Foster Dulles . Even so , he was able to work constructively with the new administration . During the summer of 1953 President Eisenhower asked Kennan to manage the first of a series of top @-@ secret teams , dubbed Operation Solarium , examining the advantages and disadvantages of continuing the Truman administration 's policy of containment and of seeking to " roll back " existing areas of Soviet influence . Upon completion of the project , the president seemed to endorse the group 's recommendations .
By lending his prestige to Kennan 's position , the president tacitly signaled his intention to formulate the strategy of his administration within the framework of its predecessor 's , despite the misgivings of some within the Republican Party . The critical difference between the Truman and Eisenhower policies of containment had to do with Eisenhower 's concerns that the United States could not indefinitely afford great military spending . The new president thus sought to minimize costs not by acting whenever and wherever the Soviets acted ( a strategy designed to avoid risk ) but rather whenever and wherever the United States could afford to act .
= = = = Ambassador to Yugoslavia = = = =
During John F. Kennedy 's 1960 presidential election campaign Kennan wrote to the future president to offer some suggestions on how his administration should improve the country 's foreign affairs . Kennan wrote , " What is needed is a succession of ... calculated steps , timed in such a way as not only to throw the adversary off balance but to keep him off it , and prepared with sufficient privacy so that the advantage of surprise can be retained . " He also urged the administration to " assure a divergence of outlook and policy between the Russians and Chinese , " which could be accomplished by improving relations with Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev who had wanted to distance himself from the Communist Chinese . He wrote , " We should ... without deceiving ourselves about Khrushchev 's political personality and without nurturing any unreal hopes , be concerned to keep him politically in the running and to encourage the survival in Moscow of the tendencies he personifies " . Additionally , he recommended that the United States work toward creating divisions within the Soviet bloc by undermining its power in Eastern Europe and encouraging the independent propensities of satellite governments .
Although Kennan had not been considered for a job by Kennedy 's advisers , the president himself offered Kennan the choice of ambassadorship in either Poland or Yugoslavia . Kennan was more interested in Yugoslavia , so he accepted Kennedy 's offer and began his job in Yugoslavia during May 1961 .
Kennan was tasked with trying to strengthen Yugoslavia 's policy against the Soviets and to encourage other states in the Eastern bloc to pursue autonomy from the Soviets . Kennan found his ambassadorship in Belgrade to be much improved from his experiences in Moscow a decade earlier . He commented , " I was favored in being surrounded with a group of exceptionally able and loyal assistants , whose abilities I myself admired , whose judgment I valued , and whose attitude toward myself was at all times ... enthusiastically cooperative ... Who was I to complain ? " Kennan found the Yugoslav government treated the American diplomats politely , in contrast from the way in which the Russians treated him in Moscow . He wrote that the Yugoslavs " considered me , rightly or wrongly , a distinguished person in the U.S. , and they were pleased that someone whose name they had heard before was being sent to Belgrade " .
Kennan found it difficult to perform his job in Belgrade . President Josip Broz Tito and his foreign minister , Koča Popović , began to suspect that Kennedy would adopt an anti @-@ Yugoslav policy during his term . Tito and Popović considered Kennedy 's decision to observe Captive Nations Week as an indication that the United States would assist anticommunist liberation efforts in Yugoslavia . Tito also believed that the CIA and the Pentagon were the true directors of American foreign policy . Kennan attempted to restore Tito 's confidence in the American foreign policy establishment but his efforts were compromised by a pair of diplomatic blunders , the Bay of Pigs Invasion , and the U @-@ 2 spy incident .
Relations between Yugoslavia and the United States quickly began to worsen . During September 1961 , Tito held a conference of nonaligned nations , where he delivered speeches that the U.S. government interpreted as being pro @-@ Soviet . According to historian David Mayers , Kennan argued that Tito 's perceived pro @-@ Soviet policy was in fact a ploy to " buttress Khrushchev 's position within the Politburo against hardliners opposed to improving relations with the West and against China , which was pushing for a major Soviet – U.S. showdown " . This policy also earned Tito " credit in the Kremlin to be drawn upon against future Chinese attacks on his communist credentials " . While politicians and government officials expressed growing concern about Yugoslavia 's relationship with the Soviets , Kennan believed that the country had an " anomalous position in the Cold War that objectively suited U.S. purposes " . Kennan also believed that within a few years , Yugoslavia 's example would cause states in the Eastern bloc to demand more social and economic autonomy from the Soviets .
By 1962 , Congress had passed legislation to deny financial aid grants to Yugoslavia , to withdraw the sale of spare parts for Yugoslav warplanes , and to revoke the country 's most favored nation status . Kennan strongly protested the legislation , arguing that it would only result in a straining of relations between Yugoslavia and the U.S. Kennan came to Washington during the summer of 1962 to lobby against the legislation but was unable to elicit a change from Congress . President Kennedy endorsed Kennan privately but remained noncommittal publicly , as he did not want to jeopardize his slim majority support in Congress on a potentially contentious issue . With U.S. – Yugoslav relations getting progressively worse , Kennan tendered his resignation as ambassador during late July 1963 .
= = = Academic career and later life = = =
During 1957 Kennan was invited by the BBC to give the annual Reith Lectures — a series of six radio lectures , which were titled Russia , the Atom and the West . For these , Kennan explored the history , effect , and possible consequences of relations between Russia and the West .
After the end of his brief ambassadorial post in Yugoslavia during 1963 , Kennan spent the rest of his life in academe , becoming a major realist critic of U.S. foreign policy . Having spent 18 months as a scholar at the Institute for Advanced Study between 1950 and 1952 , Kennan permanently joined the faculty of the Institute 's School of Historical Studies during 1956 . During his career there , Kennan wrote seventeen books and scores of articles on international relations . He won the Pulitzer Prize for History , the National Book Award for Nonfiction , the Bancroft Prize , and the Francis Parkman Prize for Russia Leaves the War , published during 1956 . He again won a Pulitzer and a National Book Award during 1968 for Memoirs , 1925 – 1950 . A second volume , taking his reminiscences up to 1963 was published during 1972 . Among his other works were American Diplomacy 1900 – 1950 , Sketches from a Life , published during 1989 , and Around the Cragged Hill during 1993 .
His properly historical works amount to a six @-@ volume account of the relations between Russia and the West from 1875 to his own time ; the period from 1894 to 1914 was planned but not completed . He was chiefly concerned with :
The folly of the First World War as a choice of policy ; he argues that the costs of modern war , direct and indirect , predictably exceeded the benefits of eliminating the Hohenzollerns .
The ineffectiveness of summit diplomacy , with the Conference of Versailles as a type @-@ case . National leaders have too much to do to give any single matter the constant and flexible attention which diplomatic problems require .
The Allied intervention in Russia in 1918 – 19 . He was indignant with Soviet accounts of a vast capitalist conspiracy against the world 's first worker 's state , some of which do not even mention the First World War ; he was equally indignant with the decision to intervene as costly and harmful . He argues that the interventions , by arousing Russian nationalism , may have ensured the survival of the Bolshevik state .
= = = Realism = = =
Political realism formed the basis of Kennan 's work as a diplomat and diplomatic historian and remains relevant to the debate over American foreign policy , which since the 19th century has been characterized by a shift from the Founding Fathers ' realist school to the idealistic or Wilsonian school of international relations . According to the realist tradition , security is based on the principle of a balance of power , whereas Wilsonianism ( considered impractical by realists ) relies on morality as the sole determining factor in statecraft . According to the Wilsonians the spread of democracy abroad as a foreign policy is important and morals are valid universally . During the Presidency of Bill Clinton , American diplomacy represented the Wilsonian school to such a degree that those in favor of the realism likened President Clinton 's policies to social work . According to Kennan , whose concept of American diplomacy was based on the realist approach , such moralism without regard to the realities of power and the national interest is self @-@ defeating and will result in the decrease of American power .
In his historical writings and memoirs , Kennan laments in great detail the failings of democratic foreign policy makers and those of the United States in particular . According to Kennan , when American policymakers suddenly confronted the Cold War , they had inherited little more than rationale and rhetoric " utopian in expectations , legalistic in concept , moralistic in [ the ] demand it seemed to place on others , and self @-@ righteous in the degree of high @-@ mindedness and rectitude ... to ourselves " . The source of the problem is the force of public opinion , a force that is inevitably unstable , unserious , subjective , emotional , and simplistic . Kennan has insisted that the U.S. public can only be united behind a foreign policy goal on the " primitive level of slogans and jingoistic ideological inspiration " .
Containment during 1967 , when he published the first volume of his memoirs , involved something other than the use of military " counterforce " . He was never pleased that the policy he influenced was associated with the arms build @-@ up of the Cold War . In his memoirs , Kennan argued that containment did not demand a militarized U.S. foreign policy . " Counterforce " implied the political and economic defense of Western Europe against the disruptive effect of the war on European society . Exhausted by war , the Soviet Union posed no serious military threat to the United States or its allies at the beginning of the Cold War but rather an ideological and political rival .
During the 1960s , Kennan criticized U.S. involvement in Vietnam , arguing that the United States had little vital interest in the region . Kennan believed that the USSR , Britain , Germany , Japan , and North America remained the areas of vital U.S. interests . During the 1970s and 1980s , he was a major critic of the renewed arms race as détente was ended .
During 1989 President George H. W. Bush awarded Kennan the Medal of Freedom , the nation 's greatest civilian honor . Yet he remained a realist critic of recent U.S. presidents , urging the U.S. government to " withdraw from its public advocacy of democracy and human rights " , saying that the " tendency to see ourselves as the center of political enlightenment and as teachers to a great part of the rest of the world strikes me as unthought @-@ through , vainglorious and undesirable " . These ideas were particularly applicable to U.S. relations with China and Russia . Kennan opposed the Clinton administration 's war in Kosovo and its expansion of NATO ( the establishment of which he had also opposed half a century earlier ) , expressing fears that both policies would worsen relations with Russia . He described NATO enlargement as a " strategic blunder of potentially epic proportions " .
Kennan remained vigorous and alert during the last years of his life , although arthritis had him using a wheelchair . During his later years , Kennan concluded that " the general effect of Cold War extremism was to delay rather than hasten the great change that overtook the Soviet Union " . At age 98 he warned of the unforeseen consequences of waging war against Iraq . He warned that attacking Iraq would amount to waging a second war that " bears no relation to the first war against terrorism " and declared efforts by the Bush administration to associate al Qaeda with Saddam Hussein " pathetically unsupportive and unreliable " . Kennan went on to warn :
Anyone who has ever studied the history of American diplomacy , especially military diplomacy , knows that you might start in a war with certain things on your mind as a purpose of what you are doing , but in the end , you found yourself fighting for entirely different things that you had never thought of before ... In other words , war has a momentum of its own and it carries you away from all thoughtful intentions when you get into it . Today , if we went into Iraq , like the president would like us to do , you know where you begin . You never know where you are going to end .
During February 2004 scholars , diplomats , and Princeton alumni gathered at the university 's campus to celebrate Kennan 's 100th birthday . Among those in attendance were Secretary of State Colin Powell , international relations theorist John Mearsheimer , journalist Chris Hedges , former ambassador and career Foreign Service officer Jack F. Matlock , Jr . , and Kennan 's biographer , John Lewis Gaddis .
= = = Death and legacy = = =
Kennan died on March 17 , 2005 , at age 101 at his home in Princeton , New Jersey . He was survived by his wife Annelise , whom he married during 1931 , and his four children , eight grandchildren , and six great @-@ grandchildren . Annelise died in 2008 at the age of 98 .
In an obituary in the New York Times , Kennan was described as " the American diplomat who did more than any other envoy of his generation to shape United States policy during the cold war " to whom " the White House and the Pentagon turned when they sought to understand the Soviet Union after World War II " . Of Kennan , historian Wilson D. Miscamble remarked that " [ o ] ne can only hope that present and future makers of foreign policy might share something of his integrity and intelligence " . Foreign Policy described Kennan as " the most influential diplomat of the 20th century " . Henry Kissinger said that Kennan " came as close to authoring the diplomatic doctrine of his era as any diplomat in our history " , while Colin Powell called Kennan " our best tutor " in dealing with the foreign policy issues of the 21st century .
During his career , Kennan received a number of awards and honors . As a scholar and writer , Kennan was a two @-@ time recipient of both the Pulitzer Prizes and the National Book Award , and had also received the Francis Parkman Prize , the Ambassador Book Award and the Bancroft Prize . Among Kennan 's numerous other awards and distinctions were the Testimonial of Loyal and Meritorious Service from the Department of State ( 1953 ) , Princeton 's Woodrow Wilson Award for Distinguished Achievement in the Nation 's Service ( 1976 ) , the Order of the Pour le Mérite ( 1976 ) , the Albert Einstein Peace Prize ( 1981 ) , the Peace Prize of the German Book Trade ( 1982 ) , the American Academy of Arts and Letters Gold Medal ( 1984 ) , the American Whig @-@ Cliosophic Society 's James Madison Award for Distinguished Public Service ( 1985 ) , the Franklin D. Roosevelt Foundation Freedom from Fear Medal ( 1987 ) , the Presidential Medal of Freedom ( 1989 ) , the Distinguished Service Award from the Department of State ( 1994 ) , and the Library of Congress Living Legend ( 2000 ) . Kennan had also received 29 honorary degrees and was honored in his name with the George F. Kennan Chair in National Security Strategy at the National War College and the George F. Kennan Professorship at the Institute for Advanced Study .
Historian Wilson D. Miscamble argues that Kennan played a critical role in developing the foreign policies of the Truman administration . He also states that Kennan did not believe in either global or strongpoint containment ; he simply wanted to restore the balance of power between the United States and the Soviets . Like historian John Lewis Gaddis , Miscamble concedes that although Kennan personally preferred political containment , his recommendations ultimately resulted in a policy directed more toward strongpoint than to global containment .
= = = Cultural views = = =
Noting the large @-@ scale Mexican immigration to the Southwestern United States , Kennan said in 2002 there were " unmistakable evidences of a growing differentiation between the cultures , respectively , of large southern and southwestern regions of this country , on the one hand " , and those of " some northern regions " . In the former , " the very culture of the bulk of the population of these regions will tend to be primarily Latin @-@ American in nature rather than what is inherited from earlier American traditions ... Could it really be that there was so little of merit [ in America ] that it deserves to be recklessly trashed in favor of a polyglot mix @-@ mash ? " Mayers argues that Kennan throughout his career represented the " tradition of militant nativism " that resembled or even exceeded the Know Nothings of the 1850s . Mayers adds that Kennan also believed American women had too much power .
= Irish Thoroughbred =
Irish Thoroughbred is American author Nora Roberts 's debut novel , originally published by Silhouette in January 1981 as a category romance . Like other category romances , the novel was less than 200 pages and was intended to be on sale for only one month . It proved so popular that it was repackaged as a stand @-@ alone romance and reprinted multiple times . Roberts wrote two sequels , Irish Rebel and Irish Rose .
Roberts drew on her Irish heritage to create an Irish heroine , Adelia " Dee " Cunnane . In the novel , Dee moves to the United States , where her sick uncle arranges for her to marry his employer , wealthy American horsebreeder Travis Grant . Although the early part of their relationship is marked by frequent arguments and misunderstanding , by the end of the story Travis and Dee reconcile . According to critic Mary Ellen Snodgrass , the couple 's transformation from adversaries to a loving married couple is one of many formulaic elements in the book . Although the protagonists adhered to many stereotypes common to romance novels of the 1980s , Roberts 's heroine is more independent and feisty than most heroines of the time . This book 's popularity helped pave the way for other romance authors to experiment with heroes and heroines who had greater economic and emotional parity .
= = Publication = =
In 1979 , Nora Roberts was a stay @-@ at @-@ home mother with two small children . Stranded during a blizzard with nothing to read , Roberts amused herself by writing down one of the stories in her head . After developing her idea into a novel @-@ length contemporary romance , she continued writing and soon finished six more manuscripts . Roberts submitted her work to Harlequin Enterprises , a Canadian company considered the foremost publisher of romance novels in North America . Harlequin typically published works by British authors set in the British Commonwealth , but in 1975 Harlequin relaxed its criteria slightly and purchased several novels from American Janet Dailey . Unconvinced that the market would appreciate novels such as Dailey 's – all featuring American protagonists and set in the United States – Harlequin was unwilling to further expose itself to risk . As a result , the company quickly rejected Roberts 's work ; one editor explained that " they already had their American writer . "
In an effort to take advantage of the untapped talent of American writers , in 1980 Simon & Schuster created a new imprint , Silhouette Books , to serve as a counterpart to Harlequin . Roberts sent her seventh manuscript , Irish Thoroughbred , unsolicited to the new company . Nancy Jackson , the acquiring editor at Silhouette , pulled the manuscript from the slush pile and was impressed . She offered Roberts a contract , leaving the writer " awestruck " .
= = Plot summary = =
The novel follows the relationship between Irishwoman Adelia " Dee " Cunnane and American Travis Grant . As the story begins , the young and penniless Dee emigrates to the United States to live with her uncle , Paddy , who works on a large horse farm . Dee 's love for animals is evident , and she is given a job working alongside her uncle . Dee has a fiery temper and often argues with Travis , the wealthy farm owner ; many of their arguments lead to passionate embraces . Travis later rescues Dee from an attempted rape .
When Paddy suffers a heart attack , he becomes very concerned about his mortality and Dee 's future . He becomes overwrought and insists that Travis take care of Dee . After privately agreeing to a temporary marriage of convenience , Travis and Dee exchange vows in Paddy 's hospital room . As the story progresses , the protagonists become increasingly unhappy , with neither willing to admit their love for the other .
Although still unwilling to vocalize their feelings , Dee and Travis appear more confident in their relationship after they finally consummate their marriage . Soon , however , Dee 's insecurities are exploited by Travis 's sophisticated former girlfriend , Margot , who has returned to the area to win him back . Dee runs away . Travis follows , and the two confess their love and resolve to make their marriage work .
= = Genre = =
Irish Thoroughbred was initially published as a category romance novel . Books in this genre are short – usually between 175 and 200 pages , or about 55 @,@ 000 words – and are published in clearly delineated lines , or categories . Although each category romance novel is unique , it is required to conform to the general parameters that define its line . The small number of books published in each line every month are numbered sequentially within the line . Irish Thoroughbred was number 81 in the Silhouette Romance line . Novels in this line espouse more traditional family values and place greater emphasis on the characters ' emotions rather than their physical needs . Although these novels often describe sexual tension between the main characters , sexual intercourse is only described within the bounds of marriage .
Category romances are generally only available for a limited time , remaining on a bookseller 's shelves until they are sold out or until the next month 's titles are released . Popular category romances can be repacked as stand @-@ alone romance novels ; Irish Thoroughbred received five printings by 1984 . In 2000 , the book was paired with its sequel , Irish Rose , and republished as Irish Hearts , with an initial print run of one million copies . This coincided with the release of a second sequel , Irish Rebel , which focused on Travis and Dee 's daughter .
= = Themes = =
Silhouette editors were originally concerned that the novel was too ethnic . Like many of her early novels , Roberts 's debut featured characters who shared the Irish culture in which Roberts had been raised . The opening pages , alluding to the introductory scene of Daphne du Maurier 's Rebecca , detailed the heroine 's awed reaction to the extravagance of an American estate . This plotline of an impoverished Irishwoman 's surprise at the wealth of America essentially reframed the Irish emigration to the United States of the 19th century .
According to literary critic Mary Ellen Snodgrass , Irish Thoroughbred is not as polished as later Roberts works . Snodgrass cites many predictable elements , including the core " confrontation between an overconfident male and an assertive girl @-@ woman " . Throughout the 1970s and early 1980s , romance novel heroines were generally " trembling virgins " , of an inferior class and power level than the hero . The hero often was very rich and powerful , while the heroine worked in traditional , subordinate , female roles , such as governess or secretary . The heroine of Irish Thoroughbred conformed to this pattern in part , by being sexually inexperienced , immature , and poor , but Roberts deliberately deviated from the rest of the stereotype by providing her with a hot @-@ tempered and independent personality . Her later books have continued in the same vein . As Roberts explains , " My heroine may have problems , she may be vulnerable , but she has to be strong , she has to be intelligent . She has to be independent and so does he , or I 'm not interested in telling their stories . " The popularity of this book and Roberts 's subsequent novels helped transform the genre , making authors more willing to give heroes and heroines economic and emotional parity .
Despite the greater independence that Roberts allotted her heroine , Dee is trapped within a patriarchal culture in which her uncle and prospective husband arrange her future . The arranged marriage and ensuing events , including the misunderstanding and her running away , were common plot elements for romance novels at that time . Dee 's reactions , however , veered from the formulaic . Her retorts brought to mind the " quippy one @-@ upmanship of feminist literature " . When a man attempts to rape her , Dee responds with a series of sharp comments , calling him , among other things , " a filthy pig of a man " , before succumbing to the traditional feminine response of fainting in horror .
Roberts also includes the motif of jealousy . Dee is given a rival for Travis 's affections – an over @-@ sophisticated woman who is essentially Dee 's antithesis . Roberts reused this plot point in other novels , including Song of the West .
= Pulvermacher 's chain =
The Pulvermacher chain , or in full as it was sold the Pulvermacher hydro @-@ electric chain , was a type of voltaic battery sold in the second half of the 19th century for medical applications . Its chief market was amongst the numerous quack practitioners who were taking advantage of the popularity of the relatively new treatment of electrotherapy , or " electrification " as it was then known . Its unique selling point was its construction of numerous linked cells , rendering it mechanically flexible . A variant intended to be worn wrapped on part of the body for long periods was known as Pulvermacher 's galvanic chain or electric belt .
The Pulvermacher Company attracted a great deal of antagonism from the medical community due to their use of the names of well @-@ known physicians in their advertising without permission . The nature of their business ; in selling to charlatans and promoting quack practices also made them unpopular with the medical community . Despite this , the Pulvermacher chain was widely reported as a useful source of electricity for medical and scientific purposes , even amongst the most vocal critics of the Pulvermacher Company .
= = Construction = =
Electrically , the machine worked like a voltaic pile , but was constructed completely differently . The electrodes were copper for the cathode and zinc for the anode , with the electrolyte consisting of vinegar or some other weak acid , or a salt solution .
Each cell consisted of a wooden dowel with a bifilar winding of copper and zinc wires . The dowels were helically grooved like a screw thread to locate the wires precisely in position . This enabled the copper and zinc wires to be placed very close to each other without coming into electrical contact . Insulated wires could not be used as this would interfere with the operation of the electrolyte . Copper wires were inserted into the ends of the dowels to which the copper and zinc windings were soldered . These end wires were either attached to , or formed into , hooks and eyes for attaching to other cells . This arrangement is depicted in figure 2 . These attachments provided the electrical connections as well as the mechanical linkages .
Each cell was connected to the next with the copper winding of one being connected to the zinc winding of the next and so on . The cells could be connected end @-@ to @-@ end , or for a more compact assembly side @-@ by @-@ side , in the manner of links in a chain . The voltage delivered by the assembly was controlled by the number of links thus incorporated and could become quite high , even though the current available was no more than from a single cell ( to increase the current , the size of the cells must be increased ) . The shock delivered by such chains was described as " strong " for one chain of 120 links , and as " sharp " for another of 50 links .
Prior to use , the chain was soaked in vinegar so that the electrolyte was absorbed into the wooden dowels . The wood of which the dowels were made was chosen to be a very porous type so that the amount of electrolyte absorbed was maximised . The chain would continue to produce a voltage until the dowels dried out , then the chain would have to be resoaked . Typically , the chain would be charged by slowly drawing it through a bowl of vinegar as shown in figure 4 .
A special link could be included in the chain which incorporated an interrupter circuit . The purpose of the interrupter is to rapidly connect and disconnect the circuit so that the normally steady current of the battery is turned into a rapidly varying current . The usual practice in the use of medical electrical batteries was to feed the output of the interrupter to an induction coil in order to increase the voltage applied to the patient by transformer action . In Pulvermacher 's patent however , there is no mention of using induction coils - the Pulvermacher battery could produce large voltages merely by adding more links to the chain . However , the interrupter still had an effect in that an interrupted current produces a stronger sensation of electric shock in the patient than a steady current . A novel feature of Pulvermacher 's interrupter was that it was operated by the action of a vibrating spring kept in motion by the movements of
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the patient without the need for any external input . Interrupters of the time typically had to be hand @-@ cranked by the physician , although there were already some in existence using electro @-@ mechanical automatic interrupters . Later versions of the Pulvermacher chain used clockwork driven interrupters whose rate of interruption could be adjusted so that the rate of shock to the patient could be controlled . Such a clockwork interrupter is fitted to the chain shown in figure 1 . It is wound up by turning the handle at the left end .
By 1869 a variant of this chain had appeared . In this the wooden dowels were dispensed with , and instead a hollow tube of zinc or magnesium was used . The zinc tube itself formed the anode of the cell , and over this was wound the copper wire cathode , or in yet another version , rings of copper plates . The zinc tube and copper wire were kept apart by stitches of thread . Magnesium was not commonly used by battery manufacturers of the time due to its very high price ( unlike today ) compared to zinc . However , a cell made with magnesium in place of zinc produces around twice the voltage . More importantly for Pulvermacher , the cell would still output some voltage if the electrolyte was replaced with plain water . Pulvermacher marketed a type of chain that was designed to be worn wrapped around a limb being treated and was claimed to operate with body sweat acting as the electrolyte and no need to charge it with electrolyte from an external source . Pulvermacher also produced a smaller " pocket version " of the chain which had fewer links than the full 120 @-@ cell version .
= = Pulvermacher = =
Isaac Lewis Pulvermacher was a physicist and inventor originally concerned with the electric telegraph . He first published details of his chain in August 1850 in German and in the winter of that same year came to Britain to demonstrate the machine to notable physicians . He visited London and Edinburgh on this trip . He gives his residence as Breslau , Kingdom of Prussia in his 1853 US patent . Prior to this , however , he had arrived in Britain from Vienna and all the British sources of the time describe him as " of Vienna " .
= = Medical opinion = =
At first , there was a very positive reaction to Pulvermacher . Early in 1851 Pulvermacher gave Golding Bird , a well known London physician with an interest in electrotherapy , a sample of the machine with which to experiment . Bird was impressed enough with it that he later gave a representative of the Pulvermacher Company a testimonial as a letter of introduction to physicians in Edinburgh . Bird thought that the battery would make a useful source of portable electricity and could be used for treating patients with some forms of paralysis in their homes . Contemporary equipment was not very portable , and in the case of friction machines required skilled operators to keep going . By October 1851 Bird felt that he had tested the device sufficiently to give it a glowing article in The Lancet . But even at this early stage there were signs of disquiet . Even as he wrote the favourable report in The Lancet Bird felt the need to level criticism at the Pulvermacher Company 's London agent , one C. Meinig , for promoting the device as a " universal panacea " for almost any imaginable complaint in the company 's advertisements . Bird was a tireless opponent of quack practitioners , and was particular quick to criticise medically unqualified electrical treatment , as he felt this was a reason professional acceptance of his own work in electrotherapy was being held back . The quack practitioner market was the very sector that the Pulvermacher Company 's unrestrained claims were aimed at . Nevertheless , Bird was gracious enough to specifically exclude Pulvermacher himself from responsibility for these " injudiciously puffed " claims .
By April 1853 the situation had become very acrimonuous . Meinig had been using extracts from the testimonial provided by Bird without permission in order to bolster the Company 's , medically largely unsupported , quack advertising claims . Bird threatened a legal injunction but Meinig refused to desist and tried to imply that Bird was benefitting from the publicity . A letter writing campaign by one Dr. McIntyre against the Pulvermacher advertisements led to an exchange of letters in the Association Medical Journal . Bird made plain that he had only ever recommended the chain as a convenient source of electricity and did not support any of the claimed curative powers , most especially those that were supposed to produce instant results ( a typical course of electrotherapy at the time could last several months ) . He criticised some of the chains being sold as delivering " too feeble " a current to be of any medical use and pointed out that the proposed procedure of wrapping the device around an affected limb would make it useless since a conductive path through the skin across each cell would prevent a useful voltage being developed at the terminals ( Pulvermacher even suggests in his patent that contact with the body generates enough electricity to be effective even without electrolyte ) . This resulted in the Journal removing the Pulvermacher advertisements from its pages . The Association Medical Journal was quickly followed by the Medical Times and with growing pressure on The Lancet to do the same this pretty much ended professional medical support for the device , at least for the time being .
Despite this inauspicious start with the medical profession , the Pulvermacher chain continued to be described in scientific and medical journals and books as a useful tool throughout the late 1850s and 1860s , even being mentioned in the proceedings of the Royal Society . Even Bird , at the height of his dispute with the Pulvermacher company found himself able to say " the battery of Pulvermacher is an ingenious and useful source of electricity ... " Although banned from much of the medical press , the Pulvermacher Company did not restrain its advertising claims or its use of notable names . The College of Dentists investigated its possible use as an anaesthetic during tooth extraction but found no benefit with the device frequently adding to the pain . In 1869 , the Pulvermacher Company again found itself the subject of discussion in the medical press when they were involved in legal proceedings . This time the company was itself the victim of quacks when its product was pirated with poor quality imitations and this was the cause of the court case . The Medical Times was prompted by this to examine the efficacy of the Pulvermacher chain ending a long period of the paper ignoring it as a worthless quack instrument . The result was a very positive review of the chain 's function and the reviewer particularly praised the workmanship .
= = Competition and decline = =
Pulvermacher patented the chain battery in the US in 1853 . This was soon followed by the wearable chain battery belt , or electric belt . Electric belts became enormously popular in the US , far more so than in Europe . This led to the company headquarters being moved to Cincinnati by the 1880s as the Pulvermacher Galvanic Company , but still calling themselves Pulvermacher 's of London for the prestige of a European connection . Early models had to be soaked in vinegar before use as in England , but later on models that worked purely by galvanic action with body sweat were introduced . Since the device was being sold essentially as a quack cure it was only necessary to generate enough electricity that the wearer could feel it , no matter how slightly , and know that it was working .
Electric belts were made for every conceivable part of the human anatomy : limbs , abdomen , chest , neck – sometimes all worn at the same time . Pulvermacher even had a model designed to attach to the male genitals in a special sac which was claimed to cure impotence and erectile dysfunction . Pulvermacher promoted a theory that loss of " male vigour " in later life was a consequence of masturbation in early life and that a limited supply of semen , which provided the vigour , would run out before time if wasted . Pulvermacher 's device was meant to address this shortcoming .
Competition was very intense for this lucrative market and the claimed benefits became ever more extravagant . Amongst Pulvermacher 's many competitors in the US were the German Electric Belt Company ( actually New York based ) , Dr Crystal 's , Dr. Horn 's , Addison 's , Edson 's , Edison 's , Owen 's and Heidelberg 's . Edison 's was founded by Thomas Edison Junior , whose father was the famous Thomas Edison . Owen 's was originally New York based but expanded across the country until they were put out of business due to fraud . In Europe too , there were competitors . The Medical Battery Company of England made a popular belt . They attempted ( unsuccessfully ) to sue the Electrical Review when that paper accused them of quackery in 1892 . The Iona Company , an Oregon @-@ based company founded by Henry Gaylord Wilshire was still selling belts in 1926 and making large profits : $ 36 @,@ 000 ( $ 481 @,@ 000 inflation adjusted ) net from 2 @,@ 445 belts in five months . By the end of the 1920s the electric belt 's popularity had severely declined ( but not the public 's appetite for other quack electric cures ) and the scientific market had long since moved on to better electrical generation technology than chain batteries .
= = Popular culture = =
The Pulvermacher chain , especially in the form of one being worn on the body , was very familiar in the late 19th and early 20th century and would not have needed to be explained to an audience . For instance , there are references to it in the novel Madame Bovary when the character Homais wearing a number of Pulvermacher chains is described as " more bandaged than a Scythian " .
= Mindomys =
Mindomys hammondi , also known as Hammond 's rice rat or Hammond 's oryzomys , is a species of rodent in the tribe Oryzomyini of family Cricetidae . Formerly considered to be related with Nectomys , Sigmodontomys , Megalomys , or Oryzomys , it is now placed in its own genus , Mindomys , but its relationships remain obscure ; some evidence supports a placement near Oecomys or as a basal member of Oryzomyini .
Mindomys hammondi is known only from Ecuador , where it occurs in montane forest ; a record from the Amazonian lowlands is dubious . Reportedly , it lives on the ground and is associated with water ; other suggest it lives in trees . A large , long @-@ tailed , and long @-@ whiskered rat , its fur is buff above and abruptly lighter below . The front part of the skull ( rostrum ) is heavily built .
The species is named after the collector who first found it , Gilbert Hammond . He supplied natural history specimens to Oldfield Thomas and others .
= = Taxonomy = =
= = = Discovery and classification in Nectomys = = =
In 1913 , Oldfield Thomas of the British Museum of Natural History ( BMNH ) in London published the first description of Mindomys hammondi , using two specimens collected at Mindo in Pichincha Province , Ecuador , in 1913 by Gilbert Hammond . He named the species Nectomys hammondi , classifying it in the genus Nectomys , which at the time included not only the large water rats currently placed in it , but also Sigmodontomys alfari and Oryzomys dimidiatus . He considered the animal to be most closely related to Nectomys russulus , a species he had himself described in 1897 and which is now recognized as a synonym of Sigmodontomys alfari .
In his 1941 review The Families and Genera of Living Rodents , Sir John Ellerman retained N. hammondi as a species of Nectomys , but noted that the features of its teeth were atypical for the genus , as " the cusps appear to show no tendency to become suppressed . " Reviewing the genus Nectomys in 1944 , Philip Hershkovitz listed N. hammondi among species of Nectomys incertae sedis ( of uncertain position ) , and considered its placement in Nectomys as dubious . Characters he listed as conflicting with a Nectomys identity of the species included the short hindfoot with a long fifth toe , the weakly developed posterolateral palatal pits ( perforations of the palate near the third molars ) , and the orientation of the zygomatic plate .
= = = Classification in Oryzomys = = =
Hershkovitz published again on Nectomys in 1948 after examining additional material , including the holotype of N. hammondi . He now considered the latter to be a species of Oryzomys ( at the time a large genus that included most of the current members of the tribe Oryzomyini ) , but distinctive enough to be placed in its own subgenus . Noting that the species was " extremely long @-@ tailed " , he introduced the subgeneric name Macruroryzomys for hammondi . He also wrote that Oryzomys aphrastus ( currently Sigmodontomys aphrastus ) , then known only from Costa Rica , may be the closest relative of hammondi .
In his 1962 Ph.D. thesis , Clayton Ray considered O. hammondi to be most closely related to Megalomys , which includes giant rats from the Caribbean , and classified it as a member of the subgenus Megalomys of genus Oryzomys . In 1970 , Hershkovitz treated the species in another publication and noted that his name Macruroryzomys was a nomen nudum ( " naked name " ) because he had not explicitly mentioned characters differentiating it from other taxa in his 1948 publication . Nevertheless , he did not do anything to rectify the situation , and Macruroryzomys remains a nomen nudum . Hershkovitz rejected any relationship between O. hammondi and Nectomys or O. aphrastus and instead argued that O. hammondi was closely similar to Megalomys and may be close to the ancestor of Megalomys . In 1982 , Steadman and Ray mentioned the animal in passing under the name Macruroryzomys hammondi and reaffirmed its relationship to Megalomys . In the 2005 third edition of Mammal Species of the World , Guy Musser and Michael Carleton listed O. hammondi as an Oryzomys of obscure affinities , but suggested that it may be related to Megalomys .
= = = Classification in Mindomys = = =
In 2006 , Marcelo Weksler published a large @-@ scale cladistic analysis of Oryzomyini ( " rice rats " ) , the group ( tribe ) to which hammondi and the related species mentioned above belong . He used both morphological and molecular characters , but had only morphological data for Oryzomys hammondi . The placement of the species in his results was unstable ; some trees placed it close to the tree rice rats , Oecomys , within clade B and others placed it as an isolated lineage , basal to all other Oryzomyini .
Traits of O. hammondi that supported the latter placement include : a relatively short palate that does not extend behind the maxillary bones ; simple posterolateral palatal pits ; absence of a capsular process ( a raising of the bone of the mandible , or lower jaw , at the back end of the incisor ) ; and presence of the posteroloph on the upper third molar ( a crest at the back of the tooth ) . In these characters , O. hammondi differs from many or most Oryzomyini and is similar to some species outside Oryzomyini , but all traits of O. hammondi are present in at least one other member of the tribe . Traits shared by O. hammondi and Oecomys included : tail with the same coloration above and below ( unicolored ) ; parietal bones extending to the sides of the skull ; narrow zygomatic plate , without a zygomatic notch ; posteroloph present on upper third molar ; mesoflexus ( a valley in the molar crown in front of the mesoloph crest ) on upper second molar not divided in two .
In Weksler 's analysis , species placed in Oryzomys did not form a coherent ( monophyletic ) group , but instead were found at various positions across the oryzomyine tree , and he suggested that most of these species , including O. hammondi , should be placed in new genera . Later in 2006 , Weksler and others described ten new genera for species formerly placed in Oryzomys , including Mindomys for hammondi . Noting its " enigmatic distribution " and uncertain but perhaps basal position within Oryzomyini , they labeled the species an " extraordinary rat " worthy of continued inquiry . The generic name refers to Mindo , the type locality of M. hammondi .
Mindomys is now one of about 28 genera in the tribe Oryzomyini , which includes well over a hundred species distributed mainly in South America , including nearby islands such as the Galápagos Islands and some of the Antilles . Oryzomyini is one of several tribes recognized within the subfamily Sigmodontinae , which encompasses hundreds of species found across South America and into southern North America . Sigmodontinae itself is the largest subfamily of the family Cricetidae , other members of which include voles , lemmings , hamsters , and deermice , all mainly from Eurasia and North America .
= = Description = =
Mindomys hammondi is a large rice rat ; all other rats within its range are smaller . The fur is relatively short and woolly and is buffy with a grayish tone above and much paler — yellow or white — below , with the bases of the hairs grey . It has a long snout and small , dark ears that appear hairless . The vibrissae ( whiskers ) are long . The very long tail is dark both above and below and has rectangular scales . The hindfeet are broad , with long , narrow digits . They have poorly developed ungual tufts , patches of hair between the digits and along the plantar margins . The squamae , small structures resembling scales that cover the soles of the hindfeet in many oryzomyines , are indistinct . The fifth digit reaches to about half the length of the second phalange of the fourth . As in most oryzomyines , females have eight mammae . In specimens with published measurements , head and body length is 173 to 203 mm ( 6 @.@ 8 to 8 @.@ 0 in ) , tail length is 251 mm ( 9 @.@ 9 in ) , hindfoot length is 41 to 42 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 to 1 @.@ 7 in ) , ear length is 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) , and greatest length of skull is 39 @.@ 4 to 43 @.@ 9 mm ( 1 @.@ 55 to 1 @.@ 73 in ) .
= = = Skull = = =
In the skull , the rostrum ( front part ) is large and robust . The nasal bones are short , not extending further back than the lacrimals , and the premaxillaries extend about as far back as the nasals . The zygomatic plate is narrow and lacks a zygomatic notch , an extension of the plate at the front . The plate 's back margin is level with the front of the first upper molar . The narrowest part of the interorbital region , located between the eyes , is to the front and its margins exhibit strong beading . Various crests develop on the long braincase , especially in old animals . The parietal bones form part of the roof of the braincase and , unlike in some other rice rats , also extend to the sides of the braincase .
The incisive foramina , perforations of the palate between the incisors and the molars , are short , not extending between the molars . The condition of the posterolateral palatal pits is variable , with some individuals having small pits and others having larger pits that may be recessed into a fossa ( depression ) . The palate is moderately long , extending beyond the molars but not beyond the posterior margins of the maxillary bone . In most specimens , the roof of the mesopterygoid fossa , the gap behind the back of the palate , is not perforated by sphenopalatine vacuities and thus it is fully ossified ; if present , these vacuities are small . Mindomys lacks an alisphenoid strut ; in some other oryzomyines , this extension of the alisphenoid bone separates two openings ( foramina ) in the skull , the masticatory – buccinator foramen and the foramen ovale accessorium . There are no openings in the mastoid bone . The squamosal bone lacks a suspensory process that contacts the tegmen tympani , the roof of the tympanic cavity , a defining character of oryzomyines .
In the mandible , the mental foramen , an opening in the mandible just before the first molar , opens to the outside , not upwards as in a few other oryzomyines . The upper and lower masseteric ridges , which anchor some of the chewing muscles , join at a point below the first molar and do not extend forward beyond that point . There is no capsular process of the lower incisor , a trait Mindomys shares with only a few other oryzomyines .
= = = Molars = = =
The molars are bunodont ( with the cusps higher than the connecting crests ) and brachydont ( low @-@ crowned ) . On the upper first and second molar , the outer and inner valleys between the cusps and crests interpenetrate . Many accessory crests are present , including the mesolophs and mesolophids . The anterocone and anteroconid , the front cusps on the upper and lower first molar , are not divided into smaller outer and inner cusps . Unlike in Nectomys , Oryzomys , and Megalomys , the first upper and lower molars usually lack accessory roots , so that each of the three upper molars has two roots on the outer side and one on the inner side and each of the lower molars has one root at the front and one at the back .
= = Distribution and ecology = =
A rare species , Mindomys hammondi is known only from Ecuador . Between 1913 and 1980 , eight specimens have been collected at Mindo , a " tiny agricultural community " at 1 @,@ 264 m ( 4 @,@ 147 ft ) elevation in Pichincha Province , northwestern Ecuador . Another specimen is labeled as having been collected on July 27 , 1929 , by the Olalla family of professional collectors in Concepción , a locality in the Amazonian lowlands of Napo Province , around 300 to 500 m ( 980 to 1 @,@ 640 ft ) above sea level . If this record is correct , Mindomys would be unique among small , non @-@ flying mammals native to Ecuador in occurring at relatively low elevations on both sides of the Andes . Furthermore , other collectors working in the same area in Napo have failed to find Mindomys , and the date the specimen was reportedly collected does not accord with the dates reported for the visit of the Olallas to Concepción , rendering its provenance dubious . There are two other locations named " Concepción " in northwestern Ecuador , and Diego Tirira suggested in 2007 that the specimen may instead be from one of these . Another specimen is known from Chaco , Imbabura Province , at an altitude of 630 m ( 2 @,@ 070 ft ) .
Citing unpublished work by Tirira and Percequillo , the 2009 IUCN Red List reports that Mindomys is known from eleven specimens collected at four localities in northwestern Ecuador , and that its altitudinal range extends from 1 @,@ 200 to 2 @,@ 700 m ( 3 @,@ 900 to 8 @,@ 900 ft ) above sea level , but does not give details . The species occurs in moist , montane forest on the foothills of the western Andes .
Almost nothing is known of the biology of Mindomys . In 1999 , Eisenberg and Redford suggested that the species may live in trees ; in 2007 , Tirira agreed , citing the animal 's broad feet . Tirira also suggested that it is nocturnal ( active during the night ) and solitary and eats fruits , seeds , and insects . According to the 2009 IUCN Red List , it lives on the ground and " apparently has some affinity with water " .
= = Conservation status = =
The IUCN Red List lists Mindomys hammondi as " endangered " in view of its small known distribution and a continuing decline in the extent and quality of its habitat . Up to 40 % of its habitat may already have been destroyed , and the species was last recorded in 1980 . It is not known to occur in any protected areas , but has been recorded close to the protected forest of Mindo @-@ Nambillo . It prefers well @-@ conserved primary forest .
= Fusible plug =
A fusible plug is a threaded metal cylinder usually of bronze , brass or gunmetal , with a tapered hole drilled completely through its length . This hole is sealed with a metal of low melting point that flows away if a pre @-@ determined , high temperature is reached . The initial use of the fusible plug was as a safety precaution against low water levels in steam engine boilers , but later applications extended its use to other closed vessels , such as air conditioning systems and tanks for transporting corrosive or liquefied petroleum gasses .
= = Purpose = =
A fusible plug operates as a safety valve when dangerous temperatures , rather than dangerous pressures , are reached in a closed vessel . In steam engines the fusible plug is screwed into the crown sheet ( the top plate ) of the firebox , typically extending about an inch ( 25mm ) into the water space above . Its purpose is to act as a last @-@ resort safety device in the event of the water level falling dangerously low : when the top of the plug is out of the water it overheats , the low @-@ melting @-@ point core melts away and the resulting noisy release of steam into the firebox serves to warn the operators of the danger before the top of the firebox itself runs completely dry , which could result in catastrophic failure of the boiler . The temperature of the flue gases in a steam engine firebox can reach 1000 ° F ( 550 ° C ) , at which temperature copper , from which historically most fireboxes were made , softens to a state which can no longer sustain the boiler pressure and a severe explosion will result if water is not put into the boiler quickly and the fire removed or extinguished . The hole through the plug is too small to have any great effect in reducing the steam pressure and the small amount of water , if any , that passes through it is not expected to have any great impact in quenching the fire .
= = History = =
The device was invented in 1803 by Richard Trevithick , the proponent of high @-@ pressure ( as opposed to atmospheric ) steam engines , in consequence of an explosion in one of his new boilers . His detractors were eager to denounce the whole concept of high @-@ pressure steam , but Trevithick proved that the accident happened because his fireman had neglected to keep the boiler full of water . He publicised his invention widely , without patent , to counter these criticisms .
= = = Experiments = = =
Experiments conducted by the Franklin Institute , Boston , in the 1830s had initially cast doubt on the practice of adding water as soon as the escape of steam through the device was noted . A steam boiler was fitted with a small observation window of glass and heated beyond its normal operating temperature with the water level below the top of the firebox . When water was added it was found that the pressure rose suddenly and the observation glass shattered . The report concluded that the high temperature of the metal had vaporised the added water too quickly and that an explosion was the inevitable result . It was not until 1852 that this assumption was challenged : Thomas Redmond , one of the Institute 's own inspectors , specifically ruled out this theory in his investigation into the boiler explosion on the steam ship Redstone on the Ohio River on 3 April that year . A 1907 investigation in Wales came to a similar conclusion : a steam locomotive belonging to the Rhymney Railway was inadvertently sent out with its safety valves wrongly assembled . The pressure in the boiler built up to the extent that the injectors failed ; the crown sheet became uncovered , was weakened by the heat of the fire and violently blew apart . The investigation , led by Colonel Druitt of the Railway Inspectorate , dismissed the theory that the enginemen had succeeded in starting the injectors and that the sudden flood of cold water had caused such a generation of steam that the boiler burst . He quoted the results of experiments by the Manchester Steam Users ' Association , a national boiler certification and insurance body , that proved that the weight of copper present ( considered with its specific heat ) was insufficient to generate enough steam to raise the boiler pressure at all . Indeed , the addition of cold water had caused the pressure to fall . From then on it was accepted that the correct action in the event of the operation of the fusible plug was to add water .
= = = Cored fusible plugs = = =
The original design was a simple solid plug filled with a slug of low @-@ melting @-@ point alloy . When this melts , it first melts as a narrow channel through the plug . Steam and water immediately begins to escape through this . The cored fusible plug was developed in the 1860s to give a wide opening as soon as the alloy softens . This version has a solid brass or bronze centre , soldered into place by a layer of the low @-@ melting @-@ point alloy . When overheated , the plug does not release any steam or water until the alloy melts sufficiently to release the centre plug . The plug now fails dramatically , opening its entire bore immediately . This full @-@ bore jet is then more likely to be noticed .
= = = Un @-@ noticed melted plugs = = =
A drawback to the device was found on 7 March 1948 , when the firebox crown sheet of Princess Alexandra , a Coronation Pacific of the London , Midland and Scottish Railway , failed while hauling a passenger train from Glasgow to London . Enquiries established that both water gauges were defective and on a journey earlier that day one or both of the fusible plugs had melted , but this had gone unnoticed by the engine crew because of the strong draught carrying the escaping steam away from them .
= = Maintenance = =
= = = Alloy composition = = =
Investigation showed the importance of the alloy on plug ageing . Alloys were initially favoured as they offered lower eutectic melting points than pure metals . It was found though that alloys aged poorly and could encourage the development of a matrix of oxides on the water surface of the plug , this matrix having a dangerously high melting point that made the plug inoperable . In 1888 the US Steamboat Inspection Service made a requirement that plugs were to be made of pure banca tin and replaced annually . This avoided lead and also zinc contamination . Zinc contamination was regarded as so serious a problem that the case of the plugs was also changed from brass ( a copper @-@ zinc alloy ) to a zinc @-@ free copper @-@ tin bronze , to avoid the risk of zinc migrating from the housing into the alloy plug .
= = = Plug ageing = = =
In the 1920s investigations by the U.S. Bureau of Standards , in conjunction with the Steamboat Inspection Service , found that in use encrustation and oxidation above the fusible core can increase melting point of the device and prevent it from working when needed : melting points in excess of 2000 ° F ( 1100 ° C ) in used examples have been found . Typical current practice in locomotives requires new plugs to be inspected after " 15 to 30 working days ( dependent upon water condition and use of locomotive ) or at least once every six months , " depending on the boiler operating pressure and temperature .
= = Other applications = =
The principle of the fusible plug is also applied to the transport of liquefied petroleum gases , where fusible plugs ( or small , exposed patches of the containers ' lining membrane ) are designed to melt or become porous if too high a temperature is reached : a controlled release , at a typical temperature of 250 ° F ( 120 ° C ) , is preferable to an explosive release ( a " BLEVE " ) at a higher temperature . Corrosive gas containers , such as those used for liquid chlorine , are fitted with one or more fusible plugs with an operating temperature of about 158 to 165 ° F ( 70 – 74 ° C ) .
Fusible plugs are common in aircraft wheels , typically in larger or high @-@ performance aircraft . The very large thermal loads imposed by abnormal landing and braking conditions ( and RTO notably ) can cause already high pressure in the tyres to rise to the point that the tyre might burst , so fusible plugs are used as a relief mechanism . The vented gas may be directed to cool the braking surfaces .
Fusible plugs are sometimes fitted to the receivers of air compressors as a precaution against the ignition of any lubricating oil vapour that might be present . Should the action of the compressor heat the air above a safe temperature the core will melt and release the pressure .
Automobile air conditioning systems were commonly fitted with fusible plugs , operating at 100 – 110 ° C , but from concerns about the environmental effects of any released refrigerant gas this function has been taken over by an electrical switch .
A patented ( Patent published 1867 ) type of fireproof safe uses a fusible plug to douse its contents with water if the external temperature gets too high .
= Confessions ( Usher album ) =
Confessions is the fourth studio album by American singer Usher . It was released on March 23 , 2004 , by Arista Records . Recording sessions for the album took place during 2003 to 2004 , with its production handled by his longtime collaborator Jermaine Dupri , alongside with Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis and Lil Jon , among others . Primarily an R & B album , Confessions showcases Usher as a crooner and incorporates musical elements of hip hop and crunk . The album 's themes generated controversy about Usher 's personal relationships ; however , the album 's primary producer Jermaine Dupri claimed the record reflects his personal story .
The album became the instant commercial success in the United States , selling 1 @.@ 1 million copies in its first week . Its continued success was bolstered by its four chart @-@ topping singles . To begin strategizing of boosting its sales amid threats of bootlegging , the special edition for the album was issued , which includes the hit single , " My Boo " ; a duet with Alicia Keys . Despite some mixed criticism towards its lyrical substance , Confessions received mostly positive reviews and earned Usher several awards ; including the Grammy Award for Best Contemporary R & B Album .
The album has been regarded by music writers as Usher 's greatest work , and according to Billboard , is the second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s decade in the United States . With over eight million copies sold in 2004 , the album 's commercial success was viewed as a sign of recovering record sales in the US , following three years of decline . It was also exemplary of urban music 's commercial peak and dominance of the Billboard charts in 2004 . Confessions has been certified Diamond by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and , as of 2016 , has sold over 10 million copies in the US and over 20 million copies worldwide .
= = Background and recording = =
When he began recording Confessions in 2003 , Usher claimed he did not want to work with any new producers . Production began between Usher and Jermaine Dupri , who produced his last two albums , My Way ( 1997 ) and 8701 ( 2001 ) . In spite of his vision , Usher stated , " With this album I chose some new producers who I figured would definitely allow me to really articulate myself in a different way ... Every album you gotta grow . You gotta look for something different . " Dupri also invited his frequent collaborator Bryan @-@ Michael Cox . The album features productions by Jimmy Jam and Terry Lewis , Just Blaze , R. Kelly , and Usher 's brother James Lackey .
With forty recorded songs , Usher felt the album had already been completed . Initially , he submitted the album to his record label , Arista . He and the company 's then @-@ president , L. A. Reid , who listened to the record ; however , they thought something was missing in it , " You know what , there 's like one or two more records that we just gotta get . " Usher was displeased with the decision ; he felt returning to the studio was the hardest part and needed to re @-@ motivate himself . He went on recording a few more tracks with help from fellow Atlantian 's Lil Jon and Ludacris . Eventually , the team was able to produce songs like " Red Light " and " Yeah ! " . He also recorded songs with P. Diddy and The Neptunes during one of those sessions but were not released .
= = Composition = =
One of Usher 's first steps of recording Confessions was deciding to reveal " his own little secrets " . Friend and former A & R rep named Kawan " KP " Prather thought the album would let the public know Usher personally , as Kawan " KP " Prather speaks , " The music has never been the question , but people tend to buy into the artist . The more they know about you , the more they feel like they 're there with you . " Primarily because of its personal content , Usher said that this is his chance to be real . He named the album Confessions because he felt it is his most personal record to date : " All of us have our Pandora 's boxes or skeletons in our closets . I let a few of them out , you know . I 've got a lot to say . I 've got a lot of things and stuff built in me that I just want to let go of . " He wrote more songs than he contributed to his previous album .
Several of the songs in this album were conceptually based on a situation . For instance , " Burn " which it has built around the situation where Usher 's two @-@ year relationship with Rozonda " Chilli " Thomas from an American R & B @-@ hip hop girl group TLC has almost ended . Dupri and Cox were talking and felt that there was a song in it , and started writing . Same through with the supposedly title track " Confessions Part II " ; they were conversing about an impregnated mistress , and its concept was written down . Usher has recorded " Confessions Part II " during a July 2003 's recording sessions in New York City , United States . With Usher singing the song 's lyrics , the theme of cheating inspired him and Dupri ; which both of them has decided to produce these two parts ; " Confessions Part I " and " Confessions Part II ( which the former has heard it at the beginning of the video for the latter ) .
= = = Music and style = = =
Confessions falls dominantly in the R & B genre . Usher commented that he chose to work with collaborators who know " ... how to interpret R & B from a jazz standpoint , an old school throwback standpoint , a new school point , a traditional classic standpoint ... " With producers and him set to produce such an album , however , other musical genres including hip hop were incorporated . While he wanted to do R & B , Usher also wanted his fans to experience hip hop at the same time : " I try to think outside the box . " When Lil Jon came on the scene , crunk was introduced to the R & B @-@ centered album , specifically on the Sean Garrett @-@ penned song " Yeah ! " . Usher said , " ' Yeah ! ' could be called the first consciously styled " crunk R & B " record . " The album also includes various slow jams .
This record also introduces a new style for Usher , focusing on his voice and technique . Andre " Dre " Harris and Vidal Davis listened to 8701 and felt that " Usher really needs to sing hard and let people know his vocal ability " . With efforts focused on the record to demonstrate his vocal ability to listeners , songs such as " Superstar " and " Follow Me " exhibited Usher in a type of " crooner mode " . The ballad @-@ oriented " Burn " also showcases his vocal aptitude .
= = Release = =
Confessions was slated to be released on November 6 , 2003 . However , due to marketing issues , the scheduled date was moved to March 23 of the following year . With several songs recorded , Usher faced the challenge of determining the final track listing . Usher , Dupri , Reid , and then @-@ A & R rep Mark Pitts have their favorites among the forty , but decided to choose those which " came up consistently more " . The collective was able to decide fifteen of them with two interludes completing the seventeen track list . Many songs were set aside for future use , including " Red Light " and a remix of " Yeah ! " . Usher and Arista held advance @-@ listenings for the album , few months before its actual release ; he also appeared on TV guestings to promote Confessions .
With strategies to boost the album 's sales albeit threats of stealing music in the internet , Usher and his management readied a follow @-@ up release of Confessions with additional marketing blitz . The idea was considered " musically driven " after Zomba , who absorbed Arista , management was excited about " My Boo " , a song that was recorded for the original version of the album but failed to meet deadline . However , it actually began when American R & B and soul singer Alicia Keys , who is featured on the track , " brought in that the talk of repackaging started " . With the inclusion of " My Boo " , they thought of the album as complete . While they knew of other artists releasing special editions of their albums , the label felt that Confessions had the edge because of its previous success and its physical changes , including a new cover art , an expanded CD booklet , pullout poster and a letter to fans from Usher . The new version includes " My Boo " and " Red Light " , which were leaked alongside other songs that did not appear in the album , and a remix of " Confessions Part II " , and " Seduction " ; original tracks were also improved like the extended version of " Confessions Part I " and a rap added by American rapper Jadakiss in " Throwback " . The label itself treated the version a new album , with full media advertisements . The album was re @-@ issued in October 2004 , seven months after its initial release .
= = = Marketing = = =
When " Yeah ! " was issued , Usher and the label were plagued by marketing strategies . With many potential lead singles that could fare well in music markets , they were choosing between " Yeah ! " and " Burn " . Considering that the former sufficed what the label was looking for , they also believed the latter would be a blockbuster . Usher as well was skeptical that time if " Yeah ! " — which is largely composed around crunk — would be a good choice after doing an R & B record was in his mindset . Meanwhile , they felt " Burn " also failed to meet their expectations : " ' Burn ' being a great song is one thing , but it 's one of them things where people said , ' It 's strong , but can we make history with that ? ' At the end of the day , you want an event . " KP recalled , " Everybody was scared to make that first step . "
With much debate between two songs , " Burn " was originally chosen as the lead single , with plans of filming its music video in late 2003 . Meanwhile , Lil Jon leaked " Yeah ! " to DJs across the United States in November 2003 . Originally , the label did not intend " Yeah ! " as a proper single . Released to street DJs and mixtapes , it was meant to cultivate fans who waited for three years since the release of 8701 . While record labels stayed idle during the Christmas season , " Yeah ! " was getting favorable and quick response from radio stations though nobody was promoting ; it was finally released as the lead single . To keep the album atop the chart , " My Boo " was targeted for release after " Confessions Part II " was diminishing on the Hot 100 . The B @-@ side of the UK release includes " Red Light " and " Sweet Lies " . The single again topped the Hot 100 , giving the album its fourth consecutive number @-@ one . " Caught Up " was released as the album 's fifth and final single , and reached number eight in the United States .
= = = Tour = = =
Usher supported the album with a two @-@ month concert tour called " The Truth Tour " . The tour set featured a small stage up on top of the main stage , where the band played with Usher and his supporting dancers left with enough room to perform . The smaller stage had a mini platform attached to it — which lowered to the main stage — and had two big staircases on both sides of it . To the left , a group of circular staircases climbed to the top , and to the right , there was a fire escape replete with steps and an elevator . Kanye West , who had finished his own headlining tour for his 2004 album The College Dropout , was the opening act for " The Truth Tour " .
Preceding Usher 's entrance was a short movie showing him getting dressed , following on with him performing the opening song " Caught Up " , with Usher dressed in all white . The second song performed was " You Make Me Wanna ... " , where two dancers stayed on the top stage with Usher while two male dancers came out to the lower level with two chairs each in their hands . Each dancer threw one chair up to the top , with Usher already in hand with his own chair , with everyone following a set dance routine . Following this , Usher performed " U Remind Me " , where he danced by himself during a breakdown of the track . He then sang " That 's What It 's Made For " , following on with the song " Bad Girl " , where Usher was dressed up in a lavender suit and came out in a chrome chair . During the song , Usher picked out a female from the crowd , transitioning to " Superstar " , singing to the fan . Usher continued singing to the fan , performing " Can U Handle It ? " , closing the song by kissing the fan who then left the stage . Usher closed his performance with Confessions ' lead single " Yeah ! " .
" The Truth Tour " commenced on August 5 , 2004 in Hampton , Virginia and concluded on October 7 , 2004 in New York . It was ranked as one of the highest grossing tours of 2004 , grossing $ 29 @.@ 1 million .
= = Public reaction = =
After Usher along with his label held a few listening parties for the album , controversies spread about the mistress @-@ impregnating concept of " Confessions Part II " . Although Usher did not foresee such reaction of the album , Dupri already inferred , while making the album , what would be their reaction : " People are gonna question [ Usher ] on a couple of little lyrics ... " Coincidentally , Usher ended his relationship with Chilli early in 2004 . People were speculating about their breakup given the material of the album and his early interviews about its themes . With lyrics Usher admitted to have written because of his guilty conscience , people assumed that he and Chilli broke up because he was unfaithful . In a February 2004 radio interview , Chilli claimed that Usher " cheated " on her that caused their relationship to split .
Amidst widespread rumors , Usher stated , " People assume things , because as I said , I pull from my personal experiences to make my music . " He added that he loved Chilli , however , " ... it just didn 't work out . But cheating is not what caused the relationship to collide and crash ... " Although " Burn " is a reference to his dying relationship with Chilli — hence the title — Usher answered the press that the impregnating issue was not taken from a specific situation in his life . He also revealed that his friends who went through similar situations inspired him to write those songs : " ... it 's just something that I collectively got energy from everybody around me that had been through it . " In early 2006 , Dupri revealed that the story behind the album is his : " ... me cheating on my steady girlfriend , having a baby with that other woman and having to confess to everything that happened to my main girl . "
= = Commercial performance = =
Confessions was commercially successful , selling nearly 1 @.@ 096 million copies in the United States in its first week of release . It became the highest @-@ ever first week sales by an R & B artist , the second @-@ highest first week sales for a male artist , and the seventh @-@ highest first week sales of the recorded album charts history by SoundScan at the time of its release . It also equates the combined first @-@ week sales of his four previous album releases , including his live album called Live . The feat also carved history in Arista records having the first in any of their released albums to reach such sales . The success of the thirty @-@ year @-@ old record label , however , was attributed to its merging with Zomba Records . As of March 2013 it has the tenth highest first week album sales in history .
The album debuted at number one on the US Billboard 200 , becoming Usher 's first number @-@ one album . Confessions also hit number @-@ one on the Canadian Albums Chart and the US Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums . Its early , and successive , progress on the chart was said to be partly sustained by its strong single releases and plenty of press appearances and promotions . With " Yeah ! " propelling the album 's debut atop the chart , " Burn " , the second single off the album , facilitated Confessions 's continuing dominance as well . The first two released singles were competing on the Billboard Hot 100 ; the latter ended the twelve @-@ week number @-@ one chart run of the former . As the album 's third single , " Confessions Part II " , was about to top the chart and Usher to join with English pop and rock group The Beatles as the only acts to achieve three consecutive number @-@ one singles , American R & B singer Fantasia Barrino 's debut single " I Believe " prevented it from happening . Despite this , Usher became the first artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 Airplay with three consecutive number @-@ one singles . " Burn " achieved only eight non @-@ consecutive weeks on the Hot 100 after " Confessions Part II " topped the chart ; it became Usher 's second time to replace his own single at the top . " Yeah ! " and " Burn " were 2004 's top best @-@ selling singles in the United States , placing at number one and two respectively on the Billboard Chart Year @-@ Ender . Again , it honored Usher being the first act to achieve the feat since 1964 with the Beatles ' " I Want to Hold Your Hand " and " She Loves You " .
The album continued its dominance on the chart . D12 World by D12 ended its five consecutive weeks run at the top spot ; however , Confessions reclaimed the position the following week . The album spent a total 9 non @-@ consecutive weeks at number one on the Billboard 200 , becoming the longest @-@ running number one album of the millennium until 2009 , when country singer Taylor Swift spent 11 weeks atop the charts with Fearless . Over one month after its release , Confessions was certified three @-@ time platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for three million US shipments . Confessions topped the list of the most @-@ shipped albums of 2004 in the United States.Confessions was the second best @-@ selling album of the 2000s decade in the US , behind Eminem 's The Marshall Mathers LP . In July 2012 , it reached sales of 10 million copies in the US , according to Nielsen SoundScan . It has sold over 20 million copies worldwide . To date , the album has shipped 10 @.@ 3 million copies in the US and has received a Diamond certification from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
= = Critical reception = =
Confessions received generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream publications , the album received an average score of 71 , based on 13 reviews . From an artistic viewpoint , the album has been considered as Usher 's best album to date , with writers calling it expansive and futuristic . Matt Cibula of PopMatters wrote that it " might be the best English @-@ language pop album of the year " . Entertainment Weekly 's Jem Aswad said that Usher " reveals his new @-@ found maturity by opening with the grittiest song he 's ever done . " Laura Checkoway of Vibe said that , " Though Confessions doesn 't bring Usher all the way to the artistic maturity one might hope for , tracking this star 's progression definitely has its satisfactions . " Q magazine observed " addictive R & B hooks and all @-@ dancin ' , all @-@ lovin ' subject matter boosted with hot production tweaks . " Amy Linden of The Village Voice commented that " Usher 's ( alleged ) character flaws are easily forgiven , though , because he can sing his cheating ass off , " and concluded , " Like 2002 's big @-@ selling but underrated 8701 , Confessions is a top @-@ of @-@ the @-@ line pop @-@ soul showcase that ... manages to be commercially savvy without coming off as too desperate . Sorta like Usher himself . " Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times said that near the end , the songwriting " fails " Usher on a " heavily front @-@ loaded " R & B album , but felt that his performance is solid throughout :
The pleasure of listening to Usher is the pleasure of listening to a singer who knows exactly what he 's doing . ' Truth Hurts , ' a seemingly innocent ( if plaintive ) 1970 's throwback , turns nasty when the narrator suddenly reveals that the first two verses were full of lies . Which raises the question : are these supposed ' confessions ' true ? He loves toying with his audience this way , loves telling us exactly how bad he is , then daring us to believe him .
In a mixed review , Caroline Sullivan of The Guardian criticized its " production gloss " and said that , although Usher 's " fluid delivery " redeems weak tracks , there are only two " great songs " — " Yeah ! " and the title track — and " 17 less so . " Rolling Stone writer Laura Sinagra said that he " is coming of age , again " , but " still doesn 't quite cut it as a horny roughneck " . Jon Caramanica of Blender viewed that Usher 's songwriting " isn 't a strength , and his ballads often drown in their own inanity " . The Washington Post 's Elizabeth Mendez Berry called Confessions " Usher 's strongest recording to date " but found the more sexual songs mundane . Robert Christgau from The Village Voice cited " Confessions Part II " and " Bad Girl " as " choice cuts " , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money " .
= = = Accolades = = =
The album earned Usher numerous accolades . At the 47th Grammy Awards , he was nominated for eight categories and won three : Best Contemporary R & B Album , Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocal ( for " My Boo " ) and Best Rap / Sung Collaboration ( for " Yeah ! " ) . Usher won awards at the 2005 Soul Train Music Awards : R & B / Soul Album , Male ( for Confessions ) ; R & B / Soul Single , Male for ( " Confessions Part II " ) ; R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo ( for " My Boo " ) ; and R & B / Soul or Rap Dance Cut ( for " Yeah ! " ) . At the 2004 American Music Awards , he won four , including Favorite Soul / R & B Album and Favorite Male Soul / R & B Artist . At the 2004 Billboard Music Awards , Usher racked up eleven awards , including Artist of the Year , Male Artist of the Year , and Hot 100 Song of the Year for " Yeah ! " . In December 2009 it was ranked as the best solo album and second best overall album of the 2000 – 2009 decade . Its singles Yeah ! , Burn , and My Boo were all ranked as some of the best songs of the 2000 – 2009 decade , respectively placing in order at number two , number 21 , and number 36 .
= = Legacy and impact = =
With sales of more than eight million in 2004 , Confessions was the most @-@ shipped album of the year in the US . Along with the success of the American singer Norah Jones 's second album , Feels like Home ( 2004 ) , as well as breakthroughs albums by many new and old artists , it was seen as a sign that US record sales were slowly recovering after three straight years of decline due to competing DVDs and video games and the prevalent music piracy . By the end of 2004 , the industry had sold 667 million albums , an increase of about 1 @.@ 6 percent , as recorded by Nielsen SoundScan . Compared with sales records in 2003 , the figures showed eight percent increase . The album 's success also exemplified urban music 's commercial dominance during the early 2000s , which featured massive crossover success on the Billboard charts by R & B and hip hop artists . In 2004 , all 12 songs that topped the Billboard Hot 100 were African @-@ American recording artists and accounted for 80 % of the number @-@ one R & B hits that year . Along with Usher 's streak of singles , Top 40 radio and both pop and R & B charts were topped by OutKast 's " Hey Ya ! " , Snoop Dogg 's " Drop It Like It 's Hot " , Terror Squad 's " Lean Back " , and Ciara 's " Goodies " . Chris Molanphy of The Village Voice later remarked that " by the early 2000s , urban music was pop music . "
In a year @-@ end article for The New York Times , writer Ben Sisario dubbed 2004 " the year of Usher " . The success of the album put Usher in the mainstream , becoming the biggest artist of 2004 . Others also said that Usher might be the successor of Michael Jackson . The success of the album had also facilitated Usher to branch out to non @-@ musical ventures . He has opened a restaurant , starred in a film , launched his record label and recruited artists , and has done philanthropic activities like his efforts in helping 2005 Hurricane Katrina victims . Usher was not the only person who benefited from the album 's significant critical and commercial success . Bryan @-@ Michael Cox , who co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced " Burn " , earned credibility in the music industry for his role in the album . Cox had been producing records for several notable American artists , including Alicia Keys , B2K , Mariah Carey and Destiny 's Child , among others , but he considered " Burn " as his crowning moment , which earned him two Grammy Award nominations . With 2004 deemed to be his introduction to a larger , more mainstream audience , Cox stated in an interview for MTV that many people were starting to recount what he had done .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
^ [ a ] signifies a vocal producer .
^ [ b ] signifies a co @-@ producer .
" Throwback " contains a sample of Dionne Warwick 's 1973 " You 're Gonna Need Me " .
" Superstar " contains a sample of Willie Hutch ' 1973 " Mack 's Stroll / The Getaway ( Chase Scene ) " .
" Truth Hurts " uses the production of Janet Jackson 's " Could This Be Love " , an outtake from Damita Jo .
" Take Your Hand " contains a sample of Harold Melvin & The Blue Notes ' 1973 " Is There a Place for Me ? " .
Faith Evans performs uncredited background vocals on " Superstar " .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Confessions adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Battle of Masan =
The Battle of Masan was an engagement between United Nations ( UN ) and North Korean ( NK ) forces , which took place early in the Korean War between August 5 and September 19 , 1950 , in the vicinity of Masan and the Naktong River in South Korea . It was part of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter , and was one of several large engagements fought simultaneously . The battle ended in a victory for the UN after large numbers of United States ( US ) and Republic of Korea ( ROK ) troops were able to repel the repeated attacks of two North Korean divisions .
Operating as the extreme southern flank of the Pusan Perimeter , the US Army 's 25th Infantry Division placed its regiments around the South Korean city of Masan , with the US 24th Infantry Regiment and 5th Regimental Combat Team based in Haman and nearby Sobuk @-@ san , and the US 35th Infantry Regiment based along the Nam River to the west of the city . Throughout the six @-@ week battle , the Korean People 's Army 6th and 7th Divisions attacked the 25th Division 's regiments in an attempt to break through the UN forces and attack Pusan .
An initial UN counteroffensive out of Masan proved ineffective in stopping the North Koreans from advancing . In the subsequent fight , the 35th Infantry was able to repel the North Koreans at the Battle of Nam River and were highly regarded for these actions . However , the 24th Infantry performed very poorly at the battles of Blue Mountain and Haman , forcing the 25th Division to muster reserves to counter the North Korean gains against the 24th .
The UN units were able to defeat and repel the North Koreans repeatedly , including through a coordinated offensive across the entire perimeter . In delaying and pushing back the North Koreans , the 25th Infantry Division was able to buy time for UN forces to counterattack at Inchon , effectively defeating the North Korean Army at the Pusan Perimeter .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the 25 June 1950 invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its northern neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations decided to commit troops to the conflict on behalf of South Korea . The United States , a member of the UN , subsequently committed ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and preventing South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II , five years earlier , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division , headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Division was ordered to South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow reinforcements to arrive . The division was alone for several weeks as it attempted to delay the North Koreans , making time for the 1st Cavalry and the 7th and 25th Infantry Divisions , along with other Eighth Army supporting units , to move into position . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , the first encounter between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat of Task Force Smith , the 24th Infantry Division was repeatedly defeated and forced south by superior North Korean numbers and equipment . The regiments of the 24th Infantry Division were systematically pushed south in engagements around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon , where it was nearly destroyed , but delayed North Korean forces until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's force of combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
With Taejon captured , North Korean forces began surrounding the Pusan Perimeter in an attempt to envelop it . The 4th and 6th North Korean Infantry Divisions advanced south in a wide flanking maneuver . The two divisions attempted to envelop the UN 's left flank , but became extremely spread out in the process . They advanced on UN positions with armor and superior numbers , repeatedly pushing back U.S. and South Korean forces .
American forces finally halted the North Korean advance in a series of engagements in the southern section of the country . Forces of the 3rd Battalion , 29th Infantry Regiment , newly arrived in the country , were wiped out at Hadong in a coordinated ambush by North Korean forces on July 27 , opening a pass to the Pusan area . Soon after , North Korean forces took Chinju to the west , pushing back the US 19th Infantry Regiment and leaving routes to the Pusan open for more North Korean attacks . US formations were subsequently able to defeat and push back the North Koreans on the flank in the Battle of the Notch on August 2 . Suffering mounting losses , the KPA force in the west withdrew for several days to re @-@ equip and receive reinforcements . This granted both sides a reprieve to prepare for the attack on the Pusan Perimeter .
= = Battle = =
= = = Task Force Kean = = =
Lieutenant General Walton Walker and the Eighth Army began preparing a counteroffensive , the first conducted by the UN in the war , for August . It would kick off with an attack by the US reserve units in the Masan area to secure Chinju from the North Korean 6th Division , followed by a larger general push to the Kum River in the middle of the month . One of his goals was to break up a suspected massing of North Korean troops near the Taegu area by forcing the diversion of some North Korean units southward . On August 6 , the Eighth Army issued the operational directive for the attack by Task Force Kean , named for the US 25th Infantry Division commander , Major General William B. Kean . Task Force Kean consisted of the 25th Division , less the 27th Infantry and a field artillery battalion , with the 5th Regimental Combat Team ( 5th RCT ) and the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade attached . Together this represented a force of about 20 @,@ 000 men . The plan of attack required the force to move west from positions held near Masan , seize the Chinju Pass , and secure the line as far as the Nam River . However , the offensive relied on the arrival of the entire 2nd Infantry Division , as well as three more battalions of American tanks .
Task Force Kean kicked off its attack on August 7 , moving out from Masan . At the Notch , a northern pass into the city and site of a previous battle , the 35th Infantry Regiment encountered 500 North Korean infantry , defeating them . The force surged forward to Pansong , inflicting another 350 casualties on the North Koreans . There , they overran the North Korean 6th Division 's headquarters . However the rest of the task force was slowed by North Korean resistance . Task Force Kean pressed on the Chindong @-@ ni area , resulting in a confused battle where the fragmented force had to rely on air strikes and airdrops to keep it effective . Task Force Kean 's offensive had collided with one being delivered simultaneously by the North Korean 6th Division .
Heavy fighting continued in the area for three days . By August 9 , Task Force Kean was poised to retake Chinju . The task force , aided by air power , initially advanced quickly though North Korean resistance was heavy . On August 10 the Marines picked up the advance , inadvertently discovering the North Korean 83rd Motorized Regiment of the 105th Armored Division . F4U Corsairs from the 1st Marine Air Wing strafed the retreating column repeatedly , inflicting 200 casualties and destroying about 100 of the regiment 's equipment vehicles . However the 1st Provisional Marine Brigade elements were withdrawn from the force on August 12 to be redeployed elsewhere on the perimeter . Task Force Kean continued forward supported by naval and field artillery , capturing the area around Chondong @-@ ni . However , Eighth Army requested several of its units to redeploy to Taegu to be used elsewhere on the front , particularly at the Naktong Bulge
An attempt to move the 25th Infantry Division 's division trains through the valley became mired in the mud through the night of August 10 – 11 and was attacked in the morning by North Koreans who had driven American forces from the high ground . In the confusion , North Korean armor was able to penetrate roadblocks and assault the supporting artillery positions . The surprise attack was successful in wiping out most of the 555th and 90th Field Artillery battalions , with much of their equipment . Both North Korean and American armor swarmed to the scene and US Marine aviation continued to provide air cover , but neither side was able to make appreciable gains despite inflicting heavy casualties on one another . American forces were unsuccessful in retaking the positions where the artillery was overrun , suffering numerous casualties in several failed attempts to do so . Upon later inspection , the bodies of 75 men , 55 from the 555th Field Artillery and 20 from the 90th Field Artillery , were found executed when the area again came under American control , in what was later known as the Bloody Gulch massacre . Task Force Kean was forced to withdraw back to Masan , unable to hold its gains , and by August 14 it was approximately in the same positions it had been in when it started the offensive .
Task Force Kean had failed in its objective of diverting North Korean troops from the north , and also failed in its objective of reaching the Chinju pass . However , the offensive is noted to have significantly increased morale among the troops of the 25th Infantry Division , which performed extremely well in subsequent engagements . The 6th Division had been reduced to 3 @,@ 000 – 4 @,@ 000 and had to replenish its ranks with South Korean conscripts from Andong . Fighting in the region continued for the rest of the month .
= = = UN redraws battle lines = = =
Walker then ordered the US 25th Infantry Division , under Kean , to take up defensive positions on the Pusan Perimeter southern flank west of Masan . By August 15 , the 25th Infantry Division had moved into these positions . Rough terrain west of Masan limited the choice of the positions . The mountain group west of Masan was the first readily defensible ground east of the Chinju pass . The 2 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 610 m ) mountain ridges of Sobuk @-@ san dominated the area and protected the Komam @-@ ni @-@ Haman @-@ Chindong @-@ ni road , the only means of north @-@ south communication west of Masan .
Northwest of Komam @-@ ni was the broken spur of P 'il @-@ bong , dominated by 900 feet ( 270 m ) Sibidang @-@ san , along the Nam River . Sibidang was an excellent observation point for the surrounding area , and US artillery emplaced in the Komam @-@ ni area could interdict the road junction at Chungam @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment set up positions at Sibidang @-@ Komam @-@ ni , in the northern part of the 25th Infantry Division defense line . The 35th Regiment line extended from a point 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni to the Nam River and then turned east along that stream to its confluence with the Naktong River . It was a long regimental line , about 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) , twice the length a regiment was typically assigned .
The 1st Battalion , 35th Infantry held the regiment 's left flank west of Komam @-@ ni , while the 2nd Battalion held the right along the Nam River . 3rd Battalion , redesignated from the 1st Battalion , 29th Infantry , was in reserve on the road south of Chirwon from where it could move quickly to any part of the line . To the south was the US 24th Infantry Regiment and west of Chindong @-@ ni , the 5th Regimental Combat Team was on the division 's left flank . On division orders , the 5th Regimental Combat Team first held the ground above the Chindong @-@ ni coastal road only as far as Yaban @-@ san . Kean soon decided , however , that the 5th RCT should close the gap northward between it and the 24th Infantry . When the 5th sent a South Korean unit of 100 men under American officers to the higher slope of Sobuk @-@ san , North Korean troops already there drove them back . Kean then ordered the 5th RCT to take this ground , but it was too late .
= = = North Korean consolidation = = =
Meanwhile , the NK 6th Division was ordered to await reinforcements before continuing the attack . From north to south , the division had its 13th , 15th , and 14th Regiments . The first replacements arrived at Chinju on about August 12 . Approximately 2 @,@ 000 unarmed South Koreans conscripted in the Seoul area joined the division by August 15 . At Chinju , the 6th Division issued them grenades and told the recruits they would have to pick up weapons from killed and wounded on the battlefield . Another group of 2 @,@ 500 replacements conscripted in the Seoul area joined the 6th Division on August 21 , bringing the division strength to approximately 8 @,@ 500 men . In the last week of August and the first week of September , 3 @,@ 000 more recruits conscripted in southwest Korea joined the division . The 6th Division used this last body of recruits in labor details at first and only later employed them as combat troops . The South Korean conscripts were often forcibly taken from their homes by North Korean troops , and typically held very weak morale . The North Koreans realized they presented a weakness in the lines but were unable to acquire men using other means . The North Koreans placed rear @-@ guard troops behind the conscripts ' formations , who would threaten to shoot them if they attempted to defect , desert or surrender their positions .
As a part of the North Korean build @-@ up in the south , the untried NK 7th Division also arrived near Masan with another 10 @,@ 000 men . The 7th Division occupied key ports to protect the 6th Division against possible amphibious landings in its rear . Eventually , though , the division was committed to combat in conjunction with other North Korean units . The simultaneous attacks were hoped to overwhelm UN lines .
= = = North Korean advance = = =
On August 17 , the North Koreans resumed their attack . A battalion of North Korean troops drove the ROK police out of T 'ongyong but did not hold it long . UN naval forces heavily shelled T 'ongyong as three companies of ROK Marines from Koje Island made an amphibious landing near the town . The ROK force then attacked the North Koreans and , supported by naval gun fire , drove them out . The North Koreans at T 'ongyong lost about 350 men , the survivors withdrew to Chinju .
The reinforced North Koreans had advanced on the 25th Infantry Division defensive line and had begun a series of probing attacks that were to continue throughout the month , sometimes of battalion strength . Most of these attacks came in the high mountains west of Haman , in the Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san area . There the 6th Division attacked any UN @-@ held terrain features that afforded observation of its supply and concentration area in the deeply cut valley to the west .
= = = Battle of Komam @-@ ni = = =
The NK 6th Division shifted its axis of attack and its main attacking effort to the northern part of the Chinju @-@ Masan corridor just below the Nam River in the 35th Infantry 's sector . The 35th Infantry set to work to cover its front with trip flares , but they were in short supply and gradually it became impossible to replace them . Illuminating flares were also in short supply , and the reserve stocks had deteriorated to such a degree that only about 20 percent of the supply issued to the regiment was effective . Even when employed , the time lapse between a request for them and delivery by the big howitzers allowed some North Korean infiltration before the threatened area was illuminated .
The 64th Field Artillery Battalion , with C Battery , 90th Field Artillery Battalion , attached , and A Company , 88th Medium Tank Battalion , supported Fisher 's regiment . Three medium M4A3 Sherman tanks , from positions at Komam @-@ ni , acted as artillery and placed interdiction fire on Chungam @-@ ni . Six other medium M26 Pershing tanks in a similar manner placed interdiction fire on Uiryong across the Nam River .
In the pre @-@ dawn hours of August 17 , a North Korean attack hit the 35th Infantry . North Korean artillery fire began falling on the 1st Battalion command post in Komam @-@ ni at 03 : 00 , and an hour later North Korean infantry attacked A Company , forcing two of its platoons from their positions , and overrunning a mortar position . After daylight , a counterattack by B Company regained the lost ground . This was the beginning of a five @-@ day battle by 1st Battalion along the southern spurs of Sibidang , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Komam @-@ ni . The North Koreans attempted to turn the left flank of the 35th Regiment and split the 25th Division line . On the morning of August 18 , A Company again lost its position to North Korean attack and again regained it by counterattack . Two companies of South Korean police arrived to reinforce the battalion right flank . Against the continuing North Korean attack , artillery supporting the 1st Battalion fired an average of 200 rounds an hour during the night of August 19 – 20 .
After three days and nights of this battle , C Company of the 35th Infantry and A Company of the 29th Infantry moved up astride the Komam @-@ ni road during the morning of August 20 to bolster A and B Companies on Sibidang . A large concentration of North Koreans advanced to renew the attack . The US troops directed artillery fire on this force and called in an air strike . Observers estimated that the artillery fire and the air strike killed about 350 North Korean troops , half the attack group .
The North Koreans made another try on the same position . The morning of August 22 , North Korean infantry started a very heavy attack against the 1st Battalion . Employing no artillery or mortar preparatory fires , the force cut the barbed wire at the perimeter and attacked at close quarters with small arms and grenades . This assault engaged three American companies and drove one of them from its position . After three hours of fighting A Company counterattacked at 07 : 00 and regained its lost position . The next day , August 23 , the North Koreans , frustrated in this area , withdrew from contact in the 35th Infantry sector .
= = = Battle of Battle Mountain = = =
This high ground west of Haman on which the 24th Infantry established its defensive line was part of the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass . Sobuk @-@ san reaches its 2 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 730 m ) peak at P 'il @-@ bong ( also called Hill 743 ) 8 miles ( 13 km ) northwest of Chindong @-@ ni and 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) southwest of Haman . From P 'il @-@ bong the crest of the ridge line curves northwestward , to rise again 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) away in the bald peak designated Hill 665 , which became known as Battle Mountain . US troops also occasionally referred to it variously as " Napalm Hill , " " Old Baldy , " or " Bloody Knob . " Between P 'il @-@ bong and Battle Mountain the ridge line narrows to a rocky ledge which the troops called the " Rocky Crags . " Northward from Battle Mountain toward the Nam River , the ground drops sharply in two long spur ridges . Men who fought there called the eastern one Green Peak .
At the western , North Korean @-@ held base of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong were the villages of Ogok and Tundok , 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) from the crest . A north @-@ south mountain trail crossed a high saddle just north of these villages and up the west slope about halfway to the top of Battle Mountain . This road gave the North Koreans an advantage in mounting and supplying their attacks in the area . A trail system ran from Ogok and Tundok to the crests of Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . From the top of Battle Mountain an observer could look directly down into the North Korean @-@ held valley . At the same time , from Battle Mountain the North Koreans could look down into the Haman valley eastward and observe the US 24th Infantry command post , supply road , artillery positions , and approach trails . Whichever side held the crest of Battle Mountain could see into the rear areas of the other . Both forces , seeing the advantages of holding the crest of Battle Mountain , fought relentlessly to capture it in a six @-@ week @-@ long battle .
The first attack against the mountain line of the 24th Infantry came on the morning of August 18 , when the North Koreans overran several E Company positions on the northern spur of Battle Mountain and killed the company commander . During the day , Lieutenant Colonel Paul F. Roberts succeeded Lieutenant Colonel George R. Cole in command of the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry there . The next day , the North Koreans attacked C Company on Battle Mountain and routed it . Officers could collect only 40 men to bring them back into position . Many ROK police on P 'il @-@ bong also ran from the fight , and only 56 of them remained in their defensive positions . American officers used threats and physical force to get others back into position . A 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in the line north of P 'il @-@ bong existed in the 24th Infantry lines at the close of the day , and an unknown number of North Koreans were moving into it .
On August 20 , the NK 6th Division intensified its efforts to attack Battle Mountain , and began sending stronger attacks to capture the two peaks . In the face of these , all of C Company except the company commander and about 25 men abandoned their position on Battle Mountain . Upon reaching the bottom of the mountain those who had fled reported erroneously that the company commander had been killed and their position surrounded , then overrun by the North Koreans . On the basis of this misinformation , American artillery and mortars fired concentrations on C Company 's former position , and fighter @-@ bombers , in 38 sorties , attacked the crest of Battle Mountain , using napalm , fragmentation bombs , rockets , and machine guns . This action forced the company commander and his remaining 25 men off Battle Mountain after they had held it for 20 hours , having declined a call to surrender from the North Koreans . A platoon of E Company , except for about 10 men , also left its position on the mountain as soon as the attack progressed . On the regimental left , an ROK patrol from K Company 's position on Sobuk @-@ san captured the commanding officer of the NK 15th Regiment , but he was killed a few minutes later while trying to escape . The patrol removed several intelligence documents from his body . During the day of fighting on Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong , the North Koreans drove off the ROK police from the 24th Infantry 's left flank on Sobuk @-@ san . 24th Infantry troops continued to straggle from their positions , ignoring commands from officers to stay in place . Both African American and white officers , infuriated by the disobedience , wrote sworn statements implicating the deserters . The situation was so severe that those who stayed in their positions were often given Bronze Star Medals with Valor Devices because they were so far outnumbered in the fighting .
Battle Mountain changed hands so often during August that there is no agreement on the exact number of times . The intelligence sergeant of the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry estimated the peak changed hands 19 times . From August 18 to the end of the month , North Korean troops attacked the mountain every night . The peak often changed hands two or three times in a 24 @-@ hour period . The usual pattern was for the North Koreans to take it at night and the US 24th Infantry to recapture it the next day . This type of fluctuating battle resulted in relatively high losses among artillery forward observers and their equipment . During the period of August 15 – 31 , seven forward observers and eight other members of the Observer and Liaison Section of the 159th Field Artillery Battalion were casualties , and they lost eight radios , 11 telephones , and two vehicles in the process .
The 24th Infantry consistently captured Battle Mountain in the same way . Artillery , mortar , and tank fire raked the crest and air strikes employing napalm blanketed the top of the peak . Then , the infantry attacked from the hill beneath the east slope of the summit . Supporting mortars would set up a base of fire and kept the heights under barrage until the infantry had arrived at a point just short of the crest . The mortar fire then lifted and the infantry moved rapidly up the last stretch to the top , usually to find it abandoned by the North Koreans .
= = = September push = = =
On August 31 , 1950 , the 25th Division held a front of almost 30 miles ( 48 km ) , beginning in the north at the Namji @-@ ri bridge over the Naktong River and extending west on the hills south of the river to the Nam 's confluence with it . It then bent southwest up the south side of the Nam to where the Sobuk @-@ san mountain mass tapered down in its northern extremity to the river . There the line turned south along rising ground to Sibidang @-@ san , crossed the saddle on its south face through which passed the Chinju @-@ Masan railroad and highway , and continued southward up to Battle Mountain and on to P 'il @-@ bong . From P 'il @-@ bong the line dropped down spur ridge lines to the southern coastal road near Chindong @-@ ni . The US 35th Infantry Regiment held the northern 26 @,@ 000 yards ( 24 @,@ 000 m ) of the division line , from the Namji @-@ ri bridge to the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The regiment was responsible for the highway . The regiment 's weakest and most vulnerable point was a 3 @-@ mile ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) gap along the Naktong River between most of F Company on the west and its 1st Platoon to the east . This platoon guarded the Namji @-@ ri cantilever steel bridge on the division extreme right at the boundary with the US 2nd Infantry Division across the Naktong River . South of the highway , the 24th Infantry held the high ground west of Haman , including Battle Mountain and P 'il @-@ bong . Colonel John L. Throckmorton 's 5th Infantry Regimental Combat Team held the southern spur of Sobuk @-@ san to the coastal road at Chindong @-@ ni . From Chindong @-@ ni some ROK Marine Corps units continued the line to the southern coast . General Kean 's 25th Division command post was at Masan , the 35th Infantry command post was on the east side of the Chirwon @-@ Chung @-@ ni road , the 24th Infantry command post was at Haman and Throckmorton 's 5th Infantry command post was at Chindong @-@ ni . By August 31 , the division was suffering manpower shortages , and a limited number of KATUSAs were brought in to replenish its ranks .
Aerial reconnaissance in the last week of August had disclosed to Eighth Army a large amount of North Korean activity behind the lines opposite the US 2nd and 25th Divisions in the southern part of the Pusan Perimeter . The North Koreans had built three new underwater bridges across the Nam River in front of the 35th Infantry in the 25th Division sector . Aerial bombing only temporarily and partially destroyed these bridges , and they were repaired overnight . Eighth Army intelligence credited the North Koreans with having moved one or two new divisions and about 20 tanks to the Hyopch 'on area on the west side of the Naktong River opposite the US 2nd Division . However , the US intelligence overestimated the strength of these divisions . On August 28 the Eighth Army intelligence officer warned that a general offensive may be expected at any time along the 2nd Division and 25th Division front aimed at severing the Taegu @-@ Pusan railroad and highway and capturing Masan .
Just before midnight August 31 , the NK I Corps started its portion of The Great Naktong Offensive , a coordinated attack all along the Pusan Perimeter with a goal of breaking the UN defensive lines and capturing Pusan . North Korean soldiers crossed the lower Naktong at a number of points in a well @-@ planned attack . From Hyongp 'ung southward to the coast , in the zones of the US 2nd and 25th Divisions , the North Koreans ' greatest effort struck in a single massive coordinated attack .
= = = Battle of Haman = = =
In the left center of the 25th Division line , Lieutenant Colonel Paul F. Roberts ' 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , held the crest of the second ridge west of Haman , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) from the town . From Chungam @-@ ni , in North Korean territory , a secondary road led to Haman along the shoulders of low hills and across rice paddy ground , running east 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) south of the main Chinju @-@ Masan road . It came through Roberts ' 2nd Battalion position in a pass 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Haman . Late in the afternoon of August 31 , observers with G Company , 24th Infantry , noticed activity 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) in front of their positions . They called in two air strikes that hit this area at dusk . US artillery sent a large concentration of fire into the area , but the effect of this fire was not known . All US units on the line were alerted for a possible North Korean attack .
That night the North Koreans launched The Great Naktong Offensive against the entire UN force . The NK 6th Division advanced first , hitting F Company on the north side of the pass on the Chungam @-@ ni @-@ Haman road . The ROK troops in the pass left their positions and fell back on G Company to the south . The North Koreans captured a 75 mm recoilless rifle in the pass and turned it on American tanks , knocking out two of them . They then overran a section of 82 mm mortars at the east end of the pass . South of the pass , at dawn , First Lieutenant Houston M. McMurray found that only 15 out of 69 men assigned to his platoon remained with him , a mix of US and ROK troops . The North Koreans attacked this position at dawn . They came through an opening in the barbed wire perimeter which was supposed to be covered by a man with a M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle , but he had fled . Throwing grenades and spraying the area with PPSh @-@ 41 " burp gun " fire , the North Koreans quickly overran the position . Numerous officers and non @-@ commissioned officers attempted to get the men back into line , but they would not follow these orders . In one instance South Korean troops killed their own company commander when he tried to stop them from escaping .
Shortly after the North Korean attack started most of the 2nd Battalion , 24th Infantry , fled its positions . One company at a time , the battalion was struck with strong attacks all along its front , and with the exception of a few dozen men in each company , each formation quickly crumbled , with most of the troops running back to Haman against the orders of the officers . The North Koreans passed through the crumbling US lines quickly and overran the 2nd Battalion command post , killing several men there and destroying much of the battalion 's equipment . With the 2nd Battalion broken , Haman was open to direct North Korean attack . As the North Koreans encircled Haman , Roberts , the 2nd Battalion commander , ordered an officer to take remnants of the battalion and establish a roadblock at the south edge of the town . Although the officer directed a large group of men to accompany him , only eight did so . The 2nd Battalion was no longer an effective fighting force . Pockets of its soldiers remained in place and fought fiercely , but the majority fled upon attack , and the North Koreans were able to move around the uneven resistance . They surrounded Haman as the 2nd Battalion crumbled in disarray .
When the North Korean attack broke through the 2nd Battalion , The 1st Battalion commander ordered his unit , which was about 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) south of Haman on the Chindong @-@ ni road , to counterattack and restore the line . Roberts assembled all the 40 men of the disorganized 2nd Battalion he could find to join in this counterattack , which got under way at 07 : 30 . Upon contact with the North Koreans , the 1st Battalion broke and fled to the rear . Thus , shortly after daylight the scattered and disorganized men of the 1st and 2nd Battalions of the 24th Infantry had fled to the high ground 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of Haman . The better part of two regiments of the NK 6th Division poured into and through the Haman gap , now that they had captured the town and held it .
At 14 : 45 on September 1 , Kean ordered an immediate counterattack to restore the 24th Infantry positions . For 30 minutes US Air Force aircraft struck North Korean positions around Haman with bombs , napalm , rockets , and machine gun fire . They also attacked the North Korean @-@ held ridges around the town . Fifteen minutes of concentrated artillery fire followed . Fires spread in Haman . Infantry from 3rd Battalion moved out in attack west at 16 : 30 , reinforced by a platoon of tanks from A Company , 79th Tank Battalion . Eight tanks , mounting infantry , spearheaded the attack into Haman , capturing the city easily , as most of the North Korean troops had abandoned it . North Koreans in force held the ridge on the west side of the town , and their machine gun fire swept every approach . North Korean fire destroyed one tank and the attacking infantry suffered heavy casualties . But Check 's battalion pressed the attack and by 18 : 25 had seized the first long ridge 500 yards west of Haman . By 20 : 00 it had secured half of the old battle position on the higher ridge beyond , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) west of Haman . Just 200 yards ( 180 m ) short of the crest on the remainder of the ridge , the infantry dug in for the night . It had recaptured Haman and was pushing back to the 24th 's old positions .
The North Koreans attacked Haman daily for the next week . Following the repelling of North Korean infiltration on September 7 , the North Korean attack on Haman ground to a halt . The North Koreans , racked by logistical and manpower shortages , focused more heavily on their attacks against 24th Infantry positions on Battle Mountain , as well as 35th Infantry positions at the Nam River . 24th Infantry troops at Haman encountered only probing attacks until September 18 .
= = = Battle of Nam River = = =
Meanwhile , the North Korean 7th Division troops committed all of their effort into attacking the US 35th Infantry line . At 23 : 30 on August 31 , a North Korean SU @-@ 76 self @-@ propelled high @-@ velocity gun from across the Nam fired shells into the position of G Company , 35th Infantry , overlooking the river . Within a few minutes , North Korean artillery was attacking all front @-@ line rifle companies of the regiment from the Namji @-@ ri bridge west . Under cover of this fire a reinforced regiment of the NK 7th Division crossed the Nam River and attacked F and G Companies , 35th Infantry . Other North Korean soldiers crossed the Nam on an underwater bridge in front of the paddy ground north of Komam @-@ ni and near the boundary between the 2nd Battalion , led by Lieutenant Colonel John L. Wilkins , Jr . , holding the river front and Lieutenant Colonel Bernard G. Teeter 's 1st Battalion holding the hill line that stretched from the Nam River to Sibidang @-@ san and the Chinju @-@ Masan highway . The 35th Infantry , facing shortages of equipment and reinforcements , was under @-@ equipped but nonetheless prepared for an attack .
In the low ground between these two battalions at the river ferry crossing site , the 35th Infantry commander had placed 300 ROK National Police , expecting them to hold there long enough to serve as a warning for the rest of the forces . Guns from the flanking hills there could cover the low ground with fire . Back at Komam @-@ ni he held the 3rd Battalion ready for use in counterattack to stop an enemy penetration should it occur . Unexpectedly , the ROK police companies near the ferry scattered at the first North Korean fire . At 00 : 30 , North Korean troops streamed through this hole in the line , some turning left to take G Company in its flank and rear , and others turned right to attack C Company , which was on a spur of ground west of the Komam @-@ ni road . The I & R Platoon and elements of C and D Companies formed a defense line along the dike at the north edge of Komam @-@ ni where US tanks joined them at daybreak . But the North Koreans did not drive for the Komam @-@ ni road fork 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) south of the river as Colonel Fisher expected them to ; instead , they turned east into the hills behind 2nd Battalion .
At daybreak on September 1 , a tank @-@ led relief force of C Company headquarters troops cleared the road to Sibidang @-@ san and resupplied the 2nd Platoon , B Company , with ammunition just in time for it to repel another North Korean assault , killing 77 and capturing 21 North Koreans . Although Fisher 's 35th Infantry held all its original positions , except that of the forward platoon of G Company , 3 @,@ 000 North Korean soldiers were behind its lines . The farthest eastern penetration reached the high ground just south of Chirwon overlooking the north @-@ south road there .
By midafternoon , Kean felt that the situation was so dangerous that he ordered the 2nd Battalion , US 27th Infantry Regiment , to attack behind the 35th Infantry . A large part of the division artillery was under direct North Korean infantry attack . During the morning hours of September 1 , when the NK 7th Division troops had attacked , the first American unit they encountered was G Company , 35th Infantry , at the north shoulder of the gap . While some North Korean units peeled off to attack G Company , others continued on and engaged E Company , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) downstream from it , and still others attacked scattered units of F Company all the way to its 1st Platoon , which guarded the Namji @-@ ri bridge . There , at the extreme right flank of the 25th Division , this platoon drove off a North Korean force after a fierce fight . By September 2 , E Company in a heavy battle had destroyed most of a North Korean battalion .
Bitter , confused fighting continued behind the 35th Infantry 's line for the next week . Battalions , companies , and platoons , cut off and isolated , fought independently of higher control and help except for airdrops which supplied many of them . Airdrops also supplied relief forces trying to reach the front @-@ line units . Tanks and armored cars drove to the isolated units with supplies of food and ammunition and carried back critically wounded on the return trips . In general , the 35th Infantry fought in its original battle line positions , while at first one battalion , and later two battalions , of the 27th Infantry fought toward it through the estimated 3 @,@ 000 North Koreans operating in its rear areas .
Although the 25th Division generally was under much less pressure after September 5 , there were still severe local attacks . Heavy rains caused the Nam and Naktong Rivers to rise on September 8 and 9 , reducing the danger of new crossings . However , North Korean attacks against 2nd Battalion , 35th Infantry occurred nightly . The approaches to the Namji @-@ ri bridge , one of their key targets to protect , were mined . At one time there were about 100 North Korean dead lying in that area . From September 9 to 16 , there were limited attacks on the 35th Infantry 's front but most of the North Koreans ' momentum had been broken and they could not muster strong attacks against the regiment again .
= = = Evacuation of Masan = = =
Civilians in Masan posed an unexpectedly dangerous problem for the UN forces . The town had a large community of Communist sympathizers and agents . At the peak of the North Korean offensive , Han Gum Jo , manager of the Masan branch of the Korean Press Association , confessed that he was chief of the South Korean Labor Party in Masan and that he had been funneling information to the North Koreans through a Pusan headquarters . Additionally , the chief of the Masan prison guards was found to be the head of a Communist cell that included seven of his subordinates . This , and other counterintelligence information , came to light at a time when the most intense fighting was in progress only a few miles away . Kean considered the situation so dangerous that he ordered Masan evacuated of all people except police , public officials , railroad and utility workers , and necessary laborers and their families . Evacuation was to be completed in five days . On September 10 and 11 alone the 25th Division evacuated more than 12 @,@ 000 people by Landing Ship Tank ( LST ) from Masan .
= = = North Korean withdrawal = = =
The UN counterattack at Inchon collapsed the North Korean line and forced them back on all fronts . On September 16 , however , the 25th Infantry Division was still fighting North Korean forces behind its lines , and North Korean strong points existed on the heights of Battle Mountain , P 'il @-@ bong , and Sobuk @-@ san . Kean felt that the division could advance along the roads toward Chinju only when the mountainous center of the division front was clear . He therefore believed that the key to the advance of the 25th Division lay in its center where the North Koreans held the heights and kept the 24th Infantry Regiment under daily attack . The 27th Infantry on the left and the 35th Infantry on the right , astride the roads between Chinju and Masan held their positions and could not advance until the situation in front of the 24th Infantry improved .
On September 19 the UN discovered the North Koreans had abandoned of Battle Mountain during the night , and the 1st Battalion , 24th Infantry , moved up and occupied it . On the right , the 35th Infantry began moving forward . There was only light resistance until it reached the high ground in front of Chungam @-@ ni where hidden North Korean soldiers in spider holes shot at 1st Battalion soldiers from the rear . The next day the 1st Battalion captured Chungam @-@ ni , and the 2nd Battalion captured the long ridge line running northwest from it to the Nam River . Meanwhile , the North Koreans still held strongly against the division left where the 27th Infantry had heavy fighting in trying to move forward .
The North Koreans withdrew from the Masan area the night of September 18 – 19 . The NK 7th Division withdrew from south of the Nam River while the 6th Division sideslipped elements to cover the entire front . Covered by the 6th Division , the 7th had crossed to the north side of the Nam River by the morning of September 19 . Then the NK 6th Division withdrew from its positions on Sobuk @-@ san . The US units rapidly pursued them north , passing over the Battle Mountain positions , which were no longer of strategic importance .
= = Aftermath = =
The US 5th Regimental Combat Team suffered 269 killed , 573 wounded and 4 missing during its battles at the Pusan Perimeter , most of these at Masan . The rest of the 25th Infantry Division suffered 650 killed , 1 @,@ 866 wounded , four captured and 10 missing during the fight . Another 138 were killed , 646 wounded , and two captured during the division 's breakout attack from the Masan battleground .
The North Korean troops suffered heavily in the fight , and most became casualties in the attack . By mid @-@ September , the NK 7th Division was reduced to just 4 @,@ 000 men , a loss of 6 @,@ 000 from when it was committed to the perimeter . Only 2 @,@ 000 men from the NK 6th Division returned to North Korea , a loss of 80 percent of its strength . Large groups of troops from the divisions were captured as they attempted to return to North Korea , including up to 3 @,@ 000 North Korean troops . The attacking force of over 20 @,@ 000 had been reduced to only 6 @,@ 000 by the end of the fighting at Masan .
The position around Masan remained locked in a bitter stalemate during the entire six weeks of the Battle of Pusan Perimeter . Each side attempted several offensives on the other in an attempt to force a withdrawal , but the North Koreans were unable to pierce the UN perimeter , and the UN troops were unable to overwhelm the North Koreans to the point they were forced to withdraw . The battle itself was tactically inconclusive , as neither side was able to decisively defeat the other , however the UN units achieved their strategic goal of preventing the North Koreans from advancing further east and threatening Pusan . Instead , they were able to hold the line against repeated attacks until the Inchon attack , and were thus successful in defeating the North Korean army in subsequent engagements .
Desertion had continued to be a problem for the 24th Infantry , a de facto segregated unit . Statistics compiled found the 25th Infantry Division had to detain 116 deserters from the 24th Infantry throughout August , compared to 15 from the 27th Infantry and 12 from the 35th Infantry . The regiment had already been criticized for its poor performance at the Battle of Sangju several weeks earlier . In late August , Kean began investigating the unit 's behavior , finding its poor performance was starting to bring other units of the division down as well . Kean considered the regiment a weak link in the chain , and after its poor performance at the battles of Battle Mountain and Haman , he suggested to Walker that the regiment be disbanded and its troops be used as replacements for other units in the field . Virtually all of the officers and enlisted men in the regiment were supportive of this idea , but Walker declined , feeling he could not afford to lose a regiment . Conversely , the 35th Infantry was widely praised for its actions at the Kum River line . The regiment had performed so well in repulsing the North Koreans that Kean nominated it for a Presidential Unit Citation .
= Pentonville Road =
Pentonville Road is a road in Central London that runs west to east from Kings Cross to City Road at The Angel , Islington . The road is part of the London Inner Ring Road and part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone .
The road was originally built in the mid @-@ 18th century as part of the New Road , a bypass of Central London for coach traffic . It was named Pentonville Road after the new town of Pentonville , that encouraged manufacturing to move out of the city and into suburbia . Numerous factories and commercial premises became established on the road in the 19th and 20th centuries , particularly after the arrival of London railways in the 1840s .
As industrial manufacturing fell out of favour in London in the late 20th century , many properties are now residential or student accommodation . Current premises include the Crafts Council Gallery on the site of a former chapel , the Scala nightclub in a former cinema , and The Castle , a public house .
= = Geography = =
The road is 0 @.@ 7 miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ) long and runs east from King 's Cross railway station as a continuation of Euston Road . It ends at the Angel , Islington , at a junction with Islington High Street and Goswell Road ; the road ahead becoming City Road . Only eastbound traffic can travel on the full extent of the road ; westbound traffic is diverted south via Swinton Street . The road is on the London Inner Ring Road ( A501 ) and as such forms part of the boundary of the London congestion charge zone . Since 1995 , it has been a red route , prohibiting stopping of any kind , including loading and unloading .
Most of the road is in the London Borough of Islington but a small part near Kings Cross is in the London Borough of Camden , including the Kings Cross Thameslink railway station and the " Lighthouse " Block . London Underground and National Rail stations in the vicinity include Kings Cross and Angel tube station .
There has been a bus service on Pentonville Road since 1829 . Regular bus routes running along the road are 30 , 73 and 146 .
= = History = =
What is now Pentonville Road was built as the final section of the New Road in 1756 , connecting the City of London to the western suburbs , so that coach traffic could avoid Central London . At the time , the route now covered by Pentonville Road was mostly fields , with Battle Bridge occupying the space where King 's Cross now is . It included a tavern known as Busby 's Folly , a meeting place of a drinking group known as the Society of Bull Feathers . It is marked on John Ogilby 's map of London in 1675 . It was moved around 1780 to Penton Street and renamed the Belvedere Tavern . The current building dates from 1876 .
The road was designed as part of Pentonville , a new suburb away from the City and became a local hub for manufacturing in the area . There was some debate over the final route of the road ; the original plan to run straight through fields owned by the Skinners Company and the New River Company was rejected in favour of the route further north via Battle Bridge . As it was always intended to be a main road , a coach service began in 1798 between Paddington and Bank but was quickly withdrawn . The road was turnpiked in 1830 and renamed Pentonville Road after landowner Henry Penton in 1857 . Until 1882 , the upkeep of the road was paid by the local parish , paying a ground rent to Penton 's estate for the disused toll house at No. 274 .
The street is distinguished by the " set back " housing lines originally intended to provide an atmosphere of spaciousness along the thoroughfare . The original 1756 act to create the New Road prohibited the construction of any building within 50 feet ( 15 m ) of its side . Though the area had been designed to be a pleasant suburb , the arrival of railways in the 1840s turned the road into an industrial urban street , with factories and workshops aligning the road . The original bylaw restricting property on the front of the road was ignored and shops were built on top of gardens .
By the 21st century , most of the manufacturing base along Pentonville Road had disappeared . The original townhouses are now apartments .
= = Properties = =
Alexander Cumming , former clockmaker and organ builder to Archibald Campbell , 3rd Duke of Argyll , built a house at No. 166 Pentonville Road . In 1807 , the year after his death , the house became the London Female Penitentiary , housing " fallen women " and rehabilitating them into society . It was extended between 1811 – 12 , roughly tripling its capacity , and moved to Stoke Newington in 1884 .
The Thomas S. Jones organ builders were based at No. 25 Pentonville Road between 1860 and 1935 . The Dunn & Hewett cocoa factory was established at No. 9 Pentonville Road in 1833 by Daniel Dunn , who went into partnership with Charles Hewett in the 1850s . The business claimed to have invented soluble chocolate and cocoa , and moved to No. 136 , expanding to No. 138 in the 1870s . The building was enlarged and partially rebuilt over the 1880s and 90s , and included a staff tea @-@ room at No. 140 by 1907 . The factory closed around 1930 and was subsequently sub @-@ let to various businesses . The Ealing Radiator Company was established at Nos. 152 – 154 Pentonville Road in 1936 , manufacturing car radiators . A first floor extension was added in 1952 , while Nos. 136 – 150 were cleared to accommodate a low metal @-@ framed building . These premises have now been sub @-@ let to various businesses .
The Claremont Chapel was at No. 44a Pentonville Road . It was named after Claremont House , home of the then @-@ recently deceased Princess Charlotte Augusta of Wales . The chapel was designed by Thomas Wilson , who acquired the 2 acre site in 1818 for £ 700 , spending an additional £ 6 @,@ 000 on building works . It opened in October 1819 , though a regular pastor was not appointed until 1822 . The building was extended in 1847 to accommodate a Sunday school , while sash windows were installed in 1853 . In 1860 , the building was refurbished and given a Classical facade , but reducing the capacity of the inside gallery . Attendance declined and the chapel was sold to the London Congregational Union , before closing in 1899 . It re @-@ opened in 1902 as Claremont Hall , a mission institute . It was let for commercial purposes in the 1960s , and sub @-@ let to the Crafts Council in 1991 . The building is now the Crafts Council Gallery , a public gallery funded by the Arts Council England . It contains a number of exhibition rooms that are available for use .
The block of properties at No. 295 – 297 Pentonville Road , at its junction with Gray 's Inn Road , is known as the " Lighthouse Block " owing to the lead clad tower at the top of the building . The site avoided being compulsory purchased and demolished ( in order to provide improvements to King 's Cross station 's eastern entrance ) and is now Grade II listed .
The Vernon Square school opened on Pentonville Road in 1913 , expanding to cover secondary school students in 1949 . It was renamed the Sir Philip Magnus School in 1952 and closed in the 1970s . It became part of Kingsway College before being purchased by the School of Oriental and African Studies in 2001 . The SOAS has several other halls of residence along Pentonville Road , including Dinwiddy House .
The Scala at No. 275 – 277 Pentonville Road opened as the King 's Cross Cinema in 1920 with a capacity of 1 @,@ 300 . Construction had begun just before World War I and was halted because of it . It was damaged by bombs during World War II , and while it remained open during wartime , it eventually had to be shut between 1949 and 1952 for renovations and repair . It closed in 1970 , and re @-@ opened as an independent cinema , which showed old 16mm films including King Kong . The Stooges played their only gig in London at the venue in June 1972 , shortly before recording the album Raw Power with David Bowie ; a shot of Iggy Pop onstage here became the album 's front cover . The venue closed in 1992 , and is now a nightclub .
The Castle is a pub at No. 54 Pentonville Road , at the junction with Baron Street . In 2015 , the perpetrators of the Hatton Garden safe deposit burglary met at the pub to discuss the crime shortly after it occurred , but were secretly filmed there by the Flying Squad . All were subsequently arrested and sent to prison . The current owners , Geronimo Inns , wish to distance themselves from the burglary and forbid staff to discuss it with customers .
The original Angel , Islington , sits at the far east end of Pentonville Road , at its junction with Islington High Street . It was named after the Angel of the Annunciation that appeared on its sign . The inn pre @-@ dated the construction of Pentonville Road , and had become one of the largest coaching inns in the local area by the 18th century . The site was cut in two by the construction of the road , with the inn remaining on the north side . A new building was constructed in 1899 , later becoming a Lyons Corner House . It closed in 1959 , and was threatened with demolition as a plan to improve junction improvements around Pentonville Road , but survived and is now partly occupied by a branch of The Co @-@ operative Bank .
= = Cultural references = =
The poet John Betjeman 's parents ran a cabinet makers at No. 34 – 42 Pentonville Road . It was established since 1859 and produced the Tantalus drinks cabinet in 1881 .
Pentonville Road is one of the locations on the London version of the Monopoly board game . It is one of the light blue squares alongside The Angel , Islington and Euston Road , both of which it connects to . The magazine Mixmag 's main offices are at Nos. 90 – 92 Pentonville Road .
= Phoenix ( constellation ) =
Phoenix is a minor constellation in the southern sky . Named after the mythical phoenix , it was first depicted on a celestial atlas by Johann Bayer in his 1603 Uranometria . The French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted the brighter stars and gave their Bayer designations in 1756 . The constellation stretches from roughly − 39 ° to − 57 ° declination , and from 23.5h to 2.5h of right ascension . The constellations Phoenix , Grus , Pavo and Tucana , are known as the Southern Birds .
The brightest star , Alpha Phoenicis , is named Ankaa , an Arabic word meaning ' the Phoenix ' . It is an orange giant of apparent magnitude 2 @.@ 4 . Next is Beta Phoenicis , actually a binary system composed of two yellow giants with a combined apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 3 . Nu Phoenicis has a dust disk , while the constellation has ten star systems with known planets and the recently discovered galaxy clusters El Gordo and the Phoenix Cluster — located 7 @.@ 2 and 5 @.@ 7 billion light years away respectively , two of the largest objects in the visible universe . Phoenix is the radiant of two annual meteor showers : the Phoenicids in December , and the July Phoenicids .
= = History = =
Phoenix was the largest of the twelve constellations established by Petrus Plancius from the observations of Pieter Dirkszoon Keyser and Frederick de Houtman . It first appeared on a 35 @-@ cm diameter celestial globe published in 1597 ( or 1598 ) in Amsterdam by Plancius with Jodocus Hondius . The first depiction of this constellation in a celestial atlas was in Johann Bayer 's Uranometria of 1603 . De Houtman included it in his southern star catalog the same year under the Dutch name Den voghel Fenicx , " The Bird Phoenix " , symbolising the phoenix of classical mythology . One name of the brightest star Alpha Phoenicis — Ankaa — is derived from the Arabic العنقاء al- ‘ anqā ’ " the phoenix " , and was coined sometime after 1800 in relation to the constellation .
Celestial historian Richard Allen noted that unlike the other constellations introduced by Plancius and La Caille , Phoenix has actual precedent in ancient astronomy , as the Arabs saw this formation as representing young ostriches , Al Ri 'āl , or as a griffin or eagle . In addition , the same group of stars was sometimes imagined by the Arabs as a boat , Al Zaurak , on the nearby river Eridanus . He observed , " the introduction of a Phoenix into modern astronomy was , in a measure , by adoption rather than by invention . "
The Chinese incorporated Phoenix 's brightest star , Ankaa ( Alpha Phoenicis ) , and stars from the adjacent constellation Sculptor to depict Bakui , a net for catching birds . Phoenix and the neighbouring constellation of Grus together were seen by Julius Schiller as portraying Aaron the High Priest . These two constellations , along with nearby Pavo and Tucana , are called the Southern Birds .
= = Characteristics = =
Phoenix is a small constellation bordered by Fornax and Sculptor to the north , Grus to the west , Tucana to the south , touching on the corner of Hydrus to the south , and Eridanus to the east and southeast . The bright star Achernar is nearby . The three @-@ letter abbreviation for the constellation , as adopted by the International Astronomical Union in 1922 , is ' Phe ' . The official constellation boundaries , as set by Eugène Delporte in 1930 , are defined by a polygon of 10 segments . In the equatorial coordinate system , the right ascension coordinates of these borders lie between 23h 26.5m and 02h 25.0m , while the declination coordinates are between − 39 @.@ 31 ° and − 57 @.@ 84 ° . This means it remains below the horizon to anyone living north of the 40th parallel in the Northern Hemisphere , and remains low in the sky for anyone living north of the equator . It is most visible from locations such as Australia and South Africa during late Southern Hemisphere spring . Most of the constellation lies within , and can be located by , forming a triangle of the bright stars Achernar , Fomalhaut and Beta Ceti — Ankaa lies roughly in the centre of this .
= = Notable features = =
= = = Stars = = =
A curved line of stars comprising Alpha , Kappa , Mu , Beta , Nu and Gamma Phoenicis was seen as a boat by the ancient Arabs . French explorer and astronomer Nicolas Louis de Lacaille charted and designated 27 stars with the Bayer designations Alpha through to Omega in 1756 . Of these , he labelled two stars close together Lambda , and assigned Omicron , Psi and Omega to three stars , which subsequent astronomers such as Benjamin Gould felt were too dim to warrant their letters . A different star was subsequently labelled Psi Phoenicis , while the other two designations fell out of use .
Ankaa is the brightest star in the constellation . It is an orange giant of apparent visual magnitude 2 @.@ 37 and spectral type K0.5IIIb , 77 light years distant from Earth and orbited by a secondary object about which little is known . Lying close by Ankaa is Kappa Phoenicis , a main sequence star of spectral type A5IVn and apparent magnitude 3 @.@ 90 . Located centrally in the asterism , Beta Phoenicis is the second brightest star in the constellation and another binary star . Together the stars , both yellow giants of spectral type G8 , shine with an apparent magnitude of 3 @.@ 31 , though the components are of individual apparent magnitudes of 4 @.@ 0 and 4 @.@ 1 and orbit each other every 168 years . Zeta Phoenicis is an Algol @-@ type eclipsing binary , with an apparent magnitude fluctuating between 3 @.@ 9 and 4 @.@ 4 with a period of around 1 @.@ 7 days ( 40 hours ) ; its dimming results from the component two blue @-@ white B @-@ type stars , which orbit and block out each other from Earth . The two stars are 0 @.@ 05 AU from each other , while a third star is around 600 AU away from the pair , and has an orbital period exceeding 5000 years . The system is around 300 light years distant . In 1976 , researchers Clausen , Gyldenkerne , and Grønbech calculated that a nearby 8th magnitude star is a fourth member of the system .
Gamma Phoenicis is a red giant of spectral type M0IIIa and varies between magnitudes 3 @.@ 39 and 3 @.@ 49 . It lies 235 light years away . Psi Phoenicis is another red giant , this time of spectral type M4III , and has an apparent magnitude that ranges between 4 @.@ 3 and 4 @.@ 5 over a period of around 30 days . Lying 340 light years away , it has around 85 times the diameter , but only 85 % of the mass , of our sun . W Phoenicis is a Mira variable , ranging from magnitude 8 @.@ 1 to 14 @.@ 4 over 333 @.@ 95 days . A red giant , its spectrum ranges between M5e and M6e . Located 6 @.@ 5 degrees west of Ankaa is SX Phoenicis , a variable star which ranges from magnitude 7 @.@ 1 to 7 @.@ 5 over a period of a mere 79 minutes . Its spectral type varies between A2 and F4 . It gives its name to a group of stars known as SX Phoenicis variables . Rho and BD Phoenicis are Delta Scuti variables — short period ( six hours at most ) pulsating stars that have been used as standard candles and as subjects to study astroseismology . Rho is spectral type F2III , and ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 20 and 5 @.@ 26 over a period of 2 @.@ 85 hours . BD is of spectral type A1V , and ranges between magnitudes 5 @.@ 90 and 5 @.@ 94 .
Nu Phoenicis is a yellow @-@ white main sequence star of spectral type F9V and magnitude 4 @.@ 96 . Lying some 49 light years distant , it is around 1 @.@ 2 times as massive as our sun , and likely to be surrounded by a disk of dust . It is the closest star in the constellation that is visible with the unaided eye . Gliese 915 is a white dwarf only 26 light years away . It is of magnitude 13 @.@ 05 , too faint to be seen with the naked eye . White dwarfs are extremely dense stars compacted into a volume the size of the Earth . With around 85 % of the mass of the Sun , Gliese 915 has a surface gravity of 108 @.@ 39 ± 0 @.@ 01 ( 2 @.@ 4
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iland , where he joined in the British fight against the " Mad Mullah " , Mohammed Abdullah Hassan . In 1925 , Ismay became an Assistant Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence . After being promoted to the rank of colonel , he served as the military secretary for Lord Willingdon , the Viceroy of India , then returned to the Committee of Imperial Defence as Deputy Secretary in 1936 .
On 1 August 1938 , shortly before the outbreak of the Second World War , Ismay became the Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence and began planning for the impending war . In May 1940 , when Winston Churchill became Prime Minister of the United Kingdom , he selected Ismay as his chief military assistant and staff officer . In that capacity , Ismay served as the principal link between Churchill and the Chiefs of Staff Committee . Ismay also accompanied Churchill to many of the Allied war conferences . For Ismay 's advice and aid , " Churchill owed more , and admitted that he owed more " to him " than to anybody else , military or civilian , in the whole of the war . "
After the end of the war , Ismay remained in the army for another year , and helped to reorganise the Ministry of Defence . He then retired from the military and served as Lord Mountbatten of Burma 's Chief of Staff in India , helping to oversee its partition . From 1948 to 1951 , he served as chairman of the council of the Festival of Britain , helping to organise and promote the event . Then , in 1951 , when Churchill again became Prime Minister , he appointed Ismay Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations . Ismay accepted the position , but resigned after only six months to become the first Secretary General of NATO in 1952 . He served as Secretary General until 1957 , and helped to establish and define the position . After retiring from NATO , Ismay wrote his memoirs , The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay , served on a variety of corporate boards , and co @-@ chaired the Ismay – Jacob Committee , which reorganised the Ministry of Defence once again . He died on 17 December 1965 , at his home Wormington Grange , Gloucestershire .
= = Early life = =
Ismay was born in Nainital , India , on 21 June 1887 . His father , Sir Stanley Ismay , was a member of the Viceroy 's Legislative Council and his mother , Beatrice Ellen , was the daughter of an Army colonel . Ismay began his education in Britain at the Charterhouse School , and his parents hoped that after completing his education there he would attend Cambridge and enter the civil service .
Ismay , however , " had a sneaking desire to be a cavalry soldier " , and after doing poorly on his final examinations at Charterhouse , he was not eligible to attend Cambridge . As a result , he entered the Royal Military College , Sandhurst in 1904 . Ismay would later write : " Sandhurst never meant nearly so much to me as Charterhouse had " , but he enjoyed his time at the school and studied alongside many men who went on to become important military officers , including Lord Gort , Edgar Ludlow @-@ Hewitt and Cyril Newall .
= = = Indian Army = = =
After completing the course at Sandhurst , Ismay placed fourth overall on its examinations and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Indian Army . Ismay was then attached to the Gloucestershire Regiment of the British Army in Ambala , where he served a one year mandatory apprenticeship . After leaving the regiment , Ismay did not immediately find a place in the Indian cavalry , so he spent nine months floating among positions with various British and Indian units .
In 1907 , Ismay found a permanent position in the Indian cavalry , joining the 21st Prince Albert Victor 's Own Cavalry , based at Risalpur . Ismay thoroughly enjoyed his time with the regiment , describing it as " blissful . " In 1908 , he saw his first action with the regiment , when it was sent into Afghanistan , pursuing Mohmand raiders who had taken several Hindu women as hostages . Immediately after Ismay 's regiment returned from action , he was hospitalised in Peshawar due to heat stroke , but he recovered quickly and , along with the rest of his regiment , received the India General Service Medal .
In 1910 , after a reorganisation of the Indian Army , Ismay 's regiment moved from Risalpur to Jhelum , further from the frontier . Shortly thereafter , Ismay was appointed the adjutant of his regiment , a position which he held for four years , during which time he also read voraciously and developed a great admiration for Winston Churchill , whom he sought to emulate .
= = Somaliland = =
In early 1914 , just before Ismay 's appointment as adjutant was set to expire , he met C.A.L Howard , another British officer serving in India , who told him about an opportunity to serve with the King 's African Rifles in British Somaliland . Ismay decided that this was " just the sort of job that [ he ] wanted , " and applied immediately . Due to his reputation " as a thorough and dependable officer of sound judgement , " Ismay was appointed second in command of the Somaliland Camel Corps , a cavalry unit led by Thomas Cubitt .
Ismay left India for Somaliland in late July 1914 , and arrived on 9 August , shortly after the outbreak of the First World War in Europe . Like other officers in Somaliland , Ismay was " unhappy at being left out of the great war " and repeatedly asked for a transfer to the European front . In the end , however , Ismay 's superiors decided that he was " so indispensable that , despite his longing for action in Europe , he was retained in Somaliland until 1920 . "
In Somaliland , the Camel Corps and other British soldiers were ordered to subdue an uprising by Mohammed Abdullah Hassan , known by the British as the " Mad Mullah " , who had been fighting against them for more than twenty years . Ismay 's commander , Thomas Cubitt , was determined to end the rebellion forcefully and quickly , so on 17 November 1914 , he launched a major assault against Hassan 's fortress at Shimber Berris . In the attack , Ismay fought closely alongside Adrian Carton de Wiart , later an important British officer in both World Wars . Not long after the attack on Shimber Berris , however , the Camel Corps received orders from London " forbidding all offensive operations in Somaliland " , due to the misfortunes of the Army elsewhere . As a result of this order , British operations were limited for the duration of the First World War , and Ismay 's unit undertook no further major offensives .
Despite limited British activity , a few operations combined with the effort of local forces led to " a drastic weakening " of Hassan 's forces by 1918 . Thus , after the armistice ending the First World War , the government sent Major General Arthur Hoskins to take control of the forces in Somaliland and defeat Hassan conclusively in battle . After Hoskins arrived , his initial plan for dealing with Hassan focussed on the use of the newly formed Royal Air Force , so Ismay and the Camel Corps were consigned to a minor role . Hoskins 's plans , however , were found " overscaled and far too costly " , so they were shelved throughout most of 1918 and 1919 .
In October 1919 , plans for Hoskins 's operation were finally approved , and on 21 January 1920 , the attack against Hassan commenced . After several days of bombing , Ismay was ordered to lead an assault by the Camel Corps against Hassan 's fortress at Jid Ali . On 27 January , Ismay 's forces first attempted the attack and were repulsed by strong resistance . That night , however , Hassan and his forces fled Jid Ali to take refuge in the countryside . Ismay was assigned to track down and capture Hassan , but he " had no idea of where he was " , and was forced to begin a large search . Ismay pursued Hassan for nearly two weeks , and managed to capture many members of his family and people close to him , including seven of his sons . Nonetheless , Hassan himself managed to evade Ismay and on 12 February , the effort to capture him was called off . Though Hassan was never captured , his power was broken , and he died in December 1920 of influenza . For his service in the effort against Hassan , Ismay received the Distinguished Service Order and was twice mentioned in despatches .
= = Interwar years = =
In April 1920 , Ismay left Somaliland for England . While en route , he received word that he had been nominated for a place at the Indian Army 's Staff College in Quetta . Depressed by the loss of life and destruction of the First World War , Ismay turned down the nomination , and " was even seriously thinking of resigning [ his ] commission " in the Army . After arriving in London , Ismay was given twelve months of medical leave , and decided to stay in the army . He then attempted to reclaim his seat at the Staff College , but was told that it had already been given to someone else .
= = = Service in India = = =
While on medical leave , Ismay met Laura Kathleen Clegg , with whom he quickly fell in love . The two were engaged only three weeks after meeting . After four months , however , Ismay was proclaimed fit for duty , despite his remaining eight months of leave , and ordered back to India , where he rejoined his old regiment . His time back in India was relatively quiet , as there was " no serious fighting " in the area of his regiment at the time . In February 1921 , Ismay took the qualifying exam for the Staff College in Rawalpindi , and passed , earning himself a seat for the next year .
In April , Ismay returned to London on leave , and married Clegg , with whom he eventually had three daughters . Ismay remained in London until February 1922 , when he entered the Staff College at Quetta . Ismay excelled at the Staff College , and its commandant called him " one of the two best , if not the best , of the students who have passed through my hands . " In his final thesis at the Staff College , Ismay correctly predicted that the next European war would be a total war , but he incorrectly predicted that cavalry would continue to play a role in future warfare .
After the Staff College , Ismay became Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General of the Indian Army . In that position , he worked closely with Claude Auchinleck , beginning a long @-@ standing personal and professional relationship between the two . Ismay found that his work as Deputy Assistant Quartermaster General " was a valuable experience " , but did not enjoy it .
= = = Service in England = = =
In 1924 , Air Vice @-@ Marshal Philip Game suggested to Ismay that he apply for a seat at the RAF Staff College , Andover . Although Ismay " had no desire to learn to be a pilot " , he was happy for the opportunity to return to England , and went to study at the college . After completing the programme , he was approached about the possibility of serving as an Assistant Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence ( CID ) under Maurice Hankey . Ismay gladly accepted the position , starting work in December 1925 . In the six months between finishing the Staff College and beginning at the CID , Ismay returned to India and held a staff position at the headquarters of the Indian Army in Simla .
As Assistant Secretary , Ismay directed several of the subcommittees of the Committee of Imperial Defence , including those for Censorship and War Emergency Legislation , Principal Supply Officers , and Co @-@ ordination of Departmental Action . As the Secretary of the Committee for the Co @-@ ordination of Departmental Action , Ismay " was responsible for seeing that all plans and preparations made by Government Departments or sub @-@ committees of the CID to meet the eventuality of war , were incorporated under appropriate headings in a document known as the War Book . " This task ended up consuming most of Ismay 's time as Assistant Secretary , and gave him " exceptional insight into the ways of Whitehall . "
While serving as Assistant Secretary , Ismay made important friends and gained the backing of Hankey , by whom he was " greatly valued " . Largely through Hankey 's influence , Ismay was nominated as a Companion of the Order of the Bath in the Civil Division , an honour which he received in 1931 .
= = = Lord Willingdon and the War Office = = =
In December 1930 , after five years , Ismay left his position at the CID . He was promoted to the rank of colonel and hoped to take command of the 12th Cavalry . Instead , he became the military secretary for Lord Willingdon , the newly appointed Viceroy of India .
In this role , Ismay served as the " unofficial link " between Willingdon and the Indian Army . He also led Willingdon 's personal staff , and organised his many trips throughout India . Ismay was also responsible for Willingdon 's safety , and took precautions after he was threatened by assassins . In December 1932 , Ismay was informed that his service with Willingdon was over and that he was expected to take up a position in the War Office during the next year .
At the War Office , Ismay served as an intelligence officer with responsibility for the Middle East , Far East , the Americas , the Soviet Union , Poland and the Baltic States . Ismay enjoyed his work , and wrote that " intelligence is perhaps the most interesting of all Staff work . " During his three years in the position , Ismay worked directly under Sir John Dill , who would later serve as the Chief of the Imperial General Staff .
= = Committee of Imperial Defence = =
In 1936 , Maurice Hankey became determined to " bring Ismay in as his deputy and eventual successor " at the CID . Hoping that the appointment would " strengthen the organization of the CID " and enhance its influence , Hankey offered Ismay the position of Deputy Secretary . Although the appointment meant that Ismay would probably never command troops again , he viewed it as an important opportunity and " accepted with scarcely a moment 's hesitation . " A week thereafter , Ismay received a letter offering him the command of a cavalry brigade in India , but declined , solidifying his choice to remain a staff officer .
As Deputy Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , Ismay had broad responsibilities , and was " concerned with every aspect of planning and preparation for a war which seemed imminent . " Ismay dealt extensively with a variety of matters and focussed much of his attention on the preparation of anti @-@ aircraft defences and co @-@ ordination among the military services . As the crisis in Europe escalated , however , Hankey announced his intention to retire in June 1938 . Hankey hoped that one person , preferably Ismay , would inherit all of the positions he had occupied , including Secretary of the CID , clerk of the Privy Council , and Secretary to the Cabinet , but the Prime Minister , Neville Chamberlain , decided that the positions should be split and assigned to different people .
In the end , Ismay was named only to the position of Secretary of the Committee of Imperial Defence , effective 1 August 1938 . Ismay assumed the position scarcely more than a year before the outbreak of the Second World War , and the war totally dominated his time in office . Soon after Ismay took office , Hitler initiated a crisis over the Sudetenland . While Chamberlain was at the Munich Conference attempting to resolve the crisis , Ismay ordered the digging of trenches in London as protection against air attacks , should war occur . Ismay later said that he thought Britain should have gone to war at Munich instead of waiting , but said nothing at the time . As it became increasingly clear that war was inevitable in 1939 , Ismay also prepared for a " smooth , simple and practically instantaneous " transition from the Committee of Imperial Defence to the War Cabinet , or whatever other wartime authority the government might choose .
= = Second World War = =
With the outbreak of the Second World War , the CID was immediately absorbed into the War Cabinet as Ismay had planned . In the midst of the turmoil , Ismay was promoted to Major General , and began to work closely with Chamberlain , accompanying him on a visit to France in December 1939 . Ismay disagreed with several Allied strategic choices , including the decision to try to stop the German advance in Belgium , but kept his doubts to himself .
= = = Chiefs of Staff Committee = = =
In April 1940 , Winston Churchill took control of the Military Co @-@ ordination Committee , charged with overseeing all of the military services . He selected Ismay as his chief staff officer , which also gave Ismay the additional responsibility of serving on the Chiefs of Staff Committee . While serving under Churchill had been a life @-@ long dream for Ismay , he was initially sceptical about the duties of his new position , which seemed unclear and poorly defined .
On 10 May , after the beginning of the Battle of France , Chamberlain resigned , and Churchill became both Prime Minister and Minister of Defence . Ismay , who later called Churchill " the greatest War Prime Minister in our history " , was " thrilled " by this development , and continued to act as Churchill 's chief staff officer and military adviser . According to Churchill , the two developed a close " personal and official connection [ that ] was preserved unbroken and unweakened " throughout the war . As part of this relationship , not long after Churchill became Prime Minister , he arranged for Ismay to be appointed Knight Commander of the Order of the Bath in June 1940 . From the very moment he became Prime Minister , Churchill " relied heavily on General Pug Ismay , " who provided a crucial bridge to the military establishment . Ismay served as the " principal assistant to Mr. Churchill in his capacity as Minister of Defence " , continued to serve as the Secretary of the Imperial Defence Chiefs of Staff Committee , and became Deputy Secretary of the War Cabinet . Ismay was crucial to running the war effort , as he was able to effectively link the military and civilian leadership . Jock Colville , Churchill 's private secretary , wrote that Ismay had the " tact , patience , and skill in promoting compromise " needed to keep the war running smoothly . " Ismay had the additional advantage of being admired by the Service Chiefs for his long and distinguished record as a soldier .
In his role , Ismay handled " nearly all military messages " from Churchill to the Service Chiefs . Ismay also gave Churchill advice on military matters , and often " begged him to be reasonable " when he contemplated foolish actions , believing that Churchill 's greatest fault was his " impetuous nature and impatience with opposition . " When the Chiefs of Staff found Churchill 's demands unfeasible , Ismay took the role of " converting the Prime Minister " to their viewpoint .
= = = Allied conferences = = =
As Churchill 's chief military adviser , Ismay frequently attended wartime conferences and meetings of the Allies and accompanied other British leaders , such as Foreign Minister Anthony Eden , on their travels . Ismay 's travel to the conferences began in 1941 , when he went with Lord Beaverbrook to the first Moscow Conference . Because English participation in the conference was a secret , Ismay faked influenza to explain his absence from London while it was taking place . The Conference was also the first time that Ismay worked closely with the Americans , whom he found " quite congenial . "
Ismay would continue to work closely with the Americans throughout the remainder of the war , and he accompanied Churchill on his 1942 trip to the United States . Shortly after their return , US General Dwight D. Eisenhower arrived in Britain to command the American forces . He established close relations with Ismay , who liked him greatly , and assisted him in co @-@ ordinating with both British forces and the Cabinet . Eisenhower thought highly of Ismay , remembering him for his " stalwart support " , and calling him a man " of great ability " . Not long after Eisenhower arrived , on 16 August 1942 , Ismay was promoted to the rank of Lieutenant General . Around the same time , his good relations with the Americans were recognised by others in the government . Thus , in November 1942 , when Eleanor Roosevelt visited Britain , Lady Ismay was chosen to host her for one night of her stay .
= = = 1943 conferences = = =
In January 1943 , Ismay accompanied Churchill to the Casablanca Conference . Ismay attended nearly all of the proceedings of the Conference , and helped work towards consensus where the Americans and British disagreed on issues . Ismay was also appointed to the committee which wrote the formal report of the conference . After the conference , Ismay visited the American headquarters in Algiers to meet with Eisenhower , and helped resolve some differences of opinion between Eisenhower and his British colleagues .
After Casablanca , Ismay accompanied Churchill to the third Washington Conference in May 1943 . At the conference , Ismay first met the American Admiral William D. Leahy , who is often described as his American counterpart . The two developed a friendly relationship , and Leahy wrote in his memoirs : " General Sir Hastings Ismay became my favorite , perhaps because his position closely paralleled my own " .
After the Washington Conference came the Quebec Conference in August 1943 . Once again , Ismay attended along with Churchill . The Quebec Conference was the first time that the Allied leaders discussed the full details of Operation Overlord , so Ismay spent much of his time explaining details of the operation to Churchill and other leaders . During the conference , Ismay also observed that Dudley Pound " had had a breakdown " . He took the information to Churchill who demanded Pound 's resignation a week later .
Shortly after returning from Quebec , Ismay participated in his next conference , travelling with Anthony Eden to the Moscow Conference in October and November , where he served as Eden 's top military adviser . At the conference , Ismay handled all of the Soviet questions about the planning for Operation Overlord , and met Joseph Stalin personally for the first time . After the conference , Ismay wrote that he " was optimistic about [ sic ] post @-@ war relations with Russia " , showing his belief that the meeting had gone well .
Only four days after returning from the Moscow Conference , Ismay left England again for the Cairo Conference and Teheran Conference with Churchill . One major source of conflict at the Cairo Conference was an American proposal to appoint an overall commander for the strategic bombing of Germany . Ismay and the British were strongly opposed , and Ismay wrote a long paper against the idea , which became the basis of British policy on the subject . At Teheran , Ismay helped to argue the case for Operation Overlord , but immediately after the conference he developed bronchitis and returned to England by ship , scrapping his other plans for the trip .
= = = 1944 – 1945 = = =
In the first several months of 1944 , Ismay spent almost all of his time planning for the Normandy Landings . As part of the planning , Ismay personally coordinated the plans for Operation Bodyguard and Operation Fortitude , which were designed to deceive the Germans about the planned Normandy landings . In March , Duncan Sandys , Churchill 's nephew , told Ismay that Basil Liddell Hart , a noted strategist and historian , had somehow discovered the secret plans for the Normandy landings . This development had the potential to compromise the entire operation , so Ismay personally interviewed Liddell Hart , who claimed to have simply " worked it all out for himself " without any access to secret information . After their interview , Ismay directed the matter to the MI5 , who never found evidence of wrongdoing , although it is suspected that Liddell Hart may in fact have received information from military planners .
On 20 May 1944 , less than a month before the Normandy Landings were scheduled to take place , Ismay was promoted to the rank of full general . After the successful D @-@ Day landings , King George VI decided to visit the troops in Normandy , and selected Ismay to accompany him on the visit . In September , Ismay accompanied Churchill to another conference , the Second Quebec Conference . Ismay also accompanied Churchill on his visits to Moscow and Paris in late 1944 .
In February 1945 , Ismay attended the Yalta Conference . He found the conference different from the previous ones where " the military element had been the prima donna , occupying the centre of the stage . " Instead , at Yalta , political issues took precedence , leaving Ismay and other military advisers " waiting for calls that never came " .
On VE Day , Ismay found it " quite impossible to be completely happy about the future , " due to the lingering Japanese threat , and the rising threat of the Soviet Union . Nonetheless , he was happy to be one of only three men to hold the same high government position throughout the war in Europe , along with Edward Bridges , 1st Baron Bridges and the King .
= = Post @-@ war military service = =
After VE Day , Ismay accompanied Churchill to the Potsdam Conference . Like Yalta , the conference focussed primarily on political issues , so there was little for Ismay to do . After Clement Attlee defeated Churchill in the 1945 election , becoming Prime Minister , Ismay kept his position , working with Attlee at the conference , but remained loyal to Churchill . Ismay and Churchill remained friends for the remainder of their lives , and Ismay even helped Churchill write his memoirs , reviewing and commenting on each chapter of his manuscript .
Shortly after the Potsdam Conference , the war in Asia ended on VJ Day . After this victory , Ismay " would have liked to retire at once " , but at Attlee 's request he remained in the military for another year . Before continuing work , however , Ismay travelled to New York on 6 September , for a six @-@ week vacation ; he received a warm welcome .
Over the next year , Ismay worked largely on the issue of reform for the Ministry of Defence . From December 1945 to February 1946 , Ismay worked with a small committee to draft the Statement Relating to Defence , which formed the basis of reforms implemented by Attlee later that year . For his role , Ismay became known as the " ' chief architect ' of the post @-@ war Ministry of Defence . "
During the year following the war , Ismay received many honours for his service . In August 1945 , as part of Churchill 's resignation honours , he was appointed to the Order of the Companions of Honour , an honour rarely bestowed on soldiers . The next January , he received the Legion of Merit from the United States . He was also promoted to Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Bath in June . Finally , he was named the Chairman of the Council of the Royal National Institute for the Blind .
In November 1946 , Ismay announced his intention to retire . Attlee accepted his retirement , effective on 31 December 1946 . Immediately after retiring , in the 1947 New Year Honours , Ismay was created a baron taking the title Baron Ismay , of Wormington in the County of Gloucester . He accepted the barony and took his seat in the House of Lords in February .
= = Partition of India = =
Shortly after Ismay 's retirement , Lord Mountbatten of Burma was appointed as the last British Viceroy of India and Ismay offered to serve as his chief of staff . Thus , in March 1947 , Ismay left with Mountbatten for India to help preside over its transition to independence . After arriving in India , Ismay soon came to the conclusion that the situation there was dire , heading for civil war , and told Mountbatten that " India was a ship on fire in mid @-@ ocean with ammunition in her hold . "
When Ismay and Mountbatten arrived , they were committed to preserving a unified India , but Ismay soon realised " that the Moslem League would not agree to any plan which did not provide for the creation of Pakistan as an independent sovereign state . " In April , after several unsuccessful meetings with Muhammad Ali Jinnah , Mountbatten came to the same conclusion and began drawing up plans for the partition . Over the next month Mountbatten finalised his partition plan , and on 2 May 1947 , he sent Ismay back to London to present it to the British government . Ismay presented the plan to the Prime Minister and Cabinet , casting partition as a Hobson 's choice . Ismay stayed in England for the next month , and helped to alter the plan based on the cabinet 's suggestions , before returning to India on 31 May .
Once the partition plan had been accepted , Ismay worked on implementing the details . In particular , Ismay dealt with the issue of dividing the Indian Army . Based on his own experiences and love of the Indian Army , Ismay did his " utmost to persuade " the leaders of the new Indian and Pakistani states not to separate the army immediately . His efforts failed due to the opposition of Jinnah .
Ismay also travelled to Kashmir to ask Hari Singh to hold an immediate referendum over whether his territory would join India or Pakistan . Once again , Ismay was unsuccessful and Singh " changed the subject " each time that Ismay tried to discuss the referendum . Throughout the period immediately following independence , Ismay also tried to ensure that stories printed in the Indian and Pakistani press about the partition were accurate , but once again he was largely unsuccessful .
The situation in India continued to deteriorate throughout the summer and autumn of 1947 . Nevertheless , Ismay and Mountbatten had agreed that Ismay would remain in his position for only three to four months after partition . In December 1947 , he left India to return to England . Shortly after his return , Ismay served briefly on the British delegation to the United Nations to deal with the Kashmir issue . Ismay played only a limited role , as the Pakistanis suspected him of pro @-@ Indian sympathies .
= = Festival of Britain = =
Shortly after Ismay returned from the United Nations , Prime Minister Attlee asked him to become the Chairman of the Council of the Festival of Britain , scheduled to take place in 1951 . Ismay accepted the offer , and on 10 March 1948 , he officially took the position of chairman . The appointment was largely symbolic , and Ismay " was at least partly appointed to forestall potential criticism by his friend Winston Churchill . " The Council , however , wielded " slight , but not insignificant influence " and Ismay took his duties seriously .
Ismay helped to ensure that the festival would be truly national in character , rather than just confined to London . As such , in June 1949 , he called together all of the mayors in Britain to discuss the festival ; this was the first meeting of all British mayors since 1916 . Ismay also publicly defended the large cost of the festival , and emphasised its historic nature , saying , " We are consciously and deliberately determined to make history . " Once the festival opened , Ismay hosted various notable guests , including Margaret Truman , the daughter of US President Harry Truman .
= = Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations = =
In the 1951 general election held shortly after the conclusion of the Festival of Britain , Churchill 's Conservative Party once again won a majority in Parliament , making Churchill Prime Minister for a second time . The day after the election , Churchill asked Ismay to become the Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations in his cabinet . Ismay " was overjoyed at the prospect of serving under Churchill again " and accepted the post immediately . Although not a politician , Ismay was well @-@ suited for the position because of his close relationships with the leaders of the commonwealth countries , largely the result of his work during the war .
As a result of his military background and experience , Ismay became " more closely involved in defence matters than is usual for a Secretary of State for Commonwealth Relations , " and often served as de facto Minister of Defence and serving as temporary Minister of Defence until the permanent appointee , Harold Alexander , was able to take office . Through his close involvement in defence matters , Ismay began to be involved with the North Atlantic Treaty Organization . In January 1952 , he accompanied Churchill to a meeting in Ottawa about the alliance , and in February 1952 he attended the NATO Lisbon Conference as the British Ministry of Defence representative . When leaving the conference , Ismay remarked to Alfred Gruenther , " this is the first that I have seen of NATO , and thank heaven it 's the last . "
= = Secretary General of NATO = =
At the Lisbon Conference , the members of NATO agreed to appoint a Secretary General who would direct the organisation 's staff and serve as Vice @-@ Chairman of the Atlantic Council . The position was initially offered to Sir Oliver Franks , but he declined . As such , the allies scrambled to find someone else to take the position . Two weeks later , the countries agreed to ask Ismay to become Secretary General at the suggestion of Churchill and Anthony Eden .
Eden asked Ismay to accept the position , but his response " was an immediate and emphatic negative , " as he saw NATO as an overly bureaucratic and inefficient organisation and complained that the position of Secretary General was " divided and ill @-@ defined . " Churchill then personally asked Ismay to accept the position , telling him that " NATO provided the best , if not the only , hope of peace in our time . " After further urging , Ismay reluctantly agreed to take the job . On 12 March 1952 , the Atlantic Council officially passed a resolution appointing Ismay Secretary General , and he started work on 24 March .
Ismay 's appointment to the position was well @-@ received , enjoying the unanimous support of all the NATO members . The press and public also responded favourably . The Times wrote : " of all the candidates whose names have been mentioned , Lord Ismay would seem to have the strongest qualifications for the post . " The New York Times applauded his " vast experience in military planning , strategy , and administration , " and The Washington Post wrote that Ismay would bring NATO " great authority , experience and energy and a personal charm that can dissolve difficulties . "
As the first Secretary @-@ General , Ismay was " assuming an entirely new role in the history of international organizations , " and as such he helped to define the position itself . While Ismay " deemed it wise not to step too boldly in a political role " in disputes among the members , he asserted himself strongly on issues relevant to the organisation of NATO . From the very beginning of his time in office , Ismay worked to empower the permanent representatives to NATO , and emphasised that they had the same legal authority to make decisions as the NATO foreign ministers .
Ismay was also a proponent of NATO expansion , saying that NATO " must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella . " However , before Warsaw Pact was even put in place , he opposed the request to join NATO made by USSR in 1954 saying that " the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force " thus making apparent that NATO alliance ( " the police force " ) was directed against USSR . As stated in the official NATO website " the request tested the limits of NATO 's willingness to admit new members " .
As Secretary General , Ismay also worked to encourage closer political co @-@ ordination among the members of the alliance . During the Suez Crisis he offered his good offices to help resolve issues among members of the alliance . Ismay also offered to help mediate disputes over Cyprus .
In December 1956 , Ismay decided to retire from NATO . He told the press that " he was not giving up his position for personal reasons , but because he felt it needed a fresh hand and a fresh brain . " Paul @-@ Henri Spaak was immediately chosen as his successor , but Ismay remained in office until May 1957 , when he left with " the affection and respect " of all the NATO members . While Secretary General , Ismay is also credited as having been the first person to say that the purpose of the alliance was " to keep the Russians out , the Americans in , and the Germans down , " a saying that has since become a common way to quickly describe the alliance .
= = Retirement = =
Immediately after leaving NATO , Ismay was honoured by Queen Elizabeth II with an appointment to the Order of the Garter . His youngest daughter Mary had married George Seymour , equerry to Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother , and their daughter Katharine is a god @-@ daughter of Princess Margaret .
He was appointed to boards of several corporations including the Ashanti Goldfields Corporation . Ismay also began writing his memoirs , The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay , which were published in 1960 by Viking Press . In his memoirs , Ismay focussed principally on his Second World War service , and as such , one reviewer called them " a most significant addition to the literature of the Second World War . "
In 1963 , Ismay was asked to again assist in a review of the organisation of the British military along with Sir Ian Jacob . Although Ismay was ill throughout most of the review and did relatively little of the work , " his influence was strong " , and the final product of the review largely reflected his opinions . In the end , the Ismay – Jacob Report recommended strengthening the central power of the Ministry of Defence substantially , and in 1964 , Parliament implemented its recommendations .
Ismay died on 17 December 1965 at his home Wormington Grange , Gloucestershire , at the age of 78 . As he had no male heir , his title became extinct . His Garter banner , which hung in St. George 's Chapel in Windsor during his lifetime , is now on display in the nave of Tewkesbury Abbey .
= = In popular culture = =
General Ismay was portrayed in the television drama Churchill and the Generals by Paul Hardwick , and in Lord Mountbatten : The Last Viceroy by Nigel Davenport .
= = = Books = = =
Overy , Richard ( 1989 ) . The Road To War . London : Macmillan .
Beachey , Ray ( 1990 ) . The Warrior Mullah . London : Bellew Publishing . ISBN 0 @-@ 947792 @-@ 43 @-@ 0 . OCLC 60081063 .
Churchill , Winston ( 1948 ) . The Gathering Storm . The Second World War 2 . Boston : Houghton Mifflin Company . OCLC 3025315 .
Colville , John ( 1981 ) . Winston Churchill and His Inner Circle . New York : Wyndham Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 42583 @-@ 8 . OCLC 7283766 .
Conekin , Becky ( 2003 ) . The Autobiography of a Nation : The 1951 Festival of Britain . Manchester : Manchester University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7190 @-@ 6060 @-@ 5 . OCLC 50783359 .
Collins , Larry ; LaPierre , Dominique ( 1975 ) . Freedom at Midnight . New York : Simon & Schuster . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 22088 @-@ 8 . OCLC 1366307 .
Eisenhower , Dwight ( 1948 ) . Crusade in Europe . Garden City , New York : Doubleday . OCLC 394251 .
Eisenhower , John ( 1982 ) . Allies : Pearl Harbor to D @-@ Day . Garden City , New York : Doubleday . ISBN 0 @-@ 385 @-@ 11479 @-@ 6 . OCLC 7672682 .
Gilbert , Martin ( 1991 ) . Churchill : A Life . New York : Henry Holt and Company . ISBN 0 @-@ 8050 @-@ 0615 @-@ X. OCLC 24011440 .
Ismay , Hastings ( 1960 ) . The Memoirs of General Lord Ismay . New York : Viking Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8371 @-@ 6280 @-@ 5 . OCLC 827892 .
Johnson , Franklyn ( 1980 ) . Defence by Ministry . New York : Holmes & Meier Publisher , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 8419 @-@ 0598 @-@ 3 . OCLC 5889060 .
Jordan , Robert ( 1967 ) . The NATO International Staff / Secretariat 1952 – 1957 . London : Oxford University Press . OCLC 59029584 .
Lamb , Richard ( 1991 ) . Churchill as War Leader . New York : Caroll & Graff Publishers , Inc . ISBN 0 @-@ 88184 @-@ 937 @-@ 5 . OCLC 27340277 .
Leahy , William ( 1950 ) . I Was There . New York : Whittlesey House . OCLC 397109 .
Lewin , Ronald ( 2004 ) . " Hastings Lionel Ismay " . In Matthew , H.C.G ; Harrison , Brian . Oxford Dictionary of National Biography 29 . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 861379 @-@ 2 . OCLC 226159003 .
Naylor , John ( 1984 ) . A man and an institution . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 25583 @-@ X.
Oxbury , Harold ( 1985 ) . Great Britons . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 211599 @-@ 5 . OCLC 11533077 .
Roskill , Stephen ( 1972 ) . Hankey : Man of Secrets 1 . London : Collins . ISBN 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 211330 @-@ 9 . OCLC 226236422 .
Roskill , Stephen ( 1972 ) . Hankey : Man of Secrets 2 . London : Collins . ISBN 0 @-@ 00 @-@ 211330 @-@ 9 . OCLC 226236422 .
Sainsbury , Keith ( 1985 ) . The Turning Point . Oxford : Oxford University Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 215858 @-@ 9 . OCLC 10823797 .
US Department of State Historical Office ( 1968 ) . Foreign Relations of the United States : Conferences at Washington , 1941 – 1942 , and Casablanca , 1943 . Washington , DC : Government Printing Office . OCLC 1444030 .
Wingate , Ronald ( 1970 ) . Lord Ismay : A Biography . London : Hutchinson of London . ISBN 0 @-@ 09 @-@ 102370 @-@ X. OCLC 102756 .
= = = Articles = = =
" Advice on Defence : Imperial Committee in Peace and War " . The Times . 12 January 1939 @.@ p . 12e .
" Allied Chiefs with the King " . The Times . 17 June 1944 @.@ p . 4d .
" Atlantic Council Deputies " . The Times . 20 March 1952 @.@ p . 3a .
" British Officers Decorated " . The Times . 17 January 1946 @.@ p . 7c .
" Cabinet Staff Change " . The Times . 17 December 1946 @.@ p . 4g .
Daniel , Clifton ( 28 February 1952 ) . " Franks Rejection of Post Confirmed " . The New York Times .
Daniel , Clifton ( 13 March 1952 ) . " Ismay Named Civilian Chief of Atlantic Pact Organization " . The New York Times .
" Commodity Markets " . The Times . 22 May 1957 @.@ p . 16g .
" Court Circular " . The Times . 16 May 1957 @.@ p . 14b .
" Discussions in Ottawa " . The Times . 15 January 1952 @.@ p . 4a .
" Dulles Gives Pledge to Save Allied Unity " . The Washington Post . 10 December 1956 .
Evans , Michael ( 4 September 2006 ) . " Army writer came close to exposing secrets of D @-@ Day " . The Times ( London ) . Retrieved 13 April 2009 .
" First Chief of NATO , Lord Ismay , 78 , Dies " . The Washington Post . 19 December 1965 .
" General Ismay Promoted " . The Times . 7 November 1942 @.@ p . 4e .
" House of Lords " . The Times . 6 February 1947 @.@ p . 8a .
" Ismay to Study Service Unity " . The Washington Post . 13 January 1964 .
Joffe , Josef ( 19 March 2009 ) . " NATO : Soldiering On " . Time . Retrieved 13 February 2009 .
" Knighthoods for the Services " . The Times . 11 July 1940 @.@ p . 5g .
Leventhal , F.M. ( Autumn 1995 ) . " A Tonic to the Nation : The Festival of Britain , 1951 " . Albion 27 ( 3 ) .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 32142 @.@ p . 1 . 26 November 1920 . Retrieved 5 June 2009 .
The London Gazette : ( Supplement ) no . 37860 @.@ p . 411 . 21 January 1947 . Retrieved 5 June 2009 .
" Lord Ismay Appointed " . The Times . 11 March 1948 @.@ p . 4c .
" Lord Ismay , Ex @-@ Churchill Aide , Leader in NATO , Is Dead at 78 " . The New York Times . 18 December 1965 .
" M Spaak to Succeed Lord Ismay " . The Times . 15 December 1956 @.@ p . 6a .
MI5 . " 4 September 2006 releases : Other subjects of Security Service enquiries " . Archived from the original on 13 February 2009 . Retrieved 14 April 2009 .
" Miss Truman at South Bank Exhibition " . The Times . 5 June 1951 @.@ p . 4c .
" Mr. Eden at Kremlin " . The Times . 30 October 1943 @.@ p . 4d .
" Mr. Eden Sees Marshal Stalin " . The Times . 28 October 1943 @.@ p . 4c .
" N.A.T.O. Secretary General " . The Times . 13 March 1952 @.@ p . 4e .
" New Viceroy in Delhi " . The Times . 23 March 1947 @.@ p . 6e .
" New Years Honours List " . The Times . 1 January 1947 @.@ p . 4f .
" News in Brief " . The Times . 26 July 1946 @.@ p . 3a .
" Obituary : Lord Ismay " . The Times . 18 December 1965 @.@ p . 9a .
" Prime Minister in the United States " . The Times . 19 June 1942 @.@ p . 4a .
" Resignation Honours " . The Times . 14 August 1945 @.@ p . 4g .
" Secretary Ismay " . The Washington Post . 15 March 1952 .
Schorr , Daniel ( 1 April 2009 ) . " With No Clear Mission , NATO Has Little Power " . NPR . Retrieved 13 April 2009 .
" Scope of 1951 Festival " . The Times . 9 June 1949 @.@ p . 3a .
" Sir H. Ismay Promoted " . The Times . 20 May 1944 @.@ p . 7g .
" Sir M. Hankey 's Successors " . The Times . 2 June 1938 @.@ p . 14c .
" The Birthday Honours " . The Times . 13 June 1946 @.@ p . 8a .
" The Prime Minister in Canada " . The Times . 11 August 1943 @.@ p . 4a .
" The Queen Mary Sails with 15 @,@ 000 Troops " . The Times . 6 September 1945 @.@ p . 2c .
" Women 's Part in the War " . The Times . 9 November 1942 @.@ p . 2a .
= 2008 Yemen cyclone =
In October 2008 , the remnants of a tropical cyclone caused extensive damage in Yemen , a poor country on the southern tip of the Arabian Peninsula . The storm , officially known as Deep Depression ARB 02 , was the sixth tropical cyclone of the 2008 North Indian Ocean cyclone season , and the second tropical cyclone in the Arabian Sea that year . It formed on October 19 off the west coast of India from the same broader system that spawned a storm in the southern Indian Ocean . Moving generally westward , the depression failed to intensify much , reaching maximum sustained winds of only 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . It was no longer classifiable as a tropical depression by October 23 , and later that day , its remnants struck near Ash Shihr in eastern Yemen .
The storm sent a plume of moisture throughout the Arabian Peninsula , contributing to dust storms as far north as Iraq . However , the effects were most severe in Yemen , becoming the second @-@ worst natural disaster in the country after deadly floods in 1996 . The storm dropped heavy rainfall in a normally arid region , reaching around 91 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) , which caused flash flooding in valleys after waterways were unable to contain the approximately 2 billion km3 ( 528 billion gallons ) of water that fell . Poor drainage practices and an invasive species of weed contributed to the floods , which damaged or destroyed 6 @,@ 505 houses , leaving about 25 @,@ 000 people homeless . The floods killed 180 people and severely disrupted the livelihoods of about 700 @,@ 000 residents of Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah governorates , mostly farmers whose fields were washed away . Some of the buildings at the Shibam UNESCO World Heritage Site collapsed due to the floods . Overall damage was estimated at US $ 874 @.@ 8 million , although residual losses from damaged infrastructure were estimated to cost an additional US $ 726 @.@ 9 million . The overall economic impact of the storm was therefore estimated at US $ 1 @.@ 638 billion , equating to roughly 6 % of the country 's gross domestic product .
After the scale of the damage became clear , the government of Yemen requested for assistance from the international community . The hardest hit areas had poor infrastructure , which caused difficulties in communications as relief goods were distributed . Nations in the region , including Saudi Arabia and the United Arab Emirates , sent money and supplies to help rebuild the damaged infrastructure and houses . Agencies under the United Nations provided food and logistical support . Relief efforts continued to make progress until 2011 due to a political uprising in Yemen .
= = Meteorological history = =
On October 11 , an active phase of the Madden – Julian oscillation , in conjunction with an equatorial wind burst , produced twin areas of convection in the central Indian Ocean on both sides of the equator . The system in the southern hemisphere would become Moderate Tropical Storm Asma in the south @-@ west Indian Ocean , and the system in the northern hemisphere would ultimately strike Yemen . The northern hemisphere system originated in the Bay of Bengal , and moved westward for much of its duration , steered by a ridge to the north along 15º N. On October 16 , a low pressure area developed over southern India near Kanyakumari . With low wind shear and warm waters of 27 to 28 ° C ( 81 to 82 ° F ) , the system slowly organized . On October 19 , the India Meteorological Department ( IMD ) classified the low as a depression about 725 km ( 450 mi ) southeast of the Yemeni island of Socotra . By that time , the convection had organized more , although it was displaced slightly from the center due to stronger wind shear .
The convection persisted along the western periphery of an elongated center , organizing enough for the American @-@ based Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to issue warnings on the depression on October 20 , designating it Tropical Cyclone 03A . With marginally favorable conditions , the depression intensified slightly , and the IMD upgraded it to a 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) deep depression on October 21 , the same peak as the JTWC . That day , the system moved over Socotra as it reached an area of cooler water temperatures . Land interaction and dry air weakened the convection around the system as it approached the Gulf of Aden . The IMD downgraded the cyclone to depression status on October 22 . On the next day , the JTWC discontinued advisories , and the IMD downgraded the system further to a remnant low to the northeast of Cape Guardafui , Somalia . The JTWC continued tracking the system as it moved northwestward , and the circulation made landfall near Ash Shihr in southeastern Yemen late on October 23 , losing its identity shortly thereafter .
= = Impact = =
Moving ashore southeastern Yemen , the storm dropped heavy rainfall in the typically arid region , reaching 91 mm ( 3 @.@ 6 in ) in some areas , and possibly as high as 200 mm ( 8 in ) , over a 20 @,@ 000 km2 ( 7 @,@ 700 mi2 ) area . This equated to about 2 billion m3 ( 528 billion gallons ) of water , more than twice the capacity of most waterways . The thunderstorms and rainfall occurred over a 30 ‑ hour period , severely disrupting life in eastern Yemen . The precipitation coalesced into valleys , resulting in flash flooding that swelled water levels to 18 m ( 59 ft ) . Hundreds of residents became trapped in their homes , while businesses and schools were shut down . The storm sent a plume of moisture that spread into Saudi Arabia , reaching 74 mm ( 2 @.@ 9 in ) in Najran , and was drawn northward into Iraq by a trough over Syria , triggering dust storms .
A representative of UNICEF estimated that the magnitude of the flooding was the worst in 600 years , attributing the scope to climate change . The areas effected – primarily Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah governorates – are usually dry and unsuited for such flooding . This resulted in the second worst natural disaster on record in Yemen , following deadly floods in 1996 . Overall , the floods killed around 180 people in Yemen , with many corpses carried away by the deluge . Illegal alterations in canal and drainage systems caused the floods to impact many houses and buildings , and the governor of Hadhramaut credited the invasive Prosopis juliflora weed as exasperating floods after blocking waterways . Throughout the country , the floods destroyed 2 @,@ 826 houses and damaged another 3 @,@ 679 , leaving about 25 @,@ 000 people homeless ; many of these houses were made of mud , washed away by the floodwaters . The displaced utilized temporary shelters in mosques and schools , or stayed with family and friends . Damage to housing , hospitals , and education was estimated at $ 200 million . The UNESCO World Heritage Site at Shibam – dating back to the 3rd century and housing tall mud buildings from the 17th century – was surrounded by floodwaters , causing some of the dwellings to collapse . Businesses and other infrastructure projects were also destroyed .
Infrastructure damage was estimated at $ 113 million ( 2008 USD ) , most of which related to damaged roads , after thoroughfares were washed away . At the Sayun Airport , floods damaged runways and other facilities . 359 dams were damaged , alongside 65 reservoirs . Widespread irrigation systems were also damaged , including 117 @,@ 875 m ( 386 @,@ 729 ft ) of pipelines , 1 @,@ 241 wells , and 1 @,@ 229 water pumps . Electricity and telephone lines were disrupted in the region . The floods damaged 170 schools , as well as many health facilities . Along the coast , the storm damaged many fishing boats and equipment . In Al Mahrah Governorate , the storm washed a cargo ship ashore , although the 17 person crew was rescued .
Agriculture impacts were significant , estimated at $ 550 million , which affected 75 % of the farmers in Hadhramaut . Soil erosion from the floods damaged 22 @,@ 902 acres ( 9 @,@ 268 ha ) of farmlands , as well as 51 @,@ 455 acres ( 20 @,@ 823 ha ) of uncultivated lands . This mostly affected cereals , vegetables , and forage crops . Floods killed about 58 @,@ 500 livestock and wrecked 309 @,@ 103 beehives . The storm also knocked down 547 @,@ 185 palm trees , 16 @,@ 587 citrus trees , and another 161 @,@ 449 fruit trees . Despite the heavy agriculture damage , the floods did not disrupt the national food supply .
The effects of the flooding disrupted the livelihoods of about 700 @,@ 000 residents ; most of the storm 's damage affected people 's jobs , including farming , industry , and commerce , totaling $ 557 @.@ 3 million in damages . About 76 % of the overall effects of the flooding were the result of disruption of people 's jobs . Overall damage was estimated at $ 874 @.@ 8 million , although residual losses from damaged infrastructure were estimated to cost an additional $ 726 @.@ 9 million . The overall economic impact of the storm was therefore estimated at $ 1 @.@ 638 billion , equating to roughly 6 % of the country 's gross domestic product . Damage was heaviest in Hadhramaut Governorate , accounting for 67 @.@ 5 % of the material damages , and occurred mostly along the coast ; 16 of the 19 districts in the governorate reported damage . Also in Hadramaut , there were 57 people injured due to the storm . The government sent search and rescue teams into the flooded areas to help stranded residents , although strong winds in the region disrupted these efforts in the immediate aftermath . In Seiyun , six soldiers died while attempting to rescue trapped residents . Lightning strikes killed six people .
= = Aftermath = =
On October 27 , the Yemen government requested assistance from the international community , unable to provide disaster assessments or cope with the rebuilding . The storm affected areas of Yemen that already had poor infrastructure and lack of food , and were generally under a state of political unrest , which made recovery difficult . In some areas , relief distribution was duplicated due to lack of coordination while some areas did not receive help . Yemen 's Deputy Prime Minister for Internal Affairs coordinated the relief efforts , in conjunction with the governors of the most affected areas . The government focused on streamlining disaster activities and toward future mitigation . However , there was no coordinated disaster plan as of September 2009 , and the scale of the disaster proved too great for ministries to handle . The Ministry of Public Works helped reopen roads , which allowed for the transport of relief goods , and the damaged Sayun Airport was repaired to withstand future floods . By December 2008 , most roads , power systems , hospitals , and communication services were restored . The government also enacted the Fund for Hadramout and Al @-@ Mahara Reconstruction , which failed to promptly distribute aid assistance .
In addition to requesting international aid , the Yemen government declared Hadhramaut and Al Mahrah governorates as disaster areas , after then @-@ president Ali Abdullah Saleh surveyed the affected areas . The president also utilized the nation 's military to assist storm victims , and sent aircraft with tents , food , and medicine to the worst hit areas . To raise money for the disaster recovery , the Yemeni government cut one day of salary for all workers , equating to $ 4 @.@ 25 million , and the government provided another $ 100 million from its annual budget . Local charities and residents collectively raised $ 8 @.@ 5 million . Yemen 's Red Cross provided meals and water to about 21 @,@ 000 people . The agency also provided school kits for 4 @,@ 500 students whose facilities were damaged . Ultimately , the Red Cross assisted over 70 @,@ 000 storm victims through health programs , and also helped residents cope with stress , hygiene promotion , and other ongoing vulnerabilities to their livelihoods .
Various agencies under the United Nations assisted in the recovery ; the World Health Organization provided medical kits to the worst hit areas , capable of helping 10 @,@ 000 residents each for three months . The United Nations Development Programme helped house displaced storm victims , and many of the mud @-@ built houses were repaired with the same construction materials as before . The World Bank led the assessment efforts , estimating the cost of recovery at $ 1 @.@ 046 billion , mostly toward rebuilding houses , regrowing crops , and restoring social services . The World Bank also provided $ 41 million toward the Yemen Flood Protection and Emergency Reconstruction , which rebuilt vital infrastructure and ensured they were flood @-@ proof . The World Food Programme assisted 43 @,@ 000 people with food and other emergency supplies . The Organisation of the Islamic Conference declared the situation a " national catastrophe " and started a drive to collect funds for the relief of flood victims . At an international donor conference , various individuals and countries pledged $ 301 million to help with the reconstruction in the country . Arab nations in the region also donated cash and supplies to Yemen ; Saudi Arabia pledged $ 100 million in assistance . The United Arab Emirates Red Crescent assisted in the reconstruction work , sending $ 27 @.@ 3 million to rebuild 1 @,@ 000 houses ; 750 of these were completed by December 2009 . The Arab Fund sent $ 135 million , including $ 35 million for road reconstruction . The Japanese government provided funding toward building shelter for 700 displaced Al @-@ Akhdam people , designed to be away from the flood plain . Access to clean drinking water and proper shelter for the displaced helped mitigate the spread of disease . For many families , the effects of the disaster lasted several years due to insufficient assistance or disrupted jobs . By 2010 , about 40 % of the overall recovery cost was met by international donations , although funding was halted after political uprising in 2011 .
Over the long term , residents lost significant amounts of income in the storm @-@ affected areas , particularly farms in the year after the storm . Higher food prices also resulted in less income for other residents . The area 's economy largely recovered to pre @-@ flood levels by 2010 .
= Tom Welling =
Thomas John Patrick " Tom " Welling ( born April 26 , 1977 ) is an American actor , director , producer and model best known for his role as Clark Kent in The WB / CW superhero drama Smallville ( 2001 – 11 ) .
A high school athlete , Welling initially worked in construction and , in 1998 , he successfully modeled men 's clothing for several popular brands . In 2000 , he made a successful transition to television . He has been nominated for and received several awards for his role as Clark Kent . In 2001 , he had a recurring role as Rob " Karate Rob " Meltzer in the second season of the CBS drama Judging Amy . He has also been involved behind the camera as an executive producer and a director . His films include Cheaper by the Dozen , Cheaper by the Dozen 2 , The Fog , and Draft Day .
= = Early life = =
Welling was born on April 26 , 1977 , in the lower Hudson Valley , New York . His family moved frequently , making stops in Wisconsin , Delaware , and Michigan . Welling attended Okemos High School in Okemos , Michigan , where he started acting in plays , but then switched into sports . Welling played baseball and soccer , but his favorite sport is basketball . Welling is one of four children with two older sisters , Rebecca and Jamie . His younger brother , Mark Welling , is also an actor .
= = Career = =
Originally a construction worker , Welling was discovered in 1998 at a party in Nantucket by a catalog camera scout who suggested he try modeling . Welling modelled for Louisa Modeling Agency until 2000 , when he relocated to Los Angeles . There he modelled for Tommy Hilfiger , Abercrombie & Fitch , and Calvin Klein while pursuing an acting career . In 2000 , Welling appeared in Angela Via 's music video " Picture Perfect " where he played Vía 's love interest . Welling has stated that he did not like modelling and that he was not good at it because it was all on the outside or from an external point of view . He pursued acting because he wanted to express a range of emotions , but Welling still models occasionally and appeared in the May 2008 issue of Vogue , the so @-@ called Superhero Issue . In his first major acting role , Welling played karate teacher Rob " Karate Rob " Meltzer , a younger love interest of Amy Gray ( Amy Brenneman ) in the second season of the CBS drama Judging Amy , which aired in 2001 . Welling was originally signed for three episodes ; after receiving enthusiastic fan reviews , the producers kept him for three more . Welling also had a small role in the UPN science fiction sitcom Special Unit 2 , and he appeared in the pilot episode of the FOX sitcom Undeclared .
= = = Smallville = = =
Welling was cast in the WB superhero drama Smallville after a nationwide search for an actor to play Clark Kent . In an interview with a teen magazine , Welling spoke about the day he auditioned for the role : " I was on my way back from the Warner Bros. studio , and I stopped in a gas station to call my manager and tell him how it went . I called and got him on the phone and he said , ' Can you hold on a second ? ' Next thing I know , there are literally seven people on the other line and almost in unison they say , ' Tom , you got it ! ' " The pilot aired in October 2001 and became the highest rated debut for The WB , with 8 @.@ 4 million viewers . Welling told TV Guide that he turned down the lead role twice , but after reading the script , decided to take the job . Like Christopher Reeve , he was not a Superman fan prior to being cast as Clark Kent . In fact , he said , he continues to not read Superman comics : " I made a conscious decision to stay away from that material . We 're doing something different at a time before all that , I don 't want that to affect what I 'm doing , even subconsciously . " He did get the chance to meet two previous Superman actors : Christopher Reeve , who appeared in season 2 : episode 17 titled " Rosetta " , and Dean Cain , who appeared in season 7 : episode 4 titled " Cure " .
Welling was named one of People magazine ’ s " Breakthrough Stars of 2001 " , and also won the Teen Choice Award as " Choice Breakout Star ( Male ) " in 2002 for his role as Clark Kent . Following the third season , Welling was interviewed by Smallville Magazine and stated that if he could play one character on the show that was not Clark Kent , it would be Lex Luthor ; " Lex Luthor ! I wouldn ’ t mind having my head shaved – as an actor , [ it is the ultimate , ] getting to play the complete opposite of your character . "
In 2004 , Welling was approached about starring in the big screen adaptation of Superman when director Brett Ratner was attached to the project . Comic book artist Alex Ross even did two sketches of Welling as the " Man of Steel " to see what the actor would look like in the famous costume . In August 2009 , Welling won another Teen Choice Award as " Choice TV Actor ( Action Adventure ) " for Smallville .
= = = Film = = =
In December 2003 , Welling made his feature film debut as Charlie Baker , the oldest son and second oldest in the Baker family which had 12 children , in the family comedy Cheaper by the Dozen with Steve Martin and Bonnie Hunt , which is a remake of the 1950 movie starring Clifton Webb and Myrna Loy , based on Frank and Lillian Gilbreth 's 1948 book . Welling talked about why he was interested in the project in an interview with Paul Fischer : " The top three reasons I decided to do this film were , one , Steve Martin , two , Steve Martin and three , Steve Martin . That was the number one draw for me . Then , after reading the script , I really liked this character , Charlie . I liked what he went through , what he had to go through , and I felt I understood where he was coming from . And I just wanted to be a part of it . " Welling had always been a fan of Martin 's and stated that he " absolutely loved " working with him .
In 2005 , Welling co @-@ starred in the horror film The Fog , a remake of John Carpenter 's 1980 film of the same name , as Nick Castle ( a character originally played by Tom Atkins ) . At the same time The Fog was in production , Welling was still working on the last few episodes of the fourth season of Smallville . The same year , he reprised his role as Charlie Baker in Cheaper by the Dozen 2 .
In 2013 , Welling co @-@ starred in the all @-@ star cast of Peter Landesman 's historical drama Parkland , based on the book Reclaiming History : The Assassination of President John F. Kennedy by author Vincent Bugliosi . The story centers on the chaotic events that occurred at Parkland Hospital in Dallas , Texas on the day President John F. Kennedy was assassinated on November 22 , 1963 . In 2014 , Welling co @-@ starred with Kevin Costner , Jennifer Garner , Frank Langella and Denis Leary in Ivan Reitman 's sports drama Draft Day . He played a veteran quarterback whose career is at a crossroads .
= = = Production = = =
For Smallville 's ninth season , Welling served as a co @-@ executive producer . He returned as Clark Kent for the show 's tenth and final season in Fall 2010 and became a full executive producer , as credited in a May 20 , 2010 press release by the CW .
Welling served as an executive producer on the CW comedy @-@ drama Hellcats based on journalist Kate Torgovnick 's book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders . The series first aired on The CW beginning in the fall of 2010 , and was cancelled on May 17 , 2011 .
= = = Directing = = =
Welling made his directorial debut in 2006 , with Smallville , 5 @.@ 18 " Fragile " . He also directed 6 @.@ 10 " Hydro " , the show 's 150th episode 7 @.@ 18 " Apocalypse " , 8 @.@ 21 " Injustice " , and the second part , " Legends " , of the two @-@ hour episode 9 @.@ 11 " Absolute Justice " . Later , he directed two episodes of Smallville 's final season , 10 @.@ 09 " Patriot " and 10 @.@ 18 " Booster " .
= = Personal life = =
On July 5 , 2002 , Welling married model Jamie White @-@ Welling in Martha 's Vineyard with Welling 's friends and then @-@ current Smallville co @-@ stars Kristin Kreuk and Michael Rosenbaum in attendance . Welling and White resided in Vancouver , British Columbia , Canada , but returned to Los Angeles in March 2011 . On October 17 , 2013 , White filed for divorce from Welling , citing " irreconcilable differences " . The divorce was finalized in November 2015 .
Welling has stated in YM that he dislikes interviews . He said , " I don 't want to be a celebrity for the sake of being a celebrity . I want to work and then go home and live in private . "
= = Filmography = =
= Hugo Danner =
Hugo Danner is a fictional character and the protagonist of Philip Wylie 's 1930 novel Gladiator . Born in the late 19th century with superhuman abilities via prenatal chemical experimentation , Danner tries to use his powers for good , making him a precursor of the superhero . However , Danner grows disillusioned with his inability to find a permanent outlet for his great strength , and dies frustrated .
Apart from Wylie 's novel , the character has also appeared in a feature film and publications by Marvel Comics and DC Comics . Comedic actor Joe E. Brown portrayed him in a 1938 movie adaptation of the book . Decades later the character starred in an adaptation titled " Man @-@ God " in Marvel 's black @-@ and @-@ white comics @-@ magazine Marvel Preview # 9 ( Winter 1976 ) . He next appeared in DC 's standard color comic book Young All @-@ Stars in 1988 and 1989 , as the estranged father of an illegitimate son named Iron Munro . In 2005 , he returned in the comic @-@ book miniseries Legend , published by the DC imprint Wildstorm . Here Danner , in the late 1960s , fights as a U.S. Army supersoldier in the Vietnam War rather than as a super Legionnaire in World War I.
= = Publication history = =
= = = Creation = = =
In early February 1930 , Wylie described the inspiration for Danner 's creation in the introduction to one of the earliest printings of Gladiator :
A temperamental consciousness of material force brought Hugo Danner into being . The frustration of my own muscles by things , and the alarming superiority of machinery started the notion of a man who would be invincible . I gave him a name and planned random deeds for him . I let him tear down Brooklyn Bridge and lift a locomotive . Then I began to speculate about his future and it seemed to me that a human being thus equipped would be foredoomed to vulgar fame or to a life of fruitless destruction . He would share the isolation of geniuses and with them would learn the inflexibility of man 's slow evolution . To that extent Hugo became symbolic and Gladiator a satire . The rest was adventure and perhaps more of the book derives from the unliterary excitement of imagining such a life than from a studious juxtaposition of incidents to a theme "
= = = Development = = =
The novel begins during the closing years of the 19th century , as Colorado science Professor Abednego Danner searches for a way to improve the innate weaknesses of human biology and create a new " race that doesn 't know fear — because it cannot know harm " . After 14 years of research he finally discovers " alkaline radicals " that vastly improve " muscular strength and the nervous discharge of energy " . Following very successful animal testing , which yields super @-@ strong tadpoles and a bulletproof kitten capable of taking down cattle as prey , he injects this super @-@ serum into the womb of his pregnant wife , Matilda . Hugo Danner is born on Christmas several months later .
His parents imbue him with a strong moral compass during his formative years and warn him never to use his great strength in anger . However , during kindergarten , Danner nearly kills the school 's bully in a one @-@ sided fight after being assaulted by the child . This event brands him as an outsider in the eyes of the other children . Because they treat him with such abhorrence , his only solace comes in the form of unleashing his powers within the Colorado wilderness ( uprooting trees , throwing huge boulders , leaping to the mountain tops , etc . ) . This stigma eventually wears off , though , and is forgotten by the time Danner enters high school .
Danner leaves Colorado after graduating high school to attend Webster University . There , he becomes an unstoppable football star and the most popular boy in school . During the summer months , he works as a circus strong man and even enters a fight competition for money . However , after returning to college and accidentally killing another player during a game , he quits school and becomes a sailor . A year later , his ship is trapped in France by the outbreak of World War I in 1914 .
He and a fellow American sign up with the French Foreign Legion and find themselves on the battlements after a short training period . He eventually reveals his powers to his Legionnaire superiors , who believe him to be a devil or supernatural Native American , and he is given free rein to roam the battlefield and kill as many German soldiers as he possibly can . Stories of " Le Colorado " ( The Colorado ) quickly spread from trench to trench and Danner becomes a sort of mythical hero . After a short stint in an American Legionnaire unit , Danner grows weary of war and devises a plan with an airplane :
He would drive it far into Germany . When its petrol failed , he would crash it . Stepping from the ruins , he would hasten on in the darkness , on , on , like Pheidippides , till he reached the centre of the enemy government . There , crashing through the petty human barriers , he would perform his last feat , strangling the Emperor , slaying the generals , pulling buildings apart with his Samsonian arms , and disrupting the control of the war .
However , the Treaty of Versailles is signed the very day he prepares to leave , and so he is forced to abort his mission , much to his dismay . He returns to the United States and works in a number of professions — steel mill worker , bank teller , farm hand , and disarmament lobbyist — but his unique stature among mortal men forever brings him grief . He eventually offers his services to a noted history professor preparing a Mayan archaeological dig and travels with the group to the Yucatan Peninsula .
During the trip , Danner wonders if the Mayans and Egyptians had discovered the same formula as his father , " which could be poured into the veins of the slaves [ who built the pyramids ] , making them stronger than engines " . There , he works as the head steward of the hired Mayan helpers and proves himself an asset to the team . But when a mishap reveals his great strength to the professor , the elderly man suggests Danner use his father 's formula to create a new race of men known as the " Sons of Dawn " , who will use their powers to right the world 's wrongs . The idea appeals to him at first , but Danner fears that these sons would also be hated by humanity for their superiority and treated much the same as himself . In the end , he climbs a mountain amidst an oncoming thunderstorm , and is struck dead by lightning while praying to God . The formula is lost in the resulting fire . The professor discovers his charred remains three days later and buries him among the Mayan ruins .
= = Powers and abilities = =
Even during his early years , Danner displays superhuman strength . He demolishes his wooden crib as a newborn , saves a man 's life by lifting a two @-@ ton supply wagon at 6 years old , and uproots entire trees at 10 . He progressively grows stronger as he gets older . During his twenties , he can stop and kill a charging bull with a single punch , bend a railroad rail , lift a seventy @-@ five millimeter howitzer cannon singlehandedly , lift a car and its driver singlehandedly , rip open a 5 @-@ foot @-@ thick ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) bank vault , and easily catch a falling 8 @,@ 000 @-@ pound block of stone .
Danner 's physical strength extends to his legs , allowing him to leap great heights and distances . At age 10 he can leap 40 feet into the air and run faster than a train . During his freshman year in college , he easily breaks a world track record , though he actually doesn 't run at his full speed . While in the service of the French Foreign Legion in World War I , he traverses thirty @-@ seven miles round trip in just thirty minutes ( a speed of about 148 mph ) ; all while carrying 2 @,@ 000 pounds of food , water , and ammunition for his unit . Despite his great strength , he is still susceptible to fatigue .
He first learns of his body 's superior resistance to physical injury during the war . Bullets and bayonets glance off his tough skin . He believes he can even survive a plane crash . The only weaponry capable of penetrating his skin at the time are the largest artillery shells . Although , he still feels the effects of the elements , sweating under the heat of the sun and freezing during winter . Danner 's only vulnerability is lightning , which ultimately kills him .
Danner 's bodily tissues have a somewhat greater density than those of an ordinary human being . Though he has an athletic build , his strength is far greater than what his frame would naturally allow . People guess him to be
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scene was to make it look as if Jabba the Hutt was actually on the set talking to and acting with Harrison Ford and that the crew had merely photographed it . Letteri stated that the new scene consisted of five shots that took over a year to complete . The scene was polished further for the 2004 release on DVD , improving Jabba 's appearance with advancements in CGI techniques , although neither release looks exactly like the original Jabba the Hutt puppet .
At one point of the original scene , Ford walks behind Mulholland . This became a problem when adding the CGI Jabba , since he had a tail that happened to be in the way . Eventually , this problem was solved by having Han stepping on Jabba 's tail , causing the Hutt to react with a yelp of pain .
Lucas confesses that people were disappointingly upset about the CGI Jabba 's appearance , complaining that the character " looked fake " . Lucas dismisses this , stating that whether a character is portrayed as a puppet or as CGI , it will always be " fake " since the character is not real . He says he sees no difference between a puppet made of latex and one generated by a computer .
= = = Episode VI : Return of the Jedi = = =
Lucas based the CGI on the character as he originally appeared in Return of the Jedi . In this film , Jabba the Hutt is an immense , sedentary , slug @-@ like creature designed by Lucas 's Industrial Light & Magic Creature Shop . Design consultant Ralph McQuarrie claimed , " In my sketches Jabba was huge , agile , sort of an apelike figure . But then the design went into another direction , and Jabba became more like a worm kind of creature . " According to the 1985 documentary From Star Wars to Jedi , Lucas rejected initial designs of the character . One made Jabba appear too human — almost like a Fu Manchu character — while a second made him look too snail @-@ like . Lucas finally settled on a design that was a hybrid of the two , drawing for further inspiration on an O 'Galop ( Marius Rossillon ) cartoon figure flanking an early depiction of Bibendum , the " Michelin Man . " Return of the Jedi costume designer Nilo Rodis @-@ Jamero commented ,
My vision of Jabba was literally Orson Welles when he was older . I saw him as a very refined man . Most of the villains we like are very smart people . But Phil Tippett kept imagining him as some kind of slug , almost like in Alice in Wonderland . At one time he sculpted a creature that looked like a slug that 's smoking . I kept thinking I must be really off , but eventually that 's where it led up to . "
= = = Production and design = = =
Designed by visual effects artist Phil Tippett , Jabba the Hutt was inspired by the anatomy of several animal species . His body structure and reproductive processes were based on annelid worms , hairless animals that have no skeleton and are hermaphroditic . Jabba 's head was modeled after that of a snake , complete with bulbous , slit @-@ pupilled eyes and a mouth that opens wide enough to swallow large prey . His skin was given moist , amphibian qualities . Jabba 's design would come to represent almost all members of the Hutt species in subsequent Star Wars fiction .
In Return of the Jedi , Jabba is portrayed by a one @-@ ton puppet that took three months and half a million dollars to construct . While filming the movie , the puppet had its own makeup artist . The puppet required three puppeteers to operate , making it one of the largest ever used in a motion picture . Stuart Freeborn designed the puppet , while John Coppinger sculpted its latex , clay , and foam pieces . Puppeteers included David Alan Barclay , Toby Philpott , and Mike Edmonds , who were members of Jim Henson 's Muppet group . Barclay operated the right arm and mouth and read the character 's English dialogue , while Philpott controlled the left arm , head , and tongue . Edmonds , the shortest of the three men ( he also played the Ewok Logray in later scenes ) was responsible for the movement of Jabba 's tail . Tony Cox , who also played an Ewok , would assist as well . The eyes and facial expressions were operated by radio control .
Lucas voiced displeasure in the puppet 's appearance and immobility , complaining that the puppet had to be moved around the set to film different scenes . In the DVD commentary to the Special Edition of Return of the Jedi , Lucas notes that if the technology had been available in 1983 , Jabba the Hutt would have been a CGI character similar to the one that appears in the Special Edition scene of A New Hope .
Jabba the Hutt only speaks Huttese on film , but his lines are subtitled in English . His voice and Huttese @-@ language dialogue were performed by voice actor Larry Ward , whose work is not listed in the end credits . A heavy , booming quality was given to Ward 's voice by pitching it an octave lower than normal and processing it through a subharmonic generator . A soundtrack of wet , slimy sound effects was recorded to accompany the movement of the puppet 's limbs and mouth .
Jabba the Hutt 's musical theme throughout the film , composed by John Williams , is played on a tuba . One reviewer of Return of the Jedi 's soundtrack comments , " Among the new thematic ideas [ of the score is ] Jabba the Hutt 's cute tuba piece ( playing along the politically incorrect lines of tubas representing fatness ) .... " The theme is very similar to one Williams wrote for a heavyset character in Fitzwilly ( 1967 ) , though the theme does not appear on that film 's soundtrack album . Williams later turned the theme into a symphonic piece performed by the Boston Pops Orchestra featuring a tuba solo by Chester Schmitz . The role of the piece in film and popular culture has become a focus of study by musicologists such as Gerald Sloan , who says Williams ' piece " blends the monstrous and the lyrical . "
According to film historian Laurent Bouzereau , Jabba the Hutt 's death in Return of the Jedi was suggested by script writer Lawrence Kasdan . Lucas decided Leia should strangle him with her slave chain . He was inspired by a scene from The Godfather ( 1972 ) where an obese character named Luca Brasi ( Lenny Montana ) is garroted by an assassin .
= = = Portrayal = = =
Jabba the Hutt was played by Declan Mulholland in scenes cut from the 1977 release of Star Wars . In Mulholland 's scenes as Jabba , Jabba is represented as a rotund human dressed in a shaggy fur coat . George Lucas has stated his intention was to use an alien creature for Jabba , but the special effects technology of the time was not up to the task of replacing Mulholland . In 1997 , the " Special Edition " re @-@ releases restored and altered the original scene to include a computer generated portrayal of Jabba . In Return of the Jedi , he was played by puppeteers Mike Edmonds , Toby Philpott , David Alan Barclay and voiced by Larry Ward . Jabba is played by an uncredited voice @-@ actor in the 1997 special edition of " Star Wars IV " , and in The Phantom Menace . In The Phantom Menace 's end credits , Jabba is credited as playing himself . His puppeteers have appeared in the documentaries From Star Wars to Jedi : The Making of a Saga and Classic Creatures : Return of the Jedi . David Alan Barclay , who was one of the puppeteers for Jabba in the film , voiced Jabba in the Super NES video game adaptation of Return of the Jedi . In the radio drama adaption of the original trilogy , Jabba is played by Ed Asner . In the film Star Wars : The Clone Wars and the following television series , Jabba is portrayed by Kevin Michael Richardson . All other video game appearances of Jabba were played by Clint Bajakian . Jabba was supposed to appear in Star Wars : The Force Unleashed , but was left out due to time constraints . A cutscene was produced featuring a conversation between Jabba and Juno Eclipse ( voiced by Nathalie Cox ) , which was scrapped from the game . He appears in the Ultimate Sith Edition .
= = Cultural impact = =
With the premiere of Return of Jedi in 1983 and the accompanying merchandising campaign , Jabba the Hutt became an icon in American popular culture . The character was produced and marketed as a series of action figure play sets by Kenner / Hasbro from 1983 to 2004 . In the 1990s , Jabba the Hutt starred in his own comic book series collectively titled Jabba the Hutt : The Art of the Deal .
Jabba 's role in popular culture extends beyond the Star Wars universe and its fans . In Mel Brooks ' Star Wars spoof Spaceballs ( 1987 ) , Jabba the Hutt is parodied as the character Pizza the Hutt , a cheesy blob shaped like a slice of pizza whose name is a double pun on Jabba the Hutt and the restaurant franchise Pizza Hut . Like Jabba , Pizza the Hutt is a loan shark and mobster . The character meets his demise at the end of Spaceballs when he becomes " locked in his car and [ eats ] himself to death . " The Smithsonian Institution 's National Air and Space Museum in Washington , D.C. , included a display on Jabba the Hutt in the temporary exhibition Star Wars : The Magic of Myth , which closed in 1999 . Jabba 's display was called " The Hero 's Return , " referencing Luke Skywalker 's journey toward becoming a Jedi .
= = = Mass media = = =
Since the release of Return of the Jedi , the name Jabba the Hutt has become synonymous in American mass media with repulsive obesity . The name is utilized as a literary device — either as a simile or metaphor — to illustrate character flaws . For example , in Under the Duvet ( 2001 ) , Marian Keyes references a problem with gluttony when she writes , " wheel out the birthday cake , I feel a Jabba the Hutt moment coming on . " Likewise , in the novel Steps and Exes : A Novel of Family ( 2000 ) , Laura Kalpakian uses Jabba the Hutt to emphasize the weight of a character 's father : " The girls used to call Janice 's parents Jabba the Hutt and the Wookiee . But then Jabba ( Janice 's father ) died , and it didn 't seem right to speak of the dead on those terms . " In Dan Brown 's first novel Digital Fortress , an NSA technician is affectionately nicknamed Jabba the Hutt .
In his book of humor and popular culture The Dharma of Star Wars ( 2005 ) , writer Matthew Bortolin attempts to show similarities between Buddhist teachings and aspects of Star Wars fiction . Bartolin insists that if a person makes decisions that Jabba the Hutt would make , then that person is not practicing the proper spiritual concept of dharma . Bortolin 's book reinforces the idea that Jabba 's name is synonymous with negativity :
One way to see if we are practicing right livelihood is to compare our trade with that of Jabba the Hutt . Jabba has his fat , stubby fingers in many of the pots that led to the dark side . He dealt largely in illegal " spice " trade — an illicit drug in the Star Wars galaxy . He also transacts business in the slave trade . He has many slaves himself , and some he fed to the Rancor , a creature he kept caged and tormented in his dungeon . Jabba uses deception and violence to maintain his position .
Outside literature , the character 's name has become an insulting term of disparagement . To say that someone " looks like Jabba the Hutt " is commonly understood as a slur to impugn that person 's weight and / or appearance . The term is often employed by the media as an attack on prominent figures .
In another sense of the term , Jabba the Hutt has come to represent greed and anarchy , especially in the business world . Jabba the Hutt ranked # 4 on the Forbes Fictional 15 list of wealthiest fictional characters in 2008 .
Jabba the Hutt has likewise become a popular means of caricature in American politics . William G. Ouchi uses the term to describe what he sees as the inefficient bureaucracy of the public school system : " With all of these unnecessary layers of organizational fat , school districts have come to resemble Jabba the Hutt — the pirate leader in Star Wars . "
= Charlotte Lewis ( Lost ) =
Dr. Charlotte Staples Lewis is a fictional character on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) television series Lost , played by Rebecca Mader . Charlotte is introduced in the second episode of season four and is a cultural anthropologist on a mission to the island where Oceanic Flight 815 crashed . On the island she is initially held hostage by one of the plane crash survivors , John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) , but is freed when another person from her team switches place with her . She helps prevent poison gas from being released over the island , and develops a relationship with Daniel Faraday ( Jeremy Davies ) . Charlotte dies in Daniel 's arms after the frequent time traveling causes her headaches to worsen into something unexplainable .
Although conceived by the show 's creators to be American , Charlotte 's nationality was changed to British after the producers were impressed with English actress Rebecca Mader 's audition . She was supposed to feature in just eight episodes of season four , but after the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike the role was expanded , which resulted in her starring in fifteen episodes over the fourth and fifth seasons . Charlotte 's introduction , along with the three other new characters from the freighter introduced in season four , was well received , but her storylines in later episodes had a mixed reception , though Mader 's acting was praised .
= = Arc = =
During season five , a young Charlotte Lewis is shown living with her parents as part of a scientific community known as the Dharma Initiative , on the island where Oceanic Flight 815 would later crash . She is confronted by an adult Daniel Faraday , who attempts to persuade her never to return to the island once she leaves , and is seen evacuating the island during the fifth season finale " The Incident " . Charlotte grows up in Bromsgrove , unaware of where she was born , and goes on to study at the University of Kent for her undergraduate degree . She earns a doctoral degree in cultural anthropology from the University of Oxford , with her interest in anthropology stemming from a desire to find her birthplace . While visiting an excavation site in the Sahara Desert , Charlotte discovers the remains of a polar bear , which has a collar bearing a Dharma Initiative logo . Businessman Charles Widmore ( Alan Dale ) selects Charlotte along with Daniel Faraday , Miles Straume ( Ken Leung ) , and Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) , to travel on a freighter to the island where she was born , and find Widmore 's rival Ben Linus ( Michael Emerson ) . She is forced to eject from a helicopter during a lightning storm over the island .
Charlotte arrives on the island on December 23 , 2004 , where she is held hostage by a number of the survivors of Oceanic Flight 815 , who believe that she is dangerous . She spots a flare that belongs to a member of her team , but none of the survivors wish to investigate . Charlotte becomes impatient and attempts to leave , so Ben shoots her . As she is wearing a bulletproof vest she survives , forcing Ben to reveal that Charlotte 's team are looking for him , and not on a rescue mission for the survivors . When the group encounters fellow survivors Kate Austen ( Evangeline Lilly ) and Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) with Miles , they agree for Miles to switch places with Charlotte . After reuniting with Faraday , she tests his memory with playing cards , noting he has made progress when he can remember two out of three cards . That night , Charlotte and Faraday sneak off to the Tempest Dharma Initiative station , where they neutralize a potential source of poison gas . While getting medical supplies at the Staff Dharma Initiative station , Jin @-@ Soo Kwon ( Daniel Dae Kim ) notices Charlotte smiling after his wife Sun @-@ Hwa Kwon ( Yunjin Kim ) remarks in Korean that Charlotte will know Faraday likes her as she is a woman . Jin confronts Charlotte in Korean , saying he will hurt Faraday if she does not promise to take Sun off the island . Later Faraday begins to ferry survivors to the freighter , but Charlotte chooses to remain on the island , as she believes she has found her birthplace . She kisses him , then watches on as he leaves .
After Ben causes the island to vanish , Charlotte , Faraday and the remaining survivors begin to randomly travel through time . Charlotte experiences nosebleeds and headaches , and realizes she is unable to remember her mother 's maiden name . During one time jump Charlotte , Faraday and Miles are captured by the Others in 1954 , where Faraday proclaims his love for her . After a further time jump , her nosebleed becomes more severe , and she collapses . As she dies , Charlotte relays to Faraday that she now remembers living on the island as a child , and that she recognizes Faraday as the man who told her not to return once she left the island . In season six the afterlife experienced by the characters is shown , in which Charlotte is set up as a blind date for James " Sawyer " Ford ( Josh Holloway ) . The two spend the night together but when Sawyer catches her going through his belongings he throws her out of the apartment . He comes to her apartment later to apologize but she refuses , telling him he blew his chance . At a concert in the series finale , she and Faraday are reunited .
= = Development = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
After Naomi ( Marsha Thomason ) parachuted onto the island in season three , the producers began to plan who else would be on the freighter she came from . They wanted these new characters to be scientists , who would be interested in finding the island for their own personal reasons . They decided to create a character who would be interested in lost civilizations , and named her Charlotte Staples Lewis as a reference to C. S. Lewis , which Lost producer Damon Lindelof said was a clue to the direction the show would be taking during season four .
The role was originally offered to Kristen Bell , however she chose to join Heroes as Elle Bishop instead . The producers cast English actress Rebecca Mader because " she won [ them ] over with her charm and presence and charisma " . During casting , Charlotte was described as " a hot twentysomething ... precocious , loquacious and funny ... a very successful academic who also knows how to handle herself in the real world " . She also has " lots of repressed and pent @-@ up emotions " beneath the surface . The Lost producers described her as a female version of Indiana Jones . During auditions , the producers provide fake scenes , to keep new characters ' identities a secret . Mader 's audition scene was a flashback that she was disappointed was not used for the show . Whilst recording her audition , a producer who was with her noticed that the shows on her résumé were from the British Broadcasting Corporation , so asked her to redo the audition again with a British accent . According to Lindelof , this " opened up another dimension [ to the character that the producers ] hadn 't foreseen " , so Charlotte was changed from American to English . Mader was pleased to be able to use her own accent , as many of her previous roles had been American characters .
Mader subsequently began to watch the first three seasons of Lost on DVD and was watching the fourth episode when she received the news that she had been chosen for the role . She watched all the previous episodes of Lost in the few weeks before she started working on the show . She found it " a really amazing moment " and felt like she had just stepped into the show . When she was cast , Mader was unaware of whether she would be a guest star , or would develop into a regular , and was planned to feature in eight episodes of season four . Mader helped develop Charlotte 's outfit and was pleased to be wearing comfortable jeans and boots for the role . She only required a small amount of hair and makeup done , and stated " I just wanted to rough it . I wanted to roll around in the mud with a gun " . This was a welcome change to her usual roles which required " full @-@ on hair , makeup and heels " .
= = = Storyline progression = = =
Charlotte 's discovery of a polar bear with a Dharma Initiative collar caused fan speculation about her connection with the island . Mader herself was unaware of Charlotte 's backstory beyond the flashback in " Confirmed Dead " — she noted " I feel like I 'm almost in the same seat as the audience , like ' What the hell is going on ? ' and ' What the hell is going to happen next ? ' , it 's really exciting actually " . She found it freeing to not know her character 's history , and felt it made her give a natural performance . Mader felt Charlotte 's relationship with Faraday allowed her character to develop and show a softer , more human side , and thought their relationship resonated with the audience as she and Jeremy Davies had good chemistry . Eight episodes of season four were written before production stopped due to the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike . Once the strike was resolved , a further six episodes were written , two less than originally planned for the season , and as a result Charlotte 's role continued into season five . She enjoyed speaking Korean in " Something Nice Back Home " and wished the full scene had been aired . Mader was excited when she discovered that Charlotte grew up on the island , and hoped to have scenes with Nestor Carbonell who plays Richard Alpert , as his character also has a history on the island . However when negotiating contracts in June 2008 she found out that her character would die during season five ; Mader summed up Charlotte 's season five arc as her demise . Charlotte 's death scene was written by Eddy Kitsis and Adam Horowitz and was amongst their favourite scenes they wrote during season five . Horowitz loved the emotion in the scene due to the audience only just learning Charlotte 's backstory , and Kitsis thought Mader 's performance " elevate [ d ] the words to a whole other level " . Mader called it " the best thing [ she ] ha [ d ] ever done in [ her ] entire career " and enjoyed playing a significant role within the episode .
Three episodes after Charlotte 's death , Faraday sees a young Charlotte in a scene set in 1974 . This created a continuity error as her date of birth was given in " Confirmed Dead " as July 2 , 1979 . Lost producers Damon Lindelof and Carlton Cuse explained in the " Official Lost Audio Podcast " that Mader changed the age of Charlotte so she would not be portraying someone in their mid @-@ thirties . However Mader retaliated on her Facebook page that the timeline error was their fault and was unhappy about being blamed for it . Lindelof and Cuse clarified that it was their mistake and apologized for blaming Mader . Fellow Lost producer Greggory Nations had noticed Mader was eight years younger than the age Charlotte was originally conceived to be , so suggested Charlotte 's birthday be changed to the same as Mader 's , without realizing the effect this would have on the subsequent season .
Mader returned to the show for two guest appearances in season six to show Charlotte in the afterlife . Mader described Charlotte as " the role of a lifetime " , and cited it as a reason that she was cast in better roles following the series ' conclusion .
= = Reception = =
The producers of Lost were nervous about how well the new characters would be received after two characters introduced in season three , Nikki ( Kiele Sanchez ) and Paulo ( Rodrigo Santoro ) , were hated by the fan community . However , according to Jon Lachonis of UGO , Charlotte has been well received by fans , describing her as " one of the most speculated @-@ about characters " . Paige Albiniak of the New York Post praised the cast addition , while IGN 's Chris Carabott described Charlotte , as well as the other new characters from the freighter , as " great " and " exciting " . James Poniewozik of Time liked the introduction of the new characters from the freighter because " Each got just one flashback and a little time on the island , and yet by the end of the episode , [ he ] felt [ he ] had a true handle on what they were like as individuals " . Jeff Jensen from Entertainment Weekly liked that the " fascinating " new characters brought " mind @-@ blowing new possibilities , and exciting new theory fodder " . Oscar Dahl of BuddyTV called it the " perfect introduction " . Michael Ausiello of TV Guide also liked their introduction , and praised the actors ' performances .
During the season Charlotte 's storylines had mixed reactions . Jensen thought Charlotte and Faraday 's mission to the Tempest in " The Other Woman " felt " forced " . Dan Compora from Airlock Alpha liked Charlotte and Juliet 's fight scene in this episode . BuddyTV 's Oscar Dahl thought the whole plot at the Tempest was " filler " and wondered if it had been added just to give Charlotte and Faraday something to do . After Charlotte speaks Korean in " Something Nice Back Home " , James Poniewozik from Time became curious about her past because she is " the member of the four freighties whom we know the least about , and the most secretive and sinister @-@ seeming of the bunch " . Chris Carabott was also intrigued after this scene , which he called " one of the more unexpected scenes " .
Carabott felt Charlotte 's death could have been explored further , but as there was so much happening in the episode not enough time was made for her death . Alan Sepinwall of The Star @-@ Ledger noted it was Jeremy Davies portrayal of Faraday 's grief that made him care about her death . Cynthia Littleton from Variety said this was one of the few times Charlotte did not annoy her , as she acts as a translator for Jin , " finally do [ ing ] something worthwhile " . Noel Murray of The A.V. Club felt distracted by Charlotte in this episode , because her reaction to time travel was different from what was shown in " The Constant " , and found it " incredibly awkward " when Charlotte explained her whole backstory to Faraday . TV Guide 's Mickey O 'Connor praised Mader 's acting , saying " Well done , Rebecca Mader , who has really done some fine work on Lost " .
= Nikki and Paulo =
Nikki Fernandez and Paulo / ˈpaʊloʊ / are fictional characters on the ABC drama television series Lost , which chronicles the lives of over forty people after their plane crashes on a remote island somewhere in the South Pacific . American actress Kiele Sanchez and Brazilian actor Rodrigo Santoro play the survivors of the crash of Oceanic Flight 815 .
The couple is introduced early in the third season . The producers of the show were often asked what the rest of the plane @-@ crash survivors were doing because the show only focuses on approximately fifteen of the survivors , and the characters of Nikki and Paulo were created in response . Reaction to the characters was generally negative , with show runner , Damon Lindelof , acknowledging the couple are " universally despised " by fans . As a result of this , the couple was killed off later in the same season when they are accidentally buried alive while thought to be dead .
= = Appearances = =
Originally from Brazil , Paulo is a con artist working with his American girlfriend Nikki , an actress . Paulo works as a chef for a wealthy television executive in Sydney . Nikki guest stars on the executive 's show and also seduces him , which makes Paulo uncomfortable . Paulo murders the executive by poisoning his food , allowing him and Nikki to steal his bag of diamonds , which are worth $ 8 million . Three days later , on September 22 , 2004 , Nikki and Paulo board Oceanic Flight 815 to return to Nikki 's home in Los Angeles .
They lose the diamonds in the plane crash and spend much of their time on the island searching for them . Paulo suspects they are the only reason for their relationship , and thus does not tell Nikki when he finds them on their thirty @-@ third day after the crash . One day while looking in the jungle , they come across the DHARMA Initiative 's Pearl Station , a scientific research station built in the early 1980s . Nikki is uninterested , but Paulo later returns by himself on his forty @-@ ninth day on the island , hiding the diamonds in the toilet . While in the washroom , Paulo overhears two of the mysterious and dangerous island inhabitants known as the Others speak of capturing some of Paulo 's fellow survivors ; however , he keeps this information to himself .
On their seventy @-@ second day on the island , Nikki and Paulo join Locke when he ventures back to the Pearl Station , hoping to communicate with the Others . Paulo returns to the toilet to retrieve the diamonds , storing them in his underwear thereafter . As they leave , the group witnesses Mr. Eko 's death and burial not far from The Pearl . Eighty @-@ one days after the crash , Nikki finds out about Paulo hiding the diamonds from her . Furious , she releases a venomous spider on him that causes Paulo to be paralyzed for the next eight hours . As he is entering the state of paralysis , Paulo admits he only kept the diamonds from her because he thought she would leave him after she got them . To Nikki 's dismay , the death of the venomous spider only attracted more spiders which bite Nikki , so she is also temporarily paralyzed . The pair are mistaken for dead after being discovered by the survivors . Nikki and Paulo are then buried alive by James " Sawyer " Ford and Hugo " Hurley " Reyes after tossing the diamonds in the grave with them as they consider them to be of no value on the island . Much later , Miles Straume − a psychic who can read people 's thoughts from their time of death − indicates he knows about the diamonds .
= = Characteristics = =
Paulo was written to be unlikable , with the hope he would redeem himself when his backstory was revealed in his final episode . Paulo either resents or is indifferent toward the often heroic actions of some of the survivors , spending much of his time golfing . He complains to Nikki about not being included ; however , he does little to help out around the camp and does not try to improve his status in the survivors ' hierarchy . When he does get chances to participate in treks , for example , when Hurley finds a car , Paulo is uninterested and discourages Nikki from joining Hurley on his adventure . Nikki tries to participate , tending to a wounded Mr. Eko and volunteering to go with Locke to the Pearl station , much to the surprise of Paulo . Paulo accompanies her , and he exhibits a constant sarcastic behavior in the Pearl .
Nikki is manipulative of Paulo and appears to care more about the diamonds than her relationship . After the crash , Paulo becomes suspicious Nikki is just using him to get the diamonds . The first thing she asks him after the crash is the whereabouts of the diamonds , and avoids answering Paulo when he asks if they would still be together if she did not need him to help find the diamonds . Paulo does what Nikki tells him to because of his fear of losing her , which results in their deaths .
= = Creation = =
At the end of the first season , the writers had the idea one of the background survivors would emerge and receive an on @-@ island flashback episode to help answer the question , " What the hell is going on with the other 35 people who nothing ever happens to ? " The first of those was Leslie Arzt , only for him to explode a few episodes later . It was originally conceived only a woman , who was previously an actress , would be introduced into the main storyline , but the idea later changed to include her boyfriend as well . Nikki and Paulo were also originally set " to have anchored a winking arc of stories " . However the writers instead decided to tell their story in one episode and quickly remove the characters , due to complaints about the characters and the third season 's decline in viewership . It also became a running gag that Sawyer did not know who Nikki and Paulo were , calling them " Nina " and " Pablo " and asking " who the hell [ they were ] " . Lindelof later stated , " We had the feeling with Nikki and Paulo that it wasn 't right about a month before the fans started reacting . We were already starting to think , ' Maybe our instinct here has been wrong . ' "
Nikki and Paulo 's original introduction onto the show was deleted for time from the final cut of the episode , " Further Instructions " . They were supposed to be accidentally found by Claire Littleton in Jack 's tent having sex in the middle of the episode . They were instead introduced at the end of the episode when Locke makes a speech .
= = Casting = =
Half @-@ French , half @-@ Puerto Rican Kiele Michelle Sanchez portrayed Nikki in six episodes of the third season of Lost . She had trouble filming her burial scene due to her claustrophobia . Rodrigo Santoro , who has been called " the Brazilian Tom Cruise " and " the Brazilian Russell Crowe " , was cast in his first major American television role as Paulo on Lost . Appearing in a total of seven episodes , Santoro was reportedly paid " between $ 2634 and $ 6427 a week " . Lindelof called Santoro " talented " and " perfect for Lost because he 's a face that the American audience is not familiar with " , despite being an award @-@ winning actor in his home country of Brazil . Part of the reason Santoro was cast over other actors was because his physique was deemed attractive ; however , the writers said that they were not interested in writing for his character with that in mind , nor did he want them to . Santoro has stated he enjoyed working with Sanchez and hoped to return to work on Lost .
= = Reception = =
Reaction to the " devious , but doomed " characters was more negative than for other Lost characters . One Entertainment Weekly journalist gave Paulo the nickname " Paulo Poops @-@ a @-@ Lot " , referencing scenes from the episodes " The Cost of Living " and " Enter 77 " . America Online 's TV Squad criticized the writing for the characters , and the characters were called " incredibly annoying " by Maclean 's magazine . Television Without Pity called Paulo " walking collateral damage " . TV Guide wrote they were " too darn perfect @-@ looking to be believable as humans " . Entertainment Weekly included them in their list of the " 21 Most Annoying TV Characters Ever " , commenting " no one could have predicted how grating the pair 's whiny inanity would become . "
When rumors circulated on the Internet and were mentioned in ABC commercials that the characters were going to die , some viewers hoped for a " double murder " of Nikki and Paulo and rejoiced when their wish was granted . Over three months before the episode aired on television , Santoro stated in an interview with Brazilian Rolling Stone that his character would die in the middle of the third season . It was also announced that Sanchez had signed on to film a fall 2007 pilot for another ABC show , Football Wives , and thus , it would have been unlikely for her to continue to act as a " murderous femme fatale " .
= HMS Hood ( 1891 ) =
HMS Hood was a modified Royal Sovereign @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Royal Navy in the early 1890s . She differed from the other ships of the class in that she had cylindrical gun turrets instead of barbettes and a lower freeboard . She served most of her active career in the Mediterranean Sea , where her low freeboard was less of a disadvantage . The ship was placed in reserve in 1907 and later became the receiving ship at Queenstown , Ireland . Hood was used in the development of anti @-@ torpedo bulges in 1913 and was scuttled in late 1914 to act as a blockship across the southern entrance of Portland Harbour after the start of World War I.
= = Design = =
Hood , the last of the eight Royal Sovereign @-@ class battleships to be built , differed significantly from the other ships of her class in that she had a forward freeboard of only 11 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 43 m ) compared to 19 feet 6 inches ( 5 @.@ 94 m ) of the other ships . The Royal Sovereigns had reverted to a higher freeboard after several classes of low @-@ freeboard vessel had been constructed , the last being the Trafalgar class . Low freeboard had been popular for around ten years since it required less armour and made a smaller target for gunfire to hit , although it had the disadvantage that it reduced seaworthiness . This low freeboard meant that Hood was very wet in rough weather and her maximum speed reduced rapidly as the wave height increased , making her only suitable for service in the relatively calm Mediterranean . This was seen as a vindication of the barbette / high @-@ freeboard design in the rest of her class , and all subsequent British battleship classes had high freeboard .
The lower freeboard was required by her use of armoured gun turrets — a heavy type of rotating gun mounting of the mid @-@ and @-@ late 19th century very different from what would later be known as " turrets " . Hood 's half @-@ sisters mounted their guns exposed on top of barbettes , a much lighter arrangement that allowed their freeboard to be substantially increased . The heavy , old @-@ fashioned type of turrets added to the amount of weight high up in the ship compared to barbettes and decreased the ship 's stability .
Because the stability of a ship is largely due to freeboard at high rolling angles , she was given a larger metacentric height ( the vertical distance between the metacenter and the centre of gravity below it ) of around 4 @.@ 1 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) instead of the 3 @.@ 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) of the rest of the Royal Sovereigns to make her roll less in rough seas . This had the effect of making her roll period shorter by around 7 % compared to her sisters , which in turn made her gunnery less accurate . Bilge keels were fitted in 1894 which improved her maneouverability .
= = = General characteristics = = =
Hood had an overall length of 410 feet 6 inches ( 125 @.@ 1 m ) , a beam of 75 feet ( 22 @.@ 9 m ) , and a draught of 28 feet 6 inches ( 8 @.@ 7 m ) at deep load . She displaced 14 @,@ 780 long tons ( 15 @,@ 020 t ) at normal load and 15 @,@ 588 long tons ( 15 @,@ 838 t ) at deep load . Her crew numbered 690 officers and enlisted men .
= = = Propulsion = = =
The ship was powered by two 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller . Eight water @-@ tube boilers provided steam to the engines , which produced a maximum of 11 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 8 @,@ 200 kW ) when forced . This was intended to allow them to reach a speed of 17 @.@ 5 knots ( 32 @.@ 4 km / h ; 20 @.@ 1 mph ) . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 490 long tons ( 1 @,@ 510 t ) of coal , enough to steam 4 @,@ 720 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 740 km ; 5 @,@ 430 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
= = = Armament = = =
The ship was armed with four 30 @-@ calibre BL 13 @.@ 5 @-@ inch Mk I – IV guns in two twin gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . Each gun was provided with 80 shells per gun . Hood 's secondary armament consisted of ten 40 @-@ calibre 6 @-@ inch Mk I @-@ III guns mounted in casemates in the superstructure . A major problem with the four of these guns mounted on the upper deck was that they were mounted low in the ship and were unusable at high speed or in heavy weather . They were removed as useless in 1904 . The ship carried 200 rounds for each gun .
Defence against torpedo boats was provided by eight QF 6 @-@ pounder guns , although the exact type of gun is not known . Four of these were mounted on the main deck in casemates on the sides of the hull and suffered from the same problems as the six @-@ inch guns . Hood also mounted a dozen QF 3 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns mounted in the superstructure and fighting tops . Like her sisters , the ship was fitted with seven 18 @-@ inch Torpedo tubes . Two of these were mounted in the bow below the waterline , four were placed in the sides of the hull , two on each broadside , and one in the stern . These last five tubes were all above water . She also was fitted with a plough @-@ shaped underwater ram .
In 1897 one of these 3 @-@ pounder guns was mounted on each turret top and , three years later , the 3 @-@ pounders in the fighting tops were transferred to the forward superstructure . At the same time the above @-@ water torpedo tubes were removed . About 1902 – 03 the 6 @-@ pounders on the main deck were removed ; two were remounted on the superstructure , but the other two were not replaced . In 1905 the 3 @-@ pounders on the forward superstructure were removed while the 3 @-@ pounders in the lower fighting tops were removed while the ship was in reserve from 1907 – 09 .
= = = Armour = = =
Hood 's protection used both compound armour and nickel steel armour . Her waterline main belt ranged in thickness between 14 to 18 inches ( 356 to 457 mm ) thick . It covered the middle 250 feet ( 76 @.@ 2 m ) of the ship and was 8 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) high of which 5 feet 6 inches ( 1 @.@ 7 m ) was below the waterline at normal load . Fore and aft bulkheads , 16 – 14 @-@ inch ( 406 – 356 mm ) thick respectively , closed off the ends of the central citadel at the level of the waterline . The upper strake of 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) armour was 150 feet ( 45 @.@ 7 m ) long and protected the ship 's side between the barbettes . Oblique bulkheads 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick connected this strake to the armour protecting the bases of the turrets . The gun turrets and their bases were protected by 17 inches ( 432 mm ) of armour that thinned to 16 inches ( 406 mm ) behind the oblique bulkheads . Below the armoured deck their armour was reduced to 11 inches ( 279 mm ) . The armour of the main deck casemates was six inches thick and that of the forward conning tower was 14 inches thick . The armoured deck was three inches thick over the machinery , but thinned to 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) outside the central citadel and ran to the ends of the ship . At the bow it dipped down to reinforce the ship 's ram .
= = Construction and career = =
Hood was laid down at Chatham Dockyard on 12 August 1889 and was launched on 30 July 1891 , the Viscountess Hood christening her . She finished her sea trials in May 1893 and was commissioned on 1 June 1893 at the cost of £ 926 @,@ 396 . Her assignment to the Mediterranean Fleet was delayed when she sprang a leak in her forward compartments on 7 June as a result of faulty riveting and excessive strain on the hull when she had been docked . Repairs took only two days , and the ship left Sheerness for the Mediterranean on 18 June .
Hood arrived at Malta on 3 July , relieving the battleship Colossus . In 1897 and 1898 the ship served as part of the International Squadron blockading Crete and maintaining order during the Greco @-@ Turkish uprising there . Captain Alvin Coote Corry was appointed in command in December 1898 . She was ordered to return home in April 1900 and paid off into reserve at Chatham Dockyard on 29 April 1900 . Seven months later , on 12 December 1900 , Hood recommissioned to relieve the elderly ironclad Thunderer as port guard ship at Pembroke Dock .
The ship rejoined the Mediterranean Fleet at the end of 1901 , and Captain Robert Lowry was appointed in command on 1 May 1902 . She participated in combined exercises with the Channel Squadron and the Cruiser Squadron off the coasts of Cephalonia and Morea in late 1902 . Two days before the exercises ended , Hood damaged her rudder on the seabed while leaving Argostoli Harbor on 4 October . She went first to Malta for temporary repairs , then on to England for permanent repairs at Chatham Dockyard , using her twin screws to steer for the entire voyage . The repairs began on 5 December 1902 and she transferred to Devonport for a refit upon their completion .
On 25 June 1903 Hood relieved the battleship Collingwood in the Home Fleet . She took part in combined exercises of the Channel Fleet , Mediterranean Fleet , and Home Fleet off the coast of Portugal from 5 to 9 August . The battleship Russell relieved Hood on 28 September 1904 . Hood was placed into reserve at Devonport on 3 January 1905 , where she remained until February 1907 . In April 1909 , the ship was refitted and partially stripped at Devonport , after which she began service as a receiving ship at Queenstown , Ireland . In September 1910 Hood recommissioned to serve as flagship of the Senior Naval Officer , Coast of Ireland while continuing as a receiving ship . On 2 April 1911 the ship was in Cork Harbour for the 1911 Census .
Later in 1911 , Hood was towed to Portsmouth and listed for disposal . During 1913 – 14 she was employed as a target for underwater protection experiments and was used in secret tests of anti @-@ torpedo bulges . Subsequently she was photographed in dry dock at Portsmouth by the crew of Naval Airship No. 18 in June 1914 , before being placed on the sale list in August 1914 . On 4 November 1914 Hood was scuttled in Portland harbour to block the Southern Ship Channel , a potential access route for U @-@ boats or for torpedoes fired from outside the harbour . Her wreck became known as " Old Hole in the Wall " . Despite her 1914 scuttling , the Royal Navy included Hood on its sale list in both 1916 and 1917 .
= The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass =
The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass ( Japanese : ゼルダの伝説 夢幻の砂時計 , Hepburn : Zeruda no Densetsu : Mugen no Sunadokei ) is an action @-@ adventure game developed and published by Nintendo for the Nintendo DS handheld game console . It is the fourteenth installment in the The Legend of Zelda series and the sequel to the 2002 GameCube title The Wind Waker . Phantom Hourglass was released in Japan in June 2007 ; in North America , Australia , and Europe in October 2007 ; and in Korea in April 2008 . The game was re @-@ released for the Wii U via the Virtual Console service in the PAL region in November 2015 and in North America in May 2016 .
The game features 3D cel @-@ shaded graphics with an overhead camera perspective , employs controls involving the console 's touchscreen and microphone , and takes advantage of the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection for online play . The game 's story follows that of The Wind Waker , focusing on series protagonist Link 's journey to save his friend Tetra from the story 's antagonist , Bellum , with the help of Captain Linebeck and his ship , the S.S. Linebeck .
Critics were generally positive towards Phantom Hourglass . Its control scheme was praised , while criticism focused on its online features , which were considered too simple . The game received several video game industry awards , including the Nintendo DS Game of the Year award from GameSpot , GameSpy , and IGN . Phantom Hourglass was the best @-@ selling game in its first month in Japan , with 302 @,@ 887 copies sold . In the United States , it was the fifth best @-@ selling game in the month it debuted , with 262 @,@ 800 copies sold . 4 @.@ 13 million copies of Phantom Hourglass were sold worldwide by March 2008 .
= = Gameplay = =
The Legend of Zelda : Phantom Hourglass is an action @-@ adventure game with gameplay similar to other games in the The Legend of Zelda series . The player controls Link , the protagonist , and explores the world to find new items , information , and allies to help him save his friend Tetra and defeat the antagonist Bellum . The game is divided into two gameplay types : sailing between islands , and exploring the islands and their dungeons on foot . While on land , Link discovers and utilizes many items , including the classic boomerang , bow , and bombs . When sailing , the game shows a map of the area on the Nintendo DS 's top screen , and a 3D top @-@ down view of Link and his nearby surroundings on the lower touchscreen . The player can bring down the map from the top screen to the lower screen to make notes . During certain events , including most boss battles , a 3D view is shown on both screens , allowing the player to have a wider view of their surroundings . The player controls Link with the stylus , moves him by pointing to the sides of the screen , and uses the stylus to interact with objects and people or attack foes by pointing at them . To travel between islands on the Great Sea , the player controls a paddle steamer called the S.S. Linebeck . The player can plot a course by drawing on a sea chart , redraw the course to make any necessary alterations , shoot at enemies that attack the ship using a cannon , and jump to avoid obstacles .
The game includes a one @-@ on @-@ one multiplayer battle mode . In an arena , one player controls Link , while the other player , on defense , controls three Phantom Guardians . Players of both sides are aided by power @-@ up items that appear on the playing field . Link 's goal is to grab a Force Gem and carry it to his base . The other player , controlling the three Phantom Guardians , must find and catch Link before he returns any Force Gems . When Link is caught , or if the round is over , players switch sides . Each multiplayer game consists of three rounds , and in each round , each player takes a turn at both sides . The maximum length of a multiplayer game is 12 minutes , assuming Link does not get caught . The game supports multiplayer both locally and online through the Nintendo Wi @-@ Fi Connection , as well as Download Play . The game is the third The Legend of Zelda game to include multiplayer , following Four Swords and Four Swords Adventures .
Phantom Hourglass introduces the game mechanic of a large dungeon central to the game 's story , in this case the Temple of the Ocean King . Link visits the Temple multiple times during the course of the game 's story , in order to obtain sea charts that allow him to sail to other parts of the ocean . Throughout the game , the Temple has a curse placed on it that drains Link 's life whenever he is inside , but upon obtaining the Phantom Hourglass , Link is able to explore the Temple without being affected by the curse for a limited amount of time . In addition to the curse , Link must contend with Phantoms , a type of enemy exclusive to the Temple . Phantoms are invincible for the most part , necessitating the use of stealth in order to get past them . " Safe zones " are scattered throughout the Temple , and allow Link to avoid both the Phantoms and the Temple 's curse . As Link progresses through the game , he is able to access deeper levels of the Temple and stay inside for longer . The Temple , including the puzzles within , will reset whenever Link leaves , but as he obtains new items , he can unlock new routes and shortcuts that enable him to travel through the Temple quicker .
= = Plot = =
Picking up immediately after The Wind Waker , in which Link defeats Ganon who turns to stone and remains at the bottom of a now sealed away Hyrule , Link and Tetra travel over the flooded Hyrule called the Great Sea on board Tetra 's pirate ship . Along the way , the pair discover the Ghost Ship and Tetra enters it ; however , immediately after entering the Ghost Ship , she screams for help . While Link attempts to follow her , he slips and falls into the ocean . Washed ashore on an island , Link is awakened by Ciela , a fairy . Exploring the island , Link finds the Phantom Hourglass , filled with the Sands of Hours , and meets an old man named Oshus , who wants to help Link find the Ghost Ship and reunite with Tetra . To aid him in his quest , Link enlists the help of Captain Linebeck and his ship , the S.S. Linebeck , which Link , Ciela , and Linebeck use to visit islands across the Great Sea . While Linebeck was initially reluctant to team up with the two , Ciela makes mention of a huge treasure , prompting him to agree to help them .
After scouring the Great Sea , Link learns that he must use maps and clues hidden in the Temple of the Ocean King to find the Spirits of Courage , Wisdom , and Power , which in turn will help him locate the Ghost Ship . With the help of the Phantom Hourglass , Link finds the Spirits of Wisdom and Power . When Link asks Oshus where to find the Spirit of Courage , Oshus explains that it is in fact Ciela , after which she transforms into her true form . Now in possession of the three Spirits , Link , along with Ciela and Oshus , locate the Ghost Ship and find Tetra on board , who has been turned to stone . While Link determines how to save Tetra , Oshus reveals that he is the Ocean King and that he and Ciela had to change their appearances to hide from Bellum , a life @-@ eating monster that Link must destroy to save Tetra . Oshus also mentions that Bellum was the one who created the Ghost Ship and turned Tetra into a statue , and that he has taken residence deep in the Temple of the Ocean King . Linebeck quickly readies to abandon their quest ; outraged at the lack of treasure to be found . However , his loyalties instantly return when Oshus promises the captain one wish in return for his continued aid .
To defeat Bellum , Link learns that he must forge the Phantom Sword from three unique , " pure " metals located on nearby islands . After collecting and using the metals to forge the Phantom Sword , Link descends to the bottom level of the Temple of the Ocean King to face Bellum . After intense fighting , Link appears to defeat Bellum , and Tetra is freed from stone . After Link and Tetra hurry back to the S.S. Linebeck to find Oshus , Bellum emerges and sinks the ship , capturing Tetra and knocking Link unconscious in the process . Linebeck finally shows some devotion when he fights off Bellum while Link wakes up . Then , Linebeck gets possessed by Bellum , forcing Link to fight him , eventually defeating Bellum for good , saving Tetra and Linebeck , and releasing the sand from the Phantom Hourglass back into the sea . Oshus , now in his true form as a white whale , readies to depart with the three spirits , while Linebeck , surprising everyone , wishes not for treasure but for his ship back , and Tetra and Link teleport back onto Tetra 's pirate ship , where its crew tells them that only ten minutes had passed since the pair left the ship , insisting that their journey was a dream . However , Link still possesses the now @-@ empty Phantom Hourglass , and sees Linebeck 's ship on the horizon , knowing that his adventure was real .
= = Development = =
Development started in May 2004 , at which point the game still had gameplay similar to Four Swords Adventures . At a press conference in Japan for the Nintendo DS on October 6 , 2004 , Shigeru Miyamoto of Nintendo said , " We 're thinking of bringing Four Swords to the DS . " In an interview at E3 2005 , Nintendo 's Eiji Aonuma confirmed that they were working on a game for the Nintendo DS . In 2006 , Nintendo presented the keynote address at the annual Game Developers Conference , where they also revealed Phantom Hourglass for the first time and presented a demo . At the conference , Nintendo announced that the game would be released in late 2006 . For the holiday season , Nintendo launched two special edition Nintendo DS bundles , each in a different color , on November 23 , 2007 . One of the bundles , the Gold edition , was emblazoned with The Legend of Zelda 's signature Triforce logo and sold alongside Phantom Hourglass .
The same development team that worked on Four Swords Adventures also worked on what would become Phantom Hourglass . In the game 's first prototype , the action took place in the upper screen while the touchscreen was a flat map that allowed Link to be controlled . However , the developers believed that this interface caused the player to be too disconnected from the game 's action , thereby prompting them to switch the two screens . They felt that this interface would appeal to Japanese players , who they said prefer simple interfaces . The developers added a battle mode that was played over Wi @-@ Fi to appeal to American players .
The game takes advantage of the Nintendo DS 's stylus in several different ways . The player can draw shapes to open certain doors and plot out the path of ships on the ocean , among other tasks . The device 's touchscreen can also be used to direct Link 's boomerang . Phantom Hourglass features cel @-@ shaded graphics , similar to that of The Wind Waker , with some influence from Four Swords Adventures . Link and Zelda 's appearances in Phantom Hourglass closely resemble those from The Wind Waker .
At E3 2007 , Aonuma said that Phantom Hourglass " opened up the [ Zelda ] series and [ gave ] a fresh , new control scheme to the aging Zelda formula " . He also said that , despite the disappointing sales of The Wind Waker affecting him personally , he still wished to continue the game 's style in another Zelda iteration , leading to the inspiration for Phantom Hourglass . Aonuma believed that the game 's simple controls , with the help of the Nintendo DS 's touchscreen , helped make Phantom Hourglass the first Zelda game to attract casual gamers .
= = Reception = =
Phantom Hourglass was released in Japan on June 23 , 2007 , in North America on October 1 , 2007 , in Australia on October 11 , 2007 , in Europe on October 19 , 2007 , and in Korea on April 3 , 2008 . The game was considered to have received " universal acclaim " , receiving aggregated scores of 90 / 100 from Metacritic and 88 @.@ 82 % from GameRankings . Praise focused on the game 's use of unique Nintendo DS features , while criticism targeted its more casual gameplay compared to previous games in The Legend of Zelda series . Phantom Hourglass was the best @-@ selling game in its debut month of June 2007 in Japan , selling 302 @,@ 887 copies . In the United States , Phantom Hourglass was the fifth best @-@ selling game in its debut month of October 2007 , selling 262 @,@ 800 copies . As of March 2008 , 4 @.@ 13 million copies of the game have been sold worldwide , with 910 @,@ 000 of those copies in Japan .
Computer and Video Games called Phantom Hourglass one of the few " masterpieces " on the Nintendo DS , which made it " worth every penny " . Believing that Phantom Hourglass improves on everything that was great about its predecessor , The Wind Waker , GamePro predicted that the sequel would be another successful game in the franchise . Although feeling that the game does not live up to the standards set in Twilight Princess , Game Informer still felt that the adventure is worthy of The Legend of Zelda series , and noted that it " has enough great stuff going for it " for them to consider it one of the year 's best video game adventures . GameZone enjoyed the " spectacular blend of touch @-@ screen combat , brilliant puzzles , and Wind Waker beauty " in Phantom Hourglass , calling it a " can 't @-@ miss adventure " and one of Nintendo 's and the year 's best games . Hyper 's Jonti Davies commended Phantom Hourglass for its " perfect controls and supreme world and dungeon designs " . However , he criticized the game for only giving around 30 hours of gameplay .
Game Revolution appreciated the game 's graphics , and noted that it uses the Nintendo DS 's features better than any other game for the console . Praising its " innovative " and " fun " control scheme , GameSpot felt that Phantom Hourglass " gives new life to several of the series ' age @-@ old concepts " . X @-@ Play wrote that Phantom Hourglass definitely felt like a The Legend of Zelda game , calling it another successful video game for the franchise and a " must @-@ have " for anyone that owns a Nintendo DS . The Onion 's entertainment newspaper The A.V. Club remarked that Phantom Hourglass exploits the Nintendo DS 's touchscreen to the fullest extent in an " imaginative and genuinely fun way " . In a perfect 5 @-@ star review , Empire stated that " Phantom Hourglass is one of Nintendo 's greatest achievements and a contender for the best handheld adventure in console history . "
Issues that were mentioned in reviews regarding the game included its more casual gameplay compared to previous The Legend of Zelda games , which was not well received by some . GameSpy felt that the game was both easy and approachable enough for casual gamers to play , but sufficiently rewarding and challenging to satisfy hardcore fans of The Legend of Zelda series . IGN believed the game to be " more casual than we 'd like " , but still found it captivating , entertaining , and " a true adventure worthy of the Zelda name " , calling it " different , but it 's still the real deal " . GameTrailers stated that the short dungeon levels and hand @-@ holding exploration are " outright disappointing " , but when comparing Phantom Hourglass to other Nintendo DS games , they conceded that it was still an impressive game , but just a good game when compared to The Legend of Zelda standards . 1UP.com pointed out that the biggest problem with Phantom Hourglass is that it falls back on using innovations from previous The Legend of Zelda games , rather than including new and original ideas : " Innovation arrives in tiny steps , touch screen controls be damned . "
Finding it difficult for hardcore gamers to fully enjoy Phantom Hourglass , Nintendo World Report claimed that the game 's lack of alternative control schemes was a telling sign that Nintendo did not have The Legend of Zelda fans in mind when creating the game . They still described the game as " decent " , but felt that " it ’ s also a game apart from the rest of the series . It just feels different , and I think it demonstrates that Nintendo is reluctant to sail into the murky waters beyond Wind Waker . " The American newspaper The New York Times enjoyed Phantom Hourglass for the most part , but complained about the timer in the Temple of the Ocean King as unnecessary and gimmicky , remarking that the game 's dungeons are only " fun to go through once , but none of them are fun enough to go through 20 times " . They noted that the time spent traveling through dungeons " removed all thoughts of it being perfect " .
Several websites named Phantom Hourglass the 2007 DS Game of the Year , including IGN and GameSpy . It was also mentioned in Best of the Year lists from Wired , Time , and Edge . The game received Editor 's Choice awards from GameSpot and IGN . It was also named Best Adventure Game by 1UP.com. The game was designated the Best Handheld Game at the 2008 Golden Joystick awards , the 2007 Game Developers Choice Awards , the 2007 GamePro Editors ' Choice awards , the 2007 Spike Video Game Awards , and the 2008 Interactive Achievement Awards . At E3 2006 , Phantom Hourglass was designated as the Best Nintendo DS Game by GameSpot and the Best Handheld Game at the Game Critics Awards . The game placed 38th in Official Nintendo Magazine 's 100 Greatest Nintendo Games of All @-@ Time .
= Tupolev Tu @-@ 142 =
The Tupolev Tu @-@ 142 ( Russian : Туполев Ту @-@ 142 ; NATO reporting name : Bear F / J ) is a maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) aircraft derived from the Tu @-@ 95 turboprop strategic bomber . A specialised communications variant designated Tu @-@ 142MR was tasked with long @-@ range communications duties with Soviet ballistic missile submarines . The Tu @-@ 142 was designed by the Tupolev design bureau , and manufactured by the Kuibyshev Aviation and Taganrog Machinery Plants from 1968 to 1994 . Formerly operated by the Soviet Navy and Ukrainian Air Force , the Tu @-@ 142 currently serves with the Russian and Indian Naval Air Arm .
Developed in response to the American Polaris programme , the Tu @-@ 142 grew out of the need for a viable Soviet ASW platform . It succeeded the stillborn Tu @-@ 95PLO project , Tupolev 's first attempt at modifying the Tu @-@ 95 for maritime use . The Tu @-@ 142 differed from the Tu @-@ 95 in having a stretched fuselage to accommodate specialised equipment for its ASW and surveillance roles , a reinforced undercarriage to support rough @-@ field capability , improved avionics and weapons , and enhancements to general performance . The Tu @-@ 142 's capability was incrementally improved while the type was in service , eventually resulting in the Tu @-@ 142MZ , the final long @-@ range Tu @-@ 142 with highly sophisticated combat avionics and a large payload . Tupolev also converted a number of Tu @-@ 142s as avionics ( Tu @-@ 142MP ) and engine ( Tu @-@ 142LL ) testbeds .
= = Design and development = =
= = = Early designs = = =
In the late 1950s the US Navy developed the UGM @-@ 27 Polaris , a submarine @-@ launched ballistic missile ( SLBM ) with a range of more of than 1 @,@ 800 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 000 nm ) . The Navy test @-@ fired rocket boosters to perfect the design , culminating in the first underwater launch of a ballistic missile by USS George Washington on 20 July 1960 . Polaris became operational on 15 November that year , when the George Washington left Charleston , South Carolina , with a complement of nuclear @-@ armed Polaris missiles .
The Soviet government consequently ordered Tupolev and other aircraft design bureaus to study possible dedicated anti @-@ submarine warfare ( ASW ) designs . Tupolev initially designed the Tu @-@ 95PLO ( protivolodochnaya oborona , or ASW ) , a development of the Tu @-@ 95 equipped with sonobuoys , anti @-@ submarine mines and torpedoes . It was to carry a 9 @,@ 000 kg ( 19 @,@ 841 lb ) payload with a maximum loiter time of 10 @.@ 5 hours . The design was dropped , however , because it lacked a powerful radar , thermal imaging ( infrared ) system and magnetic anomaly detector ( MAD ) . On 28 February 1963 , the Council of Ministers ( the highest executive and administrative body of the Soviet Union ) issued a directive to Tupolev requiring his bureau to develop a long @-@ range ASW aircraft .
The resultant design was named Tu @-@ 142 and had features in common with the Tu @-@ 95RT . The ventral and dorsal gun turrets were removed , as was the large dielectric radome housing the Uspeh radar system , which was replaced by a thermal imaging system located in a smaller fairing . This left the tail turret with twin 23 @-@ mm AM @-@ 23 cannons , along with electronic countermeasures , as the only defensive armament . The aircraft 's search @-@ and @-@ targeting system featured Berkut ( Golden Eagle ) 360 ° radar . A complex navigation system was integrated with the weapons targeting system . Structural differences included an airfoil change to the wing , expanding its area to 295 m2 ( 3 @,@ 172 ft2 ) . The area of the elevators was increased by 14 % , and improved hydraulic actuators were fitted . Metal fuel tanks replaced rubber bladders . To allow the Tu @-@ 142 to operate from semi @-@ prepared runways , the Tu @-@ 95 's four @-@ wheel main undercarriage bogies were replaced with six @-@ wheel units ; the main undercarriage fairings were also modified .
The first Tu @-@ 142 ( construction number 4200 ) was built at the Kuibyshev Aviation Plant in Samara . It performed its first flight on 18 June 1968 , with test pilot I. K. Vedernikov at the controls , taking off from Zhukovsky Airfield southeast of Moscow . Early testing indicated that the fuselage needed to be lengthened by at least 1 @.@ 5 m ( 4 @.@ 9 ft ) to accommodate new combat equipment . Therefore , the second prototype ( c / n 4201 ) joined the flight @-@ test programme on 3 September with a 1 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 5 @.@ 6 ft ) front fuselage stretch , a modification found on all subsequent Tu @-@ 142s . The third and final development Tu @-@ 142 entered flight test on 31 October , complete with the full equipment suite . In May 1970 , the Soviet Naval Aviation ( AV @-@ MF ) – the air arm of the Soviet Navy – began receiving production Tu @-@ 142s for operational trials .
= = = Improved variants = = =
During early operations , the Tu @-@ 142 revealed several shortcomings . The aircraft 's rough @-@ field capability was found to be of limited use , so the two six @-@ wheel bogies used on the first 12 of 36 aircraft were replaced with four @-@ wheel reinforced bogies from the Tu @-@ 114 airliner ; consequently , the wheel @-@ wells in the engine nacelle were made slimmer . These changes , along with the deletion of the thermal imaging system and parts of the electronic countermeasure ( ECM ) equipment , reduced the empty weight by 4 @,@ 000 kg ( 8 @,@ 818 lb ) . The modified aircraft also introduced a crew rest area for long @-@ duration missions , and was assigned the codename ( " Bear F " Mod 1 ) ; from 1968 to 1972 the Kuibyshev Plant produced a total of 18 Tu @-@ 142s .
In the early 1970s , production of Tu @-@ 142s was switched to the Taganrog Machinery Plant near the Black Sea . It has been speculated that the change to the idle plant was to give employment to the workers there . The move required many improvements to the plant and the surrounding area , including the establishment of new assembly shops , the installation of new machinery and tooling , the re @-@ training of the workforce , and the building of a new airfield . Preparation took place until 1975 , when production of the first Tu @-@ 142 began . The Tu @-@ 142s built by Taganrog incorporated the changes found on the last of the Kuibyshev aircraft . Differences included a 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) stretch to the front fuselage and a redesigned cockpit . Additional changes included new two @-@ axle main undercarriage bogies . This version was given the factory designation Tu @-@ 142M , which was not adopted by the Soviet Navy ; NATO codenamed it " Bear @-@ F " Mod 2 .
As the 1970s progressed , silencing technology in submarines rendered acoustic @-@ band sonobuoys and trigger devices ineffective . During 1961 and 1962 , the Soviet Union conducted research and development into an explosive sound system ( ESS ) – used to locate deep @-@ diving submarines – under the name Udar ( Blow ) . In 1965 , work had started on sonobuoy systems using ESS to be integrated with the Berkut radar . The programme was postponed when one of the aircraft intended to carry it , the Ilyushin Il @-@ 38 , was found to be incompatible . The developments instead resulted in the Udar @-@ 75 , which was featured in a new search and targeting system ( STS ) of the Taganrog @-@ built Tu @-@ 142Ms .
A new target acquisition system dubbed Korshun @-@ K , the cornerstone of which was the Korshun ( Kite ) radar , was installed on all subsequent Tu @-@ 142s . This system was used for detecting surfaced and submerged submarines , communicating with other ASW aircraft and ground bases , and performing navigational and tactical tasks . The first three Tu @-@ 142Ms were the first aircraft to be equipped with this system , and thus were redesignated Tu @-@ 142MK ( " Bear F " Mod . 3 ) . It was the first Tu @-@ 142 to feature a MAD , its MMS @-@ 106 Ladoga system being mounted in an aft @-@ facing fairing atop the vertical stabiliser . The first of three Tu @-@ 142MKs that underwent Stage A of the trials programme made its first flight on 4 November 1975 ; despite the dismal performance figures , a production go @-@ ahead was given . Stage B , conducted during April – October 1978 , found that the aircraft 's avionics were extremely unreliable ; like Stage A , these problems were apparently ignored when a directive issued on 19 November 1980 cleared the Tu @-@ 142MK for operational service .
= = = Technological upgrades = = =
Even as the Tu @-@ 142MK entered service , its Korshun @-@ K STS was already becoming obsolete . Work began on yet another improved Tu @-@ 142 , resulting in the Tu @-@ 142MZ ( " Bear F " Mod . 4 ) with the Korshun @-@ KN @-@ N STS . This consisted of Nashatyr @-@ Nefrit ( Ammonia / Jade ) ASW avionics , which included the Zarechye sonar system . As well as the RGB @-@ 1A and RGB @-@ 2 buoys of the Berkut , the Tu @-@ 142MZ was compatible with the RGB @-@ 16 and RGB @-@ 26 buoys . When working with the ASW avionics , these buoys provided 50 % greater coverage . The Kuznetsov NK @-@ 12MV were replaced by the more @-@ powerful NK @-@ 12MP engines , and for the first time , the Tu @-@ 142 had an independent engine @-@ starting capability with the addition of the TA @-@ 12 auxiliary power unit . This variant was distinguished from earlier " Bear Fs " by the chin fairings housing several antennas .
The flight test programme started in 1985 with the maiden flight of a converted Tu @-@ 142M fitted with the advanced avionics ; state acceptance trials began within two years . Test results proved excellent , as the aircraft successfully tracked nuclear @-@ powered submarines of the Northern and Pacific Fleets . The aircraft became operational with Russian Naval Aviation ( AV @-@ MP ) in 1993 . The last Tu @-@ 142MZ rolled off the Taganrog production line the following year , bringing an end to a 26 @-@ year production run during which 100 Tu @-@ 142s were produced .
A communications variant designated Tu @-@ 142MR ( " Bear J " ) was the last production version of the Tu @-@ 142 . It was tasked with long @-@ range communications duties with Soviet ballistic missile submarines , a role similar to that of the Boeing E @-@ 6 Mercury . The Tu @-@ 142MR differed from the ASW Tu @-@ 142s in having less @-@ sophisticated avionics , but had a long trailing wire radio aerial to relay messages to submerged Soviet submarines in times of nuclear war . This was amongst the many distinctive features of the Tu @-@ 142MR that allows it to communicate with satellites , airborne and ground @-@ based command posts , and submarines . The aircraft replaced the Ilyushin Il @-@ 80 in the airborne command and control role . Tu @-@ 142s are currently operated by the 76th Naval Aviation Regiment from Kipelovo . Other developments of the Tu @-@ 142 include the one @-@ off Tu @-@ 142MRT maritime reconnaissance variant , and the unbuilt Tu @-@ 142MS missile @-@ carrying variant .
= = Operational history = =
To prepare for Tu @-@ 142 operations , on 22 June 1960 the Soviet Navy began selecting personnel for conversion training . The first group began its three @-@ month training period on 4 March 1970 at the seaside town of Nikolayev ( since renamed Mykolaiv ) . Meanwhile , the first Tu @-@ 142s were delivered to the Northern Fleet at Kipelovo AB , where they were initially tasked with tracking and monitoring nuclear @-@ powered submarines as part of the type 's operational trials . Throughout the test programme , effort focused on the verification of the ASW avionics , notably the Berkut @-@ 95 radar , as the airframe itself was not a major concern . The Tu @-@ 142 reached initial operational capability in December 1972 after a successful flight @-@ test programme . Prior to that , in December 1971 , the second group selected for Tu @-@ 142 operations started its own conversion training . Deliveries of the aircraft at first proceeded slowly ; as more Tu @-@ 142s were produced , the type was allocated to the Pacific Fleet .
Throughout its operational history , the Tu @-@ 142 demonstrated significant capabilities . On 19 – 22 August 1974 , four Tu @-@ 142s shadowed a foreign submarine in the Barents Sea ; one of the aircraft was reported to have maintained continuous contact for 2 hours and 55 minutes . In 1975 , a Tu @-@ 142 managed to trail a Soviet submarine for 3 hours and 16 minutes . On 10 October 1977 , a group of five Tu @-@ 142s tracked a US submarine in the Philippine Sea ; one of the Tu @-@ 142s reportedly trailed the submarine for 4 hours and 5 minutes . Soviet Tu @-@ 142s , besides operating domestically , were sent to friendly overseas bases in Angola , Cuba , Ethiopia , Vietnam , and Yemen . In the early 1990s , with the dissolution of the Soviet Union , the Soviet fleet of Tu @-@ 142s was handed to the Russian Navy , although the Ukrainian Air Force gained a few Tu @-@ 142s that had been left in its territory . Ukrainian Tu @-@ 142s were later dismantled as a result of the bilateral START I treaty signed between the United States and the Soviet Union in 1991 , which came into effect in late 1994 .
Besides the Tu @-@ 142 's military applications , a one @-@ off Tu @-@ 142MP was used to test a new ASW suite . Another Tu @-@ 142 was converted to replace the Tu @-@ 95LL for the testing of turbojet engines . Designated Tu @-@ 142LL , the ASW equipment and armament were removed to allow an engine test bed to be carried under the belly . Some of the engines installed were the NK @-@ 25 for the Tu @-@ 22MZ , RD36 @-@ 51A for the Tu @-@ 144D , and the NK @-@ 32 for the Tu @-@ 160 . The first Tu @-@ 142MK was converted for an airborne laboratory role , setting several altitude @-@ in @-@ horizontal and time @-@ to @-@ altitude records in its class .
In 1981 the Indian Navy began considering a long @-@ range maritime reconnaissance and anti @-@ submarine warfare aircraft for its Naval Air Arm . The Soviet Union initially offered to refurbish some of its own Tu @-@ 142s for India , rather than construct new aircraft . The Indian Navy was at first hesitant about the large Tu @-@ 142 , which was heavy and thus would require runways to be reinforced and lengthened at potential operating bases . Consequently , the service requested three Ilyushin Il @-@ 38s – then being phased out of service with the Soviet Navy – be refurbished for Indian operations . This request fell through , and so in December 1984 an agreement to purchase eight Tu @-@ 142s was signed .
For the twelve @-@ month period stating from May 1987 , the Indian Navy sent 40 pilots and observers , 16 technical officers and 128 sailors to Riga for training . On 30 March 1988 , the first three Tu @-@ 142s arrived at the Indian naval air station of INS Hansa , Goa , after a flight from Simferopol ( Gvardeyskoye Air Base ) in the Crimean peninsula . On 13 April two more aircraft arrived , prior to the commissioning of INAS 312 , the operator of Indian Tu @-@ 142s ; by the end of October the fleet of eight Tu @-@ 142s was delivered . In May 1992 , the squadron was relocated to its current operating base at INS Rajali on the Indian east coast . The Tu @-@ 142s are expected to be replaced by twelve smaller Boeing P @-@ 8Is .
= = Variants = =
Tu @-@ 142
A lengthened Tu @-@ 95 with much defensive armament removed , and instead incorporating ASW systems . Twelve aircraft initially had six @-@ wheel main undercarriage bogies . Six later aircraft had four @-@ wheel bogies . Built by Kuibyshev Aviation Plant .
Tu @-@ 142M
A 30 @-@ centimetre ( 12 in ) stretch to front fuselage , redesigned cockpit and two @-@ axle main undercarriage bogies . Built by Taganrog .
Tu @-@ 142MK
Greatly improved variant with new Korshun radar , avionics and ASW equipment . 43 Tu @-@ 142MKs were constructed by Taganrog .
Tu @-@ 142MK @-@ E
Eight downgraded Tu @-@ 142MKs purchased by the Indian Naval Air Arm . E stands for " export " .
Tu @-@ 142MZ
The last production variant of the " Bear F " , with new NK @-@ 12MP engines and a new avionics suite . Can be distinguished from other Tu @-@ 142s by its chin fairings . Built by Taganrog .
Tu @-@ 142MZ @-@ K
Proposed commercial cargo variant of the Tu @-@ 142MZ ( the K standing for " kommercheskiy " ) , with ASW avionics removed . Also designated Tu @-@ 142MZ @-@ C.
Tu @-@ 142MP
Modified single Tu @-@ 142M used as avionics testbed .
Tu @-@ 142MR
Modified Tu @-@ 142MKs built as submarine communications relay aircraft . Has distinctive external fairings and components . NATO codename " Bear J " .
Tu @-@ 142LL
Two converted earlier Tu @-@ 142s used for testing of turbofan engines . ASW equipment was removed .
= = Operators = =
India
The Indian Naval Air Arm had 8 Tu @-@ 142MKEs in service as of December 2010 , based at INS Rajali , Arakkonam , Tamil Nadu .
Russia
The Russian Naval Aviation had 15 Tu @-@ 142s in service as of December 2010 .
Former
Soviet Union
The Soviet Naval Aviation 's Tu @-@ 142s were distributed between the Russian Naval Aviation and Ukrainian Air Force following the collapse of the Soviet Union .
Ukraine
The Ukrainian Air Force inherited an unknown number of Tu @-@ 142s following the collapse of the Soviet Union . These were dismantled in accordance with the START I agreement .
= = Notable accidents = =
On 7 November 2009 , eleven crew were killed when their Tu @-@ 142 crashed over the Strait of Tartary near Japan during a training flight . Flights of aircraft belonging to the Pacific Fleet were suspended pending an investigation into the crash . There was no indication that the crew made use of emergency equipment , although a lifeboat on board the plane was fitted with a device that transmits a signal in the event of an accident . Chief of the General Staff Nikolay Makarov believed an engine failure could have caused the crash . A memorial service was held for the crew on 16 December 2009 . A search for the bodies of the eleven crew members was suspended several times due to ice floes and bad weather .
= = Specifications ( Tu @-@ 142MZ ) = =
Data from Donald and Lake
General characteristics
Crew : 11 – 13
Length : 53 @.@ 08 m ( 162 ft 5 in )
Wingspan : 50 @.@ 00 m ( 167 ft 8 in )
Height : 12 @.@ 12 m ( 39 ft 9 in )
Wing area : 311 @.@ 10 m ² ( 3 @,@ 348 @.@ 76 ft ² )
Empty weight : 90 @,@ 000 kg ( 198 @,@ 000 lb )
Max. takeoff weight : 185 @,@ 000 kg ( 407 @,@ 848 lb )
Powerplant : 4 × Kuznetsov NK @-@ 12MP turboprops , 11 @,@ 033 kW ( 14 @,@ 795 shp ) each
Performance
Maximum speed : 925 km / h ( 500 kt , 575 mph )
Cruise speed : 711 km / h ( 384 kt , 442 mph )
Combat radius : 6 @,@ 500 km ( 3 @,@ 454 nmi , 3 @,@ 977 mi )
Service ceiling : 12 @,@ 000 m ( 39 @,@ 000 ft )
= SM UB @-@ 17 =
SM UB @-@ 17 was a German Type UB I submarine or U @-@ boat in the German Imperial Navy ( German : Kaiserliche Marine ) during World War I. The submarine disappeared during a patrol in March 1918 .
UB @-@ 17 was ordered in November 1914 and was laid down at the AG Weser shipyard in Bremen in February 1915 . UB @-@ 17 was a little under 28 metres ( 92 ft ) in length and displaced between 127 and 141 tonnes ( 125 and 139 long tons ) , depending on whether surfaced or submerged . She carried two torpedoes for her two bow torpedo tubes and was also armed with a deck @-@ mounted machine gun . UB @-@ 17 was broken into sections and shipped by rail to Antwerp for reassembly . She was launched in April 1915 and commissioned as SM UB @-@ 17 in May .
UB @-@ 17 spent her entire career in the Flanders Flotilla and sank 13 ships , most of them British fishing vessels . She also captured two ships as prizes and damaged one tanker . On 11 March 1918 , UB @-@ 17 departed for a patrol in the Hoofden but was never seen again . There have been several suggestions as to UB @-@ 17 's fate , but none match the U @-@ boat 's operation details .
In July 2013 , UB @-@ 17 was found off England 's east coast , near the county of Suffolk by archaeologists .
= = Design and construction = =
After the German Army 's rapid advance along the North Sea coast in the earliest stages of World War I , the German Imperial Navy found itself without suitable submarines that could be operated in the narrow and shallow seas off Flanders . Project 34 , a design effort begun in mid @-@ August 1914 , produced the Type UB I design : a small submarine that could be shipped by rail to a port of operations and quickly assembled . Constrained by railroad size limitations , the UB I design called for a boat about 28 metres ( 92 ft ) long and displacing about 125 tonnes ( 123 long tons ) with two torpedo tubes .
UB @-@ 17 and sister boat UB @-@ 16 comprised an order of two submarines ordered on 25 November from AG Weser of Bremen , a little more than three months after planning for the class began . UB @-@ 17 was laid down by Weser in Bremen on 21 February 1915 . As built , UB @-@ 17 was 27 @.@ 88 metres ( 91 ft 6 in ) long , 3 @.@ 15 metres ( 10 ft 4 in ) abeam , and had a draft of 3 @.@ 03 metres ( 9 ft 11 in ) . She had a single 59 @-@ brake @-@ horsepower ( 44 kW ) Körting 4 @-@ cylinder diesel engine for surface travel , and a single 119 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 89 kW ) Siemens @-@ Schuckert electric motor for underwater travel , both attached to a single propeller shaft . Her top speeds were 7 @.@ 45 knots ( 13 @.@ 80 km / h ; 8 @.@ 57 mph ) , surfaced , and 6 @.@ 24 knots ( 11 @.@ 56 km / h ; 7 @.@ 18 mph ) , submerged . At more moderate speeds , she could sail up to 1 @,@ 500 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 800 km ; 1 @,@ 700 mi ) on the surface before refueling , and up to 45 nautical miles ( 83 km ; 52 mi ) submerged before recharging her batteries . Like all boats of the class , UB @-@ 17 was rated to a diving depth of 50 metres ( 160 ft ) , and could completely submerge in 33 seconds .
UB @-@ 17 was armed with two 45 @-@ centimeter ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedoes in two bow torpedo tubes . She was also outfitted for a single 8 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 31 in ) machine gun on deck . UB @-@ 17 's standard complement consisted of one officer and thirteen enlisted men .
After work on UB @-@ 17 was complete at the Weser yard , she was readied for rail shipment . The process of shipping a UB I boat involved breaking the submarine down into what was essentially a knock down kit . Each boat was broken into approximately fifteen pieces and loaded on to eight railway flatcars . In early 1915 , the sections of UB @-@ 17 were shipped to Antwerp for assembly in what was typically a two- to three @-@ week process . After UB @-@ 17 was assembled and launched on 21 April , she was loaded on a barge and taken through canals to Bruges where she underwent trials .
= = Early career = =
The submarine was commissioned into the German Imperial Navy as SM UB @-@ 17 on 4 May 1915 under the command of Kapitänleutnant ( Kapt . ) Ralph Wenninger , a 25 @-@ year @-@ old former skipper of UB @-@ 11 . On 10 May , UB @-@ 17 joined the Flanders Flotilla ( German : U @-@ boote des Marinekorps U @-@ Flotille Flandern ) , which had been organized on 29 March . When UB @-@ 17 joined the flotilla , Germany was in the midst of its first submarine offensive , begun in February . During this campaign , enemy vessels in the German @-@ defined war zone ( German : Kriegsgebiet ) , which encompassed all waters around the United Kingdom , were to be sunk . Vessels of neutral countries were not to be attacked unless they definitively could be identified as enemy vessels operating under a false flag .
On 18 July , Wenninger torpedoed the British tanker Batoum just off the Southwold lighthouse . Despite the loss of six men , Batoum 's crew was able to beach the ship , listed as 4 @,@ 054 gross register tons ( GRT ) . Early the next month , on 6 August , Wenninger and UB @-@ 17 sank four British fishing vessels while patrolling in the Yarmouth – Lowestoft area . All four of the sunken ships were smacks — sailing vessels traditionally rigged with red ochre sails — which were stopped , boarded by crewmen from UB @-@ 17 , and sunk with explosives .
On 18 August , the chief of the Admiralstab , Admiral Henning von Holtzendorff , issued orders suspending the first offensive in response to American demands after German submarines had sunk the Cunard Line steamer Lusitania in May 1915 and other high profile sinkings in August and September . Holtzendorff 's directive ordered all U @-@ boats out of the English Channel and the South @-@ Western Approaches and required that all submarine activity in the North Sea be conducted strictly along prize regulations . Six days later , UB @-@ 17 seized the Belgian sailing vessel Leon Mathilde as a prize off Ostende .
Enemy naval targets were not subject to the prize regulations , so on 23 September , Wenninger torpedoed and sank the Saint Pierre I , a trawler of the French Navy off the Dyck lightship . There was only one survivor from the 303 @-@ ton ship 's eighteen @-@ man crew . Three months later , Wenninger misidentified the 74 @-@ ton French fishing ship Jesus Maria as a destroyer . UB @-@ 17 launched a torpedo which struck the ship and killed all six men of Jesus Maria 's crew .
On 31 January 1916 , in the Lowestoft – Aldeburgh area , UB @-@ 17 sank an additional four fishing ships : three British , and one Belgian . The next day , UB @-@ 17 's war journal ( German : Kriegstagebücher or KTB ' ' ) records the torpedoing of the 957 @-@ ton British steamer Franz Fischer off the Kentish Knock . British records list the cargo ship as being sunk by bombs from a zeppelin . Franz Fischer was the last ship sunk with Wenninger in command . On 7 February , he was relieved by Oberleutnant zur See ( Oblt . ) Arthur Metz for a month , Kapt . Werner Fürbringer for a week , and Oblt . Friedrich Moecke for another month . Wenninger resumed command on 16 April .
In the meantime , Germany had begun its second submarine offensive against merchant shipping at the end of February in reaction to the British blockade of Germany . By early 1916 , the British blockade was having an effect on Germany and her imports . The Royal Navy had stopped and seized more cargo destined for Germany than the quantity of cargo sunk by German U @-@ boats in the first submarine offensive . UB @-@ 17 sank no ships during this offensive , which was called off near the end of April by Admiral Reinhardt Scheer , the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of the High Seas Fleet .
= = Grand Fleet ambush attempts = =
In mid @-@ May , Scheer completed plans to draw out part of the British Grand Fleet . The German High Seas Fleet would sortie for a raid on Sunderland , luring the British fleet across " ' nests ' of submarines and mine @-@ fields " . In support of the operation , UB @-@ 17 and five other Flanders boats set out at midnight 30 / 31 May to form a line 18 nautical miles ( 33 km ; 21 mi ) east of Lowestoft . This group was to intercept and attack the British light forces from Harwich , should they sortie north to join the battle . Unfortunately for the Germans , the British Admiralty had intelligence reports of the departure of the submarines which , coupled with an absence of attacks on shipping , aroused British suspicions .
A delayed departure of the German High Seas Fleet for its sortie ( which had been redirected to the Skagerrak ) and the failure of several of the U @-@ boats stationed to the north to receive the coded message warning of the British advance caused Scheer 's anticipated ambush to be a " complete and disappointing failure " . In UB @-@ 16 's group , only UB @-@ 10 sighted the Harwich forces , and they were too far away to mount an attack . The failure of the submarine ambush to sink any British capital ships allowed the full Grand Fleet to engage the numerically inferior High Seas Fleet in the Battle of Jutland , which took place 31 May – 1 June .
Wenninger left UB @-@ 17 for good on 27 June and was succeeded by Kapt . Günther Suadicani , who commanded the boat for just under two weeks . He was followed by Oblt . Hans Degetau , who commanded the boat from July to December . Under Degetau 's leadership , UB @-@ 17 added another ship to her tally when she captured and sank the Dutch ship Zeearend on 1 September . The 462 @-@ ton steamer was en route to London from Rotterdam with a cargo of piece goods when she was sunk 19 nautical miles ( 35 km ; 22 mi ) from the Mass Lightship . UB @-@ 17 's next success was the capture of the Norwegian steamer Birgit in the Hoofden area under the command of Kapt . Ulrich Meier , who had taken command on 4 December . Birgit was the last success for UB @-@ 17 for the next twelve months .
= = Conversion to minelayer = =
UB @-@ 17 and three sister boats , UB @-@ 10 , UB @-@ 12 , and UB @-@ 16 , were all converted to minelaying submarines by 1918 . The conversion involved removing the bow section containing the pair of torpedo tubes from each U @-@ boat and replacing it with a new bow containing four mine chutes capable of carrying two mines each . In the process , the boats were lengthened to 105 feet ( 32 m ) , and the displacement increased to 147 tonnes ( 145 long tons ) on the surface , and 161 tonnes ( 158 long tons ) below the surface . Exactly when this conversion was performed on UB @-@ 17 is not reported , but UB @-@ 17 was at the dockyard from November 1916 to January 1917 , and it is possible UB @-@ 17 was converted during this same timeframe .
While Meier remained in command of UB @-@ 17 , Kaiser Wilhelm II personally approved a resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare to begin on 1 February 1917 to help force the British to make peace . Although the new rules of engagement specified that no ship was to be left afloat , UB @-@ 17 did not contribute to the effort until December 1917 , when she captured and sank a single fishing smack off Aldeburgh under the direction of Oblt . Johannes Ries . In January 1918 , Ries was replaced by Oblt . Albert Branscheid .
= = Sinking = =
On 11 March 1918 , Branscheid led UB @-@ 17 out from Zeebrugge for a patrol in the Hoofden and the U @-@ boat was never seen again . One postwar account tells of two British seaplanes that bombed a U @-@ boat in the North Sea on 12 March , but , according to author Dwight Messimer , the account provides no details to support the claim . Messimer also discounts an account that attributes UB @-@ 17 's sinking to British destroyer Onslow on 25 February south of Portland by pointing out that UB @-@ 17 was in port in Zeebrugge on that date . A German postwar study also rejected a British claim that destroyers HMS Thruster , Retriever , and Sturgeon sank UB @-@ 17 at 21 : 25 on 11 March at position 57 ° 7 ′ N 2 ° 43 ′ E because UB @-@ 17 didn 't depart Zeebrugge until 30 minutes after the attack took place . Whatever the specific cause of UB @-@ 17 's demise , all eighteen crewmen on board the submarine were killed .
= = Discovery = =
In July 2013 , archaeologists found the remains of 44 submarines , including UB @-@ 17 , off the United Kingdom 's southern and east coasts , near the county of Suffolk . The find was made up mostly of vessels from the German Imperial Navy dating to World War I. Der Spiegel reported divers located 41 German U @-@ boats , and three of English submarines , found at depths of up to 50 feet , off England 's southern and eastern coasts .
= = Ships sunk or damaged = =
= Case of the Hooded Man =
R v Williams ( 1913 ) 8 Cr App R 133 ( known as the Case of the Hooded Man and the Eastbourne Murder ) was a 1912 murder in England that took its name from the hood the defendant , John Williams , wore when travelling to and from court . After the murder of a police inspector in Eastbourne , with no witnesses and little forensic evidence , Edgar Power , a former medical student , told the police that his friend John Williams had committed the murder . Power helped the police conduct a sting operation to catch Williams ; police also interrogated Williams 's girlfriend Florence Seymour , who then confessed to having helped Williams hide the murder weapon .
However , Seymour later recanted her story , and another man came forth claiming to know the identity of the real killer . This new evidence , along with the behaviour of the judge in both the initial case and the appeal , made the case controversial enough that Members of Parliament from the three major political parties directly questioned the Home Secretary on the matter . Despite many requests for clemency ,
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's death as a child , Shinji was abandoned by his father , Gendo Ikari . He is emotionally hyper @-@ sensitive and sometimes does as expected out of fear of rejection , but he has often rebelled and refused to pilot the Eva because of the extremely excruciating harm that has been done to him , or done to his friends . After some difficulty taking the first steps , Shinji gains supremely excellent control of the Eva , surpassing all other pilots ; piloting Evas has become his most well known talent . Throughout the series he says to himself " I mustn 't run away " as a means of encouraging himself to face the threats of the day , and this sometimes actually gives him bravery in battle , but he has a lingering habit of withdrawing in response to traumatic events . He has an Oedipus complex , and likes Rei because she somehow resembles his mother . Anno has described Shinji as a boy who " shrinks from human contact " and has " convinced himself that he is a completely unnecessary person " .
The withdrawn and mysterious pilot of Evangelion Unit @-@ 00 , Rei Ayanami , is a clone made from the salvaged remains of Yui and is plagued by a sense of negative self @-@ worth stemming from the realization that she is an expendable asset . She at one time despised Shinji for his lack of trust in his father Gendo , with whom Rei is very close . However , after Shinji and Rei successfully defeat the Angel Ramiel , she takes a friendly liking to him . Towards the end of the series it is revealed that she is one of many clones , whose use is to replace the currently existing Rei if she is killed .
Asuka Langley Soryu is a child prodigy who pilots Evangelion Unit @-@ 02 and possesses a fiery temper and an overabundance of pride and self @-@ confidence , which often gets her in trouble and difficulty , especially during battles . As a little girl , Asuka discovered the body of her mother shortly after she committed suicide , leading the child to repress her emotions and vow never to cry . Asuka and Rei are presented with their own flaws and difficulty relating to other people .
Misato Katsuragi is the caretaker and commanding officer for Shinji and Asuka . Her professional demeanor at NERV contrasts dramatically with her carefree and irresponsible behavior at home . Character designer Yoshiyuki Sadamoto conceived her as an older " girl next door " and promiscuous loser who failed to take life seriously . Misato has an Electra complex and is consumed with conflicting love and hate for her father , which manifests as a driving force in her decision to work at NERV and her attempts to " [ seek ] her father in Kaji 's embrace . " Anno described Shinji and Misato as " afraid of being hurt " and " unsuitable — lacking the positive attitude — for what people call heroes of an adventure . "
The teenaged Evangelion pilots are ordered into battle by the steely Gendo Ikari , Shinji 's father and the commander of NERV . He abandoned Shinji and recalled him only to serve as an Evangelion pilot . Gendo salvaged the remains of his dead wife 's soul and body to create Rei , whom he viewed as a mere tool at his disposal to defeat the Angels . Similar to Shinji , he is somewhat asocial and is afraid of being insulted by others and often runs away from such , often committing immoralities in the process . He is depicted as relentless in his drive to win , a man who " takes drastic and extreme measures , by fair means or foul , or by hook or by crook , in order to accomplish his own purpose . " According to Sadamoto , the characters of Gendo and Fuyutsuki are based on Ed Straker and Alec Freeman of the television series UFO .
Sadamoto designed the visual appearance of the characters so that their personalities " could be understood more or less at a glance " . The distinctive aesthetic appeal of the female lead characters ' designs contributed to high sales of Neon Genesis Evangelion merchandise . The design of Rei in particular became so popular that the media referred to the character as " Premium Girl " due to the high sales of books with Rei on the cover .
= = Production = =
Director Hideaki Anno fell into a deep depression following completion of work on Nadia : The Secret of Blue Water and the 1992 failure of the Royal Space Force : The Wings of Honnêamise sequel project . According to Yasuhiro Takeda , Anno agreed to a collaboration between King Records and Gainax while drinking with King representative Toshimichi Ōtsuki ; King Records guaranteed Anno a time slot for " something , anything " . Anno began development of the new series in 1993 around the notion of not running away , which had been the underlying theme of Aoki Uru , an earlier Anno project that had failed to move into production . Early into the production , Anno stated his intent to have Evangelion increase the number of otaku ( anime fans ) by attracting interest in the medium . According to him , the plot of the series reflects his four @-@ year depression . In the early design phase of the Evangelion project several formats were considered , including a film , a television series and an original video animation ( OVA ) series . The producers finally opted for the television series as it was the most widely accessible media in Japan at that time . The proposed title Alcion was rejected due to its lack of hard consonant sounds .
Evangelion borrowed certain scenarios and the use of introspection as a narrative device from a previous Anno project entitled Gunbuster . He incorporated the narrative structure of Nadia and multiple frames of reference to leave the story open to interpretation . Over the course of the writing process , elements of the Evangelion storyline evolved from the original concept . A female protagonist was initially proposed for the series , but the idea was scrapped . Originally , the first episode presented the battle between an Angel and Rei , while the character of Shinji was only introduced after the Angel had been defeated . Further changes to the plot were made following the Aum Shinrikyo sect 's sarin gas attack on the Tokyo subway in March . Azuma Hiroki has said that the original Evangelion story was " too close to reality " from Anno 's point of view . Basically , Anno thought that the original scenario was not suitable for broadcasting , and he feared censorship . However , he also criticized Aum Shinrikyo , because " they lost any contact with reality " . For this reason , Azuma stated that Evangelion " is an intrinsic critique of Aum " .
The final version of the story reflects inspiration drawn from numerous other anime and fictional works . Chief among these are Space Battleship Yamato , Mobile Suit Gundam , Devilman and Space Runaway Ideon . The series also incorporates tributes to Childhood 's End , the novels of Ryū Murakami , The Andromeda Strain , The Divine Invasion , the poem Pippa Passes , The Hitcher , and several television series including The Prisoner , Thunderbirds , Ultraman and Ultra Seven .
The development of the Neon Genesis Evangelion series ran close to deadlines throughout its production run . The initial cuts of the first two episodes were screened at the second Gainax festival in July 1995 , only three months before they were aired on television . By episode 13 the series began to deviate significantly from the original story , and the initial script was abandoned . The number of Angels was reduced to 17 instead of the original 28 , and the writers changed the story 's ending , which had originally described the failure of the Human Instrumentality Project after an Angel attack from the moon . Starting with episode 16 , the show changed drastically , discarding the grand narrative concerning salvation for a narrative focusing on the individual characters . This change coincided with Anno 's development of an interest in psychology after a friend lent him a book on mental illness . This focus culminated in a psychoanalysis of the characters in the two final episodes . The production ran so close to the airing deadline that the completed scenes used in the preview of the twenty @-@ fifth episode had to be redesigned to work with the new ending . These episodes feature heavy use of abstract animation , flashbacks , simple line drawings , photographs and fixed image scenes with voice @-@ over dialogue . Some critics speculated that these unconventional animation choices resulted from budget cuts , but Toshio Okada stated that Anno " couldn 't decide the ending until the time came , that 's his style " . These two episodes sparked controversy and condemnation among fans and critics of the series , including significant vitriol directed at Anno himself . Hideaki Anno and Studio Gainax released in 1997 , two animated feature films : Death & Rebirth and The End of Evangelion .
= = Themes = =
The Evangelion series is permeated with references to Kabbalah , Christianity , Judaism , Buddhism , Shinto , and Gnosticism , complicating viewers ' attempts to form an unambiguous interpretation of the series . Of particular influence are the Midrash , the Zohar and other Kabbalistic texts on the Book of Genesis , which are reworked within the series to create a new Evangelion @-@ specific mythology while still maintaining a connection with the original texts . Assistant director Kazuya Tsurumaki said the religious visual references were intended to make the series more " interesting and exotic " , and denied the existence of a " Christian meaning " for the use of Christian visual symbols in the show . However , according to Anno : " As the symbols are mixed together , for the first time something like an interrelationship or a meaning emerges " . The plot combines elements of esotericism and mysticism of the Jewish Kabbalah , including the Angels , which have many common features with the Angels of the religious tradition , such as Sachiel , Sandalphon and Ramiel .
The series contains numerous allusions to the Kojiki and the Nihongi , the sacred texts of Shinto . The Shinto vision of the primordial cosmos is referenced in the series , and the mythical lances of the Shinto deities Izanagi and Izanami are used as weapons in battles between Evangelions and Angels . Elements of the Judeo @-@ Christian tradition also feature prominently throughout the series , including references to Adam , Lilith , Eve , the Lance of Longinus , the Dead Sea Scrolls , the Kabbalistic concept of Adam Kadmon , the Tree of Life , among many others . The merging of all human souls into one through the Human Instrumentality Project at the end of the series is similar to the Kabbalistic concept of tikkun olam . The Evangelions have been likened to the golem of Jewish folklore , and their visual design in the series resembles the traditional depictions of oni ( Japanese demons or ogres ) .
Evangelion has been interpreted as a deeply personal expression of Hideaki Anno 's own emotional struggles . During the production of the series , he became interested in mental illness and psychology . According to him , Rei is a schizophrenic character and she represents the unconscious of Shinji . Shinji has an Oedipus complex , and is characterized by a libido @-@ destrudo conflict . Similarly , Ritsuko has an Electra complex , in which she loves Gendo , a sort of substitute of her father figure . Anno himself stated that the main character reflects his character , " both in conscious and unconscious part " , referring also to Kaworu as his Jungian shadow . It has even been suggested that Shinji 's entering into Unit @-@ 01 is a Freudian " return to the womb " , and that his struggle to be free of the Eva is his " rite of passage " into manhood . In the series there are many references to psychoanalytic concepts , such as the oral stage , introjection , oral personality , ambivalence , and the death drive . In particular , the series references elements of the works of Sigmund Freud , Jacques Lacan , Arthur Schopenhauer , Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel , Jean @-@ Paul Sartre and others .
= = Related media = =
= = = Music = = =
Shiro Sagisu composed most of the original music for the series . The soundtracks released to high rankings on the Oricon charts , with Neon Genesis Evangelion III reaching the number one slot for highest sales in 1997 ; that same year , Sagisu received the Kobe Animation award for " Best Music Score " for his work on Evangelion . Classical music by Ludwig van Beethoven , Johann Sebastian Bach , Giuseppe Verdi and George Frideric Handel were also featured throughout the series . Additional classical works and original symphonic compositions were used to score later movies produced within the Neon Genesis Evangelion franchise . In total , the series ' discography includes 21 full studio , live , compilation and soundtrack albums and six CD singles .
The series ' opening theme was " A Cruel Angel 's Thesis " , performed by Yoko Takahashi . It ranked on two TV Asahi polls , reaching # 55 for best anime theme songs of all time , and # 18 for best anime theme songs of the 1990s . Fifteen years after its release , the theme won JASRAC 's annual award for the royalties it continues to generate from its usage in pachinko , pachislo , karaoke and other venues . The end theme of the series was a version of " Fly Me to the Moon " arranged and sung by Claire Littley .
= = = Films = = =
In May 1996 , Gainax announced an Evangelion film in response to fan dissatisfaction with the series finale . In advance of the promised film , on March 15 , 1997 Gainax released Death & Rebirth , consisting of 60 minutes of clips taken from the first 24 episodes of the series and 40 minutes of the upcoming movie , The End of Evangelion .
The End of Evangelion , which premiered on July 19 , 1997 , provided a complete retelling of the final two episodes of the television series . Rather than depicting series ' climax within the characters ' minds , the film provides a more conventional , action @-@ based resolution to the series ' plot lines . The film won numerous awards and grossed 1 @.@ 45 billion yen within six months of its release . EX.org ranked the film in 1999 as the fifth best ' All @-@ Time Show ' , with the television series at # 2 @.@ and in 2009 CUT Magazine ranked it the third greatest anime film of all time .
On September 9 , 2006 , Gainax confirmed a new animated film series called Rebuild of Evangelion , consisting of four movies . The first film retells the first five episodes from the series but from the second film onward the story is completely different , including new characters , EVAs and Angels . The first film , Evangelion : 1 @.@ 0 You Are ( Not ) Alone was released in Japan on September 1 , 2007 , with Evangelion : 2 @.@ 0 You Can ( Not ) Advance and Evangelion : 3 @.@ 0 You Can ( Not ) Redo released on June 27 , 2009 and November 17 , 2012 . The final film , titled Evangelion : 3 @.@ 0 + 1 @.@ 0 , was said to be released in winter 2015 , but a final release date is still unknown .
= = = Manga = = =
Ten months prior to the television broadcast of Evangelion , Anno worked with author and illustrator Yoshiyuki Sadamoto to publish a manga version of the story designed to generate popular interest in the upcoming anime series . The first installment of the manga was published in the February issue of Shōnen Ace in December 1994 with subsequent installments produced on an irregular basis over an eighteen @-@ year period . The final installment was published in June 2013 . Several publishers were initially concerned at the selection of Sadamoto to develop the manga adaptation , viewing him as " too passé to be bankable " . These concerns proved unfounded upon the strong commercial success of the manga : the first 10 volumes sold over 15 million copies , and the eleventh volume reached number one on the Tohan charts , selling an additional two million copies . The manga series won the 1996 Comicker fan manga poll .
= = = Other media = = =
Several video games based on the series have been developed , ranging from RPG and adventure games to mahjong and card games . The series has also spawned numerous art books and visual novels , one of which inspired the derivative manga series Angelic Days . The story has been adapted into two other manga series in addition to the original Sadamoto project : Petit Eva : Evangelion @ School , a parody series which received its own original net animation serial show , and Campus Apocalypse , a character @-@ focused story that omits the Evangelion robots . Several radio dramas have been released on CD and cassette to make the material more accessible to non @-@ traditional audiences .
On February 8 , 2015 , Evangelion : Another Impact , a 3D rendered short directed by Shinji Aramaki was released and streamed by Japan Animator Expo . It depicts " the story of an Evangelion 's activation , rampage and howling in another world " .
= = Releases = =
The original home video releases in Japan included VHS and Laserdisc sets using a release structured around " Genesis 0 : ( volume number ) " , with each of the first 12 releases containing two episodes each . " Genesis 0 : 13 " and " Genesis 0 : 14 " contained the original and the Neon Genesis Evangelion : Death & Rebirth versions of episodes 25 and 26 . The fifteenth and final release for Laserdisc , entitled " Genesis 0 : X " , contained episodes 21 to 24 and was a special mail @-@ in offer for fans who purchased all 14 discs . The Japanese DVD release was spread across seven volumes ; all contained four episodes except the seventh volume , which included both the original and alternate versions of episodes 25 and 26 . The Second Impact Box released in 2001 contained the 26 uncut and remastered original episodes and both movies . In 2003 , the Japanese @-@ only , nine volume " Renewal of Evangelion " DVDs were released , with improved acoustic effects , remixed dialogue and remastered soundtrack for 5 @.@ 1 stereo sound . The first eight volumes covered the original 26 episodes , including two versions of episodes 21 to 24 : the uncut version and a reconstruction of the edited version ) . The ninth volume , containing two discs , was named Evangelion : The Movie and contained Death ( true ) ² and End of Evangelion . The Renewal Project release formed the basis for the western " Platinum Edition " . On December 1 , 2014 , Studio Khara announced a Blu @-@ ray boxset that will contain a new HD @-@ remastering of the television series , the video versions of Episodes 21 @-@ 24 , as well as the two movies and the Renewal of Evangelion . In addition , another DVD set was announced that contains the broadcast version of the television series , as well as the broadcast version of Death ( True ) & Rebirth . Both sets were released on August 26 , 2015 , to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the TV series .
The series is distributed in North America and Europe by ADV Films . The 13 English VHS tapes , released from August 20 , 1997 to July 7 , 1998 , contained two episodes each and were released using the same " Genesis 0 : ( volume number ) " titling convention as the first Japanese home video release . Two laserdisc collections were released as Collection 1 Deluxe Edition and Collection 2 Deluxe Edition , containing episodes one to four and five to eight , respectively . The first DVD release by ADV Films was the eight disk Perfect Collection in 2002 , containing the original 26 installments . In 2004 , ADV released two DVD compilations titled Neon Genesis Evangelion : Resurrection and Neon Genesis : Reborn , encompassing the directors ' cuts of Episodes 21 through 24 . In the same year , the Platinum Edition release was announced by ADV in 2004 , consisting of seven DVDs released between July 27 , 2004 and April 19 , 2005 . The Platinum Edition contained the original 26 episodes and the four " Director 's cut " versions of episodes 21 to 24 . A six @-@ disc version of the Platinum Edition , the Platinum Complete Edition , was released on November 22 , 2005 , and omitted several extras included in other versions , including commentary and trailers .
= = Reception = =
Neon Genesis Evangelion received critical acclaim both domestically and internationally . Evangelion has developed into a social phenomenon beyond its primary otaku fan base , generating national discussion in Japan . The series has also been the subject of numerous media reports , debates and research studies .
Following the conclusion of the series ' original television broadcast , the public and critical reception to Neon Genesis Evangelion was polarized , particularly with regard to the final two episodes . The experimental style of the finale confused or alienated many fans and spawned debate and controversy ; Hideaki Anno received anonymous online death threats . The criticism was largely directed toward the lack of storyline resolution in the final two episodes . Opinion on the finale was mixed , with the audience broadly divided between those who considered the episodes " deep " , and those who felt their meaning was " more apparent than real " . The show 's American voice actors admitted that they also had trouble understanding the series ' conclusion . The Mainichi Times wrote that after episode 25 , " nearly all viewers felt betrayed ... When commentator Eiji Ōtsuka sent a letter to the Yomiuri Shimbun , complaining about the end of the Evangelion series , the debate went nationwide . " Despite the criticism , Anno stood by his artistic choices for the series ' conclusion . The controversy surrounding Evangelion has not negatively influenced the popularity of the series , which retains strong popularity within and outside the otaku subculture .
Neon Genesis Evangelion has scored highly in numerous popularity polls . In 1996 , the series won first place in the " Best Loved Series " category of the Anime Grand Prix , a reader @-@ polled award series published in Animage magazine . The show was again awarded this prize in 1997 by a large margin . The End of Evangelion won first place in 1998 , making Neon Genesis Evangelion the first anime franchise to win three consecutive first place awards . The website IGN ranked Evangelion as the 10th best animated series in its " Top 100 Animated TV Series " list . The series placed third in Animage 's " anime that should be remembered in the 21st Century " . In 1998 , EX.org 's readers voted Neon Genesis Evangelion the # 1 US anime release and in 1999 , the # 2 show of all time . In 2007 , a large @-@ scale poll by TV Asahi found Evangelion was the second most appreciated anime in Japan . The series was ranked as the most popular of all time in a 2006 survey of 80 @,@ 000 attendees at the Japan Media Arts Festival . Evangelion won the Animation Kobe award in 1996 , and 1997 . The series was awarded the Nihon SF Taisho Award and the Excellence Award Japan Media Arts Festival in 1997 . The film ranked # 6 on Wizard 's Anime Magazine on their " Top 50 Anime released in North America " .
In the August 1996 issue of Animage , Evangelion characters placed high in the rankings of best characters with Rei ranked first , Asuka third , Kaworu fourth and Shinji sixth . Rei Ayanami won in the Female Character category in 1995 and 1996 and Shinji Ikari won the Male Character category in 1996 and 1997 . In 2010 , Newtype magazine recognized Rei Ayanami as the most popular character of the 1990s in the female category , and Shinji Ikari in the male category . TV Asahi recognized the " suicide of Ayanami Rei " as the ninth most touching anime scene ever . " A Cruel Angel 's Thesis " won the Animage award in the Best Song category in 1996 , and TV Asahi recognized it as the 18th best anime song since 1990 .
The series has captured the attention of cultural theorists inside and outside Japan , and many critics have analyzed or commented on it , including Susan J. Napier , William Rout , Mick Broderick , Mari Kotani , and the sociologists Shinji Miyadai , Hiroki Azuma , Yuriko Furuhata , and Marc Steinberg . The series has been described as both a critique and deconstruction of the mecha genre . Mike Hale of The New York Times described it as " a superior anime , a giant @-@ robot tale of unusual depth , feeling and detail " . Theron Martin ( Anime News Network ) described the character design as " distinctive , designed to be sexy rather than cutesy " , and the mecha designs as " among the most distinctive ever produced for an anime series , with sleek , lithe appearances that look monstrous , fearsome , and nimble rather than boxy and knight @-@ like " . Mike Crandol stated " It no longer seems contrite to say that Evangelion is surely one of the all @-@ time great works of animation " . Zac Bertschy remarked that " Most of the backlash against Evangelion existed because people don 't like to think " . Evangelion has been described as possessing complex characters and richness of narrative .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Evangelion has had a significant impact on Japanese popular culture . The series also had a strong influence on anime , at a time when the anime industry and televised anime series in particular were in a slump period . CNET reviewer Tim Hornyak credits the series with revitalizing and transforming the giant mecha genre . In the 1980s and 1990s , Japanese animation knew a period of crisis and decreased production that coincided with the economic crisis in Japan . This was followed by a crisis of ideas in the years to come . Against this background , Evangelion imposed new standards for the animated serial , ushering in the era of the " new Japanese animation serial " , characterized by innovations that allowed a technical and artistic revival of the industry . The production of anime serials began to reflect greater author control , the concentration of resources in fewer but higher quality episodes ( typically ranging from 13 to 26 ) , a directorial approach similar to live film , and greater freedom from the constraints of merchandising .
Evangelion has influenced numerous subsequent anime series , including Serial Experiments Lain , Eureka Seven , RahXephon , Texhnolyze , Gasaraki , Boogiepop Phantom , Blue Submarine No. 6 , Mobile Battleship Nadesico , Rinne no Lagrange , Dual ! Parallel Trouble Adventure , Argento Soma , Pilot Candidate , Generator Gawl , Brain Powerd , and Dai @-@ Guard . FLCL contains allusions to Evangelion , and the series is also mentioned in the third episode of Magical Shopping Arcade Abenobashi . References and homages to the show are also contained in Koi Koi Seven , Hayate the Combat Butler , Baka and Test , Regular Show , My Little Pony : Friendship is Magic and Keroro Gunso . The show 's mixture of religion and mecha also influenced several Japanese video games , including Xenogears and El Shaddai : Ascension of the Metatron . The design and personality traits of the character Rei Ayanami were reused for many anime characters of the late 1990s , such as Ruri Hoshino of Nadesico , Ruriko Tsukushima ( The Droplet ) , Miharu ( Gasaraki ) , Anthy Himemiya ( Revolutionary Girl Utena ) , and Lain Iwakura ( Serial Experiments Lain ) . The character of Asuka was parodied by Excel ( Excel Saga ) , and some of her traits were used to create the character of Mai in Gunparade March . Evangelion 's mecha design , characterized by a greater resemblance to the human figure , and the abstract designs of the Angels , also had a significant impact on the designs of future anime productions .
According to Keisuke Iwata , the global spread of Japanese animation dramatically expanded due to the popularity of Evangelion . After the success of the show , otaku culture gained wide attention . In Japan , Evangelion prompted a review of the cultural value of anime , and with its success , anime reached a new point of maturity . With the interest in the series , otaku culture became a mass social phenomenon . The show 's regular reruns increased the number of otaku , which Lynden links to a boom in interest in literature on the Dead Sea Scrolls , Kabbalah and Christianity . Anime director Makoto Shinkai declared that the genre of anime owes a cinematographic debt to Evangelion . In the aftermath of Evangelion , Anno reused many of its stylistic conceits in the live @-@ action Love & Pop and the anime romance Kare Kano . The UK band Fightstar 's debut album , Grand Unification , was heavily influenced by Neon Genesis Evangelion . The Japanese band Rey derived its name from that of the character Rei Ayanami .
= = Merchandising = =
The popularity of Neon Genesis Evangelion extends to its merchandising which exceeded $ 400 million within two years of its release . The series has established itself greatly on the Japanese market , developing a varied range of products for adult consumers , such as cell phones ( including a special NERV and MAGI @-@ themed Sharp SH @-@ 06D smartphone released in 2012 ) , laptop computers , many soundtracks , DVDs , action figures , and telephone cards . The stylized mecha design that would later earn praise for Evangelion was initially criticized by certain toy companies as being too difficult to manufacture , with some expressing concern that models of the Evangelions " would never sell . " Eventually , Sega agreed to license all toy and video game sales . At the time of the release of the Japanese film Death & Rebirth and The End of Evangelion , estimated sales of Evangelion merchandise topped $ 300 million , of which 70 % derived from sales of video and laser discs , soundtrack CDs , single CDs , computer software and the three @-@ volume manga . Multiple merchandising products were released during the Renewal Project , such as CDs , video games , cel @-@ art illustrations and collectible models .
The commercial exploitation of the series for the home video market achieved record sales and remained strong over a decade later . The fame of the show has grown through home video sales , which exceeded two or three times the sales of other contemporary anime series and films . The series contributed significantly to the spread of the DVD format in Japan and generated a considerable impact on the Japanese economy , calculated in billions of yen . A 2007 estimate placed the total value of the franchise at over 150 billion yen .
= = = Official websites = = =
( Japanese ) Neon Genesis Evangelion — Gainax official Evangelion page
Madman Entertainment Evangelion page
( Japanese ) 新世紀エヴァンゲリオン — King Records Evangelion page
= = = Articles and information = = =
Neon Genesis Evangelion at the Internet Movie Database
Neon Genesis Evangelion ( anime ) at Anime News Network 's encyclopedia
Neon Genesis Evangelion at DMOZ
= Hurricane Newton ( 1986 ) =
Hurricane Newton was one of the few tropical cyclones that were intercepted by Hurricane Hunter flights during the moderately active 1986 Pacific hurricane season . A tropical depression formed near Central America on September 18 ; two days later , the depression was upgraded into a tropical storm . Moving towards to northwest , Newton strengthened into a hurricane on September 21 . After paralleling the coast , Newton move ashore near Cabo San Lucas on September 22 . Shortly after entering the Gulf of California , the hurricane attaining its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 145 km / h ) . The following day , Newton moved ashore the Mexican mainland . Newton dissipated on September 23 . However , the remnants of Newton continued across the United States and eventually emerged into the Atlantic Ocean . While 40 homes lost their roofs , damage in Mexico was fairly minor , and no fatalities were reported in association with Newton , though the remnants produced fairly heavy rains in the Great Plains .
= = Meteorological history = =
The origins of Newton were from a tropical disturbed weather near Nicaragua in mid @-@ September . Steered by an upper @-@ level trough located over the Western United States , the system moved westward and developed into a tropical depression at 1200 UTC on September 18 . It was located beneath an anticyclone situated the Central United States and over sea surface temperatures of 84 ° F ( 29 ° C ) . The system steadily intensified as it paralleled the Mexican coast , and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Newton early on September 20 . Within 24 hours , Newton had attained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Meanwhile , the storm turned northwest . At 0600 UTC September 21 , the Eastern Pacific Hurricane Center ( EPHC ) reported that Newton had attained hurricane strength while located about 200 mi ( 320 km ) west @-@ northwest of Manzanillo , Colima .
Shortly after becoming a hurricane , a NOAA Hurricane Hunter aircraft investigated Newton . The aircraft passed the center on 1800 UTC September 21 , observing winds of 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) to 79 mph ( 127 km / h ) . Six hours later , the hurricane reached its minimum pressure of 984 mb ( 29 @.@ 1 inHg ) . Hurricane Newton was one of the few storms to be intercepted by the aircraft that season . After moving north @-@ northwest , the hurricane briefly turned northwest , in the general direction of the Baja California Peninsula the next day . On 1800 UTC September 22 , Hurricane Newton made landfall 29 mi ( 47 km ) from Cape Pulmo , a town situated northeast of Cabo San Lucas as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale . After emerging into the Gulf of California , the storm reached its peak wind speed of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) . At this time the tropical cyclone was situated about 60 mi ( 97 km ) north of La Paz , Baja California Sur . By 1800 UTC , the hurricane moved ashore near Punta Rosa and quickly dissipated . The remains of the cyclone moved into New Mexico . The remnants of Hurricane Newton transversed the Central United States and the Mid @-@ Atlantic States until it entered the Atlantic Ocean later in the month .
= = Preparations and Impact = =
Prior to system 's first landfall , the EPHC noted the threat high waves , storm surge , and flooding . In addition , the navy , army , and police were on high alert in populated areas like La Paz due to the hurricane . On the mainland , roughly 700 people evacuated to shelters in Huatampo , a city that at that time had a population of 9 @,@ 000 , and Yavaros prior to landfall , but within hours after the passage of the hurricane , all but 127 had returned home .
Upon making landfall on the Baja California Peninsula , moderate rainfall was recorded though officials reported no emergencies . In Huatabampo , roofs were blown off of 40 homes . High winds blew down trees and utility poles . In addition , a peak rainfall total of 9 @.@ 23 inches ( 234 mm ) was reported in Jopala . Overall , damage in Mexico was minor and less than anticipated . No injuries or fatalities were reported in association with Newton . Because Hurricane Newton , along with a cold front , was predicted cause heavy rains over portions of the United States , flash flood warnings and watches were issued by the National Weather Service for parts of western Texas , New Mexico , and Arizona . Across the country , the highest rainfall was 5 @.@ 88 inches ( 149 mm ) in Edwardsville , Kansas . The rainfall extended as far east as Pennsylvania . In Kansas City , Missouri , 20 @,@ 000 customers were without power since heavy rainfall downed power lines .
= Slap @-@ Happy =
Slap @-@ Happy is the sixth and final studio album by the American rock band L7 . It was released on August 24 , 1999 by Bong Load Records in collaboration with Wax Tadpole Records , an independent record label that the band formed after being dropped by Reprise Records in 1997 . L7 recorded the album as a trio formed by founding members Donita Sparks and Suzi Gardner , and longtime drummer Demetra Plakas following the departure of bassist Gail Greenwood . It was made with a low budget and produced by the band and their friend Brian Haught .
Unlike previous L7 albums , Slap @-@ Happy more varied and slower @-@ paced songs , with some of which borrowing elements from other genres like hip hop . Upon release , the album received generally mixed reviews from music critics and suffered dismal sales partly due to the poor distribution and support by Bong Load . Some critics found the album predictable and too similar to previous L7 albums , but others highlighted certain songs for their nifty musical style .
= = Background and recording = =
Slap @-@ Happy is the follow @-@ up to L7 's 1997 album The Beauty Process : Triple Platinum . Like its predecessors , The Beauty Process was released by Slash Records in collaboration with Reprise , a major record label owned by the Warner Music Group . After the release of The Beauty Process , bassist Gail Greenwood , who replaced founding member Jennifer Finch in 1996 , left the band due to uncoordinated schedules ; Greenwood was rooted in Rhode Island , while L7 was based in Los Angeles , California . L7 would then continue as a trio formed by founding members Donita Sparks and Suzi Gardner , and longtime drummer Demetra Plakas . In 1998 , the band released a live album , Live : Omaha to Osaka , through the independent record label Man 's Ruin Records .
After being dropped by Reprise in 1997 , L7 was interested in maintaining an independent , do it yourself approach . Sparks and Gardner explained that the band wanted to release an album in 1999 , and if they opted for another major label opportunity , they would certainly have to wait until 2000 for a release slot . As a result , the band signed a deal with Bong Load Records and formed Wax Tadpole Records , an independent record label named after the first song of their self @-@ titled debut album . Although the band had left the indie music scene before due to distribution problems , Sparks said that she would be watching the Bong Load deal to ensure the distribution of Slap @-@ Happy , noting that " there 's nothing more painful to tour for a record and the fans not being able to find your record in stores . "
Most of the songs on Slap @-@ Happy were recorded before the band decided to form Wax Tadpole . Sparks and Gardner wrote all the songs , usually at Gardner 's home , even though the whole group contributed to the album in one form or another . Unlike its predecessor , Slap @-@ Happy was made with a low budget . According to Sparks , " We utilized a lot of home studios , did a lot of our tracking ourselves , used a lot of first takes . I think there 's a lot of life in this record , and yet I think when we started our own label we were fearing having to take a major step down in production because of the financial aspects . " The album was produced by Brian Haught , a friend of the band who let the band use his studio " just out of the kindness of his heart . " It was recorded and mixed at Synical Labs , PCS Studios , Sound City , de Prume Studios , Sonors Studios , and King Sound and Pictures in Los Angeles . Audio mastering took place at Precision Mastering in Los Angeles .
= = Music and lyrics = =
Slap @-@ Happy was considered more varied than previous L7 albums . Although the album features several songs with aggressive guitar riffs that are reminiscent of the band 's previous releases , as seen in the tracks " On My Rockin ' Machine " , " Long Green " and " Mantra Down " , it also contains slow @-@ paced and guitar @-@ driven ballads like " Livin ' Large " and " Freezer Burn " . The former song was described by Marc Weingarten of Rolling Stone as " a kind of rallying cry for the indie @-@ rock underclass " , while the latter was seen as a melodic song that " juxtaposes harsh words delivered in mellow , floating vocals . " Slap @-@ Happy also contains songs that borrow elements from genres other than rock . For example , the song " Little One " contains elements of both polka and country music . As Sparks noted , " We 're all into all kinds of music , but I listen to very little rock , actually . Our approach was to pretty much do what we 've always done , but we 're not concerned with sticking with a particular style . There 's diversity in our songwriting . "
The track " Freeway " , which was referred by the band as " the feel bad dance hit of the year " , features a hip hop @-@ influenced style with sampled voices . Its lyrics were inspired by an article in Los Angeles Times about a man who stopped his truck on a Los Angeles freeway and committed suicide after litting his truck on fire and obstructing the traffic . The sampled voices were taken from Casio keyboards that Sparks and Suzi had previously bought at a Guitar Center store . The album features humorous and irreverent lyrics . Sparks noted that many songs are " double @-@ sided . There 's a lot of masking of fuck @-@ you 's going on . " She also said that Slap @-@ Happy was " almost a spit in the eye of our label , who had dropped us . It was like , ' Fuck you , we ’ re going to make another record anyway , so fuck off ! ' Some of the writing on [ the ] record is very angry , because we were pissed . " The opening track " Crackpot Baby " , which is the first L7 song that features a three @-@ part vocal harmony , features " unforgiving lyrics about plastic L.A. types " , while " Stick to the Plan " is about a " chronic masturbator / With love in his eyes " .
= = Promotion and release = =
Slap @-@ Happy was released on August 24 , 1999 on vinyl and CD . A different version of " Freeway " was released by the online record label Atomic Pop in February 1999 . To promote the album , a plane flew over the crowd during the Lilith Fair concert tour at the Rose Bowl stadium in Pasadena , California on July 17 , 1999 , with a banner that read : " Bored ? Tired ? Try L7 . " The following day , an airplane towed a banner over the crowd during the Warped Tour at the Stone Pony lot in Asbury Park , New Jersey . The banner read : " Warped Needs More Beaver , Love L7 . " The band supported the album with a tour across the US that started on August 15 , 1999 in San Diego , California and ended on September 24 , 1999 in Cleveland Heights , Ohio . Bassist Janis Tanaka , formely of the San Francisco band Stone Fox , joined the band as part of the touring group . The band also toured across Europe in 2000 . Unlike previous L7 albums , Slap @-@ Happy did not chart in either the US or the UK . In 2008 , Sparks revealed that the album suffered dismal sales partly due to the poor distribution and support by Bong Load .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , Slap @-@ Happy received generally mixed reviews from music critics . Marc Weingarten of Rolling Stone praised the band for " doing punk metal right " , commenting that Slap @-@ Happy " is all hopped @-@ up , pared @-@ down riffage with no apologies or gratuitous change @-@ ups . " Q magazine highlighted the album for its " distinctive punk noise " , which " stays roughly the same but evolves enough to be interesting . " In contrast , Craig Daniels of Exclaim ! criticized the album 's sound for being " sterile and lacking in energy " compared to previous L7 albums , but overall considered Slap @-@ Happy to be " a fairly solid record " .
Entertainment Weekly editor Natasha Stovall highlighted the album 's different approach , stating that although the " neo @-@ Go @-@ Go 's vibe " of songs like " Livin ' Large " and " Little One " can be disappointing " for those addicted to the ultra @-@ macha @-@ punk throb of L7 watersheds " , Slap @-@ Happy 's " harmonious pop sweetness " has " a super @-@ catchy , Joan Jett @-@ meets @-@ the @-@ Breeders feel that zestfully floors the accelerator . " Jason Hardy of Daily Nebraskan stated similar pros , noting that the album 's new style introduced a " groovy " side of L7 that " most probably didn 't know existed . " AllMusic 's Stephen Thomas Erlewine described the album as " a respectable but predictable effort " , stating that it " leaves very little lasting impression " even though " a few of the songs hit hard , and the band sounds energetic and muscular . "
Not all reviews were favorable , though . Erik Himmelsbach of Spin criticized Slap @-@ Happy for essentially being the same as all of the band 's previous albums , commenting " What was once fast and loose and dump now sounds lazy and stupid " . Raoul Hernandez of The Austin Chronicle heavily criticized the second half of the album for being " one long , nasal , wise @-@ ass line after wise @-@ ass line from Donita Sparks , who [ ... ] is quickly becoming self @-@ parody . " Although the album received a mixed reaction from media outlets , Sparks retrospectively regards Slap @-@ Happy as " a good record " .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Donita Sparks and Suzi Gardner .
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the album 's liner notes .
= Lone Survivor ( film ) =
Lone Survivor is a 2013 American war film written and directed by Peter Berg , and starring Mark Wahlberg , Taylor Kitsch , Emile Hirsch , Ben Foster , and Eric Bana . The film is based on the 2007 nonfiction book of the same name by Marcus Luttrell with Patrick Robinson . Set during the war in Afghanistan , Lone Survivor dramatizes the unsuccessful United States Navy SEALs counter @-@ insurgent mission Operation Red Wings , during which a four @-@ man SEAL reconnaissance and surveillance team was tasked to track down and kill Taliban leader Ahmad Shah .
Berg first learned of the book Lone Survivor in 2007 , while he was filming Hancock ( 2008 ) . He arranged several meetings with Luttrell to discuss adapting the book to film . Universal Pictures secured the film rights in August 2007 after bidding against other major film studios . In re @-@ enacting the events of Operation Red Wings , Berg drew much of his screenplay from Luttrell 's eyewitness accounts in the book , as well as autopsy and incident reports related to the mission . After directing Battleship ( 2012 ) for Universal , Berg returned to work on Lone Survivor . Principal photography began in October 2012 and concluded in November after 42 days ; filming took place on location in New Mexico , using digital cinematography . Luttrell and several other Navy SEAL veterans acted as technical advisors , while multiple branches of the United States Armed Forces aided the film 's production .
Lone Survivor opened in limited release in the United States on December 25 , 2013 , before opening across North America on January 10 , 2014 , to strong financial success and a generally positive critical response . Most critics praised Berg 's direction , as well as the acting , story , visuals and battle sequences . Other critics , however , derided the film for focusing more on its action scenes than on characterization . Lone Survivor grossed over $ 154 million in box @-@ office revenue worldwide — of which $ 125 million was from North America . The film received two Academy Award nominations for Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing .
= = Plot = =
In Afghanistan , Taliban leader Ahmad Shah is responsible for killing over twenty United States Marines , as well as villagers and refugees who were aiding American forces . In response to these killings , a United States Navy SEALs unit is ordered to execute a counter @-@ insurgent mission to capture Shah . As part of the mission , a four @-@ man SEAL reconnaissance and surveillance team is tasked with locating Shah . These four SEALs include team leader Michael P. " Murph " Murphy ; snipers Marcus Luttrell and Matthew " Axe " Axelson ; and communications specialist Danny Dietz .
The team is inserted into the Hindu Kush region of Afghanistan , where they make a trek through the mountains . Here , they begin to encounter communications problems , which would play a critical role in the following events . Upon arriving at their designated location , the SEALs are accidentally discovered by an elderly shepherd and two teenage goat herders . Knowing that if they release them , the herders will likely alert Taliban to their presence , the team is split about whether to execute the herders or not . After a brief debate , Luttrell convinces the others that they will incite backlash if they kill the three herders . The team decides to release the herders and abort the mission , but before they can escape , they are discovered by Taliban forces . Although they manage to kill several Taliban soldiers , they find themselves heavily outnumbered and at a significant tactical disadvantage . Each of the men suffers serious injuries during the firefight , and in an attempt to flee from the insurgents , they jump off the edge of a precipitous ridge and into a large ravine .
Despite their injuries , the SEALs continue a defensive retreat through the steep woods . Dietz begins to lose consciousness and shouts questions to Luttrell , unwittingly revealing the team 's position to the Taliban . Murphy and Axelson jump off another ridge to flee from the Taliban fighters . Luttrell tries to carry Dietz down the mountain , but Dietz is shot in the shoulder ; the impact forces Luttrell to lose his grip and fall forward off the cliff . A dying Dietz remains at the top of the cliff and is killed by the Taliban insurgents . Murphy decides to try climbing back up the cliff to get a phone signal in order to call in support forces via satellite phone . Axelson and Luttrell shoot at the Taliban fighters to provide Murphy with cover . When he finally reaches higher ground , Murphy is able to alert the SEAL base of his team 's location and request emergency assistance right before he is shot dead by Taliban fighters .
In response to Murphy 's distress call , a quick reaction force team assembles , boards two CH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopters , and heads toward the location without fighter escort seeking to extract the remaining members of the reconnaissance and surveillance team . During an attempt to insert the arriving forces , the Taliban insurgents shoot down one of the helicopters , killing eight Navy SEALs and eight Special Operations aviators who were on board . The second helicopter is forced to turn back . After witnessing the attack , Luttrell and a badly injured Axelson are left behind . Axelson attempts to find cover , but is killed when he leaves his hiding spot to attack several approaching insurgents . When Luttrell is discovered by the Taliban , one of the insurgents fires a rocket @-@ propelled grenade , and its impact causes him to land at the bottom of a rock crevice where he is able to hide from the Taliban fighters .
Luttrell stumbles upon a small body of water and submerges himself , only to find upon surfacing that a local Pashtun villager , Mohammad Gulab , has discovered his location . Gulab takes Luttrell into his care , returning to his village , where he attempts to hide Luttrell in his home . Gulab then sends a mountain man to the nearest American air base to alert military forces of Luttrell 's location . The Taliban fighters arrive at the village to capture and kill Luttrell , but Gulab and the villagers intervene , threatening to kill the fighters if they harm Luttrell . The fighters leave , but later return to punish the villagers for protecting Luttrell . Gulab and his fellow militia are able to fend off several fighters during the ensuing attack . American forces , arriving via helicopters , shatter the advancing Taliban and , in the process , kill the bulk of the insurgents with concentrated weaponry fire . The American forces evacuate Luttrell back to base .
Photos of the real @-@ life Marcus Luttrell , Mohammad Gulab and the fallen service members who died during the mission are shown during a four @-@ minute montage , and an epilogue reveals that the Pashtun villagers agreed to help Luttrell as part of a traditional code of honor known as the Pashtunwali .
= = Cast = =
Mark Wahlberg as Marcus Luttrell :
The hospital corpsman and sniper of a four @-@ man reconnaissance and surveillance team , SEAL Team 10 . Wahlberg was the first actor to sign on as a star of the film during its early stages of development . He agreed to portray Luttrell after reading Peter Berg 's script . Wahlberg chose not to read Luttrell 's book Lone Survivor during production to avoid arguments with Berg over events and details that were left out in the book . " The problem when adapting a piece of material like that is that you always feel like something is missing , ” he explained . “ I wanted to come at it from this perspective . " Of Wahlberg 's portrayal , Luttrell stated , " Wahlberg is a consummate professional , and he ’ s a great actor . It was a little strange watching somebody trying to play me , but we talked about it and I knew it would turn out great . I was more worried about the other guys because they ’ re not around to speak for themselves . ” Wahlberg has since cited Lone Survivor as his favorite film role as an actor and producer : “ This is the best working experience I ’ ve ever had , under the toughest conditions . I remember early on as an actor , you worked a long , hard day , but you did something you felt was special , and that car ride home you couldn ’ t stop thinking about it . I had that feeling every day on this movie . "
Taylor Kitsch as Lieutenant Michael P. " Murph " Murphy :
The team leader and spotter of SEAL Team 10 . Lone Survivor is Kitsch 's second feature film collaboration with Berg after Battleship ( 2012 ) . Kitsch said , “ Murph ’ s actions speak louder than anything he ’ s ever said , and they should . I think he was that type of leader who just loved his guys , and getting the nod to play this guy was something special . ” Prior to production of the film , Kitsch prepared for the role by performing high @-@ intensity workouts with body armor and long runs with a 40 @-@ lb weighted vest .
Emile Hirsch as Danny Dietz :
SEAL Team 10 's communications specialist and spotter . Hirsch was approached by Berg in 2009 , and physically prepared for the role by attending a 90 @-@ minute weight program for nearly four months . " I wanted a challenge , so I started to train and work out on my own , " he said . " I genuinely didn ’ t know what was going to happen . Months went by and it was to the point where I was passing on other movies , but I didn ’ t have this job . I was willing to do anything . I ended up training six days a week , four to five hours a day . "
Ben Foster as Matthew " Axe " Axelson :
SEAL Team 10 's sniper . Wahlberg recommended Foster to Berg , as they had previously collaborated on Contraband ( 2012 ) . Prior to filming , Foster met with the fallen serviceman 's family and friends to understand the person he would be portraying . " It was such a rich opportunity to listen to the Axelsons talk about their son . Their generosity and inclusiveness with me was so touching and open . They love to talk about their boy because they love him ; so we , in turn , love him . We can ’ t bring him back , but what we can do is aim , every day , to do the best that we can to honor him . "
Eric Bana as Lieutenant Commander Erik S. Kristensen :
SEAL Team 10 's quick @-@ reaction force ( QRF ) commander . Bana had read the book Lone Survivor prior to production , and was willing to appear in the film , regardless of which role was offered to him . Upon being cast as Kristensen , Bana researched the fallen serviceman and his family . On joining the production of Lone Survivor , Bana stated , " There are two factors that make this story special , and they are the reasons why I jumped on board . One is the story itself , and two is who chooses to direct a project like this . I knew how involved [ Berg ] would be and that he would know how to portray SEAL teammates . That was what I wanted to be a part of . The greatest way to honor these guys is to make a great film and have it stand the test of time . " Bana did not physically prepare for the role . " My responsibility was really to understand the role of the mission commander and the relevant information with respect with the chain of command and what it means to go in the QRF and the processes involved , " he explained . " It was far more important to be the person that was responsible for that part of the story and understand that completely . There 's no purpose in me going out and firing an M4 in this case . "
Ali Suliman , who previously collaborated with Berg on the 2007 film The Kingdom , plays Mohammad Gulab , an Afghan villager ; Alexander Ludwig plays Navy SEAL Machinist 's Mate Shane Patton . Marcus Luttrell appears in the film in an uncredited role . He first appears as a SEAL teammate who lightheartedly hazes Patton , then during a briefing scene where he is seen shaking his head when the Rules of Engagement are being explained , and later as one of the servicemen who perishes when an CH @-@ 47 Chinook is shot down . Luttrell said of the latter scene , " I was on the other side of the mountain when those guys came to help me , so getting to die on the helicopter in the movie was a very powerful moment for me . "
The cast is rounded out by Yousuf Azami as Ahmad Shah , a Taliban leader ; Sammy Sheik as Taraq , a field commander of the Taliban group ; Rich Ting as SO2 James Suh ; Dan Bilzerian as Senior Chief Special Operator ( SOCS ) Daniel Healy ; Jerry Ferrara as United States Marine Corps Sgt Hasslert ; Scott Elrod as Peter Musselman ; Rohan Chand as Gulab 's son ; and Corey Large as US Navy SEAL Captain Kenney . Zarin Mohammad Rahimi , who acted as a technical advisor during production , appears as an elderly shepherd who discovers the four @-@ man SEAL team during the mission ; Nicholas Patel and Daniel Arroyo play the goat herders who assist the shepherd .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Following publication of Marcus Luttrell and Patrick Robinson 's nonfiction book Lone Survivor ( 2007 ) , producer Barry Spikings met Luttrell ’ s attorney , Alan Schwartz , who was interested in adapting the book to film . Schwartz suggested that Spikings 's son @-@ in @-@ law , Akiva Goldsman , write the screenplay . Goldsman however did not believe he was the right screenwriter for the project ; he suggested that Peter Berg write and direct the film . Spikings and Goldsman passed the book on to Berg 's producing partner Sarah Aubrey . Berg first learned of Lone Survivor while filming Hancock , and after Aubrey had read the book herself . After Berg had read the book , he and Aubrey arranged several meetings with Luttrell to discuss a film adaptation . Luttrell also viewed a rough cut of Berg 's then @-@ upcoming 2007 film The Kingdom , and was impressed by Berg 's direction . " [ Berg ] caught me with his attention to detail , " he said , " and how he portrayed the enemy in the film . "
The film rights to the book had become the subject of a bidding war among a host of established film studios , including Warner Bros. , Sony Pictures Entertainment , Paramount Pictures , DreamWorks and Universal Pictures . Universal eventually secured the rights in August 2007 for more than $ 2 million . The studio had also acquired the United States distribution rights as part of a negative pickup deal with the film 's producers . Berg however chose to direct Battleship ( 2012 ) for Universal before resuming production on Lone Survivor .
When Mark Wahlberg read the script and expressed an interest in portraying Marcus Luttrell , he and his manager Stephen Levinson pitched the concept to producer Randall Emmett , the co @-@ founder of Emmett / Furla Films , during the 2012 filming of 2 Guns — another film starring Wahlberg and produced by Emmett . After reading Berg 's script , Emmett traveled to Los Angeles , where he met with Berg and Aubrey to discuss production of Lone Survivor . After Universal secured the rights to distribute Lone Survivor in the United States , executive producer Mark Damon 's independent film company Foresight Unlimited took Berg and Emmett to the 2012 Cannes Film Festival to secure worldwide pre @-@ sales for the film . The film attracted $ 30 million in worldwide pre @-@ sales to distributors in 40 international markets .
Lone Survivor had an estimated production budget of $ 40 – 50 million ; three production companies , Emmett / Furla Films , Herrick Entertainment and Envision Entertainment , collaborated to co @-@ finance the film . In addition , as part of the negative pickup deal with Universal , Lone Survivor 's producers — Berg , Aubrey , Spikings , Goldsman , Emmett , Wahlberg , Levinson , Norton Herrick and Vitaly Grigoriants — contributed at least $ 1 million each to finance production costs . To avoid further production costs , Berg directed Lone Survivor for the minimum salary allowed under Directors Guild of America rules — $ 17 @,@ 000 a week — and was able to convince several cast and crew members to lower their asking prices .
Berg had discussed the project with Wahlberg , Taylor Kitsch , Emile Hirsch and Ben Foster years earlier . Universal held an open casting call in Los Angeles , aiding in the filmmakers ' search for supporting actors , extras , photo doubles and stand @-@ ins . In August 2012 , it was announced that Alexander Ludwig and Eric Bana had joined the cast .
Although Wahlberg , Kitsch , Hirsch and Foster had physically trained for their roles prior to filming , Luttrell organized a three @-@ week training regimen at a bootcamp in New Mexico , where the actors were trained by elite military personnel in weapons , as well as military communications and tactics . Military advisor Mark Semos trained the four actors in live @-@ firing exercises so that they could feel the physical impact of firing military rifles . They also practiced " shoot move cover " drills that would improve their muscle memory and enable them to react convincingly as Navy SEALs during filming .
= = = Writing = = =
While the book Lone Survivor chronicles Marcus Luttrell 's 1999 enlistment and training , as well as his 2005 deployment to Afghanistan , Berg decided that the film adaptation would focus mainly on the events of the failed United States Navy SEALs mission Operation Red Wings , as well as the bonding and camaraderie of Luttrell and his fallen teammates . Prior to writing the screenplay , Berg met with the families of the deceased . “ My research started with meeting the families of the SEAL teammates who were killed , " he said . " I went to New York and met the Murphys . I went to Colorado and met the Dietzes , and I went to Northern California and met the Axelsons . After spending time with them , you realize that these kids were the best and the brightest ; they were the stars of the families . The grief and the wounds are still very raw . You would have to be inhuman to not feel the responsibility when that kind of grief gets shared with you . " Berg also expressed that he was motivated by the families to make the story as realistic as possible ; his goal was " to put [ the viewer ] into the experience of what these guys went through . And it was obviously a traumatic and violent and exhausting experience " .
To provide authenticity , Luttrell moved into Berg ’ s home for one month while Berg was writing the script . Luttrell acted as a consultant , detailing to Berg his eyewitness account of the events that unfolded during Operation Red Wings . Berg later embedded with a Navy SEAL team — becoming the first civilian to do so — and lived with them for a month in Iraq while he continued writing the screenplay . In re @-@ enacting the injuries and deaths of the fallen Navy SEAL servicemen , Berg relied on Luttrell 's eyewitness accounts from the book , as well as autopsy reports of the deceased and after @-@ action reports . The United States Navy provided incident reports related to the mission , as well as archival military training footage , which is shown during the film 's opening credits sequence . Still photographs shown during the opening credits sequence were taken from Richard D. Schoenberg 's war photography book The Only Easy Day Was Yesterday : Making Navy SEALs . During filming , there were some dialogue changes in comparison to Berg 's script , as the filmmaker occasionally encouraged the actors to improvise their lines .
= = = Filming = = =
= = = = Principal photography = = = =
Filming for Lone Survivor was scheduled to start on September 15 , 2012 . Principal photography commenced in October 2012 and concluded in November after 42 days ; filming took place in New Mexico . The production received a 25 % tax credit for filming in the state . Berg shot Lone Survivor with creative autonomy as Universal did not fully oversee the film 's production . " Not having the studio there every day ... I respect Universal and get along great with them , but we were on our own completely , and in many ways , it was a more autonomous experience " .
With Lone Survivor , Berg continued his trademark of having war veterans as part of his film crew . Luttrell , along with several other Navy SEAL veterans , acted as technical advisors during the production . In addition , senior military advisor Harry Humphries , a former Navy SEAL who had worked with Berg on Hancock and The Kingdom , served as an associate producer . Berg explained , " I always looked to hire vets . And not just because I 'm a generous person . But selfishly , vets have turned out to be some of the hardest working people . It 's self @-@ serving " .
Filming first took place at the Sangre de Cristo Mountains of the Santa Fe National Forest . Eight days were spent on mountains ranging from 11 @,@ 000 to 12 @,@ 000 feet ( 3 @,@ 400 – 3 @,@ 700 m ) . In recreating the Hindu Kush mountain range that stretches between Afghanistan and Pakistan , the film crew shot at 10 separate locations in the national forest . Stunt coordinator and second unit director Kevin Scott was tasked with depicting the four Navy SEALs tumbling down rugged terrain with sixty @-@ degree inclines . Scott did not choreograph the stunt work , nor did he have the stunt performers use wires or dummies ; he told them to fall 15 to 20 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 – 6 @.@ 1 m ) off cliffs and avoid looking at the ground until right before impact . “ We had to say , ‘ Jump off the rock , land however you land , and go with it , ’ ” he said . “ When you ’ re doing that on a true hillside , you don ’ t have a choice . Gravity takes over . The only thing stopping the stunt people from dropping another thousand feet down the hillside was padding set up just outside of the shot . ” Several stunt performers were injured after falling from the mountains , as the falls proved too difficult to control . Berg recalled , " Some guys got hurt , some guys got bumped up and ribs were broken , a lung was punctured , some concussions , but these guys were determined to try and do everything they could to capture what Marcus described in the book . "
Production moved to Chilili , New Mexico for two weeks of filming . The location ’ s wooded areas were used to film several battle scenes , and the art department built sets to create an Afghan village occupied by Ahmad Shah ( Yousuf Azami ) and his Taliban insurgents , as well as a Pashtun village where Luttrell ( Mark Wahlberg ) is rescued . Filming then moved to Kirtland Air Force Base in Albuquerque , New Mexico , which doubled for scenes set in Bagram Airfield , a U.S. military base in Afghanistan . Principal photography concluded on soundstages at I @-@ 25 Studios in Albuquerque . The production occupied two 26 @,@ 000 square feet ( 2 @,@ 400 m2 ) stages in the facility for interior scenes and bluescreen work . The art department built the character Gulab 's house , as well as interiors for Bagram Airfield 's patrol base Camp Ouellette . The bluescreen work involved scenes depicting a CH @-@ 47 Chinook in a gimbal , and a 4 @-@ foot scale model of a Hindu Kush mountain cliff built by the art department team in Los Angeles , California .
= = = = Cinematography = = = =
Lone Survivor was director of photography Tobias Schliessler 's fifth collaboration with Berg , as well as Berg 's first film shot with digital cinematography . Schliessler intended to shoot Lone Survivor with Arri Alexa cameras , but instead shot the film with Red Epic digital cameras , using Fujinon and Angénieux lenses . Schleissler chose the Red Epic camera " due to its compact size and lightweight body . "
In preparing to shoot Lone Survivor , Schliessler was inspired by British @-@ American photojournalist Tim Hetherington 's war photography book Infidel , which details a single U.S. platoon assigned to an outpost in the Korengal Valley during the war in Afghanistan . The book 's images became a guide to creating the overall look of the film after Schliessler had shown them to Berg , as well as the art and costume departments . Prior to filming , Schleissler and Berg shot test footage with the digital cameras and brought it to digital colorist Stefan Sonnenfeld at post @-@ production facility Company 3 for color grading .
The Santa Fe National Forest 's rocky terrain and steep inclines proved difficult for conventional camera equipment — such as cranes and dollies — which resulted in much of the film 's scenes being shot by the camera operators , who were rigged to aerial ski lifts above the action . " The location we picked was on top of the ski area above 12 @,@ 000 feet in Santa Fe , and the high altitude made it extremely physically demanding , " Schleissler explained . " All our equipment had to be hand @-@ carried into some of our remote locations , which meant we had to limit ourselves to the bare minimum ... No one ever hiked to the set empty @-@ handed , including our producers . It was one big team effort that made us a close film family . "
Digital cinema post @-@ production facility DeLuxe supplied the Lone Survivor production with a 40 @-@ foot trailer , known as the EC3 ( a joint venture between Company 3 and EFILM ) . The equipment enabled Schleissler to overlook every shot of the film in the EC3 trailer . He also collaborated with colorist Adrian Delude in changing the exposure for all cameras used which , according to Schliessler , " would have been more difficult when shooting on film . " Digital imaging technician Jeff Tomcho was tasked with ensuring that the Red Epic cameras were properly set up and successfully capturing the filmed footage . Company 3 carried out the digital intermediate .
= = = = Design and effects = = = =
To produce the many injuries received by the four @-@ man SEAL team , the filmmakers recruited KNB Effects team Gregory Nicotero and Howard Berger . To aid Nicotero and Berger in recreating the injuries of the fallen servicemen , Berg provided autopsy reports of the deceased . The film 's special effects supervisor Bruno van Zeebroeck created RPG explosions and bullet hits for the battle sequences that occur in the roads around Gulab 's home . Multiple branches of the United States Armed Forces supplied the Lone Survivor production with military vehicles . The United States Air Force provided two Sikorsky HH @-@ 60 Pave Hawks from Kirtland Air Force Base , both of which were manned by military personnel and used to depict a combat search and rescue . The United States Army provided the production with two MH @-@ 47 Chinooks and two Boeing AH @-@ 64 Apaches from Fort Hood , Texas . The United States Marine Corps provided thirty Marine Corps reservists for scenes set in Bagram Airfield and Jalalabad .
= = = = Costume design = = = =
Costume designer Amy Stofsky ensured that the military wardrobe seen in the film reflected the 2005 time period . According to Stofsky , what the fallen servicemen wore back then is no longer current issue , as the United States Armed Forces stopped manufacturing the uniforms in 2006 . While researching the time period , Stofsky met with the fallen servicemen 's families , as well as Navy SEAL teammates . Stofsky and the wardrobe department collaborated with the Hollywood @-@ based costume facility Western Costume to find the right fabric for the military uniforms . She and her team manufactured uniforms for the film 's lead actors , extras , stunt and photo doubles , and military personnel who were also acting as extras . Stofksy noted that a total of " 36 cookie cutter uniforms " were produced for Mark Wahlberg ’ s character Marcus Luttrell .
In designing the costumes for the Pashtun people and Taliban forces , Stofsky aimed to create a visual distinction between the villagers and Taliban fighters . " Luttrell survived because of the age @-@ old tradition of the Pashtun culture in providing hospitality and safety to those that enter their home , " she explained . " We dyed the Taliban ’ s costumes black , charcoal , wine , and indigo and kept the villagers light . Their humanity prevails . This is what we hoped to get across . " Stofsky utilized a North Hollywood @-@ based Afghan vendor , Moe Noorzai , for traditional Afghan clothing including vests , pants , dresses and Kashmir scarves . Stofsky also had a New Mexico @-@ based tailor produce all of the turbans featured in the film . Zarin Mohammad Rahimi , an Afghan refugee who fled to the United States to avoid the Taliban , and his sons , Muhammad Nawroz Rahimi and Nawaz Rahimi , were hired to act as technical advisors during production . The Rahimis collaborated with Stofsky , as well as the wardrobe and casting departments , to help them understand the language , customs and fighting methods of the Pashtun villagers and Taliban fighters . The eldest Rahimi also played the role of an elderly shepherd in a crucial scene .
= = = Post @-@ production = = =
= = = = Editing = = = =
Editing and post @-@ production work on Lone Survivor took roughly seven months to complete . Colby Parker Jr. served as editor , having previously worked with Berg on editing Battleship . Parker spent six months editing Lone Survivor at the Lantana Entertainment Media Campus in Santa Monica , California . The editorial department used four Avid Media Composer systems to edit the film . Parker edited Lone Survivor during principal photography , but was not on location . " I like to blast through the footage to keep up with the camera . This way I can let [ Berg ] know if any extra coverage is needed , " he explained . " Often I ’ ll get word to the 1st [ assistant director ] and he ’ ll sneak in extra shots if the schedule permits . Although I will have a first assembly when the production wraps , Peter will never sit though a complete viewing of that . He works in a very linear manner , so as we start to view a scene , if there ’ s something that bothers him , we ’ ll stop and address it . "
The first cut of the film was two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours long . Parker then cut the film down to two hours when he realized there was a way to further trim the film . " There were a number of scenes that paced well when we intercut them rather than letting them play as written in a linear fashion . For instance , we wanted to let the mission briefing scene play normally — this is where the SEAL team is briefed on their target . That scene was followed by a scene of the target beheading a local . We realized that an actual briefing is very technical and rote , so intercutting these scenes helped keep the audience engaged . "
Sound editing and mixing work took place at Todd Soundelux , with Wylie Stateman serving as the supervising sound editor . Stateman recorded on @-@ location sound during filming , placing microphones on the actors ' backpacks and clothing " so [ the viewers ] would hear explosions and bullets going by as though [ they ] were with these guys as they were being attacked . " In creating sound effects for the environment of each scene , Stateman relied on foley design , rather than traditional sound effects .
= = = = Visual effects = = = =
The two visual effects companies for Lone Survivor were Industrial Light & Magic ( ILM ) and Image Engine , with overall supervision by Jesper Kjölsrud and Grady Cofer . In total , the film has over 400 visual effects shots . ILM was responsible only for creating a helicopter crash sequence in the film . Berg requested that the sequence be done by ILM , who had also worked on his previous film Battleship . Image Engine 's effects work consisted mainly of set extensions and location enhancements ; scenes were supplemented with computer @-@ generated mountains , buildings and backgrounds , as well as muzzle flashes for firearms . Film editor Colby Parker Jr. explained , " The sets of the villages were only one or two huts and then Image Engine built everything around those . Same for the SEAL base . There were only a few real buildings and from that they built out a larger base . "
= = = Music = = =
American post @-@ rock band Explosions in the Sky scored the film with music composer Steve Jablonsky . The band had previously scored Berg 's 2004 film Friday Night Lights , and Jablonsky had previously scored Battleship . Jablonsky said of the collaboration , " It was great . I didn 't work directly with them because they 're in Austin , Texas and I 'm in L.A. I spoke to them on the phone and I think sixty , sixty ‑ five percent of the scores is them . We ended up doing our own things . We tried to not have two totally different sounding scores . "
Berg said , " [ Jablonsky ] did the last reel ; the band Explosions in the Sky did pretty much did everything else . They have an emotional , tender quality to their music , even when it gets aggressive . I didn ’ t want the score to be overly aggressive , I wanted it to be haunting and emotional . Steve Jablonsky came in at the end to do something more traditional , but when Steve does “ traditional , ” it ’ s not the usual strings . He created a wonderful sound at the very end . " Songs featured in the film include " Canned Heat " by Jamiroquai , and " Heroes " performed by Peter Gabriel and the New Blood Orchestra , which is played at the end of the film during a four @-@ minute montage that features actual photos and videos of the fallen servicemen .
The motion picture soundtrack for Lone Survivor was released on December 17 , 2013 by record label Metropolis Movie Music .
= = Historical accuracy = =
While based on true events , a number of historical inaccuracies in the film have been noted . Early in the film , the four @-@ man SEAL reconnaissance team is discovered by three goat herders — an elderly man and two teenage boys . In fact , Marcus Luttrell wrote in his book that only one of the goat herders was a teenage boy , not two .
Also in dispute is the number of Taliban fighters involved in the ambush . In Luttrell ’ s original after @-@ action report , he stated that he and his teammates were attacked by 20 @-@ 35 insurgents , while his book places the number at over 200 . The screenplay describes “ A solid line of at least fifty Taliban in firing positions on top of the hill above them . " The summary of action for Lt. Murphy 's posthumous Medal of Honor describes the enemy force as numbering " more than 50 , " while the official citation puts the number at " between 30 and 40 enemy fighters . "
The film shows Luttrell ( Wahlberg ) being able to walk after the Taliban ’ s ambush on the four @-@ man SEAL team . In reality , Luttrell explained that his legs were numb immediately after the ambush , and when feeling did return to them , the pain from the shrapnel in his legs made it too painful to walk ; he had to crawl seven miles looking for water and sanctuary . Luttrell also expressed that he did not witness the MH @-@ 47 Chinook helicopter being shot down , as seen in the film . At the end of the film , the Pashtun villagers fight off a Taliban attack in a firefight that never actually happened . In reality , the Taliban fighters were outnumbered by the villagers and had no intentions of attacking the village . They did , however , try to sneak in and capture Luttrell in secret . Luttrell also did not go into cardiac arrest after he was rescued , nor was he near death , as seen in the film .
During a briefing , early in the film , an officer states that a SEAL on a previous mission in the Afghan mountains was bitten by a rattlesnake . As the four @-@ man SEAL team are fighting and withdrawing down a rocky slope , one of them encounters a large rattlesnake which is heard rattling before it is seen on screen . Rattlesnakes are found in almost every mainland country of the Americas , from Canada to Argentina , excluding Panama , Ecuador and Chile , but they do not occur outside the Americas . The venomous snakes encountered in the rocky valleys of the Pashtun region would be the Saw @-@ scaled viper ( Echis carinatus ) and the Levant viper ( Macrovipera lebetina ) , with an outside chance of a rare Persian horned viper ( Pseudocerastes persicus ) . The sound of the saw @-@ scale viper rubbing its scales together as a defensive warning is not dissimilar to that made by a small rattlesnake vibrating its tail . It is likely that U.S. troops , upon hearing this sound , would automatically attribute it to the familiar rattlesnake from back home .
= = Release = =
= = = Strategy = = =
Berg first screened Lone Survivor to a number of professional American football teams to generate a strong word @-@ of @-@ mouth for the film . He expressed that the screenings were not a marketing ploy , explaining that it was " just a cool thing to do . " Lone Survivor was screened to the Dallas Cowboys , Denver Broncos , Carolina Panthers , and Cleveland Browns as well as the University of Alabama Crimson Tide football team . The film received a generally positive response from several football players who took to social media to praise the film . A gala premiere screening of Lone Survivor was held during the AFI Film Festival at the TCL Chinese Theatre on November 12 , 2013 . Lone Survivor held its red carpet premiere on December 3 , 2013 at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City , where the film received a standing ovation . The premiere also doubled as a tribute to the fallen servicemen of Operation Red Wings ; in addition to several cast and crew members , Marcus Luttrell and family members of the deceased were in attendance . Mohammad Gulab , the Afghan villager who helped rescue Luttrell , also attended the premiere , marking his first time in New York City and in a movie theatre .
In what the film industry calls a " platform release " , Lone Survivor was released in a small number of theaters before opening wide in other countries ; it opened in New York and Los Angeles on December 25 , 2013 before being released across North America on January 10 , 2014 . Entertainment One distributed Lone Survivor in Canadian markets . Walt Disney Studios Motion Pictures International released the film in the Philippines on January 8 , 2014 .
= = = Box office = = =
Lone Survivor 's limited release in the United States saw it take $ 153 @,@ 839 — an average of $ 45 @,@ 436 per theater — in its first five days . The film grossed an additional $ 326 @,@ 685 on the following weekend . Pre @-@ release tracking estimated that Lone Survivor would gross between $ 17 and $ 28 million during its opening weekend of wide release . Released to a total of 2 @,@ 875 theaters in the United States and Canada , Lone Survivor grossed $ 14 @,@ 403 @,@ 750 on its opening day , and by the end of its opening weekend it had grossed $ 38 @,@ 231 @,@ 471 , securing the number one position at the domestic box office . Lone Survivor 's opening weekend gross made it the second largest debut for any film released widely in January , after the 2008 film Cloverfield 's opening weekend gross of $ 40 @.@ 1 million . With its opening weekend gross , Lone Survivor had become the highest @-@ grossing film among recent " post @-@ 9 / 11 war films " , surpassing the 2009 film Brothers , which ended its domestic theatrical run with over $ 28 @.@ 5 million .
The film saw a significant drop in attendance during its second weekend of wide release ; it had earned $ 6 @,@ 665 @,@ 470 , which was a 135 @.@ 4 % increase from its opening Friday . However , by the end of its second weekend , the film earned $ 25 @,@ 929 @,@ 570 , a 41 @.@ 7 % overall decrease from the previous weekend . As a result , Lone Survivor went from first to second place behind the action @-@ comedy film Ride Along . The film remained in second place during its third weekend , grossing an additional $ 12 @,@ 900 @,@ 960 , which was a 41 @.@ 5 % decrease from its second weekend . It grossed an additional $ 7 @,@ 096 @,@ 330 during its fourth weekend , moving to fifth place in the top 10 rankings . Lone Survivor remained in fifth place during its fifth weekend , grossing an additional $ 5 @,@ 565 @,@ 860 , which was a 21 @.@ 6 % decrease from the previous weekend . By its sixth weekend , the film went from fifth place to ninth , earning $ 4 @,@ 086 @,@ 435 . By its seventh weekend , Lone Survivor had dropped out of the top ten , earning an additional $ 1 @,@ 978 @,@ 380 . Lone Survivor completed its theatrical run in North America on April 10 , 2014 after 107 days ( 15 @.@ 3 weeks ) of release .
Lone Survivor grossed $ 125 @,@ 095 @,@ 601 in the United States and Canada ; coupled with its international take of $ 29 @,@ 707 @,@ 311 , the film accumulated $ 154 @,@ 802 @,@ 912 in worldwide box office totals . Outside of North America , the film 's biggest markets were in Australia , the United Kingdom , Spain , Japan , France , South Korea and Germany ; the film grossed approximately $ 3 @.@ 5 million in Australia , $ 3 @.@ 4 million in the United Kingdom , $ 2 @.@ 5 million in Spain , $ 2 @.@ 2 million in Japan , $ 1 @.@ 5 million in France , $ 1 @.@ 2 million in South Korea , and $ 1 million in Germany . In North America , Lone Survivor is the twenty @-@ fourth highest grossing film of 2013 , and the sixth @-@ highest @-@ grossing R @-@ rated film of that year .
= = = Critical response = = =
Lone Survivor has received " largely positive reviews " from film critics , according to The Hollywood Reporter . The Los Angeles Times reported the critics ' consensus was that " the film succeeds in bringing the mission to life , although it avoids probing the deeper issues at hand . " Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes sampled 195 reviews , and gave the film a score rating of 75 % , with an average score of 6 @.@ 6 / 10 . The website 's consensus reads , " A true account of military courage and survival , Lone Survivor wields enough visceral power to mitigate its heavy @-@ handed jingoism . " Another review aggregator , Metacritic , assigned the film a weighted average score of 60 out of 100 , based on 44 reviews from mainstream critics , indicating to be " mixed or average reviews " . CinemaScore polls conducted during Lone Survivor 's opening weekend of wide release reported that male and female audiences gave the film a rare " A + " ( on an A + to F scale ) , with exit polls showing that 57 % of the audience was male , while 57 % was at least 30 years of age or older .
Justin Chang , writing for Variety magazine , gave the film a positive review and called it " the most grueling and sustained American combat picture since Black Hawk Down , as well as a prime example of how impressive physical filmmaking can overcome even fundamental deficiencies in script and characterization . " Alonso Duralde , writing for The Wrap , stated , " The film never makes a grand statement about whether or not the war in Afghanistan is , per se , a mistake , but it does portray war itself as a disgusting folly . Berg sets up the cathartic moments we ’ re used to in movies like this , but then he pulls out the rug , reminding us that the cavalry doesn ’ t always miraculously show up in time to save the day . " Todd McCarthy , writing for The Hollywood Reporter , described the film as being " rugged , skilled , relentless , determined , narrow @-@ minded and focused , everything that a soldier must be when his life is on the line , " while Scott Bowles of USA Today called Lone Survivor " brutal , unrelenting and ultimately moving . " Leonard Maltin described the film as " visceral , " while praising Berg , the main actors , and the stunt performers for successfully reenacting the events of Operation Red Wings . Maltin concluded that the film " is a tough movie but a rewarding one . It ’ s humbling to watch this dramatization of the sacrifices these men make , without hesitation . Peter Berg was determined to do justice to them , and he has succeeded . " Betsy Sharkey , writing for The Los Angeles Times , praised the overall look of the film : " The production and costume designers have paid a great deal of attention to the details , from the uniforms and tribal robes , to the bullet wounds and blood . It certainly adds to the film 's verisimilitude . "
Several reviewers criticized Lone Survivor for focusing more on its action scenes than on characterization . In his review for The Star @-@ Ledger , Stephen Whitty wrote , " This is the sort of bare @-@ bones story that well served plenty of World War II movies once , and it would work here , if Berg had the sense to develop these men as characters , first . But we don 't really get to know any of them , or what they might bring personally to this life @-@ or @-@ death emergency . " Rafer Guzman of Newsday wrote , " The movie seems more concerned with military @-@ style action than with telling us who these fallen heroes really were . "
One of the film 's strongest detractors was Time Out magazine 's Keith Uhlich , who called the film " war porn of the highest order " . Geoff Pevere wrote in his review for The Globe and Mail , " The sensation of being pinned down and shot apart is so harrowingly conveyed ... that one almost forgives the movie ’ s failure to be quite as persuasive in almost every other respect . " While praising the film for its visuals and sound effects , as well as Berg 's atmospheric direction , Kyle Smith of the New York Post gave Lone Survivor a mixed review . Smith concluded his review by describing it as " a movie about an irrelevant skirmish that ended in near @-@ total catastrophe , during a war we are not winning . " Film critic Steven Boone , writing for Roger Ebert 's website , compared the film 's violence to that of Mel Gibson 's 2004 film The Passion of the Christ : " What 's in between amounts to The Passion of the Christ for U.S. servicemen : a bloody historic episode recounted mainly in images of hardy young men being ripped apart , at screeching volume . Though Berg 's source material isn 't the New Testament , he often handles Navy SEAL Marcus Luttrell 's account ... with the thunderous reverence Mel Gibson brought to Christ 's crucifixion and resurrection . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Lone Survivor has received various awards and nominations , in categories ranging from recognition of the film itself to its screenplay , direction , stunts and sound editing , to the performance of its lead actor , Mark Wahlberg . Lone Survivor received two Academy Award nominations for Best Sound Editing and Best Sound Mixing , although the film failed to win any of the awards ; at the 86th Academy Awards , the film had lost in both categories to Gravity . In addition to the following list of awards and nominations , the film was named one of the ten best films of 2013 by the Las Vegas Film Critics Society , who also ranked it as the Best Action Film of 2013 .
= = = Home media = = =
Lone Survivor was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD formats on June 3 , 2014 by Universal Studios Home Entertainment in the United States , and by Entertainment One in Canada . In the United Kingdom , the film was released on both home video formats on June 9 , 2014 .
= Controversy over the discovery of Haumea =
Haumea was the first of all the current IAU @-@ recognized dwarf planets to be discovered since Pluto in 1930 . However , its naming and formal acceptance as a dwarf planet were delayed by several years due to controversy over who should receive credit for discovering it . A California Institute of Technology ( Caltech ) team headed by Michael E. Brown first noticed the object , but a Spanish team headed by José Luis Ortiz Moreno were the first to announce it , and so normally would receive credit .
However , Brown suspects the Spanish team of fraud , by using Caltech observations to make their discovery , while the Ortiz team accuses the American team of political interference with the International Astronomical Union ( IAU ) . The IAU officially recognized the Californian team 's proposed name Haumea over the name proposed by the Spanish team , Ataecina , in September 2008 .
= = Discovery and announcement = =
On December 28 , 2004 , Mike Brown and his team discovered Haumea on images they had taken with the 1 @.@ 3 m SMARTS Telescope at the Palomar Observatory in the United States on May 6 , 2004 , while looking for what he hoped would be the tenth planet . The Caltech discovery team used the nickname " Santa " among themselves , because they had discovered Haumea on December 28 , 2004 , just after Christmas . However , it was clearly too small to be a planet , because it was significantly smaller than Pluto , and Brown did not announce the discovery . Instead he kept it under wraps , along with several other large trans @-@ Neptunian objects ( TNOs ) , pending additional observation to better determine their natures . When his team discovered Haumea 's moons , they realized that Haumea was more rocky than other TNOs , and that its moons were mostly ice . They then discovered a small family of nearby icy TNOs , and concluded that these were remnants of Haumea 's icy mantle , which had been blasted off by a collision . On July 7 , 2005 , while he was finishing the paper describing the discovery , Brown 's daughter Lilah was born , which delayed the announcement further . On July 20 , the Caltech team published an online abstract of a report intended to announce the discovery at a conference the following September . In this Haumea was given the code K40506A .
At around that time , Pablo Santos Sanz , a student of José Luis Ortiz Moreno at the Instituto de Astrofísica de Andalucía at Sierra Nevada Observatory in southern Spain , claims to have examined the backlog of photos that the Ortiz team had started taking in December 2002 . He says that he found Haumea in late July 2005 , on images taken on March 7 , 9 , and 10 , 2003 . He further said that in checking whether this was a known object , the team came across Brown 's internet summary , describing a bright TNO much like the one they had just found . Googling the reference number for object K40506A on the morning of July 26 , they found the Caltech observation logs of Haumea , but according to their account , those logs contained too little information for Ortiz to tell if they were the same object . The Ortiz team also checked with the Minor Planet Center ( MPC ) , which had no record of this object . Wanting to establish priority , they emailed the MPC with their discovery on the night of July 27 , 2005 , titled " Big TNO discovery , urgent " , without making any mention of the Caltech logs . The next morning they again accessed the Caltech logs , including observations from several additional nights . They then asked Reiner Stoss at the amateur Astronomical Observatory of Mallorca for further observations . Stoss found precovery images of Haumea in digitized Palomar Observatory slides from 1955 , and located Haumea with his own telescope that night , July 28 . Within an hour , the Ortiz team submitted a second report to the MPC that included this new data . Again , no mention was made of having accessed the Caltech logs . The data was published by the MPC on July 29 .
In a press release on the same day , the Ortiz team called Haumea the " tenth planet " . On July 29 , 2005 , Haumea was given its first official label , the temporary designation 2003 EL61 , with the " 2003 " based on the date of the Spanish discovery image . On September 7 , 2006 , it was numbered and admitted into the official minor planet catalogue as ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 .
= = Reaction to the announcement = =
The same day as the MPC publication , Brown 's group announced the discovery of another Kuiper belt object , Eris , more distant and brighter ( and apparently larger ) than Pluto , as the tenth planet . The announcement was made earlier than planned to forestall the possibility of similar events with that discovery , when the MPC told them that their observational data was publicly accessible , and they realized that not only Haumea data but by that time their Eris data had been publicly accessed . The same day Ortiz announced the discovery of Haumea , Brown submitted his own draft with the data on the first of its moons that he had discovered on January 26 , 2005 , to The Astrophysical Journal .
Brown , though disappointed at being scooped , congratulated the Ortiz team on their discovery . He apologized for immediately overshadowing their announcement of Haumea with his announcement of Eris , and explained that someone had accessed their data and he was afraid of being scooped again . Ortiz did not volunteer to say that it had been he who accessed the data . Upon learning from web server records that it was a computer at the Sierra Nevada Observatory that had accessed his observation logs the day before the discovery announcement — logs which included enough information to allow the Ortiz team to precover Haumea in their 2003 images — Brown came to suspect fraud . He emailed Ortiz on August 9 and asked for an explanation . Ortiz did not respond , and on August 15 the Caltech team filed a formal complaint with the IAU , accusing the Ortiz team of a serious breach of scientific ethics in failing to acknowledge their use of the Caltech data , and asked the MPC to strip them of discovery status . Ortiz later admitted he had accessed the Caltech observation logs but denied any wrongdoing , stating this was merely part of verifying whether they had discovered a new object . Brown began to wonder if the Spanish team had actually identified Haumea at all before they saw his own abstract and telescope log .
= = Official naming = =
IAU protocol is that discovery credit for a minor planet goes to whoever first submits a report to the MPC with enough positional data for a decent orbit determination , and that the credited discoverer has priority in naming it . This was Ortiz et al . , and they proposed the name Ataecina , an Iberian goddess of the underworld . She is the equivalent of the Roman goddess Proserpina , who was in turn one of Pluto 's lovers . However , as a chthonic deity , Ataecina would only have been an appropriate name for an object in orbital resonance with Neptune , which Haumea was not .
Following guidelines established by the IAU that classical Kuiper belt objects be given names of mythological beings associated with creation , in September 2006 the Caltech team submitted formal names from Hawaiian mythology to the IAU for both ( 136108 ) 2003 EL61 and its moons , in order " to pay homage to the place where the satellites were discovered " . The names were proposed by David Rabinowitz of the Caltech team . Haumea is the tutelary goddess of the island of Hawaiʻi , where the Mauna Kea Observatory is located . In addition , she is identified with Papa , the goddess of the earth and wife of Wākea ( space ) , which is appropriate because 2003 EL61 is thought to be composed almost entirely of solid rock , without the thick ice mantle over a small rocky core typical of other known Kuiper belt objects . Lastly , Haumea is the goddess of fertility and childbirth , with many children who sprang from different parts of her body ; this corresponds to the swarm of icy bodies thought to have broken off the dwarf planet during an ancient collision . The two known moons , also believed to have been born in this manner , were thus named after two of Haumea 's daughters , Hiʻiaka and Nāmaka .
The dispute over who had actually discovered the object delayed the acceptance of any name , or of formal classification of the object as a dwarf planet . On 17 September 2008 , the IAU announced that the two bodies in charge of naming dwarf planets , the Committee on Small Body Nomenclature ( CSBN ) and the Working Group for Planetary System Nomenclature ( WGPSN ) , had decided on the Caltech proposal of Haumea . At the CSBN , the outcome of the voting was very close , eventually being decided by a single vote . However , the date of the discovery was listed on the announcement as March 7 , 2003 , the location of discovery as the Sierra Nevada Observatory , and the name of the discoverer was left blank .
= = Aftermath = =
Brian G. Marsden , head of the MPC at Harvard , supported Brown 's claim saying that " Sooner or later , posterity will realise what happened , and Mike Brown will get the full credit " . He also went on to state , in reference to the name of the discoverer , which was left blank in the IAU listing , that " It 's deliberately vague about the discoverer of the object [ ... ] We don 't want to cause an international incident . " He called the whole controversy the worst since the early 17th century dispute over who found the four biggest satellites of Jupiter between Galileo Galilei and Simon Marius , ultimately won by Galileo .
The Ortiz team has objected , suggesting that if Ataecina were not accepted the IAU could at least have chosen a third name favoring neither party , and accusing the IAU of political bias . Rumors appeared that Dagda , the name of a god from Irish mythology and a " neutral " name , was indeed proposed by a member of the CSBM but was not used in the end . Ortiz went to say " I am not happy , I think the [ IAU ] decision is unfortunate and sets a bad precedent . " The Spanish newspaper ABC went on to call the decision a " US conquest " , asserting that politics played a major role as the US had 10 times more scientists in the IAU than Spain had .
Immediately after the announcement of the name , Brown noted that it is unusual to be allowed to name an object without being acknowledged as its official discoverer but declared that he is pleased with the outcome and that he " think [ s ] this is as good a resolution as we 'll get " . He did get full recognition for the discovery of the two moons , Hiʻiaka and Namaka . On the fifth anniversary of the discovery he wrote a blog with his thoughts on the importance of the discovery , but did not mention any events regarding the controversy .
= Italian cruiser Minerva =
Minerva was a torpedo cruiser of the Partenope class built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1880s . The second of eight ships , Minerva was built by Gio . Ansaldo & C. ; her keel was laid down in February 1889 , she was launched in February 1892 , and she was commissioned in August that year . Her main armament were her five torpedo tubes , which were supported by a battery of ten small @-@ caliber guns . Minerva spent most of her career in the main Italian fleet , where she was primarily occupied with training exercises . She was converted into a minelayer in 1909 – 10 . She did not see significant action during the Italo @-@ Turkish War in 1911 or World War I in 1915 – 18 , though she was used to lay defensive minefields during the latter conflict . The ship was sold for scrap in 1921 .
= = Design = =
Minerva was 73 @.@ 1 meters ( 240 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 8 @.@ 22 m ( 27 @.@ 0 ft ) and an average draft of 3 @.@ 48 m ( 11 @.@ 4 ft ) . She displaced 833 metric tons ( 820 long tons ; 918 short tons ) normally . Her propulsion system consisted of a pair of horizontal triple @-@ expansion steam engines each driving a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by four coal @-@ fired locomotive boilers . On speed trials with a displacement of 828 t ( 815 long tons ; 913 short tons ) , Minerva 'S engines
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produced an average top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) from 3 @,@ 884 indicated horsepower ( 2 @,@ 896 kW ) with forced draft . The ship had a cruising radius of about 1 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 100 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . She had a crew of between 96 – 121 .
Minerva was armed with a main battery of one 120 mm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) / 40 gun and six 57 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) / 43 guns mounted singly.α She was also equipped with three 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) / 20 guns in single mounts . Her primary offensive weapon was her six 450 mm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes . The ship was protected by an armored deck that was up to 1 @.@ 6 in ( 41 mm ) thick ; her conning tower was armored with the same thickness of steel plate .
= = Service history = =
Minerva was laid down on 1 February 1889 at the Gio . Ansaldo & C. shipyard in Genoa , and was launched on 27 February 1892 . After fitting @-@ out work was completed less than six months later , the ship was commissioned into the fleet on 20 August . During the 1893 fleet maneuvers , Minerva served with the 1st Division of the Reserve Squadron , along with the ironclads Re Umberto and Caio Duilio and four torpedo boats . During the maneuvers , which lasted from 6 August to 5 September , the ships of the Reserve Squadron defended against a simulated attack by the Active Squadron , which gamed a French attack on the Italian fleet . In 1895 , Minerva was stationed in the 2nd Maritime Department , split between Taranto and Naples , along with most of the torpedo cruisers in the Italian fleet . These included her sister ships Partenope , Aretusa , Euridice , Iride , Urania , and Caprera , the four Goito @-@ class cruisers , and Tripoli .
In 1903 , Minerva was assigned to the 1st Squadron , along with Euridice . The unit also included eight battleships , six other cruisers , and six destroyers . The 1st Squadron was kept in active service for seven months of the year for training , and had reduced crews for the remainder of the year . She remained in the squadron the following year , which was reduced in size , with the two oldest battleships having been withdrawn , though three destroyers were added . Between 1909 and 1910 , the ship was modernized and converted into a minelayer . She received new oil @-@ fired boilers and had her armament reduced to two 3 in ( 76 mm ) guns , four 57 mm guns and two 37 mm guns . Minerva 's speed was reduced to 18 @.@ 28 knots ( 33 @.@ 85 km / h ; 21 @.@ 04 mph ) on 3 @,@ 524 ihp ( 2 @,@ 628 kW ) . At the start of the Italo @-@ Turkish War in September 1911 , Minerva was attached to the 4th Division of the 2nd Squadron of the Italian fleet . By this time , she was being used as a minelayer . She did not see significant action during the war .
Italy had declared neutrality at the start of World War I , but by July 1915 , the Triple Entente had convinced the Italians to enter the war against the Central Powers . Admiral Paolo Thaon di Revel , the Italian naval chief of staff , believed that the threat from Austro @-@ Hungarian submarines and naval mines in the narrow waters of the Adriatic was too serious for him to use the fleet in an active way . Instead , Revel decided to implement a blockade at the relatively safer southern end of the Adriatic with the main fleet , while smaller vessels , such as the MAS boats , conducted raids on Austro @-@ Hungarian ships and installations . Minerva was initially used to lay a series of defensive minefields , along with her sister Partenope and the cruiser Goito , in support of this strategy . Minerva survived the war and was discarded in May 1921 , the last surviving member of her class . She was subsequently broken up for scrap .
= Homerun ( film ) =
Homerun ( Chinese : 跑吧孩子 ; pinyin : pǎo bà háizǐ ) is a 2003 Singaporean Mandarin @-@ language film . A remake of the award @-@ winning Iranian film Children of Heaven , Homerun is a drama about two poor siblings and their adventures over a lost pair of shoes . Set in 1965 , the year Singapore separated from Malaysia , the film satirises the political relations between the two countries , leading to its banning in Malaysia .
The film was written and directed by Singaporean filmmaker Jack Neo , and produced by MediaCorp Raintree Pictures . It stars Huang Wenyong , Xiang Yun , Shawn Lee and Megan Zheng . Filming took place in the rural outskirts of Kuala Lumpur during November and December 2002 , but post @-@ production delays pushed back the film 's release date .
Released in cinemas on 7 August 2003 , Homerun grossed over S $ 2 @.@ 3 million during its nine @-@ week box office run . It was nominated for two awards at the 2003 Golden Horse Awards ; Megan Zheng , then 10 , became the first Singaporean to win a Golden Horse . Generally , however , critical reception of the film was mixed .
= = Plot = =
In 1965 , two poor Singaporean children , Chew Kiat Kun ( Shawn Lee ) and his younger sister Seow Fang ( Megan Zheng ) live with their mother ( Xiang Yun ) who is late in her third pregnancy and their father ( Huang Wenyong ) who is in debt to a local rice merchant . The children make the best of what little they have , while their father works long hours doing odd jobs .
The family 's problems are compounded when Kiat Kun accidentally loses Seow Fang 's only pair of shoes after taking them to be repaired . The children conduct a frantic search but find nothing ; a karung guni man had claimed the shoes as unwanted rubbish . The Chew siblings are frustrated and rendered helpless by the situation until their father inspires Kiat Kun to share his shoes with his sister , trading off between classes so they can both attend school . Unfortunately , this plan brings additional problems : Seow Fang is chastised for wearing oversized shoes to school , while Kiat Kun is repeatedly late as he must wait for his sister to exchange shoes with him .
At school , a wealthy schoolmate of Kiat Kun 's named Tan Beng Soon ( Joshua Ang ) runs an amateur football team with his friends . Kiat Kun and his friends strike a bargain with Beng Soon to play on the team using the other boys ' football shoes , in exchange for helping them cheat on their homework . However , the boys quarrel , causing an angry Beng Soon to renege on the deal and remove Kiat Kun and his friends from the team .
Without their assistance , Beng Soon and his friends are punished for producing substandard homework . Although the boys try to resolve their differences , they eventually give up on reaching an agreement . Beng Soon 's grades continue to fall , and his parents decide to send him away to study in England .
Meanwhile , Seow Fang sees her classmate wearing her lost shoes to school . She and Kiat Kun follow the girl home , but after realising her father is blind and that her family was in a more dire situation than theirs , they decide not to reclaim the shoes . However , a few days later , Seow Fang notices that her classmate is wearing a new pair ; upon confronting her , she discovers that the girl has discarded the old pair at the kampung rubbish dump . The Chew siblings frantically search the rubbish dump for her shoes , but only discover them as they are destroyed during a trade unionist riot against a policeman ( Wakin Chau ) .
Kiat Kun is dejected until he learns that the third prize in the 1965 National Primary School Cross Country Competition is a pair of shoes . Because he was sick on the day his school selected representatives for the race , he pleads with his P.E. teacher to let him enter . The teacher , initially reluctant , relents when Kiat Kun rushes to get his cough medicine , demonstrating his running ability . As the competition begins , Kiat Kun notices that Beng Soon is also participating .
Once the starting gun fires , Kiat Kun pushes himself to the limit and eventually establishes himself among the lead runners . Kiat Kun appears assured of third place , but unexpectedly trips over a stone and thus finishes first . Beng Soon ends the race in third place . While Kiat Kun is running , Mrs Chew goes into labour , forcing Seow Fang to run across a long path littered with broken glass to find a midwife . Finally , Mrs Chew gives birth to a baby boy and Beng Soon gives Kiat Kun and Seow Fang new pairs of shoes before departing .
= = Production and distribution = =
While watching the Iranian film Children of Heaven , Singaporean filmmaker Jack Neo and his wife were moved to " holding hands and crying after seeing the love shared by the children " . Children of Heaven inspired Neo to explore issues faced by Singaporean youths in his 2002 film I Not Stupid . Following the success of I Not Stupid , he decided to adapt Children of Heaven to a 1960s Singaporean kampung setting , to emphasise the messages of friendship and kinship . Homerun was produced by MediaCorp Raintree Pictures on a budget of S $ 1 @.@ 5 million . It was shot on 35mm film . The production crew included Titus Ho as executive producer ; Chan Pui Yin and Daniel Yun as producers ; Kane Chen as cinematographer and Lawrence Ang as film editor . In addition to writing and directing , Neo also penned the lyrics to the theme song , which was sung by Koh Mei Xian and composed by Li Yi . Filming took place in the rural outskirts of Kuala Lumpur during November and December 2002 . The cast endured a rigorous schedule , including extensive travel times to the filming location and many running scenes . The child actors ' school commitments made the planning of reshoots difficult ; moreover , the production team decided to delay post @-@ production work in Thailand due to the SARS outbreak .
On 7 August 2003 , distributor United International Pictures released Homerun in 37 theatres , at the time a record for a Singaporean film . Homerun 's worldwide theatrical distribution was carried out by the production company , Raintree Pictures , while the Hong Kong screenings were carried out by Golden Scene following their previous success with I Not Stupid . A Chinese language version was released as both a two @-@ disc VCD and one @-@ disc DVD by Panorama Entertainment , one of the Hong Kong @-@ based " mainstays " of independent film distribution .
= = Political commentary = =
Elements of Homerun compare and contrast Singapore 's situations in 1965 and in 2003 . For example , while Mrs Chew is giving birth , Lee Kuan Yew 's voice can be heard on a radio in the background , announcing Singapore 's separation from Malaysia . Other events in the film parallel those in Singapore 's history , such as the riot at the rubbish dump alluding to the labour strikes and riots of the 1960s , as well as the threat of terrorism in the new millennium . One of Kiat Kun 's friends is nicknamed " Little Red Dot " , a phrase used by former Indonesian president Jusuf Habibie to disparage Singapore . The final scene in the film shows the Chew siblings standing before a long muddy path , which symbolises the uncertainly faced by both the newly independent nation in 1965 and the country in transition in 2003 .
A number of scenes in Homerun contain references to political disputes between Singapore and Malaysia . The water dispute is portrayed by Kiat Kun ( Singapore ) quarrelling with Beng Soon ( Malaysia ) over the right to draw water from the kampung well . In another scene , one of Kiat Kun 's friends produces a sheet of paper with details of the deal Beng Soon reneged on , prompting one of Beng Soon 's friends to remark that this was like " writing a letter to a girlfriend and revealing it to the world " . This echoes a comment made by Malaysian Prime Minister Mahathir bin Mohamad , comparing Singapore 's disclosure of letters between the two countries to " revealing letters sent to one 's girlfriend " .
When asked about the references , Neo said he would " leave the movie open to interpretation , which will make it more mysterious and beautiful " . Nevertheless , Malaysian censors decided to ban the screening of Homerun in Malaysia , citing scenes that will " bring about negative elements and bad examples to education " . Raintree filed an appeal , arguing that the positive messages in the film were more salient than the political satire , but it was unsuccessful . Malaysian moviegoers polled by Life ! and the China Press expressed disappointment with the ban , calling it " unnecessary " and stated a desire to watch the film via unlicensed VCD .
= = Reception = =
Having earned S $ 110 @,@ 300 from sneak previews , Homerun made S $ 610 @,@ 400 over the National Day weekend , achieving the most successful opening weekend for a local film . It rose to the top of the local box office , beating American blockbusters such as Lara Croft : Tomb Raider . In total , the film grossed more than S $ 2 @.@ 3 million over nine weeks of screenings , the second longest box office run for the year .
Critical reception of Homerun was mixed . Sanjuro of LoveHKFilm.com wrote that the film " succeeds in delivering a relatively simple , intimate story that should prove moving for even the most jaded audience " , while Nick England of the San Diego Asian Film Foundation described Homerun as " a film with certain beauteous qualities that we can genuinely enjoy , but end up choking on when it is all over with " . In contrast , FilmsAsia reviewer Soh Yun @-@ Huei panned its use of political satire , which she felt " [ causes ] the film to be devoid of innocence and replaced with a sense of agenda and manipulation " .
The film won several awards , including the Grand Prix Prize at the 2003 Golden Swan Awards , the Golden Butterfly Prize for Best Direction at the Isfahan International Children 's Film Festival , and a trio ( Best Director , Best Newcomer , and People 's Choice Award ) at the Montreal Film Festival . It also received two nominations at the 2003 Golden Horse Awards , for Best Theme Song ( 拥有 ) and Best New Performer . Megan Zheng , then 10 years old , became the first Singaporean to win a Golden Horse Award , sharing her Best New Performer award with Wang Baoqiang of Blind Shaft .
= Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia =
The Romanian Volunteer Corps in Russia ( Romanian : Corpul Voluntarilor români din Rusia ) , or Volunteer Corps of Transylvanians @-@ Bukovinans ( Corpul Voluntarilor ardeleni @-@ bucovineni , Corpul Voluntarilor transilvăneni și bucovineni ) , was a military formation of World War I , created from ethnic Romanian prisoners of war held by Russia . Officially established in February 1917 , it comprised abjurers of the Austro @-@ Hungarian Army , mainly contingents from Transylvania and Bukovina . These had been obliged to fight against Romania , and , once in Russian custody , volunteered for service against the Central Powers . As campaigners for self @-@ determination and union with Romania , they passed political resolutions which , in both tone and scope , announced those adopted on Union Day 1918 .
The Corps was effectively an active military reserve of the Romanian Land Forces , and regularly dispatched new units to the Romanian front after June 1917 . It helped defend the last stretches of Romania against the Central Powers ' unified offensive , and met success in the Battle of Mărășești , but it still lacked a unitary command structure . When the October Revolution in Russia and the Romanian armistice took Romania out of the Entente camp , the Corps was left without backing and purpose . However , it inspired the creation of similar units in Entente countries , most successfully the Romanian Legion of Italy .
Mobilized volunteers or prisoners symbolically tied to the Corps were left behind in Russia after the Russian Civil War was ignited . Various such individuals formed the Romanian Legion of Siberia , which resisted the Bolsheviks in cooperation with the Czechoslovak Legions and the White movement . These units were ultimately repatriated to Greater Romania in 1920 .
= = Darnytsia Corps = =
= = = Origins = = =
During 1916 , Romania entered World War I as an Entente country , in alliance with the Russian Empire against Austria @-@ Hungary and the other Central Powers . After a while , Romania began investigating the fate and loyalties of Austria @-@ Hungarian Romanians who were held in Russian POW camps . Estimates for that period place the total population of Bukovinan and Transylvanian Romanians in such facilities , throughout Russia , at 120 @,@ 000 or 130 @,@ 000 . Meanwhile , in Romania itself there were several thousand Romanian refugees from Austria @-@ Hungary who immediately signed up for service in the Romanian Armed Forces .
In Russia , Romanian captives were complained about being worse off than prisoners from other Austro @-@ Hungarian backgrounds , a matter which may have contributed to their decision of volunteering into Romanian service . Russian authorities were undecided about letting them join , and initially prohibited such initiatives ; those who insisted to establish contact with Romania were arrested by Russian police forces . During the same year , after consultations with Romania , the Russian executive reverted such policies . It was decided that Russia would free at most 15 @,@ 000 of this demographic group , transferring them to Romania in exchange for a similar number of non @-@ Romanian prisoners from Romanian camps .
Subsequently , those who chose to enlist were together relocated at the special camp in Darnytsia — a suburb of Kiev , known to Romanians as Darnița . In December 1916 , that facility held some 200 officers and 1 @,@ 200 non @-@ commissioned officers , who formed the nucleus ( and general command ) of a " Romanian Corps " . Elected First Senior of the Camp , the 40 @-@ year @-@ old Victor Deleu was a legal professional , rank @-@ and @-@ file member of the Romanian National Party ( PNR ) and opinion journalist from Transylvania , who came to Darnytsia after internment in Kineshma . The other members of Darnytsia camp 's leadership body were Pompiliu Nistor , Vasile Chiroiu , Emil Isopescu , Valeriu Milovan , Octavian Vasu and Ioan Vescan .
Regardless of such initiatives , Romania tended to give little attention to the potential of recruitment in Russia , as many decision @-@ makers were still uncertain about the devotion of Transylvanians and Bukovinans , and worried that they might be welcoming Austro @-@ Hungarian spies into army ranks . Additionally , probably half of the 120 @,@ 000 men excluded themselves from the pool of recruits , as Austrian loyalists , invalids or men who had reason to fear Austria @-@ Hungary 's retaliation . Support from within Romania was therefore weak , and Russian obstruction still had a part to play , but in January the camp was visited by Lieutenant Colonel Constantin Gh . Pietraru of the Romanian Land Forces , on a mission to evaluate the recruitment project . The reversal of fortunes on the Romanian front had brought a Central Powers ' invasion into southern Romania , and the Romanian military authority became pressured into finding new soldiers for the defensive action .
= = = February Revolution = = =
Shortly after these events , Russia experienced the February Revolution , which brought to power a liberal Russian Provisional Government . As a consequence of these , the whole transfer project was delayed , but the Russian acceptance of self @-@ determination facilitated renewed political action . According to veteran Simion Gocan , the soldiers were inspired by both these revolutionary promises and the American entry into World War I , which seemingly made Wilsonian Self @-@ Determination an official Entente policy .
By Order 1191 of March 8 [ O.S. February 23 ] 1917 , Romania 's Minister of War , Vintilă Brătianu , created the Volunteer Corps as a special formation of the national army . On the same day , in Darnytsia , Pietraru was tasked by Chief of Staff Constantin Prezan with equipping the new recruits and organizing them into units . The honorary command was assigned to Constantin Coandă , who was already the military attaché with Russia 's Stavka ( General Headquarters ) . Over the next month , in Mogilev , Coandă again negotiated the Corps ' recognition by Stavka . Coandă received the permission , but the number of recruits was no longer clearly specified .
On March 18 , Coandă issued a " Pledge " ( Angajament ) , which regulated the status of Corps soldiers in relation to the Romanian Army , and which the recruits had to sign . It integrated the former Austro @-@ Hungarian officers into the Romanian Army , with equivalent ranks , and equated their Austrian service , including time they spent in the POW camps , with active duty under Romanian banners . The pledge ended with the words : " May God help us , so that through our blood we may liberate our lands and create a Greater Romania , unified in substance and everlasting . " All those who backed out after signing the document were to be considered deserters . Demand for enlistment remained considerable , even though rumor spread that Austro @-@ Hungarian repression forces were by then murdering the families of volunteers and confiscating their property . However , Corps veteran Petru Nemoianu ( Nemoian ) was later to state that envy and class conflict were also characteristic for the formation , where the intellectual leaders quarreled over the better paid assignments .
In April , Pietraru met with the Provisional Government 's Alexander Guchkov , and an agreement was reached regarding the maximum total of troops to be enlisted in the Romanian Corps . Answering to special pleas from Romanian Premier Ion I. C. Brătianu , Guchkov allowed for the recruitment of 30 @,@ 000 prisoners in his custody . The order was revised by Alexander Kerensky , who reduced that number to 5 @,@ 000 prisoners , noting that they were sorely needed as working hands in Russia 's agriculture and industry . In practice , Quartermaster Ivan Pavlovich Romanovsky only allowed recruitment to take place in Moscow Military District , ordering that no more than 1 @,@ 500 prisoners should be taken into account .
= = = Darnytsia manifesto = = =
By then , revolutionary examples also inspired the prisoners of Darnytsia to proclaim their own political goals , and openly demand the union of Transylvania with Romania . Their manifesto of April 26 ( April 13 ) , reviewed for publishing by the Transylvanian poet Octavian Goga , was signed by 250 officers and 250 soldiers , and is probably the first unionist statement to be issued by a Transylvanian representative body . The document states : " we Romanians , like all other subjugated nations , have grown aware that once and for all that we [ ... ] cannot carry on with our lives within the frame of the Austro @-@ Hungarian state ; we [ ... ] demand , with unwavering will , our incorporation into Romania , so that together we may form a single national Romanian state . [ ... ] For the sake of this ideal , we throw in the balance all of what we have , our lives and fortunes , our women and children , our descendants ' life and happiness . And we never will stop , lest we vanquish or perish . "
The text , which also survives in slightly different versions , included a brief analysis of the international scene . It paid homage to Russia 's democratic program , referenced the " generous " Wilsonian doctrine on self @-@ determination , and looked forward to a congress of " blissful , national and democratic states " . The manifesto made ample reference to the activity of " traitors " to the Transylvanian cause . As Nemoianu later recounted , there was a disguised reference to the PNR , whose moderate leaders , ostensibly loyal to the Austro @-@ Hungarian monarchy , still tried to achieve Austrian devolution . More leniently , Gocan argued that the PNR at home was " deeply terrorized " and bound to government by a forcefully signed " declaration of loyalty " .
Goga , a civilian refugee in transit through Russia , was supposed to have left Darnytsia with a copy of the appeal . Some argue that he did , and that the subsequent popularization is largely owed to his work as publicist . Such accounts are contradicted by the recollections of another unionist activist , Onisifor Ghibu : " [ The appeal ] was supposed to be handed down to Goga , on his stopover in Darnița . For whatever reason Goga stopped for a day in Kiev . In such circumstances I was the one designated to hold it " . In this version , Ghibu passed it on to Romania 's executive , King Ferdinand I and General Prezan .
In Russian and French translations , the document was distributed to various institutions : the Provisional Government , the Mossovet , the Petrograd Soviet and the Central Rada . It was also presented individually to representatives of Russian political life and to the foreign press agencies , and circulated among the national emancipation movements of Czechs , Poles , Serbs and " Ruthenians " . A copy was later taken to the United States by Romania 's special delegates Vasile Stoica , Vasile Lucaciu and Ioan Moța , and reprinted in the Romanian American community press . According to one account , it was also included in airborne leaflet propaganda dropped over the Austro @-@ Hungarian trenches on the Italian front .
The Darnytsia soldiers soon gave themselves a special banner , based on the Romanian tricolor , with the added slogan Trăiască România Mare ( " Long Live Greater Romania " ) . Seven such items were sewn in all , of which one was kept by Banat @-@ born soldier Dimitrie Lăzărel ( Lăzărescu ) .
= = = Arrival in Iași = = =
Six recruiting commissions were then dispatched from Romania to Russia . During May 1917 , they received the Romanian volunteers , relocated from Darnytsia to the Girls ' Lycée in Podil , where work also began on tailoring of the new Romanian uniforms . From Podil , a newly formed battalion was quickly sent into Romania to reinforce defense . Comprising some 1 @,@ 300 men , this unit traveled by chartered train , stopping first in Kishinev ( Chișinău ) . The largely Romanian @-@ inhabited Russian city gave them a warm welcome : the battalion received another Romanian tricolor as war flag , and were presented with an Orthodox icon .
The battalion arrived in the city of Iași , Romania 's provisional capital , where the volunteers were welcomed as heroes . On June 9 , at Iași 's marching ground , they took their oath and were officially integrated into the Land Forces . The ceremony was attended by King Ferdinand , Premier Brătianu , General Prezan , by representatives of Entente missions ( Alexander Shcherbachov , Henri Mathias Berthelot ) and by ambassadors of neutral countries . Manuel Multedo y Cortina of Spain recalled the sermon as " a solemn act " , clamoring " the national aspiration " of Romanians .
At a later banquet and public rally in Union Square , Victor Deleu addressed the civilian population , describing the Corps ' arrival as a rescue mission : " We had the duty of coming over here on this day , when you are living through such hardships . We left a foreign country , but did so with just one thought on our minds : coming home . That 's why there was only road meant for us , the one leading us ahead . [ ... ] We 'll be the victors , for the Carpathians cannot reach as high as our hearts have been elevated ! " As politician Ion G. Duca recalled , no other speech left as deep an impression on the public : " Deleu [ ' s speech ] was a pure and simple marvel , something unforgettable . "
There was a noted effort on the part of Corps staff and other Transylvanian exiles ( Ion Agârbiceanu , Laurian Gabor , Octavian Tăslăuanu etc . ) to encourage the rapid integration of Podil @-@ formed units into the Romanian line of defense . After a quick session of retraining , the Corps units were attached to the 11th Division , which was recovering in Iași . It was , however , decided that the formations , particularly those from Transylvania , were to be kept distinguished from the rest under the common command structure . An official act of 1918 explained the rationale behind this act : " Transylvanians should fight as Transylvanians [ ... ] against the Hungarian state , so as to assert , clearly and beyond all doubt , that the Romanian nationals of the Hungarian state do not recognize its authority . To have fought against Hungary , however the war may end , ought to have been a badge of honor for the Romanian nation in Hungary and a moral reinforcement during the battles to come " . When it was proposed that men from the Corps be assigned noms de guerre so as to avoid execution if captured , Deleu reacted strongly : " We intend to be the army of Transylvania ! We aim to be the conscience of Transylvania , which is for absolute freedom and The Union ! We do not want [ to receive ] a conquered land , we wish to liberate ourselves with our own forces ! Hangings ? Let them hang us ! But let them be aware that Transylvania herself is fighting for liberty and The Union ! "
= = = During and after Mărășești = = =
In July 1917 , Corps offices in Kiev circulated the first issue of a recruitment gazette , România Mare ( " Greater Romania " ) , which became the essential component of its propaganda effort in Russia . It was a new edition of the Bucharest gazette founded by Voicu Nițescu , and , in this new form , was managed by a team of pro @-@ union activists : the Transylvanians Sever Bocu , Ghiță Popp , Iosif Șchiopu and the Bukovinan Filaret Doboș . România Mare was successful , despite the fact that only between 3 @,@ 000 and 5 @,@ 000 copies were published per issue .
Recruitment itself continued at a steady pace , and the Romanian General Staff created Biroul A. B ( " T [ ransylvania ] and B [ ukovina ] Bureau " ) to keep evidence of Austro @-@ Hungarian abjurers , on and behind the front . Its founding members were three Sub @-@ lieutenants : Deleu , Vasile Osvadă , Leonte Silion . Biroul A. B. was assisted by a Consultative Commission of intellectuals and politicians of Transylvanian or Bukovinan backgrounds ( Goga , Ion Nistor , Leonte Moldovan ) and represented in Russia itself by a deputation of Transylvanian officers — Elie Bufnea , Victor Cădere .
Units of the Volunteer Corps earned distinction in the defense of eastern Romania , which postponed the Central Powers ' advance during summer 1917 . With the 11th Division , the Transylvanians @-@ Bukovinans participated in the battles of Mărăști , Oituz and Mărășești . At the time , they were split between five regiments of the 11th Division : 2nd , 3rd Olt , 5th Chasseurs , 19th Caracal , 26th Rovine .
The three battles to hold back the Central Powers ended in early autumn 1917 , by which time there were 31 dead and 453 wounded among the volunteers ; 129 received distinction . Dimitrie Lăzărel was one to have survived all three engagements , and legend has it that he never went into combat without the banner . Deleu had left reserve duty to join the 10th Chasseurs Battalion in the Mărășești combat , but fell severely ill and was reassigned to other offices .
The divisive command structure was a disappointment for the Transylvanian and Bukovinan volunteers . In a complaint they sent to King Ferdinand during September , they requested reintegration into a special Corps , arguing : " Through such legions the free will of the formerly oppressed citizens would be expressing a common will . One would not be enrolling isolated individuals [ ... ] , but an entire people free from the [ Austrian ] yoke . " Like his army staff , the monarch disapproved of this initiative , informing Deleanu and Tăslăuanu that , at most , units overseen by Biroul A. B. could expect to form special regiments within the existing divisions . Parallel negotiations continued between Russia and Romania over the total number of volunteers allowed to leave Russian soil . During early June , Stavka approved the release of 5 @,@ 000 Romanian Austro @-@ Hungarian prisoners , all of them from the Moscow Governorate . According to historian Ioan I. Șerban , the approval was creating problems for the Romanian side : of the soldiers in question , the majority were held deep inside Russia , and employed " in the agricultural regions and the various industrial centers of southern Russia , the Ural , western Siberia etc . " As the Mărășești battle was waging , the Romanian government called on the Russian leadership to allow yet more recruits to be sent to the front , and received a confirmation of Guchkov 's earlier 30 @,@ 000 directly from Chief of Staff Lavr Kornilov . As a result , two of the recruiting commissions relocated to the Pacific port of Vladivostok , and set in motion a plan for recruiting more volunteers throughout Asiatic Russia .
After Kornilov 's promise , the Romanian high command took measures of creating a single and distinct division , comprising both those who had passed through Podil and those refugees already in Romanian service . Biroul A. B. was replaced by a Central Service , answering to General Staff . In early December 1917 , the Corps was reformed a final time , as a division @-@ sized formation . Colonel Marcel Olteanu was placed in charge of the central Volunteer Corps ' Command , based in Hârlău . By the early days of 1918 , it had three new regiments under its command : 1st Turda ( commander : Dragu Buricescu ) , 2nd Alba Iulia ( Constantin Pașalega ) , 3rd Avram Iancu .
Reenlisted prisoners of war formed a large section of the approximately 30 @,@ 800 former Austria @-@ Hungarian citizens who were registered as active on the Romanian side by late 1917 . By the time it stopped recruiting ( January 1918 ) , the Corps had enlisted some 8 @,@ 500 to 10 @,@ 000 men . However , the Kornilov order came too late in the war for there to have been a more significant Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinan contribution to the Romanian effort .
= = = October Revolution and Romanian truce = = =
The October Revolution shook Russia and placed most of it under a Bolshevik government which had no intention of continuing with war against the Central Powers . Although the Romanian presence in Kiev was set back by the November Uprising and the January Rebellion , then dispersed by the anti @-@ Entente Skoropadsky regime , Constantin Gh . Pietraru and a small force remained behind in the new Ukrainian People 's Republic ( UNR ) , where they signed up the last group of Romanian volunteers . Some of these efforts were hampered by a diplomatic tensions between the UNR and Romania . Ukrainian officials refused to either rally with the Entente or negotiate border treaties with Romania , but tacitly permitted Deleu , Bocu , Ghibu and other Transylvanian Romanians activists who worked against Austria @-@ Hungary to work on UNR territory .
România Mare gazette , which still had Bocu as chief editorial manager , closed down in December 1917 , having published 23 issues in all . By then , Ion Agârbiceanu and family had left their temporary home in Yelisavetgrad for Hârlău , where he became the Corps ' chaplain .
A last group of Romanian units left the UNR and headed for Kishinev , where a Romanian @-@ friendly Moldavian Democratic Republic was vying for power with the local Bolsheviks . The volunteers had dressed as Russian soldiers during their passage to Iași , but were recognized as Romanian units by the Bolshevik garrisoned in Kishinev City Station , where their train stopped on January 6 . A skirmish followed , and the Bolsheviks killed or kidnapped Corps soldiers . The survivors were held captive in the same place as Moldavian Army founder Gherman Pântea , and were released later that day by Republican troops . Years later , suspicion arose that Pântea had in fact helped the Bolsheviks , as an alleged enemy of Romanian interests in Bessarabia .
Romania 's own armistice with the Central Powers put the recruitment project on a complete standstill , and diminished the effort to move Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinan soldiers into the single new force . According to his own account , Sever Bocu attempted to quickly dispatch Hârlău troops to the Western Front , but his project vetoed by the Romanian commander in chief Alexandru Averescu .
As Romania faced indecision about its future , the Corps was still the subject of unionist propaganda , spread by Romanian intellectuals in the capitals of Entente nations . From his temporary home in France , Bocu reestablished România Mare as the tribune of Romanian diaspora politics and unionist aspirations . He was joined there by Octavian Goga , who had crossed over Bolshevik territory and Finland with false papers , claiming to be a Volunteer Corps veteran .
= = Legacy = =
= = = Diaspora units and the cut @-@ off troops = = =
By spring 1918 , Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinan prisoners held in France and Italy proceeded to form their own abjurers ' units , based upon the existing Romanian Corps . Luciano ( Lucian ) Ferigo became Commander of the newly formed Romanian Legion in Italy ( Legione Romena d 'Italia ) which took its ceremonial flag from the Regio Esercito on July 28 and contributed the Austrians ' defeat at Vittorio Veneto . On the Western Front , a similar formation was being created , mainly by Romanian citizens who resented their country for surrendering , but also by soldiers who clandestinely left Romania to continue the fight . Its Transylvanian @-@ Bukovinian membership was small , reflecting the number of Austro @-@ Hungarian prisoners in France , who had been taken mainly in the Serbian and Macedonian operations . The 135 who signed up in October 1918 were put off by the refusal of French officials to recognize their Austro @-@ Hungarian officer 's ranks . Their unit was attached to the French Foreign Legion , to be joined by the various other categories of Romanian recruits , but the effort was stopped midway ; in November , the Entente 's victory over Germany ended World War I for both France and Romania .
As the dissolution of Austria @-@ Hungary was taking effect in October 1918 , other such units were spontaneously formed on Austrian territory , mainly from rogue components of the Imperial Army . The Romanian Legion of Prague helped the Czechoslovak National Council and the Sokols gain the upper hand during an anti @-@ Austrian uprising , while other Romanian units were breaking away from Austrian command in Vienna . Romanians also formed a distinct segment of the k.u.k. Kriegsmarine personnel who rioted on the Austrian Littoral and elsewhere in the Adriatic .
A more complex situation reigned in Russia . As early as April 1918 , some Romanian volunteer groups joined up with the Bolshevik Red Army , taking their orders from Commissar Béla Kun , but some of their members continued to serve the nationalist cause . In June 1918 , a number of Romanian prisoners who had signed up for the Volunteer Corps were cut off from Romania by the Russian Civil War and left to fend for themselves . Some crossed into Bolshevik Russia hoping to be repatriated together with the Romanian consulate , while others took to areas controlled by the White movement , reaching Irkutsk ; still others escaped through northern routes into Sweden . The various groups were monitored by French public opinion , and plans were drafted to merge them into the Romanian Legion on the Western Front , or even to have them open up a new Eastern Front .
Meanwhile , in tandem with larger Serb and Czech national units , Romanian prisoners on the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway were involved in creating new armed formations . Their original goal was to show to the Entente that Romanians were still eager to fight against the Central Powers , but the Romanians also defended the line in skirmishes with the Bolshevik or anarchist cells . They resisted especially when the Bolshevik Russian government asked them to surrender all weapons .
= = = " Horia " Regiment and Romanian Legion of Siberia = = =
Some prisoners or drifting units in Russia joined up with new arrivals from Kiev . They created the 1 @,@ 300 @-@ strong battalion of Kinel , which was effectively a subunit of the Czechoslovak Legions . Romanian officers ' clubs were organizing themselves in lands held by the Komuch Democrats and the White Russian Siberian Autonomy . The original force to emerge from such schemes was formed at Samara by Valeriu Milovan . Criticized for his eccentric idea of imitating egalitarian Bolshevik practices and doing away with military ranks , he also sparked a conflict when he arrested the more conservative officer Voicu Nițescu . Nițescu escaped imprisonment and fled to Chelyabinsk , but support for his cause continued to be eroded by the privates ' growing support for the Bolsheviks . As a result of Nițescu 's activity , supported by Gocan and Nicolae Nedelcu , Dr. iur . , Romanian loyalists in Chelyabinsk created a " Horia " Battalion ( or Regiment ) . Major Ioan Dâmbu was assigned to lead it , and , under Czechoslovak orders , the new Mărășești and Reserve battalions were sent on mission to other localities .
At the time , the two recruiting commissions in Vladivostok were also reactivated by the arrival of an international anti @-@ Bolshevik force . Their propaganda leaflets , drafted by Bukovinan Iorgu G. Toma , reached all 40 POW camps in the region , urging any volunteer to make his own way to Chelyabinsk . That city emerged as a main site of Romanian political and military activity , with a reported population of 3 @,@ 000 liberated Romanians ( July 1918 ) . Major Dâmbu put a momentary stop to Bolshevik influence by arresting Milovan and ordering the Samaran unit to Chelyabinsk . A complex set of sanctions were imposed , in the hope of curbing dissent , ranks were reintroduced , uniforms on the Romanian Land Forces model were distributed around , and a patriotic cultural section began to function .
Taking a long and perilous journey , Elie Bufnea and some other officers of the original Darnytsia Corps joined up with " Horia " in mid autumn , at a moment when the Romanian soldiers were celebrating the breakup of Austria @-@ Hungary . The union between " Horia " and various new arrivals from the western Siberian camps became a second Volunteer Corps , grouping as many as 5 @,@ 000 volunteers . Through the alliance it formed with the anti @-@ Bolshevik Czechoslovak Legions , it was a Romanian national contribution to the international coalition , but reluctantly so . Once relocated to Irkutsk and Omsk in late 1918 , the volunteers expressed their lack of interest in fighting against the Bolsheviks : after rebelling against Colonel Kadlec , their Czech technical adviser , the Corps was placed under Maurice Janin of the French Mission .
A Romanian Legion of Siberia was formed from this structure , but only 3 @,@ 000 soldiers still volunteered in its ranks — 2 @,@ 000 others were progressively transferred out of the combat zone , shipped out to Romania or taken back to prisoner of war camps . As Șerban notes , the Western Front victory had opened the way for Transylvania 's union , and " their only thought was to regain , as fast as possible , their families and their places of origin " . A special case was that of Bolshevik sympathizers : in October , Dâmbu was killed by his own soldiers , partly in retaliation for Milovan 's arrest .
The combative Legion defended the Trans @-@ Siberian between Tayshet and Nizhneudinsk , where they forced the Bolsheviks into a truce and established their reputation for brutality with the nickname Dikaya Divizia ( Дикая Дивизия , " Wild Division " ) . The anti @-@ Bolshevik formation and the Romanian non @-@ combatants were eventually retrieved from the Russian Far East upon the end of foreign intervention , and were fully repatriated with the other Romanians from May 1920 . Milovan , court @-@ martialled by the Legion , was cleared of the charges by a higher authority ; however , those who killed Dâmbu were sentenced as mutineers and assassins .
= = = Late echoes = = =
The original Volunteers ' Corps went out of service in December 1918 , soon after German defeat and Transylvania 's de facto union ( see Great Union Day ) . The Romanian volunteers ' rally in support of self @-@ determination was judged by some Romanian authors as a direct predecessor of Alba Iulia 's " Great National Assembly " , whereby union was being endorsed on Wilsonian principles . They call the Corps ' April 26 meeting a " 1st Alba Iulia " . Within Transylvania itself , opinion was more divided . Shortly before the Hungarian – Romanian War erupted , members of Corps were required to present themselves for reenlistment . The old rivals from within the Romanian National Party , who led the Directory Council of Transylvania after 1918 , allegedly refused to welcome the Corps back as a single unit , and plans for its mobilization had to be dropped . A new " Horia " Volunteer Corps was reportedly formed on the Crișul Alb River , as a first line of defense against the Hungarian Soviet Republic .
In 1923 , the old Corps set up a veterans ' association , the Union of Volunteers , which carried the reputation of being a fascist @-@ inspired section of the PNR . Petru Nemoianu strongly dismissed the accounts as " enormities " , and stated that the Union had good cause to reject the PNR for its handling of the Transylvanian issue . More sympathetic to the PNR , Simion Gocan was President of the Union in Bihor County , and complained about tensions with Nemoianu . The Union even ran for Transylvanian seats in Parliament during the 1931 general election . It formed an electoral cartel with Nicolae Iorga 's Democratic Nationalist Party and against PNR 's successors ( the National Peasants ' Party ) , but was only assigned non @-@ eligible positions on the electoral lists .
All praise for the Corps ' contributions was toned down between 1948 and 1989 , when Romania was a communist state . According to Șerban , communist historiography presented the story " superficially , usually truncated or in the context of other events " . During the first wave of communization , repression touched several figures once associated with the Corps : Bufnea , Sever Bocu ( beaten to death in Sighet prison ) , Ghiță Popp .
Interest in the Volunteer Corps ' activity was only revived after the Romanian Revolution of 1989 . Among the relics left behind by the Corps is Dimitrie Lăzărel 's banner , probably the only one of seven to have survived . In 1923 , Lăzărel paraded it at the Volunteers ' Union reunion in Arad . Referred to as the Darnița Banner , it was donated to a local church , then exhibited by the Museum of Banat , Timișoara . The Kishinev flag was donated by the Corps to ASTRA National Museum Complex of Sibiu .
= Galapagos shark =
The Galapagos shark ( Carcharhinus galapagensis ) is a species of requiem shark , in the family Carcharhinidae , found worldwide . This species favors clear reef environments around oceanic islands , where it is often the most abundant shark species . A large species that often reaches 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) , the Galapagos reef shark has a typical fusiform " reef shark " shape and is very difficult to distinguish from the dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) and the grey reef shark ( C. amblyrhynchos ) . An identifying character of this species is its tall first dorsal fin , which has a slightly rounded tip and originates over the rear tips of the pectoral fins .
Galapagos sharks are active predators often encountered in large groups . They feed mainly on bottom @-@ dwelling bony fishes and cephalopods ; larger individuals have a much more varied diet , consuming other sharks , marine iguanas , sea lions , and even garbage . As in other requiem sharks , reproduction is viviparous , with females bearing litters of 4 – 16 pups every 420 to over 9000 years . The juveniles tend to remain in shallow water to avoid predation by the adults . Galapagos sharks are bold and have behaved aggressively towards humans , and are thus regarded as dangerous . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed this species as near threatened , as it has a slow reproductive rate and there is heavy fishing pressure across its range .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Galapagos shark was originally described as Carcharias galapagensis by Robert Evans Snodgrass and Edmund Heller in 1905 ; subsequent authors moved this species to the genus Carcharhinus . The holotype was a 65 cm ( 2 @.@ 13 ft ) long fetus from the Galapagos Islands , hence the specific epithet galapagensis .
Garrick ( 1982 ) placed the Galapagos shark and the dusky shark at the center of the " obscurus group " , one of two major groupings within Carcharhinus . The group consisted of the bignose shark ( C. altimus ) , Caribbean reef shark ( C. perezi ) , sandbar shark ( C. plumbeus ) , dusky shark ( C. obscurus ) , and oceanic whitetip shark ( C. longimanus ) , all large , triangular @-@ toothed sharks and is defined by the presence of a ridge between the two dorsal fins . Based on allozyme data , Naylor ( 1992 ) reaffirmed the integrity of this group , with the additions of the silky shark ( C. falciformis ) and the blue shark ( Prionace glauca ) . The closest relatives of the Galapagos shark were found to be the dusky , oceanic whitetip , and blue sharks .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Galapagos shark is found mainly off tropical oceanic islands . In the Atlantic Ocean , it occurs around Bermuda , the Virgin Islands , Madeira , Cape Verde , Ascension Island , Saint Helena and São Tomé Island . In the Indian Ocean , it is known from Walter 's Shoal off southern Madagascar . In the Pacific Ocean , it occurs around Lord Howe Island , the Marianas Islands , the Marshall Islands , the Kermadec Islands , Tupai , the Tuamotu Archipelago , the Hawaiian Islands , the Galapagos Islands , Cocos Island , the Revillagigedo Islands , Clipperton Island , and Malpelo . There are a few reports of this species in continental waters off the Iberian Peninsula , Baja California , Guatemala , Colombia , and eastern Australia .
Galapagos sharks are generally found over continental and insular shelves near the coast , preferring rugged reef habitats with clear water and strong converging currents . They are also known to congregate around rocky islets and seamounts . This species is capable of crossing the open ocean between islands and has been reported at least 50 km ( 31 mi ) from land . Juveniles seldom venture deeper than 25 m ( 82 ft ) , while adults have been reported to a depth of 180 m ( 590 ft ) .
= = Description = =
One of the larger species in its genus , the Galapagos shark commonly reaches 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long . The maximum length is probably 3 @.@ 3 m ( 11 ft ) ; a recorded maximum length of 3 @.@ 7 m ( 12 ft ) has been questioned by several authors . The maximum recorded weight is 195 kg ( 430 lb ) for a 3 @.@ 0 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) long female . This species has a slender , streamlined body typical of the requiem sharks . The snout is wide and rounded , with indistinct anterior nasal flaps . The eyes are round and of medium size . The mouth usually contains 14 tooth rows ( range 13 – 15 ) on either side of both jaws , plus one tooth at the symphysis ( where the jaw halves meet ) . The upper teeth are stout and triangular in shape , while the lower teeth are narrower ; both upper and lower teeth have serrated edges .
The first dorsal fin is tall and moderately falcate ( sickle @-@ shaped ) , with the origin over the pectoral fin rear tips . It is followed by a low midline ridge running to the second dorsal fin . The second dorsal fin originates over the anal fin . The pectoral fins are large with pointed tips . The coloration is brownish gray above and white below , with a faint white stripe on the sides . The edges of the fins are darker but not prominently marked . The Galapagos shark can be distinguished from the dusky shark in having taller first and second dorsal fins and larger teeth , and it can be distinguished from the grey reef shark in having a less robust body and less pointed first dorsal fin tip . However , these characters can be difficult to discern in the field . These similar species also have different numbers of precaudal ( before the tail ) vertebrae : 58 in the Galapagos shark , 86 – 97 in the dusky shark , 110 – 119 in the grey reef shark .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The Galapagos shark is often the most abundant shark in shallow island waters . In their original description of this species , Snodgrass and Heller noted that their schooner had taken " several hundred " adult Galapagos sharks and that " thousands " more could be seen in the water . At the isolated Saint Peter and Paul Rocks along the Mid @-@ Atlantic Ridge , the resident Galapagos sharks have been described as " one of the densest shark populations of the Atlantic Ocean " . At some locations they form large aggregations , though these are not true schools .
During group interactions , Galapagos sharks are dominant to blacktip sharks ( C. limbatus ) but deferent to silvertip sharks ( C. albimarginatus ) of equal size . When confronted or cornered , the Galapagos shark may perform a threat display similar to that of the grey reef shark , in which the shark performs an exaggerated , rolling swimming motion while arching its back , lowering its pectoral fins , puffing out its gills , and gaping its jaw . The shark may also swing its head from side to side , so as to keep the perceived threat within its field of vision . A known parasite of the Galapagos shark is the flatworm Dermophthirius carcharhini , which attaches to the shark 's skin . In one account , a bluefin trevally ( Caranax melampygus ) was seen rubbing against the rough skin of a Galapagos shark to rid itself of parasites .
= = = Feeding = = =
The primary food of Galapagos sharks are benthic bony fishes ( including eels , sea bass , flatfish , flatheads , and triggerfish ) and octopuses . They also occasionally take surface @-@ dwelling prey such as mackerel , flyingfish , and squid . As the sharks grow larger , they consume increasing numbers of elasmobranchs ( rays and smaller sharks , including of their own species ) and crustaceans , as well as indigestible items such as leaves , coral , rocks , and garbage . At the Galapagos Islands , this species has been observed attacking Galapagos fur seals ( Arctocephalus galapagoensis ) and sea lions ( Zalophus wollebaeki ) , and marine iguanas ( Amblyrhynchus cristatus ) . While collecting fishes at Clipperton Island , Limbaugh ( 1963 ) noted that juvenile Galapagos sharks surrounded the boat , with multiple individuals rushing at virtually anything trailing in the water and striking the boat bottom , oars , and marker buoys . The sharks were not slowed by rotenone ( a fish toxin ) or shark repellent , and some followed the boat into water so shallow that their backs were exposed .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other requiem sharks , the Galapagos shark exhibits a viviparous mode of reproduction , in which the developing embryos are sustained by a placental connection formed from the depleted yolk sac . Females bear young once every 2 – 3 years . Mating takes place from January to March , at which time scars caused by male courtship bites appear on the females . The gestation period is estimated to be around one year ; the spring following impregnation , females move into shallow nursery areas and give birth to 4 – 16 pups . The size at birth has been reported to be 61 – 80 cm ( 2 @.@ 00 – 2 @.@ 62 ft ) , though observations of free @-@ swimming juveniles as small as 57 cm ( 1 @.@ 87 ft ) long in the eastern Pacific suggest that birth size varies geographically . Juvenile sharks remain in shallow water to avoid predation by larger adults . Males mature at 2 @.@ 1 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 6 @.@ 9 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 6 – 8 years old , while females mature at 2 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 5 m ( 7 @.@ 2 – 8 @.@ 2 ft ) long and 7 – 9 years old . Neither sex is thought to reproduce until 10 years of age . The lifespan of this species is at least 24 years .
= = Human interactions = =
Inquisitive and persistent , the Galapagos shark is regarded as potentially dangerous to humans . However , several live @-@ aboard boats take divers to Wolf and Darwin , the northernmost Galapagos islands , every week specifically to dive in open water with these sharks where they and the scalloped hammerheads accumulate in numbers , and no incidents have been reported . They are known to approach close to swimmers , showing interest in swim fins or hands , and are drawn in large numbers by fishing activities . Fitzroy ( 1839 ) observed off St. Paul 's Rocks that " as soon as a fish was caught , a rush of voracious sharks was made at him , notwithstanding blows of oars and boat hooks , the ravenous monsters could not be deterred from seizing and taking away more than half the fish that were hooked " . Limbaugh ( 1963 ) reported that at Clipperton Island " at first , the small sharks circled at a distance , but gradually they approached and became more aggressive ... various popular methods for repelling sharks proved unsuccessful " . The situation eventually escalated to the point at which the divers had to retreat from the water . Excited Galapagos sharks are not easily deterred ; driving one away physically only results in the shark circling back while inciting others to follow , whereas using weapons against them could trigger a feeding frenzy . As of 2008 , the Galapagos shark has been confirmed to have attacked three people : one fatal attack in the Virgin Islands ; a second fatal attack in the Virgin Islands , at Magens Bay on the north shore of St. Thomas ; and a third non @-@ fatal , attack off Bermuda .
The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) has assessed the Galapagos shark as near threatened , as its low reproductive rate limits its capacity to withstand population depletion . There is no specific utilization data available , though this species is certainly caught by commercial fisheries operating across many parts of its range . The meat is said to be of excellent quality . While still common at areas such as Hawaii , the Galapagos shark may have been extirpated from sites around Central America and its fragmented distribution means other regional populations may also be at risk . The populations at the Kermadec and Galapagos Islands are protected within marine reserves .
= Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons =
Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons , often referred to as Captain Scarlet , is a 1960s British science @-@ fiction television series produced by the Century 21 Productions company of Gerry and Sylvia Anderson , John Read and Reg Hill . First broadcast on ATV Midlands from September 1967 to May 1968 , it has since been transmitted in more than 40 other countries , including the United States , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . Characters are presented as marionette puppets alongside scale model sets and special effects in a filming technique that the Andersons termed " Supermarionation " . This technology incorporated solenoid motors as a means of synchronising the puppet 's lip movements with pre @-@ recorded dialogue .
Set in 2068 , Captain Scarlet presents the hostilities between Earth and a race of Martians known as the Mysterons . After human astronauts attack their city on Mars , the vengeful Mysterons declare war on Earth , initiating a series of reprisals that are countered by Spectrum , a worldwide security organisation . Spectrum boasts the extraordinary abilities of its primary agent , Captain Scarlet . During the events of the pilot episode , Scarlet acquires the Mysteron healing power of " retro @-@ metabolism " and is thereafter considered to be virtually " indestructible " , being able to recover fully from injuries that would normally be fatal .
Captain Scarlet , the eighth of ten puppet series that the Andersons produced during the 1950s and 1960s , was preceded by Thunderbirds and followed by Joe 90 and The Secret Service . In terms of visual aesthetic , the series represented a departure from Thunderbirds on account of its use of non @-@ caricatured puppets sculpted in realistic proportions . Re @-@ run a number of times in the UK and purchased by the BBC in 1993 , the 32 @-@ episode series has entailed tie @-@ in merchandise since its first appearance , from dolls to original novels and comic strips in the Century 21 Publications children 's magazine , TV Century 21 .
In comparisons to Thunderbirds and other earlier series , Captain Scarlet is generally considered " darker " in tone and less suited to child audiences due to stronger on @-@ screen violence and themes of extraterrestrial aggression and interplanetary war . The transition in the puppets ' design has polarised critical opinion and drawn a mixed response from former production staff , although the series has been praised for its inclusion of a multinational , multiethnic puppet cast and its depiction of a utopian future Earth . Having decided to revive the series in the late 1990s , Gerry Anderson supervised the production of a computer @-@ animated reboot , Gerry Anderson 's New Captain Scarlet , which was broadcast in the UK in 2005 .
= = Plot summary = =
In the pilot episode , a team of Zero @-@ X astronauts investigate the surface of Mars in 2068 after unidentified radio signals emanating from the planet are detected on Earth . The source is discovered to be an extraterrestrial base , which is attacked and destroyed when the explorers mistake a harmless sensor device for a weapon . The inhabitants of the settlement , the Mysterons , are sentient computers that form a collective consciousness . They are the remnants of the original Mysteron race , extraterrestrial life forms that originated in a galaxy other than the Milky Way and maintained their colony on Mars for 3 @,@ 500 years before abandoning the planet at the turn of the 20th century . Possessing partial control over matter , the Mysteron computers draw on their power of " reversing matter " to rebuild the complex before vowing revenge for the unwarranted aggression .
Reversing matter , also described as " retro @-@ metabolism " , allows the Mysterons to re @-@ create the likeness of a person or object in the form of a facsimile that is under their control . This ability is used to conduct a " war of nerves " against Earth , in which the Mysterons issue threats against specific targets ( from world leaders and military installations to whole cities and continents ) and then destroy and reconstruct whatever instruments are required ( whether human or machine ) to execute their plans . The presence of the Mysterons is indicated by two circles of green light ( the " Mysteron rings " ) that trail across scenes of destruction and reconstruction . Although the Mysterons are able to manipulate events from Mars , their actions on Earth are usually performed by their replicated intermediaries .
The primary agent of the Mysterons , Zero @-@ X mission leader Captain Black , is killed and reconstructed during the encounter on Mars . Before the events of the pilot episode , Black held a senior officer rank in Spectrum , an international security organisation inaugurated in 2067 that mobilises all its personnel , vehicles and other resources in response to the threat posed by the Mysterons . The Spectrum Organisation is directed from Cloudbase , an airborne headquarters stationed at a height of 40 @,@ 000 feet above the Earth 's surface , and has a presence in all major cities . The organisation employs operatives of many nationalities , of whom the most senior hold military ranks and colour @-@ based codenames , are posted to Cloudbase , and answer directly to the commander @-@ in @-@ chief of Spectrum , Colonel White . Cloudbase is defended by the Angels , a squadron of five female pilots named Destiny ( squadron leader ) , Harmony , Melody , Rhapsody and Symphony , who fly the Angel Interceptor fighter aircraft . In addition , the organisation incorporates a fleet of Spectrum Pursuit Vehicles ( SPV ) hidden in secret locations around the world .
Captain Scarlet becomes Spectrum 's foremost weapon in its fight against the Mysterons after the events of the pilot episode , in which the Mysterons threaten to assassinate the World President as their first act of retaliation . The original Scarlet is killed in a car accident engineered by the Mysterons and replaced with a Mysteron reconstruction . However , when the Scarlet duplicate is shot by Spectrum officer Captain Blue and falls to his death from a tall structure , it returns to life with the consciousness of its human template restored , and is thereafter free from Mysteron control . Scarlet 's ex @-@ Mysteron body possesses two remarkable abilities : he is able to sense the presence of other Mysteron duplicates in his vicinity , and if he is injured or killed , retro @-@ metabolism restores him to a state of top health . Now able to deploy suicidally reckless tactics to thwart Mysteron threats , Scarlet repeatedly braves the pain of death in the knowledge that he will recover to face the Mysterons once more .
While Scarlet and Spectrum defend Earth against the threat from Mars , it is found that Mysteron reconstructions are particularly vulnerable to electricity and that they are detectable on X @-@ rays , to which their biology is impervious . Consequently , two anti @-@ Mysteron devices , the " Mysteron Gun " and the " Mysteron Detector , " are developed to aid Spectrum . A three @-@ episode story arc charts the uncovering of a second Mysteron complex under construction on the Moon , its destruction by Spectrum , and efforts to negotiate with the Mysterons on Mars via a crystal power source , salvaged from the complex , which is converted into an interplanetary communication device . A failed attempt at satellite surveillance of the Martian surface , aborted military conferences and the sabotaged construction of a new space fleet hinder Spectrum 's plans to return to Mars , and the organisation is unsuccessful on two occasions in apprehending Captain Black . The penultimate episode of the series depicts a Mysteron assault on Cloudbase with the use of armed spacecraft , which is ultimately revealed to be a nightmare dreamt by one of the Angel pilots . The finale is a flashback episode that ends inconclusively with regards to the war between Earth and Mars and the fate of Spectrum and the Mysterons .
= = Production = =
When talks to find an American broadcaster for Thunderbirds fell through in July 1966 , production for the series ' second season ended with the completion of just six episodes at the behest of ITC financier Lew Grade . Having overseen Gerry Anderson 's work since the creation of Supercar in 1960 – and going on to buy his production company , AP Films , during the making of Fireball XL5 – Grade was enthusiastic for Anderson 's programmes to be transmitted abroad , in the lucrative American market , and decided that a new concept would do more to attract potential bidders than a second season of Thunderbirds .
As a result of the cancellation , Anderson was required to come up with an idea for another Supermarionation series . He had once been inspired by the thought of creating a live @-@ action police drama in which the hero would have unexpectedly been murdered halfway through the series and replaced by a new lead character . Now giving fresh consideration to this idea , Anderson resolved that a selling point for his new series could be a character that can be killed at the end of each episode and resurrected by the beginning of the next . This , coupled with contemporary theories about the possibility of life on Mars , led to the idea of an interplanetary war raging between Earth and its neighbour and a worldwide security organisation being called on to defend human civilisation . After further thought , Anderson decided that " Scarlet " would make an unusual codename for this organisation 's " indestructible " agent who can come back to life , while " Blue " could be his partner 's designation . From this , Anderson reasoned that all the personnel should have colours for names so as to form the whole " Spectrum " of colours , and decided that someone called " White " should be the leader of the Spectrum Organisation , much in the same way that white light is composed of , and can be broken down into , the colours of the spectrum .
Intrigued by the often @-@ heard phrase " life as we know it " , Anderson wanted to set the aliens of his new series apart from the conventional extraterrestrials of 1960s television and cinema . He therefore worked from a basis of " life as we don 't know it " , and made the Mysterons that were to feature in the series a race of sentient computers as opposed to organic lifeforms , although this is not explicitly stated in the television episodes . The initial intention was that the original Mysteron civilisation came from another galaxy . Having established a settlement on Mars in the distant past , they fled the planet centuries later , abandoning their computer complex .
Contemporary recollections of the Second World War proved to be an inspiration for a number of design aspects . For instance , Anderson recalled that RAF pilots had found it difficult to counter German attacks during the Battle of Britain , since taking off from the ground meant that it took considerable time to intercept the enemy . He therefore made Spectrum 's headquarters an airborne aircraft carrier called " Cloudbase " . The Mysteron rings were inspired by an advertisement for the Oxo line of food products , which included an image of the brand name sliding over a frying pan and the outline of a woman 's body .
= = = Writing = = =
With a provisional series title of The Mysterons , Anderson and his wife , Sylvia , wrote a pilot script in August 1966 . This differed significantly from the final draft of the pilot episode . Initially , it was decided that the Mysteron duplicate of Captain Scarlet would be artificially resurrected by an advanced Spectrum computer rather than reviving naturally , and that thereafter he would no longer be truly human but a " mechanical man " akin to an android . Another early ambition was for each episode to feature a guest star voiced by a well @-@ known actor of the day . To this end , the role of the World President in the pilot episode was originally intended to be voiced by the American @-@ born actor Patrick McGoohan .
With Anderson serving chiefly as executive producer , the majority of the writing input for Captain Scarlet was provided by Tony Barwick , who had previously written for the short @-@ lived second season of Thunderbirds . Originally given the role of script editor , Barwick went on to pen 18 of the 32 episodes himself , and was also often required to make substantial changes to other writers ' work . While discussing his approach to writing episodes in a 1986 interview , he drew parallels between the premise and characters of Captain Scarlet and those of Thunderbirds , suggesting , for example , that Spectrum was similar to International Rescue and that the character of Captain Black was like the earlier recurring villain from Thunderbirds , The Hood .
= = = Filming = = =
After a two @-@ month pre @-@ production period lasting from November to December 1966 , filming for the pilot episode , " The Mysterons " , began on 2 January 1967 , with a budget of £ 1 @.@ 5 million for the 32 @-@ episode series . At an average cost of £ 46 @,@ 000 per episode , or £ 2 @,@ 000 per minute , it was the most expensive Anderson production to date . A month before , Anderson and his team had dropped the name " AP Films , " since Arthur Provis was no longer working alongside Anderson on a full @-@ time basis , and renamed their company " Century 21 Productions " . Many of the directors for earlier Anderson series , such as Alan Pattillo , David Elliott and David Lane , had either left AP Films or were involved in the production of Thunderbird 6 , the second Thunderbirds feature film , at the time that Captain Scarlet was being produced . Although Desmond Saunders and Lane were available to direct the first and second episodes , while veteran AP Films director Brian Burgess also contributed , the Andersons needed to transfer some of the more junior production personnel to replace the outgoing staff . To this effect , Alan Perry and Ken Turner were promoted from the camera operator and art departments . Directors drafted in from outside AP Films were Peter Anderson , Leo Eaton and finally Robert Lynn , who had worked as an assistant director on the 1958 Hammer films Dracula and The Revenge of Frankenstein .
The Slough Trading Estate in Buckinghamshire had served as Anderson 's production base since the filming of Stingray in 1964 . To accelerate production on earlier Supermarionation series , pairs of episodes had been filmed simultaneously on separate sound stages , a practice that continued for Captain Scarlet . Some filming coincided with the production of Thunderbird 6 , which was recorded on a separate puppet stage and released in July 1968 . Editing rooms , post @-@ production offices and a preview theatre were housed in a separate building on the Slough Trading Estate ; the crew collaborated with the Standard Telecommunication Laboratories at Harlow in Essex on the technical and electronic side of the production .
A third unit , headed by Derek Meddings and his assistant Mike Trim , handled special effects and miniatures and was tasked with creating all the permanent sets and models to be used from the pilot episode , such as the Cloudbase interiors and scaled @-@ down Spectrum Pursuit Vehicles . A design innovation for this series meant that the noses of the miniature vehicles would " dip " when stopped , to imitate the sudden application of brakes and deceleration on a real @-@ life vehicle . The miniature of the Cloudbase exterior , which ran to six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) in length , proved to be too heavy to be held up with strings and was instead supported by a metal pole . To transfer the Mysteron rings from script to screen , the production team acted on the advice of producer Reg Hill , who suggested that a transparency be made that could be panned across the puppet sets using a slide projector .
By the time the series started broadcasting on ATV in September 1967 , principal photography had been completed for the first 20 episodes . In general , turnaround for completing all the puppet shots for each episode was two weeks or 11 working days . It was originally predicted that shooting would be wrapped within eight months , but filming overran until late October due to the demands of the Thunderbird 6 shoot . While production on the next Supermarionation series , Joe 90 , began in November it was not until early 1968 that the last episodes of Captain Scarlet were edited and completed for broadcast .
= = = Music = = =
Music for Captain Scarlet was composed by Barry Gray , an innovator in electronic music , who had scored all the Supermarionation series preceding it . The opening title sequence theme , " The Mysterons " , was rendered electronically and accompanied by a staccato drum beat to introduce the lead character of Captain Scarlet . This seven @-@ note beat was also used to link scenes within episodes , and to cut to advertisement breaks , for which it was accompanied by a zooming image of the Spectrum logo as designed by Tony Dunsterville of the art department . On the subject of the beat , Anderson recalls , " When I went to the recording session , I heard the drum beat he had come up with and I thought , ' Christ , is this all he could produce ? ' Looking back on it , however , I can see that what he came up with worked very well . "
The closing credits theme , " Captain Scarlet " , underwent significant change after the completion of the first 14 episodes . The first version had been mainly instrumental , with the words " Captain Scarlet ! " sung in time to the aforementioned staccato drum beat after which a vocoded repetition of the words " Captain Scarlet ! " provided by Gray himself would be heard . This was then revised as a song performed by a London @-@ based pop group The Spectrum , assembled by RCA Victor as an imitation of the American band The Monkees , who happened to share their name with the organisation that appears in Captain Scarlet .
The seven @-@ note beat is now used during " The Through the Window " on Q Radio .
In addition to the main theme , Gray scored incidental music for 18 episodes of Captain Scarlet between March and December 1967 . Musical accompaniment for the remaining 14 episodes was achieved by re @-@ using these completed tracks as well as music from previous Anderson productions such as Thunderbirds . In composing his incidental music , Gray made extensive use of two contrasting , yet similar , themes to illustrate Spectrum and the Mysterons . In their notes to the soundtrack release , Ralph Titterton and Tim Mallett suggest that the music is dominated by a " military feel " , with an emphasis placed on percussion , brass and wind instruments , by contrast to the full orchestral sound of the Thunderbirds score . With the exception of the four @-@ note Mysteron motif , Gray generally restricted his use of electronic synthesisers , including an Ondes Martenot , to space sequences , preferring traditional instruments for Earth @-@ bound action . Captain Scarlet 's motif , heard in both versions of the end credits theme and the incidental music , is a melodic variation on the Mysteron theme , emphasising Scarlet 's history as an ex @-@ Mysteron .
Awarding the soundtrack CD release a rating of four stars out of five , Bruce Eder of the website AllMusic describes the collection of theme and incidental music as " a strange mix of otherworldly ' music of the spheres ' , late @-@ 50s / early @-@ 60s ' space @-@ age pop ' , ' British Invasion ' beat , Scottish folk @-@ inspired tunes , kids @-@ style ' Mickey Mouse ' scoring , martial music , light jazz , and light classical " , and singles out both " Cocktail Music " , from " Model Spy " , and the piano track , performed by Gray , from " The Inquisition " , for particular praise . In his BBC Online review , Peter Marsh opines that the darker tone of the music is reflective of Captain Scarlet as a programme featuring realistic puppets and death , frightening alien villains and " no laughs " , stating that " dissonant vibraphone chords shimmer under hovering , tremulous strings contrasted with urgent , militaristic drums and pulsing brass – driving the action ever onto its climax ( and , no doubt , a big explosion ) . "
On 8 October 2015 , Fanderson released a 3 @-@ disc set exclusively for club members . It contains music either written for , or used in , all but three episodes ( " The Heart of New York " and " Treble Cross " contain no original music and the cue recordings for " Traitor " are lost ) .
Captain Scarlet soundtrack releases :
= = Puppets = =
Supermarionation , a technique in which the movement of the marionette puppet 's mouth is electronically synchronised with character dialogue , had been formulated by Gerry Anderson for Four Feather Falls in 1960 . Until production for Captain Scarlet , the head of the puppet had been disproportionately large in comparison to its body , as the head contained a solenoid that formed the key component of the lip @-@ synch mechanism . The production team was not able to scale up the body to match the head , as this would have made the puppets hard to operate and have necessitated a proportionate scaling @-@ up in the size of the puppet sets . Since Gerry Anderson had expressed frustration with this caricatured design during the production of earlier Supermarionation series , and wished that the puppets would more accurately reflect human biology , before production commenced on Captain Scarlet the producer , Reg Hill , and his associate , John Read , designed a new type of puppet in which the solenoid was instead placed inside the chest , to permit a head of realistic proportion . The costume designer for Captain Scarlet was Sylvia Anderson , who was influenced by the work of French fashion designer Pierre Cardin , in particular his 1966 " Cosmonaut " collection , in designing the Spectrum uniforms .
After test @-@ sculpting in Plasticine , the puppet heads were moulded on a silicone rubber base and made using fibreglass . At heights ranging from 20 to 24 inches ( approximately one @-@ third life @-@ size ) the next @-@ generation puppets were no shorter than their predecessors . For previous series , puppet eyes had been sized out of proportion to the heads , but as part of the realistic look introduced in Captain Scarlet , the eyes of production personnel were photographed and the images scaled down for attachment to the eye sockets . As had been the case for earlier series , a number of alternative heads displaying a range of expressions were created for main character puppets , including " smilers " , " frowners " and " blinkers " . Since episodes of Captain Scarlet were filmed in pairs , one on each of the puppet stages available at the Century 21 Studios , duplicates were made of the " expressionless " template of each main character . For the pilot episode , an " agony " head was specially sculpted for the Captain Scarlet puppet for a brief reaction shot of Scarlet 's Mysteron double being shot by Captain Blue .
The increased realism of the puppets meant that their mobility was significantly reduced , ironically leaving the new design less lifelike than Anderson had hoped , as he recalls : " Suddenly , all the movements had to be as realistic as the puppets and that made it difficult for the puppeteers to animate them . " To minimise the amount of movement required , the puppets were made to stand on moving walkways or sit at moving desks : for example , Colonel White 's desk on Cloudbase is seen to rotate , while Lieutenant Green is seen to operate the Cloudbase main computer from a sliding chair . Puppeteer Jan King recalls :
The Captain Scarlet puppets were not built to walk . They were too heavy and not weighted properly anyway ... It is virtually impossible to get a string puppet to walk convincingly on film unless it is a very caricatured puppet . In Captain Scarlet , if a puppet had to move off @-@ screen , it was done in a head @-@ and @-@ shoulders shot – the floor puppeteer would hold the legs of the puppet and then move the puppet physically out of shot at the right time , trying to make the body and shoulders move as if the puppet were walking .
The " under control " puppets described by King were stringless and controlled from the waist . One resulting advantage was that a puppet could be moved through a doorway without necessitating a break in the shot . For shots displaying characters such as the Angels seated in aircraft cockpits , variations of the " under control " design , comprising just a head and torso , were manipulated by levers and wires positioned underneath the set . This development of Supermarionation would be named " Supermacromation " when Anderson returned to puppetry in the 1980s with his later production , Terrahawks .
= = = Revamp puppets and likenesses = = =
Before Captain Scarlet , supporting character puppets had been specially sculpted in clay as and when episodes required them . The guest parts in Captain Scarlet , however , were filled by a permanent " repertory company " of over 50 puppets made to the same standards of workmanship as the main characters . Known as " revamp puppets " or " revamps " , these puppets appeared on an episode @-@ by @-@ episode basis , cosmetically altered for each role in aspects such as hairstyle and hair colour . An initial intention was for each episode to include a " guest star " puppet , to be sculpted on , and voiced by , a known public figure , but this idea was abandoned due to budgetary constraints . Both main character and revamp puppets from Captain Scarlet appeared in Anderson 's final two Supermarionation series , Joe 90 and The Secret Service .
The likeness of the Captain Scarlet character has , since his first appearance , been attributed to Francis Matthews , who voiced Scarlet in the series , Cary Grant and Roger Moore . Ed Bishop later claimed that Captain Blue had been modelled on his likeness , but sculptor Terry Curtis states that he made the puppet to resemble himself and simply added a blond wig when he learnt that Bishop was to voice Blue . Curtis , a James Bond fan , based the appearance of Captain Grey on Sean Connery and Destiny Angel on Ursula Andress , Connery 's co @-@ star in the 1962 Bond film Dr No . Meanwhile , the character of Lieutenant Green was sculpted on its voice actor , Cy Grant ; Rhapsody Angel on model and actress Jean Shrimpton ; Melody Angel on singer and actress Eartha Kitt ; and Harmony Angel on actress Tsai Chin .
= = Casting and characters = =
The regular puppet cast of Captain Scarlet was the largest of all the Anderson Supermarionation series . While earlier productions had emphasised the benefits of futuristic technology , for Captain Scarlet it was decided to develop and deepen the cast of characters . Further to the enhanced realism of the puppet design , voice roles for Captain Scarlet were , as opposed to Thunderbirds and other predecessors , also intended to be less caricatured . Anderson biographers Simon Archer and Marcus Hearn note that , between Thunderbirds and Captain Scarlet , a proliferation of English @-@ accented voices altered the sound of the Supermarionation production and its impression on the viewer .
Francis Matthews , voicing Captain Scarlet , had previously turned down offers for voice @-@ acting on Thunderbirds . Matthews claims that Gerry Anderson went to great lengths to get him to sign on to Captain Scarlet because of the skilled Cary Grant impression that he had once used for a radio programme , and indeed the English actor based the tones of Scarlet on Grant 's Mid @-@ Atlantic accent . In contrast , Anderson claims in his biography that the impression was Matthews 's choice at audition , and that whilst it was not what had been intended for Captain Scarlet , the production team nevertheless elected to use it . Matthews 's filmography prior to Captain Scarlet included the Hammer films The Revenge of Frankenstein ( 1958 ) , Rasputin , the Mad Monk ( 1966 ) and Dracula : Prince of Darkness ( 1966 ) .
Matthews 's co @-@ star in Dracula : Prince of Darkness had been Charles Tingwell , who was chosen to voice Dr. Fawn , the Cloudbase chief medical officer . Tingwell , who had provided voices for the second season of Thunderbirds and its first feature film , Thunderbirds Are Go , had initially been recommended to the Andersons by Ray Barrett , a fellow Australian actor who had worked on Stingray and Thunderbirds . However , due to theatre commitments , Tingwell could only contribute to the first 12 produced episodes of Captain Scarlet . Also departing after the completion of " Shadow of Fear " was the voice of Captain Grey , Paul Maxwell , a Canadian actor who had voiced the character of Steve Zodiac three years earlier in Fireball XL5 .
Cy Grant , a Guyanese actor selected for the role of Lieutenant Green ( Colonel White 's assistant and Cloudbase 's main computer operator and public announcer ) , had been known to the Andersons for singing topical calypsos on the current affairs programme Tonight . His casting influenced the decision to accept Edward Bishop as Captain Blue ( Captain Scarlet 's friend and mission partner ) , as Bishop recalled in an interview recorded in 1995 : " It was just that a girl in my agent 's office happened to be on the ball . She represented this black actor by the name of Cy Grant and Gerry and Sylvia wanted to use him ... And the girl said , ' Oh , by the way , Mr Anderson , we 've just taken on a new , young American actor ' – shows you how long ago it was – ' a new American actor , name of Edward Bishop . And we know how much you like American voices . Would you like to meet him as well ? ' He said , ' Okay , send him out . ' So I went out and auditioned and got the job . "
Donald Gray , who had found himself typecast after appearing in the lead role in Saber of London , a detective series , was having to resort to voice work to support his acting career . The South African actor was selected for three regular roles : Colonel White , Captain Black and the Mysterons . After his mind is hijacked in the pilot episode , Black speaks with the same voice that the Mysterons are heard to use when transmitting threats to Earth . For his portrayals of Black and his Mysteron masters , Gray 's voice was electronically deepened , by running the tape at high speed whilst he was recording his lines and playing it back at normal speed , to produce a haunting effect .
The voice of Captain Ochre was provided by English @-@ born Canadian , Jeremy Wilkin . Having served in the role of Virgil Tracy during the second series of Thunderbirds , Wilkin remained to voice Ochre for the subsequent production . The character of Captain Magenta , meanwhile , was voiced by Gary Files . Another Australian actor , Files was a fresh addition to Century 21 Productions , and was cast for a number of roles in the second Thunderbirds film , Thunderbird 6 , before progressing to the role of Magenta for Captain Scarlet . Like Files , Welsh actress Liz Morgan was new to the Anderson productions and voiced the regular characters of Destiny Angel , the lead pilot of the Spectrum Angel fighter squadron , and one of her subordinates , Rhapsody Angel .
Sylvia Anderson , the voice of Lady Penelope from Thunderbirds , voiced Melody Angel , while Canadian actress Janna Hill was given the part of Symphony . The character of Harmony Angel was voiced by Morgan for five episodes before being replaced by Chinese actress Lian @-@ Shin about one @-@ third of the way through the recording sessions . Although Lian only provided the voice of Harmony for one episode , " The Launching , " she received billing for 20 episodes .
Supporting character voices were performed by Anderson , Files , Hill , Maxwell , Morgan , Tingwell and Wilkin . Completing the supporting cast were American actor David Healy and British actor Martin King . Canadian Shane Rimmer , who had performed the voice of Scott Tracy in Thunderbirds and its films , made a number of uncredited contributions in addition to writing for the series . Fellow Canadian Neil McCallum , who had provided the voice of the character of Dr Ray Pierce in Thunderbirds Are Go , can be heard in four episodes , though he was not credited . Six members of the voice cast would continue their association with the Andersons after Captain Scarlet . Healy would voice the character of Shane Weston in the penultimate Supermarionation series , Joe 90 , while Files would voice Matthew Harding on The Secret Service . Wilkin , Morgan and King were all given small roles for these final two Supermarionation series , while Bishop appeared as SHADO Commander Edward Straker in Anderson 's live @-@ action series , UFO , which was transmitted in the United Kingdom from 1970 .
= = = Voice recording = = =
Character dialogue was recorded on a fortnightly basis , with lines for up to four episodes taped at each session , at the Anvil Films Recording Studio at Denham in Buckinghamshire . Each actor , regardless of the size of their contribution , was paid 15 guineas ( £ 15 15 shillings ) per episode with repeat fees . The cast were not given the opportunity to tour the Century 21 studios in Slough until all their work was finished and therefore had no visualisation of their characters during the recording itself . This was to the regret of Liz Morgan : " We all said that we wished we had seen the puppets before doing the dialogue , as it would have been helpful to have something physical to base the voices on . I knew that Destiny was French and that Rhapsody had to be frightfully ' Sloaney , ' but that was about it . "
= = Titles and credits = =
All Captain Scarlet episodes , with the exception of the pilot episode , incorporate two sets of opening titles . The first of these sequences displays the title card and the primary production credits . The camera moves forward through the scale @-@ model set of a run @-@ down , night @-@ time alleyway , forming the point @-@ of @-@ view shot of an unseen assassin , who turns a corner only to meet his death at the gun barrel of Captain Scarlet . The two seven @-@ letter words " Captain Scarlet " gradually appear in time with the seven strikes of the Captain Scarlet staccato drum beat composed by Barry Gray . This opening sequence is accompanied by a voice @-@ over from Ed Bishop , which states , " The Mysterons . Sworn enemies of Earth . Possessing the ability to recreate an exact likeness of an object or person . But first , they must destroy ... Leading the fight , one man fate has made indestructible . His name : Captain Scarlet . " The sequence is intended to demonstrate Scarlet 's indestructibility , with the assassin 's machine @-@ gun bullets having no effect on their target .
A number of variations of the voice @-@ over have been used . Bishop 's introduction to the pilot , which is unique to that episode , runs : " The finger is on the trigger . About to unleash a force with terrible powers , beyond the comprehension of Man . This force we shall know as ' the Mysterons ' ... This man will be our hero , for fate will make him indestructible . His name : Captain Scarlet . " A little @-@ used alternative version runs : " One man . A man who is different . Chosen by fate . Caught up in Earth 's unwanted conflict with the Mysterons . Determined . Courageous . Indestructible . His name : Captain Scarlet . " Later prints feature an additional voice @-@ over by Donald Gray , warning : " Captain Scarlet is indestructible . You are not . Remember this . Do not try to imitate him . " This served both to establish the background to the series and to warn child viewers not to risk their safety by copying Scarlet 's actions . It was either placed after the alternative " One man ... " voice @-@ over or used in isolation , such that no voice @-@ over by Bishop was heard .
From the second episode onwards , a secondary opening sequence runs immediately after an initial teaser : as the Mysterons announce their latest threat against Earth , the " Mysteron rings " pass over the primary puppet cast in a number of environments to demonstrate the aliens ' omnipresence . Meanwhile , the characters ' Spectrum codenames are flashed up on @-@ screen . The Mysterons invariably begin their threat with the words , " This is the voice of the Mysterons . We know that you can hear us , Earthmen . "
The end credits sequence was originally intended to feature images of printed circuit boards and other electronic components , to reflect the Andersons ' early conception of the resurrected Captain Scarlet as being a " mechanical man " . In the completed sequence , the end production credits are superimposed on a series of ten paintings , which depict Scarlet in moments of extreme danger . In earlier episodes , these images are accompanied by the instrumental version of Barry Gray 's Captain Scarlet theme music ; in later ones , this is replaced by the lyrical version sung by The Spectrum . The paintings were produced by comic artist Ron Embleton , who would later illustrate the adult comic strip " Oh , Wicked Wanda ! " for Penthouse magazine . In 2005 , the Animation Art Gallery in London released licensed limited editions of the paintings signed by Francis Matthews , the voice of Scarlet .
In Japan , the original opening credit sequences were replaced with a montage of action clips from various episodes , accompanied by a unique theme song performed by children . This version is included in the special features of the Captain Scarlet DVD box set .
= = Broadcasts = =
Captain Scarlet officially opened on British television on 29 September 1967 , in the late @-@ afternoon slot of 5 @.@ 25 pm , in the ATV Midlands region . Viewing figures for the pilot episode , " The Mysterons " , were promising at 0 @.@ 45 million . Five months earlier , on 29 April , the series opener had been given a late @-@ night test transmission in the London area . After the start of the Midlands broadcasts , London and Scotland followed on 1 October , with the Granada , Anglia , Southern , Westward and Channel areas all televising the series by the end of the month . However , it was not until the start of 1968 that the series was being broadcast all across the nation . In the Midlands region , the ratings averaged 1 @.@ 1 million . In 1968 , Captain Scarlet was also screened in more than 40 other countries , including Canada , Australia , New Zealand and Japan . In the United States , the series was transmitted on first @-@ run syndication . Meanwhile , only six episodes of the series were transmitted in the Netherlands .
Repeat runs have varied greatly according to region . While Granada , HTV and Tyne Tees continued to broadcast the series into 1972 , the Midlands received four colour re @-@ runs from 1969 to 1974 , while in other areas , such as Yorkshire , it was not repeated at all . All 32 episodes were purchased by ITV for broadcast on Saturday mornings between 1985 and 1986 , with broadcasting in segmented form on the ITV Night Network in 1987 . A BBC commission led to the series ' first simultaneous network broadcast on BBC2 starting on 1 October 1993 . On this occasion , the pilot episode attracted an audience of four million , high enough to award it third position in the BBC2 ratings chart for the week of transmission .
Digitally remastered , the series resurfaced on BBC Two in the autumn of 2001 . On this occasion , the episode schedule needed to be re @-@ arranged at short notice to avoid offence in the immediate aftermath of the September 11 attacks . The second episode , " Winged Assassin " , in which the Mysterons destroy and reconstruct a plane to assassinate a world leader , and the third , " Big Ben Strikes Again " , in which London comes under threat from an atomic device , were held back and replaced with the fourth episode , " Manhunt " , due to parallels between the plotlines and events in the real world . In the week after the attacks , the Captain Scarlet section on the Carlton website was also temporarily removed .
= = Reception = =
While Thunderbirds had run for two series , Lew Grade 's unexpected cancellation of the production led Anderson to assume that there was no possibility of Captain Scarlet lasting for more than one . In Anderson 's words , " I didn 't expect it to continue . I simply went to Lew and asked , ' What 's the next thing you want us to do ? ' "
Captain Scarlet has generally been viewed as much " darker " in tone compared to Gerry Anderson 's earlier science @-@ fiction programmes , as Andrew Billen noted in New Statesman when its remake was broadcast 2005 : " Whereas Thunderbirds was about rescuing people , Scarlet was about damnation , the soul of a resurrected man being fought for between Captain Scarlet and the equally indestructible Captain Black . It was Anderson 's Gothic period . " The horror factor of the Mysterons has been recognised , with the depiction of the extraterrestrials giving the series a ranking of 82nd in Channel 4 's 2003 list programme 100 Greatest Scary Moments . Simon Wickes of the TV Century 21 website asserts that serious writing of the scripts is ultimately due to the realism of the new , accurately @-@ proportioned puppets , and that this aesthetic change also answers for the heightened realism of the series ' scale models .
Parallels have been drawn between Captain Scarlet and the Cold War . Historian Nicholas J. Cull interprets the " war of nerves " between Earth and Mars as a reflection of the strain on international relations during the 1960s and likens the " enemy within " scenario of Martians taking physical control of humans to the plots of such films as Invasion of the Body Snatchers ( 1956 ) . According to Mark Bould , the series " seemed in tune with a decade of civil disobedience and anti @-@ imperialist guerrilla wars " – a view supported by Rebecca Feasey of the University of Edinburgh , who has written that it is one of a number of series that " exploited the fears of 1960s America by presenting civil disobedience and the potentially negative impact of new technologies . " Since 2001 , comparisons have been made to the September 11 attacks , as well as the ensuing War on Terror .
To other reviewers , Captain Scarlet remains a " camp classic " that , in Bould 's opinion , relates well to other Anderson productions due to a common depiction of " a utopian future benefiting from world government , high technology , ethnic diversity , and a generally positive sense of Americanisation . They articulate the commonly made connection between technological developments and economic prosperity . " He also states that Captain Scarlet espouses " Euro @-@ cool consumerism " . The concept of world government is common to Anderson 's work and was inspired by his thoughts on the matter at the time : " I had all sorts of fancy ideas about the future ... we had the United Nations and I imagined that the world would come together and there would be a world government . " Peter Wright , on the series ' depiction of technology , notes the " qualified technophilia " that it shares with Thunderbirds .
Since its first appearance , Captain Scarlet has been criticised for its filming , which has been considered too static due to the problem of moving the Supermarionation puppets convincingly . The return to a 25 @-@ minute episode format , as had been the case with series preceding Thunderbirds , has been blamed for a perceived drop in quality of storytelling and a lack of subplots . Concerns have also been raised about the development of the characters : in a 1986 interview , script editor Tony Barwick described Captain Scarlet as " hard @-@ nosed stuff " that lacked humour , stating , " It was all for the American market and to that extent there was no deep characterisation . [ The characters ] all balanced one against the other . " To Jeff Evans , writer of The Penguin TV Companion , it is " more detailed " ; he explains : " The agents were given private lives and real identities , and were furnished with other biographical data . "
Science @-@ fiction author John Peel considers Captain Scarlet inferior to Thunderbirds , arguing that although the special effects had improved , it was to the detriment of the scriptwriting . He compares this schism to the disappointing reception to Steven Spielberg 's Indiana Jones and the Temple of Doom ( 1984 ) following the success of Raiders of the Lost Ark ( 1981 ) : " Anderson made the same mistake that George Lucas made , assuming that if the effects were praised in Thunderbirds , the public wanted a show with more effects . " Peel also finds fault with the nature of Scarlet himself , suggesting that the use of an " indestructible " hero made the conclusions to the episodes too predictable . Furthermore , he expresses a concern that Scarlet , who is often seen to risk his life in a bid to thwart Mysteron plots , served as a poor role model to a target audience of impressionable children .
Seen as a cult series by some critics , Captain Scarlet ranked 33rd in a 2007 Radio Times poll to determine the greatest science @-@ fiction series of all time . Despite concerns that it is not a true " children 's " series on account of its " dark " tone and violence , it appeared in 51st position in the 2001 Channel 4 list show 100 Greatest Kids ' TV Shows . Judging Captain Scarlet next to its immediate predecessor , Thunderbirds , Gerry Anderson 's own verdict is unambiguous : " Nothing was as successful as Thunderbirds . Captain Scarlet and the Mysterons was very successful , but once you 've had a smash hit , everything tends to look less successful in comparison . "
= = = Puppets = = =
Turning his attention to Sylvia Anderson 's costume design , Bould praises the " commitment to fashion " evident throughout the Anderson series , singling out the design of the Spectrum Angel uniforms . The realistic design of the new puppets has been praised by Vincent Terrace and criticised by others . Certain members of the production staff had the impression that they lacked the charm of the earlier generation of puppets due to the authentic proportions that were now being used . Director David Lane 's initial thoughts on a prototype , sculpted by head puppet @-@ maker John Brown , were , " it was as if there was a little dead person in [ the box ] ... because it was perfect in all its proportions it just looked odd . " Brown remembers placing the prototype next to the Lady Penelope puppet from Thunderbirds and gauging the response from colleagues : " When they saw it , some people were horrified by the difference . Some didn 't like it , some did . " Commentators have noted that facial expression was sacrificed in favour of a realistic design , a result on which Terry Curtis remembers :
The changes of expression on those puppets had to be perfect and in no way exaggerated like the old ones were . I remember when [ fellow puppet designer ] Tim Cooksey did Colonel White , he had a lot of trouble doing different expressions as the face was just so realistic . I had a similar problem with Captain Blue . I remember I did a Blue " smiler " head and people could hardly tell the difference between that and the normal one .
Sculptor John Blundall has called the new puppet design " ridiculous " , criticising Anderson 's attempts to make the puppets appear more lifelike on the basis that " We always try to do with puppets what you can 't do with humans . " Expressing a preference for the design Thunderbirds era , Blundall agrees that the transition from caricature to realism was at the expense of " character and personality " , asserting that " If the puppet appears completely natural , the audience no longer has to use its imagination . " Anderson states that he pushed for the reshaping of the puppets to please viewers , deeming it not "
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He did this by initiating studies in commerce .
= = International career = =
Blomqvist was part of the bronze medal @-@ winning Swedish national team at the 1994 FIFA World Cup . He gained his first international cap against Colombia in 1994 . His only World Cup match in the starting eleven came against Cameroon , although he also replaced Henrik Larsson in the second half of a draw against eventual champions Brazil . Each member of the squad was awarded a Svenska Dagbladet Gold Medal in recognition of their third place in the tournament . Blomqvist was also considered for the 2002 FIFA World Cup squad . In total , Blomqvist has made 30 appearances for his country , without scoring .
= = Personal life = =
Blomqvist was born and raised in Tavelsjö , in the Umeå Municipality of Sweden . He currently resides in Sweden , although he has also purchased property in Croatia . After officially retiring in 2005 , he became a pundit ( football expert ) for Swedish television station TV4 . Blomqvist was the victim of an assault during a visit to his hometown Umeå in September 2006 , when he was struck twice across the face . His attacker was prosecuted for the incident .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Umeå
Division 2 Norra Norrland ( 1 ) : 1992
IFK Göteborg
Allsvenskan ( 4 ) : 1993 , 1994 , 1995 , 1996
Manchester United
Premier League ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
FA Cup ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
UEFA Champions League ( 1 ) : 1998 – 99
Djurgården
Allsvenskan ( 1 ) : 2003
= = = Country = = =
FIFA World Cup
Third place ( 1 ) : 1994
= = = Individual = = =
Årets komet ( 1 ) : 1994
Swedish Goal of the Year ( 1 ) : 1995
Folkets lirare ( 1 ) : 1996
Swedish Midfielder of the Year ( 1 ) : 1996
= Francium =
Francium is a chemical element with symbol Fr and atomic number 87 . It used to be known as eka @-@ caesium and actinium K. It is the second @-@ least electronegative element , behind only caesium . Francium is a highly radioactive metal that decays into astatine , radium , and radon . As an alkali metal , it has one valence electron .
Bulk francium has never been viewed . Because of the general appearance of the other elements in its periodic table column , it is assumed that francium would appear as a highly reflective metal , if enough could be collected together to be viewed as a bulk solid or liquid . Obtaining such a sample is highly improbable , since the extreme heat of decay ( the half @-@ life of its longest @-@ lived isotope is only 22 minutes ) would immediately vaporize any viewable quantity of the element .
Francium was discovered by Marguerite Perey in France ( from which the element takes its name ) in 1939 . It was the last element first discovered in nature , rather than by synthesis . Outside the laboratory , francium is extremely rare , with trace amounts found in uranium and thorium ores , where the isotope francium @-@ 223 continually forms and decays . As little as 20 – 30 g ( one ounce ) exists at any given time throughout the Earth 's crust ; the other isotopes ( except for francium @-@ 221 ) are entirely synthetic . The largest amount produced in the laboratory was a cluster of more than 300 @,@ 000 atoms .
= = Characteristics = =
Francium is the most unstable of the naturally occurring elements : its most stable isotope , francium @-@ 223 , has a half @-@ life of only 22 minutes . In contrast , astatine , the second @-@ least stable naturally occurring element , has a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 5 hours . All isotopes of francium decay into astatine , radium , or radon . Francium is also less stable than all synthetic elements up to element 105 , dubnium .
Francium is an alkali metal whose chemical properties mostly resemble those of caesium . A heavy element with a single valence electron , it has the highest equivalent weight of any element . Liquid francium — if created — should have a surface tension of 0 @.@ 05092 N / m at its melting point . Francium 's melting point was calculated to be around 27 ° C ( 80 ° F , 300 K ) . The melting point is uncertain because of the element 's extreme rarity and radioactivity . Thus , the estimated boiling point value of 677 ° C ( 1250 ° F , 950 K ) is also uncertain .
Linus Pauling estimated the electronegativity of francium at 0 @.@ 7 on the Pauling scale , the same as caesium ; the value for caesium has since been refined to 0 @.@ 79 , but there are no experimental data to allow a refinement of the value for francium . Francium has a slightly higher ionization energy than caesium , 392 @.@ 811 ( 4 ) kJ / mol as opposed to 375 @.@ 7041 ( 2 ) kJ / mol for caesium , as would be expected from relativistic effects , and this would imply that caesium is the less electronegative of the two . Francium should also have a higher electron affinity than caesium and the Fr − ion should be more polarizable than the Cs − ion . The CsFr molecule is predicted to have francium at the negative end of the dipole , unlike all known heterodiatomic alkali metal molecules . Francium superoxide ( FrO2 ) is expected to have a more covalent character than its lighter congeners ; this is attributed to the 6p electrons in francium being more involved in the francium – oxygen bonding .
Francium coprecipitates with several caesium salts , such as caesium perchlorate , which results in small amounts of francium perchlorate . This coprecipitation can be used to isolate francium , by adapting the radiocaesium coprecipitation method of Glendenin and Nelson . It will additionally coprecipitate with many other caesium salts , including the iodate , the picrate , the tartrate ( also rubidium tartrate ) , the chloroplatinate , and the silicotungstate . It also coprecipitates with silicotungstic acid , and with perchloric acid , without another alkali metal as a carrier , which provides other methods of separation . Nearly all francium salts are water @-@ soluble .
= = Isotopes = =
There are 34 known isotopes of francium ranging in atomic mass from 199 to 232 . Francium has seven metastable nuclear isomers . Francium @-@ 223 and francium @-@ 221 are the only isotopes that occur in nature , though the former is far more common .
Francium @-@ 223 is the most stable isotope , with a half @-@ life of 21 @.@ 8 minutes , and it is highly unlikely that an isotope of francium with a longer half @-@ life will ever be discovered or synthesized . Francium @-@ 223 is the fifth product of the actinium decay series as the daughter isotope of actinium @-@ 227 . Francium @-@ 223 then decays into radium @-@ 223 by beta decay ( 1149 keV decay energy ) , with a minor ( 0 @.@ 006 % ) alpha decay path to astatine @-@ 219 ( 5 @.@ 4 MeV decay energy ) .
Francium @-@ 221 has a half @-@ life of 4 @.@ 8 minutes . It is the ninth product of the neptunium decay series as a daughter isotope of actinium @-@ 225 . Francium @-@ 221 then decays into astatine @-@ 217 by alpha decay ( 6 @.@ 457 MeV decay energy ) .
The least stable ground state isotope is francium @-@ 215 , with a half @-@ life of 0 @.@ 12 μs . ( 9 @.@ 54 MeV alpha decay to astatine @-@ 211 ) : Its metastable isomer , francium @-@ 215m , is less stable still , with a half @-@ life of only 3 @.@ 5 ns .
= = Applications = =
Due to its instability and rarity , there are no commercial applications for francium . It has been used for research purposes in the fields of chemistry and of atomic structure . Its use as a potential diagnostic aid for various cancers has also been explored , but this application has been deemed impractical .
Francium 's ability to be synthesized , trapped , and cooled , along with its relatively simple atomic structure have made it the subject of specialized spectroscopy experiments . These experiments have led to more specific information regarding energy levels and the coupling constants between subatomic particles . Studies on the light emitted by laser @-@ trapped francium @-@ 210 ions have provided accurate data on transitions between atomic energy levels which are fairly similar to those predicted by quantum theory .
= = History = =
As early as 1870 , chemists thought that there should be an alkali metal beyond caesium , with an atomic number of 87 . It was then referred to by the provisional name eka @-@ caesium . Research teams attempted to locate and isolate this missing element , and at least four false claims were made that the element had been found before an authentic discovery was made .
= = = Erroneous and incomplete discoveries = = =
Soviet chemist D. K. Dobroserdov was the first scientist to claim to have found eka @-@ caesium , or francium . In 1925 , he observed weak radioactivity in a sample of potassium , another alkali metal , and incorrectly concluded that eka @-@ caesium was contaminating the sample ( the radioactivity from the sample was from the naturally occurring potassium radioisotope , potassium @-@ 40 ) . He then published a thesis on his predictions of the properties of eka @-@ caesium , in which he named the element russium after his home country . Shortly thereafter , Dobroserdov began to focus on his teaching career at the Polytechnic Institute of Odessa , and he did not pursue the element further .
The following year , English chemists Gerald J. F. Druce and Frederick H. Loring analyzed X @-@ ray photographs of manganese ( II ) sulfate . They observed spectral lines which they presumed to be of eka @-@ caesium . They announced their discovery of element 87 and proposed the name alkalinium , as it would be the heaviest alkali metal .
In 1930 , Fred Allison of the Alabama Polytechnic Institute claimed to have discovered element 87 when analyzing pollucite and lepidolite using his magneto @-@ optical machine . Allison requested that it be named virginium after his home state of Virginia , along with the symbols Vi and Vm . In 1934 , H.G. MacPherson of UC Berkeley disproved the effectiveness of Allison 's device and the validity of this false discovery .
In 1936 , Romanian physicist Horia Hulubei and his French colleague Yvette Cauchois also analyzed pollucite , this time using their high @-@ resolution X @-@ ray apparatus . They observed several weak emission lines , which they presumed to be those of element 87 . Hulubei and Cauchois reported their discovery and proposed the name moldavium , along with the symbol Ml , after Moldavia , the Romanian province where Hulubei was born . In 1937 , Hulubei 's work was criticized by American physicist F. H. Hirsh Jr . , who rejected Hulubei 's research methods . Hirsh was certain that eka @-@ caesium would not be found in nature , and that Hulubei had instead observed mercury or bismuth X @-@ ray lines . Hulubei insisted that his X @-@ ray apparatus and methods were too accurate to make such a mistake . Because of this , Jean Baptiste Perrin , Nobel Prize winner and Hulubei 's mentor , endorsed moldavium as the true eka @-@ caesium over Marguerite Perey 's recently discovered francium . Perey took pains to be accurate and detailed in her criticism of Hulubei 's work , and finally she was credited as the sole discoverer of element 87 . All other previous purported discoveries of element 87 were ruled out due to francium 's very limited half @-@ life .
= = = Perey 's analysis = = =
Eka @-@ caesium was discovered in 1939 by Marguerite Perey of the Curie Institute in Paris , when she purified a sample of actinium @-@ 227 which had been reported to have a decay energy of 220 keV . Perey noticed decay particles with an energy level below 80 keV . Perey thought this decay activity might have been caused by a previously unidentified decay product , one which was separated during purification , but emerged again out of the pure actinium @-@ 227 . Various tests eliminated the possibility of the unknown element being thorium , radium , lead , bismuth , or thallium . The new product exhibited chemical properties of an alkali metal ( such as coprecipitating with caesium salts ) , which led Perey to believe that it was element 87 , caused by the alpha decay of actinium @-@ 227 . Perey then attempted to determine the proportion of beta decay to alpha decay in actinium @-@ 227 . Her first test put the alpha branching at 0 @.@ 6 % , a figure which she later revised to 1 % .
Perey named the new isotope actinium @-@ K ( it is now referred to as francium @-@ 223 ) and in 1946 , she proposed the name catium for her newly discovered element , as she believed it to be the most electropositive cation of the elements . Irène Joliot @-@ Curie , one of Perey 's supervisors , opposed the name due to its connotation of cat rather than cation . Perey then suggested francium , after France . This name was officially adopted by the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry in 1949 , becoming the second element after gallium to be named after France . It was assigned the symbol Fa , but this abbreviation was revised to the current Fr shortly thereafter . Francium was the last element discovered in nature , rather than synthesized , following rhenium in 1925 . Further research into francium 's structure was carried out by , among others , Sylvain Lieberman and his team at CERN in the 1970s and 1980s .
= = Occurrence = =
= = = Natural = = =
223Fr is the result of the alpha decay of 227Ac and can be found in trace amounts in uranium and thorium minerals . In a given sample of uranium , there is estimated to be only one francium atom for every 1 × 1018 uranium atoms . It is also calculated that there is at most 30 g of francium in the Earth 's crust at any given time .
= = = Synthesis = = =
Francium can be synthesized in the nuclear reaction :
197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5 n
This process , developed by Stony Brook Physics , yields francium isotopes with masses of 209 , 210 , and 211 , which are then isolated by the magneto @-@ optical trap ( MOT ) . The production rate of a particular isotope depends on the energy of the oxygen beam . An 18O beam from the Stony Brook LINAC creates 210Fr in the gold target with the nuclear reaction 197Au + 18O → 210Fr + 5n . The production required some time to develop and understand . It was critical to operate the gold target very close to its melting point and to make sure that its surface was very clean . The nuclear reaction embeds the francium atoms deep in the gold target , and they must be removed efficiently . The atoms quickly diffuse to the surface of the gold target and are released as ions , but this does not happen every time . The francium ions are guided by electrostatic lenses until they land in a surface of hot yttrium and become neutral again . The francium is then injected into a glass bulb . A magnetic field and laser beams cool and confine the atoms . Although the atoms remain in the trap for only about 20 seconds before escaping ( or decaying ) , a steady stream of fresh atoms replaces those lost , keeping the number of trapped atoms roughly constant for minutes or longer . Initially , about 1000 francium atoms were trapped in the experiment . This was gradually improved and the setup is capable of trapping over 300 @,@ 000 neutral atoms of francium a time . These are neutral metallic atoms in a gaseous unconsolidated state . Enough francium is trapped that a video camera can capture the light given off by the atoms as they fluoresce . The atoms appear as a glowing sphere about 1 millimeter in diameter . This was the first time that anyone had ever seen francium . The researchers can now make extremely sensitive measurements of the light emitted and absorbed by the trapped atoms , providing the first experimental results on various transitions between atomic energy levels in francium . Initial measurements show very good agreement between experimental values and calculations based on quantum theory . Other synthesis methods include bombarding radium with neutrons , and bombarding thorium with protons , deuterons , or helium ions . Francium has not been synthesized in amounts large enough to weigh .
= James Dudley =
James Dudley ( May 12 , 1910 – June 1 , 2004 ) was an American baseball player , professional wrestling manager , and professional wrestling executive . He played Negro league baseball for nine years but is best known for his time with the World Wide Wrestling Federation . Dudley was the first African @-@ American to run a major United States arena ( Turner 's Arena in Washington , D.C. ) . He worked with four generations of wrestling 's McMahon family and was particularly close with Vincent J. McMahon . At age 74 , he was put back on the company 's payroll to show appreciation for his work for the McMahons . He also managed several wrestlers in the WWWF and was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994 .
= = Career = =
= = = Baseball = = =
Dudley was considered an " excellent athlete " and ran the 100 yard dash in under ten seconds on multiple occasions . Although he showed up for the trials for the 1924 United States Olympic team , he was not allowed to participate because African Americans were not permitted on the team . After playing semi @-@ professional baseball in Baltimore , Maryland , Dudley signed with the Baltimore Elite Giants at age 27 . Nicknamed " Big Train " , he played catcher but started out helping pitchers warm up in the bullpen . Playing alongside two other talented catchers , Roy Campanella and Eggie Clarke , Dudley 's playing time was limited . He remained with the Elite Giants until leaving professional baseball in 1945 . In total , he played about 60 games in the Negro leagues .
= = = Professional wrestling = = =
James Dudley began working for Jess McMahon in the 1950s , when McMahon was a co @-@ owner of the Capitol Wrestling Corporation . When McMahon and his partners broke away from the National Wrestling Alliance to form the World Wide Wrestling Federation ( WWWF ) in 1963 , Dudley continued to work for McMahon . Dudley performed many different jobs , from carrying buckets of waters to counting ticket sales . Dudley was a close friend of Vincent J. McMahon and continued working for the family when the younger McMahon took over the business from his father ; in particular , he drove McMahon 's limousine and served as his bodyguard . He has said that he thought of McMahon as a father figure . McMahon later increased Dudley 's responsibilities with the company several times , and eventually assigned him to manage Turner 's Arena in Washington , D.C. , which made Dudley the first African @-@ American to hold such a position in the United States . His role required him to oversee several other events , including the Town and Country Jamboree television show .
Dudley also managed several wrestlers , including Bobo Brazil . Prior to Brazil 's matches , Dudley excited the crowds by waving a towel while running to the ring . Over time , Dudley 's role with the company diminished and he ceased working for them ; the company 's operations were moved to Connecticut , and Turner 's Arena was demolished . Shortly before McMahon 's death in 1984 , he told his son , Vincent K. McMahon , who had taken over control of the promotion ( then known as the WWF ) , " Whatever else you do , you take care of James Dudley . " After Vincent J. McMahon 's death , Dudley was put back on the company payroll at age 74 and subsequently received several gifts from Vincent K. McMahon to show appreciation for Dudley 's contributions to the company . Dudley has been described as an " important cog " in the company , and McMahon once stated that " had there been no James Dudley , the WWF possibly wouldn 't exist as it does today " . Dudley continued to feel a sense of loyalty to the McMahons and their promotion . Dudley was inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame in 1994 by Vincent K. McMahon .
Dudley 's final appearance with the company came during the January 4 , 2002 episode of SmackDown ! . According to the storyline , Stephanie McMahon was banned from the MCI Center . In an attempt to get past security , she pushed Dudley in a wheelchair but was still refused entrance . Following the scene , Dudley left the wheelchair , walked to his seat , and watched the show .
= = Personal life = =
Dudley continued to live in the District of Columbia after retiring from professional wrestling . He had 37 grandchildren , 34 great @-@ grandchildren , and 16 great @-@ great @-@ grandchildren . Dudley died of natural causes on June 1 , 2004 at the age of 94 .
= = In wrestling = =
Wrestlers managed
Bobo Brazil
Sweet Daddy Siki
Sailor Art Thomas
Bearcat Wright
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Hall of Fame ( Class of 1994 )
= Mental status examination =
The mental status examination or mental state examination , abbreviated MSE , is an important part of the clinical assessment process in psychiatric practice . It is a structured way of observing and describing a patient 's current state of mind , under the domains of appearance , attitude , behavior , mood and affect , speech , thought process , thought content , perception , cognition , insight and judgment . There are some minor variations in the subdivision of the MSE and the sequence and names of MSE domains .
The purpose of the MSE is to obtain a comprehensive cross @-@ sectional description of the patient 's mental state , which , when combined with the biographical and historical information of the psychiatric history , allows the clinician to make an accurate diagnosis and formulation , which are required for coherent treatment planning .
The data are collected through a combination of direct and indirect means : unstructured observation while obtaining the biographical and social information , focused questions about current symptoms , and formalised psychological tests .
The MSE is not to be confused with the mini @-@ mental state examination ( MMSE ) , which is a brief neuro @-@ psychological screening test for dementia .
= = Theoretical foundations = =
The MSE derives from an approach to psychiatry known as descriptive psychopathology or descriptive phenomenology which developed from the work of the philosopher and psychiatrist Karl Jaspers . From Jaspers ' perspective it was assumed that the only way to comprehend a patient 's experience is through his or her own description ( through an approach of empathic and non @-@ theoretical enquiry ) , as distinct from an interpretive or psychoanalytic approach which assumes the analyst might understand experiences or processes of which the patient is unaware , such as defense mechanisms or unconscious drives .
In practice , the MSE is a blend of empathic descriptive phenomenology and empirical clinical observation . It has been argued that the term phenomenology has become corrupted in clinical psychiatry : current usage , as a set of supposedly objective descriptions of a psychiatric patient ( a synonym for signs and symptoms ) , is incompatible with the original meaning which was concerned with comprehending a patient 's subjective experience .
= = Application = =
The mental status examination is a core skill of qualified ( mental ) health personnel . It is a key part of the initial psychiatric assessment in an out @-@ patient or psychiatric hospital setting . It is a systematic collection of data based on observation of the patient 's behavior while the patient is in the clinician 's view during the interview . The purpose is to obtain evidence of symptoms and signs of mental disorders , including danger to self and others , that are present at the time of the interview . Further , information on the patient 's insight , judgment , and capacity for abstract reasoning is used to inform decisions about treatment strategy and the choice of an appropriate treatment setting . It is carried out in the manner of an informal enquiry , using a combination of open and closed questions , supplemented by structured tests to assess cognition . The MSE can also be considered part of the comprehensive physical examination performed by physicians and nurses although it may be performed in a cursory and abbreviated way in non @-@ mental @-@ health settings . Information is usually recorded as free @-@ form text using the standard headings , but brief MSE checklists are available for use in emergency situations , for example by paramedics or emergency department staff . The information obtained in the MSE is used , together with the biographical and social information of the psychiatric history , to generate a diagnosis , a psychiatric formulation and a treatment plan .
= = Domains = =
= = = Appearance = = =
Clinicians assess the physical aspects such as the appearance of a patient , including apparent age , height , weight , and manner of dress and grooming . Colorful or bizarre clothing might suggest mania , while unkempt , dirty clothes might suggest schizophrenia or depression . If the patient appears much older than his or her chronological age this can suggest chronic poor self @-@ care or ill @-@ health . Clothing and accessories of a particular subculture , body modifications , or clothing not typical of the patient 's gender , might give clues to personality . Observations of physical appearance might include the physical features of alcoholism or drug abuse , such as signs of malnutrition , nicotine stains , dental erosion , a rash around the mouth from inhalant abuse , or needle track marks from intravenous drug abuse . Observations can also include any odor which might suggest poor personal hygiene due to extreme self @-@ neglect , or alcohol intoxication . Weight loss could also signify a depressive disorder , physical illness , anorexia nervosa or chronic anxiety .
= = = Attitude = = =
Attitude , also known as rapport , refers to the patient 's approach to the interview process and the quality of information obtained during the assessment .
= = = Behavior = = =
Abnormalities of behavior , also called abnormalities of activity , include observations of specific abnormal movements , as well as more general observations of the patient 's level of activity and arousal , and observations of the patient 's eye contact and gait . Abnormal movements , for example choreiform , athetoid or choreoathetoid movements may indicate a neurological disorder . A tremor or dystonia may indicate a neurological condition or the side effects of antipsychotic medication . The patient may have tics ( involuntary but quasi @-@ purposeful movements or vocalizations ) which may be a symptom of Tourette 's syndrome . There are a range of abnormalities of movement which are typical of catatonia , such as echopraxia , catalepsy , waxy flexibility and paratonia ( or gegenhalten ) . Stereotypies ( repetitive purposeless movements such as rocking or head banging ) or mannerisms ( repetitive quasi @-@ purposeful abnormal movements such as a gesture or abnormal gait ) may be a feature of chronic schizophrenia or autism . More global behavioural abnormalities may be noted , such as an increase in arousal and movement ( described as psychomotor agitation or hyperactivity ) which might reflect mania or delirium . An inability to sit still might represent akathisia , a side effect of antipsychotic medication . Similarly a global decrease in arousal and movement ( described as psychomotor retardation , akinesia or stupor ) might indicate depression or a medical condition such as Parkinson 's disease , dementia or delirium . The examiner would also comment on eye movements ( repeatedly glancing to one side can suggest that the patient is experiencing hallucinations ) , and the quality of eye contact ( which can provide clues to the patient 's emotional state ) . Lack of eye contact may suggest depression or autism .
= = = Mood and affect = = =
The distinction between mood and affect in the MSE is subject to some disagreement . For example , Trzepacz and Baker ( 1993 ) describe affect as " the external and dynamic manifestations of a person 's internal emotional state " and mood as " a person 's predominant internal state at any one time " , whereas Sims ( 1995 ) refers to affect as " differentiated specific feelings " and mood as " a more prolonged state or disposition " . This article will use the Trzepacz and Baker ( 1993 ) definitions , with mood regarded as a current subjective state as described by the patient , and affect as the examiner 's inferences of the quality of the patient 's emotional state based on objective observation .
Mood is described using the patient 's own words , and can also be described in summary terms such as neutral , euthymic , dysphoric , euphoric , angry , anxious or apathetic . Alexithymic individuals may be unable to describe their subjective mood state . An individual who is unable to experience any pleasure may be suffering from anhedonia .
Affect is described by labelling the apparent emotion conveyed by the person 's nonverbal behavior ( anxious , sad etc . ) , and also by using the parameters of appropriateness , intensity , range , reactivity and mobility . Affect may be described as appropriate or inappropriate to the current situation , and as congruent or incongruent with their thought content . For example , someone who shows a bland affect when describing a very distressing experience would be described as showing incongruent affect , which might suggest schizophrenia . The intensity of the affect may be described as normal , blunted affect , exaggerated , flat , heightened or overly dramatic . A flat or blunted affect is associated with schizophrenia , depression or post @-@ traumatic stress disorder ; heightened affect might suggest mania , and an overly dramatic or exaggerated affect might suggest certain personality disorders . Mobility refers to the extent to which affect changes during the interview : the affect may be described as mobile , constricted , fixed , immobile or labile . The person may show a full range of affect , in other words a wide range of emotional expression during the assessment , or may be described as having restricted affect . The affect may also be described as reactive , in other words changing flexibly and appropriately with the flow of conversation , or as unreactive . A bland lack of concern for one 's disability may be described as showing la belle indifférence , a feature of conversion disorder , which is historically termed " hysteria " in older texts .
= = = Speech = = =
The patient 's speech is assessed by observing the patient 's spontaneous speech , and also by using structured tests of specific language functions . This heading is concerned with the production of speech rather than the content of speech , which is addressed under thought form and thought content ( see below ) . When observing the patient 's spontaneous speech , the interviewer will note and comment on paralinguistic features such as the loudness , rhythm , prosody , intonation , pitch , phonation , articulation , quantity , rate , spontaneity and latency of speech . A structured assessment of speech includes an assessment of expressive language by asking the patient to name objects , repeat short sentences , or produce as many words as possible from a certain category in a set time . Simple language tests form part of the mini @-@ mental state examination . In practice , the structured assessment of receptive and expressive language is often reported under Cognition ( see below ) .
Language assessment will allow the recognition of medical conditions presenting with aphonia or dysarthria , neurological conditions such as stroke or dementia presenting with aphasia , and specific language disorders such as stuttering , cluttering or mutism . People with autism or Asperger syndrome may have abnormalities in paralinguistic and pragmatic aspects of their speech . Echolalia ( repetition of another person 's words ) and palilalia ( repetition of the subject 's own words ) can be heard with patients with autism , schizophrenia or Alzheimer 's disease . A person with schizophrenia might use neologisms , which are made @-@ up words which have a specific meaning to the person using them . Speech assessment also contributes to assessment of mood , for example people with mania or anxiety may have rapid , loud and pressured speech ; on the other hand depressed patients will typically have a prolonged speech latency and speak in a slow , quiet and hesitant manner .
= = = Thought process = = =
Thought process in the MSE refers to the quantity , tempo ( rate of flow ) and form ( or logical coherence ) of thought . Thought process cannot be directly observed but can only be described by the patient , or inferred from a patient 's speech . Regarding the tempo of thought , some people may experience flight of ideas , when their thoughts are so rapid that their speech seems incoherent , although a careful observer can discern a chain of poetic associations in the patient 's speech . Alternatively an individual may be described as having retarded or inhibited thinking , in which thoughts seem to progress slowly with few associations . Poverty of thought is a global reduction in the quantity of thought and thought perseveration refers to a pattern where a person keeps returning to the same limited set of ideas . A pattern of interruption or disorganization of thought processes is broadly referred to as formal thought disorder , and might be described more specifically as thought blocking , fusion , loosening of associations , tangential thinking , derailment of thought , or knight 's move thinking . Thought may be described as circumstantial when a patient includes a great deal of irrelevant detail and makes frequent diversions , but remains focused on the broad topic . Flight of ideas is typical of mania . Conversely , patients with depression may have retarded or inhibited thinking . Poverty of thought is one of the negative symptoms of schizophrenia , and might also be a feature of severe depression or dementia . A patient with dementia might also experience thought perseveration . Formal thought disorder is a common feature of schizophrenia . Circumstantial thinking might be observed in anxiety disorders or certain kinds of personality disorders .
= = = Thought content = = =
A description of thought content would describe a patient 's delusions , overvalued ideas , obsessions , phobias and preoccupations . Abnormalities of thought content are established by exploring individuals ' thoughts in an open @-@ ended conversational manner with regard to their intensity , salience , the emotions associated with the thoughts , the extent to which the thoughts are experienced as one 's own and under one 's control , and the degree of belief or conviction associated with the thoughts .
A delusion can be defined as " a false , unshakeable idea or belief which is out of keeping with the patient 's educational , cultural and social background ... held with extraordinary conviction and subjective certainty " , and is a core feature of psychotic disorders . The patient 's delusions may be described as persecutory or paranoid delusions , delusions of reference , grandiose delusions , erotomanic delusions , delusional jealousy or delusional misidentification . Delusions may be described as mood @-@ congruent ( the delusional content in keeping with the mood ) , typical of manic or depressive psychoses , or mood @-@ incongruent ( delusional content not in keeping with the mood ) which are more typical of schizophrenia . Delusions of control , or passivity experiences ( in which the individual has the experience of the mind or body being under the influence or control of some kind of external force or agency ) , are typical of schizophrenia . Examples of this include experiences of thought withdrawal , thought insertion , thought broadcasting , and somatic passivity . Schneiderian first rank symptoms are a set of delusions and hallucinations which have been said to be highly suggestive of a diagnosis of schizophrenia . Delusions of guilt , delusions of poverty , and nihilistic delusions ( belief that one has no mind or is already dead ) are typical of depressive psychoses .
An overvalued idea is a false belief that is held with conviction but not with delusional intensity . Hypochondriasis is an overvalued idea that one is suffering from an illness , dysmorphophobia is an overvalued idea that a part of one 's body is abnormal , and people with anorexia nervosa may have an overvalued idea of being overweight .
An obsession is an " undesired , unpleasant , intrusive thought that cannot be suppressed through the patient 's volition " , but unlike passivity experiences described above , they are not experienced as imposed from outside the patient 's mind . Obsessions are typically intrusive thoughts of violence , injury , dirt or sex , or obsessive ruminations on intellectual themes . A person can also describe obsessional doubt , with intrusive worries about whether they have made the wrong decision , or forgotten to do something , for example turn off the gas or lock the house . In obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder , the individual experiences obsessions with or without compulsions ( a sense of having to carry out certain ritualized and senseless actions against their wishes ) .
A phobia is " a dread of an object or situation that does not in reality pose any threat " , and is distinct from a delusion in that the patient is aware that the fear is irrational . A phobia is usually highly specific to certain situations and will usually be reported by the patient rather than being observed by the clinician in the assessment interview .
Preoccupations are thoughts which are not fixed , false or intrusive , but have an undue prominence in the person 's mind . Clinically significant preoccupations would include thoughts of suicide , homicidal thoughts , suspicious or fearful beliefs associated with certain personality disorders , depressive beliefs ( for example that one is unloved or a failure ) , or the cognitive distortions of anxiety and depression . The MSE contributes to clinical risk assessment by including a thorough exploration of any suicidal or hostile thought content . Assessment of suicide risk includes detailed questioning about the nature of the person 's suicidal thoughts , belief about death , reasons for living , and whether the person has made any specific plans to end his or her life .
= = = Perceptions = = =
A perception in this context is any sensory experience , and the three broad types of perceptual disturbance are hallucinations , pseudohallucinations and illusions . A hallucination is defined as a sensory perception in the absence of any external stimulus , and is experienced in external or objective space ( i.e. experienced by the subject as real ) . An illusion is defined as a false sensory perception in the presence of an external stimulus , in other words a distortion of a sensory experience , and may be recognized as such by the subject . A pseudohallucination is experienced in internal or subjective space ( for example as " voices in my head " ) and is regarded as akin to fantasy . Other sensory abnormalities include a distortion of the patient 's sense of time , for example déjà vu , or a distortion of the sense of self ( depersonalization ) or sense of reality ( derealization ) .
Hallucinations can occur in any of the five senses , although auditory and visual hallucinations are encountered more frequently than tactile ( touch ) , olfactory ( smell ) or gustatory ( taste ) hallucinations . Auditory hallucinations are typical of psychoses : third @-@ person hallucinations ( i.e. voices talking about the patient ) and hearing one 's thoughts spoken aloud ( gedankenlautwerden or écho de la pensée ) are among the Schneiderian first rank symptoms indicative of schizophrenia , whereas second @-@ person hallucinations ( voices talking to the patient ) threatening or insulting or telling them to commit suicide , may be a feature of psychotic depression or schizophrenia . Visual hallucinations are generally suggestive of organic conditions such as epilepsy , drug intoxication or drug withdrawal . Many of the visual effects of hallucinogenic drugs are more correctly described as visual illusions or visual pseudohallucinations , as they are distortions of sensory experiences , and are not experienced as existing in objective reality . Auditory pseudohallucinations are suggestive of dissociative disorders . Déjà vu , derealization and depersonalization are associated with temporal lobe epilepsy and dissociative disorders .
= = = Cognition = = =
This section of the MSE covers the patient 's level of alertness , orientation , attention , memory , visuospatial functioning , language functions and executive functions . Unlike other sections of the MSE , use is made of structured tests in addition to unstructured observation . Alertness is a global observation of level of consciousness i.e. awareness of , and responsiveness to the environment , and this might be described as alert , clouded , drowsy , or stuporous . Orientation is assessed by asking the patient where he or she is ( for example what building , town and state ) and what time it is ( time , day , date ) .
Attention and concentration are assessed by the serial sevens test ( or alternatively by spelling a five @-@ letter word backwards ) , and by testing digit span . Memory is assessed in terms of immediate registration ( repeating a set of words ) , short @-@ term memory ( recalling the set of words after an interval , or recalling a short paragraph ) , and long @-@ term memory ( recollection of well known historical or geographical facts ) . Visuospatial functioning can be assessed by the ability to copy a diagram , draw a clock face , or draw a map of the consulting room . Language is assessed through the ability to name objects , repeat phrases , and by observing the individual 's spontaneous speech and response to instructions . Executive functioning can be screened for by asking the " similarities " questions ( " what do x and y have in common ? " ) and by means of a verbal fluency task ( e.g. " list as many words as you can starting with the letter F , in one minute " ) . The mini @-@ mental state examination is a simple structured cognitive assessment which is in widespread use as a component of the MSE .
Mild impairment of attention and concentration may occur in any mental illness where people are anxious and distractible ( including psychotic states ) , but more extensive cognitive abnormalities are likely to indicate a gross disturbance of brain functioning such as delirium , dementia or intoxication . Specific language abnormalities may be associated with pathology in Wernicke 's area or Broca 's area of the brain . In Korsakoff 's syndrome there is dramatic memory impairment with relative preservation of other cognitive functions . Visuospatial or constructional abnormalities here may be associated with parietal lobe pathology , and abnormalities in executive functioning tests may indicate frontal lobe pathology . This kind of brief cognitive testing is regarded as a screening process only , and any abnormalities are more carefully assessed using formal neuropsychological testing .
The MSE may include a brief neuropsychiatric examination in some situations . Frontal lobe pathology is suggested if the person cannot repetitively execute a motor sequence ( e.g. " paper @-@ scissors @-@ stone " ) . The posterior columns are assessed by the person 's ability to feel the vibrations of a tuning fork on the wrists and ankles . The parietal lobe can be assessed by the person 's ability to identify objects by touch alone and with eyes closed . A cerebellar disorder may be present if the person cannot stand with arms extended , feet touching and eyes closed without swaying ( Romberg 's sign ) ; if there is a tremor when the person reaches for an object ; or if he or she is unable to touch a fixed point , close the eyes and touch the same point again . Pathology in the basal ganglia may be indicated by rigidity and resistance to movement of the limbs , and by the presence of characteristic involuntary movements . A lesion in the posterior fossa can be detected by asking the patient to roll his or her eyes upwards ( Parinaud 's syndrome ) . Focal neurological signs such as these might reflect the effects of some prescribed psychiatric medications , chronic drug or alcohol use , head injuries , tumors or other brain disorders .
= = = Insight = = =
The person 's understanding of his or her mental illness is evaluated by exploring his or her explanatory account of the problem , and understanding of the treatment options . In this context , insight can be said to have three components : recognition that one has a mental illness , compliance with treatment , and the ability to re @-@ label unusual mental events ( such as delusions and hallucinations ) as pathological . As insight is on a continuum , the clinician should not describe it as simply present or absent , but should report the patient 's explanatory account descriptively .
Impaired insight is characteristic of psychosis and dementia , and is an important consideration in treatment planning and in assessing the capacity to consent to treatment .
= = = Judgment = = =
Judgment refers to the patient 's capacity to make sound , reasoned and responsible decisions . Traditionally , the MSE included the use of standard hypothetical questions such as " what would you do if you found a stamped , addressed envelope lying in the street ? " ; however contemporary practice is to inquire about how the patient has responded or would respond to real @-@ life challenges and contingencies . Assessment would take into account the individual 's executive system capacity in terms of impulsiveness , social cognition , self @-@ awareness and planning ability .
Impaired judgment is not specific to any diagnosis but may be a prominent feature of disorders affecting the frontal lobe of the brain . If a person 's judgment is impaired due to mental illness , there might be implications for the person 's safety or the safety of others .
= = Cultural considerations = =
There are potential problems when the MSE is applied in a cross @-@ cultural context , when the clinician and patient are from different cultural backgrounds . For example , the patient 's culture might have different norms for appearance , behavior and display of emotions . Culturally normative spiritual and religious beliefs need to be distinguished from delusions and hallucinations - these may seem similar to one who does not understand that they have different roots . Cognitive assessment must also take the patient 's language and educational background into account . Clinician 's racial bias is another potential confounder .
= = Children = =
There are particular challenges in carrying out an MSE with young children and others with limited language such as people with intellectual impairment . The examiner would explore and clarify the individual 's use of words to describe mood , thought content or perceptions , as words may be used idiosyncratically with a different meaning from that assumed by the examiner . In this group , tools such as play materials , puppets , art materials or diagrams ( for instance with multiple choices of facial expressions depicting emotions ) may be used to facilitate recall and explanation of experiences .
= Women 's Appreciation =
" Women 's Appreciation " is the twenty @-@ second episode of the third season of the US version of The Office , and the third supersized episode of the season . In this episode , Phyllis is flashed in the parking lot , so Michael takes all the women to the mall for " women 's appreciation " , where the status of his relationship with Jan comes to light . Meanwhile , Pam makes a sketch supposedly of the man who flashed Phyllis , when it in fact resembles Dwight , who is unaware and posts the fliers throughout town .
The episode was written by Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg and directed by Tucker Gates . While the characters travel to Mall at Steamtown , a shopping center in Scranton , Pennsylvania , filming actually took place in Los Angeles . Cast members Jenna Fischer and Kate Flannery enjoyed the three @-@ day shoot outside the office , and the latter was able to perform her own driving stunts . While filming , the cast were often met with fans " in full force " yelling out Steve Carell 's name and taking pictures . Retailer Victoria 's Secret agreed to close their mall store to the public to allow for episode filming .
" Women 's Appreciation " first aired in the United States on May 3 , 2007 . It garnered an estimated 7 @.@ 0 million viewers , causing it to rank fourth in its timeslot . Television critics gave mixed reviews to the episode . Comedic elements , such as Pam 's prank on Dwight , were praised , but one reviewer felt that Michael 's relationship problems with Jan came out of nowhere .
= = Synopsis = =
After finding out that Phyllis Lapin ( Phyllis Smith ) was flashed in the parking lot , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) holds a misguided seminar on women 's issues . He closes the meeting by offering to take the women to the Mall at Steamtown . Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) orders Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) to interview Phyllis and make a sketch of " the pervert " . Pam draws a picture of Dwight with a moustache and without glasses . Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) assists an oblivious Dwight in posting fliers with the " predator 's " face .
At the mall , Michael relates his discomfort with his relationship with Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) . All of the women point out reasons for them to break up , except for Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) , who suggests that maybe they are " just having a rough patch " , obviously alluding to her own unstable relationship with Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) . Pam shoots the idea down by stating that " maybe you 're just wrong for each other " . Karen visibly takes this statement personally . Michael thanks them for their help by treating them to one item each at Victoria 's Secret . Pam is visibly upset when she overhears Phyllis helping Karen pick out a sexy outfit for Jim . Pam buys a robe because she is " between boyfriends " but can cut the robe into new hand towels . Later , she takes a step toward asserting herself by changing a flat tire on Meredith Palmer 's ( Kate Flannery ) car . At the office , Kevin Malone ( Brian Baumgartner ) sneaks into the women 's bathroom and discovers a plush waiting room . The other men soon join him .
Upon returning to the office , Michael calls Jan to end their relationship , unwisely doing so by leaving a voicemail message . Jan walks into his office to apologize in person for their earlier conversation , but when she receives Michael 's voicemail , she storms out of the office . The episode ends with Jim calling Dwight , informing him he has information about the predator . He says he saw him two minutes before in the women 's bathroom . Dwight dashes to the bathroom and examines the room , looks in the mirror where someone had etched a moustache similar to the predator 's . Dwight realizes the prank and curses Pam .
= = Production = =
" Women 's Appreciation " was written by Gene Stupnitsky and Lee Eisenberg , while Tucker Gates served as the episode 's director . The cold open featuring Jim receiving a demerit from Dwight was initially intended for " Business School " , and the opening of " Product Recall " , which featured Jim and Dwight impersonating each other , was first intended for this episode before it was moved because of time constraints . Michael 's talking head scene about Jan 's safeword was meant to serve as a " place holder " until a better version could be shot , but was left in the episode because the writers forgot about it . While the characters travel to Mall at Steamtown , a shopping center in Scranton , Pennsylvania , episode filming actually took place near Los Angeles , where the series is normally shot .
Kate Flannery , who plays Meredith , called the episode one of her favorites to shoot because she " was stuck in a van with Mindy Kaling , Jenna Fischer , Angela Kinsey , Rashida Jones , Phyllis Smith and Steve Carell for two days . " Fischer agreed , calling it a " fun episode to shoot " due to having three days of filming with Carell and The Office women . Believing Meredith 's minivan was " another character " in the series , Flannery enjoyed being able to drive and act simultaneously . In a reflection of the character 's personality , the production crew added props such as bottles of alcohol , chips , crushed soda cans , garbage , and 14 air fresheners to the vehicle . The cast however soon developed headaches , leading to the air fresheners ' removal . Flannery was able to perform her own stunts for the episode , explaining that she " was nervous at first , but I think I really could be a demolition @-@ derby star . "
The cast enjoyed shooting at the mall , but were faced with fans " in full force . " Crowds followed them while shooting , holding up camera phones and yelling Carell 's name . Flannery said of the episode , " We shot some really fun stuff with Steve and the ladies just running around the mall . The food @-@ court scene was so much fun . Steve is an amazing actor . " Lingerie retailer Victoria 's Secret agreed to close their store to the public for filming . In the episode , Angela reveals that she wears large sizes of clothes purchased from American Girl , a doll store chain , but will not shop at children 's retailer Gap Kids because it is " too flashy . " In the DVD audio commentary , Kinsey remarked that after the episode broadcast , people would bring up American Girl Doll catalogs for her to sign . Passerby also yelled out Carell 's name during the scene where Pam changes a tire .
The Season Three DVD contains a number of deleted scenes . Notable cut scenes include Kelly learning that Phyllis got flashed , Bob Vance , Vance Refrigeration , calming down Phyllis , Andy trying to earn back Dwight 's favor by bonding over cold soups , Michael imagining himself as a woman , Dwight escorting the women to Meredith 's car , Michael choosing lingerie for Pam , and an alternate version of Michael 's concluding talking head .
= = Reception = =
The episode first broadcast in the United States on May 3 , 2007 on NBC in a special timeslot , airing behind an episode of My Name Is Earl . " Women 's Appreciation " was a " supersized " episode , as it aired for forty minutes . It attracted an estimated 7 @.@ 0 million viewers , and ranked fourth in its timeslot , behind episodes of Survivor : Fiji , Ugly Betty , and Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader ? .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . IGN writer Brian Zoromski called " Women 's Appreciation " a " fairly solid episode worthy of the super @-@ sized treatment , " and rated it 7 @.@ 9 out of 10 . He highlighted Pam 's prank as well as Michael 's attempt to break up with Jan via voicemail , calling the latter " easily the funniest moment in the episode , and perfectly played by both Steve Carell and Melora Hardin . " Zoromski did however criticize the series for abandoning plot points , such as the publicity fiasco from the previous episode . Give Me My Remote 's Kath Skerry called it a " hilarious episode , " and observed " I don ’ t think The Office has ever pushed the envelope in terms of sexual discussion as much as it did tonight . "
Jay Black from AOL TV disliked the episode 's awkward moments and thought Michael 's unhappiness with Jan came out of nowhere . Black did however praise Pam 's prank as well as Dwight himself , but concluded his review : " A surprisingly weak handling of character combined with fewer laugh @-@ out @-@ loud moments than I 'm used to forces me to give this episode 4 Creed number @-@ twos out of 7 . " Entertainment Weekly staff writer Abby West also critiqued " Women 's Appreciation " , explaining that it " felt exactly like a 30 @-@ minute episode stretched to fill 43 minutes . " She thought the episode " only came together " once the Office women performed an intervention for Michael .
= The Sleeping Girl of Turville =
Ellen Sadler ( May 15 , 1859 – after 1901 ) , sometimes called The Sleeping Girl of Turville , was a resident of Turville , a small village in Buckinghamshire in the United Kingdom . In 1871 , aged eleven , she purportedly fell asleep and did not wake for nine years . The case attracted international attention from newspapers , medical professionals and the public .
Born to a large , impoverished family of farm workers , Ellen was sent to work as a nursemaid at the age of eleven . Soon afterwards , she began suffering periods of drowsiness and was referred to a local hospital . After four months her condition was declared incurable , and she was sent home . Two days later , Ellen had a series of seizures and — her mother claimed — fell into a deep sleep from which she could not be roused .
Ellen became a tourist attraction for the village , and her family made considerable money from visitors ' donations . As the years progressed with no sign of Ellen 's waking , speculation grew that her illness was either a hoax or caused by her mother , an issue that was never resolved . In late 1880 , soon after her mother 's death , Ellen awoke . She later married and had at least five children .
= = Background = =
Ellen Sadler was born on May 15 , 1859 to Ann and William Sadler , who lived in the small village of Turville , Buckinghamshire . The Sadlers were a large , impoverished family consisting mainly of farmhands ; Ellen , the youngest child , shared her home with her eleven siblings . Ellen 's father died while she was an infant ; Ann Sadler subsequently married Thomas Frewen .
= = Illness = =
= = = Initial symptoms = = =
In 1870 , aged eleven , Ellen began work as a nursemaid in nearby Marlow , but she began suffering periods of somnolence and her employment was terminated . She was subsequently attended by a local doctor , Henry Hayman F.R.C.S. , from nearby Stokenchurch . Ellen had been suffering for 13 weeks from " glandular swellings " or an abscess on the back of her head , and symptoms consistent with a spinal disease . The family did not have much money , so the parish vicar , The Reverend Studholme , asked Hayman to secure Ellen 's admission to a local hospital , where her condition worsened . Ellen stayed at the hospital for 18 weeks before being " discharged as incurable " in March 1871 .
= = = Fall into unconsciousness = = =
According to Ellen 's mother , upon the girl 's return home on a rickety cart , she began to feel drowsy and had several seizures . Hayman states that it was two days after her discharge that the seizures occurred . He visited Ellen at her home , where he was told that the previous night , March 17 , Ellen had endured a series of such attacks , after which she turned to lie " on her left side , with her hand under her head , and the lower extremities drawn upwards " . It was in this position that — her mother maintained — Ellen remained for the duration of her sleep . Hayman visited Ellen many times over the next few years and he later said that he " never found her otherwise " .
Ellen became something of a tourist attraction for Turville . She was visited by journalists , medical professionals , religious personnel and the " plain curious " from across the country , many of whom donated money to Ellen 's family to be allowed to see her . Some paid to take cuts of Ellen 's hair , until the " supply " began to run out . A Bucks Free Press journalist recounted his visit :
Her breathing was regular and natural , the skin soft and the body warm , as in a healthy subject ; the pulse rather fast . The hands were small and thin , but the fingers quite flexible ; the body somewhat emaciated ; the feet and legs like those of a dead child , almost ice cold ... the aspect of her features was pleasant , more so than might be expected under the circumstances ... her eyes and cheeks were sunken , and the appearance was that of death ... but although there was no colour on her cheeks , the paleness was not that heavy hue which betokens death .
A correspondent from The Daily Telegraph visited Ellen about 22 months after she fell ill . He wrote :
The girl 's face is by no means cadaverous . There is flesh on the cheeks , which have a pinkish tint , and there is some colour in the thin lips . The eyes are calmly closed , as though in healthy sleep . I ventured to raise one of the lids and touch the eye beneath ... but there was not even a quivering of the eyelash . ... The girl 's [ hand ] was quite warm and moist , and the finger nails were neatly trimmed . The fingers are not the least bit stiffened ... It is not a skeleton hand , neither are any of the girl 's limbs so emaciated as , under the extraordinary circumstances alleged , might be expected . ... The child 's body is very thin as compared with her limbs . ... There is not much substance in her flesh , however ; it is soft and flabby ... [ Her feet were ] almost ice @-@ cold . ... As regards the child 's breathing , it is so feeble that it is almost impossible to detect it ; you cannot feel it by holding the cheek to her mouth , and the only faintest flutter is felt when the hand is laid over the region of the heart .
By March 1873 , Ellen was believed to be suffering from starvation . At first , she had largely subsisted on port , tea and milk , given three times per day . After about 15 months — while her mother was attempting to administer arrowroot — Ellen 's jaw locked closed . Subsequently , according to Hayman , she was fed " wine , gruel and other things " using the " spout of a toy teapot inserted between two broken teeth " . The Daily Telegraph journalist expanded on Ellen 's feeding : " The feeding implements stand on a little table by the side of the stump bedstead , and , at first sight , give you the idea that they are toys placed there to attract her attention should she , by a merciful termination of her trance , presently awake to life . The toys in question are two tiny ' teapots ' , each not much larger than a full @-@ sized walnut and holding four small teaspoonfuls . One of these is filled with port wine , and the other with milk ... this quantity of liquid nourishment ... cannot weigh more than half an ounce ... " At this time , it was considered " manifestly out of the question to think of moving her " . How the family dealt with Ellen 's passing of urine and faeces is unclear , but in 1880 , Hayman said that Ann Frewen told him that no bowel movements had occurred for five years , and that approximately every four days " a somewhat large amount would pass from the bladder " .
= = = Scepticism = = =
Some visitors were sceptical of Ellen 's illness and attempted to uncover the alleged ruse through methods such as stabbing her with pins , to no effect . The Bucks Free Press journalist was suspicious of Ann 's practice of making visitors wait before seeing Ellen . Some neighbours were also " deeply sceptical " , as Ellen 's family was making a " healthy profit " from her illness . During summers , the family was taking as much as £ 2 per week ( £ 180 as of 2016 ) . Others said they sometimes saw Ellen sitting by her window at night . Ann consented to " fair tests " , but further suspicions were raised because medical personnel were not allowed to remain for too long , and Ann did not want Ellen to be moved to a hospital . Nor was Ellen listed as an invalid during the 1871 census . Hayman said that Ann was reluctant to allow handling of her daughter by medical personnel because they often concealed sharp objects with which to " test [ Ellen 's ] powers of feeling " . Her parents had also " strenuously opposed " Hayman 's recommendation to run an electric current through Ellen 's sleeping body .
Much speculation appeared in the press as to the cause of Ellen 's illness ; some linked the case to that of Sarah Jacob , a girl from Wales who , her parents claimed , was able to survive without nourishment , through divine intervention . Sarah died of starvation in 1869 , and her parents were subsequently convicted of manslaughter . A journalist for The Observer commented , " It is to be hoped that [ Sarah 's case ] is known in the obscure village of Turville , where — we are asked to believe — a fresh case of miraculous trance has taken place . ... [ Ellen 's case ] very much ... incites suspicion of deliberate imposture . " One correspondent to The Times wrote , " It is by widespread publicity that such cases are multiplied , and it is difficult to overstate the harm thus done . These impostures exist through a morbid love of sympathy on the part of the children , or from the gains that accrue to the parents . Once begun , they soon pass into real disease . " Another said the " ridiculous mystery " could be resolved if only Ellen were transferred , over her mother 's continued objections , to a London hospital , a sentiment echoed by many . Claims that Ellen was suffering from a form of catalepsy — a condition at the time considered " so rare that not one physician in a thousand has so much as seen a single case of it " — were also disregarded as unlikely , as was any thought of religious ecstasy .
Nevertheless , Hayman affirmed , " every effort [ had ] been made to discover the deception , if any , but without effect . " The Home Secretary and local Magistrate corresponded about the case but the law was powerless to interfere , because despite accepting donations , Ellen 's family never asked for money outright , and she " was not represented as a ' fasting girl ' " , as Sarah Jacob had been . The Daily Telegraph journalist said , " [ Ann Frewen ] ' s manner is that of a perfectly honest woman who would be too glad if her child could be restored to consciousness . " He spoke to neighbours , none of whom indicated anything other than trust in Ellen 's parents and Hayman , and claimed that the family was receiving no money from Ellen 's illness , although the latter point is contradicted by Hayman and others . The journalist concluded , " I have no medical knowledge , and [ am ] unqualified to give an opinion beyond what is justified by close observation of the ordinary kind . I went to Turville prepared to find an imposture . I have returned — puzzled . "
= = = Recovery = = =
Ann Frewen died in May 1880 . The inquest into her death was held at the nearby Bull and Butcher public house , presided over by the county coroner , Frederick Charsley . Part of the inquest 's remit was to consider the matter of Ellen 's subsequent care . Thomas Frewen was reported as being " quite evasive " when the coroner asked him how Ellen was fed , and although Hayman testified to reaffirm his stance that Ellen 's illness was genuine , Reverend Studholme was less certain . However , he could not offer any evidence to this effect , even though he had made several unannounced visits to Ellen 's home . Charsley concluded that Thomas could not look after Ellen , as his job left him absent from their home all day , and that the other members of the household would be too busy with its upkeep . Therefore , he turned Ellen 's care over to her married sisters , Elizabeth Stacey and Grace Blackall , both of whom lived in Turville . The cause of Ann 's death was found to be oedema of the heart , from which she had been suffering for many years .
Five months later , Ellen awoke ; by November , she had " fully recovered " . By this time , Ellen was twenty @-@ one and claimed to remember nothing of the previous nine years . She otherwise suffered few long @-@ term effects , save for slightly stunted growth and a " weak eye " .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In 1886 , Ellen married Mark Blackall in nearby Fawley . In the censuses of 1891 and 1901 , the pair are listed as living in Barkham and Caversham , respectively . They had five children : Ann ( b . 1888 ) , Elizabeth or Mable ( b . 1889 ) , Gladys ( b . 1890 ) , Sydney ( b . 1896 ) and Gertrude ( b . 1898 ) . Ellen and Mark appear in the 1911 census together with Sydney and Gertrude , all living in Lower Caversham . The census also records that they had six children of which one had died . The case of Ellen Sadler has remained a part of local folklore , spawning tales of witchcraft and rumours of royal attention in Turville . The Sadler family home became known as " Sleepy Cottage " , and was used for filming of the BBC situation comedy The Vicar of Dibley . No clear cause has ever been ascribed for Ellen 's condition ; modern diagnoses might include narcolepsy , or deliberate drugging , and the possibility that it was a hoax cannot be discounted . An embellished account of the story can be found in the 1973 collection , Witchcraft in the Thames Valley by Tony Barham .
= Greaves Motorsport =
Greaves Motorsport is a British racing team , currently competing in the European Le Mans Series and the 24 Hours of Le Mans .
In 2006 , Greaves Motorsport , founded and run by Tim Greaves , entered the Le Mans Series ( LMS ) for the first time , running a Radical SR9 in conjunction with Radical , and competing under the Bruichladdich Radical banner . After four years of running Radicals in both the LMS and the 24 Hours of Le Mans , the team , now known as Team Bruichladdich , purchased a Ginetta @-@ Zytek GZ09S / 2 in 2010 to replace the old Radical SR9 . In 2011 , the team became known as Greaves Motorsport , and they switched to the new Zytek Z11SN , winning the LMP2 category of both the 24 Hours of Le Mans and the Le Mans Series . For 2012 , they entered the new European Le Mans Series ( ELMS ) and FIA World Endurance Championship ( WEC ) , finishing third in the LMP2 category of the ELMS , and fifth in the WEC .
= = History = =
= = = 2006 – 2007 = = =
In 2006 , it was announced that Greaves Motorsport would be running the works Radical team in the Le Mans Series ( LMS ) , with Tim Greaves and Stuart Moseley driving a LMP2 @-@ class Radical SR9 @-@ AER under the Bruichladdich Radical banner . The team entered the 1000 km of Nürburgring , and finished fifteenth overall , fifth in class . Ben Devlin joined the team for the following round , the 1000 km of Donington , but the team retired after 151 laps . Following this race , the team entered Greaves , Moseley , Ben Devlin and Colin McRae in the inaugural round of the Radical World Cup . McRae 's weekend proved unsuccessful , as he retired from the first race , and finished eleventh in the second . Having returned to the LMS , the team retired from the season 's final race , the 1000 km of Jarama , after 27 laps . Following this , Moseley and Michael Vergers were entered in the American Le Mans Series season finale at Laguna Seca , where they finished 22nd , and fifth in class .
In 2007 , Bruichladdich Radical competed in the entire LMS season . Having retired at the opening event , the 1000 km of Monza , the team took a ninth place overall finish and third in class at the 1000 km of Valencia ; in the latter race , Greaves and Moseley were joined by Robin Liddell . Following this event , the team participated in the 24 Hours of Le Mans for the first time , however , Tim Greaves crashed out after 90 minutes , forcing the team to withdraw . The following LMS race , which was the 1000 km of Nürburgring , was little more successful ; Greaves and Moseley finished 35th , and ninth in class , after a starter motor problem had cost the team around 30 minutes . A retirement at the 1000 km of Spa followed , due to engine failure after 81 laps , before the season finale , the 1000 km of Silverstone saw the team take 14th overall and seventh in class ; Jacob Greaves filling the third driver 's slot for the team . The team finished joint @-@ eighth in the LMP2 team 's standings ; level with Team LNT and Kruse Motorsport on eight points .
= = = 2008 – 2009 = = =
Bruichladdich Radical remained in the Le Mans Series in 2008 , but had an all @-@ new driver line @-@ up of Jens Petersen , Jan @-@ Dirk Leuders and Marc Rostan . The season opener , which was the 1000 km of Catalunya , saw the team finish 15th overall , and seventh in class . However , the rest of the season was unsuccessful , as the team did not finish above 30th overall in any of the remaining LMS races , or the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; although 30th at the 1000 km of Spa equated to seventh in class , due to attrition . As a result , the team slipped to joint @-@ eleventh in class , with four points .
For 2009 , Pierre Bruneau joined the team , and as a result , the team became known as the Bruichladdich @-@ Bruneau Team , with the team continuing to use the AER @-@ engined Radical SR9 . The opening round of the season , which was the 1000 km of Catalunya , saw Bruneau , partnered by Moseley and Nigel Greensall , finishing tenth overall , and fourth in the LM P2 category . At the 1000 km of Spa , Tim Greaves and Jonathon Coleman replaced Moseley and Greensall , but the team were disqualified from the event for an unspecified technical infringement . Rostan partnered Greaves and Bruneau at the 24 Hours of Le Mans , but retired from the race after just over fourteen and a half hours , having completed 91 laps . At the 1000 km of Algarve , Greaves and Bruneau were partnered by Francesco Sini , but could only finish 25th overall , and tenth in class . Michael Vergers replaced Greaves at the 1000 km of Nürburgring , but the team retired after 114 laps . Greaves returned for the 1000 km of Silverstone , the season finale ; the team finished 16th overall , and sixth in class . The team were classified seventh in the LM P2 standings , with eight points .
= = = 2010 – 2011 = = =
In 2010 , the team ended their association with Radical , and replaced the SR9 with a LM P2 class Ginetta @-@ Zytek GZ09S / 2 ; Tim Greaves , Karim Ojjeh and Thor @-@ Christian Ebbesvik were named as the team 's regular drivers , resulting in the team being known as Team Bruichladdich . The team 's first race with the car came at the LMS opener , the 8 Hours of Castellet , and they finished twelfth overall , fifth in class . The 1000 km of Spa proved to be less successful ; the team suffered a blown engine during qualifying , and Ebbesvik crashed out of the race after 15 laps . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Gary Chalandon replaced Ebbesvik , and the team finished tenth overall , fifth in the LM P2 class . Next up was the 1000 km of Algarve , and Ebbesvik returned to the team ; fifth overall , and second in class , for their first class podium of the season . The 1000 km of Hungaroring saw another fifth place overall , although mechanical difficulties with the LM P1 @-@ class cars meant that this also equated to fifth in class . The season finale , which was the 1000 km of Silverstone , saw the team end the season with a 19th overall , and eighth in class . The team finished the season ranked fifth in the LMP2 Team 's Championship , with 46 points .
In 2011 , the team changed their name to Greaves Motorsport , and were the first team to use the new LM P2 @-@ class Zytek Z11SN @-@ Nissan . With Ojjeh , Chalandon and Tom Kimber @-@ Smith driving the car , the team won the LM P2 class and came third overall at the 6 Hours of Castellet , which was the first round of the season . Although the team struggled at the 1000 km of Spa , finishing 37th overall , and eighth in class , the team won the LM P2 category of the 24 Hours of Le Mans for the first time , and finished eighth overall ; Chalandon was replaced by Olivier Lombard from this event onwards . Another eighth place overall , and class victory followed , at the 6 Hours of Imola ; the team then won the LM P2 class for the third race in a row at the 6 Hours of Silverstone , this time finishing tenth overall . The team finished the season with a fourth overall , and second in class , at the 6 Hours of Estoril ; this meant that the team won the LM P2 Championship , with Kimber @-@ Smith and Ojjeh being crowned as the LM P2 Driver 's Champions .
= = = 2012 – 2013 = = =
In 2012 , Greaves Motorsport entered both the European Le Mans Series ( ELMS ) and the new FIA World Endurance Championship ( WEC ) . Kimber @-@ Smith , Alex Brundle and Lucas Ordóñez were hired for the ELMS , whilst Elton Julian , Christian Zugel and Ricardo González were hired for the WEC . The team 's first event of the season came at the 12 Hours of Sebring , which formed part of the WEC and the American Le Mans Series ( ALMS ) ; the team finished seventh of the WEC runners , and fourth in the LMP2 category . The team then entered the opening round of the ELMS , which was the 6 Hours of Castellet ; the team finished fourth overall , and in the LM P2 class . The next event the team entered was the 6 Hours of Spa @-@ Francorchamps , part of the WEC ; the team finished 16th overall , and seventh in the LM P2 class . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Greaves Motorsport entered two cars ; Zugel , Julian and González in the No. 41 car , and Alex Brundle , Martin Brundle and Ordóñez in the No. 42 car . The No. 41 car finished 12th overall , and fifth in class , whilst the No. 42 car finished 15th overall , and eighth in class . Next , the team returned to the ELMS , competing in the 6 Hours of Donington , finishing seventh overall and in the LM P2 class . The team then entered both cars in the 6 Hours of Silverstone , with the same drivers that had competed in the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; the No. 42 car finished 12th overall , and fifth in the LM P2 category , whilst the No. 41 car finished 20th overall , and 13th in class . Greaves Motorsport reverted to a single @-@ car entry for the 6 Hours of São Paulo round of the WEC , with Roberto González replacing his brother Ricardo ( whom had been selected to drive for Level 5 Motorsports instead ) ; the team finished eleventh overall , and fourth in the LM P2 class . Ricardo González returned to the team for the 6 Hours of Bahrain , and the team finished twelfth overall , seventh in the LMP2 category . The 6 Hours of Fuji was the team 's next race , and they finished 14th overall , and seventh in class . Greaves Motorsport then entered the final race of the ELMS season , which was the Petit Le Mans ( also part of the ALMS ) ; Alex Brundle , Kimber @-@ Smith and Alex Buncombe were selected to drive , and they finished 32nd overall , fifth in the P2 class . The team finished the 2012 season by competing in the 6 Hours of Shanghai , which was part of the WEC ; they finished 15th overall , and eighth in class . In the WEC , Greaves Motorsport were classified fifth in the LM P2 trophy , with 99 points ; whilst in the ELMS , they were classified third in the LM P2 standings , with 48 points .
In 2013 , Greaves Motorsport once again entered both the ELMS and the WEC . Chris Dyson and Michael Marsal were hired for the first round of the ELMS , whilst Dyson and Marsal were joined by Kimber @-@ Smith for the WEC . The team started the 2013 season by entering the opening round
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of the ELMS , which was the 3 Hours of Silverstone on 13 April ; the team retired after 23 laps . They then entered the 6 Hours of Silverstone , which was part of the WEC and held the following day ; this time , the team finished eleventh overall , and fifth in class . The next event the team entered was the 6 Hours of Spa @-@ Francorchamps , which was part of the WEC ; however , the team withdrew from the event after Dyson crashed heavily in qualifying , leaving the car too damaged to race . The team then returned to the ELMS , and entered the 3 Hours of Imola ; Kimber @-@ Smith and David Heinemeier Hansson were selected to drive , and they finished fifth overall , and in class . For the 24 Hours of Le Mans , Greaves Motorsport once again entered two cars ; Kimber @-@ Smith , Alexander Rossi and Eric Lux in the No. 41 car , whilst Ordóñez , Michael Krumm and Jann Mardenborough drove the No. 42 car . As Greaves Motorsport had signed a deal with Caterham , the No. 41 car was entered under the Caterham Motorsport banner . In the race , the No. 42 car proved to be the quicker of the two ; Krumm , Mardenborough and Ordóñez finished ninth overall , and third in the LM P2 class , whilst the Caterham Motorsport car finished 23rd overall , and tenth in the LM P2 class . Although the team initially entered the Caterham @-@ backed car in the 3 Hours of Red Bull Ring , part of the ELMS , they were forced to withdraw after they were unable to find any drivers to run ; this was the first time the team had withdrawn from an ELMS event since their first race in the series , back in 2006 . Zugel and Jeannette were partnered by Björn Wirdheim for the 6 Hours of São Paulo , which was part of the WEC ; although they were running third at one point of the race , they eventually finished seventh overall , and fourth in the LM P2 category . The team then attempted to return to the ELMS , by entering the 3 Hours of Hungaroring , but did not register any drivers or attend the event . Zugel , Dyson and Kimber @-@ Smith drove in the 6 Hours of Circuit of the Americas , part of the WEC , and took fifth in the LM P2 category , and ninth overall . For the 6 Hours of Fuji , Greaves Motorsport announced a partnership with local Super GT team Gainer , which resulted in Gainer 's Katsuyuki Hiranaka partnering Björn Wirdheim and Masayuki Ueda ; the combined effort was entered under the " Gainer International " banner . The race was halted at around the three @-@ hour mark due to torrential rain , and the team were classified sixth overall , and third in class . The 6 Hours of Shanghai saw Greaves Motorsport hand Mark Shulzhitskiy his WEC debut , driving alongside Lux and Wirdheim ; the trio took another fifth place in class for the team , and ninth overall . The final round of the WEC season , which was the 6 Hours of Bahrain , saw Wolfgang Reip make his debut in the series with Greaves Motorsport ; he was partnered by fellow debutant Jon Lancaster and Wildheim . Despite the team 's inexperience , they were able to finish third in the LM P2 class , and fifth overall . The team finished the year classified fifth in the LM P2 category of the WEC , with 81 points , and ninth in the ELMS , with ten points .
= = = 2014 – 2015 = = =
In 2014 , Greaves Motorsport returned to the ELMS , once again campaigning two Zytek Z11SNs . After the team 's failure to secure a guaranteed spot at the 2014 24 Hours of Le Mans , Caterham withdrew their backing of Greaves Motorsport . At the 4 Hours of Silverstone , the team fielded three ELMS and LM P2 category débutantes ; Matt McMurry , James Littlejohn , and Tony Wells . It was to be a successful début for all three drivers ; McMurry , partnered by Dyson and Kimber @-@ Smith , finished fourth , whilst Littlejohn and Wells were partnered by James Walker and finished sixth . Littlejohn had actually lead the race at one point , and both he and McMurry were nominated for " Driver of the Day " by Radio Le Mans . For the 4 Hours of Imola , Greaves entered one car , driven by Kimber @-@ Smith and McMurry ; for the second race in succession , they finished fourth . Greaves Motorsport had two entries at the 24 Hours of Le Mans ; the # 41 car , which was driven by James Winslow , Alessandro Latif and Michael Munemann under their own name , and the # 42 car , which was driven by McMurry ( who became the youngest ever competitor at the event ) , Dyson and Kimber @-@ Smith under the Caterham Racing banner . Although the # 41 car was forced to retire due to suspension damage after Munemann crashed , the # 42 car was able to finish tenth in class , and 25th overall . Greaves Motorsport then returned to the ELMS for the 4 Hours of Red Bull Ring , where Luciano Bacheta and Mark Shulzhitskiy drove one car , and Kimber @-@ Smith , Mark Patterson and McMurry drove the other ; the two entries finished fourth and sixth respectively . The next race , which was the 4 Hours of Castellet , proved to be a mixed bag ; whilst Shulzhitskiy and Bacheta were able to challenge for the lead before eventually finishing fifth , the car of McMurry and Johnny Mowlem crashed out of the race at the first corner . At the final race of the season , which was the 4 Hours of Estoril , the team had another mixed race ; Shulzhitskiy and Bacheta were running third before an incident whilst lapping GT cars led to their eventual retirement , whilst McMurry , Miguel Faisca and James Fletcher took seventh place . Greaves Motorsport finished the season fourth in the LM P2 Team 's standings , tied with Morand Racing on 68 points .
On 16 December 2014 , it was announced that Greaves Motorsport would be competing in the LM P2 class of both the ELMS and the FIA WEC for the 2015 season , subject to their application 's approval , with Gibson Technology 's updated version of the Zytek Z11SN , renamed as the Gibson 015S .
= High Virgo =
The High Virgo , also known as Weapons System 199C ( WS @-@ 199C ) , was a prototype air @-@ launched ballistic missile ( ALBM ) jointly developed by Lockheed and the Convair division of General Dynamics during the late 1950s . The missile proved moderately successful and aided in the development of the later GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ALBM ; in addition , it was used in early test of anti @-@ satellite weapons .
= = Design and development = =
As part of the WS @-@ 199 project to develop new strategic weapons for the United States Air Force 's Strategic Air Command , the Lockheed Corporation and the Convair division of General Dynamics proposed the development of an air @-@ launched ballistic missile , to be carried by the Convair B @-@ 58 Hustler supersonic medium bomber . In early 1958 the two companies were awarded a contract for development of the weapon , designated WS @-@ 199C and given the code @-@ name " High Virgo " . While the project was intended to be strictly a research @-@ and @-@ development exercise , it was planned that the weapon would be quickly capable of being developed into an operational system if required .
The High Virgo missile was a single @-@ stage weapon , powered by a solid @-@ fueled Thiokol TX @-@ 20 rocket , and was equipped an advanced inertial guidance system derived from that of the AGM @-@ 28 Hound Dog cruise missile . Four tailfins in a cruciform arrangement provided directional control . The missile was developed by Lockheed , utilising components developed for several existing missiles in order to reduce the cost of the project , and also to reduce the development time required , while Convair was responsible for development of a pylon for carriage and launching of the missile from the prototype B @-@ 58 , the pylon replacing the aircraft 's normal weapons pod .
= = Operational history = =
Four test flights of the High Virgo missile were conducted ; due to development problems , the first two did not include the inertial guidance system , instead being fitted with a simple autopilot guiding the weapon on a pre @-@ programmed course . Launched from its B @-@ 58 carrier aircraft at high altitude and supersonic speed , the initial flight , conducted on September 5 , 1958 , was a failure when the missile 's controls malfunctioned ; the second test , three months later , proved more successful , with the missile flying over a range of nearly 200 miles ( 320 km ) . The third flight test , the following June , utilized the inertial guidance system for the first time ; it , too , was a successful flight .
= = = Anti @-@ satellite test = = =
The fourth High Virgo missile was utilized in a test mission intended to demonstrate the capability of the missile for use as a " satellite interceptor " , or anti @-@ satellite missile ( ASAT ) . the missile , modified with cameras to record the results of the test , was initially targeted at the Explorer 4 satellite , but due to errors in calculating the satellite 's orbit Explorer 5 was targeted instead .
The ASAT test mission , the final flight of the High Virgo missile , was conducted on September 22 , 1959 ; less than a minute after the launch of the missile from its B @-@ 58 carrier aircraft at Mach 2 , the telemetry signal was lost . No data was recovered from the test , and the camera data , intended to be recovered afterward , was not located ; therefore the test was inconclusive .
No further test firings of High Virgo were conducted , the research project having been concluded . However the Air Force was already undertaking work on what would become the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt missile , which incorporated lessons learned from the WS @-@ 199 project in its construction .
= = Launch history = =
= Pelagic stingray =
The pelagic stingray ( Pteroplatytrygon violacea ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae , and the sole member of its genus . It is characterized by the wedge @-@ like shape of its pectoral fin disc , which is much wider than long , as well as by the pointed teeth in both sexes , whip @-@ like tail with extremely long tail spine , and uniform violet to blue @-@ green coloration . It generally reaches 59 cm ( 23 in ) in width . The pelagic stingray has a worldwide distribution in waters warmer than 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) , and migrates seasonally to spend the summer closer to the continental shelf and at higher latitudes . The only stingray that almost exclusively inhabits the open ocean , this species is typically found in surface waters down to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) . As a consequence of its midwater habits , its swimming style has evolved to feature more of a flapping motion of the pectoral fins , as opposed to the disc margin undulations used by other , bottom @-@ dwelling stingrays .
The diet of the pelagic stingray consists of free @-@ swimming invertebrates and bony fishes . It is an active hunter , using its pectoral fins to trap and move food to its mouth , and has been known to take advantage of seasonal feeding opportunities such as spawning squid . Like other stingrays , it is aplacental viviparous , meaning that the embryos are sustained initially by yolk and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) . With a short gestation period of 2 – 4 months , females may bear two litters of 4 – 13 pups per year . Birthing generally occurs in warm water near the equator , with the exception of the Mediterranean Sea , with the timing varying between regions . Rarely encountered except by fishery workers , the pelagic stingray can inflict a severe , even fatal wound with its tail spine . This species is caught as bycatch throughout its range ; it is of little economic value and usually discarded , often with high mortality . However , there is evidence that its numbers are increasing , perhaps owing to the heavy fishing of its natural predators and competitors ( e.g. , sharks ) . Along with the pelagic stingray 's global distribution and prolific life history , this has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to assess it as of Least Concern .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The pelagic stingray was originally described by French naturalist Charles Lucien Bonaparte in the 1832 third volume of Iconografia della fauna italica per le quattro classi degli animali vertebrati . He named it Trygon violacea , from the Latin viola ( " purple " ) , and designated two specimens collected off Italy as the species syntypes . The genus Trygon has since been synonymized with Dasyatis . In 1910 , American zoologist Henry Weed Fowler placed the pelagic stingray in the newly created subgenus Pteroplatytrygon , from the Greek pteron ( " fin " ) , platus ( " broad " ) , and trygon ( " stingray " ) . Later authors elevated Pterplatytrygon to the rank of full genus , though some taxonomists dispute whether this species is distinct enough to warrant separation from Dasyatis .
Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphology , found that the pelagic stingray is one of the more basal members of its family , being the sister taxon to a clade that contains Pastinachus , Dasyatis , and Indo @-@ Pacific Himantura species . Other common names for the pelagic stingray include the blue stingray and the violet stingray .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The distribution of the pelagic stingray extends nearly worldwide in tropical to warm @-@ temperate pelagic waters , between the latitudes of 52 ° N and 50 ° S. In the western Atlantic , it has been reported from the Grand Banks of Newfoundland to North Carolina , the northern Gulf of Mexico , and the Lesser Antilles , Brazil and Uruguay . In the eastern Atlantic , this species has been recorded from the North Sea to Madeira , including the Mediterranean Sea , as well as around Cape Verde , in the Gulf of Guinea and off South Africa . In the Pacific , it is known from Japan to Australia and New Zealand in the west , British Columbia to Chile in the west , and around many oceanic islands including Hawaii , the Galápagos , and Easter Island . There have been no reports of this species from much of the Indian Ocean , but it is known to be common in the southwestern portion and around Indonesia .
Unique amongst stingrays in inhabiting the open ocean rather than the sea floor , the pelagic stingray is generally found from the surface to a depth of 100 m ( 330 ft ) over deep water . It has also been caught at a depth of 330 – 381 m ( 1 @,@ 083 – 1 @,@ 250 ft ) over the Kyushu @-@ Palau Ridge , indicating that it at least occasionally approaches the bottom . This species prefers water temperatures above 19 ° C ( 66 ° F ) , and will die if the temperature drops to 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) .
The pelagic stingray performs seasonal migrations following warm water masses . In the northwestern Atlantic , it is found in or near the Gulf Stream from December to April , and moves north of the Stream to gather near the continental shelf from July to September . A similar migration seems to occur in the Mediterranean , though the specifics are unknown . In the Pacific , this species apparently spends the winter in oceanic waters near the equator and move into higher latitudes and towards the coast in spring . Two Pacific populations are known : one migrates from near Central America to California , and the other from the central Pacific to as far as Japan and British Columbia . Off southeastern Brazil , pelagic stingrays are displaced towards the coast by upwellings of cold water in late spring and summer ; in some years they may even be pushed into inshore waters less than 45 m ( 148 ft ) deep .
= = Description = =
The pelagic stingray has a very thick , distinctively wedge @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc one @-@ third wider than long , with broadly curved leading margins , rather angular outer corners , and nearly straight trailing margins . The snout is short with a rounded tip . The eyes are minute and , unlike in other stingrays , do not protrude above the body ; the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) follow immediate behind . There is a short but broad curtain of skin between the nostrils , with a weakly fringed rear margin . The mouth is small and gently arched , with deep furrows at the corners and a tiny projection at the center of the upper jaw that fits into an indentation on the lower jaw . There are anywhere from 0 to 15 forked papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) in a row across the floor of the mouth . There are 25 – 34 upper tooth rows and 25 – 31 lower tooth rows ; the teeth of both sexes have single , pointed cusps , but those of adult males are longer and sharper than those of adult females . The margins of the pelvic fins are nearly straight in front and become rounded at the tips and in back .
The whip @-@ like tail measures up to twice as long as the disc ; it is thick at the base and tapers significantly to the extremely long , serrated spine placed approximately one @-@ third to halfway along its length . Two spines may be present if a replacement grows in before the original drops off . Posterior to the spine origin , there is a low ventral fin fold that does not reach to the spine tip . Young rays are completely smooth @-@ skinned ; with age small prickles appear over the center of the back , as well as a row of small thorns along the midline from between the eyes to the origin of the spine . This species is a plain dark purple to blue @-@ green above , extending onto the tail fold , and a slightly lighter shade below . When captured and handled , it exudes a thick black mucus that covers its body . The pelagic stingray typically grows to 1 @.@ 3 m ( 4 @.@ 3 ft ) long and 59 cm ( 23 in ) across . The largest individuals on record are from a captive rearing experiment conducted from 1995 to 2000 , in which a male reached 68 cm ( 27 in ) across and 12 kg ( 26 lb ) , and a female 94 cm ( 37 in ) across and 49 kg ( 108 lb ) .
= = Biology and ecology = =
In adopting a midwater lifestyle , the pelagic stingray exhibits several characteristics different from those of its bottom @-@ dwelling relatives . While most stingrays propel themselves by undulating their disc margins , this species swims by oscillating ( flapping ) its pectoral fins in a manner approaching the " underwater flying " employed by eagle rays . Oscillatory fin motions generate lift , thus improving cruising efficiency in open water at a cost to maneuverability . The pelagic stingray is adept at swimming backwards , which may compensate for the lower fine control offered by its swimming mode .
Vision seems to be more important to the pelagic ray in finding food than in other stingrays . Compared to other members of its family , this species has less than one @-@ third the density of electroreceptive ampullae of Lorenzini on its underside . The ampullae also cover a smaller area , though not as small as in eagle rays , and are more evenly distributed between the ventral and dorsal surfaces . This ray can detect an electric field of well under 1 nV / cm at a distance of up to 30 cm ( 12 in ) , and may be able to pick up the minute electric fields produced by moving sea water . The lateral line of the pelagic stingray , a complex system of mechanoreceptors that detect nearby movement and ocean currents , remains similar to other stingrays in covering a greater area on the ventral than the dorsal surface . However , this species is less responsive to mechanical than to visual stimuli .
Pelagic stingrays may segregate by sex , vertically in that males are found in deeper water than females , and perhaps horizontally as well . Captive individuals often act highly aggressively towards ocean sunfish ( Mola mola ) , biting and harassing them , particularly if they are hungry . This species is preyed upon by oceanic whitetip sharks ( Carcharhinus longimanus ) , great white sharks ( Carcharodon carcharias ) , toothed whales , and other large , ocean @-@ going carnivores . Its all @-@ around dark coloration likely serves to camouflage it against its featureless habitat . The venom on its tail spine is also quite potent , causing it to be avoided by other fishes . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium benedeni , A. crassicolle , and A. filicolle , Rhinebothrium baeri and R. palombii , and Tetragonocephalum uarnak , and the monogenean Entobdella diadema .
= = = Feeding = = =
The pelagic stingray is an active predator that captures prey by wrapping its pectoral fins around it , before manipulating it to the mouth . It is the only stingray in which both sexes have pointed teeth , for grasping and cutting into slippery prey . A wide variety of organisms are represented in its diet : crustaceans including amphipods , krill , and larval crabs , molluscs including squid , octopus , and pteropods , bony fishes including herring , mackerel , sea horses and filefish , comb jellies and medusae , and polychaete worms . Off California , pelagic stingrays hunt large mating aggregations of squid that form from November to April . Off Brazil , this species follows groups of Atlantic cutlassfish ( Trichiurus lepturus ) towards the coast in January and February , with both predators seeking small schooling fishes . Juvenile rays consume 6 – 7 % of their body weight in food per day , which declines to just above 1 % in adults .
= = = Life history = = =
Like other stingrays , the pelagic stingray is aplacental viviparous : the developing embryos are at first nourished by yolk , which is later supplanted by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , containing proteins , lipids , and mucus ) ; the mother delivers the histotroph through numerous thread @-@ like extensions of the uterine epithelium called " trophonemata " , which feed into the enlarged spiracles of the embryo . Females have only one functional ovary and uterus , on the left , and may produce two litters per year . Mating occurs from March to June in the northwestern Atlantic , and in late spring in the southwestern Atlantic . Females are capable of storing sperm internally for more than a year , allowing them to wait for favorable environmental conditions in which to gestate their young . When first passed into the uterus , a batch of fertilized eggs are contained in a single membraneous capsule tapered at both ends . Shortly after , the capsule ruptures to release the eggs , and is expelled from the uterus . The gestation period may be the shortest of any shark or ray , lasting only 2 – 4 months , during which time the embryos increase a hundredfold in mass
In the Pacific , females give birth in winter from November to March in a nursery area near Central America , prior to their northward migration . Similarly , in the northwestern Atlantic , birthing seems to occur in winter when the females are in warm southerly waters , possibly off the West Indies . However , records also exist of two possibly anomalous females that were pregnant much earlier in the year and would given birth in August or September , before their southward migration . In the southwestern Atlantic , birthing occurs in summer around January , again in warmer water towards the equator . As opposed to other regions , in the Mediterranean females give birth in summer before moving to warmer waters . The litter size ranges from 4 to 13 ( average six ) , and does not increase with the size of the female . Newborns measure 15 – 25 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 – 9 @.@ 8 in ) across . Rays in captivity , with ample food , grow at an average annual rate of 8 @.@ 1 cm ( 3 @.@ 2 in ) ( disc width ) , while rays in the wild grow at an average annual rate of only 1 @.@ 6 cm ( 0 @.@ 63 in ) . The food intake and growth rate of adults are highest in January – February and July – August , and lowest in March – April and October – November . Males reach sexual maturity at 37 – 50 cm ( 15 – 20 in ) across and two years of age , and females at 39 – 50 cm ( 15 – 20 in ) and three years of age . This species may live up to 10 – 12 years . One of the most prolific rays , its intrinsic population growth rate is up to 31 % a year .
= = Human interactions = =
The pelagic stingray is not aggressive and rarely encountered because of its habitat preferences , but its very long tail spine demands extreme caution be exercised in handling it . It has been responsible for two known fatalities : a worker on a tuna longliner who was impaled by a captured ray , and another fishery worker who succumbed to tetanus days after being stung . This species has been kept in public aquariums for almost a century .
The meat and cartilage of the pelagic stingray are sometimes utilized , for example in Indonesia , but for the most part this species is considered worthless and discarded when caught . Susceptible to longlines , gillnets , purse seines , and bottom trawls , it is captured incidentally in large numbers throughout its range . Rays caught on longlines suffer high mortality , as fishers are wary of being stung and remove the rays from the hooks by smashing them against the side of the boat , causing severe damage to the mouth and jaws . The extent of this bycatch has yet to be quantified . Regardless , surveys in the Pacific suggest that pelagic stingray numbers have increased since the 1950s , possibly due to commercial fisheries depleting the dominant predators in the ecosystem , such as sharks and tuna . The lack of population declines , coupled with its wide distribution and high reproductive rate , has led the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) to list this species under Least Concern . Recent research has been conducted into reducing pelagic stingray bycatch on longlines by switching to larger and / or " C " -shaped hooks .
= Russian monitor Rusalka =
Rusalka ( Russian : Русалка , Mermaid ) , was one of two Charodeika @-@ class monitors built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the 1860s . She served for her entire career with the Baltic Fleet . Aside from hitting an uncharted rock not long after she was completed in 1869 , she had an uneventful career . Rusalka sank in a storm in 1893 with the loss of all hands in the Gulf of Finland . A memorial was built in Reval ( modern Tallinn ) to commemorate her loss almost a decade later . Her wreck was rediscovered in 2003 , bow @-@ down in the mud , which has prompted a new theory regarding her loss .
= = Design and description = =
Rusalka was 206 feet ( 62 @.@ 8 m ) long at the waterline . She had a beam of 42 feet ( 12 @.@ 8 m ) and a maximum draft of 12 feet 7 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . The ship was designed to displace 1 @,@ 882 long tons ( 1 @,@ 912 t ) , but turned out to be overweight and actually displaced 2 @,@ 100 long tons ( 2 @,@ 100 t ) . Her crew numbered 13 officers and 171 crewmen in 1877 .
The ship had two simple horizontal direct @-@ acting steam engines , each driving a single propeller . The engines were designed to produce a total of 900 indicated horsepower ( 670 kW ) using steam provided by two coal @-@ fired rectangular fire @-@ tube boilers , but only achieved 705 ihp ( 526 kW ) and a speed of approximately 9 knots ( 17 km / h ; 10 mph ) during her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 250 long tons ( 254 t ) of coal for her boilers .
Rusalka was initially armed with a pair of nine @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled Model 1867 guns in the forward gun turret and a pair of fifteen @-@ inch ( 381 mm ) smoothbore Rodman guns in the aft turret . The Rodman guns were replaced by a pair of Obukhov 9 @-@ inch ( 229 mm ) rifled guns in 1871 and all of the nine @-@ inch guns were replaced in their turn by longer , more powerful nine @-@ inch Obukhov guns in 1878 – 79 . No light guns for use against torpedo boats are known to have been fitted aboard the ship before the 1870s when she received 3 four @-@ pounder 3 @.@ 4 @-@ inch ( 86 mm ) guns mounted on the turret tops as well as a variety of smaller guns that included 45 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 8 in ) Engström quick @-@ firing ( QF ) guns , 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) Nordenfelt guns , single @-@ barreled QF 47 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) Hotchkiss guns and QF 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Hotchkiss revolving cannon .
The ship had a complete waterline belt of wrought iron that was 4 @.@ 5 inches ( 114 mm ) thick amidships and thinned to 3 @.@ 75 inches ( 95 mm ) at the bow and 3 @.@ 25 inches ( 83 mm ) at the stern . The armor was backed by 12 to 18 inches ( 300 to 460 mm ) of teak . The circular turrets were protected by armor 5 @.@ 5 inches ( 140 mm ) thick and the walls of the ship 's oval conning tower were also 4 @.@ 5 inches thick . Her deck was 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick amidships , but reduced to 0 @.@ 25 – 0 @.@ 5 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 – 12 @.@ 7 mm ) at the ends of the ship .
= = Construction and service = =
Rusalka , named after the mythological creature , was ordered on 25 January 1865 and construction began on 10 June at the Admiralty Shipyard , Saint Petersburg , although the formal keel @-@ laying was not until 6 June 1866 . She was launched on 12 September 1867 and completed in 1869 at the cost of 762 @,@ 000 rubles . Construction was considerably delayed by late deliveries of drawings , material , and the death of her original builder . The ship struck an uncharted rock off the Finnish coast in June 1869 and damaged her bottom plating badly enough that she had to be run aground to prevent her from sinking . Rusalka served her entire career with the Baltic Fleet and was assigned to the Artillery Training Detachment in March 1870 . The ship had her boilers replaced in 1878 and 1891 and she was reclassified as a coast @-@ defense ironclad on 13 February 1892 .
= = = Sinking = = =
Rusalka , under the command of Captain 2nd Rank V. Kh . Ienish sailed from Reval harbor at 08 : 30 on 7 September 1893 , bound for Helsingfors ( Helsinki ) . She was escorted by the gunboat Tucha ( Russian : Туча , Cloud ) under Captain 2nd Rank N. M. Lushkov . Several hours after their departure the weather deteriorated into a storm , with gale force winds and rain ; Tucha lost her charge from sight around noon , but sailed on and arrived safely at Helsingfors .
No trace of the monitor was found until the corpse of a sailor in a dinghy and a few lifebuoys washed ashore on the Finnish island of Kremare . Extensive searches of the sea bottom also failed to locate the ship . In January 1894 a commission appointed to investigate convened and reprimanded Rear Admiral P. S. Burachek , commander of the detachment , for letting Rusalka go to sea in bad weather as well as Lushkov for losing contact with the monitor . The commission concluded that the ship 's steering gear failed or that water had entered the ship and caused her to lose power . Either would have caused Rusalka to turn parallel to the waves where her superstructure would have been demolished and extensive flooding would have soon overwhelmed her small reserve of buoyancy . Whatever the cause , Rusalka obviously broached and sank with the loss of all 177 members of her crew .
= = = Monument = = =
On 7 September 1902 , the ninth anniversary of the loss of the ship , a monument to Rusalka was erected in Tallinn . Sculpted by Amandus Adamson , it takes the form of a bronze angel standing on a granite pedestal .
= = = Discovery = = =
The wreck of Rusalka was claimed to have been found by divers of the Soviet EPRON salvage agency in 1932 , but they made no attempt to salvage it . EPRON 's location does not match that of the ship as discovered in 2003 .
In spring 2003 , a joint project was launched by the Estonian Maritime Museum and the commercial diving company Tuukritööde OÜ with the aim of finding Rusalka which had sunk 110 years earlier . On 22 July 2003 the wreck of Rusalka was located in the Gulf of Finland , 25 kilometers ( 16 mi ) south of Helsinki , by the museum 's research vessel Mare . Two days later , deep divers Kaido Peremees and Indrek Ostrat more precisely located and videoed the wreck . Most unusually , the wreck is in a near @-@ vertical position ; following her sinking , the vessel plunged , bow first , 74 meters ( 243 ft ) directly downward into the muddy bottom of the gulf , and is buried in the bottom to almost half her length . The divers found the stern of the lost vessel rising 33 meters ( 108 ft ) above the sea bed and her rudder turned to starboard .
The wreck is generally intact although draped with snagged fishing nets . The aft turret , however , has fallen out off the ship . The vertical position of the wreck has inspired a new theory of her loss by nautical archaeologist Vello Mäss . He believes that Rusalka was taking on water forward , perhaps from a leak or through ventilation hatches and was bow @-@ heavy when her captain decided to make a turn , possibly to return to Reval , and the ship capsized during the turn with her engines still running . Her forward speed and flooded forward hull meant that she descended vertically and drove her hull into the muddy sea bottom .
= Ron " Pigpen " McKernan =
Ronald Charles McKernan ( September 8 , 1945 – March 8 , 1973 ) , known as Pigpen , was an American singer and musician . He was a founding member of the San Francisco band the Grateful Dead and played in the group from 1965 to 1972 .
McKernan grew up heavily influenced by African @-@ American music , particularly the blues , and enjoyed listening to his father 's collection of records and taught himself how to play harmonica and piano . He began socializing around the San Francisco Bay Area , becoming friends with Jerry Garcia . After the pair had played in various folk and jug bands , McKernan suggested they form an electric group , which became the Grateful Dead . He was the band 's original frontman as well as playing harmonica and electric organ , but Garcia and bassist Phil Lesh 's influences on the band became increasingly stronger as they embraced psychedelic rock . McKernan struggled to keep up , causing the group to hire keyboardist Tom Constanten , with McKernan 's contributions essentially limited to vocals , harmonica and percussion from November 1968 to January 1970 . He continued to be a frontman in concert for some numbers , including covers of Bobby Bland 's " Turn On Your Love Light " and the Rascals ' " Good Lovin ' " .
Unlike the other members of the Grateful Dead , McKernan avoided psychedelic drugs , preferring to drink alcohol ( namely whiskey and wine ) . By 1971 , his health had been affected by alcoholism and liver damage and doctors advised him to stop touring . Following a four @-@ month hiatus , he resumed touring with the group in December 1971 but was forced to retire from touring altogether in June 1972 . McKernan was found dead of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage on March 8 , 1973 , aged 27 and is buried at Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
Ronald Charles McKernan was born on September 8 , 1945 , in San Bruno , California . He came from Irish ancestry , and his father , Phil McKernan , was an R & B and blues disc jockey , who had been one of the first white DJs on KDIA , a black radio station . Ronald grew up with African American friends and enjoyed black music and culture . As a youth , he taught himself blues piano , guitar and harmonica and developed a biker culture image . McKernan moved to Palo Alto , California with his family , where he became friends with musician Jerry Garcia at the age of 14 . He built up a substantial collection of old blues 78s from labels such as Kent Records and Chess Records .
McKernan began spending time around coffeehouses and music stores , and worked at Dana Morgan 's Music Store in Palo Alto with Garcia . One night Garcia invited McKernan on stage to play harmonica and sing the blues . Garcia was impressed and McKernan became the blues singer in local jam sessions . He was initially nicknamed " Blue Ron " before settling on " Pigpen " . Onomastician Adrian Room has suggested McKernan was given the name due to his untidy and unclean habits while band biographies say he got the nickname owing to his similarity to Pig @-@ Pen , the permanently dirty character in the comic @-@ strip Peanuts .
= = = Grateful Dead = = =
McKernan was a participant in the predecessor groups leading to the formation of the Grateful Dead , beginning with the Zodiacs and Mother McCree 's Uptown Jug Champions . Guitarist Bob Weir and drummer Bill Kreutzmann were added and the band evolved into the Warlocks . Around 1965 , McKernan urged the rest of the Warlocks to switch to electric instruments . Bassist Phil Lesh joined soon after , and they became the Grateful Dead . The group were keen to involve McKernan in the band , as he was the group 's original leader and was considered the best singer and frontman .
The Dead 's early sets centred around blues and R & B covers chosen by McKernan . By the end of 1966 , Garcia had improved his musical skills and wanted to assert himself more as a leader and musical director , changing the band 's direction and reducing McKernan 's contributions . In 1967 , drummer Mickey Hart joined the Grateful Dead , followed by classically trained keyboardist Tom Constanten in 1968 , further changing the group 's style . Constanten often replaced McKernan on keyboards in the studio , as McKernan found it difficult to adapt to the new material that Garcia and Lesh composed for the band .
In October 1968 , McKernan and Weir were nearly fired from the band after Garcia and Lesh believed their playing was holding the band back from lengthy and experimental jamming . Garcia delegated the task of firing them to Rock Scully , who said that McKernan " took it hard . " Weir promised to improve , but McKernan was more stubborn . According to Garcia biographer Blair Jackson , McKernan missed three Dead shows before vowing not to " be lazy " any more and rejoining , while Kreutzmann objected to replacing McKernan and said the event never happened . Following his discharge from the United States Air Force in November 1968 , Constanten officially joined the band , having only worked in the studio while on leave up to that point . Road manager Jon McIntire commented that " Pigpen was relegated to the congas at that point and it was really humiliating and he was really hurt , but he couldn 't show it , couldn 't talk about it . " He began to take Hammond organ lessons and learned how to use the various drawbars and controls .
After Constanten 's departure in January 1970 over musical and lifestyle differences , McKernan nominally resumed keyboard duties . He contributed instrumentation to only two tracks ( " Black Peter " and " Easy Wind , " the latter as lead vocalist ) on Workingman 's Dead ( 1970 ) , the band 's breakthrough studio release . Consequently , the group 's next studio album ( 1970 's American Beauty ) served as a showcase for session keyboardists Howard Wales and Ned Lagin , while the 1971 live album Grateful Dead featured three overdubbed organ parts from Merl Saunders in addition to McKernan 's contributions on " Big Railroad Blues " , " The Other One " , and " Me & Bobby McGee " . While Garcia expressed frustration at McKernan 's missed rehearsals and his inability to keep up with new material , Lesh was more forgiving , opining that " it was okay for Pigpen to lay out ... we kept wanting Pigpen to be there because he was ' one of us . ' "
= = Musical style and influences = =
While in the Grateful Dead , McKernan sang and played blues @-@ influenced organ and harmonica . He initially played a Vox Continental organ , but later switched to a Hammond . McKernan sang lead on several standards he wanted the Dead to cover , such as Otis Redding 's " Pain in My Heart " and Wilson Pickett 's " In the Midnight Hour , " with the latter serving as one of the band 's main improvisatory vehicles from 1966 to 1968 . Unlike fellow vocalists Garcia and Weir , he sang lead without playing any instrument except harmonica and actively interacted with the audience , occasionally walking out into the crowd . During the band 's first year when they played straightforward blues , McKernan performed the majority of lead vocals , attracting an early audience that came specifically to see him sing and play harmonica . He took on early management duties in the band , ensuring they would be paid and promoted properly for gigs .
Though McKernan 's garage rock style was appropriate for their early recordings , it was less suited to the group 's later psychedelic and jamming styles . He went from contributing to every song and singing lead on all of side two of 1968 's Anthem of the Sun to little more than sporadic appearances on the following year 's Aoxomoxoa . He continued to front the band for long stretches during their live performances and suggested new material for the Dead 's concert repertoire , including Redding 's " Hard to Handle " and James Brown 's " It 's a Man 's Man 's Man 's World . "
McKernan achieved a new prominence in 1969 covering " Turn On Your Love Light " ; initially introduced in 1967 , the song gradually evolved into the band 's show @-@ stopping finale , often taking fifteen to thirty minutes to complete . He improvised lyrics over the band 's accompaniment , using phrases he had heard from African American friends , such as " rider " ( slang for " lover " ) , " she 's got box @-@ black nitties " ( referring to female underwear ) and " boar hog 's eye " . When the Grateful Dead appeared at Woodstock , the band 's set ( which was marred by technical problems and general chaos and described as one of their worst shows ) ended with " Turn On Your Love Light " . Even as his instrumental contributions waned , McKernan 's vocal performances remained an integral part of the band 's live set ; by early 1971 , the band 's cover of The Rascals ' " Good Lovin ' " ( initially covered by the group in 1966 featured at shows at the Fillmore East later released as Ladies and Gentlemen ... the Grateful Dead ) began to emerge as a secondary showcase of his improvisatory talents alongside " Love Light . "
McKernan was not a prolific songwriter , preferring to concentrate on blues covers and improvised lyrics . He composed the infrequently performed " Operator " for 1970 's American Beauty . Several new songs emerged from a creatively fecund period coinciding with his health problems in 1971 , most notably " Mr. Charlie , " a collaboration with Dead lyricist Robert Hunter . The song appeared on the live album Europe ' 72 , his last with the group .
Tony Sclafani has compared McKernan 's role in the band , initially strong and pivotal but gradually declining , to that of Brian Jones in the Rolling Stones , particularly since both men were primarily influenced by the blues over rock ' n ' roll and died aged 27 . These comparisons are not entirely accurate as McKernan was always encouraged to sing material live and left the group due to ill health , while Jones was fired .
After McKernan 's death , a number of recordings were found in his apartment , which have appeared as the bootleg recording " The Apartment Tapes " . This included two songs recorded in 1964 with future Jefferson Airplane guitarist Jorma Kaukonen . On the bootleg , McKernan played acoustic guitar and piano , instruments he seldom used with the Dead .
= = Personal life = =
McKernan was close friends with American singer @-@ songwriter Janis Joplin due to common musical influences and lifestyles , particularly a shared love of alcohol over other drugs ; a poster from the early 1970s showed them together at 710 Ashbury . Joplin joined McKernan on stage at the Fillmore West on June 7 , 1969 , with the Grateful Dead to sing his signature " Turn On Your Love Light , " reprising this duet on July 16 , 1970 , at the Euphoria Ballroom in San Rafael , California .
McKernan was good friends with fellow band member Tom Constanten , based on their mutual aversion to psychedelics . He eventually served as best man at Constanten 's wedding . While his bandmates and friends were using cannabis , LSD , and other hallucinogenic drugs , McKernan preferred alcoholic beverages such as Thunderbird and Southern Comfort . Ironically , McKernan was arrested and fined after the cannabis bust on November 9 , 1967 , at 710 Ashbury Street , the Dead 's communal home , even though he did not use the drug . The event was covered in the first issue of Rolling Stone , where the reporter noted McKernan had a substantial rifle collection and McKernan 's picture appeared on a contemporary report in the San Francisco Chronicle . Because neither took illegal drugs , McKernan and Constanten were the only members of the band not arrested on the January 31 , 1970 , bust that inspired the lyrics of the band 's song " Truckin ' " .
In the early years of the Grateful Dead , McKernan was easily recognisable by his biker image , making him a minor celebrity . In 1969 , the band 's record company , Warner Bros. Records ran a " Pigpen Look @-@ Alike Contest " .
= = Health and death = =
McKernan 's alcohol abuse had begun to affect his health by his mid twenties . By the early 1970s , he also began to experience symptoms of congenital biliary cirrhosis , a rare autoimmune disease which was unrelated to his use of alcohol . After being hospitalized in August 1971 , doctors requested that he stop touring indefinitely . Pianist Keith Godchaux was subsequently hired and remained a regular member of the Grateful Dead until 1979 . McKernan rejoined the band in December 1971 to supplement Godchaux on harmonica , percussion , and organ . Manager Rock Scully alleged that McKernan passed out in front of his Hammond organ at one show during this period . After their Europe ' 72 tour , his health had deteriorated to the point where he could no longer continue playing live . He made his final concert appearance on June 17 , 1972 , at the Hollywood Bowl , in Los Angeles , California . He subsequently broke off all personal relationships with the band , explaining " I don 't want you around when I die . "
On March 8 , 1973 , aged 27 he was found dead of a gastrointestinal hemorrhage at his home in Corte Madera , California by his landlady . Though his contributions to the band had slowly diminished over the years , the other members were devastated at his death . McKernan was buried at the Alta Mesa Memorial Park in Palo Alto , California . Garcia spoke at his funeral , saying " After Pigpen 's death we all knew this was the end of the original Grateful Dead " .
= = Legacy = =
Despite his outward image , friends and band biographers have described McKernan as a quiet , kind and introspective person . Hart later said " Pigpen was the musician in the Grateful Dead . " Kreutzmann said McKernan was " the sweetest guy anybody had ever met . "
Weir later became influenced by McKernan 's ability to work a crowd and improvise lyrics . He took over de facto frontman duties in concert and began to reintroduce material originally chosen by McKernan into the Dead 's live set after his death . Weir began singing " Good Lovin ' " with the Dead in 1973 , and the group recorded the song on 1978 's Shakedown Street . " Turn On Your Love Light " was revived in 1981 , with Weir singing lead . He also revived the 1960s standard " Big Boy Pete " , originally sung by McKernan , as a one @-@ off in 1985 . Jimmy Reed 's " Big Boss Man " , covered by the group on Grateful Dead ( Skull and Roses ) with McKernan singing lead , was revived by Garcia and performed occasionally through the 1980s and 90s .
" He 's Gone " , originally appearing on the live album Europe ' 72 subsequently became a eulogy to McKernan by his former bandmates . Hunter said " it became an anthem for Pigpen " .
= = Discography = =
= Everard Calthrop =
Everard Richard Calthrop ( 3 March 1857 – 30 March 1927 ) was a British railway engineer and inventor . Calthrop was a notable promoter and builder of narrow gauge railways , especially of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge , and was especially prominent in India . His most notable achievement was the Barsi Light Railway ; however he is best known in his home country for the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway . Calthrop has been described as a " railway genius " . Later in life he took an interest in aviation , patenting some early designs for parachutes .
= = Early life and career = =
Calthrop was born on 3 March 1857 , the eldest son of farmer Everard Calthrop . He had six brothers , one of whom was Sir Guy Calthrop , general manager of the London & North Western Railway . The family lived at Deeping Fen , Lincolnshire , where Calthrop was born , and later at Sutton in the Isle of Ely . Calthrop was educated at Uppingham School .
Calthrop started work with Robert Stephenson & Co and then was apprenticed to the London & North Western Railway at Crewe in 1874 . In 1879 he joined the Great Western Railway , where he rose to assistant manager of the Carriage and Wagon Works . In 1882 he went to India to join the Great Indian Peninsula Railway as a locomotive inspector .
Once in India , Calthrop came to see narrow gauge railways as a way to help develop the country . This led him to chairing a Government committee to investigate light railways throughout India . He then published a pamphlet entitled A System of Standard Details as applied to the Construction of Rolling Stock in India . As a result of this pamphlet , the Indian Government adopted systems of uniformity of gauge and equipment throughout the country , and eventually adopted 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge as the standard narrow gauge throughout the country .
Calthrop requested leave in 1886 to investigate proposals for independent branchlines . He identified two schemes of particular interest , a 5 @-@ mile ( 8 km ) tramway connecting the Hindu religious centre of Nasik with the railway , and a 21 @-@ mile ( 34 km ) branchline to the town of Barsi . The Great Indian Peninsula Railway approved both schemes , and Calthrop undertook a survey of both lines . In 1887 he registered the Indian Railways Feeder Lines Company in London to promote the construction of feeders to the railway . The Great Indian Peninsula Railway suggested that he either return to his duties as a locomotive inspector , or , with their support , resign to further promote branch lines . His health was failing , and so in 1889 Calthrop resigned from the Great Indian Peninsula Railway . Working as a consultant he then supervised the construction of the 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge horse @-@ powered Nasik Tramway , using his previous survey .
= = Move to Liverpool = =
Returning to the United Kingdom in 1892 Calthrop established a railway engineering consulting practice in Liverpool , where three of his brothers had started a stockfeed company . Soon Calthrop had entered into a partnership with them and spent much of the next two years designing equipment for feed production . He took out a number of patents relating to the equipment and to refrigerated transport .
While Calthrop was resident in Liverpool the Chamber of Commerce was concerned future expansion was being limited by the railway companies that linked that city with Manchester , and invited proposals for alternative methods for moving goods . Calthrop proposed a system of narrow gauge railways linking the two cities , running along streets directly serving factories . His proposal was highly commended , but the proposed street running precluded its adoption .
Calthrop was also interested in road transport . He was a member of the Self @-@ Propelled Traffic Association and in May 1898 was a judge at their trials for " motor vehicles for heavy traffic " , held in Liverpool . The winner was a Thornycroft 4 @-@ ton steam wagon . Later he was a foundation member of the Royal Automobile Club .
= = Development of narrow gauge concepts and the Barsi Light Railway = =
During his time in India Calthrop developed his ideas on the construction of narrow gauge railways . He surmised that the axle load on the axles of all rolling stock , including locomotives , could be equal , allowing a maximum loading of goods wagons . He settled on a loading of 5 long tons ( 5 @.@ 1 t ; 5 @.@ 6 short tons ) per axle , which was light enough to allow railway lines to be built with 30 pounds per yard ( 14 @.@ 9 kilograms per metre ) rail . It also allowed the loading of one 20 long tons ( 20 @.@ 3 t ; 22 @.@ 4 short tons ) capacity 4 @-@ wheel standard gauge wagon to be carried on a single bogie narrow gauge wagon . Further , he argued that using a track gauge of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gave the greatest capacity as a percentage of capital cost . He estimated a 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge railway could be built to four times the length of a standard gauge railway for the same capital cost .
Calthrop had been engaged in negotiations with the Indian government for concessions to build a railway from Barsi Road to Barsi since 1887 . In 1895 negotiations reached a satisfactory conclusion , and Calthrop formed a new company to build the Barsi Light Railway , and employed himself as consulting engineer . The railway became a showcase for his ideas . Five 0 @-@ 8 @-@ 4T locomotives , with even distribution of axle load , were constructed to Calthrop 's specification by Kitson & Co . The goods rolling stock was constructed on common 25 by 7 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 m × 2 @.@ 1 m ) pressed steel underframes , reducing tare weight and maximising potential wagon loads . Calthrop recognised the importance of railways in warfare , and designed the rolling stock to facilitate the movement of troops and equipment . Rolling stock rode on pressed @-@ steel Fox bogies , using the Timmis system of double coiled springs . The line was constructed with rail inclination , then a new idea , which involves tilting the rail a few degrees to make its surface more nearly parallel with that of the tyre . Inclination is now applied universally to railways . The rolling stock could accept 100 @-@ foot ( 30 @.@ 48 m ) radius curves .
Prior to shipment of the rolling stock to India , Calthrop and the Leeds Forge Company , manufacturer of the rolling stock , conducted tests on a specially built test track located at Newlay , near Leeds . The line was opened for inspection by railway officials and journalists , and a number of reports were published in the technical railway press .
The Barsi Light Railway opened in 1897 , and was extended on a number of occasions until it reached a total length of 202 miles ( 325 km ) in 1927 . The example of the Barsi Light Railway is regarded as having revolutionised the narrow gauge railway system of Indian subcontinent , and the railway was immensely successful , establishing Calthrop as one of the leading figures in the field . Calthrop remained Consulting Engineer until he retired due to ill health two years prior to his death . The Barsi Light Railway continued to be operated as a privately owned railway until 1954 when it was purchased by the Indian government , and continued to operate as a narrow gauge railway until conversion to broad gauge began in the late 1990s as part of Indian Railways conversion program for all metre and narrow gauge lines .
= = Involvement in other railways = =
With the success of the Barsi Light Railway , Calthrop was in demand as a consultant for other narrow gauge railway projects .
= = = Barbados Railway = = =
The Barbados Railway opened in 1883 as a 3 ft 6 in ( 1 @,@ 067 mm ) gauge railway from Bridgetown to St Andrew , Barbados . By 1897 the railway and its rolling stock was in very poor condition . Further much of the railway had been constructed with rail too light for the railway 's locomotives . A new company was established in 1898 to rebuild and operate the railway , and Calthrop was engaged as consulting engineer . Calthrop arranged for the railway to be rebuilt in 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge , and had Baldwin Locomotive Works build four new locomotives , two 2 @-@ 8 @-@ 2T 's , an 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T and an 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T .
= = = Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway = = =
Calthrop appeared at the Light Railway Inquiry for the Welshpool and Llanfair Light Railway on 3 – 4 August 1897 and spoke particularly on the proposed open level crossings and the use of transporter wagons . Calthrop claimed it only took 3 minutes to transfer wagons , based on his experience on the Barsi Light Railway . However the Order was not made until 8 September 1899 and in early 1900 the proprietors reached agreement with the Cambrian Railways to build the line . Their engineer , Alfred J. Collins , took charge of the engineering requirements , with consequent conservative 4 @-@ wheel wagons and other provisions .
= = = Victorian Railways narrow gauge lines = = =
In 1898 Calthrop corresponded with the government of the colony of Victoria , Australia , regarding proposals for the construction of narrow gauge lines in that colony . Subsequently on his advice the gauge of the railways as built was changed from 2 ft ( 610 mm ) to 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) .
= = = Fayoum Light Railway = = =
Calthrop was appointed to advise on engineering matters for this 750 mm ( 2 ft 5 1 ⁄ 2 in ) gauge Egyptian light railway , construction of which began in 1898 . The railway comprised seven , mostly roadside , branch lines with a total length of 97 miles ( 156 km ) . The Fayoum Light Railway served an irrigation district south of Cairo , centred on the provincial capital of Medinet @-@ el @-@ Fayum . Calthrop used pictures of rolling stock from the railway to illustrate a chapter he wrote for the book Pioneer Irrigation and Light Railways .
= = = Serbian Narrow Gauge Railways = = =
Calthrop was one of several foreign concessionaires involved with the initial development of 760 mm ( 2 ft 5 15 ⁄ 16 in ) Bosnian gauge gauge railways in Serbia after 1898 .
= = = Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway = = =
The Cleobury Mortimer and Ditton Priors Light Railway was a 12 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 19 @.@ 8 km ) long standard gauge branch line linking the Great Western Railway at Cleobury Mortimer in Shropshire with mineral deposits in the Clee Hills . Calthrop was appointed Consulting Engineer in 1900 , responsible for surveying the route and preparing the construction plans .
= = = Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway = = =
In the United Kingdom Calthrop is most associated with the Leek and Manifold Valley Light Railway . The line had been promoted under the Light Railways Act , and the initial plan was to build a railway of 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) gauge to be powered by electricity . Under the influence of one of the Light Railway Commissioners the company directors commissioned a report on the proposed line from Calthrop in mid @-@ 1900 . In early December the railway 's engineer died , and on 19 December 1900 the Directors sat down to consider both a replacement and Calthrop 's report . Calthrop proposed specifications for the line which would result in substantial savings in construction costs , and so he was offered the position of engineer , which he promptly accepted .
Calthrop constructed the line for £ 35 @,@ 944 , £ 11 @,@ 000 less than the original estimate . He had Kitson & Co construct two 2 @-@ 6 @-@ 4T locomotives , similar in outline but smaller than the Barsi Light Railway locomotives . Goods rolling stock included four coaches , two bogie open wagons and one bogie van , once again similar to Barsi stock . He also introduced four transporter wagons , designed to transport standard gauge wagons . Each station on route had a short section of standard gauge track where the wagons could be placed . The use of transporter wagons eliminated transshipment , and removed the need for large numbers of goods wagons .
= = = Matheran Light Railway = = =
The Matheran Light Railway is a mountain railway near Mumbai , India , and opened in 1905 . Unusually for a railway for which Caltrhrop was consulting engineer , it was of 2 ft ( 610 mm ) gauge , with tight curves and 1 in 20 ( 5 % ) grades . Calthrop designed a 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0T with Klein @-@ Linder articulated coupled axles to provide a flexible wheelbase , and four were supplied by Orenstein & Koppel . Calthrop 's firm also supplied the wagon stock and the points and crossings for the railway .
= = = Arakan Light Railway = = =
In 1910 Calthrop was engaged as consulting engineer by the promoters of a new railway between Buthidaung and Maungdaw in Burma , later known as the Arakan Light Railway . Calthrop had the proposed gauge changed from 2 ft ( 610 mm ) narrow gauge to 2 ft 6 in ( 762 mm ) narrow gauge . For this railway Calthrop had built two 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 + 0 @-@ 6 @-@ 0 Garratt locomotives , to which he had attached plates reading " E.R.Calthrop 's System of Narrow Gauge Mountain Railways " . Calthrop was an early adopter of the Garratt type , this being the ninth order for Garratts taken by Beyer @-@ Peacock , and the smallest Garratt design ever built by them .
= = Patents for parachutes = =
Calthrop was a close personal friend of Charles Rolls , of Rolls @-@ Royce fame . Rolls was a pioneer aviator , being the first man to fly across the English Channel in both directions . On 12 July 1910 Calthrop accompanied him to the Bournemouth International Aviation Meeting , and was present when Rolls died after he lost control of his biplane and crashed . That and a similar , non @-@ fatal , accident involving his son Tev , led Calthrop to believe that a parachute could be used to save pilots in similar circumstances .
In 1913 he patented his first parachute . As World War I progressed he continued to develop his parachute . In 1915 he offered it to the Royal Flying Corps , and successful tests were completed at the time . An unofficial report offered the opinion that parachutes " might impair the fighting spirit of pilots " and the offer was rejected . Calthrop was encouraged to remain quiet about his invention , but faced with increasing losses of pilots he publicised the parachute in 1917 . Despite a campaign by some pilots , the Royal Flying Corps declined to introduce parachutes during World War One , although air forces of most other nations did so .
Calthrops " Guardian Angel " parachute received much praise and was used during the war to drop agents behind enemy lines . In October 1918 an article on use of parachutes stated that the " Guardian Angel " was one of the best known and that " balloonists can take their perilous leap , when attacked by a Hun scout , with real confidence in a safe landing " . By 1918 it was known that the Germans were fully aware of Calthrop 's work , and supplied their pilots with a similar design . However when the Royal Air Force finally adopted parachutes after the war , they chose an American design .
In 1916 Calthrop also patented an ejector seat for aircraft using compressed air .
= = Private life = =
During his time in India , Calthrop made occasional trips back to Britain . On one such trip he married Isabel Mary Earle , the daughter of the Reverend Walter Earle , a friend of his parents . The wedding took place on 19 November 1890 at the Bilton Parish Church , Rugby . They had four children , Everard Earle ( Tev , b . 1892 ) , Keith de Suffield ( b . 1894 ) , Isabelle Iris ( b . 1895 ) , and Betty Marion ( b . 1899 ) . Tev joined the army and became a Colonel in the Royal Engineers , while Keith , after a stint in the Royal Engineers went on to become Assistant General Manager and Mechanical Engineer of the Barsi Light Railway , a post he held until 1932 .
Calthrop had a great interest in breeding Arabian horses . Following the long @-@ term rental of a villa in Goldings Road , Loughton , Essex , he purchased a permanent home , Goldings , at Clays Lane in Loughton , with stables and 40 acres ( 160 @,@ 000 m2 ) of grounds . It was here that he bred his horses and developed his theories of horse training . Calthrop rejected the cruel methods of breaking horses common in that era , and practiced gentle methods . Such was his concern for his horses that he had them humanely destroyed rather than have them commandeered by the British army at the start of the First World War . After the war he was able to return to his horses , and wrote an authoritative book , The Horse , as Comrade and Friend , published in 1920 . Calthrop was a prominent member of the Arab Horse Society , and received commendations for his stallion , Fitz , at its first show in 1919 .
Developing and promoting his parachute had left Calthrop drained , both financially and physically . Failing health forced him to resign his position as consulting engineer for the Barsi Railway in 1925 , although he remained a director . Calthrop died at his Paddington , London , home on 30 March 1927 , in the company of his son , Tev . He was seventy years old .
Calthrop is commemorated by a blue plaque on Goldings , unveiled in June 2008 .
= = Other narrow gauge pioneers = =
Paul Decauville
Robert Fairlie
Abraham Fitzgibbon
Thomas Hall
Carl Abraham Pihl
= Winter Is Coming =
" Winter Is Coming " is the first episode of the HBO medieval fantasy television series Game of Thrones . It was written by the show creators David Benioff and D. B. Weiss , in a faithful adaptation of the first chapters of George R. R. Martin 's book A Game of Thrones . The episode was directed by Tim Van Patten , redoing the work done by director Thomas McCarthy in an unaired pilot .
As the first episode of the series , it introduces the setting and the main characters of the show . The episode centers on the Stark family , and how its lord , Eddard Stark , gets involved in the court politics after the king chooses Eddard to replace his recently deceased chief administrator ( " Hand of the King " ) . The episode received largely positive reviews , and was seen initially by 2 @.@ 2 million viewers . A week before the episode first aired , HBO made the first 15 minutes available as an Internet preview .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins the process of interweaving action happening in multiple separate locations within and around the fictional continent of Westeros . Most of the action takes place in and around Winterfell where Lord Eddard Stark ( Sean Bean ) is the feudal overlord of the northern reaches of the kingdom . Outside of Westeros is a land across the Narrow Sea where the two surviving members of House Targaryen , previous rulers of Westeros , live in exile .
= = = Beyond the Wall = = =
The episode opens with three rangers of the Night 's Watch - Ser Waymar Royce ( Rob Ostlere ) , Will ( Bronson Webb ) and Gared ( Dermot Keaney ) - scouting beyond the Wall , a massive barrier of ice at the north end of the kingdom . After finding the mutilated corpses of some wildlings ( tribal humans who live north of the Wall ) , the rangers are confronted by White Walkers ( demonic creatures ) and undead wildlings . Two of the rangers are killed by the White Walkers , while the third , Will , is for some reason left alive . Fearing for his life , Will deserts the Night 's Watch .
= = = In King 's Landing = = =
Queen Cersei ( Lena Headey ) , and her twin brother , Jaime Lannister ( Nikolaj Coster @-@ Waldau ) , are watching as the dead body of Jon Arryn , The Hand of The King ( John Standing ) is tended to by the Silent Sisters . They discuss whether he revealed any dangerous information regarding the two of them to anyone before his death . Jaime assures his sister that if Arryn had spoken to anyone , they would already have been executed .
= = = In the North = = =
After the opening sequence , the Starks of Winterfell are introduced , including Lord Eddard " Ned " Stark , his wife , Lady Catelyn " Cat " Stark ( Michelle Fairley ) and his five children : their heir Robb ( Richard Madden ) , their elder daughter Sansa ( Sophie Turner ) , younger daughter Arya ( Maisie Williams ) , ten @-@ year @-@ old son Bran ( Isaac Hempstead @-@ Wright ) and youngest son , Rickon ( Art Parkinson ) . Also introduced are Ned 's illegitimate son Jon Snow ( Kit Harington ) and hostage / ward Theon Greyjoy ( Alfie Allen ) , who , like Robb , are older teenagers .
Ned is informed that a deserter of the Night 's Watch , Will , has been captured . Members of the Night 's Watch are sworn never to desert their posts , upon penalty of death . Ned takes his sons to witness Will 's execution . Will faces death bravely , admitting that he deserted the Wall after being attacked , but stands by his statement that he saw White Walkers . Ned himself passes sentence and beheads him . When Bran asks his father about the ranger 's talk of White Walkers , Ned dismisses it as a madman 's ravings , insisting that the Walkers have been considered extinct for thousands of years .
Upon their return , the Starks find a dead stag , sig
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personalities , schizophrenia does not involve a person changing among distinct , multiple personalities ; the confusion arises in part due to the literal interpretation of Bleuler 's term " schizophrenia " ( Bleuler originally associated schizophrenia with dissociation , and included split personality in his category of schizophrenia ) . Dissociative identity disorder ( having a " split personality " ) was also often misdiagnosed as schizophrenia based on the loose criteria in the DSM @-@ II . The first known misuse of the term to mean " split personality " was in an article by the poet T. S. Eliot in 1933 . Other scholars have traced earlier roots . Rather , the term means a " splitting of mental functions " , reflecting the presentation of the illness .
= = Society and culture = =
In 2002 , the term for schizophrenia in Japan was changed from seishin @-@ bunretsu @-@ byō ( 精神分裂病 , lit . " mind @-@ split disease " ) to tōgō @-@ shitchō @-@ shō ( 統合失調症 , lit . " integration disorder " ) to reduce stigma . The new name was inspired by the biopsychosocial model ; it increased the percentage of people who were informed of the diagnosis from 37 to 70 % over three years . A similar change was made in South Korea in 2012 . A professor of psychiatry , Jim van Os , has proposed changing the English term to " psychosis spectrum syndrome " .
In the United States , the cost of schizophrenia — including direct costs ( outpatient , inpatient , drugs , and long @-@ term care ) and non @-@ health care costs ( law enforcement , reduced workplace productivity , and unemployment ) — was estimated to be $ 62 @.@ 7 billion in 2002 . The book and film A Beautiful Mind chronicles the life of John Forbes Nash , a Nobel Prize – winning mathematician who was diagnosed with schizophrenia .
= = = Violence = = =
Individuals with severe mental illness , including schizophrenia , are at a significantly greater risk of being victims of both violent and non @-@ violent crime . Schizophrenia has been associated with a higher rate of violent acts , although this is primarily due to higher rates of drug use . Rates of homicide linked to psychosis are similar to those linked to substance misuse , and parallel the overall rate in a region . What role schizophrenia has on violence independent of drug misuse is controversial , but certain aspects of individual histories or mental states may be factors .
Media coverage relating to violent acts by individuals with schizophrenia reinforces public perception of an association between schizophrenia and violence . In a large , representative sample from a 1999 study , 12 @.@ 8 % of Americans believed that individuals with schizophrenia were " very likely " to do something violent against others , and 48 @.@ 1 % said that they were " somewhat likely " to . Over 74 % said that people with schizophrenia were either " not very able " or " not able at all " to make decisions concerning their treatment , and 70 @.@ 2 % said the same of money @-@ management decisions . The perception of individuals with psychosis as violent has more than doubled in prevalence since the 1950s , according to one meta @-@ analysis .
= = Research directions = =
Research has found a tentative benefit in using minocycline to treat schizophrenia . Nidotherapy or efforts to change the environment of people with schizophrenia to improve their ability to function , is also being studied ; however , there is not enough evidence yet to make conclusions about its effectiveness . Negative symptoms have proven a challenge to treat , as they are generally not made better by medication . Various agents have been explored for possible benefits in this area . There have been trials on drugs with anti @-@ inflammatory activity , based on the premise that inflammation might play a role in the pathology of schizophrenia .
= County Route 115 ( Tompkins County , New York ) =
County Route 115 ( CR 115 ) is a northwest – southeast county highway located mostly within the town of Caroline in Tompkins County , New York , in the United States . It extends for 12 @.@ 8 miles ( 20 @.@ 6 km ) from the Tioga County line south of the hamlet of Speedsville to an intersection with New York State Route 79 ( NY 79 ) just north of the Caroline town line in the town of Dryden . The highway continues into Tioga County as CR 33 . The portion of CR 115 north of the hamlet of Guide Board Corners was originally designated as New York State Route 330 and maintained by the state of New York . NY 330 existed from the early 1930s to 1980 , when ownership and maintenance of the highway was transferred to Tompkins County .
= = Route description = =
CR 115 begins at the Tioga County line in the town of Caroline , where it connects to Tioga County 's CR 33 . The county highway passes a mountain to the west and the Owego River 's west branch to the east as it heads northward . It crosses Boyer Creek as 76 Road and enters the hamlet of Speedsville , a small community located on top of a mountain . Here , CR 115 turns to the northwest to run along the base of a valley surrounding Boyer Creek . The creek reaches its source at an intersection with Yaple Road ; however , CR 115 continues northwestward to serve the hamlet of Caroline Center .
Outside of Caroline Center , CR 115 heads northwestward through a small valley to the community of Guide Board Corners . In the center of the hamlet , CR 115 turns north off 76 Road to follow Central Chapel Road . The highway emerges from the valley 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Guide Board Corners , at which point it meets CR 114 , a connector to NY 79 , and curves westward as Valley Road . CR 115 parallels the Sixmile Creek into the hamlet of Brooktondale , where it changes names once more to become Brooktondale Road . From Brooktondale , the route heads northwest alongside Sixmile Creek into the town of Dryden , where it ends at an intersection with NY 79 .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
In the early 19th century , construction commenced on a highway connecting the Catskill Turnpike ( modern NY 79 ) to the hamlet of Speedsville near the Tioga County line . It began at Boiceville ( known today as West Slaterville ) and passed through the communities of Guide Board Corners and Caroline Center on its way to Speedsville . The roadway was built by community labor during the summers of 1804 through 1808 and was named " 76 Road " . According to the Bicentennial history of the Town of Caroline , the name refers to the Revolutionary War :
The first bee for cutting the road through was held near Augustine Boyer 's on 4 July 1804 . It was opened and dedicated ... by the settlers on July 4 , 1808 . Mr. Boyer was requested to name the road . He replied that he would name it the " ' 76 Road " . Mr. Boyer explained that he had spent seven days obtaining the services of the commissioners and surveyors to lay out the road , and these days were representative of the seven years of the Revolutionary struggle , and since the day was 4 July , and the spirit of ' 76 was in the air , and other spirits in their bottles , he would give the name of " ' 76 Road " in honor of the spirit of cooperation and dedication that the people had in working together on the project , and to honor the memory of those who worked together in laying the foundations of our country in 1776 .
In the early 1910s , the state of New York upgraded a local highway connecting the Catskill Turnpike near the hamlet of Besemer to Brookton ( now Brooktondale ) . It was added to the state highway system on November 4 , 1914 . The state also intended on improving an extension of the roadway east to 76 Road and 76 Road itself from the modern junction of Boiceville , Valley , and Central Chapel Roads south to Speedsville ; however , construction advanced no farther southeastward than Guide Board Corners . The Brookton – Guide Board Corners highway was added to the state highway system on February 8 , 1921 .
= = = Designations and developments = = =
The Besemer – Guide Board Corners state highway was designated as NY 330 c . 1931 . The NY 330 designation was removed on January 24 , 1980 , and ownership and maintenance of its former routing was transferred from the state of New York to Tompkins County on April 1 , 1980 , as part of a highway maintenance swap between the two levels of government . By 1994 , NY 330 's former routing was designated as part of CR 115 , which continued south from Guide Board Corners to Speedsville via 76 Road .
In late June 2006 , the Tompkins County Highway Division temporarily closed off 76 Road ( CR 115 ) from Central Chapel Road to Caroline Center due to underground damage caused by heavy rains . Vehicular traffic weighing more than 5 short tons ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) was detoured at Speedsville to follow West Creek Road to NY 79 while traffic weighing less than 5 tons was directed onto Buffalo Hill Road at Caroline Center .
= = CR 115M = =
CR 115M is a spur route of CR 115 in the vicinity of Speedsville . It is named Mill Road and connects CR 115 in Speedsville to the Tioga County line , where it becomes CR 33 and changes names to West Creek Road .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Tompkins County .
= Capybara =
The capybara ( Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris ) is a large rodent of the genus Hydrochoerus of which the only other extant member is the lesser capybara ( Hydrochoerus isthmius ) . The capybara is the largest rodent in the world . Close relatives are guinea pigs and rock cavies , and it is more distantly related to the agouti , chinchillas , and the coypu . Native to South America , the capybara inhabits savannas and dense forests and lives near bodies of water . It is a highly social species and can be found in groups as large as 100 individuals , but usually lives in groups of 10 – 20 individuals . The capybara is not a threatened species and is hunted for its meat and hide and also for a grease from its thick fatty skin which is used in the pharmaceutical trade .
= = Etymology = =
Its common name is derived from Tupi ka 'apiûara , a complex agglutination of kaá ( leaf ) + píi ( slender ) + ú ( eat ) + ara ( a suffix for agent nouns ) , meaning " one who eats slender leaves " , or " grass @-@ eater " . The scientific name , both hydrochoerus and hydrochaeris , comes from Greek ὕδωρ ( hydor
= water ) + χοίρος ( choiros =
pig , hog ) .
= = Classification and phylogeny = =
The capybara and the lesser capybara belong to the subfamily Hydrochoerinae along with the rock cavies . The living capybaras and their extinct relatives were previously classified in their own family Hydrochoeridae . Since 2002 , molecular phylogenetic studies have recognized a close relationship between Hydrochoerus and Kerodon supporting placement of both genera in a subfamily of Caviidae . Paleontological classifications have yet to incorporate this new taxonomy and continue to use Hydrochoeridae for all capybaras , while using Hydrochoerinae for the living genus and its closest fossil relatives , such as Neochoerus . The taxonomy of fossil hydrochoerines is also in a state of flux . In recent years , the diversity of fossil hydrochoerines has been substantially reduced . This is largely due to the recognition that capybara molar teeth show strong variation in shape over the life of an individual . In one instance , material once referred to four genera and seven species on the basis of differences in molar shape is now thought to represent differently aged individuals of a single species , Cardiatherium paranense .
= = Description = =
The capybara has a heavy , barrel @-@ shaped body and short head , with reddish @-@ brown fur on the upper part of its body that turns yellowish @-@ brown underneath . Its sweat glands can be found in the surface of the hairy portions of its skin , an unusual trait among rodents . The animal lacks under hair , and guard hair differs little from over hair . Adult capybaras grow to 106 to 134 cm ( 3 @.@ 48 to 4 @.@ 40 ft ) in length , stand 50 to 62 cm ( 20 to 24 in ) tall at the withers , and typically weigh 35 to 66 kg ( 77 to 146 lb ) , with an average in the Venezuelan llanos of 48 @.@ 9 kg ( 108 lb ) . The top recorded weights are 91 kg ( 201 lb ) for a wild female from Brazil and 73 @.@ 5 kg ( 162 lb ) for a wild male from Uruguay . The dental formula is 1 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 31 @.@ 0 @.@ 1 @.@ 3 . Capybaras have slightly webbed feet and vestigial tails . Their hind legs are slightly longer than their forelegs ; they have three toes on their rear feet and four toes on their front feet . Their muzzles are blunt , with nostrils , and the eyes and ears are near the top of their heads . Females are slightly heavier than males .
Its karyotype has 2n
= 66 and FN =
102 .
= = Ecology = =
Capybaras are semi @-@ aquatic mammals found throughout almost all countries of South America ( except Chile ) . They live in densely forested areas near bodies of water , such as lakes , rivers , swamps , ponds , and marshes , as well as flooded savannah and along rivers in tropical forest . Capybara have flourished in cattle ranches . They roam in home ranges averaging 10 hectares ( 25 acres ) in high @-@ density populations .
Many escapees from captivity can also be found in similar watery habitats around the world . Sightings are fairly common in Florida , although a breeding population has not yet been confirmed . In 2011 , one was spotted in the Central Coast of California .
= = = Diet and predation = = =
Capybaras are herbivores , grazing mainly on grasses and aquatic plants , as well as fruit and tree bark . They are very selective feeders and will feed on the leaves of one species and disregard other species surrounding it . They eat a greater variety of plants during the dry season , as fewer plants are available . While they eat grass during the wet season , they have to switch to more abundant reeds during the dry season . Plants that capybaras eat during the summer lose their nutritional value in the winter and therefore are not consumed at that time . The capybara 's jaw hinge is not perpendicular and they thus chew food by grinding back @-@ and @-@ forth rather than side @-@ to @-@ side . Capybaras are autocoprophagous , meaning they eat their own feces as a source of bacterial gut flora , to help digest the cellulose in the grass that forms their normal diet , and to extract the maximum protein and vitamins from their food . They may also regurgitate food to masticate again , similar to cud @-@ chewing by a cow . As is the case with other rodents , the front teeth of capybaras grow continually to compensate for the constant wear from eating grasses ; their cheek teeth also grow continuously .
Like its cousin the guinea pig , the capybara does not have the capacity to synthesize vitamin C , and capybaras not supplemented with vitamin C in captivity have been reported to develop gum disease as a sign of scurvy .
They can have a life span of 8 – 10 years on average , but live less than four years in the wild , as they are " a favourite food of jaguar , puma , ocelot , eagle and caiman " . The capybara is also the preferred prey of the anaconda .
= = Social organization = =
Capybaras are gregarious . While they sometimes live solitarily , they are more commonly found in groups that average 10 – 20 individuals , with two to four adult males , four to seven adult females , and the remainder juveniles . Capybara groups can consist of as many as 50 or 100 individuals during the dry season when the animals gather around available water sources . Males establish social bonds , dominance , or , general group census . They can make dog @-@ like barks when threatened or when females are herding young .
Capybaras have two types of scent glands ; a morillo , located on the snout , and anal glands . Both sexes have these glands , but males have much larger morillos and use their anal glands more frequently . The anal glands of males are also lined with detachable hairs . A crystalline form of scent secretion is coated on these hairs and is released when in contact with objects like plants . These hairs have a longer @-@ lasting scent mark and are tasted by other capybaras . Capybara scent @-@ mark by rubbing their morillo on an object , or by walking over scrub and marking it with their anal glands . Capybara can spread their scent further by urinating ; however , females usually mark without urinating and scent @-@ mark less frequently than males overall . Females mark more often during the wet season when they are in estrus . In addition to objects , males will also scent @-@ mark females .
= = = Reproduction = = =
When in estrus , the female 's scent changes subtly and nearby males begin pursuit . In addition , a female will alert males she is in estrus by whistling though her nose . During mating , the female has the advantage and mating choice . Capybaras mate only in water , and if a female does not want to mate with a certain male , she will either submerge or leave the water . Dominant males are highly protective of the females , but they usually cannot prevent all the subordinates from copulating . The larger the group , the harder it is for the male to watch all the females . Dominant males secure significantly more matings than each subordinate , but subordinate males , as a class , are responsible for more matings than each dominant male . The lifespan of the capybara 's sperm is longer than that of other rodents .
Capybara gestation is 130 – 150 days , and usually produces a litter of four capybara babies , but may produce between one and eight in a single litter . Birth is on land and the female will rejoin the group within a few hours of delivering the newborn capybaras , which will join the group as soon as they are mobile . Within a week , the young can eat grass , but will continue to suckle — from any female in the group — until weaned at about 16 weeks . The young will form a group within the main group . Alloparenting has been observed in this species . Breeding peaks between April and May in Venezuela and between October and November in Mato Grosso , Brazil .
= = = Activities = = =
Though quite agile on land ( capable of running as fast as a horse ) , capybaras are equally at home in the water . They are excellent swimmers , and can remain completely submerged for up to five minutes , an ability they use to evade predators . Capybaras can sleep in water , keeping only their noses out of the water . As temperatures increase during the day , they wallow in water and then graze during the late afternoon and early evening . They also spend a lot of time wallowing in mud . They rest around midnight and then continue to graze before dawn .
= = Conservation and human interaction = =
Capybaras are not considered a threatened species ; their population is stable throughout most of their South American range , though in some areas hunting has reduced their numbers .
Capybaras are hunted for their meat and pelts in some areas , and otherwise killed by humans who see their grazing as competition for livestock . In some areas , they are farmed , which has the effect of ensuring the wetland habitats are protected . Their survival is aided by their ability to breed rapidly .
Capybaras have adapted well to the urbanization in South America . They can be found in many areas in zoos and parks , and may live for 12 years in captivity . Capybaras are gentle and will usually allow humans to pet and hand @-@ feed them , but physical contact is normally discouraged as their ticks can be vectors to Rocky Mountain spotted fever .
The European Association of Zoos and Aquaria ( EAZA ) tasked Drusillas Park in Alfriston , Sussex to keep the studbook for capybaras , to monitor captive populations in Europe . The studbook includes information about all births , deaths and movements of capybaras , as well as how they are related .
Capybaras are farmed for meat and skins in South America . The meat is considered unsuitable to eat in some areas , while in other areas it is considered an important source of protein . In parts of South America , especially in Venezuela , capybara meat is popular during Lent and Holy Week as the Catholic Church previously gave a special dispensation that allows for its consumption while other meats are generally forbidden .
Although it is illegal in some states , capybaras are occasionally kept as pets in the United States .
The image of a capybara features on the $ 2 coin of the Uruguayan peso .
= M @-@ 67 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 67 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the Upper Peninsula of the U.S. state of Michigan . It connects with US Highway 41 ( US 41 ) and M @-@ 94 between Trenary and Chatham . The highway has largely been unchanged during its history , although the highways that connect to M @-@ 67 on each end have changed several times .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 67 starts at an intersection with US 41 near Trenary east of the West Branch of the Whitefish River . From that intersection the highway runs east crossing Scott Creek before running into downtown Trenary along relatively flat terrain . East of town , the highway turns north running parallel to the AuTrain River Basin . The trunkline crosses Dexter Creek between Paulsen and Trout Lake roads . About halfway along the north – south segment of the highway , M @-@ 67 passes through the community of Limestone and crosses Johnson Creek . After running for 12 @.@ 044 miles ( 19 @.@ 383 km ) , M @-@ 67 ends at a four @-@ way intersection with M @-@ 94 and Tunteri Road .
Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) traffic surveys in 2007 show that between 1 @,@ 200 and 1 @,@ 400 vehicles traveled the road daily in 2007 in a measure of the annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . The same surveys showed that only 90 trucks are included in that average . In comparison , US 41 south of M @-@ 67 carried an average of 2 @,@ 300 vehicles and 270 trucks . No segment of the trunkline is listed on the National Highway System , a system of strategically important highways .
= = History = =
M @-@ 67 is an original state trunkline dating back to 1919 . Its routing has been largely unchanged since designation . The southern terminus has been moved once , but the northern terminus has remained in the same location since 1919 . US 41 was rerouted in the Trenary area to run west of town in late 1937 and 1938 . M @-@ 67 was extended westerly along a former portion of US 41 to connect to the new highway on the south end of M @-@ 67 . The highway was fully paved at the end of the 1950s .
While the highway itself is largely unchanged since 1919 , the connections with other trunklines have changed . The intersection south of the community of Chatham where M @-@ 67 has ended since designation has remained unchanged . The other highways running through the intersection have changed twice . The first highway to connect with M @-@ 67 was M @-@ 25 . M @-@ 25 was replaced by M @-@ 28 in 1926 . The second change came in 1941 when the routings of M @-@ 28 and M @-@ 94 were exchanged between Harvey and Munising .
The original southern terminus was at an intersection with M @-@ 15 in Trenary . In 1926 , M @-@ 15 was replaced by US 41 . As stated previously , the southern terminus of M @-@ 67 was shifted to a new intersection with US 41 west of Trenary when the latter was rebuilt in the late 1930s resulting in the only physical change to M @-@ 67 's routing .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Alger County .
= Miracle on Evergreen Terrace =
" Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " is the tenth episode of The Simpsons ' ninth season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 21 , 1997 . Bart accidentally ruins Christmas for the Simpson family by burning down the tree and all their presents . It was written by Ron Hauge , directed by Bob Anderson , and guest starred Alex Trebek as himself . Hauge was inspired to write the episode after learning of an orphanage that had been ripped off . The episode was selected , among other Christmas @-@ themed episodes of the series , on a 2005 Christmas special DVD boxed set . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide criticized the episode as a rehash of older themes , but it was also described as one of The Simpsons ’ more memorable episodes in a review of the 2005 DVD boxed set release .
= = Plot = =
The Simpson family are making their last @-@ minute Christmas preparations . At bedtime on Christmas Eve , Marge tells everyone nobody can open presents until 7 AM . However , Bart wakes up early to secretly unwrap his gifts . One of the presents is a remote @-@ controlled fire truck . Bart has fun playing with the truck , until it sprays water on an overloaded electrical socket , and the Christmas tree bursts into flames . The flames immediately engulf the plastic Christmas tree and all of the presents . Bart manages to extinguish the fire before it spreads , and hides the burned evidence outside beneath the snow in the front yard .
When the family come downstairs , and discover that the Christmas tree and presents are gone , Marge asks Bart what happened . Bart makes up a story about how he caught a burglary in progress . The police investigate , and Kent Brockman decides to do a story on what he believes is the Simpsons ' yuletide misfortune .
As a result of Brockman 's report , everyone in Springfield shows their community spirit by giving them $ 15 @,@ 000 . With the donations , Homer buys a new car . Driving it home , a speeding Homer unintentionally drives the car onto a frozen lake , where the ice cracks , causing the car to sink and explode .
The next morning , Bart 's conscience gets to him , and finally he admits the truth when he disobeyed his family , which prompts Homer and Lisa to choke him . Soon , Brockman and the news crew arrive to do a follow @-@ up story . After the family go along with the lie , the story quickly unravels when a cameraman , with help from Santa 's Little Helper , finds the burned remains of the Christmas tree . The family is forced to explain , but it is too late for the viewers , who feel they have been scammed . The citizens shun and harass them until the family can pay back the $ 15 @,@ 000 .
Later , when arriving home , the family find that everyone in Springfield is stealing their belongings in order to cover the $ 15 @,@ 000 debt . In the end , the family playfully fight over a tattered washcloth , the only item they have left .
= = Production = =
Writer Ron Hauge said he got the idea for the episode one day when he was heading to work . He was listening to the radio and heard of an orphanage getting ripped off , and they were getting back more than they gave . The spectators in the stands during Bart 's dreams are various animators . When Krusty says " 15 @,@ 000 Missoulians " it is a reference to Ron Hauge having lived in Missoula , Montana . When the Simpsons ' car says " I 'll Keell you " , this is a reference to a Wiffleball bat in the writer 's office that said that .
= = Cultural references = =
The episode has several references to Christmas films . The title is a play on Miracle on 34th Street while the scene where everyone rallies around to support the Simpsons is reminiscent of the last scene of the classic holiday movie It 's a Wonderful Life . The film is further spoofed when Homer tells Lisa to stop playing the piano which parodies a similar scene involving George Bailey . A Charlie Brown Christmas is also parodied when the senior citizens are dancing at the Springfield Retirement Castle — their dancing is based on the way the Peanuts characters dance . Marge appears as a contestant on Jeopardy ! with host Alex Trebek guest starring . One of the stuffed animals Chief Wiggum is carrying is Binky from Matt Groening 's comic strip Life in Hell .
= = Reception = =
In its original broadcast , " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " finished 23rd in ratings for the week of December 15 – 21 , 1997 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 8 , equivalent to approximately 9 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the second highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following King of the Hill .
The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide said " A deliberately mawkish Christmas episode that is low on good jokes ( although the Simpsons watching their own fire on TV is a good start ) and a retread of any number of episodes where Bart does wrong , feels guilty and eventually has to fess up . The only real ray of sunshine is the closing moments when the neighbours get their revenge but the Simpsons find the family spirit after all . " In its review of a 2005 DVD boxed set of Christmas @-@ themed episodes of The Simpsons , The Journal described " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " , " Miracle On Evergreen Terrace " , " Skinner 's Sense of Snow " , and " Dude , Where 's My Ranch ? " among memorable episodes of the series . In his review of the same DVD , Digitally Obsessed critic Joel Cunningham wrote that " Miracle on Evergreen Terrace " is " a good one [ ... ] A nice combo of humor , satire , and heartwarming holiday fuzzies " . Andy Dougan wrote in Evening Times that the episode is " one of the darkest , blackest Christmas cartoons ever animated " .
= Typhoon Joan ( 1997 ) =
Typhoon Joan of October 1997 was the longest @-@ lasting super typhoon at the time , maintaining 1 @-@ minute maximum sustained winds of at least 240 km / h ( 150 mph ) for 4 @.@ 5 days . Joan , concurrently with Typhoon Ivan to its west , also became the strongest typhoons at the same time in the northwest Pacific Ocean . The 25th named storm during the active 1997 Pacific typhoon season , Joan developed from the same trough as Typhoon Ivan on October 11 . It moved northwestward and later to the west , undergoing explosive deepening to its peak intensity on October 15 . One typhoon warning agency estimated that Joan was among the strongest storms on record in the basin , and that Ivan and Joan marked the first occurrence of simultaneous super typhoons . While near peak intensity , Joan passed between Anatahan and Saipan in the Northern Marianas Islands . Later , the typhoon weakened and turned to the north and east , becoming extratropical on October 24 .
On Saipan , Typhoon Joan destroyed 37 houses and caused an island @-@ wide power outage . Three people were injured due to boarding up their house during the storm . On nearby Anatahan , high winds caused $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD ) worth of crop and property damage . Later , high waves affected southern Japan and northwestern Hawaii . On Chichi @-@ jima , Joan caused a boat to capsize , killing one of its occupants and leaving two others missing .
= = Meteorological history = =
In the first week of October 1997 , westerly winds near the equator in the western Pacific Ocean produced troughs – extended areas of low pressure – at a low latitude in the northern and southern hemisphere . The system in the South Pacific eventually developed into Tropical Cyclone Lusi , while the trough in the northern hemisphere eventually spawned two systems – Typhoon Ivan formed to the west , and the system that would eventually become Typhoon Joan developed along the eastern periphery . By October 10 , the eastern system consisted of an area of poorly @-@ organized convection , moving slowly to the northwest . On the next day , satellite imagery suggested a circulation had developed . The system increased in size and the convection organized further , prompting the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) to initiate advisories on Tropical Depression 28W on October 13 . Also on that day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) estimated that a tropical depression had developed near the Marshall Islands .
After its development , the depression turned more to the west , intensifying into Tropical Storm Joan on October 14 . Early in the storm 's duration , neither the JTWC nor most tropical cyclone forecast models anticipated significant strengthening beyond 1 @-@ minute winds of 185 km / h ( 115 mph ) ; this was due to a fairly weak monsoon trough and normal atmospheric pressures in the region . Late on October 15 , the JTWC upgraded Joan to typhoon status , and the JMA followed suit the next day . Over a 36 ‑ hour period beginning at 1800 UTC on October 15 , the JTWC estimated that the pressure decreased by 100 mbar ( 3 @.@ 0 inHg ) , or roughly 2 @.@ 4 mbar ( 0 @.@ 071 inHg ) per hour ; based on the agency 's assessment , Joan underwent explosive deepening during that time , reaching an estimated minimum pressure of 872 mbar ( 25 @.@ 8 inHg ) . Near peak intensity , Joan had a well @-@ defined eye within a circular area of very deep convection , organized to such an extent that it warranted a Dvorak rating of at least T8.0 , the highest number on the scale used to estimate tropical cyclone intensities via satellite imagery . If the estimate were correct , it would make Joan among the top five Pacific typhoons on record . On October 17 , the JTWC estimated 1 @-@ minute peak winds of 295 km / h ( 185 mph ) , making Joan a super typhoon , the ninth of the season . By contrast , the JMA estimated peak 10 @-@ minute winds of 195 km / h ( 120 mph ) with a pressure of 905 mbar ( 26 @.@ 7 inHg ) .
While near peak intensity on October 17 , Joan was located about 2100 km ( 1300 mi ) east of Typhoon Ivan , which had also reached super typhoon status ; the JTWC later noted that it was " the first observation of two tropical cyclones of such extreme intensity existing simultaneously in the Northwest Pacific . " Despite the proximity to Ivan , the two typhoons did not undergo the Fujiwhara effect . The JTWC estimated that Joan weakened slightly after reaching peak winds , although the JMA maintained the typhoon at peak intensity for nearly three whole days . Joan gradually turned more to the northwest , passing between Anatahan and Saipan in the Northern Marianas Islands ( NMI ) on October 18 . On October 20 , the JMA estimated that the typhoon began weakening , and on the same day Joan turned sharply to the north . On the next day , Joan weakened below super typhoon intensity for the first time in 4 @.@ 5 days , a record at the time based on JTWC analysis . This record was later surpassed by Typhoon Fengshen in 2002 and Typhoon Ioke in 2006 . By October 21 , the typhoon had accelerated to the east and was quickly weakening . The next day , Joan passed about 230 km ( 145 mi ) north of the Japanese island of Iwo Jima . On October 24 , the typhoon turned to the northeast while losing tropical characteristics , and that day the JMA ceased tracking Joan . The JTWC declared the typhoon as extratropical on October 25 around the same time it crossed the international date line . Former Typhoon Joan merged with a cold front and re @-@ intensified while approaching the Aleutian Islands , and was noted by the Mariners Weather Log as an extratropical storm on October 26 .
= = Impact and records = =
While passing about 80 km ( 50 mi ) of Saipan , Joan produced wind gusts of 157 km / h ( 98 mph ) , strong enough to destroy 37 homes and damage the roofs of several other houses . Residents were slow to prepare for the typhoon , and as a result , three people were injured while boarding up their house during the arrival of the strong winds . The passage of Joan left the entire island of Saipan without power , although electrical crews quickly worked to restore the outages . During the storm 's passage , about 900 people stayed in shelters , after the government opened six schools for residents . In nearby Anatahan , Joan left heavy damage to boats , machinery , and public buildings . The typhoon damaged various crops , and monetary damage was estimated at $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 1997 USD ) . As a result of the damage , both islands within the NMI were declared disaster areas , which allowed residents and businesses to apply for federal loans through the United States Small Business Administration .
While passing between Saipan and Anatahan in the NMI , the eye of Joan was visible by NEXRAD from Guam , despite being 285 km ( 180 mi ) north of the island . An outer rainband moved across the island , producing 56 mm ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) of rainfall at Anderson Air Force Base and a wind gust of 66 km / h ( 41 mph ) at the National Weather Service office in Tiyan .
Typhoon Joan produced waves as high as 7 m ( 22 ft ) in the southern islands of Japan . In Chichi @-@ jima , the typhoon dropped 115 mm ( 4 @.@ 5 in ) and brought winds as strong as 91 km / h ( 60 mph ) . The combination of strong winds and high waves on the island broke a boat from a moorings , causing it to capsize when the boat struck rocks . Of the five people on board , two swam safely to shore , two were reported missing , and one person was confirmed killed . The extratropical remnants of Joan also produced high swells in Hawaii , with wave heights of 4 @.@ 6 m ( 15 ft ) along northern shores .
= From Elvis in Memphis =
From Elvis in Memphis is the fifteenth studio album by American rock and roll singer Elvis Presley , released on RCA Records . It was recorded at American Sound Studio in Memphis in January and February 1969 under the direction of producer Chips Moman and backed by its house band , informally known as " The Memphis Boys " . Following the success of Presley 's 1968 Christmas television special and its soundtrack , the album marked Presley 's return to non @-@ soundtrack albums after the completion of his film contract with Paramount Pictures .
Presley 's entourage convinced him to leave the RCA studios and record this album at American Sound , a new Memphis studio at the peak of a hit @-@ producing streak . The reason for going to Moman 's studio was for the soul sound of the house band , ' the Memphis Boys ' . The predominance of country songs among those recorded in these sessions gives them the feel of the " country soul " style . This impression is emphasized by the frequent use of the dobro in the arrangements . In any case , the Memphis Boys have a solidly southern soul sound .
From Elvis in Memphis was released in June 1969 to favorable reviews . The album peaked at number 13 on the Billboard 200 , number two on the country charts and number one in the United Kingdom , and its single " In the Ghetto " reached number three on the Billboard Hot 100 . The album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America in 1970 . In later years , it garnered further favorable reviews , while it was ranked number 190 on Rolling Stone magazine 's 2003 list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
After Presley 's 1960 return from military service , his manager , Colonel Tom Parker , shifted the focus of the singer 's career from live music and albums to films and soundtracks . In March 1961 , he performed what would become his last live concert for the next eight years : a benefit for the construction of the USS Arizona Memorial at Boch Arena in Pearl Harbor , Hawaii . During the first half of the 1960s , three of Presley 's soundtrack albums reached number one on the pop charts and a number of his most popular songs were from his films , including 1961 's " Can 't Help Falling in Love " and 1962 's " Return to Sender " .
After 1964 , Parker decided that Presley should only record soundtrack albums . He viewed the films and soundtracks as complementary , with each helping to promote the other . As it turned out , the commercial success of Presley 's films and soundtracks steadily diminished ( Paradise , Hawaiian Style ; Easy Come , Easy Go ; Speedway ) , while he was increasingly disappointed with the quality of his work . From 1964 to 1968 , Presley had just one top @-@ ten hit : " Crying in the Chapel " ( 1965 ) , a gospel number recorded in 1960 . Only one LP of new material by Presley was issued : the gospel album How Great Thou Art ( 1967 ) , which won him his first Grammy Award in the Best Sacred Performance category .
In 1968 , Colonel Parker arranged a deal with NBC for a Christmas television special starring Presley in front of a live audience . Parker originally planned to have Presley sing Christmas carols only , but producer Steve Binder convinced the singer to perform songs from his original repertoire . The high ratings received by the special and the success of its attendant LP re @-@ established Presley 's popularity . During the making of the special , Presley said to Binder : " I 'll never sing another song that I don 't believe in , I 'm never going to make another movie that I don 't believe in . " As part of his decision to refocus on music rather than film , Presley decided to record a new album .
= = Recording = =
Presley left his usual musicians and studios ( Radio Recorders in Hollywood , California and RCA Studio B in Nashville , Tennessee ) , recording new material in Memphis . After the special he approached Scotty Moore and D. J. Fontana , who had played with Presley during his early hit @-@ making career , and who rejoined him on the television show . Presley asked Moore about using Music City Recorders in Nashville , but that suggestion never came to fruition .
During a January 1969 meeting at Graceland , Presley told his usual producer , Felton Jarvis , that he did not want to record his next album at RCA Studios . Two of Presley 's friends , DJ George Klein and Marty Lacker , suggested that he use American Sound Studio , an up @-@ and @-@ coming studio with which Lacker was involved . RCA contacted the studio 's producer Chips Moman . Willing to work with Presley , Moman postponed a session with Neil Diamond after being asked to produce the sessions with Felton Jarvis as second producer . It was agreed that Presley 's recordings would take ten days and cost $ 25 @,@ 000 . He would be backed by the studio 's house band , the 827 Thomas Street Band ( informally known as " The Memphis Boys " ) , which consisted of Reggie Young on guitar , Tommy Cogbill and Mike Leech on bass , Gene Chrisman on drums , Bobby Wood on piano , and Bobby Emmons on organ .
Although RCA Records oversaw their company policy to record only in their own studios , the label sent their personnel out to American Sound . Recording began on January 13 , 1969 , when Presley arrived at the studio nursing a cold . In addition to his personal entourage , he was accompanied by Hill & Range publisher Freddy Bienstock , Colonel Parker 's assistant Tom Diskin , producer Felton Jarvis , executive Harry Jenkins and engineer Al Pachucki , representing RCA Records . With Pachucki on the board , American Sound engineer Ed Kollis joined the musicians on harmonica . The session , which produced recordings of " Long Black Limousine " , " Wearin ' That Loved On Look " and several non @-@ album songs , continued until 5 : 00 am . After the first day 's recording , Moman and his colleagues expressed discomfort with the size of Presley 's entourage , and the singer was accompanied by fewer people for the remaining sessions .
The next day Presley recorded " I 'm Moving On " and " Gentle on My Mind " , leaving the studio while working on the latter to rest his throat . The following night , he did not appear , as his cold worsened , and on January 15 and 16 the house band recorded backing tracks for subsequent sessions . Presley returned on January 20 , recording " In the Ghetto " in 23 takes and finishing the vocal track for " Gentle on My Mind " . On January 22 , he recorded Eddy Arnold 's " I 'll Hold You in My Heart ( Till I Can Hold You in My Arms ) " and the non @-@ album single " Suspicious Minds " . Presley then took a break from recording for a vacation trip to Aspen , Colorado to celebrate his daughter Lisa Marie 's first birthday .
During Presley 's absence , Moman was approached by Bienstock , who was concerned about possible future disputes concerning the songs ' publication . Moman and Presley decided not to record Hill & Range compositions , instead using songs by American Sound writers . Bienstock , particularly interested in the non @-@ album " Suspicious Minds " and " Mama Liked the Roses " , warned that Moman would have to surrender the publishing rights to release the songs . In response , Moman told Bienstock to take all the recordings and leave the studio . RCA vice @-@ president Harry Jenkins interceded , siding with Moman and ordering Bienstock to stay away from the studio and let Presley work with the staff . Meanwhile , Diskin informed Presley about the publishing issues . Presley supported Moman , assuring Diskin that he and the producer would handle the session work . Diskin contacted Parker , who told him to return to California . Moman retained the publishing rights , and the sessions were scheduled to resume several weeks later .
Presley returned on February 17 , recording " True Love Travels on a Gravel Road " and " Power of My Love " , and Eddy Arnold 's " After Loving You " and " Do You Know Who I Am ? " the following day . On February 19 , he devoted most of the session to the non @-@ album single " Kentucky Rain " , one of the few Hill & Range songs used on the American Sound recordings . Presley followed with a recording of " Only the Strong Survive " , a hit for Jerry Butler the previous year , which took twenty @-@ nine takes . On February 20 , he recorded Johnny Tillotson 's " It Keeps Right on a Hurtin ' " in three takes and " Any Day Now " in six . Presley 's final session was on February 22 , when he recorded vocal overdubs for " True Love Travels on a Gravel Road " and " Power of My Love " and vocals for several non @-@ album cuts . The following month , Mike Leech and Green Spreen began work on the string and horn overdubs to finish the album ; several brass overdubs were recorded by The Memphis Horns .
= = Music = =
Moman moved away from the usual Presley pop recordings aimed at an established audience . A developer of the Stax Records sound , he incorporated a Memphis sound integrating soul , country , gospel and rural and electric blues . Many arrangements lean heavily on the rhythm section , with lesser contributions from strings , brass and woodwinds . Arrangers Green Spreen and Mike Leech changed Presley 's image on the tracks with the addition of violas , cellos and French horns . The arrangers intended to blend the tracks for a distinctive sound ; the strings are used in counterpoint , rising when the track fades and vice versa . The violas play the same lines as the French horns , with cello used for darker tones . Syncopation was incorporated by bowing .
The twelve tracks on the album were selected from thirty @-@ one which were recorded in the American Sound sessions . The first song , " Wearin ' That Loved On Look " features an electric @-@ bass lead for the first time in a Presley recording . The second is " Only the Strong Survive " , with Presley backed by bass and drums . He plays piano on the third track , the country song " I Hold You in My Heart ( ' Till I Can Hold You in My Arms ) " . Presley 's voice is roughened by a cold on the fourth song , the country @-@ rhythm @-@ and @-@ blues " Long Black Limousine " featuring a trumpet solo . The fifth song , Johnny Tillotson 's traditional country @-@ western " It Keeps Right on A @-@ Hurtin ' " , was arranged to sound more like Memphis soul . Side one ends with a version of Hank Snow 's country @-@ western " I 'm Moving On " with a strong bass line and driving rhythm .
Side two begins with Florence Kaye and Bernie Baum 's " Power of My Love " . The song has a blues @-@ based sound , with Presley backed by a brass section , drums and electric guitar and organ . The lyrics include double entendres ( " Crush it , kick it / You can never win / I know baby you can 't lick it / I 'll make you give in ) " , with groans by backing female singers emphasizing sexuality . The second track , a cover of John Hartford 's " Gentle on My Mind " follows . The string @-@ laden arrangement was inspired by Glen Campbell 's 1967 Grammy @-@ winning version of the song . The next song , Eddy Arnold 's 1962 hit " After Loving You " , is arranged in a 12 / 8 tempo rhythm @-@ and @-@ blues style . This is followed by Dallas Frazier 's " True Love Travels on a Gravel Road " and Chuck Jackson 's 1962 hit , " Any Day Now " .
The twelfth and final song of the album , selected as a single , is Mac Davis ' " In The Ghetto " . The song was chosen by Billy Strange , who had previously picked material for other Presley sessions . The protest song denounces the consequences of poverty , with compassion for inner @-@ city youth . Because of " In the Ghetto " ' s lyrics , controversial for its time , Presley originally did not plan to record the song because he thought it might alienate fans . After Moman said he might give the song to Rosey Grier , Presley 's friends Joe Esposito and George Klein ( initially opposed to " In the Ghetto " ) , convinced the singer to record it .
The album cover is a still from the " Trouble " - " Guitar Man " production number of NBC 's Elvis special . Presley is featured with a red electric guitar , wearing a black leather suit with a red scarf around his neck , with silhouettes of guitar players at the back of the set . From Elvis in Memphis became one of American Sound Studio 's best @-@ known productions , with Dusty Springfield 's Dusty in Memphis ; both albums reflected similar times and musical trends on the Memphis scene .
= = Release and reception = =
The single " In the Ghetto " was released on April 15 , with 300 @,@ 000 copies shipped by RCA . In its second week after release it entered the charts , where it remained for thirteen weeks ( reaching number three on June 14 ) . The single sold a million copies in the United States . Meanwhile , it reached number two on the British Singles chart . However , its success triggered a confrontation between RCA and American Sound . During the sessions , Presley 's usual producer , Jarvis , grew increasingly worried about losing control of Presley and his recordings . During its first two weeks on the chart , " In the Ghetto " ' s production was credited to Jarvis . Lacker then called Billboard and had them correct the producer credit to Moman . During the fourth week , Parker asked Billboard to remove the production credit from the song 's entry entirely ( arguing that Presley 's records did not traditionally list a producer credit ) .
From Elvis in Memphis was released in June 1969 . The album topped the UK Albums Chart , disposing for one week Jethro Tull 's Stand Up . In the United States , it reached number thirteen on Billboard 's Top LP 's , and was ranked number seventeen on the magazine 's Top Country albums of 1969 . By January 28 , 1970 , the album was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America after selling over 500 @,@ 000 copies .
On August 23 , 1969 Presley was featured on the cover of Rolling Stone , with the album receiving the lead review . Peter Guralnick , the magazine 's reviewer , described it as " great ... Flatly and unequivocally the equal of anything ( Presley ) has ever done " and praised the " evident passion which ( Presley ) has invested in this music " , adding : " ( he ) is trying , and trying very hard , to please us. he needs to have our attention ... It is his involvement after all which comes as the surprise . " Billboard also published a positive review , saying that Presley had " never sounded better , and the choice of material is perfect " . High Fidelity wrote , " Elvis has been through a number of stages , and his latest is the best " .
From Elvis in Memphis has continued to receive praise in retrospective reviews . In 2009 Rolling Stone described it as " extraordinary " and attributed the sessions ' success to Presley 's " newfound maturity and soulfulness " and Moman 's " warm , distinctly Southern musical backing " . AllMusic gives it five stars out of five , and highlights it as an " AllMusic album pick " . Critic Bruce Eder said that together with 1956 's Elvis Presley , From Elvis in Memphis was Presley 's " greatest album " . Eder called it " one of the greatest white soul albums ( and one of the greatest soul albums ) ever cut " , with Presley " rejuvenated artistically ( while ) he 's supported by the best playing and backup singing of his entire recording history " .
PopMatters has described From Elvis in Memphis as " some of the best music Elvis Presley ever made " . Sputnik Music 's reviewer considered that the album " rivaled " Presley 's early recordings in " terms of historical importance and innovation " , and was " downright essential , for any Elvis fan and for any music fan " .
= = Legacy = =
Following the American Sound sessions , Presley returned to Hollywood . Between March – April 1969 , he recorded the soundtrack and starred in his thirty @-@ first and last motion picture as an actor , Change of Habit .
When the album was due for release , Parker arranged Presley 's return to live performing . He made a deal with Kirk Kerkorian , owner of the Las Vegas International Hotel for Presley to play the newly built , 2 @,@ 000 @-@ seat showroom for four weeks ( two shows per night , with Mondays off ) for $ 400 @,@ 000 . For his appearance , he assembled a band later known as the TCB Band : James Burton ( guitar ) , John Wilkinson ( rhythm guitar ) , Jerry Scheff ( bass @-@ guitar ) , Ronnie Tutt ( drums ) , Larry Muhoberac ( piano ) and Charlie Hodge ( rhythm guitar , background vocals ) . The band was complimented by the backing vocals of The Sweet inspirations and The Imperials . His initial Las Vegas show attracted an audience of 101 @,@ 500 , setting a new Vegas performance record . By 1970 , Presley began to tour the United States for the first time in thirteen years .
= = = Reissues = = =
In 2000 RCA released a remastered compact disc of From Elvis in Memphis , including six bonus tracks ( released as A- or B @-@ sides ) recorded during the album sessions . The reissue received five stars out of five from Rolling Stone . " Don 't Cry Daddy " and " Kentucky Rain " were minor hits in 1970 , but " Suspicious Minds " became one of Presley 's signature songs and was the final chart @-@ topper of his career . In 2003 , the album was number 190 on Rolling Stone 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time . In 2009 , Sony Music Entertainment issued a Legacy RCA Edition of the album for its 40th anniversary : two discs ( From Elvis In Memphis and the studio disk of From Memphis To Vegas / From Vegas To Memphis ) , four outtakes and ten tracks originally released as monaural singles ( including " Suspicious Minds " and " Kentucky Rain " ) .
= = Personnel = =
= = Track listings = =
= = = Original release = = =
= = = 1998 CD reissue = = =
= = = 2009 CD reissue = = =
= = Chart performance = =
= = = Album = = =
= = = Certifications / sales = = =
= = Release history = =
= American popular music =
American popular music has had a profound effect on music across the world . The country has seen the rise of popular styles that have had a significant influence on global culture , including ragtime , blues , jazz , swing , rock , bluegrass , country , R & B , doo wop , gospel , soul , funk , heavy metal , punk , disco , house , techno , salsa , grunge and hip hop . In addition , the American music industry is quite diverse , supporting a number of regional styles such as zydeco , klezmer and slack @-@ key .
Distinctive styles of American popular music emerged early in the 19th century , and in the 20th century the American music industry developed a series of new forms of music , using elements of blues and other genres of American folk music . These popular styles included country , R & B , jazz and rock . The 1960s and 1970s saw a number of important changes in American popular music , including the development of a number of new styles , such as heavy metal , punk , soul , and hip hop . Though these styles were not popular in the sense of mainstream , they were commercially recorded and are thus examples of popular music as opposed to folk or classical music .
= = Early " popular " music = =
The earliest songs that could be considered American popular music , as opposed to the popular music of a particular region or ethnicity , were sentimental parlor songs by Stephen Foster and his peers , and songs meant for use in minstrel shows , theatrical productions that featured singing , dancing and comic performances . Minstrel shows generally used African instruments and dance , and featured performers with their faces blackened , a technique called blackface . [ 1 ] By the middle of the 19th century , touring companies had taken this music not only to every part of the United States , but also to the UK , Western Europe , and even to Africa and Asia . Minstrel shows were generally advertised as though the music of the shows was in an African American style , though this was often not true .
Black people had taken part in American popular culture prior to the Civil War era , at least dating back to the African Grove Theatre in New York in the 1820s and the publication of the first music by a black composer , Francis Johnson , in 1818 . However , these important milestones still occurred entirely within the conventions of European music . The first extremely popular minstrel song was " Jump Jim Crow " by Thomas " Daddy " Rice , which was first performed in 1832 and was a sensation in London when Rice performed it there in 1836 . Rice used a dance that he copied from a stable boy with a tune adopted from an Irish jig . The African elements included the use of the banjo , believed to derive from West African string instruments , and accented and additive rhythms . [ 2 ] Many of the songs of the minstrel shows are still remembered today , especially those by Daniel Emmett and Stephen Foster , the latter being , according to David Ewen , " America 's first major composer , and one of the world 's outstanding writers of songs " . [ 3 ] Foster 's songs were typical of the minstrel era in their unabashed sentimentality , and in their acceptance of slavery . Nevertheless , Foster did more than most songwriters of the period to humanize the blacks he composed about , such as in " Nelly Was a Lady " , a plaintive , melancholy song about a black man mourning the loss of his wife . [ 4 ]
The minstrel show marked the beginning of a long tradition of African American music being appropriated for popular audiences , and was the first distinctly American form of music to find international acclaim , in the mid @-@ 19th century . As Donald Clarke has noted , minstrel shows contained " essentially black music , while the most successful acts were white , so that songs and dances of black origin were imitated by white performers and then taken up by black performers , who thus to some extent ended up imitating themselves " . Clarke attributes the use of blackface to a desire for white Americans to glorify the brutal existence of both free and slave blacks by depicting them as happy and carefree individuals , best suited to plantation life and the performance of simple , joyous songs that easily appealed to white audiences . [ 5 ]
Blackface minstrel shows remained popular throughout the last part of the 19th century , only gradually dying out near the beginning of the 20th century . During that time , a form of lavish and elaborate theater called the extravaganza arose , beginning with Charles M. Barras ' The Black Crook . [ 6 ] Extravaganzas were criticized by the newspapers and churches of the day because the shows were considered sexually titillating , with women singing bawdy songs dressed in nearly transparent clothing . David Ewen described this as the beginning of the " long and active careers in sex exploitation " of American musical theater and popular song . [ 7 ] Later , extravaganzas took elements of burlesque performances , which were satiric and parodic productions that were very popular at the end of the 19th century . [ 8 ]
Like the extravaganza and the burlesque , the variety show was a comic and ribald production , popular from the middle to the end of the 19th century , at which time it had evolved into vaudeville . This form was innovated by producers like Tony Pastor who tried to encourage women and children to attend his shows ; they were hesitant because the theater had long been the domain of a rough and disorderly crowd . [ 9 ] By the early 20th century , vaudeville was a respected entertainment for women and children , and songwriters like Gus Edwards wrote songs that were popular across the country . [ 10 ] The most popular vaudeville shows were , like the Ziegfeld Follies , a series of songs and skits that had a profound effect on the subsequent development of Broadway musical theater and the songs of Tin Pan Alley .
= = = Tin Pan Alley = = =
Tin Pan Alley was an area called Union Square in New York City , which became the major center for music publishing by the mid @-@ 1890s . The songwriters of this era wrote formulaic songs , many of them sentimental ballads . [ 11 ] During this era , a sense of national consciousness was developing , as the United States became a formidable world power , especially after the Spanish – American War . The increased availability and efficiency of railroads and the postal service helped disseminate ideas , including popular songs .
Some of the most notable publishers of Tin Pan Alley included Willis Woodward , M. Witmark & Sons , Charles K. Harris , and Edward B. Marks and Joseph W. Stern . Stern and Marks were among the more well @-@ known Tin Pan Alley songwriters ; they began writing together as amateurs in 1894 . [ 12 ] In addition to the popular , mainstream ballads and other clean @-@ cut songs , some Tin Pan Alley publishers focused on rough and risqué . Coon songs were another important part of Tin Pan Alley , derived from the watered @-@ down songs of the minstrel show with the " verve and electricity " brought by the " assimilation of the ragtime rhythm " . [ 13 ] The first popular coon song was " New Coon in Town " , introduced in 1883 , and followed by a wave of coon shouters like Ernest Hogan and May Irwin . [ 14 ]
= = = Broadway = = =
The early 20th century also saw the growth of Broadway , a group of theatres specializing in musicals . Broadway became one of the preeminent locations for musical theater in the world , and produced a body of songs that led Donald Clarke to call the era , the golden age of songwriting . The need to adapt enjoyable songs to the constraints of a theater and a plot enabled and encouraged a growth in songwriting and the rise of composers like George Gershwin , Vincent Youmans , Irving Berlin and Jerome Kern . [ 15 ] These songwriters wrote songs that have remained popular and are today known as the Great American Songbook .
Foreign operas were popular among the upper @-@ class throughout the 19th century , while other styles of musical theater included operettas , ballad operas and the opera bouffe . The English operettas of Gilbert and Sullivan were particularly popular , while American compositions had trouble finding an audience . George M. Cohan was the first notable American composer of musical theater , and the first to move away from the operetta , and is also notable for using the language of the vernacular in his work . By the beginning of the 20th century , however , black playwrights , composers and musicians were having a profound effect on musical theater , beginning with the works of Will Marion Cook , James Reese Europe and James P. Johnson ; the first major hit black musical was Shuffle Along in 1921 . [ 16 ]
Imported operettas and domestic productions by both whites like Cohan and blacks like Cook , Europe and Johnson all had a formative influence on Broadway . Composers like Gershwin , Porter and Kern made comedic musical theater into a national pastime , with a feel that was distinctly American and not dependent on European models . Most of these individuals were Jewish , with Cole Porter the only major exception ; they were the descendants of 19th century immigrants fleeing persecution in the Russian Empire , settled most influentially in various neighborhoods in New York City . [ 17 ] Many of the early musicals were influenced by black music , showing elements of early jazz , such as In Dahomey ; the Jewish composers of these works may have seen connections between the traditional African American blue notes and their own folk Jewish music .
Broadway songs were recorded around the turn of the century , but did not become widely popular outside their theatrical context until much later . Jerome Kern 's " They Didn 't Believe Me " was an early song that became popular nationwide . Kern 's later innovations included a more believable plot than the rather shapeless stories built around songs of earlier works , beginning with Show Boat in 1927 . George Gershwin was perhaps the most influential composer on Broadway , beginning with " Swanee " in 1919 and later works for jazz and orchestras . His most enduring composition may be the opera Porgy and Bess , a story about two blacks , which Gershwin intended as a sort of " folk opera " , a creation of a new style of American musical theater based on American idioms . [ 18 ]
= = = Ragtime = = =
Ragtime was a style of dance music based around the piano , using syncopated rhythms and chromaticisms ; [ 19 ] the genre 's most well @-@ known performer and composer was undoubtedly Scott Joplin . Donald Clarke considers ragtime the culmination of coon songs , used first in minstrel shows and then vaudeville , and the result of the rhythms of minstrelsy percolating into the mainstream ; he also suggests that ragtime 's distinctive sound may have come from an attempt to imitate the African American banjo using the keyboard . [ 20 ]
Due to the essentially African American nature of ragtime , it is most commonly considered the first style of American popular music to be truly black music ; ragtime brought syncopation and a more authentic black sound to popular music . Popular ragtime songs were notated and sold as sheet music , but the general style was played more informally across the nation ; these amateur performers played a more free @-@ flowing form of ragtime that eventually became a major formative influence on jazz . [ 21 ]
= = Early recorded popular music = =
Thomas Edison 's invention of the phonograph cylinder kicked off the birth of recorded music . The first cylinder to be released was " Semper Fidelis " by the U.S. Marine Band . At first , cylinders were released sparingly , but as their sales grew more profitable , distribution increased . These early recorded songs were a mix of vaudeville , barbershop quartets , marches , opera , novelty songs , and other popular tunes . Many popular standards , such as " The Good Old Summertime " , " Shine On Harvest Moon " , and " Over There " come from this time . There were also a few early hits in the field of jazz , beginning with the Original Dixieland Jazz Band 's 1917 recordings , and followed by King Oliver 's Creole Jazz Band , who played in a more authentic New Orleans jazz style . [ 22 ]
Blues had been around a long time before it became a part of the first explosion of recorded popular music in American history . This came in the 1920s , when classic female blues singers like Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith and Mamie Smith grew very popular ; the first hit of this field was Mamie Smith 's " Crazy Blues " . These urban blues singers changed the idea of popular music from being simple songs that could be easily performed by anyone to works primarily associated with an individual singer . Performers like Sophie Tucker , known for " Some of These Days " , became closely associated with their hits , making their individualized interpretations just as important as the song itself . [ 23 ]
At the same time , record companies like Paramount Records and OKeh Records launched the field of race music , which was mostly blues targeted at African American audiences . The most famous of these acts went on to inspire much of the later popular development of the blues and blues @-@ derived genres , including Charley Patton , Lonnie Johnson and Robert Johnson .
= = = Popular jazz ( 1920 – 1935 ) and swing ( 1935 – 1947 ) = = =
Jazz is a kind of music characterized by blue notes , syncopation , swing , call and response , polyrhythms , and improvisation . Though originally a kind of dance music , jazz has now been " long considered a kind of popular or vernacular music ( and has also ) become a sophisticated art form that has interacted in significant ways with the music of the concert hall " . [ 24 ] Jazz 's development occurred at around the same time as modern ragtime , blues , gospel and country music , all of which can be seen as part of a continuum with no clear demarcation between them ; jazz specifically was most closely related to ragtime , with which it could be distinguished by the use of more intricate rhythmic improvisation , often placing notes far from the implied beat . The earliest jazz bands adopted much of the vocabulary of the blues , including bent and blue notes and instrumental " growls " and smears .
Paul Whiteman was the most popular bandleader of the 1920s , and claimed for himself the title " The King of Jazz . " Despite his hiring many of the other best white jazz musicians of the era , later generations of jazz lovers have often judged Whiteman 's music to have little to do with real jazz . Nonetheless , his notion of combining jazz with elaborate orchestrations has been returned to repeatedly by composers and arrangers of later decades .
Whiteman commissioned Gershwin 's " Rhapsody in Blue " , which was debuted by Whiteman 's Orchestra . Ted Lewis 's band was second only to the Paul Whiteman in popularity during the 1920s , and arguably played more real jazz with less pretension than Whiteman , especially in his recordings of the late 1920s . Some of the other " jazz " bands of the decade included those of : Harry Reser , Leo Reisman , Abe Lyman , Nat Shilkret , George Olsen , Ben Bernie , Bob Haring , Ben Selvin , Earl Burtnett , Gus Arnheim , Rudy Vallee , Jean Goldkette , Isham Jones , Roger Wolfe Kahn , Sam Lanin , Vincent Lopez , Ben Pollack and Fred Waring .
In the 1920s , the music performed by these artists was extremely popular with the public and was typically labeled as jazz . Today , however , this music is disparaged and labeled as " sweet music " by jazz purists . The music that people consider today as " jazz " tended to be played by minorities . In the 1920s and early 1930s , however , the majority of people listened to what we would call today " sweet music " and hardcore jazz was categorized as " hot music " or " race music . "
The largest and most influential recording label of the time , The Victor Talking Machine ( RCA Victor after 1928 ) was a restraining influence on the development of “ sweet jazz ” until the departure of Eddie King in October 1926 . King was well known as an authoritarian who would not permit drinking on the job or severe departure from the written music , unless within solos acceptable by popular music standards of the time . This irritated many Victor jazz artists , including famed trumpeter Bix Beiderbecke . Sudhalter , in Lost Chords , cites an example of a 1927 recording by the Goldkette Orchestra in which musicians were allowed considerable freedom , and remarks “ What , one wonders , would this performance have been if Eddie King had been in charge , and not the more liberal Nat Shilkret . Since the Victor ledgers show no less than five recording sessions in January and February 1926 , when King actually conducted Goldkette ’ s Orchestra , comparison between the approach of Goldkette and King is readily available .
In 1935 , swing music became popular with the public and quickly replaced jazz as the most popular type of music ( although there was some resistance to it at first ) . Swing music is characterized by a strong rhythm section , usually consisting of a double bass and drums , playing in a medium to fast tempo , and rhythmic devices like the swung note . Swing is primarily a kind of 1930s jazz fused with elements of the blues and the pop sensibility of Tin Pan Alley . [ 25 ] Swing used bigger bands than other kinds of jazz had and was headed by bandleaders that tightly arranged the material , discouraging the improvisation that had been an integral part of jazz . David Clarke called swing the first " jazz @-@ oriented style ( to be ) at the center of popular music ... as opposed to merely giving it backbone " . [ 26 ] By the end of the 1930s , vocalists became more and more prominent , eventually taking center stage following the American Federation of Musicians strike , which made recording with a large band prohibitively expensive . [ 27 ] Swing came to be accompanied by a popular dance called the swing dance , which was very popular across the United States , among both white and black audiences , especially youth .
= = = Blues diversification and popularization = = =
In addition to the popular jazz and swing music listened to by mainstream America , there were a number of other genres that were popular among certain groups of people — e.g. , minorities or rural audiences . Beginning in the 1920s and accelerating greatly in the 1940s , the blues began rapidly diversifying into a broad spectrum of new styles . These included an uptempo , energetic style called rhythm and blues ( R & B ) , a merger of blues and Anglo @-@ Celtic song called country music and the fusion of hymns and spirituals with blues structures called gospel music . Later than these other styles , in the 1940s , a blues , R & B and country fusion eventually called rock and roll developed , eventually coming to dominate American popular by the beginning of the 1960s .
Country music is primarily a fusion of African American blues and spirituals with Appalachian folk music , adapted for pop audiences and popularized beginning in the 1920s . Of particular importance was Irish and Scottish tunes , dance music , balladry and vocal styles , [ 28 ] as well as Native American , Spanish , German , French and Mexican music . The instrumentation of early country revolved around the European @-@ derived fiddle and the African @-@ derived banjo , with the guitar added later . Country music instrumentation used African elements like a call @-@ and @-@ response format , improvised music and syncopated rhythms . Later still , string instruments like the ukulele and steel guitar became commonplace due to the popularity of Hawaiian music in the early 20th century and the influence of musicians such as Sol Hoopii and Lani McIntyre . [ 29 ] The roots of modern country music are generally traced to 1927 , when music talent scout Ralph Peer recorded Jimmie Rodgers and The Carter Family . Their recordings are considered the foundation for modern country music . There had been popular music prior to 1927 that could be considered country , but , as Ace Collins points out , these recordings had " only marginal and very inconsistent " effects on the national music markets , and were only superficially similar to what was then known as hillbilly music . [ 30 ] In addition to Rodgers and the Carters , a musician named Bob Wills was an influential early performer known for a style called Western swing , which was very popular in the 1920s and 30s , and was responsible for bringing a prominent jazz influence to country music .
Rhythm and blues ( R & B ) is a style that arose in the 1930s and 1940s , a rhythmic and uptempo form of blues with more complex instrumentation . Author Amiri Baraka described early R & B as " huge rhythm units smashing away behind screaming blues singers ( who ) had to shout to be heard above the clanging and strumming of the various electrified instruments and the churning rhythm sections . [ 31 ] . R & B was recorded during this period , but not extensively , and it was not widely promoted by record companies that felt it was not suited for most audiences , especially middle @-@ class whites , because of the suggestive lyrics and driving rhythms . [ 32 ] Bandleaders like Louis Jordan innovated the sound of early R & B. Jordan 's band featured a small horn section and prominent rhythm instrumentation and used songs with bluesy lyrical themes . By the end of the 1940s , he had produced nineteen major hits , and helped pave the way for contemporaries like Wynonie Harris , John Lee Hooker and Roy Milton .
Christian spirituals and rural blues music were the origin of what is now known as gospel music . Beginning in about the 1920s , African American churches featured early gospel in the form of worshipers proclaiming their religious devotion ( testifying ) in an improvised , often musical manner . Modern gospel began with the work of composers , most importantly Thomas A. Dorsey , who " ( composed ) songs based on familiar spirituals and hymns , fused to blues and jazz rhythms " . [ 33 ] From these early 20th @-@ century churches , gospel music spread across the country . It remained associated almost entirely with African American churches , and usually featured a choir along with one or more virtuoso soloists .
Rock and roll is a kind of popular music , developed primarily out of country , blues and R & B. Easily the single most popular style of music worldwide , rock 's exact origins and early development have been hotly debated . Music historian Robert Palmer has noted that the style 's influences are quite diverse , and include the Afro @-@ Caribbean " Bo Diddley beat " , elements of " big band swing " and Latin music like the Cuban son and " Mexican rhythms " . [ 34 ] Another author , George Lipsitz claims that rock arose in America 's urban areas , where there formed a " polyglot , working @-@ class culture ( where the ) social meanings previously conveyed in isolation by blues , country , polka , zydeco and Latin musics found new expression as they blended in an urban environment " . [ 35 ]
= = 1950s and 1960s = =
The middle of the 20th century saw a number of very important changes in American popular music . The field of pop music developed tremendously during this period , as the increasingly low price of recorded music stimulated demand and greater profits for the record industry . As a result , music marketing became more and more prominent , resulting in a number of mainstream pop stars whose popularity was previously unheard of . Many of the first such stars were Italian @-@ American crooners like Dean Martin , Rudy Vallee , Tony Bennett , Perry Como , Frankie Laine and , most famously , the " first pop vocalist to engender hysteria among his fans " Frank Sinatra . [ 36 ] The era of the modern teen pop star , however , began in the 1960s . Bubblegum pop groups like The Monkees were chosen entirely for their appearance and ability to sell records , with no regard to musical ability . The same period , however , also saw the rise of new forms of pop music that achieved a more permanent presence in the field of American popular music , including rock , soul and pop @-@ folk . By the end of the 1960s , two developments had completely changed popular music : the birth of a counterculture , which explicitly opposed mainstream music , often in tandem with political and social activism , and the shift from professional composers to performers who were both singers and songwriters .
Rock and roll first entered mainstream popular music through a style called rockabilly , which fused the nascent rock sound with elements of country music . Black @-@ performed rock and roll previously had limited mainstream success , and some observers at the time believed that a white performer who could credibly sing in an R & B and country style would be a success . Sam Phillips , of Memphis , Tennessee 's Sun Records , found such a performer in Elvis Presley , who became one of the best @-@ selling musicians in history , and brought rock and roll to audiences across the world . [ 37 ] Presley 's success was preceded by Bill Haley , a white performer whose " Rock Around the Clock " is sometimes pointed to as the start of the rock era . However , Haley 's music was " more arranged " and " more calculated " than the " looser rhythms " of rockabilly , which also , unlike Haley , did not use saxophones or chorus singing . [ 38 ]
R & B remained extremely popular during the 1950s among black audiences , but the style was not considered appropriate for whites , or respectable middle @-@ class blacks , because of its suggestive nature . Many popular R & B songs instead were performed by white musicians like Pat Boone , in a more palatable , mainstream style , and turned into pop hits . [ 39 ] By the end of the 1950s , however , there was a wave of popular black blues @-@ rock and country @-@ influenced R & B performers gaining unprecedented fame among white listeners ; these included Bo Diddley and Chuck Berry . [ 40 ] Over time , producers in the R & B field gradually turned to more rock @-@ based acts like Little Richard and Fats Domino .
Doo wop is a kind of vocal harmony music performed by groups who became popular in the 1950s . Though sometimes considered a kind of rock , doo wop is more precisely a fusion of vocal R & B , gospel and jazz with the blues and pop structures , [ 41 ] though until the 1960s , the lines separating rock from doo wop , R & B and other related styles were very blurry . Doo wop became the first style of R & B @-@ derived music " to take shape , to define itself as something people recognized as new , different , strange , theirs " ( emphasis in original ) . [ 42 ] As doo wop grew more popular , more innovations were added , including the use of a bass lead vocalist , a practice that began with Jimmy Ricks of The Ravens . [ 43 ] Doo wop performers were originally almost all black , but a few white and integrated groups soon became popular . These included a number of Italian @-@ American groups such as Dion & the Belmonts , while others added female vocalists and even formed all @-@ female groups in the nearly universally male field ; these included The Queens and The Chantels . [ 44 ]
The 1950s saw a number of brief fads that went on to have a great impact on future styles of music . Performers like Pete Seeger and The Weavers popularized a form of old
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major new rock genres of the 1960s was surf , pioneered by Californian Dick Dale . Surf was largely instrumental and guitar @-@ based rock with a distorted and twanging sound , and was associated with the Southern California surfing @-@ based youth culture . Dale had worked with Leo Fender , developing the " Showman amplifier and ... the reverberation unit that would give surf music its distinctively fuzzy sound " . [ 52 ]
Inspired by the lyrical focus of surf , if not the musical basis , The Beach Boys began their career in 1961 with a string of hits like " Surfin ' U.S.A. " . Their sound was not instrumental , nor guitar @-@ based , but was full of " rich , dense and unquestionably special " " floating vocals ( with ) Four Freshman @-@ ish harmonies riding over a droned , propulsive burden " . [ 53 ] The Beach Boys ' songwriter Brian Wilson grew gradually more eccentric , experimenting with new studio techniques as he became associated with the burgeoning counterculture .
The counterculture was a youth movement that included political activism , especially in opposition to the Vietnam War , and the promotion of various hippie ideals . The hippies were associated primarily with two kinds of music : the folk @-@ rock and country rock of people like Bob Dylan and Gram Parsons , and the psychedelic rock of bands like Jefferson Airplane and The Doors . This movement was very closely connected to the British Invasion , a wave of bands from the United Kingdom who became popular throughout much of the 1960s . The British Invasion initially included bands like the Beatles , the Rolling Stones , and The Zombies who were later joined by bands like the Moody Blues and The Who . The sound of these bands was hard @-@ edged rock , with the Beatles originally known for songs that resembled classic black rock songs by Little Richard , Chuck Berry , Smokey Robinson , The Shirelles and the Isley Brothers . [ 54 ] Later , as the counterculture developed , The Beatles began using more advanced techniques and unusual instruments , such as the sitar , as well as more original lyrics .
Folk @-@ rock drew on the sporadic mainstream success of groups like the Kingston Trio and the Almanac Singers , while Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger helped to politically radicalize rural white folk music . [ 55 ] The popular musician Bob Dylan rose to prominence in the middle of the 1960s , fusing folk with rock and making the nascent scene closely connected to the Civil Rights Movement . He was followed by a number of country @-@ rock bands like The Byrds and the Flying Burrito Brothers and folk @-@ oriented singer @-@ songwriters like Joan Baez and the Canadian Joni Mitchell . However , by the end of the decade , there was little political or social awareness evident in the lyrics of pop @-@ singer @-@ songwriters like James Taylor and Carole King , whose self @-@ penned songs were deeply personal and emotional .
Psychedelic rock was a hard , driving kind of guitar @-@ based rock , closely associated with the city of San Francisco , California . Though Jefferson Airplane was the only psychedelic San Francisco band to have a major national hit , with 1967 's " Somebody to Love " and " White Rabbit " , the Grateful Dead , a folk , country and bluegrass @-@ flavored jam band , " embodied all the elements of the San Francisco scene and came ... to represent the counterculture to the rest of the country " ; the Grateful Dead also became known for introducing the counterculture , and the rest of the country , to the ideas of people like Timothy Leary , especially the use of hallucinogenic drugs like LSD for spiritual and philosophical purposes . [ 56 ]
= = 1970s and 1980s = =
Following the turbulent political , social and musical changes of the 1960s and early 1970s , rock music diversified . What was formerly known as rock and roll , a reasonably discrete style of music , had evolved into a catchall category called simply rock music , an umbrella term which would eventually include diverse styles like heavy metal music , punk rock and , sometimes even hip hop music . During the 1970s , however , most of these styles were not part of mainstream music , and were evolving in the underground music scene .
The early 1970s saw a wave of singer @-@ songwriters who drew on the introspective , deeply emotional and personal lyrics of 1960s folk @-@ rock . They included James Taylor , Carole King and others , all known just as much for their lyric ability as for their performances . The same period saw the rise of bluesy Southern rock and country rock groups like the Allman Brothers Band and Lynyrd Skynyrd . [ 57 ] In the 1970s , soft rock developed , a kind of simple , unobtrusive and mellow form of pop @-@ rock , exemplified by a number of bands like America and Bread , most of whom are little remembered today ; many were one @-@ hit wonders . [ 58 ] In addition , harder arena rock bands like Chicago and Styx also saw some major success .
The early 1970s saw the rise of a new style of country music that was as rough and hard @-@ edged , and which quickly became the most popular form of country . This was outlaw country , a style that included such mainstream stars as Willie Nelson and Waylon Jennings . [ 59 ] Outlaw country was very rock @-@ oriented , and had lyrics that focused on the criminal , especially drug and alcohol @-@ related , antics of its performers , who grew their hair long , wore denim and leather and looked like hippies in contrast to the clean @-@ cut country singers that were pushing the Nashville sound . [ 60 ]
By the mid @-@ 1970s , disco , a form of dance music , was becoming popular , evolving from underground dance clubs to mainstream America . Disco reached its zenith following the release of Saturday Night Fever and the phenomenon surrounding the movie and the soundtrack by The Bee Gees . Disco 's time was short , however , and by 1980 was soon replaced with a number of genres that evolved out of the punk rock scene , like new wave . Bruce Springsteen became a major star , first in the mid to late 1970s and then throughout the 1980s , with dense , inscrutable lyrics and anthemic songs that resonated with the middle and lower classes . [ 61 ]
= = = 1970s funk and soul = = =
In the early 1970s , soul music was influenced by psychedelic rock and other styles . The social and political ferment of the times inspired artists like Marvin Gaye and Curtis Mayfield to release album @-@ length statements with hard @-@ hitting social commentary . Artists like James Brown led soul towards more dance @-@ oriented music , which eventually evolved into funk . Funk was typified by 1970s bands like Parliament @-@ Funkadelic , The Meters , and James Brown himself , while more versatile groups like War , The Commodores and Earth , Wind and Fire also became popular . During the 1970s , some highly slick and commercial blue @-@ eyed soul acts like Philadelphia 's Hall & Oates achieved mainstream success , as well as a new generation of street @-@ corner harmony or city @-@ soul groups like The Delfonics and Howard University 's Unifics .
By the end of the 1970s , Philly soul , funk , rock and most other genres were dominated by disco @-@ inflected tracks . During this period , funk bands like The O 'Jays and The Spinners continued to turn out hits . After the death of disco in 1980 , soul music survived for a short time before going through yet another metamorphosis . With the introduction of influences from electro music and funk , soul music became less raw and more slickly produced , resulting in a genre of music that was again called R & B , usually distinguished from the earlier rhythm and blues by identifying it as contemporary R & B.
= = = 1980s pop = = =
By the 1960s , the term rhythm and blues had no longer been in wide use ; instead , terms like soul music were used to describe popular music by black artists . In the 1980s , however , rhythm and blues came back into use , most often in the form of R & B , a usage that has continued to the present . Contemporary R & B arose when sultry funk singers like Prince became very popular , alongside dance @-@ oriented pop stars like Michael Jackson and Madonna . [ 62 ]
By the end of the 1980s , pop @-@ rock largely consisted of the radio @-@ friendly glam metal bands , who used images derived from the British glam movement with macho lyrics and attitudes , accompanied by hard rock music and heavy metal virtuosic soloing . Bands from this era included many British groups like Def Leppard , as well as heavy metal @-@ influenced American bands Mötley Crüe , Guns N ' Roses , Bon Jovi and Van Halen . [ 63 ]
The mid @-@ 1980s also saw Gospel music see its popularity peak . A new form of gospel had evolved , called Contemporary Christian music ( CCM ) . CCM had been around since the late 1960s , and consisted of a pop / rock sound with slight religious lyrics . CCM had become the most popular form of gospel by the mid @-@ 1980s , especially with artists like Amy Grant , Michael W. Smith , and Kathy Troccoli . Amy Grant was the most popular CCM , and gospel , singer of the 1980s , and after experiencing unprecedented success in CCM , crossed over into mainstream pop in the 1980s and 1990s . Michael W. Smith also had considerable success in CCM before crossing over to a successful career in pop music as well . Grant would later produce CCM 's first # 1 pop hit ( " Baby Baby " ) , and CCM 's best @-@ selling album ( Heart In Motion ) .
In the 1980s , the country music charts were dominated by pop singers with only tangential influences from country music , a trend that has continued since . The 1980s saw a revival of honky @-@ tonk @-@ style country with the rise of people like Dwight Yoakam and the new traditionalists Emmylou Harris and Ricky Skaggs , [ 64 ] as well as the development of alternative country performers like Uncle Tupelo . Later alternative country performers , like Whiskeytown 's Ryan Adams and Wilco , found some mainstream success .
= = = Birth of the underground = = =
During the 1970s , a number of diverse styles emerged in stark contrast to mainstream American popular music . Though these genres were not largely popular in the sense of selling many records to mainstream audiences , they were examples of popular music , as opposed to folk or classical music . In the early 1970s , African Americans and Puerto Ricans in New York City developed hip hop culture , which produced a style of music also called hip hop . At roughly the same time , Latinos , especially Cubans and Puerto Ricans , in New York also innovated salsa music , which combined many forms of Latin music with R & B and rock . The genres of punk rock and heavy metal were most closely associated with the United Kingdom in the 1970s , while various American derivatives evolved later in the decade and into the 1980s . Meanwhile , Detroit slowly evolved a series of electronic music genres like house and techno that later became a major part of popular music worldwide .
= = = = Hip hop = = = =
Hip hop is a cultural movement , of which music is a part , along with graffiti and breakdancing . The music is composed of two parts , rapping , the delivery of swift , highly rhythmic and lyrical vocals , and DJing , the production of instrumentation either through sampling , instrumentation , turntablism or beatboxing . [ 65 ] Hip hop arose in the early 1970s in The Bronx , New York City . Jamaican immigrant DJ Kool Herc is widely regarded as the progenitor of hip hop ; he brought with him the practice of toasting over the rhythms of popular songs . In New York , DJs like Kool Herc played records of popular funk , disco and rock songs . Emcees originally arose to introduce the songs and keep the crowd excited and dancing ; over time , the DJs began isolating the percussion breaks ( the rhythmic climax of songs ) , thus producing a repeated beat that the emcees rapped over .
Rapping included greetings to friends and enemies , exhortations to dance and colorful , often humorous boasts . By the beginning of the 1980s , there had been popular hip hop songs like " Rappers Delight " by the Sugarhill Gang and a few major celebrities of the scene , like LL Cool J and Kurtis Blow . Other performers experimented with politicized lyrics and social awareness , while others performed fusions with jazz , heavy metal , techno , funk and soul . Hip hop began to diversify in the latter part of the 1980s . New styles appeared , like alternative hip hop and the closely related jazz rap fusion , pioneered by rappers like De La Soul and Guru . The crews Public Enemy and N.W.A did the most during this era to bring hip hop to national attention ; the former did so with incendiary and politically charged lyrics , while the latter became the first prominent example of gangsta rap .
= = = = Salsa = = = =
Salsa music is a diverse and predominantly Caribbean rhythm that is popular in many Latin American countries . Salsa incorporates multiple styles and variations ; the term can be used to describe most any form of the popular Cuban @-@ derived musical genres ( like chachachá and mambo ) . Most specifically however , salsa refers to a particular style was developed by mid @-@ 1970s groups of New York City @-@ area Cuban and Puerto Rican immigrants to the United States , and stylistic descendants like 1980s salsa romantica . [ 66 ]
Salsa music always has a 4 / 4 meter . The music is phrased in groups of two bars , using recurring rhythmic patterns , and the beginning of phrases in the song text and instruments . Typically , the rhythmic patterns played on the percussion are rather complicated , often with several different patterns played simultaneously . The clave rhythm is an important element that forms the basis of salsa . Apart from percussion , a variety of melodic instruments are commonly used as accompaniment , such as a guitar , trumpets , trombones , the piano , and many others , all depending on the performing artists . Bands are typically divided into horn and rhythm sections , led by one or more singers ( soneros or salseros ) . [ 67 ]
= = = Punk and alternative rock = = =
Punk was a kind of rebellious rock music that began in the 1970s as a reaction against the popular music of the day - especially disco , which was seen as insipid and uninspired . Punk drew on American bands including the Velvet Underground , The Stooges and the New York Dolls . [ 68 ] Punk was loud , aggressive and usually very simple , requiring little musical training to play . Later in the decade , British bands like the Sex Pistols and The Clash found short @-@ lived fame at home and , to a lesser degree , in the United States . American bands in the field included most famously The Ramones , as well as groups like the Talking Heads that played a more artsy kind of music that was closely associated with punk before eventually evolving into pop @-@ new wave . [ 69 ] Other major acts include Blondie , Patti Smith and Television . Most of these bands got their start at what is considered " ground zero " of punk rock , a club named CBGB . The small club in New York threw a festival in 1975 that showed off the " top 40 unrecorded rock bands " . Among these bands were the previously mentioned The Ramones , Sex Pistols , blondie and the like .
Hardcore punk was the response of American youths to the worldwide punk rock explosion of the late 1970s . Hardcore stripped punk rock and New Wave of its sometimes elitist and artsy tendencies , resulting in short , fast , and intense songs that spoke to disaffected youth . Hardcore exploded in the American metropolises of Los Angeles , Washington , DC , New York and Boston and most American cities had their own local scenes by the end of the 1980s . [ 70 ]
Alternative rock is a diverse grouping of rock bands that in America developed largely from the hardcore scene in the 1980s in stark opposition to the mainstream music scene . Alternative rock subgenres that developed during the decade include indie rock , Gothic rock , noise rock , grunge , and college rock . Most alternative bands were unified by their collective debt to punk , which laid the groundwork for underground and alternative music in the 1970s . Though the genre is considered to be rock , some styles were influenced by American folk , reggae and jazz . Like punk and hardcore , alternative rock had little mainstream success in America in the 1980s , but via the grassroots establishment of an indie scene through touring , college radio , fanzines , and word @-@ of @-@ mouth , alternative bands laid the groundwork for the breakthrough of the genre in the American public consciousness in the next decade .
= = = Heavy metal = = =
Heavy metal is a form of music characterized by aggressive , driving rhythms and highly amplified distorted guitars , generally with grandiose lyrics and virtuosic instrumentation . Heavy metal is a development of blues , blues rock , rock and prog rock . Its origins lie in the British hard rock bands who between 1967 and 1974 took blues and rock and created a hybrid with a heavy , guitar @-@ and @-@ drums @-@ centered sound . Most of the pioneers in the field , like Black Sabbath , were English , though many were inspired by American performers like Blue Cheer and Jimi Hendrix .
In the early 1970s , the first major American bands began appearing , like Blue Öyster Cult and Aerosmith , and musicians like Eddie Van Halen began their career . Heavy metal remained , however , a largely underground phenomenon . During the 1980s , a pop @-@ based form of hard rock , with a party @-@ hearty spirit and a glam @-@ influenced visual aesthetic ( sometimes referred to as " hair metal " ) dominated the music charts , led by superstars like Poison , Bon Jovi , Mötley Crüe , and Ratt . The 1987 debut of Guns N ' Roses , a hard rock band whose image reflected the grittier underbelly of the Sunset Strip , was at least in part a reaction against the overly polished image of hair metal , but that band 's wild success was in many ways the last gasp of the hard @-@ rock and metal scene . By the mid @-@ 1980s , as the term " heavy metal " became the subject of much contestation , the style had branched out in so many different directions that new classifications were created by fans , record companies , and fanzines , although sometimes the differences between various subgenres were unclear , even to the artists purportedly belonging to a given style . The most notable of the 1980s metal subgenres in the United States was the swift and aggressive thrash metal style , pioneered by bands like Anthrax , Megadeth , Metallica , and Slayer .
= = 1990s = =
Perhaps the most important change in the 1990s in American popular music was the rise of alternative rock through the popularity of grunge . This was previously an explicitly anti @-@ mainstream grouping of genres that rose to great fame beginning in the early 1990s . The genre in its early stages was largely situated on Sub Pop Records , a company founded by Bruce Pavitt and John Poneman . Significant grunge bands signed to the label were Green River ( half of the members from this band would later become founding members of Pearl Jam ) , Sonic Youth ( although not a grunge band they were influential on grunge bands and in fact it was upon the insistence of Kim Gordon that the David Geffen Company signed Nirvana ) and Nirvana . Grunge is an alternative rock subgenre with a " dark , brooding guitar @-@ based sludge " sound , [ 71 ] drawing on heavy metal , punk , and elements of bands like Sonic Youth and their use of " unconventional tunings to bend otherwise standard pop songs completely out of shape . " [ 72 ] With the addition of a " melodic , Beatlesque element " to the sound of bands like Nirvana , grunge became wildly popular across the United States . [ 73 ] Grunge became commercially successful in the early 1990s , peaking between 1991 and 1994 . Bands from cities in the U.S. Pacific Northwest especially Seattle , Washington , were responsible for creating grunge and later made it popular with mainstream audiences . The supposed Generation X , who had just reached adulthood as grunge 's popularity peaked , were closely associated with grunge , the sound which helped " define the desperation of ( that ) generation . " [ 74 ] Later Post Grunge bands such as The Foo Fighters and Creed became popular form of Alternative rock because it was and still is very radio friendly unlike the Grunge band of which they were musically influenced by . Pop punk bands like Green Day and Blink 182 also gained popularity . In the second half of the 1990s nu metal arose with bands such as Linkin Park , Korn , Limp Bizkit and Slipknot . The independent culture slumbered in the underground scenes with new genres such as lo @-@ fi ( Beck , Sparklehorse , Guided By Voices ) , math rock ( Slint , Shellac ) and post @-@ rock ( Mogwai , Explosions in the Sky ) . Emocore and Post @-@ hardcore became more known with bands such as At the Drive @-@ In and Fugazi .
Gangsta rap is a kind of hip hop , most importantly characterized by a lyrical focus on macho sexuality , physicality and a dangerous , criminal image . Though the origins of gangsta rap can be traced back to the mid @-@ 1980s raps of Philadelphia 's Schoolly D and the West Coast 's Ice @-@ T , the style is usually said to have begun in the Los Angeles and Oakland area , where Too Short , NWA and others found their fame . This West Coast rap scene spawned the early 1990s G @-@ funk sound , which paired gangsta rap lyrics with a thick and hazy tone , often relying on samples from 1970s P @-@ funk ; the best @-@ known proponents of this sound were the breakthrough rappers Dr. Dre and Snoop Doggy Dogg .
= = 2000s = =
By the end of the 1990s and into the early 2000s pop music consisted mostly of a combination of pop @-@ hip hop and R & B @-@ tinged pop , including a number of boy bands . Notable female singers also cemented their status in American and Worldwide popular music , such as Beyonce ( with her solo career and as lead singer of Destiny 's Child ) , Britney Spears , Christina Aguilera , Katy Perry , Lady Gaga and Taylor Swift . Also notable was the influence of hip @-@ hop producers on popular music in the mid @-@ late 2000s , including the Neptunes and Timbaland , who made the sounds first heard on Justin Timberlake 's FutureSex / LoveSounds and Nelly Furtado 's Loose imitated throughout popular radio with artists Madonna , Akon and Lady Gaga . In the late 2000s into the early 2010s , pop music began to move towards being heavily influenced by the European electronic dance music scene , taking root in the college crowd through producers like David Guetta , Calvin Harris , Swedish House Mafia and Skrillex .
Hip hop / pop combination had also begun to dominate 2000s and early 2010s . In the early 2010s , prominent artists like Bruno Mars , Drake , Lil Wayne , 2 Chainz , Kendrick Lamar , Machine Gun Kelly , and Macklemore began to dominate the mainstream music scene .
The predominant sound in 1990s country music was pop with only very limited elements of country . This includes many of the best @-@ selling artists of the 1990s , like Clint Black , Shania Twain , Faith Hill and the first of these crossover stars , Garth Brooks . [ 75 ]
On the other hand a guitar revival took place and raised a new generation of alternative guitar bands often described as post @-@ punk revival or garage rock revival . Prominent US bands of this generation are White Stripes , The Strokes , and The Killers . New Weird America or sometimes called Freak Folk is a new movement emphasizing the artistic individuality of genre crossing artists such as Antony and the Johnsons , Joanna Newsom , The Dodos , Animal Collective and Cat Power .
= = International and social impact = =
American popular music has become extremely popular internationally . Rock , hip hop , jazz , country and other styles have fans across the globe . BBC Radio DJ Andy Kershaw , for example , has noted that country music is popular across virtually the entire world . [ 76 ] Indeed , out of " all the contributions made by Americans to world culture ... ( American popular music ) has been taken ( most ) to heart by the entire world " . [ 77 ] Other styles of American popular music have also had a formative effect internationally , including funk , the basis for West African Afrobeat , R & B , a major source for Jamaican reggae , and rock , which has profoundly influenced most every genre of popular music worldwide . Rock , country , jazz and hip hop have become an entrenched part of many countries , leading to local varieties like Australian country music , Tanzanian Bongo Flava and Russian rock .
Rock has had a formative influence on popular music , which had the effect of transforming " the very concept of what popular music " is . [ 78 ] while Charlie Gillett has argued that rock and roll " was the first popular genre to incorporate the relentless pulse and sheer volume of urban life into the music itself " . [ 79 ]
The social impacts of American popular music have been felt both within the United States and in foreign countries . Beginning as early as the extravaganzas of the late 19th century , American popular music has been criticized for being too sexually titillating and for encouraging violence , drug abuse and generally immoral behavior .
= Won 't Back Down ( Eminem song ) =
" Won 't Back Down " is a song by American hip hop artist Eminem , featuring American pop singer Pink , recorded as the fourth track on his seventh studio album Recovery ( 2010 ) . It features production from Aftermath Entertainment producer DJ Khalil , who helped write the song along with Eminem , Erik Alcock , and Columbus " Rahki " Smith .
Upon the release of Recovery , the song received generally positive reviews from music critics , who praised its aggressive nature and production . Although not released as a single , " Won 't Back Down " appeared on four national charts . It was used in the video game Call of Duty : Black Ops and its trailer as well as the trailers for the films Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol and Hitman : Agent 47 . It was performed on Saturday Night Live and Late Night with Jimmy Fallon .
= = Background and composition = =
" Won 't Back Down " was written by Eminem , DJ Khalil , Erik Alcock and Columbus " Rahki " Smith . Along with most of the songs from Recovery , " Won 't Back Down " was recorded at 54 Sound and Effigy Studios in Ferndale , Michigan , with recording carried out by Mike Strange . The song is one of the only Eminem songs not in a 4 : 4 time signature , along with Untitled ( also from Recovery ) and Underground ( from Relapse ) . Originally , the song was set to be a solo record , with Eminem singing the chorus himself . Later , Liz Rodriguez , who is also featured on Recovery 's " 25 to Life " and " Almost Famous " , recorded the song 's chorus . Eminem however , explained in an interview that after recording his vocals for the song , he decided to include Pink on the song as he " felt like she would really smash this record . " Rahki co @-@ produced the song with Khalil .
= = Reception = =
Although " Won 't Back Down " was not released as a single , it charted on four national charts worldwide due to digital sales on the release of Recovery . The song reached its highest position on the US Billboard Hot 100 , where it peaked at number 62 on the chart for the week ending of July 10 , 2010 , although it fell off the chart the following week . The song also charted in Australia , Canada and the United Kingdom , peaking at number eighty @-@ seven , sixty @-@ five and eighty @-@ two on their respective national charts , although on all three the song again only appeared for one week .
Upon its release , " Won 't Back Down " received generally positive reviews from most music critics . David Jeffries of Allmusic wrote positively of the song , describing the song as a " lurching heavy metal monster " that " could be used as the lead @-@ in to ' Lose Yourself ' on any ego @-@ boosting mixtape " , but wrote more critically of the lyrics , denouncing the pop culture jokes featured throughout the song , particularly ones aimed at Michael J. Fox , calling the line " Make like Michael J. Fox in your drawers , playin ' with an Etch @-@ A @-@ Sketch " " less effective " than other jokes aimed at him . Steve Jones of USA Today described it as " rock @-@ tinged " and stated that Pink 's appearance provides " outside star power " .
= = Appearances in media = =
A remixed version of the ESPN trailer of the video game Call of Duty : Black Ops featuring " Won 't Back Down " was released on June 14 , prior to the E3 Activision conference for which he also performed . The song was also featured in the game 's credits and zombie mode map " Five " as an easter egg . The official trailer for the 2011 action film , Mission : Impossible – Ghost Protocol , features " Won 't Back Down " . The song is also featured in TV spots for the 2015 movie Hitman : Agent 47 .
Eminem has performed the song on live sketch comedy show Saturday Night Live accompanied by Lil Wayne and hypeman and D12 member Mr. Porter . Eminem wore a black jacket and a skull cap . Idolator reacted positively to Eminem 's performance , stating that he proved " once again what a dynamic and energetic live performer he is on this exceptionally angry tune ( even by Slim Shady standards ) . " He also performed the song on Late Night with Jimmy Fallon .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at : Effigy Studios in Ferndale , Michigan .
Personnel
Eminem – vocals , audio mixing and songwriting
DJ Khalil – producer , additional keyboards and drum programming
Mike Strange – recording and audio mixing
Joe Strange – engineering assistant
Eric Alcock – guitar
Pink – vocals
Rahki – keyboards and additional drum programming
Notes
Credits and recording information from Recovery 's booklet .
= = Charts = =
= 2005 – 06 Arsenal F.C. season =
The 2005 – 06 season was the 108th season of competitive football played by Arsenal . It was the final season in which home matches were played at the club 's Highbury stadium after 93 years ; Arsenal intended to move to its new 60 @,@ 000 capacity Emirates Stadium in time for the following season . The club ended their Premier League campaign in fourth , having pipped local rivals Tottenham Hotspur to the position on the final day . Arsenal became the first London club to reach a UEFA Champions League final , though lost 2 – 1 to Barcelona in Paris . In the League Cup the club was eliminated in the semi @-@ finals on aggregate score by Wigan Athletic and knocked out of the FA Cup , against Bolton Wanderers in the fourth round .
Before the season commenced midfielder Patrick Vieira was sold to Juventus ; striker Thierry Henry assumed his club captaincy role . Alexander Hleb was purchased from Stuttgart for an undisclosed fee in July 2005 ; in the winter transfer window Arsenal signed midfielder Abou Diaby , and forwards Emmanuel Adebayor and Theo Walcott .
Arsenal lost to league champions Chelsea in the 2005 FA Community Shield at the Millennium Stadium . An indifferent start in the league saw Arsenal peak in second position after 13 matches , but a run of three consecutive defeats a month later had effectively ruled them out of title contention . On the final day , they beat Wigan Athletic 4 – 2 at Highbury ; Tottenham Hotpsur 's defeat at West Ham United meant Arsenal secured fourth place . The team 's performances in Europe were more striking ; they eliminated Real Madrid , Juventus and Villarreal in the knockout stages . In the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final held at the Stade de France in Paris on 17 May 2006 , goalkeeper Jens Lehmann was sent off for a professional foul on Barcelona 's Samuel Eto 'o . Although defender Sol Campbell gave Arsenal a first half lead from a set piece , the team conceded twice in the final 15 minutes to lose the match .
To mark the final season at Highbury , Arsenal held a valedictory campaign titled " Highbury – The Final Salute " . The club staged several themed matchdays and a redcurrant home kit replaced the common red to honour the shirts worn in 1913 .
= = Background = =
Arsenal began the preceding season as league champions ; a win against Blackburn Rovers in August 2004 ensured they eclipsed Nottingham Forest 's record of 42 league matches unbeaten . The run extended to six more matches , before losing 2 – 0 to Manchester United at Old Trafford on 24 October 2004 . Poor form throughout November allowed league leaders Chelsea to extend the gap at the top ; Wenger conceded retaining the title in April 2005 , calling his opponents " worthy champions ... they have been remarkably consistent . " A run of twelve league matches unbeaten , culminating in a 7 – 0 home win against Everton helped Arsenal finish in second place . In spite of exiting the Champions League to Bayern Munich in the second round , the team won the 2005 FA Cup Final against Manchester United – winning 5 – 4 on penalties after a goalless draw .
= = = Highbury – The Final Salute = = =
The 2005 – 06 season marked Arsenal 's final season at Highbury , their home since 1913 . The club planned to move half a mile to the Emirates Stadium , considered " vital to our future " by Wenger , as it financially would help them to compete at the top level . To mark the valedictory campaign titled " Highbury – The Final Salute " , the club staged many special activities on matchdays " ... to celebrate the many great players and moments that this fantastic stadium has witnessed . " A redcurrant home kit was designed to honour the shirts worn in the club 's first season at Highbury . It was adorned with gold lettering and accompanied by white shorts and redcurrant socks .
= = = Transfers = = =
Arsenal signed youth players Nicklas Bendtner , Vito Mannone and Armand Traoré in the summer transfer window . Belarusian Alexander Hleb joined the club for an undisclosed fee on 12 July 2005 . Arsenal made four more additions during the season : goalkeeper Mart Poom , signed on a permanent deal , midfielder Abou Diaby , who reportedly turned down an offer to join Chelsea and forwards Emmanuel Adebayor and Theo Walcott .
After the early departures of Jermaine Pennant and Stuart Taylor , club captain Patrick Vieira joined Italian side Juventus in a £ 13 @.@ 7 million deal . Wenger did not intend to sign a replacement , saying " I am not in a hurry . We have Gilberto , Flamini and Fàbregas . Pirès can play in there also so we have plenty of players . " English midfielder David Bentley made his loan deal at Blackburn Rovers permanent in the January transfer window .
= = Pre @-@ season = =
= = FA Community Shield = =
As winners of the FA Cup in the previous season , Arsenal contested the 2005 FA Community Shield against league champions Chelsea . Two goals scored by striker Didier Drogba in the first half meant Arsenal lost the match . Wenger commented afterwards that Chelsea 's gameplan made it difficult for the Arsenal defenders , and noted his opposition 's strength was playing long balls . When asked if he was concerned by the performance , Wenger replied : " Why should I worry ? Did you see the game ? You can worry for the Chelsea supporters . "
= = Premier League = =
= = = August – October = = =
Arsenal began their final league season at Highbury against Newcastle United on 14 August 2005 . In spite of having a man advantage after midfielder Jermaine Jenas was sent off for a challenge on Gilberto Silva , striker Thierry Henry scored from the penalty spot in the 81st minute . Robin van Persie added a second , four minutes from the end of the match . A fortunate goal from Drogba inflicted Arsenal 's first defeat against Chelsea in the league for almost a decade . The team responded with a 4 – 1 victory against Fulham , whereby Henry and defender Pascal Cygan both scored twice . Arsenal lost away to Middlesbrough on 10 September 2005 , in a performance derided by Wenger as being " unacceptable " . A brace ( two goals ) from Sol Campbell against Everton was followed by a goalless draw against newly promoted West Ham United .
An own goal scored by Stephen Clemence gave Arsenal a 1 – 0 victory in the first week of October at home to Birmingham City . Despite being " technically the better side " away to West Bromwich Albion , Arsenal lost 2 – 1 ; Wenger after the match commented that the team " played with great spirit but … were punished for a lack of experience and maturity because we didn 't take advantage of the chances we created . " A penalty scored by Robert Pirès was enough to secure three points against Manchester City . The midfielder wasted a second penalty in the second half , choosing to recreate a spot kick executed by Johan Cruyff and Jesper Olsen for Ajax . Having attempted to roll the ball towards onrushing Henry , Pirès inadvertently flicked the ball twice , enabling referee Mike Riley to award a free @-@ kick to Manchester City . Although both players were scrutinised by Chelsea manager José Mourinho , they were commended by Cryuff for showing a desire to try something different . The final league match of October ended in a 1 – 1 draw against local rivals Tottenham Hotpsur .
= = = November – February = = =
A 3 – 1 win at home to Sunderland on 5 November 2005 meant Arsenal moved third in the league table . This was followed by a trip to the JJB Stadium ; Arsenal beat Wigan Athletic 3 – 2 in a " hugely entertaining game on a cold , frosty afternoon " . Henry scored his 100th goal at Highbury against Blackburn Rovers to extend a club unbeaten run of nine matches . Defeat at Bolton Wanderers in early December concerned Wenger , admitting the opponents showed the template required to beat his team . A further defeat against Newcastle United , where Gilberto Silva was sent off in the second half highlighted the " physical absence " of Vieira in midfield . In losing 2 – 0 to Chelsea a week after – their third successive defeat for the first time under Wenger , Arsenal lay in eighth position , 11 points behind Manchester United . An early morning kick @-@ off away to Charlton Athletic ended in a 1 – 0 victory for Arsenal ; José Antonio Reyes scored his second goal in the league . Four first @-@ half goals against Portsmouth helped Arsenal to close the gap on second place by nine points . They ended the calendar year and began 2006 with goalless draws against Aston Villa and Manchester United respectively .
Arsenal recorded the biggest win of the league season , against Middlesbrough at Highbury . Henry scored a hat @-@ trick in a 7 – 0 victory ; the striker post @-@ match deemed it was vital for the club to finish in the top four " … for me , for the club and for the fans . " They suffered two consecutive defeats : away to Everton and at home to West Ham United . In the latter match , Campbell was substituted at his request before the second half , having been at fault for Nigel Reo @-@ Coker and Bobby Zamora ’ s goals . He " went missing " after the match , subsequently returning to training five days later . Emmanuel Adebayor scored his first goal for Arsenal in a 2 – 0 win against Birmingham City on 4 February 2006 . A stoppage time goal scored by Gilberto earned the team a point against Bolton Wanderers at Highbury ; they went 1 – 0 down in the 12th minute after Kevin Nolan chipped the ball past goalkeeper Jens Lehmann . Arsenal conceded a late goal away to Liverpool on Valentine 's Day – a result which left the club 10 points behind their opponents . Defeat against Blackburn Rovers meant they lost for the second consecutive game . Having collected just three wins out of a possible 14 away from home , Wenger admitted the form of the team remained " a big worry " given they needed to play five more .
= = = March – May = = =
In the first week of March , Arsenal beat Fulham 4 – 0 with a " commanding performance " from Henry , who scored two goals . The striker scored the winning goal against Liverpool in their next match , from a Steven Gerrard backpass . A polished performance against Charlton Athletic was followed by a five @-@ goal win at home to Aston Villa on 1 April 2006 . Arsenal lost 2 – 0 to Manchester United and dropped two points against relegation @-@ threatened Portsmouth , meaning a fourth @-@ place finish was in Tottenham Hotspur 's favour .
Dennis Bergkamp scored his final goal for Arsenal against West Bromwich Albion in a 3 – 1 win ; he came on as a substitute in the second half to set up Pirès to score the winning goal , moments after Nigel Quashie had levelled the scoreline . Arsenal drew 1 – 1 at home to Tottenham Hotspur , with Wenger choosing to rest players in mind for the club 's Champions League semi @-@ final . A 3 – 0 win away at Sunderland was overshadowed by a tackle on Abou Diaby , ruling him out for the remainder of the season . Two late goals scored by Reyes against Manchester City moved Arsenal a point behind Tottenham Hotspur in fourth . In the final competitive match played at Highbury , Arsenal faced Wigan Athletic , needing to better their rivals result to guarantee Champions League qualification . Henry scored a hat @-@ trick in a six @-@ goal match , helping Arsenal end the season with 67 points from 38 matches . Tottenham Hotspur 's defeat against West Ham United meant Arsenal finished fourth , a position Gilberto felt the club " deserved " .
= = = Match results = = =
= = = Classification = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = = = Results summary = = = =
Source :
= = = = Results by round = = = =
Source :
Rules for classification : 1 ) points ; 2 ) goal difference ; 3 ) number of goals scored ( C )
= Champion ; ( R ) =
Relegated ; ( P )
= Promoted ; ( E ) =
Eliminated ; ( O )
= Play @-@ off winner ; ( A ) =
Advances to a further round .
Only applicable when the season is not finished : ( Q )
= Qualified to the phase of tournament indicated ; ( TQ ) =
Qualified to tournament , but not yet to the particular phase indicated ; ( RQ )
= Qualified to the relegation tournament indicated ; ( DQ ) =
Disqualified from tournament .
= = FA Cup = =
Arsenal entered the competition in the third round , receiving a bye as a Premier League club . Their opening match was a 2 – 0 home win against Cardiff City on 7 January 2006 , with both goals scored by Pirès . Arsenal faced Bolton Wanderers the following round ; an understrength team lost 1 – 0 after Giannakopulos headed in the winning goal , six minutes from the end of the match .
= = Football League Cup = =
Arsenal entered the Football League Cup in the third round , where they were drawn away to Sunderland . A 3 – 0 victory meant they progressed to the fourth round , where they beat First Division club Reading by an identical scoreline . Extra time and penalties was required in Arsenal 's fifth round tie against Doncaster Rovers , after a 2 – 2 draw in 90 minutes . Two saves by goalkeeper Manuel Almunia helped Arsenal win 3 – 1 on penalties and reach the semi @-@ finals of the competition for the first time since 1998 . They faced Wigan Athletic , losing 1 – 0 in the first leg and in spite of winning the second leg 2 – 1 with a full strength team , Arsenal was eliminated on aggregate score .
= = UEFA Champions League = =
= = = Group stage = = =
Arsenal qualified for the group stages of the Champions League in the 2005 – 06 season on virtue of finishing runners @-@ up in the Premier League the preceding season . They were drawn in Group B , along with Swiss ' Thun , Czech club Sparta Prague and Ajax of the Netherlands . In spite of Van Persie 's dismissal against Thun in the opening group match , Arsenal won 2 – 1 , courtesy of a late goal by substitute Bergkamp . A 2 – 1 win against Ajax was followed by a 2 – 0 victory against Sparta Prague ; Henry scored both goals to surpass Ian Wright 's all @-@ time leading scorer record . A goal from Henry and two from Van Persie in the reverse fixture meant the club reached the knockout stages . A win at Thun on 22 November 2005 ensured Arsenal topped the group ; they ended the group stages with a draw at Highbury against Ajax .
= = = Knockout phase = = =
= = = = First knockout round = = = =
The club faced Real Madrid in the last 16 – the first encounter between both clubs in the competition . A solo goal by Henry at the Estadio Santiago Bernabéu in the first leg , inflicted the home team 's first defeat in 18 Champions League matches . A disciplined display at home a fortnight after helped Arsenal to reach the quarter @-@ finals and become the sole English representative left in the competition .
= = = = Quarter @-@ finals = = = =
At home to Juventus , Arsenal won 2 – 0 with goals from Fàbregas and Henry ; the match was overshadowed by the return of former captain Vieira . A goalless draw at the Stadio delle Alpi meant the club progressed into the semi @-@ finals against Villarreal .
= = = = Semi @-@ finals = = = =
In the club 's final European match at Highbury , Touré scored a first @-@ half goal to give Arsenal a 1 – 0 win . A late penalty save by goalkeeper Lehmann in the second leg helped Arsenal become the first London club to reach a Champions League final . The result , another goalless draw was Arsenal 's tenth cleansheet in a row – a new competition record . Campbell , returning from injury praised the team performance in his post @-@ match interview : " It 's brilliant for us . It 's also great for the manager Arsène Wenger to get to the final in France – I 'm sure he will get a great reception . "
= = = = Final = = = =
In the final against Barcelona at the Stade de France in Saint @-@ Denis , Paris , Arsenal fielded a 4 – 5 – 1 formation , with Eboué replacing the injured Lauren , and Cole making a return at left @-@ back for Flamini .
Lehmann was sent off in 18th minute for a professional foul on striker Samuel Eto 'o . Wenger reacted by substituting Pirès for goalkeeper Manuel Almunia , altering the formation . In spite of the disadvantage , Arsenal took the lead in the 37th minute , after Henry 's free kick was headed in by Campbell . Henry missed a chance in the second half to give Arsenal a two @-@ nil lead before Eto 'o equalised with 14 minutes left . Substitute Henrik Larsson set up Juliano Belletti to score the winner for Barcelona . Wenger used his post @-@ match press conference to criticise referee Terje Hauge for sending off Lehmann , a view later shared by club captain Henry and FIFA president Sepp Blatter .
= = Squad statistics = =
Arsenal used a total of 34 players during the 2005 – 06 season and there were 16 different goalscorers . There were also six squad members who did not make a first @-@ team appearance in the campaign . The team played in a 4 – 4 – 2 formation for much of the season , though Wenger deployed a 4 – 5 – 1 formation in Europe – a five @-@ man midfield with Ljungberg playing behind the main striker Henry . Fàbregas featured in 50 matches – the most of any Arsenal player in the campaign ; Lehmann started in all 38 league matches .
The team scored a total of 90 goals in all competitions . The highest scorer was Henry , with 33 goals , followed by Van Persie who scored 12 goals . Four Arsenal players were sent off during the season : Lehmann , Fàbregas , Van Persie and Gilberto .
Key
Numbers in parentheses denote appearances as substitute . Players with number struck through and marked left the club during the playing season . Players with names in italics and marked * were on loan from another club for the whole of their season with Arsenal .
Source :
= Cliff Alexander =
Cliff Alexander ( born November 16 , 1995 ) is an American professional basketball player who last played for the Portland Trail Blazers of the National Basketball Association ( NBA ) . He completed his freshman season at the University of Kansas for the Jayhawks ' on their 2014 – 15 team . He declared himself eligible for the 2015 NBA draft but was undrafted .
He played in high school at Curie High School in Chicago where he won Naismith and Mr. Basketball USA recognition as national player of the year . He did not play organized basketball until eighth grade , but by late in his freshman season he became a notable contributor to his high school 's varsity team . He was ranked among the top 20 prospects in the national class of 2014 prior to his sophomore season . As a junior , he moved into the top 10 of the national class and was recognized as an All @-@ American . By the beginning of his senior season , he was considered to be a top 5 player by most talent evaluators and his stock was still on the rise . Following a Martin Luther King Day performance during his senior year against the number one team in the country , many experts considered him to be the best player in the national class of 2014 .
In 2013 , he represented USA Basketball in international play . Several talent scouts praised his powerful game . As a high schooler , Alexander felt he was most often compared to Amar 'e Stoudemire . He was also contrasted with crosstown rival Jahlil Okafor , especially as a senior when they vied for national attention . Alexander was heavily recruited by many top Division I basketball programs and his recruitment was widely followed . He played in the 2014 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game , 2014 Jordan Brand Classic and the 2014 Nike Hoop Summit , earning co @-@ MVP of the Jordan Brand Classic . Alexander led Curie to the 2014 Chicago Public High School League city championship in a quadruple @-@ overtime game against Okafor that was the lead story on SportsCenter . The championship was later forfeited . As a freshman with Kansas , he did not play in the latter part of the season after the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) launched an investigation into his eligibility .
= = High school career = =
= = = Freshman = = =
Alexander , who was also a highly regarded football player , did not play organized basketball until eighth grade . Alexander played on Curie 's 2010 – 11 varsity team as a freshman , but had little impact at first and sat out some games in December . He missed the first ten games due to a heart murmur . In late December , he started getting local attention as part of the reason Curie remained undefeated . During the Chicago Public High School League ( CPL ) and Illinois High School Association ( IHSA ) playoffs , he contributed significant performances . On March 9 , 2011 , Curie was eliminated from the IHSA playoffs in a Class 4A sectional semifinal by Lyons Township High School as freshman Alexander posted 9 points , 13 rebounds , and 2 blocks in a 66 – 64 loss . His late @-@ season contributions gave Curie an added dimension , as the team finished with a 28 – 3 record . Following his freshman season , Alexander began to be recognized by local evaluators as a potential top national recruit . After Jabari Parker and Jahlil Okafor , Alexander was already considered the best Chicago area basketball prospect . He earned Red @-@ Central all @-@ conference recognition .
= = = Sophomore = = =
As late as August 2011 , Alexander remained unrecognized by most national evaluators . However , as Alexander entered his sophomore season , he was one of three area prospects that were firmly among the national class of 2014 's top 25 prospects ( along with Whitney M. Young Magnet High School teammates Okafor and Paul White ) . As of September 1 , 2011 Alexander was ranked 13 by ESPN.com and 9 by Rivals.com. On December 30 in the Pontiac Holiday Tournament , Parker 's Simeon Career Academy defeated Alexander 's Curie 44 – 27 as Alexander was almost shut out by Simeon 's Steve Taylor . On January 22 , 2013 , Okafor and Alexander went head to head in CPL play . Curie defeated Young by a 57 – 46 margin as Alexander had 10 points , six rebounds and three blocks before having a personal foul disqualification . Despite fouling out , Alexander had the better game with nearly a dozen Division I programs in attendance . Curie had a rematch against Simeon in the February 17 CPL championship game with Alexander again being ineffective on offense with four points against Parker and Taylor as Curie lost 53 – 49 . The game broadcast on ESPN3 . Following the season , a statewide panel of sportswriters and broadcaster voted Alexander as an Associated Press boys basketball Class 4A all @-@ state honorable mention honoree .
= = = Junior = = =
At the June 2012 Pangos All @-@ American Camp , Alexander was selected as the Most Outstanding Player . Alexander , who was already a top 5 recruit according to some sources , endured a Summer 2012 foot injury that sidelined him . By mid @-@ July 2012 , as ESPN 's number 10 ranked prospect , he received an offer from Kentucky and was being recruited by DePaul , Indiana , Ohio State and Wisconsin . Upon receiving his offer from Kentucky , he told Rivals.com that his two leading schools were Kentucky and Michigan State .
By the fall of his junior season , the Illinois class of 2014 was being mentioned as one of the all @-@ time great statewide classes of basketball players . Chicago Sun @-@ Times writer Joe Henricksen noted that there was a high chance that this would be the fifth Illinois class and first since 2002 to include three McDonald 's All @-@ Americans . He also noted that the class has a chance to rival if not surpass the classes of 1998 and 2011 which each had nine top 100 players .
On November 30 , at a Draffenville , Kentucky tournament game against Oak Hill Academy , Alexander scored 26 of his teams 39 points on 12 – 14 field goal shooting in a 72 – 39 defeat . On December 29 , Curie again faced Parker and Simeon in the Pontiac Holiday Tournament ( this time in the semifinals ) . Alexander posted 21 points on 9 – 10 field goal shooting , but Simeon still prevailed 62 – 57 . Notably , Parker assumed Alexander as a defensive assignment after Alexander gave Curie a 48 – 47 lead with 4 : 58 time remaining and Alexander went scoreless the rest of the game . Despite 11 points , 9 rebounds and 8 blocked shots from Alexander , Curie was eliminated from the CPL playoffs in a February 11 quarterfinals 60 – 58 loss to the Billy Garrett , Jr.-led Morgan Park High School that went on to become 2013 IHSA Class 3A state champion . On February 26 , the Associated Press Illinois Class 4A basketball rankings showed Whitney Young at number 1 , and it was also expected that Young 's road to the sectional finals would include a March 6 meeting with Curie . According to Henricksen , the March 6 state playoff meeting between Young and Curie was anticipated because it would pit Okafor against Alexander , making it the most highly touted IHSA playoff matchup of centers since 1988 when LaPhonso Ellis led East Saint Louis ' Lincoln High School against Eric Anderson 's St. Francis de Sales High School . Mike Helfgot of the Chicago Tribune said that there have not been many matchups between big men this good with so much at stake . On March 2 , Alexander attended Senior night at University of Illinois at Urbana – Champaign 's Assembly Hall . The February 2013 Great Plains blizzard caused controversial postponements of several IHSA games including the March 6 Young @-@ Curie game , which was delayed one day . Young defeated Curie 62 – 58 as the supporting cast made up for Alexander 's 14 – 13 scoring edge over Okafor .
In late April 2013 , Okafor 's father believed it was very possible that Okafor and Tyus Jones would matriculate together as a package . By late April 2013 , there were rumors that Alexander and Justise Winslow would attend whatever school Jones and Okafor attended . Although Alexander was ranked as the fifth best player in the class of 2014 by Rivals.com and had offers from four of the six schools common to Jones and Okafor by the beginning of June , he said the chances of him matriculating with Jones and Okafor was slim .
Alexander was recognized as a 2013 All @-@ CPL first team selection by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times along with Parker , Okafor , Kendrick Nunn and Garrett . Alexander was recognized as an Associated Press All @-@ State Class 4A first team selection along with Parker , Okafor , Malcolm Hill and Sterling Brown . The Chicago Tribune named him to its All @-@ State first team along with Parker , Okafor , Jalen Brunson and Tyler Ulis . Alexander was one of five underclassmen selected by HighSchoolHardwood.com as an All @-@ American , along with Okafor , Jones and Stanley Johnson ( all first team ) and Joel Berry ( second team along with Alexander ) .
= = = Senior = = =
= = = = Summer and preseason = = = =
Alexander has become a member of the Mac Irvin Fire AAU team along with Okafor . During the Nike @-@ backed Pro @-@ Am summer basketball Chi @-@ League Alexander , Okafor and Parker were on the same team . He showed potential that LeBron James himself noticed at the July LeBron James Skills Academy . He also stood out at the July Under Armour Summa Jam , where his Mac Irvin Fire opposed teams led by Myles Turner and Karl @-@ Anthony Towns . On September 4 , 2013 , Rivals.com updated their ranking with Alexander maintaining his number 4 ranking . At the time , Eric Bossi of Rivals described Alexander as " perhaps the most powerful player in the high school ranks " .
In September , Alexander believed that he would make his final selection with a December verbal commitment and an April signing of his National Letter of Intent . On October 7 , the Hoophall Classic schedule was announced and Curie was scheduled to play Montverde Academy on January 20 . By some accounts Kansas was a favorite because his girlfriend was a student at Kansas and the 2013 – 14 Kansas Jayhawks were scheduled to play the 2013 – 14 Duke Blue Devils at Chicago 's United Center in the ESPN Champions Classic on November 12 just before his scheduled announcement . In 2013 Caelynn Manning @-@ Allen became a freshman on the Kansas women 's basketball team . However , Illinois was very excited to be in serious contention for Alexander . It was the first time since Derrick Rose in 2006 that a top 5 prospect was still considering Illinois so late into his senior year and Alexander 's level of interest seemed much higher than Rose 's . Following his Illinois visit , his scheduled announcement date had moved forward to November 15 . On October 31 , Alexander officially eliminated Michigan State from his candidate list , leaving Kansas , Illinois , DePaul and Memphis in contention .
On November 7 Alexander was ranked second behind points leader Emmanuel Mudiay in the Mr. Basketball USA preseason tracker . Although he had only one first place vote on the ten ballots , he was ranked ahead of Okafor and Stanley Johnson who combined for seven first place votes . Alexander and Mudiay were the only players named on 9 of the 10 ballots . The preseason points leader has gone on to win the award in four of the prior five years . His November 15 verbal commitment announcement was scheduled on the same date as Okafor , Jones and Stanley Johnson . According to ESPN , all four were among the top 10 in the national class ( Okafor # 1 , Alexander # 3 , Jones # 4 and Johnson # 9 ) . On the eve of his announcement , Kansas and Illinois were the favorites for his services . He made his verbal commitment on ESPNU to Kansas basketball on November 15 . He was flanked by his father ( Clifton Terry ) and mother ( Latillia Alexander ) . Prior to his senior season , USA Today named him to its 10 @-@ man preseason All @-@ USA team along with Stanley Johnson , Jones , Trey Lyles , Emmanuel Mudiay , Malik Newman , Okafor , Oubre , D 'Angelo Russell , and Turner . Alexander was joined on the Chicago Tribune 's preseason Illinois Mr. Basketball top 5 by Okafor , Brunson , Ulis and Keita Bates @-@ Diop .
= = = = 2013 – 14 regular season = = = =
Alexander posted 22 points , 20 rebounds , and 5 blocks in a December 7 66 – 62 victory at UIC Pavilion against USA Today 's Super 25 number 11 ranked Bishop Gorman High School and its highly touted Stephen Zimmerman . Alexander almost had to serve a one @-@ game suspension from the game due to having been assessed two technical fouls on December 1 against St. Rita High School . Alexander had an impressive start to his season . On December 12 , he posted a triple double against Dunbar High School with 30 points , 24 rebounds , and 15 blocked shots . That week ( December 9 – 17 ) , he earned the Midwest player of the week from StudentSports.com. As a senior , he finally led Curie past three @-@ time defending tournament champion and four @-@ time defending Class 4A state champion Simeon to win the Pontiac Holiday Tournament with 16 points , 16 rebounds , and 6 blocks , earning tournament MVP honors . Even as a top 5 selection , Alexander 's stock continued to rise as a senior , according to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times ' Joe Henricksen . Some of the stats that Alexander posted were so impressive as to cause disbelief to some , including Chicago Tribune high school basketball writer Mike Helfgot and several of his associates . In early January , Alexander continued to be a leading contender for national player of the year , holding on to second place in the Mr. Basketball USA race . On January 10 , Alexander led Curie past Villa Angela @-@ St. Joseph High School , which featured Rivals.com Class of 2015 number 10 ranked Carlton Bragg . In the January 20 Hoophall Classic , Alexander led Curie to a victory over D 'Angelo Russell , Ben Simmons and Montverde Academy , the number one rated team in the country . Curie trailed by 9 points entering the fourth quarter , but Alexander had 13 of his 30 points in the final 4 minutes and 30 seconds to key the comeback . Alexander also had 12 rebounds and 5 blocks . Following the game , several writers , including CBS Sports college basketball writer Jeff Borzello said that Alexander has a valid case to present in terms of being the best high school basketball player in the country ( along with Okafor , Turner and Mudiay ) . High school basketball writer Ronnie Flores regards the performance as one of the top 5 performances against a nationally highly rated high school basketball team since the turn of the century , ranking it with Louis Williams ( 2005 ) , Kevin Durant ( 2006 ) , Kevin Love ( 2007 ) and LeBron James ( 2001 ) . The win bolted Curie to the number one ranking in the nation according to StudentSports.com. Alexander 's performance moved him to the top of the rankings in the Mr. Basketball USA midseason tracker . He was ranked first by a wide margin and held the number one position on 7 out of 10 ballots .
= = = = 2014 postseason = = = =
As the CPL playoffs began on February 5 , a February 21 championship game clash between Okafor and Alexander was pondered in the local press after the 32 @-@ team brackets were announced . The CPL playoffs began with victories over Perspectives Charter by 71 – 37 and North Lawndale Charter High School 75 – 63 . Against North Lawndale , Alexander had 27 points , 15 rebounds and 5 blocks . On February 16 , Curie defeated Simeon 71 – 64 . Alexander had 16 points , 12 rebounds , and 6 blocks earning a February 19 CPL semifinals rematch against Hyde Park Academy High School who they have already beaten twice this season . Alexander and Curie won 58 – 56 to reach the anticipated city championship matchup with Young and Okafor at the Jones Convocation Center . Alexander had a triple double with 10 points , 10 rebounds and 10 blocks . The matchup was the most anticipated city championship game since at least 1998 when fellow McDonald 's All @-@ Americans Quentin Richardson of Young and Corey Maggette of Fenwick High School were both top 15 players . On February 20 , Alexander improved his first place total in the Mr. Basketball USA Tracker , holding eight first place and two second place votes . Curie won the city championship 69 – 66 in quadruple overtime as Alexander had 20 points , 14 rebounds and 4 blocks according to Chicago Tribune and Comcast SportsNet , while the Chicago Sun @-@ Times and Sports Illustrated credited him with just 12 rebounds . This came against Okafor who had 16 points and 9 , 8 or 4 rebounds before fouling out with 2 : 13 remaining in regulation depending on which of the three sources you believe . The CPL Championship game was attended by Mayor of Chicago Rahm Emanuel and was the lead story on the late edition of SportsCenter . Seven days later , Curie was forced to forfeit all of its wins and the CPL championship due to the academic ineligibility of seven of its players . The title will remain vacant .
Okafor and Alexander vied for a host of local and national player of the year awards , with each winning multiple national player of the year awards . Young and Curie were both in the Marist Class 4A sectional in the 2014 IHSA playoffs and could have met again in the round of sixteen on March 14 if they had both won three regional contests . Despite forfeiting all wins in CPL games , Curie remained eligible to compete in the IHSA playoffs due to differences in eligibility rules . On March 4 , Curie lost their opening IHSA playoff game to 11 – 11 DuSable High School by an 88 – 85 margin in overtime . It marked Curies first loss of the season on the court with Alexander in the lineup . Alexander posted 25 points , 15 rebounds , and 8 blocks despite fouling out in the final minute of regulation time . Curie trailed 13 – 2 early and led 47 – 32 midway through the third quarter . Curie starters Josh and Joseph Stamps were ineligible for IHSA play as was Malik Washington .
In the April 2 , 2014 , McDonald 's All @-@ American Game Alexander posted 9 points and a game @-@ high ( tied with Kevon Looney ) 11 rebounds for the losing east team . In the April 18 Jordan Brand Classic , he was co @-@ MVP ( with Okafor ) . In the game he posted 23 points , 8 rebounds and 5 blocks .
= = = = Awards and honors = = = =
Alexander was selected to the 10 @-@ man Team USA for the 17th annual Nike Hoop Summit on April 12 , 2014 at the Moda Center . He was selected along with fellow Chicagoan Okafor and fellow Kansas commit Oubre . He was also selected to the 24 @-@ player 37th annual April 2 , 2014 McDonald 's All @-@ American Boys Game at the United Center . He was joined as a McDonald 's All @-@ American by fellow Chicagoans Ulis and Okafor as well as Oubre . He was recognized as first team All @-@ City along with Young teammates White and Okafor as well as Louis Adams , Jr. of Orr High School , and Luwane Pipkins of Bogan High School by the Chicago Sun @-@ Times . On February 18 , he became one of three finalists for the Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award along with Okafor and Stanley Johnson . On March 7 Alexander won the Chicago Sun @-@ Times Player of the Year as well as the Naismith Player of the Year . On March 10 , he was one of 26 players selected for the April 18 , 2014 Jordan Brand Classic again along with fellow Chicagoans Ulis and Okafor as well as fellow Kansas commit Oubre . He was recognized as one of twenty Parade All @-@ Americans . He was named Associated Press Class 4A 1st team All @-@ state with Okafor , Brunson , Ulis and Sean O 'Mara . Alexander lost out to Okafor in the Illinois Mr. Basketball voting by a 492 – 402 vote . He was a USA Today first team All @-@ USA Boys Basketball Team selection along with Okafor , Oubre , Mudiay , and Stanley Johnson . He earned first team All @-@ American recognition from MaxPreps on April 13 . On April 16 , he earned another national player of the year award Mr. Basketball USA .
= = = Comparisons = = =
Prior to his sophomore season , he was considered more raw , but more athletic than Okafor , according to the Chicago Sun @-@ Times basketball reporter Joe Henricksen . At that stage in head @-@ to @-@ head competition , Alexander was overmatched by Okafor . Following his sophomore season , Reggie Rose ( Derrick Rose 's brother ) noted that Alexander was more suited toward a fast break offense while Okafor would be more likely to excel in a half @-@ court set . He is also compared to Anthony Bennett , although Alexander needs to improve his outside shooting to make the comparison valid and he needs to improve his low post mastery for a valid comparison to Jared Sullinger . Alexander feels he is most often compared to Amar 'e Stoudemire , which he is comfortable with because he views Stoudemire as someone who " ... can shoot the 15 @-@ footer , put it on the floor , post moves , sets good screens . " NBADraft.net compares Alexander to Thomas Robinson , while Bleacher Report 's Kerry Miller compared him to Robinson and Julius Randle , noting despite his phenomenal physicality , he is undersized to play center and lacking the midrange jump shot necessary to play power forward .
He is known as the type of player likely to get a slam dunk if he gets the ball near the rim . His high dunk frequency is attributed to his multidimensional quickness , intuitive sense for the ball and his " brute physicality " . His " sheer dominance , along with his physical and athletic presence " are what make him a unique talent . At the July 2013 LeBron James Skills Academy , James told him to develop his ballhandling and strength .
Alexander is also compared to local products Jabari Parker and Jahlil Okafor for off the court reasons . Whereas , they have been groomed to think about behaving like future celebrity athletes , Alexander is a star from off the street who has to be reminded of his role now . For example , when WGN named him athlete of the month in December 2013 , they quoted his coach Mike Oliver who said , " People fail to realize ( Simeon and Duke star ) Jabari Parker and ( Duke @-@ bound Young center ) Jahlil Okafor were groomed for this . For Cliff , this came out of nowhere , like a big wind thrown in his face . " As a senior , he and crosstown fellow Naismith Prep Player of the Year Award finalist Okafor were compared by a Chicago Sun @-@ Times photographer as follows : " Okafor is Beverly Hills , Cliff is Inglewood . " because Okafor is known for his polished footwork and finesse , Alexander is known for his dominating power game of dunks and blocks . Sun @-@ Times reporter Michael O 'Brien stated the comparison more eloquently saying that for the next generation area big men will be compared to the duo : " Alexander as the gold standard for speed , power and athleticism ; Okafor for technique , poise and polish . "
= = College career = =
Alexander entered his college career as the Big 12 Conference Preseason Co @-@ Freshmen of the Year ( along with Myles Turner ) according to a vote of the league 's head coaches . In its preseason top 100 player ranking , Alexander was listed at number 27 by ESPN . USA Today named him to its Preseason All @-@ American third team and NBCSports.com named him as an honorable mention for its Preseason All @-@ American team . He was also listed as a John R. Wooden Award Preseason Top 50 candidate and a Wayman Tisdale Award Watch list selection . Alexander was also included in the early December Naismith Award top 50 watch list .
Alexander began the season coming off the bench . On November 24 , Alexander had his first double @-@ digit output with 10 points against Rider . In the 2014 Orlando Classic semifinals against Tennessee on November 28 , he posted 16 points . Then in the finals against # 20 Michigan State on November 30 , he contributed 4 blocks . On December 5 during the Big 12 / SEC Challenge contest against Florida , Alexander posted a team @-@ high 10 rebounds along with 12 points for his first collegiate double @-@ double . On December 20 , Alexander was expected to be in the starting lineup for the first time against Lafayette , but he was not . However , he started on December 22 against Temple . On January 19 against # 19 Oklahoma , Alexander posted 13 points and 13 rebounds . The 13 rebounds in just 23 minutes played marked a career high for Alexander and an individual season high for the Jayhawks . Alexander was named Big 12 newcomer of the week on January 26 , 2015 . Alexander made his second start of the season on February 10 against Texas Tech , replacing Jamari Traylor in the lineup and posting 10 points , 4 blocks and 5 rebounds . On February 28 , Alexander was inactivated due to an undisclosed NCAA investigation as a precautionary measure . He did not play any games after February 23 because of the investigation of his mother 's initiation of pre @-@ NBA draft loan processing .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Portland Trail Blazers ( 2015 – 2016 ) = = =
On April 7 , in the face of a battle for NCAA reinstatement that saw him miss the last 8 games of the season , Alexander declared for the June 25 , 2015 NBA draft . On May 31 , Alexander suffered a right knee injury in draft workout with the Los Angeles Lakers . After going undrafted , Alexander joined the Brooklyn Nets for the 2015 NBA Summer League . He averaged 6 @.@ 7 rebounds , 0 @.@ 3 assists , and 1 @.@ 5 blocks in 22 minutes per game in the summer league . On July 24 , 2015 , Alexander signed with the Portland Trail Blazers . By the beginning of training camp , Alexander 's injury caused him to be expected to miss two weeks . He was one of five non @-@ guaranteed contract players vying for three roster spots . Alexander missed the entire preseason with the Trail Blazers due to his knee but made the roster and entered the season behind Meyers Leonard , Mason Plumlee , Ed Davis , Noah Vonleh , and Al @-@ Farouq Aminu on the depth chart . Despite minor torn cartilage issues , Alexander was active for the first time on November 8 in Portland 's seventh game of the season . Alexander played 17 minutes on November 15 , posting 4 points , 4 rebounds and a block against Charlotte .
On March 10 , 2016 , using the flexible assignment rule , Alexander was assigned to the Santa Cruz Warriors , the D @-@ League affiliate of the Golden State Warriors . On March 20 , he was recalled by Portland .
On July 7 , 2016 , Alexander was waived by the Trail Blazers . The transaction was a maneuver to create salary cap space for Festus Ezeli . After he cleared waivers , the Trail Blazers added him to its NBA Summer League roster .
= = National team career = =
Alexander was selected by USA Basketball to represent Team USA in the inaugural 2013 FIBA Americas 3x3 U18 Championship in August . He helped the team achieve gold . In the September 26 – 29 , 2013 FIBA 3x3 U18 World Championship in Jakarta , Indonesia , Team USA finished 9th with a 7 – 1 record , losing in the opening round of 16 in the playoffs .
= = Personal life = =
Alexander 's father is 6 @-@ foot @-@ 7 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 01 m ) Clifton Terry , who played basketball for Robeson High School and Kennedy – King College . Following his time at the two @-@ year Kennedy @-@ King , Terry declared for the 2001 NBA draft . His professional career included time in the NBA Development League . Alexander picked up basketball late due to the lack of available safe courts to play on in his Chicago West Side neighborhood known as the Brian Piccolo community .
= Good Vibrations =
" Good Vibrations " is a song composed and produced by Brian Wilson with words by Mike Love for the American rock band the Beach Boys . Released as a single in October 1966 , it was an immediate critical and commercial hit , topping record charts in several countries including the US and UK . Characterized for its complex soundscapes , episodic structure , and subversions of pop music formula , it was the most expensive single ever made at the time of its release . " Good Vibrations " later became widely acknowledged as one of the greatest masterpieces of rock music .
Initiated during the sessions for the album Pet Sounds ( 1966 ) , it was not taken from or issued as a lead single for an album , but rather as a stand @-@ alone single , with the Pet Sounds instrumental " Let 's Go Away for Awhile " as a B @-@ side . It was considered for the Smile project , but instead appeared on the album Smiley Smile ( 1967 ) . Most of the song was developed as it was recorded . Its title derived from Wilson 's fascination with cosmic vibrations , after his mother once told him as a child that dogs sometimes bark at people in response to their " bad vibrations " . He used the concept to suggest extrasensory perception , while Love 's lyrics were inspired by the Flower Power movement that was then burgeoning in Southern California .
The making of " Good Vibrations " was unprecedented for any kind of recording , with a total production cost estimated between $ 50 @,@ 000 and $ 75 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) . Building upon the multi @-@ layered approach he had formulated with Pet Sounds , Wilson recorded the song in different sections at four Hollywood studios over an eight month period , resulting in a cut @-@ up mosaic of several musical episodes marked by disjunctive key and modal shifts . Band publicist Derek Taylor dubbed the unusual work a " pocket symphony " . It contained previously untried mixes of instruments , including jaw harp and Electro @-@ Theremin , and was the first pop hit to have a cello playing juddering rhythms .
For " Good Vibrations " , Wilson is credited with further developing the use of the recording studio as an instrument . The single revolutionized rock music from live concert performances to studio productions which could only exist on record , heralding a wave of pop experimentation and the onset of psychedelic and progressive rock . It is also frequently cited for its use of theremin , which led to the instrument 's revival and to an increased interest in analog synthesizers . Its success earned the Beach Boys a Grammy nomination for Best Vocal Group performance in 1966 ; the song was eventually inducted into the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1994 . It has featured highly in many charts , being voted number one in the Mojo " Top 100 Records of All Time " chart in 1997 and number six on Rolling Stone 's list of the " 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame included " Good Vibrations " in its list of the " 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll " .
= = Background = =
The Beach Boys ' leader Brian Wilson was responsible for the musical composition and virtually all of the arrangement for " Good Vibrations " . His cousin and bandmate Mike Love contributed the song 's lyrics and its bass vocalization in the chorus . During the recording sessions for Pet Sounds ( 1966 ) , Wilson began changing his writing process . Rather than going to the studio with a completed song , he would record a track containing a series of chord changes he liked , take an acetate disc home , and then write the song 's melody and lyrics . For " Good Vibrations " , Wilson explains , " I had a lot of unfinished ideas , fragments of music I called ' feels . ' Each feel represented a mood or an emotion I 'd felt , and I planned to fit them together like a mosaic . " Most of the song 's structure and arrangement was written as it was recorded . Engineer Chuck Britz is quoted saying that Wilson considered the song to be " his whole life performance in one track . " Wilson stated : " I was an energetic 23 @-@ year @-@ old . ... I said : ' This is going to be better than [ the Phil Spector production ] ' You 've Lost That Lovin ' Feelin ' ' .' "
= = Inspiration and lyricism = =
Brian explained that the song was inspired by his mother : " [ She ] used to tell me about vibrations . I didn 't really understand too much of what it meant when I was just a boy . It scared me , the word ' vibrations ' . She told me about dogs that would bark at people and then not bark at others , that a dog would pick up vibrations from these people that you can 't see , but you can feel . " Brian first enlisted Pet Sounds lyricist Tony Asher for help in putting words to the idea . When Brian presented the song on piano , Asher thought that it had an interesting premise with the potential for hit status , but could not fathom the end result due to Brian 's primitive piano playing style . Asher remembers : " Brian was playing what amounts to the hook of the song : ' Good , good , good , good vibrations ' . He started telling me the story about his mother . ... He said he ’ d always thought that it would be fun to write a song about vibes and picking them up from other people . ... So as we started to work , he played this little rhythmic pattern – a riff on the piano , the thing that goes under the chorus . " Brian wanted to call the song " Good Vibes " , but Asher advised that it was " lightweight use of the language , " suggesting that " Good Vibrations " would sound less " trendy . " The two proceeded to write a lyric for the verses , later to be discarded , in what was then the most basic section of the song .
From the start , Wilson envisioned a theremin for the track . AllMusic reviewer John Bush pointed out : " Radio listeners could easily pick up the link between the title and the obviously electronic riffs sounding in the background of the chorus , but Wilson 's use of the theremin added another delicious parallel – between the single 's theme and its use of an instrument the player never even touched . " At that time , theremins were most associated with the Alfred Hitchcock film Spellbound ( 1945 ) , but its most common presence was in the theme music for the television sitcom My Favorite Martian ( 1963 – 66 ) . Britz speculates : " He just walked in and said , ' I have this new sound for you . ' I think he must have heard the sound somewhere and loved it , and built a song around it . "
Brian has credited his brother and bandmate Carl for suggesting the cello as an instrument to use . He also stated that its triplet beat on the chorus was his own idea , and that it was based on the Crystals ' " Da Doo Ron Ron " ( 1963 ) , produced by Spector . Alternatively , multi @-@ instrumentalist songwriter Van Dyke Parks says that he suggested having the celloist play triplets for Brian . Parks believes that having Brian exploit the cello " to such a hyperbolic degree " was what encouraged the duo to immediately collaborate on the ultimately unfinished album Smile . At some point , Brian asked Parks to pen lyrics for the song , although Parks declined .
Mike Love submitted the final lyrics for " Good Vibrations " , claiming to have written them on the drive to the studio . Love reacted upon hearing the unfinished backing track : " [ It ] was already so avant @-@ garde , especially with the theremin , I wondered how our fans were going to relate to it . How 's this going to go over in the Midwest or Birmingham ? It was such a departure from ' Surfin ' U.S.A. ' or ' Help Me , Rhonda ' . " Feeling that the song could be " the Beach Boys ' psychedelic anthem or flower power offering " , he based the lyrics on the burgeoning psychedelic music and Flower Power movements occurring in San Francisco and some parts of the Los Angeles area . He described the lyrics : " ... just a flowery poem . Kind of almost like ' If you ’ re going to San Francisco be sure to wear flowers in your hair ' . " Writer Bruce Golden observed :
The new pastoral landscape suddenly being uncovered by the young generation provided a quiet , peaceful , harmonious trip into inner space . The hassles and frustrations of the external world were cast aside , and new visions put in their place . " Good Vibrations " succeeds in suggesting the healthy emanations that should result from psychic tranquility and inner peace . The word " vibrations " had been employed by students of Eastern philosophy and acid @-@ heads for a variety of purposes , but Wilson uses it here to suggest a kind of extrasensory experience .
Capitol Records executives were worried that the lyrics contained psychedelic overtones , and Brian is said to have based the song 's production on his LSD experiences . Brian clarified that the song was written under the influence of marijuana , not LSD . He explained : " I made ‘ Good Vibrations ’ on drugs ; I used drugs to make that . ... I learned how to function behind drugs , and it improved my brain ... it made me more rooted in my sanity . " In Steven Gaines ' 1986 biography , Wilson is quoted on the lyrics : " We talked about good vibrations with the song and the idea , and we decided on one hand that you could say … those are sensual things . And then you 'd say , ' I 'm picking up good vibrations , ' which is a contrast against the sensual , the extrasensory perception that we have . That 's what we 're really talking about . " Brian claimed in 2012 that the song 's " gotta keep those good vibrations " bridge was inspired by Stephen Foster . Al Jardine compared the section to Foster 's " Down by the Riverside . " According to Love , the lyric " ' she goes with me to a blossom world ' was originally meant to be followed by the words ' we find , ' " but Brian elected to cut off the line to highlight the bass track linking into the chorus .
= = Recording and production = =
= = = Modular approach = = =
" Good Vibrations " established a new method of operation for Wilson . Instead of working on whole songs with clear large @-@ scale syntactical structures , Wilson limited himself to recording short interchangeable fragments ( or " modules " ) . Through the method of tape splicing , each fragment could then be assembled into a linear sequence , allowing any number of larger structures and divergent moods to be produced at a later time . This was the same modular approach used during the sessions for Smile and Smiley Smile . To mask each tape edit , vast reverb decays were added at the mixing and sub @-@ mixing stages .
For instrumentation , Wilson employed the services of " the Wrecking Crew " , nickname for the conglomerate of session musicians active in Los Angeles at that time . Most pop singles of the time were typically recorded in a day or two , but production for " Good Vibrations " spanned more than a dozen recording sessions at four different Hollywood studios . It was reported to have used over 90 hours of magnetic recording tape , with an eventual budget estimated between $ 50 @,@ 000 and $ 75 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 360 @,@ 000 and $ 550 @,@ 000 in 2015 ) , at that time the largest sum ever spent on a single . In comparison , the whole of Pet Sounds had cost $ 70 @,@ 000 ( $ 510 @,@ 000 ) , itself an unusually high cost for an album . According to Wilson , the Electro @-@ Theremin work alone cost $ 15 @,@ 000 ( $ 110 @,@ 000 ) . It 's said that Wilson was so puzzled by " Good Vibrations " that he would often arrive at a session , consider a few possibilities , and then leave without recording anything , which exacerbated costs .
= = = Development = = =
The instrumental of the first version of the song was recorded on February 17 , 1966 , at Gold Star Studios and was logged as a Pet Sounds session . On that day 's session log , it was given the name " # 1 Untitled " or " Good , Good , Good Vibrations " , but on its master tape , Wilson distinctly states " ' Good Vibrations ' ... take one . " After twenty @-@ six takes , a rough mono mix completed the session . Some additional instruments and rough guide vocals were overdubbed on March 3 .
The original version of " Good Vibrations " contained the characteristics of a " funky rhythm and blues number " and would not yet resemble a " pocket symphony " . There was no cello at this juncture , but the Electro @-@ Theremin was present , played by its inventor Paul Tanner . It was Brian 's second ever recorded use of the instrument , just three days after the Pet Sounds track " I Just Wasn 't Made for These Times " . Brian then placed " Good Vibrations " on hold in order to devote attention to the Pet Sounds album , which saw release on May 16 . More instrumental sections for " Good Vibrations " were recorded between April and June . Brian then forewent additional instrumental tracking until early September , when it was decided to revisit the song 's bridge section and apply Electro @-@ Theremin overdubs .
According to Brian 's then @-@ new friend David Anderle , during an early stage , Brian considered giving " Good Vibrations " to one of the black rhythm and blues groups signed with Warner Bros. Records such as Wilson Pickett , and then at Anderle 's suggestion to singer Danny Hutton . He thought about junking the track , but after receiving encouragement from Anderle , eventually decided on it as the next Beach Boys single . In the meantime , he worked on writing and recording material for the group 's forthcoming album Smile .
The first Beach Boy to hear " Good Vibrations " in a semi @-@ completed form was Carl Wilson , who had previously participated in rough guide vocals with Brian for the initial February mix . Following a performance with the touring group in North Dakota : " I came back up into my hotel room one night and the phone rang . It was Brian on the other end . He called me from the recording studio and played this really bizarre sounding music over the phone . There were drums smashing , that kind of stuff , and then it refined itself and got into the cello . It was a real funky track . " In 1976 , Brian revealed that before the final mixdown , he had been confronted with resistance by members of the group whom Brian declined to name . The subject of their worries and complaints was the song 's length and " modern " sound : " I said no , it 's not going to be too long a record , it 's going to be just right . … They didn 't quite understand what this jumping from studio to studio was all about . And they couldn 't conceive of the record as I did . I saw the record as a totality piece . "
The vocals for " Good Vibrations " were recorded at CBS Columbia Square , starting on August 24 and continuing sporadically until the very last day of assembly on September 21 . The episodic structure of the composition was continuously revised as the group experimented with different ideas . Brian remembers that he began recording the " bop bop good vibrations " parts first , and that he came up with " the high parts " a week later . Mike Love recalled : " I can remember doing 25 – 30 vocal overdubs of the same part , and when I mean the same part , I mean same section of a record , maybe no more than two , three , four , five seconds long . " Dennis Wilson was to have sung the lead vocal , but due to a bout of laryngitis , Carl replaced him at the last minute . In early September , the master tapes for " Good Vibrations " were stolen . Mysteriously , they reappeared inside Brian 's home two days later .
On September 21 , Brian completed the track after Tanner added a final Electro @-@ Theremin overdub . In 1976 he elaborated on the event : " It was at Columbia . I remember I had it right in the sack . I could just feel it when I dubbed it down , made the final mix from the 16 @-@ track down to mono . It was a feeling of power , it was a rush . A feeling of exaltation . Artistic beauty . It was everything … I remember saying , ' Oh my God . Sit back and listen to this ! ' "
= = Composition and analysis = =
There are six unique sections to the piece , as labelled by music theorist Daniel Harrison :
Verse
Refrain ( chorus )
First episodic digression
Second episodic digression
Retro @-@ refrain
Coda
Each section has a distinct musical texture , partly due to the nature of the song 's recording . The track 's instrumentation changes radically from section to section . Music journal Sound on Sound explains : " Typical pop songs of that era ( or indeed any era ) usually have a basic groove running throughout the track which doesn 't change a great deal from start to finish ... pop records were either guitar , bass and drum combos or traditional orchestrated arrangements for vocalists … The exotic instruments , the complex vocal arrangements , and the many dynamic crescendos and decrescendos all combine to set this record apart from most pop music . In short , if there 's an instruction manual for writing and arranging pop songs , this one breaks every rule . " For the AM radio standards of late 1966 , the song 's final runtime ( 3 minutes 35 seconds ) was considered a " very long " duration . Wilson is quoted in 1979 :
It had a lot of riff changes ... movements ... It was a pocket symphony — changes , changes , changes , building harmonies here , drop this voice out , this comes in , bring this echo in , put the theremin here , bring the cello up a little louder here ... It was the biggest production of our lives !
He characterized the song as " advanced rhythm and blues , " while its theremin and cello has been called the song 's " psychedelic ingredient . " In his book discussing music of the counterculture era , James Perrone stated that the song represented a type of impressionistic psychedelia , in particular for its cello playing repeated bass notes and its theremin . Professor of American history John Robert Greene named " Good Vibrations " among examples of psychedelic or acid rock . Stebbins wrote that the song was " replete with sunshine [ and ] psychedelia . " Uncut wrote that " Good Vibrations " was " three minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds of avant @-@ garde pop . " Steve Valdez says that , like Pet Sounds , Brian was attempting a more experimental rock style . It has since been marketed as pop music , " possibly because it comes across relatively innocent compared with the hard @-@ edged rock we have since come to know , " says historian Lorenzo Candelaria . Sound on Sound argues that the song " has as many dramatic changes in mood as a piece of serious classical music lasting more than half an hour " . Tom Roland of American Songwriter described the piece : " with its interlocking segments – a sort of pop version of the classical sonata , consisting of a series of musical movements " . New York Magazine compared it to " a fugue with a rhythmic beat " . John Bush compared the track 's fragmented cut @-@ and @-@ paste style to 1960s experimentalists such as William S. Burroughs .
According to academic Rikky Rooksby , " Good Vibrations " is an example of Brian 's growing interest in musical development within a composition , something antithetical to popular music of the time . Suppressing tonic strength and cadential drive , the song makes use of descending harmonic motions through scale degrees controlled by a single tonic and " radical disjunctions " in key , texture , instrumentation , and mood while refusing to develop into a predictable formal pattern . It instead develops " under its own power , " and " luxuriates in harmonic variety , " exemplified by beginning and ending not only in different keys but also in different modes . Comparing " Good Vibrations " to Brian 's previous work Pet Sounds , biographer Andrew Hickey has said : " [ T ] he best way of thinking about [ the song ] is that it 's taking the lowest common denominator of ' Here Today ' and ' God Only Knows ' and turned the result into an R & B track . We have the same minor @-@ key change between verse and chorus we 've seen throughout Pet Sounds , the same descending scalar chord sequences , the same mobile bass parts , but here , rather than to express melancholy , these things are used in a way that 's as close as Brian Wilson ever got to funky . " Stebbins adds that " unlike Pet Sounds , the chorus of ' Good Vibrations ' projects a definite ' rock and roll ' energy and feel . "
= = = Verses and choruses = = =
" Good Vibrations " begins without introduction in a traditional verse / refrain format , opening with Carl Wilson singing the word " I " , a triplet quaver before the downbeat . The sparse first verse contains a repetition of chords played on a Hammond organ filtered through a Leslie speaker ; underneath is a two @-@ bar Fender bass melody . This sequence repeats once ( 0 : 15 ) , but with the addition of two piccolos sustaining over a falling flute line . For percussion , bongo drums double the bass rhythm and every fourth @-@ beat is struck by either a tambourine or a bass @-@ drum @-@ and @-@ snare combination , in alternation . The beat projects a triplet feel despite being in 4 / 4 time ; this is sometimes called a " shuffle beat " or " threes over fours " . The chord progression used is i – ♭ VII – ♭ VI – V , also called an Andalusian cadence . Although the verses begin in the minor mode of E ♭ , the mode is not used to express sadness or drudgery . Occurring at the very end of these verses is a passing chord , D ♭ .
The refrain ( 0 : 25 ) begins in the newly tonicized relative major G ♭ , which suggests ♭ III . Providing a backdrop to the Electro @-@ Theremin is a cello and string bass playing a bowed tremolo triplet , a feature that was an exceedingly rare effect in pop music . The Fender bass is steady at one note per beat while tom drums and tambourine provide a backbeat . This time , the rhythm is stable , and is split into four 4 @-@ bar sections which gradually build its vocals . The first section consists of only the line " I 'm picking up good vibrations " ; the second adds an " ooo bop bop " figure ; the third adds a " good , good , good , good vibrations " higher harmony . This type of polyphony ( counterpoint ) is also rare in contemporary popular styles . Meanwhile , the song transposes up by two whole steps , ascending from G ♭ to A ♭ and then B ♭ . It then returns to the verse , thus making a perfect cadence back into E ♭ minor . Unusually , when the verse and chorus are repeated , there are no changes to the patterns of its instrumentation and harmony . Normally , a song 's arrangement adds something once it reaches the second verse .
= = = Episodic digressions = = =
The first episode ( 1 : 41 + ) begins disjunctively . The refrain 's B ♭ , which had received a dominant ( V ) charge , is now maintained as a tonic ( I ) . There is harmonic ambiguity , where the chord progression may be either interpreted as I – IV – I ( in B ♭ ) or V – I – V ( in G ♭ ) . Biographer Jon Stebbins says that this section " might be called a bridge under normal circumstances , but the song 's structure takes such an abstract route that traditional labels don 't really apply . " A new sound is created by tack piano , jaw harp , and bass relegated to strong beats which is subsequently ( 1 : 55 ) augmented by a new electric organ , bass harmonica , and sleigh bells shaken on every beat . This section lasts for ten measures ( 6 + 2 + 2 ) , which is unexpectedly long in light of previous patterns .
Another tape splice occurs at 2 : 13 , transitioning to an electric organ playing sustained chords set in the key of F accompanied by a maraca shaken on every beat . Sound on Sound highlights this change as the " most savage edit in the track ... most people would go straight into a big splash hook @-@ line section . Brian Wilson decided to slow the track even further , moving into a 23 @-@ bar section of church organ ... Most arrangers would steer clear of this kind of drop in pace , on the grounds that it would be chart suicide , but not Brian . " Harrison says : " The appearance of episode 1 was unusual enough but could be explained as an extended break between verse and refrain sections . Episode 2 however , makes that interpretation untenable , and both listener and analyst must entertain the idea that ' Good Vibrations ' develops under its own power , as it were , without the guidance of overdetermined formal patterns . Brian ’ s own description of the song — a three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ minute ' pocket symphony ' — is a telling clue about his formal ambitions here . " The slowed pace is complemented by the lyric ( " Gotta keep those loving good vibrations a @-@ happening with her " ) , sung once first as a solo voice , with the melody repeated an octave higher the second time with an accompanying harmony . This two @-@ part vocal fades as a solo harmonica plays a melody on top of the persistent quarter @-@ note bass line and maraca that maintain the only rhythm throughout Episode 2 . The section ends with a five @-@ part harmony vocalizing a whole @-@ note chord that is sustained by reverb for a further 4 beats . Lambert calls it the song 's " wake @-@ up chord at the end of the meditation that transports the concept into a whole new realm : it 's an iconic moment among iconic moments . As it rouses us from a blissful dream and echoes into the silence leading into the chorus , it seems to capture every sound and message the song has to say . "
= = = Retro @-@ refrain and coda = = =
The refrain reappears for an additional five measures , marching through a transpositional structure that begins in B ♭ , repeats at A ♭ , and then ends at G ♭ for an unexpectedly short single measure . There follows a short section of vocalizing in three @-@ part counterpoint that references the original refrain by reproducing upward transposition . However , this time it settles on A ♭ , the concluding key of the song . By the end of " Good Vibrations " , all seven scale degrees of the opening E ♭ -minor tonic are activated on some level .
= = Promotion = =
In July 1966 , an ad was placed in Billboard for the Pet Sounds album which thanked the industry for the sales of their latest album , and that , " We 're moved over the fact that our Pet Sounds brought on nothing but Good Vibrations . " This was the first public hint of the new single . Later in the year , Brian told journalist Tom Nolan that the new Beach Boys single was " about a guy who picks up good vibrations from a girl " and that it would be a " monster " . He then suggested : " It 's still sticking pretty close to that same boy @-@ girl thing , you know , but with a difference . And it 's a start , it 's definitely a start . " Newly employed band publicist Derek Taylor is credited for originally coining the work a " pocket symphony " . He promoted the single stating : " Wilson 's instinctive talents for mixing sounds could most nearly equate to those of the old painters whose special secret was in the blending of their oils . And what is most amazing about all outstanding creative artists is that they are using only those basic materials which are freely available to everyone else . "
To promote the single , four different music videos were shot . The first of these — with Caleb Deschanel as cameraman — features the group at a fire station , sliding down its pole , and roaming the streets of Los Angeles in a fashion comparable to The Monkees . The second features the group during vocal rehearsals at United Western Recorders . The third is footage recorded during the making of The Beach Boys in London , a documentary by Peter Whitehead of their concert performances . The fourth is an alternative edit of the third . Brian also made a rare personal appearance on local television station KHJ @-@ TV for its Teen Rock and Roll Dance Program , introducing the song to its in @-@ studio audience and presenting an exclusive preview of the completed record .
= = Critical reaction and sales = =
On October 15 , 1966 , Billboard predicted that the single would reach the top 20 in the Billboard Hot 100 chart . " Good Vibrations " was the Beach Boys ' third US number one hit after " I Get Around " and " Help Me , Rhonda " , reaching the top of the Hot 100 in December , as well as being their first number one in Britain . It sold over 230 @,@ 000 copies in the US during its first four days of its release and entered the Cash Box chart at number 61 on October 22 . In the UK , the song sold over 50 @,@ 000 copies in the first 15 days of its release . " Good Vibrations " quickly became the Beach Boys ' first million @-@ selling single . In December 1966 , the record was their first single certified gold by the RIAA . After the criteria for a gold record was modified , the RIAA failed to correct the listing , despite " Good Vibrations " being eligible for status as a platinum record as of 2015 . On March 30 , 2016 , the single was certified platinum by the RIAA .
Both New Musical Express and Melody Maker gave positive reviews at the time of the single 's release . Soon after , the Beach Boys were voted the number one band in the world in a readers ' poll conducted by NME , ahead of the Beatles , the Walker Brothers , the Rolling Stones , and the Four Tops . Billboard speculated that this was influenced by the success of " Good Vibrations " , and that " The sensational success of the Beach Boys , however , is being taken as a portent that the popularity of the top British groups of the last three years is past its peak . " In a Danish newspaper , readers ' polls voted Brian the winner of its " best foreign @-@ produced recording award " for the single , its first that the publication awarded to an American . A 1972 New York Magazine article would call the song " harmonically perfect " .
When asked about the song in 1990 , Paul McCartney of the Beatles responded " I thought it was a great record . It didn 't quite have the emotional thing that Pet Sounds had for me . I 've often played Pet Sounds and cried . It 's that kind of an album for me . " Pete Townshend of the Who was quoted in the 1960s saying " ' Good Vibrations ' was probably a good record but who 's to know ? You had to play it about 90 bloody times to even hear what they were singing about , " and feared that the single would lead to a trend of overproduction . In an Arts Magazine issue published in 1966 , Jonathan King said : " With justification , comments are being passed that ' Good Vibrations ' is an inhuman work of art . Computerized pop , mechanized music . Take a machine , feed in various musical instruments , add a catch phrase , stir well , and press seven buttons . It is long and split . ... impressive , fantastic , commercial — yes . Emotional , soul @-@ destroying , shattering — no . " In the 2000s , record producer Phil Spector criticized the single for depending too much on tape manipulation , negatively referring to it as an " edit record ... It 's like Psycho is a great film , but it 's an ' edit film . ' Without edits , it 's not a film ; with edits , it 's a great film . But it 's not Rebecca ... it 's not a beautiful story . "
= = Influence and legacy = =
Virtually every pop music critic recognizes " Good Vibrations " as one of the most important compositions and recordings of the entire rock era , and it is regularly hailed as one of the finest pop productions of all time . To the counterculture of the 1960s , it served as an anthem . The A.V. Club theorized that the song helped turn around the perception of Pet Sounds ; that the " un @-@ hip orchestrations and pervasive sadness baffled some longtime fans , who didn 't immediately get what Wilson was trying to do . " Encouraged by the success of the song , Brian continued working on the Smile project , intending it as an entire album using the writing and production techniques devised for " Good Vibrations " . " Heroes and Villains " , a follow @-@ up single , continued Brian 's modular recording practices , spanning nearly thirty recording sessions between May 1966 and June 1967 .
= = = Advancements = = =
= = = = Recording and popular music = = = =
" Good Vibrations " is acknowledged to have further developed the use of recording studios as a musical instrument . Author Domenic Priore noted that the song 's making was " unlike anything previous in the realms of classical , jazz , international , soundtrack , or any other kind of recording " . A milestone in the development of rock music , it was a prime proponent in revolutionizing rock music from live concert performances to studio productions which could only exist on record . Musicologist Charlie Gillett called it " one of the first records to flaunt studio production as a quality in its own right , rather than as a means of presenting a performance " . In a 1968 editorial for Jazz & Pop , Gene Sculatti predicted :
" Good Vibrations " may yet prove to be the most significantly revolutionary piece of the current rock renaissance ; executed as it is in conventional Beach Boys manner , it is one of the few organically complete rock works ; every audible note and every silence contributes to the whole three minutes , 35 seconds , of the song . It is the ultimate in @-@ studio production trip , very much rock ' n ' roll in the emotional sense and yet un @-@ rocklike in its spacial , [ sic ] dimensional conceptions . In no minor way , " Good Vibrations " is a primary influential piece for all producing rock artists ; everyone has felt its import to some degree , in such disparate things as the Yellow Balloon 's " Yellow Balloon " and the Beatles ' " A Day in the Life " , in groups as far apart as ( recent ) Grateful Dead and the Association , as Van Dyke Parks and the Who .
Popmatters wrote : " ' Good Vibrations ' changed the way a pop record could be made , the way a pop record could sound , and the lyrics a pop record could have . " It contained previously untried mixes of instruments , and was the first pop hit to have cellos in a juddering rhythm . Microtonal composer Frank Oteri agreed that it " sounds like no other pop song recorded up to that point " . Stebbins reflected that : " This signature sound would be duplicated , cloned , commercialized , and re @-@ fabricated in songs , commercials , TV shows , movies , and elevators to the point of completely diluting the genius of the original . But ' Good Vibrations ' was probably the quintessential ' sunshine pop ' recording of the century . " He added that the single " vaulted nearly every other rock act in their delivery of a Flower Power classic . It was just strange enough to be taken seriously , but still vibrant , happy , accessibly Beach Boys @-@ esque pop . " John Bush wrote that the single " announced the coming era of pop experimentation with a rush of riff changes , echo @-@ chamber effects , and intricate harmonies . " Gillett noted : " For the rest of the sixties , countless musicians and groups attempted to represent an equivalently blissful state , but none of them ever applied the intense discipline and concentration that Wilson had devoted to the recording . "
Priore argued that the song served as a forerunner to later works such as Marvin Gaye 's What 's Going On ( 1971 ) and Isaac Hayes ' Shaft ( 1971 ) which presented soul music in a similar , multi @-@ textured context imbued with ethereal sonic landscapes . Tom Roland believed that the song 's " format " would later be " borrowed " by Wings ( " Band on the Run " ) , the Beatles ( " A Day in the Life " ) , and Elton John ( " Funeral for a Friend / Love Lies Bleeding " ) . The song 's approach was repeated in Queen 's 1975 single " Bohemian Rhapsody " , which was also pieced together using various different sections . Upon release , Wilson praised Queen 's effort , calling it " the most competitive thing that 's come along in ages " and " a fulfillment and an answer to a teenage prayer — of artistic music " .
= = = = Psychedelic and progressive rock = = = =
With " Good Vibrations " , the Beach Boys ended 1966 as the only band besides the Beatles to have a high @-@ charting psychedelic rock song , a time when the genre was still in its formative stages . Barney Hoskyns proclaimed it the " ultimate psychedelic pop record " from Los Angeles in its time . Popmatters added : " Its influence on the ensuing psychedelic and progressive rock movements can ’ t be overstated , but its legacy as a pop hit is impressive as well . " Former Atlantic Records executive Phillip Rauls is quoted saying , " I was in the music business at the time , and my very first recognition of acid rock — we didn 't call it progressive rock then — was , of all people , the Beach Boys and the song ' Good Vibrations ' . ... That [ theremin ] sent so many musicians back to the studio to create this music on acid . " Author Bill Martin suggested that the Beach Boys were clearing a pathway toward the development of progressive rock , writing : " The fact is , the same reasons why much progressive rock is difficult to dance to apply just as much to ' Good Vibrations ' and ' A Day in the Life ' . "
= = = = Use of theremin = = = =
Even though the song does not technically contain a theremin , " Good Vibrations " is the most frequently cited example of the instrument in pop music . Upon release , the single prompted an unexpected revival in theremins and increased the awareness of analog synthesizers .
When the Beach Boys needed to reproduce its sound onstage , Wilson first requested that Tanner play the Electro @-@ Theremin live with the group , but he declined due to commitments . He recalls saying to Wilson , " I 've got the wrong sort of hair to be on stage with you fellas , " to which Wilson replied , " We 'll give you a Prince Valiant wig . " The Beach Boys then requested the services of Walter Sear , who then asked Bob Moog to design a ribbon controller , since the group was used to playing the fretboards of a guitar . Sears remembers marking fretboard @-@ like lines on the ribbon " so they could play the damn thing " . Moog then set out to manufacture his own models of theremins . He ultimately noted : " The pop record scene cleaned us out of our stock which we expected to last through Christmas . "
In Steven M. Martin 's 1993 documentary Theremin : An Electronic Odyssey , in which Wilson makes an appearance , it was revealed that the attention being paid to the theremin after the release of " Good Vibrations " caused Russian authorities to exile the inventor Leon Theremin .
= = = Cover versions = = =
The song has been covered by a range of artists including Groove Holmes , the Troggs , Charlie McCoy , and Psychic TV . John Bush argued " ' Good Vibrations ' was rarely reprised by other acts , even during the cover @-@ happy ' 60s . Its fragmented style made it essentially cover @-@ proof . " In 1976 , a nearly identical cover version was released as a single by Todd Rundgren for his album Faithful . When asked for an opinion , Brian responded : " Oh , he did a marvelous job , he did a great job . I was very proud of his version . " The single peaked at 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 Pop Singles . Rundgren explained : " I used to like the sound of the Beach Boys , but it wasn 't until they began to compete with the Beatles that I felt that what they were doing was really interesting – like around Pet Sounds and " Good Vibrations " ... when they started to shed that whole surf music kind of burden and start to branch out into something that was a little more universal . ... I tried to do [ the song ] as literally as I could because in the intervening 10 years , radio had changed so much . Radio had become so formatted and so structured that that whole experience was already gone . "
In 2004 , Wilson rerecorded the song as a solo artist for his album Brian Wilson Presents Smile . It was placed as the album 's closer , immediately following the track " In Blue Hawaii " . It is the only track on the album that eschewed the modular recording method . Its verses and chorus were recorded as part of one whole take , and were not spliced .
= = = In popular culture = = =
In 1996 , experimental rock group His Name Is Alive recorded an homage entitled " Universal Frequencies " on their album Stars on E.S.P .. Reportedly , Warren Defever listened to " Good Vibrations " repeatedly for one week before deciding that the song " needed a sequel , " explaining that : " ' Good Vibrations ' is one of the first pop hits where you can actually hear the tape edits and I think that 's wonderful . " " Good Vibrations " inspired the title of French duo Air 's fifth LP : Pocket Symphony , released in 2007 . The song 's lyrics " I 'm picking up good vibrations " are quoted in Cyndi Lauper 's 1984 single " She Bop " .
= = Release history = =
Smiley Smile marks " Good Vibrations " ' s first album appearance , with no differences from the single version . Both Good Vibrations : Thirty Years of The Beach Boys ( 1993 ) and The Smile Sessions ( 2011 ) box sets contain extracts and highlights from the song 's extensive recording sessions . In early 2011 , the single was remastered and reissued as a four @-@ sided 78 rpm vinyl for Record Store Day as a teaser to the forthcoming The Smile Sessions box set . It contained " Heroes and Villains " as a B @-@ side along with previously released alternate takes and mixes . It was the first single issued by the group since " I Just Wasn 't Made for These Times " in 1996 .
Live versions appear on Live in London ( 1970 ) , Endless Harmony Soundtrack ( 1998 ) , Hawthorne , CA ( 2001 ) , and Good Timin ' : Live at Knebworth England 1980 ( 2002 ) .
= = = Stereo version = = =
There had never been an official true stereo release of the final track until the 2012 remastered version of Smiley Smile due to the loss of the original multi @-@ track tape . The 2012 stereo mix was made possible by newly invented digital technology by Derry Fitzgerald , with the blessings of Brian Wilson and Mark Linett . This software extracted individual instrumental and vocal stems from the original mono master — as the multi @-@ track vocals remained missing — to construct the stereo version that appears on the 2012 re @-@ issue of Smiley Smile .
= = = 40th Anniversary Edition = = =
In celebration of its 40th year , the Good Vibrations : 40th Anniversary Edition EP was released . The EP includes " Good Vibrations " , four alternate versions of the song , and the stereo mix of " Let 's Go Away for Awhile " .
= = Awards and accolades = =
In 2004 , Rolling Stone magazine ranked " Good Vibrations " at number 6 in " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , the highest position of seven Beach Boys songs cited in the list . In 2001 , the song was voted number 24 in the RIAA and NEA 's listing of Songs of the Century . As of 2014 , " Good Vibrations " is ranked as the number three song of all time in an aggregation of critics ' lists at Acclaimed Music .
= = Personnel = =
The following people are identified as players on the " Good Vibrations " single .
The Beach Boys
Mike Love – co @-@ lead vocals
Brian Wilson – vocals , production , mixing
Carl Wilson – lead vocals
Dennis Wilson – Hammond organ during 2 : 14 – 2 : 56
Additional musicians and production staff
Hal Blaine – drums , timpani , other percussion
Al De Lory – piano , harpsichord
Jesse Ehrlich – cello
Larry Knechtel – organ in verses and choruses
Tommy Morgan – harmonica
Ray Pohlman – electric bass
Paul Tanner – Electro @-@ Theremin
Bassist Carol Kaye played on several of the " Good Vibrations " sessions , and has been identified as a prominent contributor to the track . However , analysis by Beach Boys archivist Craig Slowinski indicates that none of those recordings made the final edit as released on the single .
= = Sessionography = =
Session dates , track distinctions , studios , and notes adapted from Andrew Doe .
= = Chart positions = =
= HMS Pomone ( 1897 ) =
HMS Pomone was a Pelorus @-@ class protected cruiser built for the Royal Navy in the late 1890s . The ship 's boilers were so troublesome that she was decommissioned in 1904 after only a single foreign deployment . She was hulked in 1910 and served as a stationary training ship until 1922 when she was sold for scrap .
= = Design and description = =
These " third @-@ class " cruisers were designed by Sir William White . They were designed for colonial service rather than support of the main fleet . This class served as testbeds for a variety of water @-@ tube boiler designs and those used by Pomone were so unsatisfactory that the ship was decommissioned after only five years of service .
HMS Pomone displaced 2 @,@ 135 long tons ( 2 @,@ 169 t ) , with an overall length of 313 feet 6 inches ( 95 @.@ 6 m ) , a beam of 36 feet 6 inches ( 11 @.@ 1 m ) and a draft of 16 feet ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) . She was powered by two inverted 3 @-@ cylinder vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines , each driving one propeller shaft . Steam was supplied by 16 coal @-@ fired Blechynden water @-@ tube boilers . The engines were intended to develop a maximum of 7 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 200 kW ) under forced draft , but developed a total of 7 @,@ 340 indicated horsepower ( 5 @,@ 470 kW ) during her sea trials and gave a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 8 knots ( 38 @.@ 5 km / h ; 23 @.@ 9 mph ) . The ship had a crew of 224 officers and men .
Pomone was armed with eight single QF 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) guns , eight QF 3 @-@ pounder guns , three machine guns , and two 18 @-@ inch ( 457 mm ) torpedo tubes . Her protective deck ranged from 1 @.@ 5 to 2 inches ( 38 to 51 mm ) in thickness
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Very Long
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and the ship had a conning tower with walls 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick . The four @-@ inch guns were protected by gun shields 0 @.@ 25 inches ( 6 @.@ 4 mm ) thick .
= = Service = =
HMS Pomone was laid down at Sheerness Dockyard on 21 December 1896 , launched on 25 November 1897 , and completed in May 1899 . The ship only served a single commission , with the East Indies Squadron and suffered from continuous boiler problems . In January 1902 she was stationed in the Persian Gulf to protect British interests there , and especially in Kuwait . Commander Harry Jones was appointed in command in late March 1902 . In November and December 1903 , Pomone and three other cruisers escorted Lord Curzon 's tour of the Middle East . Her Blechynden boilers were so unreliable that she was removed from the effective list in October 1904 when Admiral Lord Fisher started disposing of ineffective ships upon becoming First Sea Lord . She was laid @-@ up pending a decision on her final disposal . Pomone was disarmed and hulked on 5 January 1910 as a stationary training ship for engineers at the Royal Naval College , Dartmouth . She was sold for scrap on 25 October 1922 to J. H. Lee of Dover .
= Gravity the Seducer =
Gravity the Seducer is the fifth studio album by electronic music band Ladytron . The album was released by Nettwerk in the United Kingdom on 12 September 2011 and in the United States , a day later . Recorded in Kent , England , the album has been described as " haunted , evocative , romantic " , and having " a feminine warmth " .
Three singles have been released from the album , " White Elephant " , " Ambulances " and " Mirage " . The song " Ace of Hz " had previously been released as a single from the greatest hits album Best of 00 – 10 before appearing on Gravity the Seducer . Release of the album coincided with a tour across Canada and the United States .
Gravity the Seducer earned generally positive reviews and reached number seventy @-@ two on the UK Albums Chart , the group 's highest @-@ peaking album in their home country as of September 2012 .
= = Production = =
Gravity the Seducer was Ladytron 's second studio album produced for record label Nettwerk , with whom they signed in 2007 . Their first release through the Nettwork label was the 2008 studio album Velocifero , followed in March 2011 by the greatest hits album Best of 00 – 10 . Ladytron also self @-@ released the live album , Live at London Astoria 16 @.@ 07 @.@ 08 in 2009 .
Gravity the Seducer was recorded in Kent , England , and was co @-@ produced by Barny Barnicott , who had previously collaborated with Arctic Monkeys and Editors. as well has having worked on Ladytron 's 2005 album Witching Hour . The band felt that the production of the album was different from that of Velocifero , with band member Daniel Hunt noting that the latter record had been " made with performance in mind " , as the band had recently finished touring when it was produced . Gravity the Seducer was produced " while removed from that thinking " .
In an interview with Rolling Stone magazine , singer Helen Marnie described the album as " the warmest , most emotional , thing we 've ever done " . The vocal parts on the album have been mixed at a lower volume than previous Ladytron albums , while four tracks are entirely instrumental . The title Gravity the Seducer is taken from a line in the song " Ninety Degrees " , which Hunt has described as " expanding our creative horizons " . The cover artwork , designed by Neil Krug , has been described as an " endless vista " thematically linked the music 's " vast atmospheres " , and has been compared to the works of design group Hipgnosis .
= = Release = =
Gravity the Seducer was released on 12 September 2011 in the United Kingdom , and the following day in the United States . The album 's release coincided with a number of tour dates in Canada and the United States throughout September and October . During the album 's active promotion in 2011 , Ladytron also toured in Mexico , Brazil , Chile , Thailand , Indonesia , and Singapore .
= = = Singles = = =
" Ace of Hz " , the fourth song from Gravity the Seducer , also appeared on band 's greatest hits compilation Best of 00 – 10 and on their Ace of Hz EP . " Ace of Hz " had been released as a single on 30 November 2010 . The song was also included in the video game FIFA 11 . " White Elephant " was officially released as the lead single from Gravity the Seducer on 17 May 2011 .
For further promotion , the songs " Ambulances " and " Mirage " were released as digital downloads on 21 June and 9 August , respectively . The video for " Mirage " was filmed at the Callanish Stones , a five @-@ thousand @-@ year @-@ old stone circle near the Scottish village of Callanish . The video was co @-@ directed by Michael Sherrington and Daniel Hunt .
= = Critical reception = =
Gravity the Seducer was met with generally positive reviews from critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalised rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 68 , based on 20 reviews , which indicates " generally favorable reviews " .
Heather Phares , writing for Allmusic , rated the album three @-@ and @-@ half stars out of five , describing it as " an admirable artistic choice , even though it doesn ’ t always pay off " . Phares felt that Gravity the Seducer was " more focused " than the band 's previous album Velocifero , but was " not as accessible " as that record . The A.V. Club 's Christopher Bahn gave the album a B- rating , calling it " heart @-@ on @-@ sleeve and icily detached at the same time " ; however , Bahn felt that " the lack of a propulsive single ... as well as an overabundance of instrumentals , suggests a band that ’ s spinning its wheels " .
Chris Todd of Clash magazine scored Gravity the Seducer nine out of ten , describing the album as having " a feminine warmth " compared to the band 's earlier work . Todd felt that the album added " a new found spaciousness to [ the band 's ] sound " , and described the tracks " Mirage " , " Ritual " and " White Gold " as being " three of Ladytron ’ s finest songs " .
The Independent 's Simon Price described the album as " faultless " , noting that it represented the band " at their most electronically pure " . Price found the song " Transparent Days " to be a highlight , and added that the album makes " the world feel a more haunted , evocative , romantic place " . NME 's Jamie Crossan rated Gravity the Seducer seven out of ten , finding it to be " nothing new " , but feeling that the album 's content is more of what " the band have always excelled " at . Crossan also singled out the song " Moon Palace " as a highlight of the album .
Larry Fitzmaurice of Pitchfork Media gave the album a score of six out of ten , describing it as " upsettingly uneven " . Fitzmaurice felt that Gravity the Seducer represented a transition away from the sound of band 's earlier work , which he felt was still evident in " Ace of Hz " and " Mirage " , towards a " floatier , airy feel " . Drowned in Sound 's John Calvert gave the album a rating of five out of ten , finding it to be " slightly bland " and " nondescript in its understated sophistication " . Calvert felt that the album 's overall direction was " well realised " , but ultimately found that " Gravity the Seducer never manages to get under your skin the way the band intended " .
Slant Magazine 's Eric Henderson rated the album three stars out of five , describing it as " uniformly sleek [ and ] polished like a summer skyline " . Henderson also compared Gravity the Seducer to the soundtrack to the 2011 film Drive , and praised singer Helen Marnie 's " lightly lilting " vocals . However , he felt that the similarity between several songs — including " Mirage " , " Ace of Hz " and " Ritual " , all written in the key of D minor — left the album feeling " almost barren " .
Michael Hann , writing for The Guardian , rated the album three stars out of five , finding it did not measure up to the band 's earlier work , picking out their earlier single " Destroy Everything You Touch " as a yardstick " that subsequent work will always be judged against " . Hann found that some of Gravity the Seducer 's tracks , particularly " Ritual " , seemed " unfinished and unsatisfactory " . Spin magazine 's Barry Walters rated the album six out of ten , finding that it " lacks the infectious , dark @-@ disco rumble " of Ladytron 's earlier work , noting that it " withhold [ s ] the hooks that previously put the sweet in their bitter " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the band 's home country , the United Kingdom , Gravity the Seducer peaked at number 72 on the UK Albums Chart , spending one week on the chart . This was the band 's highest position on the chart , as their only other charting album was Velocifero , which reached number 75 .
The album 's highest chart position was on the United States ' Heatseekers Albums chart , where it peaked at number two . The album reached 112 on the Billboard 200 , as well as number 27 on the Billboard Independent Albums chart and number six on the Dance / Electronic Albums chart .
Gravity the Seducer reached number 50 on the Finnish Albums Chart , spending one week on the chart ; number 90 in the Canadian Albums Chart ; and number four on the Belgian Heatseekers Albums Chart , spending a week on that chart .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written and composed by Ladytron .
= = Gravity the Seducer ( Remixed ) = =
On 29 November 2013 , Ladytron released the remix album Gravity the Seducer ( Remixed ) , a collection of remixes of Gravity the Seducer songs . They also will release an exclusive limited @-@ edition blue vinyl of this remix album on Record Store Day special Black Friday .
= = Personnel = =
Credits adapted from Gravity the Seducer album liner notes .
Ladytron – production
Daniel Hunt – production
Barny Barnicott – additional production , engineering , mixing
Alessandro Cortini – additional production
Neil Krug – artwork
Trevor Tarczynski – design
Tim Husom – management
= = Charts = =
= Music of Final Fantasy XIII =
The music of the video game Final Fantasy XIII was composed by Masashi Hamauzu . Former regular series composer Nobuo Uematsu did not contribute any pieces to the soundtrack . Music from the game has been released in several albums . The main soundtrack album , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack , was released on four Compact Discs in 2010 by Square Enix , the developers and producers of the game . Selections from the soundtrack have been released on two gramophone record albums , W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII and W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII Gentle Reveries , both in 2010 by Square Enix . An album of arranged pieces from the soundtrack , Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack -PLUS- , was also released by Square Enix in 2010 , as was an album of piano arrangements , Piano Collection Final Fantasy XIII . The theme song for the Japanese version of the game , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " ( 君がいるから , " Because You 're Here " ) , was released as a single by For Life Music in 2009 .
The soundtrack received good reviews from critics , who felt that it was Hamauzu 's best work to date and an excellent mix of material and genres which took the series ' music in a new direction . The " Plus " album received weaker reviews , primarily due to its perceived lack of tracks that were significantly different from those in the original soundtrack album , while " Kimi ga Iru Kara " was considered bland and disappointing . The " Piano " album 's reception was split between critics who felt that the tracks did not deviate enough from the original pieces and those who felt that the straightforward arrangements were sophisticated . Music from the game was played at a live orchestral concert in Stockholm , Sweden , and was added to the permanent rotation of the international Distant Worlds concert series , while tracks from the piano album have been played in concerts in Japan and Paris .
= = Creation and influence = =
Masashi Hamauzu composed the game 's soundtrack . His previous work on the series was as a co @-@ composer for Final Fantasy X and as the main composer for Dirge of Cerberus : Final Fantasy VII . The game was the first main @-@ series Final Fantasy game not to include any compositions by original series composer Nobuo Uematsu ; although he was originally announced to compose the main theme of the game , this role was taken over by Hamauzu after Uematsu signed on to compose the soundtrack to Final Fantasy XIV . Game producer Yoshinori Kitase chose Hamauzu because he felt that Hamauzu would be the best for the job as he was composing an orchestral @-@ based soundtrack then for Dirge of Cerberus and the Final Fantasy XIII team wanted that style for the game . Hamauzu described the soundtrack in the liner notes for the soundtrack album as comprising multiple genres of music so that the player would not get tired of it , while also using several motifs so as to tie the varying pieces together ; particularly in grouping the themes from the Cocoon and Pulse areas in the game . He tried to match each piece and theme to his sense of the narrative and characters involved in the scenes that they would be played in , and feels that being the sole composer for the project allowed him to ensure that the overall direction of the soundtrack was consistent .
Besides some pieces he did for promotional events in 2006 and 2007 , Hamauzu began composing the soundtrack in Autumn 2008 and finished it around one year later . When he began the bulk of the composition , he started by composing the motifs he wanted to use , rather than any particular piece . The first track that he composed was " Blinded by Light " , as one of the promotional pieces ; it was based on the director Motomu Toriyama 's vision of the game as a mixture of fantasy and near @-@ future , as the storyline for the game had not yet been finalized . As the game was intended to be a conscious departure from the staples of previous Final Fantasy games , Hamauzu was not constrained in keeping the music in line with previous soundtracks from the series . Despite this , he did not compose the music specifically to " break from the series ' past " , but rather focused it on the game as it was presented .
The score features some recordings by the Warsaw Philharmonic Orchestra , arranged by Yoshihisa Hirano , Toshiyuki Oomori and Kunihito Shiina . Hamauzu had previously worked with the orchestra on his album Vielen Dank , released in 2007 . Four songs in the soundtrack include vocals by Mina Sakai , an artist whom Hamauzu works as a producer for . Two of the songs are in English rather than Japanese , and " The Gapra Whitewood " was intended to be as well , but during practice Sakai and Hamauzu changed it to use a fictitious language as they felt her focus on pronouncing the English words was detracting from the melody . The two English tracks were re @-@ recorded for the English version of the game , as the localization team felt that they did not sound natural to native speakers . On three of the pieces from the soundtrack : " Sazh 's Theme , " " Daddy 's Got the Blues " , and " Can 't Catch a Break " , described as jazzy pieces related to the character Sazh , Hamauzu 's compositions were arranged by Toru Tabei , a friend of his , who Hamauzu describes as being more familiar with that style of music .
The theme song for the international version of the game is " My Hands " , from British singer Leona Lewis ' second album Echo ; it was chosen to replace Final Fantasy XIII 's original theme song from the Japanese version , " Kimi ga Iru Kara " by Sayuri Sugawara . Square Enix President Yoichi Wada has stated that it would have been better if the American branch of the company had produced a theme song from scratch , but the lack of staff led to the decision of licensing an existing song instead . Hamauzu , who composed the music for " Kimi ga Iru Kara " , only met Sugawara once , and was not involved in producing the vocal song . He was not involved in the decision to use " My Hands " for the international version .
= = Soundtrack = =
Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack is the soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XIII , containing all of the musical tracks from the game , and was composed and produced by Masashi Hamauzu . The soundtrack spans four discs and 85 tracks , covering a duration of 4 : 04 : 06 . It was released on January 27 , 2010 in Japan by Square Enix , bearing the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10183 ~ 6 . The limited edition of the soundtrack included a bonus disc containing a radio drama written by novelist Jun Eishima . The radio drama does not include any music not already in the album . The album sold 16 @,@ 000 copies the day of its release . It reached # 3 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for nine weeks . The soundtrack incorporates both orchestral and electronic music , sometimes within the same track . Almost two dozen of the tracks include vocal performances to some degree , the most of any Final Fantasy soundtrack to date . It does not include many of the mainstay tracks from previous games in the series such as Uematsu 's " Prelude " and " Main Theme " , and its variation on his " Chocobo " , the only repeat track , is so different as to not credit him as the original composer in the album .
In addition to the full soundtrack CD release , two vinyl record albums have been released by Square Enix , each including a selection of songs from the full soundtrack . The first of these , W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII , was released on February 26 , 2010 , while the second , W / F ： Music from Final Fantasy XIII Gentle Reveries , was released on June 30 , 2010 . W / F : Music from Final Fantasy XIII is the first vinyl record that Square Enix has ever released . Each album contains eight tracks , four per side . The first album has a total length of 32 : 06 and a catalog number of SE @-@ M0001 , while the second has the catalog number SE @-@ M0002 .
The album received good reviews from critics . Patrick Gann of RPGFan called it an " excellent soundtrack " that exceeded his expectations . He applauded Hamauzu 's use of motifs and repetition of melodies across different tracks for tying together a widely disparate collection of material , and called the mix of orchestral and electronic pieces as " incredible " . He concluded that the work represents Hamauzu 's " masterpiece " , though some of the tracks do not fit well outside of the context of the scene in the game they represent . Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online similarly approved of the soundtrack , also highlighting the repetition of themes as well done . He particularly called out the variance of musical styles used in different tracks , from the " jazz fusion " of " Pulse de Chocobo " to the rock music of " Snow 's Theme " . The bonus drama CD was critiqued by Gann as " fun for bonus content " if the listener understood Japanese and as having high production values for a drama CD , but he noted that it did not add any real information to the story of the game .
Track list
Literal translation of the original titles appear in ( parenthesis ) if different
= = Soundtrack Plus = =
Final Fantasy XIII Original Soundtrack PLUS is a soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XIII , containing a selection of arrangements of musical tracks from the game . It was composed and produced by Masashi Hamauzu , and arranged by Hamauzu , Ryo Yamazaki , Mitsuto Suzuki , Toshiyuki Oomori , and Yoshihisa Hirano . The single @-@ disc soundtrack contains 16 tracks , covering a duration of 50 : 10 . It was released on May 26 , 2010 in Japan by Square Enix , bearing the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10192 . Only tracks 5 , 9 , and 15 are pieces actually used in the game but not included in the original album . The tracks in the album include pieces made for early previews of the game , modified versions of songs used in the international version of the game rather than the Japanese version that the original soundtrack album was based on , and early versions or arrangements of pieces that were not used in the game — for example , " Hope _ PfNer3 " uses a piano while Hamauzu ended up using a guitar for the final piece .
For the unused versions of songs included in this album , Hamauzu re @-@ recorded and produced them to match the quality of the songs that were eventually used in the original soundtrack . The numbers following the " M " in the title of some pieces refer to the version number of the track , which Hamauzu used to keep track of changes made to pieces during their development , occasionally incrementing them by hundreds for major changes . Hamauzu came up with the idea for the album originally because he wanted to release the English version of " Pulse de Chocobo " as a downloadable song ; when he started adding in promotional tracks and alternative @-@ version tracks he found that he had enough material to release as a full album . Several of the alternate version tracks appeared in the game during specific scenes , or were cut towards the end of development . Hamauzu feels that the album represents how large of an undertaking the Final Fantasy XIII project was , in that even the outtakes were enough to fill an album .
The album reached # 70 on the Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for two weeks . It received a lukewarm review from Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who said that while the music included was " beautiful " and a few specific tracks were " pretty cool " , " anyone hoping for a proper arrangement of this music will be sorely disappointed " . He claimed that there was not much difference between many of the alternate versions of songs and their final versions in the original soundtrack , which meant that in his opinion owners of the original soundtrack would not get much out of the " Plus " album . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version gave a similar review for the album ; he felt that while it included several interesting pieces that could not be found elsewhere , it was in his opinion more of a collector 's item than a stand @-@ alone album and likely not worth the cost for most listeners .
= = Piano Collections = =
Piano Collections Final Fantasy XIII is a soundtrack album of Final Fantasy XIII , containing a selection of piano arrangements of musical tracks from the game . It was composed and arranged by Masashi Hamauzu , and the pieces were performed by Aki Kuroda . Hamauzu and Kuroda had previously worked together when Hamauzu arranged the Final Fantasy X piano soundtrack album , and this previous collaboration made it easy for the two to work together . Hamauzu intended the arrangements to " stay away from recording the same music " on the piano . Though he noted that many of the tracks are similar to the originals , he wanted to " bring out subtle properties of the in @-@ game melodies and making them more distinct , " rather than greatly change the songs . The single @-@ disc soundtrack contains 10 tracks , covering a duration of 45 : 09 . It was released on July 21 , 2010 in Japan by Square Enix , bearing the catalog number SQEX @-@ 10196 .
Chris Greening of Square Enix Music Online reviewed the album as " a sophisticated piano collection " that was enjoyable to listen to , though he noted that the arrangements were " straightforward " rather than ambitious . Jayson Napolitano of Original Sound Version gave a similar review for the album ; he felt that it was an amazing album that , while not as technically difficult or different enough from the source material for some listeners , was still very beautiful and well @-@ arranged . Gann of RPGFan , however , felt disappointed by the album , calling the arrangements " soul @-@ less " and full of " needless grandiosity " . He concluded that the original pieces were too rich and complex to translate well to solo piano arrangements , which left the works without substance as they did not deviate enough from the source material .
= = " Kimi ga Iru Kara " = =
" Kimi ga Iru Kara " ( 君がいるから , Because You 're Here ) is the theme song of the Japanese version of Final Fantasy XIII . Sung by Sayuri Sugawara , it was composed by Masashi Hamauzu and had its lyrics written by Sugawara and Nakajima Yukino . The English version of the game used a song by Leona Lewis , " My Hands " , which was not specially written for the game like the Japanese song . " Kimi ga Iru Kara " was released as a single on December 2 , 2009 by For Life Music , and included in addition to the piece five other tracks . These tracks are " Eternal Love " , another song written for Final Fantasy XIII , and " Christmas Again " , a J @-@ Pop song by Sugawara that incorporates some music from 19th @-@ century composer Franz Liszt . The last three tracks are instrumental versions of these three songs . The single has a length of 30 : 04 , and has the catalog number of FLCF @-@ 4311 . A special edition of the single includes a bonus DVD , containing a seven @-@ minute video of a compilation of promotional videos for the game .
" Kimi ga Iru Kara " reached # 11 on the Japanese Oricon charts , and remained on the charts for 11 weeks . The single received generally unfavourable reviews from video game music critics . Gann of RPGFan called it " vanilla " and said that the single , especially the headline track , was over @-@ produced and uninteresting . While he did not mind " Eternal Love " as much , he still felt that the CD was his least favorite Final Fantasy theme single . Square Enix Music Online had similar opinions of the release , calling it " bland " . They felt that while " Kimi ga Iru Kara " was better than " My Hands " , and " Eternal Love " better still , the single was disappointing both in the context of Final Fantasy singles and of Sugawara 's previous discography .
= = Legacy = =
Final Fantasy XIII won the 2010 Soundtrack of the Year Golden Joystick Award . Music from Final Fantasy XIII was performed live in concert at the Distant Worlds II - More Music from Final Fantasy concert in Stockholm , Sweden by the Royal Stockholm Philharmonic Orchestra on June 12 , 2010 . The concert is part of the Distant Worlds concert series , the latest of several Final Fantasy concert series , and the tracks from Final Fantasy XIII , " The Promise " and " Fang 's Theme " , have been added to the series ' permanent rotation . The official album for the concert does not include those two tracks . The full Piano Collections Final Fantasy XIII album was played at a concert by Aki Kuroda in Osaka on October 29 , 2010 and in Yokohama on September 3 , 2010 , and selections were played in a concert of Hamauzu 's work in Paris on April 22 , 2011 .
A book of piano sheet music arrangements from the original soundtrack has been arranged for the piano and published by DOREMI Music Publishing . All songs in each book have been rewritten by Asako Niwa as beginning to intermediate level piano solos , though they are meant to sound as much like the originals as possible . The actual piano sheet music from the Final Fantasy XIII Piano Collection album has been published as a corresponding music book by Yamaha Music Media . Yamaha has additionally published its own sheet music book for piano arrangements from the original soundtrack , as well as a book of piano and vocal sheet music for the vocal tracks on the original soundtrack .
= Stanley Marcus =
Harold Stanley Marcus ( April 20 , 1905 – January 22 , 2002 ) was an early president ( 1950 – 1972 ) and later chairman of the board ( 1972 – 1976 ) of the luxury retailer Neiman Marcus in Dallas , Texas , which his father and aunt had founded in 1907 . During his tenure at the company , he also became a published author , writing his memoir Minding the Store and also a regular column in The Dallas Morning News . After Neiman Marcus was sold to Carter Hawley Hale Stores , Marcus initially remained in an advisory capacity to that company , but later began his own consulting business , which continued until his death . He served his local community as an avid patron of the fine arts and as a civic leader . In a chapter titled " Mr. Stanley " — the name by which Marcus was known locally for decades — in his 1953 work Neiman @-@ Marcus , Texas , Frank X. Tolbert called him " Dallas ' most internationally famous citizen " and worthy of being called " the Southwest 's No. 1 businessman @-@ intellectual . "
Marcus introduced many of the innovations for which Neiman @-@ Marcus became known , creating a national award for service in fashion and hosting art exhibitions in the store itself , as well as weekly fashion shows and an annual Fortnight event highlighting a different foreign country for two weeks each year . He established the Neiman @-@ Marcus Christmas Catalogue , which became famous for extravagant " His and Hers " gifts such as airplanes and camels . Marcus prided himself on his staff 's ability to provide service and value for each client , often citing his father 's dictum , " There is never a good sale for Neiman Marcus unless it 's a good buy for the customer . "
He received the Chevalier Award from the French Legion of Honor , was listed in the Houston Chronicle 's list of the 100 most important Texans , and was named by Harvard Business School among the greatest American Business Leaders of the 20th century . The Advertising Hall of Fame notes : " Stanley Marcus was among the most important figures in the history of American retail merchandising and marketing . Through his many innovations , he transformed a local Dallas clothing store into an international brand synonymous with high style , fashion and gracious service . "
= = Personal life and retail career = =
Marcus was born in The Cedars , Dallas , Texas , the son of Herbert Marcus , Sr. , who later became a co @-@ founder of the original Neiman @-@ Marcus store with his sister Carrie and her husband , Al Neiman . Stanley was the first of four sons born to Herbert , Sr. , and his wife , the former Minnie Lichtenstein . The pregnancy indirectly led to the eventual founding of Neiman @-@ Marcus , as Herbert Sr. decided to leave Sanger 's , where he was a buyer of boys ' clothing , when he deemed his raise insufficient to support a family . Returning from two years spent in Atlanta , Georgia , establishing a successful sales @-@ promotion business , the Marcuses and Neimans used the $ 25 @,@ 000 made in the sale of that business to establish their store at the corner of Elm and Murphy . Given that the family 's other option for the money was to invest in the then @-@ unknown Coca @-@ Cola Company , Marcus loved to say that Neiman @-@ Marcus was established " as a result of the bad judgment of its founders . " In his memoir , Marcus recalled his father as " affectionate " and his mother as even @-@ handed in her attention to each of their children , making sure even into their adulthood to give them equivalent gifts and make sure they were praised equally .
One of Stanley Marcus 's first jobs was as a 10 @-@ year @-@ old salesman of Saturday Evening Post , bringing him into the family 's business tradition from a young age . He attended Forest Avenue High School , where he studied debate as well as English with teacher Myra Brown , whom he later credited with much of his early interest in books . He began his university studies at Amherst College , but when traditions preventing Jews from joining clubs or fraternities drastically curtailed his social life , he transferred to Harvard University after the first year . At his new school , he became a member of the historically Jewish fraternity Zeta Beta Tau , later rising to become the group 's president .
While living in Boston and pursuing his chosen major , English literature , Marcus began a lifelong hobby of collecting rare and antique books . To finance his pursuits , he began The Book Collector 's Service Bureau , a mail @-@ order book service , beginning with a letter of introduction sent to 100 homes . The venture proved so successful that for a time Marcus considered entering that line of work full time , concerned that entering the retail business might curtail his freedom of expression in politics and other areas of interest ; his father persuaded him that he would always be granted the liberty of his own views , and pointed out that retailing was more profitable and thus would allow him to amass a large book collection that much sooner .
= = = Early years at Neiman @-@ Marcus = = =
After receiving a B.A. degree from Harvard in 1925 , he began his career at the retailer that same year as a simple stockboy organizing inventory , but upon beginning in sales , quickly outstripped other sales staff . He went back to study at Harvard Business School in 1926 , leaving after one year to participate in a massive expansion of the retail operation in Dallas .
He married the former Mary " Billie " Cantrell in 1932 ; she initially worked in the Neiman @-@ Marcus Sports Shop department until she retired in 1936 after the birth of their first child , Jerrie , followed two years later by twins Richard and Wendy . ( One year after his wife 's 1978 death , he married Linda Robinson , a longtime librarian at the Dallas Public Library , in a marriage that lasted until Stanley Marcus 's own death in 2002 . ) In 1935 the Marcuses commissioned Frank Lloyd Wright to design a home for them on Nonesuch Road , but rejected the eventual design , which included cantilevered steel beams and terraces swathed in mosquito netting . Instead , the couple chose a design by local firm DeWitt & Washburn , whose creation became a Texas Historic Landmark . As of 1937 , Marcus was one of only 22 Texans to earn a salary of $ 50 @,@ 000 or more , according to the House Ways and Means Committee ; his father , Herbert , was another , earning $ 75 @,@ 000 as company president while vice president Stanley drew an even $ 50 @,@ 000 .
Marcus was responsible for a number of innovations at the Dallas retailer . He created the annual Neiman @-@ Marcus Award for Distinguished Service in Fashion , beginning in 1938 , which led to the Neiman @-@ Marcus Exposition , a fall fashion show held annually from 1938 to 1970 , then periodically thereafter . His department store was the first American haute couture boutique to introduce weekly fashion shows , and the first to host concurrent art exhibitions at the store itself . In 1939 , he established the annual Christmas Catalogue , which in 1951 offered the first of its extravagant " His & Hers Gifts , " starting with a matching pair of vicuña coats , and going on to include matching bathtubs , a pair of Beechcraft airplanes , " Noah 's Ark " ( including pairs of animals ) , camels , and live tigers .
= = = The war years = = =
For all his professional emphasis on glitz and glamour , he made another , very different mark on the American fashion industry when he was asked to join the War Production Board in Washington , D.C. on December 27 , 1941 , less than three weeks after the United States entered World War II . Ineligible for military service due to his age , he instead helped the war effort by championing the conservation of scarce resources normally devoted to fashion trends . He encouraged men to wear drooping socks ( to save much @-@ needed rubber that would normally be used for elastic ) and devised regulations for the manufacture of women 's and children 's clothing that would enable the nation to divert more textile resources to uniforms and other war @-@ related needs :
In addition to these restrictions , Marcus recommended to the WPB that coats , suits , jackets and dresses be sold separately " to make them go further . " The changes were expected to create a total savings of 100 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 yards ( 91 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m ) of fabric to be used in the war effort .
Conscious of the role of the media in fashion promotion , Marcus prompted the members of the National Retail Dry Goods Association to convince their local press outlets to treat women 's fashions as a serious subject rather than as an object of ridicule . He solicited nationally famous women to proclaim their support of the new standards ; TIME 's report on the WPB quoted author Adela Rogers St. Johns predicting , " The overdressed woman will be as unpatriotically conspicuous as though she wore a Japanese kimono . "
Marcus addressed the fashion press in national meetings , encouraging editors to reassure women that stores would carry adequate supply of attractive styles , in order to prevent shoppers from flooding the stores or hoarding stock . TIME reported on meetings of " 70 fantastic hats , " representing the presence of national magazine editors from Ladies ' Home Journal and Harper 's Bazaar , as well as from newspapers in the urban centers of New York , Boston , and Philadelphia , all complying with the WPB 's instructions for their coverage of women 's and children 's fashions .
His work promoting cooperation with the WPB 's mandates did not still Marcus 's competitive instincts . With the fall of Paris , the traditional fashion capital , New York mayor Fiorello LaGuardia began to declare his city the new leader at every opportunity . To this claim , Marcus retorted in the international press , " New York is finished as a manufacturing center . ... They 're making clothes in Kansas , Philadelphia and Texas now and they won 't give it up . The day is gone when only a New York dress is a good dress . "
Faced with increasing shortages in silk and even new synthetics such as rayon , which seemed likely to create long lines of dissatisfied customers seeking a product in inadequate supply , Marcus created the Neiman Marcus Hosiery @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Month Club , which sent two pair of stockings in fashionable shades to each female charge @-@ card customer , with no membership fees . In his memoirs Marcus recalled , " Many women opened charge accounts just to become members of the club , and in a short time we had a membership of over 100 @,@ 000 , extending all over the country . "
= = = Taking the helm = = =
In 1950 , with the death of Herbert Marcus , Sr. , Stanley Marcus was elected president and CEO of the company , with Carrie Marcus Neiman as chairman of the board and other family members like Minnie Lichtenstein Marcus and Lawrence Marcus taking on more responsibilities . Neiman died in 1953 , in which year TIME proclaimed that Stanley Marcus 's " combination of showmanship and salesmanship " had been instrumental in increasing the company 's annual revenue from $ 2 @.@ 6 million in 1926 to $ 20 million .
Marcus began yet another Neiman @-@ Marcus tradition , the " International Fortnight , " in 1957 as a way to attract customers in the lull between the fall fashion rush and the Christmas shopping crunch . The idea was inspired by seeing a store in Stockholm , Sweden , that was having a France @-@ themed sales promotion , leading Marcus to propose to the French government a sponsorship of an even more elaborate event in his own store . The initial Fortnight included concurrent events of art , symphonic music , and film at other locations around Dallas , with an Air France jet bringing " writers , painters , government officials , models , and industry leaders . " In the years following , the Fortnight focused on various other countries and added related food service as well as items from the relevant country in every department , ending in 1986 with the Australian Fortnight . Other international traditions introduced at Neiman 's included Dallas ' first espresso bar , brought by Marcus after World War II .
As a retailer , Marcus believed strongly in making his store into a place where everything a customer needed could be found and , if necessary , brought to the customer 's front door . He was said to have helped one customer discover the shoe size of Queen Elizabeth II so as to give the gift of stockings and a pair of shoes , and he ordered that the store stock such items as a set of Steuben plates with the Mexican national crest , " because sooner or later somebody will be going to call on the President of Mexico and need a proper gift . " He personally delivered a fur coat to a St. Louis , Missouri , customer who could not make the trip to Dallas . Another story often recounted is that of a shopper who , in searching for a present for his wife , said that he was not sure what to buy , but that he would know it when he saw it . In response , Marcus inquired about the woman 's clothing sizes and asked the customer to wait briefly . Taking an oversized brandy snifter from a display , Marcus gathered cashmere sweaters of various colors , arranged them in imitation of a pousse @-@ café , topped with a white angora sweater to simulate whipped cream , and in place of a cherry , garnished the concoction with a 10 @-@ karat ruby ring , at a total cost of $ 25 @,@ 350 , which the customer gladly paid . When one customer decided his Christmas purchases were not sufficiently impressive , Marcus helped to arrange a full duplication of the store 's display window , complete with mannequins and lighting , inside the man 's home .
Despite his love of such larger @-@ than @-@ life salesmanship , Marcus also maintained the assertion of his father , Herbert , that " there is no good sale for Neiman @-@ Marcus unless it is a good buy for the customer . " Stanley Marcus would sometimes persuade the buyer to purchase a lower @-@ priced item that he considered more suitable , as when a man shopping for a mink coat for his 16 @-@ year @-@ old daughter was personally steered by Marcus toward a $ 295 muskrat coat instead , as being more appropriate to her youth . Marcus also routinely insisted customers would be wiser to buy the top quality of a reasonably priced line rather than scaled @-@ down or second @-@ rate versions of an expensive product .
Marcus continued throughout his tenure to hold tightly to his father 's assurance that he would be able to maintain and act on his political convictions while running the business . He supported the United Nations in its early years , an unpopular position in Dallas for that time . In the early 1950s he began to explore the ramifications of ending the store 's participation in the then @-@ common practice of excluding black customers from shopping in the store , and while his legal advisors cautioned against that step , he offered support for any black entrepreneur looking to establish a quality store and , in 1954 , began to hire black staff in some departments .
Moving into the 1960s , Marcus became ever more convinced that his city and his company needed to take action to promote racial equality , both as a moral issue and to reduce the growing civil unrest . In 1968 , he announced that Neiman @-@ Marcus 's buyers would give preference to companies employing and training significant numbers of minority employees , making his firm one of the first companies in the nation to have such a policy .
= = = Civic leadership = = =
The Marcus family had been among the founders of Dallas ' Temple Emanu @-@ El , a Reform synagogue that is today the largest in the Southwest . Stanley Marcus became a leading figure in the temple in the 1950s and a member of the American Council for Judaism despite being largely a secular Jew who once joked that he was afraid to visit Israel " because he might be converted . "
Marcus was well known for cultivating the arts and for defending even unpopular political causes . He introduced art exhibits at Neiman @-@ Marcus as well as providing corporate sponsorship of artwork elsewhere in the city , and cultivated an extensive private collection . He helped found the Dallas Opera , helped save the Dallas Symphony from a financial crisis , and served as chairman of the board for the Dallas Museum of Fine Art ( now the Dallas Museum of Art ) .
While serving as museum chair , Marcus was once called upon by Fred Florence , then chairman of a major local bank and a fellow Temple Emanu @-@ El leader , to explain his inclusion of " a lot of Communist art " he 'd been told would be included in an upcoming DMFA " Sports in Art " exhibit , co @-@ sponsored by Sports Illustrated and United States Information Agency as a fund @-@ raiser for the 1956 Olympic team . Artists represented in the show included four supposed Communist supporters , Leon Kroll , Yasuo Kuniyoshi , Ben Shahn , and William Zorach . Asking Florence to indicate which pieces were being questioned , Marcus dismissed each claim one by one : " I don 't know how anybody could think hitting a baseball was communist , " Marcus said when shown Shahn 's " The National Pastime . " His response to Zorach 's " Fisherman " was similar , as he shook his head and remarked , " I don 't think too many people think fishing is communist either . " Marcus followed up by going to local newspapers The Dallas Morning News and the Dallas Times @-@ Herald and getting the publishers of both to agree that they would not stand for censorship in the arts .
In organizing a 1952 exhibition of abstract art , Marcus lured local leaders to the show by two means . First , he solicited the donation of art from the collections of David Rockefeller and his brothers , along with those from other noted national business leaders . Second , he requested that the donors personally write letters of invitation to their Dallas colleagues , feeling that the otherwise suspect art would benefit from the imprimatur of respected figures known for their fine taste . His efforts were rewarded by a numerous and appreciative turnout for the show .
Marcus also involved himself in issues of civil rights and social justice . One unusual case involved three male students at W. W. Samuell High School who , in 1966 , were stopped at the school 's front door and ordered to cut their hair in order to be admitted to the school . The young men filed a lawsuit against the Dallas Independent School District , claiming the restriction interfered with their constitutional freedom of expression . Despite not knowing the boys involved , Marcus stepped forward to champion their case before the public , taking out a newspaper ad defending the choice as a simple fashion decision rather than rebellion against authority . Additionally , he offered legal support if needed , noting in a telegram to school board president Lee McShan , Jr . , " I don ’ t like long hair any more than the principal does , but I will fight for the rights of those students to wear hair any way they choose . " Though the case was lost and appealed all the way to the U.S. Supreme Court without success , decades letter the men still appreciated Marcus ' support . Paul Jarvis , one of the plaintiffs , said of Marcus after his death in 2002 : " He was just a nice man and a great contributor to Dallas and to the arts . He wanted to do what was right . "
= = = Presidential connections = = =
Marcus used his public @-@ relations skills once again when Dallas was labeled " City of Hate " following the November 22 , 1963 , assassination of United States President John F. Kennedy . An early supporter of Kennedy 's run for the presidency , Marcus had tolerated the closing of several customers ' accounts when he announced his support for the candidate in the 1960 elections . In fact , he had cautioned that Kennedy 's visit be reconsidered in light of the city 's earlier poor reception of Adlai Stevenson and Vice @-@ President Lyndon Baines Johnson . In Kennedy 's memory , Marcus arranged to have 500 hand @-@ typeset and bound copies printed of Kennedy 's scheduled speech at the Dallas Trade Mart , of which the first copy went to Kennedy 's widow , Jacqueline . The following New Year 's Day , 1964 , Marcus took out a full @-@ page advertorial in The Dallas Morning News titled , " What 's Right With Dallas ? "
The editorial ad – a Neiman @-@ Marcus tradition introduced by his father in the store 's early days – both defended the city against outside critiques and offered more intimate criticisms from one who knew the town and its people well . The message said that Dallas needed to address four areas for community improvement : one , its slum problem ; two , its political extremism ( called " absolutism " in the text ) ; three , too much attention to physical growth at the expense of " quality " in civic endeavors such as " schools , colleges , symphonies , operas , and museums " ; and four , a need to focus less on " civic image " and more on " doing good things and not doing bad things " , which he described as " the best public relations . " In a 2003 article on the 40th anniversary of the assassination , Ralph Blumenthal of The New York Times praised the message as " strik [ ing ] a perfect balance " , though he notes the author met not only with support from some , but from canceled accounts and " anti @-@ Semitic attacks " that only increased after an article in Life referenced Marcus 's Jewish heritage .
Following Kennedy 's death , Marcus maintained close ties with Johnson and his administration , being considered for diplomatic posts to France and to the United Nations General Assembly while continuing to run his company and providing the wedding dresses for both the Johnsons ' daughters , personally assisting Luci Johnson in selecting the designer for her own dress and the styles for the bridesmaids ' gowns . After Johnson 's retirement , Marcus 's invitations were among the few the former president and his wife continued to accept . Marcus 's own daughter Wendy joined Mrs. Johnson 's staff for a time in 1963 , working under Mrs. Johnson 's personal secretary , Liz Carpenter .
= = = Stepping down = = =
In 1969 Stanley Marcus recommended to the board of directors that the company merge with Broadway @-@ Hale of California in order to have enough capital to expand . Neiman 's subsequently became a subsidiary of Carter @-@ Hawley Hale , Inc . , and Marcus accepted a position as corporate executive vice president and director of CHH . He retired as Chairman Emeritus in 1975 , turning over the store to his son , Richard C. Marcus .
Despite retiring officially from the company , Marcus continued to be closely involved as an advisor even through the final weeks of his life . He established a sideline as a retailing consultant , maintaining regular business hours in his offices at Crescent Court for more than a decade and offering advice locally to luxury car dealership Sewell Corporation and hotelier Rosewood Corporation as well as internationally to such businessmen as Mohamed Al @-@ Fayed of Harrods . Called on to consult for Amazon.com 's Jeff Bezos , the 94 @-@ year @-@ old businessman recalled arriving in his customary expensive tailored suit to discover 300 casually dressed employees : " I took off my coat , my necktie and my shirt , down to my T @-@ shirt . And then I said , ' Okay . Let ’ s talk . ' I couldn ’ t have planned it better . It broke the ice . I was on stage for two hours . "
= = Legacy = =
In addition to writing a weekly column for The Dallas Morning News for 15 years , Marcus was the author of multiple retailing @-@ oriented books , including Minding the Store : A Memoir ( 1974 ) , the sequel Quest for the Best ( 1979 ) , and His & Hers : The Fantasy World of the Neiman Marcus Catalogue ( 1982 ) He was a close friend of other writers , including Jane Trahey , an author and longtime advertising copywriter who at one time worked for Neiman Marcus , and historian David McCullough . A television presenter for the public broadcasting program American Experience , McCullough said he once asked Stanley Marcus – " one of the wisest men I know " – what single problem or aspect of American life , if given a magic wand , he would change , to which Marcus replied , " I 'd try to do something about television . " When asked why , he explained , " Because " , he said , " If you could do something about television , think how far you could go to solve all the other problems . "
Marcus was an avid art collector , as well as amassing a collection of masks from around the world . In 2002 , the Sotheby 's auction house mounted a sale of works from his estate , calling Marcus " an insightful and forward @-@ looking collector and a generous lender whose contributions to exhibitions helped bring notice to the world of Latin American Art during the 40s , 50s and 60s . " The auction house also noted that Marcus had begun collecting at age five ( influenced by his parents ) , but had found his interest in good design vastly deepened by a 1925 graduation trip to Europe , where he visited a famed international exhibition of decorative arts and thus was introduced to the earliest works of Art Deco . The Marcus collections included significant works by Mexican artists Rufino Tamayo , David Alfaro Siqueiros , Diego Rivera , and Rivera 's lesser @-@ known friend and colleague Antonio Ruíz ; the American sculptor Alexander Calder , and American painter Georgia O 'Keeffe . Marcus was friends with Rivera and Tamayo – playing a major role in bringing one of Tamayo 's murals to the Dallas Museum of Art – and one of the first board members of the O 'Keeffe museum , which honored him at the time of his death with a paid notice in The New York Times that stated " Stanley 's generous support , leadership , enthusiasm , friendship and keen artistic judgment were instrumental in the Museum 's inception and success . We shall miss him greatly . "
Another Marcus contribution to the arts was his own work in the area of photography . Over the course of his adult life , Marcus took thousands of photographs , both of famous and anonymous subjects , which he turned over to granddaughter Allison V. Smith , a professional photographer , upon moving out of his Nonesuch Road home into a smaller residence in the late 1990s . Two years after his death , Smith began making digital scans of the photos and posting them to the sharing site Flickr ; despite the fact that their authorship was not identified , within a year the photographs had drawn 10 @,@ 000 views . For the 100th anniversary of Neiman Marcus , Smith and her mother , Jerrie Marcus Smith , decided to assemble a representative selection of the nearly 5 @,@ 000 images into a book ; titled Reflection of a Man , the 192 @-@ page book was published by Cairn Press in October , 2007 , and accompanied by an exhibit at the Dallas Museum of Art .
Southern Methodist University hosts a Stanley Marcus collection at its DeGolyer Library in Dallas , including photographs , correspondence , and clippings . The library also houses a collection of more than 8 @,@ 000 books donated by Marcus , including 1 @,@ 100 miniature books , many from the press he founded .
= = Awards and honors = =
Inaugural inductee , Retailing Hall of Fame ( 2004 )
First recipient of the Design Patron award , National Design Awards ( 2001 )
Inductee , Advertising Hall of Fame ( 1999 )
Honoree , Linz Award ( 1995 )
Inductee , Texas Business Hall of Fame ( 1984 )
Honorary doctoral degree recipient , North Texas State University ( 1983 )
Honorary Fellow , American Institute of Architects ( 1972 )
Honorary doctoral degree recipient , Southern Methodist University ( 1965 )
Recipient , National Retail Merchants Association gold medal ( 1961 )
New York Fashion Designers Annual Award ( 1958 )
Chevalier Award , French Legion of Honor , presented on March 27 , 1949 , by Henri Bonnet , French Ambassador to the United States , " for eminent services to the cause of French industrial and commercial recovery "
Elected chairman , American Retailing Federation
Listed , " The Tallest Texans " , Houston Chronicle - profiles of 100 key figures in the state 's history
Listed , " 20th Century Great American Business Leaders " , Harvard Business School
= = Additional references = =
Infoplease . Noteworthy Deaths , 2002
" Farewell to the Merchant Prince " , The Dallas Morning News multimedia obituary tribute
Tolbert , Frank X. ( 1953 ) . Neiman Marcus , Texas : the story of the proud Dallas store . New York : Henry Holt .
= SMS Brummer =
SMS Brummer was a minelaying light cruiser of the German Kaiserliche Marine ; she was the lead ship of her class . Her sister ship was Bremse . Brummer was laid down at AG Vulcan 's shipyard in Stettin in 1915 and launched on 11 December 1915 and completed on 2 April 1916 . Armed with a main battery of four 15 @-@ centimeter ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) guns in single mounts , she carried 400 mines .
Despite being designed as a minelayer , the German Navy never operated her as such . She and her sister were used to raid a British convoy to Norway in October 1917 . The two cruisers sank two escorting destroyers and nine of the twelve merchant ships of the convoy . The Kaiserliche Marine considered sending the two ships to attack convoys in the Atlantic Ocean , but the difficulties associated with refueling at sea convinced the Germans to abandon the plan . Brummer was included in the list of ships interned at Scapa Flow following the Armistice . On 21 June 1919 , the commander of the interned fleet , Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter , ordered the scuttling of the fleet . Brummer was successfully scuttled , and unlike most of the other wrecks , she was never raised for scrapping .
= = Construction = =
Brummer was ordered under the contract name " C " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1915 . She was launched on 11 December 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . Completed in less than four months , she was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 2 April 1916 . The ship was 140 @.@ 4 meters ( 461 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 13 @.@ 2 m ( 43 ft ) and a draft of 6 m ( 20 ft ) forward . She displaced 5 @,@ 856 t ( 5 @,@ 764 long tons ; 6 @,@ 455 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of two sets of 33 @,@ 000 @-@ shaft @-@ horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) steam turbines powered by two coal @-@ fired and four oil @-@ fired Marine @-@ type boilers . These provided a top speed of 28 kn ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) and a range of 5 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 700 km ; 6 @,@ 700 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . In service however , the ship reached 34 kn ( 63 km / h ; 39 mph ) .
The ship was armed with four 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts ; two were arranged side by side forward and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . These guns fired a 45 @.@ 3 @-@ pound ( 20 @.@ 5 kg ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 840 meters per second ( 2 @,@ 800 ft / s ) . The guns had a maximum elevation of 30 degrees , which allowed them to engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 600 rounds of ammunition , for 150 shells per gun . Brummer also carried two 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 5 in ) L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns mounted on the centerline astern of the funnels . She was also equipped with a pair of 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with four torpedoes in a swivel mount amidships . Designed as a minelayer , she carried 400 mines . The ship was protected by a waterline armored belt that was 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) thick amidships . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides , and the deck was covered with 15 mm ( 0 @.@ 59 in ) thick armor plate .
= = Service = =
Brummer was ready for service with the fleet by May 1916 , though she did not steam with the rest of the High Seas Fleet for the Battle of Jutland at the end of the month . Despite the fact that they had been built as minelaying cruisers , Brummer and Bremse were never used in this capacity . In the autumn of 1917 , Admiral Reinhard Scheer , the chief of the Admiralstab , decided to supplement the U @-@ boat campaign with surface raiders to attack the British convoys to Scandinavia . In addition to damaging British shipping , Scheer sought to divert escorts from the Atlantic theater , where his U @-@ boats were concentrated . Brummer , commanded by Fregattenkapitän Leonhardi , and Bremse , commanded by Fregattenkapitän Westerkamp , were selected for the first such operation . Their high speed and large radius of action , coupled with their resemblance to British light cruisers , made them suited to the task . In preparation for the raid , their crews painted the ships dark gray to further camouflage them as British vessels .
Half an hour after dawn on the morning of 17 October , Brummer and Bremse attacked a westbound convoy about 70 nautical miles ( 130 km ; 81 mi ) east of Lerwick . The convoy consisted of twelve merchantmen and was escorted by the destroyers HMS Strongbow and Mary Rose and a pair of armed trawlers . The German ruse worked , and the British destroyers initially thought they were friendly ships . They flashed recognition signals until the Germans opened fire at a range of 2 @,@ 700 m ( 8 @,@ 900 ft ) . Strongbow was quickly destroyed , and as Mary Rose rushed to engage , she too was sunk . The Germans then quickly sank nine of the merchant vessels ; the two trawlers and three merchant ships managed to escape . The British Admiralty was not informed of the attack until Brummer and Bremse were on the return leg of the voyage . Kaiser Wilhelm II celebrated the results of the attack with champagne . The success of the two ships and the commitment of heavier British convoy escorts led Scheer to attempt to attack one of the heavily defended convoys with the entire High Seas Fleet in April 1918 , though this ended without success .
Late in the war , the Admiralstab considered sending Brummer and Bremse on a commerce raiding mission into the Atlantic . They were to operate off the Azores in concert with an oiler . The central Atlantic was out of the normal range of the U @-@ boats , and convoys were therefore lightly defended in the area . The Admiralstab canceled the plan , however , after it was determined that refueling at sea would be too difficult . Another problem was the tendency of the two ships to emit clouds of red sparks when steaming at speeds over 20 kn ( 37 km / h ; 23 mph ) ; this would hamper evading Allied ships at night . Brummer was to have been part of the final sortie of the High Seas Fleet in October 1918 , but this operation was cancelled due to the mutiny of the High Seas Fleet in Wilhelmshaven , after which Brummer was moved to Sassnitz .
Along with the most modern units of the High Seas Fleet , Brummer and Bremse were included in the ships specified for internment at Scapa Flow by the victorious Allied powers . The ships steamed out of Germany on 21 November 1918 in single file , commanded by Rear Admiral Ludwig von Reuter . They were met at sea by a combined fleet of 370 British , American , and French warships . The fleet arrived in the Firth of Forth later that day , and between 25 and 27 November , they were escorted to Scapa Flow . Upon arrival , all wireless equipment was removed from the ships and the breech blocks of their heavy guns were removed to prevent their use . Crews were reduced to minimum levels .
The fleet remained in captivity during the negotiations that ultimately produced the Treaty of Versailles . Reuter believed that the British intended to seize the German ships on 21 June 1919 , which was the deadline for Germany to have signed the peace treaty . Unaware that the deadline had been extended to the 23rd , Reuter ordered the ships to be sunk at the next opportunity . On the morning of 21 June , the British fleet left Scapa Flow to conduct training maneuvers , and at 11 : 20 Reuter transmitted the order to his ships . Brummer sank at 13 : 05 ; she was never raised for scrapping and remains on the bottom of Scapa Flow .
= Yugoslav submarine Mališan =
Mališan ( pennant number : P @-@ 901 ) was a CB @-@ class midget submarine in service with the Yugoslav Navy ( Serbo @-@ Croatian : Jugoslavenska ratna mornarica ; JRM ) . Mališan was laid down in 1943 as CB @-@ 20 for the Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) . Following the Italian Armistice in September 1943 , the unfinished boat was captured by the Germans who handed it to the Navy of the Italian Social Republic . The boat was captured by Yugoslav Partisans in Pula in 1945 and commissioned in the JRM shortly after the war .
The boat was decommissioned at some point in the 1950s after a brief service life . In 1959 , it was handed over to the Technical Museum in Zagreb , where it has been on display ever since . Beginning in 2008 , Mališan underwent restoration of its interior and exterior which included returning its original Italian paint scheme and designation .
= = Design and building = =
Mališan was laid down in 1943 by Caproni , Milan as CB @-@ 20 for service in the Regia Marina ( English : Royal Navy ) . The boat measures 15 m ( 49 ft 3 in ) in length , with a 3 m ( 9 ft 10 in ) beam and a 2 @.@ 05 – 3 m ( 6 ft 9 in – 9 ft 10 in ) draught . Undewater it displaced 45 tonnes ( 44 long tons ) compared to 35 @.@ 4 tonnes ( 34 @.@ 8 long tons ) when surfaced . Maximum diving depth was 55 m ( 180 ft 5 in ) . The boat 's complement during wartime was made of four crew members , one officer and three seamen , while during peacetime the boat could have been operated by a crew of just two . Armament consisted of two 450 mm ( 18 in ) external torpedo tubes located on the sides of the hull .
Propulsion consisted of a 88 @.@ 4 hp ( 65 @.@ 9 kW ) Isotta Fraschini D 80 diesel engine and a 60 hp ( 45 kW ) Marelli Motore Corrente Contina MG 754 S electric motor , mounted on a single shaft . Maximum speed was 7 @.@ 5 knots ( 13 @.@ 9 km / h ; 8 @.@ 6 mph ) surfaced and 6 knots ( 11 km / h ; 6 @.@ 9 mph ) when underwater . Traveling surfaced at a speed of 5 knots ( 9 @.@ 3 km / h ; 5 @.@ 8 mph ) the boat had a range of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 400 nmi ( 1 @,@ 900 – 2 @,@ 600 km ; 1 @,@ 200 – 1 @,@ 600 mi ) , with the exact figure varying between sources . Traveling underwater at a speed of 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) the boat had a range of 50 – 60 nmi ( 93 – 111 km ; 58 – 69 mi ) .
= = Service history = =
After the Kingdom of Italy surrendered to the Allies on 3 September 1943 , the unfinished CB @-@ 20 was captured by German forces and completed by March 1944 . The boat was then handed over to the Italian Social Republic where it saw service with the Tenth Flotilla performing reconnaissance and landing saboteurs . At some point between September and October 1944 , CB @-@ 20 was relocated to its new home port in Pula , where it was captured by the Partisans on 3 May 1945 . Renamed Mališan ( P @-@ 901 ) , translating as nipper in English , the boat was overhauled at the Uljanik Shipyard and commissioned in 1948 . The Yugoslav Navy used it for training new submariners as well as evaluating the concept of midget submarines for future use , which eventually materialized in the form of the Una @-@ class midget submarines three decades later . Depending on the source , the exact time Mališan was decommissioned differs from the early 1950s to 1957 .
= = Aftermath = =
In 1959 , the boat was donated to the Technical Museum in Zagreb , where it has remained since . It the only known preserved boat of its class . In 2007 , the museum decided to restore the boat , which was beginning to show signs of deterioration . Work started in 2008 , and was focused on restoring the interior by dismantling all removable parts from the command section and the engine room . The removed parts were preserved and restored with a detailed documentation about their state before and after restoration . A custom crane had to be constructed and mounted in order to extract the compressor , electric motor and other equipment weighing more than 100 kilograms ( 220 lb ) .
Work on the exterior began in 2009 ; the tail section with the propeller and the torpedo tubes were dismantled and restored . The boat itself was raised by 80 cm ( 31 in ) and placed on new carriers to make it more accessible for visitors from the museum gallery . Work on the exterior also included the restoration of the boat 's original Italian paint scheme and name in favor of its later Yugoslav service . Although the decision was questioned by some , the changes were allegedly carried out because of " greater historical relevance " and a " more reliably documented history under its original name and flag " . The fully restored boat was reopened for the public in early April 2010 .
= Ordsall Hall =
Ordsall Hall is a historic house and a former stately home in Ordsall , an area of Salford , in Greater Manchester , England . It dates back more than 750 years , although the oldest surviving parts of the present hall were built in the 15th century . The most important period of Ordsall Hall 's life was as the family seat of the Radclyffe family , who lived in the house for more than 300 years . The hall was the setting for William Harrison Ainsworth 's 1842 novel Guy Fawkes , written around the plausible although unsubstantiated local story that the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned in the house .
Since its sale by the Radclyffes in 1662 the hall has been put to many uses ; a working men 's club , a school for clergy , and a radio station among them . The house was bought by the old Salford Council in 1959 and opened to the public in 1972 , as a period house and local history museum . The hall is a Grade I listed building . It was closed to the public between 2009 and 2011 during refurbishment , and reopened in May 2011 . Entrance is free .
= = History = =
Ordsall Hall is a formerly moated Tudor mansion , the oldest parts of which were built during the 15th century , although there has been a house on the site for over 750 years . David de Hulton is recorded as the owner of the original hall , in 1251 . The manor of Ordsall came into the possession of the Radclyffe family in about 1335 , but it was not until 1354 that Sir John Radclyffe established his right of inheritance . The manor was described in 1351 as a messuage , 120 acres ( 48 @.@ 6 ha ) of land , 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) of meadow and 12 acres ( 4 @.@ 9 ha ) of wood .
= = = Radclyffe family home = = =
During the 1340s Sir John Radclyffe campaigned with Edward III in France , distinguishing himself at the battles of Caen , Crècy and Calais . As a reward for his service , the king allowed Sir John to take some Flemish weavers back to his Ordsall estate , where he built cottages for them to live in . English weaving skills at that time were poor , and textiles from Manchester were considered to be of particularly poor quality , so the Flemish weavers were employed in instructing the local weavers . They also started up a silk weaving industry , the foundation for Manchester 's later cotton industry .
The Dutch humanist and theologian Erasmus stayed at Ordsall Hall in 1499 , and described it thus :
... the floors are made of clay and are covered with layers of rushes , constantly replenished , so that the bottom layer remains for 20 years harbouring spittle , vomit , the urine of dogs and men , the dregs of beer , the remains of fish and other nameless filth ...
The original cruck hall was replaced by the present Great Hall in 1512 , after Sir Alexander Radclyffe was appointed High Sheriff of Lancashire . The hall is typical of others built at that time in the northwest of England , although it is one of the largest , and is unusual for the period in having no wall fireplace . The hall has an elaborate roof structure , as in the similar Rufford Old Hall . There is a slightly later small room above the large oriel bay , which may be an early addition as at Samlesbury Hall .
Other alterations and additions were made during the 17th century , including a modest brick house added onto the west end in 1639 , perhaps intended as a home for Sir Alexander 's bailiff , as he himself no longer used the hall as his main residence by that time . The house was built at 90 ° to the timber @-@ framed building , to which it was later joined . During the Civil War Sir Alexander , as a Royalist , was imprisoned and suffered financial hardship . Reduced means eventually forced his heir , John Radclyffe , into selling the hall to Colonel John Birch in 1662 , thus ending more than 300 years of his family 's occupation .
= = = Later use = = =
At the time of the 1666 hearth tax survey , Ordsall Hall was the largest house in Salford , with 19 hearths . The Oldfield family of Leftwich , near Northwich , bought the estate at the end of the 17th century , and in 1704 it was sold again , to John Stock , a trustee of Cross Street Chapel . His family were probably the last owners to reside at the hall . The Stocks lived in the hall 's central section , comprising " a large hall , lounge dining room , a chapel , six rooms on a floor , with brewhouse , large courts , stable , etc " , while the two wings were leased tenants from about 1700 . In 1756 the hall was sold to Samuel Hill of Shenstone , Staffordshire . Two years later , on Hill 's death , the house passed to his nephew , Samuel Egerton of Tatton .
The hall remained in occupation until 1871 , the last residents being the descendants of John Markendale , who had taken over the lease of the building in 1814 . The land surrounding the hall was used by the Mather family of cowkeepers and butchers for many years . During the last quarter of the 19th century Ordsall Hall became engulfed " in mean streets and industry " . From 1875 Haworth 's Mill rented the hall and used it as a working men 's club . The Great Hall was converted into a gymnasium after being cleared of the inserted floor and later partitions , and provision was made elsewhere for billiards , a skittle alley , and a bowling green . In 1883 the hall was bought by the Earl Egerton of Tatton , and restored during 1896 – 98 by the Manchester architect Alfred Darybshire at a cost of £ 6 @,@ 000 ( £ 600 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) . The restoration allowed the earl to found a clergy training school at the hall . Provisions for the school included the construction of a church dedicated to St Cyprian in the north forecourt , and a new servants ' wing on the south side . In 1908 the school was moved to Egerton Hall , changing its name to the Manchester Theological College . The men 's social club at Ordsall Hall survived until 1940 . During the Second World War the hall was used as a radio station . In the 1960s the church and servants ' wing built for the clergy school were demolished .
Salford Corporation purchased Ordsall Hall from the executors of the Baron Egerton of Tatton in 1959 . After major restoration work , it was opened to the public in April 1972 , as a period house and local history museum .
In March 2007 the Extraordinary Ordsall Campaign applied for a grant of £ 5 @.@ 1 million from the Heritage Lottery Fund ( HLF ) , to regenerate Ordsall Hall and secure its future . After supporters had raised £ 1 million by September 2008 , the HLF provided the remaining £ 4 @.@ 1 million . Only 40 per cent of the building was then open to the public , but following restoration work further rooms were expected to be opened . The building closed for refurbishment in early 2009 , and re @-@ opened to the public on 15 May 2011 . In 2013 the newly restored building received a Bronze Award in the Small Visitor Attraction category organised by tourist body VisitEngland , one of 320 nominations from across the country .
= = Architecture = =
There are two separate elements to the present @-@ day house : the timber @-@ framed south range built in the 15th century , and the brick west range constructed in 1639 . The hall was originally built around a central quadrangle , but the other wings making up that space are no longer present . Drawing on the earliest description of the house , from 1380 , the Salford City Council describes how it comprised " a hall , five chambers , a kitchen and a chapel . It was associated with two stables , three granges , two shippons , a garner , a dovecote , an orchard and a windmill , together with 80 acres [ 32 @.@ 4 ha ] of arable land and six acres [ 2 @.@ 4 ha ] of meadow . "
Substantial alterations appear to have taken place during the early years of Samuel Egerton 's ownership in the mid @-@ 18th century . The canopy at the dais end of the Great Hall was destroyed – although part of it can still be seen in the north wall – when a floor was inserted and new rooms were formed with lath and plaster partitions . The east wing of the hall was probably demolished at about the same time , but certainly before 1812 , the date of the earliest estate map .
There are believed to have been underground passages leading from the hall into Manchester . One , running under the River Irwell to the Hanging Bridge Hotel at the northern end of Deansgate , was described in 1900 , following the rediscovery of the Hanging Bridge after it had been buried for 200years :
... I was shown a door in Hanging Bridge Hotel cellar where the arches could be seen and a door made up ... it was the entrance to an underground passage under the Irwell , possibly to Ordsall Hall ... the owner had not traversed the passage himself , but the previous owner had , but had to turn back because of bad smells ....
= = Guy Fawkes = =
Harrison Ainsworth , in his 1842 novel Guy Fawkes , wrote about the local story that the Gunpowder Plot of 1605 was planned by Guy Fawkes and Robert Catesby in Ordsall Hall 's Star Chamber . Guy Fawkes is supposed to have escaped capture by the king 's soldiers by way of an underground tunnel from Ordsall Hall to an inn at the cathedral end of Hanging Bridge , at the northern end of present @-@ day Deansgate . There is no firm supporting evidence , but the Radclyffes were prominent Roman Catholics and were acquainted with the Catesby family . The legend is remembered in the name of the modern road that runs to the east of the hall , Guy Fawkes Street .
= = Hauntings = =
Like many old buildings , Ordsall Hall has stories of hauntings . The White Lady who is said to appear in the Great Hall or Star Chamber is popularly believed to be Margaret Radclyffe , who died of a broken heart in 1599 following the death at sea of her twin , Alexander . There are webcams overseeing the areas that are said to be the most haunted . An episode of the television programme Most Haunted was filmed in the hall in 2005 .
= Hurricane Hattie =
Hurricane Hattie was the strongest and deadliest tropical cyclone of the 1961 Atlantic hurricane season , reaching a peak intensity equivalent to that of a Category 5 hurricane . The ninth tropical storm and seventh hurricane and major hurricane of the season , Hattie originated from an area of low pressure that strengthened into a tropical storm over the southwestern Caribbean Sea on October 27 . Moving generally northward , the storm quickly became a hurricane and later major hurricane the following day . Hattie then turned westward west of Jamaica and strengthened into a Category 5 hurricane , with maximum sustained winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) . It weakened to Category 4 before making landfall south of Belize City on October 31 . The storm turned southwestward and weakened rapidly over the mountainous terrain of Central America , dissipating on November 1 .
Hattie first affected the southwestern Caribbean , where it produced hurricane @-@ force winds and caused one death on San Andres Island . It was initially forecast to continue north and strike Cuba , prompting evacuations on the island . While turning west , Hattie dropped heavy rainfall of up to 11 @.@ 5 in ( 290 mm ) on Grand Cayman . The country of Belize , at the time known as British Honduras , sustained the worst damage from the hurricane . The former capital , Belize City , was buffeted by strong winds and flooded by a powerful storm surge . The territory governor estimated that 70 % of the buildings in the city had been damaged , leaving more than 10 @,@ 000 people homeless . The destruction was so severe that it prompted the government to relocate inland to a new city , Belmopan . Overall , Hattie caused about $ 60 million in losses and 307 deaths in the territory . Although damage was heavier in Hattie than a hurricane in 1931 that killed 2 @,@ 000 people , the death toll from Hattie was less due to advance warnings . Elsewhere in Central America , Hattie killed 11 people in Guatemala and one in Honduras .
= = Meteorological history = =
For several days toward the end of October 1961 , a low @-@ pressure area persisted in the western Caribbean Sea , north of the Panama Canal Zone . On October 25 , an upper @-@ level anticyclone moved over the low ; the next day , a trough over the western Gulf of Mexico provided favorable outflow for the disturbance . At 0000 UTC on October 27 , a ship nearby reported southerly winds of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) . Later that day , the airport on San Andres Island reported easterly winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . The two observations confirmed the presence of a closed wind circulation , centered about 70 miles ( 110 km ) southeast of San Andres , or 155 mi ( 250 km ) east of the Nicaraguan coast ; as a result , the Miami Weather Bureau began issuing advisories on the newly formed Tropical Storm Hattie .
After being classified , Hattie moved steadily northward , passing very near or over San Andres Island . A station on the island recorded a pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) and sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) , which indicated that Hattie had reached hurricane status . Late on October 28 , a Hurricane Hunters flight encountered a much stronger hurricane , with winds of 125 mph ( 200 km / h ) in a small area near the center . At the time , gale @-@ force winds extended outward 140 mi ( 225 km ) to the northeast and 70 miles ( 115 km ) to the southwest . Early on October 29 , a trough extending from Nicaragua to Florida was expected to allow Hattie to continue northward , based on climatology for similar hurricanes . Later that day , Hattie was forecast to be an imminent threat to the Cayman Islands and western Cuba . Around that time , a strengthening ridge to the north turned the hurricane northwestward , which spared the Greater Antilles but increased the threat to Central America .
With the strengthening ridge to its north , Hattie began restrengthening after retaining the same intensity for about 24 hours . Initially , forecasters at the Miami Weather Bureau predicted the storm to turn northward again . Late on October 29 , the center of the hurricane passed about 90 miles ( 145 km ) southwest of Grand Cayman , at which time the interaction between Hattie and the ridge to its north produced squally winds of around 30 mph ( 50 km / h ) across Florida . Early on October 30 , the Hurricane Hunters confirmed the increase in intensity , reporting winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) . The storm 's minimum central pressure continued to drop throughout the day , reaching 924 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) by 1300 UTC ; a lower pressure of 920 mbar ( 27 inHg ) was computed at 1700 UTC that day , based on a flight @-@ level reading from the Hurricane Hunters . Hattie later curved toward the west @-@ southwest , passing between the Cayman Islands and the Swan Islands . Late on October 30 , Hattie attained peak winds of 160 mph ( 260 km / h ) about 190 mi ( 310 km ) east of the border of Mexico and British Honduras . This made Hattie the equivalence of a Category 5 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale , making it the latest hurricane on record to reach the status until a reanalysis of the 1932 season revealed that Hurricane Fourteen had a similar intensity on November 5 , six days after Hattie . Additionally , Hattie was the strongest October hurricane in the northwest Caribbean until Hurricane Mitch in 1998 .
Hattie maintained much of its intensity as it continued toward the coast of British Honduras . After moving through several small islands offshore , the hurricane made landfall a short distance south of Belize City on October 31 , with an eyewall of about 25 miles ( 40 km ) in diameter . Based on a post @-@ season analysis , it was determined that Hattie had weakened to winds of 140 mph ( 225 km / h ) before moving ashore . The hurricane deteriorated rapidly over land , dissipating on November 1 as it moved into the mountains of Guatemala . During its dissipation , Tropical Storm Simone was developing off the Pacific coast of Guatemala . There was speculation that Hattie contributed to the development of Simone , and later Tropical Storm Inga after the remnants of Simone merged with nearby disturbed weather .
= = Preparations = =
Upon initiating advisories on Hattie , the Miami Weather Bureau noted the potential for heavy rainfall and flash flooding in the southwestern Caribbean . The advisories recommended for small ships to remain at harbor across the region . Initially , the hurricane was predicted to move near or through the Cayman Islands , Jamaica , and Cuba . As a result , Cuban officials advised residents in low @-@ lying areas to evacuate .
Hurricane Hattie first posed a threat to the Yucatán Peninsula and British Honduras on October 30 when it turned toward the area . Officials at the Miami Weather Bureau warned of the potential for high tides , strong winds , and torrential rainfall . The warnings allowed for extensive evacuations in high @-@ risk areas . Most people in the capital , Belize City , were evacuated or moved to shelters , and a school was operated as a refuge . A hospital in the city was evacuated , and over 75 % of the population of Stann Creek fled to safer locations . After Hattie made landfall , officials in Mexico ordered the closure of ports along the Isthmus of Tehuantepec .
= = Impact = =
Despite predictions for heavy rainfall in the southwestern Caribbean , the hurricane 's movement was more northerly than expected , resulting in less precipitation along the Central American coast than anticipated . In its early developmental stages , Hattie struck San Andrés Island , located offshore eastern Nicaragua , with maximum sustained winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) and gusts of 104 mph ( 167 km / h ) . As the hurricane neared the island , the airport was closed due to tropical @-@ storm @-@ force winds . Rough seas and winds damaged private property and two hotels . Many palm tree plantations were devastated . The schooner Admirar , anchored in one of the island 's bays , capsized during the storm . Overall , Hattie resulted in one death , fifteen injuries , and $ 300 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1961 USD ) in San Andrés . The hurricane was the fourth on record to strike the island , and of the four was the only to approach from the south .
In the northwestern Caribbean , Hattie passed close to Grand Cayman with heavy rainfall . At least 11 @.@ 5 inches ( 292 mm ) of rain were reported on the island , including 7 @.@ 8 inches ( 198 mm ) in six hours . Winds on Grand Cayman were below hurricane force , and only minor damage occurred due to the rain .
The interaction between Hattie and the ridge of high pressure to its north produced sustained winds of 20 mph ( 35 km / h ) across most of Florida , with a gust of 72 mph ( 116 km / h ) reported at Hillsboro Inlet Light ; the winds caused some beach erosion in the state . The U.S. Weather Bureau issued a small craft warning for the west and east Florida coastlines , as well as northward to Brunswick , Georgia .
Later , Hattie impacted various countries in Central America with flash floods , causing 11 deaths in Guatemala and one fatality in Honduras . The Swan Islands reported wind gusts just below hurricane force , resulting in minor damage and one injury .
= = = British Honduras = = =
Hurricane Hattie moved ashore in British Honduras with a storm tide of up to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) near Belize City , a city of 31 @,@ 000 people located at sea @-@ level ; its only defenses against the storm tide were a small seawall and a strip of swamp lands . The capital experienced high waves and a 10 ft ( 3 m ) storm tide along its waterfront that reached the third story of some buildings . A trained observer estimated winds of over 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) , and winds in the territory were unofficially estimated as strong as 200 mph ( 325 km / h ) . When Hattie affected the area , most buildings in Belize City were wooden , and most of this type were destroyed . Offshore , the hurricane heavily damaged 80 % of the Belize Barrier Reef , although the reef recovered after the storm .
High winds caused a power outage , downed trees across the region , and destroyed the roofs of many buildings . Governor Colin Thornley estimated that over 70 % of the buildings in the territory were damaged , and more than 10 @,@ 000 people were left homeless . Some shelters set up before the storm were destroyed in the hurricane . The hurricane destroyed the wall at an insane asylum , which allowed the residents to escape . High waves damaged a prison , prompting officials to institute a " daily parole " program for the inmates . Hattie also flooded the Government House , washing away all records . All of Belize City was coated in a layer of mud and debris , and majority of the city was destroyed or severely damaged , as was nearby Stann Creek . The hurricane left significant crop damage across the region , including $ 2 million in citrus fruits and similar losses to timber , cocoa , and bananas . The year 's production of sugar cane was also heavily damaged . About 70 % of the territory 's mahogany trees were downed , as were most citrus and grapefruit trees . The hurricane damaged several factories and oil rigs in the region . Damage throughout the territory totaled $ 60 million ( 1961 USD ) , and a total of 307 deaths were reported ; more than 100 of the fatalities were in Belize City , including 36 who evacuated to a British administration building that was later destroyed in the storm . The government of British Honduras considered Hurricane Hattie more damaging than a hurricane in 1931 that killed 2 @,@ 000 people ; the lower death toll of Hattie was due to advance warning .
= = Aftermath = =
After Hattie struck , officials in Belize City declared martial law . A manager of United Press International described Belize City as " nothing but a huge pile of matchsticks , " and many roads were either flooded for days or covered with mud . Doctors provided typhoid vaccinations to 12 @,@ 000 residents in two days to prevent the spread of the disease . Due to the high death toll , officials ordered mass cremations to stop additional disease from spreading . At the city 's police station , workers provided fresh water and rice to storm victims . Many residents throughout British Honduras donated supplies to the storm victims , such that an airlines manager described it as " taxing ... manpower and facilities . " One airline allowed donations to be flown to Belize City at no cost . The city 's three newspapers were unable to operate due to lack of power after the storm . By November 5 , Belize City 's post office reopened on a limited basis , and all business initially remained closed . About 4 @,@ 000 homeless residents from Stann Creek were moved by boat to the northern portion of the territory . Many homeless people from the Belize City area set up a tent city on bushland about 16 mi ( 26 km ) inland , which was initially intended to be temporary . In December 1961 , barracks were erected near a Red Cross Hospital to house the homeless in the camp . The site was named Hattieville and became a proper city , with utilities installed in the subsequent decade .
About 200 British soldiers arrived from Jamaica to quell looting and maintain order . At least 20 people were arrested in the day after Hattie struck . The British government sent flights of aid to the territory containing food , clothing , and medical supplies . The House of Commons quickly passed a bill to provide £ 10 @,@ 000 in aid . The Save the Children fund sent £ 1 @,@ 000 to British Honduras , and the Mexican government sent three flights with food and medicine to the territory . Two American destroyers arrived in the country by November 2 , reporting the need for assistance . The USS Antietam remained at port for weeks after the storm with six medical officers and six Marine helicopters . Four other ships sailed to the territory to provide 458 @,@ 000 lb ( 208 @,@ 000 kg ) of food . The United States government allocated about $ 300 @,@ 000 in assistance through the International Development Association . The Canadian government provided C $ 75 @,@ 000 worth of aid , including food , blankets , and medical supplies .
By Hattie 's one year anniversary , private and public workers repaired and rebuilt buildings affected by the storm . New hotels were constructed , and many stores were reopened . Prime Minister George Cadle Price successfully appealed for assistance from the British government , which ultimately provided £ 20 million in loans . In the days after the storm , the government announced plans to relocate the capital of British Honduras farther inland on higher ground . Work on the new capital , Belmopan , was completed in 1970 . On the 44th anniversary of the hurricane in 2005 , the government of Belize unveiled a monument in Belize City to recognize the victims of the hurricane .
Due to the destruction and loss of life attributed to the hurricane , the name Hattie was retired by the World Meteorological Organization and will never again be used for an Atlantic hurricane .
= You 're Mine ( Eternal ) =
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey included on her fourteenth studio album , Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse ( 2014 ) . It premiered on February 12 , 2014 , as the third single from the album . It was written and produced by Carey with Rodney Jerkins . An R & B song , the lyrics revolve around the singer reminiscing about a past lover . Critical response to the song was positive : Carey 's breathy vocal style and use of the whistle register at the climax earned praise from critics . It also garnered several comparisons to one of Carey 's previous singles , " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) .
In the United States , " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " reached number 88 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart , but it experienced greater success on the Dance Club Songs chart , becoming her seventeenth number @-@ one song . Elsewhere , it reached the top 20 in Hungary and on the UK R & B Chart and the top 30 in Spain . Carey co @-@ directed the music video with photographer Indrani , which depicted the singer as a mermaid swimming around the lakes at the El Yunque National Forest in Puerto Rico . Recording artist Trey Songz appears as a love interest in the video . He also features on the urban remix of the song , performing his verses in the remix video . Carey has performed the song at the BET Honors and during a performance at the Empire State Building .
= = Background and release = =
On December 31 , 2013 , Carey appeared on NBC 's New Year 's Eve with Carson Daly show to perform some songs . Before giving the audience some advice on love for 2014 and prior to singing " The Art of Letting Go " from Me . I Am Mariah ... The Elusive Chanteuse , the singer announced that she would be releasing a new single on February 14 , 2014 , to coincide with Valentine 's Day . On February 12 , Carey released " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " as the album 's third single . The single 's artwork consists of Sweethearts , a brand of sugar candies .
In the United States , the song was released to contemporary , rhythmic , and urban adult contemporary radio stations around the country on February 18 . An urban remix featuring vocals by American recording artist Trey Songz was also made available to download digitally on February 13 . In an interview with MTV News , Carey praised Songz vocal ability , saying that most artists are not able to sing and rap while maintaining " a sound that 's current yet also classic " . Carey further released multiple dances remixes of " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " , including the Jump Smokers Radio Remix , Jump Smokers Extended Remix , and Jermaine Dupri X Kurd Maverick Germany To Southside Remix . Additional remixes by Fedde le Grand , Gregor Salto and Funkin ' Matt , and Chus and Ceballos were released on March 15 .
= = Composition = =
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " is an R & B love song written and produced by Carey and Rodney Jerkins . " . The song is composed in the key of D major using common time and a moderately slow feel of 75 beats per minute . Carey employs a breathy vocal style as she sings the lyric " I can 't seem to live without your love " . Lyrically , Carey reminisces about a past lover , singing " I can 't seem to live without your love / Suffocating here by myself / Dying for your touch " . Instrumentation consists of hypnotic , " smooth , steady " piano beat , which slowly builds to a climax with Carey hitting a whistle note for a sustained period of time at the end of the song . Music Times writer Carolyn Menyes described the " up @-@ and @-@ down " melodic structure as " captivating " , which causes the listener to be drawn " deep into Carey 's musical abyss " . The urban remix featuring Songz incorporates an enhanced pop feel compared to the original , with additional drums and Auto @-@ Tune on Songz vocals . " You 're Mine " garnered comparisons to one of Carey 's previous singles " We Belong Together " ( 2005 ) . While Christina Garibaldi of MTV News and Jamieson Cox of Time simply highlighted that they have similar melodic structures and vocals styles , Alexa Camp of Slant Magazine was critical of the likeness between the two songs , writing that she was disappointed to hear a " retread " of " We Belong Together " following the positively received " retro " first and second singles " # Beautiful " featuring Miguel and " The Art of Letting Go " , respectively .
= = Critical reception = =
" You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " garnered a generally positive response amongst music critics . Christina Garibaldi of MTV News was complimentary of the song , praising Carey 's " impressive " vocal range and specifically drawing attention to the high note that she ends the song with . Garibaldi stated that " You 're Mine ( Eternal ) " serves as a reminder as to why Carey is " still the fiercest diva in the game " . Writing for Billboard , Jason Lipshutz noted that the slow structure for the majority of the song could have made it a " sleepy " R & B song , but noted that the " inevitable " high note saves it from becoming so . Jamieson Cox of Time echoed Garibaldi 's sentiments , writing " It 's a gaseous , fluffy ballad that feels like a direct descendant of the song that rang in her mid @-@ career renaissance , 2005 's mega @-@ hit ' We Belong Together ' : plinking piano melodies , a typically fluttering Carey vocal take , and a very similar beat . Only time will tell if ' You 're Mine ( Eternal ) ' can duplicate that song 's record @-@ breaking success " .
Melinda Newman of HitFix questioned if Carey could have achieve success with the song , describing it as " breathless " and too reliant on the singer 's " vocal pyrotechnics " . She continued to write that the song would most probably not achieve any success on the Billboard Hot 100 , but would find " some love " on the adult contemporary and R & B radio stations . Jeff Benjamin of Fuse compared the production of the song to Carey 's previous singles " Always Be My Baby " ( 1995 ) and " Touch My Body " ( 2008 ) . He also wrote that the " drawn @-@ out whistle " at the end of the song was " impressive " . Carolyn Menyes for Music Times felt that Songz overshadowed Carey with his vocals on the urban remix . Slant Magazine writer Alexa Camp thought that while Carey 's voice sounded good , Darkchild 's production was " utterly trivial " . She concluded by expressing that the remix featuring Songz was " slightly more interesting " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United Kingdom , " You 're Mine
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a four match ban . On 26 February after missing the best @-@ part of that month through his suspension , he returned , to start in a 2 – 1 loss to Bath City , but he was unable to score a goal . He followed this game up by scoring in his next two , netting in the 3 – 1 win over Histon and then by scoring Southport 's only goal , in a 4 – 1 defeat to Eastbourne Borough . He finished March having scored four goals that month , after adding another two in the latter part , the first in a 4 – 2 defeat to the hands of Barrow and the other coming as @-@ part of a 2 – 2 draw with Rushden & Diamonds .
He opened his goalscoring account for the 2011 – 12 season on the opening day as part of a 2 – 2 draw with Lincoln City . He scored his second of the season in a 3 – 2 win over Telford United . On 15 March 2012 , he signed a new two @-@ year contract with the club . He scored a total of ten goals in all @-@ competitions for Southport in the 2011 – 12 season , helping them to their highest league finish in ten years — 7th in the Conference Premier .
Whalley had a good start to the 2012 – 13 season , scoring two goals in four games , including in a 3 – 3 draw with Alfreton Town . He went on to play in all but three of Southport 's league games , scoring seven further goals and at the end of the season was named the club 's player of the year .
= = = Luton Town = = =
On 1 May 2013 , Whalley was signed by fellow Conference Premier club Luton Town for an undisclosed fee on a two @-@ year contract . He missed a penalty on his debut in a 1 – 0 defeat , coincidentally against former club Southport .
After failing to win a regular starting place in the Luton line @-@ up , Whalley moved on loan on 23 January 2014 to Conference North side AFC Telford United , led by his former Southport manager Liam Watson . He scored five goals in 18 games as Telford won the Conference North title , scoring in the crucial final game of the season . With Luton also winning their league , Whalley had the unique distinction of being awarded both Conference Premier and Conference North winners ' medals in the same season .
Whalley played a more active part in Luton 's return to the Football League , playing in 18 league games , often in the starting XI , and scoring three goals .
On 27 April 2015 , Whalley and team @-@ mate Ricky Miller were both arrested by Bedfordshire Police in connection with an alleged assault following Luton Town 's end of season awards night . Both were released on bail , but were suspended by the club pending a police inquiry . Whalley was not charged due to a lack of evidence . On 18 May 2015 , Whalley left Luton by mutual consent two months before the end of his contract .
= = = Shrewsbury Town = = =
Following his departure from Luton , Whalley joined Shrewsbury Town , recently promoted to League One , on 6 June 2015 . Making only sporadic substitute appearances in the early part of the season , Whalley had to wait until 28 December to make his first league start for the club , scoring a late winning goal in a 2 – 1 away victory over Crewe Alexandra . He scored another late winner away at the then @-@ league @-@ leaders Burton Albion the following month .
= = Style of play = =
Whalley is a winger but can also play as a striker . On his arrival at Southport , manager Liam Watson said " Shaun will fit right into out style of play and with the players we have here " . Whalley 's former team @-@ mate Paul Mullin described him as " an absolute express @-@ train down the wings " , and said that he possessed good ability on the ball .
= = Career statistics = =
As of match played 8 May 2016 .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Droylsden
Manchester Premier Cup ( 1 ) : 2009 – 10
Luton Town
Conference Premier : 2013 – 14
AFC Telford United
Conference North : 2013 – 14
= Vala Mal Doran =
Vala Mal Doran is a fictional character in the American military science fiction television series Stargate SG @-@ 1 , a science fiction show about a military team exploring the galaxy via a network of alien transportation devices . Played by former Farscape actress Claudia Black , Vala was created by Damian Kindler and Robert C. Cooper as a guest character for the season 8 episode " Prometheus Unbound " ( 2004 ) . Because of the on @-@ screen chemistry between Black 's Vala and Michael Shanks ' character Daniel Jackson , and the character 's popularity with the producers and the audience , Claudia Black became a recurring guest star in season 9 ( 2005 – 2006 ) and joined the main cast in season 10 ( 2006 – 2007 ) .
" Prometheus Unbound " introduces Vala as a sexy and mischievous human with a Goa 'uld background from an unnamed planet . In season 9 , Vala and Daniel set off the arc of the show 's new villain race , the Ori . After giving birth to the Ori 's new leader in season 10 , Vala joins the SG @-@ 1 team to stop the enemy , eventually becoming a permanent member of both SG @-@ 1 and Stargate Command . Claudia Black resumed her role in the 2008 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film Stargate : The Ark of Truth , which finishes the Ori arc . Black also appeared as Vala and her Goa 'uld alter ego Qetesh in the 2008 film Stargate : Continuum . She was , however , not supposed to be returning for the announced third Stargate SG @-@ 1 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film that was scheduled to be filmed in spring 2009 , but abandoned since then . For her portrayal of Vala , Claudia Black was nominated for a 2006 Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actress on Television " , and won a Constellation Award in the category " Best Female Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Television " in 2007 .
= = Role in Stargate = =
= = = Character arc = = =
Information about Vala 's past is revealed over the course of several episodes of seasons 8 through 10 of Stargate SG @-@ 1 . " Family Ties " gives insight into Vala 's background with her father Jacek , a con artist who had left her and her mother to pursue his scams . As mentioned in " Flesh and Blood " , Vala also had a stepmother named Adria , whom she held in little regard . Vala became an involuntary host to a Goa 'uld named Qetesh in her adult life , but the Tok 'ra were able to remove the symbiote . At the time of Vala 's first encounter with SG @-@ 1 team member Daniel Jackson in the season 8 episode " Prometheus Unbound " , she has become a thief and a con artist . She attempts to steal the Earth ship Prometheus for her own purposes , but when Daniel evades her sexual advances and thwarts her plans , she escapes .
In the season 9 opener " Avalon " , Vala seeks out Daniel at Stargate Command . Needing his linguistic skills , she uses a Kor mak bracelet to bind them together for a treasure hunt on Earth . The discovery of an Ancient communication device transports Vala 's and Daniel 's minds to a village in a distant galaxy where the local villagers kill Vala in a trial by fire , but a Prior , a servant of a race named the Ori , resurrects her . After Vala 's and Daniel 's safe return to Earth , the removed bracelets cause temporary after @-@ effects that prolong Vala 's stay at Stargate Command . In an attempt to stop the Ori from invading the galaxy in " Beachhead " , Vala goes missing and appears to have died . Vala re @-@ appears in the late season 9 episode " Crusade " and informs SG @-@ 1 via the communication device that she is in the Ori galaxy . The Ori have impregnated her against her will many months before , and Vala saw herself forced to marry a local villager named Tomin to make the pregnancy plausible . When Vala tells SG @-@ 1 about the Ori army approaching , the communication link is severed . Vala is last seen onboard one of the invading Ori battlecruisers in the closing scene of the season 9 finale " Camelot " when she goes into labor .
Season 10 opens with Vala giving birth to a female . The Ori call the rapidly growing child Orici , but Vala gives her the name Adria after her stepmother . Attempts to turn the child away from the Ori remain unsuccessful . Having escaped the Ori , Vala is allowed sanctuary at Stargate Command and joins SG @-@ 1 on several missions , during one of which she comes face @-@ to @-@ face with her fully @-@ grown daughter . Vala 's provisionary acceptance on Earth is only lifted in the eighth episode of the season , " Memento Mori " , in which she is finally made a full member of SG @-@ 1 . Vala meets Tomin again in " Line in the Sand " and tells him the true story behind the Ancients and Ori . A final showdown in the series between Vala and Adria occurs in " Dominion " , which leaves Vala with the loss of her daughter . In " Unending " , the last episode of the series , SG @-@ 1 gets stuck in a time dilation field aboard the Earth ship Odyssey , and a romance between Vala and Daniel finally comes to fruition . Before the time dilation field is reversed after fifty years , erasing all linked memories in the process , Daniel and Vala express their feelings for each other . The Ori story concludes with Adria 's disempowerment and Vala 's and Tomin 's amicable separation in the 2008 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film Stargate : The Ark of Truth . Vala and her alter ego , Qetesh , appear in the alternate @-@ timeline film Stargate : Continuum .
= = = Characterization = = =
Official Stargate sources advertised Vala as a " scheming , unscrupulous , thieving con artist " , " feisty " and " occasionally fickle " , with a " mysterious agenda " and a seemingly " amorous interest in Dr. Daniel Jackson " . Genre magazine TV Zone subtitled Vala as a " thief , arms dealer , mercenary " who , when given an inch , will " take a mile , and whatever else she can get her hands on . " SFX described Vala as a " mischievous minx " , whereas The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune interpreted Vala as " ethically challenged " . Steven Eramo of Starburst gave Vala the attributes " sexy , smart and always resourceful " . Claudia Black characterized early Vala as " sassy " , " intelligent " , " manipulative " , and " mercurial " , but found it " very hard to tell what the real core of Vala is . " Black later described Vala as " a new , weird element " , " irritating " , " very vibrant " , " sort of the hair @-@ pulling variety " , " really infuriating " and " [ hopefully ] funny " . With Vala being a departure from Black 's former Farscape role as Aeryn Sun , Black regarded Vala as a comedic and energetic character with streaks of irreverence and naughtiness who " says everything that everyone else is thinking , but doesn 't dare say " , although both characters share " being damaged goods [ in the beginning ] and on a path to becoming a better person " . Robert C. Cooper thought of Vala as " a bit of a wild card " and " a very sexy character , who isn 't afraid to take whatever she wants in any given situation . " Cooper and Black believed the character had a moral compass to her actions .
= = = Relationships = = =
Claudia Black and Michael Shanks ( Daniel Jackson ) linked their characters ' early relationship to a Spencer Tracy / Katharine Hepburn dynamic of " not so much of tension , but rather constant antagonism " . Despite the concern in early season 9 that their relationship would stagnate and dumb down their characters , Shanks felt Vala brought out a side of Daniel that he had not had the chance to play before , and Black advocated the slow revelation of Vala 's layers of denial . The writers continued to develop the friendship between Vala and Daniel throughout season 10 , aiming not to lose their sexual chemistry . Michael Shanks stated that by " Memento Mori " , " Daniel legitimately cares about Vala and has seen some sort of redemption in her and wants that process to continue . " From Black 's point of view , Daniel offers " an interesting window " into " Vala 's external façade to be playful with people " . He helps Vala grow as a person and forces her to " develop coping mechanisms that allow her to be more adult and learn that it 's OK to be honest and talk how you feel . " Asked about a possible romance between Vala and Daniel before the filming of the series finale , Black predicted that a consummation of the relationship would end badly in terms of both story and on @-@ screen chemistry . When producer Robert C. Cooper presented his preliminary script for the series finale , " Unending " , both Black and Shanks protested his intended story of having Vala and Daniel sleep together without a confrontation . Shanks felt that " [ t ] here 's always been this underlining , keeping [ Vala ] at arms length because of the fear of getting too close . " After Cooper rewrote the scene to increase Vala 's vulnerability to Daniel , and have Daniel truthfully explain his feelings of a relationship , the actors decided to play the confrontation scene as genuinely as possible , with both characters being neither completely in @-@ character nor totally out @-@ of @-@ character .
Describing Vala 's attitude towards bonding with other characters as " in a strange way quite level @-@ headed " and " quite honest " , Black interpreted Vala 's behavior as a reaction to growing attached to people where the relationships never seem to work out . Cooper explained that by Vala 's contacting of Stargate Command about the imminent threat at the end of season 9 , she " has reached a point of honesty with [ the SG @-@ 1 ] characters and possibly herself on a level that she 's never had before . " From the beginning of season 10 , Claudia Black and Amanda Tapping requested a similarly positive camaraderie between their characters as male characters have . Tapping noted Carter 's respect for Vala despite them being at opposite ends in their actions ; Tapping also thought Carter finds Vala amusing rather than annoying . A scene in " Morpheus " that was intended to establish this relationship was cut for time , and until the late season 10 episode " Family Ties " would accommodate this with a shopping scene , the actresses acknowledged their connection through looks and subtle nuances . By joining SG @-@ 1 , Vala also shared a spot with stoic warrior Teal 'c as the only alien members of the team , and actor Christopher Judge ( Teal 'c ) explained that his character 's amusement with Vala contributed to Teal 'c's loosening up . The relationship between Vala and SG @-@ 1 team leader Colonel Cameron Mitchell ( played by Ben Browder ) was rarely emphasized in the series since Black and Browder were well known for formerly starring as star @-@ crossed lovers in the cult sci @-@ fi series Farscape .
According to Black , Vala 's motivation to hide her miraculous pregnancy by marrying the local villager Tomin ( played by Tim Guinee ) in late season 9 stems from " genuinely car [ ing ] for the man . She does something wrong , but she must in order to survive . " Against the audience 's expectation , Vala and Tomin are shown as a seemingly functioning normal couple , and Vala makes several efforts to save him despite his deep indoctrination . Throughout season 10 , Vala has to come to terms with her maternal feelings for Adria ( as adult played by Morena Baccarin ) , well knowing from the beginning that Adria embodies a destructive entity that must be fought . Black believed Vala had to " try her best to connect with her daughter in the hope of finding ways to humanize her " , despite her own lack of maturity . When Vala meets her father Jacek ( Fred Willard ) in " Family Ties " , Vala shows " a slightly more dramatic and vulnerable side " that was new to the audience .
= = Conceptual history = =
= = = Creation and casting = = =
Stargate SG @-@ 1 supervising producer Damian Kindler wrote " Prometheus Unbound " as a second @-@ unit bottle episode for the middle of Stargate SG @-@ 1 's season 8 in 2004 . The main cast 's availability was limited , as Richard Dean Anderson had a reduced season schedule , and Amanda Tapping and Christopher Judge filmed " Gemini " in parallel to " Prometheus Unbound " . Kindler therefore centered the episode on Michael Shanks ' character Daniel Jackson and created Vala , a human character from an unnamed planet , as Daniel 's one @-@ episode adversary . Not fully content with Kindler 's conservative approach , producer Robert C. Cooper amplified the character 's cheeky and sexy personality in his own passes of the script . Although Cooper tried to respect Stargate SG @-@ 1 's reputation as a sex @-@ free family show , he was aware that the character 's flirtatiousness might cause a strong audience reaction .
Robert . C. Cooper suggested Australian actress Claudia Black for the role of Vala and contacted her agent two days before the filming of " Prometheus Unbound " began . The Stargate producers had approached Black several times before , but she had always been busy with other projects . At " Prometheus Unbound " ' s casting stage , the actress had just finished dialogue looping sessions for Farscape : The Peacekeeper Wars in Australia . She thought the script of " Prometheus Unbound " was funny and self @-@ contained enough for creative experiments , so she accepted the role and called the episode 's director , Andy Mikita , in advance . He suggested an Out of Sight @-@ kind chemistry for Vala and Daniel , and encouraged the actress to push the character as far as possible . On set , Claudia Black and Michael Shanks decided to make one of their first scenes , a fight sequence , as funny and non @-@ machismo as possible to mirror Daniel 's non @-@ military background . In the meantime , Black tried to transform her day @-@ long jetlag and lack of sleep into humour . When the producers saw the on @-@ screen chemistry between Black and Shanks , they decided to make the character a bigger part of the show .
= = = Development = = =
With actor Richard Dean Anderson 's departure from the show in 2005 , Stargate SG @-@ 1 saw cast changes at the beginning of season 9 . Ben Browder and Beau Bridges joined the main cast as Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Cameron Mitchell and Major General Hank Landry , respectively . At the same time , the producers re @-@ introduced Vala in a six @-@ episode story arc to cover for the maternity leave of SG @-@ 1 regular Amanda Tapping ( Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Samantha Carter ) . The producer intended to use Vala 's unpredictability and wildcard status to break the bigger story arc and to acquaint the audience with the new characters . Claudia Black wished to broaden her horizon in comedic acting and agreed to the recurring role , but declined the producers ' offer of a permanent role for personal reasons .
Because Ben Browder and Claudia Black were well known for formerly starring as star @-@ crossed lovers in the cult sci @-@ fi series Farscape , the Stargate producers refrained from emphasizing the pairing of Mitchell and Vala beyond in @-@ jokes . The producers instead opted to further the comedic chemistry between Claudia Black and Michael Shanks , who linked their characters ' early relationship to a Spencer Tracy / Katharine Hepburn dynamic of " not so much of tension , but rather constant antagonism " . Mirroring Vala 's sexiness in season 8 , " The Powers That Be " writer Martin Gero chose Qetesh , the Egyptian Goddess of Love and Beauty , as a fitting former Goa 'uld identity for Vala . Nevertheless , Black and the producers refrained from portraying the character as too sexually manipulative . A scene from " The Ties That Bind " , which was later cut for time , originally made clear that Wallace Shawn 's character greatly exaggerated the sexual relationship between him and Vala . Claudia Black was brought back into the show for the last two episodes of season 9 , at which time the actress was seven months pregnant . Producer Robert C. Cooper , who wrote and directed " Crusade " , used the circumstances to set the stage for Adria , Vala 's future daughter and the show 's new villain in season 10 .
Claudia Black joined the cast full @-@ time in season 10 . Had Stargate SG @-@ 1 not been picked up for a new season , the producers would have considered the character for a spin @-@ off series . To justify the character in a regular capacity , the producers toned her down and tried to find a suitable balance of sexual tension , fun and friendship . Claudia Black was convinced that Vala 's actual stay with Stargate Command was justified despite the character 's personality . Vala 's renegade qualification to infiltrate the Ori served as a useful complement to the military @-@ oriented SG teams , and Vala had already proven a degree of allegiance through her actions in " Beachhead " , holding off an immediate invasion of the enemy . The writers tested this loyalty through confrontation in the story , and writer Damian Kindler later compared Vala 's character growth in season 10 to smuggler Lando Calrissian from Star Wars , a " former swindler who 's gone legit " . Careful to never have Vala become too earnest , Kindler never saw Vala " as the type of character who should be on the show for five , six , seven years . But definitely the sort of character who could come in for a couple of seasons , spice things up and then move on and come back and forth . " Evolving the relationship between Vala and the other SG @-@ 1 members , the producers also grew comfortable with pairing Browder 's and Black 's characters more often , and even teased ( and misled ) viewers about them " end [ ing ] up in a motel room bed together " in the episode " Memento Mori " , involving underwear , " handcuffs as well as creamy Twinkies " . A scene in the milestone episode " 200 " also parodied the show 's connection to Farscape . In hindsight , Claudia Black would see season 10 as a personal challenge as her baby deprived her of sleep during the filming period . Her relocation to Vancouver and sickness in the family put her on a self @-@ confessed personal and professional low . She nevertheless tried to stay true to her character " and not go for the cheap laugh " .
After a miscarriage scare during the filming of the first direct @-@ to @-@ DVD SG @-@ 1 film , Stargate : The Ark of Truth , Claudia Black 's work on the film Stargate : Continuum was limited on strict doctor 's orders . Although Black considered Continuum " not a Vala @-@ centric piece " as she only " makes a brief appearance " , Stargate producer Joseph Mallozzi thought " she 's got some great , juicy scenes " . Claudia Black mentioned an interest in portraying her character in the future , but Mallozzi rated the chances of her appearing in the planned Stargate Universe spin @-@ off series as " not so good " . Producer Brad Wright announced that Vala would not be returning for the announced third Stargate SG @-@ 1 direct @-@ to @-@ DVD film that was scheduled to be filmed in spring 2009 . Claudia Black is the only SG @-@ 1 main cast member besides Corin Nemec ( playing Jonas Quinn between SG @-@ 1 's season 5 and 7 ) and Ben Browder ( playing Cameron Mitchell from season 9 onward ) who never appeared in Stargate Atlantis , although Vala is mentioned by Rodney McKay ( played by David Hewlett ) in the Atlantis season 5 episode " Identity " .
= = = Costumes and make @-@ up = = =
Claudia Black made her entrance in Stargate SG @-@ 1 in a full @-@ body Kull Warrior costume , not dissimilar to her first appearance as a Peacekeeper in Farscape . For her entrance in season 9 's " Avalon " , however , the costume designers intended her to wear a dress that the producers later deemed too revealing . Leaving the dress for Vala 's appearance as Qetesh in " The Powers That Be " , Vala 's outfit for " Avalon " was switched to a black fetish leather gear which a costume designer described as " a dominatrix outfit " . Black admitted the wildness of her " Avalon " wardrobe was not for her liking . But since it mirrored the attention @-@ seeking personality of the character , and because the character does not spend much time in the same outfit anyway , the actress did not mind wearing it .
Vala started wearing the normal SG team uniform in " Origin " , the third episode of season 9 . Claudia Black was later included in the design process and was given full control over her wardrobe for scenes that required civilian clothes . As such , Black chose Vala 's underwear for the seduction scene in " The Ties That Bind " and her shopping tour outfit in " Family Ties " . The latter episode also showed Vala with seven distinctly different hairstyles and outfits in total . Fearing the lack of seriousness , the producers opposed the make @-@ up department 's decision of having Vala wear curlers , but the scene could not be reshot . Similarly , a scene showing Vala unpacking her hair dryer and curling iron during an offworld mission in " The Quest " was deemed too silly and was trimmed to the basics ; it would have been cut if the footage had allowed it . Due to Black 's pregnancy during the filming of the films , the costume department needed to hide Black 's bump with appropriate dressing .
= = Reception = =
The character of Vala was immediately popular with the Stargate writers , producers and crew . During the filming of " Prometheus Unbound " , people on set responded " very well " to the chemistry between Vala and Daniel . Director Andy Mikita called executive producer Robert C. Cooper during the first lunch break and told him to " hire this gal " , and Cooper thought Vala / Black " was absolutely wonderful . The character really worked out . " Writer Damian Kindler " really loved " what Black brought to the show , believing that " her character , when used properly , is just absolutely wonderful grist for the mill on SG @-@ 1 . " Stargate writer Martin Gero called Vala " so much fun to write , almost too fun . You do kind of get carried away . " Michael Shanks repeatedly stated in interviews that Claudia Black revitalized his interest in acting .
While TV Guide called Vala a " saucy [ and ] bodacious babe who immediately clicked with viewers " , GateWorld 's Darren Sumner and TheScifiWorld 's Gilles Nuytens commented on her " warm reception .. by fans " and her being " an instant hit with fans of the show " . 71 percent of over 8000 GateWorld readers rated Claudia Black 's portrayal of Vala in season 9 as " perfect " . In a later GateWorld poll among over 12000 participants , 51 percent answered that Claudia Black 's joining the main cast was " about time ! " , while 22 percent were concerned or had no opinion . The actress was not as confident about the character 's reception , and Robert C. Cooper advertised Vala 's last season 9 appearance as the return of " a much loved and much hated character . " Vala Mal Doran ranked second ( 25 % ) out of five behind SG @-@ 1 's Cameron Mitchell ( 27 % ) in the viewer @-@ voted 2006 Spacey Awards for " Favourite New TV Character " , and was voted third ( 22 % ) out of five places in the 2007 Spacey Awards for " Favourite Character You Love to Hate " ( 26 % Battlestar Galactica 's Gaius Baltar , 28 % Smallville 's Lex Luthor ) . Per popular demand , Diamond Select Toys included Vala in their third series of Stargate action figures .
The Sun Herald thought of the character as " a thoroughly charming intergalactic thief famed for using her allure to get what she wants " , and Matt Roush of TV Guide called Claudia Black " great fun to watch in [ seasons 8 and 9 ] " . TV Zone 's Stephen Graves believed that Browder and Black 's first post @-@ Farscape encounter in Stargate SG @-@ 1 's " Avalon " was " somewhat underplayed – but Black makes up for this with her sparky , snarky characterization of Vala . " He welcomed the producers ' decision to not cast a carbon copy of Samantha Carter , and thought that Claudia Black 's Vala in her six @-@ episode arc remained " the best thing in the series " . By season 10 's " Memento Mori " , TV Zone 's Anthony Brown felt that " Ben Browder and Claudia Black have ... reached a point where they can play out an amusing take on Misery without you feeling that [ their Farscape characters ] have somehow starbursted onto SG @-@ 1 's Earth " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune called Browder and Black 's interaction in season 10 " great fun ; the rapport they developed on the stellar Farscape was still much in evidence , even though they played radically different characters on SG @-@ 1 . "
Maureen Ryan described the chemistry between Black and Michael Shanks as " sparky " and " one of the most diverting parts of the latter seasons of the show " . According to Ultimate DVD , the scenes between Vala and Daniel as the object of her affection resulted in " some of the freshest and funniest scenes in the show for some time " . In reviewing " Unending " , Anthony Brown called Vala " a character who 's always had a little too much of comic relief [ getting ] torn apart by the nice guy of the team . " SyFy Portal attributed Stargate SG @-@ 1 not going stale after ten years to Black , as she " quite literally steals the show from the existing cast of heroes " . For her portrayal of Vala , Claudia Black was nominated for a Saturn Award in the category " Best Supporting Actress on Television " in 2006 , and won a Constellation Award in the category " Best Female Performance in a 2006 Science Fiction Television " for the episode " Memento Mori " in 2007 .
= Richard Wagner =
Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( / ˈvɑːɡnər / ; German : [ ˈʁiçaʁt ˈvaːɡnɐ ] ; 22 May 1813 – 13 February 1883 ) was a German composer , theatre director , polemicist , and conductor who is primarily known for his operas ( or , as some of his later works were later known , " music dramas " ) . Unlike most opera composers , Wagner wrote both the libretto and the music for each of his stage works . Initially establishing his reputation as a composer of works in the romantic vein of Weber and Meyerbeer , Wagner revolutionised opera through his concept of the Gesamtkunstwerk ( " total work of art " ) , by which he sought to synthesise the poetic , visual , musical and dramatic arts , with music subsidiary to drama . He described this vision in a series of essays published between 1849 and 1852 . Wagner realised these ideas most fully in the first half of the four @-@ opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen ( The Ring of the Nibelung ) .
His compositions , particularly those of his later period , are notable for their complex textures , rich harmonies and orchestration , and the elaborate use of leitmotifs — musical phrases associated with individual characters , places , ideas or plot elements . His advances in musical language , such as extreme chromaticism and quickly shifting tonal centres , greatly influenced the development of classical music . His Tristan und Isolde is sometimes described as marking the start of modern music .
Wagner had his own opera house built , the Bayreuth Festspielhaus , which embodied many novel design features . The Ring and Parsifal were premiered here and his most important stage works continue to be performed in an annual festival run by his descendants . His thoughts on the relative contributions of music and drama in opera were to change again , and he reintroduced some traditional forms into his last few stage works , including Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg ( The Mastersingers of Nuremberg ) .
Until his final years , Wagner 's life was characterised by political exile , turbulent love affairs , poverty and repeated flight from his creditors . His controversial writings on music , drama and politics have attracted extensive comment since the late 20th century , especially where they express antisemitic sentiments . The effect of his ideas can be traced in many of the arts throughout the 20th century ; his influence spread beyond composition into conducting , philosophy , literature , the visual arts and theatre .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Richard Wagner was born to an ethnic German family in Leipzig , where his family lived at No. 3 , the Brühl ( The House of the Red and White Lions ) in the Jewish quarter . He was baptized at St. Thomas Church . He was the ninth child of Carl Friedrich Wagner , who was a clerk in the Leipzig police service , and his wife , Johanna Rosine ( née Paetz ) , the daughter of a baker . Wagner 's father Carl died of typhus six months after Richard 's birth . Afterwards his mother Johanna lived with Carl 's friend , the actor and playwright Ludwig Geyer . In August 1814 Johanna and Geyer probably married — although no documentation of this has been found in the Leipzig church registers . She and her family moved to Geyer 's residence in Dresden . Until he was fourteen , Wagner was known as Wilhelm Richard Geyer . He almost certainly thought that Geyer was his biological father .
Geyer 's love of the theatre came to be shared by his stepson , and Wagner took part in his performances . In his autobiography Mein Leben Wagner recalled once playing the part of an angel . In late 1820 , Wagner was enrolled at Pastor Wetzel 's school at Possendorf , near Dresden , where he received some piano instruction from his Latin teacher . He struggled to play a proper scale at the keyboard and preferred playing theatre overtures by ear . Following Geyer 's death in 1821 , Richard was sent to the Kreuzschule , the boarding school of the Dresdner Kreuzchor , at the expense of Geyer 's brother . At the age of nine he was hugely impressed by the Gothic elements of Carl Maria von Weber 's opera Der Freischütz , which he saw Weber conduct . At this period Wagner entertained ambitions as a playwright . His first creative effort , listed in the Wagner @-@ Werk @-@ Verzeichnis ( the standard listing of Wagner 's works ) as WWV 1 , was a tragedy called Leubald . Begun when he was in school in 1826 , the play was strongly influenced by Shakespeare and Goethe . Wagner was determined to set it to music , and persuaded his family to allow him music lessons .
By 1827 , the family had returned to Leipzig . Wagner 's first lessons in harmony were taken during 1828 – 31 with Christian Gottlieb Müller . In January 1828 he first heard Beethoven 's 7th Symphony and then , in March , the same composer 's 9th Symphony ( both at the Gewandhaus ) . Beethoven became a major inspiration , and Wagner wrote a piano transcription of the 9th Symphony . He was also greatly impressed by a performance of Mozart 's Requiem . Wagner 's early piano sonatas and his first attempts at orchestral overtures date from this period .
In 1829 he saw a performance by dramatic soprano Wilhelmine Schröder @-@ Devrient , and she became his ideal of the fusion of drama and music in opera . In Mein Leben , Wagner wrote " When I look back across my entire life I find no event to place beside this in the impression it produced on me , " and claimed that the " profoundly human and ecstatic performance of this incomparable artist " kindled in him an " almost demonic fire . "
In 1831 , Wagner enrolled at the Leipzig University , where he became a member of the Saxon student fraternity . He took composition lessons with the Thomaskantor Theodor Weinlig . Weinlig was so impressed with Wagner 's musical ability that he refused any payment for his lessons . He arranged for his pupil 's Piano Sonata in B @-@ flat major ( which was consequently dedicated to him ) to be published as Wagner 's Op. 1 . A year later , Wagner composed his Symphony in C major , a Beethovenesque work performed in Prague in 1832 and at the Leipzig Gewandhaus in 1833 . He then began to work on an opera , Die Hochzeit ( The Wedding ) , which he never completed .
= = = Early career and marriage ( 1833 – 42 ) = = =
In 1833 , Wagner 's brother Albert managed to obtain for him a position as choir master at the theatre in Würzburg . In the same year , at the age of 20 , Wagner composed his first complete opera , Die Feen ( The Fairies ) . This work , which imitated the style of Weber , went unproduced until half a century later , when it was premiered in Munich shortly after the composer 's death in 1883 .
Having returned to Leipzig in 1834 , Wagner held a brief appointment as musical director at the opera house in Magdeburg during which he wrote Das Liebesverbot ( The Ban on Love ) , based on Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure . This was staged at Magdeburg in 1836 but closed before the second performance ; this , together with the financial collapse of the theatre company employing him , left the composer with serious money problems . Wagner had fallen for one of the leading ladies at Magdeburg , the actress Christine Wilhelmine " Minna " Planer . After the disaster of Das Liebesverbot , he followed her to Königsberg where she helped him to get an engagement at the theatre . The two married in Tragheim Church on 24 November 1836 . In May 1837 , Minna left Wagner for another man ; this was but the first débâcle of a troubled marriage . In June 1837 , Wagner moved to Riga ( then in the Russian Empire ) , where he became music director of the local opera ; having in this capacity engaged Minna 's sister Amalie ( also a singer ) for the theatre , he presently resumed relations with Minna during 1838 .
By 1839 , the couple had amassed such large debts that they fled Riga to avoid their creditors ; debt would plague Wagner for most of his life . Initially they took a stormy sea passage to London , from which Wagner drew the inspiration for Der fliegende Holländer ( The Flying Dutchman ) , with a plot based on a sketch by Heinrich Heine . The Wagners settled in Paris in September 1839 and stayed there until 1842 . Richard made a scant living by writing articles and arranging operas by other composers , largely on behalf of the Schlesinger publishing house . He also completed during this stay his third and fourth operas Rienzi and Der fliegende Holländer .
= = = Dresden ( 1842 – 49 ) = = =
Wagner had completed Rienzi in 1840 . With the strong support of Giacomo Meyerbeer , it was accepted for performance by the Dresden Court Theatre ( Hofoper ) in the Kingdom of Saxony and in 1842 , Wagner moved to Dresden . His relief at returning to Germany was recorded in his " Autobiographic Sketch " of 1842 , where he wrote that , en route from Paris , " For the first time I saw the Rhine — with hot tears in my eyes , I , poor artist , swore eternal fidelity to my German fatherland . " Rienzi was staged to considerable acclaim on 20 October .
Wagner lived in Dresden for the next six years , eventually being appointed the Royal Saxon Court Conductor . During this period , he staged there Der fliegende Holländer ( 2 January 1843 ) and Tannhäuser ( 19 October 1845 ) , the first two of his three middle @-@ period operas . Wagner also mixed with artistic circles in Dresden , including the composer Ferdinand Hiller and the architect Gottfried Semper .
Wagner 's involvement in left @-@ wing politics abruptly ended his welcome in Dresden . Wagner was active among socialist German nationalists there , regularly receiving such guests as the conductor and radical editor August Röckel and the Russian anarchist Mikhail Bakunin . He was also influenced by the ideas of Pierre @-@ Joseph Proudhon and Ludwig Feuerbach . Widespread discontent came to a head in 1849 , when the unsuccessful May Uprising in Dresden broke out , in which Wagner played a minor supporting role . Warrants were issued for the revolutionaries ' arrest . Wagner had to flee , first visiting Paris and then settling in Zürich where he at first took refuge with a friend , Alexander Müller .
= = = In exile : Switzerland ( 1849 – 58 ) = = =
Wagner was to spend the next twelve years in exile from Germany . He had completed Lohengrin , the last of his middle @-@ period operas , before the Dresden uprising , and now wrote desperately to his friend Franz Liszt to have it staged in his absence . Liszt conducted the premiere in Weimar in August 1850 .
Nevertheless , Wagner was in grim personal straits , isolated from the German musical world and without any regular income . In 1850 , Julie , the wife of his friend Karl Ritter , began to pay him a small pension which she maintained until 1859 . With help from her friend Jessie Laussot , this was to have been augmented to an annual sum of 3 @,@ 000 Thalers per year ; but this plan was abandoned when Wagner began an affair with Mme. Laussot . Wagner even planned an elopement with her in 1850 , which her husband prevented . Meanwhile , Wagner 's wife Minna , who had disliked the operas he had written after Rienzi , was falling into a deepening depression . Wagner fell victim to ill @-@ health , according to Ernest Newman " largely a matter of overwrought nerves " , which made it difficult for him to continue writing .
Wagner 's primary published output during his first years in Zürich was a set of essays . In " The Artwork of the Future " ( 1849 ) , he described a vision of opera as Gesamtkunstwerk ( " total work of art " ) , in which the various arts such as music , song , dance , poetry , visual arts and stagecraft were unified . " Judaism in Music " ( 1850 ) was the first of Wagner 's writings to feature antisemitic views . In this polemic Wagner argued , frequently using traditional antisemitic abuse , that Jews had no connection to the German spirit , and were thus capable of producing only shallow and artificial music . According to him , they composed music to achieve popularity and , thereby , financial success , as opposed to creating genuine works of art .
In " Opera and Drama " ( 1851 ) , Wagner described the aesthetics of drama that he was using to create the Ring operas . Before leaving Dresden , Wagner had drafted a scenario that eventually became the four @-@ opera cycle Der Ring des Nibelungen . He initially wrote the libretto for a single opera , Siegfrieds Tod ( Siegfried 's Death ) , in 1848 . After arriving in Zürich , he expanded the story with the opera Der junge Siegfried ( Young Siegfried ) , which explored the hero 's background . He completed the text of the cycle by writing the libretti for Die Walküre ( The Valkyrie ) and Das Rheingold ( The Rhine Gold ) and revising the other libretti to agree with his new concept , completing them in 1852 . The concept of opera expressed in " Opera and Drama " and in other essays effectively renounced the operas he had previously written , up to and including Lohengrin . Partly in an attempt to explain his change of views , Wagner published in 1851 the autobiographical " A Communication to My Friends " . This contained his first public announcement of what was to become the Ring cycle :
I shall never write an Opera more . As I have no wish to invent an arbitrary title for my works , I will call them Dramas ...
I propose to produce my myth in three complete dramas , preceded by a lengthy Prelude ( Vorspiel ) . ...
At a specially @-@ appointed Festival , I propose , some future time , to produce those three Dramas with their Prelude , in the course of three days and a fore @-@ evening [ emphasis in original ] .
Wagner began composing the music for Das Rheingold between November 1853 and September 1854 , following it immediately with Die Walküre ( written between June 1854 and March 1856 ) . He began work on the third Ring opera , which he now called simply Siegfried , probably in September 1856 , but by June 1857 he had completed only the first two acts . He decided to put the work aside to concentrate on a new idea : Tristan und Isolde , based on the Arthurian love story Tristan and Iseult .
One source of inspiration for Tristan und Isolde was the philosophy of Arthur Schopenhauer , notably his The World as Will and Representation , to which Wagner had been introduced in 1854 by his poet friend Georg Herwegh . Wagner later called this the most important event of his life . His personal circumstances certainly made him an easy convert to what he understood to be Schopenhauer 's philosophy , a deeply pessimistic view of the human condition . He remained an adherent of Schopenhauer for the rest of his life .
One of Schopenhauer 's doctrines was that music held a supreme role in the arts as a direct expression of the world 's essence , namely , blind , impulsive will . This doctrine contradicted Wagner 's view , expressed in " Opera and Drama " , that the music in opera had to be subservient to the drama . Wagner scholars have argued that Schopenhauer 's influence caused Wagner to assign a more commanding role to music in his later operas , including the latter half of the Ring cycle , which he had yet to compose . Aspects of Schopenhauerian doctrine found their way into Wagner 's subsequent libretti .
A second source of inspiration was Wagner 's infatuation with the poet @-@ writer Mathilde Wesendonck , the wife of the silk merchant Otto Wesendonck . Wagner met the Wesendoncks , who were both great admirers of his music , in Zürich in 1852 . From May 1853 onwards Wesendonck made several loans to Wagner to finance his household expenses in Zürich , and in 1857 placed a cottage on his estate at Wagner 's disposal , which became known as the Asyl ( " asylum " or " place of rest " ) . During this period , Wagner 's growing passion for his patron 's wife inspired him to put aside work on the Ring cycle ( which was not resumed for the next twelve years ) and begin work on Tristan . While planning the opera , Wagner composed the Wesendonck Lieder , five songs for voice and piano , setting poems by Mathilde . Two of these settings are explicitly subtitled by Wagner as " studies for Tristan und Isolde " .
Amongst the conducting engagements that Wagner undertook for revenue during this period , he gave several concerts in 1855 with the London Philharmonic Society , including one before Queen Victoria . The Queen enjoyed his Tannhäuser overture and spoke with Wagner after the concert , writing of him in her diary that he was " short , very quiet , wears spectacles & has a very finely @-@ developed forehead , a hooked nose & projecting chin . "
= = = In exile : Venice and Paris ( 1858 – 62 ) = = =
Wagner 's uneasy affair with Mathilde collapsed in 1858 , when Minna intercepted a letter to Mathilde from him . After the resulting confrontation with Minna , Wagner left Zürich alone , bound for Venice , where he rented an apartment in the Palazzo Giustinian , while Minna returned to Germany . Wagner 's attitude to Minna had changed ; the editor of his correspondence with her , John Burk , has said that she was to him " an invalid , to be treated with kindness and consideration , but , except at a distance , [ was ] a menace to his peace of mind . " Wagner continued his correspondence with Mathilde and his friendship with her husband Otto , who maintained his financial support of the composer . In an 1859 letter to Mathilde , Wagner wrote , half @-@ satirically , of Tristan : " Child ! This Tristan is turning into something terrible . This final act ! ! ! — I fear the opera will be banned ... only mediocre performances can save me ! Perfectly good ones will be bound to drive people mad . "
In November 1859 , Wagner once again moved to Paris to oversee production of a new revision of Tannhäuser , staged thanks to the efforts of Princess Pauline von Metternich , whose husband was the Austrian ambassador in Paris . The performances of the Paris Tannhäuser in 1861 were a notable fiasco . This was partly a consequence of the conservative tastes of the Jockey Club , which organised demonstrations in the theatre to protest at the presentation of the ballet feature in act 1 ( instead of its traditional location in the second act ) ; but the opportunity was also exploited by those who wanted to use the occasion as a veiled political protest against the pro @-@ Austrian policies of Napoleon III . The work was withdrawn after the third performance and Wagner left Paris soon after . He had sought a reconciliation with Minna during this Paris visit , and although she joined him there , the reunion was not successful and they again parted from each other when Wagner left .
= = = Return and resurgence ( 1862 – 71 ) = = =
The political ban that had been placed on Wagner in Germany after he had fled Dresden was fully lifted in 1862 . The composer settled in Biebrich , on the Rhine near Wiesbaden in Hesse . Here Minna visited him for the last time : they parted irrevocably , though Wagner continued to give financial support to her while she lived in Dresden until her death in 1866 .
In Biebrich , Wagner at last began work on Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg , his only mature comedy . Wagner wrote a first draft of the libretto in 1845 , and he had resolved to develop it during a visit he had made to Venice with the Wesendoncks in 1860 , where he was inspired by Titian 's painting The Assumption of the Virgin . Throughout this period ( 1861 – 64 ) Wagner sought to have Tristan und Isolde produced in Vienna . Despite numerous rehearsals , the opera remained unperformed , and gained a reputation as being " impossible " to sing , which added to Wagner 's financial problems .
Wagner 's fortunes took a dramatic upturn in 1864 , when King Ludwig II succeeded to the throne of Bavaria at the age of 18 . The young king , an ardent admirer of Wagner 's operas , had the composer brought to Munich . The King , who was homosexual , expressed in his correspondence a passionate personal adoration for the composer , and Wagner in his responses had no scruples about counterfeiting a similar atmosphere . Ludwig settled Wagner 's considerable debts , and proposed to stage Tristan , Die Meistersinger , the Ring , and the other operas Wagner planned . Wagner also began to dictate his autobiography , Mein Leben , at the King 's request . Wagner noted that his rescue by Ludwig coincided with news of the death of his earlier mentor ( but later supposed enemy ) Giacomo Meyerbeer , and regretted that " this operatic master , who had done me so much harm , should not have lived to see this day . "
After grave difficulties in rehearsal , Tristan und Isolde premiered at the National Theatre Munich on 10 June 1865 , the first Wagner opera premiere in almost 15 years . ( The premiere had been scheduled for 15 May , but was delayed by bailiffs acting for Wagner 's creditors , and also because the Isolde , Malvina Schnorr von Carolsfeld , was hoarse and needed time to recover . ) The conductor of this premiere was Hans von Bülow , whose wife , Cosima , had given birth in April that year to a daughter , named Isolde , a child not of Bülow but of Wagner .
Cosima was 24 years younger than Wagner and was herself illegitimate , the daughter of the Countess Marie d 'Agoult , who had left her husband for Franz Liszt . Liszt initially disapproved of his daughter 's involvement with Wagner , though nevertheless the two men were friends . The indiscreet affair scandalised Munich , and Wagner also fell into disfavour with many leading members of the court , who were suspicious of his influence on the King . In December 1865 , Ludwig was finally forced to ask the composer to leave Munich . He apparently also toyed with the idea of abdicating to follow his hero into exile , but Wagner quickly dissuaded him .
Ludwig installed Wagner at the Villa Tribschen , beside Switzerland 's Lake Lucerne . Die Meistersinger was completed at Tribschen in 1867 , and premiered in Munich on 21 June the following year . At Ludwig 's insistence , " special previews " of the first two works of the Ring , Das Rheingold and Die Walküre , were performed at Munich in 1869 and 1870 , but Wagner retained his dream , first expressed in " A Communication to My Friends " , to present the first complete cycle at a special festival with a new , dedicated , opera house .
Minna had died of a heart attack on 25 January 1866 in Dresden . Wagner did not attend the funeral . Following Minna 's death Cosima wrote to Hans von Bülow on a number of occasions asking him to grant her a divorce , but Bülow refused to concede this . He only consented after she had two more children with Wagner ; another daughter , named Eva , after the heroine of Meistersinger , and a son Siegfried , named for the hero of the Ring . The divorce was finally sanctioned , after delays in the legal process , by a Berlin court on 18 July 1870 . Richard and Cosima 's wedding took place on 25 August 1870 . On Christmas Day of that year , Wagner arranged a surprise performance ( its premiere ) of the Siegfried Idyll for Cosima 's birthday . The marriage to Cosima lasted to the end of Wagner 's life .
Wagner , settled into his new @-@ found domesticity , turned his energies towards completing the Ring cycle . He had not abandoned polemics : he republished his 1850 pamphlet " Judaism in Music " , originally issued under a pseudonym , under his own name in 1869 . He extended the introduction , and wrote a lengthy additional final section . The publication led to several public protests at early performances of Die Meistersinger in Vienna and Mannheim .
= = = Bayreuth ( 1871 – 76 ) = = =
In 1871 , Wagner decided to move to Bayreuth , which was to be the location of his new opera house . The town council donated a large plot of land — the " Green Hill " — as a site for the theatre . The Wagners moved to the town the following year , and the foundation stone for the Bayreuth Festspielhaus ( " Festival Theatre " ) was laid . Wagner initially announced the first Bayreuth Festival , at which for the first time the Ring cycle would be presented complete , for 1873 , but since Ludwig had declined to finance the project , the start of building was delayed and the proposed date for the festival was deferred . To raise funds for the construction , " Wagner societies " were formed in several cities , and Wagner began touring Germany conducting concerts . By the spring of 1873 , only a third of the required funds had been raised ; further pleas to Ludwig were initially ignored , but early in 1874 , with the project on the verge of collapse , the King relented and provided a loan . The full building programme included the family home , " Wahnfried " , into which Wagner , with Cosima and the children , moved from their temporary accommodation on 18 April 1874 . The theatre was completed in 1875 , and the festival scheduled for the following year . Commenting on the struggle to finish the building , Wagner remarked to Cosima : " Each stone is red with my blood and yours " .
For the design of the Festspielhaus , Wagner appropriated some of the ideas of his former colleague , Gottfried Semper , which he had previously solicited for a proposed new opera house at Munich . Wagner was responsible for several theatrical innovations at Bayreuth ; these include darkening the auditorium during performances , and placing the orchestra in a pit out of view of the audience .
The Festspielhaus finally opened on 13 August 1876 with Das Rheingold , at last taking its place as the first evening of the complete Ring cycle ; the 1876 Bayreuth Festival therefore saw the premiere of the complete cycle , performed as a sequence as the composer had intended . The 1876 Festival consisted of three full Ring cycles ( under the baton of Hans Richter ) . At the end , critical reactions ranged between that of the Norwegian composer Edvard Grieg , who thought the work " divinely composed " , and that of the French newspaper Le Figaro , which called the music " the dream of a lunatic " . Amongst the disillusioned were Wagner 's friend and disciple Friedrich Nietzsche , who , having published his eulogistic essay " Richard Wagner in Bayreuth " before the festival as part of his Untimely Meditations , was bitterly disappointed by what he saw as Wagner 's pandering to increasingly exclusivist German nationalism ; his breach with Wagner began at this time . The festival firmly established Wagner as an artist of European , and indeed world , importance : attendees included Kaiser Wilhelm I , the Emperor Pedro II of Brazil , Anton Bruckner , Camille Saint @-@ Saëns and Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky .
Wagner was far from satisfied with the Festival ; Cosima recorded that months later , his attitude towards the productions was " Never again , never again ! " Moreover , the festival finished with a deficit of about 150 @,@ 000 marks . The expenses of Bayreuth and of Wahnfried meant that Wagner still sought additional sources of income by conducting or taking on commissions such as the Centennial March for America , for which he received $ 5000 .
= = = Last years ( 1876 – 83 ) = = =
Following the first Bayreuth Festival , Wagner began work on Parsifal , his final opera . The composition took four years , much of which Wagner spent in Italy for health reasons . From 1876 to 1878 Wagner also embarked on the last of his documented emotional liaisons , this time with Judith Gautier , whom he had met at the 1876 Festival . Wagner was also much troubled by problems of financing Parsifal , and by the prospect of the work being performed by other theatres than Bayreuth . He was once again assisted by the liberality of King Ludwig , but was still forced by his personal financial situation in 1877 to sell the rights of several of his unpublished works ( including the Siegfried Idyll ) to the publisher Schott .
Wagner wrote a number of articles in his later years , often on political topics , and often reactionary in tone , repudiating some of his earlier , more liberal , views . These include " Religion and Art " ( 1880 ) and " Heroism and Christianity " ( 1881 ) , which were printed in the journal Bayreuther Blätter , published by his supporter Hans von Wolzogen . Wagner 's sudden interest in Christianity at this period , which infuses Parsifal , was contemporary with his increasing alignment with German nationalism , and required on his part , and the part of his associates , " the rewriting of some recent Wagnerian history " , so as to represent , for example , the Ring as a work reflecting Christian ideals . Many of these later articles , including " What is German ? " ( 1878 , but based on a draft written in the 1860s ) , repeated Wagner 's antisemitic preoccupations .
Wagner completed Parsifal in January 1882 , and a second Bayreuth Festival was held for the new opera , which premiered on 26 May . Wagner was by this time extremely ill , having suffered a series of increasingly severe angina attacks . During the sixteenth and final performance of Parsifal on 29 August , he entered the pit unseen during act 3 , took the baton from conductor Hermann Levi , and led the performance to its conclusion .
After the festival , the Wagner family journeyed to Venice for the winter . Wagner died of a heart attack at the age of 69 on 13 February 1883 at Ca ' Vendramin Calergi , a 16th @-@ century palazzo on the Grand Canal . The legend that the attack was prompted by argument with Cosima over Wagner 's supposedly amorous interest in the singer Carrie Pringle , who had been a Flower @-@ maiden in Parsifal at Bayreuth , is without credible evidence . After a funerary gondola bore Wagner 's remains over the Grand Canal , his body was taken to Germany where it was buried in the garden of the Villa Wahnfried in Bayreuth .
= = Works = =
Wagner 's musical output is listed by the Wagner @-@ Werk @-@ Verzeichnis ( WWV ) as comprising 113 works , including fragments and projects .
= = = Operas = = =
Wagner 's operatic works are his primary artistic legacy . Unlike most opera composers , who generally left the task of writing the libretto ( the text and lyrics ) to others , Wagner wrote his own libretti , which he referred to as " poems " .
From 1849 onwards , he urged a new concept of opera often referred to as " music drama " ( although he later rejected this term ) , in which all musical , poetic and dramatic elements were to be fused together — the Gesamtkunstwerk . Wagner developed a compositional style in which the importance of the orchestra is equal to that of the singers . The orchestra 's dramatic role in the later operas includes the use of leitmotifs , musical phrases that can be interpreted as announcing specific characters , locales , and plot elements ; their complex interweaving and evolution illuminates the progression of the drama . These operas are still , despite Wagner 's reservations , referred to by many writers as " music dramas " .
= = = = Early works ( to 1842 ) = = = =
Wagner 's earliest attempts at opera were often uncompleted . Abandoned works include a pastoral opera based on Goethe 's Die Laune des Verliebten ( The Infatuated Lover 's Caprice ) , written at the age of 17 , Die Hochzeit ( The Wedding ) , on which Wagner worked in 1832 , and the singspiel Männerlist größer als Frauenlist ( Men are More Cunning than Women , 1837 – 38 ) . Die Feen ( The Fairies , 1833 ) was unperformed in the composer 's lifetime and Das Liebesverbot ( The Ban on Love , 1836 ) was withdrawn after its first performance . Rienzi ( 1842 ) was Wagner 's first opera to be successfully staged . The compositional style of these early works was conventional — the relatively more sophisticated Rienzi showing the clear influence of Grand Opera à la Spontini and Meyerbeer — and did not exhibit the innovations that would mark Wagner 's place in musical history . Later in life , Wagner said that he did not consider these works to be part of his oeuvre ; none of them has ever been performed at the Bayreuth Festival , and they have been performed only rarely in the last hundred years ( although the overture to Rienzi is an occasional concert piece ) . Die Feen , Das Liebesverbot and Rienzi were performed at both Leipzig and Bayreuth in 2013 to mark the composer 's bicentenary .
= = = = " Romantic operas " ( 1843 – 51 ) = = = =
Wagner 's middle stage output began with Der fliegende Holländer ( The Flying Dutchman , 1843 ) , followed by Tannhäuser ( 1845 ) and Lohengrin ( 1850 ) . These three operas are sometimes referred to as Wagner 's " romantic operas " . They reinforced the reputation , among the public in Germany and beyond , that Wagner had begun to establish with Rienzi . Although distancing himself from the style of these operas from 1849 onwards , he nevertheless reworked both Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser on several occasions . These three operas are considered to represent a significant developmental stage in Wagner 's musical and operatic maturity as regards thematic handling , portrayal of emotions and orchestration . They are the earliest works included in the Bayreuth canon , the mature operas that Cosima staged at the Bayreuth Festival after Wagner 's death in accordance with his wishes . All three ( including the differing versions of Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser ) continue to be regularly performed throughout the world , and have been frequently recorded . They were also the operas by which his fame spread during his lifetime .
= = = = " Music dramas " ( 1851 – 82 ) = = = =
= = = = = Starting the Ring = = = = =
Wagner 's late dramas are considered his masterpieces . Der Ring des Nibelungen , commonly referred to as the Ring or " Ring cycle " , is a set of four operas based loosely on figures and elements of Germanic mythology — particularly from the later Norse mythology — notably the Old Norse Poetic Edda and Volsunga Saga , and the Middle High German Nibelungenlied . Wagner specifically developed the libretti for these operas according to his interpretation of Stabreim , highly alliterative rhyming verse @-@ pairs used in old Germanic poetry . They were also influenced by Wagner 's concepts of ancient Greek drama , in which tetralogies were a component of Athenian festivals , and which he had amply discussed in his essay " Oper und Drama " .
The first two components of the Ring cycle were Das Rheingold ( The Rhinegold ) , which was completed in 1854 , and Die Walküre ( The Valkyrie ) , which was finished in 1856 . In Das Rheingold , with its " relentlessly talky ' realism ' [ and ] the absence of lyrical ' numbers ' " , Wagner came very close to the musical ideals of his 1849 – 51 essays . Die Walküre , which contains what is virtually a traditional aria ( Siegmund 's Winterstürme in the first act ) , and the quasi @-@ choral appearance of the Valkyries themselves , shows more " operatic " traits , but has been assessed by Barry Millington as " the music drama that most satisfactorily embodies the theoretical principles of ' Oper und Drama ' ... A thoroughgoing synthesis of poetry and music is achieved without any notable sacrifice in musical expression . "
= = = = = Tristan und Isolde and Die Meistersinger = = = = =
While composing the opera Siegfried , the third part of the Ring cycle , Wagner interrupted work on it and between 1857 and 1864 wrote the tragic love story Tristan und Isolde and his only mature comedy Die Meistersinger von Nürnberg ( The Mastersingers of Nuremberg ) , two works that are also part of the regular operatic canon .
Tristan is often granted a special place in musical history ; many see it as the beginning of the move away from conventional harmony and tonality and consider that it lays the groundwork for the direction of classical music in the 20th century . Wagner felt that his musico @-@ dramatical theories were most perfectly realised in this work with its use of " the art of transition " between dramatic elements and the balance achieved between vocal and orchestral lines . Completed in 1859 , the work was given its first performance in Munich , conducted by Bülow , in June 1865 .
Die Meistersinger was originally conceived by Wagner in 1845 as a sort of comic pendant to Tannhäuser . Like Tristan , it was premiered in Munich under the baton of Bülow , on 21 June 1868 , and became an immediate success . Barry Millington describes Meistersinger as " a rich , perceptive music drama widely admired for its warm humanity " ; but because of its strong German nationalist overtones , it is also cited by some as an example of Wagner 's reactionary politics and antisemitism .
= = = = = Completing the Ring = = = = =
When Wagner returned to writing the music for the last act of Siegfried and for Götterdämmerung ( Twilight of the Gods ) , as the final part of the Ring , his style had changed once more to something more recognisable as " operatic " than the aural world of Rheingold and Walküre , though it was still thoroughly stamped with his own originality as a composer and suffused with leitmotifs . This was in part because the libretti of the four Ring operas had been written in reverse order , so that the book for Götterdämmerung was conceived more " traditionally " than that of Rheingold ; still , the self @-@ imposed strictures of the Gesamtkunstwerk had become relaxed . The differences also result from Wagner 's development as a composer during the period in which he wrote Tristan , Meistersinger and the Paris version of Tannhäuser . From act 3 of Siegfried onwards , the Ring becomes more chromatic melodically , more complex harmonically and more developmental in its treatment of leitmotifs .
Wagner took 26 years from writing the first draft of a libretto in 1848 until he completed Götterdämmerung in 1874 . The Ring takes about 15 hours to perform and is the only undertaking of such size to be regularly presented on the world 's stages .
= = = = = Parsifal = = = = =
Wagner 's final opera , Parsifal ( 1882 ) , which was his only work written especially for his Bayreuth Festspielhaus and which is described in the score as a " Bühnenweihfestspiel " ( " festival play for the consecration of the stage " ) , has a storyline suggested by elements of the legend of the Holy Grail . It also carries elements of Buddhist renunciation suggested by Wagner 's readings of Schopenhauer . Wagner described it to Cosima as his " last card " . It remains controversial because of its treatment of Christianity , its eroticism , and its expression , as perceived by some commentators , of German nationalism and antisemitism . Despite the composer 's own description of the opera to King Ludwig as " this most Christian of works " , Ulrike Kienzle has commented that " Wagner 's turn to Christian mythology , upon which the imagery and spiritual contents of Parsifal rest , is idiosyncratic and contradicts Christian dogma in many ways . " Musically the opera has been held to represent a continuing development of the composer 's style , and Barry Millington describes it as " a diaphanous score of unearthly beauty and refinement " .
= = = Non @-@ operatic music = = =
Apart from his operas , Wagner composed relatively few pieces of music . These include a symphony in C major ( written at the age of 19 ) , the Faust Overture ( the only completed part of an intended symphony on the subject ) , some overtures , and choral and piano pieces . His most commonly performed work that is not an extract from an opera is the Siegfried Idyll for chamber orchestra , which has several motifs in common with the Ring cycle . The Wesendonck Lieder are also often performed , either in the original piano version , or with orchestral accompaniment . More rarely performed are the American Centennial March ( 1876 ) , and Das Liebesmahl der Apostel ( The Love Feast of the Apostles ) , a piece for male choruses and orchestra composed in 1843 for the city of Dresden .
After completing Parsifal , Wagner expressed his intention to turn to the writing of symphonies , and several sketches dating from the late 1870s and early 1880s have been identified as work towards this end . The overtures and certain orchestral passages from Wagner 's middle and late @-@ stage operas are commonly played as concert pieces . For most of these , Wagner wrote or rewrote short passages to ensure musical coherence . The " Bridal Chorus " from Lohengrin is frequently played as the bride 's processional wedding march in English @-@ speaking countries .
= = = Prose writings = = =
Wagner was an extremely prolific writer , authoring numerous books , poems , and articles , as well as voluminous correspondence . His writings covered a wide range of topics , including autobiography , politics , philosophy , and detailed analyses of his own operas .
Wagner planned for a collected edition of his publications as early as 1865 ; he believed that such an edition would help the world understand his intellectual development and artistic aims . The first such edition was published between 1871 and 1883 , but was doctored to suppress or alter articles that were an embarrassment to him ( e.g. those praising Meyerbeer ) , or by altering dates on some articles to reinforce Wagner 's own account of his progress . Wagner 's autobiography Mein Leben was originally published for close friends only in a very small edition ( 15 – 18 copies per volume ) in four volumes between 1870 and 1880 . The first public edition ( with many passages suppressed by Cosima ) appeared in 1911 ; the first attempt at a full edition ( in German ) appeared in 1963 .
There have been modern complete or partial editions of Wagner 's writings , including a centennial edition in German edited by Dieter Borchmeyer ( which , however , omitted the essay " Das Judenthum in der Musik " and Mein Leben ) . The English translations of Wagner 's prose in eight volumes by W. Ashton Ellis ( 1892 – 99 ) are still in print and commonly used , despite their deficiencies . A complete edition of Wagner 's correspondence , estimated to amount to between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 items , is still under way under the supervision of the Institute for Music Research at the University of Würzburg . As of November 2014 , 21 volumes have appeared , covering the period to 1870 .
= = Influence and legacy = =
= = = Influence on music = = =
Wagner 's later musical style introduced new ideas in harmony , melodic process ( leitmotif ) and operatic structure . Notably from Tristan und Isolde onwards , he explored the limits of the traditional tonal system , which gave keys and chords their identity , pointing the way to atonality in the 20th century . Some music historians date the beginning of modern classical music to the first notes of Tristan , which include the so @-@ called Tristan chord .
Wagner inspired great devotion . For a long period , many composers were inclined to align themselves with or against Wagner 's music . Anton Bruckner and Hugo Wolf were greatly indebted to him , as were César Franck , Henri Duparc , Ernest Chausson , Jules Massenet , Richard Strauss , Alexander von Zemlinsky , Hans Pfitzner and numerous others . Gustav Mahler was devoted to Wagner and his music ; aged 15 , he sought him out on his 1875 visit to Vienna , became a renowned Wagner conductor , and his compositions are seen by Richard Taruskin as extending Wagner 's " maximalization " of " the temporal and the sonorous " in music to the world of the symphony . The harmonic revolutions of Claude Debussy and Arnold Schoenberg ( both of whose oeuvres contain examples of tonal and atonal modernism ) have often been traced back to Tristan and Parsifal . The Italian form of operatic realism known as verismo owed much to the Wagnerian concept of musical form .
Wagner made a major contribution to the principles and practice of conducting . His essay " About Conducting " ( 1869 ) advanced Hector Berlioz 's technique of conducting and claimed that conducting was a means by which a musical work could be re @-@ interpreted , rather than simply a mechanism for achieving orchestral unison . He exemplified this approach in his own conducting , which was significantly more flexible than the disciplined approach of Felix Mendelssohn ; in his view this also justified practices that would today be frowned upon , such as the rewriting of scores . Wilhelm Furtwängler felt that Wagner and Bülow , through their interpretative approach , inspired a whole new generation of conductors ( including Furtwängler himself ) .
Amongst those claiming inspiration from Wagner 's music are the German band Rammstein , and the electronic composer Klaus Schulze , whose 1975 album Timewind consists of two 30 @-@ minute tracks , Bayreuth Return and Wahnfried 1883 . Joey DeMaio of the band Manowar has described Wagner as " The father of heavy metal " . The Slovenian group Laibach created the 2009 suite VolksWagner , using material from Wagner 's operas . Phil Spector 's Wall of Sound recording technique was , it has been claimed , heavily influenced by Wagner .
= = = Influence on literature , philosophy and the visual arts = = =
Wagner 's influence on literature and philosophy is significant . Millington has commented :
[ Wagner 's ] protean abundance meant that he could inspire the use of literary motif in many a novel employing interior monologue ; ... the Symbolists saw him as a mystic hierophant ; the Decadents found many a frisson in his work .
Friedrich Nietzsche was a member of Wagner 's inner circle during the early 1870s , and his first published work , The Birth of Tragedy , proposed Wagner 's music as the Dionysian " rebirth " of European culture in opposition to Apollonian rationalist " decadence " . Nietzsche broke with Wagner following the first Bayreuth Festival , believing that Wagner 's final phase represented a pandering to Christian pieties and a surrender to the new German Reich . Nietzsche expressed his displeasure with the later Wagner in " The Case of Wagner " and " Nietzsche contra Wagner " .
Charles Baudelaire , Stéphane Mallarmé and Paul Verlaine worshipped Wagner . Édouard Dujardin , whose influential novel Les Lauriers sont coupés is in the form of an interior monologue inspired by Wagnerian music , founded a journal dedicated to Wagner , La Revue Wagnérienne , to which J. K. Huysmans and Téodor de Wyzewa contributed . In a list of major cultural figures influenced by Wagner , Bryan Magee includes D. H. Lawrence , Aubrey Beardsley , Romain Rolland , Gérard de Nerval , Pierre @-@ Auguste Renoir , Rainer Maria Rilke and numerous others .
In the 20th century , W. H. Auden once called Wagner " perhaps the greatest genius that ever lived " , while Thomas Mann and Marcel Proust were heavily influenced by him and discussed Wagner in their novels . He is also discussed in some of the works of James Joyce . Wagnerian themes inhabit T. S. Eliot 's The Waste Land , which contains lines from Tristan und Isolde and Götterdämmerung and Verlaine 's poem on Parsifal .
Many of Wagner 's concepts , including his speculation about dreams , predated their investigation by Sigmund Freud . Wagner had publicly analysed the Oedipus myth before Freud was born in terms of its psychological significance , insisting that incestuous desires are natural and normal , and perceptively exhibiting the relationship between sexuality and anxiety . Georg Groddeck considered the Ring as the first manual of psychoanalysis .
= = = Influence on cinema = = =
Wagner 's concept of the use of leitmotifs and the integrated musical expression which they can enable has influenced many 20th and 21st century film scores . The critic Theodor Adorno has noted that the Wagnerian leitmotif " leads directly to cinema music where the sole function of the leitmotif is to announce heroes or situations so as to allow the audience to orient itself more easily " . Amongst film scores citing Wagnerian themes are Francis Ford Coppola 's Apocalypse Now , which features a version of the Ride of the Valkyries , Trevor Jones 's soundtrack to John Boorman 's film Excalibur , and the 2011 films A Dangerous Method ( dir . David Cronenberg ) and Melancholia ( dir . Lars von Trier ) . Hans @-@ Jürgen Syberberg 's 1977 film Hitler : A Film from Germany 's visual style and set design are strongly inspired by Der Ring des Nibelungen , musical excerpts from which are frequently used in the film 's soundtrack .
= = = Opponents and supporters = = =
Not all reaction to Wagner was positive . For a time , German musical life divided into two factions , supporters of Wagner and supporters of Johannes Brahms ; the latter , with the support of the powerful critic Eduard Hanslick ( of whom Beckmesser in Meistersinger is in part a caricature ) championed traditional forms and led the conservative front against Wagnerian innovations . They were supported by the conservative leanings of some German music schools , including the conservatories at Leipzig under Ignaz Moscheles and at Cologne under the direction of Ferdinand Hiller . Another Wagner detractor was the French composer Charles @-@ Valentin Alkan , who wrote to Hiller after attending Wagner 's Paris concert on 25 January 1860 at which Wagner conducted the overtures to Der fliegende Holländer and Tannhäuser , the preludes to Lohengrin and Tristan und Isolde , and six other extracts from Tannhäuser and Lohengrin : " I had imagined that I was going to meet music of an innovative kind but was astonished to find a pale imitation of Berlioz ... I do not like all the music of Berlioz while appreciating his marvellous understanding of certain instrumental effects ... but here he was imitated and caricatured ... Wagner is not a musician , he is a disease . "
Even those who , like Debussy , opposed Wagner ( " this old poisoner " ) could not deny his influence . Indeed , Debussy was one of many composers , including Tchaikovsky , who felt the need to break with Wagner precisely because his influence was so unmistakable and overwhelming . " Golliwogg 's Cakewalk " from Debussy 's Children 's Corner piano suite contains a deliberately tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek quotation from the opening bars of Tristan . Others who proved resistant to Wagner 's operas included Gioachino Rossini , who said " Wagner has wonderful moments , and dreadful quarters of an hour . " In the 20th century Wagner 's music was parodied by Paul Hindemith and Hanns Eisler , among others .
Wagner 's followers ( known as Wagnerians or Wagnerites ) have formed many societies dedicated to Wagner 's life and work .
= = = Film and stage portrayals = = =
Wagner has been the subject of many biographical films . The earliest was a silent film made by Carl Froelich in 1913 and featured in the title role the composer Giuseppe Becce , who also wrote the score for the film ( as Wagner 's music , still in copyright , was not available ) . Amongst other film portrayals of Wagner are : Alan Badel in Magic Fire ( 1955 ) ; Lyndon Brook in Song Without End ( 1960 ) ; Trevor Howard in Ludwig ( 1972 ) ; Paul Nicholas in Lisztomania ( 1975 ) ; and Richard Burton in Wagner ( 1983 ) .
Jonathan Harvey 's opera Wagner Dream ( 2007 ) intertwines the events surrounding Wagner 's death with the story of Wagner 's uncompleted opera outline Die Sieger ( The Victors ) .
= = = Bayreuth Festival = = =
Since Wagner 's death , the Bayreuth Festival , which has become an annual event , has been successively directed by his widow , his son Siegfried , the latter 's widow Winifred Wagner , their two sons Wieland and Wolfgang Wagner , and , presently , two of the composer 's great @-@ granddaughters , Eva Wagner @-@ Pasquier and Katharina Wagner . Since 1973 , the festival has been overseen by the Richard @-@ Wagner @-@ Stiftung ( Richard Wagner Foundation ) , the members of which include a number of Wagner 's descendants .
= = Controversies = =
Wagner 's operas , writings , politics , beliefs and unorthodox lifestyle made him a controversial figure during his lifetime . Following his death , debate about his ideas and their interpretation , particularly in Germany during the 20th century , has continued .
= = = Racism and antisemitism = = =
Wagner 's writings on Jews , including Jewishness in Music , corresponded to some existing trends of thought in Germany during the 19th century ; however , despite his very public views on these themes , throughout his life Wagner had Jewish friends , colleagues and supporters . There have been frequent suggestions that antisemitic stereotypes are represented in Wagner 's operas . The characters of Mime in the Ring , Sixtus Beckmesser in Die Meistersinger , and Klingsor in Parsifal are sometimes claimed as Jewish representations , though they are not identified as such in the librettos of these operas . The topic of Wagner and the Jews is further complicated by allegations , which may have been credited by Wagner , that he himself was of Jewish ancestry , via his supposed father Geyer .
Some biographers have noted that Wagner in his final years developed interest in the racialist philosophy of Arthur de Gobineau , notably Gobineau 's belief that Western society was doomed because of miscegenation between " superior " and " inferior " races . According to Robert Gutman , this theme is reflected in the opera Parsifal . Other biographers ( such as Lucy Beckett ) believe that this is not true , as the original drafts of the story date back to 1857 and Wagner had completed the libretto for Parsifal by 1877 ; but he displayed no significant interest in Gobineau until 1880 .
= = = Other interpretations = = =
Wagner 's ideas are amenable to socialist interpretations ; many of his ideas on art were being formulated at the time of his revolutionary inclinations in the 1840s . Thus , for example , George Bernard Shaw wrote in The Perfect Wagnerite ( 1883 ) :
[ Wagner 's ] picture of Niblunghome under the reign of Alberic is a poetic vision of unregulated industrial capitalism as it was made known in Germany in the middle of the 19th century by Engels 's book The Condition of the Working Class in England .
Left @-@ wing interpretations of Wagner also inform the writings of Theodor Adorno among other Wagner critics . Walter Benjamin gave Wagner as an example of " bourgeois false consciousness " , alienating art from its social context .
The writer Robert Donington has produced a detailed , if controversial , Jungian interpretation of the Ring cycle , described as " an approach to Wagner by way of his symbols " , which , for example , sees the character of the goddess Fricka as part of her husband Wotan 's " inner femininity " . Millington notes that Jean @-@ Jacques Nattiez has also applied psychoanalytical techniques in an evaluation of Wagner 's life and works .
= = = Nazi appropriation = = =
Adolf Hitler was an admirer of Wagner 's music and saw in his operas an embodiment of his own vision of the German nation ; in a 1922 speech he claimed that Wagner 's works glorified " the heroic Teutonic nature ... Greatness lies in the heroic . " Hitler visited Bayreuth frequently from 1923 onwards and attended the productions at the theatre . There continues to be debate about the extent to which Wagner 's views might have influenced Nazi thinking . Houston Stewart Chamberlain ( 1855 – 1927 ) , who married Wagner 's daughter Eva in 1908 but never met Wagner , was the author of the racist book The Foundations of the Nineteenth Century , approved by the Nazi movement . Chamberlain met Hitler on a number of occasions between 1923 and 1927 in Bayreuth , but cannot credibly be regarded as a conduit of Wagner 's own views . The Nazis used those parts of Wagner 's thought that were useful for propaganda and ignored or suppressed the rest .
While Bayreuth presented a useful front for Nazi culture , and Wagner 's music was used at many Nazi events , the Nazi hierarchy as a whole did not share Hitler 's enthusiasm for Wagner 's operas and resented attending these lengthy epics at Hitler 's insistence .
Guido Fackler has researched evidence that indicates that it is possible that Wagner 's music was used at the Dachau concentration camp in 1933 – 34 to " reeducate " political prisoners by exposure to " national music " . There seems to be no evidence to support claims , sometimes made , that his music was played at Nazi death camps during the Second World War .
Because of the associations of Wagner with antisemitism and Nazism , the performance of his music in the State of Israel has been a source of controversy .
= = = Operas = = =
Richard Wagner Opera , Richard Wagner operas , Wagner interviews , CDs , DVDs , Wagner calendar , Bayreuth Festival
Wagner Operas , site featuring photographs , video , MIDI files , scores , libretti , and commentary
RWagner.net , contains libretti of his operas , with English translations
Wagner website , assortment of articles on Wagner and his operas
Wilhelm Richard Wagner site by Stanford University
The Wagnerian , Richard Wagner news , operas , reviews , articles .
= = = Writings = = =
The Wagner Library . English translations of Wagner 's prose works , including some of Wagner 's more notable essays .
Works by Richard Wagner at Project Gutenberg
Works by or about Richard Wagner at Internet Archive
Works by Richard Wagner at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks )
= = = Scores = = =
Free scores by Richard Wagner in the Choral Public Domain Library ( ChoralWiki )
Free scores by Wagner at the International Music Score Library Project
= = = Other = = =
Richard Wagner material in the BBC Radio 3 archives
The National Archive of the Richard Wagner Foundation
Richard Wagner Museum in the country manor Triebschen beside Lucerne , Switzerland where he and Cosima lived and worked from 1866 to 1872 .
= Dunster Castle =
Dunster Castle is a former motte and bailey castle , now a country house , in the village of Dunster , Somerset , England . The castle lies on the top of a steep hill called the Tor , and has been fortified since the late Anglo @-@ Saxon period . After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century , William de Mohun constructed a timber castle on the site as part of the pacification of Somerset . A stone shell keep was built on the motte by the start of the 12th century , and the castle survived a siege during the early years of the Anarchy . At the end of the 14th century the de Mohuns sold the castle to the Luttrell family , who continued to occupy the property until the late 20th century .
The castle was expanded several times by the Luttrell family during the 17th and 18th centuries ; they built a large manor house within the Lower Ward of the castle in 1617 , and this was extensively modernised , first during the 1680s and then during the 1760s . The medieval castle walls were mostly destroyed following the siege of Dunster Castle at the end of the English Civil War , when Parliament ordered the defences to be slighted to prevent their further use . In the 1860s and 1870s , the architect Anthony Salvin was employed to remodel the castle to fit Victorian tastes ; this work extensively changed the appearance of Dunster to make it appear more Gothic and Picturesque .
Following the death of Alexander Luttrell in 1944 , the family was unable to afford the death duties on his estate . The castle and surrounding lands were sold off to a property firm , the family continuing to live in the castle as tenants . The Luttrells bought back the castle in 1954 , but in 1976 Colonel Walter Luttrell gave Dunster Castle and most of its contents to the National Trust , which operates it as a tourist attraction . It is a Grade I listed building and scheduled monument .
= = History = =
= = = 11th to 12th centuries = = =
Dunster Castle was positioned on a steep , 200 @-@ foot ( 61 m ) high hill , sometimes called the Tor , overlooking the village of Dunster in Somerset . During the early medieval period the sea reached the base of the hill , close to the mouth of the River Avill , offering a natural defence and making the village an inland port . Several Iron Age hillforts were built close to Dunster , including Bat 's Castle , Black Ball Camp and Grabbist Hill , but the earliest evidence of a fortification at Dunster was an Anglo @-@ Saxon burgh . This was built on the summit of the hill and was possibly intended to protect the region against sea @-@ borne raiders ; by the mid @-@ 11th century it was controlled by a local nobleman called Aelfric .
In 1066 the Normans invaded south @-@ east England , defeating the English forces at the battle of Hastings : in the aftermath of the victory , William the Conqueror entrusted the conquest of the south @-@ west of England to his half @-@ brother Robert of Mortain . Expecting stiff resistance , Robert marched west into Somerset , supported by forces under Walter of Douai , who entered from the north ; a third force , under the command of William de Mohun , landed by sea along the Somerset coast . William had been granted 68 manors in the region and by 1086 had established a castle at Dunster ; this would form both the caput , or principal castle , for his new lands , and help guard the coast against the threat of any fresh sea @-@ borne attack , as well as controlling the coastal road running from Somerset to Gloucestershire . This first castle was a motte and bailey design , built upon the former Anglo @-@ Saxon burgh ; the top of the Tor was scarped to form the motte , or Upper Ward , and an area below shaped to form the bailey , or Lower Ward .
Somerset became more stable in the aftermath of the post @-@ invasion period and the unsuccessful 1068 rebellion against Norman rule . It was common in the period for the Normans to build religious houses to accompany major castles , and accordingly William de Mohun endowed a Benedictine priory at Dunster in 1090 , along with its parent abbey at Bath . The River Avill was important for trade ; the region around Dunster was rich with fisheries and vineyards , and Dunster Castle prospered . Stone fortifications were built on the site during the early 12th century , probably forming a shell keep around the top of the motte .
In the late 1130s England began to descend into a period of civil war known as the Anarchy , during which the supporters of King Stephen fought with those of the Empress Matilda for control of the kingdom . William de Mohun 's eldest son , also called William , was a noted supporter of Matilda , and Dunster was considered one of her faction 's strongest castles in the south @-@ west . In 1138 forces loyal to Stephen besieged the castle ; a siege castle was built nearby , but all trace of it has been lost . William successfully held the castle and was made the Earl of Somerset by the grateful Empress . Chroniclers subsequently complained of the way in which he subsequently raided and controlled the region by force during the war , causing much destruction . In the aftermath of the conflict , William 's son , another William , inherited the castle after a short period of royal ownership under Henry II . William appears to have insisted that his tenants agree to help repair and maintain the castle walls as part of their feudal service .
= = = 13th to 17th centuries = = =
In the 13th century the Lower Ward was rebuilt in stone by Reynold Mohun ; this was paid for in part by Reynold commuting his tenants ' ongoing duty to repair the castle walls into a single , one @-@ off financial payment to their lord , and partially through his marriage to a rich local heiress . A survey of the castle in 1266 described the Upper Ward on the top of the motte as containing a hall with a buttery , a pantry , a kitchen , a bakehouse , the chapel of Saint Stephen and a knight 's hall , guarded by three towers . The Lower Ward included a granary , two towers and a gatehouse ; one of the towers , called the Fleming Tower , was used as a prison . The castle stables lay outside the defences , further down the slope . By the end of the 13th century some of the castle 's roofing had been covered in lead , while other parts still used wooden shingles .
In 1330 Sir John de Mohun inherited the castle ; John , although a notable knight , was childless and fell into considerable debt . His wife Joan took over the running of their estates , and when John died in 1376 she agreed to sell the castle to Lady Elizabeth Luttrell , the leading member of another major Norman family , for 5 @,@ 000 marks , with the castle to transfer to Elizabeth on Joan 's death . At some point during this period additional stone buildings were constructed along the Lower Ward , on the side of the current mansion , and records suggest that a ditch , or moat , may have existed around the base of the Tor in the 14th century .
Joan outlived Elizabeth , and in the event Sir Hugh Luttrell , who was Henry V 's seneschal in Normandy , finally took over the castle on Joan 's death in 1404 . The castle had suffered from a lack of investment during the final years of the Mohan 's ownership , and Luttrell repaired and extended the castle at a cost of £ 252 , constructing the Great Gatehouse and a barbican between 1419 and 1424 . The new entrance lay at right @-@ angles to the old and was three storeys high , built of imported Bristol red sandstone , and contained extensive apartments ; it formed a grand , if ill @-@ defended , ceremonial route into the castle . The castle was reroofed with Cornish stone tiles . By the 15th century the sea had receded , and the Luttrells created a deer park for the castle at Marshwood . Such a park would have been highly prestigious and allowed the Luttrells to engage in hunting , providing the castle with a supply of venison as well as generating income .
During the 15th century , England was divided by the prolonged period of civil war called the Wars of the Roses : the Luttrells were supporters of the House of Lancaster . In 1461 , Sir James Luttrell died following the Lancastrian defeat at the Second Battle of St Albans , and his family were deprived of their estates by the Yorkist Edward IV . The castle was given to the Herberts , but the Luttrells regained it on the accession of the Lancastarian Henry VII in 1485 , when Dunster was restored to James ' son , Sir Hugh Luttrell . Hugh repaired the castle chapel and in the early 16th century his son , Sir Andrew Luttrell , built a new wall on the east side of the castle . Andrew 's son Sir John Luttrell , who inherited the castle , was a famous soldier , diplomat , and courtier under Henry VIII and Edward VI , serving in France and in Scotland during the conflicts of the Rough Wooing . In In 1542 the antiquarian John Leland reported the castle keep and buildings to be considerable disrepair , with the exception of the chapel , and after Sir John 's death the castle was leased out for several years , first by his daughter , Mary , and then under his brother , Thomas .
By the time George Luttrell inherited the castle in 1571 , it was dilapidated , with the family preferring to live in their house , now known as Court House , at East Quantoxhead . In 1617 George employed the architect William Arnold , to create a new house in the Lower Ward of the castle . Arnold was an important architect in the south @-@ west of England , and had managed the building of nearby Montacute and Cranborne House . The redesign expanded on some of the existing buildings and walls to create a 16th @-@ century Jacobean mansion with a symmetrical front and square towers , set within the older castle walls and overlooked by the keep above . The building was decorated in the latest styles , including ornamental plaster ceilings . The project ran almost three times over budget , costing Luttrell more than £ 1 @,@ 200 .
= = = = English Civil War and the Restoration = = = =
In the 1640s the English Civil War broke out between the supporters of King Charles I and Parliament . Thomas Luttrell , George 's eldest son , initially supported Parliament and after the outbreak of war William Russell , the Duke of Bedford and Parliamentary commander in Devon and Somerset , ordered him to increase the garrison at Dunster to resist a potential Royalist attack . The Royalist commander William Seymour , the Duke of Somerset , attacked the castle in 1642 but was driven back by the garrison , led by Thomas ' wife , Jane . The war in the south @-@ west turned in favour of the King , and on 7 June 1643 the Royalists mustered forces to attack the castle again : this time Luttrell surrendered , switching sides to support the Royalists until his death the following February . Colonel Wyndham was appointed the Royalist governor of the castle . The young Prince Charles , the later Charles II , stayed at the castle in May 1645 .
During 1645 the Royalist military cause largely collapsed , and Colonel Robert Blake led a Parliamentary force against Dunster in October . In November Blake began his siege of the castle , setting up his artillery in Dunster village and starting to dig tunnels to plant mines beneath the walls . The castle was briefly relieved by reinforcements in February 1646 , but the siege was resumed and by April the Royalists situation was untenable – an honourable surrender was negotiated and a Parliamentary garrison installed . After the end of the Second English Civil War in 1649 , however , Parliament decided to deliberately destroy , or slight , the defences of castles in key Royalist areas , including the south @-@ west . In the case of Dunster , Thomas 's son George Luttrell was able to convince the authorities to destroy only the medieval defensive walls , rather than the entire castle , leaving Dunster damaged from the recent siege but still habitable ; the walls were demolished over 12 days in August 1650 by a team of 300 workmen . The only parts of the medieval walls to survive were the Great Gatehouse and the bases of the two towers in the Lower Ward .
George Luttrell died without children , and Dunster Castle passed to his brother Francis , who survived the political turmoil of both the Commonwealth years and the Restoration of Charles II to power in 1660 . Francis ' heir , another Francis , married a wealthy heiress worth £ 2 @,@ 500 a year ( £ 331 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) and with this income set about modernising the castle during the 1680s , in particular building a grand staircase in the latest style . Francis was a colonel in the local militia and in 1688 backed William of Orange 's attempt to oust James II ; when William landed in Devon , Francis mustered a number of companies of infantry at Dunster on 19 November to support him , which formed the basis for the later Green Howards regiment . During this period the castle still kept an armoury of 43 muskets . Francis died heavily in debt in 1690 , and his widow Mary moved the contents of the castle to London , where they were destroyed in a fire in 1696 .
= = = 18th century = = =
At the start of the 18th century the Luttrells and Dunster Castle faced many financial challenges . Francis 's son Alexander , inherited the castle when he came of age in 1704 , but it was still mostly empty and carried large debts with it . Alexander died young in 1711 and his widow , Dorothy , spent almost twenty years paying off the debts . Dorothy built a new chapel , designed by Sir James Thornhill in white Portland stone , on the rear of the mansion at a cost of £ 1 @,@ 300 ( £ 178 @,@ 000 at 2009 prices ) ; few records of this remain , but the interior probably resembled that of the chapel at Wimpole Hall . A safer , if less grand , approach road to the castle was created , called the New Way , and the remains of the Upper Ward on top of the motte were flattened to be used as a bowling green , complete with an octagonal summer house . Dorothy 's son , Alexander Luttrell , took over the castle in 1726 but ran up new debts , and the castle was handed over into the control of a receiver .
Henry Fownes Luttrell , who married Margaret , Alexander 's daughter , and took the Luttrell name , moved to Dunster in 1747 . The couple redesigned and redecorated the castle in a Rococo style , including the extensive use of the recently invented and highly fashionable wallpaper . Henry Luttrell raised the ground height of the Lower Ward between 1764 and 1765 to extend the New Way all around to the front of his mansion , adding additional ornamental towers onto the inside of the Great Gatehouse in the process . A folly , Conygar Tower , was constructed by architect Richard Phelps to improve the view from the castle , and a larger park of 141 hectares ( 348 acres ) was built just to the south of the castle , requiring the eviction of a number of tenant farmers .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
Henry 's son , John , inherited the castle in 1780 , but when his son , also called John , inherited in 1816 he chose to live in London instead , opening up Dunster Castle to the public . By 1845 the castle appeared to visitors to be past its prime : with only two of John 's sisters living there and no horses or hunting dogs left in the castle grounds , the remaining servants had little to do . John 's brother Henry inherited in 1857 , but he too lived in London rather than at Dunster .
George Luttrell inherited the castle in 1867 and began an extensive modernisation , backed by the considerable income from the Dunster estates – in a period of agricultural boom in England , the estates were producing £ 22 @,@ 000 in revenue a year ( £ 1 @.@ 49 million at 2010 prices ) . It was fashionable during the mid @-@ Victorian period to remodel existing castles to produce what was felt to be a more consistent Gothic or sometimes Picturesque appearance and George , a keen historian , decided to follow this trend at Dunster ; in the process , he also hoped to accommodate the larger household and facilities required for a 19th @-@ century landowner : by 1881 , the castle required 15 " living @-@ in " servants alone . He employed Anthony Salvin , a noted architect then most famous for his work at Alnwick Castle , to carry out the work between 1868 and 1872 at a total cost of £ 25 @,@ 350 ( equivalent to £ 1 @.@ 76 million in 2010 ) . The work included the construction of an underground reservoir , holding 40 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 180 @,@ 000 l ; 48 @,@ 000 US gal ) of water to provide running water for the castle and village .
Salvin aimed to create a castle that would appear to have grown up organically over time , but still appeal to Victorian aesthetic taste . Accordingly , a large , square tower was built on the west side of the castle and another smaller tower on the east , both creating additional space but also making the castle deliberately asymmetrical . The 18th @-@ century chapel at the rear was demolished and replaced with another tower , alongside a modern conservatory . A variety of windows in the styles of different historical periods were inserted in the walls , while modern Victorian technology , including gas lighting @-@ supported by a gas plant in the basement @-@ central heating and new kitchens were installed within the castle . The roof of the Great Gatehouse was raised to create a more uniform sequence of battlements , and a large hall for gatherings of the local farmers installed . A new wing of servants ' quarters and offices were sunk into the hill , spread over two floors leading away from the main part of the mansion .
Internally , Salvin knocked through existing rooms to create the Outer Hall , a new gallery on the first floor , a billiard room , a new library and a drawing room . Much of the wooden 17th @-@ century panelling in the parlour and the hall had to be stripped out as part of the renovations . As part of his work , Salvin appears to have used a number of rolled wrought @-@ iron beams to span the resulting structural gaps in the building , an advanced use of that technology for the time . The house was refurnished with newly bought 16th and 17th @-@ century artwork , two brass Italian cannons and a stuffed polar bear .
Alexander Luttrell , who inherited Dunster Castle in 1910 , chose to live at East Quantoxhead instead , and it was left empty until his son Geoffrey reoccupied the castle in 1920 , redecorating some of the rooms in a contemporary style and building a polo ground alongside the castle . The castle and the surrounding countryside at this time was very popular with the Luttrells for fox hunting and shooting . During the Second World War the castle was used as a convalescent home for injured naval and American officers between 1943 and 1944 .
Alexander died in 1944 , and the death duties proved crippling to Geoffrey . In 1949 he sold the castle and 3 @,@ 480 hectares ( 8 @,@ 600 acres ) of the lands to the Ashdale Property Company , retaining a tenancy of the castle for himself . The Crown Estate bought the estate from Ashdale and sold the castle back to Geoffrey in 1954 . His son Colonel Walter Luttrell lived away from Dunster , and following the death of his mother – the last Luttrell to live in the property – gave the castle and most of its contents to the National Trust in 1976 .
= = Today = =
Dunster Castle is operated by the National Trust as a tourist attraction . Little remains of the medieval castle except for the Great Gatehouse and the remains of several towers in the Lower Ward ; the heart of the modern castle today is the much altered 17th @-@ century manor house . The key features of the castle include the original 13th @-@ century gates and several pieces of art , including a Tudor copy of Hans Eworth 's famous allegorical portrait of Sir John Luttrell , and a sequence of leather tapestries showing scenes from the story of Antony and Cleopatra . The castle also holds a piano that once belonged to the composer Vivian Ellis . The gardens surrounding the castle cover approximately 6 hectares ( 15 acres ) and include the National Plant Collection of Strawberry Trees ; the wider parkland beyond totals 277 hectares ( 680 acres ) . The gardens and parkland are listed , Grade II * , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
Just to the south of the castle is the restored 18th @-@ century castle watermill . In 2010 the castle received 128 @,@ 242 visitors . Dunster Castle has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building and Scheduled Ancient Monument . The castle has required continuing maintenance work , in particular to its roof , itself an important historical feature . Efforts have been made to gradually redecorate the castle in a period style , using reproductions of original wallpapers and materials . The National Trust installed solar panels behind the battlements on the roof in 2008 to provide electricity and make the premises more environmentally friendly . This was the first time the National Trust have taken this approach to a Grade I listed building , and it is expected to save 1 @,@ 714 kg ( 3 @,@ 778 lb ) of carbon a year . In 2015 , the National Trust announced plans to make the 19th @-@ century reservoir open to the public .
= Crackdown =
Crackdown is an open world action @-@ adventure video game developed by Realtime Worlds and distributed by Microsoft Game Studios for the Xbox 360 . It was released in North America on February 20 , 2007 , and worldwide by February 23 , 2007 . Crackdown was conceived by Realtime Worlds ' founder , David Jones , who also created Grand Theft Auto and Lemmings .
Set in the fictional Pacific City , the player controls a biologically enhanced Agent , tasked with defeating three crime lords and their organized crime syndicates . The Agent 's abilities improve by defeating both crime lords and their supporters , as well as by completing optional activities , such as street races and scavenger hunts . The gameplay is nonlinear : instead of following a rigid mission sequence , players are free to select the approach to completing their missions and activities . The game features a two @-@ player cooperative play mode via Xbox Live .
Crackdown , initially planned for release on the original Xbox console , was envisioned as a vast world in which players could experiment and explore freely . Microsoft Game Studios bundled specifically marked copies of Crackdown with an access code to the multiplayer test version of the much @-@ anticipated Halo 3 Beta . The game sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies in its first six months of release . It received critical acclaim and has garnered several awards for its innovative gameplay . A sequel , Crackdown 2 , was released in July 2010 by Ruffian Games without Jones ' input , and a third title is planned for Xbox One in 2016 , with support from Jones .
= = Plot = =
Crackdown takes place in the fictional metropolis of Pacific City , whose several districts and areas are divided among four islands . The city is controlled by three crime organizations : Los Muertos ( which means " the dead ones " in Spanish ) , of Central American origin ; an Eastern European gang , the Volk ( Russian for " Wolf " ) ; and the formerly above @-@ board Shai @-@ Gen Corporation , from East Asia . Normally , a police @-@ like organization called the Peacekeepers kept the city under control ; their forces , however , were overwhelmed by the sudden rise in crime . The city , therefore , sought additional help from " the Agency " , an organization that , in addition to outfitting and supporting Peacekeepers , has used advanced surgical and cybernetic technology to create supersoldiers known as " Agents " . The Agency is based out of a former hotel in the very centre of the city . The player takes on the role of one of their Agents , and is tasked with systematically bringing down all three organized gangs , while keeping both the populace and Peacekeepers safe . The Agent 's actions are continuously monitored by the Agency , and its Director ( voiced by Michael McConnohie ) provides continuous reports to him of his progress .
Throughout the game , the player roams Pacific City , systematically eliminating the leaders and subordinates of the three gangs . Upon defeating the gangs ' Kingpins and generals , the Agent must put down a final riot by the remaining gang members in the area which after completion will cause that city to be almost crime free . Once all three gangs are fully exterminated , in the closing cutscene of the game , the Director reveals to the Agent that there was an ulterior motive for the Agency 's actions : the Agency had secretly empowered the three gangs in the first place to instill fear in Pacific City 's residents , thus creating a need for the Agency to control the city , and acceptance in the populace when they did take over . The Agency Director 's comments suggest that the Agency will replicate this plan in other cities across the globe to create a New World Order .
= = Gameplay = =
Crackdown is a third @-@ person shooter set in a sandbox environment , akin to Mercenaries : Playground of Destruction . After selecting one of the predefined Agent characters , the player is assigned to defeat the Kingpin of each gang , though there is no precise approach to do this , leaving players to select their preferred method . While the player may face the Kingpin and his bodyguards at any time , they can improve their chances of taking out the Kingpin by facing and defeating the various Generals responsible for certain aspects of the Kingpin 's offense and defense , removing them from play . For example , by eliminating a gang 's weapon dealer , gang members will no longer be as heavily armed or will fire fewer shots to conserve ammunition ; assassinating the gang recruitment officer similarly reduces the size of the Kingpin 's protective force . It is at the player 's discretion whether to kill the Generals or skip them entirely before facing the Kingpin . However , the gangs cannot be completely eradicated from the city without tracking down and killing all Generals and Kingpins .
Much like other sandbox games , the player uses melee attacks , guns , and explosives to fight the opposing forces , and can run , climb buildings , jump across rooftops , or use vehicles to navigate the city . Crackdown features a series of character @-@ based skills that can be upgraded to increase specific traits that can be used in combat , driving , or on @-@ foot agility . These skills include : " Agility " , which increases the Agent 's ability to jump , run , and swim ; " Driving " , affecting how well he can handle a vehicle ; " Explosives " , which affects the power and range of explosive weapons ; " Strength " that increases the Agent 's strength , namely by increasing his ability to lift and throw , as well as how hard he can strike an opponent ; and " Firearms " , which improves the character 's aptitude with weapons . Crackdown 's skills make few concessions to realism : character abilities are similar to those of comic book superheroes or cartoon characters . This concept is further highlighted by the ink @-@ like outlines drawn around in @-@ game characters .
Skills are usually improved by gaining experience orbs , which are released from defeated enemies . The type of orb released varies , depending on how the player dispatched the foe ; for instance , killing an enemy with a gun will earn Firearms orbs , while running them over with a vehicle earns Driving orbs . More powerful enemies release more experience orbs . However , Agility orbs are awarded differently : they can be earned by either climbing buildings and seeking them on rooftops , or by killing an enemy from a high altitude . The player can also compete in " rooftop races " — a race through a series of waypoints across the rooftops of Pacific City — or car races to gain Agility and Driving orbs , respectively . A few special orbs , well @-@ hidden , increase all character abilities when found . A final way to collect orbs is by earning Xbox Live Achievements , which rewards the player with orbs from every skill category . Each skill has five levels — beginning with zero stars , and ending with four — with a numeric gauge on the display to indicate how close the player is to the next level . Should the character die , or injure civilians or Agency peacekeepers , their experience gain will be slowed , making it temporarily harder to improve the character 's traits .
The entirety of Pacific City may be explored from the start of the game , allowing the player to locate the hideouts of each General and Kingpin , which can be made easier by accessing supply points scattered around the city . Once a supply point is unlocked , the player has the option of returning there to travel to any other supply point , restock on weapons and ammunition , or drop off newly acquired weapons , to permanently add them to their weapon selection . Should the player die , they can respawn at any open supply point . While exploring , the player is likely to come across enemy resistance , with their aggressiveness based on how badly the player has damaged that particular gang recently . If the player is too aggressive against the non @-@ gang residents of Pacific City , including the Peacekeepers , they are flagged as rogue , and Agency hit squads are dispatched to take them down .
Crackdown features an online two @-@ player cooperative play mode that allows drop @-@ in play . Both players may explore the city freely , with the other player 's position noted on the HUD map . Players can fight alongside each other , and also inflict friendly @-@ fire damage . The state of the city , including which Generals and Kingpins remain , is determined by the host player 's progress . Both players are credited with the defeat of a General or Kingpin in the game — which will affect the state of the guest 's progress — but are required to obtain supply points and gain experience independently . Co @-@ op players can race against each other in both rooftop and road races , should they both choose to participate .
= = Development = =
Crackdown was envisioned to exceed the gameplay of Grand Theft Auto , giving the player " toys " to create their own in @-@ game moments that could be verbally shared with others . The entire playfield was to be open at the start , requiring the need to create a progression for the player , while still allowing for experimentation . Realtime Worlds had hired a number of former Grand Theft Auto developers who experimented with refining the game 's sandbox element . " It was a big part of the idea to just let people do things " , Realtime Worlds producer Phil Wilson said about the gameplay ; " testers would do things we were completely blown away by " . Dave Jones , CEO of Realtime Worlds , described the concept of the game as " How do we reward somebody for just having fun ? " They had initially planned to have 200 Xbox Live Achievements for the game towards this purpose , exceeded the then @-@ current cap of 50 set by Microsoft , and pressured Microsoft to lift the cap . Microsoft subsequently increased the maximum number of Achievements in a game to 80 . Through playtesting , the team noticed that many players performed certain out @-@ of @-@ the @-@ way actions , such as climbing to the top of the Agency Tower . They created in @-@ game content to reward the player for performing these actions ; for example , they created a special rendering procedure for the clouds during the in @-@ game day / night cycle . The renderer would behave differently each day , and could only be viewed from atop the Agency Tower . An initial fear of Jones ' was that in the early part of the game , when the Agent is underpowered , the player may not realize the potential of the game and would not complete it ; " People weren 't quite sure , because at that level , you 're kind of like most characters in most other games " . Jones also expressed concern that " This game does not look good in screenshots " . They took two major steps to overcome this . First , the demo for the game on Xbox Marketplace allowed for accelerated growth of the player 's abilities . Second , the full game included five in @-@ game movies that would be presented early on to the player that would give them a taste for what a fully powered character could do .
Wilson stated that development of the game began in 2002 with a target release in 2005 on the original Xbox . Nine people were involved in the initial development for twelve months with plans to expand to 35 during full development . By February 2004 , they were able to provide a playable demo , but recognized there were still several challenges with the game 's progression . For example , the team introduced " skills for kills " where skill points were only rewarded for killing foes instead of allowing the player to gain them by less risky opportunities . They also included the frequent reporting of the player 's current chance of success for a player of defeating a Kingpin to prevent the player from being frustrated by trying to fight Kingpins beyond their level .
By 2004 , Microsoft brought the team the Xbox 360 hardware and suggested moving the game to that system , with a release date in the spring of 2006 . By November 2004 , the whole of Pacific City was in place , and cooperative mode was possible . However , in January 2005 they switched to the Renderware 4 engine , which caused many problems and was considered a " gross mistake " by Wilson . Microsoft was able to provide additional programmers to help during 2006 to correct the problems , just in time to create a demo for the 2006 E3 Convention . Wilson admitted that when Crackdown was first unveiled , the team thought the game was too early to debut . " By the time we got to the end of pre @-@ production we were woefully understaffed and over budget " , Wilson commented .
Microsoft found that by October 2006 , the game had fallen into the bottom 30 percent in test player reaction of all games currently in testing , and the bottom 50 percent in interest , though the numbers improved after a month . To help the struggling game , Microsoft decided to package the Halo 3 multiplayer trial with the game . " It was a great boost " , said Wilson . Jones also was positive about the tie @-@ in with the Halo 3 trial ; " We kind of knew Crackdown would need as much help as it could get to get into players ' hands ... Like we 've always said : It 's a game player 's game . It 's not something that 's going to sell in screenshot . So [ the Halo 3 beta ] was good " .
Pacific City within the game consists of 495 " city blocks " which the player could travel among , according to Microsoft Game Studios ' Jami Johns . Each block had to be tested separately , so Microsoft Game Studios designed a software tool to track issues when the game was in testing . For example , the tool was able to identify blocks where the performance dropped or the game crashed , allowing the developers to redesign the area to remove the issues . A further tool was used for the " seams " between city blocks , and included a screenshot just prior to any problem , which significantly reduced the debugging time for the game ; this tool was further used with Forza Motorsport 2 . However , the team had found some bugs during testing that actually worked well as game mechanics without throwing off the game balance . For example , the ability to drive the Agency SUV up a vertical wall when the player has maxed out his driving skill was originally a bug within the game .
= = = Promotion = = =
A Crackdown demo was released via Xbox Live Marketplace on January 23 , 2007 . It was originally dated for January 18 , 2007 , but was delayed due to Microsoft 's certification process . This demo includes both single player and co @-@ op play , but does not allow for jump @-@ in co @-@ op as seen in Gears of War . Silver account members received the demo one week later . The demo lasts for , at most , one hour , with a timer starting when either the player trains a skill to the second level , has eliminated two of the gang Generals , or has been playing for a half @-@ hour . At that point , a 30 @-@ minute timer will start , after which the demo automatically ends . During the demo , in @-@ game skills can be trained up to the highest level , and this occurs at an accelerated rate in order to give players an example of higher @-@ level abilities . The Crackdown demo quickly broke download records for Microsoft 's Xbox Live Marketplace by becoming the most downloaded demo over a 24 @-@ hour period and a seven @-@ day ( week @-@ long ) period . In the week after its release , the Crackdown demo was the second most played Xbox Live game after Gears of War . The demo went on to become the most downloaded and most played overall by March 2007 .
Every pre @-@ ordered and specially marked copy of Crackdown included an invitation to the beta test of the highly anticipated Halo 3 . The Crackdown game disc was required to download and launch the Halo 3 beta through the in @-@ game menus . On April 10 , 2007 , Bungie announced that the beta would become available for download for those that own this copy of Crackdown on May 16 , 2007 . This beta was playable for three weeks from when it was downloadable .
= = = Downloadable content = = =
On February 19 , 2007 , a free downloadable pack was made available for the game . The pack includes four new playable male agents , three of whom have unique , upgradable headgear . A free update was released on May 11 , 2007 , which allows the player to reset gangs , makes it easier to find orbs , improves stunt ring visibility , enhances targeting and camera angles when driving , and provides several other minor fixes . This update also includes a new ground strike attack .
Two packs of downloadable content were released on May 10 , 2007 . The " Free @-@ For @-@ All " pack , which is available free , adds a mode called " Keys to the City " to the main menu . It allows the player to impound any vehicle and store it at the Agency and allows the player to enter a " Keys to the City " mode that allows them to alter the Agent 's statistics or create several items , and other effects , but disables progress within the game . " Gettin ' Busy " bonus pack , introduces new vehicles and weapons , new side missions , and street racing . As of September 6 , 2007 , the " Gettin ' Busy " pack has been purchased from Xbox Live around 200 @,@ 000 times .
The May 2007 title update and downloadable content were linked to a glitch which reset a number of players ' saved games when they played the game 's co @-@ operative mode . The developers apologized for the glitch and offered a temporary workaround , however , saved games already lost to the glitch were not recoverable . On May 16 , 2007 , a further title update was released , resolving the issue , in addition to fixing issues with access to the Halo 3 beta .
= = = Soundtrack = = =
The main theme of the game is ' Paradise Bird Theory ' by DJ Krush .
Crackdown features over 100 tracks of electronica and sample @-@ based music by a number of independent and video game musicians , including Amon Tobin , Atlas Plug , Celldweller and Hybrid . Music supervisor Peter Davenport was in charge of selecting the music for the game , a task that took three years to complete . Davenport was allowed to select music from any source given the premise and missions within the game , and worked with the audio leads at Realtime Worlds to shape the full soundtrack , keeping it to a " dark and ominous " vibe , rather than " super high energy " .
= = Reception = =
Crackdown was critically acclaimed by game critics who praised the open @-@ world approach . Reviewers commented highly on the graphics of the game , both in its detailed city and large draw distances , and the cel @-@ like shading of the characters ; 1UP said that " it 's just better to let a game approach reality on its own aesthetic terms than to go hyperrealistic " . X @-@ Play stated , " It 's an absolute blast to play , and arguably one of the finest superhero games made thus far " , and IGN stated , " Overall the thrill of jumping like a mutant kangaroo from rooftop to rooftop is unrivaled ! " The co @-@ op play feature over Xbox Live was well received ; Eurogamer wrote , " Being able to pick and leap into any of your friends ' or even complete strangers ' cities is likely to keep that buzz going though " , and 1UP agreed , remarking " That it represents the best , if not the first , online multiplayer sandbox game on a console is just gravy " . Reviews did critique the lack of any appreciable story within the game , and how short the core game itself may be ; IGN argued " Crackdown won 't last that long , it 's uneven , and the story and the music are weak sauce " .
Crackdown was not expected to be a good game , due to it being tied to the anticipated Halo 3 multiplayer beta . However , the game surpassed many expectations ; in his review , GameSpy 's Gabe Graziani asked readers the rhetorical question ; " Notice that I didn 't mention the Halo 3 beta offer during this whole article ? That 's because it 's completely irrelevant when looking at Crackdown , it 's a solid game that delivers exactly what it promises : a giant sandbox to blow the crap out of " .
The game was named the 2007 BAFTA " Best Action and Adventure Game " and " Best Use of Audio " . and also won the " Best Debut " award at the 2008 Game Developers Choice Awards . The game received the Innovation Award at the 2007 Develop Awards , held by Develop magazine . Game Informer listed it as one of the top 50 games of 2007 , citing its unique experience and several other elements . They listed the agents as the number eight top heroes of 2007 and climbing the tallest building in the city as the number nine top moment of 2007 .
= = = Sales = = =
Crackdown premiered to very strong sales . During the week of its worldwide release of February 22 , 2007 , it was the top selling Xbox 360 game in North America , Japan , and the UK . The game was the top selling game in North America for the month of February 2007 , selling 427 @,@ 000 units . Ultimately , by the end of 2007 , the game sold 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide . The game is not sold in Germany due to the USK 's decision not to rate the game ; according to GameSpot , this was due to pending legislation at the time to create criminal penalties for games that included " cruel violence on humans or human @-@ looking characters " .
= = Sequels = =
Wilson and lead designer Billy Thomson had previously confirmed that Crackdown was designed from the outset to be a long @-@ running series of games , stating that sequels for the game are very likely to be produced , especially if Crackdown performed well commercially . However , during the Industry All Stars event in September 2007 , Wilson confirmed that Realtime Worlds was not working on a sequel to the game , saying " Microsoft was a little late in stepping up to the plate to ask for Crackdown 2 , and by then we had already started working on bigger , better things " . However , then @-@ corporate vice president of Microsoft Game Studios , Shane Kim , stated that Microsoft still holds the intellectual property rights for Crackdown and that a Crackdown sequel was still a possibility . Realtime Studios manager Colin MacDonald clarified that if they have the resources after completion of APB , they could approach Microsoft to discuss a sequel .
At Microsoft 's E3 conference on June 1 , 2009 , it was announced that Crackdown 2 was at that point of time being developed by a Scottish studio ( Ruffian Games ) formed by members of the Realtime Worlds team . Along with the announcement , an accompanying trailer was released . Crackdown 2 was released on July 6 , 2010 in the U.S. and Canada and on July 9 throughout the rest of the world .
A third title in the series , Crackdown 3 , was announced at Microsoft 's press conference at the Electronic Entertainment Expo 2014 in June 2014 ( under the name Crackdown ) as an Xbox One exclusive under development at Reagent Games and Cloudgine , both run by Dave Jones . The game was then formally revealed in August 2015 .
= Battle of Muong Khoua =
The Battle of Muong Khoua took
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the second innings as the match ended in a draw .
In the following match against Nottinghamshire , Johnson took 1 / 26 and made a duck in the first innings as the hosts batted first . He claimed 3 / 78 in the second innings as the match was drawn . In the next game against Hampshire , Australia had another scare . On a drying pitch , Johnson took 2 / 35 as Australia removed the hosts for 195 . He then made two as Australia were dismissed for 117 , the first time they had conceded a first innings lead on the tour . In the second innings , he took 0 / 13 in four overs as Hassett 's opening bowlers took all the wickets ; Hampshire were bowled out for 103 to leave Australia a target of 182 in 175 minutes . Johnson was promoted to No. 3 and came to the crease almost immediately when Sid Barnes fell before Australia had scored . Johnson hit out , striking three sixes and seven fours , making 74 in the partnership of 105 with Bill Brown . Johnson fell for 74 , but Hassett came in and guided Australia to an eight @-@ wicket win without further loss . The final match before the First Test was against Sussex . Johnson was neither required to bowl nor bat in the first innings . The pacemen dismissed the hosts for 86 in 46 @.@ 4 overs before Australia declared at 5 / 549 in reply . Johnson registered 0 / 37 from 11 overs as Sussex fell for 138 to seal another innings victory for Australia .
= = First Test = =
Although his four matches since the MCC fixture had yielded only six wickets at 34 @.@ 16 , Johnson was selected in the team for the First Test at Trent Bridge . McCool , the other spinner in the MCC and Worcestershire matches , had played in only one match since the MCC game , in which he was wicketless . McCool ’ s omission was the only change from those two matches . Bill Johnston , who bowled left arm pace and orthodox spin was included in the team at the last minute in the hope of exploiting a wet wicket , following the arrival of rain . Johnston had taken match figures of 10 / 40 and 11 / 117 against Yorkshire and Hampshire respectively , both on rain @-@ affected wickets .
English captain Norman Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . Pundits believed the pitch would be ideal for batting after giving some assistance to the fast bowlers in the first hour . Australia 's pacemen reduced England to 8 / 74 before finishing them off for 165 . Johnson was only given five overs and took 0 / 19 as the pacemen efficiently cut down the English batsmen in 79 overs .
During the innings , Bill Edrich was on four when he edged Ray Lindwall to Johnson at first slip . Johnson got both hands to the ball above his head , but dropped it . However , the dropped catch was not costly , as Edrich was dismissed for 18 .
On the third day , Australia reached 5 / 305 when Johnson came in to bat . He made 21 with three fours , including an edge over the slips cordon , before being bowled by Laker . Johnson hit the ball onto his foot , which deflected it back into his stumps . This left Australia at 6 / 338 but the lower order continued to contribute and pushed the total to 509 , giving the tourists a 344 @-@ run lead .
England began their second innings on the third afternoon . Late in the day , after scoring 13 in 43 minutes , Edrich was caught behind by Don Tallon after attempting a cut shot from Johnson ’ s bowling . Edrich did not read the arm ball , which went straight on and took the outside edge , leaving England at 2 / 39 . Denis Compton came in and he ran down the pitch before the first ball was bowled ; he had to quickly block the ball on the run . He then survived a confident lbw appeal from the bowling of Johnson when he was on eight . Compton appeared resigned to his fate and ready to walk , but umpire Frank Chester declined the appeal . During this passage of play , Johnson extracted a substantial amount of spin from the surface . England closed the day at 2 / 121 .
The light was again poor on the fourth day , but England did not appeal against it . Yardley wanted to bat now in poor visibility to erase the deficit and build a lead , to force Australia to chase a target on an erratic surface if a shower came later and turned the pitch into a sticky wicket . Bradman thought that rain might come , so he utilised Toshack and Johnson to bowl defensive leg theory so England would not be in the lead should a sticky wicket arise . As the umpires were obliged to not call off play unless the light was so poor as to endanger the batsman , the lack of pace of Johnson and Toshack forced play to continue as they posed no physical threat to the batsmen .
In his first over at the start of the day , Johnson extracted sharp turn from one delivery that pitched outside off stump ; not expecting much spin , Compton did not play a shot and was hit on the pads , but the umpire rejected the loud appeal for lbw . Otherwise , Len Hutton and Compton progressed steadily , although Johnson and Toshack were able to make the ball deviate regularly .
Soon after reaching his century during the afternoon , Compton edged to the slips from the bowling of Miller , but Johnson spilled the catch . Compton went on to make 184 and England were eventually out for 441 on the final day . Johnson sent down 42 overs for a return of 1 / 66 . He had the best economy rate of 1 @.@ 57 runs per over , ahead of Toshack 's 1 @.@ 81 ; Bradman used both in a defensive manner . This left Australia a target of 98 , which they reached with eight wickets to spare .
Between Tests , Johnson played in the match against Northamptonshire , which started the day after the First Test . He took three middle @-@ order wickets and ended with 3 / 13 from 13 overs , the most economical figures among the Australians in the first innings , as the hosts were out for 119 . He made only four in the bat and took 1 / 46 in the second innings as Australia cruised to an innings victory . After playing in seven consecutive matches comprising 21 days of cricket between 22 May and 18 June , Johnson was rested for the second match between Tests , which was a draw against Yorkshire .
= = Second Test = =
Australia opted to field an unchanged team for the Second Test at Lord 's and elected to bat first after winning the toss . Johnson came in at 5 / 216 on the first afternoon and struggled to score , making only four of the 30 runs added during his stay at the crease before falling at 7 / 246 , caught behind from the bowling of Bill Edrich . However , Australia 's lower order wagged and they eventually took the score to 350 on the second morning .
After lunch , Hutton rocked onto the front foot , played outside a Johnson off break and was bowled for 20 to leave England at 2 / 32 . The English opener had been uncertain against Johnson 's spin and played forward too early at a slower ball , which went between a gap between his bat and pad . Later in the afternoon , Denis Compton and captain Norman Yardley played Johnson cautiously but safely ; in particular , Yardley repeatedly driving a series of overpitched balls from Johnson for runs . Johnson took the last two wickets to fall on the second day , having Alec Coxon caught and bowled for 19 and Laker caught behind for 28 after the pair had put on 41 . England were out early on the third morning for 215 . Johnson ended with 3 / 72 , having sent down 35 overs , the most by any Australian .
The weather was fine as Australia started their second innings just after noon on the third day . Australia batted strongly and on the fourth day , Johnson came in at 6 / 445 , with Australia already ahead by 580 . He made nine before his partner Ray Lindwall was stumped , which prompted Bradman to declare at 7 / 460 . This left England a victory target of 596 , which would require a world record run chase .
Further showers forced a rain break immediately after England started their runchase and breathed extra life into the pitch . When the players returned , Lindwall and Johnston extracted steep bounce with the new ball , troubling the English batsmen .
Hutton and Washbrook took the score to 42 — England 's highest opening partnership of the series — before the former edged Lindwall to Johnson in the slips and was out for 13 . Soon after , Edrich edged to Johnson low down in the cordon and England were 2 / 52 . Edrich decided to stand his ground after the catch was taken , thinking he may have hit a bump ball into the ground , but the umpire thought otherwise and ruled him out . Johnson had little else to do as the pacemen made steady progress on a seaming pitch . He bowled only two overs for three runs as England fell for 186 , handing Australia victory by 409 runs and a 2 – 0 series lead .
The next match was against Surrey and started the day after the Test . Johnson was rested as Australia completed a ten @-@ wicket win .
Johnson returned for the following match against Gloucestershire before the Third Test . Australia batted first and reached 7 / 774 declared , its highest score of the tour , which underpinned a victory by an innings and 363 runs . Johnson made 27 , after coming in at 6 / 669 and playing a supporting role in a 105 @-@ run partnership with Sam Loxton , who made 159 not out . Acting captain Hassett declared without further addition to the score after Johnson fell at 7 / 774 . Johnson played a leading role with the ball , taking his only ten @-@ wicket match haul for the tour . After the hosts ’ openers had put on 74 , Johnson removed both in quick succession to leave Gloucestershire at 2 / 79 . He later took the last three wickets as Gloucestershire collapsed from 6 / 257 to be all out for 269 . Johnson had totalled 6 / 68 from 31 @.@ 4 overs . Hassett elected to enforce the follow on and the home side reached 2 / 72 before Johnson took five of the last eight wickets to help end the innings for 132 . Johnson ended with 5 / 32 from 17 @.@ 1 overs for a match total of 11 / 100 . Johnson took his 50th wicket for the tour during the fixture and was on 57 by the end of the game , the 18th of 31 first @-@ class matches on the tour .
= = Third Test = =
The teams reassembled at Old Trafford for the Third Test . Australia dropped Bill Brown , their reserve opener , who had batted out of position in the middle order and scored 73 runs at 24 @.@ 33 in three Test innings . Brown was replaced by the all rounder Sam Loxton ; the move had an unexpected impact on Johnson 's playing role during the Test .
Yardley won the toss and elected to bat . England consolidated their innings after falling to 2 / 28 . The hosts were content to score slowly and regroup , and Johnson ’ s first ten overs before lunch yielded only seven runs . However , when Johnson was bowling his second spell after lunch , Jack Crapp hit three driven boundaries in quick succession . Crapp was eager to use his feet to get to the pitch of Johnson ’ s deliveries , and subsequently dealt with the spin fairly comfortably , whereas many of his compatriots stood in their crease and found matters much more difficult . Crapp 's counter @-@ attack prompted Bradman to take the second new ball and remove Johnson with the score at 2 / 96 . England then lost three quick wickets to the pacemen to be 5 / 119 . Soon after , Yardley lofted Ernie Toshack — who was bowling leg theory — into the on @-@ side and Johnson caught him for 22 at forward square leg to leave England at 6 / 141 . Soon after , Compton , the last of the specialist batsmen , nearly departed when he leaned forward to a leg @-@ side delivery from Johnson . He overbalanced and stumbled forwards , and Tallon removed the bails . There were no television replays to assist the umpires in those days , and although the attempted stumping appeared close to the naked eye , the benefit of the doubt was given to the batsman and the appeal rejected .
On the second morning , English tail @-@ ender Dick Pollard came to the crease and pulled a ball from Johnson into the ribs of Australian opener Sid Barnes , who was standing at short leg . Barnes stood closer than most in this position — almost on the edge of the cut strip — and was unable to evade the ball . He " dropped like a fallen tree " , and had to be carried from the ground by four policemen and taken to hospital for an examination . England eventually reached 363 after Johnson had sent down 38 overs and conceded 77 runs without success . With Barnes injured and Brown dropped , Arthur Morris was the only opener available , so Johnson was deployed as his makeshift partner . He had never opened at Test level , but had once batted at No. 3 when used as a nightwatchman after the fall of the first wicket late on a day ’ s play . Journalist and former Australian Test leg spinner Bill O ’ Reilly criticised the use of Johnson as an opener , as vice @-@ captain Lindsay Hassett had transformed himself into a defensive batsman with little backlift and a guarded approach , traits that were typical of an opener . Johnson made only one , exposing Bradman to the new ball . Although Australia struggled , they eventually avoided the follow on and ended on 221 .
England came out for their second innings , and with Bradman predominantly reliant on his seamers , Johnson bowled only seven overs on the third afternoon as the hosts closed at 3 / 174 from 69 overs . Late in the day , Johnson dropped Washbrook in the slips cordon from the bowling of Toshack when the batsman was on 80 . Washbrook reached stumps unbeaten on 85 , and Johnson 's miss only cost five runs , as the fourth day was washed out and England declared without further batting after rain delayed the start on the final day . Johnson ended with 0 / 16 from seven overs .
Play began after the tea break , and Australia needed to score 317 in the last session if they wanted victory . The pitch played very slowly due to the excess moisture , which meant the ball slowed significantly upon hitting the ground surface . As Australia were not looking to chase the runs , there was no need for run @-@ saving fieldsmen , so Yardley often had seven men in close catching positions . In the first half hour , Australia showed little attacking intent and scored only six runs . Jack Young replaced Pollard and Johnson immediately swept him for four , before edging the next ball to Crapp and falling for six to leave Australia at 1 / 10 . Australia batted for another two hours without further loss , to reach 1 / 92 from 61 overs before the match was finally ended after a series of periodic rain interruptions . Johnson had an unhappy game , scoring only seven runs in two innings , dropping a catch and taking match figures of 0 / 93 .
After the Test , Johnson was rested for Australia ’ s victory over Middlesex by ten wickets ; it was their only county match between Tests .
= = Fourth Test = =
The teams headed to Headingley for the Fourth Test with Barnes still unfit . Australia made two changes for the Test . Middle @-@ order batsman Neil Harvey came in for Barnes , while Ron Saggers replaced Don Tallon — who had a finger injury — behind the stumps . Brown was not recalled to open with Morris ; instead , Hassett was promoted from the middle @-@ order to open with Morris , while the teenaged Harvey came into the middle @-@ order . Australia thus jettisoned the experiment of opening the batting with Johnson , who had managed only one and six in the previous Test .
England won the toss and elected to bat on an ideal batting pitch that was predicted to be unhelpful for fast bowling . Thirty minutes before tea , England brought up their 150 without loss , and continued unhindered after two brief interruptions due to rain . Up to this point , the Australian bowling had been loose and inaccurate . Bradman brought on Johnson , who had delivered only three overs so far , the rest of the proceedings having been through fast bowlers . Seeking to stem the flow of runs , Bradman gave Johnson a ring field with no slip . Johnson bowled two consecutive maidens , but Washbrook was scoring freely at the other end , so Bradman called for the new ball and brought back the fast bowlers . Johnson was still wicketless when England closed the day at 2 / 268 . Former Australian Test batsman Jack Fingleton accused Australia of going " progressively downhill " and regarded their performance as their worst day of bowling since World War II , citing the proliferation of full tosses .
The next morning , England progressed strongly . Nightwatchman Alec Bedser hit three consecutive fours from Toshack , prompting Bradman to replace him with Johnson . Bedser surveyed Johnson 's wares for one over before hitting him into the leg side three times in the next , yielding a six and two fours . Bradman responded by removing Johnson from the attack . When the off spinner came back , Edrich hit him for another six to reach 96 . However , Johnson soon had his revenge . England reached 2 / 423 when Bedser was out caught and bowled by Johnson , patting the ball back to the bowler when he could have hit it decisively . His on @-@ drive was intercepted by the bowler , who dived across the pitch to his right @-@ hand side to complete the catch . This ended a 155 @-@ run third @-@ wicket partnership . Edrich attempted to pull a Johnson long hop to the leg side , targeting the large gap between square leg and mid @-@ on , but only ballooned the ball to Morris , who completed the catch diving forwards at wide mid @-@ on . This came only three runs after Bedser 's dismissal and left the score at 4 / 426 . Johnson 's two wickets brought two new batsmen were to the crease and precipitated a collapse that saw England dismissed for 496 . Johnson ended with 2 / 89 from 33 overs and was the least economical of the frontline bowlers except Toshack , who broke down with a knee injury .
On the third afternoon , Johnson came to the crease at 5 / 294 in Australia 's first innings when Harvey departed for 112 , but he made only 10 before falling at 6 / 329 . Lindwall replaced him and made 77 as Australia 's tail pushed the score to 458 on the fourth morning , reducing the deficit to 38 . In the second innings , the English batsmen continued to attack Johnson . Given Johnson 's lack of economy in the first innings , Bradman declined to use him for the entirety of the first session of the fourth day . When Johnson was introduced after lunch , he was targeted , and Washbrook and Hutton both lofted him for sixes in quick succession , prompting Bradman to remove him from the attack . When Johnson returned , Hutton again hit him in the air , but this time Bradman took a running catch to dismiss the batsman for 57 , leaving England at 2 / 129 . Edrich and Compton came in and were initially pinned down , but after 45 minutes , Compton charged Johnson and heaved a delivery to the leg side for a boundary . Bradman promptly took the new ball as England reached 2 / 209 at tea . After the break , England continued to target Johnson . Edrich hit Johnson for three consecutive fours before lofting a fourth into the crowd for six . Compton took risks against Johnson , successfully cutting against the spin several times , and Bradman was forced to use a well @-@ spread field to cut down the fast scoring off Johnson . England reached 2 / 232 before collapsing to be 8 / 362 at the end of the day , but Johnson was not responsible for any of these wickets .
England batted on for five minutes on the final morning , adding three runs in two overs before Yardley declared at 8 / 365 . Johnson ended with 1 / 85 from 21 overs and was the most uneconomical of the Australian bowlers , conceding runs at a rate of 4 @.@ 04 per over while the others averaged 3 @.@ 26 . Batting into the final day allowed Yardley the right to ask the groundsman to use a heavy roller , which would help to break up the wicket , make it more likely to spin and therefore more difficult for Australia to bat on .
This left Australia a target of 404 runs for victory . At the time , this would have been the highest ever run @-@ chase to result in a Test victory for the batting side . Australia had only 345 minutes to reach the target , but they scored the runs with 15 minutes to spare and seven wickets in hand , sealing the series 3 – 0 .
After bowling 54 overs at Headingley , Johnson was rested as Australia defeated Derbyshire by an innings in a match that started the day after the Fourth Test . He bowled the most overs upon his return in the following match against Glamorgan , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings . Johnson sent down 28 @.@ 4 overs and took 3 / 58 as the hosts were bowled out for 197 ; Australia reached 3 / 215 when the weather ended the match .
Johnson was the most economical Australian in the first innings of the game against Warwickshire . He took 3 / 29 from 22 @.@ 3 overs as the hosts fell for 138 , before making an unbeaten 13 at No. 9 as Australia struggled to 254 in reply . He was given a solitary maiden over in the second innings before Australia won by nine wickets . Australia then faced and drew with Lancashire for the second time on the tour . Johnson came to the crease at 6 / 202 after Bradman ’ s men had suffered a middle @-@ order collapse of 3 / 8 . He made 48 as the Australian lower order wagged to push the score to 321 . Johnson was given a light bowling load in the first innings , sending down only five overs , but he removed three of the last four wickets to end with 3 / 5 as the hosts fell for 130 . He did not bat in the second innings and took 1 / 30 as the home side managed to hang on with seven wickets down . In the non @-@ first @-@ class match against Durham , a rain @-@ affected draw that did not reach the second innings , Johnson came in at 7 / 212 and made 44 to help Australia recover to 282 and took 1 / 2 from three overs as the hosts reached 5 / 73 when rain ended the match after the first day .
= = Fifth Test = =
Australia travelled to The Oval for the Fifth Test . After taking only seven wickets at 61 @.@ 00 in the four Tests , and being severely attacked in the previous match at Headingley , Johnson was dropped in favour of leg spinner Doug Ring . Yardley won the toss and elected to bat on a rain @-@ affected pitch . England were dismissed for 52 in 42 @.@ 1 overs on the first afternoon with Ring not required to bowl , as the pacemen made light work of the hosts . Ring was economical in the second innings , taking 1 / 44 from 28 overs as Australia sealed the series 4 – 0 with another innings victory .
= = Later tour matches = =
Seven matches remained on Bradman 's quest to go through a tour of England without defeat . Johnson returned and made 15 of 361 as Australia batted first against Kent . Johnson was not asked to bowl as the first four bowlers used cut down the hosts ' first innings for 51 in just 23 overs . It was a similar tale in the second innings after Australia enforced the follow on . The pacemen did the early damage and Johnson bowled only briefly , sending down 4 @.@ 5 overs and removing the last two batsmen to end with 2 / 15 as the hosts fell for 124 in 32 @.@ 5 overs to seal another Australian victory by an innings in two days . In the next match against the Gentlemen of England , Johnson did not bat before Australia declared at 5 / 610 against a team featuring eight Test players . When the tourists bowled , Johnson took three consecutive wickets to reduce the hosts from 1 / 76 to 4 / 121 . He ended with 4 / 60 from 23 overs as the Gentlemen made 245 . Johnson 's victims included Donnelly , future England opener Reg Simpson and former England captain Walter Robins . Bradman enforced the follow on , and Johnson took the last three wickets to end with 3 / 69 from 28 @.@ 5 overs , including the scalps of Robins and Test player Freddie Brown . This completed another innings victory for the tourists . Johnson broke through for his first century of the tour in the next match against Somerset . Australia batted first and Johnson came in at No. 6 with the score at 4 / 306 to join Ron Hamence , who was also looking for his first ton of the season . The pair put on 195 runs , before Hamence fell at the closest possible point to his century , stumped for 99 . Miller came out and helped Johnson add another 59 before Australia declared at 5 / 560 , with the latter undefeated on 113 . Following his innings , Johnson only bowled 10 overs in taking 1 / 19 for the match . The hosts were bowled out twice for a combined total of 186 from a sum of just 81 @.@ 3 overs as Australia enforced the follow on and won by an innings and 374 runs . Johnson was rested for the fixture against the South of England . Australia declared at 7 / 522 and bowled out the hosts for 298 when rain ended the match .
Australia 's biggest challenge in the post @-@ Test tour matches was against the Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI . During the last Australian tour in 1938 , this team was effectively a full @-@ strength England outfit , but this time Bradman insisted only six current Test players be allowed to play for the hosts . After his opponents complied with the demand , Bradman fielded a full @-@ strength team , the only difference from the Fifth Test team being Johnson ’ s return at the expense of Ring . The bowlers skittled the hosts for 177 and Johnson took 3 / 45 , his victims being Donnelly , Yardley and former Test batsman Laurie Fishlock . Johnson also caught Brown and Laker from the bowling of Lindwall . Johnson made 38 as Australia declared at 8 / 469 in reply . The hosts were 2 / 75 in their second innings when the match ended in a draw after multiple rain delays . Johnson took both wickets , — the batsman being Hutton and Fishlock — ending with 2 / 12 .
The tour ended with two non @-@ first @-@ class matches against Scotland . Johnson made a duck in Australia 's first innings of 236 in the first match . He then bowled a total of 17 overs and took 3 / 26 as Australia won by an innings . In the second match , Johnson took 3 / 26 from 20 @.@ 2 overs in the first innings as Scotland made 178 . He was promoted to No. 5 and came in at 3 / 96 to hit 95 as Australia reached 6 / 407 declared . In the second innings , Johnson was unable to add a wicket in his final opportunity for the tour , taking 0 / 6 from three overs . However , when it became clear Australia was in an unassailable position , Bradman allowed wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon to bowl , and he took 2 / 15 . In the meantime , Johnson deputised with the gloves and he completed a stumping from the leg spin of Ring as Australia finished the tour with another innings victory .
= = Role = =
An off spinner , Johnson was a member of Bradman ’ s first @-@ choice team , playing in four of the five Tests before being dropped for the final rubber . He also played in the matches against Worcestershire , the MCC and Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , where Australia selected their strongest possible team . However , Johnson was not prominent in the Test success , taking seven wickets at 61 @.@ 00 , his best result being 3 / 72 in the first innings of the Second Test . Among the five frontline bowlers used in four or more Tests , Lindwall , Miller , Toshack , Johnston and Johnson , the last had the worst average by a factor of almost two ; Toshack averaged 33 @.@ 09 and the others less than 23 @.@ 50 . Lindwall and Johnston took 27 wickets each , while Miller and Toshack took 13 and 11 respectively . Johnson ’ s economy rate was the second worst of the quintet and his strike rate of 156 @.@ 86 was more than twice as bad as the others , with the exception of Toshack ( 94 @.@ 46 ) . Johnson also had little impact with the bat , scoring 51 runs at 10 @.@ 20 , but he did take five catches in the slips .
Johnson had more success in the tour matches , taking 85 wickets at 18 @.@ 37 in all first @-@ class matches . This placed him third in the wicket @-@ taking and fifth in the averages among the Australians . In the first @-@ class matches excluding the Tests , Johnson was the leading wicket @-@ taker . He bowled more overs than anyone but Johnston , allowing Bradman to ease the workload on his pace spearheads Lindwall and Miller , allowing them to conserve energy ahead of the Tests . Johnson 's most successful game with the ball was against Gloucestershire , which yielded match figures of 11 / 100 . Like his bowling , Johnson ’ s batting was also more successful outside of the Tests , scoring 543 runs at 30 @.@ 16 in 22 innings , with a top @-@ score of 113 not out against Somerset and an 80 against a MCC team that consisted almost entirely of Test players . Johnson usually batted at No. 7 or No. 8 , although he was notably used as a makeshift opener in the Third Test and scored an aggressive 74 at No. 3 in the run @-@ chase against Hampshire.N- Johnson was prominent in the field , taking 23 catches , the most by a non @-@ wicket @-@ keeper on tour . He usually fielded in the slips .
Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack noted that while Johnson had started the tour well , he was not as effective in English conditions as on his home pitches in Australia .
[ Johnson ] was not so troublesome to batsmen in Tests as when at home , principally because of the difference in pace of the pitches and his inability to bowl round the wicket , an almost essential part in the make @-@ up of an off @-@ spinner in England . False expectation against Johnson in Australia usually cost a batsman his wicket , but on slower English pitches there was time to change a stroke and still keep the ball out of the stumps , even though beaten by flight .
= = = Statistical note = = =
= = = General notes = = =
= Decisions ( song ) =
" Decisions " is a song by Israeli record producer Borgore featuring American recording artist Miley Cyrus . It was independently released through online music stores on July 10 , 2012 with its accompanying remixes extended play ( EP ) ; it was released as a stand @-@ alone track on February 8 , 2013 . Cyrus ' inclusion on the song was initially not publicized , with the intention for of it making its own impact separate from her reputation , although Cyrus later confirmed the collaboration . " Decisions " is a dubstep track that lyrically discusses the general desire for wealth and success , frequently mentioned as " bitches love cake " during the track .
Upon its release , the track received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated Cyrus ' inclusion and its diversity from her earlier works , but were ambivalent towards its overall production . An accompanying music video for the song was filmed in Los Angeles , California and was released on November 1 , 2012 . The following month , Borgore and Cyrus performed the track at the Music Box in Los Angeles ; Cyrus ' provocative clothing and dancing with a stripper garnered media attention . The original version failed to chart on any national record charts , although the parody " Hunger Games " by TheBajanCanadian peaked at number 38 on the U.S. Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs chart .
= = Background and composition = =
In 2012 , Borgore stated that an extended play ( EP ) and studio album were under development , the latter of which he tentatively planned to release in 2013 . After the release of her third studio album Can 't Be Tamed ( 2010 ) , Cyrus originally announced plans to focus on her film career , effectively putting her musical endeavors on hiatus . She was also confirmed as a primary voice actress in the feature film Hotel Transylvania , but dropped out of the project to coordinate a musical comeback in 2012 . She had first hinted at developing a new sound after collaborating with hip hop recording artists Pharrell Williams and Tyler , the Creator .
When discussing his collaboration with Cyrus , Borgore stated that " you have to understand that I grew up in Israel , and the whole Hannah Montana thing , I 've never seen it . I 've heard about this , but the Miley Cyrus persona you might have in America I don 't have . " Her involvement with " Decisions " was originally not publicly acknowledged in an attempt to " make a tune together that we 're super happy about and just see people 's real opinion about this . " However , Cyrus unexpectedly tweeted " Yo check out Decisions me & @ borgore new track " in August 2012 , which Borgore commented was " super cool [ that ] she did it the way she did it " . He added that he was impressed with her vocal abilities , elaborating that " I thought she was made up more to be a star , but she was pretty phenomenal behind the booth . "
" Decisions " is marked a musical departure from Cyrus ' earlier catalog and following the increasingly popular trend towards dance music . Lyrically , Borgore stated that " the very literal meaning of the song is how much girls love eating cake but the subliminal message is how people are attracted to money and power , and in order to succeed in life you need to work hard and attract those people that are there for the right reasons " . The line " bitches love cake " is repeatedly heard throughout the track ; Andy Hermann from DJZ interpreted the term " bitches " to be referring to " all superficial groupies who feed off of the success , beauty , and wealth of others . "
Borgore performed " Decisions " at the Music Box in Los Angeles on December 10 , 2012 . He had previously announced an appearance from a special guest , which was later revealed to be Cyrus . Jocelyn Vena from MTV News described it as " what might be one of her most risqué performances " , having worn sexually @-@ suggestive clothing and provocatively danced with a topless woman . In December 2013 , TheBajanCanadian released a parody of " Decisions " , renamed " Kings of the Hunger Games " , to the iTunes Store . Its lyrics are reworked to reference The Hunger Games film series . The song charted at number 38 on the U.S. Billboard Dance / Electronic Songs component chart to the flagship Billboard Hot 100 , with sales of 5 @,@ 000 copies during the week of January 3 , 2014 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , " Decisions " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who appreciated Cyrus ' inclusion and its diversity from her earlier works , but were ambivalent towards its overall production . Writing for Gurl , Jessica Sager spoke favorably of Cyrus ' background vocal delivery , and called it " a far cry from " Party in the U.S.A. " , but it ’ s still pretty awesome . " Jenna Hally Rubenstein from MTV Buzzworthy shared a similar sentiment ; despite being disappointed with Cyrus ' limited appearance on the track , Rubenstein complimented that " cool element of melodic lushness " that her voice provided . Matt Oliver of OC Weekly opined that " having [ Cyrus ] sing on a dubstep track is impressive " , and felt that it did not come across in the " pop gimmick " fashion that Justin Bieber 's EDM @-@ inspired track " As Long as You Love Me " appeared to .
Amy Sciarretto of PopCrush called the overall track " catchy " and described the cake metaphor mentioned throughout the song to be " hilarious " . However , Kia Makarechi from The Huffington Post provided a more mixed review of " Decisions " , feeling that it was " neither particularly inventive nor that cathartic " . Writing for YourEDM , Elliot Sachs was disappointed that Cyrus ' vocals came across as " faint and minuscule in comparison to all the brouhaha that is going on at the same time . " In February 2014 , Chris Wood from YourEDM noted that " Decisions " became an " interesting pivot point " in Borgore 's career , which " pushed [ him ] into the early stages of a pop icon within electronic music scene " .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " Decisions " was directed by Christian Lamb , and was filmed at Beacher 's Madhouse in Los Angeles , California . The final product was premiered through Borgore 's YouTube channel on November 1 , 2012 . The clip begins with in Venice Beach , where Borgore is seen bringing a large cake to an upscale party in Hollywood . Several people are seen dressed in costumes and throwing pieces of cake at one another , while Cyrus is later revealed to have been hiding in the cake . She also makes out with her then @-@ fiancé Liam Hemsworth , who appears dressed as a unicorn . Borgore 's ex @-@ girlfriend , pornographic actress Jessie Andrews , is also featured in the video . Nate Jones from Popdust though that its entire concept was " very confusing " , but said he " still wouldn ’ t mind hanging out in it for a while . Hillary Buss from Entertainment Weekly was surprised that Cyrus was involved in the project , stating that " if you had told me five years ago that Miley Cyrus would one day be featured on an Israeli DJ ’ s dubstep track , I would have scoffed and replied , ' Hannah Montana ? Are you serious ? Also , what ’ s dubstep ? ' "
= = Track listings = =
= = Release history = =
= Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift =
Half @-@ Life : Blue Shift is an expansion pack for Valve Software 's science fiction first @-@ person shooter video game Half @-@ Life . The game was developed by Gearbox Software with Valve Corporation and published by Sierra Entertainment on June 12 , 2001 ( it was originally set for release in Spring ) . Blue Shift is the second expansion for Half @-@ Life , originally intended as part of a Dreamcast version of the original game . Although the Dreamcast port was later cancelled , the PC version continued development and was released as a standalone product . The game was released on Steam on August 24 , 2005 .
As with Gearbox 's previous expansion pack Opposing Force , Blue Shift returns to the setting and events of the original game , but portrays the story through the eyes of another person . The protagonist in Blue Shift is a security guard , Barney Calhoun , employed by the Black Mesa Research Facility . After a scientific mishap causes Black Mesa to be invaded by aliens , Calhoun must fight his way to safety . The game received mostly positive reception . Many reviewers were critical of the short length of the game and the lack of new content , although the inclusion of a High Definition pack that upgraded the models and textures in both Blue Shift and the preceding Half @-@ Life games was praised .
= = Gameplay = =
As an expansion pack for Half @-@ Life , Blue Shift is a first @-@ person shooter . The overall gameplay of Blue Shift does not significantly differ from that of Half @-@ Life : players are required to navigate through the game 's levels , fight hostile non @-@ player characters and solve a variety of puzzles to advance . The game continues Half @-@ Life 's methods of an unbroken narrative . The player sees everything through the first person perspective of the protagonist and remains in control of the player character for almost all of the game . Story events are conveyed through the use of scripted sequences rather than cut scenes . Progress through the game 's world is continuous ; although the game is divided up into chapters , the only significant pauses are when the game needs to load the next part of an environment .
The player battles through the game alone , but is occasionally assisted by friendly non @-@ player characters . Security guards and scientists will occasionally help the player in reaching new areas and convey relevant plot information . Blue Shift also includes a substantial section dedicated to keeping a major character in the story safe from enemy characters , and escorting him to a specific location . A selection of enemies from Half @-@ Life populate the game , including alien creatures such as headcrabs and Vortigaunts . The player also encounters human opponents in the form of a detachment of US Marines who have been sent to eliminate the alien threat and silence any witnesses . Blue Shift does not elaborate on the storyline in Opposing Force , the preceding expansion pack , and no enemy characters or weapons introduced in it appear in the game . The player is instead given access to a limited selection of Half @-@ Life 's original weaponry .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
Blue Shift is set in the same location and time frame as that of Half @-@ Life , taking place at a remote New Mexico laboratory called the Black Mesa Research Facility . In Half @-@ Life , the player takes on the role of Gordon Freeman , a scientist involved in an accident that opens an inter @-@ dimensional portal to the borderworld of Xen , allowing the alien creatures of Xen to attack the facility . The player guides Freeman in an attempt to escape the facility and close the portal , ultimately traveling to Xen to do so . As in Opposing Force , Blue Shift shows the events of Half @-@ Life from the perspective of a different protagonist . The player assumes the role of Barney Calhoun , a security guard working near the labs where the accident takes place . Calhoun is responsible for the preservation of equipment and materials and the welfare of research personnel , and after the accident turns Black Mesa into a warzone , he must work with Dr. Rosenberg , a high @-@ ranking scientist involved in the experiment , to evacuate the facility .
= = = Plot = = =
Blue Shift begins in a similar manner to Half @-@ Life , as Barney Calhoun rides a train through the Black Mesa facility to reach his place of work . After reporting for duty , Calhoun is instructed to assist in maintenance on a malfunctioning elevator . As Calhoun finishes repairs , however , Freeman 's experiment takes place and results in a " resonance cascade " , causing massive damage to the facility and teleporting alien creatures into the base . The elevator is badly damaged and fails , sending Calhoun plummeting into the depths of Black Mesa .
Calhoun regains consciousness at the bottom of the shaft and begins to fight his way to the surface to escape . Emerging near Black Mesa 's classification yards , Calhoun learns that Dr. Rosenberg and his colleagues plan to escape the facility using teleportation technology . After freeing Rosenberg from the captivity of the US Marines detachment sent to silence the facility , Calhoun escorts him to a decommissioned prototype teleportation laboratory , where several Black Mesa employees have already gathered . Rosenberg then teleports Calhoun to the Xen border world to calibrate research equipment needed to pinpoint a teleport destination outside of Black Mesa . Upon his return , Rosenberg informs Calhoun that the teleporter 's battery power has been exhausted , and contact has been lost with a team sent to acquire a new power cell .
Calhoun travels to the power generators on a lower level to find a fresh power cell while firefights rage between the Marines and the forces of Xen . After returning with a new power cell , Calhoun assists Rosenberg in evacuating the few surviving personnel through the teleporter . Calhoun is the last to enter the portal and as he does so , Marines breach the laboratory and fire on him , causing the teleporter to explode . As a result of the teleporter 's destruction , Calhoun enters a " harmonic reflux " , causing him to be rapidly teleported to a variety of locations in Xen and Black Mesa . At one location , he witnesses Freeman 's capture by Marines mid @-@ way through Half @-@ Life , before eventually stabilizing at the intended teleport location with Rosenberg at the outskirts of Black Mesa , where they then escape the facility in a company SUV .
= = Development = =
A second Half @-@ Life expansion pack , revolving around a security guard in the facility , was first announced in the second quarter of 2000 as part of an upcoming Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life , under the working title Half @-@ Life : Guard Duty . Although the main Dreamcast port was to be developed by Captivation Digital Laboratories , the new expansion was to be developed by Gearbox Software , the same studio who developed Opposing Force . Publisher Sierra Entertainment later officially announced the expansion on August 30 , 2000 , revealing the name as Blue Shift . As with Opposing Force , the name Blue Shift has a double meaning , referring to both the blue shift light phenomenon , and the name of the shift that the protagonist is assigned to . The Dreamcast version of the game was set to include higher detail models and textures that were double the polygon count of Valve Software 's original Half @-@ Life models . At the European Computer Trade Show in September 2000 , information about Blue Shift 's story and development direction was revealed , along with a release date of November 1 , 2000 , for the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life . The game was delayed by Sierra to ensure the " high expectations of consumers " were met , anticipating release by the end of the year . Further media , gameplay and story information was released in the following weeks and months . Despite this , the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life still did not emerge , and speculation in May 2001 suggested the game would be cancelled . On June 16 , 2001 , Sierra terminated development on the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life , citing " changing market conditions " in a press release . GamePro magazine , however , received and published a 2 @-@ page review of the game . A late stage build of the Dreamcast version was eventually leaked to the Internet , featuring essentially complete versions of both Half @-@ Life and Blue Shift .
Although the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life was cancelled , Blue Shift persevered . Prior to the cancellation of the Dreamcast version , Sierra announced on March 29 , 2001 , that Blue Shift would be released for PC as well . The game would be released as a standalone expansion pack , a product that does not require the original Half @-@ Life to run . The new models developed for the Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life would also be included in the PC version as the Half @-@ Life High Definition pack . In addition , Gearbox announced that the High Definition pack would not be exclusive for Blue Shift , but could be applied to both Half @-@ Life and Opposing Force as well . At the Electronic Entertainment Expo in 2001 , Gearbox announced that development of Blue Shift had been completed , and exhibited a playable version of the end product . The game was released on June 12 , 2001 .
Blue Shift and the High Definition pack were initially absent from the launch of Valve 's content delivery system Steam in September 2003 , despite the presence of both Half @-@ Life and Opposing Force on the system . The game was released on Steam on August 29 , 2005 along with the High Definition Pack . Blue Shift was also published as part of Sierra 's Half @-@ Life : Generation compilation in 2002 , and as part of Valve Software and Electronic Arts ' Half Life 1 : Anthology on September 26 , 2005 .
= = Critical reception = =
Blue Shift received a mixed reaction from critics , holding overall scores of 67 @.@ 40 % and 71 / 100 on the review aggregator sites GameRankings and Metacritic , respectively . The game has sold around 800 @,@ 000 copies at retail ( this figure does not include later sales on Steam ) . In a review for IGN , critic Tal Blevins noted that Blue Shift 's gameplay " is pretty much what we 've come to expect out of Half @-@ Life " by blending action and puzzle solving , stating that the latter " were all logical and well done , although some of the jumping puzzles were frustrating " . Though IGN praised the game for maintaining the " epic " feel of the original , Blevins was critical of the relatively short length of the game . GameSpot reviewer Greg Kasavin agreed with many of IGN 's criticisms , stating that " it 's not that the game is easy so much that it 's extremely short " and that Blue Shift " doesn 't amount to much on its own terms " . In addition , Kasavin described the graphical enhancements brought about by the High Definition pack as " helpful " , but noted that " they still don 't make Half @-@ Life look like a new game — nor are many of the changes themselves very noticeable " .
Other reviews echoed complaints about the similarity of Blue Shift to previous games . GameSpy 's reviewer Jamie Madigan stated that " what really pulls the game down is the ' more of the same ' factor " . Although writing that the game " feels like just a few more levels for the original game " , he noted that this is what Blue Shift was designed to be , given its origins as an add @-@ on for a Dreamcast version of Half @-@ Life . Madigan described the single @-@ player campaign as " decent " and commented that the High Definition pack made the game " worthy of consideration " . Eurogamer echoed criticism on the game 's length ; reviewer Tom Bradwell commented that " although I 'm hard pressed to criticize what you get , the complete absence of everything we 've learnt from the likes of Counter @-@ Strike and everything since is frankly bizarre " . Bradwell did , however , criticize the game 's artificial intelligence and the occasional bug that caused a player to get stuck on a wall . PC Zone 's Mark Hill was more lenient in his comments , praising the game 's artificial intelligence as " intelligent as you could hope an AI enemy to be " . In addition , Hill praised the game for showing more activity in the base , noting that " a whole world goes on around you , with people eating at a cantina and scientists doing their laundry . The complex is more alive than ever before " . Hill also praised the focus " on a greater interaction with scientists as proper people rather than the two or three models that were cloned throughout the facility who kept repeating the same phrases " , describing this as Blue Shift 's " greatest achievement " . PC Zone 's review closed by commenting that " as a Dreamcast extra it works perfectly , but as a standalone PC title there 's not nearly enough to it . "
= Charles Allen Thomas =
Charles Allen Thomas ( February 15 , 1900 – March 29 , 1982 ) was a noted American chemist and businessman , and an important figure in the Manhattan Project . He held over 100 patents .
A graduate of Transylvania College and Massachusetts Institute of Technology , Thomas worked as a research chemist at General Motors as part of a team researching antiknock agents . This led to the development of tetraethyllead , which was widely used in motor fuels for many decades until its toxicity led to its prohibition . In 1926 , he and Carroll A. " Ted " Hochwalt co @-@ founded Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton , Ohio , with Thomas as president of the company . It was acquired by Monsanto in 1936 , and Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto , rising to become its president in 1950 , and chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965 . He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers , and developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride , which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions , publishing a book on the subject in 1941 .
From 1943 to 1945 , he coordinated Manhattan Project work on plutonium purification and production . He also coordinated development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the triggers of atomic weapons in the Manhattan Project 's Dayton Project , part of which was conducted on the estate of his wife 's family . Shortly before the war ended , he took over the management of the Clinton Laboratories in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . Monsanto pulled out of Oak Ridge in December 1947 , but became the operator of the Mound Laboratories in 1948 . Secretary of State Dean Acheson appointed Thomas to serve on a 1946 panel to appraise international atomic inspection , which culminated in the Acheson – Lilienthal Report . In 1953 he was appointed as a consultant to the National Security Council , and served as U.S. Representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission .
= = Early life = =
Charles Allen Thomas was born on a farm in Scott County , Kentucky , the son of a Disciples of Christ minister , Charles Allen , and his wife Frances Carrick Thomas . His father died when he was six months old , and he and his mother went to live with his grandmother in Lexington , Kentucky , just across the street from Transylvania College . While living on the farm he was home schooled by his mother and grandmother . After moving to Lexington he attended Hamilton College 's preparatory school , and then Morton High School . When he was 16 , he entered Transylvania College , which awarded him his Bachelor of Arts ( AB ) degree in 1920 . During World War I , he served in the Student Army Training Corps , and for a time was a rifle instructor at Camp Perry . He then entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) , from which he received a Master of Science ( MS ) degree , majoring in chemistry , in 1924 . To help pay for his tuition , he worked as a professional singer , and for a time he considered a career as a vocalist . His singing voice was described by his son as a high baritone .
In 1923 Charles F. Kettering and Carroll A. " Ted " Hochwalt recruited Thomas to work as a research chemist at General Motors ( GM ) . There , he worked with Thomas Midgley , Jr . , as part of Kettering 's team researching antiknock agents . This led to the development of tetraethyllead , which was used in motor fuels for many years before being banned in most parts of the world as a poison . At General Motors , Thomas also worked on a process for extracting bromine from sea water , and with Midgely on making synthetic rubber from isoprene . Thomas left General Motors in 1924 for a job as a research chemist , a joint venture between GM and Esso to make and sell tetraethyllead gasoline additives .
Thomas married Margaret Stoddard Talbott , the sister of Harold E. Talbott , Jr. on September 25 , 1926 . They had four children : Charles Allen Thomas III , Margaret Talbott , Frances Carrick , and Katharine Tudor . That year , he and Hochwalt co @-@ founded Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories in Dayton , Ohio , with Thomas as president of the company . The company carried out research for various companies , looking into such diverse subjects as a fire extinguisher that would not freeze in unheated buildings , and a means to speed up the aging of whiskey . Their work attracted the attention of Edgar Monsanto Queeny , the chairman of Monsanto , who bought Thomas & Hochwalt Laboratories for $ 1 @.@ 4 million in Monsanto stock in 1936 . Queeny moved Thomas to St Louis , Missouri , where he became director of Central Research , while Hochwalt remained in Dayton to work on Acrilan , Monsanto 's acrylic fiber .
Thomas would spend the rest of his career with Monsanto , becoming a member of its board of directors in 1942 , vice president in 1943 , executive vice president in 1947 , president in 1950 , and ultimately chairman of the board from 1960 to 1965 . He subsequently served as chairman of Monsanto 's Finance Committee frm 1965 to 1968 . He retired in 1970 . In this time , Monsanto 's annual sales grew from $ 34 million to $ 1 @.@ 9 billion , and its expenditure on research from $ 6 @.@ 2 million to 101 @.@ 4 million . He researched the chemistry of hydrocarbons and polymers . In studying the chemical reactions between alkenes and dienes , particularly in the presence of an aluminium chloride catalyst , he developed the proton theory of aluminium chloride , which helped explain a variety of chemical reactions , including cracking , polymerization and dehydrogenation . This research culminated in the publication of his book Anhydrous Aluminum Chloride in Organic Chemistry in 1941 .
= = Manhattan Project = =
In December 1942 , during World War II , Thomas joined the National Defense Research Committee ( NDRC ) as the Deputy Chief of its Division 8 , which was responsible for propellants , explosives and the like . Early in 1943 , he travelled to the East with Richard Tolman , a member of the NDRC , and James B. Conant , the president of Harvard University and the chairman of the NDRC , to witness a demonstration of a new underwater explosive . Conant and Tolman took the opportunity to quietly investigate Thomas 's background . Thomas was then invited to a meeting in Washington DC with Brigadier General Leslie R. Groves , Jr . , the director of the Manhattan Project , and , as he discovered when he got there , Conant .
Groves and Conant were hoping to harness his industrial expertise for the benefit of the project . They offered him a post as a deputy to Robert Oppenheimer , at the Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico , but he did not wish to move his family or give up his responsibilities at Monsanto . Instead he accepted the role of coordinating the plutonium purification and production work being carried out at Los Alamos , the Metallurgical Laboratory in Chicago , Radiation laboratory in Berkeley , and Ames Laboratory in Iowa . Monsanto 's Central Research Department began to conduct research on behalf of the Manhattan Project as part of the Manhattan Project 's Dayton Project , some of which was conducted on the estate of his wife 's family .
Initially , there were concerns about the purity of plutonium , an element about which little was known , but Thomas was able to report to Groves and Conant in June 1944 that techniques had been developed that would yield highly pure plutonium , and that the problem was solved . Unfortunately , experiments by Emilio G. Segrè and his P @-@ 5 Group at Los Alamos on reactor @-@ produced plutonium showed that it contained impurities in the form of the isotope plutonium @-@ 240 , which has a far higher spontaneous fission rate than plutonium @-@ 239 , making it unsuitable for use in the Thin Man gun @-@ type nuclear weapon design .
Thomas attended a series of crisis meetings in Chicago with Connant , Groves , Arthur Compton , Kenneth Nichols and Enrico Fermi . It was agreed that the isotopes could not be separated , so high @-@ purity plutonium would not be required . Thomas therefore decided to disband his plutonium purification team . The Los Alamos laboratory then turned to the technologically much more difficult task of building an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon .
Monsanto was already working on a key component of the device . In April 1943 , Robert Serber had proposed that instead of relying on spontaneous fission , the chain reaction inside the bomb should be triggered by a neutron initiator . The best @-@ known neutron sources were radium @-@ beryllium and polonium @-@ beryllium . The later was chosen as it had a 140 @-@ day half life , which made it intense enough to be useful but long @-@ lived enough to be stockpiled . Thomas brought in Monsanto to work on the development of techniques to industrially refine polonium for use with beryllium in the urchin detonators .
Thomas established the project in the Runnymede Playhouse on the grounds of his wife 's family estate in a wealthy residential section of Oakwood , a suburb of Dayton . He promised the Oakwood City Council that he would return the Runnymede Playhouse building intact after the war , but he was unable to keep this promise because the building became so badly contaminated with radioactivity . The facility , also known as Dayton Unit IV , was in use for nuclear work until 1949 when Mound Laboratories opened in Miamisburg , Ohio . The Playhouse was dismantled in 1950 , and buried in Oak Ridge , Tennessee .
Thomas was one of a number of scientists who watched their work come to fruition on July 16 , 1945 , at the Trinity nuclear test . For his work on the project , he received the Medal for Merit from the president Harry S. Truman in 1946 . On May 2 , 1945 , Groves and Thomas agreed that Monsanto would take over the running of the Clinton laboratories at Oak Ridge , Tennessee from July 1 , 1945 . Thomas brought in some 60 new staff from Dayton to help run the Clinton Laboratories , and he persuaded Eugene Wigner to come from Chicago to work on new reactor designs . Under Wigner , the Laboratories made a pioneering study of Wigner 's disease , the swelling and distortion of the graphite used as a moderator in reactors due the neutron bombardment produced in a reactor . Thomas became frustrated with restrictions on spending and the uncertainty about the future of the laboratory . In May 1947 , he decided not to renew the contract with the Atomic Energy Commission to operate the Clinton Laboratories on a month @-@ to @-@ month basis while a new operator was found . Union Carbide took over the contract in December 1947 . Monsanto was , however , given the contract to operate the new Mound Laboratories in early 1948 .
= = Later life = =
In 1946 Secretary of State Dean Acheson appointed Thomas to serve on a panel with Robert Oppenheimer , David Lilienthal , Chester I. Barnard and Harry Winne to appraise international atomic inspection , culminating in the Acheson – Lilienthal Report . In 1951 Truman appointed Thomas to the Science Advisory Committee , an eleven @-@ man committee of prominent scientists to advise on defense planning . In 1953 President Dwight D. Eisenhower appointed him a scientific consultant to the National Security Council , and he was the U.S. Representative to the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission . In the wake of the Sputnik crisis , Thomas was part of a group that persuaded Secretary of Defense Neil H. McElroy to establish DARPA .
Thomas served as a trustee of the Carnegie Corporation of New York and the Universities Research Association , a curator of Transylvania College , chairman of the board of trustees of Washington University , a member of the Corporation that runs MIT , and the chairman of the board of directors of the Washington University Medical Center . He was also member of the board of directors of several companies , including Chemstrand Corporation , Southwestern Bell , St. Louis Union Trust , the First National Bank in St. Louis , the Central Institute for the Deaf , Metropolitan Life Insurance , RAND Corporation and the Civic Center Redevelopment Corporation of St. Louis . He was involved with organizations including the Boy Scouts of America , Radio Free Europe and the St Louis Research Council .
Thomas was elected to the National Academy of Sciences at age forty @-@ eight and was one of the founding members of the National Academy of Engineering . He was also a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In addition , he received over 100 patents , the Industrial Research Institute Medal in 1947 , the American Institute of Chemists Gold Medal in 1948 , the Missouri Award for Distinguished Service in Engineering in 1952 , the Society of Chemical Industry 's Perkin Medal in 1953 , the American Chemical Society Priestley Medal in 1955 , the Societe de Chimie Industrielle Palladium Medal in 1963 , the American Academy of Achievement Gold Plate Award in 1965 , and the St. Louis Globe @-@ Democrat Man of the Year award in 1966 .
Thomas was concerned that the United States did not spend enough money on basic research . To this end he donated $ 600 @,@ 000 to Washington University in St. Louis as an endowment for a chair , the Charles Allen Thomas Professor of Chemistry . He rejected the notion large corporations as being driven solely or mainly by greed . In a 1952 speech he enjoined his fellow businessmen to " remember that our businesses and their profits are only a means to an end , a means toward making Americans happier and America a stronger and more unified nation . "
In retirement , Thomas spent much of his time managing Magnolia Plantation , a 15 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 6 @,@ 100 ha ) family farm near Albany , Georgia , where he employed a staff of 50 and grew peanuts , pecans , soybeans , corn and timber . His first wife died in 1975 , and he married Margaret Chandler Porter in 1980 . He died at his farm on March 29 , 1982 . He was survived by his second wife and four children . His papers are collected at Washington University .
= Amino acid =
Amino acids are biologically important organic compounds containing amine ( -NH2 ) and carboxylic acid ( -COOH ) functional groups , usually along with a side @-@ chain ( R group ) specific to each amino acid . The key elements of an amino acid are carbon , hydrogen , oxygen , and nitrogen , though other elements are found in the side @-@ chains of certain amino acids . About 500 amino acids are known ( though only 20 appear in the genetic code ) and can be classified in many ways . They can be classified according to the core structural functional groups ' locations as alpha- ( α- ) , beta- ( β- ) , gamma- ( γ- ) or delta- ( δ- ) amino acids ; other categories relate to polarity , pH level , and side @-@ chain group type ( aliphatic , acyclic , aromatic , containing hydroxyl or sulfur , etc . ) . In the form of proteins , amino acids comprise the second @-@ largest component ( water is the largest ) of human muscles , cells and other tissues . Outside proteins , amino acids perform critical roles in processes such as neurotransmitter transport and biosynthesis .
In biochemistry , amino acids having both the amine and the carboxylic acid groups attached to the first ( alpha- ) carbon atom have particular importance . They are known as 2- , alpha- , or α @-@ amino acids ( generic formula H2NCHRCOOH in most cases , where R is an organic substituent known as a " side @-@ chain " ) ; often the term " amino acid " is used to refer specifically to these . They include the 23 proteinogenic ( " protein @-@ building " ) amino acids , which combine into peptide chains ( " polypeptides " ) to form the building @-@ blocks of a vast array of proteins . These are all L @-@ stereoisomers ( " left @-@ handed " isomers ) , although a few D @-@ amino acids ( " right @-@ handed " ) occur in bacterial envelopes , as a neuromodulator ( D @-@ serine ) , and in some antibiotics . Twenty of the proteinogenic amino acids are encoded directly by triplet codons in the genetic code and are known as " standard " amino acids . The other three ( " non @-@ standard " or " non @-@ canonical " ) are selenocysteine ( present in many noneukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ) , pyrrolysine ( found only in some archea and one bacterium ) and N @-@ formylmethionine ( which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria , mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) . Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons ; for example , selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element . Codon – tRNA combinations not found in nature can also be used to " expand " the genetic code and create novel proteins known as alloproteins incorporating non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids .
Many important proteinogenic and non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids also play critical non @-@ protein roles within the body . For example , in the human brain , glutamate ( standard glutamic acid ) and gamma @-@ amino @-@ butyric acid ( " GABA " , non @-@ standard gamma @-@ amino acid ) are , respectively , the main excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters ; hydroxyproline ( a major component of the connective tissue collagen ) is synthesised from proline ; the standard amino acid glycine is used to synthesise porphyrins used in red blood cells ; and the non @-@ standard carnitine is used in lipid transport .
Nine proteinogenic amino acids are called " essential " for humans because they cannot be created from other compounds by the human body and so must be taken in as food . Others may be conditionally essential for certain ages or medical conditions . Essential amino acids may also differ between species .
Because of their biological significance , amino acids are important in nutrition and are commonly used in nutritional supplements , fertilizers , and food technology . Industrial uses include the production of drugs , biodegradable plastics , and chiral catalysts .
= = History = =
The first few amino acids were discovered in the early 19th century . In 1806 , French chemists Louis @-@ Nicolas Vauquelin and Pierre Jean Robiquet isolated a compound in asparagus that was subsequently named asparagine , the first amino acid to be discovered . Cystine was discovered in 1810 , although its monomer , cysteine , remained undiscovered until 1884 . Glycine and leucine were discovered in 1820 . The last of the 20 common amino acids to be discovered was threonine in 1935 by William Cumming Rose , who also determined the essential amino acids and established the minimum daily requirements of all amino acids for optimal growth .
Usage of the term amino acid in the English language is from 1898 . Proteins were found to yield amino acids after enzymatic digestion or acid hydrolysis . In 1902 , Emil Fischer and Franz Hofmeister proposed that proteins are the result of the formation of bonds between the amino group of one amino acid with the carboxyl group of another , in a linear structure that Fischer termed " peptide " .
= = General structure = =
In the structure shown at the top of the page , R represents a side @-@ chain specific to each amino acid . The carbon atom next to the carboxyl group ( which is therefore numbered 2 in the carbon chain starting from that functional group ) is called the α – carbon . Amino acids containing an amino group bonded directly to the alpha carbon are referred to as alpha amino acids . These include amino acids such as proline which contain secondary amines , which used to be often referred to as " imino acids " .
= = = Isomerism = = =
The alpha amino acids are the most common form found in nature , but only when occurring in the L @-@ isomer . The alpha carbon is a chiral carbon atom , with the exception of glycine which has two indistinguishable hydrogen atoms on the alpha carbon . Therefore , all alpha amino acids but glycine can exist in either of two enantiomers , called L or D amino acids , which are mirror images of each other ( see also Chirality ) . While L @-@ amino acids represent all of the amino acids found in proteins during translation in the ribosome , D @-@ amino acids are found in some proteins produced by enzyme posttranslational modifications after translation and translocation to the endoplasmic reticulum , as in exotic sea @-@ dwelling organisms such as cone snails . They are also abundant components of the peptidoglycan cell walls of bacteria , and D @-@ serine may act as a neurotransmitter in the brain . D @-@ amino acids are used in racemic crystallography to create centrosymmetric crystals , which ( depending on the protein ) may allow for easier and more robust protein structure determination . The L and D convention for amino acid configuration refers not to the optical activity of the amino acid itself but rather to the optical activity of the isomer of glyceraldehyde from which that amino acid can , in theory , be synthesized ( D @-@ glyceraldehyde is dextrorotatory ; L @-@ glyceraldehyde is levorotatory ) . In alternative fashion , the ( S ) and ( R ) designators are used to indicate the absolute stereochemistry . Almost all of the amino acids in proteins are ( S ) at the α carbon , with cysteine being ( R ) and glycine non @-@ chiral . Cysteine has its side @-@ chain in the same geometric position as the other amino acids , but the R / S terminology is reversed because of the higher atomic number of sulfur compared to the carboxyl oxygen gives the side @-@ chain a higher priority , whereas the atoms in most other side @-@ chains give them lower priority .
= = = Side chains = = =
In amino acids that have a carbon chain attached to the α – carbon ( such as lysine , shown to the right ) the carbons are labeled in order as α , β , γ , δ , and so on . In some amino acids , the amine group is attached to the β or γ @-@ carbon , and these are therefore referred to as beta or gamma amino acids .
Amino acids are usually classified by the properties of their side @-@ chain into four groups . The side @-@ chain can make an amino acid a weak acid or a weak base , and a hydrophile if the side @-@ chain is polar or a hydrophobe if it is nonpolar . The chemical structures of the 22 standard amino acids , along with their chemical properties , are described more fully in the article on these proteinogenic amino acids .
The phrase " branched @-@ chain amino acids " or BCAA refers to the amino acids having aliphatic side @-@ chains that are non @-@ linear ; these are leucine , isoleucine , and valine . Proline is the only proteinogenic amino acid whose side @-@ group links to the α @-@ amino group and , thus , is also the only proteinogenic amino acid containing a secondary amine at this position . In chemical terms , proline is , therefore , an imino acid , since it lacks a primary amino group , although it is still classed as an amino acid in the current biochemical nomenclature , and may also be called an " N @-@ alkylated alpha @-@ amino acid " .
= = = Zwitterions = = =
The α @-@ carboxylic acid group of amino acids is a weak acid , meaning that it releases a hydron ( such as a proton ) at moderate pH values . In other words , carboxylic acid groups ( − CO2H ) can be deprotonated to become negative carboxylates ( − CO2 − ) . The negatively charged carboxylate ion predominates at pH values greater than the pKa of the carboxylic acid group ( mean for the 20 common amino acids is about 2 @.@ 2 , see the table of amino acid structures above ) . In a complementary fashion , the α @-@ amine of amino acids is a weak base , meaning that it accepts a proton at moderate pH values . In other words , α @-@ amino groups ( NH2 − ) can be protonated to become positive α @-@ ammonium groups ( + NH3 − ) . The positively charged α @-@ ammonium group predominates at pH values less than the pKa of the α @-@ ammonium group ( mean for the 20 common α @-@ amino acids is about 9 @.@ 4 ) .
Because all amino acids contain amine and carboxylic acid functional groups , they share amphiprotic properties . Below pH 2 @.@ 2 , the predominant form will have a neutral carboxylic acid group and a positive α @-@ ammonium ion ( net charge + 1 ) , and above pH 9 @.@ 4 , a negative carboxylate and neutral α @-@ amino group ( net charge − 1 ) . But at pH between 2 @.@ 2 and 9 @.@ 4 , an amino acid usually contains both a negative carboxylate and a positive α @-@ ammonium group , as shown in structure ( 2 ) on the right , so has net zero charge . This molecular state is known as a zwitterion , from the German Zwitter meaning hermaphrodite or hybrid . The fully neutral form ( structure ( 1 ) on the right ) is a very minor species in aqueous solution throughout the pH range ( less than 1 part in 107 ) . Amino acids exist as zwitterions also in the solid phase , and crystallize with salt @-@ like properties unlike typical organic acids or amines .
= = = Isoelectric point = = =
The variation in titration curves when the amino acids are grouped by category can be seen here . With the exception of tyrosine , using titration to differentiate between hydrophobic amino acids is problematic .
At pH values between the two pKa values , the zwitterion predominates , but coexists in dynamic equilibrium with small amounts of net negative and net positive ions . At the exact midpoint between the two pKa values , the trace amount of net negative and trace of net positive ions exactly balance , so that average net charge of all forms present is zero . This pH is known as the isoelectric point pI , so pI
= ½ ( pKa1 + pKa2 ) . The individual amino acids all have slightly different pKa values , so have different isoelectric points . For amino acids with charged side @-@ chains , the pKa of the side @-@ chain is involved . Thus for Asp , Glu with negative side @-@ chains , pI =
½ ( pKa1 + pKaR ) , where pKaR is the side @-@ chain pKa . Cysteine also has potentially negative side @-@ chain with pKaR
= 8 @.@ 14 , so pI should be calculated as for Asp and Glu , even though the side @-@ chain is not significantly charged at neutral pH . For His , Lys , and Arg with positive side @-@ chains , pI =
½ ( pKaR + pKa2 ) . Amino acids have zero mobility in electrophoresis at their isoelectric point , although this behaviour is more usually exploited for peptides and proteins than single amino acids . Zwitterions have minimum solubility at their isoelectric point and some amino acids ( in particular , with non @-@ polar side @-@ chains ) can be isolated by precipitation from water by adjusting the pH to the required isoelectric point .
= = Occurrence and functions in biochemistry = =
= = = Proteinogenic amino acids = = =
Amino acids are the structural units ( monomers ) that make up proteins . They join together to form short polymer chains called peptides or longer chains called either polypeptides or proteins . These polymers are linear and unbranched , with each amino acid within the chain attached to two neighboring amino acids . The process of making proteins is called translation and involves the step @-@ by @-@ step addition of amino acids to a growing protein chain by a ribozyme that is called a ribosome . The order in which the amino acids are added is read through the genetic code from an mRNA template , which is a RNA copy of one of the organism 's genes .
Twenty @-@ two amino acids are naturally incorporated into polypeptides and are called proteinogenic or natural amino acids . Of these , 20 are encoded by the universal genetic code . The remaining 2 , selenocysteine and pyrrolysine , are incorporated into proteins by unique synthetic mechanisms . Selenocysteine is incorporated when the mRNA being translated includes a SECIS element , which causes the UGA codon to encode selenocysteine instead of a stop codon . Pyrrolysine is used by some methanogenic archaea in enzymes that they use to produce methane . It is coded for with the codon UAG , which is normally a stop codon in other organisms . This UAG codon is followed by a PYLIS downstream sequence .
= = = Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids = = =
Aside from the 22 proteinogenic amino acids , there are many other amino acids that are called non @-@ proteinogenic . Those either are not found in proteins ( for example carnitine , GABA ) or are not produced directly and in isolation by standard cellular machinery ( for example , hydroxyproline and selenomethionine ) .
Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids that are found in proteins are formed by post @-@ translational modification , which is modification after translation during protein synthesis . These modifications are often essential for the function or regulation of a protein ; for example , the carboxylation of glutamate allows for better binding of calcium cations , and the hydroxylation of proline is critical for maintaining connective tissues . Another example is the formation of hypusine in the translation initiation factor EIF5A , through modification of a lysine residue . Such modifications can also determine the localization of the protein , e.g. , the addition of long hydrophobic groups can cause a protein to bind to a phospholipid membrane .
Some non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids are not found in proteins . Examples include lanthionine , 2 @-@ aminoisobutyric acid , dehydroalanine , and the neurotransmitter gamma @-@ aminobutyric acid . Non @-@ proteinogenic amino acids often occur as intermediates in the metabolic pathways for standard amino acids – for example , ornithine and citrulline occur in the urea cycle , part of amino acid catabolism ( see below ) . A rare exception to the dominance of α @-@ amino acids in biology is the β @-@ amino acid beta alanine ( 3 @-@ aminopropanoic acid ) , which is used in plants and microorganisms in the synthesis of pantothenic acid ( vitamin B5 ) , a component of coenzyme A.
= = = D @-@ amino acid natural abundance = = =
D @-@ isomers are uncommon in live organisms . For instance , gramicidin is a polypeptide made up from mixture of D- and L @-@ amino acids . Other compounds containing D @-@ amino acids are tyrocidine and valinomycin . These compounds disrupt bacterial cell walls , particularly in Gram @-@ positive bacteria . Only 837 D @-@ amino acids were found in Swiss @-@ Prot database ( 187 million amino acids analysed ) .
= = = Non @-@ standard amino acids = = =
The 20 amino acids that are encoded directly by the codons of the universal genetic code are called standard or canonical amino acids . The others are called non @-@ standard or non @-@ canonical . Most of the non @-@ standard amino acids are also non @-@ proteinogenic ( i.e. they cannot be used to build proteins ) , but three of them are proteinogenic , as they can be used to build proteins by exploiting information not encoded in the universal genetic code .
The three non @-@ standard proteinogenic amino acids are selenocysteine ( present in many non @-@ eukaryotes as well as most eukaryotes , but not coded directly by DNA ) , pyrrolysine ( found only in some archaea and one bacterium ) , and N @-@ formylmethionine ( which is often the initial amino acid of proteins in bacteria , mitochondria , and chloroplasts ) . For example , 25 human proteins include selenocysteine ( Sec ) in their primary structure , and the structurally characterized enzymes ( selenoenzymes ) employ Sec as the catalytic moiety in their active sites . Pyrrolysine and selenocysteine are encoded via variant codons . For example , selenocysteine is encoded by stop codon and SECIS element .
= = = In human nutrition = = =
When taken up into the human body from the diet , the 20 standard amino acids either are used to synthesize proteins and other biomolecules or are oxidized to urea and carbon dioxide as a source of energy . The oxidation pathway starts with the removal of the amino group by a transaminase ; the amino group is then fed into the urea cycle . The other product of transamidation is a keto acid that enters the citric acid cycle . Glucogenic amino acids can also be converted into glucose , through gluconeogenesis . Of the 20 standard amino acids , nine ( His , Ile , Leu , Lys , Met , Phe , Thr , Trp and Val ) , are called essential amino acids because the human body cannot synthesize them from other compounds at the level needed for normal growth , so they must be obtained from food . In addition , cysteine ,
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= Dalsjöfors GoIF , 2011 = = =
McLeod signed with Swedish team Dalsjöfors GoIF in the Damallsvenskan for the 2011 season . Though the season ran from April 9 to October 15 , McLeod didn 't make an appearance for the team until August 13 , following her return from national team duties at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup . She started all ten of her appearances for the team , winning one game on October 8 . The team finished in last place in the regular season and were relegated to a lower division for the following season .
= = = Chicago Red Stars , 2013 = = =
In January 2013 , McLeod joined the Chicago Red Stars in the new National Women 's Soccer League as part of the NWSL Player Allocation , which distributed national team players from the United States , Canada , and Mexico . She started in net for the league 's first @-@ ever game on April 14 , 2013 against the Seattle Reign . The game ended in a 1 – 1 draw .
McLeod started all sixteen of her appearances for the Red Stars and ended the season with a 1 – 2 win over FC Kansas City on August 18 . For the 2013 NWSL season , she ranked seventh in the league for number of saves with 64 and fifth for number of clean sheets with four . Her save percentage for the season was 70 % , saving 64 of the 92 shots on goal .
= = = Houston Dash , 2014 – 2015 = = =
In January 2014 , McLeod was traded to expansion team Houston Dash for Canadian international Melissa Tancredi , who had been newly allocated to the Dash as part of the 2014 NWSL Player Allocation . McLeod was named captain of the team for the 2014 NWSL Season on April 8 after a vote by her teammates .
McLeod was the starting goalkeeper in the team 's league debut against the Portland Thorns on April 13 , 2014 . She allowed one goal , leading to the first loss of the season for the Dash . She made twenty appearances for the team during the 2014 season , starting nineteen . She ranked second in the league for number of saves with 83 and ended the season with a save percentage of 69 % .
In 2015 , Ella Masar took over as the Houston Dash captain because of McLeod 's expected time away for the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . Due to her national team duties , McLeod made 11 appearances in 20 regular season games . Despite playing in half of the games during the 2015 season , she ranked third in the league for number of saves with 60 , ending the season with a save percentage of 81 % . McLeod stated that she was playing some of the best soccer in her career during the 2015 season , and was there in the final push to get the Dash into the playoffs , just falling short in fifth place . She played her last game with the Dash on September 6 , 2015 in a match against the Chicago Red Stars that ended in a 1 – 1 draw . She ended her two years with the Houston Dash with a 7 – 18 – 6 record .
= = = FC Rosengård , 2016 = = =
Following the 2015 NWSL season , McLeod was released by the Dash in order to pursue a chance to play in the UEFA Women 's Champions League . It was announced in February 2016 that she had signed with Swedish team , FC Rosengård , along with her wife , Ella Masar . McLeod made her debut for the team in the final of the Super Cup on March 16 , 2016 , where FC Rosengård won 2 – 1 . Though she was noticeably nervous , she made a number of saves and showed good reflexes . She made one other appearance on March 23 , 2016 , playing 13 minutes before she was forced to leave the game due to a knee injury . It was later revealed that McLeod had suffered a third right ACL injury .
= = International career = =
= = = Youth national teams , 2000 – 2002 = = =
In May 2000 , McLeod was 1 of 40 players selected by the Canadian Soccer Association for a week @-@ long training camp in Vancouver , BC for the newly formed Canadian women 's under @-@ 19 and under @-@ 17 national teams . She was subsequently named to the under @-@ 17 roster . Later that year , McLeod was called up for the under @-@ 17 training camps in Nebraska that took place August 9 – 13 and two friendlies that followed on August 11 and 13 .
McLeod played in the under @-@ 19 team 's first international tournament , the third annual adidas Cup , in May 2001 . She started in goal for the May 29 match against China , which they lost 3 – 0 . She was the starting goalkeeper in a match against Japan on May 31 , helping to record the first international win for Canada 's under @-@ 19 team . During Canada 's final game of the tournament on June 2 against Finland , McLeod subbed in for Anne Ogundele during the second half . Canada lost 3 – 2 , resulting in a third place tie at the adidas Cup .
After McLeod was called up for an under @-@ 21 training camp that took place June 11 – 18 , 2001 in Mexico , she appeared in two exhibition games against Mexico . Later in June , she was called up for an under @-@ 19 training camp in Toronto . Following the camp , the under @-@ 19 team took on the United States in two international friendlies on June 30 and July 2 . McLeod started in goal for both games , allowing twelve goals total .
McLeod was named to the 18 @-@ player roster for the under @-@ 21 Open Nordic Cup in Gjorvik , Norway held July 25 – 31 , 2001 . The team arrived a week before the tournament to train and participate in an exhibition match against a Norwegian first division all @-@ star team on July 23 . McLeod made several appearances during the tournament , with Canada earning fifth place .
= = = 2002 Algarve Cup = = =
McLeod 's received her first call @-@ up to the senior national team in March 2002 for the Algarve Cup . She was among eight under @-@ 19 players that were added to the 20 @-@ player roster for the tournament in Portugal . McLeod earned her first international cap with the senior national team on March 3 , 2002 in the team 's second match of the tournament against Wales , recording her first shutout in the 4 – 0 win . She made a second appearance in the tournament in a match against Portugal on March 5 , allowing one goal . McLeod made her final appearance of the tournament in the team 's final match against Finland on March 7 , allowing three goals .
McLeod was named to the senior national team for the Tournoi international de France from April 3 – 9 , 2002 . During Canada 's first match of the tournament on April 3 ( and McLeod 's single appearance during the tournament ) , she earned her second career shutout with a 0 – 0 draw .
= = = 2002 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship = = =
= = = = Qualifying = = = =
McLeod spent the summer of 2002 training with both the under @-@ 19 and senior national teams . She was named to the 18 @-@ player roster for the under @-@ 19 training camp in Florida from April 10 – 14 , 2002 . The team also participated in a tournament during the camp , which served as a qualifying tournament for the first FIFA Under @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship held later in the summer ; however , Canada already qualified as the host nation . McLeod started in goal for both matches of the tournament .
= = = = Road to the World Championship = = = =
McLeod was called up for the under @-@ 19 training camp and three @-@ game series against Italy held May 26 – June 5 , 2002 in preparation for the FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship . She recorded a shutout during the first match on May 30 and started in all three games .
McLeod played in goal for a three @-@ game series against Mexico from June 25 – July 6 , 2002 following an under @-@ 19 training camp . She recorded a shutout during the second game of the series on July 3 . As the goalkeeper for the final three games of the Road to the World Championship series , she recorded three straight wins for the team : two against Chinese Taipei and one against Brazil . She posted a shutout for a 2 – 0 win over Brazil in the final game on August 11 .
McLeod was invited to train with the senior national team in Toronto in preparation for an international friendly against Norway in July of the same year . She started in goal for the friendly on July 17 , which resulted in a 2 – 2 draw .
= = = = 2002 FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship = = = =
McLeod started all six of Canada 's games in the first FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship , held August 17 – September 1 , 2002 . Highly recognizable for her red and white Mohawk hairstyle throughout the tournament , she allowed six goals in the six games , ending the tournament with a 4 – 1 – 1 record . Following the tournament , she was named to the FIFA All @-@ Star Team , along with fellow Canadians Candace Chapman , Carmelina Moscato , and Christine Sinclair .
= = = Transition to the senior national team = = =
McLeod fully transitioned to the Canadian senior national team following her performance at the U @-@ 19 World Championship . She has stated that the transition was difficult for her due to the great depth of goalkeepers already with the national team , noting she often took the back seat to more experienced players , which affected her confidence .
In October 2002 , McLeod was named to the 18 @-@ player roster for the 2002 CONCACAF Gold Cup , the qualifying tournament for the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup . McLeod made one appearance during the tournament in Canada 's first match against Haiti , allowing one goal in the 11 – 1 win . McLeod was forced to leave the tournament early to return to her Southern Methodist University team in order to maintain her scholarship .
= = = The struggle for caps , 2003 – 2006 = = =
From 2003 to 2006 , McLeod made 22 appearances for the Canadian national team , four of those being in major tournaments .
McLeod made the 18 @-@ player roster for the 2003 Algarve Cup in Portugal held March 14 – 20 , 2003 and made one appearance during the team 's final match against Greece . She was the starting goalkeeper in four of five additional appearances for the national team in 2003 , allowing six goals and recording one shutout .
In September 2003 , McLeod represented Canada at the 2003 FIFA Women 's World Cup though she did not make an appearance during the tournament . Following the tournament , McLeod moved to Vancouver to live with another goalkeeper in order to gain more practice and improve her game .
McLeod made one appearance for Canada during the Four Nations tournament in China on January 30 , 2004 against China . Her second appearance in 2004 came during the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying tournament in March . She subbed in during the 69th minute of the March 5 match against Costa Rica , helping to secure a third place win . Because of the team 's third @-@ place finish , Canada did not qualify for the 2004 Summer Olympics .
McLeod did not make another appearance for the national team until 2006 . She was invited to the first training camp of 2006 in mid @-@ January . It was the first training camp she took part in since July 2004 . McLeod was named to a 17 @-@ women roster for two matches against the Netherlands in March 2006 . She started in goal for the March 4 match , allowing one goal in the 90 minutes played . In April , she made the 18 @-@ women roster for the four @-@ city , five @-@ match tour of the United States , where the Canadian team played various college teams . Following the tour , McLeod appeared and started in seven friendlies for Canada from June to August , allowing eight goals total and recording two shutouts .
McLeod was a member of the 20 @-@ player team that played in the inaugural Peace Queen Cup that took place in South Korea October 28 – November 4 , 2006 . She was the starting goalkeeper in all four of Canada 's games in the tournament , losing once in the final against the United States .
McLeod was named to the 22 @-@ player roster that represented Canada during the 2006 CONCACAF Women 's Gold Cup in November , which served as the qualifying tournament for the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup . As the starting goalkeeper for the semi @-@ final match against Jamaica , she recorded a shutout , earning Canada the win and a berth to the championship final and 2007 World Cup . In the championship final against the United States , McLeod was the starting goalkeeper and allowed one goal in regular time , leading to a tie after 90 minutes . In the last minute of extra time , Kristine Lilly of the United States scored on a penalty kick against McLeod , giving the United States the Gold Cup title .
= = = 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = =
McLeod and the national team began preparation for the 2007 FIFA Women 's World Cup with a residency camp in Vancouver in the months leading up to the September tournament . Leading up to the World Cup , McLeod started in goal in three international friendlies for Canada , conceding nine goals and recording one shutout .
As Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2007 World Cup in China , McLeod played in all three of the team 's matches during the group stage of the tournament . She allowed three goals in 259 minutes played , recording one shutout in the match against Ghana . The team placed third in their group , halting their advancement in the tournament .
McLeod and the national team regrouped one last time in November 2007 for another residency camp to begin preparing for the 2008 Summer Olympics the following summer .
= = = 2008 and the Beijing Olympics = = =
In January 2008 , McLeod was named to the 21 @-@ player roster for the Four Nations tournament in China . The four @-@ team , three @-@ game tournament took place in late January and provided needed preparation for the Canadian team for the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament later that year . McLeod made one appearance during the tournament in Canada 's first match against the United States . She started and played all 90 minutes of the game . McLeod was named to the roster for a European trip that included the Cyprus Cup from March 5 – 12 and two international friendlies . McLeod was the starting goalkeeper for two of three matches in the Cyprus Cup , allowing one goal and recording a shutout . She recorded a shutout in an international friendly as the starting goalkeeper against France on March 14 .
As Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2008 CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying Tournament in April , McLeod recorded three shutouts and allowed one goal in the final against the United States . The team 's April 9 semi @-@ final win over Mexico was her sixth clean sheet of the season , setting a national team record . She helped Canada set a CONCACAF record with 509 consecutive shutout minutes . Canada 's second @-@ place finish at the tournament earned the team a spot at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing . Following the Olympic Qualifying Tournament , McLeod started in two friendlies in May against the United States and Australia before the Peace Queen Cup in Korea in June . She recorded one shutout during the tournament . After the Peace Queen Cup , McLeod and Canada 's women 's national team resumed the Vancouver residency program for final preparations for the 2008 Women 's Olympic Football Tournament . The residency included three friendlies in July against Brazil , New Zealand , and Singapore ; McLeod started in the matches against New Zealand and Singapore and allowed two goals .
= = = = Women 's Olympic Football Tournament , injury , and setbacks = = = =
McLeod represented Canada at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing that took place from August 6 – 21 . During the group stage , she was the starting goalkeeper for all three of Canada 's matches against Argentina , China , and Sweden . She allowed four goals in three matches , helping Canada advance to the knockout stage .
During the quarter @-@ finals , Canada faced the United States with McLeod starting in goal . In the twelfth minute of the game , American player Heather O 'Reilly made a shot on goal , but it was stopped by McLeod . Angela Hucles then got the rebound and scored for the United States . However , McLeod injured her right knee during the play . She was down for several minutes before she got up and attempted to resume playing . A few minutes later , she was replaced by goalkeeper Karina LeBlanc in the 19th minute . The United States won the game 1 – 2 . It was later revealed that McLeod had torn her right ACL .
Following the injury , McLeod stated that she was relieved because the injury gave her a much needed break from the national team . After the 2007 World Cup , she experienced a drop in confidence due to both her own negative thoughts about her performances as well as derogatory comments about her sexuality made by fellow national team players . It took her years to finally get back to the national team .
= = = Attempted comeback and another injury , 2009 – 2010 = = =
Following her ACL injury , McLeod did not make an appearance for the Canadian national team until July 2009 . She made one appearance for the team in 2009 during an international friendly against the United States on July 22 , where she allowed one goal . She was noted for making several impressive saves during the match . McLeod returned to training with the national team in November for the 12 @-@ day camp in Florida which featured 22 players and a pair of exhibition matches against local university teams .
In February 2010 , McLeod joined the national team for an 18 @-@ day training camp that included four matches in the Cyprus Cup and an international friendly against Poland . McLeod started in the friendly against Poland on February 20 , recording a clean sheet . She also made one start in the Cyprus Cup against South Africa , allowing one goal . She made one other appearance in 2010 in a friendly in April against China before sustaining another ACL injury in July while playing with the Washington Freedom .
= = = Comeback and disappointment , 2011 = = =
McLeod recovered from her second ACL injury quickly and was on the 24 @-@ player roster that competed in Chongqing , China at the Four Nations Tournament in late January 2011 . She appeared in one of three matches against China on January 21 . After the Four Nations tournament , the Canadian national team convened for their traditional residency program in preparation for the FIFA Women 's World Cup . The team trained in Italy from February 12 – 22 preceding the Cyprus Cup . McLeod appeared in three of the four matches in the Cyprus Cup , recording two shutouts . Following the tournament , the Canadian team took a break , during which McLeod hosted Special Goalkeeper Training Sessions from March 17 – 18 . The team reconvened for a four @-@ week training camp from March 23 – April 20 in Roma , Italy to prepare for the FIFA Women 's World Cup . During the camp , McLeod appeared in three friendlies and recorded two shutouts .
As Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup in Germany , McLeod appeared in two of three matches in the group stage , allowing six goals . Despite an impressive effort , the Canadian team did not advance past the group stage and finished last . Some have stated that the team was burned out following the extensive residency program leading up to the World Cup . Players were also critical of the decision of head coach Carolina Morace to hold the camp in Italy as opposed to Canada . Following the tournament , McLeod appeared in two friendlies against the United States and Sweden .
= = = 2012 London Olympics = = =
After the 2011 FIFA Women 's World Cup , John Herdman was hired as head coach of the Canadian national team . He rebuilt the team and used inclusive language to help create an environment that allowed players to be honest with each other and grow . McLeod was able to address issues that she had with herself and others , which she attributed to helping re @-@ build her confidence .
Leading up to the 2012 Olympics , McLeod helped the Canadian team qualify at the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifying tournament that took place from January 19 – 29 in Vancouver . She started in the group stage match against Cuba on January 21 and recorded a clean sheet . She made one other appearance during the tournament in the final match against the United States on January 29 at BC Place . During the match , she conceded four goals , resulting in a 4 – 0 win for the United States .
Following a 10 @-@ day training camp in Cyprus in February 2012 , McLeod was named to the 21 @-@ player roster for the 2012 Cyprus Cup that ran from February 28 to March 6 . She appeared in two of Canada 's four matches in the tournament , including the final against France . From April until late June , McLeod joined her teammates in an extended residency camp in Vancouver in preparation for the 2012 Olympics . During the camp , the team played in various friendlies ; McLeod appeared and started in four friendlies , recording two shutouts .
McLeod was Canada 's starting goalkeeper at the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . During the group stage , she played in two matches against Japan and Sweden on July 25 and 31 , respectively . She allowed four goals in the two matches . In the quarter @-@ finals , McLeod started in goal against Great Britain and secured a clean sheet .
McLeod started in the semi @-@ final game against the United States on August 6 , in what many have called a controversial match . In the 78th minute of the game , Canada was leading , 3 – 2 , when the referee ruled that McLeod had held the ball for more than six seconds , going by a rule that is rarely enforced , and gave an indirect free kick inside the penalty area to the United States . McLeod faced no challenge with the free kick ; however , the referee then called a penalty after the ball struck Canadian player Marie @-@ Eve Nault on the arm . American striker Abby Wambach took the penalty kick , and it went past McLeod . The match went into extra time , with Alex Morgan heading in the ball past McLeod 's fingertips in the 123rd minute , resulting in a win for the United States .
McLeod started in the Bronze medal match against France on August 9 . Her clean sheet helped Canada win the bronze medal .
= = = 2013 – 2014 = = =
McLeod was named to the national team roster for the Four Nations tournament that took place in Yongchuan , China in January 2013 . She started in two of the three matches , recording two shutouts . In March , she started in three of the four matches at the Cyprus Cup , allowing one goal in all three games . The national team travelled to Europe for eight days in April 2013 , where McLeod started in two friendlies against France and England , conceding one goal in each match . McLeod was named Canada 's player of the match in the draw against France on April 4 . She was the starting goalkeeper in the rematch against the United States on June 2 in Toronto . Later in June , McLeod played during a friendly against Germany and was named Canada 's player of the match for the second time in 2013 . McLeod started in goal four more times in 2013 , including two friendlies and two matches in the Torneio Internacional Cidade de São Paulo in December . All four games were shutouts .
In 2014 , McLeod appeared in seven games , starting six . The year started off with a friendly against the United States on January 31 , where McLeod conceded one goal . In March of the same year , she started in two matches during the Cyprus Cup . The last four matches of the year for McLeod were international friendlies , including another match up against the United States on May 8 , which ended in a 1 – 1 draw . On November 24 , 2014 , McLeod made her 100th appearance for the senior team and recorded a shutout in a friendly match against Sweden at Loyola Marymount University in Los Angeles .
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = = 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup = = = =
In the months leading up to the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup , McLeod joined the Canadian national team as they took part in an extended residency in order to prepare and train . McLeod and the Canadian national team started off the year at the Four Nations Tournament . While McLeod was on the roster for the tournament , she did not play in any of the three games , allowing fellow Canadian Stephanie Labbé to gain experience . McLeod made her first appearance of the year at the Cyprus Cup in March , where she appeared in three of the four matches that Canada played , recording three shutouts . She also appeared in two other friendlies against France and England in April and May .
In April 2015 , McLeod was named to the 23 @-@ player Canadian roster for the FIFA Women 's World Cup hosted by Canada . As Canada 's veteran goalkeeper , she started in net for all five of the team 's matches , recording three shutouts , and helping Canada earn a sixth @-@ place finish . The team 's one loss came in the quarter @-@ finals against England , which halted their advancement in the tournament . Although McLeod had an impressive tournament , she was left off both the Golden Glove shortlist and the FIFA Technical Study Group All @-@ Star Squad .
= = = = Injury = = = =
Following the 2015 World Cup , McLeod was named to the national team roster for the Torneio Internacional de Natal . During her second appearance of the tournament on December 20 – a match against Brazil – McLeod jumped for an incoming ball in the 35th minute and collided with Brazilian player Marta . McLeod landed awkwardly on her right leg , causing injury to her right knee . Though it was initially thought to be a serious injury , it turned out to be a bone bruise and she walked off the field on her own accord .
= = = 2016 = = =
Despite her injury , McLeod returned to the pitch quickly , starting in three games at the CONCACAF Women 's Olympic Qualifier in February 2016 where she recorded two shutouts . Instead of playing at the Algarve Cup , she decided to return to Sweden to play with her club team , FC Rosengard . In March 2016 , she sustained her third ACL injury , taking her out of contention for the 2016 Rio Olympics . McLeod has stated that her recovery is expected to take one to two years , and there is a possibility she may not return to play .
= = Player statistics = =
= = = World Cup and Olympic appearances = = =
Updated through 2016 @-@ 06 @-@ 16
= = Style of play = =
In the early years of her career , McLeod 's playing style was described as exuberant and with " boisterous " energy . Her kinetic style of goalkeeping was something that came naturally to her in her youth . Tim Rosenfeld , now a coach at the University of Wisconsin , first saw McLeod in the early 2000s while he was coaching at Penn State University and noted that she was " out of control " and kept coming off her line " going for balls she had no business going for . " When she eventually transferred to Penn State in 2004 , Rosenfeld stated that " she 'd make saves that no one in the world could make , but she 'd also made decisions that allowed a bad goal . " As a youth player in 2002 , the FIFA U @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship Technical Study Group noted that she was " self @-@ assured in all situations , " has " good positioning " and " organized defense well . "
After gaining more experience in goal , McLeod has improved her control and composure . Canadian head coach John Herdman has noted her ability to stay focused , sharp and alert as well as her strength when faced with great crosses . In 2007 , the FIFA Women 's World Cup Technical Study Group stated that she was an " influential goalkeeper " with " steady performances . " In 2012 , the Olympic Football Tournament Technical Study Group noted that she was a " reliable goalkeeper with good positional play " and that she " comes off her line to good effect . " She has been noted for her dedication , hard work , and attention to detail when playing .
McLeod has been known to rely on meditation to deal with mental fatigue and mentally prepare for games . She has said that Buddhist principles drive her meditation and her selfless lifestyle . Herdman has noted that because of this , McLeod has a calm and comforting presence on the field . She has been recognized for her leadership on and off the field . Her ability to effectively communicate with her back line allows her to take complete control , creating an organized defense . In 2015 , the FIFA Women 's World Cup Technical Study Group called her a " goalkeeper with good positioning and technique " and stated that she " played with confidence and leadership " and " communicated well from the back . "
= = Personal life = =
McLeod is openly lesbian . She came out publicly during a CBC interview following the controversy surrounding the 2014 Sochi Olympics and Russia 's gay propaganda laws . She was among a group of athletes who called for a change in the language of the Olympic Charter and host @-@ city contract to include non @-@ discrimination of sexual orientation . She also served on the Canadian Athletes ' Commission as the LGBT representative .
On July 6 , 2015 , McLeod married teammate Ella Masar in Vancouver following the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup . The two co @-@ hosted a regular online web show called The Ella and Erin Show while playing for the Chicago Red Stars and later the Houston Dash in order to promote home games and give away tickets to fans . They currently live in Malmö , Sweden with their chihuahua , Max , while playing with FC Rosengård .
= = = Tattoos = = =
McLeod has several tattoos , the most noticeable being on her right arm . In 2002 , following Canada 's silver medal win at the Under @-@ 19 Women 's World Championship , McLeod had the image of a Canadian Maple Leaf tattooed on her buttocks . Prior to the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , she had a Washington Irving quote tattooed on her right forearm :
There is sacredness in tears . They are not the mark of weakness , but a power . They speak more eloquently than 10 @,@ 000 tongues . They are the messengers of overwhelming grief and unspeakable love .
In addition to the quote , she had the Roman numeral " V " above the quote near the crevice of her elbow . While the " V " was meant to represent the five members of her immediate family , she had the tattoo covered up in early 2014 . In its place is a black rectangle with the words " keep going " inscribed inside . At the same time , she had teal zigzag lines inked around her entire right forearm , surrounding the Washington Irving quote , a large owl wrapped around her arm , and script around her wrist , the latter two of which she got right after the 2012 Summer Olympics .
McLeod has the Roman numerals " X X IX " tattooed down the back of her neck , representing the 29th Olympiad . McLeod and Masar have matching tattoos , which they received in the summer of 2015 following their wedding . The tattoo is simply composed of the word " one " located on the side of her ring finger .
= = Outside of professional soccer = =
= = = Noble Motives Collective = = =
McLeod and fashion designer Adelle Renaud founded the Noble Motives Collective composed of Peau de Loup , a button down shirt company ; Caposhie , a fashion boutique located in West Vancouver ; and Motive Athletics , McLeod 's athletic clothing line . Peau de Loup was founded in early 2013 by Renaud and McLeod joined the company in October of the same year . Caposhie opened for business in October 2015 in the Park Royal Shopping Center in West Vancouver . Motive Athletics was revealed in late 2015 , with some promotional products being sold in Caposhie , but was not officially launched until July 2016 . On November 4 , 2015 , McLeod appeared on the business reality show Dragons ' Den presenting her company and getting a deal .
In June 2015 , Peau de Loup teamed up with the Canadian Soccer Association to launch an exclusive collection in support of the women 's national team at the 2015 FIFA Women 's World Cup with a campaign named The Canadian Promise . The line included the Unity Scarf , which donned the word " Canada " on the inside , as well as the True North Flannel . Players from the Canadian national team could be seen wearing items from the collection during the tournament . In addition to their support for team Canada , Peau de Loup also supports Freedom Factory , a Canadian charity based in Surrey , British Columbia , and one dollar from every shirt sold goes directly to the women of Al @-@ lhsan .
= = = Art gallery = = =
In 2013 , McLeod launched her art career with her first solo art exhibit " Limitless " from September 16 – 30 at the Jane Roos Gallery in Toronto . She created all of the pieces in just six months and they all sold well . After completing the successful showing , McLeod began working on commission pieces . In November 2014 , she launched the Erin McLeod Gallery on Etsy , where she sells both original pieces and high quality prints .
= = = Philanthropy = = =
McLeod is an ambassador for the Right To Play campaign , a program that educates and empowers youth in impoverished countries in order to build self @-@ sustaining communities . Regarding her reason to get involved with the organization , McLeod stated , " I saw 7- or 8 @-@ year @-@ olds who are taking care of a family of six because their parents have died of AIDS . It 's one of the harshest circumstances I 've ever seen . "
McLeod has also worked with Rethink Breast Cancer , a program that educates young women on nutrition and body image in order to promote healthy living . She has cited her own body image issues and eating disorder as her reason for getting involved with the organization .
In 2013 , McLeod became an ambassador for the non @-@ profit organization Athlete Ally , which works to end homophobia and transphobia in sports . She stated that her performance on the field improved after she gained more confidence in who she was off the field . McLeod believes promoting such confidence and creating an accepting environment , as Athlete Ally strives to do , is important for athletes and is the reason she joined the organization .
= = = Endorsements = = =
In February 2015 , McLeod signed an endorsement deal with Destination Chrysler Jeep Dodge Ram , in which she received a 2015 Jeep Wrangler Sahara . In March , she visited two schools in Vancouver in collaboration with the company to speak to younger children about her experiences with soccer and life .
= = = Grass2Gold = = =
McLeod and fellow Canadian international Melissa Tancredi co @-@ founded the training program Grass2Gold for youth athletes in order to provide national level training for younger athletes so that they can reach their full potential .
= = Honors and awards = =
= = = Club = = =
= = = = Vancouver Whitecaps = = = =
W @-@ League Championship : 2004 , 2006
= = = International = = =
Olympic Bronze Medal : 2012
International Tournament of São Paulo : 2010
Cyprus Cup : 2008 , 2010 , 2011
= = = Individual = = =
All @-@ WAC Tournament Team : 2001
NSCAA Central All @-@ Region Team : 2001 , 2002
All @-@ WAC First @-@ Team : 2001 , 2002
Academic All @-@ WAC Team : 2002
NSCAA All @-@ American Third Team : 2004
All @-@ Mid Atlantic Region First team : 2004 , 2005
All @-@ Big Ten First Team : 2004 , 2005
NSCAA All @-@ American First Team : 2005
ESPN The Magazine Academic All @-@ American Third @-@ Team : 2005
Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year : 2005
M.A.C. Hermann Trophy semi @-@ finalist : 2005
Canadian Soccer Association 's All @-@ Time Canada XI : 2012
= Beneath a Steel Sky =
Beneath a Steel Sky is a 1994 cyberpunk science @-@ fiction point @-@ and @-@ click adventure game developed by Revolution Software and published by Virgin Interactive for MS @-@ DOS and Amiga home computers . The game was made available as freeware for PC platforms in 2003 . Set in a dystopian future , the player assumes the role of Robert Foster , who was stranded in a wasteland known as " the Gap " as a child and adopted by a group of local Aboriginals , gradually adjusting to his life in the wilderness . After many years , armed security officers arrive , killing the locals and taking Robert back to Union City . He escapes and soon uncovers the corruption which lies at the heart of society .
Originally titled Underworld , the game was a collaboration between game director Charles Cecil and comic book artist Dave Gibbons , and cost £ 40 @,@ 000 to make . Cecil was a fan of Gibbons 's work and approached with the idea of a video game . The game has a serious tone , but features humour @-@ filled dialogue , which came as a result of Cecil 's and writer Dave Cummins 's goal to find a middle ground between the earnestness of Sierra 's and the slapstick comedy of LucasArts ' adventure games . It was built using Revolution 's Virtual Theatre engine , first used in Revolution 's previous and debut release , 1992 's Lure of the Temptress .
It received extremely positive reviews at the time of its release and is retrospectively viewed as a cult classic and Revolution 's greatest game besides Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars . A remastered edition was released for iOS in 2009 ( as Beneath a Steel Sky Remastered ) , which also received a positive reception from the gaming press . A sequel was greenlit during the Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse 2012 Kickstarter campaign , but its development has yet to be confirmed .
= = Gameplay = =
Beneath a Steel Sky is a 2D adventure game played from a third @-@ person perspective . The player uses a point @-@ and @-@ click interface to interact with the environment and to guide protagonist Robert Foster through the game 's world . To solve puzzles and progress in the game , the player collects items that may be combined with one another , used on the environment , or given to non @-@ player characters ( NPCs ) . The protagonist converses with NPCs via dialogue trees to learn about the game 's puzzles and plot . Clues and other information are obtained by clicking on items in the inventory and on objects in the environment . Unlike in most adventure games at the time , the protagonist 's death is possible , after which the player starts from the last save point . In the remastered iOS version , the point @-@ and @-@ click interface is replaced with a touch user interface , a hint system is added , and hotspots are highlighted .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Background = = =
Beneath a Steel Sky is set at an unknown point in a dystopian future , when the Earth has been significantly damaged by pollution and / or nuclear fallout .
In Australia , the six states and two territories who have been consumed by their respective capital cities are described as " city states " . Union City is the second largest of the six remaining city states after the acquisition of Asio @-@ City . Within this socio @-@ political milieu , the national intelligence agency ASIO wield a great deal of power .
After the " Euro @-@ American War " , all participants agreed upon a set of ideals described as the " neo democratic principles " which remove all labour representation and social benefits . Ironically , those that subscribe to these principles are called " Unions " , contrasting the real world definition of what a trade union pushes for . Those that oppose the Unions ' ideals are called " Corporations " . All of the City States in Australia are either Corporations or Unions .
The larger political context of the game involves a conflict between Union City and the Hobart Corporation , whereby they are each trying to achieve market dominance by the use of sabotage . During the game , characters in Union City remark that Hobart Corporation is winning the " economic war " by flooding the market with " cheap , gimmicky garbage , " although it is never clarified whether this is mere propaganda .
= = = Plot = = =
The immediate backstory is introduced via a comic book that tells the story of a young boy called Robert who is the sole survivor of a helicopter crash in " the Gap " ( the name applied to the Outback at the time of the game ) . Too young to fend for himself , Robert is adopted by a group of locals , who teach him the skills he needs to survive in this harsh new environment ; they name him Robert Foster , partly due to him being fostered by them , but also because of the discovery of an empty can of Foster 's Lager found near the crash site . Over the years , Foster learns engineering and technology and builds a talking , sentient robot called Joey . Joey 's personality is stored on a small circuit board , which can easily be inserted and removed from many types of robot . This allows him to change bodies as the situation requires , provided his circuit board is not damaged . His commentaries on the current " shell " he is in are a running gag throughout the game .
As the game starts , Foster is kidnapped and his tribe annihilated by security soldiers sent from Union City by its all @-@ powerful computer , LINC ( Logical Inter @-@ Neural Connection ) . The abductors refuse to give Foster any explanation as to what is happening . Shortly upon arriving in the city , the helicopter malfunctions and crashes in the city 's upper level . Foster survives and flees , making his way into a recycling plant , carrying Joey 's circuit board with him .
Foster places Joey 's circuit board into a robotic vacuum cleaner ( something about which Joey is none too happy ) . He then attempts to escape the plant , but is cornered by a security officer who had also survived the accident . The officer , Reich , addresses Foster as " Overmann " . Just as Reich is about to kill Foster , a nearby security camera shoots a laser , disarming him . Reich tells the camera , which he reveals is controlled by LINC , that Foster must be stopped . In answer the camera shoots him again , killing him . Foster takes the officer 's access card and sunglasses before he continues his escape .
As he makes his way further down the city , Foster eventually arrives in the abandoned subway tunnels . There he discovers that LINC has grown exponentially , to the point where he is now half @-@ machine , half @-@ organic entity . However , in order to function , LINC needs a human host to share its brain . The current host is Foster 's biological father , who is old and has become severely worn out from his symbiosis with LINC . It is revealed that LINC sent for Foster because , with the death of its current host inevitable , it needed a replacement , and only a blood relative would do . Foster ultimately defeats LINC by plugging Joey ( now calling himself Ken ) into the mainframe . Joey / Ken is able to take control of the system , and he and Foster set about turning Union City into a utopia .
= = Development = =
While working at Activision , Revolution co @-@ founder and CEO Charles Cecil got the idea of working with Dave Gibbons , artist and co @-@ creator of comic book Watchmen , as Cecil was a fan of the comic book himself . He approached Gibbons , but shortly thereafter , the old Activision broke down . However , they maintained a friendship , and Cecil later contacted Gibbons to ask him to work on Revolution 's second game . Seeing his son play video games , Gibbons became interested and realized that his skills in drawing , writing and conceptualizing could be useful in a gaming environment . Joining the team just before the release Lure of the Temptress , Gibbons was sent a rudimentary outline of what could happen in the hypothesised game , and wrote a longer story with new characters and scenarios , to which Revolution then further added . Originally the game was named Underworld , a title proposed by Gibbons , but it was renamed due to the release of Ultima Underworld : The Stygian Abyss .
The production values became much higher for Beneath a Steel Sky than for Lure of the Temptress , resulting in a game six times larger , and by the end of 1993 , the team working on the game had grown to eleven . The game was created in sections , which allowed the team to ensure that each part was " perfected " before moving on . Its 2 @-@ year development cost £ 40 @,@ 000 , a large amount of money for the company at the time .
= = = Creative and technical design = = =
The designers ' goal was to create a visual bridge between comic and video game graphics . Gibbons drew the backgrounds in pencil , starting with roughs , which were sent to Revolution to see if they were technically feasible . Once agreed upon , Gibbons would then make the final sketch . The pencil sketches were then colored , mainly by Les Pace . The backgrounds were scanned on a Macintosh as 24 @-@ bit , 1000x1000 pixel images with 16 million colors , and then transformed to 8 @-@ bit , 320x200 pixel images with 256 colors for the PC version . The backgrounds were designed so that the sprites would appear clear on the screen and wouldn 't mix with the backgrounds . Gibbons created the sprites using Deluxe Paint . Steve Ince , who joined the team in February 1993 , created a number of sprite animations , also painting some backgrounds based on Gibbons 's sketches . Gibbons also designed the characters , although he found it challenging to get a character 's personality and expression in a face that was only around seven pixels wide and nine pixels high with a limited palette . He would have liked to design a character in a similar manner to Prince of Persia or Flashback , but Revolution wanted something more detailed , so the result became a compromise . All character sprites are smoothly animated with around 20 positions each . According to Gibbons , about 75 % of the backgrounds and characters he designed were used in the game .
Dave Cummins wrote the dialogue for the game . The tone of Revolution 's early games was born from a tension between Cummins and Cecil . Cummins wanted to be more flippant with dialogue , while Cecil wanted to be more serious . Their goal was to find the middle ground between Sierra 's " ridiculously earnest " stories and the slapstick comedy of LucasArts games . For the voice acting , which is only included in the CD @-@ ROM version , Revolution used actors from the Royal Shakespeare Company . Only two days were spent recording over five thousands lines of dialogue . Not pleased with the results , however , Revolution decided on a lengthy re @-@ recording , and realized that voice actors should be used , rather than stage actors . As a result of this , the speech doesn 't always match the on @-@ screen text , with English terms being Americanized . Cummins was also responsible for the score of the game , writing a specific tune for each of the main locations .
Beneath a Steel Sky became the second game to use Revolution 's Virtual Theatre engine , after Lure of the Temptress . According to Cecil , the original version of the engine seemed less applicable in Beneath a Steel Sky , as the ability to issue commands conflicted with the gameplay they intended to create . Lure of the Temptress had one story that was moved forward by a key event , whereas Beneath a Steel Sky had multiple threads . In one way this presented them with " exciting gameplay opportunities , but in others it cordoned off more ambitious ideas in terms of multilinearity . " As a consequence , some of the engine 's features were scaled back . Tony Warriner and David Sykes , both Revolution co @-@ founders and programmers , had to update the engine , which was part of the new deal with Virgin Interactive . As an example of change in the updated engine , Virtual Theatre 2 @.@ 0 , Warriner explained that in Lure of the Temptress , the system controlled everything , for instance specific routines to a door . So if there was a door on @-@ screen , the door @-@ routine was called up to handle it . The consequence was that every door looked the same and acted the same , so if a door was somewhat different from the last one , it caused a problem . This was changed in the new system , as it was object oriented and no distinction was made between a proper object like a door or key .
= = = Release = = =
Beneath a Steel Sky was presented at the European Computer Trade Show in the London Business Design Centre in April 1993 and at the Consumer Electronics Show in Chicago in June 1993 . According to French magazine Génération 4 , the game was supposed to be released by the end of October 1993 . Various playable demos of the game were made ; one was added to the first issue of PC Gamer , and Amiga demos were added as cover disks to several Amiga magazines .
Beneath a Steel Sky was published in March 1994 by Virgin Interactive on floppy disks and CD @-@ ROM . It came on 15 floppy disks , as opposed to Lure of The Temptress , which came on four . Because of the Amiga restrictions , a few animations had to be left out , as not all Amiga owners had a hard drive . Each conversion of the images to the Amiga resulted in a loss of detail because of the Amiga 's limited palette and resolution . According to Revolution in @-@ house artist Adam Tween , it took a couple of days to " touch up " the screens . A comic book created by Gibbons , which was translated into the introduction sequence of the game , came as part of the game package .
Beneath a Steel Sky was translated from English into French and Portuguese . This was the first game not developed in Portugal to be released with a Portuguese translation .
= = = Freeware release and Remastered edition = = =
In August 2003 , the game was released as freeware with its assembly language source code by Revolution Software . The source code availability made it possible for the ScummVM project to support the game , which allows the game to be played on Windows , OS X , Linux , Windows CE and other compatible operating systems and platforms .
In November 2011 , James Woodcock released an enhanced soundtrack of the game for ScummVM . The game is also available for free download on digital distribution services , including Desura and GOG.com.
In July 2009 , Revolution announced that a remastered edition of Beneath a Steel Sky would be released on iOS later that year . The remastered edition features new animated movies by Gibbons , a context @-@ sensitive help system and improved audio quality . The game was released on the App Store on October 7 , 2009 . The animated movies in the iOS remastered version make use of the original stills and use a sliding paper @-@ like style to animate them .
= = Critical reception and commercial performance = =
Beneath a Steel Sky was critically acclaimed . In 1995 , PC Gamer awarded it the " Best Dialogue " award , and it won the " Best Adventure " award at the Golden Joystick Awards . It was also a commercial success , reaching the number one place on the British Gallup charts .
CU Amiga 's Tony Dillon proclaimed Beneath a Steel Sky as " one of the greatest adventures ever . " Amiga Format 's Rob Mead said that the game is an " Utterly brilliant " , " massive , intense and atmospheric adventure which will keep you on tenterhooks right until its final startling conclusion . " PC Gamer US 's Steve Poole called it " slick , funny , " " absorbing " and " one of the most playable adventures of all time " " that will appeal to a wide variety of gamers " . Amiga Power 's Cam Winstanley said that it is " an example of what an adventure game should be like – funny , enthralling and convincing . " Adventure Gamers ' Claire Wood called it an " enjoyable " , " engaging adventure classic , thoroughly enjoyable playing experience " and " a 1984 for the computer game generation . "
Winstanley thought that the main highpoint of the game was the story , with an ending " that 's actually quite a surprise . " Wood praised the " intelligent , thought provoking storyline " that " becomes more and more compelling , punctuated by unexpected plot twists and macabre discoveries . "
Dillon praised the game 's " stunning " graphics . Mead said the comic book @-@ like artwork projected a great " atmosphere " . Winstanley felt that the game looked " superb " . Wood said the graphics " have aged reasonably well " .
Many of the critics praised the game 's " adult humour " , showcased through numerous one @-@ liners and double entendres . Dillon praised the charm of the various characters and their personalities built through conversations . Wood also praised the Revolution 's " trademark " " light @-@ hearted humour " . Both Dillon and Wood , as well as Winstanley , highlighted Joey 's witty remarks . Poole called the writing " some of the funniest dialog ever " and the characters " warped " and " interesting " .
Reviewers praised the game 's puzzles for being logical but still challenging . Poole found the puzzles to be " tricky " and " engaging " , but stated " the difficulty of the puzzles in the final third of the game is disproportionately high " and that he disliked some of the " race the clock " puzzles . On the other hand , Winstanley felt that the " real time " puzzles " add pace " . Wood 's only gripe with the puzzles were the " odd and disorienting " LINC @-@ space sequences .
Dillon wrote that the controls were so " simple that Revolution can finally lay claim to having created the ultimate in intuitive control methods . " Poole labeled them " a masterwork of simplicity " . Winstanley also praised the " simple " interface , while Wood said that the " unobtrusive interface " is one of the factors that make the game a " highly immersive experience " .
= = = Remastered version = = =
The remastered 2009 iOS version was also very well received . It holds an aggregate score of 85 % on GameRankings , based on seven reviews , and 82 out of 100 on Metacritic , based on five reviews . It was nominated for Best Port / Enhanced Re @-@ release at the Adventure Gamers ' 2009 Aggie Awards in 2010 . The game sold around 20 @,@ 000 units in its first month of release , while Cecil anticipated sales of around 70 @,@ 000 copies during its first year on sale , and roughly 100 @,@ 000 in its lifetime .
The remastered release is available with Spanish , French , Swedish , Portuguese , German , Italian , and English subtitles .
Slide To Play 's Keith Andrew said that " Beneath a Steel Sky somehow feels bigger and bolder than its rivals , raising the bar and highlighting what others have so far failed to achieve . Perfectly suited to its new home , this remastering of a classic game serves up point @-@ and @-@ click play nearly unmatched on the App Store . " Andrew noted that the point @-@ and @-@ click interface " merg [ es ] seamlessly with touchscreen controls " and that the hint system is " a feature that might antagonize some of Steel Sky ’ s hardened fan @-@ base , but one perfectly pitched at the iPhone generation . "
IGN 's Eduardo Vasconcellos stated that the game " is a reminder of how good the old point @-@ and @-@ clickers really were . The updated elements only add to the experience -- especially the cutscenes . If you 're looking for an intriguing story , solid gameplay and some nostalgic charm , Beneath a Steel Sky is for you . " Vasconcellos applauded the " intuitive and responsive " touch controls and said that the " visuals are an attractive update of the original release . " He gave the game an " Editor 's Choice " award .
Pocket Gamer 's Tracy Erickson said that the game " remains as entertaining as it did 15 years ago , galvanising the adventure gaming resurgence on iPhone . " Erickson felt that the touch controls are " only functional and not fantastic , " but that " measures have been taken to address [ problems of the original point @-@ and click interface ] to a respectable degree , " and that the " minimally enhanced presentation raises alarm . " However , he concluded that even though " More could have been done to brush the dust off this ageing title , " " it 's still a standout game . " He gave it a " Silver Award " .
= = Legacy = =
Although retrospectively Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars is generally looked upon as Revolution 's magnum opus , Beneath a Steel Sky still holds the status of a cult classic and has been featured on numerous " all @-@ time top " lists :
Amiga Power ranked Beneath a Steel Sky 42nd on their Amiga Power All @-@ Time Top One Hundred in 1994 . Adventure Gamers ranked the game 17th on their list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time in 2004 , and 19th on the Top 100 All @-@ Time Adventures in 2011 . In 2006 , Adventure Classic Gaming put the game in 9th place on their list of the Top 10 retro graphic adventure games of all time from PC to consoles . Retro Gamer placed it in third on its list of Top 20 Adventure Games of All @-@ Time ... not by LucasArts in 2010 . It was included in Edge editor Tony Mott 's 1001 Video Games You Must Play Before You Die , a book published in 2010 . In 2011 , PC Gamer ranked it ninth on its list of 20 free PC games you must play . In the same year , Now Gamer listed it as one of the Greatest Point @-@ And @-@ Click Games ( Not By LucasArts ) . In 2014 , TechRadar placed it 40th on its list of the Top 50 best free games you should play today . Pocket Gamer included it on its list of Top 10 adventure games that should be revived on DS in 2009 .
Beneath a Steel Sky : Remastered has been placed on numerous top lists as well , including Edge 's Top 50 iPhone Games at 26th in 2009 , as well as Pocket Gamer 's Top 10 point @-@ and @-@ click adventure games on iPhone and iPad and Mashable 's 10 Classic PC Games That Found New Life on the iPhone , both in 2010 .
Beneath a Steel Sky is often referenced in Revolution 's Broken Sword games , including 1997 's Broken Sword II : The Smoking Mirror , in 2009 's Broken Sword : The Shadow of the Templars – Director 's Cut and 2013 / 2014 's Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse , in the form of an easter egg .
= = = Sequel = = =
In 2004 , Cecil commented " Beneath a Steel Sky 2 is a project Revolution has been considering for a while , and has started to move forward on , but we are unable to comment beyond this . "
In an interview with Eurogamer in 2006 , Cecil spoke of his admiration for the work done by ScummVM and the resulting interest in a sequel . He also stated that if he were to make the game he " would dearly love to work with Dave Gibbons again . " In a February 20 , 2009 interview with IGN UK about the Wii and DS versions of Broken Sword : The Director 's Cut , Cecil and Gibbons re @-@ iterated their interest in a sequel to Beneath a Steel Sky .
In September 2012 , Revolution announced that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 would be greenlit if their Broken Sword 5 : The Serpent 's Curse Kickstarter reached $ 1 million . Despite Broken Sword : The Serpent 's Curse failing to meet the $ 1 million ' stretch goal ' , Revolution announced that the success of its crowdfunding campaign had inspired them to greenlight Beneath a Steel Sky 2 . However , Revolution later clarified that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 will not necessarily be the studio 's first project following Broken Sword 5 and that they would " think " about what their next game will be after finishing the Broken Sword game . In February 2014 it was reported that Beneath a Steel Sky 2 had never entered production , despite previous reports to the contrary . The reason cited was that the Broken Sword franchise took up the sole focus of the company .
= Yucca Mountain nuclear waste repository =
The Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository , as designated by the Nuclear Waste Policy Act amendments of 1987 , was to be a deep geological repository storage facility for spent nuclear fuel and other high level radioactive waste . The site is located on federal land adjacent to the Nevada Test Site in Nye County , Nevada , about 80 mi ( 130 km ) northwest of the Las Vegas Valley .
The project was approved in 2002 by the United States Congress , but Federal funding for the site ended in 2011 under the Obama Administration via amendment to the Department of Defense and Full @-@ Year Continuing Appropriations Act , passed on April 14 , 2011 . The project has had many difficulties and was highly contested by the general public and many politicians . The Government Accountability Office stated that the closure was for political , not technical or safety reasons .
This leaves US non @-@ governmental entities , such as utilities , without any designated long term storage site for the high level radioactive waste stored on @-@ site at various nuclear facilities around the country . The US government disposes of its waste at WIPP in New Mexico , in rooms 2 @,@ 150 feet ( 660 m ) underground . The Department of Energy ( DOE ) is reviewing other options for a high @-@ level waste repository and the Blue Ribbon Commission on America 's Nuclear Future , established by the Secretary of Energy , released its final report in January 2012 . It expressed urgency to find a consolidated , geological repository , and that any future facility should be developed by a new independent organization with direct access to the Nuclear Waste Fund , that is not subject to political and financial control like the DOE . In the meantime , most nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to the indefinite on @-@ site dry cask storage of waste in nearly impervious steel and concrete casks .
= = Background = =
Spent nuclear fuel is the radioactive by @-@ product of electricity generation at commercial nuclear power plants , and high @-@ level radioactive waste is the by @-@ product from reprocessing spent fuel to produce fissile material for nuclear weapons . In 1982 , the United States Congress established a national policy to solve the problem of nuclear waste disposal . This policy is a federal law called the Nuclear Waste Policy Act , which made the DOE responsible for finding a site , building , and operating an underground disposal facility called a geologic repository . The recommendation to use a geologic repository dates back to 1957 when the National Academy of Sciences recommended that the best means of protecting the environment and public health and safety would be to dispose of the waste in rock deep underground .
The DOE began studying Yucca Mountain in 1978 to determine whether it would be suitable for the nation 's first long @-@ term geologic repository for over 70 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 69 @,@ 000 long tons ; 77 @,@ 000 short tons ) ( 150 million pounds ) of spent nuclear fuel and high @-@ level radioactive waste as of 2015 stored at 121 sites around the nation . An estimated 10 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 800 long tons ; 11 @,@ 000 short tons ) of the waste would be from America 's military nuclear programs . On December 19 , 1984 , the DOE selected ten locations in six states for consideration as potential repository sites , based on data collected for nearly ten years . The ten sites were studied and results of these preliminary studies were reported in 1985 . Based on these reports , President Ronald Reagan approved three sites for intensive scientific study called site characterization . The three sites were Hanford , Washington ; Deaf Smith County , Texas ; and Yucca Mountain . In 1987 , Congress amended the Nuclear Waste Policy Act and directed DOE to study only Yucca Mountain , which is located within a former nuclear test site . The Act provided that if during site characterization the Yucca Mountain location was found unsuitable , studies would be stopped immediately . This option expired when the site was actually recommended by the President . On July 23 , 2002 , President George W. Bush signed House Joint Resolution 87 , ( Pub.L. 107 – 200 ) allowing the DOE to take the next step in establishing a safe repository in which to store the country 's nuclear waste . The DOE was to begin accepting spent fuel at the Yucca Mountain Repository by January 31 , 1998 but did not do so because of a series of delays due to legal challenges , concerns over how to transport nuclear waste to the facility , and political pressures resulting in underfunding of the construction .
On July 18 , 2006 the DOE proposed March 31 , 2017 as the date to open the facility and begin accepting waste based on full funding . On September 8 , 2006 Ward ( Edward ) Sproat , a nuclear industry executive formerly of PECO energy in Pennsylvania , was nominated by President Bush to lead the Yucca Mountain Project . Following the 2006 mid @-@ term Congressional elections , Democratic Nevada Senator Harry Reid , a longtime opponent of the repository , became the Senate Majority Leader , putting him in a position to greatly affect the future of the project . Reid has said that he would continue to work to block completion of the project , and is quoted as having said : " Yucca Mountain is dead . It 'll never happen . "
In the 2008 Omnibus Spending Bill , the Yucca Mountain Project 's budget was reduced to $ 390 million . The project was able to reallocate resources and delay transportation expenditures to complete the License Application for submission on June 3 , 2008 . Lacking an operating repository , the federal government owes utility companies somewhere between $ 300 and $ 500 million per year in compensation for failing to comply with the contract it signed to take the spent nuclear fuel by 1998 .
During his 2008 presidential campaign , Barack Obama promised to abandon the Yucca Mountain project . As a result , Senator Reid moved the Nevada primary to help Obama 's campaign . After his election , the Nuclear Regulatory Commission told Obama he did not have the ability to do so . On April 23 , 2009 , Lindsey Graham ( R @-@ South Carolina ) and eight other senators introduced legislation to provide " rebates " from a $ 30 billion federally managed fund into which nuclear power plants had been paying , so as to refund all collected funds if the project was in fact cancelled by Congress .
In November 2013 , in response to a lawsuit filed by the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners and the Nuclear Energy Institute , the US court of appeals ruled that nuclear utilities may stop paying into the nuclear waste recovery fund until either the DOE follows the Nuclear Waste Policy Act , which designates Yucca Mountain as the repository , or Congress changes the law . The fee ended May 16 , 2014 .
= = The facility = =
The purpose of the Yucca Mountain project is to comply with the Nuclear Waste Policy Act of 1982 and develop a national site for spent nuclear fuel and high @-@ level radioactive waste storage . The management and operating contractor as of April 1 , 2009 for the project is USA Repository Services , a consortium of government contractors , URS Corporation , Shaw Corporation and Areva Federal Services LLC . After the layoff of 800 employees on March 31 , 2009 , about 100 employees remained on the project until all technical staff were laid off by the end of FY 2010 due to zero funding in the 2011 budget for the Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management . Sandia National Laboratories had the responsibility for post closure analysis and ensuring compliance with the NWPA . The main tunnel of the Exploratory Studies Facility is U @-@ shaped , 5 mi ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) long and 25 ft ( 7 @.@ 6 m ) wide . There are also several cathedral @-@ like alcoves that branch from the main tunnel . It is in these alcoves that most of the scientific experiments were conducted . The emplacement drifts ( smaller diameter tunnels branching off the main tunnel ) where waste would have been stored were not constructed since they required a construction authorization by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . The repository has a statutory limit of 77 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 85 @,@ 000 short tons ) . To store this amount of waste would have required 40 miles ( 64 km ) of tunnels . The Nuclear Waste Policy Act further limits the capacity of the repository to 63 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 62 @,@ 000 long tons ; 69 @,@ 000 short tons ) of initial heavy metal in commercial spent fuel . The 104 U.S. commercial reactors currently operating will produce this quantity of spent fuel by 2014 , assuming that the spent fuel rods are not reprocessed . Currently , the US has no civil reprocessing plant .
By 2008 , Yucca Mountain was one of the most studied pieces of geology in the world ; between geologic studies and materials science the United States had invested US $ 9 billion on the project . The DOE estimates that it has over 100 million U.S. gallons of highly radioactive waste and 2 @,@ 500 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 800 short tons ) of spent fuel from the production of nuclear weapons and from research activities in temporary storage . The cost of the facility is being paid for by a combination of a tax on each kilowatt hour of nuclear power and by the taxpayers for disposal of weapons and naval nuclear waste . Based on the 2001 cost estimate , approximately 73 percent is funded from consumers of nuclear @-@ powered electricity and 27 percent by the taxpayers . The Total System Life Cycle Cost presented to Congress on July 15 , 2008 by Director Sproat was $ 90 billion . This cost , could not be compared to previous estimates since it included a repository capacity about twice as large as previously estimated over a much longer period of time ( 100 years vs 30 years ) . Additionally , the cost of the project continued to escalate because of insufficient funding to most efficiently move forward and complete the project . By 2007 , the DOE announced it was seeking to double the size of the Yucca Mountain repository to a capacity of 135 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 149 @,@ 000 short tons ) , or 300 million pounds .
The tunnel boring machine ( TBM ) that excavated the main tunnel cost $ 13 million and was 400 ft ( 120 m ) in length when in operation . It now sits at its exit point at the South Portal ( south entrance ) of the facility . The short side tunnel alcoves were excavated using explosives .
= = Opposition = =
The DOE was scheduled to begin accepting spent fuel at the Yucca Mountain repository by January 31 , 1998 . As of 2010 , years after this deadline , the future status of the repository at Yucca Mountain was still unknown due to on @-@ going litigation , and opposition by Senator Harry Reid .
Because of construction delays , a number of nuclear power plants in the United States have resorted to dry cask storage of waste on @-@ site indefinitely in nearly impervious steel and concrete casks .
The project is widely opposed in Nevada and is a hotly debated national topic . A two @-@ thirds majority of Nevadans feel it is unfair for their state to have to store nuclear waste when there are no nuclear power plants in Nevada Many Nevadans ' opposition stemmed from the so @-@ called " Screw Nevada Bill , " the 1987 legislation halting study of Hanford and Texas as potential sites for the waste before conclusions could be made . The local county in which the proposed facility is located , Nye County , supports the development of the repository as do six adjoining counties .
One point of concern has been the standard of radiation emission from 10 @,@ 000 years to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years into the future . On August 9 , 2005 , the United States Environmental Protection Agency proposed a limit of 350 millirem per year for that period . In October 2007 , the DOE issued a draft of the Supplemental Environmental Impact Statement in which it shows that for the first 10 @,@ 000 years mean public dose would be 0 @.@ 24 mrem / year and that thereafter to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years the median public dose would be 0 @.@ 98 mrem / year , both of which are substantially below the proposed EPA limit . For comparison , a hip x @-@ ray results in a dose around 83 mrem and a CT head or chest scan results in around 1 @,@ 110 mrem . Annually , in the United States , an individual 's doses from background radiation is about 350 mrem , although some places get more than twice that .
On February 12 , 2002 , U.S. Secretary of Energy Spencer Abraham made the decision that this site was suitable to be the nation 's nuclear repository . The governor of Nevada had 90 days to object and did so . However , the United States Congress overrode the objection . If the governor 's objection had stood the project would have been abandoned and a new site chosen . In August 2004 , the repository became an election issue , when Senator John Kerry ( D ) said that he would abandon the plans if elected .
In March 2005 , the Energy and Interior departments revealed that several U.S. Geological Survey hydrologists had exchanged e @-@ mails discussing possible falsification of quality assurance documents on water infiltration research . On February 17 , 2006 , the DOE ’ s Office of Civilian Radioactive Waste Management ( OCRWM ) released a report confirming the technical soundness of infiltration modeling work performed by U.S. Geological Survey ( USGS ) employees . In March 2006 , the U.S. Senate Committee on Environment and Public Works Majority Staff issued a 25 @-@ page white paper " Yucca Mountain : The Most Studied Real Estate on the Planet . " The conclusions were :
Extensive studies consistently show Yucca Mountain to be a sound site for nuclear waste disposal
The cost of not moving forward is extremely high
Nuclear waste disposal capability is an environmental imperative
Nuclear waste disposal capability supports national security
Demand for new nuclear plants also demands disposal capability
On January 18 , 2006 , DOE OCRWM announced that it would designate Sandia National Laboratories as its lead laboratory to integrate repository science work for the Yucca Mountain Project . " We believe that establishing Sandia as our lead laboratory is an important step in our new path forward . The independent , expert review that the scientists at Sandia will perform will help ensure that the technical and scientific basis for the Yucca Mountain repository is without question , " OCRWM ’ s Acting Director Paul Golan said . " Sandia has unique experience in managing scientific investigations in support of a federally licensed geologic disposal facility , having served in that role as the scientific advisor to the Waste Isolation Pilot Plant in Carlsbad , New Mexico . " Sandia began acting as the lead laboratory on October 1 , 2006 .
Because of questions raised by the State of Nevada and Congressional members about the quality of the science behind Yucca Mountain , the DOE announced on March 31 , 2006 the selection of Oak Ridge Associated Universities / Oak Ridge Institute for Science and Education ( a not @-@ for @-@ profit consortium that includes 96 doctoral degree @-@ granting institutions and 11 associate member universities ) to provide expert reviews of scientific and technical work on the Yucca Mountain Project . DOE stated that the Yucca Mountain Project " will be based on sound science . By bringing in Oak Ridge for review of technical work , DOE will seek to present a high level of expertise and credibility as they move the project forward ... This award gives DOE access to academic and research institutions to help DOE meet their mission and legal obligation to license , construct , and open Yucca Mountain as the nation ’ s repository for spent nuclear fuel . "
There was significant public and political opposition to the Yucca Mountain Nuclear Waste Repository project in Nevada . An attempt was made to push ahead with the project and override this opposition . But for large projects which would take decades to complete , there is every chance that sustained local opposition will prevail , and this happened with the Yucca Mountain project . Successful nuclear waste storage siting efforts in Scandinavia have involved local communities in the decision @-@ making process and given them a veto at each stage , but this did not happen with Yucca Mountain . Local communities at potential storage and repository sites " should have early and continued involvement in the process , including funding that would allow them to retain technical experts " .
On March 5 , 2009 , Energy Secretary Steven Chu reiterated in a Senate hearing that the Yucca Mountain site was no longer considered an option for storing reactor waste .
On March 3 , 2010 , the DOE filed a motion with the NRC to withdraw its license application , however multiple lawsuits to stop this action have been filed by states , counties , and individuals across the country as being unauthorized by the NWPA .
= = Radiation standards = =
= = = Original standard = = =
The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) established its Yucca Mountain standards in June 2001 . The storage standard set a dose limit of 15 millirem per year for the public outside the Yucca Mountain site . The disposal standards consisted of three components : an individual dose standard , a standard evaluating the impacts of human intrusion into the repository , and a groundwater protection standard . The individual @-@ protection and human intrusion standards set a limit of 15 millirem per year to a reasonably maximally exposed individual , who would be among the most highly exposed members of the public . The groundwater protection standard is consistent with EPA 's Safe Drinking Water Act standards , which the Agency applies in many situations as a pollution prevention measure . The disposal standards were to apply for a period of 10 @,@ 000 years after the facility is closed . Dose assessments were to continue beyond 10 @,@ 000 years and be placed in DOE 's Environmental Impact Statement , but were not subject to a compliance standard . The 10 @,@ 000 year period for compliance assessment is consistent with EPA 's generally applicable standards developed under the Nuclear Waste Policy Act . It also reflects international guidance regarding the level of confidence that can be placed in numerical projections over very long periods of time .
= = = Inconsistent standards = = =
Shortly after the EPA first established these standards in 2001 , the nuclear industry , several environmental and public interest groups , and the State of Nevada challenged the standards in court . In July 2004 , the Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit found in favor of the Agency on all counts except one : the 10 @,@ 000 year regulatory time frame . The court ruled that EPA ’ s 10 @,@ 000 @-@ year compliance period for isolation of radioactive waste was not consistent with National Academy of Sciences ( NAS ) recommendations and was too short . The NAS report had recommended standards be set for the time of peak risk , which might approach a period of one million years . By limiting the compliance time to 10 @,@ 000 years , EPA did not respect a statutory requirement that it develop standards consistent with NAS recommendations .
= = = EPA 's rule = = =
EPA published in the Federal Register a final rule in 2009 . The new rule limits radiation doses from Yucca Mountain for up to 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years after it closes . Within that regulatory time frame , the EPA has two dose standards that would apply based on the number of years from the time the facility is closed .
For the first 10 @,@ 000 years , the EPA would retain the 2001 final rule ’ s dose limit of 15 millirem per year . This is protection at the level of the most stringent radiation regulations in the U.S. today . From 10 @,@ 000 to one million years , EPA established a dose limit of 100 millirem per year . EPA 's rule requires the Department of Energy to show that Yucca Mountain can safely contain wastes , considering the effects of earthquakes , volcanic activity , climate change , and container corrosion , over one million years . The current analysis indicates that the repository will cause less than 1 mrem / year public dose through 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 years .
= = Geology = =
The formation that makes up Yucca Mountain was created by several large eruptions from a caldera volcano and is composed of alternating layers of ignimbrite ( welded tuff ) , non @-@ welded tuff , and semi @-@ welded tuff . The tuff surround the burial sites is expected to protect human health as it provides a natural barrier to the radiation . It lies along the transition between the Mohave and the Great Basin Deserts .
The volcanic tuff at Yucca Mountain is appreciably fractured and movement of water through an aquifer below the waste repository is primarily through fractures . While the fractures are usually confined to individual layers of tuff , the faults extend from the planned storage area all the way to the water table 600 to 1 @,@ 500 ft ( 180 to 460 m ) below the surface . Future water transport from the surface to waste containers is likely to be dominated by fractures . There is evidence that surface water has been transported down through the 700 ft ( 210 m ) of overburden to the exploratory tunnel at Yucca Mountain in less than 50 years .
Some site opponents assert that , after the predicted containment failure of the waste containers , these cracks may provide a route for movement of radioactive waste that dissolves in the water flowing downward from the desert surface . Officials state that the waste containers will be stored in such a way as to minimize or even nearly eliminate this possibility .
The area around Yucca Mountain received much more rain in the geologic past and the water table was consequently much higher than it is today , though well below the level of the repository .
= = = Earthquakes = = =
Nevada ranks fourth in the nation for current seismic activity . Earthquake databases ( the Council of the National Seismic System Composite Catalogue and the Southern Great Basin Seismic Network ) provide current and historical earthquake information . Analysis of the available data in 1996 indicates that , since 1976 , there have been 621 seismic events of magnitude greater than 2 @.@ 5 within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of Yucca Mountain .
DOE has stated that seismic and tectonic effects on the natural systems at Yucca Mountain will not significantly affect repository performance . Yucca Mountain lies in a region of ongoing tectonic deformation , but the deformation rates are too slow to significantly affect the mountain during the 10 @,@ 000 @-@ year regulatory compliance period . Rises in the water table caused by seismic activity would be , at most , a few tens of meters and would not reach the repository . The fractured and faulted volcanic tuff that Yucca Mountain comprises reflects the occurrence of many earthquake @-@ faulting and strong ground motion events during the last several million years , and the hydrological characteristics of the rock would not be changed significantly by seismic events that may occur in the next 10 @,@ 000 years . The engineered barrier system components will reportedly provide substantial protection of the waste from seepage water , even under severe seismic loading .
In September 2007 , it was discovered that the Bow Ridge fault line ran underneath the facility , hundreds of feet east of where it was originally thought to be located , beneath a storage pad where spent radioactive fuel canisters would be cooled before being sealed in a maze of tunnels . The discovery required several structures to be moved several hundred feet further to the east , and drew criticism from Robert R. Loux , then head of the Nevada Agency for Nuclear Projects , who argues that Yucca administrators should have known about the fault line 's location years prior , and called the movement of the structures “ just @-@ in @-@ time engineering . ” In June 2008 , a major nuclear equipment supplier , Holtec International , criticized the Department of Energy 's safety plan for handling containers of radioactive waste before they are buried at the proposed Yucca Mountain dump . The concern is that , in an earthquake , the unanchored casks of nuclear waste material awaiting burial at Yucca Mountain could be sent into a " chaotic melee of bouncing and rolling juggernauts " .
= = Transportation of waste = =
The nuclear waste was planned to be shipped to the site by rail and / or truck in robust containers known as spent nuclear fuel shipping casks , approved by the Nuclear Regulatory Commission . While the routes in Nevada would have been public , in the other states the planned routes , dates and times of transport would have been secret for security reasons . State and tribal representatives would have been notified before shipments of spent nuclear fuel enter their jurisdictions .
= = = Nevada routes = = =
Within Nevada , the planned primary mode of transportation was via rail through the Caliente Corridor . This corridor starts in Caliente , Nevada , traveling along the northern and western borders of the Nevada Test Site for approximately 200 miles ( 320 km ) . At this point , it turns south .
Other options that were being considered included a rail route along the Mina corridor . This rail route would have originated at the Fort Churchill Siding rail line , near Wabuska . The proposed corridor would have proceeded southeast through Hawthorne , Blair Junction , Lida Junction and Oasis Valley . At Oasis Valley , the rail line would have turned north @-@ northeast towards Yucca Mountain . Use of this rail corridor by the Department of Energy would have required permission from the Walker River Paiute Tribe in order to cross their land . As the first 54 miles ( 87 km ) of the proposed corridor was owned by the Department of Defense , additional permission from the DoD would have to have been granted .
= = = Impacts = = =
Since the early 1960s , the U.S. has safely conducted more than 3 @,@ 000 shipments of spent nuclear fuel without any harmful release of radioactive material . This safety record is comparable to the worldwide experience where more than 70 @,@ 000 metric tons of spent nuclear fuel have been transported since 1970 – an amount approximately equal to the total amount of spent nuclear fuel that would have been shipped to Yucca Mountain . However , cities were still concerned about the transport of radioactive waste on highways and railroads that may have passed through heavily populated areas . Dr. Robert Halstead , who was a transportation adviser to the state of Nevada since 1988 , stated regarding transportation of the high level waste , " They would heavily affect cities like Buffalo , Cleveland , Pittsburgh , in the Chicago metropolitan area , in Omaha . " " Coming out of the south , the heaviest impacts would be in Atlanta , in Nashville , St. Louis , Kansas City , moving across through Salt Lake City , through downtown Las Vegas , up to Yucca Mountain . And the same cities would be affected by rail shipments as well . " Spencer Abraham ( DOE ) on the other hand has stated , " I think there 's a general understanding that we move hazardous materials in this country , an understanding that the federal government knows how to do it safely . "
= = Cultural impact = =
Archaeological surveys have found evidence that Native Americans used the immediate vicinity of Yucca Mountain on a temporary or seasonal basis . Some Native Americans disagree with the conclusions of archaeological investigators that their ancestors were highly mobile groups of hunter @-@ gatherers who occupied the Yucca Mountain area before Euroamericans began using the area for prospecting , surveying , and ranching . They believe that these conclusions overlook traditional accounts of farming that occurred before European contact .
Yucca Mountain and surrounding lands were central in the lives of the Southern Paiute , Western Shoshone , and Owens Valley Paiute and Shoshone peoples , who shared them for religious ceremonies , resource uses , and social events .
Crosby and Nash wrote a 2004 song Don 't Dig Here protesting against the environmental issues associated with the project .
= = Delays since 2009 = =
Since 2009 , the Obama administration has been attempting to close the Yucca Mountain repository , despite current US law that designates Yucca Mountain as the nation 's nuclear waste repository . The administration agency , DOE , began implementation of the President 's plan in May 2009 . The Nuclear Regulatory Commission has also gone along with the administration 's closure plan . Various state and Congressional entities have attempted to challenge the administration 's closure plans , by statute and in court . Most recently , in August 2013 , a US Court of Appeals decision has told the NRC and the Obama administration that they must either " approve or reject the Energy Department 's application for [ the ] never @-@ completed waste storage site at Nevada 's Yucca Mountain . " They cannot simply make plans for its closure in violation of US law .
In May 2009 , then United States Secretary of Energy Steven Chu stated :
" Yucca Mountain as a repository is off the table . What we 're going to be doing is saying , let 's step back . We realize that we know a lot more today than we did 25 or 30 years ago . The NRC is saying that the dry cask storage at current sites would be safe for many decades , so that gives us time to figure out what we should do for a long @-@ term strategy . We will be assembling a blue @-@ ribbon panel to look at the issue . We 're looking at reactors that have a high @-@ energy neutron spectrum that can actually allow you to burn down the long @-@ lived actinide waste . These are fast @-@ neutron reactors . There 's others : a resurgence of hybrid solutions of fusion fission where the fusion would impart not only energy , but again creates high @-@ energy neutrons that can burn down the long @-@ lived actinides . ...
" Some of the waste is already vitrified . There is , in my mind , no economical reason why you would ever think of pulling it back into a potential fuel cycle . So one could well imagine — again , it depends on what the blue @-@ ribbon panel says — one could well imagine that for a certain classification for a certain type of waste , you don 't want to have access to it anymore , so that means you could use different sites than Yucca Mountain , such as salt domes . Once you put it in there , the salt oozes around it . These are geologically stable for a 50 to 100 million year time scale . The trouble with those type of places for repositories is you don 't have access to it anymore . But say for certain types of waste you don 't want to have access to it anymore — that 's good . It 's a very natural containment . ... whereas there would be other waste where you say it has some inherent value , let 's keep it around for a hundred years , two hundred years , because there 's a high likelihood we 'll come back to it and want to recover that .
" So the real thing is , let 's get some really wise heads together and figure out how you want to deal with the interim and long @-@ term storage . Yucca was supposed to be everything to everybody , and I think , knowing what we know today , there 's going to have to be several regional areas . "
In 2008 , the U.S. Senate Committee on Environmental and Public Works found that failure to perform to contractual requirements could cost taxpayers up to $ 11 billion by 2020 . In 2013 this estimate of taxpayer liability was raised to $ 21 billion . In July 2009 , the House of Representatives voted 388 to 30 on amendments to HHR3183 ( Roll call vote 591 , via Clerk.House.gov ) to not defund the Yucca Mountain repository in the FY2010 budget . In 2013 , the House of Representatives voted twice during the 2014 Energy and Water Appropriations debate by over 80 % majority to reject elimination of Yucca Mountain as the nation 's only nuclear waste solution .
On April 13 , 2010 , the state of Washington filed suit to prevent the closing of Yucca Mountain , since this would slow efforts to clean up Hanford Nuclear Reservation . South Carolina , Aiken County ( the location of Savannah River site ) and others joined Washington . The United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit dismissed the suit in July 2011 , saying the Nuclear Regulatory Commission had not ruled on the withdrawal of the license application . Washington and South Carolina filed another lawsuit on July 29 .
With $ 32 billion received from power companies to fund the project , and $ 12 billion spent to study and build it , the federal government had $ 27 billion left , including interest . In March 2012 , Senator Lindsey Graham introduced a bill requiring three @-@ fourths of that money to be given back to customers , and the remainder to the companies for storage improvements .
In August 2013 , the U.S. Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia ordered the Nuclear Regulatory Commission to either " approve or reject the Energy Department 's application for [ the ] never @-@ completed waste storage site at Nevada 's Yucca Mountain . " The court opinion said that the NRC was " simply flouting the law " in its previous action to allow the Obama administration to continue plans to close the proposed waste site since a federal law designating Yucca Mountain as the nation 's nuclear waste repository remains in effect . The court opinion stated that " The president may not decline to follow a statutory mandate or prohibition simply because of policy objections . "
= = In pop culture = =
In the 1995 film Carnosaur 2 , dinosaur eggs hatch inside the repository and wreak havoc on the facility , which ultimately suffers a containment failure and explodes .
In the 2014 American science fiction monster film Godzilla , the Yucca Mountain waste repository is used to store a mysterious radioactive pod that is revealed to be the egg of an enormous monster . It then hatches , escapes Yucca Mountain and causes havoc in the monster movie tradition .
= Louis Slotin =
Louis Alexander Slotin ( 1 December 1910 – 30 May 1946 ) was a Canadian physicist and chemist who worked on the Manhattan Project . During World War II , Slotin conducted research at Los Alamos National Laboratory . He performed experiments with uranium and plutonium cores to determine their critical mass values . On 21 May 1946 , Slotin was conducting a demonstration when he accidentally initiated a fission reaction , which released a burst of hard radiation . He received a lethal dose of radiation and died of acute radiation syndrome nine days later . Slotin was the second person to die from a criticality accident , following the death of Harry Daghlian , who had been exposed to radiation by the same core that killed Slotin . Slotin was publicly hailed as a hero by the United States government for reacting quickly and preventing his accident from killing any colleagues . He was later criticized for failing to follow protocol during the experiment .
Others were injured and may have died from nuclear related exposure some years later . With the end of World War II , the work to build additional nuclear devices was less urgent , and the accident halted work for a while until increased safety protocols were implemented at Los Alamos . The incident and its aftermath have been dramatized in several fictional and non @-@ fiction accounts .
= = Early life = =
Slotin was the first of three children born to Israel and Sonia Slotin , Yiddish @-@ speaking refugees who had fled the pogroms of Russia to Winnipeg , Manitoba . He grew up in the North End neighborhood of Winnipeg , an area with a large concentration of Eastern European immigrants . From his early days at Machray Elementary School through his teenage years at St. John 's High School , Slotin was academically exceptional . His younger brother , Sam , later remarked that his brother " had an extreme intensity that enabled him to study long hours . "
At the age of 16 , Slotin entered the University of Manitoba to pursue a degree in science . During his undergraduate years , he received a University Gold Medal in both physics and chemistry . Slotin received a B.Sc. degree in geology from the university in 1932 and a M.Sc. degree in 1933 . With the assistance of one of his mentors , he obtained a fellowship to study at King 's College London under the supervision of Arthur John Allmand , the chair of the chemistry department , who specialized in the field of applied electrochemistry and photochemistry .
= = = King 's College = = =
While at King 's College , Slotin distinguished himself as an amateur boxer by winning the college 's amateur bantamweight boxing championship . Later , he gave the impression that he had fought for the Spanish Republic and trained to fly a fighter with the Royal Air Force . Author Robert Jungk recounted in his book Brighter than a Thousand Suns : A Personal History of the Atomic Scientists , the first published account of the Manhattan Project , that Slotin " had volunteered for service in the Spanish Civil War , more for the sake of the thrill of it than on political grounds . He had often been in extreme danger as an anti @-@ aircraft gunner . " During an interview years later , Sam stated that his brother had gone " on a walking tour in Spain " , and he " did not take part in the war " as previously thought . Slotin earned a Ph.D. degree in physical chemistry from the university in 1936 . He won a prize for his thesis entitled " An Investigation into the Intermediate Formation of Unstable Molecules During some Chemical Reactions . " Afterwards , he spent six months working as a special investigator for Dublin 's Great Southern Railways , testing the Drumm nickel @-@ zinc rechargeable batteries used on the Dublin – Bray line .
= = Career = =
= = = University of Chicago = = =
In 1937 , after he unsuccessfully applied for a job with Canada 's National Research Council , the University of Chicago accepted him as a research associate . There , Slotin gained his first experience with nuclear chemistry , helping to build the first cyclotron in the midwestern United States . The job paid poorly and Slotin 's father had to support him for two years . From 1939 to 1940 , Slotin collaborated with Earl Evans , the head of the university 's biochemistry department , to produce radiocarbon ( carbon @-@ 14 and carbon @-@ 11 ) from the cyclotron . While working together , the two men also used carbon @-@ 11 to demonstrate that plant cells had the capacity to use carbon dioxide for carbohydrate synthesis , through carbon fixation .
Slotin might have been present at the start @-@ up of Enrico Fermi 's " Chicago Pile @-@ 1 " , the first nuclear reactor , on 2 December 1942 ; the accounts of the event do not agree on this point . During this time , Slotin also contributed to several papers in the field of radiobiology . His expertise on the subject garnered the attention of the United States government , and as a result he was invited to join the Manhattan Project , the United States ' effort to develop a nuclear bomb . Slotin worked on the production of plutonium under future Nobel laureate Eugene Wigner at the university and later at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory in Oak Ridge , Tennessee . He moved to the Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico in December 1944 to work in the bomb physics group of Robert Bacher .
= = Work at Los Alamos = =
At Los Alamos , Slotin 's duties consisted of dangerous criticality testing , first with uranium in Otto Robert Frisch 's experiments , and later with plutonium cores . Criticality testing involved bringing masses of fissile materials to near @-@ critical levels to establish their critical mass values . Scientists referred to this flirting with the possibility of a nuclear chain reaction as " tickling the dragon 's tail " , based on a remark by physicist Richard Feynman , who compared the experiments to " tickling the tail of a sleeping dragon " . On 16 July 1945 , Slotin assembled the core for Trinity , the first detonated atomic device , and became known as the " chief armorer of the United States " for his expertise in assembling nuclear weapons . Slotin received two small circular lead and silver commemorative pins for his work on the project .
In the winter of 1945 – 1946 , Slotin shocked some of his colleagues with a bold action . He repaired an instrument six feet under water inside the Clinton Pile while it was operating , rather than wait an extra day for the reactor to be shut down . He did not wear his dosimetry badge , but his dose was estimated to be at least 100 roentgen . A dose of 1 Gy ( ~ 100 roentgen ) can cause nausea and vomiting in 10 % of cases , but is generally survivable .
= = = Harry Daghlian 's death = = =
On 21 August 1945 , laboratory assistant Harry Daghlian , one of Slotin 's close colleagues , was performing a critical mass experiment when he accidentally dropped a heavy tungsten carbide brick onto a 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 14 lb ) plutonium @-@ gallium alloy bomb core . The 24 @-@ year @-@ old Daghlian was irradiated with a large dose of neutron radiation . Later estimates would suggest that this dose might not have been fatal on its own , but he then received additional delayed gamma radiation and beta burns while disassembling his experiment . He quickly collapsed with acute radiation poisoning and died 25 days later in the Los Alamos base hospital .
= = = Planned return to teaching = = =
After the war , Slotin expressed growing disdain for his personal involvement in the project . He remarked , " I have become involved in the Navy tests , much to my disgust . " Unfortunately for Slotin , his participation at Los Alamos was still required because , as he said , " I am one of the few people left here who are experienced bomb putter @-@ togetherers . " He looked forward to resuming teaching and research into biophysics and radiobiology at the University of Chicago . He began training a replacement , Alvin C. Graves , to take over his Los Alamos work .
= = = Criticality accident = = =
On 21 May 1946 , with seven colleagues watching , Slotin performed an experiment that involved the creation of one of the first steps of a fission reaction by placing two half @-@ spheres of beryllium ( a neutron reflector ) around a 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 89 mm ) plutonium core . The experiment used the same 6 @.@ 2 @-@ kilogram ( 13 @.@ 7 lb ) plutonium core that had irradiated Harry Daghlian , later called the " demon core " for its role in the two accidents . Slotin grasped the upper 9 @-@ inch beryllium hemisphere with his left hand through a thumb hole at the top while he maintained the separation of the half @-@ spheres using the blade of a screwdriver with his right hand , having removed the shims normally used . Using a screwdriver was not a normal part of the experimental protocol .
At 3 : 20 p.m. , the screwdriver slipped and the upper beryllium hemisphere fell , causing a " prompt critical " reaction and a burst of hard radiation . At the time , the scientists in the room observed the blue glow of air ionization and felt a heat wave . Slotin experienced a sour taste in his mouth and an intense burning sensation in his left hand . He jerked his left hand upward , lifting the upper beryllium hemisphere and dropping it to the floor , ending the reaction . However , he had already been exposed to a lethal dose of neutron radiation . At the time of the accident , dosimetry badges were in a locked box about 100 feet ( 30 m ) from the accident . Realizing that no one in the room had their film badges on , " immediately after the accident Dr. Slotin asked to have the badges taken from the lead box and placed on the critical assembly " . This peculiar response was attributed to " vertigo " and was of no value for determining the actual doses received by the men in the room .
Others in the room at the time included Raemer E. Schreiber , Alvin Cushman Graves , Stanley Allan Kline , Marion Edward Cieslicki , Dwight Smith Young , Theodore P. Perlman , and Pvt. Patrick J. Cleary .
As soon as Slotin left the building , he vomited , a common reaction from exposure to extremely intense ionizing radiation . Slotin 's colleagues rushed him to the hospital , but the radiation damage was irreversible .
By 25 May 1946 , four of the eight men exposed during the incident had been discharged from hospital . The Army doctor responsible for the hospital , Captain Paul Hageman , said that Slotin , Graves , Kline and Young 's " immediate condition is satisfactory . "
= = = = Slotin 's death = = = =
Despite intensive medical care and offers from numerous volunteers to donate blood for transfusions , Slotin 's condition rapidly deteriorated , Slotin called his parents and they were flown at Army expense from Winnipeg to be with their son . They arrived on the fourth day after the incident , and by the fifth day Slotin 's condition started to rapidly deteriorate .
Over the next nine days , Slotin suffered an " agonizing sequence of radiation @-@ induced traumas " , including severe diarrhea , reduced urine output , swollen hands , erythema , " massive blisters on his hands and forearms " , intestinal paralysis , and gangrene . He had internal radiation burns throughout his body , which one medical expert described as a “ three @-@ dimensional sunburn . ” By the seventh day , he was experiencing periods of “ mental confusion . ” His lips turned blue and he was put in an oxygen tent . He ultimately experienced " a total disintegration of bodily functions " and slipped into a coma . Slotin died at 11 a.m. on 30 May , in the presence of his parents . He was buried in Shaarey Zedek Cemetery , Winnipeg , on 2 June 1946 .
= = = = Other injuries and deaths = = = =
Graves , Kline and Young remained hospitalized after Slotin 's death . Graves , who was standing the closest to Slotin , also developed acute radiation sickness and was hospitalized for several weeks . He survived , although he lived with chronic neurological and vision problems . Young also suffered from acute radiation syndrome , but recovered . By 28 January 1948 Graves , Kline and Perlman sought compensation for damages suffered during the incident . Graves settled his claim for $ 3 @,@ 500 .
Three of the observers eventually died of conditions that are known to be promoted by radiation : Graves of a heart attack 20 years later at age 55 ; Cieslicki of acute myeloid leukemia 19 years later at age 42 ; and Young of aplastic anemia and bacterial infection of the heart lining 27 years later at age 83 . Although some of those deaths were probably latent stochastic ( random ) effects of the accident , it is not possible to draw any definitive conclusions from such a small sample set .
= = = = Disposition of core = = = =
The core involved was intended to be used in the Able detonation , during the Crossroads series of nuclear weapon testing . Slotin 's experiment was said to be the last conducted before the core 's detonation and was intended to be the final demonstration of its ability to go critical . After the criticality accident it needed time to cool . It was therefore rescheduled for the third test of the series , provisionally named Charlie , but this was cancelled due to the unexpected level of radioactivity after the underwater Baker test and the inability to decontaminate the target warships . It was later melted down and reused in a later core .
= = = Radiation dosage = = =
The radiation doses received in these two accidents are not known with any semblance of accuracy . A large part of the dose was due to neutron radiation , which could not be measured by dosimetry equipment of the day . The available equipment , film badges , were not worn by personnel during the accident , and badges that were supposed to be planted under tables in case of disasters like these were not found . Disaster badges hung on the walls did provide some useful data about gamma radiation .
A " tentative " estimate of the doses involved was made in 1948 , based on dozens of assumptions , some of which are now known to be grossly incorrect . In the absence of personal dosimetry badges , the study authors relied on measurements of sodium activation in the victims ' blood and urine samples as their primary source of data . This activation would have been caused by neutron radiation , but they converted all doses to equivalent doses of gamma or X @-@ ray radiation . They concluded that Daghlian and Slotin had probably received doses equivalent to 290 and 880 rem ( respectively ) of gamma rays . Minimum and maximum estimates varied from about 50 % to 200 % of these values . The authors also calculated doses equivalent to a mix of soft 80 keV X @-@ rays and gamma rays , which they believed gave a more realistic picture of the exposure than the gamma equivalent . In this model the equivalent X @-@ ray doses were much higher , but would be concentrated in the tissues facing the source , whereas the gamma component penetrated the whole body . Slotin 's equivalent dose was estimated to be 1930 R of X @-@ ray with 114 R of gamma , while Daghlian 's equivalent dose was estimated to be 480 R of X @-@ ray with 110 R of gamma . Five hundred REM is usually a fatal dose for humans .
In modern times dosimetry is done very differently . Equivalent doses would not be reported in roentgen ; they would be calculated with different weighting factors , and they are not considered as relevant to acute radiation syndrome as absorbed doses . Recent documents have made various interpretations of Slotin 's dose , ranging from 287 rad to 21 sievert . Based on citations and supporting reasoning , the most reliable estimate may be a 1978 Los Alamos memo which suggested 10 Gy ( n ) + 1 @.@ 14 Gy ( γ ) for Slotin and 2 Gy ( n ) + 1 @.@ 1 Gy ( γ ) for Daghlian . These doses are consistent with the symptoms they experienced .
= = Legacy = =
After the accident , Los Alamos ended all hands @-@ on critical assembly work . Future criticality testing of fissile cores was done with remotely controlled machines , such as the " Godiva " series , with the operator located a safe distance away to prevent harm in case of accidents .
On 14 June 1946 , the associate editor of the Los Alamos Times , Thomas P. Ashlock , penned a poem entitled " Slotin – A Tribute " :
The official story released at the time was that Slotin , by quickly removing the upper hemisphere , was a hero for ending the critical reaction and protecting seven other observers in the room : " Dr. Slotin 's quick reaction at the immediate risk of his own life prevented a more serious development of the experiment which would certainly have resulted in the death of the seven men working with him , as well as serious injury to others in the general vicinity . " This interpretation of events was endorsed at the time by Alvin Graves , who stood closest to Slotin when the accident occurred . Graves , like Slotin , had previously displayed a low concern for nuclear safety , and would later allege that fallout risks were " concocted in the minds of weak malingerers . " Another witness to the accident , Raemer E. Schreiber , spoke out publicly decades later , arguing that Slotin was using improper and unsafe procedures , endangering the others in the lab along with himself . Robert B. Brode had reported hearsay to that effect back in 1946 .
In 1948 , Slotin 's colleagues at Los Alamos and the University of Chicago initiated the Louis A. Slotin Memorial Fund for lectures on physics given by distinguished scientists such as Robert Oppenheimer and Nobel laureates Luis Walter Alvarez and Hans Bethe . The memorial fund lasted until 1962 .
In 2002 , an asteroid discovered in 1995 was named 12423 Slotin in his honour .
= = = Dollar unit of reactivity = = =
According to Weinberg and Wigner , Slotin was the first to propose the name dollar for the interval of reactivity between delayed and prompt criticality ; 0 is the point of self @-@ sustaining chain reaction , a dollar is the point at which slowly released , delayed neutrons are no longer required to support chain reaction , and enters the domain called " prompt ( super- ) critical " . Stable nuclear reactors operate between 0 and a dollar ; excursions and nuclear explosives operate above a dollar . The hundredth part of a dollar is called a cent ( reactivity ) . When speaking of purely prompt critical events , some users refer to cents " over critical " as a relative unit .
= = = In popular culture = = =
The accident has been detailed in at least three films , including the 1989 film Fat Man and Little Boy , a dramatization of the Manhattan Project starring Paul Newman . John Cusack plays a fictional character named Michael Merriman who recreates Slotin 's criticality accident at the same time the first atomic bomb is being tested . Scenes of Merriman dying of radiation sickness are intercut with scenes of the bomb test as a dramatic technique . Slotin 's accidental death was also the subject of a 1999 documentary by Canwest Global and Great North Productions , Tickling the Dragon 's Tail : The Mystery of Louis Slotin . The film won for Best Director at the Alberta Film Awards .
The event was recounted in Dexter Masters ' 1955 novel The Accident , a fictional account of the last few days of the life of a nuclear scientist suffering from radiation poisoning . Slotin also appears as a character in the 1987 TV mini @-@ series Race for the Bomb . Besides the 1955 novel , the accident has been described in more than a dozen fictional and non @-@ fictional accounts related to the U.S. nuclear weapons program , including as a short story in a 1960s children 's academic reading program . Among them is The Dragon 's Tail : Americans Face the Atomic Age .
The criticality accident also inspired the Louis Slotin Sonata , a 2001 off @-@ Broadway play directed by David P. Moore . Author Paul Mullin wrote the play as a dramatic recreation of the events that unfolded on 21 May 1946 .
Most recently , the accident was reenacted in season 2 episode 4 of the Science Channel 's series Dark Matters : Twisted But True , which first aired in August 2012 .
= Minor v. Happersett =
Minor v. Happersett , 88 U.S. 162 ( 1875 ) , is a United States Supreme Court case in which the Court held that the Constitution did not grant women the right to vote . The Supreme Court upheld state court decisions in Missouri , which had refused to register a woman as a lawful voter because that state 's laws allowed only men to vote .
The Minor v. Happersett ruling was based on an interpretation of the Privileges or Immunities Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . The Supreme Court readily accepted that Minor was a citizen of the United States , but it held that the constitutionally protected privileges of citizenship did not include the right to vote .
The Nineteenth Amendment , which became a part of the Constitution in 1920 , effectively overruled Minor v. Happersett by prohibiting discrimination in voting rights based on gender . Minor v. Happersett continued to be cited in support of restrictive election laws of other types until the 1960s , when the Supreme Court started interpreting the Fourteenth Amendment 's Equal Protection Clause to guarantee voting rights .
= = Background = =
Virginia Minor , a leader of the women 's suffrage movement in Missouri , attempted to register to vote on October 15 , 1872 , in St. Louis County , Missouri , but was refused on the grounds that she was a woman . With the assistance of her husband , Francis Minor ( a lawyer ) , she brought an action in state courts against Reese Happersett , the registrar who had rejected her application to register to vote , alleging that the provisions of the Missouri state constitution which allowed only men to vote were in violation of the United States Constitution , and specifically the Fourteenth Amendment . The key to the Minors ' argument was that citizenship entailed voting rights — an assertion with enough rhetoric on both sides to make it an open question .
The Missouri Supreme Court ruled in favor of the registrar and against Minor . The state court observed that the " almost universal practice of all of the States ... from the adoption of the Constitution to the present time " was to restrict voting rights to men only ; and , additionally , that the clear intent of the Fourteenth Amendment was to give the rights of citizenship to the former slaves , and not to force other changes in state laws . The court noted , in particular , that the second section of the Fourteenth Amendment ( penalizing states which denied the right to vote to any of its citizens ) referred specifically to male citizens , and concluded that " this clearly recognizes the right , and seems to anticipate the exercise of the right , on the part of the States to restrict the right of suffrage to the male inhabitants . "
Minor appealed the Missouri ruling to the United States Supreme Court , presenting the same arguments before the Supreme Court as had been unsuccessfully put forth before the state court , and additionally proposing that women 's suffrage was consistent with the original intent of the framers of the Constitution . The Supreme Court observed that the sole point at issue was whether the Constitution entitled women to vote despite state laws limiting this right to men only . The state of Missouri did not send counsel to defend its decision before the Supreme Court , choosing instead to justify its decision in a three @-@ sentence demurrer .
= = Opinion of the Court = =
The Supreme Court unanimously upheld the Missouri voting legislation , saying that voting was not an inherent right of citizenship , that the Constitution neither granted nor forbade voting rights for women , and that allowing only male citizens to vote was not an infringement of Minor 's rights under the Fourteenth Amendment .
The opinion ( written by Chief Justice Morrison Waite ) first asked whether Minor was a citizen of the United States , and answered that she was , citing both the Fourteenth Amendment and earlier common law . Exploring the common @-@ law origins of citizenship , the court observed that " new citizens may be born or they may be created by naturalization " and that the Constitution " does not , in words , say who shall be natural @-@ born citizens . " Under the common law , according to the court , " it was never doubted that all children born in a country of parents who were its citizens became themselves , upon their birth , citizens also . These were natives , or natural @-@ born citizens , as distinguished from aliens or foreigners . " The court observed that some authorities " include as citizens children born within the jurisdiction without reference to the citizenship of their parents " — but since Minor was born in the United States and her parents were U.S. citizens , she was unquestionably a citizen herself , even under the narrowest possible definition , and the court thus noted that the subject did not need to be explored in any greater depth .
The court then asked whether the right to vote was one of the " privileges or immunities of citizens of the United States " at the time of the Fourteenth Amendment 's adoption in 1868 . Citing a variety of historical sources , it found that it was not . The court reasoned that the Constitution of the United States did not explicitly give citizens an affirmative right to vote and that , throughout the history of the nation from the adoption of the Constitution , a wide variety of persons — including women — were recognized as citizens but denied the right to vote . For example , at the time of the adoption of the Constitution , none of the original Thirteen Colonies gave all citizens the right to vote , all attaching restrictions based on factors such as sex , race , age , and ownership of land . The opinion continues that " it cannot for a moment be doubted that if it had been intended to make all citizens of the United States voters , the framers of the Constitution would not have left it to implication . So important a change in the condition of citizenship as it actually existed , if intended , would have been expressly declared . "
= = Subsequent history = =
The Nineteenth Amendment to the Constitution , ratified in 1920 , prohibited sex @-@ based denial or abridgment of any United States citizen 's right to vote — thus effectively overruling the key holding in Minor v. Happersett . In some later voting rights cases , however , Minor was cited in opposition to the claim that the federal Constitution conferred a general right to vote , and in support of restrictive election laws involving poll taxes , literacy tests , and the role of political parties in special elections .
In the 1960s , the Supreme Court started to view voting as a fundamental right covered by the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment . In a dissenting opinion of a 1964 Supreme Court case involving reapportionment in the Alabama state legislature , Associate Justice John Marshall Harlan II included Minor in a list of past decisions about voting and apportionment which were no longer being followed .
= Eppa Rixey =
Eppa Rixey Jr . ( May 3 , 1891 – February 28 , 1963 ) , nicknamed " Jephtha " , was an American left @-@ handed pitcher who played 21 seasons for the Philadelphia Phillies and Cincinnati Reds in Major League Baseball from 1912 to 1933 . Rixey was best known as the National League 's leader in career victories for a left @-@ hander with 266 wins until Warren Spahn surpassed his total in 1959 .
Rixey attended the University of Virginia where he was a star pitcher . He was discovered by umpire Cy Rigler , who convinced him to sign directly with the Phillies , bypassing minor league baseball entirely . His time with the Phillies was marked by inconsistency . He won 22 games in 1916 , but also led the league in losses twice . In 1915 , the Phillies played in the World Series , and Rixey lost in his only appearance . After being traded to the Reds prior to the 1921 season , he won 20 or more games in a season three times , including a league @-@ leading 25 in 1922 , and posted eight consecutive winning seasons . His skills were declining by the 1929 season , when his record was 10 – 13 with a 4 @.@ 16 earned run average . He pitched another four seasons before retiring after the 1933 season .
An intellectual who taught high school Latin during the off @-@ season , earning the nickname " Jephtha " for his southern drawl , Rixey was elected to the Baseball Hall of Fame in 1963 but died a month after his election .
= = Early life = =
Rixey was born on May 3 , 1891 in Culpeper , Virginia , and at the age of ten , his father , a banker , moved his family to Charlottesville , Virginia . His uncles were John Franklin Rixey a former congressman and Presley Marion Rixey the former Surgeon General of the United States Navy . He attended the University of Virginia , where he played basketball and baseball ; he was a member of Delta Tau Delta International Fraternity . His brother Bill also played baseball for Virginia . During the off @-@ season , umpire Cy Rigler worked as an assistant coach for the University . He recognized Rixey 's talent and tried to sign him to the Philadelphia Phillies . Rixey originally declined , saying he wanted to be a chemist , but Rigler insisted , even offering a substantial portion of the bonus he received for signing a player . With his family in financial trouble , Rixey accepted the deal . The National League , upon hearing of the deal , created a rule that prohibits umpires from signing players . Neither Rixey nor Rigler received any signing bonus .
= = Baseball career = =
= = = Philadelphia Phillies = = =
Rixey joined the Phillies for the 1912 season without playing a single game of minor league baseball . His time with the Phillies was marked by inconsistency . He went 10 @-@ 10 in his first year , with a 2 @.@ 50 earned run average ( ERA ) and 10 complete games in 23 games pitched . He had a three hit shutout against the Chicago Cubs on July 18 . Rixey was on the losing end of a no @-@ hitter by Jeff Tesreau on September 6 . After the season , the Chicago Cubs , under new manager Johnny Evers , offered a " huge sum " to the Phillies for Rixey , but manager Red Dooin declined the offer . Prior to the 1913 season , Rixey notified the Phillies of his desire to finish his studies at the University of Virginia and graduate in June ; however , after some negotiation , he decided to sign a contract and re @-@ joined the team shortly after the season began . That season , he appeared in 35 games , started 19 of them , winning nine games , and had a 3 @.@ 12 earned run average . In 1914 , his record worsened to 2 – 11 , and his earned run average increased to 4 @.@ 37 . Rixey 's record improved to 11 – 12 in 1915 , and his earned run average was 2 @.@ 39 as the Phillies won the National League pennant and played the Boston Red Sox in the 1915 World Series . During Game 5 of the series , Rixey replaced starter Erskine Mayer for the final six innings of the game . He allowed three runs in the final two innings and lost 5 – 4 .
Rixey went 22 – 10 in 1916 with a 1 @.@ 85 ERA and a career high of 134 strikeouts . On June 29 , Rixey pitched a four @-@ hit shutout against the New York Giants , facing the minimum 27 batters , because of three double plays , and a player caught stealing . In 1917 , despite having a 2 @.@ 27 earned run average , Rixey led the league in pitching losses with 21 . He also handled 108 chances without a single error . Rixey hated losing and was known for destroying the team locker room , or disappearing for days at a time after a loss . He missed the 1918 season to serve in the Chemical Warfare Division of the United States army during the war effort . He struggled upon returning to baseball , going 6 – 12 with a 3 @.@ 97 earned run average in 1919 , and again leading the league in losses with 22 in 1920 . Prior to the 1920 season , rumours circulated that his former manager , Pat Moran , now with the Cincinnati Reds , was interested in trading for Rixey . The relationship between Rixey and manager Gavvy Cravath was never good , and Cravath had made known his desire to trade him ; however , he stayed with the Phillies that season , working on his delivery with former pitcher Jesse Tannehill , who , Rixey admitted , helped with his pitching delivery . On November 22 , 1920 , Rixey was traded to the Cincinnati Reds in exchange for Jimmy Ring and Greasy Neale . His record during his eight seasons with the Phillies was 87 wins and 103 losses .
= = = Cincinnati Reds = = =
Rixey was traded to the Reds prior to the 1921 season for Jimmy Ring and Greasy Neale . In his first season with the Reds , he won 19 games , and set a Major League record by allowing just one home run in 301 innings pitched . In three of the next four seasons , he had 20 or more victories each season , with a league @-@ leading total of 25 in 1922 . He also led the league in innings pitched and hits allowed in 1922 and shutouts with four in 1924 . In 1926 he had 14 wins , followed by seasons of 12 , 19 and 10 wins . Rixey 's production began to decline in 1930 , when he went 9 – 13 with a 5 @.@ 10 ERA , and pitched fewer than 200 innings for the first time since 1919 . From 1931 through 1933 , Rixey pitched very little , and was used almost exclusively against the Pittsburgh Pirates . For the 1933 season , he was the only Reds pitcher with a winning record , at 6 @-@ 3 as the Reds finished last in the National League with a 58 @
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Stephen Hendry 's record for the most Masters wins .
At the Welsh Open , O 'Sullivan defeated Barry Pinches 4 – 1 in the first round . In the fifth frame of the match , he declined the opportunity to make a maximum break , potting the pink off the penultimate red and completing a break of 146 . He stated afterward that the prize money of £ 10 @,@ 000 was not worthy of a 147 . World Snooker chairman Barry Hearn called the decision " unacceptable " and " disrespectful . " In the second round , he defeated Tian Pengfei 4 – 0 in just 39 minutes , with breaks of 110 , 90 , 112 and 102 in the four frames played . Tian scored only 37 points in the match . In the third round , he defeated Jimmy Robertson 4 – 0 in 55 minutes , a performance that included breaks of 94 and 131 as part of a run of 300 points without reply . He defeated Yu Delu 4 – 1 in the last 16 , and then defeated world number one Mark Selby 5 – 1 in the quarterfinals , finishing with a break of 132 . A 6 – 3 victory over Joe Perry in the semi @-@ final secured a place in the final against Neil Robertson . Despite trailing 3 – 5 after the afternoon session , O 'Sullivan won all six frames played in the evening session , finishing with a break of 141 to defeat Robertson 9 – 5 and equal John Higgins 's record of four Welsh Open titles . It was his 28th ranking title , which put him in joint second place with Higgins and Steve Davis for the number of career ranking titles . Over the tournament as a whole , O 'Sullivan won 36 of the 47 frames he played , and compiled ten century breaks .
At the Championship League , O 'Sullivan lost 3 – 2 in the final against Judd Trump . During the tournament , O 'Sullivan 's 24 @-@ match winning streak came to an end following a 3 – 0 defeat from Mark Williams . O 'Sullivan faced Michael Holt in the first round of the World Grand Prix and lost 4 – 3 .
In the World Championship , O 'Sullivan beat David Gilbert 10 – 7 in the first round . After the match , he refused to attend a mandatory press conference , and also refused to talk to the tournament broadcasters , the BBC . He received a formal warning from World Snooker , and was advised that further breaches of contract would lead to fines . In the second round , he lost 12 – 13 to Barry Hawkins , his first loss against Hawkins in 14 years and only the second time in 13 years that he had failed to reach the World Championship quarterfinals .
= = Playing style = =
O 'Sullivan plays in a fast and attacking manner . He is a prolific breakbuilder and solid tactical player . He has stated his disdain for long , drawn @-@ out games , saying that it harms the game of snooker . He is regarded by many other professionals as an excellent front @-@ runner . In previous years , he could become demoralized by being behind and not playing well , and was liable to lose several consecutive frames . He is right @-@ handed but can play to a very high standard with his left hand and routinely alternates where needed . While not quite possessing the same power in his left arm , being ambidextrous enables him to attempt shots with his left hand that would otherwise require awkward cueing with a rest or spider .
When he first displayed this left @-@ handed ability in the 1996 World Championship against Alain Robidoux , the Canadian accused him of disrespect . O 'Sullivan responded that he played better with his left hand than Robidoux could with his right . He was summoned to a disciplinary hearing in response to Robidoux 's formal complaint , where he had to prove that he could play to a high level with his left hand . He played three frames of snooker against former world championship runner @-@ up Rex Williams , winning all three . The charge of bringing the game into disrepute was subsequently dropped .
Unlike most players on the professional tour , O 'Sullivan does not request the cue ball to be cleaned whenever a kick or heavy contact occurs and plays on normally as if it had not happened . He has stated that stopping to have the cue ball cleaned affects his rhythm and that it is easier just to continue playing .
= = Status = =
He is considered by many to be the most naturally talented player in the history of the sport , with some labelling him a ' genius ' . Several of his peers regard him as the greatest player ever , although a temperamental streak sometimes leads to a lack of confidence or interest , and he has performed inconsistently throughout his controversial career thus far , with observers noting the ' two Ronnies ' aspect of his character . According to Stephen Hendry after his defeat at the 2008 World Championship , " O 'Sullivan is the best player in the world by a country mile " . O 'Sullivan has compiled the highest number of competitive century breaks in the sport 's history , surpassing Hendry 's previous record of 775 . O 'Sullivan has targeted reaching 1 @,@ 000 century breaks before he retires .
O 'Sullivan is one of the most popular players on the circuit , noted for being a ' showman ' , and has helped improve the image of snooker to the general public . O 'Sullivan himself has stated his desire for entertaining the watching public , and has said that slow , gritty games put viewers off . He has often been compared to Alex Higgins and Jimmy White , because of both his natural talent and popularity . O 'Sullivan has two verified social network accounts , on Twitter and Sina Weibo , with over 300 @,@ 000 and over 160 @,@ 000 followers respectively . He updates his Weibo account with the help of two assistants understanding Chinese .
= = Broadcaster = =
O 'Sullivan started broadcasting regularly on Brentwood radio station Phoenix FM in May 2015 , co @-@ hosting the Midweek Matchzone show with Chris Hood . O 'Sullivan has previously broadcast a number of hour @-@ long specials for the station .
In March 2014 , Eurosport announced that it had signed an exclusive deal with O 'Sullivan to make him its global ambassador for snooker , with the goal of driving the sport 's international appeal . As part of the deal , O 'Sullivan creates an exclusive snooker series for the network called The Ronnie O 'Sullivan Show , which includes his insights into the game , interviews with other professional players , and playing tips . He also wrote for Eurosport @-@ Yahoo ! websites and mobile apps during the World Championship . O 'Sullivan works for Eurosport with Jimmy White and Neal Foulds doing analysis for events that he does not take part in or qualify for like the 2015 UK Championship and the 2016 German Masters .
= = Other Endeavours = =
O 'Sullivan has also written a crime novel , entitled Framed , which will be published in 2016 . The novel is not autobiographical but is somewhat inspired by his early experiences and family life .
= = Personal life = =
O 'Sullivan was born in Wordsley in the West Midlands . He grew up , and still lives , in the Manor Road area of Chigwell , Essex , an affluent suburb of London . He attended Wanstead High School . His parents Ronald John O 'Sullivan and Maria O 'Sullivan ( née Catallana ) ran a string of sex shops in Soho . His mother is Sicilian , and his paternal grandfather hails from Cork , Ireland . He is the cousin of female snooker player Maria Catalano , who has been ranked number one in the women 's game . His father was jailed in 1992 for murder and released 18 years later . O 'Sullivan has three children : Taylor @-@ Ann Magnus ( born 1996 ) from a two @-@ year relationship with Sally Magnus ; and Lily ( born 2006 ) and Ronnie ( born 2007 ) from a relationship with Jo Langley , whom he met at Narcotics Anonymous . In February 2013 , he became engaged to actress and former Strictly Come Dancing contestant Laila Rouass , with whom he had been in a relationship since early 2012 .
He has been labelled a perfectionist , and highly self @-@ critical , even in victory . He suffered from clinical depression , and has had drug @-@ related problems , but works with the sports psychologist Steve Peters , who has helped him overcome his mood swings . Noted for repeatedly declaring his intention to leave the sport , O 'Sullivan worked during the 2012 / 2013 season on a pig farm .
In 2003 , media sources carried reports that O 'Sullivan had converted to Islam , but despite his self @-@ professed interest in the faith , these reports were proven to be false . O 'Sullivan also espouses an interest in Buddhism , having spent many lunchtimes at the London Buddhist Centre in Bethnal Green . However , he denies having a firm commitment to any religion .
O 'Sullivan is a keen football fan and is a supporter of Arsenal . Another of his hobbies is motor racing . In 2004 , he appeared on Top Gear as the " Star in a Reasonably Priced Car " , and finished with a time of 1 : 47 @.@ 3 around the test track in a Suzuki Liana . He also succeeded in clearing a snooker table of four reds plus all the colours faster than the Stig was able to drive O 'Sullivan 's own Mercedes SL 500 , with its " 147 " number plate , around the track . Over the weekend of 15 – 16 August 2009 , in the Volkswagen Racing Cup at Silverstone using a Volkswagen Jetta with the car number " 147 " , he drove two 20 @-@ minute rounds . In the first round , he spun off into a gravel trap , but fared better in the second , in which he finished 14th . O 'Sullivan is also a keen runner , and runs for Woodford Green with Essex Ladies . He has a personal best of 34 minutes 54 seconds for 10 km races , which ranked him in the top 1500 of 10k runners in the United Kingdom in 2008 . O 'Sullivan also enjoys cooking , and has said that if he were to go back to school he would study cooking . This was reinforced by his appearance on BBC 's Saturday Kitchen , in December 2014 .
O 'Sullivan publicly endorsed Labour 's Ed Miliband in the 2015 general election and played a game of pool against the Labour leader , who had previously expressed his admiration for O 'Sullivan .
= = Performance and rankings timeline = =
= = Career finals = =
= = = Ranking event finals : 40 ( 28 titles , 12 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Minor @-@ ranking event finals : 6 ( 3 titles , 3 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Non @-@ ranking event finals : 42 ( 29 titles , 13 runners @-@ up ) = = =
= = = Variant event finals : 2 ( 1 title , 1 runner @-@ up ) = = =
= Hippocampus =
The hippocampus ( named after its resemblance to the seahorse , from the Greek ἱππόκαμπος , " seahorse " from ἵππος hippos , " horse " and κάμπος kampos , " sea monster " ) is a major component of the brains of humans and other vertebrates . Humans and other mammals have two hippocampi , one in each side of the brain . It belongs to the limbic system and plays important roles in the consolidation of information from short @-@ term memory to long @-@ term memory and spatial navigation . The hippocampus is located under the cerebral cortex ; and in primates it is located in the medial temporal lobe , underneath the cortical surface . It contains two main interlocking parts : the hippocampus proper ( also called Ammon 's horn ) and the dentate gyrus .
In Alzheimer 's disease , the hippocampus is one of the first regions of the brain to suffer damage ; memory loss and disorientation are included among the early symptoms . Damage to the hippocampus can also result from oxygen starvation ( hypoxia ) , encephalitis , or medial temporal lobe epilepsy . People with extensive , bilateral hippocampal damage may experience anterograde amnesia — the inability to form and retain new memories .
In rodents , the hippocampus has been studied extensively as part of a brain system responsible for spatial memory and navigation . Many neurons in the rat and mouse hippocampus respond as place cells : that is , they fire bursts of action potentials when the animal passes through a specific part of its environment . Hippocampal place cells interact extensively with head direction cells , whose activity acts as an inertial compass , and conjecturally with grid cells in the neighboring entorhinal cortex .
Since different neuronal cell types are neatly organized into layers in the hippocampus , it has frequently been used as a model system for studying neurophysiology . The form of neural plasticity known as long @-@ term potentiation ( LTP ) was first discovered to occur in the hippocampus and has often been studied in this structure . LTP is widely believed to be one of the main neural mechanisms by which memory is stored in the brain .
= = Name = =
The earliest description of the ridge running along the floor of the temporal horn of the lateral ventricle comes from the Venetian anatomist Julius Caesar Aranzi ( 1587 ) , who likened it first to a silkworm and then to a seahorse ( Latin : hippocampus from Greek : ἵππος , " horse " and κάμπος , " sea monster " ) . The German anatomist Duvernoy ( 1729 ) , the first to illustrate the structure , also wavered between " seahorse " and " silkworm . " " Ram 's horn " was proposed by the Danish anatomist Jacob Winsløw in 1732 ; and a decade later his fellow Parisian , the surgeon de Garengeot , used " cornu Ammonis " – horn of ( the ancient Egyptian god ) Amun .
Another mythological reference appeared with the term pes hippocampi , which may date back to Diemerbroeck in 1672 , introducing a comparison with the shape of the folded back forelimbs and webbed feet of the Classical hippocampus ( Greek : ἱππόκαμπος ) , a sea monster with a horse 's forequarters and a fish 's tail . The hippocampus was then described as pes hippocampi major , with an adjacent bulge in the occipital horn , the calcar avis , being named pes hippocampi minor . The renaming of the hippocampus as hippocampus major , and the calcar avis as hippocampus minor , has been attributed to Félix Vicq @-@ d 'Azyr systematising nomenclature of parts of the brain in 1786 . Mayer mistakenly used the term hippopotamus in 1779 , and was followed by some other authors until Karl Friedrich Burdach resolved this error in 1829 . In 1861 the hippocampus minor became the centre of a dispute over human evolution between Thomas Henry Huxley and Richard Owen , satirised as the Great Hippocampus Question . The term hippocampus minor fell from use in anatomy textbooks , and was officially removed in the Nomina Anatomica of 1895 .
Today , the structure is called the hippocampus rather than hippocampus major , with pes hippocampi often being regarded as synonymous with De Garengeot 's " cornu Ammonis " , a term that survives in the names of the four main histological divisions of the hippocampus : CA1 , CA2 , CA3 , and CA4 .
= = Anatomy = =
In terms of anatomy , the hippocampus is an elaboration of the edge of the cerebral cortex . The structures that line the edge of the cortex make up the so @-@ called limbic system ( Latin limbus = border ) : These include the hippocampus , cingulate cortex , olfactory cortex , and amygdala . Paul MacLean once suggested , as part of his triune brain theory , that the limbic structures comprise the neural basis of emotion . Some neuroscientists no longer believe that the concept of a unified " limbic system " is valid , however . Yet , the hippocampus is anatomically connected to parts of the brain that are involved with emotional behavior — the septum , the hypothalamic mammillary body , and the anterior nuclear complex in the thalamus — therefore its role as a limbic structure cannot be completely dismissed .
The hippocampus as a whole has the shape of a curved tube , which has been variously compared to a seahorse , a ram 's horn ( Cornu Ammonis , hence the subdivisions CA1 through CA4 ) , or a banana . It can be distinguished as a zone where the cortex narrows into a single layer of densely packed pyramidal neurons 3 to 6 cells deep in rats , which curl into a tight U shape ; one edge of the " U , " field CA4 , is embedded into a backward @-@ facing , strongly flexed , V @-@ shaped cortex , the dentate gyrus . It consists of ventral and dorsal portions , both of which are of similar composition but are parts of different neural circuits . This general layout holds across the full range of mammalian species , from hedgehog to human , although the details vary . In the rat , the two hippocampi resemble a pair of bananas , joined at the stems by the hippocampal commissure that crosses the midline under the anterior corpus callosum . In human or monkey brains , the portion of the hippocampus down at the bottom , near the base of the temporal lobe , is much broader than the part at the top . One of the consequences of this complex geometry is that cross @-@ sections through the hippocampus can show a variety of shapes , depending on the angle and location of the cut .
The entorhinal cortex ( EC ) , located in the parahippocampal gyrus , is considered to be part of the hippocampal region because of its anatomical connections . The EC is strongly and reciprocally connected with many other parts of the cerebral cortex . In addition , the medial septal nucleus , the anterior nuclear complex and nucleus reuniens of the thalamus and the supramammillary nucleus of the hypothalamus , as well as the raphe nuclei and locus coeruleus in the brainstem send axons to the EC . The main output pathway ( perforant path , first described by Ramon y Cajal ) of EC axons comes from the large pyramidal cells in layer II that " perforate " the subiculum and project densely to the granule cells in the dentate gyrus , apical dendrites of CA3 get a less dense projection , and the apical dendrites of CA1 get a sparse projection . Thus , the perforant path establishes the EC as the main " interface " between the hippocampus and other parts of the cerebral cortex . The dentate granule cell axons ( called mossy fibers ) pass on the information from the EC on thorny spines that exit from the proximal apical dendrite of CA3 pyramidal cells . Then , CA3 axons exit from the deep part of the cell body and loop up into the region where the apical dendrites are located , then extend all the way back into the deep layers of the entorhinal cortex — the Schaffer collaterals completing the reciprocal circuit ; field CA1 also sends axons back to the EC , but these are more sparse than the CA3 projection . Within the hippocampus , the flow of information from the EC is largely unidirectional , with signals propagating through a series of tightly packed cell layers , first to the dentate gyrus , then to the CA3 layer , then to the CA1 layer , then to the subiculum , then out of the hippocampus to the EC , mainly due to collateralization of the CA3 axons . Each of these layers also contains complex intrinsic circuitry and extensive longitudinal connections .
Several other connections play important roles in hippocampal function . Beyond the output to the EC , additional output pathways go to other cortical areas including the prefrontal cortex . A very important large output goes to the lateral septal area and to the mammillary body of the hypothalamus . The hippocampus receives modulatory input from the serotonin , norepinephrine , and dopamine systems , and from nucleus reuniens of the thalamus to field CA1 . A very important projection comes from the medial septal area , which sends cholinergic and GABAergic fibers to all parts of the hippocampus . The inputs from the septal area play a key role in controlling the physiological state of the hippocampus ; destruction of the septal area abolishes the hippocampal theta rhythm and severely impairs certain types of memory .
The cortical region adjacent to the hippocampus is known collectively as the parahippocampal gyrus ( or parahippocampus ) . It includes the EC and also the perirhinal cortex , which derives its name from the fact that it lies next to the rhinal sulcus . The perirhinal cortex plays an important role in visual recognition of complex objects . There is also substantial evidence that it makes a contribution to memory , which can be distinguished from the contribution of the hippocampus . It is apparent that complete amnesia occurs only when both the hippocampus and the parahippocampus are damaged .
= = Functions = =
Historically , the earliest widely held hypothesis was that the hippocampus is involved in olfaction . This idea was cast into doubt by a series of anatomical studies that did not find any direct projections to the hippocampus from the olfactory bulb . However , later work did confirm that the olfactory bulb does project into the ventral part of the lateral entorhinal cortex , and field CA1 in the ventral hippocampus sends axons to the main olfactory bulb , the anterior olfactory nucleus , and to the primary olfactory cortex . There continues to be some interest in hippocampal olfactory responses , in particular the role of the hippocampus in memory for odors , but few specialists today believe that olfaction is its primary function .
Over the years , three main ideas of hippocampal function have dominated the literature : inhibition , memory , and space . The behavioral inhibition theory ( caricatured by O 'Keefe and Nadel as " slam on the brakes ! " ) was very popular up to the 1960s . It derived much of its justification from two observations : first , that animals with hippocampal damage tend to be hyperactive ; second , that animals with hippocampal damage often have difficulty learning to inhibit responses that they have previously been taught , especially if the response requires remaining quiet as in a passive avoidance test . Jeffrey Gray developed this line of thought into a full @-@ fledged theory of the role of the hippocampus in anxiety . The inhibition theory is currently the least popular of the three .
The second major line of thought relates the hippocampus to memory . Although it had historical precursors , this idea derived its main impetus from a famous report by William Beecher Scoville and Brenda Milner describing the results of surgical destruction of the hippocampi ( in an attempt to relieve epileptic seizures ) , in Henry Molaison , known until his death in 2008 as " Patient H.M. " The unexpected outcome of the surgery was severe anterograde and partial retrograde amnesia ; Molaison was unable to form new episodic memories after his surgery and could not remember any events that occurred just before his surgery , but he did retain memories of events that occurred many years earlier extending back into his childhood . This case attracted such widespread professional interest that Molaison became the most intensively studied subject in medical history . In the ensuing years , other patients with similar levels of hippocampal damage and amnesia ( caused by accident or disease ) have also been studied , and thousands of experiments have studied the physiology of activity @-@ driven changes in synaptic connections in the hippocampus . There is now universal agreement that the hippocampi play some sort of important role in memory ; however , the precise nature of this role remains widely debated .
The third important theory of hippocampal function relates the hippocampus to space . The spatial theory was originally championed by O 'Keefe and Nadel , who were influenced by E.C. Tolman 's theories about " cognitive maps " in humans and animals . O 'Keefe and his student Dostrovsky in 1971 discovered neurons in the rat hippocampus that appeared to them to show activity related to the rat 's location within its environment . Despite skepticism from other investigators , O 'Keefe and his co @-@ workers , especially Lynn Nadel , continued to investigate this question , in a line of work that eventually led to their very influential 1978 book The Hippocampus as a Cognitive Map . There is now almost universal agreement that hippocampal function plays an important role in spatial coding , but the details are widely debated .
= = = Role in memory = = =
Psychologists and neuroscientists generally agree that the hippocampus plays an important role in the formation of new memories about experienced events ( episodic or autobiographical memory ) . Part of this function is hippocampal involvement in the detection of novel events , places and stimuli . Some researchers regard the hippocampus as part of a larger medial temporal lobe memory system responsible for general declarative memory ( memories that can be explicitly verbalized — these would include , for example , memory for facts in addition to episodic memory ) .
Due to bilateral symmetry the brain has a hippocampus in each cerebral hemisphere , so every normal brain has two of them . If damage to the hippocampus occurs in only one hemisphere , leaving the structure intact in the other hemisphere , the brain can retain near @-@ normal memory functioning . Severe damage to the hippocampi in both hemispheres results in profound difficulties in forming new memories ( anterograde amnesia ) and often also affects memories formed before the damage occurred ( retrograde amnesia ) . Although the retrograde effect normally extends many years back before the brain damage , in some cases older memories remain . This retention of older memories leads to the idea that consolidation over time involves the transfer of memories out of the hippocampus to other parts of the brain .
Damage to the hippocampus does not affect some types of memory , such as the ability to learn new skills ( playing a musical instrument or solving certain types of puzzles , for example ) . This fact suggests that such abilities depend on different types of memory ( procedural memory ) and different brain regions . Furthermore , amnesic patients frequently show " implicit " memory for experiences even in the absence of conscious knowledge . For example , patients asked to guess which of two faces they have seen most recently may give the correct answer most of the time in spite of stating that they have never seen either of the faces before . Some researchers distinguish between conscious recollection , which depends on the hippocampus , and familiarity , which depends on portions of the medial temporal cortex .
= = = Role in spatial memory and navigation = = =
Studies conducted on freely moving rats and mice have shown that many hippocampal neurons have " place fields " , that is , they fire bursts of action potentials when a rat passes through a particular part of the environment . Evidence for place cells in primates is limited , perhaps in part because it is difficult to record brain activity from freely moving monkeys . Place @-@ related hippocampal neural activity has been reported in monkeys moving around inside a room while seated in a restraint chair ; on the other hand , Edmund Rolls and his colleagues instead described hippocampal cells that fire in relation to the place a monkey is looking at , rather than the place where its body is located . In humans , cells with location @-@ specific firing patterns have been reported in a study of patients with drug @-@ resistant epilepsy who were undergoing an invasive procedure to localize the source of their seizures , with a view to surgical resection . The patients had diagnostic electrodes implanted in their hippocampus and then used a computer to move around in a virtual reality town .
Place responses in rats and mice have been studied in hundreds of experiments over four decades , yielding a large quantity of information . Place cell responses are shown by pyramidal cells in the hippocampus proper , and granule cells in the dentate gyrus . These constitute the great majority of neurons in the densely packed hippocampal layers . Inhibitory interneurons , which make up most of the remaining cell population , frequently show significant place @-@ related variations in firing rate that are much weaker than those displayed by pyramidal or granule cells . There is little if any spatial topography in the representation ; in general , cells lying next to each other in the hippocampus have uncorrelated spatial firing patterns . Place cells are typically almost silent when a rat is moving around outside the place field but reach sustained rates as high as 40 Hertz when the rat is near the center . Neural activity sampled from 30 to 40 randomly chosen place cells carries enough information to allow a rat 's location to be reconstructed with high confidence . The size of place fields varies in a gradient along the length of the hippocampus , with cells at the dorsal end showing the smallest fields , cells near the center showing larger fields , and cells at the ventral tip fields that cover the entire environment . In some cases , the firing rate of rat hippocampal cells depends not only on place but also on the direction a rat is moving , the destination toward which it is traveling , or other task @-@ related variables .
The discovery of place cells in the 1970s led to a theory that the hippocampus might act as a cognitive map — a neural representation of the layout of the environment . Several lines of evidence support the hypothesis . It is a frequent observation that without a fully functional hippocampus , humans may not remember where they have been and how to get where they are going : Getting lost is one of the most common symptoms of amnesia . Studies with animals have shown that an intact hippocampus is required for initial learning and long @-@ term retention of some spatial memory tasks , in particular ones that require finding the way to a hidden goal . The " cognitive map hypothesis " has been further advanced by recent discoveries of head direction cells , grid cells , and border cells in several parts of the rodent brain that are strongly connected to the hippocampus .
Brain imaging shows that people have more active hippocampi when correctly navigating , as tested in a computer @-@ simulated " virtual " navigation task . Also , there is evidence that the hippocampus plays a role in finding shortcuts and new routes between familiar places . For example , London 's taxi drivers must learn a large number of places and the most direct routes between them ( they have to pass a strict test , The Knowledge , before being licensed to drive the famous black cabs ) . A study at University College London by Maguire , et al .. ( 2000 ) showed that part of the hippocampus is larger in taxi drivers than in the general public , and that more experienced drivers have bigger hippocampi . Whether having a bigger hippocampus helps an individual to become a better cab driver , or if finding shortcuts for a living makes an individual 's hippocampus grow is yet to be elucidated . However , in that study , Maguire et al. examined the correlation between size of the grey matter and length of time that had been spent as a taxi driver , and found a positive correlation between the length of time an individual had spent as a taxi driver and the volume of the right hippocampus . It was found that the total volume of the hippocampus remained constant , from the control group vs. taxi drivers . That is to say that the posterior portion of a taxi driver 's hippocampus is indeed increased , but at the expense of the anterior portion . There have been no known detrimental effects reported from this disparity in hippocampal proportions .
= = = Hippocampal formation = = =
Various sections of the hippocampal formation are shown to be functionally and anatomically distinct . The dorsal ( DH ) , ventral ( VH ) and intermediate regions of the hippocampal formation serve different functions , project with differing pathways , and have varying degrees of place field neurons . The dorsal region of the hippocampal formation serves for spatial memory , verbal memory , and learning of conceptual information . Using the radial arm maze , Pothuizen et al . ( 2004 ) found lesions in the DH to cause spatial memory impairment while VH lesions did not . Its projecting pathways include the medial septal complex and supramammillary nucleus . The dorsal hippocampal formation also has more place field neurons than both the ventral and intermediate hippocampal formations .
The intermediate hippocampus has overlapping characteristics with both the ventral and dorsal hippocampus . Using PHAL anterograde tracing methods , Cenquizca and Swanson ( 2007 ) located the moderate projections to two primary olfactory cortical areas and prelimbic areas of the mPFC . This region has the smallest number of place field neurons . The ventral hippocampus functions in fear conditioning and affective processes . Anagnostaras et al . ( 2002 ) showed that alterations to the ventral hippocampus reduced the amount of information sent to the amygdala by the dorsal and ventral hippocampus , consequently altering fear conditioning in rats .
= = Physiology = =
The hippocampus shows two major " modes " of activity , each associated with a distinct pattern of neural population activity and waves of electrical activity as measured by an electroencephalogram ( EEG ) . These modes are named after the EEG patterns associated with them : theta and large irregular activity ( LIA ) . The main characteristics described below are for the rat , which is the animal most extensively studied .
The theta mode appears during states of active , alert behavior ( especially locomotion ) , and also during REM ( dreaming ) sleep . In the theta mode , the EEG is dominated by large regular waves with a frequency range of 6 to 9 Hertz , and the main groups of hippocampal neurons ( pyramidal cells and granule cells ) show sparse population activity , which means that in any short time interval , the great majority of cells are silent , while the small remaining fraction fire at relatively high rates , up to 50 spikes in one second for the most active of them . An active cell typically stays active for half a second to a few seconds . As the rat behaves , the active cells fall silent and new cells become active , but the overall percentage of active cells remains more or less constant . In many situations , cell activity is determined largely by the spatial location of the animal , but other behavioral variables also clearly influence it .
The LIA mode appears during slow @-@ wave ( non @-@ dreaming ) sleep , and also during states of waking immobility such as resting or eating . In the LIA mode , the EEG is dominated by sharp waves that are randomly timed large deflections of the EEG signal lasting for 25 – 50 milliseconds . Sharp waves are frequently generated in sets , with sets containing up to 5 or more individual sharp waves and lasting up to 500 ms . The spiking activity of neurons within the hippocampus is highly correlated with sharp wave activity . Most neurons decrease their firing rate between sharp waves ; however , during a sharp wave , there is a dramatic increase of firing rate in up to 10 % of the hippocampal population
These two hippocampal activity modes can be seen in primates as well as rats , with the exception that it has been difficult to see robust theta rhythmicity in the primate hippocampus . There are , however , qualitatively similar sharp waves and similar state @-@ dependent changes in neural population activity .
= = = Theta rhythm = = =
Because of its densely packed neural layers , the hippocampus generates some of the largest EEG signals of any brain structure . In some situations the EEG is dominated by regular waves at 3 to 10 Hertz , often continuing for many seconds . These reflect subthreshold membrane potentials and strongly modulate the spiking of hippocampal neurons and synchronise across the hippocampus in a travelling wave pattern . This EEG pattern is known as a theta rhythm . Theta rhythmicity is very obvious in rabbits and rodents and also clearly present in cats and dogs . Whether theta can be seen in primates is a vexing question . In rats ( the animals that have been the most extensively studied ) , theta is seen mainly in two conditions : first , when an animal is walking or in some other way actively interacting with its surroundings ; second , during REM sleep . The function of theta has not yet been convincingly explained although numerous theories have been proposed . The most popular hypothesis has been to relate it to learning and memory . An example would be the phase with which theta rhythms , at the time of stimulation of a neuron , shape the effect of that stimulation upon its synapses . What is meant here is that theta rhythms may affect those aspects of learning and memory that are dependent upon synaptic plasticity . It is well established that lesions of the medial septum — the central node of the theta system — cause severe disruptions of memory . However , the medial septum is more than just the controller of theta ; it is also the main source of cholinergic projections to the hippocampus . It has not been established that septal lesions exert their effects specifically by eliminating the theta rhythm .
= = = Sharp waves = = =
During sleep or during waking states when an animal is resting or otherwise not engaged with its surroundings , the hippocampal EEG shows a pattern of irregular slow waves , somewhat larger in amplitude than theta waves . This pattern is occasionally interrupted by large surges called sharp waves . These events are associated with bursts of spike activity lasting 50 to 100 milliseconds in pyramidal cells of CA3 and CA1 . They are also associated with short @-@ lived high @-@ frequency EEG oscillations called " ripples " , with frequencies in the range 150 to 200 Hertz in rats . Sharp waves are most frequent during sleep when they occur at an average rate of around 1 per second ( in rats ) but in a very irregular temporal pattern . Sharp waves are less frequent during inactive waking states and are usually smaller . Sharp waves have also been observed in humans and monkeys . In macaques , sharp waves are robust but do not occur as frequently as in rats .
One of the most interesting aspects of sharp waves is that they appear to be associated with memory . Wilson and McNaughton 1994 , and numerous later studies , reported that when hippocampal place cells have overlapping spatial firing fields ( and therefore often fire in near @-@ simultaneity ) , they tend to show correlated activity during sleep following the behavioral session . This enhancement of correlation , commonly known as reactivation , has been found to occur mainly during sharp waves . It has been proposed that sharp waves are , in fact , reactivations of neural activity patterns that were memorized during behavior , driven by strengthening of synaptic connections within the hippocampus . This idea forms a key component of the " two @-@ stage memory " theory , advocated by Buzsáki and others , which proposes that memories are stored within the hippocampus during behavior and then later transferred to the neocortex during sleep . Sharp waves are suggested to drive Hebbian synaptic changes in the neocortical targets of hippocampal output pathways .
= = = Long @-@ term potentiation = = =
Since at least the time of Ramon y Cajal , psychologists have speculated that the brain stores memory by altering the strength of connections between neurons that are simultaneously active . This idea was formalized by Donald Hebb in 1948 , but for many years thereafter , attempts to find a brain mechanism for such changes failed . In 1973 , Tim Bliss and Terje Lømo described a phenomenon in the rabbit hippocampus that appeared to meet Hebb 's specifications : a change in synaptic responsiveness induced by brief strong activation and lasting for hours or days or longer . This phenomenon was soon referred to as long @-@ term potentiation , abbreviated LTP . As a candidate mechanism for memory , LTP has since been studied intensively , and a great deal has been learned about it .
The hippocampus is a particularly favorable site for studying LTP because of its densely packed and sharply defined layers of neurons , but similar types of activity @-@ dependent synaptic change have now been observed in many other brain areas . The best @-@ studied form of LTP occurs at synapses that terminate on dendritic spines and use the transmitter glutamate . Several of the major pathways within the hippocampus fit this description and exhibit LTP . The synaptic changes depend on a special type of glutamate receptor , the NMDA receptor , which has the special property of allowing calcium to enter the postsynaptic spine only when presynaptic activation and postsynaptic depolarization occur at the same time . Drugs that interfere with NMDA receptors block LTP and have major effects on some types of memory , especially spatial memory . Transgenic mice , genetically modified in ways that disable the LTP mechanism , also generally show severe memory deficits .
= = Pathology = =
= = = Aging = = =
Age @-@ related conditions such as Alzheimer 's disease ( for which hippocampal disruption is one of the earliest signs ) have a severe impact on many types of cognition , but even normal aging is associated with a gradual decline in some types of memory , including episodic memory and working memory ( or short @-@ term memory ) . Because the hippocampus is thought to play a central role in memory , there has been considerable interest in the possibility that age @-@ related declines could be caused by hippocampal deterioration . Some early studies reported substantial loss of neurons in the hippocampus of elderly people , but later studies using more precise techniques found only minimal differences . Similarly , some MRI studies have reported shrinkage of the hippocampus in elderly people , but other studies have failed to reproduce this finding . There is , however , a reliable relationship between the size of the hippocampus and memory performance — meaning that not all elderly people show hippocampal shrinkage , but those who do tend to perform less well on some memory tasks . There are also reports that memory tasks tend to produce less hippocampal activation in elderly than in young subjects . Furthermore , a randomized @-@ control study published in 2011 found that aerobic exercise could increase the size of the hippocampus in adults aged 55 to 80 and also improve spatial memory .
= = = Stress = = =
The hippocampus contains high levels of glucocorticoid receptors , which make it more vulnerable to long @-@ term stress than most other brain areas . Stress @-@ related steroids affect the hippocampus in at least three ways : first , by reducing the excitability of some hippocampal neurons ; second , by inhibiting the genesis of new neurons in the dentate gyrus ; third , by causing atrophy of dendrites in pyramidal cells of the CA3 region . There is evidence that humans having experienced severe , long @-@ lasting traumatic stress show atrophy of the hippocampus more than of other parts of the brain . These effects show up in post @-@ traumatic stress disorder , and they may contribute to the hippocampal atrophy reported in schizophrenia and severe depression . A recent study has also revealed atrophy as a result of depression , but this can be stopped with anti @-@ depressants even if they are not effective in relieving other symptoms . Hippocampal atrophy is also frequently seen in Cushing 's syndrome , a disorder caused by high levels of cortisol in the bloodstream . At least some of these effects appear to be reversible if the stress is discontinued . There is , however , evidence derived mainly from studies using rats that stress occurring shortly after birth can affect hippocampal function in ways that persist throughout life .
Sex @-@ specific responses to stress have also been demonstrated to have an effect on the hippocampus . During situations in which adult male and female rats were exposed to chronic stress the females were shown to be better able to cope .
= = = Epilepsy = = =
The hippocampus is often the focus of epileptic seizures : hippocampal sclerosis is the most commonly visible type of tissue damage in temporal lobe epilepsy . It is not yet clear , however , whether the epilepsy is usually caused by hippocampal abnormalities or whether the hippocampus is damaged by cumulative effects of seizures . In experimental settings where repetitive seizures are artificially induced in animals , hippocampal damage is a frequent result . This may be a consequence of the hippocampus 's being one of the most electrically excitable parts of the brain . It may also have something to do with the fact that the hippocampus is one of very few brain regions where new neurons continue to be created throughout life .
= = = Schizophrenia = = =
The causes of schizophrenia are not at all well understood , but numerous abnormalities of brain structure have been reported . The most thoroughly investigated alterations involve the cerebral cortex , but effects on the hippocampus have also been described . Many reports have found reductions in the size of the hippocampus in schizophrenic subjects . The changes probably result from altered development rather than tissue damage and show up even in subjects never having been medicated . Several lines of evidence implicate changes in synaptic organization and connectivity . It is unclear whether hippocampal alterations play any role in causing the psychotic symptoms that are the most important feature of schizophrenia . Anthony Grace and his co @-@ workers have suggested , on the basis of experimental work using animals , that hippocampal dysfunction might produce an alteration of dopamine release in the basal ganglia , thereby indirectly affecting the integration of information in the prefrontal cortex . Others have suggested that hippocampal dysfunction might account for disturbances in long @-@ term memory frequently observed in people with schizophrenia .
= = = Transient global amnesia = = =
A current hypothesis as to one cause of transient global amnesia — a dramatic , sudden , temporary , near @-@ total loss of short @-@ term memory — is that it may be due to venous congestion of the brain , leading to ischemia of structures such as the hippocampus that are involved in memory .
= = Evolution = =
The hippocampus has a generally similar appearance across the range of mammal species , from monotremes such as the echidna to primates such as humans . The hippocampal @-@ size @-@ to @-@ body @-@ size ratio broadly increases , being about twice as large for primates as for the echidna . It does not , however , increase at anywhere close to the rate of the neocortex @-@ to @-@ body @-@ size ratio . Therefore , the hippocampus takes up a much larger fraction of the cortical mantle in rodents than in primates . In adult humans the volume of the hippocampus on each side of the brain is about 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 5 cm3 as compared to 320 to 420 cm3 for the volume of the neocortex .
There is also a general relationship between the size of the hippocampus and spatial memory . When comparisons are made between similar species , those that have a greater capacity for spatial memory tend to have larger hippocampal volumes . This relationship also extends to sex differences ; in species where males and females show strong differences in spatial memory ability they also tend to show corresponding differences in hippocampal volume .
Non @-@ mammalian species do not have a brain structure that looks like the mammalian hippocampus , but they have one that is considered homologous to it . The hippocampus , as pointed out above , is in essence the medial edge of the cortex . Only mammals have a fully developed cortex , but the structure it evolved from , called the pallium , is present in all vertebrates , even the most primitive ones such as the lamprey or hagfish . The pallium is usually divided into three zones : medial , lateral and dorsal . The medial pallium forms the precursor of the hippocampus . It does not resemble the hippocampus visually because the layers are not warped into an S shape or enfolded by the dentate gyrus , but the homology is indicated by strong chemical and functional affinities . There is now evidence that these hippocampal @-@ like structures are involved in spatial cognition in birds , reptiles , and fish .
In birds , the correspondence is sufficiently well established that most anatomists refer to the medial pallial zone as the " avian hippocampus " . Numerous species of birds have strong spatial skills , in particular those that cache food . There is evidence that food @-@ caching birds have a larger hippocampus than other types of birds and that damage to the hippocampus causes impairments in spatial memory .
The story for fish is more complex . In teleost fish ( which make up the great majority of existing species ) , the forebrain is distorted in comparison to other types of vertebrates : Most neuroanatomists believe that the teleost forebrain is in essence everted , like a sock turned inside @-@ out , so that structures that lie in the interior , next to the ventricles , for most vertebrates , are found on the outside in teleost fish , and vice versa . One of the consequences of this is that the medial pallium ( " hippocampal " zone ) of a typical vertebrate is thought to correspond to the lateral pallium of a typical fish . Several types of fish ( particularly goldfish ) have been shown experimentally to have strong spatial memory abilities , even forming " cognitive maps " of the areas they inhabit . There is evidence that damage to the lateral pallium impairs spatial memory .
Thus , the role of the hippocampal region in navigation appears to begin far back in vertebrate evolution , predating splits that occurred hundreds of millions of years ago . It is not yet known whether the medial pallium plays a similar role in even more primitive vertebrates , such as sharks and rays , or even lampreys and hagfish . Some types of insects , and molluscs such as the octopus , also have strong spatial learning and navigation abilities , but these appear to work differently from the mammalian spatial system , so there is as yet no good reason to think that they have a common evolutionary origin ; nor is there sufficient similarity in brain structure to enable anything resembling a " hippocampus " to be identified in these species . Some have proposed , however , that the insect 's mushroom bodies may have a function similar to that of the hippocampus .
= = = Journals = = =
Hippocampus ( Wiley )
= = = Books = = =
Per Andersen ; Richard Morris ; David Amaral ; Tim Bliss ; John O 'Keefe , eds . ( 2007 ) . The Hippocampus Book . Oxford University Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 510027 @-@ 3 .
Dori Derdikman ; James J. Knierim , eds . ( 2014 ) . Space , Time and Memory in the Hippocampal Formation . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 7091 @-@ 1292 @-@ 2 .
Henri M. Duvernoy ; F. Cattin ( 2005 ) . The Human Hippocampus : Functional Anatomy , Vascularization , and Serial Sections with MRI . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 3 @-@ 540 @-@ 23191 @-@ 2 .
Howard Eichenbaum ( 2002 ) . The Cognitive Neuroscience of Memory . Oxford University Press US . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 19 @-@ 514175 @-@ 7 .
edited by Patricia E. Sharp . ( 2002 ) . Patricia E. Sharp , ed . The Neural Basis of Navigation : Evidence from Single Cell Recording . Springer . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 7923 @-@ 7579 @-@ 1 .
Philippe Taupin ( 2007 ) . The Hippocampus : Neurotransmission and Plasticity in the Nervous System . Nova Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 60021 @-@ 914 @-@ 6 .
John H Byrne , ed . ( 2008 ) . Learning and Memory : A comprehensive reference . Elsevier . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 12 @-@ 370509 @-@ 9 .
= Cousin Bette =
La Cousine Bette ( French pronunciation : [ la kuzin bɛt ] , Cousin Bette ) is an 1846 novel by French author Honoré de Balzac . Set in mid @-@ 19th century Paris , it tells the story of an unmarried middle @-@ aged woman who plots the destruction of her extended family . Bette works with Valérie Marneffe , an unhappily married young lady , to seduce and torment a series of men . One of these is Baron Hector Hulot , husband to Bette 's cousin Adeline . He sacrifices his family 's fortune and good name to please Valérie , who leaves him for a tradesman named Crevel . The book is part of the Scènes de la vie parisienne section of Balzac 's novel sequence La Comédie humaine ( " The Human Comedy " ) .
In the 1840s , a serial format known as the roman @-@ feuilleton was highly popular in France , and the most acclaimed expression of it was the socialist writing of Eugène Sue . Balzac wanted to challenge Sue 's supremacy , and prove himself the most capable feuilleton author in France . Writing quickly and with intense focus , Balzac produced La Cousine Bette , one of his longest novels , in two months . It was published in Le Constitutionnel at the end of 1846 , then collected with a companion work , Le Cousin Pons , the following year .
The novel 's characters represent polarities of contrasting morality . The vengeful Bette and disingenuous Valérie stand on one side , with the merciful Adeline and her patient daughter Hortense on the other . The patriarch of the Hulot family , meanwhile , is consumed by his own sexual desire . Hortense 's husband , the Polish exile Wenceslas Steinbock , represents artistic genius , though he succumbs to uncertainty and lack of motivation . Balzac based the character of Bette in part on his mother and the poet Marceline Desbordes @-@ Valmore . At least one scene involving Baron Hulot was likely based on an event in the life of Balzac 's friend , the novelist Victor Hugo .
La Cousine Bette is considered Balzac 's last great work . His trademark use of realist detail combines with a panorama of characters returning from earlier novels . Several critics have hailed it as a turning point in the author 's career , and others have called it a prototypical naturalist text . It has been compared to William Shakespeare 's Othello as well as Leo Tolstoy 's War and Peace . The novel explores themes of vice and virtue , as well as the influence of money on French society . Bette 's relationship with Valérie is also seen as an important exploration of homoerotic themes . A number of film versions of the story have been produced , including a 1971 BBC mini @-@ series starring Margaret Tyzack and Helen Mirren , and a 1998 feature film with Jessica Lange in the title role .
= = Background = =
By 1846 Honoré de Balzac had achieved tremendous fame as a writer , but his finances and health were deteriorating rapidly . After writing a series of potboiler novels in the 1820s , he published his first book under his own name , Les Chouans ( " The Chouans " ) , in 1829 . He followed this with dozens of well @-@ received novels and stories , including La Peau de chagrin ( " The Magic Skin " ) , in 1831 , Le Père Goriot ( " Father Goriot " ) in 1835 , and the two @-@ volume Illusions perdues ( " Lost Illusions " ) , in 1837 and 1839 . Because of his lavish lifestyle and penchant for financial speculation , however , he spent most of his life trying to repay a variety of debts . He wrote tirelessly , driven as much by economic necessity as by the muse and black coffee . This regimen of constant work exhausted his body and brought reprimands from his doctor .
As his work gained recognition , Balzac began corresponding with a Polish baroness named Ewelina Hańska , who first contacted him through an anonymous 1832 letter signed " L 'Étrangère " ( " The Stranger " ) . They developed an affectionate friendship in letters , and when she became a widow in 1841 , Balzac sought her hand in marriage . He visited her often in Poland and Germany , but various complications prohibited their union . One of these was an affair Balzac had with his housekeeper , Louise Breugniot . As she became aware of his affection for Mme. Hanska , Breugniot stole a collection of their letters and used them to extort money from Balzac . Even after this episode , however , he grew closer to Mme. Hanska with each visit and by 1846 he had begun preparing a home to share with her . He grew hopeful that they could marry when she became pregnant , but she fell ill in December and suffered a miscarriage .
The mid @-@ 19th century was a time of profound transformation in French government and society . The reign of King Charles X ended in 1830 when a wave of agitation and dissent forced him to abdicate . He was replaced by Louis @-@ Philippe , who named himself " King of the French " , rather than the standard " King of France " – an indication that he answered more to the nascent bourgeoisie than the aristocratic Ancien Régime . The change in government took place while the economy in France was moving from mercantilism to industrial development . This opened new opportunities for individuals hoping to acquire wealth , and led to significant changes in social norms . Members of the aristocracy , for example , were forced to relate socially to the nouveau riche , usually with tense results . The democratic spirit of the French Revolution also affected social interactions , with a shift in popular allegiance away from the church and the monarchy .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , a new style of novel became popular in France . The serial format known as the roman @-@ feuilleton presented stories in short regular installments , often accompanied by melodramatic plots and stock characters . Although Balzac 's La Vieille Fille ( The Old Maid ) , 1836 , was the first such work published in France , the roman @-@ feuilleton gained prominence thanks mostly to his friends Eugène Sue and Alexandre Dumas , père . Balzac disliked their serial writing , however , especially Sue 's socialist depiction of lower @-@ class suffering . Balzac wanted to dethrone what he called " les faux dieux de cette littérature bâtarde " ( " the false gods of this bastard literature " ) . He also wanted to show the world that , despite his poor health and tumultuous career , he was " plus jeune , plus frais , et plus grand que jamais " ( " younger , fresher , and greater than ever " ) . His first efforts to render a quality feuilleton were unsuccessful . Even though Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes ( " A Harlot High and Low " ) , published in segments from 1838 to 1847 , was celebrated by critics , Balzac complained to Mme. Hanska that he was " doing pure Sue " . He tried again in 1844 with Modeste Mignon , but public reactions were mixed . Two years later Balzac began a new project , determined to create something from his " own old pen again " .
= = Writing and publication = =
After resting for a week in June 1846 at the Château de Saché in Tours , Balzac returned to Paris and began working on a short story called " Le Parasite " , which he eventually developed into the novel Le Cousin Pons . He intended from the start to pair it with another novel , collecting them under the title Les Parents pauvres ( " The Poor Relations " ) . He based the second book on a story his sister Laure Surville had written called " La Cousine Rosalie " and published in 1844 in Le Journal des enfants . Writing intensively , he produced the entire novel , named La Cousine Bette after the main character , in two months . This was a significant accomplishment owing to his bad health , but its length made Balzac 's writing speed especially remarkable . One critic calls the writing of Les Parents pauvres Balzac 's " last explosion of creative energy " . Another suggests that this effort was " almost the last straw which broke down Balzac 's gigantic strength " .
Balzac 's usual mode of revision involved vast , complicated edits made to galley proofs he received from the printer . When creating La Cousine Bette , however , he submitted the work to his editor piece by piece , without viewing a single proof . The book was serialized in Le Constitutionnel from 8 October to 3 December , and Balzac rushed to keep up with the newspaper 's rapid printing schedule . He produced an average of eight pages each day , but was struck by the unexpected enormity of the story as it evolved . Balzac was paid 12 @,@ 836 francs for the series , which was later published with Le Cousin Pons as a twelve @-@ volume book by Chiendowski and Pétion . The first collected edition of La Cousine Bette was organized into 132 chapters , but these divisions were removed when Balzac added it to his massive collection La Comédie humaine in 1848 .
= = Plot summary = =
The first third of the novel provides a lengthy exploration of the characters ' histories . Balzac makes this clear after 150 pages : " Ici se termine , en quelque sorte , l 'introduction de cette histoire . " ( " Here ends what is , in a way , the introduction to this story . " ) At the start of the novel , Adeline Hulot – wife of the successful Baron Hector Hulot – is being pressured into an affair by a wealthy perfumer named Célestin Crevel . His desire stems in part from an earlier contest in which the adulterous Baron Hulot had won the hand of the singer Josépha Mirah , also favored by Crevel . The Hulots ' daughter , Hortense , has begun searching for a husband ; their son Victorin is married to Crevel 's daughter Celestine . Mme. Hulot resists Crevel 's advances , and he turns his attention elsewhere .
Mme. Hulot 's cousin , Bette ( also called Lisbeth ) , harbors a deep but hidden resentment of her relatives ' success . A peasant woman with none of the physical beauty of her cousin , Bette has rejected a series of marriage proposals from middle @-@ class suitors , and remains unmarried at the age of 42 . One day she comes upon a young unsuccessful Polish sculptor named Wenceslas Steinbock , attempting suicide in the tiny apartment upstairs from her own . As she nourishes him back to health , she develops a maternal fondness for him . She also befriends Valérie , the wife of a War Department clerk named Marneffe ; the two women form a bond of mutual affection and protection .
Baron Hulot , meanwhile , is rejected by Josépha , who explains bluntly that she has chosen another man because of his larger fortune . Hulot 's despair is quickly alleviated when he meets and falls in love with Valérie Marneffe . He showers her with gifts , and soon establishes a luxurious house for her and M. Marneffe , with whom he works at the War Department . These debts , compounded by the money he borrowed to lavish on Josépha , threaten the Hulot family 's financial security . Panicked , he convinces his uncle Johann Fischer to quietly embezzle funds from a War Department outpost in Algiers . Hulot 's woes are momentarily abated and Bette 's happiness is shattered , when – at the end of the " introduction " – Hortense Hulot marries Wenceslas Steinbock .
Crushed at having lost Steinbock 's company , Bette swears vengeance on the Hulot family . She works behind the scenes with Valérie to extract more money from Baron Hulot . Valérie also seduces Crevel and watches with delight as they vie for her attention . With Bette 's help , Valérie turns to Steinbock and draws him into her bedroom . When Hortense learns of his infidelity , she leaves Steinbock and returns with their son to live with her mother Adeline . Valérie also proclaims her love to a Brazilian Baron named Henri Montès de Montéjanos , and swears devotion constantly to each of the five men .
Baron Hulot 's brother , known as " le maréchal " ( " the Marshal " ) , hires Bette as his housekeeper , and they develop a mild affection . He learns of his brother 's infidelities ( and the difficulties they have caused Adeline , who refuses to leave her husband ) , and promises to marry Bette if she will provide details . She agrees eagerly , delighted at the prospect of finally securing an enviable marriage . While investigating his brother 's behavior , however , the Marshal discovers Baron Hulot 's scheme in Algiers . He is overwhelmed by the disgrace , and his health deteriorates . Bette 's last hope for a brighter future dies with him .
When Valérie becomes pregnant , she tells each of her lovers ( and her husband ) that he is the father . She gives birth to a stillborn child , however , and her husband dies soon thereafter . Hulot and Crevel are ecstatic when they hear this news , each believing that he will become her only love once the official mourning period has passed . Valérie chooses Crevel for his comfortable fortune , and they quickly wed . This news outrages Baron Montès , and he devises a plot to poison the newlyweds . Crevel and Valérie die slowly , their bodies devoured by an exotic Brazilian toxin .
Victorin Hulot is later visited by the Prince of Wissembourg , who delivers news of economic good fortune . The Marshal , prior to his death , had made arrangements for repayment of the Baron 's debts , as well as employment for Adeline in a Catholic charity . Baron Hulot has disappeared , and Adeline spends her free time searching for him in houses of ill repute . She eventually finds him living with a fifteen @-@ year @-@ old courtesan , and begs him to return to the family . He agrees , but as he climbs into the carriage , Hulot asks : " mais pourrai @-@ je emmener la petite ? " ( " But can I take the girl ? " ) The Hulot home is reunited for a time , and Bette 's fury at their apparent happiness hastens her death . One evening after the funeral , Adeline overhears Hulot seducing a kitchen maid named Agathe . On her deathbed , Adeline delivers her first rebuke to her husband : " [ D ] ans un moment , tu seras libre , et tu pourras faire une baronne Hulot . " ( " In a moment , you will be free , and you can make another Baroness Hulot . " ) Soon after burying his wife , Hulot marries Agathe .
= = Characters and inspirations = =
Balzac had written more than seventy novels when he began La Cousine Bette , and populated them with recurring characters . Many of the characters in the novel , therefore , appear with extensive back @-@ stories and biographical depth . For example , Célestin Crevel first appeared in Balzac 's 1837 novel César Birotteau , working for the title character . Having accumulated a considerable fortune in that book , Crevel spends his time in La Cousine Bette enjoying the spoils of his labor . Another important recurring character is Marshal Hulot , who first appeared as a colonel in Les Chouans . In the years between that story and La Cousine Bette , he became the Count of Forzheim ; in a letter to the Constitutionnel , Balzac described how Marshal Hulot gained this title . The presence of Crevel and Marshal Hulot – among others – in La Cousine Bette allows a continuation of each character 's life story , adding emphasis or complexity to earlier events .
Other recurring characters appear only briefly in La Cousine Bette ; previous appearances , however , give deep significance to the characters ' presence . This is the case with Vautrin , the criminal mastermind who tutors young Eugene de Rastignac in Balzac 's 1835 novel Le Père Goriot . When he resurfaces in La Cousine Bette , he has joined the police and introduces the Hulot family to his aunt , Mme. Nourrison , who offers a morally questionable remedy for their woes . Although Vautrin 's presence in La Cousine Bette is brief , his earlier adventures in Le Père Goriot provide instant recognition and emotional texture . Elsewhere , Balzac presents an entire world of experience by including characters from a particular sphere of society . For example , several scenes feature artists like Jean @-@ Jacques Bixiou , who first appeared in 1837 's Les Employés and in many other books thereafter . The world of Parisian nightlife is quickly brought to mind with the inclusion of several characters from Les Comédiens sans le savoir ( 1846 ) , and Bianchon appears – as always – when a doctor is needed .
Balzac 's use of recurring characters has been identified as a unique component of his fiction . It enables a depth of characterization that goes beyond simple narration or dialogue . " When the characters reappear " , notes the critic Samuel Rogers , " they do not step out of nowhere ; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which , for an interval , we have not been allowed to see . " Some readers , however , are intimidated by the depth created by these interdependent stories , and feel deprived of important context for the characters . Detective novelist Arthur Conan Doyle said that he never tried to read Balzac , because he " did not know where to begin " . The characterization in La Cousine Bette is considered especially skillful . Anthony Pugh , in his book Balzac 's Recurring Characters , says that the technique is employed " for the most part without that feeling of self @-@ indulgence that mars some of Balzac 's later work . Almost every example arises quite naturally out of the situation . " Biographer Noel Gerson calls the characters in La Cousine Bette " among the most memorable Balzac ever sketched " .
= = = Bette Fischer = = =
Descriptions of Bette are often connected to savagery and animal imagery . Her name , for example , is a homophone in French for " bête " ( " beast " ) . One passage explains that " elle ressemblait aux singes habillés en femmes " ( " she sometimes looked like one of those monkeys in petticoats " ) ; elsewhere her voice is described as having " une jalousie de tigre " ( " tiger @-@ like jealousy " ) . Her beastly rage comes to the surface with ferocity when she learns of Steinbock 's engagement to Hortense :
La physionomie de la Lorraine était devenue terrible . Ses yeux noirs et pénétrants avaient la fixité de ceux des tigres . Sa figure ressemblait à celles que nous supposons aux pythonisses , elle serrait les dents pour les empêcher de claquer , et une affreuse convulsion faisait trembler ses membres . Elle avait glissé sa main crochue entre son bonnet et ses cheveux pour les empoigner et soutenir sa tête , devenue trop lourde ; elle brûlait ! La fumée de l 'incendie qui la ravageait semblait passer par ses rides comme par autant de crevasses labourées par une éruption volcanique .
The peasant @-@ woman 's face was terrible ; her piercing black eyes had the glare of the tiger 's ; her face was like that we ascribe to a pythoness ; she set her teeth to keep them from chattering , and her whole frame quivered convulsively . She had pushed her clenched fingers under her cap to clutch her hair and support her head , which felt too heavy ; she was on fire . The smoke of the flame that scorched her seemed to emanate from her wrinkles as from the crevasses rent by a volcanic eruption .
When she learns that her cousin Adeline has been welcoming Steinbock into the Hulot home , Bette swears revenge : " Adeline ! se dit Lisbeth , ô Adeline , tu me le payeras , je te rendrai plus laide que moi ! " ( " ' Adeline ! ' muttered Lisbeth . ' Oh , Adeline , you shall pay for this ! I will make you uglier than I am . ' " ) Her cruelty and lust for revenge lead critics to call her " demonic " and " one of Balzac 's most terrifying creations " . Because of her willingness to manipulate the people around her , Bette has been compared to Iago in William Shakespeare 's play Othello . Her fierce persona is attributed partly to her peasant background , and partly to her virginity , which provides ( according to Balzac ) " une force diabolique ou la magie noire de la volonté " ( " diabolical strength , or the black magic of the Will " ) .
In a letter to Mme. Hanska , Balzac indicated that he based the character of Bette on three women from his life : his mother , Mme. Hanska 's aunt Rosalie Rzewuska , and the poet Marceline Desbordes @-@ Valmore . Balzac had a tumultuous relationship with his mother for most of his life , and he incorporated some of her personality ( particularly her " obstinate persistence in living " , as one critic calls it ) into Bette . Rosalie Rzewuska disapproved of Mme. Hanska 's relationship with Balzac ; biographers agree that her cold determination was part of the author 's recipe for Bette . Elements taken from Marceline Desbordes @-@ Valmore are more complex ; she faced many setbacks in life and she and Balzac became friends after she left the theatre to take up poetry .
= = = Valérie Marneffe = = =
Bette 's co @-@ conspirator in the destruction of the Hulot family is beautiful and greedy Valérie Marneffe , the unsatisfied wife of a War Department clerk . They develop a deep friendship , which many critics consider an example of lesbian affection . Because of their relationship and similar goals , the critic Frederic Jameson says that " Valérie serves as a kind of emanation of Bette " .
Valérie is repulsed by her ugly husband and has gone five years without kissing him . She explains bluntly that her position as a married woman provides subtleties and options unavailable to the common prostitute who has one set price ; after Marneffe dies , Valérie jockeys for position between Hulot and Montés ( while also sleeping with Steinbock ) , then discards them all to marry Crevel , who offers the most wealth . She amuses herself by mocking her lovers ' devotion , and this wickedness – not to mention her gruesome demise – has led some critics to speculate that she is actually the focus of Balzac 's morality tale .
In one important scene , Valérie models for Steinbock as Delilah , standing victorious over the ruined Samson . With obvious parallels to her own activities , she describes her vision for the piece : " Il s 'agit d 'exprimer la puissance de la femme . Samson n 'est rien , là . C 'est le cadavre de la force . Dalila , c 'est la passion qui ruine tout . " ( " What you have to show is the power of woman . Samson is a secondary consideration . He is the corpse of dead strength . It is Delilah — passion — that ruins everything . " )
Although Balzac did not draw specifically from the women in his life to create Valérie , parallels have been observed in some areas . The tumultuous end of his affair with Louise Breugniot and the advantage she gains from his devotion to Mme. Hanska is similar in some ways to Valérie 's manipulation of Steinbock . Critics also connect the pride and anguish felt by Balzac during Mme. Hanska 's pregnancy and miscarriage to the same emotions felt by Baron Hulot when Valérie conceives and loses her child . Although he never ascribed to Mme. Hanska any of the traits in Valérie 's treacherous character , he felt a devotion similar to that of Hulot . He once wrote to her : " je fais pour mon Eve toute les folies qu 'un Hulot fait pour une Marneffe , je te donnerai mon sang , mon honneur , ma vie " ( " I commit for [ you ] all the follies that a Hulot commits for Madame Marneffe ; I give you my blood , my honor , my life " ) .
= = = Hector and Adeline Hulot = = =
Baron Hector Hulot is a living manifestation of male sexual desire , unrestrained and unconcerned with its consequences for the man or his family . As the novel progresses , he becomes consumed by his libido , even in a physical sense . When Valérie tells him to stop dyeing his hair , he does so to please her . His financial woes and public disgrace lead him to flee his own home ; by the end of the book he is an elderly , decrepit shell of a man . Baron Hulot is so overcome by his taste for female flesh that he even asks his wife – without irony – if he can bring home his fifteen @-@ year @-@ old mistress .
Adeline Hulot , on the other hand , is mercy personified . Like her cousin Bette , she comes from a peasant background , but has internalized the ideals of 19th @-@ century womanhood , including devotion , grace , and deference . She reveals in the first scene that she has known for years about her husband 's infidelities , but refuses to condemn him . Adeline 's forgiving nature is often considered a significant character flaw . Some suggest that she is partly to blame for Hulot 's wandering affection . C.A. Prendergast , for example , calls her forgiveness " an inadequate and even positively disastrous response " to her situation . He further suggests that Adeline , by choosing the role of quiet and dutiful wife , has excised from herself the erotic power to which the Baron is drawn . " [ O ] ne could at the very least offer the tentative speculation that Hulot 's obsessional debauchery is in part the result of a certain poverty in Adeline , that the terrible logic of Hulot 's excess is partially shaped by a crucial deficiency in his wife . " Others are less accusatory ; Adeline 's nearly infinite mercy , they say , is evidence of foolishness . Critic Herbert J. Hunt declares that she shows " more imbecility than Christian patience " , and David Bellos points out that , like her husband , she is driven by passion – albeit of a different kind : " Adeline 's desire ( for good , for the family , for Hector , for God ) is so radically different from the motivating desires of the other characters that she seems in their context to be without desire ... "
Balzac 's inspiration for the characters of Hector and Adeline remain unclear , but several critics have been eager to speculate . Three officers named Hulot were recognized for their valor in the Napoleonic Wars , and some suggest that Balzac borrowed the name of Comte Hector d 'Aure . None of these men , however , were known for the sort of philandering or thievery exhibited by Baron Hulot in the novel . Instead , Balzac may have used himself as the model ; his many affairs with women across the social spectrum lead some to suggest that the author " found much of Hulot in himself " . Balzac 's friend Victor Hugo , meanwhile , was famously discovered in bed with his mistress in July 1845 . The similarity of his name to Hector Hulot ( and that of his wife 's maiden name , Adèle Foucher , to Adeline Fischer ) has been posited as a possible indication of the characters ' origins .
= = = Wenceslas Steinbock = = =
The Polish sculptor Wenceslas Steinbock is important primarily because of Bette 's attachment to him . He offers Bette a source of pride , a way for her to prove herself worthy of her family 's respect . When Hortense marries Steinbock , Bette feels as though she has been robbed . Prendergast insists that the incident " must literally be described as an act of theft " .
Steinbock 's relevance also lies in his background and profession , illustrating Balzac 's conception of the Polish people , as well as himself . Having spent more than a decade befriending Mme. Hanska and visiting her family in Poland , Balzac believed he had insight into the national character ( as he felt about most groups he observed ) . Thus , descriptions of Steinbock are often laced with commentary about the Polish people : " Soyez mon amie , dit @-@ il avec une de ces démonstrations caressantes si familières aux Polonais , et qui les font accuser assez injustement de servilité . " ( " ' Be my sweetheart , ' he added , with one of the caressing gestures familiar to the Poles , for which they are unjustly accused of servility . " )
Critics also consider Steinbock important because of his artistic genius . Like Louis Lambert and Lucien Chardon in Illusions perdues , he is a brilliant man – just as Balzac considered himself to be . Before he is nurtured and directed by Bette , however , Steinbock 's genius languishes under his own inertia and he attempts suicide . Later , when he leaves Bette 's circle of influence , he fails again . Thus he demonstrates Balzac 's conviction that genius alone is useless without determination . Bellos organizes Steinbock and Bette into a duality of weakness and strength ; whereas the Polish artist is unable to direct his energies into productive work , Bette draws strength from her virginity and thus becomes powerful by denying the lust to which Steinbock falls prey . Steinbock 's drive is further eroded by the praise he receives for his art , which gives him an inflated sense of accomplishment . One critic refers to the artist 's downfall as " vanity ... spoiled by premature renown " .
= = Style = =
If Balzac 's goal was ( as he claimed ) to write a realist novel from his " own old pen " rather than mimic the style of Eugène Sue , history and literary criticism have declared him successful . William Stowe calls La Cousine Bette " a masterpiece of classical realism " and Bellos refers to it as " one of the great achievements of nineteenth @-@ century realism " , comparing it to War and Peace . Some sections of the book are criticized for being melodramatic , and Balzac biographer V. S. Pritchett even refers to a representative excerpt as " bad writing " . Most critics , however , consider the moralistic elements of the novel deceptively complex , and some point out that the roman @-@ feuilleton format required a certain level of titillation to keep readers engaged . Others indicate that Balzac 's interest in the theatre was an important reason for the inclusion of melodramatic elements .
Balzac 's trademark realism begins on the first page of the novel , wherein Crevel is described wearing a National Guard uniform , complete with the Légion d 'honneur . Details from the 1830s also appear in the novel 's geographic locations . The Hulot family home , for example , is found in the aristocratic area of Paris known as the Faubourg Saint @-@ Germain . Bette 's residence is on the opposite end of the social spectrum , in the impoverished residential area which surrounded the Louvre : " Les ténèbres , le silence , l 'air glacial , la profondeur caverneuse du sol concourent à faire de ces maisons des espèces de cryptes , des tombeaux vivants . " ( " Darkness , silence , an icy chill , and the cavernous depth of the soil combine to make these houses a kind of crypt , tombs of the living . " ) Descriptions of her meager quarters are – as usual in Balzac 's work – an acute reflection of her personality . The same is true of the Marneffe home at the outset : it contains " les trompeuses apparences de ce faux luxe " ( " the illusory appearance of sham luxury " ) , from the shabby chairs in the drawing @-@ room to the dust @-@ coated bedroom .
Precise detail is not spared in descriptions of decay and disease , two vivid elements in the novel . Marneffe , for example , represents crapulence . His decrepit body is a symbol of society 's weakness at the time , worn away from years of indulgence . The poison which kills Valérie and Crevel is also described in ghastly detail . The doctor Bianchon explains : " Ses dents et ses cheveux tombent , elle a l 'aspect des lépreux , elle se fait horreur à elle @-@ même ; ses mains , épouvantables à voir , sont enflées et couvertes de pustules verdâtres ; les ongles déchaussés restent dans les plaies qu 'elle gratte ; enfin , toutes les extrémités se détruisent dans la sanie qui les ronge . " ( " She is losing her hair and teeth , her skin is like a leper 's , she is a horror to herself ; her hands are horrible , covered with greenish pustules , her nails are loose , and the flesh is eaten away by the poisoned humors . " )
La Cousine Bette is unapologetic in its bleak outlook , and makes blunt connections between characters ' origins and behavior . For these reasons , it is considered a key antecedent to naturalist literature . Novelist Émile Zola called it an important " roman expérimental " ( " experimental novel " ) , and praised its acute exploration of the characters ' motivations . Some critics note that La Cousine Bette showed an evolution in Balzac 's style – one which he had little time to develop . Pointing to the nuance of plot and comprehensive narration style , Stowe suggests that the novel " might in happier circumstances have marked the beginning of a new , mature ' late Balzac ' " .
= = Themes = =
= = = Passion , vice , and virtue = = =
Valérie 's line about Delilah being " la passion qui ruine tout " ( " passion which ruins everything " ) is symbolic , coming as it does from a woman whose passion accelerates the ruin of most people around her – including herself . Baron Hulot , meanwhile , is desire incarnate ; his wandering libido bypasses concern for his wife , brother , children , finances , and even his own health . Bette is living vengeance , and Adeline desperately yearns for the happy home she imagined in the early years of marriage . Each character is driven by a fiery passion , which in most cases consumes the individual . As Balzac puts it : " La passion est un martyre . " ( " Passion is martyrdom . " )
The intensity of passion , and the consequences of its manifestation , result in a stark contrast of vice and virtue . Bette and Valérie are pure wickedness , and even celebrate the ruin of their targets . As one critic says , " life 's truths are viewed in their most atrocious form " . Mocking the use of the guillotine during the French Revolution while acknowledging her own malicious intent , Valérie says with regard to Delilah : " La vertu coupe la tête , le Vice ne vous coupe que les cheveux . " ( " Virtue cuts off your head ; vice only cuts off your hair . " ) Hulot is not intentionally cruel , but his actions are no less devastating to the people around him .
On the other side of the moral divide , Adeline and her children stand as shining examples of virtue and nobility – or so it would seem . Hortense ridicules her aunt when Bette mentions her protégé Wenceslas Steinbock , providing a psychological catalyst for the ensuing conflict . Victorin repeatedly expresses outrage at his father 's philandering , yet crosses a significant moral boundary when he agrees to fund Mme. Nourrison 's plan to eradicate Valérie . As one critic puts it , Victorin 's decision marks a point in the novel where " the scheme of right versus wrong immediately dissolves into a purely amoral conflict of different interests and passions , regulated less by a transcendent moral law than by the relative capacity of the different parties for cunning and ruthlessness . " The cruelties of the Hulot children are brief but significant , owing as much to their obliviousness ( intentional in the case of Victorin , who asks not to learn the details of Mme. Nourrison 's scheme ) as to malicious forethought .
The question of Adeline 's virtue is similarly complicated . Although she is forgiving to the point of absurdity , she is often considered more of a dupe than a martyr . Some have compared her to Balzac 's title character in Le Père Goriot , who sacrifices himself for his daughters . As Bellos puts it : " Adeline 's complicity with Hector certainly makes her more interesting as a literary character , but it undermines her role as the symbol of virtue in the novel . " This complicity reaches an apex when she unsuccessfully attempts to sell her affections to Crevel ( who has since lost interest ) in order to repay her husband 's debts . Her flirtation with prostitution is sometimes considered more egregious than Valérie 's overt extortion , since Adeline is soiling her own dignity in the service of Baron Hulot 's infidelity . For the remainder of the novel , Adeline trembles uncontrollably , a sign of her weakness . Later , when she visits the singer Josépha ( on whom her husband once doted ) , Adeline is struck by the splendor earned by a life of materialistic seduction . She wonders aloud if she is capable of providing the carnal pleasures Hulot seeks outside of their home .
Ultimately , both vice and virtue fail . Valérie is devoured by Montés ' poison , a consequence of her blithe attitude toward his emotion . Bette is unsuccessful in her effort to crush her cousin 's family , and dies ( as one critic puts it ) " in the margins " . Adeline 's Catholic mercy , on the other hand , fails to redeem her husband , and her children are similarly powerless – as Victorin finally admits on the novel 's last page . Like Raphael de Valentin in Balzac 's 1831 novel La Peau de chagrin , Hulot is left with nothing but " vouloir " : desire , a force which is both essential for human existence and eventually apocalyptic .
= = = Gender and homoeroticism = = =
Gender roles , especially the figure of the ideal woman , are central to La Cousine Bette . The four leading female characters ( Bette , Valérie , Adeline , and Hortense ) embody stereotypically feminine traits . Each pair of women revolves around a man , and they compete for his attention : Valérie and Adeline for Baron Hulot ; Bette and Hortense for Wenceslas Steinbock . Balzac 's study of masculinity is limited to the insatiable lust of Hulot and the weak @-@ willed inconstancy of Steinbock , with the occasional appearance of Victorin as a sturdy patriarch in his father 's absence .
Critics pay special attention to Bette 's lack of traditional femininity , and her unconventional relationships with two characters . She is described from the outset as having " des qualités d 'homme " ( " certain manly qualities " ) , with similar descriptions elsewhere . Her relationship and attitude toward Steinbock , moreover , hint at her masculinity . She commands him into submission , and even binds him with economic constraints by lending him the money to develop his sculpture . Her domination is tempered by maternal compassion , but the couple 's relationship is compared to an abusive marriage : " Il fut comme une femme qui pardonne les mauvais traitements d 'une semaine à cause des caresses d 'un fugitif raccommodement . " ( " He was like a woman who forgives a week of ill @-@ usage for the sake of a kiss and a brief reconciliation . " )
Bette 's relationship with Valérie is layered with overtones of lesbianism . Early in the book Bette is " captée " ( " bewitched " ) by Valérie , and quickly declares to her : " Je vous aime , je vous estime , je suis à vous ! " ( " I love you , I esteem you , I am wholly yours ! " ) This affection may have been platonic , but neighbors of the Marneffes – along with many readers – suspect that their bond transcends friendship . As with Steinbock , Bette and Valérie assume butch and femme roles ; the narration even mentions " Le contraste de la mâle et sèche nature de la Lorraine avec la jolie nature créole de Valérie " ( " The contrast between Lisbeth 's dry masculine nature and Valerie 's creole prettiness " ) . The homoeroticism evolves through the novel , as Bette feeds on Valérie 's power to seduce and control the Hulot men . As one critic says : " Valérie 's body becomes , at least symbolically , the locus of Bette 's only erotic pleasure . "
= = = Wealth and society = = =
As with many of his novels , Balzac analyzes the influence of history and social status in La Cousine Bette . The book takes places between 1838 and 1846 , when the reign of Louis @-@ Philippe reflected and directed significant changes in the social structure . Balzac was a legitimist favoring the House of Bourbon , and idolized Napoleon Bonaparte as a paragon of effective absolutist power . Balzac felt that French society under the House of Orléans lacked strong leadership , and was fragmented by the demands of parliament . He also believed that Catholicism provided guidance for the nation , and that its absence heralded moral decay .
Balzac demonstrated these beliefs through the characters ' lives in La Cousine Bette . The conflict between Baron Hulot and the perfumer Crevel mirrors the animosity between the aristocracy of the Ancien Régime and the newly developed bourgeoisie of traders and industrial entrepreneurs . Although he despised the socialist politics of Eugène Sue , Balzac worried that bourgeois desperation for financial gain drove people from life 's important virtues . The characters – especially Bette , Valérie , and Crevel – are fixated on their need for money , and do whatever they must to obtain it . As Crevel explains to Adeline : " Vous vous abusez , cher ange , si vous croyez que c 'est le roi Louis @-@ Philippe qui règne ... au @-@ dessus de la Charte il y a la sainte , la vénérée , la solide , l 'aimable , la gracieuse , la belle , la noble , la jeune , la toute @-@ puissante pièce de cent sous ! " ( " You are quite mistaken , my angel , if you suppose that King Louis @-@ Philippe rules us ... supreme above the Charter reigns the holy , venerated , substantial , delightful , obliging , beautiful , noble , ever @-@ youthful , and all @-@ powerful five @-@ franc piece ! " )
Themes of corruption and salvation are brought to the fore as Valérie and Crevel lie dying from the mysterious poison . When his daughter urges him to meet with a priest , Crevel angrily refuses , mocking the church and indicating that his social stature will be his salvation : " la mort regarde à deux fois avant de frapper un maire de Paris ! " ( " Death thinks twice of it before carrying off a Mayor of Paris . " ) Valérie , meanwhile , makes a deathbed conversion and urges Bette to abandon her quest for revenge . Ever the courtesan , Valérie describes her new Christianity in terms of seduction : " je ne puis maintenant plaire qu 'à Dieu ! je vais tâcher de me réconcilier avec lui , ce sera ma dernière coquetterie ! " ( " I can please no one now but God . I will try to be reconciled to Him , and that will be my last flirtation ... ! " )
= = Reception and adaptations = =
The critical reaction to La Cousine Bette was immediate and positive , which Balzac did not expect . Whether due to the intensity of its creation or the tumult of his personal life , the author was surprised by the praise he received . He wrote : " I did not realize how good La Cousine Bette is ... There is an immense reaction in my favour . I have won ! " The collected edition sold consistently well , and was reprinted nineteen times before the turn of the 20th century . 20th @-@ century critics remain enthusiastic in their praise for the novel ; Saintsbury insists it is " beyond all question one of the very greatest of [ Balzac 's ] works " . Biographer Graham Robb calls La Cousine Bette " the masterpiece of his premature old age " .
Some 19th @-@ century critics attacked the book , on the grounds that it normalized vice and corrupt living . Chief among these were disciples of the utopian theorist Charles Fourier ; they disapproved of the " immorality " inherent in the novel 's bleak resolution . Critics like Alfred Nettement and Eugène Marron declared that Balzac 's sympathy lay with Baron Hulot and Valérie Marneffe . They lambasted him for not commenting more on the characters ' degenerate behavior – the same stylistic choice later celebrated by naturalist writers Émile Zola and Hippolyte Taine .
Balzac 's novel has been adapted several times for the screen . The first was in 1927 , when French filmmaker Max DeRieux directed Alice Tissot in the title role . Margaret Tyzack played the role of Bette in the five part serial Cousin Bette made in 1971 by the BBC , which also starred Helen Mirren as Valérie Marneffe . The film Cousin Bette was released in 1998 , directed by Des McAnuff . Jessica Lange starred in the title role , joined by Bob Hoskins as Crevel , and Elisabeth Shue as the singer Jenny Cadine . Screenwriters Lynn Siefert and Susan Tarr changed the story significantly , and eliminated Valérie . The 1998 film was panned by critics for its generally poor acting and awkward dialogue . Stephen Holden of the New York Times commented that the movie " treats the novel as a thoroughly modern social comedy peopled with raging narcissists , opportunists and flat @-@ out fools " . The 1998 film changed the novel quite drastically , retaining the basic idea of Bette avenging herself on her enemies , and not only eliminating Valerie , but letting Bette survive at the end .
La Cousine Bette was adapted for the stage by Jeffrey Hatcher , best known for his screenplay Stage Beauty ( based on his stage play Compleat Female Stage Beauty ) . The Antaeus Company in North Hollywood produced a workshop in 2008 and presented the world premiere of Cousin Bette in early 2010 in North Hollywood , California . The adaptation retains many of the main characters but places Bette as the story 's narrator .
= = Additional reading = =
Dargan , E. Preston and Bernard Weinberg . The Evolution of Balzac 's Comédie humaine . Chicago : The University of Chicago Press , 1942 . OCLC 905236 .
Kanes , Martin . Balzac 's Comedy of Words . Princeton : Princeton University Press , 1975 . ISBN 0 @-@ 691 @-@ 06282 @-@ X.
Marceau , Felicien . Balzac and His World . Trans . Derek Coltman . New York : The Orion Press , 1966 . OCLC 236621 .
Pasco , Allan H. Balzacian Montage : Configuring La Comédie humaine . Toronto : University of Toronto Press , 1991 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8020 @-@ 2776 @-@ 8 .
= Washington State Route 542 =
State Route 542 ( SR 542 ) is a 57 @.@ 24 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 92 @.@ 12 km ) state highway in the U.S. state of Washington , serving Mount Baker in Whatcom County . SR 542 travels east as the Mount Baker Highway from an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) in Bellingham through the Nooksack River valley to the Mt . Baker Ski Area at Austin Pass . It serves as the main highway to Mount Baker and the communities of Deming , Kendall , and Maple Falls along the Nooksack River . The highway was constructed in 1893 by Whatcom County as a wagon road between Bellingham and Maple Falls and was added to the state highway system as a branch of State Road 1 in 1925 . The branch was transferred to Primary State Highway 1 ( PSH 1 ) during its creation in 1937 and became SR 542 during the 1964 highway renumbering .
= = Route description = =
SR 542 begins as Sunset Drive and the Mount Baker Highway at a partial cloverleaf interchange with I @-@ 5 to the northeast of downtown Bellingham . The highway travels northeast through suburban neighborhoods along Squalicum Creek and passes Squalicum High School as it leaves the city of Bellingham . SR 542 continues northeast through rural Whatcom County , crossing the Nooksack River and intersecting SR 9 at a roundabout . The concurrent SR 9 and SR 542 travel southeast through the community of Deming along a BNSF rail line and passes Mount Baker Senior High School . SR 542 leaves SR 9 east of Deming and turns north along the North Fork of the Nooksack River and the eastern slope of Sumas Mountain to Kendall , where it serves as the southern terminus of SR 547 . The Mount Baker Highway turns east and continues along the Nooksack River North Fork into the Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest at Glacier in the foothills of Mount Baker . SR 542 turns south and serves the Mt . Baker Ski Area on the northeast side of the mountain before splitting into a one @-@ way pair around Picture Lake . The Mount Baker Highway continues through Austin Pass and ends at Artist Point , located at 5 @,@ 210 feet ( 1 @,@ 588 @.@ 01 m ) above sea level on Kulshan Ridge .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2011 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 542 was the I @-@ 5 interchange in Bellingham , serving 38 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busy section of SR 542 was the one @-@ way pair around Picture Lake in Mount Baker @-@ Snoqualmie National Forest , seriving 230 vehicles . The Mount Baker Highway is designated as a National Forest Scenic Byway and serves as the eastern section of the Ski to Sea Race between Mount Baker and Maple Falls , a 90 @-@ mile ( 140 km ) Memorial Day race with seven legs hosting seven events . The eastern terminus of SR 542 , at Artist Point on Kulshan Ridge , is closed annually by WSDOT between October and July due to extreme weather conditions .
= = History = =
The Mount Baker Highway was constructed by Whatcom County in 1893 as a wagon road traveling northeast from Bellingham along the Nooksack River through Deming and Kendall to Maple Falls . The wagon road was extended from Maple Falls through Glacier to the Mt . Baker Ski Area at Heather Meadows began 1921 and ended in 1926 . The Mount Baker Highway was added to the state highway system in 1925 as the Austin Pass branch of State Road 1 and was extended to its current terminus at Artist Point in 1931 . The highway was closed seasonally between Glacier and Artist Point until the filming of The Call of the Wild in 1934 and 1935 prompted interest in the Mount Baker area . The Department of Highways began clearing the highway of snow during the winter of 1934 for the film and continued annually between Glacier and Heather Meadows ; however , the highway was not cleared during World War II due to gasoline shortages . The highway was designated as the Austin Pass branch of PSH 1 during the creation of the primary and secondary state highways in 1937 and renumbered to SR 542 in 1964 . The entire route , between Bellingham and Austin Pass , was designated as part of the Washington State Scenic and Recreational Highways program in 1987 and a National Forest Scenic Byway on November 1 , 1988 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire highway is in Whatcom County .
= Antonio Paoli =
Antonio Paoli ( April 14 , 1871 – August 24 , 1946 ) was a Puerto Rican tenor . He was known at the height of his fame as " The King of Tenors and The Tenor of Kings . " He is considered to be the first Puerto Rican to reach international fame in the musical arts . Paoli has been recognized as " one of the most outstanding opera singers of all time , " and as one who had " one of the most lyric and powerful voices ... superior even to his contemporary rival , Enrico Caruso . "
After spending his childhood in his birth town of Ponce , Paoli moved to Spain where , with the assistance of his well @-@ connected sister Amalia , he obtained a Royal scholarship to take singing lessons in Italy . After singing to standing ovation crowds in both Spain and Italy , Paoli made his grand debut in Paris , France , where he was encouraged to perform on the highest levels of the world stage . Before the end of the 19th century and while Paoli was still in his twenties , he went on a tour of Europe that earned him both popular acclaim , and imperial honors from princes , kings , and emperors .
Between 1900 and 1914 his career skyrocketed , with performances not only in Europe but also in the Americas , the Caribbean , Africa , and Asia .
When World War I forced the closure of all European opera houses , Paoli made his living as a professional boxer . Unfortunately , he also lost his singing voice during this period . After the War ended , following medical advice and performing vocal exercises , Paoli regained his voice and returned to the international stage , in all the glory of days past . He performed in Europe , North and South America , and finally settled with his sister Amalia in San Juan , Puerto Rico , where she had opened a singing school .
Paoli spent the last 20 years of his life teaching voice and singing in San Juan , while also working for the establishment of a music conservatory in that city . He would not see this last dream come true , because he developed cancer and died at age 75 . He was buried in San Juan , but his remains were later transferred to a mausoleum in his birth town of Ponce .
= = Early years = =
Paoli ( birth name : Antonio Emilio Paoli y Marcano ) was born in Ponce , Puerto Rico . He was the son of Amalia Marcano Intriago , of Spanish ancestry , who was born on the island of Margarita , Venezuela , and of Domingo Paoli Marcatentti , from Corsica . Antonio Paoli 's parents met in Caracas , and immediately fell in love , however Amalia 's father , a rich landlord , was opposed to the relationship because of class differences , therefore the young couple escaped to the Dominican Republic without getting married and later returned to Puerto Rico . The couple established themselves in the city of Yauco , but later moved into a house , given to them by Amalia 's aunt , Teresa Intriago , located at one of the main arteries in the city of Ponce 's urban core , Calle Mayor ( Mayor Street ) , House # 14 . Ponce at the time was the financial and cultural capital of the island , thereby the ideal place for the initial cultural development of Paoli .
When Paoli was young , his parents would often take him to operas at Ponce 's La Perla Theater located a block away from Paoli 's residence . There , on one occasion he saw a performance of Giuseppe Verdi 's Il Trovatore by Italian tenor , Pietro Baccei , and at that moment knew what he wanted to do as an adult . His parents were very supportive of his ambition and guided him on this route during his youth , enrolling him in a school of " voice " directed by Ramon Marin . His sister Amalia was a soprano who performed at La Perla in Emilio Arrieta 's opera , Marina . In 1883 , when Paoli was only 12 years old , both his parents died and he went to live in Spain with his sister Amalia .
= = Debut = =
Amalia , who at that time was under the protective wing of Isabel de Borbón , Princess of Asturias , and sister of the King of Spain , Alfonso XII , was taking singing classes under Napoleon Verger . In 1884 , Amalia helped Paoli to obtain two scholarships from her Majesty Queen María Cristina , Queen Regent of Spain . Paoli started his studies at the Royal Monastery of El Escorial . Paoli entered Toledo 's Military Academy and in 1892 graduated with honors . He was assigned to the Queen 's escort and named personal custodian and guard of the child King Alfonso XIII . Paoli desired to continue singing and in 1897 went to study at the Academia de Canto La Scala in Milan , Italy . On April 26 , 1899 , he made his debut in Gioacchino Rossini 's opera William Tell in Paris , France . Paris newspapers commented on Paoli 's success and stated " We should declare Paoli the Tenor of France . "
= = World tours = =
Between 1900 and 1914 , Paoli performed in Europe , America , Africa , and Asia . He performed in Italy , Luxembourg and in the United Kingdom , with performances in London , Scotland , Edinburgh , and Brighton , closing the year with concerts in Corsica ( his father 's homeland ) and Turkey . In 1900 , he married Josephine Vetiska , an Austrian , in Vienna . From 1901 to 1902 , Paoli performed in the following countries : Argentina , Brazil , Canada , Chile , Colombia , Cuba , Haiti , Puerto Rico , Venezuela and the United States . Paoli purchased a villa in Porto Cereso , Lugano , Italy , where his son Antonio Arnaldo was born . After singing for King Alfonso XII and the Royal family in Spain , he returned to the United States and sang in various cities , among them New York , Boston , Philadelphia , Albany , Providence , Grand Rapids , New London , Detroit , Cleveland , Indianapolis , Buffalo , Pittsburg , Syracuse and Chicago .
In 1905 , Paoli performed at the Grand Theatre du Conservatoire in St. Petersburg , Russia . The Czar of Russia Nicholas II was present during one of the performances and after inviting Paoli to perform at the royal Winter Palace , awarded Paoli The Cross of St. Mauricio medal and bestowed upon him the title Cammer Sanger ( Chamber Singer ) .
On September 5 , 1907 , Paoli held a private recital for Pope Pius X at the Sistine Chapel in the Vatican . That same year he was named as a " Singer of the Royal Court " by William II of Germany . Paoli was also the first operatic artist to record an entire opera when he participated in a performance of Pagliacci by Ruggiero Leoncavallo in Milan , Italy . He was selected in 1907 , as the First Tenor in the main character by a team of engineers and musicians which included Leoncavallo . The recording was arranged in the following manner ; the musicians were placed at the end of the recording room and the back up singers in a
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010 after comparing his music with Zong Hui 's previous musician . When composing the music for Street Fighter X Mega Man , Esquivel combined Mega Man themes with Street Fighter themes on certain songs . In other songs , he would use elements from various Mega Man songs in order not to break the cohesion of the original soundtrack . Esquivel based most of the sounds on the first two Mega Man games , but had also used sounds from Mega Man 3 , 4 , and 5 . Esquivel also added original compositions within several songs including two completely original compositions : " Willy Map Theme " and the beginning of the " Ending " theme . The soundtrack blends popular themes from both franchises together ( such as mixing Snake Man 's theme from Mega Man 3 with Dhalsim 's theme from Street Fighter II ) . The official soundtrack titled Street Fighter X Mega Man OST was released for free on Esquivel 's website on December 18 , 2012 . An EP with a total of four tracks titled Street Fighter X Mega Man X @-@ tended Vol . 1 was released on February 8 , 2013 .
= = Reception = =
Two days after release , Capcom Senior VP Christian Svensson commented on the official Capcom website , Capcom @-@ Unity , that the game has exceeded his personal expectations in terms of downloads , but no exact numbers have been released . Capcom 's Senior Community Manager , Brett Elston , noted that the amount of downloads during release was enough to cause significant strain on their servers . By March 3 , 2013 , the game had been downloaded one million times .
Street Fighter X Mega Man has been met with mostly mixed to positive reviews . Cheat Code Central gave the game a 4 @.@ 1 out of 5 , praising the nostalgic feel the game has , but criticized the lack of a save feature . Game Informer gave the game an 8 out of 10 , summarizing that " Street Fighter X Mega Man pales in comparison to the rest of the classic entries , but it ’ s still a wonderful test of the waters for newcomers and a charming experiment for lifelong fans . " Inside Gaming Daily gave the game an 8 out of 10 , stating , " Though it ’ s short and strays away a bit from traditional Mega Man games , Street Fighter X Mega Man is a great play that you honestly have little reason not to experience . " IGN gave the game a 7 out of 10 , noting that " The end result is a fine game that Mega Man fans will enjoy once or twice , but one without that special something that would allow it to rise to the greatness Mega Man so regularly reached in its heyday . " Destructoid echoed similar opinions stating , " Street Fighter X Mega Man is not the best or most polished Mega Man game around , but it 's a solid effort by a very dedicated fan . " Game Industry News gave it a 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 with mixed review stating , " It combines two of Capcom 's greatest games in history into one nostalgic mash up that is sure to take fans on a trip down memory lane while still feeling fresh . Unfortunately though , the lack of challenge or the ability to continue progress after shutting down the game only hinders Street Fighter X Mega Man from being the perfect jewel it could have been . " Edge however gave the game a 5 out of 10 , noting " inconsistent level design and limited functionality " as the game 's biggest flaws .
= SMS Hertha =
SMS Hertha was a protected cruiser of the Victoria Louise class , built for the German Imperial Navy ( Kaiserliche Marine ) in the 1890s . Hertha was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in 1895 , launched in April 1897 , and commissioned into the Navy in July 1898 . The ship was armed with a battery of two 21 cm guns and eight 15 cm guns and had a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) .
Hertha served abroad in the German East Asia Squadron for the first six years of her career ; she served briefly as the Squadron flagship in 1900 . She contributed a landing party to the force that captured the Taku Forts during the Boxer Rebellion in 1900 . After returning to Germany in 1905 , she was modernized and used as a training ship in 1908 , following the completion of the refit . She conducted a series of training cruises , and several notable officers served aboard the ship as cadets , including Karl Dönitz and Ernst Lindemann . At the outbreak of World War I , Hertha was mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , but served in front @-@ line duty only briefly . She was used as a barracks ship after 1915 , and ultimately sold for scrapping in 1920 .
= = Design = =
Hertha was ordered under the contract name " K " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1895 . She was launched on 14 April 1897 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the German navy on 23 July 1898 . The ship was 110 @.@ 6 meters ( 363 ft ) long overall and had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 m ( 21 @.@ 6 ft ) forward . She displaced 6 @,@ 491 t ( 6 @,@ 388 long tons ; 7 @,@ 155 short tons ) at full combat load . Her propulsion system consisted of three vertical 4 @-@ cylinder triple expansion engines powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Belleville boilers . Her engines provided a top speed of 19 kn ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) and a range of approximately 3 @,@ 412 nautical miles ( 6 @,@ 319 km ; 3 @,@ 926 mi ) at 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . She had a crew of 31 officers and 446 enlisted men .
The ship was armed with two 21 cm SK L / 40 guns in single turrets , one forward and one aft . The guns were supplied with 58 rounds of ammunition each . They had a range of 16 @,@ 300 m ( 53 @,@ 500 ft ) . Hertha also carried eight 15 cm SK L / 40 guns . Four were mounted in turrets amidships and the other four were placed in casemates . These guns had a range of 13 @,@ 700 m ( 44 @,@ 900 ft ) . She also carried ten 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 35 guns . The gun armament was rounded out by machine guns . She was also equipped with three 45 cm ( 18 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes , two launchers were mounted on the broadside and the third was in the bow , all below the waterline .
= = Service history = =
Hertha served as a colonial cruiser after she was completed , starting in 1899 . After arriving on the East Asia station , she temporarily served as the flagship of Vice Admiral Felix von Bendemann , the commander of the East Asia Squadron , which included the cruisers Hansa , Gefion , Irene , and Kaiserin Augusta . After the new armored cruiser Fürst Bismarck reached the Asia station , she relieved Hertha as the Squadron flagship .
As part of the East Asia Squadron during the Boxer Rebellion , the ship made a noteworthy contribution in the Battle of the Taku Forts . In June 1900 , Hertha , along with Hansa , Gefion , and Irene landed detachments of Seebataillone ( marines ) to seize the Taku Forts . The marines joined detachments sent from warships of several other countries . A total of around 450 German troops were contributed to the multi @-@ national force , which totaled around 2 @,@ 200 officers and men . During the attack on the forts , Hertha 's commanding officer was shot and killed . In September , Hertha carried Alfred von Waldersee to Shanghai , arriving on the 21st , where he took command of the international forces suppressing the rebellion .
Hertha was detached from the East Asia Squadron and returned to Germany in 1905 . In 1906 , she went to dry dock at the Imperial Dockyard in Danzig for a refit , during which she was re @-@ boilered . Hertha originally had three stacks , and during the modernization they were trunked into two funnels . The refit was finished by 1908 , at which point Hertha became a cadet training ship ; several prominent naval officers trained aboard the ship during this period . In September – October 1909 , Hertha , Victoria Louise , Dresden , and Bremen traveled to the United States to represent Germany during the Hudson @-@ Fulton Celebration .
In 1910 , Karl Dönitz , the future commander of the Kriegsmarine during World War II , served as a cadet on Hertha for a year . The ship cruised in the western Mediterranean in the autumn of 1912 , along with her sister Vineta . The old cruiser Geier was also in the region . The future commander of the battleship Bismarck , Ernst Lindemann , served aboard the ship as a cadet in 1913 . The ship conducted a training cruise in the Baltic and North Seas in late May to early July , stopping in a number of foreign ports , including Stockholm , Visby , and Bergen . The ship then embarked on a seven month training cruise into the Atlantic Ocean ; during the voyage , Hertha called on numerous ports , including Vera Cruz , Mexico , Port @-@ au @-@ Prince , Haiti , Kingston , Jamaica , and Halifax , Canada . The cruise lasted from mid @-@ August 1913 to mid @-@ March 1914 .
Hertha had a short career during World War I. At the outbreak of hostilities , she was briefly mobilized into the 5th Scouting Group , which was tasked with training cadets in the Baltic Sea . By the end of 1914 , however , the ships were again removed from service . She was then put into service as a coastal defense ship . After 1915 , she was withdrawn from front @-@ line duty again and employed as a barracks ship for the seaplane base in Flensburg . She was stricken from the naval register on 6 December 1919 and sold to ship @-@ breakers in Audorf @-@ Rendsburg . She was scrapped the following year .
= Tom Hiddleston =
Thomas William Hiddleston ( born 9 February 1981 ) is an English actor . At the beginning of his career , he appeared in West End theatre productions of Cymbeline ( 2007 ) and Ivanov ( 2008 ) . He won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play for his role in Cymbeline and was also nominated for the same award for his role as Cassio in Othello .
He came to wider public attention when cast as Loki in the Marvel Cinematic Universe , appearing in Thor ( 2011 ) , The Avengers ( 2012 ) , and Thor : The Dark World ( 2013 ) . In 2011 , he won the Empire Award for Best Male Newcomer and was nominated for the BAFTA Rising Star Award . Hiddleston has also appeared in Steven Spielberg 's War Horse ( 2011 ) , The Deep Blue Sea ( 2011 ) , Woody Allen 's romantic comedy Midnight in Paris ( 2011 ) , the 2012 BBC series Henry IV and Henry V , and the romantic vampire film Only Lovers Left Alive ( 2013 ) .
In late 2013 and early 2014 , Hiddleston starred as the title character in the Donmar Warehouse production of Coriolanus , winning the Evening Standard Theatre Award for Best Actor . In 2015 , he starred in Guillermo del Toro 's Crimson Peak , Ben Wheatley 's High Rise , and played the troubled country music singer Hank Williams in the biopic I Saw The Light . In 2016 , he starred in the limited series The Night Manager , for which he is nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Limited Series or Movie .
= = Early life and education = =
Hiddleston was born in Westminster , London . He is the son of Diana Patricia ( née Servaes ) Hiddleston , an arts administrator and former stage manager , and James Norman Hiddleston , a physical chemist . His father is from Greenock , Scotland and his mother is from Suffolk , England . His younger sister , Emma , is also an actress , whilst his older sister , Sarah , is a journalist in India . Through his mother , he is a great @-@ grandson of Vice Admiral Reginald Servaes , and a great @-@ great @-@ grandson of food producer Sir Edmund Vestey .
He was raised in Wimbledon in his early years , and later moved to a Cotswold village near Oxford . He attended the Dragon School preparatory school in Oxford , and his parents divorced when he was 12 . When discussing his parents ' divorce in an interview with The Daily Telegraph , he stated : " I like to think it made me more compassionate in my understanding of human frailty " .
At the age of 13 , Hiddleston began boarding at Eton College . He continued on to Pembroke College at the University of Cambridge , where he earned a double first in Classics . During his second term at Cambridge , he was seen in a production of A Streetcar Named Desire by talent agent Lorraine Hamilton , of Hamilton Hodell . He proceeded to study acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art , from which he graduated in 2005 .
= = Career = =
= = = 2001 @-@ 2010 : Early work = = =
While still doing student plays , Hiddleston began doing television , landing parts in Stephen Whittaker 's adaptation of Nicholas Nickleby ( 2001 ) for ITV , the BBC / HBO co @-@ production Conspiracy ( 2001 ) , and as Randolph Churchill , the son of Winston Churchill , in the BBC / HBO drama The Gathering Storm ( 2002 ) .
Upon graduating from RADA , Hiddleston was cast in his first film role , playing Oakley in Joanna Hogg 's first feature , Unrelated ( 2006 ) . His sister Emma also appeared in the film as Badge . Casting director , Lucy Bevan , who cast him in the film said " there was just a fantastic confidence about him " . Hiddleston had leading roles in Declan Donnellan 's company Cheek by Jowl 's productions The Changeling ( 2006 ) , and Cymbeline ( 2007 ) . For the latter he won the Laurence Olivier Award for Best Newcomer in a Play . His Donmar Warehouse credits include Cassio in Michael Grandage 's production of Shakespeare 's Othello ( 2008 ) alongside Chiwetel Ejiofor and Ewan McGregor and later Lvov in their West End revival of Chekhov 's Ivanov ( 2008 ) with Kenneth Branagh .
Hiddleston was the voiceover for BBC 's documentary on the Galapagos Island in 2006 . He also narrated the audiobook The Red Necklace by Sally Gardner in 2007 @,@
Hiddleston also appeared in the leading role of Edward in Hogg 's second feature , Archipelago ( 2010 ) . His TV credits include Magnus Martinsson in the BBC detective drama Wallander ( 2008 ) , Bill Hazledine in Suburban Shootout ( 2006 ) , John Plumptre in the BBC costume drama TV film Miss Austen Regrets ( 2008 ) and William Buxton in the BBC drama series Return to Cranford ( 2009 ) . In 2007 , he joined a list of British actors , including Kate Winslet and Orlando Bloom , to have guest starred in the long @-@ running medical drama Casualty .
= = = 2011 @-@ 2014 : Career breakthrough = = =
Hiddleston is well known for his portrayal of Loki in the 2011 Marvel Studios film , Thor . He was invited to audition by Kenneth Branagh , the film 's director , after having previously worked with Branagh on Ivanov and Wallander . Hiddleston said of Branagh , " Ken has had a life @-@ changing effect . He was able to say to the executives , ' Trust me on this , you can cast Tom and he will deliver ' . It was massive and it 's completely changed the course of what is available to me to do . Ken gave me my break . " In the beginning , he originally auditioned for the part of Thor . " I initially auditioned to play Thor . That was what I was being considered for , because I 'm tall and blonde and classically trained , and that seemed to be the mold for what Thor was , he was to be a classical character . And it was in my auditions . I owe this entirely to Marvel and their open @-@ mindedness , they saw something that they thought was interesting . They saw some temperament that they liked . " The casting director gave Hiddleston six weeks to bulk up , so he went on a strict diet and gained twenty pounds of muscle . In the end , Branagh decided he was more suitable as the antagonist and cast him as Loki . To prepare for his role as Loki , Hiddleston trained in the Brazilian martial art of capoeira .
Hiddleston appeared with Benedict Cumberbatch , Gemma Arterton , Eddie Redmayne and Rose Byrne among others in Danny Boyle 's one time production of The Children 's Monologues in November 2010 where he played Prudence , a young girl upset with her mother for her father leaving and excited for her birthday . The play was a one time event of adapted stories of children 's first @-@ hand experiences in South Africa being re @-@ interpreted by and performed by various actors .
Also in 2011 Hiddleston portrayed novelist F. Scott Fitzgerald in writer @-@ director Woody Allen 's Midnight in Paris , the noble Captain Nicholls in War Horse , a film based on the 1982 novel by Michael Morpurgo , directed by Steven Spielberg , and Freddie Page , a RAF pilot in the drama The Deep Blue Sea , alongside Rachel Weisz . In 2012 , he reprised his role as the supervillain Loki in The Avengers . While filming a scene with Chris Hemsworth , who plays Thor , the film 's director , Joss Whedon told the fighting duo that the scene did not look real enough , so Hiddleston told Hemsworth to really hit him for the fight scene . " I said to Chris , ' Dude , just hit me . Just hit me because I 'm protected here and it 's fine . ' He 's like , ' Are you sure ? ' I was like , ' Yeah , it will look great . Just go for it . ' "
Hiddleston provided the voiceover the Ancient Egyptian Book of the Dead in 2011 and poetry for iF Poems and The Love Book on iTunes in 2012 .
On television in 2012 Hiddleston appeared in the BBC Two series The Hollow Crown , portraying Prince Hal opposite Jeremy Irons as Henry IV in the adaptation of Shakespeare 's Henry IV , Part I and Part II . He later as appeared as King Henry V in the television film Henry V. In 2013 , Hiddleston played Loki again in Thor : The Dark World , following which he played a vampire , Adam , in Jim Jarmusch 's film Only Lovers Left Alive with Tilda Swinton as Eve and Mia Wasikowska .
From December 2013 to February 2014 , Hiddleston played the title character in William Shakespeare 's Coriolanus at the Donmar Warehouse in Covent Garden directed by Josie Rourke . It was also aired live internationally on 30 January 2014 . David Benedict of Variety praised a " scorching " performance.He had a cameo in the 2014 film Muppets Most Wanted , as the Great Escapo .
= = = 2015 @-@ present : Varied roles = = =
Hiddleston replaced Benedict Cumberbatch in the gothic horror film Crimson Peak , directed by Guillermo del Toro . The film started filming in Toronto in February 2014 , and was released in October 2015 . Upcoming roles include Robert Laing in the film adaptation of J. G. Ballard 's novel High Rise , directed by Ben Wheatley . The film started shooting in Northern Ireland in July 2014 .
In January 2014 , Hiddleston became a spokesperson for Jaguar Cars in their " Good to be Bad " ad campaign featuring British actors in villain @-@ themed commercials to promote Jaguars new models . The first commercial of the campaign , titled " Rendezvous " , first aired during the 2014 Super Bowl and featured Hiddleston along with Mark Strong and Ben Kingsley .
In April 2014 , Hiddleston starred in another commercial in the campaign , titled " The Art of Villainy " . It was released on YouTube , promoting the F @-@ Type coupe . However , the Advertising Standards Authority received complaints about the video " encouraging irresponsible driving " . Jaguar Land Rover said that in the ad , when the car did leave the car park , it " accelerated briefly " and that police were present at filming to confirm the speed limit was not breached but the ASA ruled against it and banned the commercial .
It was announced in June 2014 that Hiddleston will play country music singer Hank Williams in the upcoming biopic I Saw the Light , based on the 1994 biography . It will be directed by Marc Abraham and is set to start shooting in Louisiana in October 2014 . Legendary Pictures announced in September 2014 that Hiddleston would star in the upcoming King Kong film Kong : Skull Island . It is set to be released on 10 March 2017 and will be directed by Jordan Vogt @-@ Roberts . He is also set to reprise his role as Loki in Thor : Ragnarok , scheduled for release on 3 November 2017 , as well as Avengers : Infinity War – Part 1 ( 2018 ) and Part 2 ( 2019 ) .
Hiddleston was one of the narrators in the 2015 documentary Unity directed by Shaun Monson .
Hiddleston appears as Jonathan Pine in the television mini @-@ series The Night Manager based on the espionage and detective novel of the same name by John le Carré . The series started filming in Spring 2015 and is currently airing on AMC with Hugh Laurie also starring .
= = Personal life = =
Hiddleston was one of the celebrities , including Benedict Cumberbatch , Jo Brand , E. L. James and Rachel Riley , to design and sign his own card for the UK @-@ based charity Thomas Coram Foundation for Children . The campaign was launched by crafting company Stampin ' Up ! UK and the cards were auctioned off on eBay during May 2014 . He is also a supporter of the humanitarian and developmental assistance fund group UNICEF . He travelled to Guinea in early 2013 to help women and children and raise awareness about hunger and malnutrition . Hiddleston is a self @-@ described feminist .
In July 2016 , Hiddleston confirmed he is in a relationship with American singer Taylor Swift .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Film = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = = Theatre = = =
= = = Video game = = =
= = = Radio = = =
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Grey 's raid =
In September 1778 , as part of British operations in the American Revolutionary War , Major General Charles Grey raided the Massachusetts communities of New Bedford , Fairhaven and Martha 's Vineyard . The raid was one of the first in a series between 1778 and 1781 executed by the British against American coastal communities .
Originally intended as a relief force for the British garrison that was briefly besieged at Newport , Rhode Island , Grey 's force of 4 @,@ 000 arrived after the Americans had already retreated , and was diverted for raiding by General Sir Henry Clinton . On September 5 and 6 Grey raided New Bedford and Fairhaven , only encountering significant resistance in Fairhaven . His troops destroyed storehouses , shipping , and supplies in New Bedford , where they met with light resistance from the local militia , and did less damage at Fairhaven , where militia resistance had time to organize . He then sailed for Martha 's Vineyard , which was undefended . Between September 10 and 15 its residents surrendered 10 @,@ 000 head of sheep and 300 oxen , as well as most of the island 's weapons .
= = Background = =
In December 1776 British forces occupied Newport , Rhode Island . American forces in New England were not strong enough to dislodge the garrison there , which was also supported by Royal Navy vessels that used Newport as a base . This situation changed in 1778 , following the entry of France into the war , when the French and Americans agreed to embark on joint operations against the British . The French sent a fleet under the command of the comte d 'Estaing to provide troops and naval support that arrived off New York City in July 1778 . Finding the port well defended and believing its bar to be too shallow for his largest ships to cross , d 'Estaing sailed instead for Newport , where he and General John Sullivan prepared to besiege the British garrison .
In response to the threat to Newport , General Sir Henry Clinton ordered 4 @,@ 000 men under General Charles Grey to prepare for transport to Rhode Island while Admiral Lord Richard Howe sailed from New York to oppose d 'Estaing . D 'Estaing sailed out of Newport harbor on August 10 , preparing to do battle with Howe . As the fleets maneuvered for position , a storm arose that scattered and damaged both fleets . D 'Estaing decided then to abandon Newport , and sailed for Boston to make repairs . General Sullivan had by then already begun siege operations against Newport without French assistance , which prompted Clinton to order Grey 's force to sail for Newport on August 26 . Clinton accompanied the force , which made slow progress due to contrary winds . By the time they arrived at Newport on September 1 , the Americans had not only been put on the defensive , but had retreated from the island after the inconclusive August 29 Battle of Rhode Island .
Rather than disembark Grey 's troops at Newport , Clinton decided to pursue other objectives . His orders , issued in March 1778 , included instructions to raid coastal communities , destroying shipbuilding facilities and supplies . Acting on this idea , he ordered the fleet to sail to New London , Connecticut , a potential raiding site . Finding too few ships there to bother with a landing , Clinton ordered Grey to " proceed without loss of time to the eastward " to raid New Bedford and Fairhaven on the Massachusetts mainland , and the island of Martha 's Vineyard .
= = New Bedford and Fairhaven = =
Early on September 4 , Grey 's fleet , led by the Royal Navy frigate Carysfort under Captain Robert Fanshawe , sailed for Buzzard 's Bay . En route they encountered Lord Howe 's fleet ; the earl agreed to remain near Block Island until the raids were completed . Arriving in Buzzard 's Bay that afternoon , the Carysfort had the misfortune to twice strike rocks ; fortunately , neither incident was serious , and the fleet proceeded up the Acushnet River toward New Bedford and Fairhaven . That evening , Grey landed his troops at Clark 's Point on the west bank of the river . They spent the night and the next morning destroying vessels , warehouses , and wharves " in the whole Extent of the Accushnet River " . Many of the ships destroyed were prizes captured by privateers operating out of the two towns . The conflagration caused by the fires they lit also destroyed homes and houses of worship , and was bright enough that it was seen in Newport , some 20 miles ( 32 km ) away . During the evening the 38 @-@ man artillery garrison , manning a small fort on the Fairhaven side of the river ( today known as Fort Phoenix ) , fired on the British ships , then spiked the fort 's guns and abandoned it , leaving their colors flying . The British briefly returned fire , and then destroyed the fort 's guns .
Grey 's troops marched around the head of the Acushnet River to the eastern banks and camped . The next day they reembarked on their boats , but General Grey decided that Fairhaven should also be raided . In the meantime , militia were beginning to arrive to defend Fairhaven , with Major Israel Fearing taking command from an elderly colonel who was reluctant to pursue an active defense . When the British approached Fairhaven on the morning of September 6 , Fearing arrayed about 150 men between the village and their landing point . After setting fire to a few nearby buildings the British headed for the village . At this point Fearing 's men unleashed a withering volley of musket fire , and the British precipitately retreated to their boats .
= = Martha 's Vineyard = =
Dispatching his aide , Captain John André , to New York to request transports for livestock , Grey then set sail for Martha 's Vineyard . Contrary winds slowed the fleet 's progress , and it did not reach the harbor at Holmes Hole ( present @-@ day Vineyard Haven ) until September 10 . Because of the bad winds , Grey abandoned the idea of raiding Nantucket , and focused on acquiring livestock on Martha 's Vineyard .
A deputation of three citizens came to the Carysfort to see what the British wanted , and Grey made his demands : he wanted the militia 's weapons , any public funds , 300 oxen , and 10 @,@ 000 sheep . He threatened to land his troops and seize these items if they were not delivered up by the defenseless islanders . After two days , the islanders had driven 6 @,@ 000 sheep and 130 oxen to the fleet . Not satisfied with this progress , Grey landed small contingents of troops on September 12 to accelerate the process and to destroy vessels found in the area . By the 14th he had received all 10 @,@ 000 sheep and 300 oxen , as well as local militia arms and £ 950 intended as a tax payment for the Second Continental Congress . Grey sailed from Martha 's Vineyard on September 15 , and reached New York City two days later .
An glimpse into Grey 's Raid on Martha 's Vineyard is provided in the below section from " The History of Martha 's Vineyard , " by Henry Franklin Norton :
September 10 , 1778 , General Grey in command of a transport of eighty @-@ two sails and ten thousand British troops made a raid upon the Vineyard , carrying off all the sheep , swine , cattle and oxen that could be found . To oppose this wholesale spoliation the " Islanders " had no power so they submitted in sullen and despairing silence , at times even assisting to drive away the captured flocks , hoping thereby to prevent still greater waste and outrage . A very good idea of this period is given in the diary of Colonel Beriah Norton , which reads as follows :
" September 10th . -- Gen. Grey commanding a detachment of his Majesty 's army arrived at Martha 's Vineyard , when I waited on him on shipboard . Agreed to deliver him 10 @,@ 000 sheep , 300 head of cattle ; the General informed me that payment would be made for the same if they were not resisted . The General then required the stock to be brought to the landing the next day , which was punctually complied with .
" September 11th . - This day the troops landed under the command of Col. Sterling . Said Sterling then informed me that Gen. Grey had directed him to assure me that the whole stock would be paid for if they came down according to the conversation of the evening before . Sterling then informed me that a person must be appointed to appraise the stock before they would take any on shipboard . To which I agreed and we jointly agreed to . I did appoint proper persons to do that business ; who were sworn by me to do their duty faithfully by the request of Col. Sterling . The stock was by this time coming down to the landing and was taken on board to the amount of 10 @,@ 000 sheep and 312 head of cattle .
" September 14th . - Col. Sterling then informed me and other inhabitants of the island that he had a message to deliver to the people . Then he recommended them to meet in a field for there was not room for them in doors , accordingly they met to the amount of several hundred . He informed us that we were to apply to New York for payment for the stock that they had received . I asked the Colonel if we best send a man in the fleet at this time for the payment to which the Colonel replied , we might if we chose but he recommended us to wait a little time before application was made .
" September 15th . -- The fleet sailed for New York . "
It must seem to the reader that this Colonel Beriah Norton was a traitor to his own people , but what could he do but give in to Grey 's command ! Grey had the force and the power and could have destroyed the towns on the island in half a day , and would have done so if they had resisted in any way . In the diary , September 12th and 13th are omitted . Those were the days when the British troops were ravaging the island from Edgartown to Gay Head .
A man was sent to New York to receive payment for the stock , but Grey had forgotten that he had ever stopped at Martha 's Vineyard . Colonel Beriah Norton made two special trips to London for the same purpose , and at one time he was given a hearing in Parliament . Very little was accomplished in these two trips to England .
= = Aftermath = =
Grey 's report on the expedition lists one man killed , four wounded , and sixteen missing . He reported that the defenders had four men killed ; he also took sixteen prisoners in New Bedford to exchange for his missing . The raid was followed others ( not led by Grey ) : one against Little Egg Harbor , New Jersey in October 1778 , and two in 1779 against communities on Chesapeake Bay and the Connecticut shore . In 1781 a raiding expedition led by turncoat General Benedict Arnold began the decisive Yorktown campaign in Virginia ; Arnold also led another raid in September 1781 against New London and Groton , Connecticut ( not far from where he grew up ) that was notorious for its severity .
In New Bedford eleven houses , 21 shops , 34 ships of various size , and one ropewalk were destroyed , along with goods and naval stores . Estimates of the damage done there and at Fairhaven ranged from £ 20 @,@ 000 to nearly £ 100 @,@ 000 , most coming in damage to ships and goods . The residents of Martha 's Vineyard petitioned for compensation in excess of £ 10 @,@ 000 due to the losses incurred in the raid . General Clinton 's successor , Sir Guy Carleton made payment of £ 3 @,@ 000 against these claims .
The fort at the mouth of the Acushnet River was rebuilt and named Fort Phoenix . It was manned in the War of 1812 , and is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= Global Climate Coalition =
The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) ( 1989 – 2001 ) was an international lobbyist group of businesses that opposed action to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and challenged the science behind global warming . The GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy and the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations . The GCC was involved in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , and played a role in blocking ratification by the United States . The coalition promoted the views of climate skeptics . The GCC dissolved in 2001 after membership declined in the face of improved understanding of the role of greenhouse gases in climate change and of public criticism .
= = Founding = =
The Global Climate Coalition ( GCC ) was formed in 1989 as a project under the auspices of the National Association of Manufacturers . The GCC was formed to represent the interests of the major producers and users of fossil fuels , to oppose regulation to mitigate global warming , and to challenge the science behind global warming . Context for the founding of the GCC from 1988 included the establishment of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) and NASA climatologist James Hansen 's congressional testimony that climate change was occurring . The government affairs ' offices of five or six corporations recognized that they had been inadequately organized for the Montreal Protocol , the international treaty that phased out ozone depleting chlorofluorocarbons , and the Clean Air Act in the United States , and recognized that fossil fuels would be targeted for regulation .
According to GCC 's mission statement on the home page of its website , GCC was established : " to coordinate business participation in the international policy debate on the issue of global climate change and global warming , " and GCC 's executive director in a 1993 press release said GCC was organized " as the leading voice for industry on the global climate change issue . "
GCC reorganized independently in 1992 , with the first chairman of the board of directors being the director of government relations for the Phillips Petroleum Company . Exxon was a founding member , and a founding member of the GCC 's board of directors . Exxon , and later ExxonMobil , had a leadership role in coalition . The American Petroleum Institute ( API ) was a leading member of the coalition . API 's executive vice president was a chairman of the coalition 's board of directors . Other GCC founding members included the National Coal Association , United States Chamber of Commerce , American Forest & Paper Association , and Edison Electric Institute . GCC 's executive director John Shleas was previously the director of government relations at the Edison Electric Institute . GCC was run by Ruder Finn , a public relations firm .
GCC was the largest industry group active in climate policy . About 40 companies and industry associations were GCC members . Considering member corporations , member trade associations , and business represented by member trade associations , GCC represented over 230 @,@ 000 businesses . Industry sectors represented included : aluminium , paper , transportation , power generation , petroleum , chemical , and small businesses . All the major oil companies were members . GCC members were from industries that would have been adversely effected by limitations on fossil fuel consumption . GCC was funded by membership dues .
= = Advocacy activities = =
GCC was one of the most powerful lobbyist groups against action to mitigate global warming . It was the most prominent industry advocate in international climate negotiations , and led a campaign opposed to policies to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The GCC was one of the most powerful non @-@ governmental organizations representing business interests in climate policy , according to Kal Raustiala , professor at the UCLA School of Law .
GCC 's advocacy activities included lobbying government officials , grassroots lobbying through press releases and advertising , participation in international climate conferences , criticism of the processes of international climate organizations , critiques of climate models , and personal attacks on scientists and environmentalists . Policy positions advocated by the coalition included denial of anthropogenic climate change , emphasizing the uncertainty in climatology , advocating for additional research , highlighting the benefits and downplaying the risks of climate change , stressing the priority of economic development , defending national sovereignty , and opposition to the regulation of greenhouse gas emissions .
GCC sent delegations to all of the major international climate conventions . Only nations and non @-@ profits may send official delegates to the United Nations Climate Change conferences . GCC registered with the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change as a non @-@ governmental organization , and executives from GCC members attended official UN conferences as GCC delegates .
In 1990 , after U. S. President George H. W. Bush addressed the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) urging caution in responding to global warming , and offering no new proposals , GCC said Bush 's speech was " very strong " and concurred with the priorities of economic development and additional research . GCC sent 30 attendees to the 1992 Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro , where it lobbied to keep targets and timetables out of the Framework Convention on Climate Change . In December , 1992 GCC 's executive director wrote in a letter to The New York Times : " ... there is considerable debate on whether or not man @-@ made greenhouse gases ( produced primarily by burning fossil fuels ) are triggering a dangerous ' global warming ' trend . " In 1992 GCC distributed a half @-@ hour video entitled The Greening of Planet Earth , to hundreds of journalists , the White House , and several Middle Eastern oil @-@ producing countries , which suggested that increasing atmospheric carbon dioxide could boost crop yields and solve world hunger .
In 1993 , after U. S. President Bill Clinton pledged " to reducing our emissions of greenhouse gases to their 1990 levels by the year 2000 , " GCC 's executive director said it " could jeopardize the economic health of the nation . " GCC 's lobbying was key to the defeat in the United States Senate of Clinton 's 1993 BTU tax proposal . In 1994 , after United States Secretary of Energy Hazel R. O 'Leary said the 1992 United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change needed to be strengthened , and that voluntary carbon dioxide reductions may not be enough , GCC said it was : " disturbed by the implication that the President 's voluntary climate action plan , which is just getting under way , will be inadequate and that more stringent measures may be needed domestically . "
GCC did not fund original scientific research and its climate claims relied largely on the World Climate Review and its successor the World Climate Report edited by Patrick Michaels and funded by the Western Fuels Association . GCC promoted the views of climate skeptics such as Michaels , Fred Singer , and Richard Lindzen . In 1996 , GCC published a report entitled Global warming and extreme weather : fact vs. fiction written by Robert E. Davis .
GCC members questioned the efficacy of climate change denial and shifted their message to highlighting the economic costs of proposed greenhouse gas emission regulations and the limited effectiveness of proposals exempting developing nations . In 1995 , after the United Nations Climate Change conference in Berlin agreed to negotiate greenhouse gas emission limits , GCC 's executive director said the agreement gave " developing countries like China , India and Mexico a free ride " and would " change the relations between sovereign countries and the United Nations . This could have very significant implications . It could be a way of capping our economy . " At a Washington , D.C. press conference on the eve of the second United Nations Climate Change conference in Geneva , GCC 's executive director said , " The time for decision is not yet now . " At the conference in Geneva , GCC issued a statement that said it was too early to determine the causes of global warming . GCC representatives lobbied scientists at the September , 1996 IPCC conference in Mexico City .
After actor Leonardo DiCaprio , chairman of Earth Day 2000 , interviewed Clinton for ABC News , GCC sent out an e @-@ mail that said that DiCaprio 's first car was a Jeep Grand Cherokee and that his current car was a Chevrolet Tahoe .
= = = Predicting Future Climate Change : A Primer = = =
In 1995 , GCC assembled an advisory committee of scientific and technical experts to compile an internal @-@ only , 17 @-@ page report on climate science entitled Predicting Future Climate Change : A Primer , which said : “ The scientific basis for the Greenhouse Effect and the potential impact of human emissions of greenhouse gases such as CO2 on climate is well established and cannot be denied . ” In early 1996 , GCC 's operating committee asked the advisory committee to redact the sections that rebutted contrarian arguments , and accepted the report and distributed it to members . The draft document was disclosed in a 2007 lawsuit filed by the auto industry against California ’ s efforts to regulate automotive greenhouse gas emissions .
According to The New York Times , the primer demonstrated that " even as the coalition worked to sway opinion , its own scientific and technical experts were advising that the science backing the role of greenhouse gases in global warming could not be refuted . " According to the Union of Concerned Scientists in 2015 , the primer was : " remarkable for indisputably showing that , while some fossil fuel companies ’ deception about climate science has continued to the present day , at least two decades ago the companies ’ own scientific experts were internally alerting them about the realities and implications of climate change . "
= = = IPCC Second Assessment Report = = =
GCC was an industry participant in the review process of the IPCC Second Assessment Report . In 1996 , prior to the publication of the Second Assessment Report , GCC distributed a report entitled The IPCC : Institutionalized Scientific Cleansing to reporters , US Congressmen , and scientists . The coalition report said that Benjamin D. Santer , the lead author of Chapter 8 in the assessment , entitled " Detection of Climate Change and Attribution of Causes , " had altered the text , after acceptance by the Working Group , and without approval of the authors , to strike content characterizing the uncertainty of the science . Frederick Seitz repeated GCC 's charges in a letter to the Wall Street Journal published June 12 , 1996 . The coalition ran newspaper advertisements that said : " unless the management of the IPCC promptly undertakes to republish the printed versions ... the IPCC 's credibility will have been lost . "
Santer and his co @-@ authors said the edits were integrations of comments from peer review as per agreed IPCC processes .
= = = Opposition to Kyoto Protocol = = =
GCC was the main industry group in the United States opposed to the Kyoto Protocol , which committed signatories to reduce greenhouse gas emissions . The coalition " was the leading industry group working in opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , " according to Greenpeace , and led opposition to the Kyoto Protocol , according to the Los Angeles Times .
Prior to 1997 , GCC spent about $ 1 million annually lobbying against limits on CO2 emissions ; before Kyoto , GCC annual revenue peaked around $ 1 @.@ 5 million ; GCC spent $ 13 million on advertising in opposition to the Kyoto treaty . The coalition funded the Global Climate Information Project and hired the advertising firm that produced the 1993 @-@ 1994 Harry and Louise advertising campaign which opposed Clinton 's health care initiative . The advertisements said , “ the UN Climate Treaty isn ’ t Global ... and it won ’ t work ” and " Americans will pay the price ... 50 cents more for every gallon of gasoline . "
GCC opposed the signing of the Kyoto Protocol by Clinton . GCC was influential in the withdrawal from the Kyoto Protocol by the administration of President George W. Bush . According to briefing notes prepared by the United States Department of State for the under @-@ secretary of state , Bush 's rejection of the Kyoto Protocol was " in part based on input from " GCC . GCC lobbying was key to the July , 1997 unanimous passage in the United States Senate of the Byrd @-@ Hagel Resolution , which reflected the coalition 's position that restrictions on greenhouse gas emissions must include developing countries . GCC 's chairman told a US congressional committee that mandatory greenhouse gas emissions limits were : " an unjustified rush to judgement . " The coalition sent 50 delegates to the third Conference of the Parties to the United Nations Climate Change Conference in Kyoto . On December 11 , 1997 , the day the Kyoto delegates reached agreement on legally binding limits on greenhouse gas emissions , GCC 's chairman said the agreement would be defeated by the US Senate . In 2001 , GCC 's executive director compared the Kyoto Protocol to the RMS Titanic .
= = Membership decline and dissolution = =
GCC 's challenge to science prompted a backlash from environmental groups . Environmentalists described GCC as a " club for polluters " and called for members to withdraw their support . " Abandonment of the Global Climate Coalition by leading companies is partly in response to the mounting evidence that the world is indeed getting warmer , " according to environmentalist Lester R. Brown . In 1998 , Green Party delegates to the European Parliament introduced an unsuccessful proposal that the World Meteorological Organization name hurricanes after GCC members . Defections weakened the coalition . In 1996 , British Petroleum resigned and later announced support for the Kyoto Protocol and commitment to greenhouse gas emission reductions . In 1997 , Royal Dutch Shell withdrew after criticism from European environmental groups . In 1999 , Ford Motor Company was the first US company to withdraw ; the New York Times described the departure as " the latest sign of divisions within heavy industry over how to respond to global warming . " DuPont left the coalition in 1997 and Shell Oil ( US ) left in 1998 . In 2000 , GCC corporate members were the targets of a national student @-@ run university divestiture campaign . Between December , 1999 and early March , 2000 , Texaco , the Southern Company , General Motors and Daimler @-@ Chrysler withdrew . Some former coalition members joined the Business Environmental Leadership Council within the Pew Center on Global Climate Change which represented diverse stakeholders , including business interests , with a commitment to peer @-@ reviewed scientific research and accepted the need for emissions restrictions to address climate change .
In 2000 , GCC restructured as an association of trade associations ; membership was limited to trade associations , and individual corporations were represented through their trade association . Brown called it : " a thinly veiled effort to conceal the real issue - the loss of so many key corporate members . "
In 2001 , after US President George W. Bush withdrew the US from the Kyoto process , GCC disbanded . Absent the participation of the US , the effectiveness of the Kyoto process was limited . GCC said on its website that its mission had been successfully achieved , writing " At this point , both Congress and the Administration agree that the U.S. should not accept the mandatory cuts in emissions required by the protocol . "
= = Reception = =
In 2015 , the Union of Concerned Scientists compared GCC 's role in the public policy debate on climate change to the roles in the public policy debate on tobacco safety of the Tobacco Institute , the tobacco industry 's lobbyist group , and the Council for Tobacco Research , which promoted misleading science . Environmentalist Bill McKibben said that , by promoting doubt about the science , " throughout the 1990s , even as other nations took action , the fossil fuel industry 's Global Climate Coalition managed to make American journalists treat the accelerating warming as a he @-@ said @-@ she @-@ said story . " According to the Los Angeles Times , GCC members integrated projections from climate models into their operational planning while publicly criticising the models .
= = Members = =
= = = Membership notes = = =
= St Mary 's Church , Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf =
St Mary 's Church , Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf is a small medieval church in Anglesey , north Wales . The earliest parts of the building , including the nave and the north doorway , date from the 14th century . Other parts , including the chancel and the east window , date from the 15th century . It is associated with the Welsh poet and clergyman Goronwy Owen , who was born nearby and served as curate here . He later travelled to America to teach at The College of William & Mary , Virginia .
The church is still in use for worship , as part of the Church in Wales , as one of three churches in the combined parish of Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf with Llanbedrgoch with Pentraeth . It is a Grade II * listed building , a national designation given to " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " , because it is a " good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric . "
= = History and location = =
St Mary 's Church is situated near the east coast of Anglesey , north Wales . It is by the side of a country road near the village of Brynteg . The parish includes the coastal resort of Benllech . The parish takes its name in part from the church : the Welsh word llan originally meant " enclosure " and then " church " , and " -fair " is a modified form of Mary ( Mair in Welsh ) . " Mathafarn Eithaf " translates as " area ( or field ) of the tavern " .
It is a medieval church , and the oldest part of the building is the nave , which dates from the 14th century . The chancel and the arch between nave and chancel were added in the following century . The architect of the Diocese of Bangor , Henry Kennedy , carried out work on the church in 1847 . He added a vestry on the north side and a porch to the south , as well as making some other alterations and additions , such as the re @-@ roofing of the chancel .
The church is still in use for worship , as part of the Church in Wales . It is one of three churches in the combined benefice of Llanfair Mathafarn Eithaf with Llanbedrgoch with Pentraeth . It is within the deanery of Tindaethwy and Menai , the archdeaconry of Bangor and the Diocese of Bangor . As of 2012 , the position of rector is held by the Venerable R P Davies , Archdeacon of Bangor . Services are held on a Sunday morning , alternating between Holy Communion and Morning Prayer .
The Welsh priest and poet Goronwy Owen , who was born in the parish on 1 January 1723 , served for three weeks as curate of St Mary 's . He later travelled to America to teach at The College of William & Mary , Virginia , and remained in Virginia until his death .
= = Architecture and fittings = =
St Mary 's is built from rubble masonry , with buttresses at the eastern ends of the nave and chancel , and it has a slate roof . The timbers of the roof can be seen from inside the church . There is a bellcote at the west end of the roof , containing one bell dated 1849 . The church has a gallery at the west end , reached by climbing a spiral staircase . The nave is longer and higher than the chancel , with one step and a simple 15th @-@ century chancel arch between them . The nave measures about 52 feet 6 inches by 16 feet 3 inches ( about 16 by 5 m ) , and the chancel measures about 18 feet 6 inches by 13 feet 6 inches ( about 5 @.@ 6 by 4 @.@ 1 m ) .
Entrance is through the porch in the middle of the south wall of the nave , which houses a round @-@ headed doorway from the 15th or 16th century . There is a trefoil @-@ headed single window on the south wall of the nave to the left of the porch , and two windows , each with three trefoil @-@ headed lights ( sections of window , separated by mullions ) , to the right of the porch . The south wall of the chancel has a similar window , with only two lights , which was inserted in 1847 ; it adjoins a blocked window from the 17th century . The north wall of the church , which was rebuilt in 1847 , has a 14th @-@ century doorway with a pointed arch , and windows on each side similar to those on the south side . The east window , which dates from the 15th century , has three lights headed with cinquefoils set within a pointed arch . There is a hood mould on the outside .
A 1937 survey by the Royal Commission on Ancient and Historical Monuments in Wales and Monmouthshire noted a wooden communion table , dated 1667 , and some interior memorials dated 1724 and 1731 . It also recorded that the churchyard contained an 11th @-@ century churchyard cross , which had at one point held a sundial . Most of the fittings inside the church date from the mid @-@ 19th century . The pulpit has two carved panels , one depicting Christ and the other a Madonna and Child . It was installed in 1969 , marking the bicententary of Goronwy Owen 's death . The reredos behind the altar is in memory of those who died during World War I.
= = Assessment = =
The church has national recognition and statutory protection from alteration as it has been designated as a Grade II * listed building – the second @-@ highest of the three grades of listing , designating " particularly important buildings of more than special interest " . It was given this status on 12 May 1970 . Cadw ( the Welsh Assembly Government body responsible for the built heritage of Wales and the inclusion of Welsh buildings on the statutory lists ) states that St Mary 's has been listed because it is " a good rural church retaining substantial medieval fabric " .
Writing in 1847 , the clergyman and antiquarian Harry Longueville Jones said that St Mary 's , which he called " a rather long and low building " , was situated " in an uneven , rocky , and exposed locality " within a parish that had a " peculiarly bleak and desolate appearance " . He also thought that the roof of the church was " remarkable for the quantity of good , but light , timber used in its construction . "
= Action of 31 May 1809 =
The Action of 31 May 1809 was a naval skirmish in the Bay of Bengal during the Napoleonic Wars . During the action , an Honourable East India Company convoy carrying goods worth over £ 500 @,@ 000 was attacked and partially captured by the French frigate Caroline . The three East Indiamen that made up the convoy fought against their opponent with their own batteries of cannon but ultimately were less powerful , less manoeuvrable and less trained than their opponent and were defeated one by one ; only the smallest of the three escaped . The action was the first in a string of attacks on important convoys in the Indian Ocean by French cruisers operating from Île de France and Île Bonaparte during a concerted campaign against British shipping in the region .
= = Background = =
In November 1808 , a squadron of powerful French frigates sailed for Île de France under Commodore Jacques Hamelin . This squadron was under orders to attack and capture or destroy British shipping in the Indian Ocean , particularly the heavily armed convoys of East Indiamen that carried millions of pounds worth of trade goods from British India and the Far East to Britain . These convoys were operated by the Honourable East India Company ( HEIC ) , which ran British India and maintained a private army and navy to secure the colony and its trade routes . During the late Napoleonic Wars , French naval strategy focused on the disruption of this trade with the use of fast and well @-@ armed frigates to operate independently along British trade routes and capture British merchant ships . This affected the British economy , which was already severely stretched by the war , and forced the Royal Navy to divert resources to distant parts of the world to protect British trade .
During the late spring of 1809 , following the end of the Indian Ocean hurricane season , Hamelin ordered his ships to operate in the Bay of Bengal . One of these frigates was the 40 @-@ gun Caroline , which was built in Antwerp in 1806 and weighed 1 @,@ 078 tons . Caroline was commanded by Jean @-@ Baptiste @-@ Henri Féretier , newly promoted following the sudden death of her previous captain . Féretier was the first of Hamelin 's captains to find a British convoy , spotting three sails on the horizon on 31 May . These belonged to a Britain @-@ bound convoy of East Indiamen , which had departed the Hooghly River on 2 May . Laden with over £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of silk and other trade goods , these ships were an important asset to the HEIC and had originally been part of a larger convoy , guarded by the sloop HMS Victor and consisting of five Indiamen and several smaller vessels . On 24 May a storm divided the convoy ; Victor , the small ships and two of the Indiamen Monarch and Earl Spencer were separated from the remainder , the Streatham , Europe and Lord Keith after Monarch sprang a leak .
The Indiamen were not unprotected : each one was large and powerfully built and carried a number of cannon . Streatham and Europe weighed over 800 tons each and carried 30 cannon , whereas the smaller Lord Keith was 600 tons and carried 12 guns . Four years earlier , a convoy of East Indiamen had driven off a French ship of the line and attached frigates under Admiral Linois in similar waters by forming a battle line and firing on their opponents as they closed . The crews of these East Indiamen were not of Royal Navy standard , however , with insufficient training and large numbers of Chinese and lascar seamen , who proved unreliable in combat .
= = Battle = =
One of the smaller ships from the convoy , an American merchant ship named Silenus , had separated from the main body in the storm and arrived at the Nicobar Islands . There she had encountered Caroline and the American captain had reported the location and value of the convoy to Féretier . Setting all sail , Féretier took Caroline to the north @-@ west , and sighted the convoy at 05 : 30 , only a few days after leaving the Nicobar Islands . The British ships , under the loose command of John Dale in Streatham , originally mistook the French frigate for the missing Victor and it was not until another half @-@ hour had passed that Dale realised the danger his ships were in . Ordering the Indiamen to form a line of battle , Dale placed his ship in the centre , with the small Lord Keith ahead and Europe behind . However , the lack of naval experience on the British ships resulted in the Indiamen sailing too far from one another in line , thus leaving them unable to provide effective mutual support .
Able to attack the HEIC ships individually , Caroline pulled alongside Europe at 06 : 30 and began a heavy fire into the merchant ship , which intermittently replied with her available guns . Within 30 minutes , Europe 's rigging was tattered , many of her guns dismounted and a number of her crew wounded or killed . Moving past his now disabled opponent , Féretier next attacked Streatham , which had slowed in an unsuccessful attempt to support Europe . Now alone against the frigate , Streatham came under heavy fire at 07 : 00 and by 08 : 00 was badly damaged , with casualties in her crew , her guns all dismounted and her lascars hiding below decks . With further resistance hopeless , Dale hauled down the company flag and surrendered .
During the engagement between Streatham and Caroline , Lord Keith and Europe had fired sporadically at the French ship with little effect . Pulling away from his surrendered opponent , Féretier then fired on Lord Keith , whose captain , Peter Campbell , realised that his ship stood no chance against the frigate and turned eastward , running before the wind to escape despite suffering severe damage to Lord Keith ' rigging as he did so . William Gelston , captain of Europe , also attempted to flee , but his battered ship was in no condition to outrun the virtually untouched frigate , and he surrendered at 10 : 00 . Lord Keith eventually arrived safely at Penang on 9 June . Casualties on the British ships were six killed and at least four wounded , while the French lost one killed and three wounded .
= = Aftermath = =
Féretier repaired his captures at sea and returned to Île de France , arriving two months later on 22 July . Discovering the presence of a British frigate squadron under Josias Rowley off Port Louis , Féretier diverted to Saint Paul on Île Bonaparte . Among the goods removed from the ships were the £ 500 @,@ 000 worth of silk , which was stored in warehouses near the docks . In the British raid on Saint Paul on 21 September 1809 , these warehouses and their contents were burnt and Caroline , Streatham and Europe all captured by the raiding force . Despite these subsequent losses , Féretier was highly commended for his leadership in the action and received a promotion from Governor Charles Decaen . He also received letters from the captains of Streatham and Europe , thanking him for his attention and courtesy to their crews and passengers during their period of captivity .
= German destroyer Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt =
Z16 Friedrich Eckoldt was a Type 1934A @-@ class destroyer built for Nazi Germany 's Kriegsmarine in the late 1930s . It was named after Kapitänleutnant Friedrich Eckoldt ( 1887 @-@ 1916 ) , the commander of torpedo boat V 48 , who was killed when his boat was sunk during the Battle of Jutland on 31 May 1916 .
At the beginning of World War II , the ship was initially deployed to blockade the Polish coast , but she was quickly transferred to the German Bight to lay minefields in German waters . In late 1939 and 1940 the ship made multiple successful minelaying sorties off the English coast that claimed 21 merchant ships . Eckoldt participated in the early stages of the Norwegian Campaign by transporting troops to the Trondheim area in early April 1940 . The ship was transferred to France later in the year . Eckoldt returned to Germany in late 1940 for a refit and was transferred to Norway in June 1941 as part of the preparations for Operation Barbarossa , the German invasion of the Soviet Union . The ship spent some time at the beginning of the campaign conducting anti @-@ shipping patrols in Soviet waters , but these were generally fruitless . She escorted a number of German convoys in the Arctic later in the year . Eckoldt escorted several German heavy cruisers at the beginning and end of their anti @-@ shipping raids in 1942 . She was part of a German surface fleet which attacked Convoy JW 51B on 31 December near the North Cape , Norway . After sinking the minesweeper HMS Bramble , Eckoldt mistook the British light cruiser HMS Sheffield for the German heavy cruiser Admiral Hipper and was taken completely by surprise when the cruiser opened fire . The ship sank with all hands without returning fire .
= = Design and description = =
Friedrich Eckoldt had an overall length of 119 meters ( 390 ft 5 in ) and was 114 meters ( 374 ft 0 in ) long at the waterline . The ship had a beam of 11 @.@ 30 meters ( 37 ft 1 in ) , and a maximum draft of 4 @.@ 23 meters ( 13 ft 11 in ) . She displaced 2 @,@ 171 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 137 long tons ) at standard and 3 @,@ 190 metric tons ( 3 @,@ 140 long tons ) at deep load . The Wagner geared steam turbines were designed to produce 70 @,@ 000 metric horsepower ( 51 @,@ 000 kW ; 69 @,@ 000 shp ) which would propel the ship at 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam was provided to the turbines by six high @-@ pressure Benson boilers with superheaters . Friedrich Eckoldt carried a maximum of 752 metric tons ( 740 long tons ) of fuel oil which was intended to give a range of 4 @,@ 400 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 100 km ; 5 @,@ 100 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) , but the ship proved top @-@ heavy in service and 30 % of the fuel had to be retained as ballast low in the ship . The effective range proved to be only 1 @,@ 530 nmi ( 2 @,@ 830 km ; 1 @,@ 760 mi ) at 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . The ship 's crew consisted of 10 officers and 315 sailors .
Friedrich Eckoldt carried five 12 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 34 guns in single mounts with gun shields , two each superimposed , fore and aft . The fifth gun was carried on top of the rear deckhouse . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 3 @.@ 7 cm SK C / 30 guns in two twin mounts abreast the rear funnel and six 2 cm C / 30 guns in single mounts . The ship carried eight above @-@ water 53 @.@ 3 @-@ centimeter ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes in two power @-@ operated mounts . A pair of reload torpedoes were provided for each mount . Four depth charge throwers were mounted on the sides of the rear deckhouse and they were supplemented by six racks for individual depth charges on the sides of the stern . Sufficient depth charges were carried for either two or four patterns of sixteen charges each . Mine rails could be fitted on the rear deck that had a maximum capacity of sixty mines . ' GHG ' ( Gruppenhorchgerät ) passive hydrophones were fitted to detect submarines and an active sonar system was installed by the end of 1939 .
= = Construction and career = =
The ship was ordered on 19 January 1935 and laid down at Blohm & Voss , Hamburg on 4 November 1935 as yard number B505 . She was launched on 21 March 1937 and completed on 28 July 1938 . The ship participated in the August 1938 Fleet Review as part of the 3rd Destroyer Division . On 23 – 24 March 1939 , Friedrich Eckoldt was one of the destroyers escorting Adolf Hitler aboard the pocket battleship Deutschland to occupy Memel . She participated in the Spring fleet exercise in the western Mediterranean and made several visits to Spanish and Moroccan ports in April and May .
When World War II began , Friedrich Eckoldt was initially deployed in the Baltic to operate against the Polish Navy and to enforce a blockade of Poland , but she was soon transferred to the German Bight where she joined her sisters in laying defensive minefields . She also patrolled the Skagerrak to inspect neutral shipping for contraband goods in October . On the night of 17 / 18 October , Rear Admiral ( Konteradmiral ) Günther Lütjens , aboard his flagship Wilhelm Heidkamp , led Eckoldt , Hermann Künne , Diether von Roeder , Hans Lüdemann , and Karl Galster as they laid a minefield off the mouth of the River Humber . The British were unaware of the minefield 's existence and lost seven ships totaling 25 @,@ 825 Friedrich Eckoldt ( GRT ) . On the night of 18 / 19 November , Eckoldt and Hans Lody , led by Commander ( Fregattenkapitän ) Erich Bey in his flagship Erich Steinbrinck , laid another minefield off the Humber Estuary that claimed another seven ships of 38 @,@ 710 GRT , including the Polish ocean liner M / S Piłsudski of 14 @,@ 294 GRT .
Another minefield of 170 magnetic mines was laid by Eckoldt , Ihn and Steinbrinck on the night of 6 / 7 January 1940 off the Thames Estuary . The destroyer HMS Grenville and six merchant ships totalling 21 @,@ 617 GRT were lost to this minefield as well and another ship was damaged as well . Commodore Friedrich Bonte led a minelaying sortie to the Newcastle area with Heidkamp , Eckoldt , Anton Schmitt , Richard Beitzen , Galster , and Ihn . The latter ship suffered tube failures in her boilers that reduced her maximum speed to 27 knots ( 50 km / h ; 31 mph ) and she had to be escorted back to Germany by Beitzen . This minefield only claimed one fishing trawler of 251 tons . Eckoldt , Beitzen and Max Schultz laid 110 magnetic mines in the Shipwash area , off Harwich , on 9 / 10 February that sank six ships of 28 @,@ 496 GRT and damaged another . Eckoldt was the flagship during Operation Wikinger , an attempt to capture British fishing trawlers operating off the Dogger Bank on 22 February , when two destroyers sank with heavy loss of life – one hit newly @-@ laid British mines in a supposedly mine @-@ free channel and the other was bombed in error by the Luftwaffe .
Friedrich Eckoldt was allocated to Group 2 for the Norwegian portion of Operation Weserübung . The group 's task was to transport the 138th Mountain Infantry Regiment ( 138 . Gebirgsjäger Regiment ) to seize Trondheim together with Admiral Hipper . The ships began loading troops on 6 April and set sail the next day . Eckoldt 's port propeller shaft began to overheat shortly after passing the mouth of the Elbe River and she had to slow down . The ship managed to repair the problem and joined the main body later in the day . The ship escorted Admiral Hipper as they entered the Trondheimfjord and both ships disembarked their troops once they reached Trondheim harbor . All of the German ships proved to be very low on fuel after their journey and fuel oil was transferred to Eckoldt from Theodor Riedel and Heinemann . Admiral Hipper and Eckoldt attempted to leave on the night of 10 April , but the smaller ship proved to be unable to match Admiral Hipper 's speed in the heavy seas encountered and was forced to turn back . After some fuel was discovered in Trondheim on 12 April , the ship and Heinemann sailed for Germany two days later .
After completing her refit in early September ( the ship may have been fitted with a FuMO 21 or FuMO 24 radar set above the bridge at this time ) , Eckoldt was transferred to France with four of the surviving destroyers on 9 September . The ship covered five other destroyers laying mines in Falmouth Bay during the night of 28 / 29 September . Five ships totalling only 2026 GRT were sunk by this minefield . Eckoldt was attacked by Fairey Swordfish of No. 812 Squadron of the Fleet Air Arm during the night of 9 / 10 October and lightly damaged by bomb splinters . One man was killed and three were wounded . The ship was transferred back to Hamburg on 5 November where she was refitted until the end of December . Eckoldt was training in the Baltic until she escorted the battleship Bismarck and the heavy cruiser Prinz Eugen from Cape Arkona to Trondheim on 19 – 22 May as they sortied into the North Atlantic . The following month , she escorted the pocket battleship Lützow from Kiel to Norway as the latter ship attempted to break through the British blockade . Several Bristol Beaufort aircraft spotted Lützow and her escorts and one managed to surprise the ships and torpedo the pocket battleship early on the morning of 13 June . Eckoldt took Lützow under tow until the latter managed to restart her starboard engine and proceed under her own power .
On 20 June , Eckoldt sailed for Bergen , Norway , with Galster and Schonemann where they waited until 4 July for the latter 's main feed pump to be repaired and for Beitzen and Lody to arrive . All five destroyers arrived at Kirkenes on 10 July . They mounted their first anti @-@ shipping patrol on 12 July , but did not spot anything until the following night . A small Soviet convoy was spotted and two of its ships were sunk after expending four @-@ fifths of their ammunition . As the German ships were returning to port , they were attacked by several aircraft , of which Eckoldt claimed to have shot down one . A second patrol was made on 22 July , but only a single Soviet ship was sunk while the German ships were not damaged by several aerial attacks . When the British aircraft carriers Victorious and Furious attacked Petsamo and Kirkenes on 29 July , the destroyers were far to the east and could not catch the British ships before they left the area . The German destroyers made one final sortie into the Kola Inlet where they sank one small Soviet patrol vessel . Eckoldt was damaged by a single aircraft 's bombs that straddled the ship and damaged her steering and starboard engine . This damage was temporarily repaired , but Eckoldt was ordered to Narvik for more thorough repairs . After they were completed , the ship remained in the Arctic for convoy escort duties . She was accidentally rammed by a Norwegian freighter in Tromsø on 12 October and was given temporary repairs in the floating dock at Trondheim on 22 October before she was sent to Kiel for more permanent repairs where she arrived on 9 November .
Eckoldt finished her repairs and overhaul on 15 April 1942 and was training until she attempted to sail for Norway on 11 June . She developed more engine problems en route and had to turn back for repairs . The ship reached Trondheim on 9 July , escorting the light cruiser Köln ; both ships laid mines at the entrance to the Skagerrak en route . Eckoldt continued onwards and reached Narvik on 18 July . During Operation Wunderland in August , Eckoldt , Beitzen and Steinbrinck escorted the pocket battleship Admiral Scheer at the beginning and end of its mission to attack Soviet shipping in the Kara Sea . They also escorted the minelayer Ulm as it departed to lay a minefield off Cape Zhelaniya in mid @-@ August . On 13 – 15 October , Eckoldt , Beitzen , and the destroyers Z27 and Z30 laid a minefield off the Kanin Peninsula at the mouth of the White Sea that sank the Soviet icebreaker Mikoyan . Three weeks later , the same four destroyers escorted Admiral Hipper as she attempted to intercept Allied merchant ships proceeding independently to Soviet ports in early November .
= = = Battle of the Barents Sea = = =
During Operation Regenbogen , the attempt to intercept Convoy JW 51B sailing from the UK to the Soviet Union in late December , Eckoldt , Beitzen , and Z29 escorted Admiral Hipper as she attempted to occupy the attention of the convoy 's escort while Lutzow and three other destroyers attacked the convoy . The three destroyers separated from Hipper to search for the convoy and were successful on the morning of 31 December . The destroyer HMS Obdurate spotted them in turn and closed to investigate when the German ships opened fire at a range of 8 @,@ 000 meters ( 8 @,@ 700 yd ) . Obdurate turned away to rejoin the convoy without sustaining any damage and the German ships did not pursue as they had been ordered to rejoin Hipper . The Germans found the minesweeper HMS Bramble , which had been detached earlier from the convoy to search for stragglers , as they maneuvered to close with the convoy and the destroyers were ordered to sink her while Hipper engaged the convoy 's escorting destroyers . This took some time in the poor visibility and Hipper was surprised in the meantime by the British covering force of the light cruisers Sheffield and Jamaica . After sinking Bramble , the German destroyers attempted to rejoin Hipper , but had no idea that British cruisers were in the area . They confused Sheffield with Hipper when they spotted each other at 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 4 @,@ 400 yd ) range and were totally surprised when Sheffield opened fire on Eckoldt with every gun she possessed . The latter was dead in the water and on fire when Sheffield turned away ; Eckoldt sank some unknown amount of time later at 77 ° 19 ′ N 30 ° 47 ′ E. There were no survivors ; all 341 men aboard died .
= New York State Route 135 =
New York State Route 135 ( NY 135 ) is a 10 @.@ 66 @-@ mile ( 17 @.@ 16 km ) state highway in eastern Nassau County , New York , in the United States . The route is a limited @-@ access highway that connects Seaford with Syosset . The highway runs from Merrick Road ( unsigned County Route 27 or CR 27 ) in Seaford to NY 25 in Syosset . In between , NY 135 passes through Bethpage and Plainview and serves Bethpage State Park . The highway is ceremoniously designated as the Ralph J. Marino Expressway ; however , it is more commonly known as the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway .
The origins of the expressway date back to 1954 when engineering pioneer Robert Moses proposed that a highway be built between Wantagh and Oyster Bay . Although communities along the proposed path of the highway opposed its construction , Moses eventually won the grant . Right @-@ of @-@ way was taken in 1958 , and construction began in 1959 . In 1967 , the name of the expressway was renamed from the Wantagh – Oyster Bay Expressway to its current name . The expressway was completed to its current length in 1969 ; however , a stub exists at each end of the highway . The freeway was designated as NY 135 by 1964 .
Around 1970 , Robert Moses returned his focus to the expressway , proposing that the highway be extended north from Syosset . This extension would include a long bridge to Rye in Westchester County across the Long Island Sound . The plan received support until it was brought to the federal government , at which point towns began opposing his plans . Governor Nelson Rockefeller canceled the proposed extension in 1973 . In 2007 , a developer proposed building a 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) tunnel to Rye instead . There have also been plans for a southern extension to Jones Beach , but none have been acted on .
= = Route description = =
The Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway northbound lanes begins at the onramp from Merrick Road ( unsigned CR 27 ) near the outer limits of downtown Seaford in southeastern Nassau County . There is an aging sign at the southern terminus , depicting the highway as " NY 135 " and showing the nearest control city as Oyster Bay . The offramp begins at a commercial building and turns to the northeast , heading through some trees . After a short distance , the onramp merges into the northbound lanes of the expressway .
The expressway progresses northward from the onramp , crossing over Waverly Avenue and passing the first guide sign for exit 2 ( NY 27 ) , about 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) ahead from this point . The highway widens to three lanes in each direction as it comes upon the interchange with NY 27 . The highway progresses its way northward through the interchange and passes by the first NY 135 northbound shield in the middle of the exit . Trees mainly separate the expressway from the nearby highways and communities . After a short distance , the onramp from NY 27 merges into the northbound lanes , and the highway continues northward .
On the southbound side , across from the onramp , the southbound lanes split for exit 2E , set specifically for the eastbound alignment of NY 27 . Shortly afterward the expressway crosses under both directions of NY 27 on separate bridges . After that , Seamans Neck Road becomes the service road to the expressway , running parallel to the east . There is a bridge over Clark Street in the nearby community of Massapequa , where West Seamans Neck Road , the southbound service road , ends . After a short distance , Seamans Neck Road ends at exit 3 for NY 105 .
After a while , the expressway passes the North Wantagh Park , and connects to the Southern State Parkway at exit 4 . There , the expressway makes a curve to the northeast , crossing over Cordwood Lane on an overpass . The direction of the expressway begins to straighten , until exit 5 , where it encounters NY 107 . Soon after , the expressway comes upon exit 6 , which is for Boundary Avenue , a connector to the nearby Bethpage State Parkway . From there , the expressway turns to the north and begins to parallel the Bethpage Parkway as it meets NY 24 ( Hempstead Turnpike ) .
North of NY 24 in Bethpage , NY 135 has an exit leading to Powell Avenue and Plainview Road , the latter serving as a local continuation of the Bethpage Parkway . At this point , the median of the expressway widens as the route heads northward . The wide median was originally constructed to allow the Bethpage Parkway to be extended north to the Caumsett State Parkway and Caumsett State Park . The wide median ends just before exit 9 as the lanes of NY 135 come back together for the exit with Cherry Avenue and Broadway . After interchange 9 , the expressway enters Plainview as it crosses over Haypath Road .
As the expressway passes through Plainview it passes beneath Old Country Road at exit 10 . Seven interchanges north of the Southern State Parkway , NY 135 comes upon the Northern State Parkway at exit 12 . Just after , there is a partial cloverleaf interchange ( exit 13 ) with the Long Island Expressway ( I @-@ 495 ) in Locust Grove . The expressway continues north of I @-@ 495 , heading through Locust Grove to interchanges 14E and 14W . Here , NY 135 ends and merges into NY 25 ( the Jericho Turnpike ) . A stub built for the possible extension of the expressway sits nearby . All traffic merges onto NY 25 west from there .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and construction = = =
In 1954 , the New York State Department of Public Works ( NYSDPW ) unveiled plans for a six @-@ lane expressway that would go from the Wantagh State Parkway in Wantagh to NY 106 in Oyster Bay . Unlike the Western Nassau Expressway , a highway proposed two years earlier that would go through densely populated areas in western Nassau County , this roadway would go through lightly populated areas , meaning that acquiring the necessary right @-@ of @-@ way would be easier . Under Robert Moses ' original plans for the highway , the northern terminus of the expressway would be placed near brand new local ferry terminals in Oyster Bay . From there , commuters could connect to the city of Stamford , Connecticut , 12 miles ( 19 km ) to the north by way of ferries across Long Island Sound . The proposed highway was added to the New York State Highway Law as follows , with annotations in brackets :
... Seaford – Oyster Bay expressway , beginning at a point on the Wantagh parkway in the vicinity of the hamlet of Wantagh , thence running generally through or near the hamlets of Seaford , Bethpage and Plainview to a point on state highway nine thousand twenty @-@ one [ NY 106 ] south of the village of Oyster Bay ; ...
One of the major problems with the proposed alignment of the expressway was that it divided each community that it passed through . This was met by protests from all of the communities . To remedy the concerns , Lewis Waters , the Oyster Bay Town Supervisor , proposed a new alignment for the expressway . Under his plan , it would now begin at the Ocean Parkway in Tobay Beach , cross Great South Bay and enter West Amityville at Clocks Boulevard . From West Amityville , the expressway was to turn to the northeast near the current @-@ day Sunrise Mall , and progress its way through Massapequa and Farmingdale into Bethpage State Park . The highway was to cross through Bethpage State Park using the old right @-@ of @-@ way for the Bethpage State Parkway through the communities of Old Bethpage and Plainview . From there , it would veer to the northwest , approaching and intersecting with the Jericho Turnpike ( NY 25 ) about 0 @.@ 75 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from its current northern terminus . At the Long Island Rail Road 's Port Jefferson Branch , it would follow the originally planned alignment , but would end at NY 25A instead of NY 106 .
This plan , supported by the residents of Oyster Bay , would require the acquisition of 185 residential homes . In comparison , the alignment planned by Moses would result in the elimination of 450 homes . However , Moses ' plan won out , to much of their dismay .
In 1958 , NYSDPW acquired the right @-@ of @-@ way for the highway . From Seaford north to the Southern State Parkway near Plainedge , the right @-@ of @-@ way followed the alignment of Seamans Neck Road , then an uninterrupted local road extending from Merrick Road in Seaford north to NY 107 and Union Avenue in Levittown . Also in 1958 , the Nassau County Department of Public Works signed over 100 county highways around the county . According to the 1959 Master Plan for the county by the public works department , Seamans Neck Road was initially designated as CR 191 , but only from Merrick Road to the proposed interchange between the expressway and NY 105 , where Seamans Neck Road would meet the new highway . The CR 191 designation was eventually eliminated .
Construction commenced on the expressway a year later , with the section from Old Country Road ( exit 10 ) to Jericho Turnpike ( exits 14E and 14W ) opening in June 1962 . Construction continued rapidly , with the section from Old Country Road down to the Southern State Parkway ( exit 4 ) being completed only a year later . The incomplete expressway was designated as NY 135 by 1964 .
From there , the construction slowed , with the final piece from Merrick Road ( CR 27 ) to the Southern State Parkway opening to traffic in late 1969 . The resulting highway extended for 10 @.@ 66 miles ( 17 @.@ 16 km ) from Seaford to Syosset , but not to Oyster Bay as its name implied .
= = = Extension proposals = = =
= = = = Bridge to Rye = = = =
In 1957 , a plan for a bridge to Westchester County across Long Island Sound was first proposed by Charles H. Sells , a former commissioner for the New York State Department of Public Works . His proposal for the Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge , along with the eastern Orient Point – Watch Hill Bridge were two proposed bridge routes off Long Island . Sells , however , suggested that the bridges not be constructed until Long Island 's traffic and commuting began to increase .
In seven years , Long Island underwent the transformation that Sells had expected , and the east – west arterials between Long Island and New York City , such as the Northern State Parkway and the Long Island Expressway , were congested with commuters . Motorists bound for New England or upstate regions of New York had to take either the Throgs Neck Bridge or the Bronx – Whitestone Bridge , and both bridges were already reaching their designed capacities . Robert Moses , chairman of the Triborough Bridge and Tunnel Authority , worked with the Department of Public Works to commission a $ 150 @,@ 000 ( 1964 USD ) study by the firm Madigan @-@ Hyland to study the feasibility of a bridge across the sound .
Moses revealed the results of the study to the Nassau and Suffolk Regional Planning Board in February 1966 . The Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge ( originally the Bayville – Rye Bridge ) was proposed to complete the Interstate 287 ( I @-@ 287 ) beltway around the New York Metropolitan Area . This was to be done by constructing a 6 @.@ 1 @-@ mile ( 9 @.@ 8 km ) long cable @-@ stayed suspension bridge from the Cross @-@ Westchester Expressway ( I @-@ 287 ) in Rye to the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway ( NY 135 ) in Nassau County . The proposed bridge was to cost $ 150 million ( 1966 USD ) and had the support of Governor Nelson Rockefeller and many officials on Long Island .
However , Moses ran into a problem once the proposal was brought to the Federal Highway Administration . At this point , opposition to the bridge began to form on both sides of Long Island Sound . In addition , plans to turn the Oyster Bay area into a bird sanctuary and a protected park made working on the highway harder as building on such protected places is forbidden by law . Faced with growing opposition , Governor Rockefeller canceled the plans for the bridge on June 20 , 1973 , nine years after the first proposal by Moses .
Nine ideas were discussed in the 1950s , 1960s , and 1970s , but all were canceled . Some were reconsidered during the 1990s , but the New York State Department of Transportation ( NYSDOT ) backed away from the idea in belief that it would not relieve congestion .
= = = = Highway extensions = = = =
Since the demise of the proposed bridge across Long Island Sound , several proposed northward extensions of NY 135 have arisen , none of which have been acted on . In 1973 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission proposed restudying the idea of extending the expressway northward back to its originally @-@ planned northern terminus , the hamlet of Oyster Bay , even though the bridge project was shelved . The commission stated , " With the abandonment of the Oyster Bay – Rye Bridge proposal , the need to extend the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway northward to NY 25A or NY 106 should be restudied . " They added that the study would be probable , even with the abandonment of working on the NY 135 corridor .
In 1990 , the Long Island Regional Planning Board came up with a proposed multibillion @-@ dollar plan to expand the capacities of state and county highways and to improve all major roads to " satisfactory " levels by 2010 . The proposal also revisited the idea of extending the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway to NY 25A in Oyster Bay via the right @-@ of @-@ way bought in the 1960s . NYSDOT reconsidered the idea a decade later in 2000 , saying it would relieve congestion in the area . They indicated that the extension may be built as either a " full @-@ build " expressway or a four @-@ lane arterial boulevard to NY 25A . However , there are no plans to do either at this time .
In 2007 , a developer proposed the idea of crossing Long Island Sound by way of a tunnel instead of a bridge . The tunnel would be 17 miles ( 27 km ) long and run from Bayville to Rye , just as the original bridge would have . To prevent the noticeable tunnel , the developer proposed building a park atop the entrance with ball fields , tennis courts , and several other amenities .
Part of the proposed northern right @-@ of @-@ way is now slated to be used for an extension of a multi @-@ use bicycle path from Bethpage State Park to the Long Island Rail Road station in Syosset . The path would be extended north to I @-@ 495 , where it would progress to the northern right @-@ of @-@ way that was once meant for use of the NY 135 extension and continue from there to the Syosset station . There would also be improvements to the hiking and biking trails , pedestrian improvements at crosswalks , the replacing of eroded areas and better parking and signage . Development of the project began in late 1993 and early 1994 ; however , construction has still not yet begun . Work on the project is expected to start in late 2009 and early 2010 and finish in late 2011 . The projected cost for the project is $ 8 @.@ 7 million , which will be paid for through state and federal funds .
When the first proposals for a southern extension of NY 135 came out in 1967 , around 25 families were relocated to clear a 7 @.@ 3 acres ( 30 @,@ 000 m2 ) right @-@ of @-@ way for the highway . By 1975 , the Tri @-@ State Transportation Commission proposed a plan to extend the highway south to the Wantagh State Parkway , which was NY 135 's originally @-@ planned southern terminus . This would have provided another connection to Jones Beach via the Wantagh Parkway . However , the idea was not acted upon and was shelved by NYSDOT in 1980 . The right @-@ of @-@ way for the extension was held onto by the state until 2004 when they sold it to Nassau County . Nassau County plans to build a county recreational trail along that right @-@ of @-@ way .
= = = Recent history and proposals = = =
There are a number of projects either in progress or in development for NY 135 . The one with active construction , however , is work by NYSDOT to repair segments of NY 135 , along with many other highways in Nassau and nearby Suffolk counties , that have concrete beginning to wear out . The project was projected to end in mid @-@ 2008 , but the department has not updated of their project site with the construction . In late 2006 , development began on a project to construct a 100 parking space Park & Ride at the interchange of NY 135 and NY 25 . Work on the project is to expected to begin in mid @-@ 2015 and end in the middle of the following year . Funds would come from the federal government and the state of New York .
Another planned NYSDOT project is the replacement of the steel barrier for the median of NY 135 from Merrick Road to NY 24 . The department will replace it with a normal concrete barrier and will also resurface the entire stretch of highway . The project is to cost $ 41 @.@ 6 million of state and federal funding and begin in late 2010 and early 2011 . It is expected to be completed by early 2012 .
At 9 : 30 a.m. on May 24 , 1988 , a tanker truck loaded with as much as 3 @,@ 000 imperial gallons ( 14 @,@ 000 l ) of propane fuel overturned and exploded into flames along the expressway . This caused major traffic delays and congestion as police had to shut down three of the major transportation routes in the area . Nassau County police ordered the evacuation of 1 @,@ 000 residents in the immediate area , along with nearby commuter routes , the Sunrise Highway and Long Island Rail Road 's Montauk Branch . With the possibility of an explosion , emergency personnel could not approach the tanker . Since the fire was close to the LIRR station in Seaford , a spokesman said that they had shut all service down from Wantagh to Massapequa . The Long Island Rail Road attempted using buses , but with the congestion becoming worse , they routed the buses to Hicksville , where the passengers would take a diesel train to Bethpage and nearby Babylon to continue progress eastward . The Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway was shut down from Merrick Road to the Southern State Parkway . Police reported that the tanker broke a rear axle , and skidded , causing it to overturn . The tank ruptured , starting the blaze . The driver , a middle @-@ aged man from Westbury , escaped with few injuries .
When the Seaford – Oyster Bay Expressway was first built , the highway was known as the Wantagh – Oyster Bay Expressway . The route was changed to its current name in 1967 . The change was made to both avoid confusion with the Wantagh Parkway and to accommodate a request from the community of Seaford to popularize their town . There have also been attempts to rename the expressway with dedications to various Presidents of the United States such as Theodore Roosevelt and Ronald Reagan . However , in March 2002 , the New York State Legislature officially dedicated the expressway after Ralph J. Marino , a New York State Senator from Long Island . At the time , the designation was a tribute to Marino ; however , he died just two weeks later .
Between the Powell Avenue and Broadway / Plainview Road interchanges along the expressway , the highway is divided with a large median . The lane alignment was set up so that the proposed extension of the Bethpage State Parkway would have run within the median of NY 135 . The parkway would have followed the highway for a short distance before turning to the southeast and away from NY 135 . By making this possible , the Bethpage Parkway would likely have to have been upgraded from its current super @-@ two configuration into a four @-@ lane highway .
NYSDOT had created a project page for the Bethpage Parkway extension , which was viewed by the department as a long @-@ term project . As part of the project , the parkway would have been extended north from the traffic circle with Plainview Road to NY 135 . The project was tentatively scheduled to start in mid @-@ 2025 and wrap up in early 2027 and cost $ 27 @.@ 9 million . The page was taken down by November 2010 .
= = Exit list = =
The entire route is in Nassau County .
= Charles Lydiard =
Charles Lydiard ( fl . 13 May 1780 – 29 December 1807 ) was an officer of the Royal Navy who served during the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars .
Lydiard 's origins are obscure , but he joined the navy in 1780 and rose through the ranks after distinguished service in the early years of the French Revolutionary Wars , particularly during the Siege of Toulon . He saw action in several engagements in the Mediterranean , and had a part in the defeat of a French frigate in 1795 . The chance for promotion passed him by however when the French ship escaped . He again demonstrated his qualities on a cutting @-@ out expedition under the guns of a French shore battery , and this time was successful in escaping with his prize . He was promoted and appointed to the command of his prize , and went on to be captain of several small vessels before a period of unemployment caused by his promotion to post @-@ captain . He returned to active service in 1805 with command of the razee HMS Anson , in which ship he distinguished himself in a number of incidents in the West Indies , capturing a Spanish frigate , attacking a French ship of the line , and helping to capture the island of Curaçao . He returned to Britain after these exploits , but his ship was caught in a gale , and despite his best efforts , was driven ashore and wrecked . Lydiard did his utmost to save as many of his men as he could , before being swept away and drowned .
= = Early life = =
Lydiard 's origins are largely unknown , but his entry to the navy is recorded as being on 13 May 1780 , when he joined the 100 @-@ gun HMS Britannia as a captain 's servant . The Britannia was at this time the flagship of Vice @-@ Admiral George Darby , commander of the Channel Fleet . Lydiard was appointed an able seaman on 25 July 1781 , and on 27 May 1782 was transferred to the 44 @-@ gun HMS Resistance , at first as an able seaman , but receiving a promotion to midshipman on 12 October that year . He went on to serve aboard the 74 @-@ gun HMS Bombay Castle and HMS Edgar , and passed his lieutenant 's examination on 27 May 1791 . He was serving with Lord Hood 's fleet during the occupation of Toulon in the early months of the French Revolutionary Wars . Lydiard distinguished himself with his actions during the hard @-@ fought defence of Fort Mulgrave , and received his commission on 25 November 1793 .
= = Lieutenancy = =
He then became first lieutenant of HMS Sincere , one of the prizes from Toulon , under the command of Commander William Shield . Shield and Lydiard served along the French Mediterranean coast until October 1794 , and were engaged in cutting @-@ out enemy ships from French harbours . Sincere was then paid off and Lydiard transferred to the 74 @-@ gun HMS Captain , where he saw action at the Battle of Genoa on 14 March and the Battle of Hyères Islands on 13 July 1795 . His former commander , William Shield , had received command of the 32 @-@ gun HMS Southampton by July 1795 , and Lydiard transferred that month to serve as his first lieutenant . Lydiard remained with Southampton after Shield 's replacement by Captain James Macnamara and in September 1795 they
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issue of Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! as well as on The Byrds and There Is a Season box sets .
The band attempted a second recording of the song during August 1965 . A program director from KRLA , who was present at the recording sessions , was impressed enough to play an acetate disc of the track on air , plugging it as The Byrds ' new single . However , The Byrds soon abandoned the idea of releasing " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " as their third single and instead issued the song " Turn ! Turn ! Turn ! " . The Byrds ' August 1965 version of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " has never been released .
Guitarist and band leader , Roger McGuinn , returned to the composition during a July 22 , 1969 recording session for the band 's Ballad of Easy Rider album . McGuinn decided to slow down the tempo and radically alter the song 's arrangement to fashion a more somber and serious version than those recorded in 1965 . In tandem with the slower tempo , the band dragged the syllables of each word out in order to emphasize the world @-@ weariness of the song 's lyric . Ultimately , McGuinn was dissatisfied with the recording of the song included on Ballad of Easy Rider , feeling that it tended to drag within the context of the album . In addition to appearing on Ballad of Easy Rider , The Byrds ' 1969 recording of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " can also be found on the compilation albums The Byrds Play Dylan and The Very Best of The Byrds .
= = = Other covers = = =
Many other artists have covered the song . Joan Baez , who has sometimes been speculated to be the subject of the song , covered it on her 1965 album Farewell , Angelina . It is one of four Dylan covers on that album , the others being the title track , " Mama , You Been on My Mind " ( recorded as " Daddy , You Been on My Mind " ) , and " A Hard Rain 's a @-@ Gonna Fall " . Baez sings " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in a falsetto voice , but retains the power of Dylan 's version . Baez has continued to perform the song at live concerts well into the modern era .
Others who have covered the song include Columbia Records contemporary Dion DiMucci ( who recorded the song one half year prior to Them 's version ) , The Country Gentlemen , Judy Collins , Joni Mitchell , Marianne Faithfull , Bryan Ferry , Manfred Mann 's Earth Band , Energy Orchard . , Turley Richards , Echo & the Bunnymen , Falco , Milltown Brothers , The Seldom Scene , Jon Fratelli , the Grateful Dead , The West Coast Pop Art Experimental Band , The Chocolate Watchband , Richie Havens , Steve Howe , The 13th Floor Elevators , Hole , Graham Bonnet , The Last Drive and Chris Farlowe . Gal Costa performed a version of the song in Portuguese under the title of " Negro Amor " on her 1977 album Caras e Bocas . Link Wray also covered the song on his album Bullshot .
George Harrison , who performed with Dylan in the Traveling Wilburys and also co @-@ wrote the song " I 'd Have You Anytime " with Dylan in November 1968 , did not cover the song , but did reference the title in his 1987 single , " When We Was Fab " . One of the lyrics in the song reads " But it 's all over now , baby blue " , which is a nod from Harrison to his friend Dylan .
The Chocolate Watchband version of " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " is featured in the documentary Tarnation .
The Animals recorded a version of the song on their 1977 album Before We Were So Rudely Interrupted .
The song was a source of inspiration for Joyce Carol Oates ' short story " Where Are You Going , Where Have You Been ? " , prompting her to dedicate the story to Dylan . A portion of the first verse of the song was used as the title for Barry Hannah 's 1995 novel Yonder Stands Your Orphan . Graham Bonnet 's version of the song appears on the soundtrack of the 2009 Peter Jackson film The Lovely Bones .. Philadelphia pop punk band The Wonder Years 's 2009 Distances split EP opens with a track entitled " An Elegy for Baby Blue , " which references Dylan 's song by directly quoting him in its chorus .
While not actually a cover , the rock band Nine Days included a sample of Dylan singing two lines from " It 's All Over Now , Baby Blue " in their song " Bob Dylan " from the album The Madding Crowd .
In 2011 Bad Religion recorded a punk rock cover version for the 2012 charity compilation album Chimes of Freedom : Songs of Bob Dylan Honoring 50 Years of Amnesty International .
= Fun Run =
" Fun Run " is the first and second episode of the fourth season of the American comedy television series The Office , and the show 's fifty @-@ fourth and fifty @-@ fifth episode overall . Written and directed by executive producer and showrunner Greg Daniels , the episode first aired on NBC in the United States on September 27 , 2007 .
In the episode , Michael Scott believes the office is cursed after he accidentally hits Meredith Palmer with his car . After being taken to the hospital , Meredith is found to have rabies . In an attempt to make amends with Meredith , Michael sponsors a fun run for rabies . Meanwhile , it is revealed that Jim Halpert and Pam Beesly are dating , while Angela Martin is mad at Dwight Schrute for killing her cat Sprinkles .
The episode received mixed reviews from the varying critics , while most praised the episode for Jim and Pam 's relationship . However , critics had differing opinions when it came to how Michael behaved throughout the episode .
= = Plot = =
Over the summer , Jan Levinson ( Melora Hardin ) moved in with Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) , Ryan Howard ( B.J. Novak ) started his new job at Corporate and Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) broke up with Karen Filippelli ( Rashida Jones ) , who left Dunder Mifflin Scranton . Jim and Pam Beesly ( Jenna Fischer ) claim that they see each other socially but only as friends . The documentary crew catches Pam picking up Jim in her car . They kiss and drive away . When faced with the footage of them kissing , Jim and Pam admit to the documentary crew that they are secretly dating .
As he arrives at work , Michael accidentally hits Meredith Palmer ( Kate Flannery ) with his car , sending her to the hospital for a fractured pelvis . Forced to join a group visit to Meredith in the hospital , Angela Martin ( Angela Kinsey ) leaves Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) with complicated instructions on the care of her ailing cat Sprinkles . During the hospital visit , Michael fails to obtain forgiveness from Meredith . When Angela returns to the office , Dwight informs her that her cat is dead . Dwight explains to Angela that he killed her cat because it was suffering , and that this is normal on the farm . Angela is furious , because being euthanized prevents Sprinkles from being in " cat heaven . "
The combination of Meredith 's accident , Sprinkles ' death , and a virus on Pam 's computer ( which is cleaned by the company 's tech support employee , Sadiq , portrayed by Omi Vaidya ) convinces Michael that the office is cursed . He insists that he is not superstitious , but rather " a little @-@ stitious " . Dwight discovers that Meredith has had a precautionary rabies shot due to several animal bites . Michael immediately takes credit for saving Meredith 's life by sending her to the hospital and declares the curse over . But , still feeling guilty about hurting Meredith , Michael organizes a charity five @-@ kilometer fun run to raise awareness of the dangers of rabies . Over half of the money raised is spent on the check presentation ceremony . Few take the race seriously ( Creed , Oscar and Stanley sneak off to a bar while Jim and Pam visit a garage sale ) and while Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) finishes first and Michael becomes ill , having " carbo @-@ loaded " ( he ate fettucini alfredo before the race ) and abstained from water . In the hospital for dehydration , Michael is visited by Meredith . In recognition of his efforts , she forgives him .
= = Production = =
" Fun Run " was the eighth episode of the series written by Greg Daniels and ninth episode directed by him . The episode was the second of the series in which Daniels was both the writer and director . Daniels also wrote and directed the first season episode " Basketball . "
After initially reading the script , Kate Flannery asked producer Kent Zbornak if Meredith was going to live , to which he replied " This isn 't All My Children . " Flannery was nervous about doing her own stunt , so Zbornak did it first to show her that she would be fine . Flannery recalls " [ I ] kind of got competitive with him , and I thought , ' I can do that . I can do that better than he can . ' " At first , Flannery would flinch before hitting the glass , until director Greg Daniels was able to get her to not think about it . Flannery 's arms were bruised , due to having to film the scene multiple times . During the hospital scenes , Flannery and Steve Carell improvised a few times .
= = Reception = =
Pam and Jim finally getting together went over well with most critics . Zap2It 's Rick Porter thought " the show handled the PB & J ( Pam Beesly and Jim ) stuff as well as it always has , underplaying the romance as much as the NBC marketing folks overplay it . " Although , Christine Fenno from Entertainment Weekly was happy about Pam and Jim finally dating , she was critical of them being secret about it , reasoning " I mean , nobody 's cheating . Can 't the Pam and Jim plotline have a bigger obstacle than self @-@ imposed , weakly enforced secrecy ? " TV Guide 's Jack Rodgers was glad " the writers aren ’ t jerking us around anymore , and the pair are finally busted when Jim hops a ride home with Pam after work . "
Reviews for Michael in this episode were a little bit more mixed . Rick Porter said that " there was a little too much Bad Michael in the hour for my taste . " Travis Fickett , of IGN , disagreed , saying that " the best stuff in the episode comes from Steve Carell . There 's his reaction to hitting Meredith , how he breaks it to the office , and his fear that the office is cursed . " Will Leitch , a writer for New York Magazine , said that Michael hitting Meredith with his car was " one of the most shocking moments in the show ’ s history " and " nothing that came afterwards could quite top what happened in the first 25 seconds . "
= The Chronic =
The Chronic is the debut studio album by American hip hop recording artist Dr. Dre . It was released on December 15 , 1992 , by his own record label Death Row Records and distributed by Priority Records . Recording sessions for the album took place in June 1992 at Death Row Studios in Los Angeles and at Bernie Grundman Mastering in Hollywood . The album is named after a slang term for high @-@ grade cannabis , and its cover is a homage to Zig @-@ Zag rolling papers . It was Dr. Dre 's first solo album after he had departed from hip hop group N.W.A and its label Ruthless Records over a financial dispute . On The Chronic , he included both subtle and direct insults at Ruthless and its owner , former N.W.A member Eazy @-@ E. Although a solo album , it features many appearances by Snoop Dogg , who used the album as a launch pad for his own solo career .
Upon its release , The Chronic received acclaim from music critics and earned considerable commercial success . The album peaked at number three on the Billboard 200 and had been certified triple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America with sales of 5 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States , which led to Dr. Dre becoming one of the top ten best @-@ selling American performing artists of 1993 . Dr. Dre 's production has been noted for popularizing the G @-@ funk subgenre within gangsta rap . The Chronic has been widely regarded as one of the most important and influential albums of the 1990s and regarded by many fans and peers to be one of the most well @-@ produced hip hop albums of all time .
= = Music = =
= = = Production = = =
The production on The Chronic was seen as innovative and ground @-@ breaking , and received universal acclaim from critics . AllMusic commented on Dr. Dre 's efforts , " Here , Dre established his patented G @-@ funk sound : fat , blunted Parliament @-@ Funkadelic beats , soulful backing vocals , and live instruments in the rolling basslines and whiny synths " and that " For the next four years , it was virtually impossible to hear mainstream hip @-@ hop that wasn 't affected in some way by Dre and his patented G @-@ funk . " Unlike other hip hop acts ( such as The Bomb Squad ) that sampled heavily , Dr. Dre only utilized one or few samples per song . In Rolling Stone 's The Immortals – The Greatest Artists of All Time , where Dr. Dre was listed at number 56 , Kanye West wrote on the album 's production quality : " The Chronic is still the hip @-@ hop equivalent to Stevie Wonder 's Songs in the Key of Life . It 's the benchmark you measure your album against if you 're serious . "
Jon Pareles of The New York Times described the production , writing " The bottom register is swampy synthesizer bass lines that openly emulate Parliament @-@ Funkadelic ; the upper end is often a lone keyboard line , whistling or blipping incessantly . In between are wide @-@ open spaces that hold just a rhythm guitar , sparse keyboard chords . " Pareles observed that the songs " were smoother and simpler than East Coast rap , and [ Dr. Dre and Snoop Dogg ] decisively expanded the hip @-@ hop audience into the suburbs . " Until this point , mainstream hip hop had been primarily party music ( for example , Beastie Boys ) or angry and politically charged ( for example , Public Enemy or X @-@ Clan ) , and had consisted almost entirely of samples and breakbeats . Dr. Dre ushered in a new musical style and lyrics for hip hop . The beats were slower and mellower , samples from late 1970s and early 1980s funk music . By mixing these early influences with original live instrumentation , a distinctive genre known as G @-@ funk was created .
= = = Lyrics = = =
The album 's lyrics caused some controversy , as the subject matter included homophobia and violent representations . It was noted that the album was a " frightening amalgam of inner @-@ city street gangs that includes misogynist sexual politics and violent revenge scenarios " . All the N.W.A members were addressed on the album ; Eazy @-@ E and Ice Cube were dissed on the second single " Fuck Wit Dre Day " , while MC Ren however was shouted out on the album 's intro . Dr. Dre 's dissing of former band @-@ mate , Eazy @-@ E , resulted in vicious lyrics , which were mainly aimed at offending his enemy with homosexual implications , although it was noted to have " a spirited cleverness in the phrasing and rhymes ; in other words , the song is offensive , but it 's creatively offensive " .
Rapper Snoop Dogg , who had a significant role on the album , was praised for his lyrics and flow , and it was mentioned that " Coupled with his inventive rhymes , Snoop 's distinctive style made him a superstar before he 'd even released a recording of his own " and that his involvement was as important to the album 's success as its production . Touré of The New York Times remarks that " While Snoop delivers rhymes delicately , the content is anything but . Growing up poor , often surrounded by violence , and having served six months in the Wayside County jail outside of Los Angeles ( for cocaine possession ) gave Snoop Dogg experiences upon which he draws . " Snoop Dogg later commented on the " reality " of his lyrics , stating " My raps are incidents where either I saw it happen to one of my close homies or I know about it from just being in the ghetto . I can 't rap about something I don 't know . You 'll never hear me rapping about no bachelor 's degree . It 's only what I know and that 's that street life . It 's all everyday life , reality . "
= = Singles = =
Three singles were released from the album : " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " , " Fuck wit Dre Day " and " Let Me Ride " . " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " was released as the first single on January 19 , 1993 . It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks and Hot Rap Singles . It sold over a million copies and the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified it Platinum on March 24 , 1993 . The song was nominated for Best Rap Performance by a Duo or Group at the 1994 Grammy Awards , but lost to Digable Planets ' " Rebirth of Slick ( Cool Like Dat ) " . Steve Huey of AllMusic named it " the archetypal G @-@ funk single " and added " The sound , style , and performances of " Nuthin ' but a ' G ' Thang " were like nothing else on the early- ' 90s hip @-@ hop scene . " He praised Snoop Dogg 's performance , stating " [ Snoop Dogg 's ] flow was laconic and relaxed , massively confident and capable of rapid @-@ fire tongue @-@ twisters , but coolly laid @-@ back and almost effortless at the same time " . Today it is one of the most critically and commercially lauded hip @-@ hop / rap songs of all time . It is rated the 134th best song of all time by Acclaimedmusic.net , and the sixth best hip @-@ hop / rap song , and voted in a VH1 poll as the 13th best song of the 1990s .
" Fuck wit Dre Day ( and Everybody 's Celebratin ' ) " was released as the second single on May 20 , 1993 and like the previous single , it was a hit on multiple charts . It reached number eight on the Billboard Hot 100 and number six on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles & Tracks . It sold over 500 @,@ 000 units and the RIAA certified it Gold on October 8 , 1993 . Allmusic writer Steve Huey stated that the song was " a classic hip @-@ hop single " , citing Dr. Dre 's production as " impeccable as ever , uniting his signature whiny synth melodies with a halting , descending bass line , a booming snare , and soulful female vocals in the background " and alluded to Snoop Dogg , stating " Attitude was something Snoop had by the boatload , his drawling , laid @-@ back delivery projecting unassailable control – it sounded lazy even though it wasn 't , and that helped establish Snoop 's don 't @-@ give @-@ a @-@ damn persona . " The track contains direct insults to rappers East coast rapper Tim Dog , 2 Live Crew member Luke , and Dre 's former accomplices Eazy @-@ E & Ice Cube .
" Let Me Ride " was released as a cassette single on September 13 , 1993 . It experienced moderate success on the charts , reaching number 34 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number three on the Hot Rap Singles . The song won Dr. Dre Best Rap Solo Performance at the 1994 Grammy Awards . On this song and " Nuthin but a " G " Thang " , Time magazine noted that Dr. Dre 's verses were delivered with a " hypnotically intimidating ease " and made the songs feel like " dusk on a wide @-@ open L.A. boulevard , full of possibility and menace " .
= = Commercial performance = =
As of 2015 , the album has sold 5 @.@ 7 million copies in the United States , and was certified three times Platinum by RIAA on November 3 , 1993 . It is Dr. Dre 's second @-@ bestselling album , as his follow @-@ up album , 2001 , was certified sextuple Platinum . The album first appeared on music charts in 1993 , peaking on the Billboard 200 at number three , and peaking on Top R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Albums at number one . The Chronic spent eight months in the Billboard Top 10 . The album 's three singles became top ten Billboard singles . " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 and at number one on both the Hot Rap Singles and Hot R & B Singles charts . " Fuck Wit Dre Day ( And Everybody 's Celebratin ' ) " became a top ten single on four different charts , including the Hot R & B Singles ( number 6 ) and the Hot 100 ( number 8 ) .
The Chronic didn 't chart on the UK Albums Chart until 2000 , eight years after its original release , and peaked at number 43 in July 2004 . It has sold 260 @,@ 814 copies there . The Chronic re @-@ entered the charts in 2003 , peaking on the Ireland Albums Top 75 at number 48 , and on the UK Albums Top 75 in 2004 at number 43 .
= = Critical reception = =
The Chronic received universal widespread critical acclaim from contemporary music critics . Rolling Stone 's Havelock Nelson wrote that the album " drops raw realism and pays tribute to hip @-@ hop virtuosity . " Entertainment Weekly said that it " storms with rage , strolls with confidence , and reverberates with a social realism that 's often ugly and horrifying " . The Source claimed that Snoop Dogg 's " Slick Rick @-@ esque style " produces " new ground for West Coast MCs " and that the album is " an innovative and progressive hip @-@ hop package that must not be missed . " USA Today found " Dre 's prowess as beat @-@ master and street preacher " to be " undeniable " . Jonathan Gold of the Los Angeles Times wrote that , although the rappers lack " quick wit " and " rhythmic virtuosity " , Dre 's artistry is " on a par with Phil Spector 's or Brian Wilson 's . " Gold argued that , because Dre recreates rather than samples beats and instrumental work , the finished album 's fidelity is not inflected by that of " scratchy R & B records that have been played a million times " , unlike productions from East Coast hip hop .
In a mixed review , Greg Kot of the Chicago Tribune viewed the album as superficial , unrefined entertainment and felt that " Dre combines street potency with thuggish stupidity in equal measure . " Robert Christgau , writing in The Village Voice , dismissed it as " sociopathic easy @-@ listening " and " bad pop music " whose innovation — Dre 's departure from sampling — is not inspired by contemporary P @-@ Funk , but rather blaxploitation soundtracks , which led him to combine trite bass lines with imitations of " Bernie Worrell 's high keyb sustain , a basically irritating sound that in context always signified fantasy , not reality — stoned self @-@ loss or , at a best Dre never approaches , grandiose jive . " He felt that the brutal lyrical threats were vague and lacked detail , although he found Snoop Dogg 's rhymes " drolly " and not dull , unlike Dr. Dre . Select gave the album a two out of five rating , finding that the album was not as strong as releases from other gangster rap artists such as Ice Cube and Da Lench Mob stating that The Chronic was neither as " musically sharp , nor as lyrically smart as the latter . " The review concluded that the album sounded like " all the pedestrian bits from The Predator " but that it was still better than any release Eazy @-@ E had released .
Retrospective reviews of the album were also positive . Jon Pareles of The New York Times said that The Chronic and Snoop Dogg 's Doggystyle " made the gangsta life sound like a party occasionally interrupted by gunplay " . AllMusic 's Steve Huey compared Dr. Dre to his inspiration , George Clinton , stating " Dre 's just as effortlessly funky , and he has a better feel for a hook , a knack that improbably landed gangsta rap on the pop charts " . Rhapsody writer Brolin Winning named the album as " an untouchable masterpiece of California Gangsta Rap " and that it had " track after track of G @-@ Funk gems " . On Rolling Stone 's 500 Greatest Albums of All Time , it was noted that " Dre funked up the rhymes with a smooth bass @-@ heavy production style and the laid @-@ back delivery of then @-@ unknown rapper Snoop Doggy Dogg . " Time magazine 's Josh Tyrangiel states that Dr. Dre created " a sound that defined early 90 's urban L.A. in the same way that Motown defined 60 's Detroit " . Laura Sinagra , writing in The Rolling Stone Album Guide ( 2004 ) , said that The Chronic " features system @-@ busting Funkadelic beats designed to rumble your woofer while the matter @-@ of @-@ fact violence of the lyrics blows your smoke @-@ filled mind " .
= = = Accolades = = =
In 1994 , " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " and " Let Me Ride " were nominated at the 36th Grammy Awards , with the latter winning Best Rap Solo Performance for Dr. Dre . That year , readers of Hip Hop Connection voted it the fourth best album of all time , leading the magazine to speculate , " In a few years ' time , it could even be remembered as the best rap album of all time . "
The Chronic was included in Vibe magazine 's " 100 Essential Albums of the 20th Century " and it was ranked at number six in their " Top 10 Rap Albums of All Time " . Rolling Stone ranked it at number 138 on their list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time . The record ranked at number eight in Spin magazine 's " 90 Greatest Albums of the ' 90s " and in 2005 , it was ranked at number thirty @-@ five in their " 100 Greatest Albums , 1985 – 2005 " . The Source magazine originally gave the album four and a half mics out of five and it was added to The Source 's 100 Best Rap Albums . It was later revealed that while everybody at the magazine knew it was an instant classic , the music editor at that time had a strict policy of staying away from a perfect rating . In 2005 , MTV Networks listed The Chronic as the third greatest hip hop album in history . In 2006 , Time magazine ranked it as one of the 100 greatest albums of all time and it was listed in the book 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die . In a retrospective issue , XXL magazine awarded The Chronic a perfect " XXL " rating .
= = Influence = =
Having split from N.W.A , Dr. Dre 's first solo album established him as one of the biggest hip hop stars of his era . Yahoo ! Music writer S.L. Duff wrote of the album 's impact on his status in hip hop at the time , stating " Dre 's considerable reputation is based on this release , alongside his production technique on Snoop 's Doggystyle " and his early work with N.W.A. Whatever one thinks of the over @-@ the @-@ top bravado rapping , the tracks and beats Dre assembled are beyond reproach " . The Chronic brought G @-@ funk to the mainstream – a genre defined by slow bass beats and melodic synthesizers , topped by P @-@ Funk samples , female vocals , and a laconic , laid @-@ back lyrical delivery referred to as a " lazy drawl " . The album takes its name from a slang term for premium grade cannabis , chronic . The album cover is an homage to Zig @-@ Zag rolling papers . Robert Christgau said that , although he " can 't stand " it , he respects The Chronic " for its influence and iconicity " .
The album launched the careers of West Coast hip hop artists , including Snoop Doggy Dogg , Daz Dillinger , Kurupt , Nate Dogg , and Warren G , Dr. Dre 's stepbrother – all of whom pursued successful commercial careers . The Chronic is widely regarded as the album that re @-@ defined West Coast hip hop , demonstrated gangsta rap 's commercial potential as a multi @-@ platinum commodity , and established G @-@ funk as the most popular sound in hip hop music for several years after its release , with Dr. Dre producing major albums that drew heavily on his production style . The album 's success established Death Row Records as a dominant force in 1990s hip hop . It has been re @-@ released 3 times , first as a remastered CD , then as a remastered DualDisc with enhanced stereo and four videos , and in 2009 as " The Chronic Re @-@ Lit " with a bonus DVD containing a 30 minute interview and 7 unreleased tracks . The singles " Fuck wit Dre Day " and " Nuthin ' but a " G " Thang " are in best @-@ selling video game Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas on the fictional radio station Radio Los Santos .
= = Track listing = =
All songs produced by Dr. Dre .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Heart of Glory =
" Heart of Glory " is the 20th episode of the first season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , first broadcast March 21 , 1988 . The story was created by Herbert Wright and D. C. Fontana , and was made into a script in two days by executive producer Maurice Hurley . The episode was directed by Rob Bowman .
Set in the 24th century , the series follows the adventures of the crew of the Starfleet starship Enterprise @-@ D. In this episode , the crew rescue three Klingons from a damaged freighter in the neutral zone . Once aboard they befriend Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) and attempt to hijack the Enterprise so they can live as true Klingons , forcing Worf to choose between them or Starfleet .
The episode explained the backstory to the character of Lt. Worf , and Michael Dorn was pleased with the outcome . Rob Bowman thought that the episode worked well . He included an overhead shot on the engineering set which had not been done before on the show and tweaked the ending . Shots of the Klingon starship were reused from Star Trek : The Motion Picture , while the freighter model would be reused as various freighters throughout the various Star Trek television series . Guest stars included Vaughn Armstrong as Korris in his first role in the franchise and only appearance in The Next Generation . He appeared in a further eleven roles in the franchise , including the part of Admiral Maxwell Forrest in Star Trek : Enterprise . The episode was watched by 10 @.@ 7 million viewers during the initial broadcast , and reviews by critics were mixed .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise enters the neutral zone , to investigate the distress call of a Talarian freighter . The freighter is badly damaged , and three life forms are detected aboard . An away team beams over and finds three Klingons : Korris ( Vaughn Armstrong ) ; Konmel ( Charles Hyman ) ; and Kunivas ( Robert Bauer ) , who is wounded . The away team returns with them to the Enterprise before the freighter explodes . Kunivas is taken to sickbay and Korris meets with Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) . The Klingon explains that they were passengers when the freighter was attacked by a Ferengi ship ; the Klingons took over the freighter to fend off and destroy the Ferengi ship , but the damage sustained left the freighter adrift and faltering . As Korris and Konmel are shown to quarters , they are surprised to hear about a fellow Klingon , Lt. Worf ( Michael Dorn ) , who is serving within Starfleet .
Kunivas ' condition worsens , and Korris , Konmel , and Worf are present when he dies , and the three let out a fierce roar as per Klingon custom . As they return to the Klingons ' quarters , Konmel is disappointed that Kunivas did not die in battle , leading Worf to question the nature of the attack on the freighter ; Korris and Konmel quickly change the subject . Worf forces Korris to reveal the truth : the three had commandeered the freighter , in order to seek out a place they could live as true Klingons , and the damage to the freighter was a result of battle with a Klingon ship . When the two are seen near the ship 's battle bridge , hoping to steal the drive section and escape the crew on the saucer , they are placed in the brig .
The Enterprise is soon met by a Klingon battlecruiser , captained by Commander K 'Nera ( David Froman ) , who demands the return of the fugitive Klingons . Knowing that Korris and Konmel will be tried and executed if they are returned , Worf argues instead for their exile to a hostile planet , but K 'Nera refuses . Korris and Konmel use parts secreted on their uniforms to assemble a disruptor pistol and escape from the brig ; Konmel is killed as Korris takes over the Engineering deck . Picard and Worf race to Engineering , and Worf tries to reason with Korris who is threatening to destroy the warp core and take the Enterprise with him . Korris attempts to persuade Worf to come with him and conquer the galaxy as a true Klingon , and then accuses Worf of being weak when he refuses . Worf fires on Korris , killing him . K 'Nera is told of the deaths of the fugitives , and Worf declares that they " died well " when asked of their manner of death . Worf accepts an offer to serve aboard the Klingon battlecruiser after his service aboard the Enterprise is complete , but when communications with K 'Nera are broken off , assures the bridge crew he was just being polite .
= = Production = =
Writer and executive producer Maurice Hurley thought that " Heart of Glory " was the closest experience he had on the show to directly placing his own personal philosophy into a script . He later credited fellow executive producer Rick Berman with helping to write the script for " Heart of Glory " , saying " When I had a problem , I could go in and we could sit there , close the door , yell and scream . I 'd pace , he 'd make suggestions . The two of us made stories work in that room that had to be shot within a couple of days . We were under enormous time pressure , and we were working hand in glove . We had a wonderful time , on that show , especially . " Hurley wrote the screenplay in two days from a story created by Herbert Wright and D. C. Fontana . Because of the delays , the Klingon language portions of the script didn 't make any actual sense in translation and were simply Klingon sounding words created by Hurley .
The story explained Lt. Worf 's background for the first time in the series , including the story of Romulan betrayal at Khitomer which saw the death of his parents . While his foster parents were first mentioned in this episode , they were not seen until the fourth season episode " Family " and his stepbrother didn 't appear on the show until the seventh season episode " Homeward " . Michael Dorn was pleased with the outcome of this episode as he felt it showed the producers that the fans were just as interested in his character as the others in the main cast . He felt that it could have been taken further and wanted there to be an epic battle at the end of the episode . The Klingon battlecruiser seen in " Heart of Glory " was footage re @-@ used from Star Trek : The Motion Picture , while the freighter was a general model which would come to be reused throughout The Next Generation and other Star Trek television series .
Director Rob Bowman made bold decisions in designing the confrontation sequence . The scripted version showed the fight between Worf and Korris taking place entirely on the first deck of the engineering section . Instead , Bowman had them fight on the upper deck and , using camera angles never before seen the show , filmed vertical sequences in that part of the set . He also altered the script so that Konmel needed to be hit by three phaser blasts . Bowman used a steadicam to film the scenes on the freighter in order to give a rough effect to the footage . He was pleased with the outcome , describing it as the easiest of all of the Next Generation episodes he directed . He said that it was a show where " every hand we had was a 21 . It just worked . "
Guest stars in this episode included Robert Bauer as Kunivas , who had previously been in a band with Michael Dorn . Stuntman Dennis Madalone made his second appearance in The Next Generation with this episode , having previously appeared earlier in the season in " Where No One Has Gone Before " . He would continue to appear as various crewmen through the rest of the series . " Heart of Glory " was the only appearance in The Next Generation for actor Vaughn Armstrong . He would , however , go on to play a further eleven different roles in the Star Trek franchise , including as the recurring character of Admiral Maxwell Forrest in Star Trek : Enterprise .
= = Reception and home media release = =
" Heart of Glory " was first broadcast in the United States on March 21 , 1988 , in broadcast syndication . The episode received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 7 million on the first broadcast , which was an increase over the 10 @.@ 1 million received by the previous episode , " Coming of Age " . Only the episode " Symbiosis " received a higher rating by the end of the season .
Several reviewers re @-@ watched the episode after the end of the series . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com in July 2011 . DeCandido is a novellist and has produced works based in the Star Trek universe , and describes himself as " the Klingon guy " as far as Star Trek novellists are concerned . However , he was not overly pleased with the episode , describing the plot as being slow and said that Michael Dorn 's acting skills at this point were " mediocre " but would get " much much better " later in the series . He praised David Froman as K 'Nera , describing him as having " tremendous presence " and thought that although Vaughn Armstrong was excellent as Admiral Forrest in Enterprise , in this early episode he was " overly histrionic " . He described the overhead shot of Worf after the death of Korris as " just silly " , and thought that the episode overall was a " forgettable mess " . He gave it a rating of four out of ten . Zack Handlen , writing for The A.V. Club in May 2010 , thought that the first act of " Heart of Glory " was slow , but it improved after that and said that " while it 's not exactly a tear jerker , it allows Worf the dignity the character needs to work . " He had mixed feelings about the Klingon death ritual , but felt that it was justified at the end of the episode as the complex nature of the character of Korris made the sense of loss feel earned . He gave the episode a grade of B + .
Michelle Erica Green watched the episode for TrekNation in August 2007 , and described it as one of her favourite episodes from the first season . She thought it laid the groundwork for later episodes in The Next Generation , Deep Space Nine , and Voyager regarding the Klingon culture . However , she felt that the drama seemed artificial and that the writers forced a situation where Worf had to kill one of the Klingons as if " justifying the brutality as necessary for the good of Starfleet " . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " also thought that the drama with Worf deciding whether or not to join the Klingons was problematic . He thought it was hard to believe that the crew seemed to know Worf as little as they did at this point in the series , but praised it for being the starting point for all future Klingon @-@ based stories in the franchise . He gave it a score of three out of four .
The first home media release of " Heart of Glory " was on VHS cassette , appearing on November 11 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season one DVD box set , released in March 2002 . The most recent release was as part of the season one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 .
= 1998 FA Charity Shield =
The 1998 Football Association Charity Shield ( also known as the AXA FA Charity Shield for sponsorship reasons ) was the 76th FA Charity Shield , an annual English football match organised by The Football Association and played between the winners of the previous season 's Premier League and FA Cup competitions . It was contested on 9 August 1998 by Arsenal – who won a league and FA Cup double the previous season – and Manchester United – who finished runners @-@ up in the league . Watched by a crowd of 67 @,@ 342 at Wembley Stadium , Arsenal won the match 3 – 0 .
This was Manchester United 's 18th Charity Shield appearance to Arsenal 's 14th . Manchester United began the game more strongly , but Arsenal took the lead when Marc Overmars scored 11 minutes before half @-@ time . They extended their lead in the second half , as Overmars and Nicolas Anelka found Christopher Wreh , who put the ball into an empty net at the second attempt . In the 72nd minute , Arsenal scored a third goal , when Anelka got around Jaap Stam in the penalty box and shot the ball past goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel .
Arsenal 's victory marked Manchester United 's first Shield defeat in 13 years . The teams later faced each other in the FA Cup semi @-@ final , which was won by Manchester United in a replay . Manchester United finished the league season one point ahead of Arsenal and went on to win the FA Cup and UEFA Champions League , thereby completing a treble of trophies in the 1998 – 99 season .
= = Background = =
Founded in 1908 as a successor to the Sheriff of London Charity Shield , the FA Charity Shield began as a contest between the respective champions of the Football League and Southern League , although in 1913 it was played between an Amateurs XI and a Professionals XI . In 1921 , it was played by the league champions of the top division and FA Cup winners for the first time . The match was played at Wembley Stadium , which first hosted the Shield in 1974 .
Arsenal qualified for the 1998 FA Charity Shield as winners of the 1997 – 98 FA Premier League . Although they were 12 points behind league leaders Manchester United by the end of February 1998 , a nine @-@ match winning streak , culminating in a 4 – 0 win over Everton on 3 May 1998 , ensured Arsenal won the title . Arsenal beat Newcastle United 2 – 0 in the 1998 FA Cup Final to complete the domestic double . Given they won both honours , the other Charity Shield place went to league runners @-@ up Manchester United .
The most recent meeting between the two teams was in the Premier League on 14 March 1998 , when a second @-@ half goal by Marc Overmars gave Arsenal a 1 – 0 win at Old Trafford . Arsenal were the only team in the 1997 – 98 league to beat United home and away , with the corresponding home fixture ending 3 – 2 . Arsenal manager Arsène Wenger acknowledged the Shield game was the " only opportunity to play our first @-@ team men together against top @-@ class opposition " before their league campaign commenced the following week . Manchester United manager Alex Ferguson was preoccupied with the team 's match against ŁKS Łódź in the second qualifying round of the UEFA Champions League three days later . He felt the contest with Arsenal would get his " players ' sharpness up and provide plenty of benefit " for their upcoming matches .
The match was officially referred to as " The AXA FA Charity Shield " as part of a sponsorship deal between The Football Association and French insurance group AXA , agreed in July 1998 . The deal also saw the FA Cup referred to as " The AXA Sponsored FA Cup " for its four @-@ year duration .
= = Match = =
= = = Team selection = = =
Manchester United winger Jesper Blomqvist was ruled out with an ankle injury , but Roy Keane was fit enough to start his first competitive match since damaging his ligaments eleven months previously . Defender Jaap Stam , who signed for United in May 1998 , made his competitive debut for the club , partnering centre @-@ back Ronny Johnsen . For Arsenal , new signing Nelson Vivas began the match on the substitutes ' bench , in spite of being expected to make his full debut , while Dennis Bergkamp started alongside Nicolas Anelka up front .
Arsenal employed a traditional 4 – 4 – 2 formation : a four @-@ man defence ( comprising two centre @-@ backs and left and right full @-@ backs ) , four midfielders ( two in the centre , and one on each wing ) and two centre @-@ forwards . Manchester United organised themselves slightly differently , with Paul Scholes playing ahead of the midfield in a supporting role behind the main striker , Andy Cole . The team lined up in a 4 – 4 – 1 – 1 formation .
= = = Summary = = =
In pitch @-@ side temperatures of 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) , Manchester United enjoyed their best spell of the match early on , while Arsenal 's pair Patrick Vieira and Emmanuel Petit adjusted themselves . United fashioned their first chance through David Beckham , who was booed throughout the match on account of many fans blaming him for England 's elimination from the 1998 FIFA World Cup . His pass eventually met Scholes , whose attempt forced Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman to clear . In spite of United 's promising start , it was Arsenal who scored the opening goal . Vieira played the ball down the right side of the penalty area in the direction of Bergkamp and Anelka . Bergkamp got there first and back @-@ heeled the ball to Anelka , but the Frenchman was unable to take control ; however , he was able to put pressure on Johnsen in the Manchester United defence and blocked the Norwegian 's attempted clearance . The ball ran across the edge of the penalty area to Overmars , who lashed it right @-@ footed past Manchester United goalkeeper Peter Schmeichel into the net . A shot by Keane from 25 yards ( 23 m ) prompted a save from Seaman in the 42nd minute .
Arsenal began dominating in the second half , and increased their lead after 57 minutes . From the left wing , Overmars used his pace to get the better of Gary Neville and passed the ball to Anelka , who turned and passed to an unmarked Christopher Wreh . Schmeichel blocked the Liberian 's initial shot with his feet , but he was unable to stop the second attempt or Wreh 's acrobatic celebration . Despite the setback , United continued to press Arsenal ; defender Martin Keown almost put the ball into his own goal from Ryan Giggs 's corner . Both teams made mass substitutions in the final third of the game , notably Teddy Sheringham and Luís Boa Morte coming on for Cole – who rarely threatened – and Petit , respectively . Arsenal scored their third in the 72nd minute – Parlour 's pass found Anelka , who got around Stam and shot the ball past Schmeichel from a narrow angle , inside the goalkeeper 's near post . Near the end , Sheringham wasted a goal @-@ scoring opportunity , shooting wide .
= = = Details = = =
Source :
= = = Statistics = = =
= = Post @-@ match = =
The result marked Manchester United 's first Shield defeat in 13 years , and was the ninth time Arsenal had won the Charity Shield . Arsenal became the first southern club since Tottenham Hotspur in 1962 to win the Shield outright . Wenger described the scoreline as " unexpected " and cited the first goal as crucial in the match , given the weather conditions . He was content with how his international players , who had been in the World Cup , coped with the game 's physicality . Wenger believed the result gave Arsenal a psychological boost for the Champions League campaign , as the club planned to stage their home matches at Wembley Stadium . Bergkamp felt the result showed that Arsenal had what it took to retain the Premier League title : " We 've still got the same mentality and that will be the basis for this year 's challenge . This is a good start . It is harder to retain the trophy . "
Ferguson admitted his team had been beaten by the better side and agreed with Wenger that the first goal was important . He was pleased that Keane got through the match after 11 months out of action and was confident his team would fare better against ŁKS Łódź , the following Wednesday . Schmeichel felt the upcoming Champions League qualifier was more important than the Charity Shield game , which he considered as a pre @-@ season match . Ferguson anticipated another challenge from Arsenal in the league : " I think you could make a strong case for four teams to challenge for the Premiership but I think Arsenal pose the biggest threat . "
Three days after the Charity Shield match , United beat ŁKS Łódź 2 – 0 and qualified for the Champions League group stage following a goalless match a fortnight later . Arsenal had the upper hand in their two league meetings with United during the season , winning 3 – 0 at Highbury in September 1998 , before a 1 – 1 draw at Old Trafford in February 1999 . The two teams went into the final day of the 1998 – 99 FA Premier League vying for the title , but United 's 2 – 1 win against Tottenham meant they finished one point above Arsenal . The two sides met twice more that season in the FA Cup semi @-@ final , which was settled in a replay after the original match finished goalless . Manchester United won in extra time – the winning goal scored by Giggs . United then went on to defeat Newcastle United 2 – 0 in the 1999 FA Cup Final . Whereas Arsenal failed to progress past the group stage of the Champions League , Manchester United went on to reach the final , where they beat Bayern Munich to win the competition for the second time . Ferguson 's team therefore completed a treble of trophies in one season .
= Raëlism =
Raëlism ( also known as Raëlianism or the Raëlian movement ) is a UFO religion that was founded in 1974 by Claude Vorilhon ( b . 1946 ) , now known as Raël . The Raëlian Movement teaches that life on Earth was scientifically created by a species of extraterrestrials , which they call the Elohim . Members of this species appeared human when having personal contacts with the descendants of the humans that they made . They purposefully misinformed early humanity that they were angels , cherubim , or gods . Raëlians believe that messengers , or prophets , of the Elohim include Buddha , Jesus , and others who informed humans of each era . The founder of Raëlism , members claim , received the final message of the Elohim and that its purpose is to inform the world about Elohim and that if humans become aware and peaceful enough , they wish to be welcomed by them .
The Raëlian Church has a quasi @-@ clerical structure of seven levels . Joining the movement requires an official apostasy from other religions . Raëlian ethics include striving for world peace , sharing , democracy and nonviolence . Sexuality is also an important part of the Raëlian doctrine and its liberal views of sexuality have attracted some of its priests and bishops from other religions .
Raël founded Clonaid ( originally Valiant Venture Ltd Corporation ) in 1997 , but then handed it over to a Raëlian bishop , Brigitte Boisselier in 2000 . In 2002 the company claimed that an American woman underwent a standard cloning procedure that led to the birth of a daughter , Eve ( b . 26 December 2002 ) . Although few believe the claim , it nonetheless attracted national authorities and the mainstream media to look further into the Raëlians ' cult status .
The Raëlians frequently use the swastika as a symbol of peace , which halted Raëlian requests for territory in Israel , and later Lebanon , for establishing an embassy for extraterrestrials . The religion also uses the swastika embedded on the Star of David . Starting around 1991 , this symbol was often replaced by a variant star and swirl symbol as a public relations move , particularly toward Israel .
= = History = =
The beginnings of Raëlism are rooted in the claims of a French former automobile journalist and race car driver Claude Vorilhon . In his books The Book Which Tells the Truth ( 1974 ) and Extraterrestrials Took Me to their Planet ( 1975 ) , Vorilhon alleges that he had alien encounters with beings who gave him knowledge of the origins of all major religions .
The movement traces its beginnings to a conference in Paris , France of two thousand people in 1974 . From there , the MADECH organization was born . The name MADECH is a double acronym in the French language ; it stands both for " Movement for the Welcoming of the Elohim , Creators of Humanity " ( Mouvement pour l ‘ accueil des Elohim , créateurs de l 'humanité ) and for " Moses Preceded Elijah and the Christ " ( Moise a devancé Élie et le Christ ) . By 1976 , Claude Vorilhon ( called Raël ) transformed MADECH into the International Raelian Movement .
From 1980 to 1992 Raël and his movement became increasingly global . In 1980 Claude Raël 's fifth Raëlian book Sensual Meditation was published and formal publication of the Raëlian Messages in the Japanese language began as part of the Raëlian mission to Japan . Two years later , Africa became another target area in the mission to spread the Raëlian messages .
On 26 December 2002 , Brigitte Boisselier , a Raëlian Bishop and CEO of a biotechnology company called Clonaid announced the birth of baby Eve , supposedly the first @-@ ever human clone . The announcement ignited much media attention , ethical debate , doubt , criticism , and claims of a hoax . Spokespeople for the movement , including Claude Vorilhon , have suggested that this is one of the first steps in achieving a more important agenda . They claim that through cloning they can combine an accelerated growth process with some form of mind transfer , and in such , may achieve eternal life .
= = Member hierarchy = =
The structure of the Raëlian Church is hierarchical , with seven levels ascending from level 0 to level 6 . The top four levels consist of " Guides " . The level 6 guide , known as the " Guide of Guides " , has the final say on who becomes a level 5 " Bishop Guide " or a level 4 " Priest Guide " . Bishops and priests promote lower @-@ level members one level at a time during annual seminars . Each bishop or priest can propose a new guide as long as the candidate is from a level below his or her own . Guides can assist " Regional Guides " — level 3 and above — in their assigning of non @-@ guide members to levels 3 ( " Assistant Priests " ) , 2 ( " Organizers " ) and 1 ( " Assistant Organizers " ) .
Members of the Raëlian structure begin as level 0 " trainees " during annual seminars . The Raelian structure claimed in 2007 to have about 2 @,@ 300 members , 170 " Raëlian guides " , and 41 bishops . Claude Vorilhon has held the highest position for three seven @-@ year terms .
= = = Women @-@ only groups = = =
Women make up only a third of the membership in the Raëlian Church , though two anecdotes in the Raëlian Contact newsletter report female majorities joining the movement 's Asian Mongolian chapter . Women such as Brigitte Boisselier , the Chief Executive Officer of Clonaid , play a powerful role in the Raëlian Church . There are two major groups of women in the Raëlian Church .
The Order of Angels , founded in the 1990s , consists of over a hundred Raëlian women who call for femininity and refinement for all of humanity . The initiation rites include declaring an oath or making a contract in which one agrees to become defender of the Raëlian ideology and its founder Raël . The Order of Angels has its own hierarchy of " rose angels " and " white angels " which , as of 2003 , are six and 160 women , respectively . After the Clonaid human cloning claim made the headlines , the Daily Telegraph wrote that members of the order not only provided sexual pleasure for Raël , but also helped donate eggs for efforts towards human cloning . A few days later , Time magazine wrote that French chemist Brigitte Boisselier was an Order of Angels member . Around this time , cult specialist Mike Kropveld called the Order of Angels " one of the most transparent movements " he had witnessed , though he was alarmed by the women 's promise to defend Raël 's life with their own bodies .
Raël has instructed some women members to play a pro @-@ sex feminist role in the Raëlian Church . " Rael 's Girls " is another group of women in the movement which are against the suppression of feminine acts of pleasure , including sexual intercourse with men or women . Rael 's Girls solely consists of women who work in the sex industry . The women of Rael 's Girls say there is no reason to repent for performing striptease or being a prostitute . This organization was set up " to support the choice of the women who are working in the sex industry " . Rael 's Girls and its founder Raël were featured in a pictorial in the October 2004 issue of Playboy .
= = Rites and practices = =
= = = Initiation = = =
= = = = Ceremony = = = =
The major initiation rite in the Raëlian Church is the " baptism " or " transmission of the cellular plan " and is performed by upper @-@ level members in the Raëlian clergy known as guides . In 1979 , Raël introduced the " Act of Apostasy " as an obligation for those preparing for their Raëlian baptism .
The Raëlian baptism is known as transmission of the cellular plan where " cellular " refers to the organic cells of the body and the " plan " refers to the genetic makeup of the individual . This Raëlian baptism involves a guide member laying water onto the forehead of the new member . The practice began on " the first Sunday in April " of 1976 when Raël baptised 40 Raëlians . Raëlians believe that their genetic information is recorded by a remote computer and would become recognized during their final hour when they will be judged by the extraterrestrial Elohim .
= = = = Ceremonial dates = = = =
Baptisms can only be performed on four special days in the year . The dates mark anniversaries in the Raëlian calendar .
The dates are 6 August , which marks the anniversary of the atomic bombing of Hiroshima in 1945 , 13 December , marking the day that Raël in 1973 says he had his first personal encounter with one of the extraterrestrial Elohim , 7 October in which the Elohim , Raël says , took him up in a spacecraft in 1975 and the following day had meals with Jesus , Buddha , and other past religious figures and the first Sunday in April , which Raëlians believe is the date when dark @-@ skinned extraterrestrials created Adam and Eve .
= = = Sensual Meditation = = =
Sensual Meditation is the set of exercises made public by Claude Vorilhon in his book La méditation sensuelle . It is practiced by members of International Raelian Movement ( IRM ) . The first of these exercises is usually taught in Raëlian Seminars .
= = Other activities , outreach and advocacy = =
Throughout the history of Raëlism , members of the Raëlian Church have toured public settings advocating masturbation , condoms and birth control . Raëlians hope that genetically modified food and nanotechnology will allow humankind to eliminate the obligation to work , in a world that embraces science and technology .
Raëlians have founded Clonaid , a company that envisions that someday human beings can be scientifically recreated though a process of human cloning , and Clitoraid , an organization whose mission is to oppose female genital mutilation .
= = = UFO exhibits = = =
Raëlian structure members have set up exhibitions about their beliefs of extraterrestrial intelligent designers sending crop circles , UFOs , and spaceships for their arrival at an embassy . While there have been smaller meetings of Raëlians and non @-@ Raëlians , annual Raëlian seminars have been typically larger .
= = = Seminars = = =
Raëlian structure members who run the seminars have organized group exercises involving meditation with the senses . James R. Lewis , an authority on fringe religious movements , spoke of Raëlians who practiced a Raëlian exercise called Sensual Meditation and discovered " playing fields " where " radical self @-@ reconstruction , " " new forms of authority , " and " new modes of self @-@ relating " were encouraged .
Music has been a feature of large gatherings , where at night , Raëlians have had multiethnic cabaret performances . Seminarists have used colored bracelets to indicate whether they wanted to be alone , be in a couple , or simply meet people .
On a yearly basis , Raëlian members organize seminars that are often attractive to the sexually adventurous . News KNBC called the annual Raëlian seminars " a cross between a nudist camp and new @-@ age retreat . " A Spanish television agency reported Raëlian men and women in cross @-@ dressing plays . Activities such as observations of one 's own genitals and masturbation with them disturbed Brigitte McCann , a Calgary Sun reporter who entered one of the Raëlian seminars . Susan J. Palmer said a French journalist went to a Raëlian Seminar in 1991 and taped couples having sexual intercourse in tents . These tapes gained widespread negative publicity — with news stories that described these practices as perverted and a form of brainwashing . The tents were actually put up for the privacy of attendees who were sharing dormitories , and the person was ejected by the Raëlians for misrepresentation of their so @-@ called research for the sake of sensationalism . So @-@ called infiltration is encouraged by the Raëlians to clear up myths perpetrated by the media and rogue researchers .
= = = Activism = = =
Raëlians routinely advocate sex @-@ positive feminism and genetically modified food . They also have protested against wars and the Catholic Church .
Pro @-@ GMO : On 6 August 2003 , the first day of Raëlian year 58 AH , a tech article on the USA Today newspaper mentions an " unlikely ally " of the Monsanto Company , the Raëlian Movement of Brazil . The movement gave vocal support in response to the company 's support for genetically modified organisms particularly in their country . Brazilian farmers have been using Monsanto 's genetically engineered soy plant as well as the Roundup herbicide to which it was artificially adapted . The Raëlians spoke against the Brazilian government 's ban on GMOs .
Anti @-@ war : In 2006 , About 30 Raëlians , some topless , took part in an anti @-@ war demonstration in Seoul , Korea . In 2003 , Raëlians in white alien costumes bore signs bearing the message " NO WAR ... ET wants Peace , too ! " to protest the 2003 Invasion of Iraq .
Anti @-@ Catholic : In 1992 Catholic schools in Montreal , Canada objected to a proposed condom vending machine as contrary to their mission . In response , Raëlian guides , in an event dubbed " Operation Condom " , gave the Catholic students ten thousand condoms . The Commissioner of Catholic schools for Montreal said they could do nothing to stop them .
In July 2001 , Raëlians on the streets attracted Italians and Swiss people as they gave leaflets protesting the existence of over a hundred child molesters among Roman Catholic clergy in France . They recommended that parents should not send their children to Catholic confession . The Episcopal vicar of Geneva sued the Raëlian Church for libel but did not win . The judge did not accept the charges for the reason that the Raëlians were not attacking the whole of the Catholic Church . In October 2002 , Raëlians in a Canadian anti @-@ clerical parade handed out Christian crosses to high school students . The students were invited to burn the crosses in a park not far from Montreal 's Mount Royal and to sign letters of apostasy from the Roman Catholic Church . The Quebec Association of Bishops called this " incitement to hatred " , and several school boards attempted to prevent their students from meeting Raëlians .
= = = Converts from other religions = = =
Raëlians do not believe in a god ( or other deity ) , but in extraterrestrials . Former clergy of mainstream religions have joined the Raëlian Church , especially in Quebec . The structure of the movement had promoted some of them to the level of Priest or Bishop due to " extensive Bible training and teaching skills " .
Two ex @-@ Roman Catholic Priests , Victor Legendre and Charles @-@ Yvan Giroux converted to Raëlianism . A former bishop of the The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter @-@ day Saints ( LDS Church ) joined the Raelian Movement so he could be openly gay . The Raëlian , Mark Woodgate , stated that 8 % of Raëlians worldwide are former Latter @-@ day Saints . Religiously mixed couples are common , especially with spouses who are Christians or Buddhists .
= = = Intentional controversy = = =
Susan J. Palmer , a sociologist from Canada , has studied the movement since 1987 and says the movement intentionally stirs a moderate level of controversy to maintain membership . For example , Rael and the group attempt to tie their views with topical matters , ranging from Tiger Woods ' promiscuity to strained relations in the Middle East , in regular online postings and press releases . This view is shared by Mike Kropveld — the executive director of an anti @-@ cult organization with the name Info @-@ Cult — who says the controversy leads to criticism by both religious and non @-@ religious people .
Raëlian organizers made deliberate attempts to " shock , titillate , and capture the media 's imagination " . The book Yes to Human Cloning ( 2001 ) attracted media attention after its release , including segments on 20 / 20 and 60 Minutes . Biophysicist Gregory Stock described the Raëlian Clonaid project as " sufficiently quirky to command instant media attention . " It has been estimated that the group received free publicity worth US $ 500 million as a result of the Clonaid claim . Mark Hunt , a lawyer and politician who wished to clone his dead son with the help of the Clonaid services , was overwhelmed by the volume of media attention and in an interview said that Clonaid 's chief executive had become a " press hog " .
= = Beliefs = =
Theologian of new religious movements George D. Chryssides described the Raëlian Church as being in an " early developmental stage " and that their beliefs distance it from a " dominant intellectual climate " . Raëlism claims that all life on Earth , humans included , was created scientifically by Elohim , members of an extraterrestrial race who appeared similar to small humans and so were often depicted as angels , cherubs , or gods . Raëlians , who are not monotheists , believe the correct historical meaning of the word Elohim is the plural sense , " those who came from the sky " . Belief in extraterrestrial Elohim play a central part in Clonaid 's claim of offering cloning services for homosexual and infertile couples who want a child cloned from a partner 's DNA .
Chryssides states that Raëlism is discernible from other UFO religions for its heavy support for physicalism and repudiation of supernaturalism . Susan J. Palmer , a social scholar who had long contacts with Raëlians , associated epiphenomenalism with the belief in Raëlism that mind transfer coupled with human cloning can implant mind and personality into a new and disease free body . Raëlians publicly deny the existence of the ethereal soul and a supernatural god , but they believe that humanity for many generations past will be resurrected , albeit in a scientific way .
Raëlians believe that throughout the ages , members of the Elohim civilization sent different prophets , including Moses , Jesus , Buddha and many others whose role was to guide humanity and to prepare humans for the future , all of whom were created as a result of a sexual union between a human woman and one of the Elohim . To Raëlians , this was possible because the Elohim had advanced DNA synthesis and genetic engineering . The Elohim later reduced the frequent visits so that humans were largely left to progress on their own , until the time of the Apocalypse / Revelation when they would send their final messenger and disclose themselves at an extraterrestrial embassy , establishing political and economic ties .
Raëlians believe that sex is a normal , natural and healthy part of life and encourage people to be true to their natural sexuality . They promote healing from damaging messages from strict puritanical belief systems and social stigmas that stifle one 's natural sexuality . Acceptance of masturbation , homosexuality , bisexuality , pansexuality , naturism and any legal , safe and consensual adult activity is promoted as part of a healthy and long life , and this is used to attract young converts to the religion . Raelians believe that sexuality is a gift of pleasure to mankind from the Elohim . The Raëlian book Let 's Welcome our Fathers From Space says that new advanced extraterrestrial civilizations will ultimately practice a final religion or " religion of the infinite " that involves ubiquitous practice of Sensual Meditation .
According to Giancarlo Genta and Jason Colavito , writers who have influenced Raëlian beliefs include Zechariah Sitchin and Erich von Däniken .
= = = Voluntarism = = =
Raëlians are encouraged to do as they feel right , whether that matches the rules of the culture in which they live or not . According to Susan J. Palmer , a majority of loosely affiliated Raëlian Movement members have often strayed from following rules concerning " diet , drugs , and sexual activity " as described in the Raëlian books . Sometimes , they will not attend monthly meetings or pay a tithe in proportion to their income . Only the more committed members who do follow such rules can remain in the movement 's structure .
According to Michel Beluet , the former director of a Raëlian @-@ built museum called UFOland , the only pressure exerted on members is to attend annual Raëlian seminars , which allows members convinced of Raël 's enthusiasm to voluntarily tithe . Palmer cited Raël , who claimed that more than 60 % of the Raëlian Movement 's members do not tithe . Dawson College students conducted a survey of the membership in Canada 1991 which found that only one @-@ third of respondents tithed .
= = = Human cloning = = =
As opposed to the scientific definition of reproductive cloning which is simply the creation of a genetically identical living thing , Raëlians seek to both genetically clone individuals , rapidly accelerate growth of the clone to adulthood through a process like guided self @-@ assembly of rapidly expanded cells or even nanotechnology and then transfer the mind and personality of the donor into the clone . Raëlians believe humanity can attain eternal life through the science of cloning .
Claude Vorilhon told lawmakers that banning the development of human cloning was comparable to outlawing medical advances such " antibiotics , blood transfusions , and vaccines . "
= = = = Clonaid = = = =
Raël founded Valiant Venture Ltd Corporation in 1997 , to research human cloning . The company name was later changed to Clonaid and handed over to Raëlian bishop Brigitte Boisselier in 2000 . In 2002 , Boisselier , as chief executive of Clonaid , claimed that a human baby was conceived through cloning technology . Around this time , Clonaid 's subsidiary BioFusion Tech claimed to have in possession a cell fusion device that assisted the cloning of human embryos . The Vatican said that experimenters expressed " brutal mentality " for attempting to clone human beings . Pope John Paul II criticized the experiment which he believes threatens the dignity of human life . In response , the leader of the Raëlian Church dismissed the Pope 's ethical concerns , calling them an " accumulation of religious prejudices . "
In response to Raël 's association with Clonaid , South Korean immigration authorities at the airport denied him entry into their country in 2003 . This decision led to the quick cancellation of the planned Raëlian seminar which seven hundred registered for . Raëlians of South Korea were instructed by Raël to protest near the Ministry of Health and Welfare that ordered him to leave . Officials detained Raël for nine hours at Incheon International Airport before he and his wife Sophie de Niverville left for Tokyo from where they took another plane on their way back to Canada . Raël responded by saying that Korean officials treated him like a " North Korean " and that he would wait for an apology before coming back to Korea .
= = = Ethics = = =
= = = = LGBT issues = = = =
The Raelian movement defends the rights and freedoms of gays and lesbians , recognises gay marriage and ordains gay clergy . Some Raelian leaders have performed licensed same @-@ sex marriages .
= = = = Sensuality and pleasure = = = =
According to the book Maitreya by Claude Vorilhon , love involves experiencing different varieties and possibilities that allow one to break habits in order to make life more pleasant and interesting and that it is the only thing which can stop war and injustice that persists in today 's world . Raëlians believe in the right to form new religions or new political parties as long as they do not promote violence . As individualists , Raëlians believe that the one who gives the order to harm others is less at fault than the one who executes it .
Raëlians say they encourage adult homosexual , bisexual , and heterosexual relationships and that society should recognize them legally . Some Swiss government authorities responded to Raëlians ' views about Sensual Meditation with a fear that Raëlians are a threat to public morals for supporting liberalized sex education for children . They express the view that such liberalized sex education teaches youngsters how to obtain sexual gratification which would encourage sexual abuse of underage children .
= = = = Views on pedophilia = = = =
Sexual predators and guides who force missionary ideas against members are excommunicated by the Raëlian Church for a minimum of seven years — the amount of time Raëlians believe it takes for all of a person 's biological cells to be regenerated . In 2006 Raëlians in Los Angeles , California condemned acts of pedophilia which Raelians consider a disease , particularly those associated with celibate Catholic priests , saying that minors and adults should not be mixed in the act of sex . Authorities of the Swiss canton of Valais claimed that Raëlians support a doctrine of " complete sexual liberty " , and they denied an application by Raël to live in their area . The website Raelianews.org denied that sexual freedom between consenting adults in any way implies pedophilia .
= = = Structure of the Universe = = =
Raëlian cosmology as proposed in 1973 by Raël states that the observable universe has no creator and is infinite in time and finite in size and surrounded by infinite space .
In Raëlian cosmology , our observable universe is an " atom " of a much larger level of matter ( and possibly organism ) and subatomic particles in our bodies also possess universes like our own , but on a much smaller scale . This pattern , atom within universe within atom , is believed to be infinitely repetitive , from the infinitely small , to the infinitely large . The Raëlian Messages by Raël state that humanoid extraterrestrials , who were originally called under the name Elohim ( singular : Eloha ) , verified this cosmology scientifically .
Because of the difference of mass , the activity of life inside in a living thing 's atoms would undergo many millennia before enough time passes for that living thing to take a single step . Raëlians believe the universe is infinite in time and space and lacks a center . Because of this , one could not imagine where an ethereal soul would go .
The Raëlian cosmology is meditated upon during the fourth activity in the rite of Sensual Meditation .
= = = Intelligent Design = = =
= = = = Creation of life on Earth by extraterrestrials = = = =
In his book The Message Given to me by Extraterrestrials ( now republished as Intelligent Design : Message from the Designers 2006 ISBN 2 @-@ 940252 @-@ 20 @-@ 3 ) , Claude Vorilhon claims that on 13 December 1973 , he found a spacecraft shaped like a flattened bell that landed inside Puy de Lassolas , a volcano near the capital city of Auvergne . A 25 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old human @-@ like extraterrestrial inside the spacecraft named Yahweh said that Elohim was the name that primitive people of Earth called members of his extraterrestrial race — who were seen as " those who came from the sky " . Yahweh explained that Earth was originally void of life , with thick clouds and shallow seas , but the Elohim came , broke apart the clouds , exposed the seas to sunlight , built a continent , and synthesized a global ecosystem . Solar astronomy , terraformation , nanotechnology , and genetic engineering allowed Elohim to adapt life to Earth 's thermal and chemical makeup .
Yahweh gave materialistic explanations of the following :
the Garden of Eden : a large laboratory that was based on an artificially constructed continent
Noah 's Ark : a spaceship that preserved DNA that was used to resurrect animals through cloning
the Tower of Babel : a rocket that was supposed to reach the creators ' planet ;
the Great Flood : the byproduct of a nuclear missile explosion that the Elohim sent . After tidal wave floods following the explosions receded , Elohim scattered the Israelites and had them speak the language of other tribes .
According to Vorilhon , Elohim contacted about forty people to act as their prophets on Earth , including Moses , Elijah , Ezekiel , Buddha , John the Baptist , Jesus , Muhammad , and Joseph Smith . The religions thought to be from Elohimic origins include Judaism , Buddhism , Christianity , Islam , and Mormonism .
From the Raëlian point of view , religious texts indicate that the Elohim would return at the age of Apocalypse or Revelation ( unveiling of the truth ) . Humans from another world would appear to drop down from the sky and meet in the embassy they have asked Raël to build for them and share their advanced scientific knowledge with humanity . Thus , one of the stated main goals of the Raëlian movement is to inform as many people as possible about this extraterrestrial race .
= = = = Humanity 's chance of creating life on other planets = = = =
Raëlians believe that humanity would be able to create life on other planets only if humanity is peaceful enough to stop war . In that case , humanity could travel the distances between stars and create life on another planet . Progress in terraforming , molecular biology , and cloning would enable these teams to create continents and life from scratch . Progress in social engineering would ensure that this creation would have a better chance of both surviving and having the potential to understand its creators . Research on how civilization would occur on another planet would allow scientists to decide what traces of their origin should be left behind so that their role in life creation would someday be revealed . The progress achieved by the science teams would ultimately sustain a perpetual chain of life .
= = = A coming judgment = = =
Raëlians do not believe that an ethereal soul exists free of physical confinement . Raëlians believe that advanced supercomputers of the Elohim are right now recording the memories and DNA of human beings . When Elohim release this information for the coming resurrection , people would be
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. Dr. Geoffrey Davis , an Australian doctor and abortion specialist who worked for the programme , estimated that there had been about 5 @,@ 000 cases of self @-@ induced abortions . He also said that during his work he heard of numerous infanticides and suicides by victims . His estimate of the total number of rape victims was 400 @,@ 000 , twice as high as the official estimate of 200 @,@ 000 cited by the Bangladeshi government . Most of the victims also contracted sexual infections . Many suffered from feelings of intense shame and humiliation , and a number were ostracised by their families and communities or committed suicide .
The feminist writer Cynthia Enloe has written that some pregnancies were intended by the soldiers and perhaps their officers as well . A report from the International Commission of Jurists said , " Whatever the precise numbers , the teams of American and British surgeons carrying out abortions and the widespread government efforts to persuade people to accept these girls into the community , testify to the scale on which raping occurred " . The commission also said that Pakistani officers not only allowed their men to rape , but enslaved women themselves .
Following the conflict the rape victims were seen as a symbol of " social pollution " and shame . Few were able to return to families or old homes because of this . Sheikh Mujibur Rahman called the victims birangona ( " heroine " ) , but this served as a reminder that these women were now deemed socially unacceptable as they were " dishonored " , and the term became associated with barangona ( " prostitute " ) . The official strategy of marrying the women off and encouraging them to be seen as war heroines failed as few men came forward , and those who did expected the state to provide a large dowry . Those women who did marry were usually mistreated , and the majority of men , once having received a dowry , abandoned their wives .
On 18 February 1972 the state formed the Bangladesh Women 's Rehabilitation Board , which was tasked with helping the victims of rape and to help with the adoption programme . Several international agencies took part in the adoption programme , such as Mother Teresa 's Sisters of Charity . The majority of the war babies were adopted in the Netherlands and Canada as the state wished to remove the reminders of Pakistan from the newly formed nation . However , not all women wanted their child taken , and some were forcibly removed and sent for adoption , a practice which was encouraged by Rahman , who said , " I do not want those polluted blood in this country " . While many women were glad for the abortion programme , as they did not have to bear a child conceived of rape , others had to go full term , filled with hatred towards the child they carried . Others , who had their children adopted out so as to return to " mainstream life " , would not look at their newborn as it was taken from them . In the 1990s many of these children returned to Bangladesh to search for their birth mothers . In 2008 , D 'Costa attempted to find those who had been adopted , however very few responded , one who did said " I hated being a kid , and I am angry at Bangladesh for not taking care of me when I needed it most . I don ’ t have any roots and that makes me cry . So that is why I am trying to learn more about where I was born . "
Forty years after the war , two sisters who had been raped were interviewed by Deutsche Welle . Aleya stated she had been taken by the Pakistani army when she was thirteen , and was gang raped repeatedly for seven months . She states she was tortured and was five months pregnant when she returned to her home . Her sister , Laily , says she was pregnant when she was taken by the armed forces , and lost the child . Later she fought alongside the Mukti Bahini . Both say that the state has failed the birangona , and that all they received was " humiliation , insults , hatred , and ostracism . "
= = = Pakistani government reaction = = =
After the conflict , the Pakistani government decided on a policy of silence regarding the rapes . They set up the Hamoodur Rahman Commission , a judicial commission to prepare an account of the circumstances surrounding the atrocities of the 1971 war and Pakistan 's surrender . The commission was highly critical of the army . The chiefs of staff of the army and the Pakistan Air Force were removed from their positions for attempting to interfere with the commission . The Commission based its reports on interviews with politicians , officers and senior commanders . The final reports were submitted in July 1972 , but all were subsequently destroyed except for one held by Zulfikar Ali Bhutto , the Pakistani president . The findings were never made public .
In 1974 the commission was reopened and issued a supplementary report , which remained classified for 25 years until published by the magazine India Today . The report said that 26 @,@ 000 people were killed , rapes numbered in the hundreds , and that the Mukti Bahini rebels engaged in widespread rape and other human rights abuses . Sumit Ganguly , a political scientist , believes that the Pakistani establishment has yet to come to terms with the atrocities carried out , saying that , in a visit to Bangladesh in 2002 , Pervez Musharraf expressed regret for the atrocities rather than accepting responsibility .
= = = War Crimes prosecutions = = =
In 2008 , after a 17 @-@ year investigation , the War Crimes Fact Finding Committee released documentation identifying 1 @,@ 597 people who had taken part in the atrocities . The list included members of the Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami and the Bangladesh Nationalist Party , a political group founded in 1978 . In 2010 the government of Bangladesh set up the ICT to investigate the atrocities of that era . While Human Rights Watch has been supportive of the tribunal , it has also been critical of reported harassment of lawyers representing the accused . Brad Adams , director of the Asia branch of Human Rights Watch , has said that those accused must be given the full protection of the law to avoid the risk of the trials not being taken seriously , and Irene Khan , a human rights activist , has expressed doubt about whether the mass rapes and killings of women will be addressed . Khan has said of her government 's reaction :
A conservative Muslim society has preferred to throw a veil of negligence and denial on the issue , allowed those who committed or colluded with gender violence to thrive , and left the women victims to struggle in anonymity and shame and without much state or community support .
The deputy leader of Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , Delwar Hossain Sayeedi , the first person to face charges related to the conflict , was indicted by the ICT on twenty counts of war crimes , which included murder , rape and arson . He denied all charges . On 28 February 2013 , Sayeedi was found guilty of genocide , rape and religious persecution , and was sentenced to death by hanging . Four other members of Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami Bangladesh , including Motiur Rahman Nizami , have also been indicted for war crimes . Abul Kalam Azad , a member of the Razakars , was the first person to be sentenced for crimes during the war . He was found guilty of murder and rape in absentia , and was sentenced to death . Muhammad Kamaruzzaman , senior assistant secretary general of Bangladesh Jamaat @-@ e @-@ Islami , faced seven charges of war crimes , including planning and advising on the rape of women in the village of Shohaghpur on 25 July 1971 . The ICT sentenced him to death by hanging on 9 May 2013 . In July 2013 Ghulam Azam was given a ninety @-@ year sentence for rape and mass murder during the conflict . Abdul Quader Molla , A member of the Rajakar militia during the war was charged with abetting the Pakistani army and actively participating in the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities : rape ( including the rape of minors ) and mass murder of Bangladeshis in the Mirpur area of Dhaka during the Bangladesh Liberation War . After the government had amended the war crimes law to allow a sentence to be appealed based on leniency of punishment , prosecutors appealed to the Supreme Court of Bangladesh and asked for it to upgrade Molla 's sentence from life in prison to death . On 17 September 2013 , the Supreme Court accepted the appeal and sentenced Molla to death . Finally he was hanged in Dhaka Central Jail on 12 December 2013 at 22 : 01 .
= = In literature and media = =
A photograph taken during the conflict of a woman who had been assaulted featured in an exhibition in London . Titled Shamed Woman , but also called Brave Woman , the image was taken by a Bangladeshi photographer , Naib Uddin Ahmed . The image is considered by John Tulloch to be as " classical a pose as any Madonna and Child " . One of the more emotive photographs at the exhibition , the woman has her hands clenched , her face completely covered by her hair . Tulloch describes the image as having the " Capability to reveal or suggest what is unsayable "
Orunodoyer Ognishakhi ( Pledge to a New Dawn ) , the first film about the war , was screened in 1972 on the first Bangladeshi Independence Day celebration . It draws on the experiences of an actor called Altaf . While trying to reach safe haven in Calcutta , he encounters women who have been raped . The images of these birangona , stripped and vacant @-@ eyed from the trauma , are used as testimony to the assault . Other victims Altaf meets are shown committing suicide or having lost their minds .
In 1995 Gita Sahgal produced the documentary War Crimes File , which was screened on Channel 4 . In 2011 the film Meherjaan was shown at the Guwahati International Film Festival . It explores the war from two perspectives : that of a woman who loved a Pakistani soldier and that of a person born from rape .
In 1996 the book Ami Birangana Bolchi ( The Voices of War Heroines ) written by Nilima Ibrahim was released . It is a collection of eyewitness testimony from seven rape victims , which she documented while working in rehabilitation centres . The narratives of the survivors in this work , is heavily critical of pre war Bangladeshi society`s failure to support the victims of rape .
Published in 2012 , the book Rising from the Ashes : Women 's Narratives of 1971 includes oral testimonies of women affected by the Liberation War . As well as an account from Taramon Bibi , who fought and was awarded the Bir Protik ( Symbol of Valour ) for her actions , there are nine interviews with women who were raped . The book 's publication in English at the time of the fortieth anniversary of the war was noted in the New York Times as an " important oral history " .
The 2014 movie Children of War tries to capture this horror on celluloid . The film By Mrityunjay Devvrat starring Farooq Sheikh , Victor Banerjee , Raima Sen , among others is meant to " send shivers down the viewers ' spine . We want to make it so repulsive that no one even entertains the thought of pardoning rapists , let alone commit the crime . The shoot took its toll on all of us . "
= Arthur W. Radford =
Arthur William Radford ( 27 February 1896 – 17 August 1973 ) was a United States Navy admiral and naval aviator . In over 40 years of military service , Radford held a variety of positions including Vice Chief of Naval Operations , commander of the United States Pacific Fleet and later the second Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .
With an interest in ships and aircraft from a young age , Radford saw his first sea duty aboard the battleship USS South Carolina during World War I. In the inter @-@ war period he earned his pilot wings and rose through the ranks in duties aboard ships and in the Bureau of Aeronautics . After the U.S. entered World War II , he was the architect of the development and expansion of the Navy 's aviator training programs in the first years of the war . In its final years he commanded carrier task forces through several major campaigns of the Pacific War .
Noted as a strong @-@ willed and aggressive leader , Radford was a central figure in the post @-@ war debates on U.S. military policy , and was a staunch proponent of naval aviation . As commander of the Pacific Fleet , he defended the Navy 's interests in an era of shrinking defense budgets , and was a central figure in the " Revolt of the Admirals , " a contentious public fight over policy . As Chairman of the Joint Chiefs , he continued to advocate for aggressive foreign policy and a strong nuclear deterrent in support of the " New Look " policy of President Dwight Eisenhower .
Retiring from the military in 1957 , Radford continued to be a military adviser to several prominent politicians until his death in 1973 . For his extensive service , he was awarded many military honors , and was the namesake of the Spruance @-@ class destroyer USS Arthur W. Radford .
= = Early life = =
Arthur William Radford was born on 27 February 1896 in Chicago , to John Arthur Radford , a Canadian @-@ born electrical engineer , and Agnes Eliza Radford ( née Knight ) . The eldest of four children , he was described as bright and energetic in his youth . When Arthur was six years old the family moved to Riverside , Illinois , where his father took a job as a managing engineer with Commonwealth Edison Company . John Radford managed the first steam turbine engines in the United States , at the Fisk Street Generating Station .
Arthur began his school years at Riverside Public School , where he expressed an interest in the United States Navy from a young age . He gained an interest in aviation during a visit to the 1904 World 's Fair in St. Louis , Missouri . By fourth grade , he frequently drew detailed cross @-@ section diagrams of the USS Maine . He was shy , but performed very well in school . In mid @-@ 1910 , Radford moved with his family to Grinnell , Iowa , and attended Grinnell High School for a year and a half , before deciding to apply to the United States Naval Academy . He obtained the local congressman 's recommendation for an appointment to the academy , and was accepted . After several months of tutoring at Annapolis , Maryland , he entered the academy in July 1912 , at the age of sixteen .
Although Radford 's first year at the academy was mediocre he applied himself to his studies in his remaining years there . He participated in summer cruises to Europe in 1913 and 1914 and passed through the Panama Canal to San Francisco in 1916 . Radford , known as " Raddie " to his fellow students , graduated 59th of 177 in the class of 1916 , and was commissioned as an ensign in the U.S. Navy during the First World War .
= = Military career = =
Radford 's first duty was aboard the battleship USS South Carolina , as it escorted a transatlantic convoy to France in 1918 . In his second post he was an aide @-@ de @-@ camp to a battleship division commander , and in his third , a flag lieutenant for another battleship division commander .
In 1920 , Radford reported to Pensacola , Florida , for flight training , and was promoted to lieutenant soon thereafter . During the 1920s and 1930s his sea duty alternated among several aircraft squadrons , fleet staffs , and tours in the U.S. with the Bureau of Aeronautics . It was during this time , while he served under Rear Admiral William Moffett , that he frequently interacted with politicians and picked up the political acumen that would become useful later in his career . While he did not attend the Naval War College , as other rising officers did , Radford established himself as an effective officer who would speak his mind frankly , even to superiors .
Radford achieved the rank of lieutenant commander by 1927 , and served with aircraft units aboard USS Colorado , USS Pennsylvania , and USS Wright . In 1936 , he was promoted to commander and took charge of fighter squadron VF @-@ 1B aboard USS Saratoga . By 1939 , he was given command of Naval Air Station Seattle in Seattle , Washington . On 22 April 1939 , he married Miriam Jean ( Caro ) Spencer at Vancouver Barracks , Washington . Spencer ( 1895 – 1997 ) was a daughter of Simon Caro , and the former wife of ( 1 ) Albert Cressey Maze ( 1891 – 1943 ) , with whom she had a son , Robert Claude Maze Sr. , Major , USMC who was killed in action in 1945 and ( 2 ) Earl Winfield Spencer , Jr . In May 1940 , Radford was appointed executive officer of the USS Yorktown , a post he served in for one year .
In July 1941 , Radford was appointed commander of the Naval Air Station in Trinidad , British West Indies . He protested this appointment because he feared he would remain there for years , sidelined as World War II loomed . In the event he only remained in this station for three months , following an organizational shift in the Bureau of Aeronautics . By mid @-@ 1941 , thanks to a large expansion in the naval aviator program , squadrons could no longer train newly arrived aviators . Further , at that time , the vast difference in the performance of combat aircraft over training aircraft meant that pilots needed more time in combat aircraft before becoming proficient in them . Radford was subsequently visited by Artemus L. Gates , Assistant Secretary of the Navy for Air . The latter was so impressed that he ordered Rear Admiral John H. Towers , chief of the Bureau of Aeronautics , to transfer Radford to a newly formed training division .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Aviation Training Division = = = =
Radford took command of the Aviation Training Division in Washington , D.C. on 1 December 1941 , seven days before the attack on Pearl Harbor that brought the United States into World War II . He was appointed as Director of Aviation Training for both the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations and the Bureau of Navigation ; the double appointment helped to centralize training coordination for all naval aviators . With the U.S. mobilizing for war , Radford 's office worked long hours six days a week in an effort to build up the necessary training infrastructure as quickly as possible . For several months , this around @-@ the @-@ clock work took up all of his time , and he later noted that walking to work was his only form of exercise for several months . During this time , he impressed colleagues with a direct and no @-@ nonsense approach to work , while maintaining a demeanor that made him easy to work for . He was promoted to captain soon after .
Throughout 1942 he established and refined the administrative infrastructure for aviation training . Radford oversaw the massive growth of the training division , establishing separate sections for administration ; Physical Training Service Schools ; and training devices ; and sections to train various aviators in flight , aircraft operation , radio operation , and gunnery . The section also organized technical training and wrote training literature . He also engineered the establishment of four field commands for pilot training . Air Primary Training Command commanded all pre @-@ flight schools and Naval reserve aviation bases in the country . Air Intermediate Training Command administered Naval Air Station Pensacola and Naval Air Station Corpus Christi where flight training was conducted . Air Operational Training Command was in charge of all education of pilots between pilot training and their first flying assignments . Finally , Air Technical Training Command trained enlisted men for support jobs in aviation such as maintenance , engineering , aerography , and parachute operations . Radford sought to integrate his own efficient leadership style into the organization of these schools .
Radford was noted for thinking progressively and innovatively to establish the most effective and efficient training programs . He sought to integrate sports conditioning programs into naval aviator training . Radford brought in athletic directors from Ohio State University , Harvard University and Penn State University under football player and naval aviator Tom Hamilton , to whom he gave the remit to develop the conditioning programs . Radford also suggested integrating women into intricate but repetitive tasks , such as running flight simulators . When commanders rejected the idea of bringing women into the service , he convinced Congressman Carl Vinson , chair of the House Naval Affairs Committee of the merit of the idea . This effort eventually led to the employment of the " Women Accepted for Volunteer Emergency Service " , and 23 @,@ 000 WAVES would assist in aeronautical training in the course of the war . Radford also sought to best use the assets of businessmen and professionals who had volunteered for military service , establishing the Aviation Indoctrination School and Air Combat Intelligence School at Naval Air Station Quonset Point so as to enable these advanced recruits to become more experienced naval officers .
= = = = Sea duty = = = =
By early 1943 , with Radford 's training programs established and functioning efficiently , he sought combat duty . In April of that year , he was ordered to report to the office of Commander , Naval Air Forces , Pacific Fleet where he was promoted to rear admiral and tapped to be a carrier division commander . This was an unusual appointment , as most carrier division commanders were appointed only after duty commanding a capital ship . He then spent May and June 1943 on an inspection party under Gates , touring U.S. bases in the south Pacific . Following this , he was assigned under Rear Admiral Frederick C. Sherman , commander of Carrier Division 2 at Pearl Harbor . Radford spent several weeks observing flight operations and carrier tactics for various ships operating out of Hawaii . He was particularly impressed with how carrier doctrine had evolved in the time since his own assignment on a carrier , and in June 1943 , he was ordered to observe operations on the light aircraft carrier USS Independence , learning the unique challenges of using light carriers .
On 21 July 1943 , Radford was given command of Carrier Division Eleven , which consisted of the new Essex @-@ class carrier USS Lexington as well as the light carriers USS Independence and USS Princeton . These carriers remained at Pearl Harbor through August , training and refining their operations . Radford got his first operational experience on 1 September 1943 , covering a foray to Baker and Howland Islands as part of Task Force 11 under Rear Admiral Willis A. Lee . Radford commanded Princeton , USS Belleau Wood and four destroyers to act as a covering force for Lee 's marines , who built an airfield on the islands . After this successful operation , and at the direction of Admiral Chester W. Nimitz , Task Force 11 was joined by Task Force 15 , with Lexington , under Rear Admiral Charles A. Pownall . The two task forces then steamed for Tarawa Atoll to strike it . On the night of 17 September , the carriers launched six strikes of fighter aircraft , dive bombers , and torpedo planes to work over the Japanese defenses .
Next , Radford and his carriers took part in an air attack and cruiser bombardment of Wake Island on 5 to 6 October 1943 . He shifted his flag to Lexington for the operation , which took two days . Though the effects on Japanese positions were not known , Radford and other leaders considered the operations useful for preparing their forces for the major battles to come in the Central Pacific .
= = = = Major combat operations = = = =
Major operations in the Central Pacific began that November . Radford 's next duty was in Operation Galvanic , a campaign into the Gilbert Islands with the objective of capturing Tarawa as well as Makin Island and Apamama Atoll . It would be one of the first times that American carriers would be operating against Japanese land @-@ based air power in force , as U.S. Army troops and U.S. Marines fought the Japanese on the ground . For this mission , Radford 's carrier division was designated Task Group 50 @.@ 2 , the Northern Carrier Group , which consisted of USS Enterprise , Belleau Wood and USS Monterey . He did not agree with this strategy , maintaining until his death that the force should have gone on an offensive to strike Japanese air power instead of being tied to the ground forces . Despite his objections , the force left Pearl Harbor for the Gilbert Islands on 10 November .
The invasion began on 20 November . Radford 's force was occupied with air strikes on Japanese ground targets , and faced frequent attack by Japanese aircraft in night combat , which U.S. aircrews were not well prepared or equipped for . He improvised a unit to counter Japanese night raids , and was later credited with establishing routines for nighttime combat air patrols to protect carriers ; these were adopted fleetwide . He commanded Carrier Division Eleven around Tarawa for several more days , returning to Pearl Harbor on 4 December .
Returning from Tarawa , Radford was reassigned as chief of staff to Towers , who was Commander , Air Force , Pacific Fleet . He assisted in planning upcoming operations , including Operation Flintlock , the invasion of the Marshall Islands . He had hoped to return to combat duty at the end of this assignment , but in March 1944 he was ordered to Washington , D.C. and appointed as Deputy Chief of Naval Operations . He assumed this new duty on 1 April , a role which was primarily administrative in nature . His duties included establishing a new integrated system for aircraft maintenance , supply , and retirement , for which he was appointed the head of a board to study aircraft wear and tear . After six months in this duty , Radford was returned to the Pacific theater by Admiral Ernest J. King , the Chief of Naval Operations ( CNO ) and Commander in Chief , United States Fleet .
Radford returned to Pearl Harbor on 7 October 1944 , where he was appointed as commander of First Carrier Task Force , Carrier Division Six . While flying to his new command , he was held over in Kwajalein and then Saipan , missing the Battle of Leyte Gulf which took place in the Philippines during the layover . He flew to Ulithi where he reported to Vice Admiral John S. McCain , Sr. , commander of Task Force 58 . For the next two months , Radford remained on " make learn " status , again under Sherman 's command , observing the operations and employment of carrier @-@ based air power as a passenger aboard USS Ticonderoga , part of Task Group 38 @.@ 3 . During this time , he observed the strikes on Luzon and the Visayas , as well as air attacks on Japanese shipping and Typhoon Cobra .
On 29 December 1944 , Radford was unexpectedly ordered to take command of Task Group 38 @.@ 1 after its commander , Rear Admiral Alfred E. Montgomery , was injured . The next day the fleet sortied from Ulithi and headed for scheduled air strikes on Luzon and Formosa ( Taiwan ) . Throughout January 1945 , Radford 's fleet operated in the South China Sea striking Japanese targets in French Indochina and Hong Kong . In February , the U.S. Third Fleet was re @-@ designated the U.S. Fifth Fleet , and as a part of this reorganization Radford 's force was redesignated Task Group 58 @.@ 4 . He continued striking Japanese targets in the Inland Sea during March . On 1 April , the force was moved to support the Battle of Okinawa . Over the course of the next two months , his force continued its use of night raids , which by this point were effective in repelling Japanese attacks on U.S. Navy ships . After two months supporting ground forces on Okinawa , Radford 's fleet was detached from that operation .
Returning to the Third Fleet and being re @-@ designated Task Group 38 @.@ 4 , the force began operating off the Japanese Home Islands in July 1945 . It began an intense airstrike campaign against military targets on Honshu and Hokkaido , striking Japanese airfields , merchant shipping , and ground targets . Radford commanded the force in this duty until V @-@ J Day , the end of the war in the Pacific . Upon receipt of the orders to end hostilities , he signaled his ships that he was proud of their accomplishments .
= = = Post @-@ war years = = =
Radford was promoted to vice admiral in late 1945 . For a time he was Deputy Chief of Naval Operations for Air under Secretary of the Navy James V. Forrestal . In the post @-@ war period Radford was a strong advocate that naval aviation programs be maintained . When Fleet Admiral Ernest J. King issued a post @-@ war plan calling for the U.S. to maintain nine active aircraft carriers , Radford suggested he double the number , a politically unrealistic proposal .
After the war , Radford was a principal opponent to a plan to merge the uniformed services . A plan existed to split the Army and the Army Air Forces into separate branches and unite them and the Navy under one Cabinet @-@ level defense organization . Fearing the loss of their branch 's influence , Navy commanders opposed the formation of a separate Air Force and favored a more loose defense organization . Radford was picked by Forrestal to form the Secretary 's Committee of Research and Reorganization . Months of discussion resulted in the National Security Act of 1947 , a political victory for the Navy because it created the U.S. Air Force while resulting in a coordinated , not unified , U.S. Department of Defense with limited power and with the Navy maintaining control of its air assets . In 1947 , Radford was briefly appointed commander of the Second Task Fleet , a move he felt was to distance him from the budget negotiations in Washington , but nonetheless preferred .
In 1948 , Radford was appointed by President Harry S. Truman as the Vice Chief of Naval Operations ( VCNO ) . Debates continued with military leaders about the future of the armed forces as Truman sought to trim the defense budget . Radford was relied on by Navy leaders as an expert who would fiercely defend the Navy 's interests from budget restrictions , but his appointment as VCNO was opposed by Fleet Admiral Chester Nimitz , who feared his hard @-@ line stance on the budget would alienate the generals in the other branches of the military . Some historians contend Radford brought strong leadership to the role . Naval aviation assets grew from 2 @,@ 467 aircraft to 3 @,@ 467 during this time , almost all aircraft for fast @-@ attack carriers . He also oversaw the implementation of the " Full Air Program " which envisioned 14 @,@ 500 total aircraft in the naval air force . Along with his predecessor John Dale Price , he favored reducing naval ship strength in order to develop stronger naval aviation capabilities . Then , in 1949 , Truman appointed him as the High Commissioner of the Trust Territory of the Pacific Islands .
= = Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet = =
In April 1949 , Truman appointed Radford to the position of Commander of the U.S. Pacific Fleet . A staunch anticommunist , Radford saw the greatest threat to U.S. security coming from Asia , not Europe . He traveled extensively throughout the Pacific as well as South Asia and the Far East . He became acquainted with political and military leaders in New Zealand , Australia , the Philippines , Vietnam , Thailand , Malaya , Burma , India , Pakistan , Hong Kong , Formosa , and Japan , and learned about the sociopolitical issues facing each nation and the region as a whole .
= = = " Revolt of the Admirals " = = =
Despite his new office , Radford was soon recalled to Washington to continue hearings on the future of the U.S. military budget . He became a key figure in what would later be called the " Revolt of the Admirals " , which took place during April 1949 when the supercarrier USS United States was cancelled .
At the request of Vinson , Radford strongly opposed plans by Secretary of Defense Louis Johnson and Secretary of the Navy Francis P. Matthews to make the Convair B @-@ 36 the Air Force 's principal bomber , calling it a " billion dollar blunder . " Radford also questioned the Air Force 's plan to focus on nuclear weapons delivery capabilities as its primary deterrent to war and called nuclear war " morally reprehensible " . While the United States remained cancelled and the post @-@ war cuts to the Navy were intact , funding was increasing during the Cold War era for conventional forces .
= = = Korean War = = =
Shortly after the outbreak of the Korean War in June 1950 , control of Vice Admiral Arthur D. Struble 's U.S. Seventh Fleet was transferred from Radford to Vice Admiral C. Turner Joy , who was serving as Commander , Naval Forces , Far East . Joy 's superior was General of the Army Douglas MacArthur of the United Nations Command Korea ( UNC ) . As such , Radford exercised no direct responsibility over forces involved in the conflict .
Radford was an admirer of MacArthur and a proponent of his " Asia First " strategy . He supported Operation Chromite in October 1950 , as well as the United Nations mission of Korean reunification . He attended the Wake Island Conference between MacArthur and Truman on 15 October , and later recalled his belief that , should the Chinese intervene in the war , the U.S. could still prevail provided it was able to strike Chinese bases in Manchuria with air power . When the People 's Volunteer Army did intervene in favor of North Korea the next month , Radford shared MacArthur 's frustration at restrictions placed on the UN force in the war preventing it from striking Chinese soil . Once Truman relieved MacArthur in April 1951 , Radford reportedly gave the general a " hero 's welcome " in Hawaii as he was returning to the United States .
As commander of U.S. forces in the Philippines and Formosa , Radford accompanied President @-@ elect Dwight D. Eisenhower on his three @-@ day trip to Korea in December 1952 . Eisenhower was looking for an exit strategy for the stalemated and unpopular war , and Radford suggested threatening China with attacks on its Manchurian bases and the use of nuclear weapons . This view was shared by Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and UNC Commander General Mark W. Clark , but had not been acted on when the armistice came in July 1953 , at a time when the Chinese were struggling with domestic unrest . Still , Radford 's frankness during the trip and his knowledge of Asia made a good impression on Eisenhower , who nominated Radford to be his Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff .
= = Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff = =
Eisenhower 's official nomination for Radford came in mid @-@ 1953 . Eisenhower was initially cautious about him because of his involvement in the inter @-@ service rivalry and " revolt " in 1949 . Radford 's anticommunist views , however , as well as his knowledge of Asia and his support of Eisenhower 's " New Look " defense policy , made him an attractive nominee , particularly among Republicans , to replace Omar Bradley . Eisenhower was also impressed with his " intelligence , dedication , tenacity , and courage to speak his mind . " During his nomination , Radford indicated a changed outlook from the positions he had taken during the " Revolt of the Admirals " . As chairman , he was eventually popular with both the president and Congress .
= = = Military budget = = =
Radford was integral in formulating and executing the " New Look " policy , reducing spending on conventional military forces to favor a strong nuclear deterrent and a greater reliance on airpower . In this time , he had to overcome resistance from Army leaders who opposed the reduction of their forces , and Radford 's decisions , unfettered by inter @-@ service rivalry , impressed Eisenhower . In spite of his support of the " New Look " , he disagreed with Eisenhower on several occasions when the president proposed drastic funding cuts that Radford worried would render the U.S. Navy ineffective . In late 1954 , for example , Radford testified privately before a congressional committee that he felt some of Eisenhower 's proposed defense cuts would limit the military 's capability for " massive retaliation " , but he kept his disagreements out of public view , working from within and seeking the funding to save specific strategic programs .
In 1956 , Radford proposed protecting several military programs from funding cuts by reducing numbers of conventional forces , but the proposal was leaked to the press , causing an uproar in Congress and among U.S. military allies , and the plan was dropped . In 1957 , after the other Joint Chiefs of Staff again disagreed on how to downsize force levels amid more budget restrictions , Radford submitted ideas for less dramatic force downsizing directly to Secretary of Defense Charles Erwin Wilson , who agreed to pass them along to Eisenhower .
= = = Foreign military policy = = =
While Radford remained Eisenhower 's principal adviser for the budget , they differed on matters of foreign policy . Radford advocated the use of nuclear weapons and a firm military and diplomatic stance against China . Early in his tenure , he suggested to Eisenhower a preventive war against China or the Soviet Union while the U.S. possessed a nuclear advantage and before it became entangled in conflicts in the Far East . Eisenhower immediately dismissed this idea .
After France requested U.S. assistance for its beleaguered force at Dien Bien Phu in 1954 , Radford suggested an aggressive stance toward the Viet Minh , recommending the U.S. threaten them with nuclear weapons as it had with the Chinese in Korea . He also advocated U.S. military intervention in the 1955 First Taiwan Strait Crisis as well as the 1956 Suez Crisis , but Eisenhower favored diplomatic approaches and threats of force .
= = Later life = =
After his second term as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs , Radford opted to retire from the Navy in 1957 to enter the private sector . The same year Radford High School in Honolulu was named in his honor . Radford was called upon to serve as military campaign advisor for Richard Nixon in the 1960 presidential election , and again for Barry Goldwater in the 1964 election .
Radford died of cancer at age 77 on 17 August 1973 at Bethesda Naval Medical Center in Bethesda , Maryland . He was buried with the full honors accorded to a former Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in Section 3 of the Arlington National Cemetery in Arlington , Virginia . In 1975 , the Navy launched the anti @-@ submarine Spruance @-@ class destroyer USS Arthur W. Radford , named in his honor .
= = Awards and decorations = =
Radford 's awards and decorations include the following :
= M11 link road protest =
The M11 link road protest was a major anti @-@ road protest in Leytonstone , London , United Kingdom , in the early to mid @-@ 1990s opposing the construction of the " A12 Hackney to M11 link road " , also known as the M11 Link Road , which was part of a significant local road scheme to connect traffic from the East Cross Route to the M11 , avoiding urban streets .
The road had been proposed since the 1960s , as part of the London Ringways , and was an important link between central London and the Docklands to East Anglia . Over the years , though , road protests elsewhere had become increasingly visible , and urban road building had fallen out of favour with the public . Local Member of Parliament Harry Cohen had been a particular vocal opponent of this scheme .
The protests reached a new level of visibility during 1993 as part of a grassroots campaign where protesters came from outside the area to support the local opposition of the road . The initial focus was on the removal of a tree on George Green , east of Wanstead , that attracted the attention of local , then national media . The activity peaked in 1994 with several high @-@ profile protesters setting up micronations on property scheduled for demolition , most notably on Claremont Road in Leyton . The final stage of the protest was a single building on Fillebrook Road in Leytonstone , which , due to a security blunder , became occupied by squatters .
The road was eventually built as planned , and opened to traffic in 1999 , but the increased costs involved in management and policing of protesters raised the profile of such campaigns in the United Kingdom , and contributed to several road schemes being cancelled or reviewed later on in the decade . Those involved in the protest moved on to oppose other schemes in the country , while opinions of the road as built have since been mixed . By 2014 , the road had become the ninth most congested in the entire country .
= = Background = =
The origin of the link road stems from what were two major arterial roads out of London ( the A11 to Newmarket and Norwich , and the A12 to Colchester , Ipswich and Great Yarmouth ) and subsequent improvements . The first of these was the Eastern Avenue improvement , that opened on 9 June 1924 , which provided a bypass of the old road through Ilford and Romford .
Proposals for the route first arose in the 1960s as part of the London Ringways plan , which would have seen four concentric circular motorways built in the city , together with radial routes , with the M11 motorway ending on Ringway 1 , the innermost Ringway , at Hackney Marsh .
A section of Ringway 1 known as the East Cross Route was built to motorway standards in the late 1960s and early 1970s and designated as the A102 ( M ) . A section of the M11 connecting Ringway 2 ( now part of the North Circular Road ) and Eastern Avenue to Harlow was completed in the late 1970s , opening to traffic in 1977 .
The Ringways scheme met considerable opposition ; there were protests when the Westway , an urban motorway elevated over the streets of Paddington , was opened in 1970 , with local MP John Wheeler later describing the road 's presence within 15 metres of properties as " completely unacceptable environmentally , " and the Archway Road public inquiry was repeatedly abandoned during the 1970s as a result of protests . The first Link Road Action Group to resist the M11 link road was formed in 1976 , and for the next fifteen years activists fought government plans through a series of public inquiries . Their alternative was to build a road tunnel , leaving the houses untouched , but this was rejected on grounds of cost . By 1974 , the Greater London Council announced it would not be completing Ringway 1 . Drivers travelling in the areas where the new roads would have been built had to continue using long stretches of urban single @-@ carriageway roads . In particular , the suburbs of Leyton , Leytonstone and Wanstead suffered serious traffic congestion .
The Roads for Prosperity white paper published in 1989 detailed a major expansion of the road building programme and included plans for the M12 Motorway between London and Chelmsford , as well as many other road schemes . Although Harry Cohen , MP for Leyton and Wanstead suggested in May 1989 that the government should scrap the scheme , a public enquiry was held for the scheme in November .
= = The protest campaign in East London = =
By the 1980s , planning blight had affected the area and many of the houses had become home to a community of artists and squatters . Eventually , contractors were appointed to carry out the work and a compulsory purchase of property along the proposed route was undertaken . In March 1993 , in preparation for the construction of the road , the Earl of Caithness , then the Minister of State for Transport , estimated that there would be 263 properties scheduled for demolition , displacing 550 people , of which he estimated 172 were seeking rehousing . Several original residents , who had in some cases lived in their homes all their lives , refused to sell or move out of their properties .
Protesters from the local area against the link road scheme were joined by large numbers of anti @-@ road campaigners from around the UK and beyond , attracted by the availability of free housing along the route . These experienced protesters , who had participated in earlier events such as the Anti @-@ Nazi League riots in Welling , gave impetus to the campaign . The new arrivals used the skills they had developed during prior protests to construct " defences " , blocking the original entrances to the houses and creating new routes directly between them .
Sophisticated techniques were used to delay the construction of the road . Sit @-@ ins and site invasions were combined with sabotage to stop construction work temporarily . This led to large numbers of police and constant security patrols being employed to protect the construction sites , at great expense . By December 1994 , the total cost of construction had been estimated at £ 6 million and rising by £ 500 @,@ 000 every month .
The protesters were successful in publicising the campaign , with most UK newspapers and TV news programmes covering the protests on a regular basis . Desktop publishing , then in its infancy , was used to produce publicity materials for the campaign and send out faxes to the media . When the government began evicting residents along the route and demolishing the empty houses , the protesters set up so @-@ called " autonomous republics " such as " Wanstonia " in some groups of the houses . Extreme methods were used to force the engineers to halt demolition , including underground tunnels with protesters secured within by concrete .
= = = The chestnut tree on George Green = = =
Until late 1993 , local opposition to the M11 extension had been relatively limited . While opposition had been going for nearly ten years , institutional avenues of protest had been exhausted , and local residents were largely resigned to the road being built . When outside protesters arrived in September 1993 , few residents saw their mission as " their campaign " .
One section of the M11 extension was due to tunnel under George Green in Wanstead . Residents had believed that this would save their green , and a 250 @-@ year @-@ old sweet chestnut tree that grew upon it , but because this was a cut and cover tunnel , this required the tree to be cut down .
Support for the protests started to extend to the local community when Jean Gosling , a lollipop lady in Wanstead , upon learning of the tree 's impending destruction , rallied the support of local children ( and was later fired from her job for doing so while wearing her uniform ) , who in turn recruited their parents into the protests . It was then that the non @-@ resident radicals realised that they had significant local support . When local residents gathered for a tree dressing ceremony on 6 November , they found their way barred by security fencing . With support from the protesters , they pulled it down .
Protesters continued to delay the destruction of the tree . Solicitors for the campaign had even argued in court that receipt of a letter addressed to the tree itself gave it the status of a legal dwelling , causing a further delay , . In the early morning of 7 December 1993 , several hundred police arrived to evict the protesters , which took ten hours to carry out . Protesters made numerous complaints against the police ; police , in turn , denied these allegations , attributing any misbehaviour to the protesters . Media attention started to increase regarding the protest , with several daily newspapers putting pictures of the tree on their front pages .
Local MP Cohen started to become scathing about the scheme and its progress . In March 1994 , he said " the Department of Transport 's pig @-@ headed approach to the M11 link road has been a shambles , and a costly one at that , " and described the ongoing police presence as " a miniature equivalent of the Iraqi occupation of Kuwait . " According to him , squatter Hugh Jones had been threatened by demolition men wielding sledgehammers and pickaxes , adding " the project has cost £ 500 @,@ 000 in police time alone , to take over and demolish a 250 @-@ year @-@ old chestnut tree and half a dozen houses "
= = = Claremont Road = = =
By 1994 , properties scheduled for demolition had been compulsory purchased , and most were made uninhabitable by removing kitchens , bathrooms and staircases . The notable exception was in one small street , Claremont Road , which ran immediately next to the Central line and consequently required every property on it to be demolished . The street was almost completely occupied by protesters except for one original resident who had not taken up the Department for Transport 's offer to move , 92 @-@ year @-@ old Dolly Watson , who was born in number 32 and had lived there nearly all her life . She became friends with the anti @-@ road protesters , saying " they 're not dirty hippy squatters , they 're the grandchildren I never had . " The protesters named a watchtower , built from scaffold poles , after her .
A vibrant and harmonious community sprung up on the road , which even won the begrudging respect of the authorities . The houses were painted with extravagant designs , both internally and externally , and sculptures erected in the road ; the road became an artistic spectacle that one said " had to be seen to be believed " .
In November 1994 , the eviction of Claremont Road took place , bringing an end to the M11 link road resistance as a major physical protest . Bailiffs , accompanied by the police in full riot gear , carried out the eviction over several days , and the Central line , running adjacent to the road , was suspended . As soon as eviction was completed , the remaining properties were demolished . In the end , the cost to the taxpayer was over a million pounds in police costs alone . Quoting David Maclean , " I understand from the Commissioner of Police of the Metropolis that the cost of policing the protest in order to allow bailiffs to take possession of the premises in Claremont road was £ 1 @,@ 014 @,@ 060 . " Cohen complained in parliament about police brutality , stating " were not many of my constituents bullied — including vulnerable people , and others whose only crime was living on the line of route ? " The then Secretary of State for Transport , Brian Mawhinney , pointed out that there had already been three public enquiries at which protesters could have lodged their objections against the line of the route .
= = = Towards the end = = =
Following the Claremont Road eviction , non @-@ resident protesters moved on to other sites such as Newbury . Meanwhile , Fillebrook Road near Leytonstone tube station had already had several houses demolished on it due to problems with vandalism . By 1995 , the only house left standing was number 135 . The house was originally scheduled for demolition at the same time as the others , but had been left standing in order to give the tenant additional time to relocate . After they had done so , on 11 April 1995 , the Department for Transport removed the water supply and part of the roof , and left two security guards on duty . When the guards decided to sleep overnight in their cars that evening , leaving the house unoccupied , the protesters moved in . The house was renamed Munstonia ( after The Munsters , thanks to its spooky appearance ) . Like " Wanstonia " , they proclaimed themselves a micro @-@ nation and designed their own national anthem and flag , though author Joe Moran mentions their legitimacy was complicated by the protesters continuing to claim unemployment benefits from the " mother country . "
A tower was built out of the remains of the roof , similar to one that had existed at Claremont Road , and a system of defences and blockades were built . A core of around 30 protesters ensured that there were always people staying there ( a legal requirement for a squatted home , as well as a defence against eviction ) . They were finally evicted on 21 June 1995 , whereupon , as at Claremont Road , the building was immediately demolished . The total cost of removing the protesters from Munstonia was given to be £ 239 @,@ 349 @.@ 52 , not including additional costs of security guards .
Construction of the road , already under way by this stage , was then free to continue largely unhindered , although systematic sabotage of building sites by local people continued . It was completed in 1999 and given the designation A12 ; its continuation , the former A102 ( M ) , was also given this number as far as the Blackwall Tunnel .
The official opening of the road in October 1999 took place without fanfare , being opened by the Highways Agency Chief Executive rather than a politician , with only journalists with passes being admitted to the ceremony .
= = Consequences of the protest campaign = =
The M11 link road protest was ultimately unsuccessful in its aim to stop the building of the link road . The total cost of compensation for the project was estimated to be around £ 15 million .
Proposals for the M12 motorway were cancelled in 1994 during the first review of the trunk road programme . The most significant response from the government occurred when Labour came into office following the 1997 general election , with the announcement of the New Deal for Trunk Roads in England . This proposal cancelled many previous road schemes , including the construction of the M65 over the Pennines , increased fuel prices , and ensured that road projects would only be undertaken when genuinely necessary , stating " there will be no presumption in favour of new road building as an answer . "
Some protesters went on to join the direct action campaign Reclaim the Streets . A protester arrested and detained on the grounds of breach of the peace unsuccessfully challenged the UK Government 's legislation at the European Court of Justice .
In 2002 , in response to a major new road building programme and expansion of aviation , a delegation of road protest veterans visited the Department for Transport to warn of renewed direct action in response , delivering a D @-@ lock as a symbol of the past protests . One such protestor , Rebecca Lush Blum went on to found Road Block to support road protesters and challenge the government . In 2007 , Road Block became a project within the Campaign for Better Transport
In 2007 , the BBC reported that the cost of the M11 link road doubled due to the intervention of protesters .
Residents in Leytonstone have complained that , following the completion of the road , their streets became rat runs for commuters trying to get ahead of queues .
= Zoe Carpenter =
Zoe Carpenter is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Zoë Lister . The character first appeared on @-@ screen on 1 September 2006 , as one of three new students at Hollyoaks Community College . It was announced in 2009 that Lister had quit her role in order to pursue other projects ; she subsequently left the series in January 2010 . During Zoe 's time in Hollyoaks she has been portrayed as a bubbly tomboy who often makes the wrong choices in life and has had a number of failed relationships .
Zoe has been involved in storylines including being stalked , entering a relationship with an older man , having sexual relations with her female best friend , being wrongfully imprisoned for the murder of Sarah Barnes and the being victim of a stabbing . Lister 's portrayal saw her nominated for the " Sexiest Female " award at the 2008 British Soap Awards , and also attracted critical praise for her exit storyline .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting = = =
Actress and dancer Zoë Lister was cast in the role of Zoe . On 8 June 2009 , media entertainment website Digital Spy revealed that Lister had quit the soap and would leave towards the end of the year . Speaking of her decision to quit , Lister stated : " It 's scary but also very , very exciting . I think three years in a soap is enough to do and you get to a point where you either make a decision that this is what you do or you want to try something different . " She also revealed that she had been planning to leave the series one year prior to announcement . Lister 's decision to quit matched that of co @-@ star Loui Batley ( Sarah Barnes ) . Hollyoaks officially announced on 23 July 2009 that both Lister and Batley would leave towards the end of the year in a storyline that would see " A tragic curtain call for one of them " , later revealing that either Sarah or Zoe would be killed off in a dramatic storyline . Lister also revealed in an interview with Heat magazine that she was " nervous " , but " very excited " about leaving the show .
Almost a year after filming her final scenes , Lister explained that she felt her exit was the right choice , saying : " It felt it was time to go so I just ran with my instincts . Looking back , I was nervous but now I know I 've done the right thing . I love theatre work . It gives me such a buzz . [ Hollyoaks ] was the break I 'd been praying for . I threw myself into the part and enjoyed every minute of it . I had three superb years and it was brilliant . "
= = = Characterisation = = =
Zoe is a former student at Hollyoaks Community College , where she studied Film Studies . Channel 4 publicity describe Zoe as " the bubbly student " and make note of her many bad choices in life and failed relationships . Discussing these failed relationships , Lister commented during an interview in June 2009 that she believed her character was having a break from men in order to sort out her problems : " I think she 's been in and out of so many relationships and her life is at a bit of a juncture ; she probably needs to sort her head out , sort her career , knuckle down really and not get bogged down into a relationship because everything takes a backseat when you 're in one . "
Zoe is also portrayed as having a tomboy persona . Lister was asked about this " tomboy " personality during an interview with Maxim magazine , agreeing with the label and stating her character doesn 't " glam up " as much as the other Hollyoaks characters . Maxim also noted the character was " pretty popular with the boys " . Lister has also commented that her character is not a stereotypical dizzy blonde , reiterated her character 's tomboy status and added that she is a " very street @-@ smart type of woman . "
= = = Early storylines = = =
One of Zoe 's first and main storylines was being stalked by fellow student Will Hackett ( Oliver Farnworth ) . Lister later commented on the storyline , deciding it was her most memorable : " The most memorable for me was the one with my weird boyfriend Will who stalked me . Like I said , it was a bit weird , but I quite liked it as a storyline . " During a fire safety promotion undertaken with co @-@ star Lena Kaur ( who plays Leila Roy ) , Lister referenced the storyline , commenting : " It 's much easier to test your smoke alarm once a week and plan your escape from fire than it is to escape from a psycho ! " .
In early 2008 during an interview with the Daily Mail , Lister expressed her feelings on the subject of lesbian storylines , stating : " I 'd definitely do a lesbian love scene in Hollyoaks . That would be a really good story . " It was later confirmed by Channel 4 that Lister 's character would be involved in a sexual relationship with Sarah during the new late night series Hollyoaks Later . After the screening of the scenes , Lister explained : " It was quite nerve @-@ wracking actually as I 'm good friends with Loui — it 's quite a strange thing to smooch a really good friend so we had to get over the giggles and think ' right , just do it ! ' " Also commenting on her worries about the scenes , she said : " I thought it was hilarious ! I thought it 'd be interesting , though . I was obviously quite worried about them . Loui [ Batley ] and I chatted a lot when we found out that it was going to be in the late @-@ night eps and we were wondering ' oh no , what does this mean ? ! ' But in the end , they weren 't graphic or anything like that , so it was fine . " She continued : " It was completely mental filming them . Loui and I just had a massive attack of the giggles . I think the crew were more embarrassed than we were ! We were kind of ignored for the day . "
Speaking to entertainment news website Digital Spy about Sarah and Zoe 's relationship , Lister explained : " I don 't think they do have feelings for each other in that way . Last year happened and Zoe put it down to history and experience — one of those things that teenagers get up to occasionally and she was quite happy to leave it there . They 've got through a lot and their relationship is really quite special . There 's a lot of love there but Zoe 's not got anything sexual for Sarah — it 's purely a deep friendship . " Meanwhile , Batley said : " I think that for Sarah , Zoe 's the best friend she 's ever had — a lot of people in her life have let her down but Zoe 's her rock . Even though they 've had their fall @-@ outs , she 's always been there for her and she loves her as a friend . I think Zoe feels the same . But for Sarah it 's something more — she completely relies on her and that turns into love for her as well . "
= = = Imprisonment and exit = = =
After the announcement of Lister 's departure , it was that revealed Loui Batley , who played Sarah Barnes , would also leave the show in a tragic skydiving death , caused by a jealous Lydia Hart ( Lydia Kelly ) . Before the skydiving plot aired , Lister explained the storyline during an interview with Sky TV , stating that at the time Lydia severed a parachute to end her own life , later deciding to cut Zoe 's parachute so she could have Sarah to herself , further explaining that viewers were not permitted to know who would have parachute after they became mixed up in the storyline 's dramatic twist . Speaking on how Zoe 's relationship with Sarah causes Lydia to commit her actions , Lister stated :
Lister explained that she and her fellow cast members filmed on many locations , including army barracks . They filmed at Tatenhill Airfield , where staff had been told to remain secretive about the storyline . She also revealed that she was the only cast member out of her , Batley and Kelly who performed the aired skydiving for real . A Hollyoaks producer released two pictures of funeral wreaths , one reading ' Zoe ' and the other ' Sarah ' , in order to confuse viewers further as to whom the victim would be . On @-@ screen after the skydive and Sarah 's subsequent death , Lydia framed Zoe for the murder she committed , leading to her arrest .
Speaking of Sarah 's death and Zoe 's false imprisonment , Lister stated : " She 's in a very difficult place . She 's lost her best friend and there 's so much history there and she 's finished her degree — well she didn 't even finish her degree , she failed that — so she 's in a limbo land anyway . She 's working silly jobs and she 's not in a very good place at all in any aspect of her life . Oh , and she 's in prison on suspicion of murder ... " When asked during another interview with Digital Spy about how the character is coping with being in prison , Lister stated : " Not very well ! It 's all completely overwhelming for her . She can 't get her head around the fact that her best friend 's dead and the fact that she 's being accused of murdering her is ridiculous . She 's worried that because it 's got this far its ludicrous , so who 's to say that she won 't be sent down ? "
When the character was ultimately found not guilty and was released , Lister stated in an interview with E4 : " I think this is a great storyline , I 've really enjoyed doing it . When Zoe 's obviously released , it 's like a whole new scenario for her because there are people who haven 't really trusted her or believed in her . People that have really let her down , and plus the fact she hasn 't got over Sarah [ ... ] being killed yet either . She hasn 't had the chance to deal with that , so that 's really interesting , and she still wants Lydia to go down ! " The character of Zoe then set out to expose Lydia as Sarah 's killer . She befriended her , and even seduced her in order to gain a confession . During an interview about Zoe 's new scheme , Lister said :
Lister continued , " It all gets really messy from here ! Because Lydia 's really deranged , Lydia starts thinking that because she loved Sarah and Sarah loved Zoe , if she gets with Zoe , that 'll be the final piece in the puzzle and it 'll all work out . " She explained : " Lydia starts becoming obsessed with Zoe and to keep control , Zoe has to go with it . There 's a point where Lydia kisses her ! And then Mike walks in and kicks Zoe out . "
Lydia discovered Zoe 's true intentions for befriending her , and set out to take revenge . In a second interview with E4 , Lister stated : " I was really surprised when I learned about Zoe 's ' master plan ' to get Lydia to confess because I think after everything that Zoe 's been through [ ... ] the last thing she wants to do is ever see Lydia again , let alone try and make friends with her ! But that is her only way , so I think it 's really interesting . " She continued : " The fight and the chase stuff with Lydia in the graveyard was really good , we filmed it at night . I was dressed as Madonna . We were in a cemetery , it was brilliant ! ... "
The culmination of the plot saw Lydia stab Zoe . The storyline was described as a " brutal attack " and at the time producers refused to reveal if Zoe would survive . Describing the terror Lydia causes for Zoe , a spokesperson for the serial stated : " Zoe can ’ t believe it when Lydia admits the parachute was meant for her . As soon as she realises Lydia wanted her dead she tries to run . That ’ s when Lydia pulls out a knife and stabs her . " This led to a fight between Lydia and Charlotte who arrives with Dave Colburn ( Elliot James Langridge ) . They both fight to grab the knife while an unconscious Zoe bleeds , ultimately leading to the arrest of Lydia when the police arrive . She is later charged with the murder of Sarah and the attempted murder of Zoe . Several weeks after the character was stabbed , she was seen feeling as if no one wanted to be in her company . After three of her longtime friends snubbed her ideas to make a fresh start elsewhere , ultimately she was she went travelling with her former boyfriend Mike Barnes ( Tony Hirst ) and Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Born in 1987 to Graham ( Paul Clarkson ) and Christine Carpenter ( Race Davies ) , Zoe is the older sister of Archie Carpenter ( Stephen Beard ) . During her time at secondary school , Zoe was overweight and self @-@ conscious . She sought comfort in her teacher and fell in love . The pair began an affair , which was never discovered . While at school , Zoe also had a relationship with Joe Spencer ( Matt Millburn ) , who had arrived in Hollyoaks as a student three years before her arrival .
= = = 2006 – 2010 = = =
Zoe arrives as a new student at the college , studying Film Studies . She eventually grows closer to her ex @-@ boyfriend Joe . Zoe , Kris Fisher ( Gerard McCarthy ) , Joe and Olivia Johnson ( Rochelle Gadd ) are in The Dog in the Pond bar when Sam Owen ( Louis Tamone ) sets it on fire . Zoe escapes but Joe and Olivia die . Zoe has a one @-@ night stand with Zak Ramsey . After rejecting the advances of Will and entering a relationship with Will , Zoe is abused and manipulated by him . He stops Zoe from leaving to study in New York City , resorting to stealing her passport and breaking her hand . He spies on her via web @-@ cam , and drugs her , making it look like a suicide attempt . When Zoe discovers that Will has been spying on her , he ties her up on the college roof and confesses his love for her . Will eventually lets Zoe go and is arrested . A traumatised Zoe leaves to stay with her parents .
Zoe starts a relationship with Darren Osborne ( Ashley Taylor Dawson ) . When Frankie Osborne ( Helen Pearson ) fosters a seven @-@ year @-@ old child called Daisy , Zoe gets on well with her and is angry when Darren has her sent away . Zoe ends their relationship , although they go on to reconcile . Darren becomes addicted to gambling and begins to steal Zoe 's money . He sleeps with Jessica Harris ( Jennifer Biddall ) after they win at a casino . When Zoe discovers this , she ends their relationship again , though helps him through his gambling addiction .
Sarah invites Zoe to move in with her , however her father Mike is angry to find Zoe using Sarah 's sister Amy Barnes ' ( Ashley Slanina @-@ Davies ) room . Kathy Barnes ( Sarah Jane Buckley ) begins to suspect an affair between Zoe and Mike , and throws all Zoe 's clothes out into the street . Mike then asks Kathy to move out . He and Zoe sleep together , unknowingly recorded by Ste Hay ( Kieron Richardson ) , who exposes them . Sarah lashes out at Mike and Zoe . She flaunts her older boyfriend Roger Kiddle ( Quentin Tibble ) in Mike 's face , which backfires when Roger makes a pass at Zoe and they become an official couple . Sarah is able to forgive Zoe , and comforts her when she has a pregnancy scare . Mike is very upset about the idea of Zoe being pregnant .
Zoe visits her old school with Sarah and Nancy Hayton ( Jessica Fox ) , recalling her relationship with her former teacher . She and Sarah get drunk and sleep together , which they both regret and agree to keep quiet . Their one @-@ night stand is later revealed , however , leaving Mike devastated . He throws them both out , before realising how much he loves Zoe and offering to take her back , only for her to refuse .
When Archie destroys Zoe 's film project , essential for her graduation , lecturer Adrian P. Kennedy ( Richard Lawrence ) gives her an extension . Zoe finds a script belonging to Mike which he wrote 20 years ago about his decision to give Sarah up for adoption . Zoe uses the script and films it , and Adrian screens it in the SU Bar . At the screening , Sarah discovers the planned adoption and is in turmoil . Mike goes to see Adrian to tell him of the plagiarism . Adrian says that if she sleeps with him , he will not tell the university . Zoe considers Adrian 's offer but later claims she would rather be a failure than sleep with him , leading to him failing her project . Zoe then has a brief relationship with Natty ( Danny Tennant ) .
Zoe goes on a parachute jump with Fernando Fernandez ( Jeronimo Best ) , Steph Cunningham ( Carley Stenson ) , Gilly and Sarah . Sarah 's ex @-@ girlfriend Lydia appears and is jealous of Sarah and Zoe 's friendship . Lydia lies to Zoe , telling her that Sarah had attempted suicide after their affair the previous year , and warns her to stay away from Sarah . That night , Sarah and Zoe get drunk and return to their tent , where Sarah makes a pass at Zoe . Sarah reveals that whilst she had not intended to kiss her , Zoe was the only person she had ever been able to rely upon . Zoe and Sarah later discover Lydia 's lies and Sarah decides to end their relationship for good during a discussion with Zoe . Lydia overhears the conversation and sabotages Zoe 's parachute before the jump in an attempt to kill her . When the parachutes are mixed up by accident , Zoe 's deploys successfully , but Sarah falls to her death . Upset , Zoe ends up sleeping with a grieving Mike for comfort . Lydia slits her wrists after planting the knife she had sabotaged the parachute with behind Zoe 's bed . Zoe is then arrested in front of Mike under suspicion of Sarah 's murder and is later charged .
Mike visits Zoe in prison , despite Lydia manipulating him , and Zoe is able to convince him that she was not to blame for Sarah 's death . During her trial , Mike tells the court he believes his daughter committed suicide , and Zoe is found not guilty and is released . She then decides to expose Lydia as Sarah 's killer . Zoe moves in with Mike and Lydia , and tells Lydia that her feelings towards her have changed . The pair share a kiss , just as Mike and Amy walk in . Mike then tells Zoe to leave . Lydia discovers that Zoe is using her , and plots revenge . On New Year 's Eve , she gets Zoe to meet her in a church , so they can admit their ' relationship ' to Sarah . Zoe initially goes along with this , but then changes her mind , runs out and is knocked unconscious . Zoe is able to get a confession from Lydia , before running away again . She is startled to see Sarah 's grave for the first time . Lydia finds Zoe and stabs her as Charlotte Lau ( Amy Yamazaki ) , Dave Colburn ( Elliot James Langridge ) and Mike arrive . Mike then cradles Zoe as he calls an ambulance .
Zoe recovers , and after inspiration from Hannah Ashworth ( Emma Rigby ) , she decides to go travelling , along with Kris and Zak . Kris and Zak change their minds , however , due to their girlfriends Nancy and Michaela McQueen ( Hollie @-@ Jay Bowes ) . Zoe plans to leave herself , but as she packs her belongings to leave , Mike is convinced to join her . Zoe , Mike and Gilly say their goodbyes and leave the village . In August , six months after leaving Hollyoaks , Zoe gives Kris an offer to come to London and help her organise a party for a rich person .
= = Reception = =
In 2008 , Lister 's role as Zoe saw her nominated for the " Sexiest Female " award at The British Soap Awards , however she lost to co @-@ star Roxanne McKee . Lister was asked in an interview if she was disappointed to not win the award . She replied : " Not at all ! It was lovely to be nominated , and also a bit hilarious , but beyond that , I wasn 't desperate to win . I really wasn 't bothered ! I was more than happy that Roxanne [ McKee ] won it — and I guessed she might do anyway . " When Zoe 's affair with Mike Barnes ( Tony Hirst ) began , there was some controversy over the storyline , due to the age gap between the pair . However , Hirst stated : " I think the controversy has subsided somewhat . It 's not an illicit affair , it 's known about now . It was shocking to some people at the beginning but it wasn 't by any means illegal . There were some complications but they are both grown @-@ ups ! " The parachute stunt won ' Spectacular Scene Of The Year ' at the 2010 British Soap Awards . At the 2010 Inside Soap Awards the storyline gained nominations in the category of " Best Stunt " . Kris Green of Digital Spy described the skydive as one of the best stunts he had seen in a long time , commenting that Zoe 's reaction to Sarah 's death made him shed a tear , and that the episode on a whole was " amazing " . The parachute stunt won ' Spectacular Scene Of The Year ' at the 2010 British Soap Awards . The Daily Mail opined that Zoe took an " interesting turn " when she slept with Sarah . Asian News International included Sarah and Zoe second on their top ten " girl @-@ on @-@ girl kisses on TV " list .
Grace Dent of The Guardian commented on the realism of Zoe 's storyline involving Adrian stating : " hapless Zoe failed her exams after refusing to shag dismal tutor Adrian . Predatory lecturers taking advantage of gullible women ? Actually , that 's a plot line I can get my head around . The problem with being an academic perv these days is that one day sooner or later , the truth will out . " Lesbian culture website AfterEllen.com opined " she doesn 't seem like the type of woman to give up without a fight " where Sarah and Mike are concerned . They also branded her storyline " scandalous " and said " It appears that in the UK , some television writers actually pay attention to what their actors want . " This was in response to Lister suggesting the storyline .
= Wildfire =
A wildfire or wildland fire is an uncontrolled fire in an area of combustible vegetation that occurs in the countryside ( i.e. , not in an urban area ) . Depending on the type of vegetation that is burnt , a wildfire can also be classified as a brush fire , bush fire , forest fire , desert fire , grass fire , hill fire , peat fire , vegetation fire , or veld fire . A wildfire differs from other fires by its extensive size , the speed at which it can spread out from its original source , its potential to change direction unexpectedly , and its ability to jump gaps such as roads , rivers and fire breaks . Wildfires are characterized in terms of the cause of ignition , their physical properties such as speed of propagation , the combustible material present , and the effect of weather on the fire .
Bushfires in Australia are a common occurrence ; because of the generally hot and dry climate , they pose a great risk to life and infrastructure during all times of the year , though mostly throughout the hotter months of summer and spring . In the United States , there are typically between 60 @,@ 000 and 80 @,@ 000 wildfires that occur each year , burning 3 million to 10 million acres ( 12 @,@ 000 to 40 @,@ 000 square kilometres ) of land depending on the year . Fossil records and human history contain accounts of wildfires , as wildfires can occur in periodic intervals . Wildfires can cause extensive damage , both to property and human life , but they also have various beneficial effects on wilderness areas . Some plant species depend on the effects of fire for growth and reproduction , although large wildfires may also have negative ecological effects .
Strategies of wildfire prevention , detection , and suppression have varied over the years , and international wildfire management experts encourage further development of technology and research . One of the more controversial techniques is controlled burning : permitting or even igniting smaller fires to minimize the amount of flammable material available for a potential wildfire . While some wildfires burn in remote forested regions , they can cause extensive destruction of homes and other property located in the wildland @-@ urban interface : a zone of transition between developed areas and undeveloped wilderness .
The name wildfire was once a synonym for Greek fire but now refers to any large or destructive conflagration . Wildfires differ from other fires in that they take place outdoors in areas of grassland , woodlands , bushland , scrubland , peatland , and other wooded areas that act as a source of fuel , or combustible material . All wildfires can be characterized by their physical properties , fuel type , or weather 's effect on the fire , regardless of the fire 's cause or outcome . Wildfire behaviour and severity result from the combination of factors such as available fuels , physical setting , and weather . While wildfires can be large , uncontrolled disasters that burn through 0 @.@ 4 to 400 square kilometres ( 100 to 100 @,@ 000 acres ) or more , they can also be as small as 0 @.@ 001 square kilometres ( 0 @.@ 25 acres ; 1 @,@ 000 m2 ) or less . Although smaller events may be included in wildfire modeling , most do not earn press attention . This can be problematic because public fire policies , which relate to fires of all sizes , are influenced more by the way the media portrays catastrophic wildfires than by small fires .
= = Causes = =
Unlike entirely natural features ( such as volcanoes , earthquakes and tropical storms ) , wildfires claaify as " quasi @-@ natural " hazards - humans play a role in their causation . Four major natural causes of wildfire ignitions exist :
lightning
volcanic eruption
sparks from rockfalls
spontaneous combustion
The coal seam fires that burn in their thousands around the world - such as those in Centralia , Burning Mountain , and several coal @-@ sustained fires in China - can also flare up and ignite nearby flammable material . The most common directly human sources of wildfires include arson , discarded cigarettes , sparks from equipment , and power @-@ line arcs ( as detected by arc mapping ) . Ignition of wildland fires via contact with hot rifle @-@ bullet fragments is possible under the right conditions . In societies experiencing shifting cultivation where land is cleared quickly and farmed until the soil loses fertility , slash and burn clearing is often considered the least expensive way to prepare land for future use . Forested areas cleared by logging encourage the dominance of flammable grasses , and abandoned logging roads overgrown by vegetation may act as fire corridors . Annual grassland fires in southern Vietnam stem in part from the destruction of forested areas by US military herbicides , explosives , and mechanical land @-@ clearing and -burning operations during the Vietnam War .
The most common cause of wildfires varies throughout the world . In Canada and northwest China , for example , lightning operates as the major source of ignition . In other parts of the world , human involvement is a major contributor . In Mexico , Central America , South America , Africa , Southeast Asia , Fiji , and New Zealand , wildfires can be attributed to human activities such as animal husbandry , agriculture , and land @-@ conversion burning . Human carelessness is a major cause of wildfires in China and in the Mediterranean Basin . In the United States and Australia , the source of wildfires can be traced both to lightning strikes and to human activities ( such as machinery sparks and cast @-@ away cigarette butts ) . "
In any given year there could be far more acres burnt by wildfires that are started by natural means than by human means - or vice versa . For example , in 2010 human @-@ caused wildfires burned almost 1 @.@ 4 million acres , with over 2 million acres devastated by naturally @-@ caused wildfires . However , in 2011 , almost 5 @.@ 4 million acres were burnt by human @-@ caused wildfires while only about 3 @.@ 4 million acres burnt due to naturally @-@ derived wildfires .
= = Spread = =
The spread of wildfires varies based on the flammable material present and its vertical arrangement . For example , fuels uphill from a fire are more readily dried and warmed by the fire than those downhill , yet burning logs can roll downhill from the fire to ignite other fuels . Fuel arrangement and density is governed in part by topography , as land shape determines factors such as available sunlight and water for plant growth . Overall , fire types can be generally characterized by their fuels as follows :
Ground fires are fed by subterranean roots , duff and other buried organic matter . This fuel type is especially susceptible to ignition due to spotting . Ground fires typically burn by smoldering , and can burn slowly for days to months , such as peat fires in Kalimantan and Eastern Sumatra , Indonesia , which resulted from a riceland creation project that unintentionally drained and dried the peat .
Crawling or surface fires are fueled by low @-@ lying vegetation such as leaf and timber litter , debris , grass , and low @-@ lying shrubbery .
Ladder fires consume material between low @-@ level vegetation and tree canopies , such as small trees , downed logs , and vines . Kudzu , Old World climbing fern , and other invasive plants that scale trees may also encourage ladder fires .
Crown , canopy , or aerial fires burn suspended material at the canopy level , such as tall trees , vines , and mosses . The ignition of a crown fire , termed crowning , is dependent on the density of the suspended material , canopy height , canopy continuity , and sufficient surface and ladder fires in order to reach the tree crowns . For example , ground @-@ clearing fires lit by humans can spread into the Amazon rain forest , damaging ecosystems not particularly suited for heat or arid conditions .
= = Physical properties = =
Wildfires occur when all of the necessary elements of a fire triangle come together in a susceptible area : an ignition source is brought into contact with a combustible material such as vegetation , that is subjected to sufficient heat and has an adequate supply of oxygen from the ambient air . A high moisture content usually prevents ignition and slows propagation , because higher temperatures are required to evaporate any water within the material and heat the material to its fire point . Dense forests usually provide more shade , resulting in lower ambient temperatures and greater humidity , and are therefore less susceptible to wildfires . Less dense material such as grasses and leaves are easier to ignite because they contain less water than denser material such as branches and trunks . Plants continuously lose water by evapotranspiration , but water loss is usually balanced by water absorbed from the soil , humidity , or rain . When this balance is not maintained , plants dry out and are therefore more flammable , often a consequence of droughts .
A wildfire front is the portion sustaining continuous flaming combustion , where unburned material meets active flames , or the smoldering transition between unburned and burned material . As the front approaches , the fire heats both the surrounding air and woody material through convection and thermal radiation . First , wood is dried as water is vaporized at a temperature of 100 ° C ( 212 ° F ) . Next , the pyrolysis of wood at 230 ° C ( 450 ° F ) releases flammable gases . Finally , wood can smoulder at 380 ° C ( 720 ° F ) or , when heated sufficiently , ignite at 590 ° C ( 1 @,@ 000 ° F ) . Even before the flames of a wildfire arrive at a particular location , heat transfer from the wildfire front warms the air to 800 ° C ( 1 @,@ 470 ° F ) , which pre @-@ heats and dries flammable materials , causing materials to ignite faster and allowing the fire to spread faster . High @-@ temperature and long @-@ duration surface wildfires may encourage flashover or torching : the drying of tree canopies and their subsequent ignition from below .
Wildfires have a rapid forward rate of spread ( FROS ) when burning through dense , uninterrupted fuels . They can move as fast as 10 @.@ 8 kilometres per hour ( 6 @.@ 7 mph ) in forests and 22 kilometres per hour ( 14 mph ) in grasslands . Wildfires can advance tangential to the main front to form a flanking front , or burn in the opposite direction of the main front by backing . They may also spread by jumping or spotting as winds and vertical convection columns carry firebrands ( hot wood embers ) and other burning materials through the air over roads , rivers , and other barriers that may otherwise act as firebreaks . Torching and fires in tree canopies encourage spotting , and dry ground fuels that surround a wildfire are especially vulnerable to ignition from firebrands . Spotting can create spot fires as hot embers and firebrands ignite fuels downwind from the fire . In Australian bushfires , spot fires are known to occur as far as 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) from the fire front .
Especially large wildfires may affect air currents in their immediate vicinities by the stack effect : air rises as it is heated , and large wildfires create powerful updrafts that will draw in new , cooler air from surrounding areas in thermal columns . Great vertical differences in temperature and humidity encourage pyrocumulus clouds , strong winds , and fire whirls with the force of tornadoes at speeds of more than 80 kilometres per hour ( 50 mph ) . Rapid rates of spread , prolific crowning or spotting , the presence of fire whirls , and strong convection columns signify extreme conditions .
The thermal heat from wildfire can cause significant weathering of rocks and boulders , heat can rapidly expand a boulder and thermal shock can occur , which may cause an object 's structure to fail .
= = Effect of weather = =
Heat waves , droughts , cyclical climate changes such as El Niño , and regional weather patterns such as high @-@ pressure ridges can increase the risk and alter the behavior of wildfires dramatically . Years of precipitation followed by warm periods can encourage more widespread fires and longer fire seasons . Since the mid @-@ 1980s , earlier snowmelt and associated warming has also been associated with an increase in length and severity of the wildfire season in the Western United States . However , one individual element does not always cause an increase in wildfire activity . For example , wildfires will not occur during a drought unless accompanied by other factors , such as lightning ( ignition source ) and strong winds ( mechanism for rapid spread ) . A 2015 study indicates that the increase in fire risk in California is attributable to human @-@ induced climate change .
Intensity also increases during daytime hours . Burn rates of smoldering logs are up to five times greater during the day due to lower humidity , increased temperatures , and increased wind speeds . Sunlight warms the ground during the day which creates air currents that travel uphill . At night the land cools , creating air currents that travel downhill . Wildfires are fanned by these winds and often follow the air currents over hills and through valleys . Fires in Europe occur frequently during the hours of 12 : 00 p.m. and 2 : 00 p.m. Wildfire suppression operations in the United States revolve around a 24 @-@ hour fire day that begins at 10 : 00 a.m. due to the predictable increase in intensity resulting from the daytime warmth .
= = Ecology = =
Wildfires are common in climates that are sufficiently moist to allow the growth of vegetation but feature extended dry , hot periods . Such places include the vegetated areas of Australia and Southeast Asia , the veld in southern Africa , the fynbos in the Western Cape of South Africa , the forested areas of the United States and Canada , and the Mediterranean Basin . Fires can be particularly intense during days of strong winds , periods of drought , and during warm summer months . Global warming may increase the intensity and frequency of droughts in many areas , creating more intense and frequent wildfires .
Although some ecosystems rely on naturally occurring fires to regulate growth , many ecosystems suffer from too much fire , such as the chaparral in southern California and lower elevation deserts in the American Southwest . The increased fire frequency in these ordinarily fire @-@ dependent areas has upset natural cycles , destroyed native plant communities , and encouraged the growth of fire @-@ intolerant vegetation and non @-@ native weeds . Invasive species , such as Lygodium microphyllum and Bromus tectorum , can grow rapidly in areas that were damaged by fires . Because they are highly flammable , they can increase the future risk of fire , creating a positive feedback loop that increases fire frequency and further destroys native growth .
In the Amazon Rainforest , drought , logging , cattle ranching practices , and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture damage fire @-@ resistant forests and promote the growth of flammable brush , creating a cycle that encourages more burning . Fires in the rainforest threaten its collection of diverse species and produce large amounts of CO2 . Also , fires in the rainforest , along with drought and human involvement , could damage or destroy more than half of the Amazon rainforest by the year 2030 . Wildfires generate ash , destroy available organic nutrients , and cause an increase in water runoff , eroding away other nutrients and creating flash flood conditions . A 2003 wildfire in the North Yorkshire Moors destroyed 2 @.@ 5 square kilometers ( 600 acres ) of heather and the underlying peat layers . Afterwards , wind erosion stripped the ash and the exposed soil , revealing archaeological remains dating back to 10 @,@ 000 BC . Wildfires can also have an effect on climate change , increasing the amount of carbon released into the atmosphere and inhibiting vegetation growth , which affects overall carbon uptake by plants .
In tundra there is a natural pattern of accumulation of fuel and wildfire which varies depending on the nature of vegetation and terrain . Research in Alaska has shown fire @-@ event return intervals , ( FRIs ) that typically vary from 150 to 200 years with dryer lowland areas burning more frequently than wetter upland areas .
= = = Plant adaptation = = =
Plants in wildfire @-@ prone ecosystems often survive through adaptations to their local fire regime . Such adaptations include physical protection against heat , increased growth after a fire event , and flammable materials that encourage fire and may eliminate competition . For example , plants of the genus Eucalyptus contain flammable oils that encourage fire and hard sclerophyll leaves to resist heat and drought , ensuring their dominance over less fire @-@ tolerant species . Dense bark , shedding lower branches , and high water content in external structures may also protect trees from rising temperatures . Fire @-@ resistant seeds and reserve shoots that sprout after a fire encourage species preservation , as embodied by pioneer species . Smoke , charred wood , and heat can stimulate the germination of seeds in a process called serotiny . Exposure to smoke from burning plants promotes germination in other types of plants by inducing the production of the orange butenolide .
Grasslands in Western Sabah , Malaysian pine forests , and Indonesian Casuarina forests are believed to have resulted from previous periods of fire . Chamise deadwood litter is low in water content and flammable , and the shrub quickly sprouts after a fire . Cape lilies lie dormant until flames brush away the covering , then blossom almost overnight . Sequoia rely on periodic fires to reduce competition , release seeds from their cones , and clear the soil and canopy for new growth . Caribbean Pine in Bahamian pineyards have adapted to and rely on low @-@ intensity , surface fires for survival and growth . An optimum fire frequency for growth is every 3 to 10 years . Too frequent fires favor herbaceous plants , and infrequent fires favor species typical of Bahamian dry forests .
= = = Atmospheric effects = = =
Most of the Earth 's weather and air pollution resides in the troposphere , the part of the atmosphere that extends from the surface of the planet to a height of about 10 kilometers ( 6 mi ) . The vertical lift of a severe thunderstorm or pyrocumulonimbus can be enhanced in the area of a large wildfire , which can propel smoke , soot , and other particulate matter as high as the lower stratosphere . Previously , prevailing scientific theory held that most particles in the stratosphere came from volcanoes , but smoke and other wildfire emissions have been detected from the lower stratosphere . Pyrocumulus clouds can reach 6 @,@ 100 meters ( 20 @,@ 000 ft ) over wildfires . Satellite observation of smoke plumes from wildfires revealed that the plumes could be traced intact for distances exceeding 1 @,@ 600 kilometers ( 1 @,@ 000 mi ) . Computer @-@ aided models such as CALPUFF may help predict the size and direction of wildfire @-@ generated smoke plumes by using atmospheric dispersion modeling .
Wildfires can affect climate and weather and have major impacts on atmospheric pollution . To determine climate variability and its impact , tools such as remote sensing , fire danger rating systems , and fire behavior models have been used . Wildfire emissions contain fine particulate matter which can cause cardiovascular and respiratory problems . Increased fire byproducts in the troposphere can increase ozone concentration beyond safe levels . Forest fires in Indonesia in 1997 were estimated to have released between 0 @.@ 81 and 2 @.@ 57 gigatonnes ( 0 @.@ 89 and 2 @.@ 83 billion short tons ) of CO2 into the atmosphere , which is between 13 % – 40 % of the annual global carbon dioxide emissions from burning fossil fuels . Atmospheric models suggest that these concentrations of sooty particles could increase absorption of incoming solar radiation during winter months by as much as 15 % .
= = History = =
In the Welsh Borders , the first evidence of wildfire is rhyniophytoid plant fossils preserved as charcoal , dating to the Silurian period ( about 420 million years ago ) . Smoldering surface fires started to occur sometime before the Early Devonian period 405 million years ago . Low atmospheric oxygen during the Middle and Late Devonian was accompanied by a decrease in charcoal abundance . Additional charcoal evidence suggests that fires continued through the Carboniferous period . Later , the overall increase of atmospheric oxygen from 13 % in the Late Devonian to 30 @-@ 31 % by the Late Permian was accompanied by a more widespread distribution of wildfires . Later , a decrease in wildfire @-@ related charcoal deposits from the late Permian to the Triassic periods is explained by a decrease in oxygen levels .
Wildfires during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic periods followed patterns similar to fires that occur in modern times . Surface fires driven by dry seasons are evident in Devonian and Carboniferous progymnosperm forests . Lepidodendron forests dating to the Carboniferous period have charred peaks , evidence of crown fires . In Jurassic gymnosperm forests , there is evidence of high frequency , light surface fires . The increase of fire activity in the late Tertiary is possibly due to the increase of C4 @-@ type grasses . As these grasses shifted to more mesic habitats , their high flammability increased fire frequency , promoting grasslands over woodlands . However , fire @-@ prone habitats may have contributed to the prominence of trees such as those of the genera Eucalyptus , Pinus and Sequoia , which have thick bark to withstand fires and employ serotiny .
= = = Human involvement = = =
The human use of fire for agricultural and hunting purposes during the Paleolithic and Mesolithic ages altered the preexisting landscapes and fire regimes . Woodlands were gradually replaced by smaller vegetation that facilitated travel , hunting , seed @-@ gathering and planting . In recorded human history , minor allusions to wildfires were mentioned in the Bible and by classical writers such as Homer . However , while ancient Hebrew , Greek , and Roman writers were aware of fires , they were not very interested in the uncultivated lands where wildfires occurred . Wildfires were used in battles throughout human history as early thermal weapons . From the Middle ages , accounts were written of occupational burning as well as customs and laws that governed the use of fire . In Germany , regular burning was documented in 1290 in the Odenwald and in 1344 in the Black Forest . In the 14th century Sardinia , firebreaks were used for wildfire protection . In Spain during the 1550s , sheep husbandry was discouraged in certain provinces by Philip II due to the harmful effects of fires used in transhumance . As early as the 17th century , Native Americans were observed using fire for many purposes including cultivation , signaling , and warfare . Scottish botanist David Douglas noted the native use of fire for tobacco cultivation , to encourage deer into smaller areas for hunting purposes , and to improve foraging for honey and grasshoppers . Charcoal found in sedimentary deposits off the Pacific coast of Central America suggests that more burning occurred in the 50 years before the Spanish colonization of the Americas than after the colonization . In the post @-@ World War II Baltic region , socio @-@ economic changes led more stringent air quality standards and bans on fires that eliminated traditional burning practices .
Wildfires typically occurred during periods of increased temperature and drought . An increase in fire @-@ related debris flow in alluvial fans of northeastern Yellowstone National Park was linked to the period between AD 1050 and 1200 , coinciding with the Medieval Warm Period . However , human influence caused an increase in fire frequency . Dendrochronological fire scar data and charcoal layer data in Finland suggests that , while many fires occurred during severe drought conditions , an increase in the number of fires during 850 BC and 1660 AD can be attributed to human influence . Charcoal evidence from the Americas suggested a general decrease in wildfires between 1 AD and 1750 compared to previous years . However , a period of increased fire frequency between 1750 and 1870 was suggested by charcoal data from North America and Asia , attributed to human population growth and influences such as land clearing practices . This period was followed by an overall decrease in burning in the 20th century , linked to the expansion of agriculture , increased livestock grazing , and fire prevention efforts . A meta @-@ analysis found that 17 times as much land burned annually in California before 1800 compared to today ( 1 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 hectares / year compared to 102 @,@ 000 hectares / year ) .
Invasive species moved by humans have in some cases increased the intensity of wildfires , such as Eucalyptus in California and gamba grass in Australia .
= = Prevention = =
Wildfire prevention refers to the preemptive methods of reducing the risk of fires as well as lessening its severity and spread . Effective prevention techniques allow supervising agencies to manage air quality , maintain ecological balances , protect resources , and to limit the effects of future uncontrolled fires . North American firefighting policies may permit naturally caused fires to burn to maintain their ecological role , so long as the risks of escape into high @-@ value areas are mitigated . However , prevention policies must consider the role that humans play in wildfires , since , for example , 95 % of forest fires in Europe are related to human involvement . Sources of human @-@ caused fire may include arson , accidental ignition , or the uncontrolled use of fire in land @-@ clearing and agriculture such as the slash @-@ and @-@ burn farming in Southeast Asia .
In the mid @-@ 19th century , explorers from the HMS Beagle observed Australian Aborigines using fire for ground clearing , hunting , and regeneration of plant food in a method later named fire @-@ stick farming . Such careful use of fire has been employed for centuries in the lands protected by Kakadu National Park to encourage biodiversity . In 1937 , U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt initiated a nationwide fire prevention campaign , highlighting the role of human carelessness in forest fires . Later posters of the program featured Uncle Sam , leaders of the Axis powers of World War II , characters from the Disney movie Bambi , and the official mascot of the U.S. Forest Service , Smokey Bear .
Wildfires are caused by a combination of natural factors such as topography , fuels and weather . Other than reducing human infractions , only fuels may be altered to affect future fire risk and behavior . Wildfire prevention programs around the world may employ techniques such as wildland fire use and prescribed or controlled burns . Wildland fire use refers to any fire of natural causes that is monitored but allowed to burn . Controlled burns are fires ignited by government agencies under less dangerous weather conditions .
Vegetation may be burned periodically to maintain high species diversity and frequent burning of surface fuels limits fuel accumulation , thereby reducing the risk of crown fires . Using strategic cuts of trees , fuels may also be removed by handcrews in order to clean and clear the forest , prevent fuel build @-@ up , and create access into forested areas . Chain saws and large equipment can be used to thin out ladder fuels and shred trees and vegetation to a mulch . Multiple fuel treatments are often needed to influence future fire risks , and wildfire models may be used to predict and compare the benefits of different fuel treatments on future wildfire spread .
However , controlled burns are reportedly " the most effective treatment for reducing a fire 's rate of spread , fireline intensity , flame length , and heat per unit of area " according to Jan Van Wagtendonk , a
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biologist at the Yellowstone Field Station . Additionally , while fuel treatments are typically limited to smaller areas , effective fire management requires the administration of fuels across large landscapes in order to reduce future fire size and severity .
Building codes in fire @-@ prone areas typically require that structures be built of flame @-@ resistant materials and a defensible space be maintained by clearing flammable materials within a prescribed distance from the structure . Communities in the Philippines also maintain fire lines 5 to 10 meters ( 16 to 33 ft ) wide between the forest and their village , and patrol these lines during summer months or seasons of dry weather . Fuel buildup can result in costly , devastating fires as new homes , ranches , and other development are built adjacent to wilderness areas . Continued growth in fire @-@ prone areas and rebuilding structures destroyed by fires has been met with criticism .
However , the population growth along the wildland @-@ urban interface discourages the use of current fuel management techniques . Smoke is an irritant and attempts to thin out the fuel load is met with opposition due to desirability of forested areas , in addition to other wilderness goals such as endangered species protection and habitat preservation . The ecological benefits of fire are often overridden by the economic and safety benefits of protecting structures and human life . For example , while fuel treatments decrease the risk of crown fires , these techniques destroy the habitats of various plant and animal species . Additionally , government policies that cover the wilderness usually differ from local and state policies that govern urban lands .
= = Policy = =
= = = History of wildfire policy in the U.S. = = =
Since the turn of the 20th century , various federal and state agencies have been involved in wildland fire management in one form or another . In the early 20th century , for example , the federal government , through the U.S. Army and the U.S. Forest Service , solicited fire suppression as a primary goal of managing the nation 's forests . At this time in history fire was viewed as a threat to timber , an economically important natural resource . As such , the decision was made to devote public funds to fire suppression and fire prevention efforts . For example , the Forest Fire Emergency Fund Act of 1908 permitted deficit spending in the case of emergency fire situations . As a result , the U.S. Forest Service was able to acquire a deficit of over $ 1 million in 1910 due to emergency fire suppression efforts . Following the same tone of timber resource protection , the U.S. Forest Service adopted the " 10 AM Policy " in 1935 . Through this policy , the agency advocated the control of all fires by 10 o 'clock of the morning following the discovery of a wildfire . Fire prevention was also heavily advocated through public education campaigns such as Smokey Bear . Through these and similar public education campaigns the general public was , in a sense , trained to perceive all wildfire as a threat to civilized society and natural resources . The negative sentiment towards wildland fire prevailed and helped to shape wildland fire management objectives throughout most of the 20th century .
Beginning in the 1970s public perception of wildland fire management began to shift . Despite strong funding for fire suppression in the first half of the 20th century , massive wildfires continued to be prevalent across the landscape of North America . Ecologists were beginning to recognize the presence and ecological importance of natural , lightning @-@ ignited wildfires across the United States . It was learned that suppression of fire in certain ecosystems may in fact increase the likelihood that a wildfire will occur and may increase the intensity of those wildfires . With the emergence of fire ecology as a science also came an effort to apply fire to ecosystems in a controlled manner ; however , suppression is still the main tactic when a fire is set by a human or if it threatens life or property . By the 1980s , in light of this new understanding , funding efforts began to support prescribed burning in order to prevent catastrophic wildfire events . In 2001 , the United States implemented a National Fire Plan , increasing the budget for the reduction of hazardous fuels from $ 108 million in 2000 to $ 401 million .
In addition to using prescribed fire to reduce the chance of catastrophic wildfires , mechanical methods have recently been adopted as well . Mechanical methods include the use of chippers and other machinery to remove hazardous fuels and thereby reduce the risk of wildfire events . Today the United States ' maintains that , " fire , as a critical natural process , will be integrated into land and resource management plans and activities on a landscape scale , and across agency boundaries . Response to wildfire is based on ecological , social and legal consequences of fire . The circumstance under which a fire occurs , and the likely consequences and public safety and welfare , natural and cultural resources , and values to be protected dictate the appropriate management response to fire " ( United States Department of Agriculture Guidance for Implementation of Federal Wildland Fire Management Policy , 13 February 2009 ) . The five federal regulatory agencies managing forest fire response and planning for 676 million acres in the United States are the Department of the Interior , the Bureau of Land Management , the Bureau of Indian Affairs , the National Park Service , the United States Department of Agriculture @-@ Forest Service and the United States Fish and Wildlife Services . Several hundred million U.S. acres of wildfire management are also conducted by state , county , and local fire management organizations . In 2014 , legislators proposed The Wildfire Disaster Funding Act to provide $ 2 @.@ 7 billion fund appropriated by congress for the USDA and Department of Interior to use in fire suppression . The bill is a reaction to United States Forest Service and Department of Interior costs of Western Wildfire suppression appending that amounted to $ 3 @.@ 5 billion in 2013 .
= = = The Condition Class System = = =
The Condition Class System is used in the United States to provide " national @-@ level data on the current condition of fuel and vegetation . " The USDA Forest Service developed this for the purpose of allocating fire funding and resources , prioritizing fuel usage and restoration activities , and evaluating wildfire management progress . There are primary and secondary determinants used to rank forest systems into condition class and fire regimes . Condition Class " indicates the departure from normal fire return intervals " and is categorized as low , medium , or high . The more a fire departs from normal pattern , the higher is its condition class . A fire regime is the " historical pattern of fire in forests " and the Roman numerals I , II , III , IV and V are used for the classification . Primary determinants are the structure of the forest , the amount of trees , tree density and the characteristics of the combustible fuel . The United States Department of Agriculture and the United States Department of Interior use the Condition Class System in the LANDFIRE project to make assessments of federal land . However , the LANDFIRE project revealed in 2003 that this type of analysis is not detailed enough to use at a local level . Federal agencies are required to take record and report " acres treated " , using different prevention tactics , under the National Fire Plan Operations Reporting System ( NFPORS ) .
= = = Wildland @-@ urban interface policy = = =
An aspect of wildfire policy that is gaining attention is the wildland @-@ urban interface ( WUI ) . More and more people are living in " red zones , " or areas that are at high risk of wildfires . FEMA and the NFPA develop specific policies to guide homeowners and builders in how to build and maintain structures at the WUI and how protect against catastrophic losses . For example , NFPA @-@ 1141 is a standard for fire protection infrastructure for land development in wildland , rural and suburban areas and NFPA @-@ 1144 is a standard for reducing structure ignition hazards from wildland fire . For a full list of these policies and guidelines , see http : / / www.nfpa.org / categoryList.asp ? categoryID = 124 & URL = Codes % 20 & % 20Standards . Compensation for losses in the WUI are typically negotiated on an incident @-@ by @-@ incident basis . This is generating discussion about the burden of responsibility for funding and fighting a fire in the WUI , in that , if a resident chooses to live in a known red zone , should he or she retain a higher level of responsibility for funding home protection against wildfires .
One initiative aimed at helping U.S. WUI communities live more safely with fire is called fire @-@ adapted communities .
= = = Economics of fire management policy = = =
Similar to that of military operations , fire management is often very expensive in the U.S. and the rest of the world . Today , it is not uncommon for suppression operations for a single wildfire to exceed costs of $ 1 million in just a few days . The United States Department of Agriculture allotted $ 2 @.@ 2 billion for wildfire management in 2012 . Although fire suppression offers many benefits to society , other options for fire management exist . While these options cannot completely replace fire suppression as a fire management tool , other options can play an important role in overall fire management and can therefore affect the costs of fire suppression .
The application of fire management tools requires making certain tradeoffs . Below is a sample of some costs and benefits associated with the tools currently used in fire management . Current approaches to fire management are an almost complete turnaround compared to historic approaches . In fact , it is commonly accepted that past fire suppression , along with other factors , has resulted in larger , more intense wildfire events which are seen today . In economic terms , expenditures used for wildfire suppression in the early 20th century have contributed to increased suppression costs which are being realized today . As is the case with many public policy issues , costs and benefits associated with particular fire management tools are difficult to accurately quantify . Ultimately , costs and benefits should be weighed against one another on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis in planning wildland fire management operations .
Depending on the tradeoffs that a land manager is willing to make , a combination of the following fire management tools could be used . For instance , prescribed fire and / or mechanical fuels reduction could be used to help prevent or lessen the intensity of a wildfire thereby reducing or eliminating suppression costs . In addition , prescribed fire and / or mechanical fuels reduction could be used to improve soil conditions in fields or in forests to the benefit of wildlife or natural resources . On the other hand , the use of prescribed fire requires much advanced planning and can have negative impacts on human health in nearby communities .
Costs and Benefits of Wildland Fire Management Tools
= = Detection = =
Fast and effective detection is a key factor in wildfire fighting . Early detection efforts were focused on early response , accurate results in both daytime and nighttime , and the ability to prioritize fire danger . Fire lookout towers were used in the United States in the early 20th century and fires were reported using telephones , carrier pigeons , and heliographs . Aerial and land photography using instant cameras were used in the 1950s until infrared scanning was developed for fire detection in the 1960s . However , information analysis and delivery was often delayed by limitations in communication technology . Early satellite @-@ derived fire analyses were hand @-@ drawn on maps at a remote site and sent via overnight mail to the fire manager . During the Yellowstone fires of 1988 , a data station was established in West Yellowstone , permitting the delivery of satellite @-@ based fire information in approximately four hours .
Currently , public hotlines , fire lookouts in towers , and ground and aerial patrols can be used as a means of early detection of forest fires . However , accurate human observation may be limited by operator fatigue , time of day , time of year , and geographic location . Electronic systems have gained popularity in recent years as a possible resolution to human operator error . A government report on a recent trial of three automated camera fire detection systems in Australia did , however , conclude " ... detection by the camera systems was slower and less reliable than by a trained human observer " . These systems may be semi- or fully automated and employ systems based on the risk area and degree of human presence , as suggested by GIS data analyses . An integrated approach of multiple systems can be used to merge satellite data , aerial imagery , and personnel position via Global Positioning System ( GPS ) into a collective whole for near @-@ realtime use by wireless Incident Command Centers .
A small , high risk area that features thick vegetation , a strong human presence , or is close to a critical urban area can be monitored using a local sensor network . Detection systems may include wireless sensor networks that act as automated weather systems : detecting temperature , humidity , and smoke . These may be battery @-@ powered , solar @-@ powered , or tree @-@ rechargeable : able to recharge their battery systems using the small electrical currents in plant material . Larger , medium @-@ risk areas can be monitored by scanning towers that incorporate fixed cameras and sensors to detect smoke or additional factors such as the infrared signature of carbon dioxide produced by fires . Additional capabilities such as night vision , brightness detection , and color change detection may also be incorporated into sensor arrays .
Satellite and aerial monitoring through the use of planes , helicopter , or UAVs can provide a wider view and may be sufficient to monitor very large , low risk areas . These more sophisticated systems employ GPS and aircraft @-@ mounted infrared or high @-@ resolution visible cameras to identify and target wildfires . Satellite @-@ mounted sensors such as Envisat 's Advanced Along Track Scanning Radiometer and European Remote @-@ Sensing Satellite 's Along @-@ Track Scanning Radiometer can measure infrared radiation emitted by fires , identifying hot spots greater than 39 ° C ( 102 ° F ) . The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration 's Hazard Mapping System combines remote @-@ sensing data from satellite sources such as Geostationary Operational Environmental Satellite ( GOES ) , Moderate @-@ Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer ( MODIS ) , and Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer ( AVHRR ) for detection of fire and smoke plume locations . However , satellite detection is prone to offset errors , anywhere from 2 to 3 kilometers ( 1 to 2 mi ) for MODIS and AVHRR data and up to 12 kilometers ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) for GOES data . Satellites in geostationary orbits may become disabled , and satellites in polar orbits are often limited by their short window of observation time . Cloud cover and image resolution and may also limit the effectiveness of satellite imagery .
in 2015 a new fire detection tool is in operation at the U.S. Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) Forest Service ( USFS ) which uses data from the Suomi National Polar @-@ orbiting Partnership ( NPP ) satellite to detect smaller fires in more detail than previous space @-@ based products . The high @-@ resolution data is used with a computer model to predict how a fire will change direction based on weather and land conditions . The active fire detection product using data from Suomi NPP 's Visible Infrared Imaging Radiometer Suite ( VIIRS ) increases the resolution of fire observations to 1 @,@ 230 feet ( 375 meters ) . Previous NASA satellite data products available since the early 2000s observed fires at 3 @,@ 280 foot ( 1 kilometer ) resolution . The data is one of the intelligence tools used by the USFS and Department of Interior agencies across the United States to guide resource allocation and strategic fire management decisions . The enhanced VIIRS fire product enables detection every 12 hours or less of much smaller fires and provides more detail and consistent tracking of fire lines during long duration wildfires – capabilities critical for early warning systems and support of routine mapping of fire progression . Active fire locations are available to users within minutes from the satellite overpass through data processing facilities at the USFS Remote Sensing Applications Center , which uses technologies developed by the NASA Goddard Space Flight Center Direct Readout Laboratory in Greenbelt , Maryland . The model uses data on weather conditions and the land surrounding an active fire to predict 12 – 18 hours in advance whether a blaze will shift direction . The VIIRS fire detection product has been applied to these models , successfully verifying the wildfire simulations . The state of Colorado decided to incorporate the weather @-@ fire model in its firefighting efforts beginning with the 2016 fire season .
In 2014 , an international campaign was organized in South Africa 's Kruger National Park to validate fire detection products including the new VIIRS active fire data . In advance of that campaign , the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research in Pretoria , South Africa , an early adopter of the VIIRS 375m fire product , put it to use during several large wildfires in Kruger .
The demand for timely , high @-@ quality fire information has increased in recent years . Wildfires in the United States burn an average of 7 million acres of land each year . For the last 10 years , the USFS and Department of Interior have spent a combined average of about $ 1 @.@ 5 billion annually on wildfire suppression . Large catastrophic wildfires have become common , especially in association with extended drought and extreme weather .
= = Suppression = =
Wildfire suppression depends on the technologies available in the area in which the wildfire occurs . In less developed nations the techniques used can be as simple as throwing sand or beating the fire with sticks or palm fronds . In more advanced nations , the suppression methods vary due to increased technological capacity . Silver iodide can be used to encourage snow fall , while fire retardants and water can be dropped onto fires by unmanned aerial vehicles , planes , and helicopters . Complete fire suppression is no longer an expectation , but the majority of wildfires are often extinguished before they grow out of control . While more than 99 % of the 10 @,@ 000 new wildfires each year are contained , escaped wildfires can cause extensive damage . Worldwide damage from wildfires is in the billions of euros annually . Wildfires in Canada and the US burn an average of 54 @,@ 500 square kilometers ( 13 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ) per year .
Above all , fighting wildfires can become deadly . A wildfire 's burning front may also change direction unexpectedly and jump across fire breaks . Intense heat and smoke can lead to disorientation and loss of appreciation of the direction of the fire , which can make fires particularly dangerous . For example , during the 1949 Mann Gulch fire in Montana , USA , thirteen smokejumpers died when they lost their communication links , became disoriented , and were overtaken by the fire . In the Australian February 2009 Victorian bushfires , at least 173 people died and over 2 @,@ 029 homes and 3 @,@ 500 structures were lost when they became engulfed by wildfire .
= = = Wildland firefighting safety = = =
Wildland fire fighters face several life @-@ threatening hazards including heat stress , fatigue , smoke and dust , as well as the risk of other injuries such as burns , cuts and scrapes , animal bites , and even rhabdomyolysis .
Especially in hot weather condition , fires present the risk of heat stress , which can entail feeling heat , fatigue , weakness , vertigo , headache , or nausea . Heat stress can progress into heat strain , which entails physiological changes such as increased heart rate and core body temperature . This can lead to heat @-@ related illnesses , such as heat rash , cramps , exhaustion or heat stroke . Various factors can contribute to the risks posed by heat stress , including strenuous work , personal risk factors such as age and fitness , dehydration , sleep deprivation , and burdensome personal protective equipment . Rest , cool water , and occasional breaks are crucial to mitigating the effects of heat stress .
Smoke , ash , and debris can also pose serious respiratory hazards to wildland fire fighters . The smoke and dust from wildfires can contain gases such as carbon monoxide , sulfur dioxide and formaldehyde , as well as particulates such as ash and silica . To reduce smoke exposure , wildfire fighting crews should , whenever possible , rotate firefighters through areas of heavy smoke , avoid downwind firefighting , use equipment rather than people in holding areas , and minimize mop @-@ up . Camps and command posts should also be located upwind of wildfires . Protective clothing and equipment can also help minimize exposure to smoke and ash .
Firefighters are also at risk of cardiac events including strokes and heart attacks . Fire fighters should maintain good physical fitness . Fitness programs , medical screening and examination programs which include stress tests can minimize the risks of firefighting cardiac problems . Other injury hazards wildland fire fighters face include slips , trips and falls , burns , scrapes and cuts from tools and equipment , being struck by trees , vehicles , or other objects , plant hazards such as thorns and poison ivy , snake and animal bites , vehicle crashes , electrocution from power lines or lightning storms , and unstable building structures .
= = Fire retardant = =
Fire retardants are used to help slow wildfires , coat fuels , and lessen oxygen availability as required by various firefighting situations . They are composed of nitrates , ammonia , phosphates and sulfates , as well as other chemicals and thickening agents . The choice of whether to apply retardant depends on the magnitude , location and intensity of the wildfire . Fire retardants are used to reach inaccessible geographical regions where ground firefighting crews are unable to reach a wildfire or in any occasion where human safety and structures are endangered . In certain instances , fire retardant may also be applied ahead of wildfires for protection of structures and vegetation as a precautionary fire defense measure .
The application of aerial fire retardants creates an atypical appearance on land and water surfaces and has the potential to change soil chemistry . Fire retardant can decrease the availability of plant nutrients in the soil by increasing the acidity of the soil . Fire retardant may also affect water quality through leaching , eutrophication , or misapplication . Fire retardant 's effects on drinking water remain inconclusive . Dilution factors , including water body size , rainfall , and water flow rates lessen the concentration and potency of fire retardant . Wildfire debris ( ash and sediment ) clog rivers and reservoirs increasing the risk for floods and erosion that ultimately slow and / or damage water treatment systems . There is continued concern of fire retardant effects on land , water , wildlife habitats , and watershed quality , additional research is needed . However , on the positive side , fire retardant ( specifically its nitrogen and phosphorus components ) has been shown to have a fertilizing effect on nutrient @-@ deprived soils and thus creates a temporary increase in vegetation .
Current USDA procedure maintains that the aerial application of fire retardant in the United States must clear waterways by a minimum of 300 feet in order to safeguard effects of retardant runoff . Aerial uses of fire retardant are required to avoid application near waterways and endangered species ( plant and animal habitats ) . After any incident of fire retardant misapplication , the U.S. Forest Service requires reporting and assessment impacts be made in order to determine mitigation , remediation , and / or restrictions on future retardant uses in that area .
= = = Modeling = = =
Wildfire modeling is concerned with numerical simulation of wildfires in order to comprehend and predict fire behavior . Wildfire modeling can ultimately aid wildfire suppression , increase the safety of firefighters and the public , and minimize damage . Using computational science , wildfire modeling involves the statistical analysis of past fire events to predict spotting risks and front behavior . Various wildfire propagation models have been proposed in the past , including simple ellipses and egg- and fan @-@ shaped models . Early attempts to determine wildfire behavior assumed terrain and vegetation uniformity . However , the exact behavior of a wildfire 's front is dependent on a variety of factors , including windspeed and slope steepness . Modern growth models utilize a combination of past ellipsoidal descriptions and Huygens ' Principle to simulate fire growth as a continuously expanding polygon . Extreme value theory may also be used to predict the size of large wildfires . However , large fires that exceed suppression capabilities are often regarded as statistical outliers in standard analyses , even though fire policies are more influenced by catastrophic wildfires than by small fires .
Cellular automata models have increasingly been used to model forest fire events . The initial model proposed by Drossel @-@ Schwarbl ( 1992 ) identified forest fires as self @-@ organised critical systems because the frequency @-@ size distribution adheres to a power law relationship . More highly parameterised models have since supported this initial power law claim within forest fire models and real data obtained from forest fires in Australia and the US have shown the power law relationship to hold over a certain range . This has implications for predicting the size of forest fires based on observed frequency in areas where environmental conditions make the area susceptible to wildfire . Cellular automata models have also been used to model the response of forest fire events to changes in type , amount and distribution of combustible material , as well as weather conditions .
= = Human risk and exposure = =
Wildfire risk is the chance that a wildfire will start in or reach a particular area and the potential loss of human values if it does . Risk is dependent on variable factors such as human activities , weather patterns , availability of wildfire fuels , and the availability or lack of resources to suppress a fire . Wildfires have continually been a threat to human populations . However , human induced geographical and climatic changes are exposing populations more frequently to wildfires and increasing wildfire risk . It is speculated that the increase in wildfires arises from a century of wildfire suppression coupled with the rapid expansion of human developments into fire @-@ prone wildlands . Wildfires are naturally occurring events that aid in promoting forest health . The consequence of suppressing wildfires has led to an overgrowth in forest vegetation , which provides excess fuel that increases the severity , range , and duration of a wildfire . Global warming and climate changes are causing an increase in temperatures and more droughts nationwide which also contributes to an increase in wildfire risk .
= = = Regional burden of wildfires in the United States = = =
Nationally , the burden of wildfires is disproportionally heavily distributed in the southern and western regions . The Geographic Area Coordinating Group ( GACG ) divides the United States and Alaska into 11 geographic areas for the purpose of emergency incident management . One particular area of focus is wildland fires . A national assessment of wildfire risk in the United States based on GACG identified regions ( with the slight modification of combining Southern and Northern California , and the West and East Basin ) ; indicate that California ( 50 @.@ 22 % risk ) and the Southern Area ( 15 @.@ 53 % risk ) are the geographic areas with the highest wildfire risk . The western areas of the nation are experiencing an expansion of human development into and beyond what is called the wildland @-@ urban interface ( WUI ) . When wildfires inevitably occur in these fire @-@ prone areas , often communities are threatened due to their proximity to fire @-@ prone forest . The south is one of the fastest growing regions with 88 million acres classified as WUI . The south consistently has the highest number of wildfires per year . More than 50 , 000 communities are estimated to be at high to very high risk of wildfire damage . These statistics are greatly attributable to the South 's year @-@ round fire season .
= = = Wildfires risk to human health = = =
The most noticeable adverse effect of wildfires is the destruction of property and biomass . However , the release of hazardous chemicals from the burning of wildland fuels significantly impacts health in humans . Wildfire smoke is composed primarily of carbon dioxide and water vapor . Other common smoke components present in lower concentrations are carbon monoxide , formaldehyde , acrolein , polyaromatic hydrocarbons , and benzene . Small particulates suspended in air which come in solid form or in liquid droplets are also present in smoke . 80 -90 % of wildfire smoke , by mass , is within the fine particle size class of 2 @.@ 5 micrometers in diameter or smaller . Despite carbon dioxides high concentration in smoke , it poses low health risk due to its low toxicity . Carbon monoxide and fine particulate matter , particularly 2 @.@ 5 µm in diameter and smaller , have been identified as the major health threats . Other chemicals are considered to be significant hazards but are found in concentrations that are too low to cause detectable health effects .
The degree of wildfire smoke exposure to an individual is dependent on the length , severity , duration , and proximity of the fire . People are exposed directly to smoke via the respiratory tract though inhalation of air pollutants . Indirectly , communities are exposed to wildfire debris that can contaminate soil and water supplies . Firefighters are at the greatest risk for acute and chronic health effects resulting from wildfire smoke exposure . Due to firefighter 's occupational duties , they are frequently exposed to hazardous chemicals at a close proximity for longer periods of time . A case study on the exposure of wildfire smoke among wildland firefighters , show that firefighters are exposed to significant levels of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritants above OSHA permissible exposure limits ( PEL ) and ACGIH threshold limit values ( TLV ) . 5 – 10 % are overexposed . The study obtained exposure concentrations for one wildland firefighter over a 10 @-@ hour shift spent holding down a fireline . The firefighter was exposed to a wide range of carbon monoxide and respiratory irritant ( combination of particulate matter 3 @.@ 5 µm and smaller , acrolein , and formaldehype ) levels . Carbon monoxide levels reached up to 160ppm and the TLV irritant index value reached a high of 10 . In contrast , the OSHA PEL for carbon monoxide is 30ppm and for the TLV respiratory irritant index , the calculated threshold limit value is 1 ; any value above 1 exceeds exposure limits .
Residents in communities surrounding wildfires are exposed to lower concentrations of chemicals , but they are at a greater risk for indirect exposure through water or soil contamination . Exposure to residents is greatly dependent on individual susceptibility . Vulnerable persons such as children ( ages 0 – 4 ) , the elderly ( ages 65 and older ) , smokers , and pregnant women are at an increased risk due to already compromised body systems , even when the exposures are present at low chemical concentrations and for relatively short exposure periods . The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) developed the Air Quality Index ( AQI ) , a public resource that provides national air quality standard concentrations for common air pollutants . The public can use this index as a tool to determine their exposure to hazardous air pollutants based on visibility range . Additionally , there is evidence of an increase in material stress , as documented by researchers M.H. O 'Donnell and A.M. Behie , thus affecting birth outcomes . In Australia , studies show that the male infants born with drastically higher average birth weights were born in mostly severely fire @-@ affected areas . This is attributed to the fact that maternal signals directly affect fetal growth patterns .
= = Health effects = =
Inhalation of smoke from a wildfire can be a health hazard . Wildfire smoke is primarily composed of carbon dioxide , water vapor , particulate matter , organic chemicals , nitrogen oxides and other compounds . The principle health concern is the inhalation of particulate matter and carbon monoxide .
Particulate matter ( PM ) is a type of air pollution made up of particles of dust and liquid droplets . They are characterized into two categories based on the diameter of the particle . Coarse particles are between 2 @.@ 5 micrometers and 10 micrometers and fine particles measure 2 @.@ 5 micrometers and less . Both sizes can be inhaled . Coarse particles are filtered by the upper airways and can cause eye and sinus irritation as well as sore throat and coughing . The fine particles are more problematic because , when inhaled , they can be deposited deep into the lungs , where they are absorbed into the bloodstream . This is particularly hazardous to the very young , elderly and those with chronic conditions such as asthma , chronic obstructive pulmonary disease ( COPD ) , cystic fibrosis and cardiovascular conditions . The illnesses most commonly with exposure to fine particle from wildfire smoke are bronchitis , exacerbation of asthma or COPD , and pneumonia . Symptoms of these complications include wheezing and shortness of breath and cardiovascular symptoms include chest pain , rapid heart rate and fatigue .
Carbon monoxide ( CO ) is a colorless , odorless gas that can be found at the highest concentration at close proximity to a smoldering fire . For this reason , carbon monoxide inhalation is a serious threat to the health of wildfire firefighters . CO in smoke can be inhaled into the lungs where it is absorbed into the bloodstream and reduces oxygen delivery to the body 's vital organs . At high concentrations , it can cause headache , weakness , dizziness , confusion , nausea , disorientation , visual impairment , coma and even death . However , even at lower concentrations , such as those found at wildfires , individuals with cardiovascular disease may experience chest pain and cardiac arrhythmia . A recent study tracking the number and cause of wildfire firefighter deaths from 1990 – 2006 found that 21 @.@ 9 % of the deaths occurred from heart attacks .
Another important and somewhat less obvious health effect of wildfires is psychiatric diseases and disorders . Both adults and children from countries ranging from the United States and Canada to Greece and Australia who were directly and indirectly affected by wildfires were found by researchers to demonstrate several different mental conditions linked to their experience with the wildfires . These include post @-@ traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) , depression , anxiety , and phobias .
In a new twist to wildfire health effects , former uranium mining sites were burned over in the summer of 2012 near North Fork , Idaho . This prompted concern from area residents and Idaho State Department of Environmental Quality officials over the potential spread of radiation in the resultant smoke , since those sites had never been completely cleaned up from radioactive remains .
= = = Epidemiology = = =
The EPA has defined acceptable concentrations of particulate matter in the air , through the National Ambient Air Quality Standards and monitoring of ambient air quality has been mandated . Due to these monitoring programs and the incidence of several large wildfires near populated areas , epidemiological studies have been conducted and demonstrate an association between human health effects and an increase in fine particulate matter due to wildfire smoke .
An increase in PM emitted from the Hayman fire in Colorado in June 2002 , was associated with an increase in respiratory symptoms in patients with COPD . Looking at the wildfires in Southern California in October 2003 in a similar manner , investigators have shown an increase in hospital admissions due to asthma during peak concentrations of PM . Children participating in the Children 's Health Study were also found to have an increase in eye and respiratory symptoms , medication use and physician visits . Recently , it was demonstrated that mothers who were pregnant during the fires gave birth to babies with a slightly reduced average birth weight compared to those who were not exposed to wildfire during birth . Suggesting that pregnant women may also be at greater risk to adverse effects from wildfire . Worldwide it is estimated that 339 @,@ 000 people die due to the effects of wildfire smoke each year .
= = Types of wildfires = =
There are many types of wildfires , most commonly classified as ground , surface , or crown wildfires . Ground fires burn in the humus , and usually burn out by themselves . These burn the roots of plants , mycelium , and other matter in the humus . Only some manage to become surface or crown fires . Surface fires burn above the humus but do not burn tall trees . If they manage to spread into the tallest of trees they are called crown wildfires . Firestorms are another type of wildfire , but they are not one of the base types of wildfires . They have strong gusts of wind created by the way of heat transfer called convection .
= = Notable wildfires = =
Landes Forest 1949 wildfire in South West France ; 50 @,@ 000 hectares ( 500 km2 ; 190 sq mi ) of forest land were burnt and 82 people were killed .
2003 Portuguese wildfires
1988 Yellowstone wildfires
Peshtigo Fire , 1871 ; most loss of life in a US wildfire .
Great Fire of 1910 in the US ; shaped 20th @-@ century wildfire policy
2009 SE Australia bushfires
2010 Bolivian forest fires
2010 Russian wildfires
2011 Texas wildfires
2013 Beaver Creek Fire
2015 Southeast Asian haze caused by a wildfire in Riau
2016 Fort McMurray wildfire
= Dunham Massey =
Dunham Massey is a civil parish in the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford , Greater Manchester , England . The parish includes the villages of Sinderland Green , Dunham Woodhouses and Dunham Town , along with Dunham Massey Park , formerly the home of the last Earl of Stamford and owned by the National Trust since 1976 . Dunham Massey was historically in the county of Cheshire , but since 1974 has been part of Trafford Metropolitan Borough ; the nearest town is Altrincham . At the 2001 census , the parish had a population of 475 .
Dunham Massey 's history is reflected in its 45 listed buildings . It was a regionally important place during the medieval period , and the seat of the Massey barons . The Georgian mansion with the remains of an castle in its grounds is a popular tourist attraction . There are two Sites of Special Scientific Interest in Dunham Massey : Dunham Park , located south of Dunham Town , and Brookheys Covert .
= = History = =
The Roman road between Chester and York passing between the Dunham Massey and Bowdon forms the boundary between the two . The name Dunham is derived from the Anglo @-@ Saxon dun , meaning hill . The Massey element of the name is a result of its ownership by the Massey family . The manor of Dunham is recorded in the Domesday Book of 1086 as having belonged to Aelfward , a Saxon thegn , before the Norman Conquest and to Hamo de Masci afterwards . The Barons de Masci also had control over the manors of Baguley , Bowdon , Hale , Partington , and Timperley . The suffix of " Massey " to the name Dunham reflects the manor 's importance ; Dunham was the seat of the Masseys . The importance of Dunham is further exemplified by the former existence of two de Massey castles : Dunham Castle and Watch Hill Castle on the border with Bowdon ; a third , Ullerwood Castle , was near Hale . The Masseys remained lords of Dunham and its environs until the 14th century , when the family 's male line became extinct . The Booth family inherited most of the Massey family land in 1409 , with Dunham Massey remaining at the heart of the estate .
By the Elizabeth period , Dunham Massey Castle had been demolished . Probably during the medieval period , Dunham Massey Hall became the home of the manorial lord , and a centre of power in the area . The hall was rebuilt in 1616 , leaving no remains of the old medieval manor house . A mill at Dunham was documented in 1353 , although the its present structure dates to the 1860s . It lies on the River Bollin , opposite Little Bollington . The first record of Dunham 's deer park was also in 1353 . The settlement at Dunham Woodhouse ( named after an outlying lodge on the estate ) dates from the 15th century . During the medieval period , the primary source of employment was agriculture , mainly arable farming .
The Warrington and Stockport Railway was constructed through Dunham during 1853 / 54 . Dunham Massey railway station served the area between 1854 and its closure in 1962 . Dunham grew as a result , the population increasing by 57 @.@ 5 % between 1851 and 1881 . Otherwise , the industrial revolution had little effect on Dunham Massey , and it remained a predominantly agricultural area .
= = Dunham Massey Hall = =
The present hall was built in 1616 by Sir George Booth , who received one of the first baronetcies to be created by James I in 1611 ; it was remodelled by John Norris for his descendant , George , 2nd Earl of Warrington between 1732 and 1740 ; it was further altered by John Hope towards the end of the 18th century and again by Joseph Compton Hall between 1905 and 1908 . The hall , stables , and the carriage house of Dunham Massey are all Grade I listed buildings , three of six such buildings in Trafford .
The site is moated and lies immediately west of the village of Dunham , with its deer park to the south . The hall was donated to the National Trust by Roger Grey , 10th and last Earl of Stamford in 1976 . The hall was used as a military hospital during the First World War . Inside is a significant collection of Huguenot silver , the carving The Crucifixion by 17th @-@ century wood carver Grinling Gibbons , and a white marble bust of the Emperor Hadrian ; the head is antique , but the neck and shoulders are 18th @-@ century ; it was probably acquired by the George , Earl of Stamford and Warrington . The hall 's collection of paintings include Allegory with Venus , Mars , Cupid and Time by Guercino ; The Cascade at Terni by Louis Ducros ; and portraits by William Beechey , Francis Cotes , Michael Dahl , A. R. Mengs , Sir Joshua Reynolds , George Romney , Enoch Seeman , and Zoffany . George Harry , Earl of Stamford and Warrington removed a selection of paintings to Enville Hall in the late @-@ 1850s , and it was not until Roger Grey , 10th Earl of Stamford succeeded as Earl , that some were rebought by the family after sales in 1929 and 1931 . The deer park is the only surviving medieval park in Trafford or the surrounding area . The hall and grounds are open to the public and are a popular tourist attraction , with 340 @,@ 000 visitors in 2014 .
= = Governance = =
Dunham Massey was historically in the ecclesiastical parish of Bowdon and the county of Cheshire .
The civil parish of Dunham Massey was created in 1894 , under the Local Government Act 1894 , and has its own parish council . Dunham Massey became part of the Metropolitan Borough of Trafford in 1974 upon the borough 's creation , but was previously in Bucklow Rural District . The village is part of the Bowdon electoral ward . The Councillors for Bowdon Ward are Sean Anstee , Karen Barclay , and Michael Hyman , all members of the Conservative Party . Dunham Massey is also a part of the Altrincham and Sale West constituency , and is in the North West England constituency for the European Parliament . Since the formation of the Altrincham and Sale West constituency in 1997 , it has been represented in the House of Commons by the Conservative MP , Graham Brady .
= = Geography = =
Dunham Massey lies to the east of Warburton , and to the west of Bowdon , with Altrincham approximately 2 miles ( 3 km ) to the northeast . The landscape is predominantly flat , with some mossland . Dunham Park occupies 192 @.@ 7 acres ( 78 @.@ 0 ha ) of the area . The Roman road running from Chester to York forms the boundary between Dunham and Bowdon . The River Bollin runs to the south , with the Bridgewater Canal running through the area . The local geology is lower keuper marl , with a ridge of sand and gravel running from Dunham to Warburton .
= = Demography = =
At the 2001 UK census , Dunham Massey had a total population of 475 . For every 100 females , there were 96 @.@ 3 males . The average household size was 2 @.@ 36 . According to the census , 0 @.@ 01 % were unemployed and 19 @.@ 24 % were economically inactive . 17 @.@ 89 % of the population were under the age of 16 , and 9 @.@ 89 % were aged 75 and over ; the mean age of the residents of Dunham Massey was 43 @.@ 71 . 75 @.@ 79 % of residents described their health as ' good ' .
= = = Population change = = =
= = Landmarks = =
= = = Site of Special Scientific Interest = = =
Brookheys Covert
Brookheys Covert is a Site of Special Scientific Interest in the Dunham Park Estate ( grid reference SJ742904 ) . The site is a semi @-@ natural wood consisting mainly of ash , birch , and rowan , with a wetland habitat and several marl pits , which have flooded to form ponds . The reserve spans 5 @.@ 8 acres ( 2 @.@ 3 ha ) and is managed by the Dunham Massey Estates . Brookheys Covert provides a habitat for many animals , including foxes , rabbits , squirrels , and 57 species of bird .
Dunham Park
Dunham Park covers an area of 192 @.@ 7 acres ( 78 @.@ 0 ha ) and is part of the Dunham Park Estate , run by the National Trust ( grid reference SJ740870 ) . The park is mostly " pasture @-@ woodland or park @-@ woodland " and has been since the Middle Ages . Many of the oak trees , which make up the larger part of the woodland , date back to the 17th century . Dunham Park is the only place in the northwest of England with such a concentration of old trees , and one of only a few remaining in England , making it a site of national importance . The park supports a range of animals , including fallow deer and over 500 species of insect .
= = = Grade II listed buildings = = =
Dunham Massey has many grade II listed buildings ; among the most striking is the 18th @-@ century sandstone obelisk at the end of the north vista from Dunham Massey Hall . Tradition has it that it marks the burial site of a race horse .
There are many listed residences in Dunham Massey , most dating from the 18th or early @-@ 19th century , and many feature Flemish bond brickwork and slate roofs . They include : Dunham Massey Lodge , on Dunham Road ; Willow Cottage ; numbers 1 and 2 Barns Lane ; number 1 Orchard View ; The Hollies , on Station Road ; numbers 1 , 3 and 4 Woodhouse Lane ; Big Tree Cottages , on Woodhouse Lane . Agden View , also on Woodhouse Lane , dates from 1725 and has both garden wall bond and Flemish bond brickwork . Big Tree House , on Charcoal Road , dates from the mid @-@ 18th century and features English bond brickwork . Yew Tree Cottage and Lime Tree Cottage are also on Charcoal Lane ; both houses date to the 17th century and exhibit garden wall bond brickwork with slate roofs . Ivy House , on Woodhouse Lane , was built in the early 18th century . Kitchen Garden cottage was built in 1702 . Rose Cottage and Farm Cottage are late @-@ 18th- or early @-@ 19th @-@ century . The Meadows , on School Lane , was built in the 17th century and features garden wall bond brickwork and a thatched roof .
The farm buildings of Home Farm , including its dovecote , were built in the early @-@ 19th century , and feature Flemish bond brickwork . Sinderland House , also dating from the early @-@ 19th century , is another of Dunham Massey 's listed farmhouses . Manor Farmhouse , on Station Road , was built by George Booth , 2nd Earl of Warrington ; the building dates from the mid @-@ 18th century and features both Flemish and garden wall bond brickwork . The farmhouse on Station Road was built in 1752 . The barn on Woodhouse Lane dates from the early 18th century and features garden wall bond brickwork , a slate roof , and upper cruck frames . Dog Farmhouse , also on Woodhouse Lane , was built in the early 19th century ; however it may have been an adaptation of an earlier , possibly 18th @-@ century , farmhouse .
Dunham School was built in 1759 , with additions in 1860 and the 20th century . Above the door is an engraved panel reading " This School was Erected in 1759 For the Benefit of the Township of Dunham Massey . According to the Will of Thomas Walton Gent " . The school is now used as the parish hall . The nearby Dunham School Bridge , over the Bridgewater Canal , was built in 1776 by John Gilbert , who also built the aqueduct for the Bridgewater Canal over the River Bollin , which was opened in 1776 . The other listed bridge , Brick Kiln Lane Bridge , was also built in the 18th century . Bollington watermill , constructed in the 1860s , has an undershot waterwheel .
There are a number of listed structures in the grounds of Dunham Massey Hall , including the 1720 wellhouse that supplied water to the hall until the 1860s , and the early @-@ 18th @-@ century ornamental sundial in front of the hall , depicting a black slave clad in leaves , carrying the sundial above his head . The stable buildings , the slaughterhouse , the deer house , the orangery , and an ashlar shelter to the west of the hall , all date from the 17th or 18th century . Barn Cottages date from at least 1751 . The cottages were originally a single barn , which was converted in the 19th century . Other grade II listed structures in the grounds of the hall include : the lakeside wall ( 18th century ) ; two small piers south of the garden forecourt ( 18th century ) ; a pier north west of the garden forecourt ( 18th century ) ; the gateway opposite the kitchen ( 1750 ) ; the piers at the south of forecourt garden topped with lions ( 18th century ) ; and an obelisk erected by George , 2nd Earl of Warrington , in 1714 in memory of his mother . Near the hall there is a Grade II * listed sawmill , probably built in 1616 .
= Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch ! =
" Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch ! " is the enduring slogan that appeared in magazine , newspaper , and television advertisements for Tareyton cigarettes from 1963 until 1981 . It was the American Tobacco Company 's most visible ad campaign in the 1960s and 1970s .
= = Beginnings = =
The slogan was created by James Jordan of the BBDO advertising agency . The first print advertisement appeared in Life magazine on October 11 , 1963 . The advertisements would appear solely in print between 1963 and 1966 . In 1966 , the first television advertisements with the slogan aired .
The target of the campaign was to create a sense of loyalty amongst Tareyton smokers . That led to the " rather fight than switch " campaign , in which the makeup the models wore made it seem as if they were sporting black eyes , presumably earned in battles with smokers of other cigarettes .
= = Television advertisements = =
Each commercial would begin in a predictable manner ; the protagonist would do something that would be considered defiant ( in one commercial , an old woman rocked sternly in her chair on her porch , while the rest of her development was being razed to make room for a condominium ) . In each commercial , the protagonist would say " Us Tareyton smokers would rather fight than switch ! " , usually only showing their side profile to the camera . After uttering the slogan , viewers would see the smoker 's face , which had a noticeable " black eye " ( in reality makeup ) , proving their willingness to fight for what they believed in , whether it be their tough decision of the day , or their choice to smoke Tareyton cigarettes . In the aforementioned example , the old woman 's fighting spirit won out , and her house remained where it was , although the condominium was built alarmingly close to her property . Her son came to visit her , and it was revealed that he was a Tareyton smoker as well — he also had a black eye .
= = Later years = =
Due to the success of the advertisement , Tareyton briefly enjoyed robust sales , which put them in the Top 10 of all American cigarette brands , in the mid to late 1960s . The brand declined somewhat , to thirteenth , when the slogan waned in 1979 .
In 1971 , radio and television advertisements for tobacco products were banned from American broadcasting stations , and Tareyton 's television jingles ended . However , after the ban , the slogan continued to be used in magazines and newspapers , due to the slogan and the name recognition the brand received . In 1975 , the slogan was used to advertise for the Tareyton " 100 " .
In 1976 , the American Tobacco Company , which made Tareyton cigarettes , introduced Tareyton Light cigarettes . In the new advertisements , men and women sported " white eyes , " with an updated slogan : " Us Tareyton smokers would rather light than fight ! " The two slogans would be used to sell the two separate variations until 1981 , when market value declined .
This slogan was notable in that it was the final slogan used for the Tareyton brand . Declining sales led to an end of advertising the brand .
= = Cultural impact = =
The then @-@ fresh slogan was adopted by supporters of Barry Goldwater during the 1964 campaign for the presidency . Goldwater appeared to have the nomination in hand as the primary season closed , but supporters of the moderate Republican William Scranton tried to mount a " Draft Scranton " reply . " Goldwater Girls " ( mostly adult women ) were seen at Scranton events wearing bandages and sporting signs saying " We 'd rather fight than switch ! " .
A 1964 single released on the Camp Records label parodied the slogan with the song " I 'd Rather Fight Than Swish , " using the slang term swish , meaning to behave effeminately .
Thomas " TNT " Todd , a civil rights activist , parodied the slogan to make a point regarding the Vietnam War in a 1967 speech . Todd was quoted as saying , " ... Yet our best trained , best educated , best equipped , best prepared troops refuse to fight ! Matter of fact , it 's safe to say that they would rather switch than fight ! " The audio clip of his speech was later used as the prelude to the 1989 Public Enemy single " Fight the Power . "
In April 2013 , an advertisement for the Windows Phone pictured camps of fighting Samsung Galaxy and Apple iPhone users along with the slogan " Don 't fight . Switch . "
= = Famous " Tareyton fighters " = =
Many actors who would later become well known for other reasons appeared in the Tareyton ads . Examples include future entrepreneur Martha Stewart , who appeared in a print ad , and actor Lyle Waggoner , who was featured in a television commercial in 1966 .
= M @-@ 50 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 50 is a state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . Although designated as an east – west highway , it is nearly a diagonal northwest – southeast route . The western terminus is at exit 52 along Interstate 96 ( I @-@ 96 ) near Alto a few miles east of the metro Grand Rapids area , and its eastern terminus is in downtown Monroe at US Highway 24 ( US 24 , Telegraph Road ) . In between the trunkline runs through seven counties of the southern part of the Lower Peninsula mostly through rural farm fields and small communities . The highway also runs through downtown Jackson to connect between two freeway sections of US 127 . In the Irish Hills area of the state southeast of Jackson , M @-@ 50 runs next to Michigan International Speedway .
Dating back to the early days of the state highway system , M @-@ 50 was first signed in the southeastern corner of the state in 1919 . During the 1920s , the highway was extended to the Grand Rapids area and beyond to Lake Michigan , making it a trans @-@ peninsular route connecting that Great Lake with Lake Erie . A rerouting of highways including M @-@ 50 through Grand Rapids in the 1950s created Business M @-@ 50 ( Bus . M @-@ 50 ) , a business loop through that city that lasted for eight years . Additional changes made during the 1960s rerouted M @-@ 50 to replace its business loop until the highway was shortened to its present western terminus south of Lowell . A pair of truncations in Monroe in 1996 and 2006 are responsible for the present @-@ day eastern terminus .
= = Route description = =
= = = Lowell to Jackson = = =
M @-@ 50 begins at an interchange with I @-@ 96 at exit 52 south of Lowell in southeastern Kent County . The highway proceeds south along with Alden Nash Avenue and turns east on 92nd Street through farms and fields in the rural southeastern corner of the county . As the trunkline runs to the east , it crosses into Ionia County . M @-@ 50 follows Thompson Road , Nash Highway and Tupper Lake Road into Lake Odessa . In Lake Odessa , the road bends around the north side of Jordan Lake , curving to the south into the extreme northeastern Barry County . The highway turns back to the east as it heads towards a junction with M @-@ 66 and M @-@ 43 at the Barry – Eaton county line .
After meeting M @-@ 43 , the two trunklines run concurrently for about a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) before M @-@ 50 breaks off to the southwest near Woodbury . From there , the road continues in its southeasterly path along Clinton Trail through the northeast part of Eaton County as it runs through fields to Charlotte . Just prior to entering the city , the road bends to the south and near the middle of town it has a junction with M @-@ 79 and Business Loop I @-@ 69 ( BL I @-@ 69 ) . After this intersection , M @-@ 50 continues south concurrent with the business loop for a several blocks before turning eastward . On the eastern end of town , it has an interchange with I @-@ 69 at exit 60 .
After heading east past the junction with I @-@ 69 , the highway turns southeast as it heads through rural fields toward Eaton Rapids . Once it reaches the city , M @-@ 50 converges with M @-@ 99 , and the two intersect M @-@ 188 on the south side of the Grand River . The two highways run south out of the city . Immediately prior to entering Jackson County , the two trunklines diverge with M @-@ 99 heading off to the southwest and M @-@ 50 to the southeast .
M @-@ 50 continues its journey through Jackson County , winding its way to the southeast through rural fields and small forests . The landscape transitions to residential neighborhoods as the road approaches the US 127 freeway north of Jackson . In Blackman Township , M @-@ 50 merges with US 127 to run concurrently into the north side of Jackson . After an interchange with I @-@ 94 at exit 138 , US 127 exits to run east on I @-@ 94 for four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) , M @-@ 50 and Business US 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) run concurrently into the city as West Avenue passing by the Jackson Crossing shopping mall . The road then proceeds south through the northern side of the city before turning east on Michigan Avenue as it heads towards downtown .
= = = Jackson to Monroe = = =
In downtown Jackson , Michigan Avenue continues into downtown while M @-@ 50 is routed around the city center along paired one @-@ way streets . Washington Street carries eastbound traffic and the Louis Glick Highway . On the east side of downtown , the roads merge near the Jackson Amtrak station and a junction with M @-@ 106 on Cooper Street , where M @-@ 50 turns south and then southeast as Brooklyn Road . On the south side of Jackson , M @-@ 50 and US 127 meet up once again just east of Vandercook Lake . M @-@ 50 follows the US 127 freeway through a pair of conjoined partial interchanges before M @-@ 50 heads east away from Vandercook Lake .
The trunkline then heads southeast to Napoleon , where the road then turns south and heads towards Brooklyn , part of the Irish Hills area of Lenawee County , a region known for its scenery . The road serves as main street for downtown Brooklyn as well as the primary thoroughfare for drivers headed to Michigan International Speedway . M @-@ 50 curves around the north and east side of the race track before intersecting US 12 in Cambridge Junction . After crossing US 12 , the road passes between several lakes of the Irish Hills area including Washington , Little Stony and Marrs lakes before continuing on its southeasterly journey towards Tecumseh .
After leaving the Brooklyn area , the road returns to a rural environment as it cuts through agricultural fields . Before passing through Tipton , M @-@ 50 passes the entrance to Hidden Lake Gardens , a botanical garden and arboretum operated by Michigan State University . After passing Hidden Lake , the road intersects M @-@ 52 and continues into Tecumseh . Known as Chicago Boulevard , the road serves as the main route through the city . After leaving Tecumseh , the highway passes through the communities of Ridgeway and Britton before leaving Lenawee County .
M @-@ 50 begins the final leg of its journey , as it crosses into Monroe county , passing through land that is mostly fields . Prior to reaching its interchange with US 23 , the highway passes to the south of Cabela 's , a 225 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 20 @,@ 900 m2 ) outdoor sports retailer in Dundee . After leaving town , the trunkline continues to the southeast , running to the south of the River Raisin , through rural areas as South Custer Road before entering the outskirts of Monroe where it finally ends its journey at a junction with US 24 ( Telegraph Road ) a few miles inland from Lake Erie .
M @-@ 50 is maintained by the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2011 showed that the highest traffic levels along M @-@ 50 were the 25 @,@ 770 vehicles daily south of the Springport Road interchange in the Jackson area ; the lowest counts were the 2 @,@ 055 vehicles per day south of the M @-@ 99 concurrency . The only sections of M @-@ 50 that have been listed on the National Highway System ( NHS ) are the two US 127 concurrencies in the Jackson area and the connection between them through downtown . The NHS is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
When the state highway system was first signed in 1919 , M @-@ 50 started at an intersection with M @-@ 23 ( present @-@ day US 12 ) in Cambridge Junction , south of Brooklyn . From there it ran to the southeast , similar to its present @-@ day routing , through Dundee and Tecumseh into downtown Monroe where it intersected M @-@ 56 . There was a concurrency between M @-@ 50 and M @-@ 65 between Dundee and the Ida area which became an overlap with US 23 after 1926 . By the end of 1927 , M @-@ 50 underwent a major lengthening as its western terminus was extended through Jackson to Eaton Rapids , Charlotte , and Vermontville before intersecting M @-@ 39 just east of Woodbury . From this point , M @-@ 50 was routed over M @-@ 39 to US 16 near Alto . M @-@ 50 then ran concurrently with US 16 into Grand Rapids where it turned to the west and traveled through Allendale before terminating at a junction with US 31 in Agnew . A few years later in 1929 , the route between Charlotte and Woodbury was changed as M @-@ 50 was routed north out of Charlotte to the former M @-@ 39 and replaced it east to Woodbury ; the former routing was turned over to local control .
In 1953 , the route was realigned onto the south and west beltline to bypass Grand Rapids ; the old routing through downtown became Business M @-@ 50 ( Bus . M @-@ 50 ) . In the late 1950s , when the US 127 freeway bypass east of Jackson opened up , the old routing through town became Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 . At the same time , the concurrency with US 23 between Dundee and the Ida area was dropped after the new US 23 freeway opened ; the old route becomes solely designated M @-@ 50 .
In 1961 , when the I @-@ 96 / US 16 / M @-@ 50 freeway was extended to the northwest in Grand Rapids , the old M @-@ 50 routing around the city became M @-@ 11 and M @-@ 50 was returned to its former alignment along Lake Michigan Drive and Fulton Street , supplanting Bus . M @-@ 50 . In 1964 , the western end of M @-@ 50 was truncated from its junction with US 31 back to I @-@ 96 south of Lowell at exit 52 . The former alignment from exit 40 to Agnew was given the M @-@ 45 designation .
In 1996 , the highway was truncated as the terminus was scaled back to M @-@ 125 in Monroe . Finally on October 4 , 2006 , the section of M @-@ 50 between M @-@ 125 and US 24 was also removed , shortening the highway by about a mile ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Business route = =
Business M @-@ 50 ( Bus . M @-@ 50 ) was a 11 @.@ 084 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 17 @.@ 838 km ) business loop that ran through Grand Rapids . The state trunkline highway was created when M @-@ 50 was rerouted to follow 28th Street and Wilson Avenue around the south and west sides of the city in 1953 . The business loop was decommissioned when M @-@ 50 was returned to its former routing in 1961 . The highway followed Lake Michigan Drive ( now M @-@ 45 ) from the Standale neighborhood of Walker easterly to Fulton Street in Grand Rapids . From there it followed Fulton easterly through downtown Grand Rapids and the east side of the city to a junction with Cascade Road in Grand Rapids Township The last segment followed Cascade Road to the I @-@ 96 / M @-@ 50 freeway where it connected with its parent highway and terminated .
= Grand Palace =
The Grand Palace ( Thai : พระบรมมหาราชวัง , rtgs : Phra Borom Maha Ratcha Wang ) is a complex of buildings at the heart of Bangkok , Thailand . The palace has been the official residence of the Kings of Siam ( and later Thailand ) since 1782 . The king , his court and his royal government were based on the grounds of the palace until 1925 . The present monarch , King Bhumibol Adulyadej ( Rama IX ) , currently resides at Chitralada Royal Villa in the Dusit Palace , but the Grand Palace is still used for official events . Several royal ceremonies and state functions are held within the walls of the palace every year . The palace is one of the most popular tourist attractions in Thailand .
Construction of the palace began on May 6 , 1782 , at the order of King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke ( Rama I ) , the founder of the Chakri Dynasty , when he moved the capital city from Thonburi to Bangkok . Throughout successive reigns , many new buildings and structures were added , especially during the reign of King Chulalongkorn ( Rama V ) . By 1925 , the king , the Royal Family and the government were no longer permanently settled at the palace , and had moved to other residences . After the abolition of absolute monarchy in 1932 , all government agencies completely moved out of the palace .
In shape , the palace complex is roughly rectangular and has a combined area of 218 @,@ 400 square metres ( 2 @,@ 351 @,@ 000 sq ft ) , surrounded by four walls . It is situated on the banks of the Chao Phraya River at the heart of the Rattanakosin Island , today in the Phra Nakhon District . The Grand Palace is bordered by Sanam Luang and Na Phra Lan Road to the north , Maharaj Road to the west , Sanamchai Road to the east and Thai Wang Road to the south .
Rather than being a single structure , the Grand Palace is made up of numerous buildings , halls , pavilions set around open lawns , gardens and courtyards . Its asymmetry and eclectic styles are due to its organic development , with additions and rebuilding being made by successive reigning kings over 200 years of history . It is divided into several quarters : the Temple of the Emerald Buddha ; the Outer Court , with many public buildings ; the Middle Court , including the Phra Maha Monthien Buildings , the Phra Maha Prasat Buildings and the Chakri Maha Prasat Buildings ; the Inner Court and the Siwalai Gardens quarter . The Grand Palace is currently partially open to the public as a museum , but it remains a working palace , with several royal offices still situated inside .
= = History = =
The construction of the Grand Palace began on 6 May 1782 , at the order of King Buddha Yodfa Chulaloke ( Rama I ) . Having seized the crown from King Taksin of Thonburi , King Rama I was intent on building a capital city for his new Chakri Dynasty . He decided to move the seat of power from the city of Thonburi , on the west side of the Chao Phraya river , to the east side at Bangkok . The new capital city was turned into an artificial island when canals were dug along the east side . The island was given the name ' Rattanakosin ' . The previous royal residence was the Derm Palace , constructed for King Taksin in 1768 .
The new palace was built on a rectangular piece of land on the very west side of the island , between Wat Pho to the south , Wat Mahathat to the north and with the Chao Phraya river along the west . This location was previously occupied by a Chinese community , whom King Rama I had ordered to relocate to an area south and outside of the city walls ; the area is known today as Yaowarat ( Chinatown ) .
Desperate for materials and short on funds , the palace was initially built entirely out of wood , its various structures surrounded by a simple log palisade . On 10 June 1782 , the king ceremonially crossed the river from Thonburi to take permanent residence in the new palace . Three days later on 13 June , the king held an abbreviated coronation ceremony , thus becoming the first monarch of the new Rattanakosin Kingdom . Over the next few years the king began replacing wooden structures with masonry , rebuilding the walls , forts , gates , throne halls and royal residences . This rebuilding included the royal chapel , which would come to house the Emerald Buddha .
To find more material for these constructions , King Rama I ordered his men to go upstream to the old capital city of Ayutthaya , which was destroyed in 1767 during a war between Burma and Siam . They were tasked with the dismantling and removal of as many bricks as they could find , while not removing any from the temples . They began by taking materials from the forts and walls of the city ; by the end they had completely levelled the old royal palaces . The bricks were ferried down the Chao Phraya by barges , where they were eventually incorporated into the walls of Bangkok and the Grand Palace itself . Most of the initial construction of the Grand Palace during the reign of King Rama I was carried out by conscripted or corvée labour . After the final completion of the ceremonial halls of the palace , the king held a full traditional coronation ceremony in 1785 .
The layout of the Grand Palace followed that of the Royal Palace at Ayutthaya in location , organization , and in the divisions of separate courts , walls , gates and forts . Both palaces featured a proximity to the river . The location of a pavilion serving as a landing stage for barge processions also corresponded with that of the old palace . To the north of the Grand Palace there is a large field , the Thung Phra Men ( now called Sanam Luang ) , which is used as an open space for royal ceremonies and as a parade ground . There was also a similar field in Ayutthaya , which was used for the same purpose . The road running north leads to the Front Palace , the residence of the Second King of Siam .
The Grand Palace is divided into four main courts , separated by numerous walls and gates : the Outer Court , the Middle Court , the Inner Court and the Temple of the Emerald Buddha . Each of these court 's functions and access are clearly defined by laws and traditions . The Outer Court is situated on the northwestern part of the Grand Palace ; within are the royal offices and ( formerly ) state ministries . To the northeast is the Temple of the Emerald Buddha , the royal chapel and home of the Emerald Buddha . The Middle Court housed the most important state apartments and ceremonial throne halls of the king . The Inner Court , situated at the most southern end of the complex , was reserved only for females , as it housed the king 's harem .
During the reign of King Buddha Loetla Nabhalai ( Rama II ) , the total area of the Grand Palace was expanded southwards up to the walls of Wat Pho . Previously this area was home to offices of various palace officials . This expansion increased the area of the palace from 213 @,@ 674 square metres ( 2 @,@ 299 @,@ 970 sq ft ) to 218 @,@ 400 square metres ( 2 @,@ 351 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . New walls , forts and gates were constructed to accommodate the enlarged compound . Since this expansion , the palace has remained within its walls with new construction and changes being made only on the inside .
In accordance with tradition , the palace was initially referred to only as the Phra Ratcha Wang Luang ( พระราชวังหลวง ) or ' Royal Palace ' , similar to the old palace in Ayutthaya . However , during the reign of King Mongkut ( Rama IV ) the name Phra Boromma Maha Ratcha Wang or ' Grand Palace ' was first used in official documents . This change of name was made during the elevation of Prince Chutamani ( the king 's younger brother ) to the title of Second King Pinklao in 1851 . The proclamation of his title described the royal palace as the ' supreme ' ( บรม ; Borom ) and ' great ' ( มหา ; Maha ) palace . This title was given in order to distinguish the palace from the Second King 's palace ( the Front Palace ) , which was described as the Phra Bovorn Ratcha Wang ( พระบวรราชวัง ) or the ' glorious ' ( บวร ; Bovorn ) palace .
Throughout the period of absolute monarchy , from 1782 to 1932 , the Grand Palace was both the country 's administrative and religious centre . As the main residence of the monarch , the palace was also the seat of government , with thousands of inhabitants including guardsmen , servants , concubines , princesses , ministers and courtiers . The palace 's high whitewashed castellated walls and extensive forts and guard posts mirrored those of the walls of Bangkok itself , and thus the Grand Palace was envisioned as a city within a city . For this reason a special set of Palace Laws were created to govern the inhabitants and to establish hierarchy and order .
By the 1920s a series of new palaces were constructed elsewhere for the king 's use ; these included the more modern Dusit Palace , constructed in 1903 , and Phaya Thai Palace in 1909 . These other Bangkok residences began to replace the Grand Palace as the primary place of residence of the monarch and his court . By 1925 this gradual move out of the palace was complete . The growth and centralization of the Siamese state also meant that the various government ministries have grown in size and were finally moved out of the Grand Palace to their own premises . Despite this the Grand Palace remained the official and ceremonial place of residence as well as the stage set for elaborate ancient ceremonies of the monarchy . The end of the absolute monarchy came in 1932 , when a revolution overthrew the ancient system of government and replaced it with a constitutional monarchy .
Today the Grand Palace is still a centre of ceremony and of the monarchy , and serves as a museum and tourist attraction as well .
= = Outer Court = =
The Outer Court or Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Nork ( เขตพระราชฐานชั ้ นนอก ) of the Grand Palace is situated to the northwest of the palace ( the northeast being occupied by the Temple of the Emerald Buddha ) . Entering through the main Visetchaisri Gate , the Temple of the Emerald Buddha is located to the left , with many public buildings located to the right .
These buildings include the headquarters and information centre of the Grand Palace , the Bureau of the Royal Household and the Office of His Majesty 's Principal Private Secretary . Other important buildings inside the court include the Sala Sahathai Samakhom ( ศาลาสหทัยสมาคม ) , used for important receptions and meetings . The Sala Luk Khun Nai ( ศาลาลูกขุนใน ) is an office building housing various departments of the Royal Household . The main office of the Royal Institute of Thailand was also formerly located here . The Outer Court has a small museum called the Pavilion of Regalia , Royal Decorations and Coins . The Phimanchaisri Gate opens directly unto the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall and is the main portal from the Outer Court into the Middle Court .
Historically this court was referred to as Fai Na ( ฝ ่ ายหน ้ า , literally In the front ) , and also served as the seat of the royal government , with various ministerial offices , a theatre , stables for the king 's elephants , barracks for the royal guards , the royal mint and an arsenal . By 1925 , all government agencies and workers had vacated the site and all of the buildings were converted for use by the Royal Household .
= = Temple of the Emerald Buddha = =
The Temple of the Emerald Buddha or Wat Phra Kaew ( วัดพระแก ้ ว ) ( known formally as Wat Phra Si Rattana Satsadaram , วัดพระศรีรัตนศาสดาราม ) is a royal chapel situated within the walls of the palace . Incorrectly referred to as a Buddhist temple , it is in fact a chapel ; it has all the features of a temple except for living quarters for monks . Built in 1783 , the temple was constructed in accordance with ancient tradition dating back to Wat Mahathat , a royal chapel within the grounds of the royal palace at Sukhothai , and Wat Phra Sri Sanpetch at Ayutthaya . The famed Emerald Buddha is kept within the grounds of the temple .
The temple is surrounded on four sides by a series of walled cloisters , with seven different gates . Like those ancient royal temples of Sukhothai and Ayutthaya , the Wat Phra Kaew complex is separated from the living quarters of the kings . Within these walls are buildings and structures for diverse purposes and of differing styles , reflecting the changing architecture during the various reigns of the kings . Despite this , most of the buildings within adhere strictly to classical Thai architecture . The establishment of the Temple of the Emerald Buddha dates to the very founding of the Grand Palace and Bangkok itself .
= = Middle Court = =
The largest and most important court is the Middle Court or the Khet Phra Racha Than Chan Klang ( เขตพระราชฐานชั ้ นกลาง ) is situated in the central part of the Grand Palace , where the most important residential and state buildings are located . The court is considered the main part of the Grand Palace and is fronted by the Amornwithi Road , which cuts right across from east to west . The court is further divided into three groups of ' Throne halls ' ( Phra Thinang ; พระที ่ นั ่ ง ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang ) and one Siwalai Garden quarter .
= = = Phra Maha Monthien group = = =
The Phra Maha Monthien ( พระมหามณเฑียร ) group of buildings are located roughly at the centre of the Middle Court , therefore at the very heart of the Grand Palace itself . The traditional Thai style building group is enclosed by a low wall , as this was once the residential and sleeping abode of kings . Thus it is considered the most important set of throne halls in the entire Grand Palace . All of the buildings within the Maha Monthien face north and are arranged from front to back with the public reception hall being at the front , ceremonial halls in the middle and residential halls at the back , all of them inter @-@ connected to each other .
All Royal coronations since that of King Rama II have taken place within the walls of this building group . Construction began in 1785 at the order of King Rama I , the original buildings only included the Chakraphat Phimarn Throne Hall and the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall . Later King Rama II carried out major constructions including the Amarin Winitchai Throne Hall and other extensions . Later in his reign he added the Sanam Chan Pavilion and the Narai Chinese Pavilion . King Nangklao ( Rama III ) renamed the buildings from Chakraphat Phiman ( meaning ' Abode of the Chakravartin ' ) to Maha Monthien ( meaning ' Great Royal Residence ' ) . He carried out major renovations and spent most of his reign residing in these buildings . King Rama IV later added two arch @-@ ways at the north and west side of the walls called the Thevaphibal and Thevetraksa Gate respectively . King Vajiravudh ( Rama VI ) added two portico extensions to eastern and western sides of the Amarin Winitchai Hall . Since then most buildings in its original plan remain , with occasional renovations being made before important anniversaries such as the Bangkok Bicentennial Celebrations in 1982 . Except for the Amarin Winitchai Throne Hall , the rest of the complex is closed to the public .
The Thevaphibal Gate is the central entrance to the hall , however the central doorway is reserve exclusively for use by the king , others must enter through the two other doors on either side . The gate is guarded by Chinese @-@ style statues , including mythical warriors and lions . The gate is topped by three Thai @-@ style spires covered in Chinese ceramics .
= = = = Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai = = = =
The Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai Mahaisuraya Phiman ( พระที ่ นั ่ งอมรินทรวินิจฉัยมไหสูรยพิมาน ) or , in brief , the Phra Thinang Amarin Winitchai ( พระที ่ นั ่ งอมรินทรวินิจฉัย ) is the northernmost and forward building of the Maha Monthien buildings , It is also perhaps the most important . The throne hall was constructed in Thai style as a royal audience chamber , for receiving foreign ambassadors and for conducting important state businesses and ceremonies .
The large throne hall stands on a 50 cm high base , the roof is covered in green and orange tiles . The pediment is decorated with a mural depicting the Hindu god Indra . The main central door is reserved for use by royalty , while others must enter through the adjacent side doors . Within the hall there are two rows of square columns , five on the left and six on the right , adorned with Thai floral designs . The coffered ceiling is decorated with glass mosaic stars .
At the back of the hall is the Bussabok Mala Maha Chakraphat Phiman Throne ( พระที ่ นั ่ งบุษบกมาลามหาจักรพรรดิพิมาน ; rtgs : Butsabok Mala Maha Chakkraphat Phiman ) , flanked by two gilded seven tiered umbrellas . The throne is shaped like a boat with a spired pavilion in the middle . This elevated pavilion represents Mount Meru , the centre of Buddhist and Hindu cosmology . The throne is decorated with coloured enamels and stones as well as deva and garuda figures . The throne was once used for giving royal audiences .
In the front of throne sits another , called the Phuttan Kanchanasinghat Throne ( พระที ่ นั ่ งพุดตานกาญจนสิงหาสน ์ ) . The throne is topped by the massive Royal Nine @-@ Tiered Umbrella , an important symbol of Thai kingship . The different tiers represents the king 's power and prestige which extends in eight directions : the four cardinal directions and the four sub cardinal directions . The final and ninth tier represents the central direction descending into the earth . These giant umbrellas usually deposited above important royal thrones , and out of the seven of which are currently in Bangkok , six of these umbrellas are situated within the vicinity of the Grand Palace and another is situated above the throne within the Ananta Samakhom Throne Hall of the Dusit Palace . The throne is made up of multi @-@ layered squared platforms with a seat in the middle . The throne is used for the first royal audience of each king 's reign and for annual birthday celebrations and other royal receptions . It was from this throne that King Rama II received John Crawfurd ( the first British Envoy to Siam in almost 200 years ) in 1821 . Crawfurd was sent to Bangkok by the Governor @-@ General of India Lord Hastings to negotiate a trade treaty .
= = = = Phra Thinang Phaisan Thaksin = = = =
Directly behind is the Phra Thinang Phaisan Thaksin ( พระที ่ นั ่ งไพศาลทักษิณ ) . The rectangular @-@ shaped hall is a ceremonial functions hall , where the most important religious and state ceremonies are held . It is the main venue where royal coronations are performed at the beginning of each king 's reign , the last coronation ceremony held here was on 5 May 1950 for King Rama IX . Formerly the hall was a private reception hall and living space of King Rama I. He often hosted meetings and dinners for his closest ministers and other trusted courtiers here . After his death the hall was converted into a ceremonial space . The long rectangular hall is decorated in rich murals depicting scenes from Buddhist and Hindu mythology .
The hall houses two thrones . The Atthit Utumbhorn Raja Aarn Throne ( พระที ่ นั ่ งอัฐทิศอุทุมพรราชอาสน ์ ; rtgs : Attathit U @-@ thumphon Ratcha At ) or the Octagonal Throne is situated to the eastern part of the hall . This unusually shaped wooden throne is in the form of an octagonal prism and is decorated with golden lacquer , topped by a white seven @-@ tiered umbrella . It is used during the first part of the coronation ceremony where the king is anointed with holy water , just prior to the crowning ceremony ; all Chakri kings have gone through this ancient ritual .
Across the hall to the western side is the Phatharabit Throne ( พระที ่ นั ่ งภัทรบิฐ ; rtgs : Phatthrabit ) . The throne is a chair with a footstool ( more akin to its European counterparts ) with two high tables to its sides . The throne is topped by another Royal Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella . This throne is used during the main part of the coronation ceremony , where the King is presented with the various objects , which make up the Royal Regalia and Royal Utensils of Thailand . The king will crown himself , then be ceremonially presented with the objects of the regalia , each reminding him of his duties and responsibilities as king . The regalia are presented to the king by Royal Brahmins . These include : the Great Crown of Victory , the Sword of Victory , the Royal Staff , the Royal Flywisk , the Royal Fan and the Royal Slippers .
Apart from being the setting of these important ceremonies , the hall houses the Phra Siam Thevathiraj ( พระสยามเทวาธิราช ; rtgs : Phra Sayam Thewathirat ) figure . This figure was created during the reign of King Rama IV to symbolise and embody the Kingdom ( of Siam ) , its well @-@ being and safety . It exists as the personification of the nation to be used as a palladium for worship . The golden figure depicts a standing deity , dressed in royal regalia , wearing a crown and holding a sword in its right hand . The figure is about 8 inches tall , and is housed in a Chinese @-@ style cabinet in the middle of the Phaisan Thaksin Hall facing south . There are also other figures of the same scale depicting other Hindu gods and goddesses . The figure was once worshipped almost daily ; today however religious ceremonies are only held to worship the figure during times of great crisis .
= = = = Phra Thinang Chakraphat Phiman = = = =
The Phra Thinang Chakraphat Phiman ( พระที ่ นั ่ งจักรพรรดิพิมาน ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Chakkraphat Phiman ) is situated behind the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall and is at the very centre of the Maha Monthien buildings . The hall was built during the reign of King Rama I as the primary apartment and sleeping quarter of the monarch , and is the inner most part of the Grand Palace . The residential hall was formed out of three identical rectangular buildings , all inter @-@ connected to each other . The middle section of the residential hall ( out of the three ) , is a reception room while the other two sections , to the east and west , are divided into the personal apartments of the king . The east section is the primary bedchamber of the monarch ; the hall is divided into two rooms by a golden screen . The northern room contains a canopied bed originally belonging to King Rama I ; above this bed hangs a Royal Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella . The southern room contains the dressing and privy chamber , above which hangs another Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella . The west section was used as a multi @-@ purpose hall for minor ceremonies and audiences ; however in the reign of King Rama III the hall was converted into a bedroom . After his death it became the storage place for the various weapons and accoutrements of the monarch . The Royal Regalia of Thailand is kept here .
When the Chakraphat Phiman Hall was first built it was entirely roofed with palm leaves ; later these were replaced with ceramic tiles , then with glazed tiles during the reign of King Rama V. There is a tradition that no uncrowned kings are allowed to sleep within this hall . However once they were crowned they were required to sleep there , if only for a few nights , literally on the bed of their forefathers . In 1910 , prior to his coronation , King Rama VI had a well @-@ concealed modern toilet installed near the bedchamber . The king spent many nights here near the end of his life and died here in 1925 . King Prajadhipok ( Rama VII ) and King Rama IX only spent a few nights here after their respective coronations in accordance with tradition .
Between the Chakraphat Phiman and Phaisan Thaksin Halls is a small Front Reception Hall , where the king could receive courtiers while sitting on a small platform . There are two doors on either side of the platform leading into the royal apartments behind . To the rear and south of the Chakraphat Phiman Hall is the Back Reception Hall . This rear hall is flanked by two residential halls . These are reserved for members of the Royal Family and royal consorts from the Inner Court . They are called : Thepsathan Philat Hall ( พระที ่ นั ่ งเทพสถานพิลาศ ) ( to the east ) and the Thepassana Philai Hall ( พระที ่ นั ่ งเทพอาสน ์ พิไล ; rtgs : Theppha At Phailai ) ( to the west ) .
= = = = Phra Thinang Dusidaphirom = = = =
Apart from these grand state buildings , there are also several minor structures and pavilions surrounding the Phra Maha Monthien structures . These include four smaller halls at the sides of the Amarin Winitchai Throne hall .
Aside the wall to the northwest is the Phra Thinang Dusidaphirom ( พระที ่ นั ่ งดุสิตาภิรมย ์ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Dusitaphirom ) . Built on a raised platform , the one @-@ storied hall was used as a robing chamber for the king when arriving and departing the palace either by palanquin or by elephant . Hence the elephant @-@ mounting platform to the west and a palanquin @-@ mounting platform to the north . At first the structure was an open pavilion ; the walls covered with rich murals were added later by King Rama III . The entrance is situated to the east and is lined with steps leading from the Amarin Winitchai Throne Hall . The hall is the only structure within the Grand Palace with exterior decorations . The golden lacquer and blue glass mosaic depicts angels carrying a sword .
= = = = Phra Thinang Racharuedee = = = =
To the southeast is the Phra Thinang Racharuedee ( พระที ่ นั ่ งราชฤดี ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Ratcha Ruedi ) , a Thai @-@ style pavilion constructed during the reign of King Rama VI as an outdoor audience chamber . The pavilion was constructed for use especially during the birthday celebrations of the king . Originally King Rama IV had a two @-@ storied European @-@ style building constructed . Its purpose was to display gifts from foreign nations ; however when this building became dilapidated King Rama V replaced it with a Chinese @-@ style pavilion which was again dismantled and rebuilt . The present pavilion measures 12 by 7 @.@ 80 metres ( 39 @.@ 4 ft × 25 @.@ 6 ft ) . The pediments are decorated with a gilded figures of Narayana on a garuda against a white mosaic background .
= = = = Phra Thinang Sanam Chan = = = =
The southwest structure is the Phra Thinang Sanam Chan ( พระที ่ นั ่ งสนามจันทร ์ ) . Built during the reign of King Rama II , the pavilion is a traditional Thai pavilion with a raised platform inside . King Rama II used the pavilion for relaxation and for sitting when supervising construction projects . Measuring only 3 @.@ 30 by 4 @.@ 50 metres ( 10 @.@ 8 ft × 14 @.@ 8 ft ) , the pavilion was portable and could be moved to different sites . The wooden pediments are decorated with gilded carvings and glass mosaic in a floral design with Chinese and Western influences . The eight columns are inlaid with glass mosaic . The inner platform is decorated with black lacquer and glass mosaic . The top of the platform is made out of a single panel of teak measuring 1 @.@ 50 by 2 metres ( 4 @.@ 9 ft × 6 @.@ 6 ft ) . The pavilion was strengthened and given a marble base by King Rama IX in 1963 .
= = = = Ho Sastrakhom = = = =
To the northeast is the Ho Sastrakhom ( หอศาสตราคม ; rtgs : Ho Sattrakhom ) or the Ho Phra Parit ( หอพระปริตร ) , The hall is the same size as the Dusidaphirom Hall and the two appear to have been constructed concurrently . In accordance with ancient tradition , the hall was built for the use of Mon monks to create Holy water , which was then sprinkled around the palace ground every evening ; this practice was discontinued during the reign of King Rama VII for financial reasons . Currently the ritual is only practiced during Buddhist holy days by Mon monks from Wat Chanasongkhram . The hall is divided into two rooms ; the northern room is a prayer and ritual room for monks , including closets built into the walls for religious texts . The southern room is a storage room for Buddha images and religious artifacts .
During times of war , the potency of weapons was enhanced by the holy water in a special ceremony . The weapons and special amulets were then distributed to soldiers before battle . As a result of this function the windows and doors of the hall are decorated with depictions of ancient weapons .
= = = = Ho Suralai Phiman and Ho Phra That Monthien = = = =
On each side of the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall is a Buddha image hall . On the east side is the Ho Suralai Phiman ( หอพระสุราลัยพิมาน ; rtgs : Ho Phra Suralai Phiman ) , which then connects to the Dusitsasada Gate . The Ho Sulalai Phiman is a small Thai @-@ style building which is attached to the Phaisan Thaksin Throne Hall through a short corridor . The hall houses important and valuable Buddha images and figures , including one representing each and every reign of the Chakri Dynasty . Some relics of the Buddha are also reportedly kept here .
The Ho Phra That Monthien ( หอพระธาตุมณเฑียร ) is located to the west side of the Phaisan Thaksin Hall and is also connected by a corridor in symmetry to the Suralai Phiman on the other side . The Phra That Montein hall contains several small gilded pagodas containing the ashes of Royal ancestors . Originally named Ho Phra Chao , the name was changed by King Rama II , who installed several valuable and ancient Buddha images in 1812 . King Rama III and King Rama IV also have their own Buddha images installed here and carried out extensive renovations to the interior and exterior .
= = = Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat group = = =
The Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat buildings are composed of nine major and minor halls , structured in a similar scheme to the Maha Monthien Halls from north to south , however the two building groups contrasts greatly in styles . This group of palaces is situated at the centre , between the Maha Montein and Maha Prasat groups . The whole of the Chakri Maha Prasat group was the work of King Rama V and foreign architects in the 19th century . During the reign of King Rama I the area was once an expansive garden , later named Suan Sai ( สวนซ ้ าย ) or ' Left Garden ' , the twin of Suan Khwa ( สวนขวา ) or right garden , now the Siwalai Gardens . The two gardens were named according to their location on the left and the right of the Maha Monthien buildings . During the reign of King Rama III a new residential pavilion called Phra Tamnak Tuek ( พระตำหนักตึก ) was constructed for his mother , Princess Mother Sri Sulalai . The new residence was composed of several low @-@ lying buildings and pavilions . King Rama IV expanded the residence and gave it to his consort Queen Debsirindra . Within these buildings King Rama V was born ( in 1853 ) and lived as a child .
When King Rama V ascended the throne in 1868 , he decided to build a new group of grander throne halls to replace the old structures . The first phase of construction began in 1868 , then again in 1876 , and the final phase between 1882 and 1887 . King Rama V resided in the palace until 1910 when he gradually moved to the new Dusit Palace , to the north of the Grand Palace . King Rama VI occasionally stayed in the palace ; however he preferred his other residences in the country . By the reign of King Rama VII the buildings were in dire need of renovations , but due to economic constraints only the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall was renovated . This work was carried out by Prince Itthithepsan Kritakara , an architectural graduate of the École des Beaux @-@ Arts in Paris . Many of his works can still be seen today . During the present reign ( King Rama IX ) , many of the buildings once more became so dilapidated that they needed to be demolished altogether . In their stead new halls were constructed in 2004 to replace them .
Formerly the site hosted eleven different residential halls and pavilions ; in 2012 only three are left ( even though they have been completely reconstructed ) : The Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall , the Moon Satharn Borom Ard Hall and the Sommuthi Thevaraj Uppabat Hall . Behind these structures lie the grand Borom Ratchasathit Mahoran Hall , which has been recently rebuilt . None of the rooms are opened to the public , as state functions are still carried out within . The changing of the guards occurs at the front courtyard every two hours .
= = = = Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Chakri Maha Prasat ( พระที ่ นั ่ งจักรีมหาปราสาท ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Chakkri Maha Prasat ) is situated on the northernmost part of the Phra Thinang Chakri group . The throne hall forms the front or the façade of the entire building group . In front of the throne hall is the Rathakit Field ; on either side of the throne hall are the Phrom Sopha Gates . The throne hall is constructed in an eclectic style , a blend of Thai and European ( more specifically Renaissance or Italianate ) styles . The lower part of the structure is European , while the upper part is in Thai @-@ styled green and orange tiled roofs and gilded spires or prasats ( ปราสาท ) .
After a trip to Singapore and Java , in the East Indies ( present day Indonesia ) in 1875 , King Rama V brought back with him two Englishmen , the architect John Clunich and his helper Henry C. Rose to design and construct the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall . Construction began on the 7 May 1876 . At first the King wanted an entirely European structure with domes . However at the insistence of Chao Phraya Si Suriyawongse ( Chuang Bunnag ) , his Chief Minister , the King decided to add the gilded spires and Thai roofs . In 1878 the King personally supervised the raising of the final central spire of the building . The throne hall was completed in 1882 , on the centenary of the House of Chakri and the Grand Palace . Thus the new throne hall was given the name Phra Thinang Chakri , meaning literally ' the seat of the Chakris ' .
The throne was constructed as part of a building group in a rotated ' H ' shape plan , with two parallel buildings running on an east to west axis . In between is an intersecting hall , with an axis running north to south . The northerly end of the structure is the Chakri Maha Prasat Throne Hall ; all other buildings are hidden behind it . The throne hall consists of three stories , with three seven tiered prasats on each of the three major pavilions along the axis . The central pavilion with its portico and roof extensions is taller and larger than the other two on the sides . Owing to a mix of Thai and European styles , the exterior decoration is a mixture of orders and does not follow strict classical lines . The Thai roofs are decorated with the same green and orange titles as the other throne halls , in order for the new building to blend in harmoniously to the existing skyline . The external pediments and gates of the throne hall are decorated with the emblem of the Chakri Dynasty , an intertwined Chakra and Trishula . Above the middle floor windows the western style coat of arms of Siam is used . On the semi @-@ circle pediment at the central hall there is also a portrait of King Rama V.
The incongruous make @-@ up between the Western lower half and Thai roof has been compared with a Farang ( Western ) lady clothed in Victorian costume while wearing a Thai crown . The symbolism of this juxtaposition is the emphasis of the superiority of Thai architecture ( as a crown upon the head ) over those of the West ( the lower half of the body ) . This stylistic innovation was more than an artistic coincidence , as it was supposed to convey a significant political message of Siamese resistance over Western imperialism , both of sovereignty and style . From another perspective , the building itself epitomizes the internal political struggle between the ideas of Westernization and modernity ( led by King Rama V ) against those of the traditional ruling elites ( as led by some of his early ministers ) .
Within the interior , the upper and middle floors are State floors ; they are in turn divided into several reception rooms , throne rooms and galleries complete with royal portraits of every Chakri Monarchs ( including Second King Pinklao ) and their consorts . More specifically , to the east gallery are Buddhist Images and other religious images , while to the west are reception rooms for State guests and other foreign dignitaries . In other parts of the throne hall there are also libraries and rooms where the ashes of Kings ( Rama IV to Rama VIII ) and their Queens are housed . Many of the European @-@ made chandeliers inside the Hall initially belonged to Chao Phraya Si Suriyawongse ; however they proved too big for his own residence and he eventually gave them to King Chulalongkron as gifts . The throne hall was also the first structure in Thailand in which electricity was installed , at the insistence of Prince Devavongse Varopakar . The lower floor or ground floor is reserved for servants and the Royal Guards . Currently there is a museum displaying old weapons .
Inside the main hall ( throne room ) , situated at the very centre of the Chakri Maha Prasat Hall , is the Bhudthan Thom Throne ( พระที ่ นั ่ งพุดตานถม ; rtgs : Phuttan Thom ) , a chair on a raised platform . The Throne is flanked by two seven @-@ tiered umbrellas , while the throne itself is topped by a Royal Nine @-@ Tiered Umbrella . Behind the throne is a tapestry depicting a fiery intertwined chakra and trishula or the ' Chakri ' , the emblem of the dynasty . The throne has been used by the king during important state occasions , such as the welcoming or accrediting of foreign diplomats and missions . The room itself has also been used by King Rama IX to welcome foreign dignitaries and heads of state , such as Queen Elizabeth II , President Bill Clinton and Pope John Paul II . Recently the King welcomed over 21 world leaders inside the room during the Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation ( APEC Summit ) held in Bangkok in 2003 . The wall of the throne room is decorated with four paintings , depicting important scenes in the history of Thai foreign relations . On the east wall hang two paintings called ' Queen Victoria receiving King Mongkut 's Ambassador ' and ' King Louis XIV receiving the Ambassador of King Narai of Ayutthaya in the Hall of Mirrors at Versailles ' . On the west hangs ' King Mongkut receiving British Envoy Sir John Bowring ' and ' Napoleon III receiving the Siamese Ambassadors at Fontainbleau ' .
= = = = Phra Thinang Moon Satharn Borom Ard = = = =
The Phra Thinang Moon Satharn Borom Ard ( พระที ่ นั ่ งมูลสถานบรมอาสน ์ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Mun Sathan Boromma At ) is situated behind the Chakri Maha Prasat Hall to the east side and was built as a separate wing in 1869 . The hall encompasses the original area where King Rama V was born and had lived as a child . Previously King Rama I had the area set aside as a small mango tree garden . Currently the hall is set out as a small banqueting and reception venue .
= = = = Phra Thinang Sommuthi Thevaraj Uppabat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Sommuthi Thevaraj Uppabat ( พระที ่ นั ่ งสมมติเทวราชอุปบัติ ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Sommotti Thewarat Upabat ) is situated on the opposite side of the Moon Santharn Borom Ard Hall to the west of the Chakri Maha Prasat Hall , the wing was also built in 1868 . The hall is divided into several state rooms , for used by the king , there is a reception room and a council room . It was in this hall on the 12th of July 1874 that King Rama V stated to his ministers his intention to abolish slavery in Siam .
= = = = Phra Thinang Borom Ratchasathit Mahoran = = = =
The Phra Thinang Borom Ratchasathit Mahoran ( พระที ่ นั ่ งบรมราชสถิตยมโหฬาร ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Boromma Ratcha Sathit Maholan ) , is a massive square shaped structure at the very back of the Chakri Maha Prasat group . Formerly the Damrong Sawad Ananwong Hall and the Niphatpong Thawornwichit Hall . The two halls were also built by King Rama V as a banqueting hall to host foreign guests and dignitaries . By the reign of King Rama IX the building was so run down that the king ordered it to be demolished . Construction of a new hall began in 1996 , but was interrupted by the 1997 Asian financial crisis . Construction was eventually resumed on 1 April 2004 . The new throne hall was built on a raised platform and is composed of several inter @-@ connected buildings forming two internal courtyards . These rooms function as a new banqueting hall and is use for important state functions . On the 13 June 2006 the hall welcomed the royal representatives of 25 monarchies worldwide for the celebration of King Rama IX 's 60th Anniversary on the Throne . This included 12 ruling monarchs , 8 royal consorts and 7 crown princes .
= = = Phra Maha Prasat group = = =
The Phra Maha Prasat ( พระมหาปราสาท ) group is situated on the westernmost part of the Middle Court . The main buildings within this area dates from the reign of King Rama I and contains some of the oldest existing edifice within the Grand Palace . The entire throne hall group is contained within a walled and paved courtyard . Similarly to the other two groups , the Maha Prasat buildings were built , embellished and refurbished over successive reigns . The building formed a single axis from north to south , with the public throne hall to the front and residential halls behind . Surrounding them are lesser functional halls and pavilion for used by the king and his court .
Initially after the construction of the Grand Palace , King Rama I ordered that on this location a copy of the Phra Thinang Sanphet Maha Prasat ( พระที ่ นั ่ งสรรเพชญมหาปราสาท ) should be built . The ancient throne hall was once located at the old palace in Ayutthaya , which had been destroyed 15 years earlier . This new throne hall was given the name Phra Thinang Amarinthara Pisek Maha Prasat ( พระที ่ นั ่ งอมรินทราภิเษกมหาปราสาท ; rtgs : Phra Thi Nang Amarinthraphisek Maha Prasat ) . Construction began in 1782 and was finished in 1784 . This was the hall where King Rama I celebrated his full coronation ceremony . However , in 1789 the entire hall was struck by lighting and burnt to the ground . In its place King Rama I ordered the construction of a new hall , however under a different design and name .
As a result of this disaster King Rama I predicted that the Chakri dynasty would last only 150 years from its foundation . This prophecy was recorded in a diary of a princess of the first reign , after reading it many years later , King Rama V remarked that 150 years was too short and that the princess must have inadvertently dropped a nought . This prophecy was again present in the minds of many people , when only three months after the dynasty 's 150th anniversary celebrations the Siamese revolution of 1932 was carried out . The revolution replaced the absolute monarchy of the Chakri monarchs with a constitutional monarchy with Siam 's first constitution .
The ceremonial and residential part was divided between two new halls , the Dusit Maha Prasat and the Phiman Rattaya . Ever since then no coronations were held inside the hall . Upon the king 's death , the hall was used for his official lying @-@ in @-@ state . It has since become a custom that the remains of kings , queens and other high @-@ ranking members of the royal family are to be placed with the hall for an official mourning period .
The entrance to this building group is through one of the three gates at the northern end of the wall . These gates are decorated with Chinese porcelain in floral patterns . Only the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall is open to the public .
= = = = Phra Thinang Dusit Maha Prasat = = = =
The Phra Thinang Dusit Maha Prasat ( พระที ่ นั ่ งดุสิตมหาปราสาท ) dominates the Maha Prasat group . The throne hall was built on a symmetrical cruciform plan , the roof is topped with a tall gilded spire . The hall is considered an ideal archetype of Thai traditional architecture . Every aspect of the exterior decoration of the throne hall is imbuded with symbolism . The hall is build in the shape of a tall mountain to represent Mount Meru , the mythological centre of the universe .
The spire can be divided into three sections . The lower section , which is the base , is formed of seven superimposed layers , each layer representing a level of heaven in accordance with the Traiphum Buddhist cosmology . The middle section is in the shape of a bell ; however the roundness has been flattened to create a four sided shape . This represents the stupa in which the Buddha 's ashes have been interred . The top section is similar to the top of chedis , depicting a tapered lotus bud or the crystal dew drop signifying the escape from the Saṃsāra or cycle of rebirths . The spire is supported by garudas on its four sides ; as well as being the symbol of kingship , the garuda represents the mythical creatures of the Himavanta forest surrounding Mount Meru .
The pediments are decorated with the figure of Narayana riding on the back of a garuda , this figure symbolizes kingship and the king 's association with the Hindu deity . According to legend Narayana descended from heaven in human form to help mankind by alleviating them from suffering . Thus the deity represents all the ideal qualities in a king . The throne hall stands on a high base with convex and concave moldings . The bottom layer , according to Thai beliefs resembles a lion 's foot , the lion is a symbol of the Buddha 's family and alludes to the Buddha 's own royal heritage .
The most unusual feature of the throne hall is the small porch , projecting out at the front of the building . Under this porch stands the Busabok Mala Throne ( พระที ่ นั ่ งบุษบกมาลา ) , whose spire echoes that of the larger building itself . The high base of the throne is surrounded by praying deities . During the reign of King Rama I , the throne was used when the king appeared before his vassal states ; later it was used for certain ceremonies . The two doors to the hall is situated at the sides of the throne .
The interior walls of the throne hall are painted with a lotus bud design arranged in a geometric pattern . Within the lotus buds are seated praying deities , a common Thai motif often associated with holy places . The ceiling , which has a coffered octagonal shape section directly below the spire , is decorated with glass mosaic stars . This reinforces the impression of being in a heavenly abode . The interior panel of the door and window shutters depicted standing deities facing each other holding weapons as guards for the king . The thickness of the walls allow further spaces between the shutters and the wall to be decorated , these are decorated with murals depicting trees in Chinese style .
The two arms of the cruciform plan contains different thrones for use in different royal functions ; these included the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Throne ( พระแท ่ นราชบัลลังก ์ ประดับมุก ) which stands almost at the centre of the hall between the intersecting points of the four arms . The square @-@ shaped throne is entirely inlaid with mother @-@ of @-@ pearl , dating from the reign of King Rama I. It was saved from the Amarinthara Pisek Maha Prasat , when the throne hall burnt down in 1789 . The throne is topped by the Royal Nine @-@ tiered Umbrella .
To the eastern transept is the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Bed ( พระแท ่ นบรรทมประดับมุก ) which was made to match the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Throne . The bed was once the king 's personal bed and was kept inside the Phra Thinang Phiman Rattaya ; however once it was no longer used it was transferred to the Dusit Maha Prasat Throne Hall . The bed is in the form of a high platform with many layers , and small steps leading to the top . When royal ceremonies are carried out within the throne hall , member of the royal family take their seat in the southern transept , while government officials sit to the north , Buddhist monks to the east ; the funeral urn is to the west . During such times the throne and bed were used as altars for Buddha images .
Behind the Mother @-@ of @-@ Pearl Throne is the Phra Banchon Busabok Mala Throne ( พระบัญชรบุษบกมาลา ; rtgs : Phra Banchon Butsabok Mala ) . This half throne protrudes from the southern wall of the throne hall and opens like a window into the hall . The style of
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8 , 2009 . Senate President Hanabusa stated the issue would not be taken up again before 2010 .
= = = 2010 session = = =
The bill was carried over into the 2010 session and Lingle stated in January 2010 that the bill was a distraction from the budget and should not be voted on for final passage in the Senate . Senator Brian Taniguchi argued the legislature could work on several issues simultaneously and the bill would pass . If passed , the amended bill would have to be approved by the House of Representatives . Speaker of the House Calvin Say stated that a vote on the bill would depend on whether the Senate passed the bill with enough votes to override a gubernatorial veto , arguing that he does not want to force a vote on controversial legislation in an election year if the bill 's approval was in doubt . The Senate bill contains an effective date of January 1 , 2010 , and if the language is not changed , the bill could be vetoed regardless of its content .
The Senate passed an unchanged bill on January 22 , 2010 , with a veto @-@ proof two @-@ thirds ' majority , after an amendment to update the effective date was rejected . The measure moved for final approval to the House of Representatives , but on January 29 , House Speaker Calvin Say moved to indefinitely postpone a vote on the bill , which was approved by voice vote . No votes were recorded and the move deferred action on the bill for 2010 unless two @-@ thirds of Representatives vote to reconsider the bill , and it was considered dead .
On April 29 , the last day of the legislative session , the Senate bill was revived in the Hawaii House following a motion by Majority Leader Blake Oshiro . Speaker Calvin Say immediately ordered a recess and after the representatives returned four votes to suspend legislative rules postponing the issue were taken and the bill passed with 31 to 20 votes . Governor Linda Lingle had until July 6 to decide whether to sign or veto the measure . The House vote margin in support is not large enough to override a gubernatorial veto . Lingle vetoed the bill on July 6 , arguing civil unions should be decided by referendum . The House had ruled out any attempt to override her vetoes for the legislative session .
= = Reactions = =
Following the introduction of H.B. 444 , gay rights organizations stated their support , arguing the bill supported equality in an ethnically diverse state . Religious groups began to set up websites , take out newspaper advertisements and hold rallies in opposition to the bill , arguing it ran against marriage . The Roman Catholic Bishop of Honolulu , Clarence Richard Silva , called the bill " a travesty to the democratic process " that " ignores the will of the people . " Marc Alexander , vicar general of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Honolulu , argued that civil unions are " same @-@ sex marriage under a different name " .
The non @-@ profit organization Hawaii Family Forum , which opposed the bill , organized the February 22 rally with local churches and achieved a large turnout . Interfaith Alliance Hawaii , made up of people of Christian , Jewish and Buddhist faiths , stated their support for the bill and argued it did not " endanger [ civil unions opponents ' ] concept of marriage or family values . " Linda Krieger , a University of Hawaii law professor and adviser for a student gay rights group , stated " where the fundamental civil rights of an unpopular minority are at stake , the principle of ' letting the people decide ' is often a mere cloak for majoritarian tyranny . " The First Unitarian Church of Honolulu sponsored a poll that found 70 percent opposition to same @-@ sex marriage and 67 percent support on whether gays and lesbians should have the " same rights as everyone else . "
The Senate hearings on the bill attracted large turnout and testimony was recorded for 15 hours . In the hearing , bill opponents outnumbered supporters . Mike Gabbard , who sponsored the 1998 amendment permitting the legislature to outlaw same @-@ sex marriage , argued the bill would lead to same @-@ sex marriage being taught in Hawaiian schools . Kim Coco Iwamoto of the Hawaii Board of Education countered civil unions would make children in gay families less likely to be harassed . Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii Duke Aiona criticized the bill , arguing it " attempts to circumvent the will of the people by authorizing the equivalent to same @-@ sex marriage " . U.S. Representative Neil Abercrombie supported the bill , stating " it is shameful that while they must give their equal share to the government , the government will not give them equal protection " about gay and lesbian citizens of Hawaii .
The Honolulu Advertiser reported that the Senate Democratic leadership reconsidered their support for the bill because of the large demonstration of opponents and their pressure on senators to oppose the bill . It found that some senators privately suggested the bill 's delay in committee or a proposed amendment to the bill were ways to avoid taking a vote following the controversy .
The candlelight vigil following the bill 's defeat in committee was attended by labor union members and religious groups . Father Richard Shields of the Episcopal Diocese of Hawaii stated religion should be taken out of the argument and a spokesperson for the hotel and restaurant union Local 5 argued the bill provided economic justice . A letter later sent to senators in support of the H.B. 444 by community groups , including the Local 5 union , the Hawaii NAACP , the Hawaii State Democratic Women 's Caucus , and the Japanese American Citizens League .
In response to Majority Leader Gary Hooser 's statement that he intended to bring the bill to a vote before the full Senate , the Hawaii Family Forum stated other issues demanded more attention than civil unions and the bill would create legal challenges for child care and education . The group held demonstrations on Maui and Kauai and stated their intention to hold demonstrations to ask the governor to veto the legislation should the bill advance . Hooser argued for the bill using President Barack Obama 's support of civil unions and the support of labor unions and the majority of Hawaii House representatives . The Honolulu Advertiser reported that Senate President Colleen Hanabusa privately told senators the bill could lead to a lawsuit to legalize same @-@ sex marriage . The American Civil Liberties Union of Hawaii and Supreme Court of Hawaii judge Steven H. Levinson told the legislature that a lawsuit would have little chance of success .
Following the adoption of the amended version of H.B. 444 , Senator Les Ihara , Jr. stated , " I have a hard time reconciling the statement that the proponents made , that this is for equal rights and civil unions — at the same time , this kills it for the session . " Michael Golojuch of Parents , Families and Friends of Lesbians and Gays called the vote " a dog @-@ and @-@ pony show " . Hawaii Family Forum leader and former Democratic state representative Dennis Arakaki commented that " things worked out for the good . "
Hooser began a campaign in June 2009 to be elected Lieutenant Governor of Hawaii in 2010 , calling his support for the bill an act on a " critical issue " . Neil Abercrombie was elected to succeed Linda Lingle as Governor in the 2010 gubernatorial election , defeating Duke Aiona .
On July 6 , 2010 , following Lingle 's veto of the bill , Lambda Legal and the ACLU announced that they would file a lawsuit to enable civil unions , stating that " our constitution prevents discrimination based on sexual orientation . "
= Delaware Route 30 =
Delaware Route 30 ( DE 30 ) is a state highway in Sussex County , Delaware . The route runs from an intersection with Bi @-@ State Boulevard a short distance west of U.S. Route 13 ( US 13 ) between Laurel and Delmar to DE 1 Business ( DE 1 Bus . ) southeast of Milford in the area of Lincoln and Cedar Creek . The road runs east to Gumboro , where it turns north on the Millsboro Highway to Millsboro . Along this road , DE 30 shares concurrencies with DE 26 , DE 54 , and DE 24 . From Millsboro , the route passes through Gravel Hill and to the west of Milton before reaching Milford . DE 30 has an alternate route , DE 30 Alternate ( DE 30 Alt . ) , that was created by 1999 to connect the route with DE 1 by way of Johnson Road . DE 30 is signed as an east @-@ west road from the southern terminus to the east end of the DE 24 concurrency in Millsboro and as a north @-@ south road from that point until the northern terminus .
What is now DE 30 south of Gravel Hill was built as a state highway in various stages during the 1920s and 1930s . DE 30 was first designated by 1938 to connect DE 24 in Millsboro to DE 5 in Milton . The route was rerouted to end at DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) south of Milford by 1971 . DE 30 was extended southwest to Bi @-@ State Boulevard by 1994 and its northern terminus was moved to DE 1 Business by way of a new road by 2003 . An interchange with DE 1 was completed in 2014 .
= = Route description = =
DE 30 begins at an intersection with Bi @-@ State Boulevard in southwestern Sussex County between Laurel and Delmar , heading east on two @-@ lane undivided Whitesville Road . A short distance later , the road crosses US 13 , passing through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes to the south of Trap Pond State Park . The route turns southeast before it curves to the east again . Farther east , DE 30 comes to an intersection with DE 26 / DE 54 .
At this point , DE 30 turns northeast to form a concurrency with DE 26 / DE 54 on Millsboro Highway . The road curves north and heads into the residential community Gumboro , where DE 54 splits to the east . DE 26 / DE 30 leaves Gumboro and continues back into areas of farms and forests with occasional residences . In Shaft Ox Corner , DE 26 splits to the east and DE 30 heads north to an intersection with DE 24 in Mission .
Here , DE 24 turns north to join DE 30 , with the road running northeast . Farther along , residential development increases as the road heads into Millsboro . At this point , the road names becomes Laurel Road and it reaches an intersection with US 113 / DE 20 . Past this intersection , DE 24 / DE 30 turns north @-@ northeast on Washington Street . The two routes split into a one @-@ way pair following Main Street northbound and Washington Street southbound , crossing Norfolk Southern 's Indian River Secondary railroad line . The one @-@ way pair runs through the downtown area of Millsboro , rejoining along two @-@ way Main Street and crossing Indian River to the east of Millsboro Pond . A short distance later , DE 24 and DE 30 split at an intersection .
Upon splitting from DE 24 , DE 30 signage changes from east @-@ west to north @-@ south and the route leaves Millsboro . It continues north on Gravel Hill Road , passing to the east of Millsboro Pond . The road heads through a mix of farmland and woodland with some homes . In the community of Zoar , the route intersects DE 24 Alt . Farther north , DE 30 reaches the community of Gravel Hill . In Gravel Hill , the road crosses a Delaware Coast Line Railroad line and comes to an intersection with US 9 / DE 404 . From this point , the route curves northwest before bending north again . DE 30 intersects DE 5 Alt . , which serves as a western bypass of Milton for DE 5 . Here , DE 5 Alt. turns north to form a concurrency with DE 30 , with the road crossing an abandoned railroad line just east of the terminus of a Delaware Coast Line Railroad branch . At an intersection with DE 16 , DE 5 Alt. heads east along with that route and DE 30 continues north on Isaacs Road .
The route heads away from Milton and passes to the east of Reynolds Pond . DE 30 intersects Cedar Creek Road and turns northwest onto that road , curving north and back to the northwest . The road runs to the east of Swiggets Pond and intersects DE 30 Alt . , which heads northeast to an intersection with DE 1 . DE 30 continues north @-@ northwest and comes to ramps providing access to and from the southbound lanes of DE 1 . At this point , the route gains a center left @-@ turn lane and reaches an intersection with Wilkins Road , which provides access to and from the northbound lanes of DE 1 . Past this intersection , DE 30 turns northwest and passes between residential subdivisions to the southwest and DE 1 to the northeast as a two @-@ lane road , coming to its northern terminus at an intersection with DE 1 Bus. at the point that route merges into DE 1 at an interchange southeast of Milford .
DE 30 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 20 @,@ 273 vehicles at the northern edge of Millsboro to a low of 862 vehicles at the intersection with DE 26 / DE 54 . None of DE 30 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
By 1920 , what is now DE 30 existed as a state highway between Mission and Phillips Hill and was proposed as one between Phillips Hill and Millsboro , with the remainder of the route existing as a county road . The state highway between Phillips Hill and Millsboro was completed by 1924 . The state highway portion of the present @-@ day route was extended from Mission to Gumboro a year later , with a section in the Gumboro area under proposal as a state highway . By 1931 , the road was completed as a state highway between US 13 and Jones Branch and from James Branch to Gumboro . In addition , the state highway was completed from Millsboro to north of Gravel Hill as an unpaved road , with a portion north of Gravel Hill becoming a paved county road . The state highway between US 13 and Gumboro was fully complete the following year . By 1936 , the road between Millsboro and Gravel Hill was paved .
By 1938 , DE 30 was designated to run from DE 24 in Millsboro north to DE 5 in Milton , following its current alignment to north of Gravel Hill and then running along Shingle Point Road north into Milton . A portion of current DE 30 south of the DE 16 intersection was paved a year later . By 1952 , the current route of DE 30 north of Gravel Hill was paved . DE 30 was rerouted to follow its present alignment north to DE 14 ( now DE 1 ) south of Milford by 1971 . By 1994 , DE 30 was extended from Millsboro to its current terminus at Bi @-@ State Boulevard . DE 30s northern terminus was moved to its current location at DE 1 Business by 2003 when a road connecting DE 30 to DE 1 Business was completed . In November 2012 , construction began on an interchange at DE 1 southeast of Milford . The interchange between DE 1 and DE 30 was completed in July 2014 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Sussex County .
= = Bannered routes = =
Delaware Route 30 Alternate ( DE 30 Alt . ) is a 0 @.@ 74 miles ( 1 @.@ 19 km ) alternate route of DE 30 south of the city of Milford in the Cedar Creek area . It runs from DE 30 northeast to DE 1 along Johnson Road , passing through a mix of farmland , woodland , and residential development . The route was created by 1999 .
= Businessman ( film ) =
Businessman , also known as The Businessman , is a 2012 Indian Telugu @-@ language crime film written and directed by Puri Jagannadh . Based on a concept by Ram Gopal Varma and produced by R. R. Venkat under the banner R. R. Movie Makers , the film features Mahesh Babu and Kajal Aggarwal in the lead roles , with Nassar , Prakash Raj , Sayaji Shinde , Raza Murad and Brahmaji in supporting roles .
Mahesh plays Vijay Surya , a ruthless man who comes to Mumbai from South India aspiring to become a mafia don . Surya arrives just as the Mumbai police declare the end of the " Mafia Raj " and begins his journey by helping a local politician and trapping the city commissioner 's daughter , only to fall in love with her . He eventually emerges as the biggest mafia leader of Mumbai and kills a national politician Jai Dev in retribution for cheating and murdering his parents .
S. Thaman composed the film 's music and Shyam K. Naidu was the film 's cinematographer . The film was made with a budget of ₹ 400 million and was launched formally on 15 August 2011 at Hyderabad . Principal photography began on 2 September 2011 and was shot in Hyderabad , Mumbai and Goa . A few song sequences were shot in Bangkok . Filming ended on 10 December 2011 in 74 working days , one of the shortest periods in which a Telugu film has been shot .
Released during Sankranthi on 13 January 2012 , the film received mixed feedback from critics , but was commercially successful . It grossed more than ₹ 550 million and collected a distributor share of ₹ 448 million , eventually becoming one of the highest grossing Telugu films of 2012 . The film was dubbed into Tamil and Malayalam with the same title in the same year and was remade into Bengali as Boss : Born to Rule in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Mumbai Police commissioner Ajay Bhardwaj announces the end of the " Mafia Raj " in the city , to try to bring peace to the city 's streets . However , a ruthless south Indian named Vijay Surya comes to the city , aspiring to be the most powerful Mafia Don there . Staying in Dharavi with his friend , he is introduced to a local politician Laalu , who is in trouble and offers him help . He recruits a portion of the gangsters and criminals living in Mumbai led by Naseer to work under him . Surya 's henchman Shakeel manages to kill a witness of Laalu 's crimes in the jail where he is kept in , winning Laalu 's friendship .
After this , Surya promises to clear the debts of Dharavi locals so that their houses will not be repossessed . His men rob the original copies of the loan documents in the local branch of Bank of Maharashtra and destroy the bank records . Surya slowly becomes both popular and feared as an extortionist , while Dharavi locals praise him as their saviour . Surya is aware of Bhardwaj 's intentions . To safeguard himself , he traps Bhardwaj 's daughter Chitra , a keen painter , by posing as a NRI businessman interested in arts . They both fall in love . However , by the time Surya realises that he truly loves her , Bhardwaj has exposed Surya 's real nature to Chitra which makes her hate him . Surya is immediately arrested .
Surya is released after manipulating Bhardwaj by having his associates kidnap Chitra . He promises to leave crime behind him and asks Bhardwaj for permission to marry Chitra . When they refuse his proposal , he insists to Bhardwaj that he will set up a business which is untouchable by the police , and will eventually marry Chitra . Surya sets up a company named " Surya Exports & Imports " as a front for the organised crime that they indulge in . He plans to grow his organised crime network all over India and begins to set up branch offices for " Surya Exports & Imports " in all major cities , towns and villages all over India . He recruits local gangsters for staff and begins to forcibly collect a two percent tax on every contract made in that area . Surya amasses a huge fortune , making him a billionaire , and during the inauguration of his " Business Bank " , he reveals his thirst for power to Bhardwaj . He claims that the crime rate dropped significantly after he started to recruit all the gangsters . He also states that he wants to rid India of crime and help the needy .
Next , Surya helps Laalu to become the Mayor of Mumbai by defeating Arun Ghokle , endorsed by Ghanapuleti Jai Dev , a powerful national politician who wants to become the new prime minister of India in the upcoming elections . Ghokle then reveals Jai Dev 's illegal activities to Bhardwaj , after which he is killed by Jai Dev . After the meeting , Surya comes to know that Jai Dev is planning to kill Bhardwaj and Chitra . He reaches Chitra 's house and saves her but fails to save Bhardwaj . Chitra is devastated and Surya reveals to her that he was an American @-@ born Indian who lost his philanthropist NRI father and mother at an early age ; they were cheated and killed by Jai Dev . This incident and the peoples ' attitudes towards orphans while growing up made him hate that society .
Surya shifts his attention towards the upcoming Indian parliament elections and meets Guru Govind Patel , the head of the opposition party through Laalu . He makes a deal with him , offering ₹ 350 billion for election campaigning and also promises him that he would make him the prime minister of India . Surya spends millions on every constituency in India , making Jai Dev unable to contest in the elections by revealing his illegal affairs . Jai Dev kidnaps Chitra to seek revenge on Surya , who fights with Jai Dev 's henchmen . He is injured , but eventually kills Jai Dev , saving Chitra and proposing to her for the last time . It is revealed at the end that Surya successfully installed Guru Govind Patel as the Prime Minister of India .
Surya is last seen recuperating in a hospital in the company of Chitra , who accepts his proposal .
= = Cast = =
Principal cast
Mahesh Babu as Vijay Surya
Kajal Aggarwal as Chitra Bhardwaj
Prakash Raj as Jaidev Ghanapuleti
Nassar as Ajay Bhardwaj
Sayaji Shinde as Laalu
Raza Murad as Guru Govind Patel
Supporting cast
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Ram Gopal Varma signed Suriya for a multilingual crime film titled The Businessman in May 2010 , to be directed by Puri Jagannadh simultaneously in Telugu , Tamil and Hindi . The film 's protagonist was supposed to be a south Indian coming to Mumbai and setting up a crime business using tact and intelligence to emerge as one of the biggest gangsters . The film 's production was expected to begin in October 2010 once Suriya completed his part in 7aum Arivu ( 2011 ) and was scheduled for release in the summer of 2011 . Jagannadh stated in an interview that principal photography would begin in September 2010 . It was speculated that the film was to be based on the real @-@ life story of a gangster who had moved from the Cuddalore district of Tamil Nadu to Mumbai in the late 1960s .
The film was revived later by R. R. Venkat later in January 2011 with a tagline " Guns do not need agreements " . He signed Mahesh Babu as the protagonist who worked with Jagannadh in the past for Pokiri ( 2006 ) . Venkat added that the film would be produced under the banner R. R. Movie Makers . Jagannadh completed the final draft of the film 's script on 25 July 2011 during his stay at Bangkok , adding that he was inspired by Ram Gopal Varma . He stated that the pending pre @-@ production work would begin in Hyderabad after a week . The film had its formal launch on 15 August 2011 with a small pooja ceremony conducted at Hyderabad . Shyam K. Naidu and S. Thaman were confirmed as the film 's cinematographer and music director respectively .
= = = Casting = = =
Mahesh received the film 's script while dubbing for Dookudu ( 2011 ) , but due to that commitment took ten days to finish reading the script . He said in an interview that he could maintain the consistency in the character only because of the fewer working days . Jagannadh did not cast Brahmanandam and Ali because of Mahesh 's specific characterisation ; he added that Mahesh 's voice had changed when compared to his performance in Pokiri . Mahesh also convinced Jagannadh to give up smoking , since he himself was trying to give up after being a chain smoker .
Shruti Haasan was initially considered for the female lead role after her performance in her Telugu film debut , Anaganaga O Dheerudu ( 2011 ) . However , Kajal Aggarwal was signed as the female lead later in May 2011 , marking her first collaboration with both Mahesh and Jagannadh respectively . She was paid ₹ 10 million for this film . Jagannadh confirmed reports stating Mahesh and Kajal sharing a kiss in the film , adding that he retained them after Mahesh 's wife Namrata Shirodkar approved it . It was reportedly the first onscreen kiss for both of them . Kajal explained that it was not supposed to be sensual , but was meant to portray the conflict between two characters , and added that it was shot " aesthetically " by Jagannadh .
Prakash Raj , Nassar , Sayaji Shinde , Dharmavarapu Subramanyam , Brahmaji and Bandla Ganesh among others were cast for key supporting roles . Hansika Motwani was rumoured to be a part of the film 's cast in late August 2011 but not immediately confirmed . In mid October 2011 , Hansika reportedly agreed to perform an item number in the film . She later dismissed those reports as baseless rumours , claiming that other acting assignments keep her away from accepting .
Actress Shweta Bhardwaj was therefore selected to perform the item number instead . She was friends with Jagannadh , and he approached her for this song during the film 's shoot at Mumbai , saying that the song suited her and her personality as a dancer . She also tried to understand the meaning of the lyrics while dancing . Bhardwaj was afraid of dancing , suspecting a possible sprain , and found the costumes uneasy , but had to continue upon the choreographer 's insistence . Canadian @-@ born Indian actress Ayesha Shiva was signed to play Kajal 's friend in the film .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was planned to be shot entirely in and around Mumbai and Jagannadh searched for distinct localities there which suit the script 's backdrops . Jagannadh told Venkat that he needed 75 working days to complete the film 's shoot . He planned to start with Mahesh in the first week of September 2011 and established this schedule before finishing in the first week of January 2012 . Filming began on 2 September 2011 at Rajiv Gandhi International Airport in Hyderabad .
The second schedule began at Mumbai from 20 September 2011 and Mahesh confirmed in an interview that it would last until 5 December 2011 . An action sequence choreographed by Vijayan was shot in mid October 2011 and it was announced that the film 's climax would be shot in and around Goa from 27 October 2011 . The song " We Want Bad Boys " was shot in late October 2011 . At the same time , Jagannadh planned to shoot a couple of songs with Mahesh and Kajal in Spain during November 2011 . The filming of the climax sequences featuring Mahesh , Prakash Raj and others was finished by 2 November 2011 .
After filming two songs in the districts of Krabi and Pattaya in Bangkok , the film 's unit returned to Hyderabad on 2 December 2011 for completing patch work . The film 's shooting was wrapped up on 10 December 2011 in 74 working days as expected . Jagannadh revealed in an interview that the film 's length by the end of shoot was 84 @,@ 000 feet as planned . He added that Mahesh and Kajal participated in the film 's shoot for 65 and 30 days respectively .
= = = Post production = = =
The film 's dubbing activities began on 15 December 2011 at Shabdalaya Studios in Hyderabad . The DTS mixing works were in progress in early January 2012 . The Central Board of Film Certification passed the film with an ' A ' certificate ; board members found few of the film 's dialogues offensive and potentially upsetting to the people of Mumbai .
= = Music = =
The soundtrack consists of six songs composed by S. Thaman and written by Bhaskarabhatla . Aditya Music acquired the audio rights . The original along with both the dubbed versions of the soundtrack were released on 22 December 2011 at Shilpakala Vedika in Hyderabad . Na . Muthukumar and Kailas Rishi wrote the lyrics for the dubbed Tamil and Malayalam versions of the songs respectively . The soundtrack was a huge success with nearly 200 @,@ 000 compact discs sold on the first day of its release itself .
= = Release = =
The film was initially planned for a worldwide release on 11 January 2012 . Hari Venkateswara Pictures acquired the film 's overseas distribution rights and after requests by non @-@ Telugu Mahesh fans , it was the first Telugu film to release with subtitles in overseas cinemas . The makers planned for a release in new international markets like Japan and Dubai to cash in on Mahesh 's previous film , Dookudu . The release was postponed by two days to 13 January 2012 due to post production delays . Two thousand screens across the world were booked for the film 's initial release .
It was released to 92 screens across Hyderabad , breaking the previous record set by Oosaravelli ( 2011 ) which was released to 70 screens . Prasads IMAX screened 33 shows on the release day . The film 's Tamil and Malayalam dubbed versions , also titled Businessman , was released on 7 December 2012 to 200 screens across Tamil Nadu and 28 December 2012 respectively .
= = = Legal issues and criticism = = =
S. Thaman was criticised for copying the tunes of the Italian partisan song " Bella ciao " for the song " Pilla Chao " and " He Lives in You " , a song written and performed by Lebo M and his South African Choir for the album Rhythm of the Pride Lands ( 1995 ) , for the song " Chandamama " . " Pilla Chao " was one of the more successful songs on the soundtrack and many music lovers left angry comments about the plagiarism on the song 's YouTube video .
The makers violated the rules of The Cinematograph Act , 1952 and the Central Board of Film Certification regarding the re @-@ working of its title from The Businessman to Businessman after the board cleared the film with the former title . The Andhra Pradesh Film Chamber of Commerce cleared the registration of the film title as The Businessman on 1 January 2011 through a letter and was renewed up to 22 April 2012 . The set of posters sent to the board for certification purpose carried the full title . The film was publicised without the definite article , which was also missing from the posters . Also the ' A ' certification was omitted .
After release , the film was criticised for the usage of curse @-@ words by the protagonist and a few intimate sequences between the lead pair . The muting of a few dialogues and blurring of a few visuals by the board were criticised by viewers . Bajrang Dal lodged a complaint with Municipal police on 14 January 2012 stating that the lyrics of the song " We love Bad Boys " contained vulgar words and conveyed an unacceptable meaning for which they demanded action against Jagannadh . The police confirmed this and stated they would seek legal opinions for taking further action .
Akhil Bharatiya Vidyarthi Parishad activists entered the Aradhana theatre at Tarnaka near Osmania University , and stopped a screening on 25 January 2012 at 11 : 30 AM . They stole the film 's reels and ripped off the film 's hoardings and flexies at the theatre , protesting a few dialogues which allegedly demeaned Rama and were anti @-@ patriotic . They burnt the film 's reels in front of Osmania Arts College in protest of the lyrics of the song " We want Bad Boys " alleging that the song was filled with abusive words . They also demanded a public apology by Mahesh and Jagannadh . Journalist Rohit Vats in his article Real and reel : How Telugu cinema celebrates stalking mentioned the sequences in Businessman quoting , " The conversation between Mahesh Babu and Kajal Aggarwal in Businessman was termed vulgar but later it was accepted in the name of sarcasm . Basically , it was perceived as harmless teasing " .
= = = Marketing = = =
A first @-@ look teaser of 41 seconds was released on 9 November 2011 . The first @-@ look poster featuring a still of Mahesh sitting in a chair and deeply thinking was revealed on 11 November 2011 ( 11 @.@ 11 @.@ 11 ) , receiving a positive response . Two posters featuring Mahesh were unveiled on 5 and 11 December 2011 . The theatrical trailer was attached to the prints of Panjaa ( 2011 ) to be screened in theatres from 9 December 2011 .
As a part of the film 's promotion , Aditya Music offered a range of ringtone packs . Contests were introduced where the winners won posters autographed by Mahesh , the film 's tickets and soundtrack discs apart from others .
= = = Home Media = = =
Jagannadh acquired the satellite rights of the film during his negotiations with the film 's producers for ₹ 50 million . He wanted to rotate the film screening on various channels , at appropriate times , in a bid to gain more widespread viewership and recoup his investment . Studio N acquired the film 's television broadcast rights in March 2012 for ₹ 66 million , which were later sold to Gemini TV . The film 's DVD and Blu Ray discs were produced by Universal Home Entertainment and were released in May 2012 .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Suresh Krishnamoorthy of The Hindu called Businessman a " wholesome package " and a " pure entertainer " , quoting " Puri Jagannath has proved that he 's still the director with the Midas touch with his latest release , Businessman " . Y. Sunita Chowdary , also from The Hindu , wrote " The Businessman has a mix of action , image , dialogue and montage but what makes it entertaining is that all the above quantities are inextricably bound and linked together at every level with an admirably tight script . " She added that Jagannadh did not make any structural , technical or content errors , although the story was a regular one . Suresh Kavirayani of The Times of India gave the film 3 @.@ 25 out of 5 stars and called the film an " unpretentious entertainer that manages to strike the right balance " , which according to him , had enough in it to keep the viewers interested till the end despite not being a spectacular production .
Indo @-@ Asian News Service gave the film 3 out of 5 stars and called Businessman a film for Mahesh 's fans and highlighted Mahesh 's performance and Jagannadh 's dialogues as the film 's strong points . Another reviewer from IANS called the film " senseless yet entertaining " and stated " Mahesh 's dashing performance as a mafia kingpin with a hidden personal agenda is commendable and deserves high appreciation . Businessman may be perverse and appeal only to the masses , yet is a winner for unexplainable reasons . " Radhika Rajamani of Rediff.com gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars and opined that Businessman was an entertaining film if watched uncritically . She added " There 's no doubt that Puri Jagan has played to the gallery and kept the masses and Mahesh 's image in mind while conceiving this film . It 's just Mahesh all the way . "
Sify felt that the film was strictly for Mahesh 's fans but praised Jagannadh 's work saying that the " story sounds far fetched , demanding logic . The screenplay is a saving grace , which works like magic , making the audiences forget the monotony in between . " The reviewer highlighted Mahesh 's performance , the dialogues and the songs as the film 's stronger elements . Ramchander of Oneindia Entertainment called Businessman a serious film with limited appeal , which might be enjoyed by Mahesh 's fans but which would be an average for others . B. V. S. Prakash of Deccan Chronicle gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and stated " Businessman is a typical Mahesh Babu film all the way , evoking laughs with comic one @-@ liners and subtle expressions . However , his efforts could go in vain thanks to a contrived and highly exaggerated plot . " IndiaGlitz called Businessman a " Mahesh @-@ Magnified film " and stated " It is clear that the director throws all logic to the winds in the hope that Mahesh the Prince and a few cheeky one @-@ liners will salvage the film . There is so much meaningless lecturing in the movie in the form of the demented arguments that our hero employs in many a scene . "
= = = Box office = = =
Businessman opened to 85 % occupancy in both single screens and multiplexes at AP / Nizam box office on its first day . It grossed approximately ₹ 187 @.@ 35 million and collected a share of ₹ 137 @.@ 8 million at the global box office on its first day creating an all @-@ time record in terms of opening day collections . The film collected a distributor share of ₹ 120 million in AP / Nizam box office , ₹ 10 million in Karnataka , ₹ 7 @.@ 5 million together in Tamil Nadu , Orissa and North India respectively and ₹ 0 @.@ 3 million together in the United States , United Kingdom , Australia and Japan on its first day .
The film collected approximately ₹ 418 @.@ 35 million by the end of its first week at the global box office and was declared a blockbuster . The film completed a 50 @-@ day run in 350 centres on 3 March 2012 , and a 100 @-@ day run in undisclosed number of centres on 21 April 2012 . The film collected a distributor share of ₹ 448 million and grossed over ₹ 550 million in its lifetime at the global box office .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Remakes = =
After Mahesh refused to perform in the Hindi remake of this film , Jagannadh approached Ranbir Kapoor in late January 2012 and arranged a special screening for him . Ram Gopal Varma confirmed in March 2012 that he and Jagannadh would remake the film in Hindi with Abhishek Bachchan playing the role of Mahesh in the original . The film was remade in Bengali as Boss : Born to Rule in 2013 by choreographer @-@ turned @-@ director Baba Yadav with Jeet and Subhasree Ganguly reprising the roles of Mahesh and Kajal from the original respectively .
= = Possible sequel = =
Jagannadh expressed interest in making a sequel of the film after the response to the original on its first day and planned to begin work on the same from late 2012 . Mahesh too confirmed the same in late January 2012 during the scripting stage of the sequel titled Businessman 2 . It was planned as a bilingual film to be shot in Telugu and Hindi simultaneously . Ram Gopal Varma also expressed interest after listening to the script and felt that the sequel would do much better business that the original . However , Jagannadh shelved the sequel in early August 2012 and opted to direct Mahesh in an original film .
= Washington State Route 127 =
State Route 127 ( SR 127 ) is a 27 @.@ 05 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 43 @.@ 53 km ) state highway serving the eastern region of the U.S. state of Washington . The highway , listed on the National Highway System , begins in rural Garfield County at U.S. Route 12 ( US 12 ) and travels north across the Snake River on the Elmer Huntley Bridge . The roadway continues into Whitman County before it ends at SR 26 in Dusty . SR 127 formed a section of the Inland Empire Highway and Primary State Highway 3 ( PSH 3 ) prior to becoming US 295 in 1926 . US 295 was decommissioned in 1968 and replaced by a longer SR 127 , traveling its full length from Dodge to Colfax from its establishment in 1970 until an extension of SR 26 to Colfax in 1979 .
= = Route description = =
SR 127 begins at an intersection with US 12 in the unincorporated community of Dodge , located between Starbuck and Pomeroy in rural Garfield County . The highway travels north around Dodge Hill and into the hills along New York Gulch before reaching the Snake River . SR 127 crosses the Snake River on the Elmer Huntley Bridge into Whitman County east of the former Central Ferry State Park . The highway continues northeast up the Central Ferry grade to Dusty , where SR 127 ends at an intersection with SR 26 .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 127 was its northern terminus at SR 26 , serving 1 @,@ 000 vehicles . The entire route of SR 127 is designated as part of the National Highway System , a highway system that includes roadways important to the national economy , defense , and mobility ; and as a Highway of Statewide Significance by WSDOT , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
The present route of SR 127 was added to the Washington state highway system in 1913 as part of the Inland Empire Highway , traveling in a circular arc from Ellensburg through the Yakima Valley and into the Palouse towards the Canadian border in Laurier . The Inland Empire Highway was numbered as State Road 3 in 1923 and PSH 3 in 1937 as part of the primary and secondary state highways . The United States Highway System was adopted on November 11 , 1926 by the American Association of State Highway Officials ( AASHO ) and included US 295 , traveling northeast from US 410 at Dodge to US 195 in Colfax and crossing the Snake River at Central Ferry . US 295 succeeded PSH 3 during the 1964 state highway renumbering , but was decommissioned in 1968 before the new state highway system was codified . The roadway was re @-@ designated as SR 127 after the new sign route number system was codified into the Revised Code of Washington in 1970 , traveling 43 @.@ 82 miles ( 70 @.@ 52 km ) from US 12 at Dodge to US 195 in Colfax and crossing the Snake River on the Elmer Huntley Bridge , completed in 1969 . SR 127 was truncated to its present route after SR 26 was extended east to Colfax over the former route of SR 127 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Up ( 2009 film ) =
Up is a 2009 American 3D computer @-@ animated comedy @-@ drama adventure film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures . Directed by Pete Docter , the film centers on an elderly widower named Carl Fredricksen ( Ed Asner ) and an earnest young Wilderness Explorer named Russell ( Jordan Nagai ) . By tying thousands of balloons to his home , 78 @-@ year @-@ old Carl sets out to fulfill his dream to see the wilds of South America and complete a promise made to his late wife , Ellie . The film was co @-@ directed by Bob Peterson , with music composed by Michael Giacchino .
Docter began working on the story in 2004 , which was based on fantasies of escaping from life when it becomes too irritating . He and eleven other Pixar artists spent three days in Venezuela gathering research and inspiration . The designs of the characters were caricatured and stylized considerably , and animators were challenged with creating realistic cloth . The floating house is attached by a varying number between 10 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 balloons in the film 's sequences . Up was Pixar 's first film to be presented in Disney Digital 3 @-@ D.
Up was released on May 29 , 2009 and opened the 2009 Cannes Film Festival , becoming the first animated and 3D film to do so . The film became a great financial success , accumulating over $ 731 million in its theatrical release . Up received universal acclaim , with most reviewers commending the humor and heart of the film . Edward Asner was praised for his portrayal of Carl , and a montage of Carl and his wife Ellie aging together was widely lauded . The film received five Academy Award nominations , including Best Picture , making it the second animated film in history to receive such a nomination , following Beauty and the Beast ( 1991 ) .
= = Plot = =
Carl Fredricksen is a young 9 @-@ year @-@ old boy who idolizes famous explorer Charles Muntz . Muntz has been accused of fabricating the skeleton of a giant exotic bird he says he discovered at Paradise Falls , and vows to return there to catch one alive . One day , Carl befriends a girl named Ellie , who is also a fan of Muntz . She confides to Carl her desire to move her " clubhouse " — an abandoned house in the neighborhood — to a cliff overlooking Paradise Falls . Carl and Ellie eventually get married and live together in the restored house . Carl sells toy balloons from a cart at a zoo Ellie opens . After suffering a miscarriage and being told they cannot have a child , the two decide to realize their dream of visiting Paradise Falls . They try to save for the trip , but repeatedly end up spending the money on more pressing needs . Finally , an elderly Carl arranges for the trip , but Ellie suddenly becomes ill and dies .
Years later , Carl still lives in the house , stubbornly holding out as the surrounding neighborhood is torn down for new construction , but when he accidentally injures a construction worker over damage to his mailbox , a court orders him to move to a retirement home . However , Carl comes up with a scheme to keep his promise to Ellie , and turns his house into a makeshift airship , using thousands of helium balloons . Russell , a young Wilderness Explorer , becomes an accidental stowaway in his effort to earn his final merit badge for assisting the elderly . After surviving a thunderstorm , the flying house lands on a tepui opposite Paradise Falls . Carl and Russell harness themselves to the still @-@ buoyant house and begin to walk it across the mesa , hoping to reach the falls before the balloons deflate . Russell encounters a tall , colorful flightless bird , whom he names " Kevin " . They then meet a Golden Retriever named Dug , who wears a special collar that allows him to speak , and who vows to take the bird to his master .
The group is set upon by a pack of aggressive dogs led by Alpha , a doberman ( who is also seeking the bird ) , and are taken to their master , who turns out to be an elderly Charles Muntz . Muntz invites Carl and Russell aboard his dirigible , where he explains that he has spent years since his disgrace searching for the giant bird . When Russell notes the bird 's similarity to Kevin , Muntz becomes hostile , believing they have been attempting to steal the bird . The pair flees with Kevin and Dug , but Muntz catches up with them , captures Kevin and starts a fire beneath Carl 's house , forcing him to choose between saving it or Kevin . Carl rushes to put out the fire , allowing Muntz to take the bird . He and Russell eventually reach the falls , though Russell is disappointed in Carl over his decision to abandon Kevin .
Settling into his home , Carl looks through Ellie 's childhood scrapbook , and is surprised to find that she has filled in the blank pages with photos of their marriage , along with a note thanking him for the " adventure " and encouraging him to go have a new one . Reinvigorated , he goes to find Russell , only to see him sailing off with some balloons to save Kevin on his own . Carl empties the house of furniture and possessions , lightening it , and pursues him . Russell is captured by Muntz , but Carl manages to board the dirigible in flight and free both him and Kevin . Dug accidentally defeats Alpha and becomes the dogs ' new leader . Muntz pursues them around the airship , finally cornering Dug , Kevin , and Russell inside Carl 's tethered house . Carl lures Kevin back onto the airship with Dug and Russell clinging to her back , but when Muntz leaps after them , he snags his foot on some balloon lines and falls to his death . The house then descends out of sight through the clouds .
Carl and Russell reunite Kevin with her chicks , then fly the dirigible back to the city . Carl presents Russell with his final badge : a grape soda cap that Ellie gave to Carl when they first met and made their promise . The two and Dug then enjoy some ice cream together . Meanwhile , Carl 's house has landed on the cliff beside Paradise Falls , fulfilling his promise to Ellie .
= = Voice cast = =
Ed Asner as Carl Fredricksen ( Jeremy Leary voiced Carl as a young boy ) . Docter and Rivera noted Asner 's television alter ego , Lou Grant , had been helpful in writing for Carl , because it guided them in balancing likable and unlikable aspects of the curmudgeonly character . When they met Asner and presented him with a model of his character , he joked , " I don 't look anything like that . " ( The appearance of Carl is meant to resemble Spencer Tracy as he appeared in his final film , Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner . ) They tailored his dialogue for him , with short sentences and more consonants , which " cemented the notion that Carl , post @-@ Ellie , is a disgruntled bear that 's been poked awake during hibernation " . In Colombia , unexpected publicity for the film was generated due to the uncanny similarity of Carl with Colombian ex @-@ president Julio César Turbay Ayala .
Christopher Plummer as Charles F. Muntz , an old explorer looking for the Beast of Paradise Falls , vowing not to return to North America until he had captured the last @-@ living creature , using a group of dogs to aid him in his hunt . The name of his airship , the Spirit of Adventure , may have been inspired by Charles Lindbergh 's airplane , Spirit of St. Louis . In various interviews , Pete Docter has mentioned Howard Hughes and real life adventurers Charles Lindbergh and Percy Fawcett as inspirations for Muntz .
Jordan Nagai as Russell , a young Wilderness Explorer who becomes an accidental passenger in Carl 's floating house in his effort to earn his final merit badge for assisting the elderly . Throughout most of the film , he makes several comments to Carl that suggest that Russell 's father and mother are no longer together . Russell 's design was based on Pixar animator Peter Sohn . Docter auditioned 400 boys in a nationwide casting call for the part . Nagai , who is Japanese American , showed up to an audition with his brother , who was actually the one auditioning . Docter realized Nagai behaved and spoke non @-@ stop like Russell and chose him for the part . Nagai was 8 years old when cast . Docter encouraged Nagai to act physically as well as vocally when recording the role , lifting him upside down and tickling him for the scene where Russell encounters Kevin . Asian Americans have positively noted Pixar 's first casting of an Asian lead character , in contrast to the common practice of casting non @-@ Asians in Asian parts .
Bob Peterson as Dug , the Golden Retriever misfit of Muntz 's pack of dogs that can all communicate with humans through a device on each of their collars . Peterson knew he would voice Dug when he wrote his line " I have just met you , and I love you , " which was based on what a child told him when he was a camp counselor in the 1980s . The DVD release of the film features a short called Dug 's Special Mission , which follows Dug just before his first meeting with Carl and Russell . Dug previously appeared in Ratatouille as a shadow on a wall that barks at Remy.Peterson also voices Alpha , the Doberman Pinscher leader of Muntz 's pack of dogs . Pete Docter has stated that Alpha " thinks of himself as Clint Eastwood " . Despite his menacing appearance , a frequent malfunction in Alpha 's translating collar causes his voice to sound comically high @-@ pitched and squeaky , as if he had been breathing helium . The normal voice for his translator is a resonant , intimidating bass . With both voices , Alpha has a roundabout speech pattern that causes his sentences to be longer than necessary .
Pete Docter as Kevin , the " Beast of Paradise Falls " , which is actually just a large , colorful prehistoric bird . Docter also voices Campmaster Strauch , Russell 's scout leader , seen at the end of the film .
Elizabeth Docter as Ellie Fredricksen as a younger child . The voice actor is the director 's daughter , who also provided some of the drawings shown by Ellie .
Delroy Lindo as Beta , a Rottweiler and one of Muntz 's dogs .
Jerome Ranft as Gamma , a Bulldog and one of Muntz 's dogs .
John Ratzenberger as Tom , a construction worker who asks if Carl is ready to sell his house .
David Kaye as the newsreel announcer .
Danny Mann as Steve , a construction worker whom Carl injures because he accidentally wrecked his mailbox .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Pete Docter first began writing Up in 2004 . The fantasy of a flying house was developed on the idea of escaping from life when it becomes too irritating , which stemmed from his difficulty with social situations growing up . Actor and writer Tom McCarthy aided Docter and Bob Peterson in shaping the story for about three months . Docter selected an old man for the main character after drawing a picture of a grumpy old man with smiling balloons . The two men thought that an old man was a good idea for a protagonist because they felt that their experiences and the way that they affect their view of the world was a rich source of humor . Docter was not concerned with an elderly protagonist , stating that children would relate to Carl in the way that they relate to their grandparents .
Early concepts were very different from the final film . The initial version featured a floating castle with two brothers vying to inherit their father 's kingdom , and when the brothers fell to Earth , they encountered a tall bird who helped them understand each other . Docter 's next idea introduced many of the elements that eventually made their way into the film , but had Carl and Russell landing the house on a Soviet @-@ era spy airship camouflaged as a giant cloud rather than on a tepui . This concept was rewritten due to its similarity to another idea Pixar was developing . Another idea Docter added , then removed , was magic fountain @-@ of @-@ youth eggs laid by the bird , in order to explain the age discrepancy between Muntz and Carl , but it was decided that this subplot was too distracting , and that people would forgive the minor inconsistency .
Docter noted that the film reflects his friendships with Disney veterans Frank Thomas , Ollie Johnston , and Joe Grant ( who all died before the film 's release and thus the film was dedicated to them ) . Grant gave the script his approval as well as some advice before his death in 2005 . Docter recalled that Grant would remind him that the audience needed an " emotional bedrock " because of how wacky the adventure would become ; here it is Carl mourning for his wife . Docter felt that Grant 's personality influenced Carl 's deceased wife Ellie more than the grouchy main character , and Carl was primarily based on Spencer Tracy , Walter Matthau , James Whitmore , and their own grandparents , because there was " something sweet about these grumpy old guys " . Docter and Jonas Rivera noted Carl 's charming nature in spite of his grumpiness derives from the elderly " hav [ ing ] this charm and almost this ' old man license ' to say things that other people couldn 't get away with [ ... ] It 's like how we would go to eat with Joe Grant and he would call the waitresses ' honey ' . I wish I could call a waitress ' honey ' . "
Docter revealed that the filmmakers ' first story outline had Carl " just want [ ing ] to join his wife up in the sky . It was almost a kind of strange suicide mission or something . And obviously that 's [ a problem ] . Once he gets airborne , then what ? So we had to have some goal for him to achieve that he had not yet gotten . " As a result , they added the plot of going to South America . The location was chosen due to both Docter 's love of tropical locations , but also in wanting a location that Carl could be stuck with a kid due to the inability to leave him with an authority such as a police officer or social worker . They implemented a child character as a way to help Carl stop being " stuck in his ways " .
Docter created Dug as he felt it would be refreshing to show what a dog thinks , rather than what people assume it thinks . Knowledge of canine communication , body language and pack behaviors for the artists and animators to portray such thoughts came from consultant Dr. Ian Dunbar , veterinarian , dog behaviorist and trainer . The idea for Alpha 's voice derived from thinking about what would happen if someone broke a record player and it always played at a high pitch . Russell was added to the story at a later date than Dug and Kevin ; his presence , as well as the construction workers , helped to make the story feel less " episodic " .
Carl 's relationship with Russell reflects how " he 's not really ready for the whirlwind that a kid is , as few of us are " . Docter added he saw Up as a " coming of age " tale and an " unfinished love story " , with Carl still dealing with the loss of his wife . He cited inspiration from Casablanca and A Christmas Carol , which are both " resurrection " stories about men who lose something , and regain purpose during their journey . Docter and Rivera cited inspiration from the Muppets , Hayao Miyazaki , Dumbo , and Peter Pan . They also saw parallels to The Wizard of Oz and tried to make Up not feel too similar . There is a scene where Carl and Russell haul the floating house through the jungle . A Pixar employee compared the scene to Fitzcarraldo , and Docter watched that film and The Mission for further inspiration . The character Charles Muntz comes from Howard Hughes and Errol Flynn .
= = = Animation = = =
Docter made Venezuela the film 's setting after Ralph Eggleston gave him a video of the tepui mountains of Canaima National Park ; and tepuis were already featured in a previous Disney film , Dinosaur . In 2004 , Docter and eleven other Pixar artists spent three days reaching Monte Roraima by airplane , jeep , and helicopter . They spent three nights there painting and sketching , and encountering ants , mosquitoes , scorpions , frogs , and snakes . They also flew to Matawi Tepui and climbed to Angel Falls . Docter felt " we couldn 't use [ the rocks and plants we saw ] . Reality is so far out , if we put it in the movie you wouldn 't believe it . " The film 's creatures were also challenging to design because they had to fit in the surreal environment of the tepuis , but also be realistic because those mountains exist in real life . The filmmakers visited Sacramento Zoo to observe a Himalayan monal for Kevin 's animation . The animators designed Russell as an Asian @-@ American , and modeled Russell after similar looking Peter Sohn , a Pixar storyboarder who voiced Emile in Ratatouille and directed the short Partly Cloudy , because of his energetic nature .
While Pixar usually designs their characters to be caricatured , Carl was even more so , being only three heads high . He was not given elderly features such as liver spots or hair in his ears to keep him appealing , yet giving him wrinkles , pockmarks on his nose , a hearing aid , and a cane to make him appear elderly . Docter wanted to push a stylized feel , particularly the way Carl 's head is proportioned : he has a squarish appearance to symbolize his containment within his house , while Russell is rounded like a balloon . The challenge on Up was making these stylized characters feel natural , although Docter remarked the effect came across better than animating the realistic humans from Toy Story , who suffered from the " uncanny valley " . Cartoonists Al Hirschfeld , Hank Ketcham , and George Booth influenced the human designs . Simulating realistic cloth on caricatured humans was harder than creating the 10 @,@ 000 balloons flying the house . New programs were made to simulate the cloth and for Kevin 's iridescent feathers . To animate old people , Pixar animators would study their own parents or grandparents and also watched footage of the Senior Olympics . The directors had various rules for Carl 's movements : he could not turn his head more than 15 – 20 degrees without turning his torso as well , nor could he raise his arms high . However , they also wanted him to grow more flexible near the end of the film , transforming into an " action hero " .
A technical director worked out that to make Carl 's house fly , he would require 23 million balloons , but Docter realized that number made the balloons look like small dots . Instead , the balloons created were made to be twice Carl 's size . There are 10 @,@ 927 balloons for shots of the house just flying , 20 @,@ 622 balloons for the lift @-@ off sequence , and a varying number in other scenes .
= = = Music = = =
Up is the third Pixar film to be scored by Michael Giacchino , after The Incredibles and Ratatouille . What Pete Docter wanted most importantly out of the music was the emotion , so Giacchino wrote a character theme @-@ based score that producer Jonas Rivera thought enhanced the story . At the beginning of the movie , when young Carl is in the movie theater watching a newsreel about Muntz , the first piece of music heard is " Muntz 's Theme " , which starts out as a celebratory theme , and echoes through the film when Muntz reappears 70 years later . " Ellie 's Theme " is first heard when she is introduced as a little kid and plays several times during the film in different versions ; for instance , during the sequence where Carl lifts his house with the balloons , the theme is changed from a simple piano melody to a full orchestral arrangement . Giacchino has compared the film to opera since each character has a unique theme that changes during a particular moment in the story .
The score was released as a digital download on May 26 , 2009 , three days before the film opened in theaters . It won the Academy Award for Best Original Score , the Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack Album , the Golden Globe Award for Best Original Score , and the 2010 BAFTA Award for Best Film Music . It is the first score for a Pixar film to win the Oscar ( Randy Newman also won for Monsters , Inc. and Toy Story 3 , but in the category of Best Original Song ) .
= = Release = =
When the film screened at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood , California from May 29 to July 23 , 2009 , it was accompanied by Lighten Up ! , a live show featuring Disney characters . Other tie @-@ ins included children 's books such as My Name is Dug , illustrated by screenwriter Ronnie del Carmen . Despite Pixar 's track record , Target Corporation and Walmart stocked few Up items , while Pixar 's regular collaborator Thinkway Toys did not produce merchandise , claiming its story is unusual and would be hard to promote . Disney acknowledged not every Pixar film would have to become a franchise . Promotional partners include Aflac , NASCAR , and Airship Ventures , while Cluster Balloons promoted the film with a replica of Carl 's couch lifted by hot air balloons for journalists to sit in .
Before the film 's worldwide release date , Pixar granted a wish from 10 @-@ year @-@ old Colby Curtin to see the film before she died . Colby had been diagnosed with cancer and was too sick to go to a theater . A Pixar employee flew to the Curtin 's house with a DVD of the finished film and screened it for her and her family . Curtin died seven hours later at 9 : 20 pm , shortly after seeing the film .
Director Pete Docter intended for audiences to take a specific point from the film , saying :
Basically , the message of the film is that the real adventure of life is the relationship we have with other people , and it 's so easy to lose sight of the things we have and the people that are around us until they are gone . More often than not , I don 't really realize how lucky I was to have known someone until they 're either moved or passed away . So , if you can kind of wake up a little bit and go , " Wow , I 've got some really cool stuff around me every day " , then that 's what the movie 's about .
= = = UPisodes = = =
Before its theatrical release , Disney · Pixar created three small animated vignettes called UPisodes to promote its film UP on the internet . These UPisodes chronicled Carl Fredricksen and Russell 's journey through the jungle , not seen in the movie . Fans were able to view the vignettes on Apple iTunes movie trailer site and YouTube .
UPisode One : Animal Calls - in the first episode , Russell demonstrates his ability to mimic animal calls .
UPisode Two : First Aid - in the second episode , Russell tries to relieve a minor injury that Carl received .
UPisode Three : Snipe Trap - in the third episode , Russell attempts to capture the elusive snipe .
= = = Home media = = =
Up was released on Blu @-@ ray Disc and DVD in North America on November 10 , 2009 , and in the United Kingdom on February 15 , 2010 . It features the film plus the theatrical short Partly Cloudy and the new short Dug 's Special Mission , as well as an audio commentary by director Pete Docter , Adventure is Out There a documentary about the filmmakers ' research journey to South America , The Many Endings of Muntz ( an alternate ending of sorts ) , and a digital copy . The Blu @-@ ray edition has a four @-@ disc pack that adds Cine @-@ Explore with BonusView , Global Guardian Badge and Geography games , eight documentaries , and BD @-@ Live to the Deluxe DVD and digital copy platters . A Limited Edition , known as the Luxo Jr . Premium Pack , includes a collectible lamp modeled after Pixar 's bouncy short star that is designed to hold a complete Pixar Blu @-@ ray collection .
In addition , Pixar also created a short film titled George & A.J. , written and directed by storyboard artist Josh Cooley . This shows what the two Shady Oaks retirement home workers did after Carl left with his house . It was initially available for purchase at the iTunes Store , and then was later posted to Disney · Pixar 's Facebook and YouTube pages .
In its first week , it sold 3 @,@ 969 @,@ 792 units ( $ 66 @,@ 057 @,@ 339 ) and eventually reached 10 @,@ 811 @,@ 453 units ( $ 182 @,@ 591 @,@ 149 ) , becoming the best @-@ selling DVD among those released in 2009 in units sold . It also became the third in sales revenue behind Transformers : Revenge of the Fallen and Twilight .
The rental release of the film to Netflix , Blockbuster , and Redbox was controversial since it failed to include closed captioning . Disney faced a consumer backlash over this and quickly released a statement that this removal was an unfortunate error and that it was moving to correct the issue .
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
Up earned $ 293 @,@ 004 @,@ 164 in the United States and Canada and $ 438 @,@ 338 @,@ 580 in other territories for a worldwide total of $ 731 @,@ 342 @,@ 744 . Worldwide , it was the sixth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 , the fourth highest @-@ grossing Pixar film , the 55th highest @-@ grossing film , and the 15th highest @-@ grossing animated film .
In the United States and Canada , Up is the 59th highest @-@ grossing film before inflation , the 10th highest @-@ grossing Disney film , the seventh highest @-@ grossing 3 @-@ D film , the sixth highest @-@ grossing animated film , the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 , and the fourth highest @-@ grossing Pixar film . On its opening weekend , it performed stronger than analysts had been expecting , ranking number one with $ 68 @,@ 108 @,@ 790 . This is the fourth highest @-@ grossing opening for Pixar and the third largest post @-@ Memorial Day opening . It set a record for opening weekend grosses originating from 3 @-@ D showings with $ 35 @.@ 4 million ( first surpassed by Avatar ) . The opening weekend audience was 53 % female and 47 % under 17 years old . The film experienced small drop @-@ offs on subsequent weekends , but lost first place to The Hangover .
Outside the US and Canada , it is the 43rd highest @-@ grossing film , the 10th highest @-@ grossing animated film , the fifth highest @-@ grossing film of 2009 , and the third highest @-@ grossing Pixar film . It was on top of the overseas box office for three consecutive weekends and four in total . Its highest @-@ grossing opening weekends were recorded in France and the Maghreb region ( $ 8 @.@ 88 million ) ; the UK , Ireland and Malta , ( $ 8 @.@ 44 million ) ; and Japan ( $ 7 @.@ 24 million ) . These three were also its highest @-@ grossing countries in total earnings . Among major countries , it was the highest @-@ grossing animated film of 2009 only in Spain ( $ 37 @.@ 1 million ) , Australia ( $ 25 @.@ 3 million ) , and South Korea ( $ 6 @.@ 32 million ) .
= = = Critical response = = =
Up received universal critical acclaim . Rotten Tomatoes reports that 98 % of critics have given the film a " Certified Fresh " positive review , based on 285 reviews , with an 8 @.@ 7 / 10 review average . The site 's consensus states : " An exciting , funny , and poignant adventure , Up offers an impeccably crafted story told with wit and arranged with depth , as well as yet another visual Pixar treat " . The film also holds a score of 88 on the review aggregator website Metacritic . Audiences gave the film an " A + " CinemaScore .
Film critic Roger Ebert gave the film four out of four stars and called it " a wonderful film . " The Hollywood Reporter lauded the film as " Winsome , touching and arguably the funniest Pixar effort ever , this gorgeously rendered , high @-@ flying adventure is a tidy 90 @-@ minute distillation of all the signature touches that came before it . " Although the San Francisco Chronicle noted that the film " contains many boring stretches of mindless freneticism and bland character interaction , " it also declared that there are scenes in Up of " such beauty , economy and poetic wisdom that they belong in any anthology of great movie moments ... to watch Up with any attention is to be moved and astonished by the economy with which specific visuals are invested with emotion throughout [ the film ] ... " Variety enthused that " Up is an exceptionally refined picture ; unlike so many animated films , it 's not all about sensory bombardment and volume ... Unsurprisingly , no one puts a foot wrong here . Vocal performances ... exude a warm enthusiasm , and tech specifications could not be better . Michel Giacchino 's full @-@ bodied , traditional score is superlative ... " The Globe claimed that Up is " the kind of movie that leaves you asking ' How do people come up with this stuff ? ' " along with an overall positive review on the film , despite it being predictable .
The character of Carl Fredricksen has received mostly positive reception . Bill Capodagli , author of Innovate the Pixar Way , praised Carl for his ability to be a jerk and likable at the same time . Wall Street Journal editor Joe Morgenstern described Carl as gruff , comparing him to Buster Keaton , but adds that this begins to wear thin as the movie progresses . He has been compared with Spencer Tracy , an influence on the character , by The Washington Post editor Ann Hornaday and Empire Online editor Ian Freer , who describes him as similar to a " Guess Who 's Coming to Dinner @-@ era " Tracy . Entertainment Weekly editor Lisa Schwarzbaum described his appearance as a cross between Tracy and an eccentric out of a George Booth cartoon . TIME editor Richard Corliss also makes the comparison , calling him a " trash compacted version " of Tracy . He has also been compared to Walter Matthau , another inspiration for the character 's design , by LA Weekly editor Scott Foundas , suggesting that actor Ed Asner was channeling him while performing the role of Carl . Variety editor Todd McCarthy described Carl as a combination of both Tracy and Matthau .
The relationship between Carl and his wife Ellie has been praised in several media outlets . In his book Disney , Pixar , and the Hidden Message of Children 's Films , author M. Keith Booker described the love between Carl and Ellie as touching . While also describing the scene of the two of them aging as a " masterpiece of its own kind , " he was not sure how much children would appreciate the scene , commenting that his son was squirming in his seat during the scene . Reelviews editor James Berardinelli praised their relationship , stating that it brought a tear to his eye in a way no animated film has done , including anything by famed anime director Hayao Miyazaki . Ann Hornaday praised the prologue , describing it as " worthy of Chaplin in its heartbreaking poignancy . " Chicago Tribune editor Michael Phillips praised the scene , describing it as an emotional and cinematic powerhouse , and that he also was nearly moved to tears . However , Salon.com editor Stephanie Zacharek criticized the love between Carl and Ellie , describing their marriage as resembling a dental adhesive commercial more than a real relationship .
Edward Asner was praised in several media outlets for his portrayal of Carl . San Francisco Chronicle editor Mick LaSalle praised Asner as a great choice due to having a grumpiness to his voice that is not truly grumpy , but rather coming from a protective stance . Entertainment Weekly editor Lisa Schwarzbaum praised Asner 's acting , stating that he has a " Lou Grant authority " to his voice . Time editor Richard Corliss stated that Asner had the " gruffness and deadpan comic timing to bring Carl to life . " The Boston Globe editor Ty Burr concurred with this , stating that his Lou Grant @-@ like voice had not diminished with time . USA Today editor Claudia Puig praised Asner 's delivery , describing it as superb .
The formulation of Russell as an Asian American character , along with the casting of an Asian American in the role was met positively as well . Both Nagai and the film were awarded by the East West Players for the depiction of Russell . EWP lauded Pixar for the creation of the character , stating , " We are proud to honor a very progressive film company like Pixar who cast an Asian American character alongside an elderly one to play the leads in a feature film . " The character is noted as Pixar 's first lead Asian character , and was further positively received within the added context of historical non @-@ Asian castings for Asian roles in entertainment . Asian American organizations and entertainment websites , such as media watchdog Media Action Network for Asian Americans ( MANAA ) , Racebending.com , and Angry Asian Man praised the character and Pixar for its diverse character depictions , noting the general lack of Asian American lead characters and Asian actors cast in entertainment . In an interview with NPR in 2013 , Angry Asian Man 's Phil Yu reflected on the character 's lack of typical Asian stereotyping , stating , " You know , he just happens to be Asian and he 's , you know , really adorable character . But that kid could 've been of any ethnicity but they made the effort to make him Asian - just a little color , you know , and it 's really wonderful when that kind of thing happens where they don 't have to play that up and make it like a thing or a joke , which happens a lot . "
= = = Accolades = = =
Up won two awards at the 82nd Academy Awards , for Best Animated Feature and Best Original Score . It is the second of three animated features to have been nominated for the Academy Award for Best Picture . Beauty and the Beast and Toy Story 3 were also nominated for Best Picture in their respective years . Up also won Best Original Score and Best Animated Feature Film at the 67th Golden Globe Awards . It was nominated for nine Annie Awards in eight categories , winning two awards for " Best Animated Feature " and " Best Directing in a Feature Production " . Up also received the Golden Tomato from Rotten Tomatoes for highest rating feature in 2009 , and best reviewed animated film , with an approval of 98 percent from film critics , based on 259 reviews . At the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards the film won Favorite Animated Movie . Jordan Nagai was awarded the Breakout Performance Award at the 44th East West Players 44th Anniversary Visionary Awards and Silent Auction for his role as Russell by the East West Players . The organization also awarded the film with the EWP Visionary Award for its progressive casting of an Asian American lead . Dug , the talking canine , was awarded the Palm Dog Award by the British film critics as the best canine performance at Cannes Film Festival , winning over the fox from Antichrist and the black poodle from Inglourious Basterds .
= = Allegory = =
A running joke involving Dug and the dog pack losing concentration at the mention of " squirrel ! " is now a metaphor for distraction in popular culture , in which paying attention to a figurative squirrel causes loss of focus on important issues .
= = Video games = =
On May 26 , 2009 , a video game by the same name themed around the movie was released for multiple platforms .
A video game , Kinect Rush : A Disney @-@ Pixar Adventure , was also released on March 20 , 2012 , for Xbox 360 . It features characters from five of Pixar 's films : Up , The Incredibles , Cars , Ratatouille , and Toy Story .
= Altoona and Beech Creek Railroad =
The Altoona and Beech Creek Railroad was a 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge railroad in Blair and Cambria Counties , Pennsylvania which operated during the late 19th and early 20th century . It carried passenger traffic up from the vicinity of Altoona to Wopsononock and coal and timber down from Wopsononock and Dougherty to Altoona . Originally constructed to develop coal mines and resort traffic atop the Allegheny Plateau , it became involved in a complicated and ultimately unsuccessful scheme to break the Pennsylvania Railroad 's control over the Clearfield Coalfield . Never very profitable , it went through several reorganizations , the last in 1913 . Conversion to 4 ft 8 1 ⁄ 2 in ( 1 @,@ 435 mm ) standard gauge in 1916 did not improve the situation , and the railroad was abandoned in 1919 .
= = Charter and construction = =
The railroad was chartered on May 27 , 1890 as the Altoona and Wopsononock Railroad . It was surveyed from Juniata , a northern suburb of Altoona , up Spring Run , and climbed a circuitous , twisting route up the Allegheny Front through Juniata Gap , to terminate at the newly established resort town of Wopsononock . By the time the first annual meeting of the stockholders was held on January 13 , 1891 , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of the road had been completed as a 3 ft ( 914 mm ) narrow gauge line . The board ultimately decided to complete the remaining 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) to the same gauge . Frank G. Patterson , an Altoona attorney , was elected president , and William L. Shellenberger vice @-@ president .
Rails were finished to the top of the Alleghenies on June 6 , and the first train arrived in Wopsononock on June 11 . The railroad was formally opened on July 2 , 1891 . An extension to Dougherty , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) beyond Wopsononock , was begun on September 31 , in order to serve mines of the newly formed Richland Coal Company , headed by Shellenberger . Patterson was also involved in the coal company , serving as its secretary .
= = Extension and legal battle = =
Patterson wished to extend the line to Dougherty , and a further 12 miles ( 19 km ) to Coalport on Clearfield Creek . To finance the extension , the shareholders , in November 1891 , authorized a $ 60 @,@ 000 mortgage on the property , and allowed Patterson to issue himself 600 additional shares of stock . He did so , but never paid the money due for them to the company 's treasury .
On January 22 , 1892 , the railroad 's name was changed to the Altoona , Clearfield and Northern Railroad to reflect the projected extension , which was built that year as far as Dougherty . However , a struggle for control of the railroad now ensued .
Patterson had agreed to sell 60 % of the company 's stock to James Kerr , who was expected in turn to sell the stock to the Pennsylvania Railroad , at whose Juniata station the line terminated . However , before Patterson could transfer the stock to Kerr , several other directors of the railroad , including Shellenberger , contracted to sell a majority interest in the railroad to Samuel P. Langdon . Langdon controlled the Altoona and Philipsburg Connecting Railroad , a short line in the Philipsburg area whose southern end would reach Ramey , about 17 miles ( 27 km ) from Dougherty , in 1894 . He intended to connect the two railroads and use the AC & N to enter Altoona .
Patterson and Langdon both claimed to control a majority of the company 's stock , and in February 1893 , rival boards of directors were elected by stockholders loyal to those two figures . The issue of 600 shares to Patterson , authorized in 1891 , turned the issue , and its validity was ultimately upheld by the Supreme Court of Pennsylvania and Patterson 's board of directors ordered seated . Langdon promptly petitioned for a receivership , and was appointed joint receiver with Patterson . Patterson , however , took most of the responsibility for operations . He was responsible having wyes installed at Wopsononock and Juniata in late 1894 so that the railroad 's engines did not have to back down the mountain . The co @-@ receivership was lifted on July 6 , 1896 , and Patterson took full control of the railroad again . However , the railroad failed to cover its operating expenses shortly thereafter , and Patterson was re @-@ appointed receiver on September 28 , 1896 . On February 29 , 1897 , it was sold under foreclosure to William L. Shellenberger , on behalf of the bondholders — the group which had allied with Langdon . On March 17 , 1897 , it was reorganized as the Altoona and Beech Creek Railroad .
Shellenberger and his fellow bondholders had good reason to seek control of the railroad . After their failure to deliver control of the road to Langdon , he brought suit against them . In exchange for his dropping the suit , they agreed to lease the Altoona and Beech Creek to the Pittsburgh , Johnstown , Ebensburg and Eastern Railroad , a holding company formed by Langdon , on highly favorable terms . The new company was to operate the Altoona & Philipsburg Connecting , planning to convert to standard gauge and extend the two railroads to a junction at East Frugality , near Dougherty . The PJE & E would be extended further south through Ebensburg and then down to the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad at Johnstown . During this period , the line was known as the " Altoona Division " of the PJE & E. On December 17 , 1898 , Langdon chartered the Altoona and Beech Creek Terminal Railroad , which would extend the Altoona and Beech Creek from Juniata to a new terminal at 9th Street and 15th Avenue in Altoona . However , he was unable to carry out these plans , and his lease was invalidated on March 27 , 1900 . Through appeals and legal maneuvers , Langdon was able to hold out until December 27 , 1901 , when the Sheriff of Blair County ejected the PJE & E employees and returned the Altoona and Beech Creek to its stockholders . The Altoona and Beech Creek Terminal was dissolved in 1905 – 6 .
The Altoona and Beech Creek reported itself in the Official Guide of 1903 as having been extended to Fallentimber , 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) beyond Dougherty . However , it does not appear that this extension was , in fact , built . By 1909 , the railroad had built two short branches of 1 @.@ 4 miles ( 2 @.@ 3 km ) each at the Juniata end of the line . The Kipple Branch left the main line near Broadway and Penn Avenue , Juniata , and circled around to the north , serving a few local industries and reaching the PRR 's main line at Juniata Junction , near 2nd Avenue and 10th Street . The Fairview Branch ran southwest from a wye near 25th Avenue and Broadway to end in the Fairview neighborhood of Altoona , at 23rd Avenue and 10th Street .
Despite the battle waged for possession of it , the railroad had not been very profitable . Passenger traffic to Wopsononock had been declining , and coal traffic from Dougherty was rather limited . Shellenberger installed a rock crusher atop the mountain , which also provided revenue . A major forest fire destroyed both the Wopsononock Hotel and the coal tipple at Dougherty on April 30 , 1903 . When the railroad became insolvent again , Shellenberger was appointed receiver on June 4 , 1909 . It was once more sold under foreclosure on April 30 , 1910 to H.A. Davis , and reorganized as the Altoona , Juniata and Northern Railway .
= = Conversion and abandonment = =
Andrew Kepple , one of the original Altoona & Wopsononock directors , was elected president of the newly organized company . The board remained largely unchanged , although Shellenberger finally severed his association with the railroad . It remained unprofitable , and Davis , in turn , sold the line to Sigmund Morris , of Altoona . Morris had incorporated the Altoona Northern Railroad on November 7 , 1912 to acquire the line , and the Altoona , Juniata and Northern was merged into it on January 16 , 1913
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. Two distinct species emerged : the smaller M. alfredi found in the Indo @-@ Pacific and tropical east Atlantic , and the larger M. birostris found throughout tropical , subtropical and warm temperate oceans . The former is more coastal while the latter is more ocean @-@ going and migratory .
A third possible species , preliminarily called Manta sp. cf. birostris , reaches at least 6 m ( 20 ft ) in width , and inhabits the tropical west Atlantic , including the Caribbean . It and M. birostris occur in sympatry . A 2010 study on mantas around Japan confirmed the morphological and genetic differences between M. birostris and M. alfredi .
= = = Fossil record = = =
While some small teeth have been found , few fossilized skeletons of manta rays have been discovered . Their cartilaginous skeletons do not preserve well as they lack the calcification of the bony fish . Only three sedimentary beds bearing manta ray fossils are known , one from the Oligocene in South Carolina and two from the Miocene and Pliocene in North Carolina . Remains of an extinct species have been found in the Chandler Bridge Formation of South Carolina . These were originally described as Manta fragilis but were later reclassified as Paramobula fragilis .
= = Biology = =
= = = Appearance and anatomy = = =
Manta rays have broad heads , triangular pectoral fins , and horn @-@ shaped cephalic fins located on either side of their mouths . They have horizontally flattened bodies with eyes on the sides of their heads behind the cephalic fins , and gill slits on their ventral surfaces . Their tails lack skeletal support and are shorter than their disc @-@ like bodies . The dorsal fins are small and at the base of the tail . The largest mantas can reach 1 @,@ 350 kg ( 2 @,@ 980 lb ) . In both species the width is approximately 2 @.@ 2 times the length of the body ; M. birostris reaches at least 7 m ( 23 ft ) in width while M. alfredi reaches about 5 @.@ 5 m ( 18 ft ) . Dorsally , mantas are typically black or dark in color with pale markings on their " shoulders " . Ventrally , they are usually white or pale with distinctive dark markings by which individual mantas can be recognized . All @-@ black color morphs are known to exist . The skin is covered in mucus which protects it from infection .
The two species of manta differ in color patterns , dermal denticles , and dentition . M. birostris has more angular shoulder markings , larger ventral dark spots on the abdominal region , charcoal @-@ colored ventral outlines on the pectoral fins and a dark colored mouth . The shoulder markings of M. alfredi are more rounded , while its ventral spots are located near the posterior end and between the gill slits , and the mouth is white or pale colored . The denticles have multiple cusps and overlap in M. birostris , while those of M. alfredi are evenly spaced and lack cusps . Both species have small square shaped teeth on the lower jaw but M. birostris also has enlarged teeth on the upper jaw . Unlike M. alfredi , M. birostris has a caudal spine near its dorsal fin .
Mantas move through the water by the wing @-@ like movements of their pectoral fins , which drive water backwards . Their large mouths are rectangular , and face forward as opposed to other ray and skate species with downward @-@ facing mouths . The spiracles typical of rays are vestigial , and mantas must swim continuously to keep oxygenated water passing over their gills . The cephalic fins are usually spiralled , but flatten during foraging . The fish 's gill arches have pallets of pinkish @-@ brown spongy tissue that collect food particles . Mantas track down prey using visual and olfactory senses . They have one of the highest brain @-@ to @-@ body mass ratios of all fish . Their brains have retia mirabilia which may serve to keep them warm . M. alfredi has been shown to dive to depths of over 400 m , while their relative Mobula tarapacana , which has a similar structure , dives to nearly 2000 m ; the retia mirabilia probably serve to prevent their brains from being chilled during such dives into colder subsurface waters .
= = = Lifecycle = = =
Mating takes place at different times of the year in different parts of the manta 's range . Courtship is difficult to observe in this fast @-@ swimming fish , although mating " trains " with multiple individuals swimming closely behind each other are sometimes seen in shallow water . The mating sequence may be triggered by a full moon and seems to be initiated by a male following closely behind a female while she travels at around 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) per hour . He makes repeated efforts to grasp her pectoral fin with his mouth , which may take twenty or thirty minutes . Once he has a tight grip , he turns upside @-@ down and presses his ventral side against hers . He then inserts one of his claspers into her cloaca where they remain for sixty to ninety seconds . The clasper forms a tube which channels sperm from the genital papilla ; a siphon propels the seminal fluid into the oviduct . The male continues to grip the female 's pectoral fin with his teeth for a further few minutes as both continue to swim , often followed by up to twenty other males . The pair then part . For some reason the male almost always grasps the left pectoral fin , and females often have scars that illustrate this .
The fertilized eggs develop within the female 's oviduct . At first they are enclosed in an egg case while the developing embryos absorb the yolk . After hatching , the pups remain in the oviduct and receive additional nutrition from milky secretions . With no umbilical cord or placenta , the unborn pup relies on buccal pumping to obtain oxygen . Brood size is usually one or occasionally two . The gestation period is thought to be twelve to thirteen months . When fully developed , the pup resembles a miniature adult and is expelled from the oviduct with no further parental care . In wild populations , an interval of two years between births may be normal , but a few individuals become pregnant in consecutive years , demonstrating an annual ovulatory cycle . The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium has had some success in breeding M. alfredi , with one female giving birth in three successive years . In one of these pregnancies , the gestation period was 372 days and at birth the pup had a width of 192 cm ( 76 in ) and weight of 70 kg ( 150 lb ) . In southern Africa M. birostris males mature at 4 m ( 13 ft ) while females reach maturity slightly over that . In Indonesia , M. birostris males appear to mature at 3 @.@ 75 m ( 12 ft ) while female mature at around 4 m ( 13 ft ) . In southern Africa M. alfredi matures at widths of 3 m ( 10 ft ) for males and 3 @.@ 9 m ( 13 ft ) for females . In the Maldives , male M. alfredi mature at a width of 2 @.@ 5 m ( 8 ft 2 in ) while females mature at 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . In Hawaii , M. alfredi mature at a width of 2 @.@ 8 m ( 9 ft 2 in ) for males and 3 @.@ 4 m ( 11 ft ) for females . Female mantas appear to mature at 8 – 10 years . Manta rays may live for as long as 50 years .
= = = Behavior and ecology = = =
Swimming behavior in mantas differs across habitats : when travelling over deep water , they swim at a constant rate in a straight line , while further inshore they usually bask or swim idly around . Mantas may travel alone or in groups of up to 50 . They may associate with other fish species as well as sea birds and marine mammals . Mantas sometimes breach , leaping partially or entirely out of the water . Individuals in a group may make aerial jumps one after the other . These leaps come in three forms : forward leaps where the fish lands head first , similar jumps with a tail first re @-@ entry or somersaults . The reason for breaching is not known ; possible explanations include mating rituals , birthing , communication , or the removal of parasites and commensal remoras ( suckerfish ) .
As filter feeders , manta rays consume large quantities of zooplankton in the form of shrimp , krill and planktonic crabs . An individual manta eats about 13 % of its body weight each week . When foraging , it slowly swims around its prey , herding it into a tight " ball " and then speeds through the bunched organisms with a wide @-@ open mouth . If a ball is particularly dense , a manta may somersault through it . While feeding , mantas flatten their cephalic fins to channel food into their mouths and the small particles are collected by the tissue between the gill arches . As many as fifty individual fish may gather at a single , plankton @-@ rich feeding site . Mantas are themselves preyed upon by large sharks and by killer whales . They may also be bitten by cookiecutter sharks , and harbor parasitic copepods .
Mantas visit cleaning stations on coral reefs for the removal of external parasites . The ray adopts a near @-@ stationary position close to the coral surface for several minutes while the cleaner fish consume the attached organisms . Such visits most frequently occur when the tide is high . In Hawaii , wrasses provide the cleaning ; some species feed around the manta 's mouth and gill slits while others address the rest of the body surface . In Mozambique , sergeant major fish clean the mouth while butterflyfishes concentrate on bite wounds . M. alfredi visits cleaning stations more often than M. birostris . Individual mantas may revisit the same cleaning station or feeding area repeatedly and appear to have cognitive maps of their environment .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Mantas are found in tropical and subtropical waters in all the world 's major oceans and also venture into temperate seas . The furthest from the equator they have been recorded is North Carolina in the United States ( 31ºN ) to the north , and the North Island of New Zealand ( 36ºS ) to the south . They prefer water temperatures above 68 ° F ( 20 ° C ) and M. alfredi is predominantly found in tropical areas . Both species are pelagic . M. birostris lives mostly in the open ocean , travelling with the currents and migrating to areas where upwellings of nutrient @-@ rich water increase prey concentrations .
Fish that have been fitted with radio transmitters have travelled as far as 1 @,@ 000 km ( 620 mi ) from where they were caught and descended to depths of at least 1 @,@ 000 m ( 3 @,@ 300 ft ) . M. alfredi is a more resident and coastal species . Seasonal migrations do occur , but they are shorter than those of M. birostris . Mantas are common around coasts from spring to fall , but travel further offshore during the winter . They keep close to the surface and in shallow water in daytime , while at night they swim at greater depths .
= = Conservation issues = =
= = = Threats = = =
The greatest threat to manta rays is overfishing . M. birostris is not evenly distributed over the oceans , but is concentrated in areas that provide the food resources it requires , while M. alfredi is even more localized . Their distributions are thus fragmented , with little evidence of intermingling of subpopulations . Because of their long lifespans and low reproductive rate , overfishing can severely reduce local populations with little likelihood that individuals from elsewhere will replace them .
Both commercial and artisanal fisheries have targeted mantas for their meat and products . They are typically caught with nets , trawls and harpoons . Mantas were once captured by fisheries in California and Australia for their liver oil and skin ; the latter were used as abrasives . Their flesh is edible and is consumed in some countries , but is unattractive compared to other fish . Demand for their gill rakers , the cartilaginous structures protecting the gills , has recently entered Chinese medicine . To fill the growing demand in Asia for gill rakers , targeted fisheries have developed in Philippines , Indonesia , Mozambique , Madagascar , India , Pakistan , Sri Lanka , Brazil and Tanzania . Each year , thousands of manta rays , primarily M. birostris , are caught and killed purely for their gill rakers . A fisheries study in Sri Lanka and India estimated that over 1000 were being sold in the country 's fish markets each year . By comparison , M. birostris populations at most of the key aggregation sites around the world are estimated to have significantly fewer than 1000 individuals . Targeted fisheries for manta rays in the Gulf of California , the west coast of Mexico , India , Sri Lanka , Indonesia , and the Philippines have reduced populations in these areas dramatically .
Manta rays are subject to other anthropogenic threats . Because mantas must swim constantly to flush oxygen @-@ rich water over their gills , they are vulnerable to entanglement and subsequent suffocation . Mantas cannot swim backwards and , because of their protruding cephalic fins , are prone to entanglement in fishing lines , nets , and even loose mooring lines . When snared , mantas often attempt to free themselves by somersaulting , tangling themselves further . Loose , trailing line can wrap around and cut its way into its flesh , resulting in irreversible injury . Similarly , mantas become entangled in gill nets designed for smaller fish . Some mantas are injured by collision with boats , especially in areas where they congregate and are easily observed . Other threats or factors that may affect manta numbers are climate change , tourism , pollution from oil spills , and the ingestion of microplastics .
= = = Status = = =
In 2011 , mantas became strictly protected in international waters because of their inclusion in the Convention on Migratory Species of Wild Animals . The CMS is an international treaty organization concerned with conserving migratory species and habitats on a global scale . Although individual nations were already protecting manta rays , the fish often migrate through unregulated waters , putting them at increased risk from overfishing . The IUCN declared M. birostris to be ' Vulnerable with an elevated risk of extinction ' in November 2011 .
In the same year , M. alfredi was also classified as ' Vulnerable ' with local populations of fewer than 1000 individuals and little or no interchange between subpopulations . The Manta Trust is a UK @-@ based charity dedicated to research and conservation efforts for manta rays . The organization 's website is also an information resource for manta conservation and biology .
Besides these international initiatives , some countries are taking their own actions . New Zealand has banned the taking of manta rays since the introduction of the Wildlife Act in 1953 . In June 1995 , the Maldives banned the export of all ray species and their body parts , effectively putting a stop to manta fishing as there had not previously been a fishery for local consumption . The government reinforced this in 2009 with the introduction of two marine protected areas . In the Philippines , the taking of mantas was banned in 1998 , but this was overturned in 1999 under pressure from local fishermen . Fish stocks were surveyed in 2002 , and the ban was reintroduced . The taking or killing of mantas in Mexican waters was prohibited in 2007 . This ban may not be strictly enforced , but laws are being more rigidly applied at Isla Holbox , an island off the Yucatán Peninsula , where manta rays are used to attract tourists .
In 2009 , Hawaii became the first of the United States to introduce a ban on the killing or capturing of manta rays . Previously , there was no fishery for mantas in the state , but migratory fish that pass the islands are now protected . In 2010 , Ecuador introduced a law prohibiting all fishing for manta and other rays , their retention as bycatch , and their sale .
= = Relation to humans = =
The ancient Peruvian Moche people worshipped the sea and its animals . Their art often depicts manta rays . Historically , mantas were feared for their size and power . Sailors believed that they ate fish and could sink boats by pulling on the anchors . This attitude changed around 1978 when divers around the Gulf of California found them to be placid and that they could interact with the animals . Several divers photographed themselves with mantas , including Jaws author Peter Benchley .
= = = Aquariums = = =
Due to their size , it is rare for mantas to be kept in captivity and few aquariums currently display them . One notable individual is " Nandi " , a manta ray which was accidentally caught in shark nets off Durban , South Africa , in 2007 . Rehabilitated and outgrowing her aquarium at uShaka Marine World , Nandi was moved to the larger Georgia Aquarium in August 2008 , where she resides in its 23 @,@ 848 @-@ m3 ( 6 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 @-@ US gal ) " Ocean Voyager " exhibit . A second manta ray joined that aquarium 's collection in September 2009 , and a third was added in 2010 .
The Atlantis resort on Paradise Island , Bahamas , hosted a manta named " Zeus " which was used as a research subject for three years until it was released in 2008 . The Okinawa Churaumi Aquarium also houses manta rays in the " Kuroshio Sea " tank , one of the largest aquarium tanks in the world . The first manta ray birth in captivity took place there in 2007 . Although this pup did not survive , the aquarium has since seen the birth of three more manta rays in 2008 , 2009 , and 2010 .
= = = Tourism = = =
Sites at which manta rays congregate attract tourists , and manta viewing generates substantial annual revenue for local communities . Tourist sites exist in the Bahamas , the Cayman Islands , Spain , the Fiji Islands , Thailand , Indonesia , Hawaii , Western Australia and the Maldives . Mantas are popular because of their enormous size and because they are easily habituated to humans . Scuba divers may get a chance to watch mantas visiting cleaning stations and night dives enable viewers to see mantas feeding on plankton attracted by the lights .
Ray tourism benefits locals and visitors by raising awareness of natural resource management and educating them about the animals . It can also provide funds for research and conservation . Constant unregulated interactions with tourists can negatively affect the fish by disrupting ecological relationships and increasing disease transmission . At Bora Bora , an excessive number of swimmers , boaters and jet skiers caused the local manta ray population to abandon the area .
In 2014 , Indonesia has brought in a fishing and export ban as it has realized that manta ray tourism is more economically beneficial than allowing the fish to be killed . A dead manta is worth $ 40 to $ 500 while manta ray tourism can bring in $ 1 million during the life of a single manta ray . Indonesia has 2 @.@ 2 million square miles of ocean and this is now the world 's largest sanctuary for manta rays .
= Cyclone Sose =
Tropical Cyclone Sose was a moderate storm system that chiefly impacted the island nation of Vanuatu in early April 2001 . The developing cyclone was first detected on April 3 , while situated well to the northeast of Vanuatu . As atmospheric conditions became more conducive to intensification , the disturbance gradually consolidated as it drifted toward the west @-@ southwest . After receiving the name Sose on April 5 , the cyclone was driven southeastward , passing just west of Espiritu Santo and neighboring islands . Although it never made landfall , Sose was particularly expansive , producing a wide area of gale @-@ force winds . The cyclone peaked in strength between April 7 and 8 with maximum 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) , placing it at Category 2 intensity on the Australian tropical cyclone intensity scale . Ultimately , stronger wind shear and an increasingly hostile upper @-@ air pattern took their toll on the cyclone as it progressed due south ; Sose lost tropical characteristics to the northeast of Norfolk Island by April 12 . The extratropical remnants of Sose continued into the Tasman Sea .
Occurring just two months after Cyclone Paula affected Vanuatu , Sose compounded the damage already done by the previous storm , especially to crops and farmlands . Throughout the island chain , two people lost their lives to the storm . Roadways were blocked by debris and floodwaters , while schools and classrooms on several islands were damaged or ruined . The storm destroyed about 200 homes around the nation and damaged many more , particularly on southern Espiritu Santo . The storm 's large fetch generated enormous swells as far away as Australia 's Eastern Seaboard , where surfers took advantage of the abnormally intense conditions and two swimmers drowned . On Maré Island in New Caledonia , a man was swept away by a large wave and presumed dead . The storm later produced torrential rainfall and strong winds over the North Island of New Zealand , sparking damaging freshwater floods and downing trees and power lines . Hazardous driving conditions in the Waikato region led to a fatal traffic accident in which three people died . Another individual drowned in a swollen river . Sose reportedly contributed to coastal flooding as far away as Tonga . In all , Sose killed nine people ; total monetary damage is unknown . As a result of the storm 's destruction , its name was later retired .
= = Meteorological history = =
Cyclone Sose originated in a broad area of disturbed weather first identified on April 3 , well to the east @-@ northeast of Vanuatu . The system initially drifted generally toward the west under an improving upper @-@ level wind shear pattern that began to catalyze favorable outflow . Late on October 4 , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert on the disturbance , noting strong banding features and a well @-@ defined low @-@ level center of circulation . Tropical Depression 13F formed at 1200 UTC next day as examined by the Fiji Meteorological Service ( FMS ) , the local Regional Specialized Meteorological Center . At the time , the new cyclone was situated about 140 km ( 87 mi ) to the northwest of Espiritu Santo . The JTWC 's official " best track " entry on the storm — designated 19P — first lists it as a tropical depression at 1800 UTC on April 4 , though operationally , the agency did not issue its first tropical cyclone warning until late on April 5 . The storm proceeded slowly westward and gradually continued to organize , its intensification hindered by residual wind shear and its proximity to the mountainous terrain of Espiritu Santo . However , convection over the center continued to develop , and consequently the FMS upgraded 13F to Tropical Cyclone Sose at 1800 UTC .
Sose remained nearly stationary for a period of 24 hours , blocked by a strong subtropical ridge to the south . Over the course of April 6 , an approaching mid @-@ level trough of low pressure created a weakness in the ridge , allowing Sose to accelerate southeastward . The storm 's environment steadily improved in both the lower and upper levels , triggering the consolidation of deep convection around the center . As a result , early on April 7 , a central dense overcast formed . According to the FMS , Sose reached its peak strength at 1800 UTC , with maximum 10 @-@ minute sustained winds of 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and a central barometric pressure of 975 hPa ( 28 @.@ 8 inHg ) . The cyclone passed just to the west of the islands of Vanuatu as its outer bands contracted around the well @-@ defined central dense overcast . A large feeder band persisted on the eastern side of the circulation , bridging the northwestern southeastern quadrants . The feature became a notable aspect of the cyclone 's satellite presentation . The JTWC estimated that 19P reached its peak intensity at 1200 UTC on April 8 , possessing 1 @-@ minute sustained winds of 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) and gusts up to 170 km / h ( 105 mph ) . The Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission imaged the storm shortly thereafter , and revealed a distinct eye about 44 km ( 27 mi ) across , bounded on the southern semicircle by strong convection activity .
Sose made its closest approach to New Caledonia early on April 8 , passing about 280 km ( 175 mi ) to the northeast . A strong area of high pressure over New Zealand served to tighten to surface pressure gradient well to the south of Sose 's center , contributing to an overall very large envelope of gale @-@ force winds . In turn , the cyclone affected numerous islands on both side of its path , despite never having made landfall . As it progressed on its southeastward track , the cyclone began to show signs of weakening , at least partially due to increasing wind shear from an approaching upper trough . At the same time , a mid @-@ level ridge to the east forced the storm to turn due south ; the conflicting wind patterns undermined the cyclone 's circulation , causing its center at the surface to separate from the deep convection . Both the FMS and the JTWC reflected steady weakening , and by early on April 10 , the center had become exposed and ill @-@ defined . Sose then entered the area of responsibility of the Tropical Cyclone Warning Center in Wellington , New Zealand , where it continued to deteriorate . The JTWC issued its last warning on 19P at 0600 UTC on April 11 , while the system was located about 335 km ( 210 mi ) northeast of Norfolk Island . TCWC Wellington soon downgraded Sose to a tropical depression as it underwent an extratropical transition . Drifting south @-@ southwestward , the cyclone lost its tropical identity early on April 12 . The remnant low ultimately moved over the Tasman Sea , where it was absorbed by a broad low pressure system about to travel over New Zealand 's North Island . Abundant residual tropical moisture acted on the low pressure environment to create widespread precipitation across northern New Zealand .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
Prior to the storm 's passage of New Caledonia , residents there were advised to take basic precautions , such as remaining indoors during bouts of inclement weather . Storm warnings were hoisted over the Loyalty Islands and South Province . Vanuatu 's Department of Meteorology began posting official alerts on April 7 . Warnings for heavy rains and strong winds were posted throughout northern New Zealand in anticipation of the storm 's remnants . With Easter weekend , more motorists were already expected to be traveling longer distances , and officials grew concerned of dangerous effects on traffic from the cyclone . Police increased their presence to unprecedented levels in an attempt to control speeding and other hazardous behaviors .
Due to the storm 's " negative impact on one or more countries " , Sose was retired from the cyclical list of tropical cyclone names ; it was replaced with Sarai .
= = = Vanuatu = = =
Sose predominately affected the western islands of Vanuatu , starting from the north . Most severely impacted were the islands of Espiritu Santo , Malakula , Aoba , Efate , Erromango , Tanna , Aneityum , and the Shepherd Islands . In several locations , Sose compounded or worsened the destruction wrought by Cyclone Paula in late February and early March . The storm produced significant precipitation , heavy seas , and sustained winds exceeding 100 km / h ( 60 mph ) .
A resident of Malakula was struck and killed by a falling coconut while seeking shelter from the worsening conditions . Agriculture on nearby Ahamb Island , already impaired by Paula , was further compromised ; all crops , both those remaining after Paula and those planted in the intervening time , were destroyed . Four classrooms on the small island were also damaged beyond use . Buildings on Aoba incurred appreciable damage , while on Efate , the storm brought down utility poles , severely damaged local schools , and left roads covered with debris and floodwaters . Flooding in the nation 's capital city of Port Vila forced 50 residents to leave their homes in search of higher ground . Espiritu Santo , particularly the island 's south shore around Luganville , bore the brunt of Cyclone Sose . Several types of crops ( also weakened by Paula ) took a heavy beating , and 60 people had to evacuate due to encroaching floods . In total , the storm demolished 59 houses on the island and in some way damaged another 101 . A young child drowned after being swept away while attempting to cross a swollen waterway . Just offshore , the M / V Omale succumbed to the heavy seas ; all 16 of its occupants successfully swam four hours to shore .
Overall , the Vanuatu National Disaster Management Office estimated at least 50 % each of food crops and buildings in the hardest @-@ hit provinces were left in a state of damage . The United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs considered about 200 residences throughout the island nation " lost " to the storm . The National Disaster Committee met on April 9 to discuss potential emergency aid for residents of the areas hardest hit by cyclones Sose and Paula . Around the same time , the Vanuatu Red Cross stated that it would distribute supplies such as materials for makeshift shelters and water purification tablets . The Red Cross was also to provide 500 bags of rice to villages in the Shepherd Islands . Political unrest on a national level limited the government 's attention to initial recovery ; it did not immediate declare a state of emergency or file any requests for international aid .
= = = New Zealand and Australia = = =
The remnants of Cyclone Sose were a significant factor in stormy weather over the North Island of New Zealand between April 12 and April 14 . Numerous locations received 10 to 20 cm ( 3 @.@ 9 to 7 @.@ 9 in ) of rainfall , and 23 @.@ 0 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) of precipitation fell at Glenbervie , Northland region , in just seven hours . The heavy rainfall rates caused " significant " flooding of low @-@ lying roads and farmlands in the region . Floodwaters inundated the township of Kaeo and entered several local businesses . The swollen Kaeo River temporarily rendered New Zealand State Highway 10 impassable to most vehicles at a bridge over the waterway . A hospital became isolated from the rest of the town . Further to the west , State Highway 1 was blocked by flooding at Rangiahua , as was State Highway 2 between Te Puke and Te Maunga Junction . At the former , the rains triggered a landslide and polluted the local supply of drinking water . Several residences throughout the region sustained damage . A 22 @-@ year @-@ old man drowned in high waters along the Wairoa River . Rising waters from the Kerikeri River threatened to affect the Mission House , the nation 's oldest surviving building , where staff were on standby to relocate furnishings if necessary .
A severe traffic accident occurred on State Highway 28 at Tapapa , Waikato , on the morning of April 13 . The head @-@ on collision was attributed to slick roads resulting from the storm . Three individuals were killed and two more were hospitalized . Several other accidents were reported around the same time . In addition to the rainfall , strong winds brought down trees and utility poles across the island and as far south as Marlborough on the South Island . There , the strong winds fanned a large fire ignited by sparks from downed power lines . The fire covered more than 70 hectares ( 175 acres ) of land and prompted several families to evacuate their homes . Three people were injured at Ohakune after a temporary tent collapsed at a local festival . Along the coast , swells triggered by Sose reached 3 @.@ 5 m ( 11 ft ) in height .
The tight pressure gradient between Cyclone Sose and the ridge to its south generated extremely rough seas along the eastern coast of Australia , especially Queensland . Along the state 's southern shore , normally protected from strong swells , waves were as high as 8 m ( 26 ft ) and frequently between 4 – 5 m ( 13 – 16 ft ) . A 53 @-@ year @-@ old man and his 9 @-@ year @-@ old son both drowned in the heavy surf near Gladstone on April 8 . Offshore Kingscliff , New South Wales , a yacht capsized , forcing its two occupants to swim to land . The large swells proved popular with experienced surfers looking for a challenge . Although the event became infamous within local surfing circles , at least one surfer was hospitalized after being swept against rocks , and several others required rescue . Some beach erosion was reported in several locations , leading to minor sandbagging efforts to hamper the erosion .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
A large wave breaking on the cliffs of Maré Island in New Caledonia swept away a spectator , who was presumed dead after the rough conditions delayed searching efforts . The storm disrupted classes and school activities in parts of the archipelago , but little to no damage was reported .
The distant cyclone sent large swells toward Tonga and Samoa , coinciding with high astronomical tides . Coastal flooding on low @-@ lying islands of Tonga reportedly destroyed houses and crops .
= New York State Route 410 =
New York State Route 410 ( NY 410 ) is a 4 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) east – west state highway in Lewis County , New York , in the United States . It serves as a connector between NY 26 , NY 126 , and the village of Castorland midway between the two highways . The route begins at an intersection with NY 26 in the town of Denmark and heads northeast through Castorland and across the Black River to a junction with NY 126 in the town of Croghan . Most of the route passes through open , rural areas , save for the section within Castorland . NY 410 was assigned as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York even though the road had yet to be improved to state highway standards . Work on rebuilding the road was delayed by the state for years , leading the Kiwanis Club of Lowville to pressure the state to reconstruct the highway . The route was finally brought up to state highway standards in the latter part of the 1930s .
= = Route description = =
NY 410 begins at a rural intersection with NY 26 in the town of Denmark . The two @-@ lane route heads eastward from the junction , winding to the north and south across open , rolling terrain with several cultivated fields . After 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) , the highway meets County Route 19 ( CR 19 , named East Road ) and turns to the northeast toward the village of Castorland . The open fields gradually give way to homes as NY 410 enters the village limits as Main Street . The route passes through the center of the village , serving four lightly developed residential blocks before crossing the Mohawk , Adirondack and Northern Railroad at the northeastern edge of the community . At the rail crossing , the highway passes south of what was once the New York Central Railroad 's Castorland passenger station .
Outside of Castorland , the road runs across a half @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) stretch of undeveloped land prior to crossing the Black River , which serves as the boundary between the towns of Denmark and Croghan . On the opposite riverbank , NY 410 continues across another open stretch to reach the small hamlet of Naumburg . Here , the route passes a handful of homes and intersects the north end of CR 33 ( Van Amber Road ) before ending at an intersection with NY 126 on the northeastern fringe of the hamlet . While NY 410 terminates at this junction , its right @-@ of @-@ way continues past NY 126 as Cross Road , a local highway connecting Naumburg to CR 8 ( Second Road ) .
= = History = =
In 1925 , the state of New York approved plans to establish a state highway between Kitts Corners — a point just south of the modern junction of NY 26 and NY 410 — and Naumburg . The existing road between the two points via Castorland was designated as NY 410 as part of the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York ; however , it remained an unimproved , locally maintained highway through the mid @-@ 1930s . In early 1934 , the Kiwanis Club of nearby Lowville began to petition the state to follow through on its plans to rebuild the road as the organization considered the proposed Kitts Corners – Naumburg state highway to be " of the greatest importance to the business interests of the villages of Beaver Falls , Castorland , and Lowville " .
The Lowville Kiwanis Club took action again in early 1935 , sending a representative to a hearing in Lake Placid to meet with State Senator George R. Fearon , the chairman of a committee tasked with developing a long @-@ term plan for state highway construction in New York . At the meeting , Kiwanis member Arthur W. Mattson noted that the village of Castorland had paved every street in the village limits save for Main Street , which was left as a dirt road due to the state 's long @-@ standing intention to take it over and rebuild it . In October 1935 , the state unveiled plans to reconstruct the portion of NY 410 leading west from the center of Castorland as a concrete road . The survey and design work for the segment was already complete , which would allow construction to begin in 1936 if funding was made available by that time .
Work on the project was finally underway by July 1936 . While most of the existing road west of Castorland was improved in place , the westernmost part ( now known as Haser Road ) was bypassed in favor of a new alignment to the north . The change in NY 410 's course took the highway around a steep grade that existed along the original route at Kitts Corners . The scope of the project ended at the New York Central Railroad tracks in Castorland as the part of NY 410 leading to Naumburg had been contracted out as part of a different project , which had already been completed by this time . The reconstruction of the rest of NY 410 was finished in the late 1930s . The original bridge carrying NY 410 over the Black River was replaced with a 640 @-@ foot ( 195 m ) structure in 1955 . It was reconstructed nine years later .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Lewis County .
= C @-@ SPAN =
C @-@ SPAN ( / ˈsiːspæn / ) , an acronym for Cable @-@ Satellite Public Affairs Network , is an American cable and satellite television network that was created in 1979 by the cable television industry as a public service . C @-@ SPAN televises many proceedings of the United States federal government , as well as other public affairs programming . The C @-@ SPAN network includes three television channels ( C @-@ SPAN , C @-@ SPAN2 and C @-@ SPAN3 ) , one radio station ( WCSP @-@ FM ) and a group of websites that provide streaming media and archives of C @-@ SPAN programs . C @-@ SPAN 's television channels are available to approximately 100 million cable and satellite households within the United States , while WCSP @-@ FM , also called C @-@ SPAN Radio , is broadcast on FM radio in Washington , D.C. , and is available throughout the U.S. on XM Satellite Radio , via Internet streaming , and through apps for iOS , BlackBerry and Android devices .
The network televises U.S. political events , particularly live and " gavel @-@ to @-@ gavel " coverage of the U.S. Congress as well as occasional proceedings of the Canadian , Australian and British Parliaments and major events worldwide . Its coverage of political and policy events is unedited , thereby providing viewers ( or listeners ) with unfiltered information about politics and government . Non @-@ political coverage includes historical programming , programs dedicated to non @-@ fiction books , and interview programs with noteworthy individuals associated with public policy . C @-@ SPAN is a private , nonprofit organization , funded by a 6 ¢ per subscriber affiliate fee paid by its cable and satellite affiliates , and does not have advertisements on any of its networks , radio stations , or websites , nor does it ever solicit donations or pledges . The network operates independently , and neither the cable industry nor Congress has control of the content of its programming .
= = History = =
= = = Development = = =
Brian Lamb , C @-@ SPAN 's chairman and former chief executive officer , first conceived the concept of C @-@ SPAN in 1975 while working as the Washington , D.C. bureau chief of the cable industry trade magazine Cablevision . It was a time of rapid growth in the number of cable television channels available in the United States , and Lamb envisioned a cable @-@ industry financed nonprofit network for televising sessions of the U.S. Congress and other public affairs event and policy discussions . Lamb shared his idea with several cable executives , who helped him launch the network . Among them were Bob Rosencrans who provided $ 25 @,@ 000 of initial funding in 1979 and John D. Evans who provided the wiring and access to the headend needed for the distribution of the C @-@ SPAN signal .
C @-@ SPAN was launched on March 19 , 1979 , in time for the first televised session made available by the House of Representatives , beginning with a speech by then @-@ Tennessee representative Al Gore . Upon its debut , only 3 @.@ 5 million homes were wired for C @-@ SPAN , and the network had just three employees . The second C @-@ SPAN channel , C @-@ SPAN2 , followed on June 2 , 1986 when the U.S. Senate permitted itself to be televised . C @-@ SPAN3 , the most recent expansion channel , began full @-@ time operations on January 22 , 2001 , and shows other public policy and government @-@ related live events on weekdays along with weekend historical programming . C @-@ SPAN3 is the successor of a digital channel called C @-@ SPAN Extra , which was launched in the Washington D.C. area in 1997 , and televised live and recorded political events from 9 : 00 a.m. to 6 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time Monday through Friday .
C @-@ SPAN Radio began operations on October 9 , 1997 , covering similar events as the television networks and often simulcasting their programming . The station broadcasts on WCSP ( 90 @.@ 1 FM ) in Washington , D.C. , is also available on XM Satellite Radio channel 120 and is streamed live at c @-@ span.org. It was formerly available on Sirius Satellite Radio from 2002 to 2006 .
Lamb semi @-@ retired in March 2012 , coinciding with the channel 's 33rd anniversary , and gave executive control of the network to his two lieutenants , Rob Kennedy and Susan Swain .
= = = Anniversaries = = =
C @-@ SPAN celebrated its 10th anniversary in 1989 with a three @-@ hour retrospective , featuring Lamb recalling the development of the network . The 15th anniversary was commemorated in an unconventional manner as the network facilitated a series of re @-@ enactments of the seven historic Lincoln @-@ Douglas debates of 1858 , which were televised from August to October 1994 , and have been rebroadcast from time to time ever since . Five years later , the series American Presidents : Life Portraits , which won a Peabody Award , served as a year @-@ long observation of C @-@ SPAN 's 20th anniversary .
In 2004 , C @-@ SPAN celebrated its 25th anniversary , by which time the flagship network was viewed in 86 million homes , C @-@ SPAN2 was in 70 million homes and C @-@ SPAN3 was in eight million homes . On the anniversary date , C @-@ SPAN repeated the first televised hour of floor debate in the House of Representatives from 1979 and , throughout the month , 25th anniversary features included " then and now " segments with journalists who had appeared on C @-@ SPAN during its early years . Also included in the 25th anniversary was an essay contest for viewers to write in about how C @-@ SPAN has influenced their life regarding community service . For example , one essay contest winner wrote about how C @-@ SPAN 's non @-@ fiction book programming serves as a resource in his charitable mission to record non @-@ fiction audio books for people who are blind .
To commemorate 25 years of taking viewer telephone calls , in 2005 , C @-@ SPAN had a 25 @-@ hour " call @-@ in marathon " , from 8 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time on Friday , October 7 , concluding at 9 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time on Saturday , October 8 . The network also had a viewer essay contest , the winner of which was invited to host an hour of the broadcast from C @-@ SPAN 's Capitol Hill studios .
= = = Scope and limitations of coverage = = =
C @-@ SPAN continues to expand its coverage of government proceedings , with a history of requests to government officials for greater access , especially to the U.S. Supreme Court . In December 2009 , Lamb wrote to leaders in the House and Senate , requesting that negotiations for health care reform be televised by C @-@ SPAN . Committee meetings on health care were broadcast subsequently by C @-@ SPAN and may be viewed on the C @-@ SPAN website . In November 2010 , Lamb wrote to incoming House Speaker John Boehner requesting changes to restrictions on cameras in the House . In particular , C @-@ SPAN asked to add some of its own robotically operated cameras to the existing government @-@ controlled cameras in the House chamber . In February 2011 , Boehner denied the request . A previous request to Speaker Designate Nancy Pelosi in 2006 , to add C @-@ SPAN 's cameras in the House chamber to record floor proceedings , was also denied . Although C @-@ SPAN uses the congressional chamber feed cables , the cameras are owned and controlled by each respective body of Congress . Requests by C @-@ SPAN for camera access to non @-@ government events such as the annual dinner by the Gridiron Club have also been denied .
On June 22 and into June 23 , 2016 , C @-@ SPAN took video footage of the House floor from individual House representatives via streaming services Periscope and Facebook Live during a sit @-@ in by House Democrats asking for a vote on gun control measures after the 2016 Orlando nightclub shooting . This needed to be done because — as the sit @-@ in was done out of formal session and while the House was in official recess — the existing House cameras could not be utilized for coverage of the event by rule . Although the use of electronic devices to create the Periscope feeds by House Democrats violated House rules that prohibit their use on the floor , C @-@ SPAN did not state why it chose to broadcast those feeds . The network ran disclaimers on @-@ air and on their official social media feeds noting the restrictions .
= = = Expansion and technology = = =
Since the late 1990s , C @-@ SPAN has significantly expanded its online presence . In January 1997 , C @-@ SPAN began real @-@ time streaming of C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 on its website , the first time that Congress had been live streamed online . To cover the Democratic and Republican conventions and the presidential debates of 2008 , C @-@ SPAN created two standalone websites : the Convention Hub and the Debate Hub . In addition to real @-@ time streams of C @-@ SPAN 's television networks online , c @-@ span.org features further live programming such as committee hearings and speeches that are broadcast later in the day , after the House and Senate have left .
C @-@ SPAN began promoting audience interaction early in its history , by the regular incorporation of viewer telephone calls in its programming . It has since expanded into social media . In March 2009 , viewers began submitting questions live via Twitter to guests on C @-@ SPAN 's morning call @-@ in show Washington Journal . The network also has a Facebook page to which it added occasional live streaming in January 2011 . The live stream is intended to show selected well @-@ publicized events of Congress . In June 2010 , C @-@ SPAN joined with the website Foursquare to provide users of the application with access to geotagged C @-@ SPAN content at various locations in Washington , D.C.
In 2010 , C @-@ SPAN began a transition to high definition telecasts , planned to take place over an 18 @-@ month period . The network provided C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 in high definition on June 1 , 2010 , and C @-@ SPAN3 in July 2010 .
= = Programming = =
= = = Senate and House of Representatives = = =
The C @-@ SPAN network 's core programming is live coverage of the U.S. House and Senate , with the C @-@ SPAN channel emphasizing the United States House of Representatives . Between 1979 and May 2011 , the network televised more than 24 @,@ 246 hours of floor action . C @-@ SPAN2 , the first of the C @-@ SPAN spin @-@ off networks , provides uninterrupted live coverage of the United States Senate . With coverage of the House and Senate , viewers can track legislation as it moves through both bodies of Congress . Important debates in Congress that C @-@ SPAN has covered live include the Persian Gulf conflict during 1991 , and the House impeachment vote and Senate trial of President Bill Clinton in 1998 and 1999 . When the House or Senate are not in session , C @-@ SPAN channels broadcast other public affairs programming .
= = = Public affairs = = =
The public affairs coverage on the C @-@ SPAN networks other than the House and Senate floor debates is wide @-@ ranging . C @-@ SPAN is considered a useful source of information for journalists , lobbyists , educators and government officials as well as casual viewers interested in politics , due to its unedited coverage of political events . C @-@ SPAN has been described by media observers as a " window into the world of Washington politics " and it characterizes its own mission as being " to provide public access to the political process " . The networks cover U.S. political campaigns , including the Republican , Democratic , and Libertarian presidential nominating conventions in their entirety . Coverage of presidential campaign events are provided during the duration of the campaign , both by a weekly television program , Road to the White House , and at its dedicated politics website . C @-@ SPAN also covers midterm elections .
All three channels televise events such as congressional hearings , White House press briefings and presidential speeches , as well as other government meetings including Federal Communications Commission hearings and Pentagon press conferences . Other U.S. political coverage includes State of the Union speeches , and presidential press conferences . According to the results of a survey after the 1992 presidential election , 85 % of C @-@ SPAN viewers voted in that election . The results of a similar survey in 2013 found that 89 % of C @-@ SPAN viewers voted in the 2012 presidential election . In addition to this political coverage , the network broadcasts press conferences and meetings of various news media and nonprofit organizations , including those at the National Press Club , public policy seminars and the White House Correspondents ' Dinner . While C @-@ SPAN does not have video access to the Supreme Court , the network has used the Court 's audio recordings accompanied by still photographs of the justices and lawyers to cover the Court in session on significant cases , and has covered individual Supreme Court justices ' speaking engagements .
Occasionally , proceedings of the Parliament of Australia , Parliament of Canada , Parliament of the United Kingdom ( usually Prime Minister 's Questions and the State Opening of Parliament ) and other governments are shown on C @-@ SPAN when they discuss matters of importance to viewers in the U.S. Similarly , the networks will sometimes broadcast news reports from around the world when major events occur – for instance , C @-@ SPAN broadcast CBC Television coverage of the September 11 attacks . C @-@ SPAN also covers lying in state in the Capitol Rotunda and funerals of former presidents and other notable individuals . In 2005 , C @-@ SPAN covered Hurricane Katrina through NBC affiliate WDSU in New Orleans , as well as coverage of Hurricane Ike via CBS affiliate KHOU in Houston . C @-@ SPAN also carries CBC coverage during events that affect Canadians , such as the Canadian federal elections , the death and state funeral of Pierre Trudeau , and the 2003 North America blackout . During early 2011 , C @-@ SPAN carried broadcasts by Al Jazeera to cover the events in Egypt , Tunisia , and other Arab nations . Additionally , C @-@ SPAN simulcasts NASA Space Shuttle mission launches and landings live , using video footage and audio sourced from NASA TV .
With its public affairs programming , C @-@ SPAN intends to offer different points of view , by allowing time for multiple opinions to be discussed on a given topic . For example , in 2004 C @-@ SPAN intended to televise a speech by Holocaust historian Deborah Lipstadt adjacent to a speech by Holocaust denier David Irving , who had unsuccessfully sued Lipstadt for libel in the United Kingdom four years earlier ; C @-@ SPAN was criticized for its use of the word " balance " to describe the plan to cover both Lipstadt and Irving . When Lipstadt ended media access to her speech , C @-@ SPAN canceled coverage of both .
The network strives for neutrality and a lack of bias ; in all programming when on @-@ camera hosts are present their role is simply to facilitate and explain proceedings to the viewer . Due to this policy , no C @-@ SPAN host has said his or her own name on television .
= = = C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 flagship programs = = =
While many hours of programming on C @-@ SPAN are dedicated to coverage of the House , the network 's daily programming begins with the political telephone call @-@ in and interview program Washington Journal every morning from 7 : 00 to 10 : 00 a.m. Eastern Time . Washington Journal premiered on January 4 , 1995 and has been broadcast every weekday morning since then , with guests including elected officials , government administrators , and journalists . The program covers current events , with guests answering questions on topics provided by the hosts as well as from members of the general public . On the weekend schedule , C @-@ SPAN 's main programs are : America and the Courts , which is shown each Saturday at 7 : 00 p.m. Eastern Time , Newsmakers , a Sunday morning interview program with newsworthy guests ; Q & A , a Sunday evening interview program hosted by Brian Lamb , with guests including journalists , politicians , authors , and other public figures ; and The Communicators , which features interviews with journalists , government officials , and businesspeople involved with the communications industry and related legislation .
On weekends C @-@ SPAN2 dedicates its schedule to Book TV , which is 48 hours of programming about non @-@ fiction books , book events , and authors . Book TV was first launched in September 1998 . Booknotes was originally broadcast from 1989 to 2004 , as a one @-@ hour one @-@ on @-@ one interview of a non @-@ fiction author . Repeats of the interviews remain a regular part of the Book TV schedule with the title Encore Booknotes . Other Book TV programs feature political and historical books and biographies of public figures . These include In Depth , a live , monthly , three @-@ hour interview with a single author , and After Words , an author interview program featuring guest hosts interviewing authors on topics with which both are familiar . After Words was developed as a new type of author interview program after the end of production of Booknotes . Weekend programming on Book TV also includes coverage of book events such as panel discussions , book fairs , book signings , readings by authors and tours of bookstores around the U.S.
= = = C @-@ SPAN3 = = =
The programming on C @-@ SPAN3 from Monday through Friday features uninterrupted live public affairs events , in particular political events from Washington , D.C. Each weekend since January 8 , 2011 , the network has broadcast 48 hours of programming dedicated to the history of the United States , under the umbrella title American History TV . The programming covers the history of the U.S. from the founding of the nation through the late 20th century . Programs include American Artifacts , which is dedicated to exploring museums , archives and historical sites , and Lectures in History , featuring major university history professors giving lectures on U.S. history . In 2009 , C @-@ SPAN3 aired an eight @-@ installment series of interviews from the Robert J. Dole Institute of Politics at the University of Kansas , which featured historian Richard Norton Smith and Vice President Walter Mondale , among other interviewees .
= = = Special programming = = =
C @-@ SPAN has occasionally produced spinoff programs from Booknotes focusing on specific topics . In 1994 , Booknotes collaborated with Lincoln scholar Harold Holzer to produce re @-@ creations of the seven Lincoln – Douglas debates . Several years later , a similar series retraced the journey of Alexis de Tocqueville described in Democracy in America . Another special series was American Writers , a 38 @-@ week tour of the U.S. based on the works of 40 famous American writers .
During 2008 and 2009 , as part of programming specially commissioned for the 200th anniversary of the birth of Abraham Lincoln , C @-@ SPAN produced a series titled Lincoln 200 Years , which featured episodes on a variety of topics relating to the life of Lincoln including his career , his homes and his opinions of slavery .
The network has also produced special feature documentaries of American institutions and historical landmarks , exploring their history to the present day . These programs include : The Capitol emphasizing the history , art , and architecture of the U.S. Capitol Building ; The White House , featuring film footage inside the White House and exploring the history of the building and its occupants ; The Supreme Court , focusing on the history and personalities of the court ; and Inside Blair House , an examination of the president 's guest house .
In 2013 , C @-@ SPAN introduced a new program , First Ladies : Influence & Image . 35 episodes profiling the First Ladies are planned for the series , which was created with support from the White House Historical Association .
= = = Radio broadcasts = = =
In addition to the three television networks , C @-@ SPAN also broadcasts via C @-@ SPAN Radio , which is carried on their owned @-@ and @-@ operated station WCSP ( 90 @.@ 1 FM ) in the Washington , D.C. area with all three cable network feeds airing via HD Radio subchannels , and nationwide on XM Satellite Radio . Its programming is also livestreamed at c @-@ span.org and is available via apps for iPhone , BlackBerry and Android devices . C @-@ SPAN Radio has a selective policy regarding its broadcast content , rather than duplicating the television network programming , although it does offer some audio simulcasts of programs such as Washington Journal . Unique programming on the radio station includes oral histories , and some committee meetings and press conferences not shown on television due to programming commitments . The station also compiles the Sunday morning talk shows for a same @-@ day rebroadcast without commercials , in rapid succession .
= = = Availability online = = =
C @-@ SPAN archival video is available through the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , maintained at the Purdue Research Park in West Lafayette , Indiana . First unveiled in August 2007 , the C @-@ SPAN Video Library contains all of the network 's programming since 1987 , totaling more than 160 @,@ 000 hours at its completion of digitization and public debut in March 2010 . Older C @-@ SPAN programming continues to be added to the library , dating back to the beginning of the network in 1979 , and some limited earlier footage from the National Archives , such as film clips of Richard Nixon 's 1972 trip to China , is available as well . Most of the recordings before 1987 ( when the C @-@ SPAN Archive was established ) were not saved , except for approximately 10 @,@ 000 hours of video which are slated to be made available online . As of June 2013 , the C @-@ SPAN Video Library held approximately 200 @,@ 000 hours of programming . Described by media commentators as a major educational service and a valuable resource for researchers of politics and history , the C @-@ SPAN Video Library has also had a major role in media and opposition research in several U.S. political campaigns . It won a Peabody Award in 2010 " for creating an enduring archive of the history of American policymaking , and for providing it as a free , user @-@ friendly public service . "
Prior to the initiation of the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , websites such as Metavid and voterwatch.org hosted House and Senate video records , however C @-@ SPAN contested Metavid 's usage of C @-@ SPAN copyrighted footage . The result was Metavid 's removal of portions of the archive produced with C @-@ SPAN 's cameras , while preserving its archive of government @-@ produced content . C @-@ SPAN also engaged in actions to stop parties from making unauthorized uses of its content online , including its video of House and Senate proceedings . Most notably , in May 2006 , C @-@ SPAN requested the removal of Stephen Colbert 's performance at the White House Correspondents ' Association Dinner from YouTube . After concerns by some webloggers , C @-@ SPAN gave permission for Google Video to host the full event . On March 7 , 2007 C @-@ SPAN liberalized its copyright policy for current , future , and past coverage of any official events sponsored by Congress and any federal agency and now allows for attributed non @-@ commercial copying , sharing , and posting of C @-@ SPAN video on the Internet , excluding re @-@ syndication of live video streams . The new policy did not affect the public 's right to use the public domain video coverage of the floor proceedings of the U.S. House and Senate .
In 2008 , C @-@ SPAN 's online political coverage was expanded just prior to the elections , with the introduction of three special pages on the C @-@ SPAN website : the C @-@ SPAN Convention Hubs and C @-@ SPAN Debate Hub , which offered video of major events as well as discussion from weblogs and social media about the major party conventions and candidate debates . C @-@ SPAN brought back the Convention Hub for the 2012 presidential election .
In addition to the programming available in the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , all C @-@ SPAN programming is available as a live feed streamed on its website in Flash Video format .
On July 29 , 2014 , C @-@ SPAN announced that it would begin restricting access to the live feeds of the main channel , C @-@ SPAN2 and C @-@ SPAN3 to subscribers of cable or satellite providers later that summer , citing concerns with the slow shift in viewing habits from cable television to the internet due to its reliance on carriage fees from cable and satellite providers . However , it will continue to allow all government meetings , hearings and conferences to be streamed live online and via archived on the C @-@ SPAN Video Library without requiring an authenticated login by a provider . The decision drew some criticism from public interest and government transparency advocates , citing the fact that C @-@ SPAN was designed as a public service .
= = Organization and operations = =
C @-@ SPAN is operated by the National Cable Satellite Corporation , a nonprofit organization , the board of directors of which consists primarily of representatives of the largest cable companies . Early chairmen of C @-@ SPAN include Bob Rosencrans , John Saeman , Ed Allen and Gene Schneider . Funding for C @-@ SPAN does not derive from advertising ; instead , it receives nearly all of its funding from subscriber fees charged to cable and direct @-@ broadcast satellite ( DBS ) operators .
As of 2012 , C @-@ SPAN received 6 ¢ of each subscriber 's cable bill for an annual budget of $ 60 million . As the network is an independent entity , neither the cable industry nor Congress controls the content of its programming .
As of January 2013 , the network has 282 employees . C @-@ SPAN is led by co @-@ CEOs Rob Kennedy and Susan Swain . Founder and former CEO Brian Lamb serves as the executive chairman of the board of directors . The majority of C @-@ SPAN 's employees are based at C @-@ SPAN 's headquarters located on Capitol Hill in Washington , D.C. , however in 2003 television studios were opened in New York and Denver , Colorado . These studios use digital equipment that can be controlled from Washington .
C @-@ SPAN also maintains archives in West Lafayette , Indiana at the Purdue Research Park under the direction of Dr. Robert X. Browning .
= = Audience = =
The C @-@ SPAN networks are available in more than 100 million households as of 2010 , not including access to the C @-@ SPAN websites . More than 7 @,@ 000 telephone callers have participated with discussion on Washington Journal as of March 18 , 2009 . There are not any official viewing statistics for C @-@ SPAN because the network , which has no commercials or underwriting advertisements , does not use the Nielsen ratings . However , there have been a number of surveys providing estimates :
A 1994 survey found that 8 @.@ 6 % of the U.S. population regularly watched C @-@ SPAN .
In 2004 this figure increased to 12 % of the U.S. population , according to a Pew Research Center survey , while 31 % of the population was categorized as occasional viewers . More than 28 million people said they watched C @-@ SPAN programming each week .
A March 2009 Hart Research survey found that 20 % of homes with cable television watch C @-@ SPAN at least once a week , for an estimated 39 million Americans .
A 2010 poll conducted by C @-@ SPAN and Penn Schoen Berland estimates that 79 million adults in the U.S. watched C @-@ SPAN at some time from 2009 to 2010 .
In January 2013 , Hart Research conducted another survey which showed that 47 million adults , or 24 % of adults with access to cable television , watch C @-@ SPAN weekly . Of the 47 million regular C @-@ SPAN viewers , 51 % are male and 49 % female ; 26 % are liberal , 31 % conservative , and 39 % moderate . About half are college graduates . 28 % of 18 @-@ to @-@ 49 @-@ year @-@ olds report watching at least once a week , as do 19 % of 50- to 64 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 22 % of those over age 65 .
= = Public and media opinion = =
A 2009 C @-@ SPAN survey of viewers found that the network 's most @-@ valued attribute was its balanced programming . The survey 's respondents were a mixed group , with 31 % describing themselves as " liberal , " while 28 % described themselves as " conservative " , and the survey found that C @-@ SPAN viewers are an equal mixture of men and women of all age groups .
C @-@ SPAN 's public service nature has been praised as an enduring contribution to national knowledge . In 1987 , Andrew Rosenthal wrote for The New York Times about C @-@ SPAN 's influence in political elections , arguing that C @-@ SPAN 's " blanket coverage " had expanded television journalism " into areas once shielded from general view " . The network has received positive media coverage for providing public access to proceedings such as the Goldman Sachs Senate hearings , and the U.S. 2010 Healthcare Summit , while its everyday programming has been credited with providing the media and the general public with an intimate knowledge of U.S. political proceedings and people . The ability of C @-@ SPAN to provide this service without federal funding , advertising or soliciting viewer contributions has been remarked by local newspapers and online news services , with the Daily Beast terming C @-@ SPAN 's $ 55 million annual budget ( in 2009 ) , " an astounding bargain . " In an article on the 25th anniversary of the network , The Washington Post noted that C @-@ SPAN 's programming has been copied by television networks worldwide and credits the network with providing information about foreign politics to American viewers . According to The New York Times , C @-@ SPAN 's mission to record official events in Washington , D.C. makes it " one of a kind " , particularly in the creation of the C @-@ SPAN Video Library , which received significant press coverage .
Despite its stated commitment to providing politically balanced programming , C @-@ SPAN and its shows such as Washington Journal , Booknotes , Q & A , and After Words have been accused by some liberal organizations of having a conservative bias . In 2005 , the media criticism organization Fairness and Accuracy in Reporting ( FAIR ) released a study of C @-@ SPAN 's morning telephone call @-@ in show Washington Journal , showing that Republicans were favored as guests over Democrats by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin during a six @-@ month period that year , and that people of color are underrepresented . A 2007 survey released by the Center for Economic and Policy Research reported that C @-@ SPAN covered conservative think tanks more than left @-@ of @-@ center think tanks .
= = Must @-@ carry = =
In 1992 , Congress passed must @-@ carry regulations , which required cable carriers to allocate spectrum to local broadcasters . This affected the availability of C @-@ SPAN in some areas , in particular C @-@ SPAN2 , as some providers chose to discontinue carriage of the channel altogether . Between 1993 and 1994 , cable systems in 95 U.S. cities dropped or reduced broadcasts of C @-@ SPAN and C @-@ SPAN2 , following the implementation of the must @-@ carry regulations . Viewers protested these decisions , especially when the changes coincided with matters of local interest occurring in the House or Senate . Some communities , such as Eugene , Oregon and Alexandria , Virginia , were successful in restoring C @-@ SPAN availability . C @-@ SPAN availability was later restored as technological developments that resulted in the expansion of channel capacity on cable providers allowed for mandatory stations and the C @-@ SPAN networks both to be broadcast .
= = Other services = =
C @-@ SPAN offers a number of public services related to the network 's public affairs programming . C @-@ SPAN Classroom , a free membership service for teachers , began in July 1987 and offers help using C @-@ SPAN resources for classes or research . The C @-@ SPAN School Bus , introduced In November 1993 , traveled around the U.S. educating the public about government and politics using C @-@ SPAN resources , and served as a mobile television studio . The bus also recorded video footage of the places that it visited . A second bus was introduced in 1996 . The two original buses were retired in 2010 , and the C @-@ SPAN Digital Bus was inaugurated , introducing the public to C @-@ SPAN 's enhanced digital products . C @-@ SPAN has also equipped six Local Content Vehicles ( LCVs ) to travel the country and record unique political and historical stories , with each vehicle containing production and web @-@ based technologies to produce on @-@ the @-@ spot content .
C @-@ SPAN has published ten books based on its programming ; these contain original material and text taken from interview transcripts . The first C @-@ SPAN book , C @-@ SPAN : America 's Town Hall , was published in 1988 . Other C @-@ SPAN books include : Gavel to Gavel : A C @-@ SPAN Guide to Congress ; Who 's Buried in Grant 's Tomb ? , a guide to the grave sites of U.S. presidents ; Abraham Lincoln - Great American Historians On Our Sixteenth President , a collection of essays based on C @-@ SPAN interviews with American historians ; and The Supreme Court , which features biographies and interviews with past Supreme Court judges together with commentary from legal experts . Five books have been drawn from
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the former Booknotes program : Booknotes : Life Stories ; Booknotes : On American Character ; Booknotes : Stories from American History ; Booknotes : America 's Finest Authors on Reading , Writing and the Power of Ideas , the latter a compilation of short monologues taken from the transcripts of Lamb 's interviews ; and a companion book to the series on Tocqueville , Traveling Tocqueville 's America : A Tour Book .
= Robert Henry Cain =
Major Robert Henry Cain VC TD ( 2 January 1909 – 2 May 1974 ) was a Manx recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest award for gallantry in the face of the enemy that can be awarded to British and Commonwealth forces .
Cain grew up on the Isle of Man and joined the Honourable Artillery Company in 1928 . After working overseas he was given an emergency commission into the Army in 1940 . He transferred to the South Staffordshire Regiment in 1942 , and joined their 2nd Battalion , part of the British 1st Airborne Division . He saw action during the Invasion of Sicily in 1943 and again during the Battle of Arnhem the following year . During the battle Major Cain 's company was closely engaged with enemy tanks , self @-@ propelled guns and infantry . Cain continually exposed himself to danger while leading his men and personally dispatched as much enemy armour as possible . Despite sustaining several injuries he refused medical attention and for his gallantry he was awarded the Victoria Cross .
Later in the war he took part in Operation Doomsday , where the 1st Airborne Division oversaw the German surrender in Norway . He left the army in late 1945 and returned to his pre @-@ war job at Royal Dutch Shell . He died of cancer in 1974 .
= = Early life = =
Robert Cain was born in Shanghai on 2 January 1909 . His parents were Manx and returned to the Isle of Man when he was young , where he was educated at King William 's College . In 1928 Cain joined the Honourable Artillery Company , a unit of the Territorial Army ( TA ) . The TA was the volunteer reserve force of the British Army and members continued in civilian work ; Cain worked in Thailand and Malaya for Shell . He was placed on the supplementary reserve list on 12 February 1931 .
= = Second World War = =
In April 1940 , shortly after the start of the Second World War , Cain was given an emergency commission into the Royal Northumberland Fusiliers as a Second Lieutenant . In 1942 , he was seconded to 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment before being temporarily promoted to the rank of Major in April 1943 — a position he would keep until being honourably granted the rank in 1945 . The 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment was part of 1st Airlanding Brigade which landed in Sicily in July 1943 as part of Operation Ladbroke . In the same month , Cain took command of the battalion 's B Company .
= = = Battle of Arnhem = = =
The Battle of Arnhem was part of Operation Market Garden , an attempt to secure a string of bridges through the Netherlands . At Arnhem the British 1st Airborne Division and Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade were tasked with securing bridges across the Lower Rhine , the final objectives of the operation . However , the airborne forces that dropped on 17 September were not aware that the 9th SS and 10th SS Panzer divisions were also near Arnhem for rest and refit . Their presence added a substantial number of Panzergrenadiers , tanks and self @-@ propelled guns to the German defenses and the Allies suffered heavily in the ensuing battle . Only a small force managed to hold one end of the Arnhem road bridge before being overrun on the 21st . The rest of the division became trapped in a small pocket west of the bridge and had to be evacuated on the 25th . The Allies failed to cross the Rhine , which remained under German control until Allied offensives in March 1945 .
= = = = Advance into Arnhem = = = =
The Allies planned to fly the British and Polish to Arnhem in three separate lifts over three days . Major General Roy Urquhart decided to deploy the 1st Airlanding Brigade first , as glider troops could assemble more quickly than parachute infantry and secure the landing areas . Cain took off with the first lift along with two companies of the South Staffords but only five minutes after departing from RAF Manston the tow rope connecting the Albemarle tug to his Horsa glider pulled out of the leading aircraft . After landing safely the glider 's occupants were able to fly out the following day with the second lift .
In Arnhem the Allied plan quickly unravelled . Only a small group of the 1st Parachute Brigade , mainly elements of Lieutenant Colonel John Frost 's 2nd Battalion , were able to reach the bridge . The 1st and 3rd Battalions were unable to penetrate the outer suburbs of the city and their advance stalled , so in order to support them the first lift of the South Staffords were sent forward on the morning of the 18th . When Cain arrived with the second lift they too were sent forward , arriving at the outskirts of Arnhem on the night of the 18th . Lieutenant Colonel David Dobie of the 1st Battalion proposed a concentrated attack on a narrow front between the Lower Rhine and the Arnhem railway line . The South Staffords would advance toward the bridge , with the remnants of the 1st and 3rd Battalions on their right flank , while the 11th Parachute Battalion , remained in reserve . The Staffords moved forward at 4.30am with D Company in the lead , followed by B and A Companies with C Company in reserve . In the area around St Elizabeth Hospital , the lead company met heavy resistance clearing houses and B Company took the lead , getting as far as a dell near the Arnhem City Museum . Here Cain and his men encountered enemy armour for the first time . The company was only armed with PIATs and mortars and although Cain and several of his company opened fire on the tanks and guns , they did not manage to disable any . By 11 : 30 they had run out of PIAT ammunition and the tanks now dominated the area . Their position was clearly hopeless and so Lieutenant Colonel McCardie , the commanding officer ( CO ) of 2nd Battalion , The South Staffordshire Regiment , ordered them to withdraw from the dell . Cain fell back with several of his men but few of them were able to escape , while the men of the other companies were forced to surrender in their droves . Cain was the only senior officer of the battalion to escape in what he later described as the " South Staff 's Waterloo " .
As the surviving men fell back through the 11th Battalion 's positions , Major Gilchrist ( A Company , 11th Battalion ) met Cain , who told him that " The tanks are coming , give me a PIAT " . Gilchrist was unable to oblige and so the Staffords regrouped behind the 11th Battalion 's positions ; roughly 100 surviving men forming into five small platoons under Cain 's command . Lieutenant Colonel George Lea , commander of the 11th Battalion , ordered them to capture a piece of wooded high ground known as Den Brink to cover a fresh advance , and a bayonet charge quickly cleared the enemy there . However , the thick tree roots on the hill made it impossible to dig in , and after suffering severe casualties , Cain took the decision to withdraw back to Oosterbeek .
= = = = Oosterbeek perimeter = = = =
The remnants of the four battalions fell back in disarray to the main divisional positions at Oosterbeek . Here they were gathered into defensive units by Lieutenant Colonel Sheriff Thompson , CO 1st Airlanding Light Artillery Regiment , who forcibly stopped many of the panicked troops . Alarmed that the many retreating units would soon leave his own 75 Millimetre Howitzers undefended , he sought out Cain , the most senior officer , and ordered him to form the men into a defensive screen ahead of the gun positions . Thompson later sent Major Richard Lonsdale to take command of these outlying troops , and throughout Wednesday 20 they weathered strong German attacks before falling back to the main divisional perimeter . The sector was designated " Thompson Force " , but was renamed " Lonsdale Force " when Thompson was wounded the following day . To the north and west of Oosterbeek other units fell back in the face of strong German resistance and over the next few days a thumb shaped perimeter formed around the town , with the Rhine at its base .
Lonsdale Force 's sector covered the southern end of the eastern perimeter , and Cain was one of three Majors defending this sector of the line . As the battle progressed he became determined to destroy as much enemy armour as possible and sited himself in a laundry 's garden , much to the chagrin of the Dutch owner . Over the coming days Cain was everywhere , dealing with armour and snipers and encouraging his men . On the afternoon of Thursday 21st two tanks approached Cain 's position . Guided by a colleague in a building above him , Cain waited in a trench until the first tank — actually a StuG III self @-@ propelled gun ( SPG ) — was close enough to engage . The SPG fired at the building , killing Cain 's colleague and showering him with masonry but despite this , Cain kept his position . Staff Sergeant Richard Long of the Glider Pilot Regiment remembered that through the clouds of dust , Cain fired round after round from his PIAT until the SPG was disabled , but whilst engaging the second tank a round exploded in the PIAT with a bright flash and Cain was thrown backwards . Cain recalled thinking he was blind and " shouting like a hooligan . I shouted to somebody to get onto the PIAT because there was another tank behind . I blubbered and yelled and used some very colourful language . They dragged me off to the aid post . " The British brought forward one of the Light Regiment 's 75mm guns which blew the tank apart .
Witnesses believed that Cain was incapacitated , but within half an hour his sight returned . He refused morphia and against all advice returned to the front lines , deciding that he " wasn 't wounded enough to stay where [ he ] was " . On the following day his eardrums burst from the constant firing and barrage , but he was content to stuff his ears with bandages and continue fighting . On Sunday 24th , shortly after a truce to allow the evacuation of casualties , Cain was alerted to the approach of a Tiger tank . Together with a Royal Artillery gunner he raced for a 6 pounder anti @-@ tank gun , manoeuvred it into position , fired and disabled the tank . He wanted to continue using the gun , but the recoil mechanism was destroyed .
By 25 September , the area occupied by the Lonsdale Force saw heavy fighting against self @-@ propelled guns , flamethrower tanks , and infantry . There were no PIATs available to the force by now ; instead Cain armed himself with a two @-@ inch mortar . Mortars are muzzle @-@ loading indirect fire weapons but Cain was forced to fire it on an almost horizontal plane due to the enemy 's proximity . His citation states that his leadership ensured that the South Staffordshire gave no ground and drove the enemy off in complete disorder . By the end of the battle , Cain had been reportedly responsible for the destruction or disabling of six tanks , four of which were Tigers , as well as a number of self @-@ propelled guns .
That night the Division began to withdraw in Operation Berlin . Many men shaved and blackened their faces and Cain removed a week 's growth of beard from his face , drying himself on his dirty , blood @-@ soaked Denison smock . After successfully crossing the Rhine , this led Brigadier ' Pip ' Hicks to comment " there 's one officer , at least , who 's shaved " . Cain 's reply was " I was well brought up , sir . " Cain made sure all of his men were over the river by dawn , before he himself crossed in an old boat .
= = Victoria Cross = =
Fifty @-@ nine decorations were published for the small group of men who successfully escaped Arnhem and these were awarded in an investiture ceremony at Buckingham Palace on 6 December 1944 . As well as being the only survivor of the battle to receive the Victoria Cross , Cain was also the first ( and currently only ) Manxman to be awarded the medal . Posthumous VCs were announced later , including one for Lance Sergeant John Baskeyfield of the 2nd South Staffordshire Battalion 's anti tank platoon . The 2nd Battalion thus became the only British battalion to receive two VCs in one engagement during the Second World War .
War Office , 2nd November , 1944 .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve awards of the VICTORIA CROSS to : —
Captain ( temporary Major ) Robert Henry Cain ( 129484 ) , The Royal Northumberland Fusiliers , ( attd . The South Staffordshire Regiment ) ( I Airborne Division ) ( Salcombe , Devon ) .
In Holland on 19th September , 1944 , Major Cain was commanding a rifle company of the South Staffordshire Regiment during the Battle of Arnhem when his company was cut off from the rest of the battalion and during the next six days was closely engaged with enemy tanks , self @-@ propelled guns and infantry . The Germans made repeated attempts to break into the company position by infiltration and had they succeeded in doing so the whole situation of the Airborne Troops would have been jeopardised .
Major Cain , by his outstanding devotion to duty and remarkable powers of leadership , was to a large extent personally responsible for saving a vital sector from falling into the hands of the enemy .
On 20th September a Tiger tank approached the area held by his company and Major Cain went out alone to deal with it armed with a Piat . Taking up a position he held his fire until the tank was only 20 yards away when he opened up . The tank immediately halted and turned its guns on him , shooting away a corner of the house near where this officer was lying . Although wounded by machine gun bullets and falling masonry , Major Cain continued firing until he had scored several direct hits , immobilised the tank and supervised the bringing up of a 75 mm. howitzer which completely destroyed it . Only then would he consent to have his wounds dressed .
In the next morning this officer drove off three more tanks by the fearless use of his Piat , on each occasion leaving cover and taking up position in open ground with complete disregard for his personal safety .
During the following days , Major Cain was everywhere where danger threatened , moving amongst his men and encouraging them by his fearless example to hold out . He refused rest and medical attention in spite of the fact that his hearing had been seriously impaired because of a perforated eardrum and he was suffering from multiple wounds .
On 25 September the enemy made a concerted attack on Major Cain 's position , using self @-@ propelled guns , flame throwers and infantry . By this time the last Piat had been put out of action and Major Cain was armed with only a light 2 " mortar . However , by a skilful use of this weapon and his daring leadership of the few men still under his command , he completely demoralized the enemy who , after an engagement lasting more than three hours , withdrew in disorder .
Throughout the whole course of the Battle of Arnhem , Major Cain showed superb gallantry . His powers of endurance and leadership were the admiration of all his fellow officers and stories of his valour were being constantly exchanged amongst the troops . His coolness and courage under incessant fire could not be surpassed .
There are some errors in Cain 's citation . The action described as occurring on the 20th actually took place on the 21st ( indeed this is the day on which Lieutenant Meikle — his spotter in the building above — was killed ) , and the Tiger tank he engaged was in fact a StuG III .
= = Later life = =
The hostilities in Europe officially ended on 8 May 1945 , when the Allies accepted the unconditional surrender of German forces . There were however a large number of German units in Norway — one of the few places in Europe still under German control — and the Allies feared the German commander there might attempt to fight on . In Operation Doomsday , Cain travelled to Oslo , Norway , with the 1st Airlanding Brigade on 11 May 1945 . Working with Milorg ( the Norwegian resistance ) , the British took the surrender of German troops in Norway without incident , before returning to the UK on 25 August 1945 . Having remained in the service of the South Staffordshire Regiment , Cain officially relinquished his wartime commission on 28 December 1945 and was granted the honorary rank of Major . Upon leaving the army he went back to his pre @-@ war occupation with Shell , living in East Asia and then West Africa . In 1951 he was elected to the Nigerian House of Representatives while working there . He returned to Britain in 1965 and settled in the Isle of Man upon his retirement .
Cain died of cancer on 2 May 1974 in Crowborough , Sussex . He was cremated at Worth Crematorium and buried in the family grave at Braddan Cemetery on the Isle of Man . There are several memorials in Cain 's honour . King William 's College has a memorial scholarship in his name and the chapel in the Hospice at Douglas is dedicated in his name . An oak tree in Dhoon Arboretum , planted with acorns gathered from Arnhem , has been christened the Arnhem Oak in memory of his bravery . His medal , Denison smock and the maroon beret he wore during the Battle of Arnhem are all held at the Staffordshire Regiment Museum . His daughter , Frances Catherine Cain , unveiled a set of commemorative coins honouring her father on the Isle of Man in 2006 . She is also married to , and acts as the agent for , British television and motoring journalist Jeremy Clarkson who presented a BBC documentary , " The Victoria Cross : For Valour " on Cain and other VC winners in 2003 . Frances Cain was unaware of her father 's VC until after he died because , according to Clarkson , " he 'd never thought to mention it " .
= = Medals and decorations = =
= América & En Vivo =
América & En Vivo is a live extended play ( EP ) by Mexican singer Luis Miguel . It was released on 25 September 1992 by WEA Latina . The EP consists of three live versions of " Inolvidable " , No Sé Tú " , and " Contigo en la Distancia " from his performance at the National Auditorium in Mexico during his Romance Tour in 1992 as well as a new track " America , America " , originally performed by Nino Bravo . " America , America " was released as a single and peaked at number 20 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The EP was rated three out of five stars by an editor on AllMusic and received a positive review from Mario Taradell of the Miami Herald , who praised his vocals and the production of the EP . América & En Vivo peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart and was certified platinum in Argentina by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers ( CAPIF ) .
= = Background and content = =
In 1991 Miguel released his eighth studio album , Romance , a collection of classic boleros , the oldest of which originated in the 1940s . The album , which was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti , was a success in Latin America and sold over seven million copies worldwide . It revived interest in the bolero genre and was the first record by a Spanish @-@ speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil , Taiwan , and the United States . To promote the record , Miguel began his Romance Tour on 22 March 1992 at a sold out 10 @,@ 000 @-@ seat National Auditorium in Mexico City .
América & En Vivo features the live versions of " Inolvidable " , " No Sé Tú " , and " Contigo en la Distancia " from Miguel 's performance at the National Auditorium . The three songs were also promotional singles for Romance . In addition , the EP features a new track " America , America " composed by José Luis Armenteros and Pablo Herrero . The song was originally performed by Spanish singer Nino Bravo on his album ... y volumen 5 ( 1973 ) . Miguel dedicated the song to the soldiers who participated in the Gulf War .
= = Reception = =
América & En Vivo was released on 25 September 1992 . The EP peaked at number 12 on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart . It was certified platinum in Argentina by the CAPIF for sales of 60 @,@ 000 copies . " America , America " was released , peaking at number 20 on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart . The music video for " America , America " was filmed across several locations in the United States and Puerto Rico . The music video won the award for MTV International at the 1993 MTV Video Music Awards and received a nomination for Video of the Year at the 5th Annual Lo Nuestro Awards in the same year .
An editor for AllMusic rated the EP three stars out of five . An editor writing for Billboard magazine complimented the EP stating that it " should add another trophy to the already impressive collection amassed by this 22 year @-@ old Mexican crooner " . Mario Taradell of the Miami Herald gave the EP a positive review ; he compared " America , America " to Neil Diamond 's song " America " stating it is " filled with land @-@ of @-@ hope lyrics , heavily orchestrated production and a big , inspirational chorus " . On the live tracks , he felt that Miguel is " in fine voice and a playful mood " and noted that " Inolvidable " was " more percussive and danceable than the album version " and commented that " Contigo en la Distancia " and " No Sé Tú " " showcase Miguel 's romantic croon " .
= = Track listing = =
The track listing is adapted from AllMusic .
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= Michael Barrett ( baseball ) =
Michael Patrick Barrett ( born October 22 , 1976 ) is a former Major League catcher and current manager of the rookie @-@ level Gulf Coast Nationals . He started his professional career with the Montreal Expos at age 18 . Barrett spent three years playing in Minor League Baseball as a shortstop and catcher . He played with the Honolulu Sharks , West Palm Beach Expos , and Delmarva Shorebirds , and was elected to two Minor League All @-@ Star games . Barrett made his Major League debut in 1998 as a third baseman , but was shortly outrighted to the minor leagues to play with the Harrisburg Senators for a season .
Upon Barrett 's return to the Major Leagues in 1999 , he ranked among the top offensive rookies in various statistical categories . Barrett failed to stay healthy during the 2003 season , which prompted the Expos to trade him to the Oakland Athletics , who in turn , traded him to the Chicago Cubs . During his tenure with the Cubs , Barrett won a Silver Slugger Award in 2005 , and recorded near career @-@ high statistics in 2004 season . The Cubs traded Barrett to the San Diego Padres in June of 2007 . Barrett sustained two major injuries , which caused him to miss 115 games with the Padres , and was subsequently released after the 2008 season . Barrett attempted to make a comeback with the Toronto Blue Jays in 2009 , but continued to struggle with injury issues , which led to his release in the subsequent offseason . He spent the second half of the 2010 season in the New York Mets minor league system , and has not played professional baseball since , but has not officially announced his retirement . Barrett was also a volunteer assistant coach for the baseball team at the University of North Georgia .
= = Early years = =
Barrett was born in Atlanta . He attended Pace Academy , where he excelled in baseball . During his senior year , Barrett won Atlanta 's Gatorade 's Player of the Year , and was named to the All @-@ USA High School and First Team High School All @-@ Americans All @-@ star teams . He was considered to be one of the top draft prospects that year , and declared eligibility for the upcoming Major League Baseball Draft shortly after graduating from high school . The Montreal Expos selected Barrett as the 28th overall selection in the 1995 draft . He spent the next three years in the minors , playing in the Gulf Coast , South Atlantic , Hawaii Winter Baseball , and Florida State Leagues , during which he was converted from a shortstop to a catcher . His Minor League Baseball career was highlighted in 1996 , when he scored 57 runs and recorded 113 hits as a member of the Delmarva Shorebirds .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Montreal Expos = = =
The Expos called Barrett to the Major Leagues on September 19 , 1998 , in a game against the Cincinnati Reds as a third baseman . He managed to hit a home run and a single in the game . After only playing eight games as an Expo , Barrett was sent to play for the Harrisburg Senators , a Class AA team from the Eastern League . He recorded 145 hits , and seventy @-@ eight runs , nineteen home runs , and eighty @-@ seven RBI en route to winning the Double @-@ A All @-@ Star Catcher and Montreal Expos Minor League Player of the Year awards . His performance allowed him to claim a spot on the Expos ’ starting roster during the 1999 . During his first full season , Barrett had fifty @-@ nine starts as a catcher , sixty @-@ two as a third @-@ baseman , and six as shortstop . He also led all National League rookies with thirty @-@ two doubles , while ranking as one of top statistical tiers in runs , hits , and run batted in among all other rookies .
Barrett struggled to perform consistently in the 2000 season . He committed fifteen errors during the course of the season , while earning .891 fielding percentage as a catcher . In addition , he hit for only a .214 batting average , with only a .288 slugging percentage . These difficulties combined to prompt the Expos to send him to the minors again . After playing thirty games with the Ottawa Lynx of the International League , Barrett returned to the major leagues before 2001 . He was named onto the team 's opening day lineup , and eventually earned a full @-@ time spot on the team . He was one the Expos ' most consistent hitters , and posted career high statistics that season ; leading all National League catchers with thirty @-@ three doubles . Barrett also managed to improve his defensive performance by raising his fielding percentage to .993 , while only committing seven errors .
He also saw success during the 2002 season . Barrett started the season by hitting home runs in the first two games of the season . He would go on to have one of his best months in the Majors , scoring with four home runs , seventeen RBI , eight doubles , and scored ten runs . The League recognized his efforts , and named Barrett the " National League co @-@ Player of the Week " for the second week of April after he recorded a franchise record eleven RBI within two games . Barrett finished the season with mixed results . While increasing his number of stolen bases and batting and slugging percentage , he failed to record as many runs , hits , and RBI , as he did in the previous season . He committed nine errors , which resulted in a lower fielding percentage , but excelled in throwing out base runners .
Barrett missed almost half of the 2003 on account of three injuries . He suffered the first during a game against the Colorado Rockies , during which one of Steve Reed 's pitches accidentally hit and bruised Barrett 's index finger . Barrett was able to continue playing , but claimed the injury had hindered his playing performance . He eventually managed to overcome the injury in July . He recorded a batting average of .333 and fifteen RBI . During this period , Barrett began to complain about tightness in his right hip flexor . This ailment took its toll on Barrett during a game against the Atlanta Braves , when he strained the muscles while taking a checked swing . The Expos sent Barrett on a rehabilitation assignment to play with the Edmonton Trappers , a AAA team from the Pacific Coast League . He only managed to play two games with team before fracturing his index finger on August 9 . Barrett returned to the major leagues on September 12 , although the Expos were already out of playoff contention .
= = = Chicago Cubs = = =
Barrett 's long tenure with the Expos ended in December 2003 . The team traded Barrett to the Oakland Athletics in exchange for Minor League pitcher Brett Price . The Athletics then traded Barrett to the Chicago Cubs for Damian Miller , only days after the initial transaction . Barrett , who had just spent six days with three teams , shortly signed a one @-@ year contract with the Cubs , which was worth nearly $ 1 @,@ 550 @,@ 000 . He first practiced with Cubs during their annual spring training sessions , and reported receiving a cold reception from teammates . Barrett went on to become one of their top hitters during the 2004 season . He played a crucial role in their wild card chase ; Barrett maintained a .287 batting average and hit sixteen home runs and sixty @-@ five RBI during the 2004 season . He finished the season as one the league 's top defensive catchers ( fielding at .994 with six errors ) , and led the Cubs in triples and sacrifice flies .
Barrett continued to be one of the Cubs ’ most consistent hitters in the 2005 season . He batted over .300 in three months of the season , and finished with 16 home runs , 32 doubles , and 61 RBI . Although he failed to meet and surpass the same statistical figures in the previous season , Barrett received a Silver Slugger Award for his efforts . Additionally , Barrett was selected to represent the United States in the 2006 World Baseball Classic . He played in four games , and recorded one run batted in .
Barrett sought to improve his numbers in the 2006 season , but ran into several obstacles . During the team 's annual series against the Chicago White Sox at U.S. Cellular Field , Barrett was involved in a major altercation with A. J. Pierzynski , which eventually led to a bench @-@ clearing brawl . He received a ten @-@ game suspension , which he served near the middle of June . Barrett rebounded after the incident , and batted over .300 in the final four months of the season . He suffered an intrascrotal hematoma in early September , and was forced to miss the rest of the season . The injury and suspension caused Barrett to miss a significant portion of the season . In his shortened season , Barrett hit sixteen home runs , which matched his previous career high , and nearly surpassed his hit total from 2005 .
Barrett was unable to live up to expectations in the 2007 season . He was unable to replicate his statistical figures from the previous season , and finished May with a .244 batting average and only seven home runs . Barrett infamously made headlines when he was involved in a nationally televised dugout altercation with pitcher Carlos Zambrano . Lou Piniella dismissed both players for the afternoon , while the League proceeded to fine both players . Nearly two weeks later , a television camera caught Barrett engaging in a heated argument with Rich Hill over a pitch that resulted in an RBI . The tensions caused Barrett to lose his role as the Cubs ' everyday starting catcher . While Barrett increased his batting average over the next few games , his career with the Cubs began to come to a close near the middle of June .
= = = San Diego Padres = = =
Various news sources reported that the Cubs had traded Barrett to the San Diego Padres on the morning of June 20 . The Cubs officially confirmed these details in the afternoon , and revealed that Barrett was traded in exchange for Rob Bowen and Kyler Burke . Despite stating he had no knowledge of the trade until hearing rumors in the morning , Barrett expressed his appreciation and well wishes to the Cubs organization on his homepage . He received a one @-@ game suspension on July 22 , after arguing with an umpire over a third strike . Barrett sustained a concussion on August 5 , after a base @-@ running accident against the San Francisco Giants . The Padres placed Barrett on the fifteen @-@ day disabled list . After returning from the injury , Barrett 's performance declined . His batting average dropped from .266 to .244 , while he produced near career low statistics .
Barrett became a free agent after the end of the season , but was offered arbitration from the Padres . The Tampa Bay Rays expressed interest in signing Barrett , even though the signing would involve trading the Padres a future second round draft pick as compensation . Barrett accepted the Padres ' arbitration offer on December 7 . The Padres placed Barrett on the disabled list on April 8 , 2008 , after he sustained an elbow injury . The team later activated him on May 25 , after he had recovered , and completed a minor league rehabilitation assignment . On July 2 , 2008 , Barrett was rushed to the hospital after fouling a pitch off his face . He required surgery to repair the damage , and had been placed on the disabled list for the second time in 2008 . The Padres waived Barrett on October 11 , after he previously expressed interest in testing the free @-@ agent market .
= = = Toronto Blue Jays = = =
On December 29 , 2008 , Barrett signed a Minor League deal with the Toronto Blue Jays , and attended spring training as a non @-@ roster invitee . He earned the back @-@ up catcher role for the Toronto Blue Jays during spring training . He was scheduled to back up Rod Barajas , but Barrett tore a muscle in his right shoulder while attempting to retrieve a wild pitch on April 17 , 2009 . Barrett was placed on the 15 @-@ day disabled list on April 18 , and was expected to return within the two weeks . Prior to the injury , Barrett had made seven appearances with a .167 batting average . The Blue Jays activated Barrett from the disabled list on July 6 , 2009 , and designated to Triple @-@ A for a rehab assignment , where he sustained a season @-@ ending injury . The Jays never recalled Barrett to their roster after the designation , and released him in the following offseason . He only played seven Major League games in 2009 , in which he recorded a .167 batting average , three hits , and one home run .
= = = New York Mets = = =
Barrett signed a minor league deal with the Mets on June 29 , 2010 , and was assigned to the Class @-@ A St. Lucie Mets . In early August , he was reassigned to play for their Class AAA affiliate , the Buffalo Bisons . On November 6 , 2010 , Barrett elected and was granted free agency . He has not played professional baseball since .
= = Controversies = =
= = = Oswalt confrontation = = =
While playing for the Chicago Cubs , Barrett was involved in two incidents with Houston Astros pitcher Roy Oswalt during the 2004 season . On August 22 , 2004 , Oswalt struck Barrett . Barrett , believing the pitch was a reaction to a three @-@ run home run that Aramis Ramírez had previously hit , confronted Oswalt , and prompted both teams to take the field . Oswalt was ejected from the game , as the Astros went on to lose 11 @-@ 6 . Five days later , during another Cubs @-@ Astros game , Barrett mouthed off to Oswalt and attempted to confront him . The game 's umpires restrained the two before a fight could break out , but not before both benches cleared out . Oswalt remained in the game , and defeated the Cubs 15 @-@ 7 . In a post @-@ game press conference , Barrett condemned Oswalt 's actions , and stated , " We 're going to see him again . "
= = = Crosstown clash = = =
On May 20 , 2006 , Barrett was involved in an infamous altercation with A. J. Pierzynski , during the Chicago Crosstown Classic between the Chicago White Sox and Cubs . During the game 's second inning , Brian Anderson hit a sacrifice fly , which allowed Pierzynski to score the game 's first run . Pierzynski collided with Barrett en route to home plate , causing Barrett to fall down . Pierzynski showed his enthusiasm by slapping home plate . As Pierzynski got up , he bumped into Barrett , who proceeded to punch him . Scott Podsednik came to Pierzynski 's aid and subdued Barrett . Anderson and John Mabry eventually joined the brawl before both teams emptied their dugouts and stormed the field .
The game 's umpires ejected Barrett , Pierzynski , Anderson , and Mabry . Barrett later received a ten @-@ game suspension , while Pierzynski was fined . Additionally , Anderson and the Sox 's third base coach were also suspended for a fewer number of games . The Cubs went on to lose the game by a score of seven to nothing . On June 30 , the two met during batting practice , and made amends .
= = = Zambrano scuffle = = =
The following season , Barrett made headlines again when he got into a fight with teammate Carlos Zambrano . During a game against the Atlanta Braves on June 1 , 2007 , tensions began to rise between the two players when the Cubs allowed the Braves to score five runs in the fifth inning . The Braves recorded 20 hits , en route to winning 8 @-@ 5 . However , their productivity became overshadowed by the scuffle between Zambrano and Barrett . As the two returned to the dugout , they had an exchange of words , which escalated into a small fight . After Lou Piniella dismissed the two from the game , another fight ensued within the Cubs ’ clubhouse , and Zambrano punched Barrett 's lip . The wound required Barrett to go to the hospital immediately and receive stitches . Zambrano remorsefully admitted he was at fault after the ordeal , and Barrett later stated they had resolved their differences . Both players received fines for undisclosed amounts of money .
= = Managerial career = =
On December 20 , 2013 , the Washington Nationals , named Michael Barrett , the manager of the Gulf Coast Nationals .
= = Personal life = =
Barrett is married to Stephanie and they have two children , Grace and Andrew ( born November 2007 ) . His cousin , Scott Fletcher , also played for the Cubs , along with many other teams over his fifteen @-@ year career . Barrett has spent a considerable portion of his personal life devoted to helping children . He runs several youth baseball programs , including one in Hawaii , which was inspired from his tenure with the Hawaiian Winter Baseball League . He also works with the Make @-@ A @-@ Wish Foundation and the Cubs Care Program to help lesser fortunate and sick children . More recently , he has worked with Kerry Wood and Ryan Dempster to raise money to help Derrek Lee 's daughter and research for Leber 's congenital amaurosis . Michael Barrett donated $ 50 @,@ 000 to Project 3000 and pledged an additional sum of money for every home run he hits . Barrett was also a regular guest on FOX Chicago 's The Final Word television show , which is co hosted by Tom Waddle , a former Chicago Bears wide receiver .
= Cabin Fever ( Lost ) =
" Cabin Fever " is the 11th episode of the American Broadcasting Company 's fourth season of the serial drama television series Lost and 83rd episode overall . It was aired on May 8 , 2008 , on ABC in the United States and on CTV in Canada . The episode was written by supervising producer Elizabeth Sarnoff and Kyle Pennington and directed by Paul Edwards . According to a press release , " John Locke ( Terry O 'Quinn ) is enlightened as to the whereabouts of Jacob 's cabin , and life aboard the freighter becomes perilous . " The episode was written alongside " The Shape of Things to Come " and " Something Nice Back Home " . " Cabin Fever " was watched by 11 million American viewers .
= = Plot = =
The episode begins with a flashback to 1956 , when 16 @-@ year @-@ old Emily Locke ( Holland Roden ) is preparing for a date with a man twice her age . Her mother tries to stop her from going out , but Emily escapes and is struck by a car . The trauma triggers the premature birth of John ( as an adult portrayed by Terry O 'Quinn ) . John 's life is monitored by Richard Alpert ( Nestor Carbonell ) , who at John 's birth and throughout his childhood looks the same age as he does in present day , and Matthew Abaddon ( Lance Reddick ) , each of whom attempts to influence his life . The existence of Mittelos Bioscience is revealed when John is invited to spend the summer there as a highly gifted high @-@ school student .
In the present day , Locke , Hugo " Hurley " Reyes ( Jorge Garcia ) and Benjamin Linus ( Michael Emerson ) are attempting to find a cabin inhabited by Jacob , the de facto leader of the Others . They are initially unsuccessful , but an apparition of deceased DHARMA Initiative member Horace Goodspeed ( Doug Hutchison ) assists Locke by pointing him to the Initiative 's mass grave . There , Locke extracts a set of blueprints from Horace 's jacket , and uses it to locate the cabin .
On the freighter Kahana , mercenary Martin Keamy ( Kevin Durand ) returns from his unsuccessful attack on the Barracks , the former home of the Others . Enraged that his mission was unsuccessful and several of his colleagues were killed , he accuses Gault ( Grant Bowler ) of giving him up to Ben , but Gault tells Keamy that Michael is the actual spy . He tries to kill Michael by shooting him , but just as in " Meet Kevin Johnson " when Michael tries to commit suicide , the gun jams . Gault ( Grant Bowler ) then tells Keamy that Michael is vital to repairing the engines , because he is the one that sabotaged them initially . Sayid Jarrah ( Naveen Andrews ) , fearing Keamy 's intentions , uses a Zodiac boat to return to the island , hoping to save as many people as possible . Desmond refuses to accompany him , saying that he would never return to the island after he left .
Several hours after Sayid leaves , Keamy stages a mutiny . A soldier receives a message from the island saying they found the body of ship doctor Ray ( Marc Vann ) ( as shown in " The Shape of Things to Come " ) , but the doctor protests that it 's impossible since he 's alive on the boat . Keamy orders Frank Lapidus ( Jeff Fahey ) at gunpoint to prepare the freighter 's helicopter ; Lapidus refuses , and Keamy kills the doctor and Gault in response . Lapidus acquiesces and Keamy leaves the freighter with a group of mercenaries , intending to " torch the Island " . When the helicopter passes over the survivors ' beach camp , Frank drops a bag containing a satellite phone onto the beach .
At the end of the episode , Locke enters the cabin alone and meets the figure of the deceased Christian Shephard ( John Terry ) , who claims he is speaking on Jacob 's behalf and is accompanied by his daughter Claire Littleton ( Emilie de Ravin ) . Christian warns Locke that Keamy 's mercenaries from the Kahana are already en route to the Island , and that the Island must be moved .
= = Production = =
" Cabin Fever " was the fifth episode to be directed by Paul Edwards . It was the first installment to be written by Kyle Pennington , the eleventh by Elizabeth Sarnoff , and was the first that the two wrote together . Recurring guest star Nestor Carbonell appeared in seven episodes of Lost 's third season as Richard Alpert and the mysteries surrounding his ageless character were heavily discussed among the fan community . While producing the final episodes of the third season , Carbonell was cast in a starring role on the new CBS series Cane . The writers modified their original story plan for the third season in anticipation for Carbonell 's potential unavailability . Despite Carbonell 's willingness to return to Lost , CBS president Nina Tassler ruled out another Lost guest appearance . Cane was canceled during the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike , freeing Carbonell from his contract with CBS . Executive producer Carlton Cuse cited this as an unintended positive consequence of the strike .
= = Reception = =
" Cabin Fever " was viewed live or recorded and watched within five hours of broadcast by 10 @.@ 78 million American viewers . It attained a 4 @.@ 7 / 13 in the key adults 18 @-@ 49 demographic , ranking Lost as the nineteenth most watched program of the week , two places up from the previous episode , " Something Nice Back Home " . " Cabin Fever " was watched by 392 @,@ 000 Australian viewers , making Lost the thirty @-@ third most watched program of the night .
Robin Abrahams of the Boston Globe published an analysis exploring disability on her blog . A paragraph analyzed the scene where the " disabled @-@ in @-@ the @-@ eyes @-@ of @-@ others Hurley " and the " disabled @-@ in @-@ his @-@ own @-@ mind Ben " shared a candy bar , which she thought was " kind of good and ... awful " ; she said " It was great to see the most hateful and most lovable characters sitting on a log sharing a chocolate bar . " However , she thought that the scene did not use its full potential in emphasizing Hurley 's empathy and Ben 's reaction . However , Kristin Dos Santos of E ! , who gave the episode a mostly positive review , was critical of the scene ; she thought that the scene wasted time and was " cruel and unusual punishment " to air before the cliffhanger ending . Erin Martell from TV Squad stated " This episode put everyone , including the freighter folk , in place to carry out their plans . I 'm already stoked for the finale " .
= LGBT =
LGBT or GLBT is an initialism that stands for lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender . In use since the 1990s , the term is an adaptation of the initialism LGB , which was used to replace the term gay in reference to the LGBT community beginning in the mid @-@ to @-@ late 1980s . Activists believed that the term gay community did not accurately represent all those to whom it referred .
The initialism has become mainstream as a self @-@ designation ; it has been adopted by the majority of sexuality and gender identity @-@ based community centers and media in the United States , as well as some other English @-@ speaking countries . The term is used also in some other countries , particularly those which languages use the initialism , such as Argentina , France and Turkey .
The initialism LGBT is intended to emphasize a diversity of sexuality and gender identity @-@ based cultures . It may be used to refer to anyone who is non @-@ heterosexual or non @-@ cisgender , instead of exclusively to people who are lesbian , gay , bisexual , or transgender . To recognize this inclusion , a popular variant adds the letter Q for those who identify as queer or are questioning their sexual identity ; LGBTQ has been recorded since 1996 . Those who wish to include intersex people in LGBT groups suggest an extended initialism LGBTI . This initialism is used in all parts of " The Activist 's Guide " of the Yogyakarta Principles in Action . Some people combine the two acronyms and use the term LGBTIQ .
Whether or not LGBT people openly identify themselves may depend on local political concerns and whether they live in a discriminatory environment , as well as on the status of LGBT rights where they live .
= = History = =
Before the sexual revolution of the 1960s , there was no common non @-@ derogatory vocabulary for non @-@ heterosexuality ; the closest such term , third gender , traces back to the 1860s but never gained wide acceptance in the United States .
The first widely used term , homosexual , originally carried negative connotations . It was replaced by homophile in the 1950s and 1960s , and subsequently gay in the 1970s ; the latter term was adopted first by the homosexual community . Lars Ullerstam promoted use of the term sexual minority in the 1960s , ( sv ) as an analogy to the term ethnic minority for non @-@ whites .
As lesbians forged more public identities , the phrase " gay and lesbian " became more common . The Daughters of Bilitis folded in 1970 due to disputes over their direction : whether to focus on feminism or gay rights issues . As equality was a priority for lesbian feminists , disparity of roles between men and women or butch and femme were viewed as patriarchal . Lesbian feminists eschewed gender role play that had been pervasive in bars , as well as the perceived chauvinism of gay men ; many lesbian feminists refused to work with gay men , or take up their causes .
Lesbians who held a more essentialist view , that they had been born homosexual and used the descriptor " lesbian " to define sexual attraction , often considered the separatist , angry opinions of lesbian @-@ feminists to be detrimental to the cause of gay rights . Bisexual and transgender people also sought recognition as legitimate categories within the larger minority community .
After the elation of change following group action in the Stonewall riots in New York , in the late 1970s and the early 1980s , some gays and lesbians became less accepting of bisexual or transgender people . Critics said that transgender people were acting out stereotypes and bisexuals were simply gay men or lesbian women who were afraid to come out and be honest about their identity . Each community has struggled to develop its own identity including whether , and how , to align with other gender and sexuality @-@ based communities , at times excluding other subgroups ; these conflicts continue to this day .
From about 1988 , activists began to use the initialism LGBT in the United States . Not until the 1990s within the movement did gay , lesbian , bisexual and transgender people gain equal respect . Although the LGBT community has seen much controversy regarding universal acceptance of different member groups ( bisexual and transgender individuals , in particular , have sometimes been marginalized by the larger LGBT community ) , the term LGBT has been a positive symbol of inclusion . Despite the fact that LGBT does not nominally encompass all individuals in smaller communities ( see Variants below ) , the term is generally accepted to include those not specifically identified in the four @-@ letter initialism . Overall , the use of the term LGBT has , over time , largely aided in bringing otherwise marginalized individuals into the general community . Transgender actress Candis Cayne in 2009 described the LGBT community " the last great minority " , noting that " We can still be harassed openly " and be " called out on television . "
In response to years of lobbying from users and LGBT groups to eliminate discrimination , the online social networking service Facebook , in February 2014 , widened its choice of gender variants for users . In June 2015 , after the US Supreme Court verdict granting equal marriage rights , Facebook introduced a filter allowing users to color their profile pictures rainbow in celebration of LGBT equality .
= = Variants = =
Many variants exist including variations that change the order of the letters ; LGBT or GLBT are the most common terms and the ones most frequently seen . Although identical in meaning , LGBT may have a more feminist connotation than GLBT as it places the " L " ( for " lesbian " ) first . When not inclusive of transgender people , it is sometimes shortened to LGB . LGBT may also include additional " Q " s for " queer " or " questioning " ( sometimes abbreviated with a question mark and sometimes used to mean anybody not literally L , G , B or T ) producing the variants " LGBTQ " and " LGBTQQ " " . In the United Kingdom , it is sometimes stylized as LGB & T , whilst the Green Party of England and Wales uses the term LGBTIQ in its manifesto and official publications .
The order of the letters has not been standardized ; in addition to the variations between the positions of the initial " L " or " G " , the mentioned , less common letters , if used , may appear in almost any order . Initialisms related to LGBTQ people are sometimes referred to as " alphabet soup . " Variant terms do not typically represent political differences within the community , but arise simply from the preferences of individuals and groups .
The terms pansexual , omnisexual , fluid and queer @-@ identified are regarded as falling under the umbrella term bisexual ( and therefore are considered a part of the bisexual community ) . Likewise , the terms transsexual and intersex are regarded by some people as falling under the umbrella term transgender , though many transsexual and intersex people object to this . Some intersex people prefer the initialism LGBTI , while others insist that they are not a part of the LGBT community and would rather that they not be included as part of the term . In Australia , where LGBTI is increasingly used , and organizations representing cross @-@ community interests have a history of collaboration including through a National LGBTI Health Alliance , anti @-@ discrimination legislation recognizes that intersex is a biological attribute distinct from both gender identity and sexual orientation .
SGL ( " same gender loving " ) is sometimes favored among gay male African Americans as a way of distinguishing themselves from what they regard as white @-@ dominated LGBT communities . MSM ( " men who have sex with men " ) is clinically used to describe men who have sex with other men without referring to their sexual orientation .
The gender identity " transgender " has been recategorized to trans * by some groups , where trans ( without the asterisk ) has been used to describe trans men and trans women , while trans * covers all non @-@ cisgender ( genderqueer ) identities , including transgender , transsexual , transvestite , genderqueer , genderfluid , non @-@ binary , genderfuck , genderless , agender , non @-@ gendered , third gender , two @-@ spirit , bigender , and trans man and trans woman .
Other variants may have a " U " for " unsure " ; a " C " for " curious " ; another " T " for " transvestite " ; a " TS " , or " 2 " for " two @-@ spirit " persons ; or an " SA " for " straight allies " . However , the inclusion of straight allies in the LGBT acronym has proven controversial as many straight allies have been accused of using LGBT advocacy to gain popularity and status in recent years , and various LGBT activists have criticised the heteronormative worldview of certain straight allies . Some may also add a " P " for " polyamorous " , an " H " for " HIV @-@ affected " , or an " O " for " other " . Furthermore , the initialism LGBTIH has seen use in India to encompass the hijra third gender identity and the related subculture .
The initialism LGBTTQQIAAP ( lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , transsexual , queer , questioning , intersex , asexual , ally , pansexual ) has also resulted , although such initialisms are sometimes criticized for being confusing and leaving some people out , as well as issues of placement of the letters within the new title . However , adding the term " allies " to the initialism has sparked controversy , with some seeing the inclusion of " ally " as opposed to " asexual " a form of asexual erasure . There is also the acronym QUILTBAG ( queer and questioning , intersex , lesbian , transgender and two @-@ spirit , bisexual , asexual and ally , and gay and genderqueer ) .
The magazine Anything That Moves coined the acronym FABGLITTER from fetish ( such as the BDSM community ) , allies or poly @-@ amorous ( as in polyamorous relationships ) , bisexual , gay , lesbian , intersex , transgender , transsexual engendering revolution or inter @-@ racial attraction ; however , this term has not made its way into common usage .
Wesleyan University used the initialism LGBTTQQFAGPBDSM for " lesbian , gay , bisexual , transgender , transsexual , queer , questioning , flexual , asexual , gender @-@ fuck , polyamorous , bondage / discipline , dominance / submission , and sadism / masochism " . Some use the much shorter style LGBT + to mean " LGBT and related communities " .
Some research , conducted anonymously and online and including the ' Q ' category , found that more adolescents and young adults identified as ' Q ' ( questioning ) compared with other LGBTQ categories . This may reflect the uncertainty and external pressures surrounding human sexuality .
= = Criticism of the term = =
The initialisms LGBT or GLBT are not agreeable to everyone that they encompass . For example , some argue that transgender and transsexual causes are not the same as that of lesbian , gay , and bisexual ( LGB ) people . This argument centers on the idea that transgender and transsexuality have to do with gender identity , or a person 's understanding of being or not being a man or a woman irrespective of their sexual orientation . LGB issues can be seen as a matter of sexual orientation or attraction . These distinctions have been made in the context of political action in which LGB goals , such as same @-@ sex marriage legislation and human rights work ( which may not include transgender and intersex people ) , may be perceived to differ from transgender and transsexual goals .
Many people have looked for a generic term to replace the numerous existing initialisms . Words such as queer ( an umbrella term for sexual and gender minorities that are not heterosexual , or gender @-@ binary ) and rainbow have been tried , but most have not been widely adopted . Queer has many negative connotations to older people who remember the word as a taunt and insult and such ( negative ) usage of the term continues . Many younger people also understand queer to be more politically charged than LGBT . " Rainbow " has connotations that recall hippies , New Age movements , and groups such as the Rainbow Family or Jesse Jackson 's Rainbow / PUSH Coalition .
Some people advocate the term " minority sexual and gender identities " ( MSGI , coined in 2000 ) , or gender and sexual / sexuality minorities ( GSM ) so as to explicitly include all people who are not cisgender and heterosexual , or gender , sexual , and romantic minorities ( GSRM ) which is more explicitly inclusive of minority romantic orientations and polyamory , but those have not been widely adopted either . Other rare umbrella terms are Gender and Sexual Diversities ( GSD ) , MOGII ( Marginalized Orientations , Gender Identities , and Intersex ) and MOGAI ( Marginalized Orientations , Gender Alignments and Intersex ) .
A reverse to the above situations is evident in the belief of " lesbian & gay separatism " ( not to be confused with the related " lesbian separatism " ) , which holds that lesbians and gay men form ( or should form ) a community distinct and separate from other groups normally included in the LGBTQ sphere . While not always appearing of sufficient number or organization to be called a movement , separatists are a significant , vocal , and active element within many parts of the LGBT community . In some cases separatists will deny the existence or right to equality of nonmonosexual orientations and of transsexuality . This can extend to public biphobia and transphobia . In contrasts to separatists , Peter Tatchell of the LGBT human rights group OutRage ! argues that to separate the transgender movement from the LGB would be " political madness " , stating that " Queers are , like transgender people , gender deviant . We don ’ t conform to traditional heterosexist assumptions of male and female behaviour , in that we have sexual and emotional relationships with the same sex . We should celebrate our discordance with mainstream straight norms . "
The portrayal of an all @-@ encompassing " LGBT community " or " LGB community " is also disliked by some lesbian , gay , bisexual , and transgender people . Some do not subscribe to or approve of the political and social solidarity , and visibility and human rights campaigning that normally goes with it including gay pride marches and events . Some of them believe that grouping together people with non @-@ heterosexual orientations perpetuates the myth that being gay / lesbian / bi / asexual / pansexual / etc. makes a person deficiently different from other people . These people are often less visible compared to more mainstream gay or LGBT activists . Since this faction is difficult to distinguish from the heterosexual majority , it is common for people to assume all LGBT people support LGBT liberation and the visibility of LGBT people in society , including the right to live one 's life in a different way from the majority . In the 1996 book Anti @-@ Gay , a collection of essays edited by Mark Simpson , the concept of a ' one @-@ size @-@ fits @-@ all ' identity based on LGBT stereotypes is criticized for suppressing the individuality of LGBT people .
Writing in the BBC News Magazine in 2014 , Julie Bindel questions whether the various gender groupings now , " bracketed together " . . . " share the same issues , values and goals ? " Bindel refers to a number of possible new initialisms for differing combinations and concludes that it may be time for the alliances to be reformed or finally we go , " our separate ways " .
= The Punisher ( 1993 video game ) =
The Punisher ( Japanese : パニッシャー , Hepburn : Panisshā ) is a 1993 beat ' em up arcade game developed and released by Capcom . It stars the Marvel Comics ' anti @-@ hero the Punisher and co @-@ stars S.H.I.E.L.D. agent Nick Fury as the second player 's character as they embark on a mission to kill the crime lord the Kingpin and bring down his organization . Whilst following the same general formula as Capcom 's previous beat ' em ups , the game has a range of usable weapons and a comics @-@ style presentation .
The Punisher gained significant popularity in arcades and is widely regarded as one of the best titles in the beat ' em up genre as well as one of the best video game adaptations of comic books . A Mega Drive / Genesis port was developed by Sculptured Software and published by Capcom USA and Marvel Entertainment in 1994 to mixed reviews .
= = Gameplay = =
The Punisher follows the same side @-@ scrolling beat 'em up formula Capcom established in Final Fight and Captain Commando as the protagonists engage foes and stage bosses . As in most beat 'em up games of this kind , progression through the game is achieved by systematically eliminating all common enemies and proceeding to the right ( or left ) , and defeating the bosses met at the end of each stage . Unlike in Final Fight , the player characters Punisher and Nick Fury 's size , abilities and tactics are essentially interchangeable ; they both use the same basic moves , such as punches , kicks and throws , which can be chained chained into combos , as well as similar special attacks . Basic attacks can be combined to cause extra damage to enemies . The game is presented in a comic book @-@ like style , including featuring on @-@ screen onomatopoeias such as " BLAM ! " for gunshots .
Various melee ( including baseball bats and Japanese swords ) and thrown weapons ( including knives and shuriken ) as well as improvised weapons ( such as lead pipes , car tires and a crude flamethrower ) can be picked up during regular combat . Weapons can be dropped by enemies or obtained from smashing various containers throughout the stages . When the player is armed with a weapon , its durability will be displayed alongside the player 's health , showing how much it can be used until it breaks apart . Treasure can also be found in containers , awarding the player with bonus score points once collected ( jewelry also appears after defeating female enemies ) . Health can be replenished by picking up food , which can also give bonus points . The game distinguishes itself by the frequent use of firearms , including an Ingram and a M16 . There are several sections of the game when gun @-@ wielding enemies appear to which the characters draw their handguns , enabling the player to shoot them . Player characters can also pick up and collect hand grenades that can be deployed at a moment of choice .
= = Plot = =
The game begins in an illegal casino and the streets of the New York City , with Frank " the Punisher " Castle ( optionally partnered with Nick Fury ) in pursuit of the Mafia enforcer Bruno Costa ; the chase ends with a fight against Chester Scully ( a minor villain from the comics ) . Still on track of Bruno , the Punisher infiltrates the mob 's Pantaberde resort via a water duct . He breaks into a hotel and corners Bruno ... who is suddenly lasered to death by a massive Guardroid , which Castle must then take on .
The Punisher then raids a major drug @-@ smuggling ring at the local harbor , where he 's pitted against four gorgeous @-@ but @-@ lethal ninja @-@ sisters : Mizuki , in blue ; Misa , in black ; Midori , in green ; and Luna , in red . ( Misa is brunette ; the others are blonde ) . Finally , Castle confronts Bonebreaker in a waterfront warehouse . After that , the Punisher attacks the Kingpin 's poppy field at an underground cave in Arizona . There Castle boards and destroys a freight train which is commanded by Bushwhacker .
At that point , the Kingpin decides that he has lost enough henchmen and money to the Punisher 's actions . He puts a hefty contract out on Castle , who is chased by assassins from his hideout and through a forest . After defeating another Guardroid , the Punisher in turn assaults the King Building skyscraper . He fights his way through Jigsaw and other enemies to the final showdown against the Kingpin himself . After the Kingpin is defeated , the entire tower collapses ... but he is not found among the many dead criminals in the rubble .
= = Release = =
= = = Arcade = = =
The Punisher for the arcades was released in April 1993 , marking the beginning of the partnership between Marvel Comics and Capcom , which led to the series Marvel vs. Capcom . Artworks from the game were featured in the 2012 art book Marvel vs. Capcom : Official Complete Works by Udon Entertainment .
= = = Genesis = = =
A console port of The Punisher was released for the Genesis in North America in 1994 and for the PAL region Mega Drive in April 1995 . This version , while published by Capcom , was developed by an independent American company Sculptured Software . In addition to the worse graphics and sound , lesser variety of enemies , and a smaller amount of objects on screen than in the original , many of the previously breakable background objects were rendered unbreakable due to the limitations of the Genesis ' hardware .
This version also contains some content censorship , including removing the most explicit violence as well as the animation of Fury smoking his cigar , and female ninja enemies with skimpy outfits becoming fully clothed . The port also comes with three difficulty settings , but the Easy setting ends after only three stages and the game can be properly completed only on Normal or Hard . The PlayStation version was reported in works by Crystal Dynamics , but was never completed .
= = Reception = =
= = = Arcade = = =
Upon its release , GamePower gave the arcade version of The Punisher a 10 out of 10 partial score for the game 's " fun factor " . Its action was praised by GamePro , who remarked that " this game 's outstanding feature is its gorgeous graphics , which capture the dark , somber mood of the Punisher comic books . "
= = = Genesis = = =
Reviewing the Genesis conversion , VideoGames called it " a decent exercise in vigilante mayhem " that is " surprisingly fun , yet fairly standard game . " A preview by Mean Machines Sega opined it " looks good " and features " fantastic weaponry " , but EGM criticized the characters for being too small on the screen , also stating that there was little to no skill involved in defeating the bosses . EGM praised the number of weapons and moves available but nonetheless concluded that " the whole game comes across as routine and bland . "
GamePro outright panned the port , commenting that the special moves are too difficult to pull off , the sound effects are weak , the gameplay is generic and unimaginative beat ' em up fare , and " the graphics never come close to the coin @-@ op game that this cart is based on . " It was also lambasted by Next Generation , who stated that " not much good can be found " in the game and " the person responsible for putting out The Punisher deserves a good spanking . " The May 1995 issue of Hyper even had The Punisher as the worst rated game of the month .
= = = Retrospective = = =
Notwithstanding the flawed home port and limited commercial success , the arcade original has achieved a cult game status . Official Sega Saturn Magazine and Official U.S. PlayStation Magazine both wished for The Punisher to be included in Capcom 's arcade compilation releases for the Sega Saturn and the PlayStation , respectively . According to gamesTM in 2005 , " Capcom 's The Punisher was a brutally violent fighter that perfectly captured the anti @-@ hero it was based on . Featuring buckets of blood , some nasty moves and hordes of enemies , action came thick and fast , and so did the excitement . " The magazine too expressed a wish for it to be included in a compilation re @-@ release for a more modern gaming system , in this case the PlayStation Portable , but noted that the chances of this are slim due to a long @-@ expired license .
Retro Gamer called it " a forgotten gem in Capcom 's back catalogue " that " is bursting with character and is extremely enjoyable , " surmising the game did not sell well because the market was already flooded with beat ' em up games . GamesTM retorospectively described it and the arcade Alien vs. Predator as old " gaming nuggets " that provided a " nirvana for fight fans " as " back in the mid @-@ Nineties , no @-@ one made scrolling beat- ' em @-@ ups like Capcom . " Some media outlets also singled out for a special praise the game 's particular elements , such as with Complex regarding its arcade cabinet and Cracked.com regarding its game over sequence . Crunchyroll 's Patrick Macias wrote : " I 'll confess my heart skipped a beat when I read The Punisher arcade game , the legacy of a misspent youth and countless tokens whittled away at Chuck E. Cheese . "
Some critics regard The Punisher as among the best of the beat ' em up genre , as well as among the best video game adaptations of comic books , especially of Marvel titles . In 2010 , it was ranked as the tenth top greatest superhero game by IGN 's News & Features Team , who noted it " was pretty brutal for its time , " and as the fifth top Marvel arcade game by iFanboy 's Josh Richardson . Nerdist Industries included it among the top ten most iconic Marvel video games in 2013 , calling it " one of the few games that benefits from its cheesiness " and stating that in 1993 the two @-@ player experience " was pretty much what Army of Two wishes it was today . " That same year , it was also listed as one of top beat ' em up games of all time by Heavy.com 's Elton Jones , as well as being included amongst the best looking beat ' em up games from the 16 @-@ bit era by Kotaku Australia 's Gergo Vas . David Hawkins of WhatCulture ! declared it number one best comics @-@ based arcade game in a 2011 ranking , being " above and beyond all other arcade adaptations of comic books and their heroes , " and Jon Ledford of Arcade Sushi opined that " in terms of pure enjoyment , ingenuity , control , and graphics , The Punisher is the Best Retro Beat ' Em Up of all time . "
= Raymond Brownell =
Air Commodore Raymond James Brownell , CBE , MC , MM ( 17 May 1894 – 12 April 1974 ) was a senior officer in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) and a First World War flying ace . Born in Hobart , Tasmania , Brownell was working as a clerk with a firm of accountants when he enlisted in the Australian Imperial Force on the outbreak of the First World War . He served during the Gallipoli Campaign before transferring to the Western Front . Awarded the Military Medal for his actions during the Battle of Pozières , he was accepted for a transfer to the Royal Flying Corps in 1917 . Brownell undertook flight training in the United Kingdom . Commissioned as a second lieutenant , he was posted for operational service over the Western Front in September 1917 . Moving with his squadron to Italy , he was awarded the Military Cross and credited with shooting down 12 aircraft by war 's end . Taking his discharge in 1919 , Brownell returned to Australia .
Commissioned in the Royal Australian Air Force during 1921 , Brownell had risen to the rank of group captain by the beginning of the Second World War . Establishing the Royal Australian Air Force base in Singapore , he returned to Australia in 1941 as an air commodore and was appointed to lead No. 1 Training Group . He was Air Officer Commanding Western Area from January 1943 until July 1945 , when he took charge of the recently formed No. 11 Group on Morotai . Retiring from the Air Force in 1947 , Brownell assumed a partnership in a stockbroking firm . He died in 1974 at the age of 79 ; his autobiography , From Khaki to Blue , was published posthumously .
= = Early life = =
Brownell was born in the Hobart suburb of New Town , Tasmania , on 17 May 1894 to William Percival Brownell , a draper , and his wife Julie Ann James ( née Scott ) . Initially educated at Leslie House School , Brownell later attended Scotch College , Melbourne where he was an active sportsman . On graduation , he was apprenticed to a firm of public accountants and auditors in Hobart . In 1912 , Brownell enlisted in the Citizens Military Force and was posted to the 41st Battery , Australian Field Artillery .
= = First World War = =
= = = Australian Imperial Force = = =
On 12 September 1914 , Brownell transferred to the Australian Imperial Force for service during the First World War . Allotted to the 9th Battery , 3rd Field Artillery Brigade with the rank of gunner , Brownell embarked from Hobart aboard HMAT Geelong on 20 October , bound for Egypt . On arrival , the unit spent several months training in the desert , before it was posted for service during the Gallipoli Campaign . Instead of landing on the peninsula with the battery , Brownell was transferred to Alexandria where the Army required his administrative abilities as an accountant .
During July 1915 , Brownell was shipped to Gallipoli and rejoined the 9th Battery . Promoted to bombardier on 12 November , he was among one of the final Australian waves to be evacuated from the peninsula in December during the Allied withdrawal . Returning to Egypt , he was advanced to provisional sergeant on 24 February 1916 . Embarking with his unit from Alexandria , Brownell arrived in France for service on the Western Front on 29 March , following a six @-@ day voyage .
On 21 – 22 July 1916 , Brownell was in action with his battery at Pozières , during which the unit was subject to severe German shellfire . Throughout the engagement , Brownell established and maintained communications between the battery and firing line , despite fatigue or personal risk to himself . Commended for his " particularly meritorious service ... and ... gallantry in this work " , Brownell was subsequently recommended for the Military Medal . The notification for the award was published in a supplement to the London Gazette on 16 November 1916 .
= = = Royal Flying Corps = = =
In October 1916 , Brownell applied for a transfer to the Royal Flying Corps . One of 5 @,@ 000 applicants , Brownell was accepted on 1 January 1917 along with a further 200 Australians . Posted for pilot training , he proceeding to England and was posted to No. 3 School of Military Aeronautics at Exeter College , Oxford from 26 January . On graduating from the course , Brownell was discharged from the Australian Imperial Force on 16 March and commissioned as a second lieutenant in the Royal Flying Corps the following day .
Allotted to No. 45 Squadron RFC flying Sopwith Camels , Brownell moved to France for operational service over the Western Front during September 1917 . On 10 September , he took part in his first patrol , during which he shot down a two @-@ seater German aircraft . In his time flying over the Western Front , Brownell accumulated a total of five victories and achieved ' ace ' status before his squadron was transferred to Italy in December . Later that month , Brownell and his observer , Lieutenant Henry Moody , shot down German ace Alwin Thurm over Asolo .
Appointed a flight commander in No. 45 Squadron , Brownell was promoted to temporary captain on 11 February 1918 . During aerial engagements against Central aircraft over the Italian front , he was accredited with the destruction of a further seven aircraft , bringing his total to 12 with an additional nine probables . Brownell 's aerial victories were composed of five aircraft and one shared destroyed , two and one shared out of control , one shared captured , and one balloon . For his success in bringing six of these aircraft down over a three @-@ month period , Brownell was awarded the Military Cross . The announcement of the decoration was published in a supplement of the London Gazette on 4 March 1918 , with the citation for the award being published in a later issue on 16 August 1918 , reading :
War Office , 16th August , 1918 .
With reference to the awards conferred as announced in the London Gazette dated 4th March , 1918 , the following are the statements of service for which the decorations were conferred : —
Awarded the Military Cross .
2nd Lt. Raymond James Brownell , M.M. , R.F.C. , Spec . Res.
For conspicuous gallantry and devotion to duty . Within the last three months he has brought down six enemy aeroplanes , four of which were seen to come down in flames , the other two falling completely out of control . The dash , gallantry and offensive spirit displayed on all occasions by this officer are worthy of the highest praise .
In April 1918 , Brownell was granted compassionate leave to visit his seriously ill mother . Leaving No. 45 Squadron , he travelled to Tasmania . At the end of his leave in September , he commenced his return journey to the United Kingdom . During the voyage , he became grievously ill with pneumonic influenza . On arrival , Brownell accepted a commission in the newly formed Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . However , Brownell 's mother again suffered a deterioration in health , so he sought to resign from the RAF and was placed on the unemployed list on 14 August 1919 . Embarking for Tasmania , he arrived during September .
= = Inter @-@ war years = =
On his return to Australia , Brownell was employed as a sub @-@ accountant for a firm of merchants in Melbourne , and later with the Hobart City Council as a clerk . On 22 April 1920 , Brownell acted as one of the pallbearers at the military funeral of his friend and fellow No. 45 Squadron officer , Captain Cedric Howell , who had been killed in an aeroplane crash while participating in the England to Australia air race . Seeking a position in the newly formed Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) , Brownell was commissioned as a flying officer on 12 September 1921 and posted to RAAF Point Cook in Victoria , training Air Force cadets . In a ceremony at St Andrew 's Presbyterian Church , Hobart , on 26 August 1925 , Brownell married Rhyllis Jean Birchall ; the couple would later have two daughters . The following year , Brownell assumed command of No. 1 Squadron . He led the squadron until 1928 , when he was appointed to the RAAF Headquarters in Melbourne as Director of Personnel Services .
During 1934 , Brownell was posted to England for exchange service with the RAF . Made second @-@ in @-@ command of No. 3 Flying Training School at Grantham , he was promoted to wing commander on 1 April 1936 . While still serving in the United Kingdom , Brownell was appointed commanding officer of No. 23 ( City of Perth ) Squadron ( later No. 25 Squadron ) , which had been formed earlier in 1937 . The squadron moved to RAAF Base Pearce in Western Australia during March 1938 , at which time Brownell returned to Australia and assumed command of the unit along with the base . Brownell was the first Commanding Officer of Pearce , which was not only the first RAAF establishment to be located in Western Australia , but also the first permanent air force unit to be established in the state .
= = Second World War = =
On the outbreak of the Second World War , additional units were placed under Brownell 's purview at RAAF Base Pearce and he was consequently promoted to temporary group captain in December 1939 . With the introduction of Lockheed Hudson aircraft to the RAAF in February 1940 , several units were re @-@ equipped , including No. 14 Squadron at RAAF Base Pearce . The Hudsons replaced the squadron 's Avro Ansons , which were to be ferried back to the eastern coast of Australia in order to be used as training aircraft . On one occasion , Brownell took part in ferrying an Anson to RAAF Point Cook with No. 14 Squadron pilot Charles Learmonth . Arriving with the aircraft , the pair piloted a de Havilland Moth Minor — a two @-@ seated , open @-@ cockpit , monoplane — back to Pearce . The return journey took Brownell and Learmonth seven days to complete , and involved a total of twenty @-@ one refuelling stops along the way .
In August 1940 , Brownell was ordered to Singapore in order to establish and command an RAAF station on the island , as well as administer the RAAF squadrons located in Malaya . Embarking aboard the SS Strathallan in mid @-@ August , Brownell and his staff formed the RAAF station within two weeks of arrival at Sembawang . Under the control of RAF Far East Command , the station was established as RAF Sembawang . During this time , Brownell frequently visited the Malaya peninsula .
Promoted to acting air commodore , Brownell returned to Australia in August 1941 and was appointed Air Officer Commanding No. 1 Training Group in Melbourne . With this position , Brownell was in command of approximately thirty establishments located in southern Australia . On 1 January 1943 , he was posted as Air Officer Commanding Western Area . Based at RAAF Base Pearce , Brownell 's responsibilities involved coordinating training and directing long @-@ range bombing operations . Following intelligence reports that a Japanese force was en route to raid Western Australia , the Australian Government ordered a build @-@ up of the defences in the area . In response to this , Brownell organised air defences around Perth and the Exmouth Gulf during March 1944 . With the use of Army transports , he also reinforced Cunderdin with supplies and bombs for the use of the heavy bombers in the area . The attack from the Japanese , however , did not occur . For his service as Air Officer Commanding Western Area , Brownell was appointed a Commander of the Order of the British Empire ( CBE ) in the 1945 New Years Honours .
Relinquishing command of Western Area in July 1945 , Brownell was appointed commander of the recently formed No. 11 Group . No. 11 Group was established as a static organisation that was to take administrative control of all RAAF units based on Morotai . The group assumed its role on 30 July , and had the initial jurisdiction of all Dutch territory in the area , along with British North Borneo and Sarawak . In addition to this , the unit held the three main responsibilities of local air defence and sea lane protection , support of adjacent formations and offensive operations against Japanese targets within range , as well as line @-@ of @-@ communication duties . The unit , however , was formed too late in the war to assume all of its responsibilities before the Second World War drew to an end . Brownell was present at the Japanese surrenders in Manila , Tokyo , and on Morotai . He was selected by the Australian government to attend the ceremony aboard the USS Missouri on 2 September 1945 , but was replaced by the Chief of the Air Staff , Air Vice Marshal George Jones , when Jones became available to make the trip to Japan .
= = Later life = =
Returning to Western Australia after the war , Brownell attended an investiture ceremony at Government House , Perth on 3 January 1947 , where he was presented with his CBE by the Lieutenant @-@ Governor of Western Australia . On 24 March that year , Brownell retired from the RAAF on medical grounds . He had in any case been slated for early retirement , along with other senior officers and veterans of the First World War , to make way for the advancement of younger and equally capable officers .
Following his retirement from the Air Force , Brownell was made a partner of S. G. Brearley & Co . , a stockbroking firm located in Perth . In 1951 , he became chairman of the associated sporting committee of the National Fitness Council of Western Australia ; he served in this role until 1967 . Aged 79 , Brownell died at Subiaco , Western Australia , on 12 April 1974 and was accorded a funeral with full Air Force honours . Brownell 's autobiography , From Khaki to Blue , was posthumously published by the Military Historical Society of Australia in 1978 .
= St Thomas the Martyr 's Church , Oxford =
St Thomas the Martyr 's is a Church of England parish church of the Anglo @-@ Catholic tradition , in Oxford , England , near Oxford railway station in Osney . It is located between Becket Street to the west and Hollybush Row to the east , with St Thomas Street opposite .
= = Overview = =
The church was founded in the 12th century , dedicated to St Thomas Becket . The building still retains some of its original architecture , although substantial expansions and repairs have been made , particularly in the 17th century ( under the curacy of Robert Burton ) and in the 19th century .
The church played a significant role in the early stages of the Oxford Movement , being the site of daily services as well as such ritualist practices as altar candles and the wearing of Eucharistic vestments . The leaders of the Movement preached at the church , and the early Tractarians were closely associated with St Thomas 's .
= = History = =
= = = To the Restoration = = =
It has traditionally been held in Osney that the church was founded in the reign of Stephen , but this is unlikely to be true , as Thomas Becket was not martyred until some fifteen years after Stephen 's death . It is known that in the 1180s , the site was granted to the canons of the nearby Osney Abbey , and a chapel was erected on the site around 1190 . From the mid @-@ 13th century the Osney area was referred to as the parish of St Thomas ' , but it remained nominally a chapel of the abbey until the dissolution of the Monasteries under Henry VIII , when it was placed under Christ Church , Oxford . Christ Church treated it as a conventional parish church with a curate , and from the mid @-@ 19th century the incumbent was styled a vicar .
After the curacy was placed under the patronage of Christ Church , the incumbents were mostly scholars or members of the college ; from 1616 to 1640 the curacy was held by Robert Burton , author of The Anatomy of Melancholy , who enlarged the church . In the English Civil War the medieval stained glass in the church was destroyed , partly due to the vandalism of Parliamentarian troops captured at Cirencester in 1642 and imprisoned in the church . Following the Restoration the holders of the curacy changed rapidly , often remaining in the position for only a few years at a time . From at least 1713 Christ Church leased a house in High Street to parish trustees and the profits were used for repairing the church . This continued until 1923 , when the house was sold .
= = = 19th and 20th centuries = = =
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early 19th century , the church and its parish were showing signs of neglect . In 1802 only ten communicants are recorded , and in 1814 some 90 % of the parish was thought to be non @-@ churchgoing . The church was further reduced by the creation of the parishes of St Paul 's in 1837 , St Barnabas ' in 1869 , and St Frideswide 's in 1873 .
The curate from 1823 to 1842 , one John Jones , brought a significant turnaround in attendance ; perhaps the most unusual innovation was a houseboat – the " Boatmans ' Floating Chapel " – acquired in 1839 , for use as a chapel serving the families working on the river and the Oxford Canal . This boat was St Thomas ' first chapel of ease ; it was donated by H. Ward , a local coal merchant , and used until it sank in 1868 . It was replaced by a chapel dedicated to St Nicholas that remained in use until 1892 . A second chapel was built in 1860 , dedicated to St Frideswide , later replaced by the new parish church of St Frideswide 's , which took on the parish of New Osney in 1873 .
Major repairs were carried out beginning in 1825 . The floor @-@ level was raised above flood @-@ level , a full three feet . The roof was rebuilt , the south wall was rebuilt using the original materials , and the main features of the 12th @-@ century chancel arch were discarded .
The vicar from 1842 to 1892 was Thomas Chamberlain ( later founder of St Edward 's School ) , a firm believer in the Tractarian movement , who introduced daily services as well as such ritualist practices as altar candles and the wearing of Eucharistic vestments – the latter causing him to be rebuked by Bishop Wilberforce in 1855 . Many of the leaders of the Oxford Movement , including Edward Bouverie Pusey , Henry Parry Liddon , John Mason Neale , Charles Fuge Lowder and Edward King preached at the church . In the early days of the movement , Anglo @-@ Catholicism was closely associated with St Thomas ' . In 1847 Chamberlain founded the Community of St Thomas Martyr , which was devoted to the assistance of the poor of the parish , by now heavily slumland ; this sisterhood remained active until 1958 . The convent buildings for it were built in 1886 , but have since been demolished . In 1846 the north aisle and vestry were demolished and a new aisle of five bays with a vestry at its west end was built in its place . The blocked tower arch and two blocked windows in the chancel were opened and a new chancel arch was built .
The vicar from 1896 to 1908 was T.H. Birley , later Bishop of Zanzibar . In 1897 the building was again re @-@ roofed and a vestry built against the north wall of the tower . St Thomas ' was declared an ancient parish in 1948 .
In 1994 the Church of England introduced women priests . Like several other parishes , the people of St Thomas ' decided not to accept the Ordination of women . Under the terms of the resolutions passed by General Synod , the Archbishop of Canterbury placed the church under the care of the Bishop of Ebbsfleet . He is a Provincial episcopal visitor who oversees the parish even though it is in the Diocese of Oxford . At present , the congregation maintains Anglo @-@ Catholic traditions . The building has been added to the English Heritage ' Heritage at Risk ' register .
= = Architecture = =
The church has a nave with a north aisle and vestry , a Perpendicular Gothic west tower , a chancel and a south porch . The nave was rebuilt in the late 15th or early 16th century to meet a tower of approximately the same age ; it is often dated to 1521 , but appears to be built on older foundations . The southern side of the nave contains what are probably thirteenth @-@ century buttresses and a pair of Perpendicular Gothic windows . The north aisle was originally built in the 13th century , and rebuilt by H.J. Underwood in 1890 ; the vestry was built in the 17th century and rebuilt in 1846 to designs by Chamberlain , through the generosity of the curate , Alexander Penrose Forbes . The church has been reroofed at least twice , in 1825 and 1897 .
The chancel , which has a ceiling decorated by C. E. Kempe , has three windows in the style of the late 12th century , and a priest 's door built into the south side circa 1250 . A south porch was built in 1621 at the behest of Dr Robert Burton , whose arms are carved in the gable above the date . A candelabrum given by Ann Kendall in 1705 hangs in the chancel . The chancel ceiling was decorated with a pattern of gold stars on a blue background in 1914 . Two years later , an altar was erected at the east end of the north aisle , and an aumbry placed in the north wall of the chancel . The royal arms of William IV are displayed in the tower .
St Thomas ' church has been a Grade II listed building since 1954 .
The churchyard contains Combe House , a 1702 building originally built as a school , as well as a vicarage designed in 1893 by C. C. Rolfe . The remains of an earlier Rolfe building , the 1886 Sisterhood of St Thomas , are also present ; in 1974 , these amounted to a single cottage and a sculptured brick gateway .
= James Bond in film =
The James Bond film series is a British series of spy films based on the fictional character of MI6 agent James Bond , " 007 " , who originally appeared in a series of books by Ian Fleming . It is one of the longest continually @-@ running film series in history , having been in on @-@ going production from 1962 to the present ( with a six @-@ year hiatus between 1989 and 1995 ) . In that time Eon Productions has produced 24 films , most of them at Pinewood Studios . With a combined gross of over $ 7 billion to date , the films produced by Eon constitute the third @-@ highest @-@ grossing film series , behind the Harry Potter and Marvel Cinematic Universe films ( accounting for the effects of inflation the Bond films are the highest @-@ grossing series amassing over $ 13 billion at 2011 / 2012 prices ) . Six actors have portrayed 007 in the Eon series , the latest being Daniel Craig .
Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman co @-@ produced most of the Eon films until 1975 , when Broccoli became the sole producer . The single exception during this period was Thunderball , on which Broccoli and Saltzman became executive producers while Kevin McClory produced . From 1984 to 1989 Broccoli was joined by his stepson Michael G. Wilson as producer until 1995 , when Albert Broccoli stepped aside from Eon and was replaced by his daughter Barbara , who has co @-@ produced with Wilson since . Broccoli 's ( and until 1975 , Saltzman 's ) family company , Danjaq , has held ownership of the series through Eon , and maintained co @-@ ownership with United Artists since the mid @-@ 1970s . The Eon series has seen continuity both in the main actors and in the production crews , with directors , writers , composers , production designers , and others employed through a number of films .
From the release of Dr. No ( 1962 ) to For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) , the films were distributed solely by United Artists . When Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer absorbed United Artists in 1981 , MGM / UA Entertainment Co. was formed and distributed the films until 1995 . MGM solely distributed three films from 1997 to 2002 after United Artists was retired as a mainstream studio . From 2006 to present , MGM and Columbia Pictures have co @-@ distributed the film series , following the 2005 acquisition of MGM by a consortium led by Columbia 's parent company , Sony Pictures Entertainment . In November 2010 ; MGM filed for bankruptcy ; following its emergence from insolvency , Columbia has been co @-@ production partner of the series with Danjaq until Sony 's distribution rights to the franchise comes to the end with the release of Spectre .
Independently of the Eon series , there have been three additional productions with the character of James Bond : a 1954 American television adaptation , Casino Royale , produced by CBS ; a 1967 spoof , Casino Royale , produced by Charles K. Feldman ; and a 1983 remake of Thunderball entitled Never Say Never Again , produced by Jack Schwartzman , who had obtained the rights to the film from McClory .
= = Development = =
= = = First screen adaptation = = =
In 1954 the American CBS television network paid Ian Fleming $ 1 @,@ 000 ( $ 8 @,@ 812 in 2016 dollars ) for the rights to turn his first novel , Casino Royale , into a one @-@ hour television adventure as part of the dramatic anthology series Climax Mystery Theater , which ran between October 1954 and June 1958 . It was adapted for the screen by Anthony Ellis and Charles Bennett ; Bennett was well known for his collaborations with Alfred Hitchcock , including The 39 Steps and Sabotage . Due to the restriction of a one @-@ hour play , the adapted version lost many of the details found in the book , although it retained its violence , particularly in Act III . The hour @-@ long " Casino Royale " episode , which starred American actor Barry Nelson as Bond and Peter Lorre as the villain Le Chiffre , aired on 21 October 1954 as a live production .
= = = Eon Productions = = =
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman ( 1962 – 64 ) = = = =
In 1959 producer Albert R. " Cubby " Broccoli at Warwick Films expressed interest in adapting the Bond novels , but his colleague Irving Allen was unenthusiastic . In June 1961 Fleming sold a six @-@ month option on the film rights to his published and future James Bond novels and short stories to Harry Saltzman , with the exception of Casino Royale , which he had previously sold . Towards the end of Saltzman 's option period , screenwriter Wolf Mankowitz introduced him to Broccoli , and Saltzman and Broccoli formed Eon Productions with the intention of making the first Bond film . A number of Hollywood studios did not want to fund the films , finding them " too British " or " too blatantly sexual " . Eventually the two signed a deal with United Artists for 100 per cent financial backing and distribution of seven films , with financing of $ 1 million for the first feature . Saltzman and Broccoli also created the company Danjaq , which was to hold the rights to the films which Eon Productions was to produce .
Eon had originally intended to film Fleming 's novel Thunderball first , but Kevin McClory took Fleming to the High Court in London for breach of copyright over the book , and so Eon decided to film Dr. No first .
= = = = = Dr. No ( 1962 ) = = = = =
Eon asked several directors — Bryan Forbes , Guy Green , Val Guest and Guy Hamilton — to helm the film , but all declined , before Terence Young agreed . Eon had originally hired Wolf Mankowitz and Richard Maibaum to write Dr. No 's screenplay , partly because of Mankowitz 's help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman . An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain , Dr. No , a monkey , and Mankowitz left the film . Maibaum then undertook a second version , more closely in line with the novel ; Johanna Harwood and Berkely Mather then worked on Maibaum 's script , with Harwood in particular being described as a script doctor credited with improving the British characterisations .
To play the lead role of Bond , Sean Connery was not Broccoli or Fleming 's first choice , but he was selected after Patrick McGoohan had turned down the role , and Eon had rejected Richard Johnson . After Connery was chosen , Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser and introduced him to the high life , restaurants , casinos and women of London . In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson , Young educated the actor " in the ways of being dapper , witty , and above all , cool " .
Filming took place on location in Jamaica between 16 January and 21 February 1962 ; five days later filming began at Pinewood Studios in England with sets designed by Ken Adam , who had previously worked with Broccoli on the 1960 film The Trials of Oscar Wilde . Maurice Binder created the title sequence and introduced the gun barrel motif that appears in all the Eon Bond films . Monty Norman wrote the accompanying soundtrack , which included the " James Bond Theme " , heard in the gun barrel sequence and in a calypso medley over the title credits ; the theme was described by another Bond film composer , David Arnold , as " bebop @-@ swing vibe coupled with that vicious , dark , distorted electric guitar , definitely an instrument of rock ' n ' roll ... it represented everything about the character you would want : It was cocky , swaggering , confident , dark , dangerous , suggestive , sexy , unstoppable . And he did it in two minutes " . The theme was arranged by John Barry , who was uncredited for the arrangement but credited for his performance .
= = = = = From Russia with Love ( 1963 ) = = = = =
After the financial success of Dr. No , United Artists doubled the budget offered to Eon Productions to $ 2 million for the company 's next film , From Russia with Love . The film was shot in locations in Europe , which had turned out to be the more profitable market for Dr. No . Most of the crew from the first film returned , with major exceptions being production designer Ken Adam — who went to work on Dr. Strangelove and was replaced by Dr. No 's art director Syd Cain — and title designer Maurice Binder , who was replaced by Robert Brownjohn .
The original screenwriter for the film was Len Deighton , but he was replaced because of his slow progress . Two of the writers from Dr. No , Richard Maibaum and Johanna Harwood , were brought in , with Maibaum being given the sole writing credit and Harwood being credited for " adaptation " . From Russia with Love is the first Bond film in the series with John Barry as the primary soundtrack composer , although Lionel Bart wrote the title song " From Russia with Love " , sung by Matt Monro . Principal photography began on 1 April 1963 and concluded on 23 August . Filming took place in Turkey , Pinewood Studios and Venice , with Scotland and Switzerland doubling for the Orient Express journey through Eastern Europe .
= = = = = Goldfinger ( 1964 ) = = = = =
While the previous two films had concentrated on the Caribbean and Europe , Goldfinger was chosen by Eon for the third film , with the American cinema market in mind . Because Terence Young was refused a share of the profits , he declined to direct Goldfinger and worked on The Amorous Adventures of Moll Flanders instead , although he had done some pre @-@ production work before he left . In his place , Eon turned to Guy Hamilton to direct ; he was keen to inject elements of humour into the series , have more gadgets and build bigger and more elegant sets .
Eon again turned to Richard Maibaum for the script , although Paul Dehn was later introduced for rewrites . After missing From Russia with Love , Ken Adam returned as production designer . Adam 's imagination provided the idea of gold stacked upon gold behind iron bars for the scenes in the United States Bullion Depository . Saltzman disliked the design 's resemblance to a prison , but Hamilton liked it enough that it was built .
Robert Brownjohn returned to develop the opening credit sequence , which featured clips of all three Bond films projected on actress Margaret Nolan 's body . Its design was inspired by seeing light projecting on people 's bodies as they got up and left a cinema . Principal photography on Goldfinger started on 20 January 1964 in Miami , at the Fontainebleau Hotel ; the crew was small , consisting only of Hamilton , Broccoli , Adam and cinematographer Ted Moore . After five days in Florida , production moved to England . The primary location was Pinewood Studios , home to sets including a recreation of the Fontainebleau , the South American city of the pre @-@ title sequence , and both Goldfinger 's estate and factory . Ian Fleming visited the set of Goldfinger in April 1964 ; he died in August , shortly before the film 's release . The second unit filmed in Kentucky , and these shots were edited into scenes filmed at Pinewood . Principal photography then moved to Switzerland for the car chase and additional footage for Goldfinger 's factory sequence . Filming wrapped on 11 July at Andermatt , after nineteen weeks of shooting .
= = = = Kevin McClory ( 1965 ) = = = =
When writing his novels , Ian Fleming had always considered that they could be adapted for the cinema , and he approached producer Sir Alexander Korda to make a film adaptation of either Live and Let Die or Moonraker . Although Korda was initially interested , he later withdrew . On 1 October 1959 , it was announced that Fleming would write an original film script featuring Bond for producer Kevin McClory . Jack Whittingham also worked on the script , culminating in a screenplay entitled James Bond , Secret Agent . However , Alfred Hitchcock and Richard Burton turned down roles as director and star , respectively . McClory was unable to secure the financing for the film , and the deal fell through . Fleming subsequently used the story for his novel Thunderball ( 1961 ) , and McClory failed to have its publication stopped . On 19 November 1963 he took the matter to the Chancery Division of the High Court in the case of McClory v Fleming , but settled on 9 December 1963 , after nine days in court . McClory gained the literary and film rights for the screenplay , while Fleming was given the rights to the novel , although it had to be recognised as being " based on a screen treatment by Kevin McClory , Jack Whittingham and the Author " .
= = = = = Thunderball ( 1965 ) = = = = =
After From Russia with Love , Eon had considered undertaking an adaptation of either On Her Majesty 's Secret Service or Casino Royale . They entered into negotiations with Charles K. Feldman , who held the rights to the latter , but a deal proved too difficult to achieve . Instead , Eon turned to the Thunderball novel . Although Eon had wanted to adapt the book in 1962 , it had not been possible until the legal obstacles had been cleared . As a result of the settlement of the copyright infringement lawsuit brought by Kevin McClory , Eon negotiated with McClory to make Thunderball . McClory received the sole producer credit on the film , while Broccoli and Saltzman took the title Executive Producer , although " in reality all three men would essentially act as producers " . Broccoli later said of the three @-@ way partnership that " We didn 't want anyone else to make Thunderball ... We had the feeling that if anyone else came in and made their own Bond film , it would have been bad for our series " .
Guy Hamilton was asked to direct again , but declined feeling that he was " drained of ideas ... I had nothing to contribute until I 'd recharged batteries " ; Terence Young returned to direct after the hiatus of Goldfinger . Richard Maibaum 's original script from 1961 was used as the basis of the script , which he then re @-@ drafted , with further revisions by John Hopkins . Principal filming began in Paris on 16 February 1965 , and moved to Nassau on 22 March , before concluding at Pinewood Studios in May .
With worldwide box office earnings of $ 141 @.@ 2 million Thunderball became the highest @-@ grossing instalment and retained the record until it was surpassed by The Spy Who Loved Me twelve years later ; adjusted for inflation it remained the most successful entry until Skyfall was released in 2012 . As part of the contract with Eon , McClory received 20 % of the film 's profits and undertook not to produce any other films based on the Thunderball story for a period of ten years following the release of the Eon @-@ produced version in 1965 .
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli and Harry Saltzman ( 1967 – 75 ) = = = =
= = = = = You Only Live Twice ( 1967 ) = = = = =
After the interruption of McClory as producer , Albert Broccoli and Harry Saltzman returned to produce once again . The first four Bond films had been popular in Japan , and Eon decided to take advantage of the market by producing You Only Live Twice . The film included progressive elements of Japanese culture as part of the background .
Lewis Gilbert was appointed director and Ken Adam returned as production designer ; Adam built a volcano hideaway set for the main antagonist , Ernst Stavro Blofeld , at Pinewood for $ 1 millon ( $ 7 @,@ 096 @,@ 806 in 2016 dollars ) ; at the time it was the biggest film set in Europe . Gilbert , Broccoli , Saltzman , Ken Adam and director of photography Freddie Young then went to Japan , spending three weeks searching for locations . While in Tokyo , the crew crossed paths with Peter R. Hunt , who was on holiday . Hunt had edited the first four Bond films , and he was invited to direct the second unit . The total budget for the film was $ 10 @.@ 3 million ( $ 59 @.@ 9 million in 2005 dollars ) .
Initially the screenwriter was to be Harold Jack Bloom , although he was later replaced by Roald Dahl , who had little previous screenwriting experience . You Only Live Twice was the first Bond film to jettison the plot premise of the Fleming source material , although the film retains the title , the Japanese setting , the use of Blofeld as the main villain and a Bond girl named Kissy Suzuki from the novel .
Filming commenced at Pinewood on 4 July 1966 before moving out to Japan on 27 July for six weeks ' filming . Local Japanese interest in the filming was high , and the crew had to contend with large crowds throughout the process . Connery , however , was somewhat resigned to the project , lacking the enthusiasm he sported for Thunderball . A press conference on his arrival had been tense , " soured by aggressive questioning of Connery 's crumpled , jet @-@ lagged appearance " . Primary and secondary photography finished in December ; the special effects filming for the space scenes were undertaken between January and March 1967 , prior to the film 's release on 12 June .
The cinema posters for the film stated " Sean Connery IS James Bond " , to distance the Eon @-@ produced picture from the independent Casino Royale , which had been released two months earlier . However , during the production , Connery announced that it would be his last film as Bond , leaving Broccoli to tell Alan Whicker , " it won 't be the last Bond under any circumstances — with all due respect to Sean , who I think has been certainly the best man to play this part . We will , in our own way , try to continue the Bond series for the audience because it 's too important " .
= = = = = On Her Majesty 's Secret Service ( 1969 ) = = = = =
George Lazenby was signed on to play Bond for OHMSS . Between Sean Connery giving his notice at the beginning of filming You Only Live Twice and its release , Saltzman had planned to adapt The Man with the Golden Gun in Cambodia and use Roger Moore as the next Bond , but political instability meant the location was ruled out and Moore signed up for another series of the television programme The Saint . After You Only Live Twice was released in 1967 , the producers once again picked the often @-@ delayed On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , which had previously been considered to follow both Goldfinger and then Thunderball .
Peter Hunt , who had worked on the five preceding films had impressed Broccoli and Saltzman enough to earn his directorial debut as they believed his quick cutting had set the style for the series ; it was also the result of a long @-@ standing promise from Broccoli and Saltzman for the opportunity to direct . Hunt also asked for the position during the production of Chitty Chitty Bang Bang , and he brought along with him many crew members , including cinematographer Michael Reed . Hunt was focused on putting his mark , saying , " I wanted it to be different than any other Bond film would be . It was my film , not anyone else 's " . On Her Majesty 's Secret Service was the last film on which Hunt worked in the series .
Screenwriter Richard Maibaum , who worked on the first four Bond films , returned as script writer . Saltzman and Broccoli decided to drop the science fiction gadgets from the earlier films and focus more on plot as in From Russia With Love . Peter Hunt asked Simon Raven to write some of the dialogue between Contessa Teresa " Tracy " di Vicenzo and Blofeld in Piz Gloria , which was to be " sharper , better and more intellectual " ; Raven 's additions included rewriting the proposal scene and having Tracy quote James Elroy Flecker . Syd Cain took over from Ken Adam as production designer as Eon decided not to have Adam 's larger sets to reduce the film 's budget to $ 7 million , from the $ 10 @.@ 3 million it took to make You Only Live Twice .
Principal photography began in the Canton of Bern , Switzerland , on 21 October 1968 , with the first scene shot being an aerial view of Bond climbing the stairs of Blofeld 's mountain retreat . The scenes were shot atop the now @-@ famous revolving restaurant Piz Gloria , located atop the Schilthorn near the village of Mürren . The location was found by production manager Hubert Fröhlich after three weeks of location scouting in France and Switzerland . The Swiss filming ended up running 56 days over schedule . In March 1969 production moved to England , with London 's Pinewood Studios being used for interior shooting , and M 's house being shot in Marlow , Buckinghamshire . In April the filmmakers went to Portugal , where principal photography wrapped in May . Filming finished on 23 June , two months later than planned , which was largely due to the warm Swiss winter , which had hampered shooting .
Midway through production , acting on advice from his agent Ronan O 'Rahilly , George Lazenby announced that he was not going to continue as Bond in future films , and he left the role before the December 1969 release of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service .
= = = = = Diamonds Are Forever ( 1971 ) = = = = =
Although Eon secured the services of John Gavin to play the role of Bond , United Artists ' chief David Picker was unhappy with this decision and instructed associate producer Stanley Sopel to broker a deal with Connery which saw the actor being paid $ 1 @.@ 25 million ( $ 9 million in 2016 dollars ) and 12 @.@ 5 % of the gross . Connery 's salary took a significant part of the $ 7 @.@ 2 million budget .
The producers had originally intended to have Diamonds Are Forever re @-@ create commercially successful aspects of Goldfinger , so they hired director Guy Hamilton as a result . Richard Maibaum also returned to write the script ; the first draft envisaged the return of Auric Goldfinger portrayer Gert Fröbe , this time in the role of Goldfinger 's twin brother . Maibaum also wrote a climax to the film that consisted of the new Goldfinger being chased across Lake Mead by the people of Las Vegas , all being co @-@ ordinated by Bond . In the autumn of 1970 Tom Mankiewicz was hired to undertake re @-@ writes , which included removing Goldfinger 's brother and the Lake Mead finale .
Filming began on 5 April 1971 with the desert near Las Vegas doubling for the South African scenes , followed by filming in the Great Basin Desert , Nevada in May for scenes in which Bond drives a moon buggy . On 7 June production moved to Pinewood Studios for filming at sets of the returning Ken Adams ; his sets spread through four of Pinewood 's stages . Filming also took place in London , Dover , Southampton , Amsterdam and the south of France ; principal photography finished 13 August 1971 .
= = = = = Live and Let Die ( 1973 ) = = = = =
While filming Diamonds Are Forever , Live and Let Die was chosen as the next Ian Fleming novel to be adapted because screenwriter Tom Mankiewicz thought it would be daring to use black villains , as the Black Panthers and other racial movements were active at that time . The new Bond actor selected by Eon was Roger Moore , and he tried not to imitate either his predecessor Sean Connery or his own performance as Simon Templar in The Saint ; Mankiewicz adapted the screenplay to emphasise Moore 's persona by giving him more comedy scenes and creating a light @-@ hearted feel to Bond . Guy Hamilton was again chosen to direct , and Mankiewicz suggested they film in New Orleans , as he knew Hamilton was a jazz fan . Hamilton didn 't want to use Mardi Gras , as Thunderball featured Junkanoo , a similar festival , so after more discussions with the writer and further scouting , he decided to use two well @-@ known features of the city , the jazz funerals and the canals . While searching for locations in Jamaica , the crew discovered a crocodile farm owned by Ross Kananga , after passing a sign warning that " trespassers will be eaten " . The farm was put into the script and also inspired Mankiewicz to name the film 's villain after Kananga . With the rise of the popularity of Blaxploitation films in the early 1970s , it was decided to borrow elements of the genre for Live and Let Die .
Syd Cain returned as art director and was involved searching for locations with Guy Hamilton in March 1972 . Principal photography began on 13 October 1972 in the Irish Bayou in Louisiana for a boat chase scene . On 29 November production moved to Jamaica , which doubled for the fictional island San Monique , the home of antagonist Kananga . In December , production was divided between interiors in Pinewood Studios , while a separate unit also shot in Harlem .
John Barry , who had worked on the previous five films , was unavailable during production . Broccoli and Saltzman instead asked Paul McCartney to write the theme song . Since McCartney 's salary of $ 15 @,@ 000 ( plus royalties ) was high and another composer of Barry 's stature could not be hired with the remainder of the music budget , George Martin , who had little experience of film scoring , was hired .
= = = = = The Man with the Golden Gun ( 1974 ) = = = = =
The film of The Man with the Golden Gun saw a change in location from the novel of the same name to put Bond in the Far East for the second time . After considering Beirut , where part of the film is set ; Iran , where the location scouting was done but eventually discarded because of the Yom Kippur War ; and the Hạ Long Bay in Vietnam , the production team chose Thailand as a primary location , following a suggestion of production designer Peter Murton after he saw pictures of the Phuket bay in a magazine . Saltzman was happy with the choice of the Far East for the setting as he had always wanted to go on location in Thailand and Hong Kong . During the reconnaissance of locations in Hong Kong , Broccoli saw the partially submerged wreckage of the former RMS Queen Elizabeth and came up with the idea of using it as the base for MI6 's Far East operations .
Tom Mankiewicz wrote a first draft for the script in 1973 , delivering a script that was a battle of wills between Bond and the primary villain Francisco Scaramanga , whom he saw as Bond 's alter ego , " a super @-@ villain of the stature of Bond himself " . Tensions between Mankiewicz and Guy Hamilton led to Richard Maibaum taking over scripting duties . Maibaum , who had worked on six Bond films previously , delivered his own draft based on Mankiewicz 's work . Broccoli 's stepson Michael G. Wilson researched solar power to create the MacGuffin of the " Solex Agitator " . While Live and Let Die had borrowed heavily from the blaxploitation genre , The Man with the Golden Gun borrowed from the martial arts genre that was popular in the 1970s .
On 6 November 1973 filming commenced at the RMS Queen Elizabeth , which acted as a top @-@ secret MI6 base grounded in Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong . The major part of principal photography started in April 1974 in Thailand . Thai locations included Bangkok , Thonburi , Phuket and the nearby Phang Nga Province , on the islands of Ko Khao Phing Kan ( Thai : เกาะเขาพิงกัน ) and Ko Tapu ( Thai : เกาะตะปู ) . In late April production returned to Hong Kong and also shot in Macau . Production had to move to studio work in Pinewood Studios — which included sets such as Scaramanga 's solar energy plant and island interior .
John Barry returned to compose the score , but had only three weeks to complete the work , and the theme tune and score are generally considered by critics to be among the weakest of Barry 's contributions to the series — an opinion shared by Barry himself : " It 's the one I hate most ... it just never happened for me " .
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli ( 1975 – 84 ) = = = =
Following The Man with the Golden Gun , producer Harry Saltzman sold his 50 % stake in Eon Productions ' parent company , Danjaq , to United Artists to alleviate his financial problems , brought about by financial constraints following a downturn in the fortunes of Technicolor , in which he had invested heavily . The resulting legalities over the Bond property delayed production of the next Bond film , The Spy Who Loved Me .
= = = = = The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) = = = = =
Guy Hamilton was initially scheduled to follow on from The Man with the Golden Gun with The Spy Who Loved Me , but instead turned down Eon Productions during pre @-@ production after being offered the opportunity to direct the 1978 film Superman , although he was ultimately passed up for Richard Donner . Eon then turned to Lewis Gilbert , who had directed the earlier Bond film You Only Live Twice . Broccoli commissioned a number of writers to work on the script , including Stirling Silliphant , John Landis , Ronald Hardy , Anthony Burgess and Derek Marlowe , but Richard Maibaum drew up the first draft script , with some inclusions from the previous writers . When Lewis Gilbert was hired to direct , he brought with him Christopher Wood to revise Maibaum 's draft . The draft Wood prepared was challenged in court by Kevin McClory , who alleged infringement based on the use of what he claimed were his rights in SPECTRE and the Blofeld character . Eon disputed McClory 's claim but had Wood remove the organisation and character from the script .
Ken Adam returned as production designer . As no studio stages were big enough for the interior of the villain Karl Stromberg 's supertanker , in March 1976 construction began of a new sound stage at Pinewood , the 007 Stage , which cost $ 1 @.@ 8 million and became the largest stage in the world . In contrast to the volcano crater set Adam had built for You Only Live Twice in 1966 — which Adam had called " a workable but ultimately wasteful set " — the 007 Stage would be a permanent structure that could be rented out to other productions . Secondary filming began in July 1976 at Baffin Island , where the ski jump for the opening credits was filmed . Principal filming commenced in Sardinia in August 1976 , moving on to Egypt shortly afterwards . Further filming took place in Sardinia , Malta , Japan , Switzerland and the Faslane submarine base . On 5 December 1976 , with principal photography finished , the 007 Stage was formally opened by the former Prime Minister Harold Wilson .
John Barry could not work in the United Kingdom due to tax problems and suggested Marvin Hamlisch to score the film . Hamlisch composed " Nobody Does It Better " as the theme song ; the score and the song were both nominated for Academy and Golden Globe Awards .
= = = = = Moonraker ( 1979 ) = = = = =
Eon Productions had originally planned to follow The Spy Who Loved Me with an adaptation of For Your Eyes Only , although this plan changed within weeks of the 1977 release , following the box office success of the 1977 space @-@ themed film Star Wars . With a budget of $ 34 million Moonraker cost more than double any of the previous Bond films , although both Broccoli and United Artists agreed to the costs because of the profits from The Spy Who Loved Me .
Lewis Gilbert was again appointed as director , and a number of the crew from The Spy Who Loved Me also joined the production . Gilbert and Tom Mankiewicz wrote the initial story , but Christopher Wood turned this into the final screenplay . Many of the script ideas came about as a result of location scouting , with Iguazu Falls being identified as a filming location while Broccoli was in Brazil for the release of The Spy Who Loved Me .
Unlike previous Bond films , the production of Moonraker was not based at Pinewood , as Broccoli moved it to Paris for financial reasons , although the scenes for the cable car interiors and space battle exteriors were filmed at Pinewood , with the special effects team of Derek Meddings active in the UK throughout production . Principal photography began on 11 August 1978 in Paris . The sets designed by returning production designer Ken Adam were the largest ever constructed in France and required more than 222 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct ( approximately 1 @,@ 000 hours by each of the crew on average ) . Much of the film was shot in the cities of London , Paris , Venice , Palmdale , California , Port St. Lucie , Florida and Rio de Janeiro . Principal filming finished back in Paris on 27 February 1979 , a 28 @-@ week schedule that had allowed Roger Moore only three days off . John Barry was again asked to score an Eon film .
= = = = = For Your Eyes Only ( 1981 ) = = = = =
For Your Eyes Only marked a change in the production crew : John Glen was promoted from his duties as a film editor to director , a position he would occupy for the next four films . Since Ken Adam was busy with the film Pennies from Heaven , Peter Lamont , who had worked in the art department since Goldfinger , was promoted to production designer . Following a suggestion from Glen , Lamont created realistic sets , instead of the elaborate scenery for which the series had been known .
Richard Maibaum was once again the scriptwriter for the story , assisted by Michael G. Wilson . According to Wilson , the ideas could have come from anyone as a committee that could include Broccoli , Maibaum , Wilson , Glen and stunt coordinators worked on the outlines . Much of the inspiration for the stories for the film came from two Fleming short stories from the collection For Your Eyes Only : " Risico " and " For Your Eyes Only " . Another set @-@ piece from the novel of Live and Let Die — the keelhauling — which was unused in that novel 's adaptation , was inserted into the plot .
Production of For Your Eyes Only began on 2 September 1980 in the North Sea , with three days shooting exterior scenes for the scenes involving the St Georges spyboat . The interiors were shot later in Pinewood Studios , as well as the ship 's explosion , which was done with a miniature in Pinewood 's tank on the 007 Stage . On 15 September principal photography started in Corfu at the Villa Sylva at Kanoni , above Corfu Town , which acted as the location of the Spanish villa .
In October filming moved to other Greek locations , including Meteora and the Achilleion . In November the main unit moved to England , which included interior work in Pinewood , while the second unit shot underwater scenes in the Bahamas . On 1 January 1981 production moved to Cortina d 'Ampezzo in Italy , where filming wrapped in February . Many of the underwater scenes , especially involving close @-@ ups of Bond and Melina , were shot on a dry soundstage . A combination of lighting effects , slow @-@ motion photography , wind , and bubbles added in post @-@ production , gave the illusion of the actors being underwater . The pre @-@ credits sequence used a church in Stoke Poges as a cemetery , while scenes involving a helicopter were filmed at the abandoned Beckton Gas Works in London .
The score of For Your Eyes Only was written by Bill Conti , who retained a number of John Barry @-@ influenced brass elements in the score but also added elements of dance and funk music .
= = = = = Octopussy ( 1983 ) = = = = =
In 1980 United Artists , which had provided much of the funding for the Bond films , fell into financial difficulties following the box office failure of Heaven 's Gate ( 1980 ) , bringing uncertainty to the future of the funding . The situation was resolved in May 1981 , when Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer acquired United Artists .
Following For Your Eyes Only , Roger Moore had expressed a desire to stop playing James Bond . His original contract had been for three films , a requirement fulfilled with The Spy Who Loved Me . Subsequent films had been negotiated on a film @-@ by @-@ film basis . The producers engaged in a semi @-@ public quest for the next actor to play Bond , which would be for Octopussy . However , when Kevin McClory announced his re @-@ working of Thunderball as Never Say Never Again , the producers re @-@ contracted Moore in the belief that an established actor in the role would fare better against McClory 's choice of Bond , Sean Connery . Before For Your Eyes Only had been released , Albert Broccoli had asked John Glen to return and direct Octopussy . George MacDonald Fraser wrote an initial treatment that was extensively revised by Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum .
First unit filming began on 10 August 1982 at the Berlin Wall crossing point Checkpoint Charlie , although the second unit had already been at work for a few weeks , filming scenes for a mid @-@ air fight sequence . The Monsoon Palace served as the exterior of villain Kamal Khan 's palace , while scenes set at the palace of titular character Octopussy were filmed at the Lake Palace and Jag Mandir . Bond 's hotel was the Shiv Niwas Palace . In England RAF Northolt , RAF Upper Heyford and RAF Oakley were the main locations . Scenes set at the Karl @-@ Marx @-@ Stadt railways scenes were shot at the Nene Valley Railway , while studio work was undertaken at Pinewood Studios and 007 Stage . Filming finished on 21 January 1983 . John Barry returned to score , having passed on For Your Eyes Only for tax reasons . While Barry wrote the title song , " All Time High " , Tim Rice wrote the lyrics and the song was performed by Rita Coolidge .
Octopussy had its premiere on 6 June 1983 , four months before the October release of Never Say Never Again . From its budget of $ 27 @.@ 5 million , Octopussy took $ 183 @.@ 7 million at the box office , a figure which saw it surpass the takings of its Connery @-@ led rival , which took $ 160 million .
= = = = Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson ( 1984 – 89 ) = = = =
In 1984 Michael G Wilson joined Albert R Broccoli as co @-@ producer at Eon . Wilson had first worked on a Bond production in February 1964 with the filming of Goldfinger . He had worked on every production since The Spy Who Loved Me , and had been executive producer on Moonraker , For Your Eyes Only and Octopussy .
= = = = = A View to a Kill ( 1985 ) = = = = =
The day before the UK premiere of the non @-@ Eon rival Bond film , Never Say Never Again , Eon announced that Roger Moore would return as Bond for the seventh time . John Glen also returned as director , while Peter Lamont and John Barry also signed up as they had for Octopussy . Michael G. Wilson co @-@ wrote the screenplay with Richard Maibaum .
On 27 June 1984 the 007 Stage was almost entirely destroyed by fire . It was rebuilt in time for production and reopened in January 1985 , when it was renamed the " Albert Broccoli 007 Stage " . The second unit started filming in Iceland in July 1984 , while principal photography with Moore commenced on 1 August at Pinewood . Also in August , the second unit filmed in Paris , including scenes involving a parachute jump from the Eiffel Tower .
The Amberley Museum & Heritage Centre doubled as the exterior of villain Max Zorin 's mine , while the scenes in the complex under Zorin 's stables were filmed in a Renault plant off the M4 , before primary filming moved to San Francisco . Filming finished in January 1985 at the 007 Stage , with the filming of the interior of Zorin 's mine , designed by Peter Lamont .
= = = = = The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) = = = = =
With the retirement of Roger Moore following A View to a Kill , the producers searched for a new Bond and eventually cast Timothy Dalton in the lead role in August 1986 . Much of the senior production crew from the previous film worked on The Living Daylights , with John Glen directing , John Barry providing the score and Peter Lamont acting as production designer . Michael G. Wilson and Richard Maibaum again provided the script and initially proposed a prequel , showing Bond 's first mission , although this was turned down by Broccoli . Script work continued while the producers searched for Moore 's successor .
The film was shot at the 007 Stage at Pinewood Studios , with principal photography starting on 29 September 1986 , before moving to Vienna on 5 October , where the crew filmed for two weeks . Meanwhile , the second unit had started work on the pre @-@ credits sequence on Gibraltar on 17 September before moving to Morocco . Filming finished on 13 February 1987 .
The Living Daylights was the twelfth and final Bond film to be scored by composer John Barry . The title song of the film , " The Living Daylights " , was co @-@ written with Paul Waaktaar @-@ Savoy of the Norwegian pop @-@ music group A @-@ ha and recorded by them . The group and Barry did not collaborate well , resulting in two versions of the theme song .
The production costs of The Living Daylights were $ 40 million , and the film posted box office results of $ 191 @.@ 2 million .
= = = = = Licence to Kill ( 1989 ) = = = = =
Shortly after the release of The Living Daylights , producers Albert R. Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson and writer Richard Maibaum started discussing its successor . They decided that the film would retain a realistic style , as well as showing the " darker edge " of the Bond character . For the primary location , the producers wanted a place where the series had not yet visited . While China was visited after an invitation by its government , the idea fell through partly because the 1987 film The Last Emperor had removed some of the novelty from filming in China . By this stage the writers had already talked about a chase sequence along the Great Wall , as well as a fight scene amongst the Terracotta Army . Wilson also wrote two plot outlines about a drug lord in the Golden Triangle before the plans fell through . The writers eventually decided on a setting in a tropical country while Broccoli negotiated to film in Mexico , at the Estudios Churubusco in Mexico City . In 1985 the Films Act was passed , removing the Eady Levy , which resulted in foreign artists being taxed more heavily . The associated rising costs to Eon Productions meant no part of Licence to Kill was filmed in the UK , the first Bond film not to do so . Pinewood Studios , used in every Bond film that far , housed only the post @-@ production and sound re @-@ recording .
The initial outline of what would become Licence to Kill was drawn up by Wilson and Maibaum . Before the pair could develop the script , the Writers Guild of America ( WGA ) went on strike and Maibaum was unable to continue writing , leaving Wilson to work on the script on his own . The script — initially called Licence Revoked — was written with Dalton 's characterisation of Bond in mind ; the obsession with which Bond pursues the drug lord villain Franz Sanchez on behalf of Bond 's friend , the CIA / DEA agent Felix Leiter and his dead wife is seen as being because of Bond 's own " brutally cut @-@ short marriage " .
John Glen returned once again to direct , teaming up once more with production designer Peter Lamont . Principal photography ran from 18 July to 18 November 1988 . Shooting began in Mexico , which mostly doubled for the fictional Republic of Isthmus . Other underwater sequences were shot at the Isla Mujeres near Cancún . In August 1988 production moved to the Florida Keys , notably Key West . Seven Mile Bridge towards Pigeon Key was used for the sequence in which the armoured truck transporting Sanchez following his arrest is driven off the edge . Other locations there included the Ernest Hemingway House , Key West International Airport , Mallory Square , St. Mary 's Star of the Sea Church for Leiter 's wedding and Stephano 's House 707 South Street for his house and patio . The US Coast Guard Pier was used to film Isthmus City harbour .
John Barry was not available to score the film because of throat surgery , so the soundtrack 's score was composed and conducted by Michael Kamen , who was known for scoring many action films at the time , such as Lethal Weapon and Die Hard . The film 's darker and more violent plot elicited calls for cuts by the British Board of Film Classification .
Licence to Kill marked the end of the involvement for a number of long @-@ term crew members , including John Glen , Maurice Binder , Richard Maibaum and cinematographer Alec Mills . It was also the final film which was produced by the partnership of Albert Broccoli and Michael Wilson .
= = = = Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli ( 1990 – present ) = = = =
The relatively disappointing box office returns for Licence to Kill led to Albert Broccoli questioning his own leadership of the series , and he put Danjaq , holders of the Bond film copyright , up for sale . Timothy Dalton was quoted at the time as saying " My feeling is this will be the last one . I don 't mean my last one , I mean the end of the whole lot . I don 't speak with any real authority , but it 's sort of a feeling I have " .
In 1990 the situation was further complicated when MGM / UA was sold to Qintex , which wanted to then merge with Pathé Communications ; the Bond back catalogue was leased to Pathé at a lower @-@ than @-@ market value , without consulting Danjaq - who sued MGM / UA Communications , which was itself the target of a failed takeover bid by Pathé . In August 1990 Albert Broccoli appointed his daughter Barbara Broccoli alongside Michael G. Wilson as producers at Eon , while he concentrated on matters at Danjaq . The dispute between Danjaq and MGM / UA was protracted and delayed production of Bond 17 , but was finally settled in 1993 .
The new producers changed the policy of behind @-@ the @-@ scenes continuity prevalent in the series up to that point and , from the 1990s onwards , there were more changes in key production roles , including employing directors " on a ' guest director ' footing " .
= = = = = GoldenEye ( 1995 ) = = = = =
Despite the legal action , pre @-@ production towards Bond 17 still progressed , with some early details unveiled at the Cannes Film Festival which took place in May 1990 . However , delays occurred because of the ongoing legal action with MGM / UA and , in an August 1993 interview , Dalton revealed that Michael France was involved in writing a script for the next Bond film , with Anthony Hopkins as a potential villain , adding that Hopkins had been in discussions with Eon for a number of weeks . Dalton also stated that the earliest production could begin would be in January or February 1994 . Dalton 's six @-@ year contract expired in 1993 , and after reading France 's script for what would become GoldenEye , he announced on 12 April 1994 that he would not be returning to play Bond ; he was replaced by Pierce Brosnan . After Michael France delivered the original screenplay , Jeffrey Caine was brought in to rework much of the material . Kevin Wade was also brought into the process before Bruce Feirstein gave the final polish to the script .
With Barbara Broccoli and Michael G. Wilson as co @-@ producers , Albert Broccoli oversaw the production of GoldenEye as consulting producer but is credited as " presenter " . John Woo was approached to direct the film , but he turned down the opportunity , saying he was honoured by the offer . The producers then chose Martin Campbell to lead the film .
Principal photography started on 16 January 1995 and continued until 6 June . The producers were unable to use Pinewood Studios , the usual location for Bond films , because it had been reserved for First Knight , so an old Rolls @-@ Royce factory at the Leavesden Aerodrome in Hertfordshire was converted into a new studio . In February the crew moved to Monaco and Monte Carlo for scenes in a casino and a demonstration of a Tiger helicopter . The pre @-@ credits sequence involved a bungee jump , which was filmed at the Contra Dam near Locarno , Switzerland . Reference footage for a scene consisting of a tank chase was shot on location in St. Petersburg and matched to sets built at the Leavesden studio by production designer Peter Lamont . Scenes on a satellite dish were shot at Arecibo Observatory in Puerto Rico , while in the UK , Epsom Downs Racecourse and the Nene Valley Railway were both used . For the scenes of the fictional Russian location of Severnaya , and other effects , Derek Meddings built a number of miniature sets at Leavesden . Meddings had worked on the Bond films since Live and Let Die and died before the film 's release ; GoldenEye was dedicated to his memory .
The soundtrack to GoldenEye was composed and performed by Éric Serra . Prolific Bond composer John Barry turned down an offer by Barbara Broccoli to score the film . The theme song , " GoldenEye " , was written by Bono and The Edge , and was performed by Tina Turner . As Serra did not collaborate with Bono or The Edge , orchestral versions of the song did not appear throughout GoldenEye , as had been the case in previous James Bond films .
= = = = = Tomorrow Never Dies ( 1997 ) = = = = =
Before GoldenEye had been released in November 1995 , MGM / UA started their preparations for Bond 18 , intending for a release in early December 1997 , leaving Eon Productions little time for pre @-@ production . The producers were unable to convince Martin Campbell to return ; his agent said that " Martin just didn 't want to do two Bond films in a row " . Instead , Roger Spottiswoode was chosen in September 1996 . With Peter Lamont unavailable because he was committed to Titanic , Spottiswoode chose Allan Cameron in his place to provide sets ; Spottiswoode and Cameron had previously worked together on Air America .
The story was based on a previously discarded treatment by Donald E. Westlake , which had been written before GoldenEye . The script was given a re @-@ working by Bruce Feirstein , based on the return of Hong Kong to the Chinese . Feirstein 's script was then contributed to by Nicholas Meyer before being reworked by Dan Petrie , Jr. and David Campbell Wilson before Feirstein , who retained the sole writing credit , was brought in for a final polish . The script was finished a week before principal photography started , although Feirstein had to re @-@ write sequences throughout production . The process was further hampered by poor relations between Feirstein and Spottiswoode .
With the Leavesden studios unavailable , and Pinewood not having sufficient capacity , Eon converted an abandoned grocery warehouse in Hertfordshire into a filming location . With the principal crew about to fly to location in Vietnam , the Vietnamese authorities revoked permission to film at the last minute , and alternative locations were quickly found in Thailand .
Second unit filming began on 18 January 1997 with Vic Armstrong directing ; they filmed the pre @-@ credits sequence at Peyresourde Airport in the French Pyrenees , before moving on to Portsmouth to film the scenes where the Royal Navy prepares to engage the Chinese . The main unit began filming on 1 April 1997 at the new studios , before filming at other UK locations ; production then moved to Thailand in May . Filming completed three weeks over schedule in September 1997 . Eon initially approached John Barry to score the film , but the two sides could not come to terms ; the producers then approached David Arnold , whom Barry endorsed .
The delays in the production process and the rush to deliver the film by the MGM / UA @-@ imposed deadline of December 1997 drove the costs upwards to $ 110 million , although the film recouped $ 338 @.@ 9 million at the box office .
= = = = = The World Is Not Enough ( 1999 ) = = = = =
Joe Dante and then Peter Jackson were considered as directors for The World Is Not Enough . Barbara Broccoli enjoyed Jackson 's Heavenly Creatures , and a screening of The Frighteners was arranged for her . She disliked the latter film , however , and showed no further interest in Jackson . Michael Apted was then selected to lead the film . Writers Neal Purvis and Robert Wade were hired after their work in Plunkett & Macleane , before Michael Apted and his wife , screenwriter Dana Stevens , undertook an uncredited rewrite . Pierce Brosnan was unhappy with some of Stevens ' changes to his character , so Michael G Wilson — who was also uncredited as screenwriter — and Bruce Feirstein undertook further revisions .
Production was centred at Pinewood Studios and principal photography began there on 11 January 1999 with scenes from inside the MI6 offices , designed by Peter Lamont . The pre @-@ title sequence was shot in Bilbao , Spain , in February , with production moving to Chamonix , France , which doubled for the Caucasus scenes . The exterior of a Kazakh nuclear facility was shot at the Bardenas Reales , in Navarre , Spain , while the exterior of an oil refinery control centre was doubled by the Motorola building in Groundwell , Swindon . The exterior of the oil pipeline was filmed in Cwm Dyli , Snowdonia , Wales , while the production teams shot the oil pipeline explosion in Hankley Common , Elstead , Surrey . The production also visited Istanbul , Turkey ; the scenes of villain Elektra King 's Baku villa were filmed in the city , and the famous Maiden 's Tower was used for the hideout of the second villain Renard . The underwater submarine scenes were filmed in the Bahamas .
David Arnold returned to score the music for The World Is Not Enough — the second Bond soundtrack he composed ; Garbage sang the title song . For his work on the film , Arnold won an Ivor Novello Award .
= = = = = Die Another Day ( 2002 ) = = = = =
Lee Tamahori was hired to direct Die Another Day ; Barbara Broccoli admired his film Once Were Warriors , calling it " a phenomenal piece of filmmaking " . Broccoli noted that she and Wilson " sensed his genuine enthusiasm for Bond . It was simply great chemistry . Lee was the right guy and we were very , very lucky to get him " . Screenwriters Neal Purvis and Robert Wade returned and began work in the summer of 2000 with the producers . They used a premise from Fleming 's novel Moonraker as a basis , that of an industrialist villain who had two identities . With the planned release of the film being in the 40th anniversary year of the Bond film series , Tamahori named the Hong Kong hotel seen in the film the " Rubyeon Royale " , for Eon 's ruby anniversary , as well as Fleming 's first novel , Casino Royale .
Second unit filming started on Christmas Day 2001 with Laird Hamilton , Dave Kalama and Darrick Doerner performing the surfing scene at the surf break known as Jaws in Peʻahi , Maui ; the shore shots were later taken near Cádiz , Spain and Newquay , Cornwall . Principal photography of Die Another Day began on 11 January 2002 at Pinewood studios . The film was shot primarily in the United Kingdom , Iceland , and Cádiz . Filming in the UK took place at the Eden Project , the Reform Club and Pinewood Studios ' 007 Stage , with the sets by production designer Peter Lamont , which included the ice palace . During June seven separate units were filming , including underwater , aerial and miniature ; principal photography finished on 9 July , in time for the premiere in London on 20 November 2002 .
The soundtrack was composed by David Arnold , while the title song " Die Another Day " was written and performed by Madonna , who also had a cameo appearance in the film as a fencing instructor . Die Another Day had a budget of $ 142 million and earned $ 431 @.@ 9 million at the box office .
= = = = = Casino Royale ( 2006 ) = = = = =
In 1999 Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer obtained the rights to the 1967 film Casino Royale from Sony Pictures Entertainment for $ 10 million in the out @-@ of @-@ court settlement of a lawsuit . The case was brought by MGM after Sony had announced a deal with Kevin McClory to produce a third version of the Thunderball novel , for which McClory held the film rights . McClory had previously acted as producer with Eon on Thunderball and had licensed his rights for the production of Never Say Never Again in 1983 . In 2004 , following severe financial troubles , MGM was itself acquired by a consortium backed by Sony for $ 5 billion .
Casino Royale reboots the series , establishing a new timeline and narrative framework not meant to precede or succeed any previous Bond film . Barbara Broccoli stated that " For years , my father wanted to make Casino Royale — it 's the Holy Grail ... We wanted to make a tougher film , the way it should have been made years ago " . Fellow producer Michael G. Wilson agreed , commenting " We felt the last film was too fantastical , so we decided to go back to the basics and update " . Neal Purvis and Robert Wade began writing a screenplay at the end of February 2004 , while Pierce Brosnan was still Bond . Paul Haggis was brought in later , and his main contribution included rewriting the climax of the film . He explained that " the draft that was there was very faithful to the book and there was a confession , so in the original draft the character confessed and killed herself . She then sent Bond to chase after the villains ; Bond chased the villains into the house . I don 't know why but I thought that Vesper [ Lynd ] had to be in the sinking house and Bond has to want to kill her and then try and save her " . In February 2005 Martin Campbell was announced as the film 's director and the next Bond film was revealed to be Casino Royale , although the identity of the new Bond was still unknown ; the producers had chosen not to renew Pierce Brosnan 's contract , and in October Eon announced that the part of Bond would be taken by Daniel Craig .
Principal photography for Casino Royale commenced on 3 January 2006 . The film was primarily shot at Barrandov Studios in Prague , with additional location shooting in the Bahamas , Italy and the United Kingdom . The shoot concluded at Pinewood Studios on 20 July 2006 . In the Bahamas filming took place at Paradise Island and Albany House , an estate owned by golfers Ernie Els and Tiger Woods . Footage set in Mbale , Uganda , was filmed at Black Park , a Country Park in Buckinghamshire , with further UK location shooting taking place at the Dunsfold Aerodrome in Surrey and the Millbrook Vehicle Proving Ground in Bedfordshire .
For many of the effects in the film , Special Effects and Miniature Effects Supervisor Chris Corbould used a more realistic style of film making and significantly reduced digital effects compared with previous Bond films . Corbould noted that , " CGI is a great tool and can be very useful , but I will fight to the tooth and nail to do something for real . It 's the best way to go " . Corbould used the 007 stage at Pinewood for the sinking of the Venetian house at the climax of the film , which featured the largest rig ever built for a Bond film . Casino Royale featured music composed by David Arnold , his fourth soundtrack for the Bond film series . Producers Michael G. Wilson and Barbara Broccoli announced on 26 July 2006 that Chris Cornell would perform the title song , entitled " You Know My Name " , which he co @-@ wrote with Arnold .
= = = = = Quantum of Solace ( 2008 ) = = = = =
In July 2006 , as Casino Royale entered post @-@ production , Eon Productions announced that the next film would be based on an original idea by producer Michael G. Wilson . In June 2007 Marc Forster was confirmed as director . He was surprised that he was approached for the job , stating he was not a big Bond film fan through the years , and that he would not have accepted the project had he not seen Casino Royale prior to making his decision : he felt Bond had been humanised in that film , arguing that because travelling the world had become less exotic since the series ' advent , it made sense to focus more on Bond as a character . Forster found Casino Royale 's 144 @-@ minute running time too long , and wanted his follow @-@ up to be " tight and fast ... like a bullet " .
Neal Purvis and Robert Wade returned as screenwriters and completed a draft of the script by April 2007 ; Paul Haggis also worked on the script , completing it two hours before the 2007 – 2008 Writers Guild of America strike officially began . Further work on the script had to be undertaken by Forster and Daniel Craig , who said later , " We had the bare bones of a script and then there was a writers ' strike and there was nothing we could do . We couldn 't employ a writer to finish it . I say to myself , ' Never again ' , but who knows ? There was me trying to rewrite scenes – and a writer I am not " . Craig also admitted that the film was not initially meant to be a sequel , but it became one because of the re @-@ writes undertaken by him and Forster . Haggis located his draft 's climax in the Swiss Alps , but Forster wanted the action sequences to allude to the four classical elements of earth , water , air and fire . Michael G. Wilson decided on the film 's title Quantum of Solace only " a few days " before its announcement on 24 January 2008 . Forster hired Dennis Gassner as production designer , replacing Peter Lamont .
Quantum of Solace was shot in six countries , including Italy ( Talamone and Siena ) , Chile ( the Paranal Observatory ) , Austria ( Bregenz ) , Mexico , Panama and the UK . In the UK interior and exterior airport scenes were filmed at Farnborough Airfield and the snowy closing scenes were filmed at the Bruneval Barracks in Aldershot , as well as ten stages at Pinewood and two theatres for ADR work . David Arnold , who composed the scores for the previous four Bond films , returned for Quantum of Solace . He said that Forster likes to work very closely with his composers and that , in comparison to the accelerated schedule he was tied to on Casino Royale , the intention was to spend a long time scoring the film to " really work it out " . He also said he would be " taking a different approach " with the score . Jack White of The White Stripes and Alicia Keys collaborated on " Another Way to Die " , the first Bond music duet .
= = = = = Skyfall ( 2012 ) = = = = =
The production of Skyfall was suspended throughout 2010 because of MGM 's financial troubles . Eon resumed pre @-@ production following MGM 's exit from bankruptcy on 21 December 2010 and in January 2011 the film was given official approval , with production scheduled to start in late 2011 . The film 's budget is estimated to be between $ 150 million and $ 200 million , compared to the $ 200 million spent on Quantum of Solace .
Skyfall was directed by Sam Mendes , who first signed on to the project shortly after Quantum of Solace was released , and remained on board as a consultant during the period of uncertainty surrounding MGM 's financial situation . Speculation in the media suggested that Mendes had commissioned rewrites of the script to " [ remove ] action scenes in favour of ' characterful performances ' " , with the intention of bidding for an Academy Award . Mendes denied the reports , stating that the film 's planned action scenes were an important part of the overall film .
The script was written by Bond screenwriting regulars Neal Purvis and Robert Wade , as well as John Logan . Roger Deakins signed on as cinematographer , while Dennis Gassner returned as production designer . Thomas Newman , who worked with Sam Mendes as composer for American Beauty , Road to Perdition , Jarhead and Revolutionary Road , replaced David Arnold as composer ; British singer @-@ songwriter Adele co @-@ wrote and recorded the film 's theme song with her regular songwriter , Paul Epworth .
Principal photography was scheduled to take 133 days and began on 7 November 2011 in and around London . Production moved to Turkey in April 2012 , with parts of Istanbul — including the Spice Bazaar , Yeni Camii , the Main Post Office , Sultanahmet Square and the Grand Bazaar — closed for filming in April . Filming also took place in Shanghai . Although set in Scotland , Bond 's family home of Skyfall was constructed on Hankley Common in Surrey using plywood and plaster to build a full @-@ scale model of the building , with some exterior scenes shot in Glen Etive and Glencoe .
= = = = = Spectre ( 2015 ) = = = = =
In September 2012 it was announced that Daniel Craig had signed to the role of Bond for the following two films , the first of which was Spectre , funded by MGM and Sony . In March 2013 Mendes announced he would not return to direct the next film in the series , although he later decided to return . In July 2013 it was revealed that John Logan would also return as writer , while in October 2014 it was announced that Léa Seydoux would play a Bond girl in the film . Filming started in December 2014 and the film was released into cinemas on 26 October 2015 .
= = = = = Bond 25 = = = = =
A sequel to Spectre began development in early 2016 . Mendes has stated he would not be directing . Since Sony Pictures 's contract to co @-@ produce the James Bond films with MGM and Eon expired with the release of Spectre , another major film studio may land the distribution rights to release Bond 25 in cinemas .
= = = = Core crew = = = =
= = = Non @-@ Eon films = = =
= = = = Charles K. Feldman ( 1967 ) = = = =
In March 1955 Ian Fleming sold the film rights of his novel Casino Royale to producer Gregory Ratoff for $ 6 @,@ 000 ( $ 53 @,@ 001 in 2016 dollars ) . In 1956 Ratoff set up a production company with Michael Garrison to produce Casino Royale ; Ratoff died in December 1960 . After Ratoff 's death , producer Charles K. Feldman represented Ratoff 's widow and obtained the rights to film .
= = = = = Casino Royale ( 1967 ) = = = = =
Production on Casino Royale was troubled and chaotic , with five different directors being credited for helming different segments of the film : Ken Hughes , John Huston , Joseph McGrath , Robert Parrish and Val Guest . In addition , stunt director Richard Talmadge was uncredited as co @-@ director of the final sequence . Ben Hecht was originally commissioned by Feldman as writer , and he provided a serious interpretation of Fleming 's source novel , before it was decided to turn the film into a comedy . Three main screenwriters then worked on the project — Wolf Mankowitz , John Law and Michael Sayers — and a further nine people provided uncredited additional material . Problems arose on set between Peter Sellers and director Joseph McGrath and between Sellers and Orson Welles . Sellers eventually demanded that he and Welles should not share the same set . Sellers left the film before his part was complete . A further agent 's part was then written for Terence Cooper , to cover Sellers ' departure , while re @-@ writes , additional filming and post @-@ production cutting compensated for the missing actor . Principal photography started on 11 January 1966 and was scheduled to take up to 26 weeks . Because of the delays and chaotic nature of the filming process , it finally finished ten months later in November .
Feldman asked Burt Bacharach and Hal David to provide the music for the film ; David worked for a few months completing his part , while Bacharach took nearly two years . The pair produced the song " The Look of Love " , which was sung by Dusty Springfield . Columbia Pictures approved a production budget of $ 6 million for the film , although this rose to $ 12 million at the end of production . The film performed well , with box office returns of $ 41 @.@ 7 million .
= = = = Jack Schwartzman ( 1983 ) = = = =
Never Say Never Again had its origins in the early 1960s following the controversy over the 1961 Thunderball novel , which led to Kevin McClory becoming producer of the Eon Productions film of the same name . Part of the agreement between McClory and Eon was that McClory would not make any further version of the novel for a period of ten years following the release of the 1965 Thunderball .
In the mid @-@ 1970s McClory again started working on a project to bring a Thunderball adaptation to production and , with the working title Warhead ( a.k.a. James Bond of the Secret Service ) he brought writer Len Deighton together with Sean Connery to work on a script . The script ran into difficulties after accusations from Eon Productions that the project had gone beyond copyright restrictions , which confined McClory to a film based on the Thunderball novel only , and once again the project was deferred . Towards the end of the 1970s developments were reported on the project under the name James Bond of the Secret Service , but then producer Jack Schwartzman became involved and cleared a number of the legal issues that still surrounded the project and licensed the rights from McClory .
= = = = = Never Say Never Again ( 1983 ) = = = = =
With Connery still committed to the project , producer Jack Schwartzman asked him to play Bond : Connery accepted , asking for and receiving a fee of $ 3 million ( $ 7 million in 2016 dollars ) , a percentage of the profits , as well as casting , script and director approval . Schwartzman then brought on board scriptwriter Lorenzo Semple , Jr. to work on the screenplay . Connery was unhappy with some aspects of the work and asked British television writers Dick Clement and Ian La Frenais to undertake re @-@ writes , although they went uncredited for their efforts because of a restriction by the Writers Guild of America .
The former Eon Productions editor and director of On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , Peter Hunt , was approached to direct the film but declined due to his previous work with Eon . Irvin Kershner , who had achieved success in 1980 with The Empire Strikes Back , was then hired . A number of the crew from the 1981 film Raiders of the Lost Ark were also appointed , including first assistant director David Tomblin ; director of photography Douglas Slocombe and production designers Philip Harrison and Stephen Grimes .
Filming for Never Say Never Again began on 27 September 1982 on the French Riviera for two months before moving to Nassau , the Bahamas in mid @-@ November where filming took place at Clifton Pier , which was also one of the locations used in Thunderball . The Spanish city of Almería was also used as a location . Villain Maximillian Largo 's Palmyran fortress was actually historic Fort Carré in Antibes . Principal photography finished at Elstree Studios where interior shots were filmed . Elstree also housed the " Tears of Allah " underwater cavern , which took three months to construct . Most of the filming was completed in the spring of 1983 , although there was some additional shooting during the summer of 1983 .
Production on the film was troubled with Connery taking on many of the production duties with assistant director David Tomblin . Director Irvin Kershner was critical of producer Jack Schwartzman , saying that whilst he was a good businessman " he didn 't have the experience of a film producer " . After the production ran out of money , Schwartzman had to fund further production out of his own pocket and later admitted he had underestimated the amount the film would cost to make .
The music for Never Say Never Again was written by Michel Legrand . Legrand also wrote the main theme " Never Say Never Again " , which featured lyrics by Alan and Marilyn Bergman — who had also worked with Legrand in the Academy Award winning song " The Windmills of Your Mind " — and was performed by Lani Hall .
Fleming 's estate , financially backed by Eon Productions and MGM , made a final attempt to block the film in the High Courts in London in the spring of 1983 , but these were thrown out by the court and Never Say Never Again was permitted to proceed . When Never Say Never Again was released , it grossed $ 9 @.@ 72 million ( $ 23 million in 2016 dollars ) on its first weekend , which was reported to be " the best opening record of any James Bond film " up to that point and surpassing Octopussy 's $ 8 @.@ 9 million ( $ 21 million in 2016 dollars ) from June that year . From its budget of $ 36 million , Never Say Never Again grossed $ 160 million .
McClory attempted to produce another Thunderball adaptation as Warhead 2000 AD following the success of GoldenEye in 1995 . Liam Neeson and Timothy Dalton were considered for 007 , while Roland Emmerich and Dean Devlin were developing the film at Columbia Pictures . MGM launched a $ 25 million lawsuit against Sony , and McClory claimed a portion of the $ 3 billion profits from the Bond series . After a prolonged lawsuit , Sony backed down , and McClory eventually exhausted all legal avenues to pursue . As part of the settlement , MGM paid $ 10 million for the rights to Casino Royale , which had come into Sony 's possession .
= = = = Lisa Osborne ( 2012 ) = = = =
= = = = = Happy and Glorious = = = = =
Daniel Craig played Bond in a short film , Happy and Glorious , produced by Lisa Osborne for the BBC and directed by Danny Boyle as part of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London . In the film Bond is summoned to Buckingham Palace by Queen Elizabeth II — played by herself — and escorts her by helicopter to the Olympic Stadium . Bond and Her Majesty jump from the helicopter into the stadium with Union Flag parachutes .
For the parachute jump , Bond and the Queen were played respectively by BASE jumpers and stuntmen Mark Sutton and Gary Connery . After the film was shown , the Queen entered the stadium via conventional means and formally opened the Games .
= Wiesbaden @-@ class cruiser =
The Wiesbaden class of light cruisers was a class of ships built by the German Kaiserliche Marine ( Imperial Navy ) shortly before the outbreak of World War I. Two ships were built in this class , Wiesbaden and Frankfurt . They were very similar to the preceding design , the Graudenz class , though they were armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns instead of the twelve 10 @.@ 5 cm SK L / 45 guns on the earlier vessels . The ships had a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) .
Wiesbaden saw only one major action , the Battle of Jutland , on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . She was badly damaged and immobilized during the battle and became the center of a melee as both sides fought over the crippled ship . She eventually sank in the early morning hours of 1 June , with only one survivor . Frankfurt was only lightly damaged at Jutland and saw extensive service with the II Scouting Group , including during Operation Albion against the Russians in the Baltic and at the Second Battle of Heligoland Bight , both in 1917 . She was interned with the rest of the fleet at the end of the war and scuttled at Scapa Flow , though British sailors prevented her from sinking . Frankfurt was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and eventually expended as a target in July 1921 .
= = Design = =
= = = Dimensions and machinery = = =
The ships were 141 @.@ 7 meters ( 465 ft ) long at the waterline and 145 @.@ 3 m ( 477 ft ) long overall . They had a beam of 13 @.@ 9 m ( 46 ft ) and a draft of 5 @.@ 76 m ( 18 @.@ 9 ft ) forward and 6 @.@ 06 m ( 19 @.@ 9 ft ) aft . They displaced 5 @,@ 180 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 100 long tons ; 5 @,@ 710 short tons ) at designed displacement and 6 @,@ 601 t ( 6 @,@ 497 long tons ; 7 @,@ 276 short tons ) at full combat load . The hulls were built with longitudinal steel frames and contained seventeen watertight compartments and a double bottom that extended for forty @-@ seven percent of the length of the keel . Steering was controlled by a single rudder . Wiesbaden and Frankfurt had a crew of 17 officers and 457 enlisted men . They carried a number of smaller craft , including one picket boat , one barge , one cutter , two yawls , and two dinghies .
Their propulsion systems consisted of two sets of Marine steam turbines driving two 3 @.@ 5 @-@ meter ( 11 ft ) propellers . They were designed to give 31 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 23 @,@ 000 kW ) . These were powered by twelve coal @-@ fired Marine @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers and two oil @-@ fired double @-@ ended boilers . These gave the ship a top speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . The ships of the class carried 1 @,@ 280 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 260 long tons ) of coal , and an additional 470 tonnes ( 460 long tons ) of oil that gave them a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . At 25 knots ( 46 km / h ; 29 mph ) , the cruising radius dropped significantly , to 1 @,@ 200 nmi ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) . Wiesbaden was equipped with a pair of turbo generators and one diesel generator rated at a combined 300 kilowatts ( 400 hp ) at 220 Volts . Frankfurt only had the two turbo generators , which provided 240 kW ( 320 hp ) .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
The ships of the Wiesbaden class were armed with eight 15 cm SK L / 45 guns in single pedestal mounts . Two were placed side by side forward on the forecastle , four were located amidships , two on either side , and two were placed in a superfiring pair aft . The guns could engage targets out to 17 @,@ 600 m ( 57 @,@ 700 ft ) . They were supplied with 1 @,@ 024 rounds of ammunition , for 128 shells per gun . The ships ' antiaircraft armament initially consisted of four 5 @.@ 2 cm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) L / 55 guns , though these were replaced with a pair of 8 @.@ 8 cm SK L / 45 anti @-@ aircraft guns . The ships were also equipped with four 50 cm ( 19 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes with eight torpedoes . Two were submerged in the hull on the broadside and two were mounted on the deck amidships . They could also carry 120 mines .
Wiesbaden and Frankfurt were protected by a waterline armored belt that was 60 mm ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) thick amidships ; the belt was reduced to 18 mm ( 0 @.@ 71 in ) forward . The stern was not armored . The conning tower had 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) thick sides and a 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) thick roof . The rangefinder atop the conning tower had 30 mm ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) worth of armor protection . The deck was covered with 60 mm thick armor plate forward , 40 mm ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) amidships , and 20 mm aft . Sloped armor 40 mm thick connected the deck to the belt armor . The main battery gun shields were 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) thick .
= = Service history = =
= = = Wiesbaden = = =
Wiesbaden was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Gefion " and was laid down at the AG Vulcan shipyard in Stettin in 1913 and launched on 20 January 1915 , after which fitting @-@ out work commenced . She was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 23 August 1915 , after being rushed through trials . The ship saw only one major action , the Battle of Jutland on 31 May – 1 June 1916 . The ship was badly damaged by gunfire from the battlecruiser HMS Invincible . Immobilized between the two battle fleets , Wiesbaden became the center of a hard @-@ fought action that saw the destruction of two British armored cruisers . Heavy fire from the British fleet prevented evacuation of the ship 's crew . Wiesbaden remained afloat until the early hours of 1 June and sank sometime between 01 : 45 and 02 : 45 . Only one crew member survived the sinking ; the wreck was located by German Navy divers in 1983 .
= = = Frankfurt = = =
Frankfurt was ordered under the contract name " Ersatz Hela " and was laid down at the Kaiserliche Werft shipyard in Kiel in 1913 and launched on 20 March 1915 . The ships was commissioned into the High Seas Fleet on 20 August 1915 . Frankfurt saw extensive action with the High Seas Fleet during World War I. She served primarily in the North Sea , and participated in the Bombardment of Yarmouth and Lowestoft and the battles of Jutland and Second Heligoland . At Jutland , she was lightly damaged by a British cruiser and her crew suffered minor casualties . The ship was also present during Operation Albion in the Baltic Sea in October 1917 . At the end of the war , she was interned with the bulk of the German fleet in Scapa Flow . When the fleet was scuttled in June 1919 , Frankfurt was one of the few ships that were not successfully sunk . She was ceded to the US Navy as a war prize and ultimately expended as a bomb target in tests conducted by the US Navy and Army Air Force in July 1921 .
= Japanese aircraft carrier Zuihō =
Zuihō ( 瑞鳳 , " Auspicious Phoenix " or " Fortunate Phoenix " ) was a light aircraft carrier of the Imperial Japanese Navy . Originally laid down as the submarine support ship Takasaki , she was renamed and converted while under construction into an aircraft carrier . The ship was completed during the first year of World War II and participated in many operations . Zuihō played a secondary role in the Battle of Midway in mid @-@ 1942 and did not engage any American aircraft or ships during the battle . The ship participated in the Guadalcanal Campaign during the rest of 1942 . She was lightly damaged during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands during this campaign and covered the evacuation of Japanese forces from the island in early 1943 after repairs .
Afterwards , her aircraft were disembarked several times in mid- to late @-@ 1943 and used from land bases in a number of battles in the South West Pacific . Zuihō participated in the Philippine Sea and Leyte Gulf battles in mid @-@ 1944 . In this last battle , Zuihō mainly served as a decoy for the main striking forces and she was finally sunk by American aircraft fulfilling her task . In between engagements , the ship served as a ferry carrier and a training ship .
= = Design and conversion = =
The submarine support ship Takasaki was laid down on 20 June 1935 at the Yokosuka Naval Arsenal and was designed to be converted to either a fleet oiler or a light aircraft carrier as needed . She was launched on 19 June 1936 and began a lengthy conversion into a carrier while fitting @-@ out . The ship was renamed Zuihō during the process which was not completed until 27 December 1940 when she was commissioned .
After her conversion , Zuihō had a length of 205 @.@ 49 meters ( 674 ft 2 in ) overall . She had a beam of 18 @.@ 19 meters ( 59 ft 8 in ) and a draft of 6 @.@ 58 meters ( 21 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 11 @,@ 443 tonnes ( 11 @,@ 262 long tons ) at standard load . As part of her conversion , her original diesel engines , which had given her a top speed of 29 knots ( 54 km / h ; 33 mph ) , were replaced by a pair of destroyer @-@ type geared steam turbine sets with a total of 52 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 39 @,@ 000 kW ) , each driving one propeller . Steam was provided by four water @-@ tube boilers and Zuihō now had a maximum speed of 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . The boilers exhausted through a single downturned starboard funnel and she carried 2 @,@ 600 tonnes ( 2 @,@ 600 long tons ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 7 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 400 km ; 9 @,@ 000 mi ) at a speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . Her crew numbered 785 officers and men .
Zuihō 's flight deck was 179 @.@ 98 meters ( 590 ft 6 in ) long and had a maximum width of 23 @.@ 01 meters ( 75 ft 6 in ) . The ship was designed with a single hangar 124 @.@ 00 meters ( 406 ft 10 in ) long and 17 @.@ 98 meters ( 59 ft 0 in ) wide . The hangar was served by two octagonal centerline aircraft elevators . The forward elevator was 13 @.@ 01 by 11 @.@ 99 meters ( 42 @.@ 67 by 39 @.@ 33 ft ) in size and the smaller rear elevator measured 11 @.@ 99 by 10 @.@ 79 meters ( 39 @.@ 33 by 35 @.@ 4 ft ) . She had arresting gear with six cables , but she was not fitted with an aircraft catapult . Zuihō was a flush @-@ deck design and lacked an island superstructure . She was designed to operate 30 aircraft .
The ship 's primary armament consisted of eight 40 @-@ caliber 12 @.@ 7 cm Type 89 anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) guns in twin mounts on sponsons along the sides of the hull . Zuihō was also initially equipped with four twin 25 mm Type 96 light AA guns , also in sponsons along the sides of the hull . In 1943 , her light AA armament was increased to 48 twenty @-@ five mm guns . The following year , an additional twenty 25 mm guns were added in addition to six 28 @-@ round AA rocket launchers .
= = Service = =
After commissioning , Zuihō remained in Japanese waters until late 1941 . Captain Sueo Ōbayashi assumed command on 20 September and Zuihō became flagship of the Third Carrier Division ten days later . On 13 October she was briefly assigned to the 11th Air Fleet in Formosa and arrived in Takao the following day . The ship returned to Japan in early November and was given a brief refit later in the month . Together with the carrier Hōshō and six battleships , Zuihō covered the return of the ships of the 1st Air Fleet as they returned from the Attack on Pearl Harbor in mid @-@ December .
On February 1942 , the ship ferried Mitsubishi A6M Zero fighters to Davao City , Philippines . Zuihō remained in Japanese waters until June when she participated in the Battle of Midway . She led the Support Fleet and did not engage American carriers directly . Her aircraft complement consisted of six Mitsubishi A5M " Claude " and six Mitsubishi A6M2 " Zero " fighters , and twelve Nakajima B5N2 " Kate " torpedo bombers . After a brief refit in July – August , the ship was assigned to First Carrier Division with Shōkaku and Zuikaku on 12 August .
The division sailed to Truk on 1 October to support Japanese forces in the Guadalcanal Campaign and left Truk on 11 October based on the promise of the Japanese Army to capture Henderson Field on Guadalcanal . At this time , Zuihō carried 18 A6Ms and 6 B5Ns . The Japanese and American carrier forces discovered each other in the early morning of 26 October during the Battle of the Santa Cruz Islands and each side launched air strikes . The aircraft passed each other en route and 9 of Zuihō 's Zeros attacked the aircraft launched by the aircraft carrier USS Enterprise . They shot down 3 each Grumman F4F Wildcat fighters and Grumman TBF Avenger torpedo bombers and damaged one more of each type while losing four of their own . Two of Enterprise 's Douglas SBD Dauntless dive bombers hit Zuihō with 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bombs and damaged her flight deck enough that she could not conduct flight operations although she was not seriously damaged otherwise . Together with the damaged Shōkaku , the ship withdrew from the battle and reached Truk two days later . After temporary repairs , the two carriers returned to Japan in early November and Zuihō 's repairs were completed on 16 December . In the meantime , Captain Bunjiro Yamaguchi assumed command .
The ship left Kure on 17 January 1943 and sailed for Truk with a load of aircraft . Upon arrival she was assigned to the Second Carrier Division to provide cover for the evacuation of Guadalcanal , along with Jun 'yō and Zuikaku , later in the month and in early February . Zuihō 's fighters were transferred to Wewak , New Guinea in mid @-@ February and then to Kavieng in early March . They were transferred to Rabaul on mid @-@ March to participate in Operation I @-@ Go , a land @-@ based aerial offensive against Allied bases in the Solomon Islands and New Guinea . The fighters returned to Truk on 18 March after claiming 18 Allied aircraft shot down . Zuihō arrived at Sasebo on 9 May and received a brief refit in mid @-@ June . She returned to Truk on 15 July and remained in the area until 5 November when she returned to Yokosuka . Her air group , 18 Zeros and eight D3As , was briefly deployed to Kavieng in late August – early September before returning to Truk . By this time , Zuihō was assigned to the First Carrier Division with Shōkaku and Zuikaku and they sailed for Eniwetok Atoll on 18 September for training and to be in position to intercept any attacks by American carriers in the vicinity of Wake Island and the Marshall Islands area . That day the American carriers raided the Gilbert Islands and were gone by the time the Japanese reached Eniwetok on 20 September . Japanese intelligence reports pointed to another American attack in the Wake @-@ Marshall Islands area in mid @-@ October and Admiral Mineichi Koga sortied the Combined Fleet , including the First Carrier Division , on 17 October . They arrived at Eniwetok two days later and waited for reports of American activity until 23 October . They then sailed for Wake Island and then returned to Truk on 26 October without encountering any American ships .
Zuihō 's air group was transferred to Rabaul at the beginning of November , just in time to participate in the raid on Rabaul a few days later . The fighters claimed to have shot down 25 American aircraft at the cost of 8 of their own ; the survivors flew back to Truk where they remained . On 30 November , Zuihō , together with the escort carriers Chūyō and Unyō , departed Truk for Japan , escorted by four destroyers . The Americans had cracked the Japanese naval codes and positioned several submarines along their route to Yokosuka . Skate unsuccessfully attacked Zuihō on 30 November , while Sailfish torpedoed and sank Chūyō five days later with heavy loss of life . From December to May 1944 , Zuihō ferried aircraft and supplies to Truk and Guam although she was reassigned to the Third Carrier Division on 29 January , together with the converted carriers Chitose and Chiyoda . Each of the three carriers was intended to be equipped with 21 fighters and 9 torpedo bombers , but this plan was changed on 15 February to a consolidated air group , the 653rd , that controlled the aircraft of all three carriers . While fully equipped by May with 18 Zero fighters , 45 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 18 B5Ns , and 9 Nakajima B6N " Jill " torpedo bombers , the air group 's pilots were largely drawn from the two most recent classes and lacked experience . The ship sailed for Tawi @-@ Tawi on 11 May in the Philippines . The new base was closer to the oil wells in Borneo on which the Navy relied and also to the Palau and western Caroline Islands where the Japanese expected the next American attack . However , the location lacked an airfield on which to train the green pilots and American submarines were very active in the vicinity which restricted the ships to the anchorage .
= = = Battle of the Philippine Sea = = =
The 1st Mobile Fleet was en route to Guimares Island in the central Philippines on 13 June , where they intended to practice carrier operations in an area better protected from submarines , when Vice Admiral Jisaburō Ozawa learned of the American attack on the Mariana Islands the previous day . Upon reaching Guimares , the fleet refueled and sortied into the Philippine Sea where they spotted Task Force 58 on 18 June . The Americans failed to locate Ozawa 's ships that day and the Japanese turned south to maintain a constant distance between them and the American carriers as Ozawa had decided on launching his air strikes early the following morning . He had deployed his forces in a " T " - shaped formation with the 3rd Carrier Division at the end of the stem , 115 nautical miles ( 213 km ; 132 mi ) ahead of the 1st and 2nd Carrier Divisions that formed the crossbar of the " T " . Zuihō and her consorts were intended to draw the attentions of the Americans while the other carriers conducted their air strikes without disruption . Sixteen Aichi E13A floatplanes were launched by the heavy cruisers accompanying the carriers at 04 : 30 to search for the Americans ; the three carriers launched a follow up wave of 13 B5Ns at 05 : 20 . The first wave spotted one group of four carriers from Task Force 58 at 07 : 34 and the Japanese carriers launched their aircraft an hour later . This consisted of 43 Zero fighter @-@ bombers and 7 B6Ns , escorted by 14 A6M5 fighters ; the carriers retained only 3 fighters , 2 fighter @-@ bombers , 2 B6Ns and 2 B5Ns for self @-@ defense and later searches . While the air strike was still forming up , the second wave of searchers located Task Force 58 's battleships and the air strike was diverted to attack them . The Americans detected the incoming Japanese aircraft at 09 : 59 and had a total of 199 Grumman F6F Hellcat fighters in the air by the time the Japanese aircraft were in range of the American ships . The defending fighters decimated the Japanese aircraft and only 21 survived . The only damage inflicted was from one A6M2 that hit the battleship South Dakota in her superstructure with a single 250 @-@ kilogram ( 550 lb ) bomb that wounded 50 crewmen , but did little other damage . Only 3 Hellcats were lost in the affair , one to a B6N , although the Japanese claimed four victories . Some of the surviving Japanese aircraft landed at Guam while others , including the five surviving B6Ns , returned to their carriers where they claimed one carrier definitely damaged and another probably hit .
At dusk , the Japanese turned away to the northwest to regroup and to refuel and the Americans turned west to close the distance . Both sides launched aircraft the next day to locate each other ; Zuihō launched three aircraft at 12 : 00 to search east of the fleet , but they did not discover the Americans . The Americans discovered the retiring Japanese fleet during the afternoon and Vice Admiral Marc Mitscher ordered an air strike launched . While they sank the carrier Hiyō and damaged two others , Zuihō was not attacked and successfully disengaged that evening . By the end of the battle , Air Group 653 was reduced to 2 Zero fighters , 3 Zero fighter @-@ bombers and 6 torpedo bombers . After reaching Japan on 1 July , the ship remained in Japanese waters until October , training replacements for her air group .
= = = Battle of Leyte Gulf = = =
After the Battle of the Philippine Sea , the commander of the Combined Fleet , Admiral Soemu Toyoda , prepared four " victory " plans : Shō @-@ Gō 1 ( 捷１号作戦 Shō ichigō sakusen ) was a major naval operation in the Philippines , while Shō @-@ Gō 2 was intended to defend Formosa , the Ryukyu Islands and southern Kyushu . Shō @-@ Gō 3 and Shō @-@ Gō 4 were responses to attacks on Kyushu @-@ Shikoku @-@ Honshu and Hokkaido respectively . He activated Shō @-@ Gō 2 after the Americans attacked the Philippines , Formosa and the Ryukyu Islands beginning on 10 October . This required the transfer of most of Air Group 652 to Formosa and Luzon to attack the American forces , with only a few aircraft retained for carrier operations . Most of these aircraft were lost for little gain as the Americans suppressed Japanese defenses in the Philippines , preparatory to the actual invasion .
On 17 October , Admiral Toyoda alerted the fleet that Shō @-@ Gō 1 was imminent and activated the plan the following day after receiving reports of the landings on Leyte . Zuihō 's role in Shō @-@ Gō 1 , together with Chiyoda , Chitose and Zuikaku and the rest of the Main Body of the 1st Mobile Fleet , approaching Leyte Gulf from the north , was to serve as decoys to attract attention away from the two other forces approaching from the south and west . All forces were to converge on Leyte Gulf on 25 October and the Main Body left Japan on 20 October . As decoys , the carriers were only provided with a total of 116 aircraft : 52 Zero fighters , 28 Zero fighter @-@ bombers , 7 Yokosuka D4Y " Judy " dive bombers , 26 B6N and 4 B5N torpedo bombers . By the morning of 24 October , the Main Body was within range of the northernmost American carriers of Task Force 38 and Admiral Ozawa ordered an air strike launched to attract the attention of the Americans . This accomplished little else as the Japanese aircraft failed to penetrate past the defending fighters ; the survivors landed at airfields on Luzon . The Americans were preoccupied dealing with the other Japanese naval forces and defending themselves from air attacks launched from Luzon and Leyte and could not spare any aircraft to search for the Japanese carriers until the afternoon . They finally found them at 16 : 05 , but Admiral William Halsey , Jr . , commander of Task Force 38 , decided that it was too late in the day to mount an effective strike . He did , however , turn all of his ships north to position himself for a dawn attack on the Japanese carriers the next day in what came to be called the Battle of Cape Engaño .
Aircraft from the light carrier Independence were able to track the Japanese ships for most of the night and Halsey ordered an air strike of 60 Hellcat fighters , 65 Helldiver dive bombers and 55 Avenger torpedo bombers launched shortly after dawn in anticipation of locating the Japanese fleet . They spotted them at 07 : 35 and brushed aside the 13 Zeros that the Japanese had retained for self @-@ defense . Zuihō attempted to launch her few remaining aircraft , but was hit by a single bomb on her aft flight deck after a number of torpedo @-@ carrying Avengers missed . The 500 @-@ pound ( 230 kg ) bomb started several small fires , lifted the rear elevator , bulged the flight deck , knocked out steering and gave the ship a small list to port . Twenty minutes later , the fires were put out , steering repaired and the list corrected . A second attack an hour later focused on Chiyoda and ignored Zuihō . The third wave arrived around 1300 and badly damaged the ship . She was hit once by a torpedo and twice by small bombs , although fragments from as many as 67 near misses cut steam pipes and caused flooding of both engine rooms and one boiler room . Zuihō was forced to reduce speed to 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) and flooding increased so that all available hands were ordered to man the pumps at 14 : 10 . The ship took on a 13 ° list to starboard and went dead in the water at 14 : 45 when the port engine room fully flooded . A fourth wave of American aircraft attacked ten minutes later , but only damaged her with splinters from another ten near misses . This was enough to increase her list to 23 ° and she was ordered abandoned at 15 : 10 . Zuihō sank at 15 : 26 at position 19 ° 20 ′ N 125 ° 15 ′ E with the loss of 7 officers and 208 men . The destroyer Kuwa and the battleship Ise rescued 58 officers and 701 men between them .
= Thurisind =
Thurisind ( Latin : Turisindus , died c . 560 ) was king of the Gepids , an East Germanic Gothic people , from c . 548 to 560 . He was the penultimate Gepid king , and succeeded King Elemund by staging a coup d 'état and forcing the king 's son into exile . Thurisind 's kingdom , known as Gepidia , was located in Central Europe and had its centre in Sirmium , a former Roman city on the Sava River ( now the town of Sremska Mitrovica , Serbia ) .
His reign was marked by multiple wars with the Lombards , a Germanic people who had arrived in the former Roman province of Pannonia under the leadership of their king , Audoin . Thurisind also had to face the hostility of the Byzantine Empire , which was resentful of the Gepid takeover of Sirmium and anxious to diminish Gepid power in the Pannonian Basin , a plain covering most of modern Hungary and partly including the bordering states . The Byzantines ' plans to reduce the Gepids ' power took effect when Audoin decisively defeated Thurisind in 551 or 552 . The Byzantine Emperor Justinian forced a peace accord on both leaders so that equilibrium in the Pannonian Basin could be sustained .
Thurisind lost his eldest son , Turismod , in the Battle of Asfeld , during which the prince was killed by Alboin , son of Audoin . In about 560 , Thurisind died and was succeeded by his remaining son Cunimund , who was killed by Alboin in 567 . Cunimund 's death marked the end of the Gepid Kingdom and the beginning of the conquest of their territories by the Lombards ' allies , the Avars , a nomadic people migrating from the Eurasian Steppe .
= = Early sources = =
Of the four early medieval sources relevant to Thurisind that survive , the only one providing independent evidence of the king , accounts of Justinian 's wars , and a detailed account of the relations between Gepids and Lombards and their kings is De Bellis ( 550s ) , the most important work of Procopius . Considered the greatest historian of the 6th century , Procopius was a Greek writer born in Caesarea in Palestine in 527 . The Lombard – Gepid wars are well described in Procopius ' work , as the conflict played an important part in the Byzantine plans to invade Italy by a land route .
Less relevant is the other 6th @-@ century source , Jordanes ' Romana . Of Gothic ancestry , Jordanes served as a notarius for a Byzantine Master of the Soldiers before entering into the ranks of the Catholic clergy and writing his two surviving books , the Romana and the Getica . The latter is a summary of Gothic history , while the lesser known Romana is an abridged account of Roman history written in 551 or 552 . According to James O 'Donnell , the two works share a pessimistic view of human life in which all secular accomplishments are insignificant compared to religious goals . Jordanes does not explicitly mention Thurisind in the Romana , but speaks of the third Lombard – Gepid War , in which Thurisind participated , in the last passages of the work .
Paul the Deacon was the most important Italian writer of the 8th century . Born in the 720s or 730s , he came from a noble Lombard family from Friuli . He entered the clergy early , and eventually became a monk of the monastery of Monte Cassino . His most famous work is the Historia Langobardorum , a history of the Lombard nation . Written after 787 , it is a continuation of his previous major historical work , the Historia Romana , which was based on the Breviarium of Eutropius , with six books added describing historical events up to Justinian 's empire . Both of these works mention Thurisind and the third Lombard – Gepid War , which represent the only overlap between the Historia Langobardorum and the Historia Romana . Both books also mention the duel between the kings ' sons , an event which is absent in Procopius ' writing and is thought to have originated through oral tradition . Similarly , the meeting between Thurisind and Audoin 's son at the former 's court derives from an oral source .
= = Rise to power = =
The Gepids were a major Germanic people in what is now eastern Hungary , western Romania , and northern Serbia . Although the details of his early life are not known , Thurisind is believed to have risen to power in about 548 . After the death of Elemund , the previous king , he seized the throne in a coup d 'état and forced Elemund 's son Ostrogotha into exile . Ostrogotha and his followers found refuge among the Gepids ' neighbours and enemies , the Lombards , another Germanic people who had just settled in the western part of the Pannonian Basin . The Gepids had inhabited parts of the basin since the 3rd century . They reached prominence in the 5th century when , under King Ardaric , they played a key role in destroying the Hunnic Empire . Ardaric and his people benefited more than anybody else from this victory , gaining the former Roman province of Dacia .
In 504 the Gepids ' power was significantly reduced by the Ostrogoths , who cut short their expansion into the Danubian plains . The Gepids restricted themselves to the eastern part of the Pannonian Basin ; this was to form the core of Thurisind 's dominions , just as it had under the previous Gepid kings . By the early 6th century , the Gepid nobility converted to Arian Christianity , while most of the Gepids remained pagans .
According to the scholar István Boná , Thurisind 's rise to power is a typical example of the conflicts among the leading families for the kingship that plagued Gepidia in the 6th century and made it difficult to maintain the succession within the king 's family . To contain these obstacles Thurisind made Turismod , his oldest son , commander of the Gepid forces in Sirmium , an important position that made Turismod the king 's heir apparent ( in early Germanic custom the eldest son was not necessarily the first in line of succession ) . After Turismod died , his younger brother Cunimund became commander in Sirmium and thus heir apparent .
= = First war with the Lombards = =
On becoming king in 548 , Thurisind immediately found himself in a difficult situation . Sometime during 546 – 548 , the Byzantine Empire had conspired to convince the Lombards under Audoin to move into Pannonia ( modern Hungary ) , a former Roman province bordering the Danube river . Justinian hoped this would keep open the land route from the Balkans to Italy while containing the Gepids , who he considered a serious menace to Byzantine interests on the Balkan frontier . The Gothic War between the Ostrogoths and the Byzantines had been raging on the Italian peninsula since 535 ; Justinian wanted to be able to rush troops to Italy if they were needed .
According to the contemporary Procopius in the De Bello Gothico ( the section of the De Bellis regarding the Gothic War ) , Justinian resented the takeover by the Gepids of the formerly Roman city of Sirmium in 537 , which may have been voluntarily surrendered by the Ostrogoths to create difficulties for the Byzantines . The Ostrogoths were also occupied with the war in Italy and sought to retain their possessions in the peninsula . Sirmium 's takeover was followed in 539 by a bloody confrontation between the Gepids and the Byzantines that had cost the latter the life of Calluc , their Master of the Soldiers , and also the loss to the Gepids of Dacia ripensis ( Serbia ) and Singidunum ( Belgrade ) . Because of this , Justinian ended the alliance that had bonded the Gepids and Byzantines , and had ceased paying tributes to the Gepids , finding an enemy to set them against in the Lombards .
The build @-@ up towards a war involving Lombards , Gepids , and Byzantines started possibly in 548 or 549 , with Audoin and Thurisind each sending an embassy to Justinian 's court at Constantinople , in attempts to obtain military support from Justinian or at least , in the case of Thurisind , to get a pledge of neutrality . To sway Justinian , Thurisind 's envoys reminded him of their long tradition of alliance and promised to fight against Byzantium 's enemies . However , the emperor sided with the Lombards ; he made them formal allies and promised to provide troops against the Gepids . From Justinian 's perspective , this war was of major importance in the larger context of the Gothic War , because possession of Pannonia was strategically necessary to keep open land communications between Italy and the Balkans .
Historians debate as to when the conflict started . Proposed dates for the first war are either 547 or 549 . At the same time as the two peoples took the field , a 10 @,@ 000 @-@ strong Byzantine horse army under the command of John , the magister militum of Illyricum , marched against the Gepids . Before John 's arrival , Thurisind offered a truce to Audoin that was accepted . As a result , when the Byzantines arrived , the war had already ended , but not before they had clashed with the Gepids ' Herulian allies . To seal the truce , Audoin demanded that Thurisind should give up Ildigis , a pretender to the Lombard crown who lived as a guest at his court . Thurisind refused , but he did force Ildigis to leave the Gepids and search for another refuge .
= = Second Lombard – Gepid War and tensions with Justinian = =
In either 549 or 550 , the Gepids and Lombards again marched against each other but , according to Procopius , both armies panicked and no battle took place . As a result , a new war was avoided and Thurisind accepted Audoin 's request for a two @-@ year truce . According to István Boná , the panic may be linked to a natural phenomenon : a lunar eclipse took place on June 25 / 26 , 549 .
Confronted by an openly hostile Byzantine Empire , and faced with the eventuality that the war with the Lombards would be renewed at the truce 's expiration , Thurisind searched for new allies as a way to pressure Justinian . He found assistance from the Kutrigurs , who he ferried across the Danube into the Byzantine Illyricum in 550 or 551 , before the truce expired and probably before the Gepids were ready to precipitate a new conflict . In retrospect , it may be they arrived too late instead of too early , if the agreement had been made with the Second Lombard – Gepid War in mind .
Faced with the Kutrigur invasion , Justinian activated his alliance against the invaders , mobilizing the neighbouring Utigurs , who in turn asked for help from the allied Crimean Tetraxites . The latter invaded the Kutrigur homeland , taking advantage of the fact that many warriors were employed at that moment in the Balkans . Informed of the attack , the Kutrigurs were forced to leave the Balkans to defend their homeland on the north @-@ western shore of the Black Sea .
Thurisind protected and promoted another enemy of Byzantium , the Sclaveni . As with the Kutrigurs , Thurisind used his control of the Danube to ferry Slavic raiders to and from Byzantine territory , and obtained payment from them in the process .
= = Third Lombard – Gepid War = =
Justinian 's plans to send expeditionary forces against the Ostrogoths in Italy were repeatedly hampered by Thurisind 's initiatives . For example , Narses ' army left Constantinople in April 551 for Salona , with hopes of finally defeating the Goths , but found itself blocked at Philippopolis ( Plovdiv ) by the Kutrigurs .
This brought Justinian to search for an accord with Thurisind to stop the trans @-@ Danubian raids , and the latter was more than happy to accept . Thurisind 's envoys asked for an alliance like the one bonding Byzantines and Lombards . In addition to strengthening the alliance , they demanded , and got , 12 senators to swear to uphold the treaty . After this , in 551 , 400 Gepids were sent to fight in Narses ' army , which was sent to Italy — a modest army compared to the 5 @,@ 500 Lombards sent by Audoin and the thousands of Heruli .
When the truce expired in 552 , Thurisind and Audoin again took to the field , and this time the clash was unavoidable . Audoin had reached an agreement with Justinian by which the Byzantines promised to send him military support in exchange for the 5 @,@ 500 Lombards sent to help the Byzantine general Narses in the Emperor 's war in Italy .
The two @-@ year truce was now close to expiry and the Lombards asked the Byzantines to respect the alliance which had been established between them . The Emperor found an excuse to break the new alliance with the Gepids by claiming they had again ferried Slav raiders . He put together an army with renowned commanders in its ranks such as Germanus ' sons Justin and Justinian , Aratius , the Herulian Suartuas , and Amalafrid , brother @-@ in @-@ law of Audoin . A revolt that erupted in Ulpiana diverted the bulk of the army ; only a force under Amalafrid reached the battlefield .
Scholars debate when the third Lombard – Gepid War started ; it is agreed that it took place two years after the second war . The possible dates are either 551 or 552 . The 551 date is upheld by those who argue that since in 552 Audoin had already dispatched 5 @,@ 500 of his warriors to Narses ' Italian campaign , the third Lombard – Gepid War must have already ended by then ; against this scholars such as Walter Pohl protest that this is in contradiction with Audoin 's reproaches to Justinian on the few troops sent against the Gepids , despite his massive support to Narses .
When the treaty expired , Audoin attacked the Gepids and Thurisind was crushed in the decisive battle of the Asfeld held west of Sirmium . The battle was mentioned by Jordanes in the Romana as one of the most bloody ever fought in the region , with no fewer than 60 @,@ 000 warriors killed . The king 's son Turismod also died , killed by Audoin 's son Alboin in a duel that according to Paul the Deacon decided both the battle and the war . After the battle , the Gepids were never again able to play a formative role in the shaping of events .
= = Peace = =
The Gepids ' defeat caused a geopolitical shift in the Pannonian Basin , as it ended the danger represented by the Gepids to the Empire . The Gepids ' utter defeat could have meant the end of their kingdom and its conquest by the Lombards , but Justinian , wanting to maintain an equilibrium in the region , imposed an " eternal peace " that saved the Gepids ; it was observed for ten years , surviving both Thurisind and Audoin . It may be on this occasion , and not before the war , that Lombards and Gepids sent troops to Narses as part of the peace treaty imposed by the Byzantines . In this interpretation , the small number of Gepid warriors sent could be explained with the heavy losses taken in the war and the resentment felt towards Justinian . The Emperor also imposed some territorial concessions on Thurisind , obligating him to return Dacia ripensis and the territory of Singidunum .
To reach a complete peace Thurisind had first to deal with Ildigis who had found hospitality at Thurisind 's court . Audoin demanded yet again to have him turned in , and Justinian joined in the request . Thurisind , despite his reluctance to resume the war with both Audoin and Justinian , did not want to openly breach the rules of hospitality and thus tried to evade the request by demanding in his turn to have Ostrogotha given to him ; in the end , to avoid both openly giving in and at the same time renewing the war , both kings murdered their respective guests but kept secret their involvement in the act .
Thurisind features prominently in a tale told by Paul the Deacon set in 552 , just after the death of the king 's son Turismod and the end of the war . The story , generally thought to track its origins to an heroic poem dedicated to Alboin , revolves around the characters of Alboin and Thurisind : in accordance with a custom of the Lombards , to obtain the right to sit at his father 's table , Alboin must ask for hospitality from a foreign king and have the latter arm him . To submit himself to this initiation , Alboin went with 40 companions to Thurisind 's court .
Thurisind , in observance of the laws of hospitality , received Alboin and his companions and organized a banquet in their honour , offering Alboin the place where his dead son habitually sat . Following a mockery by Turismod 's brother Cunimund and Alboin 's rejoinder , a clash was avoided by Thurisind 's intervention , who restored the peace and sent Alboin away with Turismod 's arms . According to István Boná , who believes in the veracity of the story , the event may have taken place as described by Paul , but it also could reflect a secret peace condition imposed by Audoin on Thurisind under which the Gepid king had to arm his son 's killer .
Thurisind died around 560 and was succeeded by his son Cunimund , last king of the Gepids ; under him Thurisind 's people were annihilated in 567 by a joint coalition of the Lombards and the Avars , a Turkic nomad people that in 558 had migrated to Central Europe . Cunimund was killed on the battlefield by the new Lombard King Alboin , and his daughter Rosamund was taken captive .
= Smalltooth sand tiger =
The smalltooth sand tiger or bumpytail ragged @-@ tooth ( Odontaspis ferox ) is a species of mackerel shark in the family Odontaspididae , with a patchy but worldwide distribution in tropical and warm temperate waters . They usually inhabit deepwater rocky habitats , though they are occasionally encountered in shallow water , and have been known to return to the same location year after year . This rare species is often mistaken for the much more common grey nurse shark ( Carcharias taurus ) , from which it can be distinguished by its first dorsal fin , which is larger than the second and placed further forward . It grows to at least 4 @.@ 1 m ( 13 @.@ 5 ft ) in length .
Very little is known of the biology and behavior of the smalltooth sand tiger . It is an active predator of benthic bony fishes , invertebrates , and cartilaginous fishes . This species is thought to be ovoviviparous with oophagous embryos like other mackerel sharks . In contrast to its formidable size and appearance , this shark is harmless , having never been known to behave aggressively towards humans . There is concern that its numbers are declining due to human activities in the Mediterranean and elsewhere , though existing data is inadequate for a full assessment of its conservation status .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The smalltooth sand tiger was originally described as Squalus ferox by Italian @-@ French naturalist Antoine Risso in 1810 , based on a specimen from Nice , France . In 1950 , Gilbert Percy Whitley described O. herbsti from Australian specimens , separating them from O. ferox on the basis of dentition and the absence of spots . Leonard Compagno synonymized the two species in 1984 , as subsequently discovered Pacific specimens had blurred Whitley 's distinguishing characters . The specific epithet ferox is Latin for " fierce " . Other common names for this shark include blue nurse shark , fierce shark , Herbst 's nurse shark , and sand tiger shark .
A phylogenetic study based on mitochondrial DNA , performed by Naylor et al. in 1997 , suggests that the smalltooth sand tiger and its relative , the bigeye sand tiger ( O. noronhai ) , are more closely related to the thresher sharks than to the grey nurse shark , to which it bears a strong resemblance . If true , this would indicate that the similarities between this species and the grey nurse shark arose as the result of convergent evolution . Fossil teeth belonging to the smalltooth sand tiger have been found from Lower Pliocene ( 5 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 6 Ma ) deposits in Italy and Venezuela .
= = Description = =
The smalltooth sand tiger has a bulky body with a long , bulbous , slightly flattened snout . The eyes are medium @-@
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took his place in the anchor chair at SportsNight . After this , Scott was a regular on SportsCenter . At SportsCenter , Scott was frequently teamed with fellow anchors Rich Eisen , Steve Levy , Kenny Mayne , Dan Patrick , and others . Scott was a regular in the This is SportsCenter commercials .
In 2002 , Scott was named studio host for the NBA on ESPN . He became lead host in 2008 , when he also began at ABC in the same capacity for its NBA coverage , which included the NBA Finals . Additionally , Scott anchored SportsCenter 's prime @-@ time coverage from the site of NBA post @-@ season games . From 1997 until 2014 , he covered the league 's finals . During the 1997 and 1998 NBA Finals , Scott did one @-@ on @-@ one interviews with Michael Jordan . When Monday Night Football moved to ESPN in 2006 , Scott hosted on @-@ site coverage , including Monday Night Countdown and post @-@ game SportsCenter coverage . Scott previously appeared on NFL Primetime during the 1997 season , Monday Night Countdown from 2002 to 2005 , and Sunday NFL Countdown from 1999 to 2001 . Scott also covered the MLB playoffs and NCAA Final Four in 1995 for ESPN .
Scott appeared in each issue of ESPN the Magazine , with his Holla column . During his work at ESPN , he also interviewed Tiger Woods , Sammy Sosa , President Bill Clinton and President Barack Obama during the 2008 presidential campaign . As a part of the interview with President Barack Obama , Scott played in a one @-@ on @-@ one basketball game with the President . In 2004 , per the request of U.S. troops , Scott and fellow SportsCenter co @-@ anchors hosted a week of programs originating from Kuwait for ESPN 's SportsCenter : Salute the Troops . He hosted a number of ESPN game and reality shows , including Stump the Schwab , Teammates , and Dream Job , and hosted David Blaine 's Drowned Alive special . He hosted a special and only broadcast episode of America 's Funniest Home Videos called AFV : The Sports Edition .
= = = Style = = =
While there were already successful African @-@ American sportscasters , Scott blended hip @-@ hop culture and sports in a way that had never been seen before on television . He talked in the same manner as fans would at home . ESPN director of news Vince Doria told ABC : " But Stuart spoke a much different language ... that appealed to a young demographic , particularly a young African @-@ American demographic . " Michael Wilbon wrote that Scott allowed his personality to infuse the coverage and his emotion to pour out .
Scott also integrated pop culture references into his reports . One commentator remembered his style : " he could go from evoking a Baptist preacher riffing during Sunday morning service ( ' Can I get a witness from the congregation ? ! ' ) , to quoting Public Enemy frontman Chuck D ( ' Hear the drummer get WICKED ! ' ) In 1999 , he was parodied on Saturday Night Live by Tim Meadows . Scott appeared in music videos with the rappers LL Cool J and Luke , and he was cited in " 3 Peat " , a Lil Wayne song that included the line : " Yeah , I got game like Stuart Scott , fresh out the ESPN shop . " In a 2002 segment of NPR 's On the Media , Scott revealed one approach to his anchoring duties : " Writing is better if it 's kept simple . Every sentence doesn 't need to have perfect noun / verb agreement . I 've said ' ain 't ' on the air . Because I sometimes use ' ain 't ' when I 'm talking . "
As a result of his unique style , Scott and ESPN received a lot of hate mail from people who resented his color , his hip @-@ hop style , or his generation . In a 2003 USA Today survey , Scott finished first in the question of which anchor should be voted off SportsCenter , but he also was second to Dan Patrick in the ' definitely keep him ' voting . Jason Whitlock criticized Scott 's use of Jay @-@ Z 's alternate nickname , " Jigga " , at halftime of Monday Night Football as ridiculous and offensive . Scott never changed his style and ESPN stuck with him .
= = = Catchphrases = = =
Scott became well known for his use of catch phrases , following in the SportsCenter tradition begun by Dan Patrick and Keith Olbermann . He popularized the phrase booyah , which spread from sports into mainstream culture . Some of the catchphrases included :
" Boo @-@ Yah ! "
" Hallah "
" As cool as the other side of the pillow "
" He must be the bus driver cuz he was takin ' him to school . "
" Holla at a playa when you see him in the street ! "
" Just call him butter ' cause he 's on a roll "
" They Call Him the Windex Man ' Cause He 's Always Cleaning the Glass "
" You Ain 't Gotta Go Home , But You Gotta Get The Heck Outta Here . "
" He Treats Him Like a Dog . Sit . Stay . "
" And the Lord said you got to rise Up ! "
" Make All the Kinfolk Proud ... Pookie , Ray Ray and Moesha "
" It 's Your World , Kid ... The Rest of Us Are Still Paying Rent "
" Can I Get a Witness From the Congregation ? "
" Doing It , Doing It , Doing It Well "
" See ... What Had Happened Was "
= = = Legacy = = =
ESPN president John Skipper said Scott 's flair and style , which he used to talk about the athletes he was covering , " changed everything . " Fellow ESPN Anchor , Stan Verrett , said he was a trailblazer : " not only because he was black – obviously black – but because of his style , his demeanor , his presentation . He did not shy away from the fact that he was a black man , and that allowed the rest of us who came along to just be ourselves . " He became a role model for African @-@ American sports journalists .
= = Personal life = =
Scott was married to Kimberly Scott from 1993 to 2007 . They had two daughters together , Taelor and Sydni . Scott lived in Avon , Connecticut . At the time of his death , Scott was in a relationship with Kristin Spodobalski . During his Jimmy V Award speech , he told his teenage daughters : " Taelor and Sydni , I love you guys more than I will ever be able to express . You two are my heartbeat . I am standing on this stage here tonight because of you . "
= = = Eye injury = = =
Scott was injured when he was hit in the face by a football during a New York Jets mini @-@ camp on April 3 , 2002 , while filming a special for ESPN , a blow which damaged his cornea . He received surgery but afterwards suffered from ptosis , or drooping of the eyelid .
= = = Appendectomy and cancer = = =
After leaving Connecticut on a Sunday morning in 2007 for Monday Night Football in Pittsburgh , Scott had a stomachache . After the stomachache worsened , he went to the hospital instead of the game and later had his appendix removed . After testing the appendix , doctors learned that he had cancer . Two days later , he had surgery in New York that removed part of his colon and some of his lymph nodes near the appendix . After the surgery , they recommended preventive chemotherapy . By December , Scott — while undergoing chemotherapy — hosted Friday night ESPN NBA coverage and led the coverage of ABC 's NBA Christmas Day studio show . Scott worked out while undergoing chemotherapy . Scott said of his experience with cancer at the time : " One of the coolest things about having cancer , and I know that sounds like an oxymoron , is meeting other people who 've had to fight it . You have a bond . It 's like a fraternity or sorority . " When Scott returned to work and people knew of his cancer diagnosis , the well @-@ wishers felt overbearing for him as he just wanted to talk about sports , not cancer .
The cancer returned in 2011 , but it eventually went back into remission . He was again diagnosed with cancer on January 14 , 2013 . After chemo , Scott would do mixed martial arts and / or a P90X workout regimen . By 2014 , he had undergone 58 infusions of chemotherapy and switched to chemotherapy pills . Scott also went under radiation and multiple surgeries as a part of his cancer treatment . Scott never wanted to know what stage of cancer he was in .
= = = Jimmy V Award = = =
On July 16 , 2014 , Scott was honored at the ESPY Awards , with the Jimmy V Award for his ongoing battle against cancer . He shared that he had 4 surgeries in 7 days in the week prior to his appearance , when he was suffering from liver complications and kidney failure . Scott told the audience , " When you die , it does not mean that you lose to cancer . You beat cancer by how you live , why you live , and in the manner in which you live . " At the ESPYs , a video was also shown that included scenes of Scott from a clinic room at Johns Hopkins Hospital and other scenes from Scott 's life fighting cancer . Scott ended the speech by saying , " Have a great rest of your night , have a great rest of your life . "
= = Death = =
On the morning of January 4 , 2015 , Scott died of cancer in his home in Avon , Connecticut , at age 49 .
= = = Tributes = = =
ESPN announced : " Stuart Scott , a dedicated family man and one of ESPN 's signature SportsCenter anchors , has died after a courageous and inspiring battle with cancer . He was 49 . " ESPN released a video obituary of Scott . Sports Illustrated called ESPN 's video obituary a beautiful and moving tribute to a man who died " at the too @-@ damn @-@ young age of 49 . " Barack Obama paid tribute to Scott , saying :
I will miss Stuart Scott . Twenty years ago , Stuart helped usher in a new way to talk about our favorite teams and the day 's best plays . For much of those twenty years , public service and campaigns have kept me from my family – but wherever I went , I could flip on the TV and Stu and his colleagues on SportsCenter were there . Over the years , he entertained us , and in the end , he inspired us – with courage and love . Michelle and I offer our thoughts and prayers to his family , friends , and colleagues .
A number of National Basketball Association athletes — current and former — paid tribute to Scott , including Stephen Curry , Carmelo Anthony , Kobe Bryant , Steve Nash , Jason Collins , Shaquille O 'Neal , Magic Johnson , Dwyane Wade , LeBron James , Michael Jordan , Bruce Bowen , Dennis Rodman , James Worthy and others . A number of golfers paid tribute to Scott : Tiger Woods , Gary Player , David Duval , Lee Westwood , Blair O 'Neal , Jane Park and others . Other athletes paid tribute including Robert Griffin III , Russell Wilson , Jon Lester , Lance Armstrong , Barry Sanders , J.J. Watt , David Ortiz and Sheryl Swoopes . UNC basketball coach Roy Williams called him a " hero . " Arizona Cardinals head coach Bruce Arians said : " We lost a football game but we lost more this morning . I think one of the best members of the media I 've ever dealt with , Stuart Scott , passed away . "
Colleagues Hannah Storm and Rich Eisen gave on @-@ air remembrances of Scott . On SportsCenter , Scott Van Pelt and Steve Levy said farewell to Scott and left a chair empty in his honor . Tom Jackson , Cris Carter , Chris Berman , Mike Ditka and Keyshawn Johnson from NFL Countdown shared their memories of Scott .
During his acceptance speech for his 2015 Sports Emmy Award for Best Studio Host , Ernie Johnson , Jr. and gave his award to Scott 's daughters , saying it " belongs with Stuart Scott " . At the 67th Primetime Emmy Awards , Scott was included in the " in memoriam " segment , a rare honor for a sports broadcaster .
= = Filmography = =
He Got Game ( 1998 )
Disney 's The Kid ( 2000 )
Drumline ( 2002 )
Love Don 't Cost A Thing ( 2003 )
Mr. 3000 ( 2004 )
Herbie : Fully Loaded ( 2005 )
The Game Plan ( 2007 )
Enchanted ( 2007 )
Just Wright ( 2010 )
= = Television = =
Arli $ $ ( 2000 )
I Love the ' 80s ( 2002 )
Soul Food ( 2003 )
She Spies ( 2005 )
I Love the ' 70s ( 2003 )
One on One ( 2004 )
Stump the Schwab ( 2004 – 06 )
Dream Job ( 2004 )
Teammates ( 2005 )
I Love the ' 90s ( 2004 )
I Love the Holidays ( 2005 )
I Love Toys ( 2006 )
Black to the Future ( 2009 )
= = Publications = =
Scott , Stuart ; Platt , Larry ( 2015 ) . Every Day I Fight . Blue Rider Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 399 @-@ 17406 @-@ 3 .
= K @-@ 34 ( Kansas highway ) =
K @-@ 34 is a 29 @.@ 26 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 47 @.@ 09 km ) state highway in southwestern Kansas that runs from U.S. Route 160 ( US @-@ 160 ) and US @-@ 183 near Ashland to US @-@ 400 near Bucklin . It is one of the lesser @-@ traveled highways in the state and is not part of the National Highway System . It is a two @-@ lane road for its entire length .
K @-@ 34 was originally designated in southeastern Kansas , running through Neodesha . The designation was moved to southwestern Kansas in 1937 , replacing the old K @-@ 41 designation . The highway formerly ran to the Oklahoma border via a concurrency with US @-@ 183 . The designation was shortened in 1993 to its current routing .
= = Route description = =
K @-@ 34 begins at an intersection with US @-@ 160 and US @-@ 183 east of Ashland in Clark County . It heads north through rolling farmland along a two @-@ lane road . A series of curves takes the highway northeast , after which the route straightens out to the north and crosses Bluff Creek before intersecting a road which , prior to 1965 , carried K @-@ 34 . It continues due north and enters Ford County . North of the county line and south of Bucklin , K @-@ 34 takes the name 132 Road . The route turns to the northwest as it crosses Day Road and enters the city of Bucklin .
After entering the city , K @-@ 34 curves to the north and becomes Main Street . In the northern portion of Bucklin , the route turns southwest and overlaps U.S. Route 54 for a short distance . Following the short concurrency , K @-@ 34 turns to the north and passes under a railroad operated by Union Pacific . The highway twists to the northwest and leaves Bucklin , meeting its northern terminus a few miles farther to the northwest at an intersection with US @-@ 400 .
K @-@ 34 is maintained by the Kansas Department of Transportation ( KDOT ) . The route 's annual average daily traffic in 2012 was about 570 vehicles , including 240 trucks , south of Bucklin . North of the city , there was significantly more traffic . There were 1010 vehicles , and 285 trucks , from Bucklin to the highway 's northern terminus . No segment of the highway is part of the National Highway System , a system of highways important to the nation 's defense , economy , and mobility .
= = History = =
K @-@ 34 was first designated before 1932 in Wilson and Montgomery counties . That route began at K @-@ 96 and ran east to K @-@ 16 . Around 1936 , another segment of the route was designated in Cherokee County , east of the rest of the route , from Crestline to the Missouri state line . In 1937 , the portion of the western segment of the route located west of US @-@ 75 was re @-@ designated as K @-@ 37 , the eastern segment of the route was renumbered as K @-@ 26 , and K @-@ 34 was re @-@ designated in the southwestern portion of the state from the Oklahoma state line to its current northern terminus . The segment of the highway north of US @-@ 160 replaced the former K @-@ 41 designation .
At the time of its designation , not all of K @-@ 34 was paved . The segment in Ford County and the concurrency with US @-@ 160 was paved , but all other segments were either gravel or dirt . By 1948 , all of the route was paved except a small portion in Comanche and Clark counties , which was still gravel . No dirt segments remained by 1948 .
In 1965 , the K @-@ 34 designation was realigned so that it extended straight north from the intersection with US @-@ 160 and US @-@ 183 instead of overlapping those highways and traveling east . This realignment caused the route to bypass Comanche County entirely , and by 1967 , the whole highway was paved . In 1993 , the concurrency with US @-@ 183 was removed from the route . The route has not been modified since 1993 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Lillesand – Flaksvand Line =
The Lillesand – Flaksvand Line ( Norwegian : Lillesand – Flaksvandbanen ) or LFB was a 16 @.@ 59 @-@ kilometer ( 10 @.@ 31 mi ) railway between Flaksvand ( now called Flaksvatn ) and Lillesand in Aust @-@ Agder , Norway . The private line was built with 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow gauge and was not connected to the national railway network . The line opened on 4 June 1896 , and remained in use until 15 June 1953 . It was built to carry lumber , but also featured a passenger service and other cargo transport . After 1908 , the line was unprofitable and only had a limited service . Plans to connect it to the Sørland Line were proposed but rejected . The line had four stations and four halts , and was served with two 75 kilowatts ( 100 hp ) steam locomotives , Lillesand and Flaksvand . The line was owned and operated by the private company , A / S Lillesand – Flaksvandbanen , although nearly all the shares were held by local municipalities , the county and the national government .
= = Route = =
The 16 @.@ 59 @-@ kilometer ( 10 @.@ 31 mi ) line was built at a minimum standard and as cheaply as possible . It had 1 @,@ 067 mm ( 3 ft 6 in ) narrow gauge , with the steepest gradien at 3 @.@ 33 percent , a minimum curve radius of 60 meters ( 200 ft ) and a track weight of 60 kilograms per meter ( 145 lb / yd ) . The line had four stations : Lillesand , Tveide , Birkeland and Flaksvand . In addition , there were four halts between Lillesand and Tveide : Stene , Møglustu , Storemyr and Eikeland .
In addition to the main line , there were 11 branches and spurs , totaling 1 @,@ 550 metres ( 5 @,@ 090 ft ) . At Lillesand Station , there was a station building , a wagon depot , a locomotive depot and tracks to the docks . At Møglestu , there was an extra parallel track and at Sandvad , there was a branch to a gravel pit . Extra tracks were laid at Storemyr for parking of wagons and at Ydderstad , there was a spur to load lumber . At Eikeland there three spurs , including one 600 metres ( 2 @,@ 000 ft ) long to a stone quarry . At Jordbruna , there was a spur for loading lumber , and at Tveite , there were three spurs , of which two went to the sand pit at Moelva and one to Myhre Torvstrøfabrikk . North of Tveite , there was a spur to leave part of the train if the locomotive needed to take two trips to get up the hill . At Birkeland Station , there were two extra tracks , one for stationing cargo trains and one to the sawmill . At Flaksvand Station , there were five tracks , of which three were at the station , one to the sawmill and for loading lumber .
In Lillesand , the right @-@ of @-@ way has been converted to a road around the city center , although parts have been converted to a pedestrian path . Other parts have been reverted to agricultural land . From Storemyr , the route went through a forest , and has become an overgrown forestry road . From Eikeland to Tveite , the line has been converted to a hiking trail . At Birkleland , there are few remains of the line , although when leaving the village , part of the line is used as a pathway . Further along , the route is disused , but fenced in . The station buildings at Tveite and Flaksvand have been kept , the building at Lillesand has been preserved , while the station at Birkeland was dismounted because it was in the way of a new road .
= = History = =
Public debate about constructing a railway from Lillesand up the valley following the river Torvdalselven started in the mid @-@ 1880s . At the time , lumber was being floated down the river , but low levels of water was causing irregular operations and the piling of lumber in Flaksvand . In 1889 , the government for received an application for a concession . Costs were estimated at NOK 462 @,@ 000 and the line was passed by the Parliament of Norway on 22 June 1891 . At the same time , the line received a state funding of NOK 200 @,@ 000 . Half of this was share capital , the other half was a subsidy . Aust @-@ Agder County Municipality also gave a grant of NOK 20 @,@ 000 , and bought shares for the same amount . Of the share capital of NOK 417 @,@ 350 , NOK 850 was from private investors and the rest from municipalities . The largest owner was Lillesand Municipality , who bought shares for NOK 181 @,@ 000 . Concession was granted by royal resolution on 31 August 1892 , and lasted 30 years from the date of the opening of the railway .
Construction was subcontracted to Nicolay Nicolaysen Sontum of Bergen . Without any machines , the whole line was built by hand using tools and explosives . The line opened on 4 June 1896 . Two steam locomotives from Sächsische Maschinenfabrik were delivered in May 1895 and given the names Lillesand and Flaksvand . The locomotives weighed 15 tonnes ( 15 long tons ; 17 short tons ) and had a power output of 75 kilowatts ( 101 hp ) . Three passenger cars were bought along with 34 freight cars . Most of the rolling stock remained in use until the closing of the line , at which time they were scrapped . The initial service was two daily round trips , shortly afterwards increasing to three . The peak freight transport was reached in 1902 , when 53 @,@ 207 tonnes ( 52 @,@ 367 long tons ; 58 @,@ 651 short tons ) were transported . It fell rapidly , and from 1906 it was never higher than 20 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 20 @,@ 000 long tons ; 22 @,@ 000 short tons ) . Also the passenger traffic fell , with the peak reached in 1900 , when the line had 26 @,@ 000 passengers . In addition to lumber , an important customer was Myhre Torvstrøfabrikk , which produced peat .
By 1908 , the railway was losing money , of which two @-@ thirds was covered by the state and one @-@ third by the municipalities . During the planning of the Sørland Line , it was proposed that the Lillesand – Flaksvand Line be converted to standard gauge and extended to Oggevatn , allowing the two lines to connect . Other proposals involved extending the line from Flaksvand to Vennesla and from Lillesand to Roresand . In 1928 , the operating company , A / S Lillesand – Flaksvandbanen , started a parallel bus route . By 1930 , only 845 passengers were transported by rail , with ridership falling further in the following years . By then , there was only a single , combined freight and passenger round trip per day . From 2 March 1942 , this was reduced to when needed , and eventually transport was only done during summer . In 1951 , the railway transported 269 passengers and 4 @,@ 915 tonnes ( 4 @,@ 837 long tons ; 5 @,@ 418 short tons ) . The last train ran on 15 June 1953 , and the line was officially closed on 1 July .
= Susannah Constantine =
Susannah F Constantine ( born 3 June 1962 in Hammersmith , London ) is an English fashion journalist , advisor , television presenter , author and designer . Her second book , entitled What Not to Wear , has won her a prestigious British Book Award and sold 670 @,@ 000 copies .
Constantine was born into a wealthy family ; her father was successful in property and shipping sectors . She was privately educated as a child and went on to date British royalty , David , Viscount Linley , during the 1980s . Constantine has been involved in fashion for a long period , originally working in America for Giorgio Armani and then John Galliano in London . She met Trinny Woodall in 1994 who both proceeded to write a weekly fashion column , Ready to Wear . They founded Ready2shop.com , a dot @-@ com fashion advice business , and wrote their first fashion advice book in 2000 , Ready 2 Dress , both of which failed . From there they were commissioned to BBC Two to host the style series , What Not to Wear , from 2001 to 2005 . She made regular appearances as a style advisor on The Oprah Winfrey Show and following her success on the shows , she went on to co @-@ host Trinny & Susannah Undress ... on ITV in 2006 and Undress the Nation in 2007 . Constantine and Woodall have now dressed over 5 @,@ 000 women .
She has co @-@ written many fashion advice books with Woodall , some of which have become best @-@ sellers in the United Kingdom and United States . It is estimated that her various style advice books have sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies in Britain and the United States . Constantine and Woodall have designed their own clothing range for Littlewoods which made its debut in 2007 , followed by the release of their latest fashion advice book , The Body Shape Bible .
= = Education = =
Constantine was privately educated at boarding schools including Queen 's Gate School in South Kensington , London and the £ 20 @,@ 000 @-@ per @-@ year St Mary 's School in Wantage , Oxfordshire which was run by Anglican nuns . Her time at St Mary 's School was described by herself as " miserable " due to her homesickness and insecurity , meaning she was not able to make friends . She was first sent to boarding school at the age of 11 years , and recalls her first night away from home : " I sobbed uncontrollably into my pillow . "
In mid @-@ 2007 , Constantine spoke about how she received a letter from St Mary 's School , inviting her to come back to the school to talk about her career and success to current pupils . Constantine immediately declined the offer with a four @-@ letter refusal and wrote " No fucking way " on the letter she had received . Her personal assistant , who was left to deal with the situation , wrongly sent the original letter of invitation ( containing Constantine 's hand @-@ written note ) back to the school . The school then wrote a letter back , stating that she is not welcome near the school .
= = Early career = =
Constantine originally did a year of Montessori training after she had left school but she then moved onto other projects such as studying sculpture in Brussels . She later said of this time that she " lost [ her ] virginity , went a bit mad . " Constantine had taught children for three years , and also worked as a shop girl for Harrods . She found the job , in her own words , " boring " and even tried shoplifting for the sake of excitement , but she has since expressed admiration for shop girls . Constantine 's love for horses had inspired her to become a mounted policewoman in London , but was deterred when she found she was required to do four years walking the beat . She wrote a book about present giving , which prompted The Daily Telegraph to write a hostile article implying she had never done a day 's work in her life , something which deeply upset her . She has stated defiantly " I 've always worked . "
She is now best known as a fashion guru and style advisor . Her fashion career started when she worked for many years as a shop girl in America for Giorgio Armani . She later came back to London with the hope of securing a job with Armani but ended up working for designers such as Richard James , Patrick Cox , Alistair Blair and John Galliano which gained her an even greater understanding of fashion , providing an in depth knowledge of how a garment progresses from a sketch . She then started working with the British Brain and Spine Foundation and consequently met the sports editor of The Daily Telegraph . Whilst doing a piece for GMTV , he asked Constantine to report the women 's World Cup Final in cricket on finding out that it was her passion . She proceeded to write about cars and then fashion .
In 1994 , she first met Trinny Woodall at a party hosted by David , Viscount Linley . Though they did not like each other at first , the two women proceeded to write Ready to Wear , a weekly style guide for The Daily Telegraph which ran successfully for seven years . The column promoted affordable high @-@ street fashion and they used themselves to illustrate which clothing suited which figure . Constantine and Woodall also became the co @-@ founders of Ready2shop.com , a dot @-@ com , but the business venture failed , and investors subsequently lost a reputed £ 10 million . It was during their time running the internet business that they had a serious argument that almost ended their friendship .
Constantine made her television debut when Granada Sky Broadcasting signed her and Woodall to present a daytime shopping show called Ready to Wear , and they soon released their first fashion advice book , Ready 2 Dress in 2000 . The book was unsuccessful and resulted in the pulping of 13 @,@ 000 copies . Soon after the start of their television career , they secured a frequent makeover slot on the show Richard & Judy . It ensured that they had further exposure in television and gained attention from Jane Root , controller of BBC Two , who took a risk and signed them up after their book venture and their internet business had failed badly .
= = Television = =
= = = 2001 — 03 = = =
Constantine began co @-@ hosting What Not to Wear with Trinny Woodall in 2001 , which required using her fashion advice and expertise in order to reform participants ' appearances and fashion style . Constantine and Woodall hosted What Not to Wear until 2005 and became renowned for their tactile behaviour with the participants , direct advice , and frequently referring to breasts as tits which has become something of a trademark . Never one to hold back , a notorious moment arose when Constantine spontaneously pulled a female candidate 's underwear down during filming as her knicker line was visible . Critics of What Not to Wear argued that the duo were too patronising to their subjects , a claim which they strongly disagree with . Constantine said that the comments come " from the heart " , and insists that their subjects " see we have a genuine love of women . We love women and they can see that . Women just know . " She also stated " Ultimately , what we 're doing is giving people confidence . We 're probably the only people who have an opinion , who care how ordinary people dress . No one at Vogue magazine gives a shit . They work with the designers , it 's more creative and artistic – they are creating something beautiful . But they don 't care about how their readers end up looking – whereas we do ! " The show made Constantine and Woodall household names and they are now known together as Trinny and Susannah . One reporter has simply referred to Constantine as " the one with ' big tits ' . " Constantine and Woodall have even considered taking insurance out on their partnership should something unforeseen happen , although Constantine was against the move .
Constantine has the belief that " anyone can achieve style . It doesn 't matter who you are or where you 're from . " She also says that she finds dressing other women easy , but finds it difficult when dressing herself . Constantine and Woodall share the belief that dressing to flatter body shape is vital , stating " For us , it ’ s all about shape , and how that is going to cure a bodily defect . We ’ re like clothing doctors . "
During her time co @-@ hosting What Not to Wear for five series , she and Woodall gained recognition for their work on the show , winning a Royal Television Society Award in 2002 for being the best factual presenters . In 2002 , Constantine advised Jeremy Clarkson on a celebrity version of What Not to Wear . After Clarkson appeared on the show , Nasir Khan stated " I 'd rather eat my own hair than shop with these two [ Constantine and Woodall ] again " . Adding to its success , the show was nominated for the Features Award at the BAFTAS in both 2002 and 2003 . On the show Big Impression , impressionist Ronni Ancona took to spoofing Constantine 's presenting techniques on What Not to Wear , just one of the shows on which Constantine 's character has been spoofed .
For charity , in 2002 during the BBC 's Children in Need programme , both Constantine and Woodall performed their own version of Madonna 's hit single " Vogue " with a group of celebrity backing singers . They became the faces of Nescafé in 2003 in which they were featured in television advertisements promoting the brand of coffee . As part of their contract , Constantine and Woodall gave a Nescafé competition winner a £ 10 @,@ 000 makeover .
= = = 2004 — 05 = = =
Following its ratings success , What Not to Wear was promoted from BBC Two to BBC One in 2004 , and secured even larger audiences . The format was changed slightly , to a 60 @-@ minute show with two makeovers instead of a 30 @-@ minute show with only one makeover and also saw Constantine spending a day as one of her subjects . What Not to Wear soon gained her international fame when it was aired in countries such as Spain and Portugal as well as in the American continent .
Constantine appeared on Children in Need in 2004 , which included a special segment in which she gave the fictional EastEnders characters Little Mo and Mo Harris a makeover in the style of What Not to Wear , commenting on them with her usual " no nonsense " approach . In 2005 , Constantine voiced a robot version of herself in the science fiction series , Doctor Who . In the episode " Bad Wolf " , Trine @-@ e and Zu @-@ Zana were two robots acting out a deadly futuristic version of What not to Wear , offering a makeover to Jack Harkness in a most gruesome form .
The Oprah Winfrey Show has also seen Constantine and Woodall appearing regularly as a makeover and style experts giving fashion advice and guidelines on how to better overall appearances and giving numerous American women fashion makeovers . They also did an " Oprah bra and swimsuit intervention " . Reflecting on differences in women 's style and willingness to submit to makeovers between the UK and America , she stated that although there is not much difference , " The Americans are slightly less adventurous , " and that " American women are more open to change and slightly more receptive victims . "
= = = 2006 — present = = =
In 2006 , Constantine and Woodall moved from the BBC to ITV in a deal reputedly worth £ 1 @.@ 2 million to start a new show , Trinny & Susannah Undress ... , on 3 October . The second series of Trinny & Susannah Undress ... was transmitted in June 2007 , and it maintained the format of series one which saw Constantine and Woodall advising couples who were finding problems within their marriage .
Constantine found it warming that people could open up to them as confidantes , and also said " It 's been fascinating to see how looking good and having faith in your appearance makes you into a sexier person , which makes you attractive to your partner again . " Constantine stated in an interview that filming the show was very emotionally draining , and as a result , she often went home crying . The programme did not come without its critics who questioned the depth at which Constantine and Woodall could deal with serious issues raised during the programme . On 16 October 2006 , they both appeared on NBC 's The Today Show and performed makeovers on three women especially for the show .
The new series on ITV saw a change in format , confronting the main fashion issues in Britain . In one episode exploring the theme of age , Constantine was transformed into a seventy @-@ year @-@ old with the use of prosthetics and makeup . She stated that it took her four days to get over the sight of herself aged so drastically , and compared the feeling to having an " electric shock " . Broadcasting was scheduled for 7 November 2007 and the programme is newly entitled Trinny & Susannah Undress The Nation . On 5 November and 28 December 2007 Constantine and Woodall appeared on Good Morning America and performed makeovers on three women for the show and gave style advice according to the women 's shapes . They also reported on the fashion at the 80th Academy Awards especially for the show in 2008 . Constantine and Woodall have dressed over 5 @,@ 000 women as of 2007 . With reference to their personal website , they state that their satisfaction remains with the many women they have helped and inspired and not so much with the success of book sales and viewing figures .
In 2003 , when Constantine and Woodall were interviewed for the first time on Parkinson , actress Meg Ryan had a controversial interview with Michael Parkinson , which resulted in negative publicity for Ryan . Parkinson said that he felt Ryan 's behaviour to his fellow guests Constantine and Woodall , whom she turned her back on , was " unforgivable " .
In 2015 Constantine flew to Australia to compete in the fifteenth series of I 'm a Celebrity ... Get Me Out of Here . She became the first to be eliminated after having the fewest votes on 27 November 2015 .
= = Beyond television work = =
To coincide with Constantine 's move from the BBC to ITV1 in 2006 , she co @-@ launched an underwear range with Woodall called " Trinny and Susannah Magic Pants " . Made of nylon , they 're designed to flatten the tummy , buttocks and thighs . Constantine even wore them after giving birth to her third child . She currently co @-@ writes a weekly column for The Sun with Woodall .
= = = Online = = =
In 2010 , Constantine and Woodall starred in an online mockumentary series called " Trinny and Susannah : What They Did Next " .
An announcement was made that Constantine and Woodall would be touring New Zealand and Australia where they made a series of public appearances at shopping malls owned by the Westfield Group to perform live styling sessions for the company 's customers . Their appearances often attracted thousands of spectators . Before the tour , Constantine said " We don 't know how New Zealanders dress but we are looking forward to getting over there and finding out . "
= = = Littlewoods = = =
With Woodall , Constantine became the face of the home shopping company , Littlewoods Direct , after orders rose by thirty per cent when Littlewoods sponsored their ITV programme Trinny & Susannah Undress . The pair produced a twelve @-@ page fashion advice section within the Littlewoods catalogue and made a booklet called The Golden Rules , which was distributed to all Littlewoods customers with fashion advice to suit a range of body shapes . They have also produced online style guidelines for Littlewoods .
The first series of Littlewoods television advertisements featured Constantine and Woodall as themselves dressed as two agents trying to rob a Littlewoods designer warehouse , which was followed by Christmas adverts in 2007 . The £ 12 million advertising campaign is one of largest ever for a home shopping and internet @-@ based company . Since the campaign began , Littlewoods ' sales have risen by 18 per cent , with brand awareness and customers visiting the website rising as well .
On 20 September 2007 , Constantine and Woodall launched their own exclusive Littlewoods women 's clothing range which consists of trousers , coats and tops which like their underwear range , are designed to make certain areas appear slimmer . A series of eight dresses , cashmere knitwear , faux fur and sequinned shrugs also feature in the range . She commented " If you want to create a waist , there 's a dress that 's going to do that for you too . We 've designed it very much around the female body . " She also stated " It 's not about what size you are , it 's about how you can minimise or accentuate parts of your body with clothing . That 's what we 've created . "
= = = Books = = =
Constantine has co @-@ written several style advice books with her fashion partner Trinny Woodall , which have sold over an estimated 2 ½ million copies worldwide . The fashion advice books have been number one bestsellers in Britain and the United States , appearing on both the Sunday Times bestseller list and The New York Times best @-@ seller list , and have been translated throughout the world .
Their most successful book to date , What Not to Wear , was published in 2002 which displayed striking chapters such as " Big Tits " , " No Tits " and " Big Bum " with fashion advice for each category . It became an instant best @-@ seller with total sales reaching 670 @,@ 000 copies , consequently outselling Jamie Oliver and Nigella Lawson . Before the prime book selling season , their book had sold 250 @,@ 000 copies in Britain . The book was at one point selling 45 @,@ 000 copies each week and sold 300 @,@ 000 copies in just fifteen weeks , eventually making sales worth £ 8 @.@ 7 million . Other success with the book includes winning a British Book Award in 2003 for the TV & Film Book of the Year . Despite the book becoming an instant hit , Constantine and Woodall were only given an advance of £ 10 @,@ 000 . It was then reported that Constantine and Woodall secured a £ 1 million book deal to write more of their fashion books .
The pair 's latest book , The Body Shape Bible , was published on 18 September 2007 . Through a survey about different body shapes conducted amongst women , Constantine and Woodall were able to discover the twelve most common women 's body shapes . They used this information to write The Body Shape Bible which highlights these twelve shapes which have all been named in ways such as ' cornet ' or ' brick ' . In the fashion advice book , women can interpret which shape they are , and can then be given adequate fashion advice on their own individual shape . A few pages in the book are also devoted to illustrating some of Constantine and Woodall 's own fashion disasters .
= = Personal life = =
Constantine grew up in an old priory in the Leicestershire village of Knipton and went hunting from the age of seven . She had a close relationship with her sister Annette Constantine and her father , Joseph Constantine , who was successful in the property and shipping sectors , was an Old Etonian pupil and served in the Coldstream Guards . When she was young , Constantine would rely on her father for fashion advice and has commented that any style that she has , she learned from him . He was a talented artist and was offered worldwide art exhibitions , although he was too modest to accept . His death came suddenly and was a milestone for Constantine .
Constantine became a fixture in 1980s British gossip columns and newspapers as the result of her relationship with Princess Margaret 's son , David , Viscount Linley which lasted for eight years . Princess Margaret thought highly of Constantine and even called her " my daughter @-@ in @-@ law " . Constantine admitted that her relationship with Linley undeniably opened doors for her , but after they broke up , she was keen to put the episode behind her and become well known in her own right . She has also had a relationship with Pakistan cricket captain Imran Khan , but she is now married to Danish entrepreneur and businessman Sten Bertelsen , who launched Death cigarettes , and with whom she has three children ; Joe , Esme and CeCe . Constantine and her family bought a 120 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 49 km2 ) property in Sussex . Constantine is estimated to be worth £ 5 million .
After having her first child , Constantine suffered from severe postnatal depression and panic attacks . Upon discovering that she was pregnant for a third time , as well as being overcome with delight , she felt despair as it came at a time when best friend Trinny Woodall was struggling to conceive and undergoing IVF treatment . In an interview Constantine said that she " couldn 't bear to tell her . " A short time later however , Woodall became pregnant .
Constantine has spoken of the pressure to look good in public but affirms " We 're as much in the business of dressing ourselves – but more importantly helping other women to do that . " Constantine has admitted to a fear of growing older : " I just don 't want to get old . Old women are invisible , and I don 't want to be invisible , " she has said .
In 2002 , while on a visit to the Cannes Film Festival , Constantine and Woodall were the victims of gem thieves . The thieves broke into the villa on the French Riviera where they were staying , rendered Constantine and Woodall unconscious with chloroform , and then continued to steal money and jewellery . Carol Vorderman was involved in a feud with Constantine and Woodall in 2003 . Vorderman commented harshly about the double @-@ act , referring to them as ' Tranny and the Horse ' , based on their appearance , after they had called her an " overdone Eighties nightmare " and named Vorderman in their list of the 20 worst @-@ dressed celebrities .
= = = Views = = =
In August 2014 , Constantine was one of 200 public figures who were signatories to a letter to The Guardian opposing Scottish independence in the run @-@ up to September 's referendum on that issue .
= = Television appearances = =
= The Boat Race 1901 =
The 58th Boat Race took place on 30 March 1901 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Cambridge had won the previous year 's race by twenty lengths . This year 's race , umpired by former rower Frank Willan , was won by Oxford by two @-@ fifths of a length in a time of 22 minutes 31 seconds . Oxford 's crew featured five former Blues while Cambridge just one . It was the Dark Blues ' first win three years and the slowest winning time since 1877 . The victory took the overall record in the event to 33 – 24 in favour of Oxford .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1900 race by twenty lengths , while Oxford led overall with 32 victories to Cambridge 's 24 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford 's coaches were G. C. Bourne who had rowed for Oxford in the 1882 and 1883 races , Harcourt Gilbey Gold ( Dark Blue president the previous year and four @-@ time Blue ) and C. K. Philips who had represented Oxford four times between 1895 and 1898 . Cambridge were coached by James Brookes Close , who had rowed for the Light Blues three times between 1872 and 1874 , Stanley Muttlebury , five @-@ time Blue between 1886 and 1890 and John Ernest Payne ( two @-@ time Blue in 1899 and 1900 ) . The umpire for the race for the twelfth year in a row was Frank Willan who won the event four consecutive times , rowing for Oxford in the 1866 , 1867 , 1868 and 1869 races .
Author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater wrote that the Dark Blues " created a sensation " when they elected to row in a boat designed by Felix Warre , based on that built by Matthew Taylor of Newcastle upon Tyne for the 1857 race . Of the crew , Drinkwater remarked " the material of which [ they were ] built was second class , but behind Culme @-@ Seymour a , and coached by Mr. Gold ... they attained very nearly to first @-@ class pace " . The Cambridge crew suffered illness in practice and in a late reorganisation , " the crew received a set @-@ back from which they never really recovered . "
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 2 @.@ 675 lb ( 77 @.@ 2 kg ) , 1 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 62 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . The Cambridge crew contained a single rower with Boat Race experience in their number three , boat club president Bertram Willes Dayrell Brooke . Conversely , Oxford saw five former Blues return to the boat , including rower Warre and cox Gilchrist Maclagan who were making their third appearance in the event . All of the participants in the race were registered as British . Seven of the nine Cambridge crew members were studying at Trinity College .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Oxford . Heavy rainstorms and strong wind from the south @-@ west made for inclement conditions for the race . Willan started the race at 10 : 31 a.m. and Oxford , taking advantage of the bend in the river , gradually drew away from their opponents to hold a half @-@ length lead by the Mile Post . The Cambridge stroke Graham Macdowall Maitland spurted to ensure that the crews were level by the time they passed Harrods Furniture Depository . Oxford 's stroke rate dropped as they conceded ground to the Light Blues around the long side of the bend and dropped in behind them . Despite being closer to the shore , the water was still very rough and Cambridge struggled .
However , Oxford found it impossible to move out into the rougher water to pass Cambridge and settled behind the Light Blues until near to Barnes Bridge where Maclagan moved and Culme @-@ Seymour simultaneously spurted . As a result , they began to overlap the Cambridge , and with the bend of the river in their favour , they levelled the race as the crews passed Mortlake Brewery . Encountering more rough water , Cambridge were unable to respond and Oxford passed the finishing post two @-@ fifths of a length ahead , in a time of 22 minutes 31 seconds . It was the Dark Blues ' first win in three years , and the slowest winning time since the 1877 race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 33 – 24 in favour of Oxford .
= Small @-@ toothed sportive lemur =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur ( Lepilemur microdon ) , or small @-@ toothed weasel lemur , is a primate species in the family Lepilemuridae that — like all lemurs — is endemic to Madagascar . The species lives in dense rainforest in southeastern Madagascar , and can be found in Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks . Described in 1894 , it was considered either a subspecies or taxonomic synonym of the weasel sportive lemur ( Lepilemur mustelinus ) throughout most of the 20th century . Phylogenetic studies not only support its species status , but also suggest that it is the only eastern Malagasy sportive lemur that is more closely related to western than to other eastern species .
According to the original description , some of its teeth are smaller than those in other sportive lemurs . It is relatively large for a sportive lemur , and is difficult to visually distinguish from the weasel sportive lemur . The species weighs between 0 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 2 kg ( 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 6 lb ) and measures 55 to 64 cm ( 22 to 25 in ) from head to tail . Its fur is mostly reddish @-@ brown or chestnut color , with a dark stripe running from its head down its back . Its underside and neck are lighter in color . Like other sportive lemurs , it is nocturnal , sleeping in concealed tangles of vegetation as well as tree holes . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is solitary and eats leaves , fruits , and flowers .
Due to recent taxonomic changes and a lack of clarity about its population size and range , it is listed as " Data Deficient " by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) . It is also protected from international commercial trade under CITES Appendix I. Its primary threats are habitat loss to slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture and hunting .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur or small @-@ toothed weasel lemur , a member of the sportive lemur genus ( Lepilemur ) , was first described in 1894 by Charles Immanuel Forsyth Major , based on a specimen found in the Ankafana Forest in the eastern districts of the former Betsileo province in central Madagascar . Although Forsyth Major did not explicitly state the origins of either the scientific name or the vernacular name , he did note that it had smaller molar teeth relative to other sportive lemurs . The species name microdon is derived from the Ancient Greek micro- , meaning " small " and -odon , meaning " tooth . "
Until the 1990s , there was some dispute over the taxonomic status of the species . For much of the 20th century , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was considered a subspecies of the weasel sportive lemur ( Lepilemur mustelinus ) . In his book The Primates of Madagascar from 1982 , primatologist Ian Tattersall deviated from the traditional view by considering L. microdon a synonym of the weasel sportive lemur , while also recognizing only a single species of sportive lemur . Tattersall based his decision on what he considered to be a lack of detailed anatomical studies and field surveys , while also factoring in the difficulty in observing the animals in the wild , the presence of only subtle variations among museum specimens , and his own unwillingness to consider differences in karyotypes as grounds for defining distinct species . However , primatologist Russell Mittermeier , et al. in Lemurs of Madagascar ( 1994 ) , taxonomist Colin Groves in Mammal Species of the World ( 2005 ) , and others favored recognizing the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur as a species while also recognizing a total of seven sportive lemur species .
A cytogenetic ( chromosome ) study by Nicole Andriaholinirina , et al. published in 2005 added strong support to the species status of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur by demonstrating that its karyotype was distinct from all other sport lemur species . The species has 24 chromosomes ( 2n = 24 ) ; the autosomal pairs ( not sex chromosomes ) include eight that are meta- or submetacentric ( where chromosome arms are equal or unequal in length , respectively ) and three smaller acrocentric pairs ( with the shorter chromosome arm difficult to observe ) . Both the X and Y chromosomes are acrocentric . The study also showed that the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was the sportive lemur species most genetically distinct from the weasel sportive lemur , despite their similar appearance . A total of 18 chromosomal rearrangements distinguished the two species , indicating that if the two shared the same range , hybrids would be either completely sterile or suffer greatly reduced fertility .
In September 2006 , Edward E. Louis , Jr . , et al. announced the discovery of 11 new species of sportive lemur based on mitochondrial DNA ( mtDNA ) data . Each new species resulted from the splitting of existing species . In the case of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur , the population at Kalambatritra Reserve became known as Wright 's sportive lemur ( Lepilemur wrightae ) , the population as Andohahela National Park became Fleurete 's sportive lemur ( L. fleuretae ) , the population in Fandriana became Betsileo sportive lemur ( L. betsileo ) , and the population at Manombo Reserve became James ' sportive lemur ( L. jamesorum ) . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur remains a distinct species , while even more species have since been described , though none within its range .
Between 2006 and 2009 , three studies were published to resolve the phylogenetic relationships between the sportive lemurs . Cytogenetic and molecular studies in 2006 and 2008 concluded that the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is most closely related to the Milne @-@ Edwards ' sportive lemur ( Lepilemur edwardsi ) . In 2009 , a study examined every known species , including the species most recently described , using two pieces of mtDNA : the D @-@ loop and an array of genes known as the PAST fragment . The resulting data placed the sportive lemurs into four groups : Section A from northern and northwestern Madagascar , section B from northwestern Madagascar , section C from west central and southern Madagascar , and section D from eastern Madagascar . Only the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur generated conflicting results when comparing the results between the mtDNA and D @-@ loop data . The PAST data placed it in section B , while the D @-@ loop data placed it in section C. The relationship between the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur , an eastern Malagasy species , and a group of species from the west coast of Madagascar suggests that the ancestral population of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur dispersed to its current range from western Madagascar using river corridors . However , the conflicting data about the relationship of the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur to either section B or section C render the precise dispersal route uncertain .
= = Description = =
Compared to other sportive lemurs , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is relatively large , weighing between 0 @.@ 9 and 1 @.@ 2 kg ( 2 @.@ 0 and 2 @.@ 6 lb ) and measuring 55 to 64 cm ( 22 to 25 in ) from head to tail . Its head @-@ body length is 27 to 32 cm ( 11 to 13 in ) , and its tail measures between 25 and 29 cm ( 9 @.@ 8 and 11 @.@ 4 in ) . The species is nearly identical in coloration to the weasel sportive lemur and it is almost impossible to separate the two in the field , except on the basis of geography . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur has a dark stripe in the center of its forehead that lightens as it runs down the back . Its pelage ( fur ) is thick and reddish @-@ brown , while its underside and neck are pale gray @-@ brown , and sometimes have a yellowish or yellowish @-@ gray hue . The shoulders and forelimbs have a bright chestnut color . The color darkens to russet between the shoulders , down to the hind @-@ limbs and tail . The tail is darkest at the tip . Some individuals are reported to have a characteristic collar of white fur .
Like all sportive lemurs , they can easily be confused with woolly lemurs ( genus Avahi ) , and sometimes with the much smaller dwarf lemurs ( genus Cheirogaleus ) . Unlike the woolly lemurs , sportive lemurs have prominent ears , and they lack the white patches usually found on the thighs of woolly lemurs . All sportive lemurs have long legs compared to their arms and trunk and the face is covered with short hairs .
According to a review by Henry Ogg Forbes in 1894 , the species differs from other sportive lemurs — as its name suggests — by having significantly smaller molar teeth . Forbes also claimed that compared with the weasel sportive lemur , its bony palate is longer and it has a depression at the base of the nasal ( nose ) region . Like other sportive lemurs , the cecum ( beginning of the large intestine ) is enlarged , presumably to handle its leaf @-@ rich diet , which is more characteristic of larger primates .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is found in inland southeastern Madagascar , ranging from Ranomafana National Park southwest to Andringitra National Park . The Namorona River acts as the northern border of its range , and the Manampatrana River may act as a southern border , where the species seems to be replaced by the James ' sportive lemur . Further studies are needed to clarify its range and relationship with other sportive lemurs in southeastern Madagascar . The species inhabits dense rainforest .
A preliminary study at Ranomafana National Park in 1995 indicated the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur may avoid competing with woolly lemurs for food ( interspecific competition ) by living in more disturbed areas of the park . Woolly lemur population density ( and thus competition for food ) appeared to affect the species distribution more than the availability of sleep sites .
= = Behavior and ecology = =
Like all sportive lemurs , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is nocturnal , sleeping in tree cavities or hidden tangles of vines and leaves during the day . The species is considered solitary , and like other rainforest @-@ dwelling sportive lemurs , they vocalize significantly less than sportive lemurs that live in drier forests . Other similarities with the rest of the sportive lemur species include its diet of leaves , fruits , and flowers , its low resting metabolic rate , and its low activity rate .
In general , predators of sportive lemurs include diurnal birds of prey and carnivores , such as the fossa . The only recorded instance of predation on the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was by a Henst 's goshawk ( Accipiter henstii ) .
= = Conservation = =
The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is listed under CITES Appendix I , which prohibits international commercial trade . The IUCN originally listed the species as " Lower Risk " , first in 1996 under the sub @-@ classification " least concern " , and then in 2000 under the sub @-@ classification " near threatened " . Prior to the taxonomic changes that resulted in many new species of sportive lemur , the small @-@ toothed sportive lemur was considered to have a widespread distribution , but its range is now thought to be more restricted . During its 2008 assessment , its population size , geographic range , and other factors were unclear , resulting in the classification " Data Deficient " . Given the known threats the species faces , and as its distribution becomes better known , the IUCN states that the species may merit " Threatened " status in the future .
Like many species of lemur , it is threatened with habitat loss from slash and burn agriculture and by increasing hunting pressure . It is hunted with spears and is also captured when trees with sleeping holes are cut down . The small @-@ toothed sportive lemur is known to occur in both Ranomafana and Andringitra National Parks , although it may also be found in Midongy du sud National Park . However , this national park is at the extreme southern end of its geographic range , and the sportive lemurs there may actually represent a population of Fleurete 's sportive lemur .
According to the International Species Information System ( ISIS ) , no small @-@ toothed sportive lemurs were maintained in captivity as of 2009 .
= Riverview Theater =
The Riverview Theater is a neighborhood movie theater in the Howe neighborhood of Minneapolis , Minnesota . Designed by Liebenberg and Kaplan , the theater was built by theater owners Bill and Sidney Volk in 1948 . After building a subsequent theater in a new ultramodern style , the Volks returned to the Riverview in 1956 and had its lobby area heavily renovated and updated . The Riverview remains one of several surviving single @-@ screen cinemas in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area and typically shows second @-@ run films for $ 2 or $ 3 , as well as other special programming . Since the early 2000s , it has been consistently recognized by City Pages as one of the best movie theaters in the area .
= = History = =
The Lithuania @-@ born Volk brothers , Bill and Sidney , came to Minnesota in the early 1920s and got involved in the movie business by purchasing neighborhood theaters during the Great Depression . In 1946 , the Volks initiated what the publication Greater Amusements called a " theater @-@ building orgy " when they received a permit from the Minneapolis City Council to build the first new theater in Minneapolis in twelve years in spite of the protests of other theater managers . The Riverview was designed by architectural firm Liebenberg and Kaplan and built in 1948 in the Streamline Moderne style . It opened December 30 , 1948 , with a showing of June Bride . The single @-@ screen theater utilized stadium seating , making it one of the earlier movie theaters to do so .
Three years later , the Volks again called on Liebenberg and Kaplan to construct the Terrace Theater in Robbinsdale , Minnesota , " one of the first ultramodern theaters in America " , and considered by author Larry Millett to be " their masterpiece " . Pleased with the results ( and the industry @-@ bucking receipts ) , the Volks turned back to the Riverview and had Liebenberg and Kaplan remodel it to reflect the successful Terrace model . This occurred in 1956 , eight years after the theater 's initial construction . The new lobby space was intended to reflect a living room and even included a separate TV lounge . Amenities were ample : " Dunbar tables , McCobb stools , Herman Miller divans and chairs , walnut panels imposed on light wood , graceful modern lamps , stunning draperies . " Inside the theater space , however , little changed about the proscenium stage and seating .
The Riverview became one of the few remaining single @-@ screen theaters in the Minneapolis – Saint Paul area ; by the end of the 1980s , it was one of only six left , and after 1998 , it was one of only four left , with the Uptown and Parkway Theaters and the Oak Street Cinema , although since 1998 , several new single @-@ screen theaters – the Trylon Microcinema and the Heights Theater – have opened . The owners installed new seats in 1999 that allowed for greater leg room and more space between patrons .
= = Contemporary status = =
The Riverview is located in Minneapolis 's Howe neighborhood and seats over 700 patrons . It typically shows second @-@ run films for between $ 2 – 3 per ticket and its concessions are also " much cheaper than at the suburban multiplexes " . Sometimes , other events are shown , including midnight movies , sporting events , film festivals , and political events such as Barack Obama 's first inauguration in 2009 . Take Up Productions , operator of the nearby 50 @-@ seat Trylon Microcinema , sometimes uses the Riverview for screenings too large for the Trylon to accommodate . The theater won City Pages ' Best Budget Movie Theater award in 2000 , 2004 , and 2005 , and the Best Movie Theater award every year from 2006 to 2014 except 2011 and 2012 . The Riverview 's lobby remains largely unchanged from its 1956 renovation .
= = = Cited = = =
Berger , Todd R. ( July 17 , 2008 ) . Insiders ' Guide to the Twin Cities ( 6th ed . ) . Guilford , CT : Globe Pequot Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 7627 @-@ 4788 @-@ 9 .
Kenney , Dave ( November 1 , 2007 ) . Twin Cities Picture Show : A Century of Moviegoing . Saint Paul , MN : Minnesota Historical Society Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87351 @-@ 595 @-@ 5 .
Millett , Larry ( May 15 , 2007 ) . AIA Guide to the Twin Cities : The Essential Source on the Architecture of Minneapolis and St. Paul . Saint Paul , MN : Minnesota Historical Society Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87351 @-@ 540 @-@ 5 .
= Dusky woodswallow =
The dusky woodswallow ( Artamus cyanopterus ) , is a bird species of forests and woodlands in temperate and subtropical regions , extending into tropical areas around the Atherton Tableland , in eastern and southern Australia . The global population of the species has as yet not been formally confirmed , but it has been officially rated in the range of ' Least Concern ' , according to the BirdLife International in 2004 . As such , the bird could be described as common in its local habitat .
The name " woodswallow " is a misnomer as they are not closely related to true swallows . Instead , they belong to the family Artamidae , which also includes butcherbirds , currawongs and the Australian magpie .
= = Taxonomy = =
The dusky woodswallow was first described by the English ornithologist John Latham in 1801 with the binomial name Loxia cyanoptera . Its specific epithet is derived from the Ancient Greek words cyanos ' blue ' and pteron ' wing ' .
= = Description = =
The dusky woodswallow is medium @-@ sized and swallow @-@ like , with a dark brown hue , but there have been instances where the bird has appeared grey . The birds have a black patch in front of the eyes , and grey ( sometimes also black ) wings with white streaks on them . The dusky woodswallow has a black , white @-@ tipped tail with a silver underwing . The birds have a blue @-@ grey bill capped with black . Dusky woodswallows are known to spontaneously ' wag ' or swivel their tales fervently , a trait which is common among many other species of woodswallow .
= = = Relations to other woodswallows = = =
In a significant difference from other woodswallows , dusky woodswallows have a distinctive white patch on the outer wing . Dusky woodswallows also seem to typically be more smoky brown than other species of woodswallow . The little woodswallow , a smaller , darker woodswallow is also slightly more smoky brown that other woodswallows , but that is the only similarity that the latter has with the dusky woodswallow ; the little woodswallow does not share a white patch on the outer wing .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The birds live primarily in open eucalyptus forests and woodlands . They range mostly from Atherton Tableland , Queensland , down to Tasmania and west to Eyre Peninsula , in South Australia . They roost communally , usually nocturnally . During the breeding season , they nest in large flocks to make sure to keep predators away from young . These flocks can be 20 @-@ 30 dusky woodswallows in size .
Dusky woodswallows adhere to seasonal migration and movements . The birds are a nomadic species , and tend to move quite spontaneously . However , one certain change of habitat occurs for the south @-@ eastern birds , who migrate northward for Autumn .
Communally roosting birds , the dusky woodswallow has a variety of chattering calls which are used in certain situations . The most distinctive of these calls is perhaps the one which is used when a predator or intruder approaches , which consists of a harsh mobbing call to warn others .
= = Feeding and diet = =
The diet of the bird can be varied . They eat various forms of foliage and other grassy material that they find on the ground on in trees and shrubs . Dusky woodswallows have been seen eating termites , butterflies and other insects . They also eat nectar from flowers . One notable aspect of their feeding habits is the way they hunt flying insects , which is done by picking them up on their wing . They do , however , also eat their prey from the ground , and they often find inconspicuous places to perch while waiting for prey , such as utility lines and the like . They have also been observed engaging in kleptoparasitism , working as a group to rob a restless flycatcher of its prey . Kleptoparasitism is extremely unusual in passerine birds , as is cooperative kleptoparasitsim in general .
= = Breeding = =
The nest of the dusky woodswallow consists of twigs , roots and other similar foliage matted together to form a bowl shape , which is lined with grass . It is positioned safely , behind bark , and / or high in a tree branch , and sometimes in a hollowed out tree stump . The nest is made during the period from August to January , and with the help of several birds . The mated pair will then guard the nest , while others will help them take care of the babies . The female lays white eggs , of which there are usually no more than three or four . While the incubation period lasts for sixteen days , the amount of time taken for fledgling can be this long to around twenty days . The typical clutch is three to four in size , but this may vary .
= = Conservation status = =
The dusky woodswallow has a very large range . The population size of this bird has not yet been quantified or estimated . It is , however , expected to be as populous as other birds within its densest range labeled ' common ' . Because of this , the dusky woodswallow is evaluated to be of Least Concern ( LC ) . This classification may change with new evidence , so is not to be taken with complete accuracy .
= Operation Royal Flush =
Operation Royal Flush was a military deception employed by the Allied Nations during the Second World War as part of the strategic deception Operation Bodyguard . Royal Flush was a political deception which expanded on the efforts of another Bodyguard deception , Operation Graffham , by emphasising the threat to Norway . It also lent support to parts of Operation Zeppelin via subtle diplomatic overtures to Spain and Turkey . The idea was that information from these neutral countries would filter back to the Abwehr ( German Intelligence ) . Planned in April 1944 by Ronald Wingate , Royal Flush was executed throughout June by various Allied ambassadors to the neutral states . During implementation the plan was revised several times to be less extreme in its diplomatic demands . Information from neutral embassies was not well trusted by the Abwehr ; as a result , Royal Flush had limited impact on German plans through 1944 .
= = Background = =
Operation Royal Flush formed part of Operation Bodyguard , a broad strategic military deception intended to confuse the Axis high command as to Allied intentions during the lead @-@ up to the Normandy landings . Royal Flush developed a series of political misdirections in mid @-@ 1944 to support other deceptions between June and July . It evolved from Operation Graffham , a political deception aimed at Sweden between February and March 1944 .
Graffham was suggested and planned by the London Controlling Section ( LCS ) with the aim of convincing the Swedish government that the Allies intended to invade Norway , in support of Operation Fortitude North . During the war Sweden maintained a neutral position , and had relations with both Axis and the Allied nations . It was therefore assumed that if Sweden believed in an imminent threat to Norway this would be passed on to German intelligence . Graffham was envisioned as an extension of existing pressure the Allies were placing on Sweden to end their neutral stance . By increasing this pressure the head of the LCS , Colonel John Bevan , hoped to further convince the Germans that Sweden was preparing to join the Allied nations .
Royal Flush was also intended to support Operation Zeppelin , the 1944 overall deception plan for the Middle Eastern theatre . Zeppelin developed threats against Greece and Southern France between February and July . Its intention was to tie up German defensive forces in the region during the period of D @-@ Day .
= = Operation = =
Royal Flush was planned in April 1944 by Ronald Wingate , deputy controller of the LCS . His theory was based on the idea that the Allied nations might rely on forms of help from neutral countries following any invasions . Having seen the implementation of Operation Graffham , and with the deceptions aimed at Scandinavia and the Mediterranean , he chose Sweden , Turkey and Spain as the targets . For Sweden this was the continuation of Graffham , with demands from the US , UK and Russia that the Germans be denied access to the country following an Allied invasion of Norway . In the case of Turkey this was built on existing pressure , applied from the outset of the war , to join the Allied nations .
In Turkey the plan called for diplomatic pressure on 8 June 1944 , following the Normandy Landings , to allow the Allied forces access to Turkey for the purposes of staging an invasion of Greece ( in support of the story of Zeppelin ) . At the same time the Russians would make a similar request of Bulgaria . However , it was agreed that this risked a pre @-@ emptive invasion of Turkey by German forces . Instead , the Allies took advantage of German warships being permitted , in June , access to Turkish territorial waters to transit to the Aegean Sea . A complaint to the Turkish government emphasised the Allies ' interest in the Balkans and that they did not wish to see the Germans reinforcing the region .
On 3 June , Spain was approached by the US ambassador with a request to use Spanish ports for evacuating the wounded , following landings in southern France . Originally the plan had been to request access for the purposes of staging the initial invasion . However , this was toned down in light of historical resistance to any foreign occupation of Spanish soil as well as the implausibility of invading France via the Pyrenees . On 5 June the British ambassador reinforced the request , and after some discussion the Spanish government agreed but only after an invasion had occurred , and under the supervision of the Red Cross . To emphasise the change in objective , the Allies followed this up with Operation Ferdinand which threatened an invasion in Italy .
= = Impact = =
Information from neutral countries , such as those targeted by Royal Flush , had limited impact on German plans . In July 1944 a report by the Abwehr identified these countries as " outspoken deception centres " . To make matters worse for the Allies , these political deceptions were not as tightly controlled as the double agents , and so as an overall information channel they could be confusing and disjointed .
The complaint to Turkey had a desired effect locally , with an apology from the country 's government and a commitment to breaking diplomatic ties to Germany if required . However , it failed to elicit a response from Germany . The Allies ' request to the Spanish government was relayed to the Germans , but identified almost immediately as deception and misdirection .
= 1941 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1941 Atlantic hurricane season was the period during 1941 in which tropical cyclones formed in the Atlantic Basin . It was a relatively inactive hurricane season , with only six known storms . It officially began on June 16 , 1941 , and lasted until November 1 , 1941 . These dates delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones tend to form in the Atlantic basin . Of the six cyclones , four attained hurricane
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of its central chamber , a rough cube of 4 @.@ 5 cubic metres ( 5 @.@ 9 cu yd ) is illuminated on the winter solstice . It gives its name to the Maeshowe type of chambered cairns , ( see above ) that include other significant sites such as Cuween Hill , Quanterness and Wideford Hill , and at Quoyness on Sanday .
After it fell into disuse during the Bronze Age , Maeshowe was re @-@ opened and used centuries later by Vikings from about the 9th to the 12th centuries AD . The Norsemen left a series of runic inscriptions on the stone walls of the chamber , some of which were left by a group of crusaders in the winter of 1153 – 54 . Over thirty individual inscriptions remain , one of the largest such collections in Europe .
= = = = Ring of Brodgar = = = =
The Ring of Brodgar is a henge and stone circle 104 metres ( 341 ft ) in diameter , originally made of 60 stones ( of which only 27 remain standing ) set within a circular ditch up to 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) deep and 10 metres ( 33 ft ) wide . Some of the remaining stones are 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) high and it has been estimated that the ditch alone took 80 @,@ 000 man @-@ hours to construct . The ring stands on a small isthmus between the Lochs of Stenness and Harray and it is generally thought to have been erected between 2500 BC and 2000 BC .
Excavations by Orkney College at the nearby Ness of Brodgar site between the Ring and the Stones of Stenness have revealed several buildings , both ritual and domestic and the works suggest there are likely to be more in the vicinity . One structure appears to be 20 metres ( 66 ft ) long by 11 metres ( 36 ft ) wide . Pottery , bones , stone tools and polished stone mace heads have also been discovered . Perhaps the most important find is the remains of a large stone wall which may have been 100 metres ( 330 ft ) long and 4 metres ( 13 ft ) or more wide . It appears to traverse the entire peninsula the site is on and may have been a symbolic barrier between the ritual landscape of the Ring and the mundane world around it .
In 2010 a rock coloured red , orange and yellow was unearthed . Although containers of pigments have been found previously at sites such as Skara Brae , this was the first discovery in Britain , and possibly in Northern Europe , of evidence that Neolithic peoples used paint to decorate their buildings . It is thought that the primitive paint could have been made from iron ore , mixed with animal fat , milk or eggs . Only a week later a stone with a zigzag chevron pattern painted with a red pigment was discovered nearby .
= = = = Stones of Stenness = = = =
The Stones of Stenness are five remaining megaliths of a henge , the largest of which is 6 metres ( 20 ft ) high . The site is thought to date from 3100 BC , one of the earliest dates for a henge anywhere in Britain . The Stones are part of a landscape that evidently had considerable ritual significance for the " Grooved ware people " . The Ring of Brodgar lies about 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) to the north @-@ west , and Maeshowe is a similar distance to the east . Barnhouse is only 150 metres ( 490 ft ) to the north .
The existing megaliths were originally part of an elliptical shaped stone circle of 12 stones , about 32 metres ( 105 ft ) in diameter surrounded by a ditch that was 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) wide and 7 metres ( 23 ft ) deep and with a single entrance causeway on the north side that faces towards the Barnhouse Settlement . The Watch Stone stands outside the circle to the north @-@ west and is 5 @.@ 6 metres ( 18 ft ) high . Other smaller stones include a square stone like a huge hearth setting in the centre of the circle and this along with the bones of cattle , sheep , wolves and dogs found in the ditch suggest ritual sacrifice and feasting .
Even in the 18th century the site was still associated with traditions and rituals , by then relating to Norse gods . The " Odin Stone " was pierced with a circular hole , and was used by local couples for plighting engagements by holding hands through the gap . In the early 19th century a local landowner and recent immigrant to Orkney decided to remove the Stones on the grounds that local people were trespassing and disturbing his land in using the stones . He started in December 1814 by smashing the Odin Stone . This caused outrage and he was stopped after destroying one other stone and toppling another . The toppled stone was re @-@ erected in 1906 along with some inaccurate reconstruction inside the circle .
= = = Other Late Neolithic sites = = =
The Isbister Chambered Cairn , popularly known as the " Tomb of the Eagles " is located on the cliffs of South Ronaldsay . This chambered tomb was in use for 800 years or more from 3150 BC , and has five separate stalls and three side @-@ chambers . 16 @,@ 000 human bones were found during the excavations , as well as 725 bird bones , predominantly white @-@ tailed sea eagle and over 25 kilograms ( 55 lb ) of pottery shards .
The Dwarfie Stane tomb on the island of Hoy is made from a single huge block of red sandstone with a hollowed @-@ out central chamber . This style is quite unlike any other Neolithic Orkney site and probably dates from about 2500 BC . It was the first Orcadian ancient monument to be described in writing , appearing in the 16th century Descriptio Insularum Orchadiarum by Joannem Ben who provided the explanation for its existence as having been built and used by giants .
= = Bronze Age = =
The Bronze Age in Scotland lasted from approximately 2200 BC to 800 BC and northern Scotland has produced a relative dearth of remains from this period in comparison to the Neolithic and later Iron Age . This may in part be due to deteriorating weather conditions in the second millennium BC . In Orkney , fewer large stone structures were built during this period , burials were now being made in small cists well away from the great megalithic sites and a new Beaker culture began to dominate . Nonetheless the great ceremonial circles continued in use as bronze metalworking was slowly introduced to Scotland from Europe over a lengthy period . There is agreement amongst historians that from about 1000 BC it is legitimate to talk of a Celtic culture in Scotland , although the nature of the Orcadian Celtic civilisation and their relationships to their neighbours remains largely unknown .
In addition to various Mainland sites such as Knowes of Trotty , Kirbuster Hill and the impressive Plumcake Mound near the Ring of Brodgar there are various Bronze Age structures on other islands such as Tofts Ness on Sanday , Warness on Eday , the remains of two houses on Holm of Faray , and a burnt mound and farmstead on Auskerry .
= = Iron Age = =
= = = Early Iron Age = = =
The Iron Age provides numerous substantial building remains . In the 1970s excavations at Quanterness , near the site of the Neolithic chambered tomb , revealed an Atlantic roundhouse . This was built about 700 BC using stone stripped from the older building that had fallen into disuse some two millennia previously .
Numerous similar finds have been made at for example , Bu on the Mainland and Pierowall Quarry on Westray . These are also many impressive broch sites . These are substantial stone towers that developed out of the roundhouse tradition in north and west Scotland , whose dry @-@ stone walls may have reached 13 metres ( 43 ft ) in height . Although Orkney has no broch towers where the surviving walls are more than a few metres high , several important sites have been excavated which have numerous associated buildings forming a " broch village " .
Midhowe Broch lies close to the chambered cairn of the same name on Rousay . There appear to have been at least two separate periods of occupation and at some point buttresses were added to the exterior of the wall , suggesting the structure was in need of support . It is one of 11 broch sites on either side of the Eynhallow Sound . Burroughston Broch on the island of Shapinsay was built in the second half of the first millennium BC and excavated in the mid 19th century . Its earth cladding is intact , allowing visitors to peer down into the broch from above . The walls are up to 4 metres ( 13 ft ) thick in places and there is a complete chamber off the entrance passage . The remains of stone furniture are evident in the interior .
Mine Howe , located near Tankerness in the parish of St Andrews , is a prehistoric subterranean man @-@ made chamber dug 7 metres ( 23 ft ) deep inside a large mound . Its purpose is not obvious . The walls are lined with stones fitted to form an arch over the cavity and steep steps lead to a rock floor . The entrance is at the top of the small hill and there is a surrounding ditch and evidence of sophisticated metal working around the site . The Rennibister Earth House is a souterrain consisting of an oval chamber with a corbelled roof supported by pillars . Although these structures are usually associated with the storage of food this site is reminiscent of the Neolithic chambered tombs and excavations revealed 18 human skeletons .
Wheelhouses are stone buildings from the later Iron Age whose characteristic features include an outer wall within which a circle of stone piers ( bearing a resemblance to the spokes of a wheel ) form the basis for lintel arches supporting corbelled roofing with a hearth at the hub . Eight presumed sites have been identified in Orkney although the style is different from those of Shetland and the Western Isles . The Orkney sites are four on Sanday , one on Calf of Eday , one at Hillock of Burroughston on Shapinsay and two on the Mainland at Burrian Broch and Broch of Gurness .
= = = The influence of Rome = = =
For a brief period Orkney emerged from prehistory and into protohistory . The Greek explorer Pytheas visited Britain sometime between 322 and 285 BC and may have circumnavigated the mainland . In his On the Ocean he refers to the most northerly point as Orcas , conceivably a reference to Orkney .
Remarkably , the earliest written record of a formal connection between Rome and Scotland is the attendance of the " King of Orkney " who was one of eleven British kings who submitted to the Emperor Claudius at Colchester in AD 43 following the invasion of southern Britain three months earlier . The long distances and short period of time involved strongly suggest a prior connection between Rome and Orkney , although no evidence of this has been found and the contrast with later Caledonian resistance to Rome is striking . Pomponius Mela , the Roman geographer , recorded in his De Chorographia , written c . 43 AD , that there were thirty Orkney islands . There is certainly evidence of an Orcadian connection with Rome prior to AD 60 from pottery found at the Broch of Gurness and 1st and 2nd century Roman coins have been found at Lingro broch .
The Roman presence in Scotland was however little more than a series of relatively brief interludes of partial military occupation . As Roman influence waned in Scotland from 211 onwards , Orkney faded from history again and the Celtic Iron Age way of life continued , largely unchanged .
= = = Pictish rule = = =
In the centuries following Rome 's excursions into Scottish territory Orkney was , at least for a time , part of the Pictish kingdom . Very little is known about the Pictish Orcadians , the main archaeological relics being symbol stones . One of the best examples is located on the Brough of Birsay ; it shows 3 warriors with spears and sword scabbards combined with traditional Pictish symbols . This small tidal island has a long history of settlement that continued into the Norse period .
Adomnan , the biographer of St Columba , states that there were Orcadians at the court of the Pictish High King , Bridei , in AD 565 . These Orcadians were described as " hostages " which could imply difficult relations between Orkney and the king , although they may have simply been guests at the court . A Pictish cemetery was found in the grounds of Skaill House ( adjacent to Skara Brae ) in 1996 .
Christianity probably arrived in Orkney in the 6th century and organised church authority emerged in the 8th century . The Buckquoy spindle @-@ whorl found at a Pictish site on Birsay is an Ogham – inscribed artefact whose interpretation has caused controversy although it is now generally considered to be of both Irish and Christian origin . Evidence associated with the St Boniface Church on Papa Westray suggests this island had been the seat of the Christian bishopric of Orkney in Pictish times . The 8th century was also the time the Viking invasions of the Scottish seaboard commenced and with them came the arrival of a new culture and language for the Orkney islands . The Norse era has provided a variety of written records , the substantial Orkneyinga Saga amongst them and at this point the archipelago fully emerges into the historic era .
= = Archaeological history = =
Formal excavations are first recorded at Earl 's Knoll on Papa Stronsay in the Statistical Account of Scotland in 1795 . As with the Dwarfie Stane , the mound was assumed to be a giant 's grave at the time . Following soon after this , work on the " Picts @-@ house " ( i.e. chambered tomb ) at Quanterness commenced , but little else of note was achieved until the mid 19th century . F. W. L. Thomas , whose day job was as a Captain in the Royal Navy published The Celtic Antiquities of Orkney in 1852 , which listed various sites and aimed to interest " antiquarians " in the subject . His hopes were met and about a dozen chambered tombs were worked on between 1849 and 1867 by James Farrer , R.J. Hebden and George Petrie . However , other than work at Unstan near Stromness there was then a lull for about six decades . Then , from the late 1920s , work recommenced with the assistance of the Royal Commission on the Ancient and Historical Monuments of Scotland and the Ministry of Works . The most eminent archaeologist to work here at this time was Vere Gordon Childe . He was involved in excavations at Skara Brae and Rinyo , but it was only when a shard of pottery was discovered at the latter site that it became understood that these settlements dated to the Neolithic rather than the Iron Age . A further 18 tombs were excavated before 1950 , including five on Eday and one on the Calf of Eday and by the 1960s the outlines of a modern understanding of Orcadian prehistory had emerged . The advent of radiocarbon dating enabled even more detailed dates to be established and refuted earlier theories that the chambered tombs of Orkney had developed from similar structures found in the Eastern Mediterranean , such as those built by the Minoans , when it became clear that the former pre @-@ dated the latter by a considerable margin .
= = Neolithic Timeline = =
= Albany , New York =
Albany ( / ˈɔːlbəniː / AWL @-@ bə @-@ nee ) is the capital of the U.S. state of New York and the seat of Albany County . Roughly 150 miles ( 240 km ) north of New York City , Albany developed on the west bank of the Hudson River , about 10 miles ( 16 km ) south of its confluence with the Mohawk River . The population of the City of Albany was 97 @,@ 856 according to the 2010 census . Albany constitutes the economic and cultural core of the Capital District of New York State , which comprises the Albany @-@ Schenectady @-@ Troy , NY Metropolitan Statistical Area , including the nearby cities and suburbs of Troy , Schenectady , and Saratoga Springs . With a Census @-@ estimated population of 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 483 in 2013 , the Capital District is the third most populous metropolitan region in the state and 38th in the United States .
Fortune 500 companies that have headquarters in Albany include American Express , CommerceHub , Merrill Lynch , General Electric , Verizon , Goldman Sachs , International Paper , Key Bank , f.y.e. stores , and the Environment One Corporation . In the 21st century , the Capital District has emerged as a major anchor of Tech Valley , the moniker describing the technologically @-@ focused region of eastern New York State .
This was the first European settlement in the state , settled by Dutch colonists who built Fort Nassau for fur trading in 1614 and Fort Orange in 1624 . They formed successful relations with both the Mahican and the Mohawk peoples , two major Native American nations in the region . The fur trade attracted settlers who founded a village called Beverwijck near Fort Orange . In 1664 the English took over the Dutch settlements , renaming the city as Albany , in honor of the then Duke of Albany , the future James II of England and James VII of Scotland . The city was officially chartered in 1686 under English rule . It became the capital of New York State in 1797 , following the United States gaining independence in the American Revolutionary War . Albany is one of the oldest surviving settlements of the original British thirteen colonies , and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States . Its charter is possibly the longest @-@ running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere .
During the late 18th century and throughout most of the 19th , Albany was a center of trade and transportation . It is located on the north end of the navigable Hudson River , was the original eastern terminus of the Erie Canal connecting to the Great Lakes , and was home to some of the earliest railroad systems in the world . Albany 's main exports at the time were beer , lumber , published works , and ironworks . Beginning in 1810 , Albany was one of the ten most populous cities in the United States , a distinction that it held until the 1860 census .
Albany is one of the first cities in the world to have installed public water mains , sewer lines , natural gas lines and electricity , infrastructure and utilities that attracted and supported substantial new industry to the city and surrounding area during the 19th century .
In the 20th century , the city opened one of the first commercial airports in the world , the precursor of today 's Albany International Airport . During the 1920s a powerful political machine controlled by the Democratic Party arose in the state capital , connected to politics in New York City as well . It marshalled the power of immigrants and their descendants in both cities .
The city 's skyline changed in the 1940s and 1950s with the construction of office towers around the Empire State Plaza and at the uptown campus of SUNY Albany , mainly under the direction of Governor Nelson Rockefeller . While Albany experienced a decline in its population due to urban sprawl and suburbanization , many of its historic neighborhoods were saved from destruction through the policies of Mayor Erastus Corning 2nd , the longest @-@ serving mayor of any city in the United States . In the early 21st century , Albany has experienced growth in the high @-@ technology industry , with great strides in the nanotechnology sector .
Albany has been a center of higher education for over a century , with much of the remainder of its economy dependent on state government and health care services . The city has rebounded from the urban decline of the 1970s and 1980s , with noticeable development taking place in the city 's downtown and midtown neighborhoods . Albany is known for its rich history , commerce , culture , architecture , and institutions of higher education . Albany won the All @-@ America City Award in both 1991 and 2009 .
= = History = =
= = = Colonial times to 1800 = = =
Albany is one of the oldest surviving European settlements from the original thirteen colonies and the longest continuously chartered city in the United States . The Hudson River area was originally inhabited by Algonquian @-@ speaking Mohican ( Mahican ) , who called it Pempotowwuthut @-@ Muhhcanneuw , meaning " the fireplace of the Mohican nation . " Based to the west along the Mohawk River , the Iroquoian @-@ speaking Mohawk referred to it as Sche @-@ negh @-@ ta @-@ da , or " through the pine woods , " referring to the path they took there . The Mohawk were one of the Five Nations of the Iroquois Confederacy , or Haudenosaunee , and became strong trading partners with the Dutch and English . It is likely that the Albany area was visited by European fur traders , perhaps as early as 1540 , but the extent and duration of those visits has not been determined .
Permanent European claims began when Englishman Henry Hudson , exploring for the Dutch East India Company on the Half Moon ( Dutch : Halve Maen ) , reached the area in 1609 , claiming it for the United Netherlands . In 1614 , Hendrick Christiaensen built Fort Nassau , a fur @-@ trading post and the first documented European structure in present @-@ day Albany . Commencement of the fur trade provoked hostility from the French colony in Canada and among the natives , all of whom vied to control the trade . In 1618 , a flood ruined the fort on Castle Island , but it was rebuilt in 1624 as Fort Orange . Both forts were named in honor of the Dutch royal House of Orange @-@ Nassau . Fort Orange and the surrounding area were incorporated as the village of Beverwijck ( English : Beaver District ) in 1652 . In these early decades of trade , the Dutch , Mohican and Mohawk developed relations that reflected differences among their three cultures .
When New Netherland was captured by the English in 1664 , they changed the name Beverwijck to Albany , in honor of the Duke of Albany ( later James II of England and James VII of Scotland ) . Duke of Albany was a Scottish title given since 1398 , generally to a younger son of the King of Scots . The name is ultimately derived from Alba , the Gaelic name for Scotland . The Dutch briefly regained Albany in August 1673 and renamed the city Willemstadt ; the English took permanent possession with the Treaty of Westminster ( 1674 ) . On November 1 , 1683 , the Province of New York was split into counties , with Albany County being the largest . At that time the county included all of present New York State north of Dutchess and Ulster Counties in addition to present @-@ day Bennington County , Vermont , theoretically stretching west to the Pacific Ocean ; the city of Albany became the county seat . Albany was formally chartered as a municipality by provincial Governor Thomas Dongan on July 22 , 1686 . The Dongan Charter was virtually identical in content to the charter awarded to the city of New York three months earlier . Dongan created Albany as a strip of land 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) wide and 16 miles ( 26 km ) long . Over the years Albany would lose much of the land to the west and annex land to the north and south . At this point , Albany had a population of about 500 people .
In 1754 , representatives of seven British North American colonies met in the Stadt Huys , Albany 's city hall , for the Albany Congress ; Benjamin Franklin of Pennsylvania presented the Albany Plan of Union there , which was the first formal proposal to unite the colonies . Although it was never adopted by Parliament , it was an important precursor to the United States Constitution . The same year , the French and Indian War , the fourth in a series of wars dating back to 1689 , began ; it ended in 1763 with French defeat , resolving a situation that had been a constant threat to Albany and held back its growth . In 1775 , with the colonies in the midst of the Revolutionary War , the Stadt Huys became home to the Albany Committee of Correspondence ( the political arm of the local revolutionary movement ) , which took over operation of Albany 's government and eventually expanded its power to control all of Albany County . Tories and prisoners of war were often jailed in the Stadt Huys alongside common criminals . In 1776 , Albany native Philip Livingston signed the Declaration of Independence at Independence Hall in Philadelphia .
During and after the Revolutionary War , Albany County saw a great increase in real estate transactions . After Horatio Gates ' win over John Burgoyne at Saratoga in 1777 , the upper Hudson Valley was generally at peace as the war raged on elsewhere . Prosperity was soon seen all over Upstate New York . Migrants from Vermont and Connecticut began flowing in , noting the advantages of living on the Hudson and trading at Albany , while being only a few days ' sail from New York City . Albany reported a population of 3 @,@ 498 in the first national census in 1790 , an increase of almost 700 % since its chartering . In 1797 , the state capital of New York was moved permanently to Albany . From statehood to this date , the Legislature had frequently moved the state capital between Albany , Kingston , Hurley , Poughkeepsie , and the city of New York . Albany is the tenth @-@ oldest state capital in the United States , but only the second @-@ oldest state capital that is a city , after Santa Fe , New Mexico .
= = = 1800 to 1942 = = =
Albany has been a center of transportation for much of its history . In the late 18th and early 19th centuries , Albany saw development of the turnpike and by 1815 , Albany was the turnpike center of the state . Simeon De Witt developed a grid block system in 1794 , and renamed streets for birds and mammals that had previously honored British royalty . This grid was intersected by the major arterials coming out of Albany , which cut through the city at unexpected angles . The construction of the turnpike across the state , in conjunction with canal and railroad systems , made Albany the hub of transportation for pioneers going to Buffalo and the Michigan Territory in the early- and mid @-@ 19th century .
In 1807 , Robert Fulton initiated a steamboat line from New York to Albany , the first successful enterprise of its kind . By 1810 , with 10 @,@ 763 people , Albany was the 10th @-@ largest urban place in the nation . The town and village were known as " the Colonie " to the north of Albany was annexed in 1815 . In 1825 the Erie Canal was completed , forming a continuous water route from the Great Lakes to New York City . Unlike the current Barge Canal , which ends at nearby Waterford , the original Erie Canal ended at Albany ; Lock 1 was located north of Colonie Street . The Canal emptied into a 32 @-@ acre ( 13 ha ) man @-@ made lagoon called the Albany Basin , which was Albany 's main port from 1825 until the Port of Albany @-@ Rensselaer opened in 1932 . In 1829 , while working as a professor at the Albany Academy , Joseph Henry , widely regarded as " the foremost American scientist of the 19th century " , built the first electric motor . Three years later , he discovered electromagnetic self @-@ induction ( the SI unit for which is now the henry ) . He went on to be the first Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution . In the 1830 and 1840 censuses , Albany was ranked as the 9th @-@ largest urban place in the nation , then back to 10th in 1850 . This was the last time the city was one of the top ten largest urban places in the nation .
Albany also has significant history with rail transport , as the location of two major regional railroad headquarters . The Delaware and Hudson Railway was headquartered in Albany at what is now the SUNY System Administration Building . In 1853 , Erastus Corning , a noted industrialist and Albany 's mayor from 1834 to 1837 , consolidated ten railroads stretching from Albany to Buffalo into the New York Central Railroad ( NYCRR ) , headquartered in Albany until Cornelius Vanderbilt moved it to New York City in 1867 . One of the ten companies that formed the NYCRR was the Mohawk and Hudson Railroad , which was the first railroad in the state and the first successful steam railroad running regularly scheduled service in the country .
While the key to Albany 's economic prosperity in the 19th century was transportation , industry and business also played a role . Largely thanks to the city 's Dutch and German roots , beer was one of its biggest commodities . Beverwyck Brewery , originally known as Quinn and Nolan ( Nolan being mayor of Albany 1878 – 1883 ) , was the last remaining brewer from that time when it closed in 1972 . The city 's location at the east end of the Erie Canal gave it unparalleled access to both raw products and a captive customer base in the west . Albany was known for its publishing houses , and to some extent , still is . Albany was second only to Boston in the number of books produced for most of the 19th century . Iron foundries in both the north and south ends of the city brought thousands of immigrants to the city . To this day , one can see many intricate wrought @-@ iron details on older buildings . The iron industry waned by the 1890s due to increased costs associated with a newly unionized workforce and the opening of mines in the Mesabi Range in Minnesota .
Albany 's other major exports during the 18th and 19th centuries were furs , wheat , meat , and lumber ; by 1865 , there were almost 4 @,@ 000 saw mills in the Albany area and the Albany Lumber District was the largest lumber market in the nation . The city was also home to a number of banks . The Bank of Albany ( 1792 – 1861 ) was the second chartered bank in New York . The city was the original home of the Albank ( founded in 1820 as the Albany Savings Bank ) , KeyBank ( founded in 1825 as the Commercial Bank of Albany ) , and Norstar Bank ( founded as the State Bank of Albany in 1803 ) . American Express was originally founded in Albany in 1850 as an express mail business . In 1871 , the northwestern portion of Albany — west from Magazine Street — was annexed to the neighboring town of Guilderland after the town of Watervliet refused annexation of said territory . In return for this loss , portions of Bethlehem and Watervliet were added to Albany . Part of the land annexed to Guilderland was ceded back to Albany in 1910 , setting up the current western border .
Albany opened one of the first commercial airports in the world , and the first municipal airport in the United States , in 1908 . Originally located on a polo field on Loudon Road , it moved to Westerlo Island in 1909 and remained there until 1928 . The Albany Municipal Airport — jointly owned by the city and county — was moved to its current location in Colonie in 1928 . In 1960 , the mayor sold the city 's stake in the airport to the county , citing budget issues . It was known from then on as Albany County Airport until a massive upgrade and modernization project between 1996 and 1998 , when it was rechristened Albany International Airport . By 1916 Albany 's northern and southern borders reached their modern courses ; Westerlo Island , to the south , became the second @-@ to @-@ last annexation , which occurred in 1926 .
= = = 1942 to present day = = =
Erastus Corning 2nd , arguably Albany 's most notable mayor ( and great @-@ grandson of the former mayor of the same name ) , was elected in 1941 . Although he was one of the longest @-@ serving mayors of any city in United States history ( 1942 until his death in 1983 ) , one historian describes Corning 's tenure as " long on years , short on accomplishments . " Grondahl cited Corning 's preference for maintaining the status quo as a factor that held back potential progress during his tenure . While Corning brought stability to the office of mayor , it is said that even those who admire him greatly cannot come up with a sizable list of " major concrete Corning achievements . " Corning is given credit for saving — albeit somewhat unintentionally — much of Albany 's historic architecture .
During the 1950s and 1960s , a time when federal aid for urban renewal was plentiful , Albany did not have growth in its economy or infrastructure . It lost more than 20 percent of its population during the Corning years , as people moved to newer housing in the suburbs , followed by most of the downtown businesses moving there as well . While cities across the country grappled with similar issues , the problems were magnified in Albany : interference from the Democratic political machine hindered progress considerably .
Governor Nelson Rockefeller ( 1959 – 1973 ) ( R ) tried to stimulate the city with grandiose , monumental architecture and large , government @-@ sponsored building projects ; he drove construction of the Empire State Plaza , SUNY Albany 's uptown campus , and much of the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus . Albany County Republican Chairman Joseph C. Frangella once quipped , " Governor Rockefeller was the best mayor Albany ever had . " Corning , though opposed to the project , was responsible for negotiating the payment plan for the Empire State Plaza . Rockefeller did not want to be limited by the Legislature 's power of the purse , so Corning devised a plan to have the county pay for the construction and have the state sign a lease @-@ ownership agreement . The state paid off the bonds until 2004 . It was Rockefeller 's only viable option , and he agreed . Due to the clout Corning gained from the situation , he was able to get the State Museum , a convention center , and a restaurant , back in the plans — ideas which Rockefeller had originally vetoed . The county gained $ 35 million in fees and the city received $ 13 million for lost tax revenue . Having the state offices located in the city enabled it to keep good jobs .
Another major project of the 1960s and 1970s was Interstate 787 and the South Mall Arterial . Construction began in the early 1960s . One of the project 's main results , since regretted , was separating the city from the Hudson River , its source of development . Corning has been described as shortsighted with respect to use of the waterfront , as he could have used his influence to change the location of I @-@ 787 , which now cuts the city off from " its whole raison d 'être " . Much of the original plan never came to fruition , however : Rockefeller had wanted the South Mall Arterial to pass through the Empire State Plaza . The project would have required an underground trumpet interchange below Washington Park , connecting to the ( eventually cancelled ) Mid @-@ Crosstown Arterial . To this day , evidence of the original plan is still visible . In 1967 the hamlet of Karlsfeld was the last annexation by the city , taken from the Town of Bethlehem .
When Corning died in 1983 , Thomas Whalen assumed the mayorship and was reelected twice . He encouraged redevelopment of historic structures and helped attract federal dollars earmarked for that purpose . What Corning had saved from destruction , Whalen refurbished for continued and new uses . The Mayor 's Office of Special Events was created in an effort to increase the number of festivals and artistic events in the city , including a year @-@ long Dongan Charter tricentennial celebration in 1986 . Whalen is credited for an " unparalleled cycle of commercial investment and development " in Albany due to his " aggressive business development programs " .
Prior to the recession of the 1990s , downtown Albany was home to four Fortune 500 companies . After the death of Corning and the retirement of Congressman Sam Stratton , the political environment changes . Long @-@ term office holders became rare in the 1980s . Local media began following the drama surrounding county politics ( specifically that of the newly created county executive position ) ; the loss of Corning ( and eventually the machine ) led to a lack of interest in city politics . The election of Gerald Jennings was a surprise , and he served as Mayor from 1994 until his retirement at the end of 2013 . His tenure essentially ended the political machine that had been in place since the 1920s .
During the 1990s , the State Legislature approved the $ 234 million " Albany Plan " , " a building and renovation project [ that ] was the most ambitious building project to affect the area since the Rockefeller era . " Under the Albany Plan , renovation and new building projects were initiated around the downtown area . Many state workers were relocated from the Harriman State Office Campus to downtown , helping its retail businesses and vitality . During the first decade of the 21st century , progress was made on a long @-@ discussed and controversial Albany Convention Center . As of August 2010 , the Albany Convention Center Authority ( authorized by the state legislature ) had already purchased 75 % of the land needed to build the downtown project .
= = Geography = =
Albany is located about 150 miles ( 240 km ) north of New York City on the Hudson River . It has a total area of 21 @.@ 8 square miles ( 56 km2 ) , of which 21 @.@ 4 square miles ( 55 km2 ) is land and 0 @.@ 4 square miles ( 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) ( 1 @.@ 8 % ) is water . The city is bordered on the north by the town of Colonie ( along with the village of Menands ) , on the west by the town of Guilderland , and on the south by the town of Bethlehem . The Hudson River represents the city 's eastern border . Patroon Creek , along the northern border , and the Normans Kill , along the southern border , are the two major streams in the city . The former Foxes Creek , Beaver Kill , and Rutten Kill still exist , but were diverted underground in the 19th century . There are four lakes within city limits : Buckingham Lake ; Rensselaer Lake at the mouth of the Patroon Creek ; Tivoli Lake , which was formed as a reservoir and once connected to the Patroon Creek ; and Washington Park Lake , which was formed by damming the Beaver Kill .
The highest natural point in Albany is a USGS benchmark near the Loudonville Reservoir off Birch Hill Road , at 378 feet ( 115 m ) above sea level . The lowest point is sea level at the Hudson River ( the average water elevation is 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) ) , which is still technically an estuary at Albany and is affected by the Atlantic tide . The interior of Albany consists of rolling hills which were once part of the Albany Pine Bush , an area of pitch pine and scrub oak , and has arid , sandy soil that is a remnant of the ancient Lake Albany . Due to development , the Pine Bush has shrunk from an original 25 @,@ 000 to 6 @,@ 000 acres ( 10 @,@ 100 to 2 @,@ 400 ha ) today . A preserve was set up by the State Legislature in 1988 and is located on the western edge of the city , spilling into Guilderland and Colonie ; it is the only sizable inland pine barrens sand dune ecosystem in the United States , and is home to many endangered species , including the Karner Blue butterfly .
= = = Climate = = =
Albany is located in the humid continental climate zone ( Köppen climate classification : Dfa ) , and has cold , snowy winters , and hot , wet summers ; the city experiences four distinct seasons . Albany is located in plant hardiness zone 6a near downtown and along the shore of the Hudson and 5b at its western end . Albany receives 39 @.@ 4 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) of rain per year , with 138 days of at least 0 @.@ 01 in ( 0 @.@ 25 mm ) of precipitation each year . Snowfall is significant , totaling 59 @.@ 1 inches ( 150 cm ) annually , but with less accumulation than the lake @-@ effect areas to the north and west , as it is further from Lake Ontario . However , Albany is close enough to the Atlantic coast to receive heavy snow from Nor 'easters and the city occasionally receives Alberta clippers . Winters can be very cold with fluctuating conditions ; temperatures drop to 0 ° F ( − 18 ° C ) or below on nine nights per annum . Summers in Albany can contain stretches of excessive heat and humidity , with temperatures of 90 ° F ( 32 ° C ) or hotter on nine days per year . Record temperature extremes range from − 28 ° F ( − 33 ° C ) , on January 19 , 1971 , to 104 ° F ( 40 ° C ) on July 4 , 1911 .
= = Crime = =
New York has an effective statewide crime rate of 385 / 100 @,@ 000 people as of 2009 . Albany 's violent crime rate is nearly on a par with Rochester ( 1028 violent crimes / 100 @,@ 000 population vs 968 / 100 @,@ 000 in Rochester ) and much lower than Buffalo at 1514 / 100 @,@ 000 . By comparison , New York City 's violent crime rate was 639 / 100 @,@ 000 in 2013 .
= = Cityscape = =
= = = Neighborhoods = = =
Albany 's neighborhoods are varied demographically , geographically , architecturally , and historically . Downtown Albany is the city 's oldest neighborhood , centered on State Street , one of Albany 's oldest streets and its original main street . Today downtown consists mostly of office buildings inhabited by state agencies , though a recent push to bring in permanent residents has led to proposed apartments and condominiums . North and south of Downtown are old residential communities often consisting of row houses . North is Sheridan Hollow , Arbor Hill , and North Albany ; to the south is the super @-@ neighborhood of the South End , which consists of a multitude of smaller neighborhoods including the Mansion District , the Pastures , Kenwood , Groesbeckville , Delaware Avenue , and Krank Park . These neighborhoods tend to have more minorities and lower @-@ income residents than the western , more suburbanized sections of the city .
West of Downtown is the Empire State Plaza , which effectively cuts Downtown off from the gentrified neighborhoods of Center Square , Hudson / Park , Lark Street , and Washington Park . Collectively referred to as mid @-@ town , these neighborhoods are often compared to New York City 's Greenwich Village for their eclectic mix of residential and commercial uses , including bars , night clubs , restaurants , and unique stores . Albany 's gay culture is vibrant in this area . Nearby Park South , a nine @-@ block area surrounding New Scotland Avenue is undergoing an urban renewal as existing housing units are removed or renovated and new office , commercial , and apartment buildings are added . New construction includes expansion of Albany Medical Center , one of the largest employers in Albany . Nearby is University Heights , a united campus consisting of Albany Medical Center Hospital , Albany Medical College , Albany Law School , Albany College of Pharmacy , and the Sage College of Albany .
Western neighborhoods , such as Pine Hills , Delaware Avenue , Whitehall , Helderberg , New Scotland , and Beverwyck , tend to have larger lots and more suburban surroundings . The eastern section of Pine Hills is a popular living choice for college students due to its proximity to the campuses of the College of Saint Rose and University at Albany . Further west , the neighborhoods become more affluent and are dominated almost exclusively by single @-@ family dwellings . These neighborhoods , such as Melrose , Western Pine Hills , New Albany , Eagle Hill , Westland Park , Campus , and Buckingham Pond more closely resemble neighboring areas of the suburban towns than they do the downtown parts of the city . Further west is the W. Averell Harriman State Office Campus and the University at Albany 's main campus .
= = = Parks and recreation = = =
Albany has more than 60 public parks and recreation areas . Washington Park was organized as the Middle Public Square in 1806 . Its current location has been public property since the Dongan Charter of 1686 gave the city title to all property not privately owned . Washington Park was designed by John Bogart and John Cuyler in 1870 , and opened for public use the following year . The original lake house , designed by Frederick W. Brown , was added in 1876 . The park had previously been used as a cemetery ; its graves were moved to Albany Rural Cemetery . Washington Park is a popular place to exercise and play sports ; skate during the winter ; people @-@ watch during Tulip Fest ; and attend plays at the amphitheater during the summer .
Other parks in Albany include Lincoln Park , Buckingham Park , the Corning Preserve , and the Pine Bush . Lincoln Park , southwest of the Empire State Plaza , was organized in 1886 and was originally known as Beaver Park . Today , the park has a pool that is open during the summer months . Buckingham Lake Park is between Manning Boulevard and Route 85 in the Buckingham Pond neighborhood ; it contains a pond with fountains , a footpath , a playground , and picnic tables . The Albany Riverfront Park at the Corning Preserve has an 800 @-@ seat amphitheatre that hosts events in non @-@ winter months , most notably the Alive at 5 summer concert series . The Preserve 's visitors center details the ecology of the Hudson River and the local environment . The park has a bike trail and boat launch and was effectively separated from downtown by Interstate 787 until the opening of the Hudson River Way in 2002 .
Other public parks include Westland Hill Park , Hoffman Park , Beverwyck Park , Ridgefield Park , and Liberty Park , today a small circular grassy patch in downtown on Hudson Avenue , which is Albany 's oldest park . The municipal golf course , New Course at Albany , was constructed in 1929 as the Albany Municipal Golf Course , later renamed the Capital Hills at Albany , and remodeled in 1991 .
= = = Architecture = = =
The Empire State Plaza , a collection of state agency office buildings , dominates almost any view of Albany . Built between 1965 and 1978 at the hand of Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and architect Wallace Harrison , the complex is a powerful example of late American modern architecture and remains a controversial building project both for displacing city residents and for its architectural style . The most recognizable aspect of the complex is the Erastus Corning Tower , the tallest building in New York outside of New York City . Juxtaposed at the north end of the Plaza is the 19th @-@ century New York State Capitol , the seat of the New York State Legislature and the home of the Governor 's office .
Albany 's initial architecture incorporated many Dutch influences , followed soon after by those of the English . Quackenbush House , a Dutch Colonial brick mansion , was built c . 1736 ; Schuyler Mansion , a Georgian @-@ style mansion , was built in 1765 ; and the oldest building currently standing in Albany is the 1728 Van Ostrande @-@ Radliff House at 48 Hudson Avenue . Albany 's housing varies greatly , with mostly row houses in the older sections of town , closer to the river . Housing type quickly changes as one travels westward , beginning with two @-@ family homes of the late 19th century , and one @-@ family homes built after World War II in the western end of the city .
Albany City Hall , designed by Henry Hobson Richardson , was opened in 1883 . The New York State Capitol was opened in 1899 ( after 32 years of construction ) at a cost of $ 25 million , making it the most expensive government building at the time . Albany 's Union Station , a major Beaux @-@ Arts design , was under construction at the same time ; it opened in 1900 . In 1912 , the Beaux @-@ Arts styled New York State Department of Education Building opened on Washington Avenue near the Capitol . It has a classical exterior , which features a block @-@ long white marble colonnade . The 1920s brought the Art Deco movement , which is illustrated by the Home Savings Bank Building ( 1927 ) on North Pearl Street and the Alfred E. Smith Building ( 1930 ) on South Swan Street , two of Albany 's tallest high @-@ rises .
Architecture from the 1960s and 1970s is well represented in the city , especially at the W. Averell Harriman State Office Building Campus ( 1950s and 1960s ) and on the uptown campus of the University at Albany ( 1962 – 1971 ) . The state office campus was planned in the 1950s by governor W. Averell Harriman to offer more parking and easier access for state employees . The uptown SUNY campus was built in the 1960s under Governor Rockefeller on the site of the city @-@ owned Albany Country Club . Straying from the popular open campus layout , SUNY Albany has a centralized building layout with administrative and classroom buildings at center surrounded by four student housing towers . The design called for much use of concrete and glass , and the style has slender , round @-@ topped columns and pillars reminiscent of those at Lincoln Center in New York City .
Downtown has seen a revival in recent decades , often considered to have begun with Norstar Bank 's renovation of the former Union Station as its corporate headquarters in 1986 . The Times Union Center ( TU Center ) was originally slated for suburban Colonie , but was instead built downtown and opened in 1990 . Other development in downtown includes the construction of the State Dormitory Authority headquarters at 515 Broadway ( 1998 ) ; the State Department of Environmental Conservation building , with its iconic green dome , at 625 Broadway ( 2001 ) ; the State Comptroller headquarters on State Street ( 2001 ) ; the Hudson River Way ( 2002 ) , a pedestrian bridge connecting Broadway to the Corning Preserve ; and 677 Broadway ( 2005 ) , " the first privately owned downtown office building in a generation " .
= = Demographics = =
= = = City of immigrants = = =
Historically , Albany 's population has been mixed . First dominated by the Dutch and Germans , it was overtaken by the English in the early 19th century . Irish immigrants soon outnumbered most other ethnicities by the mid @-@ 19th century , and were followed by Italians and Poles . The mid @-@ to @-@ late 20th century saw a rise in the African @-@ American population . As historian ( and Albany Assemblyman ) John McEneny puts it ,
Dutch and Yankee , German and Irish , Polish and Italian , black and Chinese — over the centuries Albany 's heritage has reflected a succession of immigrant nationalities . Its streets have echoed with a dozen languages , its neighborhoods adapting to the distinctive life @-@ style and changing economic fortunes of each new group .
Until after the Revolution , Albany 's population consisted mostly of ethnic Dutch descendants . Settlers moving in from New England tipped the balance toward British ethnicity in the early 19th century . Jobs on the turnpikes , canals , and railroads brought in floods of Irish immigrants in the early 19th century , especially in the 1840s during the Irish potato famine , solidifying the city 's Irish base . Albany elected its first Irish Catholic mayor ( Michael Nolan ) two years before Boston did . Polish and Italian immigrants began arriving in Albany in the wave of immigration in the latter part of the 19th century . Their numbers were smaller than in many other eastern cities mainly because most had found manufacturing jobs at General Electric in Schenectady . The Jewish community , with Sephardic Jewish members part of the Beverwijck community , also saw a rise in population during the late 19th century , when many Ashkenazi Jews immigrated from eastern Europe . In that period , there was also an influx of Chinese and east Asian immigrants , who settled in the downtown section of the city . Many of their descendants have since moved to suburban areas . Immigration all but halted after the Immigration Act of 1924 . Albany was also a destination of internal migration , as many African Americans moved north in their Great Migration from the rural South before and after World War I to fill industrial positions . As a percentage , the black community has grown substantially since then : African Americans made up 3 percent of the population in 1950 , 6 percent in 1960 , 12 percent in 1970 , and 30 percent in 2010 . The change in proportion is related mostly to middle @-@ class white families moving to the suburbs , and black families remaining within city limits during the same time period .
Since 2007 there has been an ever growing number of Burmese refugees , mostly of the Karen ethnicity , with an estimate 5 @,@ 000 now residing in Albany .
= = = Modern overview = = =
As of the 2010 census , there were 97 @,@ 856 people residing in the city . The population of the census area in 2009 was estimated to be 1 @,@ 170 @,@ 483 . The population density in 2010 was 4 @,@ 572 @.@ 7 per square mile ( 1 @,@ 779 @.@ 2 / km ² ) . There were 46 @,@ 362 housing units at an average density of 2 @,@ 166 @.@ 4 per square mile ( 842 @.@ 9 / km ² ) ; 5 @,@ 205 of these units ( 11 @.@ 2 % ) were vacant . The racial makeup of the city residents was 52 @.@ 3 % white ; 27 % black or African American ; 0 @.@ 06 % Native American or Native Alaskan ; 7 @.@ 4 % Asian ; 0 @.@ 1 % Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ; .06 % from other races ; and 3 @.@ 6 % from two or more races . A total of 9 @.@ 2 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race . Non @-@ Hispanic Whites were 52 @.@ 0 % of the population in 2010 , compared to 87 @.@ 0 % in 1970 .
As of the 2000 census , the top five ancestry groups in the city were Irish ( 18 @.@ 1 % ) , Italian ( 12 @.@ 4 % ) , German ( 10 @.@ 4 % ) , English ( 5 @.@ 2 % ) , and Polish ( 4 @.@ 3 % ) ; ( 33 @.@ 1 % ) of the population reported " other ancestries " . Albany is home to a Trique language @-@ speaking community of Mexican @-@ Americans .
The population had 20 @.@ 0 % under the age of 18 , 19 @.@ 3 % from 18 to 24 , 29 @.@ 2 % from 25 to 44 , 18 @.@ 1 % from 45 to 64 , and 13 @.@ 4 % who were 65 years of age or older . The median age was 31 @.@ 4 years . For every 100 females there were 90 @.@ 6 males . For every 100 females age 18 and over , there were 86 @.@ 5 males . Some 81 @.@ 3 % of the population had completed high school or earned an equivalency diploma .
There were 40 @,@ 709 households in 2000 , out of which 22 @.@ 0 % had children under the age of 18 living with them , 25 @.@ 3 % were married couples living together , 16 @.@ 1 % had a female householder with no husband present , and 54 @.@ 8 % were non @-@ families . 41 @.@ 9 % of all households were made up of individuals and 11 @.@ 5 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older . The average household size was 2 @.@ 11 and the average family size was 2 @.@ 95 .
The median income for a household in the city in 2000 was $ 71 @,@ 083 , and the median income for a family was $ 73 @,@ 773 ( male , year @-@ round worker ) and $ 66 @,@ 922 ( female , year @-@ round worker ) . The per capita income for the city was $ 54 @,@ 378 . About 16 @.@ 0 % of families and 21 @.@ 7 % of the population were below the poverty line , including 28 @.@ 8 % of those under age 18 and 12 @.@ 5 % of those age 65 or over . The rate of reported violent crimes for 2008 ( 1 @,@ 095 incidents per 100 @,@ 000 residents ) is more than double the rate for similarly sized US cities . Reported property crimes ( 4 @,@ 669 incidents per 100 @,@ 000 residents ) are somewhat lower .
Demographically speaking , the population of Albany and the Capital District mirrors the characteristics of the United States consumer population as a whole better than any other major municipality in the country . According to a 2004 study conducted by the Acxiom Corporation , Albany and its environs are the top @-@ ranked standard test market for new business and retail products . Albany , Rochester , and Syracuse all scored within the top five .
= = Culture = =
= = = Nightlife and entertainment = = =
Albany 's geographic situation — roughly equidistant between New York City to the south and Montreal to the north , as well as approximately 4 @.@ 5 hours east of Buffalo , and 2 @.@ 5 hours west of Boston — makes it a convenient stop for nationally touring artists and acts . The Palace Theatre and The Egg provide mid @-@ sized forums for music , theater , and spoken word performances , with the Capital Repertory Theatre filling the small @-@ sized niche . The TU Center serves as the city 's largest musical venue for nationally and internationally prominent bands , and hosts trade shows , sporting events , and other large @-@ scale community gatherings . While some praise the cultural contributions of Albany and the greater Capital District , others suggest that the city has a " cultural identity crisis " due to its massive geography and the need for a car ( and driving time ) to experience most of what the area has to offer , a necessity not seen in larger metropolitan areas like New York and Boston .
In recent years , the city 's government has invested resources to cultivate venues and neighborhoods that attract after @-@ hours business . Madison Avenue , Pearl Street , Delaware Avenue and Lark Street serve as the most active entertainment areas in the city . Many restaurants , clubs , and bars have opened since the mid @-@ 1990s , revitalizing numerous areas that had once been abandoned ; various establishments have reclaimed old row houses , businesses , and even a pump station . The bar scene generally incorporates three main strips . The downtown scene is focused on Pearl Street , stretching about two blocks . Up State Street , past the business district , is the Lark Street strip , home to smaller bars that fit into the neighborhood 's artistic and eclectic style . Lastly , the midtown strip , with several bars located on Western and Madison Avenues , centers around the campuses of the College of Saint Rose and SUNY Albany 's downtown campus . The midtown strip generally draws a younger crowd , as it is popular to the local college students .
Last call in Albany is 4 : 00 am nightly per New York law that sets that time as last call throughout the state by default , though counties may set an earlier time individual municipalities may not . Even though more than half of the state 's counties have an earlier closing time , Albany County , as with all counties in the Capital District , has retained the 4 : 00 am last call time .
= = = Festivals = = =
The Tulip Festival , one of Albany 's largest festivals , is set in Washington Park and celebrates the city 's Dutch heritage . This traditional Albany event marks the beginning of spring as thousands of tulips bloom in the park in early May . Attendance to the festival in 2010 was approximately 80 @,@ 000 . Alive at 5 is a free , weekly concert series held downtown during the summer on Thursdays . With 10 concerts in 2010 total attendance was roughly 100 @,@ 000 . The Price Chopper Fabulous Fourth and Fireworks Festival at the Empire State Plaza celebrates Independence Day with musical performances and the region 's largest fireworks display . Freihofer 's Run for Women is a 5 @-@ kilometer run through the city that draws more than 4 @,@ 000 participants from across the country ; it is an annual event that began in 1978.The Albany Chefs ' Food & Wine Festival : Wine & Dine for the Arts is an annual Festival that hosts more than 3500 people over 3 days . The Festival showcases more than 70 Regional Chefs & Restaurants , 250 Global Wines & Spirits , a NYS Craft Beer Pavilion , 4 competitions ( The Signature Chef Invitational , Rising Star Chef , Barista Albany and Battle of the Bartenders ) and one Grand Gala Reception , Dinner & Auction featuring 10 f Albany 's Iconic Chefs . The Albany Chefs ' Food & Wine Festival donates all net proceeds to deserving Albany Arts Organizations and is held the Thursday @-@ Saturday preceding Martin Luther King Weekend .
Smaller events include the African American Family Day Arts Festival each August at the Empire State Plaza ; the Latin Fest , held each August at the Corning Preserve ; the Albany Jazz Festival , an annual end @-@ of @-@ summer event held at the Corning Preserve ; Lark Fest , a music and art festival held each fall ; and the Capital Pride Parade and Festival , a major gay pride event , held each June . The once @-@ popular First Night , celebrating the New Year holiday each December 31 , was replaced by the Albany Winterfest in 2006 due to declining interest ; Winterfest occurs each year on December 30 .
= = = Museums and historic sites = = =
Because of Albany 's historical and political significance , the city has numerous museums , historical buildings , and historic districts . Albany is home to the New York State Museum , the New York State Library and the New York State Archives ; all three facilities are located in the Cultural Education Center at the south end of Empire State Plaza and are free to the public . The USS Slater ( DE @-@ 766 ) , a decommissioned World War II destroyer escort that was restored in 1998 , is a museum ship docked in the Hudson River at Quay Street . It is the only ship of its kind still afloat . The Albany Heritage Area Visitors Center , located at the corner of Clinton Avenue and Broadway at Quackenbush Square , hosts a museum , gift shop , and the Henry Hudson Planetarium . In early 2012 , the Irish American Heritage Museum opened in downtown Albany . The museum is home to exhibits highlighting the contributions of the Irish people in America .
The Albany Institute of History and Art , located on Washington Avenue near the Center Square Neighborhood and State Capitol , is " dedicated to collecting , preserving , interpreting and promoting interest in the history , art , culture of Albany and the Upper Hudson Valley region . " The museum 's most notable permanent exhibits include an extensive collection of paintings by the Hudson River School and an exhibit on Ancient Egypt featuring the Institute 's " Albany Mummies . "
Albany is home to 57 listings on the National Register of Historic Places ( NRHP ) and five National Historic Landmarks . The Ten Broeck Mansion , a 1797 Federal @-@ style mansion ( later renovated in the Greek @-@ Revival style ) built for Abraham Ten Broeck ( mayor of Albany 1779 – 1783 and 1796 – 1798 ) is currently a historic house museum and the headquarters of the Albany County Historical Association ; it was added to the NRHP in 1971 . Later known as " Arbor Hill " , it gave the current neighborhood its name .
= = = Literature and film = = =
Albany has been the subject , inspiration , or location for many written and cinematic works . Many non @-@ fiction works have been written on the city . One of the city 's more notable claims to fame is Ironweed ( 1983 ) , the 1984 Pulitzer Prize @-@ winning book by Albany native William Kennedy . Ironweed was the third in a series of books by Kennedy known as the " Albany Cycle " . The elusive author Trevanian also grew up in Albany and wrote The Crazyladies of Pearl Street ( 2005 ) , about a North Albany neighborhood along Pearl Street . The book is considered a semi @-@ autobiographical memoir . Gregory Maguire , author of Wicked : The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West ( inspiration for the Broadway hit Wicked ) , grew up in North Albany and graduated from SUNY Albany in 1976 .
In 1987 , the film version of Ironweed premiered at the Palace Theatre . The movie starred Jack Nicholson and Meryl Streep , each of whom were nominated for Academy Awards for their performances ; much of the filming was done on location in Albany . Most recently the downtown area was the site of filming for the action @-@ thriller Salt , starring Angelina Jolie , and the action @-@ comedy The Other Guys , starring Will Ferrell and Mark Wahlberg .
Authors Herman Melville and Henry James lived in Albany . Isabel Archer , the heroine of James ' novel The Portrait of a Lady , is from Albany .
= = Education = =
The City School District of Albany ( CSDA ) operates the city 's public school system , which consists of 17 schools and learning centers ; in addition , there are 7 charter schools . In the 2015 @-@ 16 school year , over 9 @,@ 000 students were enrolled in the public school system . The district had an average class size of 18 , an 81 @-@ percent graduation rate , and a 5 @-@ percent dropout rate . The district 's 2010 – 11 budget is $ 202 @.@ 8 million . Although considered by the state to be one of the lowest @-@ achieving high schools in New York , Albany High was listed as the nation 's 976th best high school in a 2010 Newsweek / Washington Post report . Albany also has a number of private schools , including the coed Bishop Maginn High School and Albany Free School ; the all @-@ boys Albany Academy and La Salle Institute ; and the all @-@ girls Academy of the Holy Names and Albany Academy for Girls .
Albany has a prominent history in higher education and was ranked third in a Forbes survey called " The Best Places with the Best Education " in 2005 ; it ranked top on Forbes ' " IQ Campuses " list as part of its 150 Cheap Places to Live series in 2006 . The Albany Medical College ( private ) , today part of Albany Medical Center , was founded in 1838 . Albany Law School ( private ) is the oldest law school in New York and the fourth oldest in the country ; it was opened in 1851 . President William McKinley was an alumnus . The Albany College of Pharmacy and Health Sciences ( private ) is the second oldest pharmacy school in New York and the fifteenth oldest in the United States .
The New York State Normal School , one of the oldest teachers colleges in the United States , opened in 1905 ; it was later known as the State Teachers College . It eventually evolved into the University at Albany , also known as SUNY Albany ( public ) , which inherited the Normal School 's original downtown campus on Western Avenue . The center of the campus moved to its current Uptown Campus in the west end of the city in 1970 . SUNY Albany is a unit of the State University of New York and one of only four university centers in the system . Other colleges and universities in Albany include Empire State College , The College of Saint Rose , Excelsior College , Maria College , Mildred Elley , and Sage College of Albany . Nearby Hudson Valley Community College ( HVCC ) fills the community college niche in the Albany @-@ Troy area . The effect of the campuses on the city 's population is substantial : Combining the student bodies of all the aforementioned campuses ( except HVCC ) results in 63 @,@ 149 students , or almost 70 percent of the 2008 estimate of Albany 's permanent population .
= = Economy = =
Albany 's economy , along with that of the Capital District in general , is heavily dependent on government , health care , education , and more recently , technology . Because of these typically steady economic bases , the local economy has been relatively immune to national economic recessions in the past . More than 25 percent of the city 's population works in government @-@ related positions . The current recession has been more difficult to deal with because of the many issues on Wall Street , from which the state government receives much of its tax revenue . In March 2010 , the Albany area had the lowest unemployment rate of any major metropolitan area in New York , at 7 @.@ 8 % , compared to 9 @.@ 4 % in New York as a whole . Albany 's estimated daytime population is more than 162 @,@ 000 . Companies based in Albany include Trans World Entertainment and Clough Harbour .
= = = Tech Valley = = =
Since the 2000s , the economy of Albany and the surrounding Capital District has been redirected toward a high technology focus . Tech Valley is a marketing name for the eastern part of New York State , encompassing Albany , the Capital District , and the Hudson Valley . Originated in 1998 to promote the greater Albany area as a high @-@ tech competitor to regions such as Silicon Valley and Boston , it has since grown to represent the counties in the Capital District and extending to 19 counties from IBM 's Westchester County plants in the south to the Canadian border in the north . The area 's high technology ecosystem is supported by technologically focused academic institutions including Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and the State University of New York Polytechnic Institute . Tech Valley encompasses 19 counties straddling both sides of the Adirondack Northway and the New York Thruway , and with heavy state taxpayer subsidy , has experienced significant growth in the computer hardware side of the high @-@ technology industry , with great strides in the nanotechnology sector , digital electronics design , and water- and electricity @-@ dependent integrated microchip circuit manufacturing .
In 2012 , the Albany @-@ Schenectady area was listed fourth on Forbes Magazine 's annual " Best Cities for Jobs " list , noting that job losses in state and local government were overcome by expansion of the high @-@ tech field .
= = Government = =
Albany has a mayor @-@ council form of government , which currently functions under a charter adopted in 1998 . The 1998 charter completely overwrote the original 17th @-@ century Dongan Charter . However , in an effort to keep Dongan in effect , the new charter was applied strictly as an amendment to Dongan , meaning Dongan is technically still in effect , giving Albany the distinction of having the oldest active city charter in the United States and " arguably the longest @-@ running instrument of municipal government in the Western Hemisphere . " The mayor , who is elected every four years , heads the executive branch of city government . The current mayor , Kathy Sheehan , was first elected in 2013 . She replaced former mayor Gerald Jennings who was mayor for 20 years from 1994 to 2013 . The Common Council represents the legislative branch of city government and is made up of fifteen council members ( each elected from one ward ) and an at @-@ large Common Council President . The current president is Carolyn McLaughlin ; she began her term in January 2010 .
While Albany has its own city government , it has also been the seat of Albany County since the county 's formation in 1683 and the capital of New York since 1797 . As such , the city is home to all branches of the county and state governments , as well as its own . Albany City Hall sits on Eagle Street , opposite the State Capitol , and the Albany County Office Building is on State Street . The state government has offices scattered throughout the city .
Albany is in the 20th Congressional district , represented by Paul Tonko ( D ) in the United States House of Representatives . The city is represented by Chuck Schumer ( D ) and Kirsten Gillibrand ( D ) in the United States Senate . On the state level , the city is in the 44th district in the New York Senate , represented by Neil Breslin ( D ) . In the New York Assembly , the western portion of the city is in the 109th district , represented by Patricia Fahy ( D ) and the eastern portion is in the 108th district , represented by John T. McDonald , III ( D ) . As the seat of Albany County , the city is the location of the county 's courts including Family Court , County Court , Surrogate Court , Supreme Court , and Court of Appeals . Albany is the site of a United States district court for the Northern District of New York courthouse .
= = = Politics = = =
Albany 's politics have been dominated by the Democratic Party since the 1920s ; Daniel ( Uncle Dan ) O 'Connell established a political machine in the city with the election of William Stormont Hackett as mayor in 1922 . Prior to that , William ( Billy ) Barnes had set up a Republican machine in the 1890s . Barnes ' success is attributed to the fact that he owned two newspapers in Albany and that he was the grandson of Thurlow Weed , the influential newspaper publisher and political boss . O 'Connell 's organization overcame Barnes ' in 1922 and survived well into the 1980s ( even after his death ) , as the machine put forth candidates for whom the electorate dutifully voted . In many instances , votes were outright bought ; it was not uncommon for the machine to " buy poor folks ' loyalty and trust with a fiver " .
Gerald Jennings ' upset in the 1993 Democratic mayoral primary over Harold Joyce , who had the Democratic Party 's formal endorsement and had only recently been its county chairman , is often cited as the end of the O 'Connell era in Albany . Albany continues to be dominated by the Democratic party as enrollment in the city was 38 @,@ 862 in 2009 compared to Republican enrollment of 3 @,@ 487 . This gives Democrats a 10 – 1 advantage in the general election . Every elected city position has been held by a Democrat since 1931 .
In November 2013 , Kathy Sheehan became the first woman to be elected Mayor of Albany .
= = Religious life = =
Like most cities of comparable age and size , Albany has well @-@ established Orthodox Christian , Roman Catholic , Protestant , and Jewish communities . Albany is home to the oldest Christian congregation in Upstate New York and the Mother Churches of two Christian dioceses . As of June 2010 , eight churches or religious buildings in the city were listed on the National Register of Historic Places , one of which — St. Peter 's Episcopal Church on State Street — is a National Historic Landmark .
Established in 1642 , the congregation of the First Church in Albany ( Reformed ) , also known as the North Dutch Church ( located on North Pearl Street ) , is the second @-@ oldest Reformed Church in America . The Cathedral of the Immaculate Conception ( Eagle Street and Madison Avenue , built 1852 ) is the cathedral of the Roman Catholic diocese , led by Bishop Howard J. Hubbard , and the Cathedral of All Saints ( South Swan Street and Elk Street , built 1888 ) is the cathedral of the Episcopal diocese , led by Bishop William Love . The city is home to eleven Catholic churches and six Episcopal churches .
A significant Jewish presence has existed in Albany since as early as 1658 , and today includes many synagogues ; there are two Conservative , a Chabad @-@ Lubavitch , an Orthodox , and two Reform synagogues . Albany is also home to one of the few Karaite synagogues outside Israel . The city has a membership of between 12 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 000 .
Exact numbers on religious denominations in Albany are not readily available . Demographic statistics in the United States depend heavily on the United States Census Bureau , which cannot ask about religious affiliation as part of its decennial census . It does compile some national and statewide religious statistics , but these are not representative of a city the size of Albany . One report from 2000 offers religious affiliations for Albany County . According to the data , 59 @.@ 2 % of Albany County residents identified as Christian : 47 % are Roman Catholic , 8 @.@ 4 % are mainline Protestants , 2 @.@ 7 % are Evangelical Protestants , and 1 @.@ 1 % are Eastern or Oriental Orthodox Christians . Residents who practice Judaism make up 4 @.@ 2 % of the population and Muslims represent 0 @.@ 2 % . Note that these values are county @-@ wide ; city values could be significantly different .
= = Media = =
The Times Union is Albany 's primary daily newspaper and the only one based close to the city ; its headquarters moved from within city limits to suburban Colonie in the 1960s after a dispute with Mayor Corning over land needed for expansion . Its circulation totals about 73 @,@ 000 on weekdays and 143 @,@ 000 on Sundays . Serving Albany to a lesser degree are The Daily Gazette , based in Schenectady , and The Record , of Troy . Metroland is the alternative newsweekly in the area , publishing each Thursday , while The Business Review is a business weekly published each Friday . The Legislative Gazette , another weekly newspaper , focuses exclusively on issues related to the Legislature and the state government .
The Albany @-@ Schenectady @-@ Troy media market is the 63rd largest in the country in terms of radio and the 57th largest in terms of television audiences . It is a broadcast market with historical significance . The pioneering influence of General Electric in Schenectady directly contributed to the area emerging as the birthplace of station @-@ based television with WRGB ; the station was also the first affiliate of NBC . In 1947 , the region was home to the first independently owned and operated commercial FM radio station in the United States : W47A . WGY was the second commercial radio station in New York and the twelfth in the nation . The Capital District is home to ABC affiliate WTEN , CBS affiliate WRGB ( also operating CW affiliate WCWN ) , Fox affiliate WXXA , and NBC affiliate WNYT ( also operating MyNetworkTV affiliate WNYA ) ; Time Warner Cable hosts Time Warner Cable News Capital Region , the area 's only local 24 @-@ hour news channel . The area has numerous radio stations .
= = Transportation = =
The Northway ( Interstate 87 north of the New York State Thruway ) connects Albany by car to Canada at Champlain ; Autoroute 15 continues into Quebec , linking Albany to Montreal . Interstate 90 connects Albany to both Buffalo and Boston , via the New York State Thruway and the Massachusetts Turnpike respectively , both of which use I @-@ 90 ( the NYS Thruway partially , the Massachusetts Turnpike fully ) . South of Albany , I @-@ 87 becomes part of the Thruway and ends at Interstate 278 in the Bronx . Albany is literally at the crossroad of I @-@ 87 and I @-@ 90 , creating a junction between Buffalo and Boston , and Montreal and New York . Interstate 787 links Albany to Watervliet , Colonie , and Menands ; by way of Route 7 , I @-@ 787 connects to the Northway , offering Saratoga County residents a rather direct , albeit congested route to and from Albany during rush hour .
Albany , long an important Hudson River port , today serves domestic and international ships and barges through the Port of Albany @-@ Rensselaer , located on both sides of the river . The port has the largest mobile harbor crane in the state of New York . The New York State Barge Canal , the ultimate successor of the Erie Canal , is in use today , largely by tourist and private boats .
With the closure of Union Station on Broadway , area passenger @-@ rail service is provided by Amtrak at the Albany @-@ Rensselaer station in Rensselaer . In 2009 , the station saw more than 720 @,@ 000 passengers , making it Amtrak 's second @-@ busiest in New York , behind New York 's Penn Station . Low cost curbside bus service from the SUNY Albany campus and the Rensselaer station is also provided by Megabus , with direct service to New York City .
Albany 's nearest airport is Albany International Airport in Colonie . Six major airlines service Albany : Cape Air , Delta Air Lines , Southwest Airlines , United Air Lines , and US Airways ; Million Air is the local fixed @-@ base operator . In 2010 , Albany had the highest average airfare in New York , though the per @-@ mile cost on its busiest routes was second @-@ lowest in the state .
The Capital District Transportation Authority ( CDTA ) provides bus service throughout Albany and the surrounding area , including Schenectady , Troy , and Saratoga Springs . The city was once served by an urban streetcar service maintained by the United Traction Company . As in many American cities , after the advent of the automobile , light rail services declined in Albany and were replaced by bus and taxi services . Greyhound Lines , Trailways , Peter Pan , Short Line , Vermont Translines , and Yankee Trails buses all serve a downtown terminal . Brown Coach provides commuter service .
= = Sports = =
Albany has no major league professional sports teams , and minor league teams have low support . The only minor league team currently active are the Albany Devils ice hockey team , which moved to the city for the 2010 – 2011 season . They play in the American Hockey League and are affiliated with the New Jersey Devils of the National Hockey League . The Devils replaced the Albany River Rats , who played in the Capital Region from 1990 to 2010 , when they relocated to Charlotte , North Carolina .
The Albany Firebirds played in the Arena Football League from 1990 to 2000 , while a second team , originally known as the Albany Conquest and later the Firebirds , played in af2 , the AFL 's developmental league , from 2002 to 2009 . The Tri @-@ City ValleyCats short season minor league baseball team have played at the Joseph L. Bruno Stadium on the Hudson Valley Community College campus in North Greenbush since 2002 . Prior to the ValleyCats ' arrival , the Albany @-@ Colonie Diamond Dogs ( 1995 – 2002 ) played at Heritage Park in Colonie ; due to financial pressures , and facing impending competition from the ValleyCats , the franchise folded in 2002 . The local basketball team is the Albany Legends ( International Basketball League ) , who play in the Washington Avenue Armory . The Albany Patroons were two basketball teams that played at the Armory . Both folded due to financial problems .
With the large number of local colleges and universities around Albany , college sports are popular . The University at Albany 's Great Danes currently play at the Division I level in all sports . The football team is a member of the Colonial Athletic Association ( CAA ) , while all other sports teams play as members of the America East Conference ( AEC ) . In 2006 , UAlbany became the first SUNY @-@ affiliated school to send a team to the NCAA Division I Men 's Basketball Tournament . UAlbany has also hosted the New York Giants training camp since 1996 . The Siena Saints have seen a rise in popularity after their men 's basketball team made it to the NCAA Men 's Division I Basketball Championship ( March Madness ) in 2008 , 2009 , and 2010 . All 18 Saints teams are Division I and play in the Metro Atlantic Athletic Conference ( MAAC ) . Although Siena 's campus is in nearby Colonie , the men 's basketball team plays at the TU Center .
= = Sister cities = =
Albany has five official sister city agreements and two other twin @-@ city relationships . The city of Nijmegen , Netherlands connected with Albany following World War II . With the help of the Catholic university in Albany , the Catholic University of Nijmegen ( Radboud University Nijmegen ) rebuilt its partly destroyed library , with over 50 @,@ 000 books being donated to the Dutch university . To show its gratitude for post @-@ war assistance , the city sent Albany 50 @,@ 000 tulip bulbs in 1948 ; this act led to the establishment of the annual Tulip Festival . Most of the other connections were made in the 1980s during Mayor Whalen 's term in office as part of his cultural expansion program . The official sister cities are :
Nassau , Bahamas ;
Nijmegen , Netherlands ;
Quebec City , Quebec ;
Tula , Russia ; and
Verona , Italy .
The additional twin @-@ city relationships are with :
Ghent , Belgium
Extremadura ( region ) , Spain .
= No. 11 Elementary Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 11 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 11 EFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) pilot training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of twelve elementary flying training schools employed by the RAAF to provide introductory flight instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 11 EFTS was established in June 1941 at Benalla , Victoria , and operated Tiger Moths and Wackett Trainers during the war . It ceased training in July 1945 after almost 3 @,@ 000 students had passed through , and was re @-@ formed as Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Benalla in February 1946 . CMU Benalla was disbanded in October 1948 .
= = History = =
Flying instruction in the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) underwent major changes following the outbreak of World War II , in response to a vast increase in the number of aircrew volunteers and the commencement of Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war pilot training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve elementary flying training schools ( EFTS ) and eight service flying training schools ( SFTS ) . The EFTS provided a twelve @-@ week introductory flying course to personnel who had graduated from one of the RAAF 's initial training schools . Flying training was undertaken in two stages : the first involved four weeks of instruction ( including ten hours of flying ) to determine trainees ' suitability to become pilots . Those that passed this grading process then received a further eight weeks of training ( including sixty @-@ five hours of flying ) at the EFTS . Pilots who successfully completed this course were posted to an SFTS in either Australia or Canada for the next stage of their instruction as military aviators .
No. 11 Elementary Flying Training School ( No. 11 EFTS ) was formed at Benalla , Victoria , on 26 June 1941 , and came under the control of Southern Area Command . Its inaugural commanding officer was Squadron Leader I.C.C. Thomson . Before being taken over by the RAAF , Benalla was an emergency runway for civil aircraft on the journey between Sydney and Melbourne . No. 11 EFTS 's infrastructure , which included medical facilities and two satellite airstrips , had been budgeted at some £ 85 @,@ 000 , primarily for buildings and engineering works . When the school opened , however , only stores depots and living quarters for the 100 @-@ odd staff were completed ; instructional courses , which commenced on 24 July , were initially held in tents near the main airstrip . No hangars were constructed for the de Havilland Tiger Moth training aircraft until towards the end of the year .
Flying at Benalla was hampered by bad weather , and the runway was unusable from September to November 1941 , necessitating the detachment of over 250 personnel to Essendon , home of No. 3 EFTS , to continue their training . In October 1941 , six airmen of No. 11 EFTS were court @-@ martialled for mutiny . Their main grievance was having to undertake guard duty at night and attend parades at 7 : 15 am in addition to their regular ground support work . One of the men was found guilty of incitement and the other five for failing to report their knowledge of the matter to the commanding officer . The former was sentenced to eighteen months imprisonment and the others to between five and six months detention ; all were discharged from the Air Force . On 11 December 1941 , one of the school 's Tiger Moths made a crash landing in a field and struck four people on the ground , killing two and injuring the others ; the two pilots were uninjured . The outbreak of war in the Pacific saw slit trenches being dug at the base .
The school began replacing its Tiger Moths with CAC Wackett Trainers in January 1942 . No. 11 EFTS absorbed No. 3 EFTS 's instructors , students and Wackett Trainers in April , shortly before the latter unit disbanded . The same month at Benalla , thirty @-@ two United States Army Air Corps pilots undertook four weeks of flying in the Wacketts . On 5 September 1942 , one of the Wacketts crashed after apparently stalling on takeoff , killing the trainee and seriously injuring the pilot . The Wackett Trainers were taken out of service for upgrades in February 1943 , and the school again began operating Tiger Moths . One pilot was killed and another seriously injured when their Tiger Moths collided shortly after takeoff on 15 June . On 7 July , one of the Tiger Moths crashed during a night @-@ flying exercise just east of Benalla , killing both pilots . Another Tiger Moth and its pilot were lost in a crash west of Benalla on 20 October 1943 . On 14 May 1944 , a pilot was killed and a trainee seriously injured when their Tiger Moth spun out of control during an instrument test north of Benalla .
Flying training at No. 11 EFTS had largely wound down by May 1945 . Ten students from the Netherlands East Indies underwent courses in June , and in July all instruction stopped , by which time 2 @,@ 953 trainees had attended the school . No. 11 EFTS 's facilities were used to establish Care and Maintenance Unit ( CMU ) Benalla on 28 February 1946 . It was one of many CMUs that the RAAF raised after the war for the storage and upkeep of surplus aircraft prior to their disposal . CMU Benalla was responsible for maintaining North American P @-@ 51 Mustangs . It transferred all its aircraft to CMU Tocumwal , New South Wales , on 15 October 1948 , and disbanded the same day .
A memorial to No. 11 EFTS was dedicated at Benalla on 17 June 1995 .
= Book of Kells =
The Book of Kells ( Irish : Leabhar Cheanannais ; Dublin , Trinity College Library , MS A. I. [ 58 ] , sometimes known as the Book of Columba ) is an illuminated manuscript Gospel book in Latin , containing the four Gospels of the New Testament together with various prefatory texts and tables . It was created in a Columban monastery in Ireland or may have had contributions from various Columban institutions from both Britain and Ireland . It is believed to have been created c . 800 . The text of the Gospels is largely drawn from the Vulgate , although it also includes several passages drawn from the earlier versions of the Bible known as the Vetus Latina . It is a masterwork of Western calligraphy and represents the pinnacle of Insular illumination . It is also widely regarded as Ireland 's finest national treasure .
The illustrations and ornamentation of the Book of Kells surpass that of other Insular Gospel books in extravagance and complexity . The decoration combines traditional Christian iconography with the ornate swirling motifs typical of Insular art . Figures of humans , animals and mythical beasts , together with Celtic knots and interlacing patterns in vibrant colours , enliven the manuscript 's pages . Many of these minor decorative elements are imbued with Christian symbolism and so further emphasise the themes of the major illustrations .
The manuscript today comprises 340 folios and , since 1953 , has been bound in four volumes . The leaves are on high @-@ quality calf vellum , and the unprecedentedly elaborate ornamentation that covers them includes ten full @-@ page illustrations and text pages that are vibrant with decorated initials and interlinear miniatures and mark the furthest extension of the anti @-@ classical and energetic qualities of Insular art . The Insular majuscule script of the text itself appears to be the work of at least three different scribes . The lettering is in iron gall ink , and the colours used were derived from a wide range of substances , many of which were imports from distant lands .
The manuscript takes its name from the Abbey of Kells , which was its home for centuries . Today , it is on permanent display at Trinity College Library , Dublin . The Library usually displays two of the current four volumes at a time , one showing a major illustration and the other showing typical text pages , and the entire manuscript can be viewed on the Library 's Digital Collections Repository .
= = History = =
= = = Origin = = =
The Book of Kells is one of the finest and most famous of a group of manuscripts in what is known as the Insular style , produced from the late 6th through the early 9th centuries in monasteries in Ireland , Scotland and England and in continental monasteries with Hiberno @-@ Scottish or Anglo @-@ Saxon foundations . These manuscripts include the Cathach of St. Columba , the Ambrosiana Orosius , fragmentary Gospel in the Durham Dean and Chapter Library ( all from the early 7th century ) , and the Book of Durrow ( from the second half of the 7th century ) . From the early 8th century come the Durham Gospels , the Echternach Gospels , the Lindisfarne Gospels ( see illustration at right ) , and the Lichfield Gospels . Among others , the St. Gall Gospel Book belongs to the late 8th century and the Book of Armagh ( dated to 807 – 809 ) to the early 9th century . Scholars place these manuscripts together based on similarities in artistic style , script , and textual traditions . The fully developed style of the ornamentation of the Book of Kells places it late in this series , either from the late 8th or early 9th century . The Book of Kells follows many of the iconographic and stylistic traditions found in these earlier manuscripts . For example , the form of the decorated letters found in the incipit pages for the Gospels is surprisingly consistent in Insular Gospels . Compare , for example , the incipit pages of the Gospel of Matthew in the Lindisfarne Gospels and in the Book of Kells , both of which feature intricate decorative knot work patterns inside the outlines formed by the enlarged initial letters of the text . ( For a more complete list of related manuscripts , see : List of Hiberno @-@ Saxon illustrated manuscripts ) .
The name Book of Kells is derived from the Abbey of Kells in Kells , County Meath , which was its home for much of the medieval period . The manuscript 's date and place of production have been the subject of considerable debate . Traditionally , the book was thought to have been created in the time of Columba , possibly even as the work of his own hands . This tradition has long been discredited on paleographic and stylistic grounds : most evidence points to a composition date c . 800 , long after St. Columba 's death in 597 . The proposed dating in the 9th century coincides with Viking raids on Iona , which began in 794 and eventually dispersed the monks and their holy relics into Ireland and Scotland . There is another tradition , with some traction among Irish scholars , that suggests the manuscript was created for the 200th anniversary of the saint 's death .
There are at least five competing theories about the manuscript 's place of origin and time of completion . First , the book , or perhaps just the text , may have been created at Iona , then brought to Kells , where the illuminations were perhaps added , and never finished . Second , the book may have been produced entirely at Iona . Third , the manuscript may have been produced entirely in the scriptorium at Kells . Fourth , it may have been produced in the north of England , perhaps at Lindisfarne , then brought to Iona and from there to Kells . Finally , it may have been the product of an unknown monastery in Pictish Scotland , though there is no actual evidence for this theory , especially considering the absence of any surviving manuscript from Pictland . Although the question of the exact location of the book 's production will probably never be answered conclusively , the first theory , that it was begun at Iona and continued at Kells , is widely accepted . Regardless of which theory is true , it is certain that the Book of Kells was produced by Columban monks closely associated with the community at Iona .
= = = Medieval period = = =
Kells Abbey was plundered and pillaged by Vikings many times in the 10th century , and how the book survived is not known . The earliest historical reference to the book , and indeed to the book 's presence at Kells , can be found in a 1007 entry in the Annals of Ulster . This entry records that " the great Gospel of Columkille , ( Columba ) the chief relic of the Western World , was wickedly stolen during the night from the western sacristy of the great stone church at Cenannas on account of its wrought shrine " . The manuscript was recovered a few months later — minus its golden and bejewelled cover — " under a sod " . It is generally assumed that the " great Gospel of Columkille " is the Book of Kells . If this is correct , then the book was in Kells by 1007 and had been there long enough for thieves to learn of its presence . The force of ripping the manuscript free from its cover may account for the folios missing from the beginning and end of the Book of Kells . The description in the Annals of the book as " of Columkille " — that is , having belonged to , and perhaps being made by Columba — suggests that the book was believed at that time to have been made on Iona .
Regardless , the book was certainly at Kells in the 12th century , when land charters pertaining to the Abbey of Kells were copied onto some of its blank pages . The practice of copying of charters into important books was widespread in the medieval period , and such inscriptions in the Book of Kells provide concrete evidence about its location at the time .
The Abbey of Kells was dissolved due to the ecclesiastical reforms of the 12th century . The abbey church was converted to a parish church in which the Book of Kells remained .
= = = = Book of Kildare = = = =
The 12th @-@ century writer Gerald of Wales , in his Topographia Hibernica , described in a famous passage seeing a great Gospel Book in Kildare which many have since assumed was the Book of Kells . The description certainly matches Kells :
This book contains the harmony of the Four Evangelists according to Jerome , where for almost every page there are different designs , distinguished by varied colours . Here you may see the face of majesty , divinely drawn , here the mystic symbols of the Evangelists , each with wings , now six , now four , now two ; here the eagle , there the calf , here the man and there the lion , and other forms almost infinite . Look at them superficially with the ordinary glance , and you would think it is an erasure , and not tracery . Fine craftsmanship is all about you , but you might not notice it . Look more keenly at it and you will penetrate to the very shrine of art . You will make out intricacies , so delicate and so subtle , so full of knots and links , with colours so fresh and vivid , that you might say that all this were the work of an angel , and not of a man .
Since Gerald claims to have seen this book in Kildare , he may have seen another , now lost , book equal in quality to the Book of Kells , or he may have misstated his location .
= = = Modern period = = =
The Book of Kells remained in Kells until 1654 . In that year , Cromwell 's cavalry was quartered in the church at Kells , and the governor of the town sent the book to Dublin for safekeeping . Henry Jones , who later became bishop of Meath after the Restoration , presented the manuscript to Trinity College in Dublin in 1661 , and it has remained there ever since , except for brief loans to other libraries and museums . It has been on display to the public in the Old Library at Trinity since the 19th century .
Over the years , the Book of Kells received several additions to its text . In the 16th century , one Gerald Plunkett of Dublin added a series of Roman numerals numbering the chapters of the Gospels according to the division created by 13th @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury Stephen Langton . The prominent Anglican clergyman James Ussher counted and numbered its folios in 1621 , shortly after James VI and I named him Bishop of Meath . Queen Victoria and Prince Albert were invited to sign the book in 1849 ; however , they in fact signed a modern flyleaf which was erroneously believed to have been one of the original folios . The page bearing their signatures was removed when the book was rebound in 1953 .
Over the centuries , the book has been rebound several times . During an 18th @-@ century rebinding , the pages were rather unsympathetically cropped , with small parts of some illustrations being lost . The book was also rebound in 1895 , but that rebinding broke down quickly . By the late 1920s , several folios had detached completely and were kept separate from the main volume . In 1953 , bookbinder Roger Powell rebound the manuscript in four volumes and stretched several pages that had developed bulges . Two volumes can normally be seen displayed at Trinity , one opened at a major decorated page , and one opened to show two text pages with smaller decorations .
In 2000 , the volume containing the Gospel of Mark was sent to Canberra , Australia , for an exhibition of illuminated manuscripts . This was only the fourth time the Book of Kells had been sent abroad for exhibition . Unfortunately , the volume suffered what has been called " minor pigment damage " while en route to Canberra . It is thought that the vibrations from the aeroplane 's engines during the long flight may have caused the damage .
= = = Reproductions = = =
In 1951 , the Swiss publisher Urs Graf Verlag Bern produced the first facsimile of the Book of Kells . The majority of the pages were reproduced in black @-@ and @-@ white photographs , but the edition also featured forty @-@ eight colour reproductions , including all the full @-@ page decorations . Under licence from the Board of Trinity College Dublin , Thames and Hudson produced a second facsimile edition in 1974 . This edition included all the full @-@ page illustrations in the manuscript and a representative section of the ornamentation of the text pages , together with some enlarged details of the illustrations . The reproductions were all in full colour , with photography by John Kennedy , Green Studio , Dublin .
In 1979 , Swiss publisher Faksimile @-@ Verlag Luzern requested permission to produce a full @-@ colour facsimile of the book . Permission was initially denied , because Trinity College officials felt that the risk of damage to the book was too high . By 1986 , Faksimile @-@ Verlag had developed a process that used gentle suction to straighten a page so that it could be photographed without touching it and so won permission to publish a new facsimile . After each page was photographed , a single @-@ page facsimile was prepared so the colours could be carefully compared to the original and adjustments made where necessary . The completed work was published in 1990 in a two @-@ volume set containing the full facsimile and scholarly commentary . One copy is held by the Anglican Church in Kells , on the site of the original monastery .
Mario Kleff also reproduced folios from the Book of Kells and together with Faksimile @-@ Verlag Publisher Urs Düggelin , curated an exhibition of the Book of Kells which included these facsimile pages . These facsimiles were created using the original techniques and were also presented in the Diocesan Museum of Trier .
In 1994 , Bernard Meehan , Keeper of Manuscripts at Trinity College Dublin , produced an introductory booklet on the Book of Kells , with 110 colour images of the manuscript . His 2012 book contained more than 80 pages from the manuscript reproduced full @-@ size and in full colour .
A digital copy of the manuscript was produced by Trinity College in 2006 and was made available for purchase through Trinity College on DVD @-@ Rom . It included the ability to leaf through each page , two pages at a time or look at a single page in a magnified setting . There were also a number of commentary tracks about the specific pages as well as the history of the book . Users were given the option to search by specific illuminated categories including animals , capitols and angels . It retailed for approximately € 30 but has since been discontinued . The Faksimile @-@ Verlag images are now online at Trinity College 's Digital Collections portal .
= = Description = =
The Book of Kells contains the four Gospels of the Christian scriptures written in black , red , purple , and yellow ink in an insular majuscule script , preceded by prefaces , summaries , and concordances of Gospel passages . Today , it consists of 340 vellum leaves , or folios . The majority of the folios are part of larger sheets , called bifolios , which are folded in half to form two folios . The bifolios are nested inside of each other and sewn together to form gatherings called quires . On occasion , a folio is not part of a bifolio but is instead a single sheet inserted within a quire . The extant folios are gathered into 38 quires . There are between four and twelve folios ( two to six bifolios ) per quire ; the folios are commonly , but not invariably , bound in groups of ten . Some folios are single sheets , as is frequently the case with the important decorated pages . The folios had lines drawn for the text , sometimes on both sides , after the bifolios were folded . Prick marks and guide lines can still be seen on some pages . The vellum is of high quality , although the folios have an uneven thickness , with some being close to leather while others are so thin as to be almost translucent .
The book 's current dimensions are 330 by 250 mm . Originally , the folios were of no standard size , but they were cropped to the current size during a 19th @-@ century rebinding . The text area is approximately 250 by 170 mm . Each text page has 16 to 18 lines of text . The manuscript is in remarkably good condition considering its great age , though many pages have suffered some damage to the delicate artwork due to rubbing . The book must have been the product of a major scriptorium over several years , yet was apparently never finished , the projected decoration of some pages appearing only in outline . It is believed that some 30 folios of the original manuscript have been lost over the centuries . Ussher counted 344 folios in 1621 , but several leaves had already been lost by then . The overall estimate is based on gaps in the text and the absence of certain key illustrations .
= = = Contents = = =
The extant book contains preliminary matter , the complete text of the Gospels of Matthew , Mark and Luke , and the Gospel of John through John 17 : 13 . The remainder of John and an unknown amount of the preliminary matter is missing and was perhaps lost when the book was stolen early in the 11th century . The remaining preliminary matter
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Iron Age burial sites in Scotland are rare , and a recent find at Dunbar may provide further insight into the culture of this period . A similar site of a warrior 's grave at Alloa has been provisionally dated to AD 90 – 130 . A traveller called Demetrius of Tarsus related to Plutarch the tale of an expedition to the west coast in or shortly before AD 83 . He stated that it was " a gloomy journey amongst uninhabited islands " but that he had visited one which was the retreat of holy men . He mentioned neither the druids nor the name of the island .
= = The invasion of Caledonia = =
The apparently cordial beginnings recorded in Colchester did not last . We know nothing of the foreign policies of the senior leaders in mainland Scotland in the 1st century , but by AD 71 the Roman governor Quintus Petillius Cerialis had launched an invasion . The Votadini , who occupied the south @-@ east of Scotland , came under Roman sway at an early stage and Cerialis sent one division north through their territory to the shores of the Firth of Forth . The XXth Legion took a western route through Annandale in an attempt to encircle and isolate the Selgovae who occupied the central Southern Uplands . Early success tempted Cerialis further north and he began constructing a line of Glenblocker forts to the north and west of the Gask Ridge which marked a frontier between the Venicones to the south and the Caledonians to the north .
In the summer of AD 78 Gnaeus Julius Agricola arrived in Britain to take up his appointment as the new governor . Two years later his legions constructed a substantial fort at Trimontium near Melrose . Excavations in the 20th century produced significant finds including the foundations of several successive structures , Roman coins and pottery . Remains from the Roman army were also found , including a collection of Roman armour ( with ornate cavalry parade helmets ) , and horse fittings ( with bronze saddleplates and studded leather chamfrons ) . Agricola is said to have pushed his armies to the estuary of the " River Taus " ( usually assumed to be the River Tay ) and established forts there , including a legionary fortress at Inchtuthil .
= = Mons Graupius = =
In the summer of AD 84 the Romans faced the massed armies of the Caledonians at the Battle of Mons Graupius . Agricola , whose forces included a fleet , arrived at the site with light infantry bolstered with British auxiliaries . It is estimated that a total of 20 @,@ 000 Romans faced 30 @,@ 000 Caledonian warriors .
Agricola put his auxiliaries in the front line , keeping the legions in reserve , and relied on close @-@ quarters fighting to make the Caledonians ' unpointed slashing swords useless . Even though the Caledonians were put to rout and therefore lost this battle , two thirds of their army managed to escape and hide in the Scottish Highlands or the " trackless wilds " as Tacitus called them . Battle casualties were estimated by Tacitus to be about 10 @,@ 000 on the Caledonian side and roughly 360 on the Roman side . A number of authors have reckoned the battle to have occurred in the Grampian Mounth within sight of the North Sea . In particular , Roy , Surenne , Watt , Hogan and others have advanced notions that the site of the battle may have been Kempstone Hill , Megray Hill or other knolls near the Raedykes Roman camp . These points of high ground are proximate to the Elsick Mounth , an ancient trackway used by Romans and Caledonians for military manoeuvres . Other suggestions include the hill of Bennachie in Aberdeenshire , the Gask Ridge not far from Perth and Sutherland . It has also been suggested that in the absence of any archaeological evidence and Tacitus ' low estimates of Roman casualties , that the battle was simply fabricated .
= = = Calgacus = = =
The first resident of Scotland to appear in history by name was Calgacus ( " the Swordsman " ) , a leader of the Caledonians at Mons Graupius , who is referred to by Tacitus in the Agricola as " the most distinguished for birth and valour among the chieftains " . Tacitus even invented a speech for him in advance of the battle in which he describes the Romans as :
Robbers of the world , having by their universal plunder exhausted the land , they rifle the deep . If the enemy be rich , they are rapacious ; if he be poor , they lust for dominion ; neither the east nor the west has been able to satisfy them . Alone among men they covet with equal eagerness poverty and riches . To robbery , slaughter , plunder , they give the lying name of empire ; they make a solitude and call it peace .
= = = Aftermath = = =
Calgacus ' fate is unknown but , according to Tacitus , after the battle Agricola ordered the prefect of the fleet to sail around the north of Scotland to confirm that Britain was an island and to receive the surrender of the Orcadians . It was proclaimed that Agricola had finally subdued all the tribes of Britain . However , the Roman historian Cassius Dio reports that this circumnavigation resulted in Titus receiving his 15th acclamation as emperor in AD 79 . This is five years before Mons Graupius is believed by most historians to have taken place .
Marching camps may have been constructed along the southern shores of the Moray Firth , although their existence is questioned . The total size of the Roman garrison in Scotland during the Flavian period of occupation is thought to be some 25 @,@ 000 troops , requiring 16 – 19 @,@ 000 tons of grain per annum . In addition , the material to construct the forts was substantial , estimated at 1 million cubic feet ( 28 @,@ 315 m3 ) of timber during the 1st century . Ten tons of buried nails were discovered at the Inchtuthil site , which may have had a garrison of up to 6 @,@ 000 men and which itself consumed 30 linear kilometres of wood for the walls alone , which would have used up 100 hectares ( 247 acres ) of forest .
Soon after his announcement of victory , Agricola was recalled to Rome by Domitian and his post passed to Sallustius Lucullus . Agricola 's successors were seemingly unable or unwilling to further subdue the far north . Despite his apparent successes , Agricola himself fell out of favour and it is possible that Domitian may have been informed of the fraudulence of his claims to have won a significant victory . The fortress at Inchtuthil was dismantled before its completion and the other fortifications of the Gask Ridge ( erected to consolidate the Roman presence in Scotland in the aftermath of Mons Graupius ) were abandoned within the space of a few years . It is possible that the costs of a drawn @-@ out war outweighed any economic or political benefit and it was deemed more profitable to leave the Caledonians to themselves . By AD 87 the occupation was limited to the Southern Uplands and by the end of the 1st century the northern limit of Roman expansion was a line drawn between the Tyne and Solway Firth . Elginhaugh fort , in Midlothian , dates to about this period as may Castle Greg in West Lothian , which was most likely used as a monitoring base for an east @-@ west road running along the foot of the nearby Pentlands , from the Forth to the Clyde Valley .
Presumably as a consequence of the Roman advance , various hill forts such as Dun Mor in Perthshire , which had been abandoned by the natives long ago , were re @-@ occupied . Some new ones may even have been constructed in the north @-@ east such as Hill O ' Christ 's Kirk in Aberdeenshire .
= = Settlements and southern brochs = =
Ptolemy 's Geography identifies 19 " towns " from intelligence gathered during the Agricolan campaigns . No archaeological evidence of any truly urban places has been found from this time and the names may have indicated hill forts or temporary market and meeting places . Most of the names are obscure : Devana may be the modern Banchory ; Alauna ( " the rock " ) in the west is probably Dumbarton Rock and the place of the same name in the east Lowlands may be the site of Edinburgh Castle . Lindon may be Balloch on Loch Lomond side .
There are the remains of various broch towers in southern Scotland that appear to date from the period immediately prior to or following Agricola 's invasion . They are about fifteen in number and are found in four locations : the Forth valley , close to the Firth of Tay , the far south @-@ west and the eastern Borders . Their existence so far from the main centres of broch @-@ building is something of a mystery . The destruction of the Leckie broch may have come at the hands of the Roman invaders , yet like the nearby site of Fairy Knowe at Buchlyvie a substantial amount of both Roman and native artefacts have been recovered there . Both structures were built in the late 1st century and were evidently high @-@ status buildings . The inhabitants raised sheep , cattle and pigs , and benefited from a range of wild game including Red Deer and Wild Boar .
Edin 's Hall Broch in Berwickshire is the best preserved southern broch and although the ruins are superficially similar to some of the larger Orcadian broch villages it is unlikely that the tower was ever more than a single story high . There is an absence of Roman artefacts at this site . Various theories for the existence of these structures have been proposed , including their construction by northern invaders following the withdrawal of Roman troops after the Agricolan advance , or by allies of Rome encouraged to emulate the impressive northern style in order to suppress native resistance , perhaps even the Orcadian chiefs whose positive relationship with Rome may have continued from the beginnings of Romano @-@ British relations . It is also possible that their construction had little to do with Roman frontier policy and was simply the importation of a new style by southern elites or it may have been a response by such elites to the growing threat of Rome prior to the invasion and an attempt to ally themselves , actually or symbolically , with the free north .
= = Hadrian 's Wall = =
Quintus Pompeius Falco became governor of Britannia between 118 and 122 and is thought to have suppressed an uprising involving the Brigantes of northern Britannia and the Selgovae . In his last year of office he hosted a visit to the province by the Emperor Hadrian that resulted in the construction of Hadrian 's Wall ( Latin : Rigore Valli Aeli , " the line along Hadrian 's frontier " ) .
This line of occupation of Britain was consolidated as one of the limites ( defensible frontiers ) of the empire by its construction . It is a stone fortification built across the width of what is now northern England . The wall was 80 Roman miles ( 73 @.@ 5 statute miles or 117 kilometres ) long , its width and height dependent on the construction materials which were available nearby . East of the River Irthing the wall was made from squared stone and measured 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 7 ft ) wide and 5 – 6 metres ( 16 – 20 ft ) high , while west of the river the wall was originally made from turf and measured 6 metres ( 20 ft ) wide and 3 @.@ 5 metres ( 11 @.@ 5 ft ) high ; it was subsequently rebuilt in stone . The wall was augmented by various ditches , berms , and forts .
The wall had several purposes . Defence was the most obvious , but it also controlled movement behind the line , enabled the rapid transmission of military intelligence , and facilitated the collection of customs dues . Its scale also demonstrated the power of Rome to her enemies , and was surely intended to enhance the prestige of its builder . Hadrian 's Wall remained the frontier between the Roman and Celtic worlds in Britain until 139 . It was briefly superseded by the Antonine Wall .
= = Antonine Wall = =
Quintus Lollius Urbicus was made governor of Roman Britain in 138 , by the new Emperor Antoninus Pius . Urbicus was the son of a Libyan landowner and a native of Numidia ( modern Algeria ) . Prior to coming to Britain he served during the Jewish Rebellion of 132 – 135 , and then governing Germania Inferior .
Antoninus Pius soon reversed the containment policy of his predecessor Hadrian , and Urbicus was ordered to begin the reconquest of Lowland Scotland by moving north . Between 139 and 140 he rebuilt a fort at Corbridge and by 142 or 143 , commemorative coins were issued celebrating a victory in Britain . It is therefore likely that Urbicus led the reoccupation of southern Scotland c . 141 , probably using the 2nd Augustan Legion . He evidently campaigned against several British tribes ( possibly including factions of the northern Brigantes ) , certainly against the lowland tribes of Scotland , the Votadini and Selgovae of the Scottish Borders region , and the Damnonii of Strathclyde . His total force may have been about 16 @,@ 500 men .
It seems likely that Urbicus planned his campaign of attack from Corbridge , advancing north and leaving garrison forts at High Rochester in Northumberland and possibly also at Trimontium as he struck towards the Firth of Forth . Having secured an overland supply route for military personnel and equipment along Dere Street , Urbicus very likely set up a supply port at Carriden for the supply of grain and other foodstuffs before proceeding against the Damnonii .
Success was swift and the construction of a new limes between the Firth of Forth and the Firth of Clyde commenced . Contingents from at least one British legion are known to have assisted in the erection of the new turf barrier , as evidenced by an inscription from the fort at Old Kilpatrick , the Antonine Wall 's western terminus . Today , the sward @-@ covered wall is the remains of a defensive line made of turf circa 7 metres ( 20 ft ) high , with nineteen forts . It was constructed after AD 139 and extended for 60 km ( 37 mi ) . It was possibly after the defences were finished that Urbicus turned his attention upon the fourth lowland Scottish tribe , the Novantae who inhabited the Dumfries and Galloway peninsula . The main lowland tribes , sandwiched as they were between Hadrian 's Wall of stone to the south and the new turf wall to the north , later formed a confederation against Roman rule , collectively known as the Maeatae .
The Antonine Wall had a variety of purposes . It provided a defensive line against the Caledonians . It cut off the Maeatae from their Caledonian allies and created a buffer zone north of Hadrian 's Wall . It also facilitated troop movements between east and west , but its main purpose may not have been primarily military . It enabled Rome to control and tax trade and may have prevented potentially disloyal new subjects of Roman rule from communicating with their independent brethren to the north and coordinating revolts . Urbicus achieved an impressive series of military successes , but like Agricola 's they were short @-@ lived . Having taken twelve years to build , the wall was overrun and abandoned soon after AD 160 .
The destruction of some of the southern brochs may date to the Antonine advance , the hypothesis being that whether or not they had previously been symbols of Roman patronage they had now outlived their usefulness from a Roman point of view .
= = 3rd century = =
The Roman frontier became Hadrian 's Wall again , although Roman incursions into Scotland continued . Initially outpost forts were occupied in the south @-@ west and Trimontium remained in use but they too were abandoned after the mid @-@ 180s .
Roman troops , however , penetrated far into the north of modern Scotland several more times . Indeed , there is a greater density of Roman marching camps in Scotland than anywhere else in Europe , as a result of at least four major attempts to subdue the area . The Antonine Wall was occupied again for a brief period after AD 197 . The most notable invasion was in 209 when the emperor Septimius Severus , claiming to be provoked by the belligerence of the Maeatae , campaigned against the Caledonian Confederacy . Severus invaded Caledonia with an army perhaps over 40 @,@ 000 strong .
According to Dio Cassius , he inflicted genocidal depredations on the natives and incurred the loss of 50 @,@ 000 of his own men to the attrition of guerrilla tactics , although it is likely that these figures are a significant exaggeration .
A string of forts was constructed in the north @-@ east ( some of which may date from the earlier Antonine campaign ) . These include camps associated with the Elsick Mounth , such as Normandykes , Ythan Wells , Deers Den and Glenmailen . However , only two forts in Scotland , at Cramond and Carpow ( in the Tay valley ) are definitely known to have been permanently occupied during this incursion before the troops were withdrawn again to Hadrian 's Wall circa 213 . There is some evidence that these campaigns are coincident with the wholesale destruction and abandonment of souterrains in southern Scotland . This may have been due either to Roman military aggression or the collapse of local grain markets in the wake of Roman withdrawal .
By 210 , Severus ' campaigning had made significant gains , but his campaign was cut short when he fell fatally ill , dying at Eboracum in 211 . Although his son Caracalla continued campaigning the following year , he soon settled for peace . The Romans never campaigned deep into Caledonia again : they soon withdrew south permanently to Hadrian 's Wall .
It was during the negotiations to purchase the truce necessary to secure the Roman retreat to the wall that the first recorded utterance , attributable with any reasonable degree of confidence , to a native of Scotland was made . When Julia Domna , the wife of Septimius Severus , criticised the sexual morals of the Caledonian women , the wife of Caledonian chief Argentocoxos replied : " We fulfill the demands of nature in a much better way than do you Roman women ; for we consort openly with the best men , whereas you let yourselves be debauched in secret by the vilest " .
Little is known about this alliance of Iron Age tribes , which may have been augmented by fugitives from Roman rule further south . The exact location of " Caledonia " is unknown , and the boundaries are unlikely to have been fixed . The name itself is a Roman one , as used by Tacitus , Ptolemy , Pliny the Elder and Lucan , but the name by which the Caledonians referred to themselves is unknown . It is likely that the prior to the Roman invasions , political control in the region was highly decentralised and no evidence has emerged of any specific Caledonian military or political leadership .
Later excursions by the Romans were generally limited to the scouting expeditions in the buffer zone that developed between the walls , trading contacts , bribes to purchase truces from the natives , and eventually the spread of Christianity . The Ravenna Cosmography utilises a 3rd- or 4th @-@ century Roman map and identifies four loci ( meeting places , possibly markets ) in southern Scotland . Locus Maponi is possibly the modern Lochmabenstane near Gretna which continued to be used as a muster point well into the historic period . Two of the others indicate meeting places of the Damnonii and Selgovae , and the fourth , Manavi may be Clackmannan . From the time of Caracalla onwards , no further attempts were made to permanently occupy territory in Scotland .
= = Picts = =
The intermittent Roman presence in Scotland coincided with the emergence of the Picts , a confederation of tribes who lived to the north of the Forth and Clyde from Roman times until the 10th century . They are often assumed to have been the descendants of the Caledonians though the evidence for this connection is circumstantial and the name by which the Picts called themselves is unknown . They are often said to have tattooed themselves , but evidence for this is limited . Naturalistic depictions of Pictish nobles , hunters and warriors , male and female , without obvious tattoos , are found on their monumental stones . The Gaels of Dalriada called the Picts Cruithne , and Irish poets portrayed their Pictish counterparts as very much like themselves .
The means by which the Pictish confederation formed is also unknown , although there is speculation that reaction to the growth of the Roman Empire was a factor . The early history of Pictland is unclear . In later periods multiple kings existed , ruling over separate kingdoms , with one king , sometimes two , more or less dominating their lesser neighbours . De Situ Albanie , the Pictish Chronicle , and the Duan Albanach , along with Irish legends , have been used to argue the existence of seven Pictish kingdoms although more may have existed and some evidence suggests that a Pictish kingdom also existed in Orkney .
The Pictish relationship with Rome appears to have been less overtly hostile than their Caledonian predecessors , at least in the beginning . There were no more pitched battles and conflict was generally limited to raiding parties from both sides of the frontier until immediately prior to and after the Roman retreat from Britannia . Their apparent success in holding back Roman forces cannot be explained solely with reference to the remoteness of Caledonia or the difficulties of the terrain . In part it may have been due to the difficulties encountered in subjugating a population that did not conform to the strictures of local governance that Roman power usually depended on to operate through .
The technology of everyday life is not well recorded , but archaeological evidence shows it to have been similar to that in Ireland and Anglo @-@ Saxon England . Recently evidence has been found of watermills in Pictland and kilns were used for drying kernels of wheat or barley , not otherwise easy in the changeable , temperate climate . Although constructed in earlier times , brochs , roundhouses and crannogs remained in use into and beyond the Pictish period .
Elsewhere in Scotland wheelhouses were constructed , probably for ritualistic purposes , in the west and north . Their geographical locations are highly restricted , which suggests that they may have been contained within a political or cultural frontier of some kind and the co @-@ incidence of their arrival and departure being associated with the period of Roman influence in Scotland is a matter of ongoing debate . It is not known whether the culture that constructed them was " Pictish " as such although they would certainly have been known to the Picts .
As Rome 's power waned , the Picts were emboldened . War bands raided south of Hadrian 's Wall in earnest in 342 , 360 , and 365 and they participated with the Attacotti in the Great Conspiracy of 367 . Rome fought back , mounting a campaign under Count Theodosius in 369 which reëstablished a province which was renamed Valentia in honor of the emperor . Its location is unclear , but it is sometimes placed on or beyond Hadrian 's Wall . Another campaign was mounted in 384 , but both were short @-@ lived successes . Rome had fully withdrawn from Britain by 410 , never to return .
= = Modern study = =
From the mid @-@ 18th century to the mid @-@ 19th century , Charles Bertram 's forged Description of Britain ( Latin : De Situ Britanniæ ) placed Valentia squarely between Hadrian 's Wall and the Antonine Wall and even gave Rome a " short @-@ lived " province named Vespasiana beyond the Antonine Wall in lowland Scotland . The work is now known to have been one of the most successful historical forgeries in history and it is no longer believed to contain any truthful independent content .
In 1984 , a candidate for a Roman fort was identified by aerial photography at Easter Galcantray , south west of Cawdor . The site was excavated between 1984 and 1988 and several features were identified which are supportive of this classification . Roman pottery similar to that found at Inchtuthill Roman fort has been discovered . If confirmed , it would be one of the most northerly known Roman forts in the British Isles .
The possibility that the legions reached further north in Scotland is suggested by discoveries in Easter Ross . The sites of temporary camps have been proposed at Portmahomack in 1949 , although this has not been fully confirmed , In 1991 an investigation of Tarradale on the Black Isle near the Beauly Firth concluded that " the site appears to conform to the morphology of a Roman camp or fort . "
= = Legacy = =
= = = Historical = = =
The military presence of Rome lasted for little more than 40 years for most of Scotland and only as much as 80 years in total anywhere . It 's now generally considered that at no time was even half of Scotland 's land mass under Roman control .
Scotland has inherited two main features from the Roman period , although mostly indirectly : the use of the Latin script for its languages and the emergence of Christianity as the predominant religion . Through Christianity , the Latin language would become used by the natives of Scotland for the purposes of church and government for centuries more .
Roman influence assisted the spread of Christianity throughout Europe , but there is little evidence of a direct link between the Roman Empire and Christian missions north of Hadrian 's Wall . Traditionally , Ninian is credited as the first bishop active in Scotland . He is briefly mentioned by Bede who states that around 397 he set up his base at Whithorn in the south @-@ west of Scotland , building a stone church there , known as Candida Casa . More recently it has been suggested that Ninian was the 6th @-@ century missionary Finnian of Moville , but either way Roman influence on early Christianity in Scotland does not seem to have been significant .
Although little more than a series of relatively brief interludes of military occupation , Imperial Rome was ruthless and brutal in pursuit of its ends . Genocide was a familiar part of its foreign policy and it is clear that the invasions and occupations cost thousands of lives . Alistair Moffat writes :
The reality is that the Romans came to what is now Scotland , they saw , they burned , killed , stole and occasionally conquered , and then they left a tremendous mess behind them , clearing away native settlements and covering good farmland with the remains of ditches , banks , roads , and other sorts of ancient military debris . Like most imperialists they arrived to make money , to gain political advantage and to exploit the resources of their colonies at virtually any price to the conquered . And remarkably , in Britain , in Scotland , we continue to admire them for it .
All the more surprising given that the Vindolanda tablets show that the Roman nickname for the north British locals was Brittunculi meaning " nasty little Britons " .
Similarly , William Hanson concludes that :
For many years it has been almost axiomatic in studies of the period that the Roman conquest must have had some major medium or long @-@ term impact on Scotland . On present evidence that cannot be substantiated either in terms of environment , economy , or , indeed , society . The impact appears to have been very limited . The general picture remains one of broad continuity , not of disruption .... The Roman presence in Scotland was little more than a series of brief interludes within a longer continuum of indigenous development . "
The Romans ' part in the clearances of the once extensive Caledonian forest remains a matter of debate . That these forests were once considerably more extensive than they are now is not in dispute , but the timing and causes of the reduction are . The 16th @-@ century writer Hector Boece believed that the woods in Roman times stretched north from Stirling into Atholl and Lochaber and was inhabited by white bulls with " crisp and curland mane , like feirs lionis " . Later historians such as P. F. Tytler and W. F. Skene followed suit as did the 20th @-@ century naturalist Frank Fraser Darling . Modern techniques , including palynology and dendrochronology suggest a more complex picture . Changing post @-@ glacial climates may have allowed for a maximum forest cover between 4000 and 3000 BC and deforestation of the Southern uplands , caused both climatically and anthropogenically , was well underway by the time the legions arrived . Extensive analyses of Black Loch in Fife suggest that arable land spread at the expense of forest from about 2000 BC until the 1st @-@ century Roman advance . Thereafter , there was re @-@ growth of birch , oak and hazel for a period of five centuries , suggesting the invasions had a very negative impact on the native population . The situation outside the Roman @-@ held areas is harder to assess , but the long @-@ term influence of Rome may not have been substantial .
The archaeological legacy of Rome in Scotland is of interest , but sparse , especially in the north . Almost all the sites are essentially military in nature and include about 650 km ( 400 mi ) of roads . Overall , it is hard to detect any direct connections between native architecture and settlement patterns and Roman influence . Elsewhere in Europe , new kingdoms and languages emerged from the remnants of the once @-@ mighty Roman world . In Scotland , the Celtic Iron Age way of life , often troubled , but never extinguished by Rome , simply re @-@ asserted itself . In the north the Picts continued to be the main power prior to the arrival and subsequent domination of the Scots of Dalriada . The Damnonii eventually formed the Kingdom of Strathclyde based at Dumbarton Rock . South of the Forth , the Welsh speaking Brythonic kingdoms of Yr Hen Ogledd ( English : " The Old North " ) flourished during the 5th – 7th centuries .
The most enduring Roman legacy may be that created by Hadrian 's Wall . Its line approximates the border between modern Scotland and England and it created a distinction between the northern third and southern two @-@ thirds of the island of Great Britain that plays a part in modern political debate . This is probably coincidental however , as there is little to suggest its influence played an important role in the early Medieval period after the fall of Rome .
= = = In fiction = = =
The 9th Spanish Legion participated in the Roman invasion of Britain , suffering losses under Quintus Petillius Cerialis in the rebellion of Boudica of 61 , and setting up a fortress in 71 that later became part of Eburacum . Although some authors have claimed that the 9th Legion disappeared in 117 , there are extant records for it later than that year , and it was probably annihilated in the east of the Roman Empire . For a time it was believed , at least by some British historians , that the legion vanished during its conflicts in present @-@ day Scotland . This idea was used in the novels The Eagle of the Ninth by Rosemary Sutcliff , Legion From the Shadows by Karl Edward Wagner , Red Shift by Alan Garner , Engine City by Ken MacLeod , Warriors of Alavna by N. M. Browne , and in the feature films The Last Legion , Centurion and The Eagle .
= Norman Selfe =
Norman Selfe ( 9 December 1839 – 15 October 1911 ) was an Australian engineer , naval architect , inventor , urban planner and outspoken advocate of technical education . After emigrating to Sydney with his family from England as a boy he became an apprentice engineer , following his father 's trade . Selfe designed many bridges , docks , boats , and much precision machinery for the city . He also introduced new refrigeration , hydraulic , electrical and transport systems . For these achievements he received international acclaim during his lifetime . Decades before the Sydney Harbour Bridge was built , the city came close to building a Selfe @-@ designed steel cantilever bridge across the harbour after he won the second public competition for a bridge design .
Selfe was honoured during his life by the name of the Sydney suburb of Normanhurst , where his grand house Gilligaloola is a local landmark . He was energetically involved in organisations such as the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts and the Australian Historical Society . As president of the Board of Technical Education , he fought consistently for the establishment of an independent system of technical education to serve the needs of a rapidly industrialising society . He was acknowledged upon his death as one of the best @-@ known people in , and greatest individual influences upon , the city of Sydney .
= = Family background and apprenticeship = =
Selfe came from a long line of inventors and engineers . Both sides of his family came from Kingston upon Thames in London , where one grandfather had owned a plumbing and engineering works . His father Henry was a plumber and inventor , whose high @-@ pressure fire @-@ fighting hose was displayed at The Great Exhibition in London 's Crystal Palace in 1851 . Selfe 's cousin Edward Muggeridge grew up in the same town but moved to the United States in 1855 , restyled himself Eadweard Muybridge , and achieved global fame as a pioneer in the new field of photography .
The Selfe family landed at Sydney 's Semi @-@ circular Quay in January 1855 , when Norman was 15 years old . One of the reasons they emigrated to the colony of New South Wales was to enable him and his brother Harry to undertake engineering apprenticeships without having to pay the heavy premium required by large firms in London . They initially resided in the nearby Rocks district in a small house that had also previously been the first Sydney home of Mary Reibey , a former convict who became Australia 's first businesswoman . Selfe 's parents had high expectations of their children , particularly of Norman , whose ability in mathematics and draughtsmanship was apparent from a young age . The brothers earned a reputation for innovation during their youth , and were the first to construct a velocipede in the country .
Selfe very quickly began his career as an engineer , taking articles of apprenticeship to the ironmaster Peter Nicol Russell , at whose firm he worked in several departments and eventually became its chief draughtsman . He would remain there until 1864 . In 1859 , when PN Russell & Co expanded to a site in Barker Street near the head of Darling Harbour , Selfe drew up plans for the new works and the wharf , and oversaw their construction . In an address to the Engineering Section of the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1900 , Selfe recalled his work for Russell 's :
While there [ I ] prepared plans for numbers of flour mills , and for the first ice @-@ making machines , designing machinery for the multifarious requirements of colonial industries , many of which ( such as sheep @-@ washing and boiling down ) no longer exist on the old lines .
While at Russell 's , Selfe made several innovations in the design and construction of dredges for " deeping our harbours and rivers " – something of crucial importance to industry in early Sydney . He later recalled the success of Pluto , one of his dredges purchased by the government :
[ I ] n this there were several novelties introduced , and among them , the ladder was lifted by hydraulic power instead of by a chain from a winch ... The day of the official trial ... was a proud one for [ me ] , because during the course of the little festivities which followed their formal approval and official acceptance , [ head engineer ] Mr Dunlop pointedly remarked that " as she was all right , the credit must be given to his boy in the drawing office " .
= = Inventor and engineer = =
Selfe achieved international recognition in 1861 when leading British journal The Engineer published illustrations of his designs for one of the first refrigerating machines . One such machine was installed behind the Royal Hotel in George Street in Sydney 's ice @-@ works – one of the world 's earliest commercial refrigeration plants . The decades following Selfe 's arrival in Australia were watershed years in the development of refrigeration technology , and he was closely involved with its evolution . The introduction of refrigeration to the colony revolutionised farming , allowing the expansion of settlement , and made possible the export of meat and dairy products . In Sydney itself , refrigeration changed commercial practices and led to the eventual demise of city dairies . Selfe became an international authority on refrigeration engineering ; he wrote articles and eventually a definitive textbook on the subject , published in the US in 1900 .
After leaving PN Russell , Selfe went into partnership with his former employer James Dunlop . They designed and built major installations for the Australasian Mineral Oil Company , the Western Kerosene Oil Company and the Australian Gas Light Company . In 1869 Selfe was appointed to the senior post of " chief draftsman and scientific engineer " at Mort 's Dock and Engineering Company in Balmain . In this role he oversaw the design and construction of the mail ship SS Governor Blackall , personally commissioned for the Queensland government by the Premier Charles Lilley in 1869 . The Sydney @-@ built but Queensland @-@ owned ship was an attempt to break what was later described as the " capricious monopoly " of the Australasian Steam Navigation Company on coastal trade and mail delivery from England . However , it ultimately caused the political downfall of Lilley as he had undertaken the contract without consulting his colleagues .
Selfe left Mort 's in 1877 to practice as a consulting engineer at 141 Pitt Street , gaining a reputation for versatility and originality . Upon his return from an overseas trip through America , Britain and continental Europe in 1884 – 85 , where he visited engineering works and technical education facilities in search of new ideas to take back to Sydney , Selfe set up a new office in Lloyd 's Chambers at 348 George Street . He would later move to No. 279 where he operated the consultancy until his death in 1911 . In the late 1890s he employed William Dixson as an engineer , who would later make a major donation of Australiana to the State Library of New South Wales . The collection of Selfe 's own papers and drawings have since been donated to the same library that his former employee greatly augmented .
Selfe designed the hulls or the machinery for some 50 steam vessels , including two torpedo boats for the New South Wales government , which he claimed were the fastest boats on the harbour for 20 years , and the SS Wallaby , Sydney Harbour 's first double @-@ ended screw ferry . Double @-@ ended hulls remain the design of Sydney 's current " Freshwater class " ferries . He designed the first concrete quay wall in Sydney Harbour , and wharves for deep @-@ sea vessels . He also designed the first ice @-@ making machines in New South Wales , introduced the first lifts , patented an improved system of baling wool which increased capacity fourfold , and oversaw hydraulic and electric light installations in the city and the carriages on its railway network . He planned mills , waterworks and pumping stations , including the high @-@ level pumps at the reservoir on Crown Street . He made major electric light installations at the Anthony Hordern & Sons department store and the Hotel Australia , and provided a hot @-@ water system for the hotel . He designed machinery for factories , dairies and railways , including , in 1878 , the incline of what is now the Scenic Railway attraction at Katoomba in the Blue Mountains – which claims to be the world 's steepest . Its original purpose was the transportation of coal from the Jamison Valley to the cliff @-@ top .
During his lifetime Selfe received both local and international recognition for his engineering skill . He had been president of both the Australian mechanical engineers ' and naval architects ' institutes as well as a member of both the British equivalent organisations . He was also elected a full member of the English Institution of Civil Engineers and , by virtue of his writings also being published in Chicago , also an honorary member of an American engineering association .
= = Sydney = =
Selfe 's capacity for invention was not limited to the realm of machinery – he was also an energetic civic and urban reformer . He had high hopes for Sydney :
" Every well wisher of Sydney , who sees and understands what magnificent latent possibilities there are before her must hope that she will for all time be the Queen City of the Southern Hemisphere ; and that the new century will open finding old ways departed from , and a glorious new era of progress , prosperity , morality and cleanliness installed in our midst . When that day arrives , we shall look back with curiosity and wonder at the continued blindness and negligence from which our city – so highly gifted by nature – had suffered so long . "
From the time of Selfe 's return in 1886 from two years ' travel in the United States and Europe , he campaigned for improvements to the city of Sydney . These included proposals for a city railway loop , the redevelopment of the Rocks , and a bridge to the North Shore . His obituary in The Sydney Morning Herald notes , " Mr. Selfe for over twenty years was a strenuous advocate of a circular city railway that should connect up the eastern , western , and northern suburbs of the city with the marine suburbs of the harbour , and stations adjacent to the ferries " . He published plans and proposals elaborating on his ideas , and produced major articles with titles like " Sydney : past , present and possible " and " Sydney and its institutions , as they are , and might be from an engineer 's point of view " .
In 1887 Selfe published proposals for a city underground railway , with stations at Wynyard , the Rocks and Circular Quay , and a loop to Woolloomooloo and the eastern suburbs . The proposal included a bridge across Sydney Harbour for trains , vehicles and pedestrians . He presented these schemes to the Royal Commission on City and Suburban Railways in 1890 ; but nothing was to come of it , largely because the 1890s depression brought public works initiatives to a standstill .
In 1908 – 09 he served as one of 11 expert commissioners to the Royal Commission for the Improvement of the City of Sydney and its Suburbs . Selfe 's proposals included an overhead railway station at Circular Quay and major landscaping works at Belmore Park opposite Central Railway Station . Both of these visions were later realised , but not in his lifetime .
= = = Sydney Harbour Bridge = = =
By the late 1890s a harbour crossing and a city railway extension were again on the agenda . The Lyne government committed to building the new Central Railway Station , and organised a worldwide competition for the design and construction of a Harbour Bridge . Selfe submitted a design for a suspension bridge estimated to cost £ 1 @,@ 128 @,@ 000 and won the second prize of £ 500 . The first prize went to C. E. W. Crutwell , of Westminster with a design estimated to cost more than twice as much . After the outcome of the competition had become mired in controversy , in 1902 Selfe won a second competition outright , with a design for a steel cantilever bridge stretching from Dawes Point to McMahons Point . The selection board were unanimous , commenting that " The structural lines are correct and in true proportion , and ... the outline is graceful " .
Construction of Selfe 's version of the Sydney harbour bridge never started due to an economic slowdown and a change of government at the 1904 state election . Much to Selfe 's outrage , the Department of Public Works kept his calculations and drawings , and also copied and printed them . Eventually in 1907 , the department contacted Selfe and asked him to collect his drawings , but refused to return the calculations . Selfe was never given the £ 1 @,@ 100 prize , nor was he paid for his subsequent work which he estimated to be worth more than £ 20 @,@ 000 .
Among the Selfe family papers in Mitchell Library there is a large collection of postcards featuring bridges from across the world . Some were sent to Selfe by friends and relatives from Japan , Italy , New Zealand , and Switzerland . Others , un @-@ postmarked , were collected on his own travels in 1884 @-@ 85 . These would have formed a research catalogue of contemporary international bridge @-@ building practices for Selfe 's own designs .
In 1908 , Selfe presented new proposals based upon the old design to the Royal Commission on Communication between Sydney and North Sydney . However , this time the commissioners preferred a tunnel scheme ; again , no work proceeded . Agitation for a bridge was renewed with the election of a Labor government at the 1910 State election . But with Selfe 's death in 1911 , it was time for a new generation of bridge builders . In 1912 the government appointed J.J. Bradfield as " engineer @-@ in @-@ chief of Sydney Harbour Bridge and City Transit " ; the call for tenders for constructing the bridge was not made until a decade later . Over the following decades , versions of what Selfe had much earlier articulated for a city circle railway link and a bridge to the north shore were realised . Selfe 's contribution received little public or formal recognition .
= = Historian = =
Selfe was founding vice @-@ president of the Australian Historical Society in 1901 , serving with president Andrew Houison and patron David Scott Mitchell ( after whom the Mitchell wing of the State Library of New South Wales is named ) . He remained actively involved in the society for 10 years , despite what he called " the evident lack of interest ... taken in the proceedings of the Society " by the general public in the early years . The society got off to a shaky start , with low attendance of lectures and meetings . Early papers delivered by Selfe included " A century of Sydney Cove " and " Some notes on the Sydney windmills " . Slowly , interest increased , and by 1905 membership had reached 100 . Known as the Royal Australian Historical Society ( RAHS ) since 1918 , and housed in a grand Victorian style townhouse on Macquarie Street , the organisation is Australia 's oldest historical society ; Selfe is celebrated as one of its pioneers .
= = Technical education = =
Selfe was a key figure in the history of technical education in New South Wales . He advocated a more utilitarian and less literary education system , to produce a skilled workforce that could realise Australia 's potential as an efficient industrial state . He was utopian in his vision :
There is no doubt that it is on the work of tools directed by brains that the future of Australia depends more than anything else . With tools our Australian deserts may be turned into gardens ... They will pluck the hidden treasure from the bowels of the earth , enable us to soar in the air , or explore the depths of the water . They will weave a network of communication over our island continent , dot it with the homes of a happy people , and minister to our wants in providing not only the necessities and comforts of life , but the most refined luxuries that are needed to satisfy the novel and exacting wants which arise every day , as the standard of intellectual and technical cultivation is raised and extended among us ...
Selfe believed an overhaul of education was needed , from kindergarten to tertiary study . His concept of technical education encompassed Friedrich Fröbel 's kindergarten activities based around play and occupations ; the teaching of drawing , manual work and science in schools ; and specialised practical training of workmen and professionals in technical colleges . He argued for the establishment of a new kind of university – an " industrial university " , less theory @-@ oriented and more concerned with the practical and the useful . He saw technical education as a distinct sphere of education to be administered and delivered by people with practical industry experience , not government officials or traditional teachers .
= = = Teacher = = =
As early as 1865 Selfe gave regular classes in mechanical drawing to tradesmen at the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts in Pitt Street . Selfe 's class in mechanical drawing was the first technical , vocational offering at the School of Arts , and its popularity led to the introduction of other practical subjects .
Due to colony 's rapidly expanding population and demand for skilled labour , there were increasing calls in the 1870s for a formal system of technical education . In 1870 , Selfe helped found the Engineering Association of New South Wales which amalgamated into Engineers Australia in 1919 . He was its president from 1877 to 1879 and Engineers Australia annually awards the " Norman Selfe Medal " to a student at the Australian Maritime College . In 1878 , the association joined forces with the New South Wales Trades and Labour Council and the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts to form the Technical and Working Men 's College . The College initially operated as an agency of the Sydney Mechanics ' School of Arts . The college occupied premises in Pitt , Sussex and Castlereagh Streets , and rooms in the Royal Arcade , before it moved to Ultimo in 1889 . The college later became the Sydney Technical College out of which grew the University of New South Wales , the University of Technology , Sydney , and the National Art School . The Ultimo buildings still serve their original purpose , now as the main campus of the Sydney Institute of TAFE .
In 1880 , Selfe became vice president of the School of Arts . He supported the school 's Working Men 's College , but felt a more thorough focus on practical skills was needed . He rejected the non @-@ technical , non @-@ practical approach of the school 's model and campaigned instead for the establishment of a proper institute of technical education , where instructors would be skilled tradesmen with practical industrial experience . He also pushed for the expansion of technical education facilities into the suburban and regional districts .
= = = Critic = = =
On 1 August 1883 the New South Wales government made a proclamation which transferred control of the Technical and Working Men 's College to an independent Board of Technical Education , to which Selfe was appointed , and assumed financial responsibility directly . The government also provided funds to fit out workshops in Kent Street that opened in 1886 . This was an initiative driven by Selfe , who had admired the workshop teaching model abroad . It represented a major innovation in technical education in New South Wales .
Many of the board 's initiatives were based on observations made abroad by Selfe and board president Edward Combes , or recommendations made by the British Royal Commission into Technical Education of 1881 – 84 . However , most of the board 's schemes were frustrated by an unresponsive colonial government . Norm Neill , historian of the early years of the Sydney Technical College , argues that the Board caused many of its own problems :
There was a marked lack of unity ... Members either resigned or became inactive [ and the Board failed ] to accept that its autonomy was more nominal than real . Any expansion of technical education was dependent on government funding and governments were unlikely to allocate resources to an organisation unwilling or unable to cooperate .
Selfe was president of the Board from January 1887 until it was disbanded in 1889 . During this time the relationship between the board and the government deteriorated with Selfe being overtly critical of two powerful institutions : the newly formed Department of Public Instruction and the University of Sydney . Selfe strongly opposed the government 's taking control of technical education , which had been underway since the government first declared its interest in doing so at a special meeting of the Sydney Mechanics School of Arts in September 1883 . He also did not support an alternative proposal that the University of Sydney should take over . In an address at the annual presentation of prizes at Sydney Technical College in 1887 , Selfe alienated the Minister for Public Instruction and others by being openly contemptuous of the traditional pursuits of schools and universities :
[ T ] he whole experience of the past goes to show that the learning of the schools has had little , if anything , to do with the material advancement of the world , and that while it may have produced intellectual giants , subjective teaching has not brought forth those men who have been inventors and manufacturers that have entirely changed the character of our civilisation .
Selfe criticised the classical liberal arts education offered at the University of Sydney as elitist . In his 1888 address to Sydney Technical College students on prize night , he again caused affront to the establishment when he called for greater diversity of educational opportunities in the colony :
[ I ] t is not ... easy ... to see why the general public should pay so many thousands a year to make our future professional men in medicine and law in the colony , to form part of the so @-@ called upper classes , when our " principles " will not allow us to pay just a little more in order to have , say , our locomotives made here , and when we are doing so very little , proportionately , to train and educate the artisans who make these locomotives , and who belong to a much less wealthy and influential level in society .
In 1889 the colonial government , already in financial control , assumed direct operational control by abolishing the Board and placing the College within the Technical Education Branch of the Department of Public Instruction ( now the New South Wales Department of Education ) .
= = = Reformer = = =
In the early years of the 20th century , education remained a major political issue in New South Wales . While Selfe would not be drawn again into the centre of the fray , he supported the efforts of his sister Maybanke and her second husband Francis Anderson towards education reform . Following the Knibbs @-@ Turner Royal Commission into New South Wales Education in 1902 , and the appointment of Peter Board as Director of Education in 1905 , many of Selfe 's ideas for technical education were implemented . Ultimately , in 1949 , a separate Department of Technical Education was created , and the New South Wales University of Technology ( later the University of New South Wales ) was established at Kensington .
Les Mandelson , historian of Australia 's education systems , categorises Selfe as " a nineteenth century protagonist for the New Education " , who helped pave the way for the extensive reforms of the twentieth century . " Without him " , he adds , " education in the late nineteenth century would have been decidedly more mundane " . However , Mandelson sounds a critical note :
Selfe 's contempt for the liberal arts tradition and the priority he accorded practical skill have certain implications which cannot be commended . These reflected and augmented ... one of the less attractive features of the Australian ethos – indifference to higher learning and advanced attainments , an indifference shading into contempt and suspicion ... Selfe may have lost a battle but before long , the liberal arts tradition faced still greater defeats . To these , Selfe certainly contributed , and what must be recognised is that in the vehemence of the struggle , and in the lauding of efficiency over culture , much that was valuable in the liberal arts tradition was lost .
Biographer Stephen Murray @-@ Smith is more generous in his assessment of Selfe 's contribution to education debates around the turn of the twentieth century : " Selfe went beyond the concept of helping the working man to achieve a share of the good things hitherto reserved for others , towards the concept of leading him to create good things for himself . "
Selfe was a noted activist for the Federation of Australia being a member of the Central Federation League . Edward Dowling , his colleague on the inaugural board of the Australian Historical Society , was also the Secretary of the Central League of the Australasian Federation League and his former articled engineer John Jacob Cohen would later be elected at the 1898 New South Wales election in the seat of Petersham representing the National Federal Party .
= = Personal life = =
When Selfe obtained a steady job after his apprenticeship , he brought his family with him from The Rocks to live at Balmain . Selfe bought waterfront land and built twin terraced houses called Normanton and Maybank , which are still at 21 and 23 Wharf Road , Birchgrove . It is likely that Selfe shared Normanton with his widowed mother . Next door lived his brother Harry , his sister Maybanke and his brother @-@ in @-@ law Edmund Wolstenholme .
Selfe was a supportive brother , both emotionally and materially . His sister Maybanke bore seven children to her first husband Edmund , four of whom died as infants from tuberculosis . He also provided financial support after Maybanke 's marriage came to an end . Maybanke earned fame in her own right as a prominent suffragist and pioneer of education for women and girls . In the 1890s brother and sister campaigned together for education reform .
On 10 October 1872 at St Mary 's Church , Balmain Selfe married Emily Ann Booth , the daughter of John Booth , a well @-@ known shipbuilder and Balmain 's first mayor ( and formerly the member for East Macquarie in the colonial parliament ) . They lived for many years at Rockleigh in Donnelly Street , Balmain , in a house that has since been demolished . In 1884 their first daughter Rhoda Jane was born , followed by a stillborn daughter in 1886 , and then Norma Catherine in 1888 . In 1885 Selfe bought land in Ashfield and designed a grand house called Amesbury . Described at the time as having “ more novelties both externally and internally than any other house in the colony ” including terracotta lyrebird reliefs by artist Lucien Henry on the front wall , and a tower purpose @-@ built for Selfe to pursue his hobby of astronomy . Built around 1888 to honour the centenary of the colony , Amesbury still stands at 78 Alt Street and was used by Brahma Kumaris from 1986 as its Australian headquarters until 2014 when it was auctioned for over $ 3 @.@ 5 million . As children , Rhoda and Norma attended their Aunt Maybanke 's school in Dulwich Hill . As adults , they trained in Italy with educator Maria Montessori and returned to Sydney to open a Montessori school of their own in the building knows as Warwick on Bland Street , Ashfield .
Around 1894 , the family moved , this time to Hornsby Shire , where a new Selfe @-@ designed house , Gilligaloola , was built on 11 acres ( 4 @.@ 5 ha ) purchased by Selfe ten years earlier . Situated at what is now 82 Pennant Hills Road , the house is still a local landmark , notable for its distinctive tower and twin chimneys . Selfe was a committed citizen and a natural spokesman for the local community , to the extent that when the railways needed a name for the locality , the community chose Normanhurst ( though Selfe himself felt that St Normans would have been " much more elegant and suggestive " ) .
On 12 May 1906 , four years after the death of his first wife , Selfe married Marion Bolton at St Philip 's Church , Sydney .
= = = Death = = =
Selfe died suddenly on 15 October 1911 . His death certificate states the cause of death as " heart failure brought on by exertion " . His daughter Norma offered some context to a journalist in 1957 . She said :
" On the day of his death he climbed trees in the church grounds to lop branches , as the gardener was too nervous to climb so high . That night he died in his sleep . "
Norma reported that her father had been sanguine to the end , playful with his nephews and learning to play the oboe . However , other reports suggest that Selfe was concealing a bitter sense of disappointment at the end of his life , most particularly over the Harbour Bridge affair . His obituary in the journal Building concluded :
... [ T ] here is none today who can replace the noble personality , that keen energetic brain ever ready to give of its wonderful store of knowledge , and that happy spirit ever bright , ever optimistic , even though crushed beneath the cruel and unjust blow of the non @-@ acceptance of his prize design for the North Shore bridge . " It will crown my life " he said . We will always remember the bright gleam in his eyes as they peered beyond the anxiety of today , looked afar to the future glory of his beloved Sydney where in his dreams he saw his mighty bridge spanning what he called " God 's noblest waterway " .
Selfe 's funeral was held at St Paul 's Church , Wahroonga , where he had been a churchwarden . He was buried in Gore Hill cemetery in the presence of a large gathering of businessmen and representatives of the organisations he had been involved with . He was survived by his two daughters from his first marriage , Rhoda and Jane , and his second wife , Marion . His estate was valued for probate at nearly £ 5000 . Twenty @-@ one years later , on 11 March 1932 Marion 's charred body was found in her new house , also in Normanhurst where she lived alone , having reportedly set fire to her clothes when lighting a candle . Marion was buried alongside Norman in plot CE I : 7 . Rhoda 's ashes were also placed nearby when she died aged 69 in 1954 , still living in Gilligaloola .
= SMS Friedrich Carl =
For the broadside ironclad , see SMS Friedrich Carl ( 1867 )
SMS Friedrich Carl was a German armored cruiser built in the early 1900s for the Imperial German Navy . She was the second ship of the Prinz Adalbert class . Friedrich Carl was built in Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg . She was laid down in 1901 , and completed in December 1903 , at the cost of 15 @,@ 665 @,@ 000 Marks . She was armed with a main battery of four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns and was capable of a top speed of 20 @.@ 4 kn ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ; 23 @.@ 5 mph ) .
The ship served with the German fleet after her commissioning before being used as a torpedo training ship in 1909 . In August 1914 after the outbreak of World War I , she was brought back to active service to act as Rear Admiral Behring 's flagship in the Baltic Sea . Her wartime career was cut short on 17 November when she struck a pair of Russian mines off Memel at 55 ° 41 ′ N 20 ° 11 ′ E. The mines caused fatal damage , but the ship sank slowly enough to permit the safe evacuation of most of the crew ; only seven men were killed in the incident .
= = Construction = =
Friedrich Carl was ordered under the provisional name Ersatz König Wilhelm and built at the Blohm & Voss shipyard in Hamburg under construction number 155 . Her keel was laid in 1900 and she was launched on 22 June 1902 . Fitting @-@ out work followed and this was completed by 12 December 1903 , the day she was commissioned into the Imperial German Navy . She had cost the Imperial German Government 15 @,@ 665 @,@ 000 Goldmarks .
Friedrich Carl displaced 9 @,@ 087 t ( 8 @,@ 943 long tons ; 10 @,@ 017 short tons ) as built and 9 @,@ 875 t ( 9 @,@ 719 long tons ; 10 @,@ 885 short tons ) fully loaded , with a length of 126 @.@ 5 m ( 415 ft ) , a beam of 19 @.@ 6 m ( 64 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 43 m ( 24 @.@ 4 ft ) forward . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines , which produced a total of 17 @,@ 272 indicated horsepower ( 12 @,@ 880 kW ) and yielded a maximum speed of 20 @.@ 4 kn ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ; 23 @.@ 5 mph ) on trials . She carried up to 1 @,@ 630 t ( 1 @,@ 600 long tons ; 1 @,@ 800 short tons ) of coal , which enabled a maximum range of up to 5 @,@ 080 nautical miles ( 9 @,@ 410 km ; 5 @,@ 850 mi ) at a cruising speed of 12 kn ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) .
She was armed with four 21 cm ( 8 @.@ 3 in ) guns arranged in two twin gun turrets , one on either end of the superstructure . Her secondary armament consisted of ten 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 91 in ) SK L / 40 guns , twelve 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) guns and four 45 cm ( 18 in ) underwater torpedo tubes , one in the bow , one in the stern , and one on both beams .
= = Service history = =
Friedrich Carl served with the fleet from her commissioning on 12 December 1903 . She was assigned to I Subdivision of the Cruiser Division of the Active Fleet . Along with the light cruisers Frauenlob , Arcona , and Hamburg , Friedrich Carl 's subdivision was attached to the I Squadron of the Active Fleet . Friedrich Carl was the flagship of Rear Admiral Schmidt , the commander of the Cruiser Division . A second subdivision , composed of an armored cruiser and three light cruisers was attached to the II Squadron . On 20 September 1906 , Franz von Hipper took command of the ship . Under his leadership , the gunners aboard Friedrich Carl won the Kaiser 's Prize for best shooting in the fleet in 1907 . Hipper remained in the position until March 1908 .
Friedrich Carl served with the fleet until 1 March 1909 , when she was withdrawn for use as a torpedo training ship . She served in this capacity until the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , when she was again placed in active service with the cruiser division in the Baltic Sea . In October 1914 , Friedrich Carl was the first German warship to carry seaplanes . The ship carried two planes provisionally and had no permanent modifications made to support them . She was made the flagship of Rear Admiral Behring , the commander of the German cruiser squadron in the Baltic Sea . The squadron was based in Neufahrwasser in Danzig . The German naval command was aware that British submarines were operating in the Baltic Sea , and so ordered Behring to attack the Russian port at Libau to prevent it from being used as a British submarine base .
The Russian Navy , however , had begun a campaign of mine @-@ warfare in the Baltic . Russian destroyers laid a series of minefields off Memel , Pillau , and other German ports in October 1914 . The Russian operations went completely undetected by the German navy . During this period , Friedrich Carl used her seaplanes in operations against the port in Libau . Behring was ordered to begin the attack on Libau in November ; poor weather conditions delayed the operation until the 16th . Early on the 17th , Friedrich Carl was steaming some 30 nmi ( 56 km ; 35 mi ) off Memel when she struck two Russian mines . The ship was kept afloat for several hours , which allowed the crew to be evacuated safely . The operation went ahead as scheduled and blockships were sunk at the entrance to Libau . After the crew was removed , Friedrich Carl was abandoned ; she capsized and sank at around 06 : 30 . Only seven men were killed in the attack .
= = In media = =
The sinking of Friedrich Carl is portrayed in the Russian movie Admiral , where Russian admiral Alexander Kolchak tricks the ship into a Russian minefield .
= Bryan D. Brown =
Bryan Douglas " Doug " Brown ( born October 20 , 1948 ) was a four @-@ star United States Army general , who retired in 2007 after four decades of military service . In his final assignment , he served as the seventh commander of U.S. Special Operations Command ( USSOCOM ) , from September 2 , 2003 until July 9 , 2007 . As USSOCOM 's commander , he was responsible for all unified special operations forces ( SOF ) , both active duty and reserve .
Brown joined the United States Army in 1967 as a private in the infantry and after graduating from Special Forces Qualification Course , he became a Green Beret . Shortly afterwards he fought in the Vietnam War as part of a Special Forces " A " team . After returning from his combat tour he enrolled in Officer Candidate School and was commissioned as a second lieutenant in May 1970 . After attending Army Aviation School he returned to Vietnam as a UH @-@ 1 helicopter pilot . After the Vietnam War he was part of a task force that would go on to later found the 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment in 1981 . During his stint in the 160th SOAR Brown took part in numerous contingency operations in the 1980s and early 1990s . In 1983 Brown participated in the invasion of Grenada where his unit became the first aviation unit to use night vision goggles in combat . In the late 1980s he led all U.S. forces assigned to Operation Prime Chance in the Persian Gulf amidst the Iran @-@ Iraq War . Shortly thereafter he commanded a battalion within 160th SOAR during Operation Desert Storm ; after which he was promoted to colonel and commander of the regiment . After leaving 160th SOAR Brown served at the helm of Joint Special Operations Command from 1998 – 2000 and then U.S. Army Special Operations Command from 2000 – 2002 .
In 2002 , Brown became the deputy commander of U.S. Special Operations Command and , holding the post until 2003 when he was selected to replace Air Force General Charles R. Holland as Commander of U.S. Special Operations Command . Shortly after becoming the head of USSOCOM , in 2004 , he was involved in the aftermath of the Pat Tillman friendly fire incident which culminated when he testified before the congressional Committee on Oversight and Government Reform in 2007 . Also during his tenure in command of USSOCOM he announced the creation of Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command in 2006 . Brown retired in 2007 after leading USSOCOM through four years of the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan .
= = Early life and family = =
Brown , a native of Fort Meade , Maryland , was born in 1948 and grew up in a military family . His father , Arnett Brown , was a member of the 89th Infantry Division during World War II , who became a Command Sergeant Major and served in the Vietnam War . His mother was Mary Lou Brown . Brown played baseball and basketball in high school , and eventually made it onto a semi @-@ pro baseball team in Fayetteville , North Carolina . In a 2009 interview with The Year in Special Operations , he commented on his short @-@ lived semi @-@ pro baseball career , saying , " I played three games with them and found that life couldn ’ t be sustained on $ 3 per game " . Losing interest in college , and with his father in Vietnam , he walked into a recruiting office and joined the Army as an infantryman . He is married to Penelope " Penny " Brown ( née Whightsil ) , a native of Fayetteville . Together , they have two daughters and five grandchildren .
= = Military service = =
= = = Early military career and Vietnam = = =
He entered the Army in 1966 as a private in the infantry . While attending Airborne School at Fort Bragg in North Carolina , he signed up for Army Special Forces ( SF ) after meeting Army SF recruiters . After Brown completed the Special Forces Qualification Course , he was assigned to the 7th Special Forces Group . Shortly thereafter , he deployed to Vietnam as part of a Special Forces " A Team " . His interest in aviation started after returning to the United States from his tour in Vietnam . While at Mountain Ranger Camp , he became enthralled with helicopters after he was asked by a UH @-@ 1 helicopter pilot to assist him in conducting reconnaissance flight over northern Georgia . Immediately afterwards , he signed up for Officer Candidate School ( OCS ) and flight school . He graduated OCS in May 1970 , obtaining a field artillery officer commission as a second lieutenant . He was thereafter stationed at Camp Pelham , South Korea as part of the Headquarters and Headquarters Battery , 2 / 17th Field Artillery Regiment .
Brown went on to earn his aviator badge in 1971 after attending Army Aviation School at Fort Rucker , Alabama . After aviation school , he returned to Vietnam as a UH @-@ 1 helicopter pilot in the 129th Assault Helicopter Company . He would go on to become the first member of the aviation branch to attain the rank of four @-@ star general . In June 1978 , Brown was assigned to the 158th Aviation Battalion at Fort Campbell , Kentucky flying Sikorsky UH @-@ 60 Black Hawks . While a member of the 158th Aviation Battalion Brown was a Company Commander . The 158th Aviation Battalion was originally part of the 101st Aviation Group , the air arm of the 101st Airborne Division .
= = = Operation Credible Sport = = =
In 1979 , Iranian students seized the American embassy in Tehran and held the embassy staff hostage ; the first rescue operation , code @-@ named Eagle Claw ended in failure due to equipment and coordination problems , culminating in the crash of a RH @-@ 53D Sea Stallion helicopter into a parked C @-@ 130 Hercules in the Iranian desert , killing eight servicemen . A second rescue attempt , Operation Credible Sport , was ordered , and Brown was involved in planning and preparation . The follow @-@ up rescue included U.S. Air Force , U.S. Navy and Army assets . The Army units involved were the battalions that made up the 101st Aviation Group : the 158th Aviation Battalion , the 229th Aviation Battalion and the 159th Aviation Battalion . All three battalions formed Task Force 158 . President Carter meanwhile appointed the former Chief of Naval Operations , Admiral James L. Holloway , III , to head a commission to study the deficiencies revealed by the failure of Eagle Claw . Among the presented findings was the fact that the military lacked aircraft and crews who were trained and prepared to perform these mission types .
The Task Force began night flight training using night vision goggles ( NVG ) to develop nighttime extraction capabilities ; however , they were doing so with AN / PVS @-@ 5 NVGs which were originally developed for ground forces . Never before had anyone in the U.S. Department of Defense flown in NVGs and the Task Force quickly adapted the NVGs for flying and by Brown 's own words " a warrant officer figured out we could cut them apart and mount them to our helmets and increase our efficiency and safety by a huge margin . So there we were , without authority , cutting up goggles and building our own NVGs . " Their nighttime training took place at Dugway Proving Ground , Utah . As a result of the night vision goggle training Brown asserted in a 2011 interview that " most of today 's NVG tactics , techniques , and procedures as well as Black Hawk and Chinook modifications came directly from that mission . " Ultimately Operation Credible Sport did not come to fruition due to a peaceful resolution to the crisis where the hostages were released as a result of long negotiations .
= = = 160th SOAR = = =
After Operation Credible Sport ended the Army leadership decided the unit was needed for future contingency operations . Thusly , on October 16 , 1981 Task Force 158 became the 160th Aviation Battalion , with Brown a founding member . The choice of the unit 's name was accepted by the U.S. Army Institute of Heraldry as a logical progression of the 101st 's 158th and 159th Battalions . The 160th Aviation Battalion was later renamed the 160th Special Operations Aviation Group in 1986 ; it was not until 1990 when it would take on its current name , 160th Special Operations Aviation Regiment . In October 1983 , Brown participated in the invasion of Grenada , during which his unit became the first aviation unit to use night vision goggles in combat . In the late 1980s , Brown led all U.S. forces assigned to Operation Prime Chance , which provided escort security for American @-@ flagged Kuwaiti tankers during the Iran @-@ Iraq War . During Operation Prime Chance Brown 's unit became the first aviation unit to engage in combat using night vision devices when they engaged an Iranian @-@ flagged ship , Iran Ajr , that was seen deploying mines in the Persian Gulf .
In 1988 , he participated in Operation Mount Hope III , during which U.S. forces recovered a crashed Soviet @-@ made Mi @-@ 24 Hind attack helicopter in Chad . Company E of the 160th deployed to N 'Djamena , Chad via C @-@ 5 Galaxy . Once in Chad the company flew two CH @-@ 47 Chinooks 490 nautical miles at night , without the use of navigational aids , to the crash site . Once at the crash site the crews harnessed the crashed Hind to a Chinook via sling @-@ load . During the returning flight both Chinooks performed an air @-@ to @-@ air refuel with a C @-@ 130 ; and later endured a sandstorm before returning with the Hind .
During the Persian Gulf War in 1991 , Brown commanded a battalion within 160th SOAR for both Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm . Their missions during the operations included inserting and extracting Special Forces teams ; resupplying SOF units ; performing reconnaissance ; and attacking pre @-@ designated targets . Brown became the third commanding officer of the Regiment after Desert Storm .
= = = General Officer = = =
Between 1994 and 1996 , Brown served as assistant division commander for maneuver , 1st Infantry Division ( Mechanized ) , at Fort Riley , Kansas . He later served as director of Plans , Policy and Strategic Assessments ( J5 / J7 ) at U.S. Special Operations Command . As a lieutenant general , he commanded the Joint Special Operations Command ( JSOC ) from 1998 – 2000 . Brown went on to lead U.S. Army Special Operations Command ( USASOC ) from October 2000 to 2002 .
While at the helm of USASOC , Brown sought to modernize neglected aspects of Army special operations , mainly the civil affairs and psychological operations units . By the time Brown left , he had increased USASOC 's budget by 200 percent . After leading all of the Army 's special operations forces for two years , Brown was selected to become the Deputy Commander of U.S. Special Operations Command . He held the position from 2002 until 2003 when he was nominated to take over U.S. Special Operations Command .
= = = Commander of USSOCOM = = =
On September 2 , 2003 , Brown replaced Air Force General Charles R. Holland as the Commander of U.S. Special Operations Command . During Brown 's tenure as USSOCOM commander , he was involved in the aftermath of the Pat Tillman friendly fire incident that occurred in early 2004 . He testified before the congressional Committee on Oversight and Government Reform in 2007 about receiving a memo from Lt. Gen. Stanley McChrystal , then @-@ commander of JSOC , informing Brown that it was " highly possible that Corporal Tillman was killed by friendly fire " . Ultimately , former commanding general of USASOC Lt. Gen. Philip Kensinger and other Army officers were held responsible for the mishandling of information surrounding Tillman 's death .
On November 23 , 2005 , Brown , together with U.S. Secretary of Defense Donald Rumsfeld , and Marine Corps Commandant General Michael Hagee announced the creation of the Marine Corps Forces Special Operations Command ( MARSOC ) . Prior to the creation of MARSOC , the Marine Corps had not been involved in special operations , which were conducted by Army , Navy and Air Force units assigned to U.S. Special Operations Command . After the September 11 attacks , the Secretary of Defense had directed the Marine Corps and Brown 's predecessor to work closer together in the Global War on Terror . This culminated in the creation of MCSOCOM Detachment One on June 19 , 2003 , shortly before Brown took command of USSOCOM . It was nearly three years later on February 24 , 2006 , when MARSOC was activated at Camp Lejeune , North Carolina .
In 2006 Brown oversaw the SOF component of the Quadrennial Defense Review ( QDR ) which is a legislatively @-@ mandated study by the Department of Defense that analyzes strategic objectives and potential military threats . As a result of Brown 's contributions to the 2006 QDR were considered a success and a " major stride forward " in preparing U.S. special forces for future contingencies by increasing the SOF budget and manpower . As a result of the 2006 QDR the capabilities of USSOCOM were greatly expanded , including increasing active @-@ duty Special Forces battalions by one @-@ third , expansion of psychological operations and civil affairs units by 33 % , increasing the number of Navy SEALs , among other major changes .
After four years of leading USSOCOM through the Iraq War and War in Afghanistan , President George W. Bush nominated Rear Admiral Eric T. Olson to succeed Brown as the commander of U.S. Special Operations Command on May 11 , 2007 . Brown and Olson had served at the USSOCOM headquarters in Tampa together for four years , and Olson had been the deputy commander since 2003 . The change of command ceremony took place on July 9 , 2007 , at the Tampa Convention Center . It was presided over by Secretary of Defense Robert Gates . During the ceremony , Gates said , " He came to this post four years ago determined to improve the way special operators fight . He has done just that " . At the time of the change of command ceremony Brown was the longest serving commander in U.S. Special Operations Command history with 1 @,@ 406 days in office . Over the course of his military career , Brown amassed a total of 4 @,@ 400 hours of flight time in fixed and rotary @-@ winged aircraft .
= = Education = =
His military education included the Field Artillery Officer Advance Course , U.S. Army Command and General Staff College and the United States Army War College . At the Army War College in 1992 , a then @-@ Lieutenant Colonel Brown co @-@ wrote a military studies program with future United States Northern Command commander , Victor E. Renuart , Jr . , in a paper titled Combat Search and Rescue : A Search for Tomorrow . In it , Brown was highly critical of the United States Air Force , saying , " The U.S. Air Force is the proponent agency for search and rescue , but chose not to deploy any forces to Desert Storm " . Brown graduated from the Harvard Executive Education Program 's National and International Security Managers Course . He received a bachelor 's degree in history from Cameron University , as well as a master 's degree in business from Webster University .
= = Post @-@ military life = =
In November 2007 , shortly after Brown retired from the Army , he joined the board of directors for Aurora Flight Sciences , which specializes in the scientific and military applications of robotic aircraft and aerospace vehicles . Brown is the president and founder of his own consultation firm , Tier 4 Consulting . He is an advisor to the Patriot Defense Group , LLC , a defense and intelligence contracting company that directly supports the training requirements of the defense and intelligence communities . He serves on the board of directors for the Special Operations Warrior Foundation , and the board of directors for The Protective Group , a company which specializes in developing composite armor for personnel , vehicles and aircraft . He is a senior advisor to the CEO of Smith & Wesson .
= = Awards and honors = =
General Brown was awarded the following military awards and decorations :
= = = Other accolades = = =
Shortly after his retirement , Brown was named " Patriot of the Year " for 2007 by the Congressional Medal of Honor Society , and he also received the Ellis Island Medal of Honor . The following year , he was inducted into the Army Aviation Hall of Fame . The Association of Special Operations Professionals named Brown " Man of the Year " in 2011 . In 2012 , the 160th SOAR compound at Fort Campbell was renamed the " Gen. Bryan " Doug " Brown Compound " in his honor .
= = In film = =
= = Works by Brown = =
Bryan D. Brown ; Victor E. Renuart , Jr . ( 1992 ) . Combat Search and Rescue : A Search for Tomorrow ( PDF ) . Carlisle Barracks , Pennsylvania : United States Army War College . Retrieved May 16 , 2013 .
Bryan D. Brown ( 2001 ) . " The 160th SOAR : The Quiet Aviation Professionals " . Special Warfare : The Professional Bulletin of the John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School ( John F. Kennedy Special Warfare Center and School ) 14 ( 3 ) : 2 – 4 . Retrieved May 19 , 2013 .
Bryan D. Brown ( 2006 ) . " U.S. Special Operations Command : Meeting the Challenges of the 21st Century " 4 ( 40 ) . Joint Force Quarterly .
= Ernest Groth =
Ernest William Groth ( May 3 , 1922 – December 27 , 2004 ) was an American Major League Baseball right @-@ handed pitcher who played for three seasons . He played for the Cleveland Indians during the 1947 and 1948 seasons and the Chicago White Sox during the 1949 season . In four career games , Groth pitched 7 ⅓ innings and had a 4 @.@ 91 earned run average ( ERA ) .
Born and raised in Pennsylvania , Groth began his professional career in the Wisconsin State League in 1942 . After his rookie season , he spent the next three years serving in the military during World War II . After he returned , he spent more time in the minor leagues , then spent parts of the 1947 and 1948 seasons with the Cleveland Indians . After the end of the 1948 season , he was traded to the Chicago White Sox , and played with them in 1949 . He spent the next seven seasons pitching in the minor leagues , retiring at the end of the 1956 season . After his retirement , he ran Groth 's Nursery and worked for Standard Steel , and died in 2004 .
= = Early life and minor leagues = =
Groth was born in Beaver Falls , Pennsylvania to William T. and Clara Court Groth . He played American Legion Baseball in East Palestine , Ohio in his teens , and attended Beaver Falls High School . He grew up pitching in the county league , and was both a right fielder and pitcher for the Chippewa Indians . After pitching for Chippewa in 1941 , he was offered a contract for the 1942 season by the Pittsburgh Pirates . Groth turned down the offer instead signing with the Cleveland Indians , spending the 1942 season with the Indians ' D @-@ Class ( Rookie League ) affiliate , the Appleton Papermakers of the Wisconsin State League , where he played alongside future teammate Mike Garcia . In 26 games , he pitched in 203 innings , had a 16 – 10 win – loss record and a 3 @.@ 59 ERA .
After the 1942 season , Groth spent the following three years serving with the United States Army in the Pacific Theater of Operations during World War II . After the war , he returned to baseball , spending the 1946 season with the Wilkes @-@ Barre Barons , a Cleveland Indians minor league team that played in the Eastern League . His performances that season included a one @-@ hitter against the Elmira Pioneers in the second game of a doubleheader on August 19 . In 29 games , Groth finished with a 13 – 7 record and a 2 @.@ 98 ERA . Shortly afterward , he became engaged to Blanche Klein , a fellow graduate of Beaver Falls High . The two were married shortly after .
= = Cleveland Indians and Chicago White Sox = =
In 1947 , Groth was promoted to the Oklahoma City Indians of the Texas League , the Cleveland Indians ' AA @-@ class minor league affiliate . In 33 games with Oklahoma City , he threw 180 innings and finished the season with a 7 – 11 record and a 3 @.@ 45 ERA . After the minor league season ended in September , Groth was called up to the Cleveland Indians major league roster , and made his debut on September 11 , 1947 . He pitched in one more game , finishing the season having pitched 1 ⅓ innings , striking out one batter and not allowing a run .
Groth was looking to stay in the major league in 1948 . He spent spring training on the Indians ' roster , and originally made a great impression on the team . However , he was one of seven Indians stricken with dysentery in early April , causing him to miss some time . By the end of spring training , Groth was optioned to the Baltimore Orioles of the International League , the Indians ' AAA @-@ class minor league affiliate . He spent the season with the Orioles , and his pitching performances included a 13 – 0 victory over the Newark Bears , as well as a 1 – 0 victory where Groth limited the Bears to three hits . Groth finished the season with Baltimore having amassed 29 pitching appearances , 27 of them starts , a 12 – 12 record and a 4 @.@ 48 ERA , while also pitching in two games for the Dallas Eagles . After Baltimore 's season ended , he was promoted to the Indians ' roster , and pitched in one game for the Indians that season .
At the end of the 1948 season , on December 2 , the Indians traded Groth to the Chicago White Sox along with Bob Kuzava for Frank Papish . After signing a contract with the White Sox , Groth took part in spring , training alongside many other newcomers to the White Sox , where his pitching performance earned him a place on the major league roster . He pitched in three games for the White Sox , losing one
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Basket Road and the Monroe – Wayne county line , partially delimited by NY 404 .
= = = Wayne and Cayuga counties = = =
As Ridge Road follows to the south , NY 104 continues east through Ontario , where it meets the northern terminus of NY 350 in Ontario Center . The four @-@ lane divided highway continues east to Williamson , where the median separating the two directions of NY 104 comes to an end west of the hamlet of Williamson . In the center of the hamlet , NY 104 intersects the northern terminus of NY 21 . NY 104 narrows to two lanes east of Williamson as development along the route declines once more , giving way to open fields and thick forests .
Near the center of the county in the town of Sodus , NY 104 serves as the northern terminus of NY 88 northwest of the village of Sodus . While NY 88 heads east into the village , NY 104 bypasses Sodus to the north . East of the village , Ridge Road and NY 104 intersect as Ridge Road flips to the north side of NY 104 . The two highways follow parallel routings southeast toward Alton , where NY 104 intersects NY 14 . East of Alton , the gap between the two widens as Ridge Road veers north to access Sodus Bay . NY 104 , meanwhile , follows a nearly linear routing into the town of Huron , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 414 .
NY 104 continues on the eastward routing to the vicinity of the village of Wolcott , where it connects to the northern terminus of NY 89 via a half @-@ diamond interchange south of the village . Northeast of this location in the town of Wolcott , Ridge Road intersects NY 104 once again , returning to the south side of the route . The two roads follow parallel routings once more to a junction south of Red Creek . At this rural intersection , NY 104 acts as the southern and northern ( western ) terminus of both NY 104A and NY 370 , respectively , both occupying an extension of Ridge Road . Just east of the intersection is the Wayne – Cayuga county line . Only 7 miles ( 11 km ) of the route are situated in Cayuga County , and the only junction of note within the county is with NY 38 , which it meets in the Sterling hamlet of Martville . East of the junction , NY 104 turns sharply to the northeast and enters Oswego County .
= = = Oswego County = = =
The route continues northeast through the town of Hannibal to the village of the same name . Instead of entering the community , NY 104 bypasses it to the east . It intersects NY 3 east of Hannibal and heads north toward Lake Ontario . In the town of Oswego , NY 104 meets the northern terminus of NY 104A and assumes its northeasterly routing . It is here that the Seaway Trail rejoins NY 104 . NY 104 heads along the Lake Ontario shoreline to the lake @-@ side city of Oswego , the first location with significant development along the route since Williamson . The route intersects Sweet Road , a connector leading to the campus of SUNY Oswego , just west of the city limits .
NY 104 enters the city as the two @-@ laned West Seneca Street . At Baylis Street , the road widens to four lanes separated by a median . After seven blocks , NY 104 veers onto West Bridge Street , a four @-@ lane street with no median . NY 104 continues along Bridge Street into downtown , where it intersects the northern terminus of NY 48 on the west bank of the Oswego River and the northern terminus of NY 481 on the east bank . As NY 104 heads through eastern Oswego , it separates from East Bridge Street and curves east to follow a more inland routing . The route reverts to two lanes as it exits the city limits .
The high level of development along NY 104 continues to the Scriba hamlet of the same name , where it begins to become more sporadic and give way to fields and dense forests . NY 104 heads northeast to New Haven and the western terminus of NY 104B . While NY 104B heads northeast toward the lake shore as part of the Seaway Trail , NY 104 cuts southeast to serve the village of Mexico . In the village center , NY 104 briefly overlaps NY 3 and intersects the western terminus of NY 69 . The route continues due east through the rural town of Mexico to the small hamlet of Maple View , centered around the junction between NY 104 and US 11 . Just outside the hamlet , NY 104 meets I @-@ 81 at exit 34 . Past I @-@ 81 , NY 104 heads east and southeast for nine miles ( 14 km ) through the predominantly rural towns of Albion and Williamstown to its eastern terminus at a junction with NY 13 .
= = History = =
= = = Early designations = = =
In 1908 , the New York State Legislature established Route 30 , an unsigned legislative route extending from Niagara Falls , Niagara County in the southwest to Rouses Point , Clinton County , in the northeast . From Rochester to Red Creek , Route 30 was assigned to Ridge Road . Between Red Creek and the hamlet of Union Square ( now Maple View ) in the town of Mexico , it included most of modern NY 104 . At the same time , the roadway alongside the Niagara River between Ridge Road in Lewiston and Pine Avenue in downtown Niagara Falls was designated , but not signed , as part of Route 18 . By 1914 , Route 30 was amended to also include the section of Ridge Road from Porter ( modern NY 429 ) to Ridgeway ( NY 63 ) . In 1914 , another section — from Ridgeway to the Orleans – Monroe county line — was also included in Route 30 's definition as a spur route . The spur route became part of Route 30 on March 1 , 1921 , when the mainline route was realigned to follow Ridge Road between Ridgeway and Rochester .
When the first set of posted routes in New York were assigned in 1924 , the segments of Route 30 from Rochester to Red Creek and from Oswego to Maple View became part of NY 3 . Between Red Creek and Oswego , NY 3 was routed on what is now NY 104A . Farther west , the portion of Route 18 from Niagara Falls to Lewiston was included as part of NY 34 . By 1926 , all of legislative Route 30 west of Rochester was designated as part of NY 31 . In the late 1920s , however , NY 31 was realigned to follow Ridge Road west from Porter to Lewiston . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , NY 34 became part of an extended NY 18 while NY 3E was assigned to the portion of former legislative Route 30 between Red Creek and Oswego . NY 3E was renumbered to NY 3F c . 1932 .
= = = Establishment of US 104 = = =
US 104 was assigned across Upstate New York in April 1935 , extending from Niagara Falls to Maple View via Lewiston , Rochester , and Oswego . It overlapped NY 18 from Niagara Falls to Lewiston and replaced NY 3 and NY 31 from Lewiston to Maple View ( except from Red Creek to Oswego , where US 104 followed NY 3F instead ) . As a result , NY 31 was shifted south onto most of its modern alignment while NY 3 was rerouted south of Watertown to follow what had been NY 3D . Although US 104 was technically a child route of US 4 , it did not connect to US 4 . A highway extending eastward from US 11 and US 104 at Maple View to NY 13 in Williamstown was designated as NY 126 c . 1940 .
When it was first assigned , US 104 dipped south to serve downtown Rochester instead of bypassing it to the north . US 104 left Ridge Road at Lake Avenue and followed Lake Avenue and State Street south to Main Street in downtown . It followed Main Street and Winton Road to Empire Boulevard , where it turned east to rejoin Ridge Road in Webster . It was rerouted c . 1937 to continue east on Ridge Road over the Veterans Memorial Bridge and through Irondequoit to Culver Road . US 104 turned here , following Culver Road south to Empire Boulevard and the latter east to Winton Road , where it reconnected to its original routing through the city . The realignment created a significant overlap with NY 18 , which joined US 104 in the vicinity of Kodak Park and separated at Culver Road , where it headed north instead .
= = = Conversion to expressways = = =
Work began in the 1940s on new super two alignments for US 104 in Wayne , Cayuga , and Oswego counties . The new highway was built on a routing parallel to that of Ridge Road and served as a bypass of the communities along Ridge Road . The first portion of the super two , extending from the Monroe – Wayne county line at Union Hill to west of Sodus , was built in the mid @-@ 1940s and completed by 1947 . An extension of the highway around Sodus to NY 414 in Huron was constructed in the mid @-@ 1960s and opened by 1968 . In between the end of the super two and Ridge Road , US 104 was routed on Lake Bluff Road . The remainder of the super two between Huron and Red Creek was finished by 1974 . East of the super two , a bypass was constructed around the village of Hannibal during the early 1960s and opened to traffic by 1964 .
Similar conversion projects were also conducted elsewhere . In Irondequoit , the portion of the Sea Breeze Expressway ( now NY 590 ) from Empire Boulevard to Culver Road opened in the late 1950s . US 104 and NY 18 were extended eastward along East Ridge Road to meet the expressway at what is now exit 11 . Both designations entered the freeway ; however , NY 18 followed the roadway north to Culver Road while US 104 progressed south to Empire Boulevard , where it rejoined its former surface alignment towards Webster . The 0 @.@ 71 miles ( 1 @.@ 14 km ) of Empire Boulevard between the Rochester city line and the Sea Breeze Expressway remains state @-@ maintained to this day as NY 941B , an unsigned reference route .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , construction began on the Keeler Street Expressway , a limited @-@ access highway extending across Irondequoit from the Genesee River ( at the Veterans Memorial Bridge ) to the Sea Breeze Expressway . The first section from North Goodman Street to the Sea Breeze Expressway was completed by 1968 while the remainder opened in late 1969 . The name of the expressway was derived from Keeler Street , a small residential street that originally connected to East Ridge Road and St. Paul Street by way of a traffic circle on the east bank of the Genesee River . The street was turned into a dead @-@ end street as a result of the expressway 's construction . US 104 was moved from East Ridge Road to the expressway , which remains known , albeit infrequently , as the Keeler Street Expressway to this day . NY 18 remained on East Ridge Road , however , reducing the overlap between US 104 and NY 18 to just the portion on the Veterans Bridge . NY 18 was truncated to its current eastern terminus c . 1973 , eliminating the overlap entirely .
The first segment of an eastward extension of the Keeler Street Expressway , named the Irondequoit – Wayne County Expressway , opened c . 1971 between the Sea Breeze Expressway ( at this point designated as part of NY 47 ) and Five Mile Line Road . In between , US 104 crossed Irondequoit Bay by way of the Irondequoit Bay Bridge . US 104 's former surface alignment between NY 47 and Five Mile Line Road was redesignated NY 404 while US 104 was temporarily realigned onto Five Mile Line Road between the expressway and Ridge Road to connect to its former alignment .
= = = Redesignation and completion = = =
The segment of I @-@ 81 through central New York was built on an alignment that closely paralleled US 11 from the Pennsylvania state line northward to the city of Watertown . The portion of I @-@ 81 near Maple View was completed in late 1961 , at which time US 104 was extended 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) eastward over NY 126 to meet the new highway . NY 126 was truncated on its west end to the I @-@ 81 interchange as a result . US 104 was redesignated as NY 104 c . 1972 , making the route the third to bear the NY 104 designation . As part of the change , NY 104 was extended east to NY 13 , completely supplanting NY 126 .
By 1978 , the frontage roads between Five Mile Line Road and NY 250 in Webster were completed . NY 104 was rerouted eastward along the roadways while NY 404 was extended over NY 104 's old alignment to NY 250 in Webster . The section from NY 250 to the existing expressway at the Wayne County line was built in the late 1970s while the main carriageway of NY 104 between Five Mile Line Road and NY 250 was completed in the early 1980s . NY 404 was extended east along the former alignment of NY 104 to the county line upon the total completion of the Five Mile Line Road – NY 250 segment .
= = Suffixed routes = =
NY 104 has two suffixed routes , both of which were assigned c . 1935 .
NY 104A ( 17 @.@ 38 miles or 27 @.@ 97 kilometres ) is an alternate route of NY 104 between Red Creek , Wayne County , and the town of Oswego , Oswego County .
NY 104B ( 6 @.@ 07 miles or 9 @.@ 77 kilometres ) is a spur in Oswego County that extends from NY 104 in New Haven to NY 3 in Texas .
= = NY 104 Truck = =
New York State Route 104 Truck is a 1 @.@ 3 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 1 km ) long truck route of NY 104 through the city of Rochester and town of Irondequoit in Monroe County . The route , which exists in the eastbound direction only , extends from the ramps connecting NY 104 to St. Paul Street east along East Ridge Road to Hudson Avenue , where it turns south to access NY 104 . A 0 @.@ 9 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 4 km ) long segment of NY 104 Truck follows the former alignment of US 104 east along East Ridge Road from St. Paul Street to Hudson Avenue .
= = Major intersections = =
= White House FBI files controversy =
The White House FBI files controversy of the Clinton Administration , often referred to as Filegate , arose in June 1996 around improper access in 1993 and 1994 to Federal Bureau of Investigation security @-@ clearance documents . Craig Livingstone , director of the White House 's Office of Personnel Security , improperly requested , and received from the FBI , background reports concerning several hundred individuals without asking permission . The revelations provoked a strong political and press reaction because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations , including top presidential advisors . Under criticism , Livingstone resigned from his position . Allegations were made that senior White House figures , including First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton , may have requested and read the files for political purposes , and that the First Lady had authorized the hiring of the underqualified Livingstone .
The matter was investigated by the House Government Reform and Oversight Committee , the Senate Judiciary Committee , and the Whitewater Independent Counsel . In 1998 , Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr exonerated President Bill Clinton and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton of any involvement in the matter . In 2000 Independent Counsel Robert Ray issued his final report on Filegate , stating that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter and no credible evidence that senior White House figures or the First Lady had requested the files or had acted improperly or testified improperly regarding Livingstone 's hiring . A separate lawsuit on the matter brought by Judicial Watch , a conservative watchdog group , lingered on for years and was dismissed by a federal judge in 2010 .
= = Improper use of files issue = =
" Filegate " began on June 5 , 1996 , when Republican Pennsylvania Congressman William F. Clinger , Jr . , chair of the House Committee on Government Reform and Oversight , announced that the committee had found , during their ongoing " Travelgate " investigations , that FBI background reports on Travelgate figure Billy Dale had been delivered to the White House . The following day , the White House delivered to the committee hundreds of other such files related to White House employees of the Reagan Administration and George H. W. Bush Administration , for which Craig Livingstone , director of the White House 's Office of Personnel Security , had improperly requested and received background reports from the FBI in 1993 and 1994 , without asking permission of the subject individuals . Estimates ranged from 400 to 700 to 900 unauthorized file disclosures . The incident caused an intense burst of criticism because many of the files covered White House employees from previous Republican administrations , including top figures such as James Baker , Brent Scowcroft , and Marlin Fitzwater .
Initial White House explanations for what had happened varied , but generally characterized it as a series of mistakes made without bad intent and offered apologies to those affected . President Clinton said that , " It appears to have been a completely honest bureaucratic snafu . " However his Republican opponent in the ongoing 1996 presidential election , Senator Bob Dole , compared it to the enemies list kept by the Nixon administration . Republicans made other charges , including that the White House was trying to dig up damaging information about Republicans in general and that the file transfer was motivated by a desire to slander Dale and other White House Travel Office officials , thereby justifying their dismissal .
On June 18 , 1996 , Attorney General Janet Reno asked the FBI to look into it ; FBI Director Louis Freeh acknowledged that both the FBI and especially the White House had committed " egregious violations of privacy " ( in some cases the background reports contained information about extramarital affairs , trangressions with the law , and medical issues ) . On June 21 Reno decided it was a conflict of interest for the U.S. Department of Justice to further investigate the matter , and thus recommended that it be folded into the overall umbrella of the Whitewater investigations , under charge of Independent Counsel Kenneth Starr . In any case , Starr had already begun looking into it .
On June 26 , 1996 , Clinger 's Government Reform and Oversight Committee held hearings on the matter . Livingstone , who announced his resignation at the start of his testimony that day , and his assistant , Anthony Marceca , insisted during the committee 's hearings that the mishandled files were a result of a bureaucratic mixup and that no improper motivations were behind it . They said that when the George H. W. Bush administrative staff left the White House in January 1993 , they had taken all the files of the Office of Personnel Security with them for use in the Bush Library , as they were permitted to do under law . The OPS staff were trying to rebuild these records to include those of permanent White House employees who remained to work in the Clinton administration ; Marceca , a civilian investigator for the Army , had been hired for this task . In doing so , they received an outdated list from the Secret Service of White House employees , which included many names who were no longer employees . This list was then given to the FBI and the personnel background files returned as a result . Lisa Wetzl , another assistant , testified that she discovered the mistake in mid @-@ 1994 and destroyed the request list .
Also called to testify were former White House counsel Bernard Nussbaum and former associate counsel William Kennedy III . Livingstone , Nussbaum , and Kennedy all offered apologies to those whose files had been obtained . On September 24 , 1996 , the Government Reform and Oversight Committee approved , on party lines , an interim report on the affair , blasting the Clinton Administration for a " cavalier approach " towards sensitive security procedures and saving that further investigation was necessary to determine if the events surrounding the files handling were " a blunder , the result of colossal incompetence , or whether they are established to be more serious or even criminal . " The Committee does not seem to have ever issued a final report .
The Senate Judiciary Committee was also involved in investigating the matter , holding hearings beginning June 29 , 1996 , and focussing on allegations that White House was engaged in a " dirty tricks " operation reminiscent of the Nixon administration . Looking into accusations that senior White House officials or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton may have inappropriately perused the files , in October 1996 Republican committee chair Orrin Hatch requested that the FBI do a fingerprint analysis of them . On November 3 , 1996 , the FBI informed the committee that no fingerprints of either the First Lady or any other named senior official were on the files .
= = Who hired Livingstone issue = =
A secondary question of the Filegate controversy revolved around what the Office of Personnel Security was , who had authorized the hiring of Livingstone , and whether he was qualified for the job . The Office was not responsible for actual White House security , as that was the charge of the United States Secret Service , nor did it perform background checks on potential White House employees , a task done by the FBI , nor did it keep the regular personnel files of employees , which were held in a different office within the White House . Rather , its role was to keep track of who was employed by the White House , make sure their security clearances were up to date , and give security briefings to new hires . Nevertheless , Livingstone seemed to lack qualifications for even this position ; he had worked on a number of Democratic Party campaigns and transitions , including being an advance man for the Clinton @-@ Gore 1992 campaign , and his only prior job in the " security " field was that of a local bar bouncer at a Washington , D.C. , night club . ( At the congressional hearings , Livingstone objected to " false and unfair caricatures of who I am . [ ... ] I have worked hard for little or no pay in political campaigns for candidates who I felt would make this country a better place to live . " In later years Livingstone would continue to maintain on the Internet that he had been qualified for the position , that the First Lady had signed off on hiring him , and that his character had been maligned by the general media . ) Clinton opponents stated that Livingstone had the highest level of security clearances in the U.S. government . White House officials could not explain why Livingstone was hired , nor who had hired him .
An FBI document suggested that Livingstone had been given his position because First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton was a friend of Livingstone 's mother and recommended him . Hillary Clinton stated that while she was once photographed with the mother in a large group , she did not know her . Hillary Clinton was briefly deposed at the White House by the Independent Counsel regarding this matter on January 14 , 1998 . ( That same day , the same Office of the Independent Counsel staff were listening to taped conversations of Linda Tripp and Monica Lewinsky ; the Lewinsky scandal was soon to break . ) In 1999 , Clinton gave a sworn statement that she had nothing to do with Livingstone 's hiring . Livingstone also stated under oath there was no truth to the supposed hiring relationship . Hillary Clinton would later refer to the whole files matter as a " pseudoscandal " .
= = Official findings = =
On November 19 , 1998 , Independent Counsel Starr testified before the House Judiciary Committee in connection with the Impeachment of Bill Clinton over charges related to the Lewinsky scandal . Here , for the first time , Starr exonerated both President Clinton and the First Lady of complicity in the FBI files matter , saying " while there are outstanding issues that we are attempting to resolve with respect to one individual [ we ] found no evidence that anyone higher [ than Livingstone or Marceca ] was in any way involved in ordering the files from the FBI . Second , we have found no evidence that information contained in the files of former officials was used for an improper purpose . " ( Starr also chose this occasion to clear President Clinton in the Travelgate matter , and to say that he had not committed impeachable wrongdoing in the Whitewater matter ; Democrats on the committee immediately criticized Starr for withholding all these findings until after the 1998 Congressional elections . )
In March 2000 , Independent Counsel Robert Ray , Starr 's successor , issued the office 's final report on the matter , as part of a concerted effort to wrap up all Whitewater @-@ related cases before the end of Bill Clinton 's term . Ray determined that there was no credible evidence of any criminal activity by any individual in the matter . It attributed the improper collection of the files by Marceca due to his having an outdated Secret Service list of White House passes , as Marceca had originally claimed . It stated that even though Marceca 's statements were sometimes " contradictory and misleading " , they were " sufficiently transparent " and there was insufficient evidence to prove that Anthony Marceca had made false statements to Congress during his testimony . The report ascribed the FBI files matter to " a failure of process at many levels , " saying that the Secret Service had provided critically erroneous data , and that this was compounded by the White House 's informal process of requesting sensitive information by " inexperienced , untrained , and unsupervised personnel with backgrounds as political operatives . "
Based on an investigation that included the prior fingerprint analysis , the report further stated that :
there was no substantial and credible evidence that any senior White House official , or First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton , was involved in seeking confidential Federal Bureau of Investigation background reports of former White House staff from prior administrations of President Bush and President Reagan .
Ray 's report also concluded that there was no credible evidence that Bernard Nussbaum testified falsely about not having discussed Livingstone 's hiring with the First Lady , and found as well that there was no personal relationship between the First Lady and Livingstone that had formed the basis for his hiring .
= = Judicial Watch lawsuit = =
Separately from the Independent Counsel investigation , Judicial Watch , a conservative watchdog group , engaged in long @-@ running litigation over the White House personnel file controversy . Judicial Watch 's Cara Leslie Alexander et al. vs. Federal Bureau of Investigation et al. class action lawsuit , filed on behalf of several members of the Reagan and George H. W. Bush Administrations , alleged that Livingstone , along with Anthony Marceca and William Kennedy , obtained the files and then rifled through them . Judicial Watch founder and Clintons antagonist suprême Larry Klayman attracted enough attention with the case to have the recurring Larry Claypool character modeled after him on the television series The West Wing . As late as January 2000 , Judicial Watch was filing affidavits in the United States District Court for the District of Columbia under Judge Royce C. Lamberth related to the case . In their $ 90 million lawsuit , they claimed that the First Lady did , despite her denials , know Livingstone – indeed , that Livingstone had bragged to associates he was very close to both the president and his wife – and that Clinton had personally hired him for the security job . ( White House defenders pointed out that Livingstone had a long history of exaggerating his importance and connections . ) Judicial Watch also said they had five sources who claimed Livingstone had been hired by and worked under the First Lady , and also discovered some photographs of Livingstone in the vicinity of the First Lady ( but not talking with him ) . In December 2002 Judicial Watch obtained a ruling from Judge Lamberth that recently uncovered White House e @-@ mails be searched for possible evidence in the lawsuit . Klayman said , " Hillary Clinton was the mastermind of Filegate . She will not escape justice . " Klayman and Judicial Watch had a severe falling out in 2003 , however , and several years went by with little or nothing happening in the lawsuit .
On March 9 , 2010 , Judge Lamberth dismissed the case . The judge asserted that the plaintiffs , despite years of opportunity , had failed to provide any evidence that the affair was a grand conspiracy rather than a bureaucratic mistake , and said that " this court is left to conclude that with the lawsuit , to quote Gertrude Stein , ' there 's no there there . ' " Nussbaum , one of the defendants , derisively said " No kidding " when informed of the dismissal . Media reports concluded that , fourteen years after the initial events were set in motion , Filegate was finally over . In May 2010 , Judicial Watch filed an appeal of the dismissal with the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit , but the Court of Appeals affirmed the dismissal on November 14 , 2011 , finally bringing the case to an end .
= Pug =
The Pug is a breed of dog with a wrinkly , short @-@ muzzled face and curled tail . The breed has a fine , glossy coat that comes in a variety of colours , most often fawn or black , and a compact square body with well @-@ developed muscles .
Pugs were brought from China to Europe in the sixteenth century and were popularized in Western Europe by the House of Orange of the Netherlands , and the House of Stuart . In the United Kingdom in the nineteenth century Queen Victoria developed a passion for Pugs which she passed on to other members of the Royal family .
Pugs are known for being sociable and gentle companion dogs . The breed remains popular into the twenty @-@ first century , with some famous celebrity owners . A Pug was judged Best in Show at the World Dog Show in 2004 .
= = Description = =
= = = Physical characteristics = = =
While the Pugs that are depicted in eighteenth century prints tend to be long and lean , modern breed preferences are for a square cobby body , a compact form , a deep chest , and well @-@ developed muscle . Their smooth and glossy coats can be fawn , apricot fawn , silver fawn or black . The markings are clearly defined and there is a trace of a black line extending from the occiput to the tail . The tail normally curls tightly over the hip .
Pugs have two distinct shapes for their ears , " rose " and " button " . " Rose " ears are smaller than the standard style of " button " ears , and are folded with the front edge against the side of the head . Breeding preference goes to " button " style ears .
Pugs ' legs are very strong , straight , of moderate length , and are set well under . Their shoulders are moderately laid back . Their ankles are strong , their feet are small , their toes are well split @-@ up , and their nails are black . The lower teeth normally protrude further than their upper , resulting in an under @-@ bite .
= = = Temperament = = =
The breed is often described by the Latin phrase multum in parvo , or " much in little " or " a lot of dog in a small space " , alluding to the Pug 's remarkable and charming personality , despite its small size . Pugs are strong willed but rarely aggressive , and are suitable for families with children . The majority of the breed is very fond of children and sturdy enough to properly play with them . Depending on their owner 's mood , they can be quiet and docile but also vivacious and teasing . Pugs tend to be intuitive and sensitive to the moods of their owners and are usually eager to please them . Pugs tend to have a somewhat lazy nature and spend a lot of time napping . They are often called " shadows " because they follow their owners around and like to stay close to the action , craving attention and affection from their owners .
= = History = =
= = = Chinese origins = = =
In ancient times , Pugs were bred to be companions for ruling families in China . The pet Pugs were highly valued by Chinese Emperors , and the royal dogs were kept in luxury and guarded by soldiers . Pugs later spread to other parts of Asia . In Tibet , Buddhist monks kept Pugs as pets in their monasteries . The breed has retained its affectionate devotion to its owners since ancient times .
The early history of the Pug is not attested to in detail ; it is accepted that modern Pugs are descended from dogs imported to Europe from China in the 16th century . Similar dogs were popular in the Imperial court during the Song Dynasty .
= = = 16th and 17th centuries = = =
Pugs were popular at European courts , and reportedly become the official dog of the House of Orange in 1572 after a Pug named Pompey saved the life of the Prince of Orange by alerting him to the approach of assassins .
A Pug travelled with William III and Mary II when they left the Netherlands to accept the throne of England in 1688 . During this period , the Pug may have been bred with the old type King Charles spaniel , giving the modern King Charles Spaniel its Pug characteristics .
The breed eventually became popular in other European countries as well . Pugs were painted by Goya in Spain , and in Italy they rode up front on private carriages , dressed in jackets and pantaloons that matched those of the coachman . They were used by the military to track animals and people , and were also employed as guard dogs .
= = = 18th century to present day = = =
The English painter William Hogarth was the devoted owner of a series of Pugs . His 1745 self @-@ portrait , which is now in London 's Tate Gallery , includes his Pug , Trump . The Pug was also well known in Italy . In 1789 , a Mrs. Piozzi wrote in her journal , " The little Pug dog or Dutch mastiff has quitted London for Padua , I perceive . Every carriage I meet here has a Pug in it . " The popularity of the Pug continued to spread in France during the eighteenth century . Before her marriage to Napoleon Bonaparte , Joséphine had her Pug Fortune carry concealed messages to her family while she was confined at Les Carmes prison , it having alone been given visiting rights .
In nineteenth century England , the breed flourished under the patronage of Queen Victoria . Her many Pugs , which she bred herself , included Olga , Pedro , Minka , Fatima and Venus . Her involvement with dogs in general helped to establish the Kennel Club , which was formed in 1873 . Queen Victoria favoured apricot and fawn colours . Queen Victoria 's passion for Pugs was passed on to many other members of the Royal family , including her grandson King George V and his son King Edward VIII . Many responded to the breed 's image of anti @-@ functionalism and diminutive size during this period .
In paintings and engravings of the 18th and 19th centuries , Pugs usually appear with longer legs and noses than today , and sometimes with cropped ears . The modern Pug 's appearance probably changed after 1860 when a new wave of Pugs were imported directly from China . These Pugs had shorter legs and the modern @-@ style Pug nose . The British aristocrat Lady Brassey is credited with making black Pugs fashionable after she brought some back from China in 1886 . Ear cropping was made illegal in 1895 .
Pugs arrived in the United States during the nineteenth century and were soon making their way into the family home and the show ring . The American Kennel Club recognized the breed in 1885 . The Pug Dog Club of America was founded in 1931 and was recognised by the American Kennel Club that same year . In 1981 , the Pug Dhandys Favorite Woodchuck won the Westminster Kennel Club Dog Show in the United States , the only Pug to have won there since the show began in 1877 . The World Champion , or Best in Show at the 2004 World Dog Show held in Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , was a Pug named Double D Cinoblu 's Masterpiece .
= = Health problems = =
Since Pugs lack longer snouts and prominent skeletal brow ridges , they are susceptible to eye injuries such as proptosis , scratched corneas , and painful entropion . They also have compact breathing passageways , leaving many prone to breathing difficulties or unable to efficiently regulate their temperature through evaporation from the tongue by panting . A Pug 's normal body temperature is between 101 ° F ( 38 ° C ) and 102 ° F ( 39 ° C ) . If this temperature rises to 105 ° F ( 41 ° C ) , oxygen demand is greatly increased and immediate cooling is required . If body temperature reaches 108 ° F ( 42 ° C ) , organ failure can occur . Their breathing problems can be worsened by the stresses of travelling in air cargo , which may involve high temperatures . Following the deaths of Pugs and other brachycephalic breeds , several airlines either banned their transport in cargo or enacted seasonal restrictions .
Pugs that live a mostly sedentary life can be prone to obesity , though this is avoidable with regular exercise and a healthy diet . The median life span of Pugs is 11 years , which is in line with other breeds of the same size .
= = = Common conditions = = =
Pugs , like other short @-@ snouted breeds , have elongated palates . When excited , they are prone to " reverse sneezing " which causes them to quickly ( and seemingly laboriously ) gasp and snort . The veterinary name for this is pharyngeal gag reflex and it is caused by fluid or debris getting caught under the palate and irritating the throat or limiting breathing . Reverse sneezing episodes are usually not harmful , and massaging the dog 's throat or covering its nose in order to make it breathe through its mouth can often shorten a sneezing fit .
Some pugs are also born with stenotic nares which can also inhibit their breathing . In serious cases , the pinched nostrils make breathing even more difficult for this breed and put added pressure on the larynx . In some cases , the dog could pass out from blocked airways . If this happens , one should inquire with their veterinarian whether or not surgery is needed to modify the breathing passages .
Eye prolapse is a common problem among Pugs and other brachycephalic breeds ( see Brachycephalic syndrome ) and can be caused by a trauma to the head or neck , or even by the owner using a tight leash instead of a harness . While the eye can usually be pushed back into its socket by the owner or by a vet , veterinary attention is usually advisable . If the prolapse happens on a regular basis , the Pug might require surgery .
Pugs have many wrinkles in their faces , so owners will often clean inside the creases to avoid irritation and infection . If this is not done , the dog may develop a condition known as skin fold dermatitis .
An abnormal formation of the hip socket , known as hip dysplasia , affected nearly 64 % of Pugs in a survey performed by the Orthopedic Foundation for Animals ; the breed was ranked the second worst @-@ affected by this condition out of 157 breeds tested .
Pugs are one of several breeds that are more susceptible than other dogs to demodectic mange , also known as " demodex " . This condition is caused when parasitic mites , that are often present in a dog 's skin without causing symptoms , are allowed to do damage because their host has a weakened immune system . It is a problem for many young Pugs , although not usually a major one , and is easily treatable , but some are especially susceptible and present with a systemic form of the condition . This vulnerability is thought to be genetic and breeders will avoid producing puppies from adults who have this condition . In 2008 , an investigative documentary carried out by the BBC found significant inbreeding between pedigree dogs , with a study by Imperial College , London , showing that the 10 @,@ 000 Pugs in the UK are so inbred that their gene pool is the equivalent of only 50 individuals .
= = = Serious issues = = =
Pugs can suffer from necrotizing meningoencephalitis ( NME ) , also known as Pug dog encephalitis ( PDE ) , an inflammation of the brain and meninges . NME also occurs in other small dogs , such as the Yorkshire Terrier , Maltese , and Chihuahua . There is no known cure for NME , which is believed to be an inherited disease . Dogs usually die or have to be put to sleep within a few months of onset , which , in those susceptible to this condition , is typically between six months and seven years of age .
This breed , along with other brachycephalic dogs ( e.g. , boxers , bulldogs ) , are also prone to hemivertebrae . The curled tail of a British bulldog is an example of a hemivertebrae , but when it occurs not in the coccygeal vertebrae but in other areas of the spine , it can cause paralysis . The condition occurs when two parts of a spinal vertebra do not fuse properly while a young Pug is still growing , resulting in an irregularly shaped spinal cavity which can put pressure on the spinal cord .
= = Historical depictions of Pugs = =
= Svalbard and Jan Mayen =
Svalbard and Jan Mayen ( Norwegian : Svalbard og Jan Mayen , ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 : SJ , ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 3 : SJM , ISO 3166 @-@ 1 numeric : 744 ) is a statistical designation defined by ISO 3166 @-@ 1 of two parts of Norway under separate jurisdictions — Svalbard and Jan Mayen . While the two are combined for the purposes of the International Organization for Standardization ( ISO ) category , they are not administratively related . This has further resulted in the country code top @-@ level domain .sj being issued for Svalbard and Jan Mayen , and ISO 3166 @-@ 2 : SJ . The United Nations Statistics Division also uses this code , but has named it Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands .
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic Ocean under the full sovereignty of Norway , but is subject to the special status granted by the Svalbard Treaty . Jan Mayen is a remote island in the Arctic Ocean ; it has no permanent population and is administrated by the County Governor of Nordland . Svalbard and Jan Mayen have in common that they are the only integrated parts of Norway not allocated to counties . While a separate ISO code for Svalbard was proposed by the United Nations , it was the Norwegian authorities who took initiative to include Jan Mayen in the code . It 's Official Language Is Norwegian .
= = Constituents = =
= = = Svalbard = = =
Svalbard is an archipelago in the Arctic about midway between mainland Norway and the North Pole . The group of islands range from 74 ° to 81 ° north latitude , and from 10 ° to 35 ° east longitude . The area is 61 @,@ 022 square kilometres ( 23 @,@ 561 sq mi ) and there were 2 @,@ 572 residents in 2009 . Spitsbergen is the largest island , followed by Nordaustlandet and Edgeøya . The administrative center is Longyearbyen , and other settlements , in addition to research outposts , are the Russian mining community of Barentsburg , the research community of Ny @-@ Ålesund and the mining outpost of Sveagruva .
The Svalbard Treaty of 1920 recognizes Norwegian sovereignty , and the 1925 Svalbard Act made Svalbard a full part of the Kingdom of Norway . The archipelago is administrated by the Governor of Svalbard , which is subordinate to the Norwegian Ministry of Justice and the Police . Unlike the rest of Norway ( including Jan Mayen ) , Svalbard is a free economic zone and a demilitarized zone , and is not part of the Schengen Area nor the European Economic Area .
= = = Jan Mayen = = =
Jan Mayen is a volcanic island in the Arctic Ocean located at the border of the Norwegian Sea and the Greenland Sea . The single island covers an area of 377 square kilometres ( 146 sq mi ) and is dominated by the 2 @,@ 277 @-@ metre ( 7 @,@ 470 ft ) tall Beerenberg volcano . The island 's only population is a combined military and meteorological outpost that operates a LORAN @-@ C transmitter at Olonkinbyen . The Norwegian Meteorological Institute annexed the island for Norway in 1922 . On 27 February 1930 , the island was made de jure a part of the Kingdom of Norway . Since 1994 , the island has been administrated by the County Governor of Nordland , with some authority delegated to the station commander .
= = Application = =
The ISO designation is congruent with an equivalent United Nations Statistics Division category and users of these classification systems may in some cases report separately for " Svalbard and Jan Mayen Islands " instead of rolling up this information into the " Norway " category . Neither Svalbard nor Jan Mayen have their own flag or coat of arms , and the flag of Norway is used for both of them , both alone and as a group .
An attempt to change the ISO code to just " Svalbard " has previously failed because of opposition from the Norwegian Ministry of Foreign Affairs . However , for statistics use within population and trade , " Svalbard and Jan Mayen " essentially means just " Svalbard " .
= = = ISO 3166 @-@ 2 = = =
ISO 3166 @-@ 2 : SJ is the entry for Svalbard and Jan Mayen in ISO 3166 @-@ 2 , a system for assigning codes to subnational administrative divisions . However , further subdivision for Svalbard and Jan Mayen occurs under Norway 's entry , ISO 3166 @-@ 2 : NO :
NO @-@ 21 Svalbard
NO @-@ 22 Jan Mayen
The hierarchical administrative subdivision codes for Svalbard is SJ.SV and for Jan Mayen is SJ.JM.
= = = Top @-@ level domain = = =
By virtue of the ISO 3166 @-@ 1 alpha @-@ 2 code SJ , Svalbard and Jan Mayen were grouped together and allocated the Internet country code top @-@ level domain ( ccTLD ) .sj. Norid , who also administrated the Norway 's .no ccTLD , was given the responsibility for the .sj and Bouvet Island 's .bv domain in 1997 . Policy prohibits any registration with either of the domains , as institutions connected to Svalbard can use the .no domain . Norwegian authorities do not want to commercialize the domain resources , and therefore .sj will not be sold to a third party .
= The Eleventh Hour ( Doctor Who ) =
For other series with this name , see The Eleventh Hour .
" The Eleventh Hour " is the first episode of the fifth series of the British science fiction television programme Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One and BBC HD on 3 April 2010 . The episode saw a complete change in cast and production crew . The episode was written by new head writer and executive producer Steven Moffat and directed by Adam Smith .
In the episode , the newly regenerated Doctor ( Matt Smith ) crashes his time and space machine , the TARDIS , into the small English village of Leadworth , where he meets a young Scottish girl named Amelia Pond ( Caitlin Blackwood ) . The Doctor is forced to leave , but promises Amelia he will return in five minutes . However , he arrives twelve years late and is confronted by the grown @-@ up Amelia , now known as Amy ( Karen Gillan ) , who does not trust him . He attempts to gain her trust to help return the shape @-@ shifting alien Prisoner Zero to the galactic police , the Atraxi , before they destroy the planet .
The episode is the debut of Smith as the eleventh incarnation of the Doctor and Gillan as his new companion . It also introduced Arthur Darvill as Amy 's boyfriend Rory Williams , who would later become a main cast member . The show 's tradition is for the Doctor to rest after he regenerates , but Moffat decided to have him save the world instead . The episode sets up the main story arc of the series by introducing the cracks in the universe . " The Eleventh Hour " was seen by 10 @.@ 08 million viewers in the UK , the highest rated premiere since " Rose " . It also attracted popularity on the online BBC iPlayer and on BBC America in the United States . The episode received positive reviews from critics , who welcomed Smith and Gillan into the series .
= = Plot = =
Continuing from the end of " The End of Time , Part 2 " , the newly regenerated Doctor crash @-@ lands his damaged TARDIS in Leadworth , in 1996 . He meets seven @-@ year @-@ old Amelia Pond . While waiting for the TARDIS to self @-@ repair , he explores his new face , and discovers that while he has a distaste for many foods , his new body likes the taste of " fish custard " ( a dish he invented which consists of fish fingers and custard ) . Amelia then shows the Doctor a scary crack in her bedroom wall . The Doctor discovers it is a crack in time and space itself , briefly opening it to discover an Atraxi prison . The Atraxi send a psychic message to the Doctor that " Prisoner Zero has escaped " . Then the TARDIS 's cloister bell is heard ; the Doctor races back to his machine , needing to travel in time to prevent its systems from overheating , and promises Amelia that he will return in five minutes . Amelia hastily packs a suitcase and waits near where the TARDIS had previously landed .
The Doctor lands the TARDIS outside Amelia 's house , unaware 12 years have passed . On searching the house , he is knocked out and wakes up handcuffed and without his sonic screwdriver . He discovers his assailant is a much older Amelia , now going by the name Amy . Her fascination in waiting for his return led her to create toys and stories about him , and she was ridiculed by other villagers . The Doctor then reveals to Amy that Prisoner Zero has been hiding in a room in her house that she had never noticed , due to a perception filter . After venturing into the room , she frees the Doctor and grants him his sonic screwdriver . They dodge an attack by Prisoner Zero and flee the house .
Shortly afterwards , the Atraxi arrive in orbit , alerted by the Doctor 's arrival , and issue an ultimatum : if Prisoner Zero does not " vacate the human residence " , meaning the Earth , " the human residence will be incinerated " . Meeting Amy 's boyfriend Rory , the Doctor realises that Prisoner Zero , a multiform that can take the form of any unconscious being by forming a telepathic link with them , is borrowing the forms of a nearby hospital 's coma patients . The Doctor uses a laptop to gatecrash an online meeting of scientific experts discussing the Atraxi situation and send instructions to them .
The Doctor races to the hospital , just in time to save Amy and Rory from Prisoner Zero . The Doctor reveals his plan : he has created a computer virus that will broadcast the number " zero " across the world . It is tied to Rory 's phone , which contains images of the coma patients , identifying Prisoner Zero in whatever form it may take . Prisoner Zero reveals it has one more form that is not on Rory 's phone . Prisoner Zero knocks out Amy and transforms into the Doctor and young Amelia , whom he was able to link with during the years of the Doctor 's absence . The Doctor realises that Amy can hear him speaking and manipulates her subconscious to remember the form of Prisoner Zero she had seen in her house . This forces Prisoner Zero to revert to his true form ; it is identified by the Atraxi and captured . Before being transported away , Prisoner Zero warns the Doctor that " Silence , Doctor ... silence will fall . " The Atraxi fleet leaves , but the Doctor , invoking the Shadow Proclamation , orders their return and reprimands them for threatening the planet . The Doctor shows the Atraxi images of the many past alien invaders who have attempted to seize or destroy the Earth , but who have been defeated by his past incarnations , causing the Atraxi to take him at his word , and " run . "
The Doctor finds the TARDIS and departs before Amy or Rory can catch up . The Doctor later returns to Amy 's house , finding that another two years have passed . Though Amy is still upset , she readily accepts his offer to travel together , as long as he can return her the next day . In response to why he chose her , he declares that he is lonely , although he is shown analyzing the crack and possibly wants to monitor his new companion . As the TARDIS dematerialises , the viewer is shown Amy 's bedroom , where , alongside her toys and drawings of the " raggedy Doctor , " lies her wedding dress .
= = Production = =
= = = Background and casting = = =
" The Eleventh Hour " , marked several production changes . Steven Moffat succeeded Russell T Davies as executive producer and head writer . Piers Wenger and Beth Willis replaced Julie Gardner as executive producer . A new logo was incorporated into a new title sequence with a new variation of the theme tune , composed by Murray Gold . By the end of " The Eleventh Hour " , the Doctor has a new sonic screwdriver and the TARDIS sported a new interior and exterior , similar to the one used from 1963 @-@ 1966 . The previous TARDIS interior was shown at the beginning of " The Eleventh Hour " ; the Time Rotor on the console had to be rebuilt due to the explosive special effects that were used in The End of Time .
The End of Time saw the end of David Tennant 's tenure of the Doctor and his regeneration into Matt Smith . Moffat was originally looking to cast a middle @-@ aged actor , but he and Wenger went with the 26 @-@ year @-@ old Smith in what they considered an easy decision . Karen Gillan was cast as the Doctor 's new companion Amy Pond ; she had previously appeared in the fourth series episode " The Fires of Pompeii " and was suggested to Moffat by casting director Andy Pryor . Gillan auditioned for the role in both her natural Scottish and English accents . Only after Gillan was cast was Amy made Scottish .
The young Amy , known as Amelia , was played by Karen Gillan 's real @-@ life cousin Caitlin Blackwood . Though Gillan recommended Blackwood , the young actor first had to undergo rigorous auditions , lacking any formal acting experience . " The Eleventh Hour " was also the debut of Arthur Darvill as Rory Williams , who became a regular in the sixth series . Moffat stated that what stood out about Darvill 's audition was " just how funny " he was . EastEnders star Nina Wadia was chosen for the part of the doctor at the Leadworth Hospital . Wadia speculated that she was cast because she had worked with Adam Smith before . Patrick Moore appears as himself in the video conference with a brief speaking part , though not all his lines survived the final cut . The man above Moore is the brother of Adam Smith . Marcello Magni , who played a man Prisoner Zero impersonates that barks like his dog , had already worked as a canine impersonator .
= = = Writing = = =
The title of the episode is a play on words , referring both to the introduction of the eleventh Doctor and to the fact that he was nearly too late , the connotation of the phrase . In the DVD commentary , Moffat said it was originally titled The Doctor Returns , and that it was the most difficult script he had ever written , as he had to introduce a new Doctor , a new companion , convince the audience that it was both a new and an old show , and deliver a fast @-@ paced story . While traditionally the Doctor rests after he regenerates , Moffat thought it would be fun to make him save the world instead . He described it as a comedy of a man whose day keeps getting worse and worse . Believing that London and companions from London had become a cliché and the audience had become bored with it , Moffat set the episode in the fictional village of Leadworth . Moffat , a Scot , debated whether to locate the episode in a village in Scotland . He ultimately decided on England , in keeping with the notion of Amelia as an unconventional girl .
Throughout the episode , the Doctor behaves erratically , as he gradually gets used to his new body and tastes while developing a new personality . Willis stated that he " finally clicks into place " after picking out his new outfit . " The rooftop scene was not in the original script ; the Doctor simply ran away from the ward and returned to the TARDIS . Moffat felt that he did not really have a formal introduction , and that more could be made of the costume , as many previous Doctors had picked theirs out quietly . The main story arc is the Doctor meeting the grown @-@ up Amy . Moffat felt that over time the relationships between the Doctor and his companions had become too adult . He wanted to create a childlike relationship like that between Peter Pan and Wendy , rather than boyfriend and girlfriend . He believed this was the kind of relationship viewers had with the Doctor , regardless of their age . When the Doctor returns for Amy , she is a very different person from the seven @-@ year @-@ old he had met before . Moffat explains that she developed a tough element and had become distrustful and cynical due to him not returning as promised , forcing her to accept that he was an imaginary friend . Rory was completely in love with Amy , but Amy wanted adventures before admitting she loved him , too . Moffat described Rory as someone who had grown up in the shadow of Amy 's imaginary Doctor .
Moffat was inspired by a crack in his son 's bedroom wall and developed the idea into the main story arc for the fifth series . He thought that a child might think that something interesting lived inside such a crack . The hidden room in Amelia 's house was based on Moffat 's recurring childhood dream of a nonexistent hidden room in his grandmother 's house . Moffat was keen to give the monster a giant eyeball , and commented that the Atraxi 's design — a giant eyeball on a star — was easy for children to draw , as he used to draw Doctor Who monsters as a child . These aspects reflect Doctor Who 's " domestically @-@ scaled menace " principle . Moffat wrote a scene that explained Prisoner Zero 's crime , but cut it because he figured no one would care .
The opening sequence , in which the Doctor barely hangs onto the crashing TARDIS as it flies over London , was later added to the script to bridge from the conclusion of The End of Time to the TARDIS 's crash into Amy 's garden . Moffat thought it would be funny if they showed him hanging out of the TARDIS and nearly crashing into London , which would start an episode set in a small town in a big way . Moffat also referenced the scene from A.A. Milne 's The House at Pooh Corner , where Tigger claims to like everything , but then proceeds to reject all food offered to him until he finally finds that he likes extract of malt . Moffat 's variant had the newly regenerated Doctor reject a variety of foods , with the exception of fish fingers with custard , offered to him by the young Amy . Moffat felt that appealing to children was important to the show 's success . The scene where the Doctor creates the virus using Jeff 's laptop was originally set in a classroom where the Doctor used the students ' computers ; this was changed for production reasons . In the episode , the Doctor snaps his fingers to open the TARDIS , a trick his previous incarnation learned from River Song in " Silence in the Library " / " Forest of the Dead " . He also repeats the lines " wibbley @-@ wobbley , timey @-@ wimey " and " some cowboys in here " from the Moffat @-@ written episodes " Blink " and " The Girl in the Fireplace " .
= = = Filming and effects = = =
The read @-@ through for the episode took place in September 2009 . Though it is the first episode of the series , " The Eleventh Hour " was not the first to be shot . It was filmed in the third production block , after the completion of episodes 2 @-@ 5 . As Smith was aware of how his Doctor would act in the following episodes , he used this one to establish the character . The plan was to retain traces of Smith 's predecessor , but the executive producers wanted Smith to be " stranger " . The episode was directed by Adam Smith , who was attracted to the " brilliant script " and working with Matt Smith after seeing him on stage . Smith was asked to direct " the same but make it a bit different – the producers didn 't want it to be radically different , but they did want it to be different " . The goal was to make it more " cinematic " and magical , and Smith took inspiration from E.T. and Tim Burton 's work .
Amelia 's house was designed to appear " spooky but ordinary " and reminiscent of a castle . Most scenes based in Leadworth were filmed in Llandaff village in Cardiff on 29 September , 5 – 7 October , and 20 November 2009 . Photographs were taken on 5 October for the stop @-@ frame animation sequence representing the Doctor 's thought process . As the stills were taken by members of the crew and not computers the result was not perfect , which Adam Smith thought provided an " organic " feel . Plagued by torrential rain , the crew returned on 20 November to shoot the final Leadworth scenes . The production crew heavily dressed the area , adding flowers , street signs and souvenirs specific to Leadworth .
The Doctor hanging out of the TARDIS was filmed with Smith in front of a greenscreen , while the aerial footage of London was achieved with a helicopter . Smith stated that the scene was hard to visualise as it relied heavily on computer @-@ generated images . Nearly every scene in the sequence is a visual effects shot , including a 3 @-@ D TARDIS flying over London and a CG Doctor hanging out of the TARDIS in the aerial shots . Moffat realised that the Millennium Dome was visible in the final footage , and so the scene could not be set in 1996 before it had been built . Instead of a reshoot , Moffat explained that the TARDIS could be just about to go back in time and materialise in Amelia 's garden . In post @-@ production , 30 tracks of sound effects , music composed by Murray Gold specifically for the sequence , and Smith 's " grunting and groaning " were added . The primarily music @-@ led sequence was produced by Nikki Wilson , who receives a " special thanks " credit .
While Amelia waits for the Doctor in the garden , the camera returns to her house where something , presumably Prisoner Zero , darts past the camera . It is actually Smith in footage intended for the finale , " The Big Bang " , but when it did not fit into that episode it was recycled here . Originally the scene where the Doctor confirms that he is the man she remembers by showing her the apple she gave him that day was cut due to pacing issues and that the fact had been established in a previous scene . The previous scene was then cut and the apple scene returned . Due to the rain , the scene where the Doctor tries to gain the Atraxi 's attention with his sonic screwdriver had to be simplified . Adam Smith based the style of the confrontation on a Western film . The destruction of the sonic screwdriver shortly after was achieved with a spark effect concealed inside the screwdriver , activated by an electrical charge that reached the screwdriver by an electrical wire that ran up Smith 's sleeve and connected to a receiver . Special effects head Danny Hargreaves then used a remote control to activate the device . Contrary to reports , the effect did not injure Smith . The " fish fingers and custard " scene was shot in 12 takes . The fish fingers were actually a breaded coconut @-@ flavored food item ; Smith estimated that he had eaten some 14 of them .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Eleventh Hour " was first broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 3 April 2010 . Overnight figures reported that 8 million watched the episode on BBC One and the simulcast on BBC HD . Final consolidated figures rose to 9 @.@ 59 million on BBC One and 494 @,@ 000 on BBC HD , making the final rating for the episode 10 @.@ 08 million viewers , the most @-@ watched premiere since " Rose " and the eighth highest rated episode since Doctor Who 's 2005 return . The episode was second for the entire week on BBC One and number four for the week across all channels . The episode earned an Appreciation Index of 86 , considered " excellent " .
The episode was also popular on BBC 's online iPlayer . Within one week of broadcast , " The Eleventh Hour " received 1 @.@ 27 million hits on BBC 's online iPlayer service , the record for most requests in a week . It went on to become the most requested episode of 2010 with 2 @.@ 241 million views ; Doctor Who was named the most watched programme of the year on the service .
" The Eleventh Hour " was first broadcast in the US on BBC America on 17 April 2010 and in Canada on the same date on Space . It set a record for BBC America , with an average of 1 @.@ 2 million viewers and 0 @.@ 9 million in the adults aged 25 – 54 demographic . The episode aired in Australia on 18 April on ABC1 . It could also be viewed on ABC 's website iView two days prior to the television air date , on 16 April . The show was broadcast two weeks after airing in Britain , as the BBC required a fortnight to edit down the Doctor Who Confidential : Cut Down . There was no room for the accompanying Doctor Who Confidential due to the hour @-@ long running time , but ABC holds the rights and has made it available on iView . The episode aired in New Zealand on 2 May on Prime .
" The Eleventh Hour " was released in Region 2 on DVD and Blu @-@ ray with the following episodes " The Beast Below " and " Victory of the Daleks " on 7 June 2010 . It was then re @-@ released as part of the complete series five DVD on 8 November 2010 .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" The Eleventh Hour " received positive reviews from critics . The Mail on Sunday reviewer Sinclair McKay called " The Eleventh Hour " a " deft first episode " that was " packed with one @-@ liners and an even more fantastical feel than of late . But it had that old reassuring combination of intense Britishness , quirkiness and a sense of the macabre " . He also praised Gillan 's " winning " performance and Smith 's adaption to the role , concluding , " Smith might turn out to be one of the best Time Lords of the lot " . Benji Wilson , for The Daily Telegraph , wrote " It was ridiculous but it felt right : mad , alien , brand @-@ new but very old . A + to the casting director . A + to Smith " . He also said that Gillan " 110 per cent nailed it " . Though he compared Prisoner Zero 's low @-@ budget CGI makeup to a " draught excluder " , he said that Moffat " turned a weakness into a strength " by having Prisoner Zero take the form of humans .
Daniel Martin of The Guardian called " The Eleventh Hour " " an absolute triumph " and the fact that " the story wisely doesn 't waste too much time with an unstable regeneration " . Though he praised Smith , he commented he was " still not feeling " the " Geronimo ! " catchphrase . Radio Times reviewer Patrick Mulkern believed it was " obvious " that Smith 's Doctor would be " up there with the greatest " and also praised Gillan , though he was unsure of the rescored theme tune . He also praised Moffat 's script for " [ offering ] funny lines ... directorial flourishes and a host of blink @-@ and @-@ miss star turns " . Zap2it 's Sam McPherson gave the episode an A + , saying that it was " definitely " his favourite and praised the debut of Smith , Gillan and the redesigned TARDIS . Paul Kerton , also of the site , praised Adam Smith for " [ handling ] the episode beautifully " , the depth in Amy 's character , and Matt Smith 's take on the role . However , he thought the downside to the episode were the " slightly poor effects " and " somewhat lightweight story " , and while he called the new title sequence " absolutely beautiful " , he was unsure of the new variation of the theme tune .
Dave Golder of SFX magazine gave " The Eleventh Hour " five out of five stars , thinking that Moffat captured " the way children perceive the Doctor " and praising the debuts of Smith and Gillan . The A.V. Club reviewer Keith Phipps gave the episode an A- , explaining that he liked Smith " a lot " but was not sure if the Eleventh Doctor was separate enough from the Tenth yet . He called Gillan " instantly winning " and that the story was " no exception " from Moffat 's typical " exceptionally strong narratives , keen sense of character , and efficient plotting " . Maureen Ryan of The Chicago Tribune stated that the episode " works " as an introduction , though it could be " almost too jokey at times " . Though she felt the series was in good hands with Smith and Gillan , she derided the Atraxi for being " alarmingly static and ultimately uninteresting " and the story 's " little substance " . IGN 's Matt Wales rated the episode 8 out of 10 , praising it for easily fitting into the show 's continuity , especially with Smith 's portrayal of the Doctor . However , he thought the " calamity plot " was the " weakest link in an otherwise superb opening episode " and the " whole bunch of disparate elements ... never [ gelled ] into a satisfying whole " . Though he said it was not perfect with " a saggy midsection and slightly naff CGI effects " , he thought it was still " wondrous in so many ways " . New York Times reviewer Mike Hale wrote that the episode worked like " a well @-@ oiled piece of machinery " , but it came across as " routine " with " none of the over @-@ the @-@ top exuberance " of Davies ' run . While he noted that Gillan " looks promising " , he felt that Smith was too much like Tennant and would " [ need ] to start shaping his own take on the role " .
Den of Geek selected the episode as Doctor Who 's highlight in their " Best TV Episodes of 2010 " article . In 2011 , after the airing of the next series , Digital Spy called the episode " still Smith and Moffat 's finest hour " . Digital Spy also named " The Eleventh Hour " the seventh best episode of the entire programme in 2013 .
The episode attracted some criticism from viewers who complained that Amy 's character and occupation as a kissogram was " too sexy " for a family programme . Gillan defended her character , claiming that girls Amy 's age often wore short skirts and it showed the character had confidence , while executive producer Piers Wenger said , " The whole kissogram thing played into Steven 's desire for the companion to be feisty and outspoken and a bit of a number . Amy is probably the wildest companion that the Doctor has travelled with , but she isn 't promiscuous " .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Eleventh Hour " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Mariah Carey ( album ) =
Mariah Carey is the self @-@ titled debut studio album by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey , released on June 12 , 1990 by Columbia Records . Its music incorporates a range of contemporary genres with a mix of slow ballads and dance tracks . Originally , Carey wrote four songs with Ben Margulies , which solely constituted her demo tape . While altered and partially re @-@ sung after being signed to Columbia , all four songs made the final cut for the album . Aside from Margulies , Carey worked with a range of professional writers and producers , all of whom were hired by Columbia CEO , Tommy Mottola . Mariah Carey featured production and writing from Rhett Lawrence , Ric Wake and Narada Michael Walden , all of whom were top record producers at the time . Together with Carey , they conceived the album and reconstructed her original demo tape .
Upon release , the album received generally positive reviews from music critics , who complimented Carey 's voice and technique , as well as the album 's content . It became a commercial success as well , topping the Billboard 200 album chart for eleven consecutive weeks . Mariah Carey was certified nine @-@ times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting shipments of nine million copies in the United States . The album experienced similar success in Canada , where it topped the charts and was certified seven @-@ times platinum . Mariah Carey fared well in other worldwide territories , reaching the top ten in the Netherlands , Australia , New Zealand , Norway , Sweden and United Kingdom . Worldwide , the album has sold more than 15 million copies .
Five singles were released from the album , four of which became number @-@ one hits on the Hot 100 . " Vision of Love " was chosen as the album 's lead single , topping the charts in Canada , New Zealand , and the United States . The song was critically lauded , and was regarded as one of the strongest debut singles by a female singer . The album 's second single , " Love Takes Time " was also well received and peaked the charts in Canada and the US . With the following two singles , " Someday " and " I Don 't Wanna Cry " reaching number one in the US , Carey became the first artist since The Jackson 5 to have their first four singles top the charts in the United States .
= = Background = =
In 1988 , an 18 @-@ year @-@ old Carey moved out of her mother 's house in Long Island , and into a small apartment in Manhattan . She had a demo tape consisting of four songs , which she had written during her high school years with Ben Margulies . As 1988 unfolded , Carey , still without a record deal , struggled to draw the attention of record executives in New York . While working several jobs , she continued writing and producing music with Margulies , making changes and additions to the demo . After months of difficulty , Carey met with singer Brenda K. Starr , and soon began singing back @-@ up for her . Eventually , Starr began hearing what she described as " glimpses " of Carey 's voice throughout sessions , and noticed her " gifted voice " . She realized Carey was capable of achieving success , but only needed help to break through into mainstream music .
One night , Starr took Carey to a record industry gala , attempting to convince a record label executive to listen her demo . Jerry L. Greenberg , president of Atlantic Records took notice of her . As Carey handed him the record , Tommy Mottola quickly grabbed the tape , insisting that he would deal with " the project " . As Mottola got into his limousine later that evening , he played Carey 's demo and quickly realized the talent that he had just discovered . He quickly returned to the event , but a discouraged Carey had already left .
After a week of tracking her down through Starr 's management , Mottola got in touch with Carey and brought her over to Columbia Records . After meeting with Carey and her mother Patricia for the first time , Mottola said , " When I heard and saw Mariah , there was absolutely no doubt that she was in every way destined for super @-@ stardom . " After a few brief meetings , Carey was signed to Columbia in December 1988 .
Mottola had assumed the top position at Sony , the parent label of Columbia , and began taking the company through various stages of change . One he felt was very important for the label 's success was to discover a young and very talented female vocalist , to rival Whitney Houston from Arista Records , or a pop star to match Madonna , who was signed to Sire Records at the time . He felt that Carey represented both . Mottola 's confidence in Carey led him to hire a range of talented and well @-@ known musicians and songwriters to assist with Carey 's demo , as well as to create new material . Among them were Ric Wake , Narada Michael Walden and Rhett Lawrence .
= = Recording and composition = =
Carey and Ben Margulies began writing prior to Carey 's signing , and had composed over fourteen songs ; seven of which earned a place on the album . Originally , Carey and Margulies planned to produce the entire album as well , an idea her label did not permit . On the album , Carey worked with a range of producers and writers , including from Ben Margulies , Rhett Lawrence , Narada Michael Walden , Ric Wake and Walter Afanasieff ; the latter would continue working extensively working with Carey on future projects . As production for the album began , Carey worked with Walden in New York , where they produced " I Don 't Wanna Cry " . While he described Carey as " very shy , " he noted how professional she was for someone her age . Additionally , Carey wrote " There 's Got to Be a Way " during her first recording session with Wake . During the session , they wrote four songs , but they only produced the latter song for the album . After flying to New York and working with Carey , Walden was astonished by her voice . Together , they collaborated on transforming many of the demo 's songs into more commercial recordings , which took place in Tarpan Studios in San Rafael , California . For her work with Lawrence , Carey traveled to New York once again . In the studio , she presented him with the demo of " Vision of Love " which she had written with Margulies years prior . Lawrence saw " potential " in the song , but he did not think much of it in its early stages . He described the song 's sound as having a " fifties sort of shuffle " . According to Lawrence , Carey needed a more contemporary sound , so they met in the studio alongside Margulies and producer Chris Toland . They added a new arrangement to the original chord progression , while Carey changed the song 's melody and key . Afterwards , Margulies added few drum notes to the arrangement , including additional guitar and bass notes .
When Carey worked with Walden on " I Don 't Wanna Cry " , they worked on several other songs . Together , they decided to " slow down the tempo " and create a " crying type of ballad , " one which according to him , featured a direct inspiration from gospel genres . After they completed the song , Lawrence noted how much of a perfectionist Carey was . He said that after finishing the song , she returned to the studio the following week , all in order to correct " one line " that troubled her . As one of the four original songs she gave to Mottola , " Someday " became Wake 's favorite from the start , " I loved that song right from the beginning ... Then Mariah called me one day and said ' I 'd love to do it if you want to do it . ' It was great , I 'm glad she called me . " During its recording , Carey revealed how the song came into existence . She had been working on the demo with Margulies in his studio . As he began playing different notes on the electric keyboard , Carey directed him on the chord changes , while providing the chorus , lyrics and melody . In " All in Your Mind " , Carey does a great vocal performance , doing staccatos up to F7 . According to the artist , her voice " split " while doing those ornaments . While she thought to remove it from the song 's recording , Wake and Walden were very impressed by the vocal flips , claiming that it would fit in perfectly .
The debut album was completed and being mastered when Carey wrote " Love Takes Time " with Ben Margulies . Margulies said , " It was sort of a gospelish thing I was improvising , then we began working on it . It was on a work tape that we had ... and we recorded a very quick demo . It was just a piano vocal demo - I played live piano , and she sang it . " Carey was on a mini @-@ tour of ten states , playing acoustically with a piano player and three back @-@ up singers . While on a company plane , she played the demo of " Love Takes Time " for Columbia Records president Don Ienner . " All the important guys were on the plane , " Margulies said . " Tommy Mottola , Ienner , and Bobby Colomby . " Carey was told the song was a " career @-@ maker , " and that it had to go on the first album . She protested - her album was already being mastered , and she intended this ballad for her next release .
The demo was sent to producer Afanasieff . When Carey flew west to work with Narada Michael Walden on some tracks for her first album , Tommy Mottola and Don Ienner were impressed with Afanasieff 's work and gave him an executive staff producer job with the label . " I guess to see if he made the right choice , ( Tommy ) called me up one day , " remembers Afanasieff . " He said , ' We 've got this Mariah Carey album done , but there 's a song that she and Ben Margulies wrote that is phenomenal , and I want to try everything we can to put it on the album . ' I said , ' What do you want me to do ? ' and he said , ' You only have a couple of days , but are you ready to cut it ? ' I couldn 't believe the opportunity that it was . I 'd never produced anything by myself up until that time . "
The demo was very close to what Mottola wanted the finished product to be , according to Afanasieff . " We cut the song and the music and the basics in about a day - and the only reason is this deadline . It was do it or we were gonna miss out on the whole thing . We got the tape and recorded everything and we got on the plane and went to New York ( and ) did her vocals . She did all the backgrounds , practically sang all night ... We came back to the studio that afternoon , and we had to fix one line very quickly , and then ( engineer ) Dana ( Jon Chapelle ) and I got back on the plane with the tape , went back to the studio in Sausalito , and mixed it . So it was a three @-@ day process : a day and a half for music , kind of like a day for vocals , and a day for mixing . "
Afanasieff heard from Columbia executives as soon as they received the mix . They wanted Carey 's vocal a little louder , so a remix was quickly completed . The producer asked if the song would still make the debut album , and was told , " We 're going to do our best . "
On the first copies of the album that were printed , " Love Takes Time " was not listed on the cassette or compact disc liner notes , even though the song was on the cassette or CD itself . " ( On ) some of the original first copies of the record , they didn 't have time to print the name of the song , " Margulies laughs . " And so the song 's on there , but it doesn 't say that it 's on there . It was a song that
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actually was strong enough to stop the pressing ... I don 't know if they had to throw away a few hundred copies . "
= = Critical reception = =
The album received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Ashley S. Battel from AllMusic called the album " extremely impressive " and described the songs as " smooth @-@ sounding ballads and uplifting dance / R & B cuts . " Battel concluded her review with " With this collection of songs acting as a springboard for future successes , Carey establishes a strong standard of comparison for other breakthrough artists of this genre . " Many critics expressed how Mariah Carey was one of the most impressive debuts of the year , praising its songs , lyrics and Carey 's voice and songwriting .
Billboard gave the album a very positive review calling it an " impressive debut , " and writing " Carey convincingly seizes many opportunities to display her incredible vocal range on such memorable tracks as the popular ' Vision of Love . ' " Rolling Stone gave the album praise writing " Carey debuted with an album of uplifting dance pop and R & B ballads , each song 's composition co @-@ credited to Carey and each providing an opportunity to unleash her wide vocal range . " American critic Robert Christgau gave the album a mixed review , writing , " She gets too political in her brave , young , idealistic attack on ' war , destitution and sorrow ' : ' Couldn 't we accept each other / Can 't we make ourselves aware . ' Elsewhere she sticks to what she doesn 't know — love.'
Mariah Carey was nominated for the 1991 Grammy Award for Album of the Year , while " Vision of Love " received nominations in the categories of Song of the Year , Record of the Year and Best Female Pop Vocal Performance . Carey won for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and also received the award for Best New Artist .
= = Chart performance = =
Mariah Carey entered the US Billboard 200 at number 80 , and reached the top 20 in its fourth week . The album topped the chart in its 36th week , due to Carey 's exposure at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards , and stayed there for 11 consecutive weeks ; to date , it is the longest stay at number one in Carey 's career . It remained in the top 20 for 65 weeks and on the Billboard 200 for 113 weeks . Mariah Carey was certified nine @-@ times platinum by the RIAA on December 15 , 1999 . The album has sold 4 @,@ 885 @,@ 000 copies in the United States , according to Nielsen SoundScan , which began counting sales after January 1 , 1991 . It became the best @-@ selling album of 1991 in the United States .
In Canada , the album peaked at number one on the Canadian RPM Albums Chart during the week of April 20 , 1991 . To date , Mariah Carey is certified seven @-@ times platinum by the Canadian Recording Industry Association ( CRIA ) , denoting shipments of 700 @,@ 000 copies . The album peaked at number six in Australia , where it went double platinum and finished sixth on the ARIA Charts end of 1991 top 50 albums . During the week of September 15 , 1990 , Mariah Carey entered the UK Albums Chart at its peak of number six . After spending 40 weeks fluctuating in the chart , the album was certified platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) , denoting shipments of 300 @,@ 000 copies . As of November 2010 , the album has sold 15 million copies worldwide .
= = Singles = =
" Vision of Love " was the first single released from the album and became one of the most popular and critically praised songs of Carey 's career . Additionally , " Vision of Love " is credited with bringing the use of melisma to the 1990s and inspiring various future talents . " Vision of Love " was nominated for three 1991 Grammy Awards : Best Female Pop Vocal Performance ( which it won ) , Record of the Year and Song of the Year . The song received the Soul Train Music Award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Female and a Songwriter Award at the BMI Pop Awards . In the United States , it peaked at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 , during the week of August 2 , 1990 , staying atop the chart for four consecutive weeks . " Vision of Love " topped the singles chart in Canada and New Zealand as well , and appeared within the top ten in Australia , Ireland , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . Aside from its chart success , the song was lauded by music critics . In a retrospective review on the album in 2005 , Entertainment Weekly called the song " inspired " and complimented Carey 's use of the whistle register in the song . Additionally , Rolling Stone said that " the fluttering strings of notes that decorate songs like ' Vision of Love ' , inspired the entire American Idol vocal school , for better or worse , and virtually every other female R & B singer since the nineties . " Bill Lamb from About.com said that " ' Vision of Love ' is one of the best songs of Mariah 's recording career [ ... ] It is simply one of the most stunning debut releases ever by a pop recording artist . "
" Love Takes Time " served as the album 's second single . The song became Carey 's second single to top the singles chart in the United States , and third chart topper in Canada . While the song achieved strong success stateside , " Love Takes Time " barely charted inside the top ten in New Zealand and outside the top 20 in Germany , the Netherlands and the United Kingdom . " Someday " ( the album 's third single ) followed a similar pattern as " Love Takes Time , " topping the chart in the US and Canada . In Australia , it peaked outside the top 40 , and hit number 38 in France and the UK . " I Don 't Wanna Cry " , the album 's fourth single , also topped the charts in the United States . The song became Carey 's fourth chart topper in the US , finishing number 25 on Billboard 's year @-@ end chart . Aside from peaking at number two in Canada , it charted at number 49 in Australia . A fifth single , " There 's Got to Be a Way " , was released in the United Kingdom , where it peaked at number fifty @-@ four .
= = Promotion = =
Aside from the heavy marketing and promotional campaign held by Sony Music , Carey performed on several television programs and award ceremonies , stateside and throughout Europe . Carey 's first televised appearance was at the 1990 NBA Playoffs where she sang " America the Beautiful " . Soon after , she performed " Vision of Love " back @-@ to @-@ back on both The Arsenio Hall Show and The Tonight Show . In September 1990 , Carey appeared on Good Morning America where she performed an a cappella version of " Vision of Love , " alongside the Billy T. Scott Ensemble . " Vision of Love " was performed on various other American television shows such as the 1991 Grammy Awards and The Oprah Winfrey Show , as well as European programs such as The Veronica Countdown ( The Netherlands ) and the Wogan Show ( United Kingdom ) . Carey has performed " Vision of Love " on most of her tours , up until her Angels Advocate Tour in 2010 , where it remained absent from the set @-@ list .
Promotion for the album continued with Carey 's follow up singles . " Love Takes Time " was performed on " The Arsenio Hall Show " as well as Carey 's televised performance at " The Tattoo Club . " The third single from Mariah Carey , " Someday " , was performed at the 1991 American Music Awards which helped it reach number one in the United States . Carey 's fourth single " I Don 't Wanna Cry " , reached the top of the Hot 100 without any immediate promotion , as Carey had not performed the song until her Music Box Tour in 1993 . As promotion for Mariah Carey ended , Sony released a fifth single " There 's Got to Be a Way " , in the UK . Most of the albums singles were performed live throughout Carey 's short Music Box Tour . Both " Vision of Love " and " I Don 't Wanna Cry " were performed on Carey 's Asian and European Daydream World Tour ( 1996 ) .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Montacute House =
Montacute House is a late Elizabethan mansion with garden in Montacute , South Somerset .
All parts are maintained by the National Trust ( NT ) which subsidise entry fees . Its Long Gallery , the longest in England serves as a South @-@ West outpost of the National Portrait Gallery displaying a skilful and well @-@ studied range of old oils and watercolours .
An example of English architecture during a period that was moving from the medieval Gothic to the Renaissance Classical , and one of few prodigy houses to survive almost unchanged from the Elizabethan era , the house has been designated by English Heritage as a Grade I listed building , and Scheduled Ancient Monument . It was visited by 125 @,@ 442 people in 2013 . Designed by an unknown architect , possibly the mason William Arnold , the three @-@ storey mansion , constructed of the local Ham Hill stone , was built in about 1598 by Sir Edward Phelips , Master of the Rolls and the prosecutor during the trial of the Gunpowder Plotters .
The house and its gardens have been a filming location for several films and a setting for television costume dramas and literary adaptations .
Sir Edward Phelips ' descendants occupied the house until the early 20th century . Following a brief period , when the house was let to tenants , one of whom was Lord Curzon who lived at the house with his mistress , the novelist Elinor Glyn , it was acquired by the NT in 1927 .
= = History = =
Montacute House was built in about 1598 by Sir Edward Phelips , whose family had lived in the Montacute area since at least 1460 , first as yeomen farmers before rising in status . The site was bought from the Cluniac Montacute Priory by Thomas Phelips and passed to his grandson , also called Thomas , who started planning the house , but died before it was built and left the completion of the work to his son Edward . Edward Phelips was a lawyer who had been in Parliament since 1584 . He was knighted in 1603 and a year later became Speaker of the House . James I appointed him Master of the Rolls and Chancellor to his son and heir Henry , Prince of Wales . Phelips remained at the hub of English political life , and his legal skills were employed when he became opening prosecutor during the trial of the Gunpowder Plotters .
Sir Edward 's choice of architect is unknown , although it has been attributed to the mason William Arnold , who was responsible for the designs of Cranborne Manor and Wadham College , Oxford , and had worked at Dunster Castle , also in Somerset . Dunster has architectural motifs similar to those found at Montacute . Phelips chose as the site for his new mansion a spot close by the existing house , built by his father . The date work commenced is undocumented , but is generally thought to be c . 1598 / 9 , based on dates on a fireplace and in stained glass within the house . The date 1601 , engraved above a doorcase , is considered to be the date of completion .
Sir Edward Phelips died in 1614 , leaving his family wealthy and landed ; he was succeeded by his son , Sir Robert Phelips , who represented various West Country constituencies in Parliament . Robert Phelips has the distinction of being arrested at Montacute . A staunch Protestant , he was subsequently imprisoned in the Tower of London as a result of his opposition to the " Spanish Match " between the Prince of Wales and a Catholic Spanish Infanta .
The family 's fame and notoriety were to be short @-@ lived . Subsequent generations settled down in Somerset to live the lives of county gentry , representing Somerset in Parliament and when necessary following occupations in the army and the church . This peaceful existence was jolted when the estate was inherited by William Phelips ( 1823 – 89 ) , who in his early days made many improvements and renovations to Montacute . He was responsible for the Base Court , a low service range adjoining the south side of the mansion. and the restoration of the Great Chamber , which he transformed into a library . Later , he was to become insane ; an addicted gambler , he was eventually incarcerated for his own good . Sadly for his family , this was after he had gambled away the family fortune and vast tracts of the Montacute Estate . In 1875 , when his son William Phelips ( 1846 – 1919 ) took control of the estate , agricultural rents from what remained of the mortgaged estate were low , and the house was a drain on limited resources . Selling the family silver and art works delayed the inevitable by a few years , but in 1911 the family were forced to let the house , for an annual sum of £ 650 , and move out . The Phelipses never returned .
By 1915 , the original tenant , Robert Davidson , had departed and the house was let to George Curzon , 1st Marquess Curzon of Kedleston . A later tenant was the American writer Henry Lane Eno , who died at the house in 1928 .
The house was never to be a private residence again . It was offered for sale in 1929 , and at a time when many country houses were being demolished was given a scrap value of £ 5 @,@ 882 . With the exception of the Phelips family portraits , the historic contents and furnishing were disposed of , and the house , an empty shell , remained on the market for two years .
Finally , in 1931 , the house was sold to the philanthropist Ernest Cook , who presented it to the Society for the Protection of Ancient Buildings , and from that Society , it passed to the National Trust . It was one of the Trust 's first great houses . The following year , in 1932 , it opened to the public for the first time . Bare of furnishing and without sufficient funds to maintain it , James Lees @-@ Milne , the secretary of the Trust 's country house committee , described the mansion as an " empty and rather embarrassing white elephant " .
During the Second World War , Montacute was requisitioned by the army , and American soldiers were billeted in the surrounding parkland before the Normandy landings .
= = Architecture = =
Built in what came to be considered the English Renaissance style , the east front , the intended principal façade , is distinguished by its Dutch gables decorated with clambering stone monkeys and other animals .
Architecture during the early English Renaissance was far less formal than that of mainland Europe and drew from a greater selection of motifs both ancient and modern , with less emphasis placed on the strict observance of rules derived from antique architecture . This has led to an argument that the style was an evolution of Gothic rather than an innovation imported from Europe . This argument is evident at Montacute , where Gothic pinnacles , albeit obelisk in form , are combined with Renaissance gables , pediments , classical statuary , ogee roofs and windows appearing as bands of glass . This profusion of large , mullioned windows , an innovation of their day , give the appearance that the principal façade is built entirely of glass ; a similar fenestration was employed at Hardwick Hall in Derbyshire . However , despite the Dutch gables , a feature of the English Renaissance acquired as the style spread from France across the Low Countries to England , and the Gothic elements , much of the architectural influence is Italian .
The windows of the second @-@ floor Long Gallery are divided by niches containing statues , an Italian Renaissance feature exemplified at the Palazzo degli Uffizi in Florence ( 1560 – 81 ) , which at Montacute depict the Nine Worthies dressed as Roman soldiers ; the bay windows have shallow segmented pediments – a very early and primitive occurrence of this motif in England – while beneath the bay windows are curious circular hollows , probably intended for the reception of terracotta medallions , again emulating the palazzi of Florence . Such medallions were one of the Renaissance motifs introduce to English Gothic architecture when Henry VIII was rebuilding Hampton Court and supporting the claim that the English Renaissance was little more than Gothic architecture with Renaissance ornament . At Montacute , however , the Renaissance style is not confined to ornament , the house also has perfect symmetry . Paired stair towers stand in the angles between the main body of the house and the wings that project forward , a sign of modern symmetry in the plan of the house as well as its elevation , and a symptom of the times , in that the hall no longer had a " high end " of greater state .
Montacute , like many Elizabethan mansions , is built in an ' E ' shape , a much @-@ used plan in this era . On the ground floor was the great hall , kitchens and pantries , on the upper floors , retiring rooms for the family and honoured guests . Over the centuries , the layout and use of rooms changed : drawing and dining rooms evolved on the ground floor .
The original approach to the house would have been far more impressive than the picturesque approach today . The east front was then the entrance façade and faced onto a large entrance court . The two remaining pavilions flanked a large gatehouse ; this long @-@ demolished structure contained secondary lodgings . In turn , the entrance court and gatehouse were approached through a larger outer court . The courts were however not fortified , but bordered by ornate balustrading , which with the ogee roofs of the pavilions , which in reality were follies , were a purely ornamental and domestic acknowledgement of the fortified courts and approaches found in earlier medieval English manors and castles .
As in all houses of the Elizabethan era , Montacute had no corridors : the rooms led directly from one to another . This changed in 1787 when stonework from a nearby mansion at Clifton Maybank ( which was being partly demolished ) was purchased by Edward Phelips ( 1725 – 97 ) and used to rebuild Montacute 's west front . This provided the much @-@ needed corridor giving privacy to the ground @-@ floor rooms and first @-@ floor bedrooms . Now , with the new frontage in place , the house was virtually turned around : the " Clifton Maybank " façade became the front entrance , and the impressive former front elevation now overlooked a lawn surrounded by flower borders , rather than the original entrance courtyard . The small pavilions with ogee domed roofs that flanked the demolished gatehouse still remain . They may have been intended as banqueting houses , but by the 1630s were used as bedrooms .
= = Interior = =
= = = Ground floor = = =
The addition of the Clifton Maybank corridor , built in the 18th century from stone obtained from another house then undergoing alteration , allowed the principal ground- and first @-@ floor rooms to have some privacy from the servants ' areas and linked the two staircases . It also allowed the house to be turned around by creating a new entrance façade facing west .
The Great Hall , leading off from the corridor , was the most important communal eating and living room , but by the time Montacute was completed the traditional Great Hall was largely an anachronism . Such halls continued to be built , however , albeit as at Montacute on a smaller scale . For the first few years after its completion , the servants continued to dine in the hall , but the family and honoured guests now ate in the Great Chamber above . The hall now served as a room to receive and also for processions to commence to the grander rooms above .
Leading off from the Great Hall are the family 's private Drawing Room and Parlour . In the 16th and early 17th centuries , in a house such as Montacute , the Parlour was where the family would dine , possibly with some of their upper servants . It allowed them not only privacy from dining publicly in the hall , but also less state and pomp than if dining in the Great Chamber above . Like its grander cousin above , the Parlour also had an adjoining principal bed chamber , now the Drawing Room , originally known as the White Chamber and later as the Round Parlour . As fashions and uses changed , and privacy from servants became desirable , like the later Baroque state apartments , these ground @-@ floor rooms lost their original purpose and became a series of seemingly meaningless drawing rooms . The National Trust installed an incongruous 18th @-@ century fireplace from Coleshill House in the Drawing Room in the mid @-@ 20th century . It is now furnished in 18th @-@ century style .
The room on the opposite side of the Clifton Maybank corridor from the Great Hall was originally two rooms comprising the " pannetry " ( sic ) and " buttery . " In a large household the buttery and " pannetry " were part of the offices pertaining to the kitchen , and as at Montacute they were generally close to the Great Hall . The buttery was traditionally the place from which the yeoman of the buttery served beer and candles to those lower members of the household not entitled to drink wine . Montacute 's buttery is typical , as it had a staircase to the beer cellar below . The " pannetry " was the room from which the yeoman of the pantry served bread . By the time of Montacute 's completion , upper servants often dined and entertained visiting servants in the pantry . This layout was a medieval concept and later , as custom dictated that servants withdraw from the principal areas of the house , these rooms became used by the family as reception and private dining rooms . Eventually , in the early 20th century , Lord Curzon amalgamated the two rooms to create the grand , and socially necessary , dining room , which Montacute had lacked since the Great Chamber had been abandoned more than 100 years earlier .
The Servant 's Hall , from which a staircase in the bay window descends to the basement , became the servant 's dining room at the beginning of the 18th century . Outside , the six Doric columns on the East Terrace originally had decorative finials , now replaced by lamps .
= = = First floor = = =
The first floor contains one of the grandest rooms in the house , the Library . The room was formerly known as the Great Chamber ; in a 16th @-@ century mansion , such as Montacute , this room was the epicentre of all ceremony and state : hence , its position at the head of the principal staircase , making it the finale of a processional route . Here , the most important guests would have been received , and where the Phelips dined formally with their guests and where musical entertainments and dancing would take place . The Great Chamber at Montacute contains the finest chimney @-@ piece in the house ; however , its classical statuary depicting nudes are long gone , victims of Victorian prudery . During the 18th century the room was shut up and used a store and permitted to decay ; this explains why in the 19th century it was completely restored in " Elizabethan style . " The strapwork ceiling , panelling and bookcases all date from this period . The only original features remaining are the heraldic stained glass in the windows and the Portland stone chimney @-@ piece . The room contains an ornate carved wooden porch ; installed in the library in the 1830s , it was originally in the parlour below .
At the head of the principal staircase an Anteroom divides the former Great Chamber from what would have been the main bedroom . During the 19th century , this room was furnished as an armoury . The adjoining bedroom , the Garden Chamber , was used as a bedroom by Lord Curzon during the early 20th century , and as such was equipped with a plumbed bath hidden in a wardrobe , one of the few in the house .
Further rooms on this floor include the Crimson Chamber , which together with its small adjoining dressing room formed one room accessed from the Great Chamber . Described in 1638 the " withdrawinge roome " , it was used by the family to withdraw from the more public ceremonies held in the Great Chamber and also could be used to form a suite with the neighbouring bedroom , the Hall Chamber , when eminent guests were entertained in the house .
The Hall Chamber was another of the principal bedrooms ; the adjoining Crimson Chamber originally served as the Hall Chamber 's " withdrawinge roome . " as the room was described in 1638 . As a suite , the rooms were intended to be accessed by a now @-@ blocked door in the Great Chamber . In this way , if an extremely high ranking guest was being entertained , they would then take over the entire suite including the Great Chamber . Although Montacute was equipped for a visiting sovereign , by the time it was completed Elizabeth I was dead and the family 's prominence was waning .
The floor has numerous other smaller rooms . As elsewhere in the house their usage frequently changed according to the requirements of the mansion 's occupants , and room names therefore often changed according to their use and decoration .
= = = Second floor = = =
A notable feature of the house is the 172 @-@ foot ( 52 m ) second @-@ floor Long Gallery , spanning the entire top floor of the house ; it is the longest surviving long gallery in England . The gallery is lit by a continuous wall of glass on its eastern side while its length is extended by oriel windows at each end , which from the exterior appear to cling perilously to the wall , supported only by a small corbel to the masonry .
Long galleries were a feature of large 16th- and 17th @-@ century houses and had many purposes , from entertaining to exercising during inclement weather ; the Phelips children would lead their ponies up these stairs to ride in the gallery . Today , it is used by the National Portrait Gallery to display part of its collection .
Various former bedrooms lead from the Long Gallery , and like the gallery are now hung with paintings on loan from the National Portrait Gallery .
The attic floor above the second floor , which is not open to the public , contains some garret rooms that would always have been secondary bedchambers . It is likely that in the 16th and 17th centuries they would have been occupied by the senior servants ; the lower servants would have slept in any vacant corner or space on the ground or basement floors .
= = Gardens = =
The gardens were well established by 1633 , and by 1667 several walled gardens and courts had been added with established orchards . They were accompanied by stone gate lodges , which were removed in the 18th century .
The garden planting , laid out within the former forecourt and in the slightly sunken grassed parterre square , was the work of Mrs Ellen Phelips , who lived at Montacute from the 1840s to her death in 1911 , and her gardener , Mr Pridham , who had worked for her at Coker Court . The avenue of clipped yews that reinforces the slightly gappy mature avenue of trees stretching away from the outer walls of the former forecourt to end in fields , and the clipped yews that outline the grassed parterre date from that time , though the famous " melted " shape of the giant hedge was inspired by the effects of a freak snowfall in 1947 . The sunken parterre garden design , with its Jacobean @-@ style central fountain , designed by Robert Shekelton Balfour ( 1869 – 1942 ) , is of 1894 ; Balfour 's dated design is conserved in the library of the Royal Institute of British Architects . Mixed borders in the East court were replanted by Phyllis Reiss of Tintinhull in powerful hot colours when the earlier tender colour scheme laid down by Vita Sackville @-@ West proved insipid to modern taste .
There are around 106 hectares ( 260 acres ) of parkland and 4 hectares ( 9 @.@ 9 acres ) of more formally laid out gardens . These are the remains of the 121 hectares ( 300 acres ) of parkland that previously surrounded the house . The gardens and parkland are listed , Grade I , on the Register of Historic Parks and Gardens of special historic interest in England .
= = Present day = =
During the last quarter of the 20th century the gardens and grounds were restored and replanted . The house and village have often featured as locations for films . Several scenes of the 1995 film version of Jane Austen 's novel Sense and Sensibility were filmed at Montacute , as were scenes from the 2004 film The Libertine . The house used as Baskerville Hall for a version of The Hound of the Baskervilles filmed in 2000 for Canadian television . In May – June 2014 the house was used as one of the locations for the BBC 's adaption of Hilary Mantel novel Wolf Hall
In 1975 London 's National Portrait Gallery formed the first of its regional partnerships , a partnership that marries empty large antique spaces with the many paintings the gallery has insufficient space to display . This has seen Montacute 's Long Gallery redecorated and restored and hung with an important collection of 16th- and 17th @-@ century old master portraits .
The Wallace and Gromit short film for 2012 is set at a house that seems to be based on Montacute House . The short was created in celebration of the National Trust and is titled " A Jubilee Bunt @-@ A @-@ Thon " . The fictional location for the earlier Wallace and Gromit film The Curse of the Were @-@ Rabbit , Tottington Hall , was also based on Montacute House .
From March to October each year the house and grounds are open to the public .
= Oyster Burns =
Thomas P. " Oyster " Burns ( September 6 , 1864 – November 11 , 1928 ) was a professional baseball player whose career spanned 15 seasons , 11 of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Wilmington Quicksteps ( 1884 ) , Baltimore Orioles ( 1884 – 85 , 1887 – 88 ) , Brooklyn Bridegrooms ( 1888 – 95 ) , and New York Giants ( 1895 ) . Burns , who predominately played as an outfielder , also played as a shortstop , second baseman , third baseman and as a pitcher . Over his career , Burns compiled a career batting average of .300 with 870 runs scored , 1 @,@ 392 hits , 224 doubles , 129 triples , 65 home runs , and 834 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 1 @,@ 188 games played . Although the majority of his career was spent in the major leagues , Burns also played in minor league baseball . He made his MLB debut at the age of 19 and was listed as standing 5 feet 8 inches ( 173 cm ) and weighing 183 pounds ( 83 kg ) .
Burns , nicknamed " Oyster " because he sold shellfish in the off @-@ season , was described as a " loudmouth " and having " an irritating voice and personality " . Nevertheless , Burns led the Bridegrooms to an American Association championship in 1889 and a National League pennant in 1890 . After retiring from baseball , Burns died on November 11 , 1928 in Brooklyn , New York .
= = Biography = =
Thomas P. Burns was born on September 6 , 1864 , in Philadelphia . His parents , Patrick and Mary Burns , were both Irish immigrants .
In 1883 , Burns began his professional baseball career as a pitcher with Harrisburg of the minor @-@ league Interstate Association . On the year , Burns posted an earned run average ( ERA ) of 2 @.@ 30 over 20 games pitched , 15 of which were starts . When he wasn 't pitching , Burns played second and third base .
Burns began the 1884 season playing for the Wilmington Quicksteps , but left the team after they joined the Union Association , and joined the Baltimore Orioles . Burns — the youngest player on the Orioles and the seventh youngest player in the American Association — batted .298 . Despite playing in only 35 games on the season , Burns recorded a team @-@ leading six home runs over 141 plate appearances . He continued his career with the Orioles in 1885 , batting .231 with five home runs and 37 RBI , and pitching to a 7 – 4 win – loss record . His offensive struggles led him to be demoted to the Newark Domestics for the 1886 season , where he helped the Domestics win the Eastern League pennant . By 1887 , Burns had reentered the majors for the Orioles and became the team captain until he threw a baseball at an opposing pitcher following a groundout ; he was later fined $ 25 ( $ 658 in 2011 ) . On the season , he recorded nine home runs — good for third in the American Association . Burns 's 19 triples were enough to tie him with five others for the league lead , and his 140 games played were tied for the league lead with teammate Blondie Purcell .
After playing in 79 games for Baltimore , Burns was transferred to the Brooklyn Bridegrooms by Harry Von der Horst , the owner of both clubs . While he was playing for the Bridegrooms , the New York Clipper described Burns as " the noisiest man that ever played on the Brooklyn team . His voice reminds one of a buzz @-@ saw . " Burns remained with the Bridegrooms for the 1889 season . He recorded team highs in on @-@ base percentage , batting average , and home runs hit while the Bridegrooms , with an 89 – 48 record , became American Association champions . In the World Series , the Bridegrooms played the New York Giants of the National League . Burns hit a three @-@ run home run to win the fourth game of the series , giving Brooklyn a 3 – 1 series lead . However , the Giants would take the World Series after winning five straight games .
In 1890 , the Bridegrooms had moved to the National League . Burns , now 26 , led the league in home runs ( 13 ) and RBI ( 128 ) . He hit for the cycle on August 1 , 1890 — becoming the first Bridegroom to do so . The team won the National League pennant , and faced the Louisville Colonels in the 1890 World Series . The series ended in a 3 – 3 – 1 tie : bad weather led to the cancellation of more games . After the 1891 season , Burns 's 1892 RBI total was third in the league , and his hits , doubles , triples , and batting average marks were the second highest on the Brooklyn team , now named the Grooms . In 1893 , between games of a doubleheader , a teammate of Burns , Tom Daly , was sleeping in center field when Burns stabbed Daly with a penknife . Daly awoke and turned on the knife , leading to a severed tendon which kept Daly out for two weeks . Burns ' 1894 batting average ( .355 ) was the highest of his career ; his hit and run totals were also the second highest in his career . Burns continued to play for the club until 1895 , when he played for the New York Giants . In his final MLB year , Burns batted a combined .258 over 25 games .
After the 1895 season , Burns 's contract was purchased by the minor @-@ league Newark Colts . The Colts would win the Atlantic League division with an 82 – 61 record , two games above the Hartford Bluebirds . The next season , Burns served as a player @-@ coach for the Bluebirds , where he led the team in doubles and batting average . In his final managerial year , Burns coached Portland , Maine of the New England League .
After retiring from baseball , Burns lived in Brooklyn until his death on November 11 , 1928 . He was buried in Holy Cross Cemetery in North Arlington , New Jersey .
= Mascarene grey parakeet =
The Mascarene grey parakeet or Thirioux ’ s grey parrot ( Psittacula bensoni ) , is an extinct species of parrot which was endemic to the Mascarene islands of Mauritius and Réunion in the western Indian Ocean . It has been classified as a member of the tribe Psittaculini , along with other parrots from the islands .
Subfossil bones of the Mascarene grey parakeet found on Mauritius were first described in 1973 as belonging to a smaller relative of the broad @-@ billed parrot in the genus Lophopsittacus . Apart from their size , the bones were very similar to those of other Mascarene parrots . The subfossils were later connected with 17th- and 18th @-@ century descriptions of small grey parrots on Mauritius and Réunion , together with a single illustration published in a journal describing a voyage in 1602 , and the species was instead reassigned to the genus Psittacula .
The Mascarene grey parakeet was grey , had a long tail , and was larger than other species of the Psittacula genus , which are usually green . The grey parrots were said to be easy to hunt , as the capture of one would result in its calling out to summon the whole flock . They were also considered to be crop pests and being such easy prey meant that they were extensively hunted . Coupled with deforestation , this pushed them into extinction . This had happened by the 1730s on Réunion and by the 1760s on Mauritius .
= = Taxonomy = =
In 1973 , English ornithologist Daniel T. Holyoak described some small parrot bones that he had discovered among a collection of broad @-@ billed parrot ( Lophopsittacus mauritianus ) subfossils in the Zoology Museum of Cambridge University . These remains had been collected by Louis Etienne Thirioux in the early 20th century , who had found them in a cave on Le Pouce mountain , on the Mascarene island of Mauritius . They were placed in the zoology museum by 1908 . Apart from their size and robustness , Holyoak did not find the bones to be distinct from those of the Mascarene parrot genera Lophopsittacus , Mascarinus ( the Mascarene parrot ) , Necropsittacus ( the Rodrigues parrot ) , and Psittacula ( which had two or three other species inhabiting the Mascarene islands ) . Because of their similarities , Holyoak considered all these genera to be closely related .
Holyoak provisionally placed the new species in the same genus as the broad @-@ billed parrot , naming it Lophopsittacus bensoni ; the name honours the English ornithologist Constantine W. Benson , for his work on birds from the Indian Ocean , and in classifying bird collections at Cambridge . Holyoak also mentioned the possibility that the remains could represent a small subspecies of Necropsittacus or a wide @-@ beaked form of Mascarinus , but maintained that they were best considered as belonging to a distinct species . The holotype specimen is a mandibular symphysis , with the specimen number UMZC 577a . Other known remains include upper mandibles , a palatine bone , and tarsometatarsi . The species has since been excavated from the Mare aux Songes swamp on Mauritius , from which subfossils of most of the other endemic bird species have been identified as well .
Old , vague accounts of several different now @-@ extinct Mascarene parrots have created much confusion for the scientists who subsequently examined them . In 1967 , American ornithologist James Greenway speculated that 17th- and 18th @-@ century reports of then @-@ unidentified grey parrots on Mauritius referred to the broad @-@ billed parrot . In 1987 , English ecologist Anthony S. Cheke correlated the L. bensoni subfossils with the grey parrots reported from Mauritius and Réunion , which had previously been ignored , or considered references to broad @-@ billed parrots . Further study of contemporary accounts indicates that the broad @-@ billed parrot was not grey , but had multiple colours .
In 2007 , the English palaeontologist Julian P. Hume reclassified L. bensoni as a member of the genus Psittacula , as he found it to be generically distinct from Lophopsittacus , but morphologically similar to the Alexandrine parakeet ( Psittacula eupatria ) . Hume also pointed out that an engraving accompanying the 1648 published version of Dutch Captain Willem Van West @-@ Zanen 's journal may be the only definite depiction of this species . The engraving shows the killing of dodos ( depicted as penguin @-@ like ) , a dugong , and parrots on Mauritius in 1602 ; the depicted method of catching parrots matches that used on Mascarene grey parakeets according to contemporary accounts . Hume coined the new common name " Thirioux 's grey parrot " in honour of the original collector . The IOC World Bird List instead used the common name " Mascarene grey parakeet " .
The population of grey parrots described from the island of Réunion ( referred to as Psittacula cf. bensoni by Hume ) is thought to have been conspecific with that on Mauritius . Until subfossils of P. bensoni are found on Réunion , it cannot be confirmed whether the grey parrots of the two islands belonged to the same species . In the 1860s , French naturalists Charles Coquerel and Auguste Vinson suggested these could have been parrots of the genus Coracopsis , but fossils of neither that genus nor Psittacula have ever been found on Réunion . Whilst Coracopsis parrots are known to have been introduced to that island in the 1700s , a population did not become established . While no live or dead Mascarene grey parakeets are known with certainty to have been exported , Hume has suggested that a brown parrot specimen — once housed in Cabinet du Roi but now lost — may have been a discoloured old Mascarene grey parakeet , or perhaps a lesser vasa parrot ( Coracopsis nigra ) . This specimen was described by Comte de Buffon in 1779 .
= = = Evolution = = =
Based on morphological features , the Alexandrine parakeet has been proposed as the founder population for all Psittacula species on Indian Ocean islands , with new populations settling during the species 's southwards colonisation from its native South Asia . Features of that species gradually disappear in species further away from its range . Many endemic Mascarene birds , including the dodo , are descended from South Asian ancestors , and Hume has proposed that this may also be the case for all the parrots there . Sea levels were lower during the Pleistocene , so it was possible for species to colonise some of these less isolated islands .
Although most extinct parrot species of the Mascarenes are poorly known , subfossil remains show that they shared common features such as enlarged heads and jaws , reduced pectoral bones , and robust leg bones . Hume has suggested that they all have a common origin in the radiation of the Psittaculini tribe , basing this theory on morphological features and the fact that Psittacula parrots have managed to colonise many isolated islands in the Indian Ocean . The Psittaculini could have invaded the area several times , as many of the species were so specialised that they may have evolved significantly on hotspot islands before the Mascarenes emerged from the sea . Other members of the Psittacula genus from the Mascarenes include the extant echo parakeet ( Psittacula eques echo ) of Mauritius , as well as the extinct Réunion parakeet ( Psittacula eques eques ) , and Newton 's parakeet ( Psittacula exsul ) of Rodrigues . A 2011 genetic study found that the Mascarene parrot ( Mascarinus mascarinus ) of Réunion was most closely related to the lesser vasa parrot from Madagascar and nearby islands , and therefore unrelated to the Psittacula parrots , undermining the theory of their common origin . A 2015 genetic study by Jackson et al. found the other Mascarene Psittacula taxa to group within a clade of rose @-@ ringed parakeet ( Psittacula krameri ) subspecies from Asia and Africa .
= = Description = =
Contemporary accounts describe the Mascarene grey parakeet as a grey , long @-@ tailed parrot . Subfossils show that its beak was about 30 % longer than that of the sympatric echo parakeet , and that it had a comparatively broad beak . Members of the Psittacula genus commonly have large , red beaks , and long tail feathers , with the central ones being the longest . It also differed from its congeners in other osteological details . It was skeletally similar to the Alexandrine parakeet , but some of its bones were larger and more robust . Its colouration also separated it from all other members of Psittacula , the majority of which are green or partially green .
Based on subfossils , the Mascarene grey parakeet was smaller than the broad @-@ billed parrot and the Rodrigues parrot , but similar in size to the Mascarene parrot , though with a wider beak . The mandibular symphysis ( central jaw ridge ) was 2 @.@ 7 – 2 @.@ 9 mm ( 0 @.@ 11 – 0 @.@ 11 in ) thick along the mid @-@ line , the palatine ( part of the palate ) was 31 @.@ 1 mm ( 1 @.@ 22 in ) , and the tarsometatarsus ( bone in the lower leg ) was 22 – 22 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 87 – 0 @.@ 89 in ) . The grey parrots from Réunion were described as being larger than the sympatric Réunion parakeet .
= = Behaviour and ecology = =
According to Anthony S. Cheke and Julian Hume , the anatomy of the Mascarene grey parakeet suggests that its habits were largely terrestrial . Like the extinct Mauritian duck and the Mascarene coot , it appears that the Mascarene grey parakeet inhabited both Mauritius and Réunion . Both populations were said to be easy to hunt by capturing one individual and making it call out , which would summon an entire flock .
Willem van West @-@ Zanen , who visited Mauritius in 1602 , was the first to mention grey parrots there , and he also described the hunting methods used :
... some of the people went bird hunting . They could grab as many birds as they wished and could catch them by hand . It was an entertaining sight to see . The grey parrots are especially tame and if one is caught and made to cry out , soon hundreds of the birds fly around ones ’ ears , which were then hit to the ground with little sticks .
The Dutch sailor Willem Ysbrandtszoon Bontekoe was on Réunion in 1618 , and described the same behaviour , in the first account of the grey parrots there :
Coming further inland we found [ a ] great number of geese , doves , grey parrots and other birds , also many land @-@ turtles ... And what we most did marvel at , when we held one of the parrots and other birds and squeezed it till it screamed , there came all the others from thereabout as if they would free it and let themselves be caught as well , so we had enough of them to eat .
In 1705 , Jean Feuilley gave a more detailed description of the parrots of Réunion and their ecology :
There are several sorts of parrot , of different sizes and colours . Some are the size of a hen , grey , the beak red [ Mascarene parrot ] ; others the same colour the size of a pigeon [ Mascarene grey parakeet ] , and yet others , smaller , are green [ Réunion parakeet ] . There are great quantities , especially in the Sainte @-@ Suzanne area and on the mountainsides . They are very good to eat , especially when they are fat , which is from the month of June until the month of September , because at that time the trees produce a certain wild seed that these birds eat .
Many other endemic species of Mauritius and Réunion were lost after the arrival of humans , so that the ecosystems of these islands are severely damaged and hard to reconstruct . Before humans arrived , the islands were entirely covered in forests , very little of which remains today , because of deforestation . The surviving endemic fauna is still seriously threatened . On Mauritius , the Mascarene grey parakeet lived alongside other recently extinct birds such as the dodo , the red rail , the broad @-@ billed parrot , the Mauritius blue pigeon , the Mauritius owl , the Mascarene coot , the Mauritian shelduck , the Mauritian duck , and the Mauritius night heron . On Réunion , it lived alongside the Réunion ibis , the hoopoe starling , the Mascarene parrot , the Réunion parakeet , the Réunion swamphen , the Réunion owl , the Réunion night heron , and the Réunion pink pigeon .
= = Extinction = =
To the sailors who visited the Mascarene islands from 1598 onwards , the fauna was mainly interesting from a culinary standpoint . Of the eight or so parrot species endemic to the Mascarenes , only the echo parakeet has survived . The others likely all vanished due to a combination of extensive hunting and deforestation . Due to being easily caught , the Mascarene grey parakeet was often hunted in abundance by early visitors to Mauritius and Réunion . As they fattened themselves from June to September , they were particularly sought after at this time of the year . An account by Admiral Steven van der Hagen from 1606 even suggests that the grey parrots of Mauritius were sometimes killed for amusement .
In the 1720s , Sieur Dubois stated that the grey parrots on Réunion were especially sought after during their fat season , and also claimed they were crop @-@ pests :
Grey parrots , as good [ to eat ] as the pigeons ... All the birds of this island have their season at different times , being six months in the low country and six months in the mountains , when returning , they are very fat and good to eat ... The sparrows [ Foudia ] , grey parrots , pigeons and other birds , bats [ Pteropus sp . ] , cause plenty of damage , some to cereals others to fruit .
The fact that they were said to damage crops probably contributed to them being hunted . The French settlers began to clear forests using the slash @-@ and @-@ burn technique for deforestation in the 1730s , which in itself would have had a large effect on the parrot population and on the other animals that nest in tree cavities .
The grey parrots appear to have been common on Mauritius until the 1750s in spite of the pressure from humans , but since they were last mentioned by Charpentier de Cossigny in 1759 ( published in 1764 ) , they had probably become extinct shortly after this time . The grey parrots of Réunion were last mentioned in 1732 , also by Cossigny . This final account gives an insight as to how he regarded the culinary quality of parrots from Réunion :
The woods are full of parrots , either completely grey [ Mascarene grey parrot ] or completely green [ Réunion parakeet ] . They were eaten a lot formerly , the grey especially , but both are always lean and very tough whatever sauce one puts on them .
The 1648 engraving possibly depicting this species was captioned with a Dutch poem , here in English naturalist Hugh Strickland 's 1848 translation :
= Marge Be Not Proud =
" Marge Be Not Proud " is the eleventh episode of The Simpsons ' seventh season . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 1995 . In the episode , Marge refuses to buy Bart the new video game Bonestorm , so he steals it from a local discount store . Bart ends up being estranged from his mother when he gets caught , and fearing that he has lost her love , he decides he must regain it .
The episode was written by Mike Scully and directed by Steven Dean Moore . Scully got the inspiration for it from an experience in his childhood when he shoplifted . Lawrence Tierney guest starred in the episode as Don Brodka . Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from fans and television critics . It acquired a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 , and was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Christmas is approaching , and Bart wants nothing more than the new , must @-@ have video game Bonestorm . However , Marge refuses to buy it , due to the violence and potential distraction from Bart 's schoolwork . Discouraged , Bart makes attempts to buy the game himself but with no luck and upon discovering Milhouse has the game , Bart visits the local Try @-@ N @-@ Save discount store where Jimbo Jones and Nelson Muntz convince him to steal a copy of the game . On his way out of the store , Bart is caught by the store 's strict security guard , Don Brodka , who leave 's Homer and Marge a message about the incident and tells Bart to leave and never return or risk spending " Christmas in juvenile hall " .
Despite Bart 's efforts to keep the shoplifting a secret , Marge takes the family to the same store to get their annual Christmas picture taken ( still unaware of Bart 's shoplifting ) . Bart tries to avoid detection and trouble , but is spotted by Brodka , who shows a disbelieving Marge and Homer the security tape of Bart shoplifting . Disappointed by Bart 's actions and concerned that she may be mothering him too much , Marge decides that he is old enough to make his own decisions and becomes distant with him . Bart is left out of family activities , such as decorating the Christmas tree and making snow statues , and he ends up spending time with Milhouse 's mom for motherly comfort . When Milhouse 's mom has had enough of this and fearing he has lost Marge 's love , Bart decides he must regain it .
Bart then returns home with a bulge in his coat . Marge confronts him , believing he was shoplifting again , and she finds Bart has hidden a picture of himself bought as a Christmas present for her . Marge is overjoyed , and in gratitude for receiving this early Christmas gift , gives Bart his — the new game that a store salesman told her " all the kids want " , the golf simulator Lee Carvallo 's Putting Challenge . Though profoundly underwhelmed , Bart looks into his mother 's expectant face and thanks her .
= = Production = =
Mike Scully , the writer of the episode , based it on experience in his childhood . Scully was twelve years old when he paid a visit to the Bradlees discount department store in West Springfield , Massachusetts . A " bunch of guys " were shoplifting at the store and they " pressured " Scully into doing it as well . He ended up getting caught outside , and " had one of the most traumatic moments " of his life . " To this day it still terrifies me , " Scully said . He jokingly told Variety , " It 's great to be paid for reliving the horrors of your life . "
The episode was directed by Steven Dean Moore . The show runner of The Simpsons at the time , Bill Oakley , thinks this is one of the most " beautifully " directed episodes of the show . He called the " hand @-@ colouring " very " vivid " and " bright " . The episode is the first Christmas episode the producers had done since the first episode of the show , " Simpsons Roasting on an Open Fire " . Oakley said that nobody in the writing staff wanted to " try on Christmas " because it was " so famous " as being the first episode .
Lawrence Tierney guest starred in the episode as Don Brodka . Another former show runner , Josh Weinstein , called Tierney 's appearance " the craziest guest star experience we ever had " . In addition to yelling at and intimidating employees of the show , Tierney made unreasonable requests such as abandoning his distinctive voice to do the part in a southern accent and refusing to perform lines if he did not " get the jokes " . Despite this , Oakley and Weinstein thought Tierney did a good job . Weinstein said , " He certainly delivered and he 's one of my favorite characters we have had [ on the show ] . " After Tierney 's death , the episode " The Old Man and the Key " was dedicated to him .
" Marge Be Not Proud " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 17 , 1995 . The episode was selected for release in a 1999 video collection of selected episodes , titled : Bart Wars . Other episodes included in the collection set were " Mayored to the Mob " , " Dog of Death " , and " The Secret War of Lisa Simpson " . The episode was again included in the 2005 DVD release of the Bart Wars set . The episode was included in The Simpsons season 7 DVD set , which was released on December 13 , 2005 . Oakley , Weinstein , Scully , Moore , and Silverman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Marge Be Not Proud " finished 47th in the ratings for the week of December 11 to December 17 , 1995 , with a Nielsen rating of 9 @.@ 5 . The episode was the fourth highest @-@ rated show on the Fox network that week , following a boxing match , Fox NFL Sunday , and The X @-@ Files .
Since airing , the episode has received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , wrote : " A Christmas special in all but name , and a touching look at the relationship between Marge and her growing Bart. " Dave Foster of DVD Times said that " thanks to the keen eye of the writers and the rarely shown good side of Bart , this episode works very well as both an amusing insight to the way a child ’ s mind works and as a strong relationship building episode between Bart and Marge . " DVD Movie Guide 's Colin Jacobson said that despite being one of the " sappier " episodes at times , it " still packs some terrific laughs " . Jacobson commented that he " absolutely lost it when Homer ’ s drawing of a robot grilling a hot dog was seen - it ’ s funnier if you see it - and Lawrence Tierney ’ s guest turn as the store detective adds hilarious grit to the show . " He added that the episode does not " fall into the classic " category , " but it offers more than enough entertainment to satisfy . " Jennifer Malkowski of DVD Verdict considered the best part of the episode to be when a depressed Bart makes a snowman from the dirty , leftover snow under the car . She called the scene " amazingly pathetic " . The website concluded its review by giving the episode a grade of B. In 2011 , Richard Lawson of The Atlantic Wire cited it as the best Christmas episode of The Simpsons , noting that " it 's very sweet and there are some funny videogame jokes . " He added that the episode " features a terrific guest starring voice performance from the late Lawrence Tierney . " The author Charlie Sweatpants , author of the online book Zombie Simpsons : How the Best Show Ever Became the Broadcasting Undead and creator of the blog Dead Homer Society , claims that it is the " one bad episode " in season 7 , due to being an example of a very special episode ; however , he claims that it is only bad by the " towering " standards of the earlier seasons .
= HMS Defender ( H07 ) =
HMS Defender was a D @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy in the early 1930s . The ship was initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet before she was transferred to the China Station in early 1935 . She was temporarily deployed in the Red Sea during late 1935 during the Abyssinia Crisis , before returning to her assigned station where she remained until mid @-@ 1939 . Defender was transferred back to the Mediterranean Fleet just before World War II began in September 1939 . She briefly was assigned to West Africa for convoy escort duties in 1940 before returning to the Mediterranean . The ship participated in the Battles of Calabria , Cape Spartivento , and Cape Matapan over the next year without damage . Defender assisted in the evacuations from Greece and Crete in April – May 1941 , before she began running supply missions to Tobruk , Libya in June . The ship was badly damaged by a German bomber on one of those missions and had to be scuttled by her consort on 11 July 1941 .
= = Description = =
Defender displaced 1 @,@ 375 long tons ( 1 @,@ 397 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 890 long tons ( 1 @,@ 920 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 329 feet ( 100 @.@ 3 m ) , a beam of 33 feet ( 10 @.@ 1 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 6 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) . She was powered by Parsons geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 36 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 27 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum water @-@ tube boilers . Defender carried a maximum of 473 long tons ( 481 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 5 @,@ 870 nautical miles ( 10 @,@ 870 km ; 6 @,@ 760 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 145 officers and men .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mark IX guns in single mounts . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Diamond had a single 12 @-@ pounder ( 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ) gun between her funnels and two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mark II guns mounted on the side of her bridge . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began .
= = Career = =
Ordered on 2 February 1932 under the 1930 Naval Programme , Defender was laid down at the Vickers Armstrongs yard in Barrow as Yard Number 674 on 22 June 1931 , and launched on 7 April 1932 . She was completed on 31 October 1932 having cost a total of £ 223 @,@ 979 , excluding the Admiralty supplied equipment such as guns , ammunition and wireless outfits . The ship was initially assigned to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla in the Mediterranean and made a brief deployment to the Persian Gulf and Red Sea in September – November 1933 .
Defender was refitted at Devonport Dockyard between 3 September and 23 October 1934 for service on the China Station with the 8th ( later the 21st ) Destroyer Flotilla and arrived at Hong Kong in January 1935 . The ship was attached to the Mediterranean Fleet in the Red Sea from November 1935 to June 1936 during the Abyssinian Crisis and then visited ports in East Africa for a month before returning to the China Station . Her boilers had to be retubed at Singapore between 5 November 1938 and 26 January 1939 and her superheaters were repaired at Hong Kong from 31 January to 14 March .
With the outbreak of war , Defender was assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet and arrived in Alexandria on 19 September . She was assigned to contraband control duties until she was transferred to Gibraltar in January 1940 . The ship patrolled the Portuguese coast until she was transferred to Freetown in mid @-@ February to escort convoys off the West African coast . Defender was transferred back to Gibraltar in April , escorting the light cruiser Neptune en route , and arrived there on 23 April 1940 . The next month , she joined the 10th Destroyer Flotilla of the Mediterranean Fleet and escorted Convoy US @-@ 2 carrying Australian and New Zealand troops to the Middle East through the Red Sea from 12 to 17 May .
On 27 June , together with the destroyers Dainty and Ilex , she sank the Italian submarine Console Generale Liuzzi south east of Crete . Defender participated in the Battle of Calabria on 9 July as an escort for the heavy ships of Force C and unsuccessfully engaged Italian destroyers without suffering any damage . Together with her sisters Dainty and Diamond , the Australian destroyer Stuart , and the light cruisers Capetown and Liverpool , she escorted Convoy AN.2 from Egypt to various ports in the Aegean Sea in late July .
On 6 November , Defender , together with the destroyers Decoy , Hasty , Havock , Hereward , Hero , Hyperion , Ilex , Janus , Jervis , Mohawk , and Nubian screened the capital ships of the Mediterranean Fleet , which provided distant cover for the passage of Convoy MW3 from Egypt to Malta and Convoy ME3 from Malta as part of Operation MB8 . During Operation Collar in late November , Defender , the anti @-@ aircraft cruiser Coventry and four other destroyers sailed from Alexandria to rendezvous with a convoy coming from Gibraltar . After reaching Malta on 26 November , the destroyers joined the battleship Ramillies , and the light cruisers Berwick and Newcastle of Force D and sailed to rendezvous with Force H , also coming from Gibraltar . The next day , after the British forces had combined , they were spotted by the Italians and the inconclusive Battle of Cape Spartivento was fought .
On 7 January 1941 , Defender escorted Convoy MW.5 with her sister Diamond and the anti @-@ aircraft cruiser Calcutta from Alexandria to Malta during Operation Excess . The ship was refitted in Malta from 4 February to 19 March and participated in the Battle of Cape Matapan on 27 – 29 March . During Operation Demon , the evacuation of Allied troops from Greece , she escorted Convoy GA15 on 29 – 30 April from Souda Bay , Crete , to Alexandria . An Italian destroyer and two torpedo boats attacked the convoy at night as it was transiting Kaso Strait east of Crete , but were rebuffed by the defenders without inflicting any damage . The following month Defender assisted in the evacuation of troops from Crete to Egypt after the Germans invaded on 22 May ( Operation Merkur ) .
On 10 June , Defender , and the other three ships of the 10th Destroyer Flotilla , arrived off the Lebanese coast to reinforce Royal Navy forces supporting Operation Exporter , the invasion of Vichy French @-@ controlled Syria and Lebanon , but the ship was not engaged during her time off Lebanon and Syria . Later that month , she began escorting convoys to and from Tobruk and on 29 June the Australian destroyer Waterhen was badly damaged by Italian Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers off Tobruk . Defender took Waterhen in tow , but the next day she capsized and sank .
= = = Loss = = =
On 11 July 1941 , Defender was returning from Tobruk in company with the Australian destroyer Vendetta . They were attacked by a single Junkers Ju 88 bomber of I. / Lehrgeschwader 1 piloted by Gerhard Stamp on a reconnaissance flight along the coast before dawn . The bomber scored a near @-@ miss on Defender which detonated under the ship , just forward of the engine room . The shock broke the ship 's back and flooded the engine room , although there were no casualties among her crew or passengers . Vendetta took Defender in tow , leaving a skeleton crew aboard the damaged ship , but she started to break up and Vendetta was forced to scuttle her with a torpedo and gunfire off Sidi Barrani about five hours later .
= Humphrey Marshall ( politician ) =
Humphrey Marshall ( 1760 – July 3 , 1841 ) was a politician from the U.S. states of Virginia and Kentucky . He served in the state legislatures of both states and represented Kentucky in the United States Senate from 1795 to 1801 . He was a member of the Marshall political family which included his cousins Chief Justice of the United States John Marshall , federal judge James Markham Marshall , and noted educator Louis Marshall . All the prominent members of this family were Federalists . Marshall was also the father of Congressman Thomas Alexander Marshall and the grandfather of Congressman and Confederate General Humphrey Marshall .
During the Revolutionary War , Marshall served with the Virginia State Regiment of Artillery . After the war , he moved to the Kentucky District of Virginia where he became extremely wealthy as a farmer and surveyor . He was a delegate to two of the ten Kentucky statehood conventions and was one of only three delegates from the Kentucky District to vote in favor of ratifying the U.S. Constitution at the 1788 Virginia Ratifying Convention . After Kentucky gained statehood in 1792 , Marshall was elected to the state legislature despite the fact that he was a Federalist and zealously antireligious – both of which made him unpopular with many Kentuckians . The Federalist cause received a slight boost when federal forces were successful in quashing the Whiskey Rebellion and ending the Indian threat at the Battle of Fallen Timbers . As a result , the General Assembly elected Marshall to the U.S. Senate in 1794 . As a senator , Marshall clung to Federalist principles , supporting the Alien and Sedition Acts and voting to ratify the Jay Treaty . For the latter action , his constituents stoned him and tried to throw him in the Kentucky River . In 1801 , he was defeated for reelection by John Breckinridge . He would once again be elected to the state legislature in 1807 , 1808 , and 1823 . During the 1809 legislative session , a disagreement between him and Henry Clay led to a duel between the two men in which both were slightly wounded .
As early as 1786 , Marshall had been implicating several prominent Kentucky politicians in a scheme to take Kentucky out of the Union and into alliance with Spain . After the expiration of his Senate term , he resumed these charges through the pages of the Western World newspaper . His allegations resulted in a legislative investigation of Kentucky Court of Appeals judge Benjamin Sebastian , who was found to be receiving a pension from Spain and resigned from the bench . Federal judge Harry Innes was also a target of Marshall 's allegations , and the two became embroiled in a legal battle that lasted almost a decade . Innes hired William Littell to write and publish a book giving Innes ' version of his dealings with Spain . Marshall countered by publishing his History of Kentucky in 1812 . Although blatantly partisan , it became the most widely read history of the state at the time . Marshall and Innes ended their legal battle with an agreement , signed in 1815 , that neither would publish anything negative about the other again . Innes upheld his part of the agreement , but in 1824 , years after Innes ' death , Marshall published an updated edition of his History of Kentucky which was just as vitriolic as the previous version had been . Marshall faded from public life during his later years . He died at the home of his son in Lexington , Kentucky on July 3 , 1841 .
= = Early life = =
Humphrey Marshall was born in Orlean , Virginia in 1760 . He was the son of John and Mary ( Quisenberry ) Marshall and apparently named in honor of his maternal grandfather , Humphrey Quisenberry . Marshall 's father was a man of meager means despite being a member of a prominent Virginia family . Little is known of Marshall 's early years , but one tradition holds that he had no formal education during his childhood and that his cousin Mary ( later , his wife ) taught him to read . Eventually , John sent Humphrey to live with his brother , Thomas Marshall , and to be educated by the same Scottish tutors that educated Thomas ' children . Among Thomas ' children ( Humphrey 's cousins ) were John Marshall , future Chief Justice of the United States ; James Markham Marshall , future federal judge ; and Louis Marshall , a noted educator . In addition , one of Thomas ' daughters , Nancy Marshall , married Joseph Hamilton Daveiss , a future U.S. Attorney . After receiving his education , Marshall became a surveyor .
On January 4 , 1778 , Marshall enlisted as a cadet for a three @-@ year term in the Virginia State Regiment of Artillery for service in the Revolutionary War . The unit was under the command of his uncle Thomas , who held the rank of colonel . Marshall was assigned to the company of Captain Elisha Edwards . Most of his service records have been lost , but according to his pension application , he held the rank of third lieutenant later in 1778 , first lieutenant in 1779 , and on December 18 , 1789 , he was promoted to the rank of captain lieutenant . When the three @-@ year commitment of Marshall and his fellow soldiers expired , their unit was disbanded ; on February 6 , 1781 , Marshall was designated a supernumerary officer . He ended his military service in 1782 , and was rewarded with 4 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 600 ha ) of land on the western frontier .
In 1782 , Marshall moved to present @-@ day Kentucky and became deputy surveyor of Fayette County , again serving under his uncle Thomas . Settling in Lexington , he purchased a lot in 1783 . On September 18 , 1784 , he married his cousin , Anna Maria ( " Mary " ) Marshall , Thomas ' daughter , . The couple had two sons , Thomas Alexander Marshall , who became a US Congressman ; and John Jay Marshall , father of Congressman and Confederate general Humphrey Marshall . They also had a daughter who was killed in infancy by lightning .
Shortly after the creation of Woodford County , Marshall moved within its borders and was appointed county surveyor by Virginia Governor Beverley Randolph . In this capacity , he surveyed and claimed significant additional tracts of land , becoming one of Kentucky 's most wealthy citizens . According to tradition , Marshall was known to boast that he could ride from Frankfort to Versailles , a distance of some 20 miles ( 32 km ) , and never enter a tract of land that he didn 't own . He was also supposed to have boasted that he measured his silver coinage by the peck , not having time to count the individual coins .
Marshall did not believe in rule by the masses , frequently expressing his disdain for the common people . His sharp wit and lack of tact in writing did little to endear him to his neighbors . Like most of the members of his family , he subscribed to Federalist principles , although the majority of Kentuckians were affiliated with the Democratic @-@ Republicans . He was also ostracized by many of his neighbors for being zealously antireligious . He wrote pamphlets denouncing religion of all kinds and published them at his own expense . His later descendants were so embarrassed of his anti @-@ religious writings that they had his personal papers burned .
= = Early political career = =
A 1788 letter in the Kentucky Gazette indicated that Marshall had unsuccessfully sought election to the Virginia General Assembly , although the year of the contest is not given . The letter continued that the defeat convinced Marshall that he could not win elected office in Fayette County and that he subsequently lobbied for the creation of Bourbon County , hoping that he might gain an office in that new county . When the county was created in 1785 , he immediately applied to become the county lieutenant , but that office had apparently already been promised to someone else . Marshall applied for appointment as deputy lieutenant , and received the appointment .
Although it is not known when Marshall began studying law , nor who his tutor was , he was practicing as early as 1785 . In that year , he discovered a flaw in the original 1774 survey of the town of Frankfort . Due to the flaw , several choice acres of land in the northern part of Frankfort remained unclaimed , and Marshall quickly entered claims for them at the land office . Marshall also gained membership in the Kentucky Society for Promoting Useful Knowledge , a Danville @-@ based society dedicated to disseminating information to farmers , mechanics , and other common citizens . He apparently was not accepted for membership in the Danville Political Club , although some sources report that he was accepted as a member after initially being rejected .
Around 1786 , Marshall gained public attention by expressing his suspicions about James Wilkinson 's negotiations with Spain for free use of the Mississippi River and the possibility of Kentucky 's secession from the United States to affiliate with Spanish possessions . For the remainder of his life , he vigorously opposed Wilkinson and anyone else he suspected of being involved with the Spanish Conspiracy .
Marshall was a delegate to a 1787 convention in Danville to consider separating Kentucky from Virginia . There were , at that time , two primary positions with regard to the question of separation . The first favored an immediate separation with or without Virginia 's consent , while the other favored waiting for legal approval from Virginia and the U.S. Congress . Marshall was among the latter group , and his uncle Thomas was the primary spokesman for this position . Biographer Anderson Chenault Quisenberry notes , " As to Humphrey Marshall 's prominence in the Danville convention , or as to what notable part he acted there , nothing is said by the historians . "
In 1788 , Marshall announced his candidacy to be a delegate to the Virginia Ratifying Convention . The proposed constitution was very unpopular in all parts of Kentucky except Jefferson County , but Marshall openly favored its ratification . Hoping to wreck Marshall 's candidacy , a man named Jordan Harris charged that Marshall had , in a letter to John Crittenden , Sr. , acknowledged himself to be a liar . In the pages of the Kentucky Gazette , Marshall called on Harris to publish the letter . Harris was so insulted by Marshall 's demand that he threatened to cane him . At their next meeting , Harris fired two pistols at Marshall . Neither shot injured Marshall , who retaliated by beating Harris with a stick severely enough to force his retreat from the encounter .
Despite his favorable position toward the proposed federal constitution , Marshall was chosen as a delegate to the convention from Fayette County . On June 25 , 1788 , he joined Jefferson County delegates Robert Breckinridge and Rice Bullock in voting for ratification . Ten other Kentucky delegates opposed ratification and one abstained . The final convention vote was 89 – 79 in favor of ratification . It was reported that even the Jefferson County delegates were beginning to waver in their commitment to the proposed constitution , but that Marshall steeled their resolve and also influenced several delegates from other parts of Virginia to favor it .
In 1789 Marshall was elected again to a convention to consider separation from Virginia . After Kentucky 's separation from Virginia in 1792 , he was elected to represent Woodford County in the Kentucky House of Representatives . The most notable piece of legislation he authored was an act that simplified the classification and taxation of land . He was reelected to his position in 1794 . He opposed allocating men or supplies for George Rogers Clark 's proposed attack upon the Spanish at New Orleans . The attack was promoted by Edmond @-@ Charles Genêt , and Marshall accused sitting governor Isaac Shelby of complicity in the matter .
= = U.S. Senate = =
Partly as a result of Marshall 's attacks on prominent Democratic @-@ Republicans such as Governor Shelby , the Federalists gained influence in the state legislature . The Federalist cause was also bolstered by the quashing of the Whiskey Rebellion by federal forces in 1794 , and the federal victory over the Northwest Indians at the Battle of Fallen Timbers on August 20 , 1794 . Later that year , the Federalists in the General Assembly nominated Marshall for the United States Senate . On the first ballot , Marshall garnered 18 votes , compared with 16 for Democratic @-@ Republican John Breckinridge , 8 for John Fowler , and 7 for incumbent John Edwards . On the runoff ballot that followed , Marshall defeated Breckinridge by a vote of 28 – 22 .
Shortly after Marshall departed for Philadelphia , the temporary national capital , George Muter and Benjamin Sebastian , both justices of the Kentucky Court of Appeals , published a pamphlet stating that Marshall had perjured himself in a Court of Appeals case between himself and James Wilkinson . No known copies of the pamphlet are extant , and related surviving documents do not relate the exact nature of the charges . Marshall , being out of the state , was unable to reply immediately to the charges , and his enemies in the General Assembly drafted a memorial to the U.S. Senate requesting an investigation of the charges . On December 16 , 1795 , the memorial was approved by the General Assembly and transmitted to the Senate . The Senate appointed a committee to recommend action on the memorial , and the committee found that the charges against Marshall were not specific , that the authors had provided no evidence upon which to evaluate the charges , that no one was empowered to prosecute the charges in the Senate , and that further action by the Senate was inappropriate . On March 22 , 1796 , the Senate approved the committee 's report by a vote of 16 – 8 . Muter and Sebastian never filed formal charges against Marshall for perjury .
Although Marshall was not frequently active in debate on the Senate floor , he was a strong advocate of nearly every Federalist measure considered in that body . Many of these were unpopular in Kentucky , including the Alien and Sedition Acts . Marshall 's vote in favor of the Jay Treaty was particularly unpopular with his constituents , and when he returned home after the vote , a mob of angry citizens in Frankfort stoned him . Next , the mob tried to throw Marshall into the Kentucky River . Marshall appealed to the Baptists in the crowd , declaring , " Now allow me to say that according to Baptist rules , it is irregular to administer baptism before the receiver gives his experience . If you are determined to proceed , let the exercise be performed in decent order . Let me give my experience first . " The thought of hearing a religious testimony from Marshall , a noted atheist , so humored the mob that it disbanded in a fit of laughter , and Marshall escaped . In the subsequent senatorial election , however , Breckinridge defeated Marshall for his seat .
= = Later political career = =
After the expiration of his Senate term in 1801 , Marshall returned to his farm and his law practice , seldom acting in the realm of public affairs . In 1806 , however , he resumed his attacks on suspected participants in the Spanish Conspiracy . His articles in the newly founded Frankfort Western World newspaper – written under the pseudonym " Observer " – prompted the Kentucky House of Representatives to form a select committee to investigate his charges . The committee found that Benjamin Sebastian had received a pension of $ 2 @,@ 000 a year from Spain in return for his involvement in the Conspiracy . Federal judge Harry Innes , a frequent object of Marshall 's suspicions , testified against Sebastian before the committee . Sebastian resigned his position on the Court , and the House declined to pursue further action against him . Marshall also unsuccessfully lobbied through his brother @-@ in @-@ law , U.S. Attorney Joseph Hamilton Daveiss , for a grand jury to indict Aaron Burr for attempting to enlist Kentuckians to participate in the Burr conspiracy . Marshall 's intensified attacks on Judge Harry Innes in the pages of the Western World became so severe that they prompted Innes to sue both Marshall and Western World co @-@ founder Joseph M. Street for libel . Both cases dragged on for several years in the courts .
Buoyed by his involvement in the exposure of Benjamin Sebastian , Marshall declared his candidacy for a seat in the Kentucky House in 1807 . Friends of Innes and others implicated by Marshall in the Spanish Conspiracy recruited Nathaniel Richardson , a lawyer turned farmer , to oppose Marshall . Approximately 1 @,@ 100 votes were cast , and Marshall was elected by a majority of 11 votes . Marshall 's biographer records that " the records of Humphrey Marshall 's services in the Legislature at this time are scanty , the journals of the session being not in existence , as it is believed ; or , at any rate , extremely rare . " He is believed to have introduced a measure that reduced the limitation on ejectments from twenty years to seven .
= = = Duel with Henry Clay = = =
Marshall sought reelection in 1808 and defeated his opponent , John M. Scott , by a majority of 11 votes , identical to his margin the previous year . Expectations of a confrontation between Marshall and fellow representative Henry Clay were high during the session , owing to tensions between the two dating back to Clay 's defense of Aaron Burr during the Burr conspiracy . George D. Prentice , in his biography of Clay , records that some of Clay 's allies in the House refused to vote for him for Speaker of the House so that Clay would remain on the chamber floor , from whence he was better able to counter Marshall . Clay 's chair in the chamber was separated from Marshall 's only by that of General Christopher Riffe , the representative from Lincoln County , who was described as " a burly German of almost gigantic size and herculean strength " .
A few minor quarrels passed between Marshall and Clay early in the session , but the relative peace dissolved in December 1808 when Clay introduced a resolution calling for all members of the General Assembly to wear " homespun " garments as a means of encouraging local manufacturing and reducing British imports . Although Clay typically wore finer garments than Marshall , for the duration of the debate on his motion , Clay wore simple homemade clothes . Marshall regarded the measure as demagoguery and employed a tailor to make him a suit of British broadcloth to wear on the House floor . The two men exchanged insults on the House floor and would have commenced a physical altercation if not for Riffe 's intervention . Instead , on January 4 , 1809 , Clay challenged Marshall to a duel , which he quickly accepted .
The duel took place in Indiana on January 19 , 1809 , just across the Ohio River from Shippingport , Kentucky . Joseph Hamilton Daveiss provided the pistols . On the first shot , Marshall missed and Clay lightly grazed Marshall 's stomach . Marshall missed again on the second shot , and Clay 's pistol misfired . Marshall 's third shot lightly wounded Clay in the thigh , while Clay missed Marshall entirely . Clay insisted that the two each take another shot , but Marshall declined on grounds that Clay 's injury put him on unequal footing with his adversary , and the matter was ended .
= = = Expulsion from and reelection to the House = = =
Tensions between Marshall and Innes continued during Marshall 's tenure in the legislature . When Innes , acting on a recommendation from an advisory jury , dismissed an unrelated fraud case brought by Marshall in Innes ' district court , Marshall retaliated by convincing Congressman John Rowan to file an impeachment petition against Innes in the House of Representatives . Innes countered by having his son @-@ in @-@ law , Thomas Bodley , pursue a censure of Marshall in the state House . Rowan 's petition against Innes failed , but Bodley 's against Marshall succeeded , and Marshall was expelled from the House in 1808 , only to be re @-@ elected the following year .
Marshall sought reelection in 1810 , but was defeated by George Adams by a margin of 76 votes . From 1812 to 1813 , he served on the Board of Trustees for the city of Frankfort . He made another unsuccessful run for the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1813 , losing to John Arnold .
After a long absence from politics , Marshall was called to one final act of public service . Upon the death of Martin D. Hardin who had been elected to the Kentucky House of Representatives in 1823 but died before he could take office , Marshall pursued an abbreviated campaign for the vacant seat and defeated Jeptha Dudley by a margin of 3 votes . The primary issue of the day was the Old Court – New Court controversy , an attempt by the legislature to abolish the extant Court of Appeals and replace it with a new court in retaliation for overturning a replevin law passed in a previous legislative session . Marshall enjoyed a higher level of support in this election by virtue of his support for the Old Court , which was the prevailing sentiment in his district . His actions in the session , however , appear to have been unremarkable , and he did not seek reelection at the end of his term .
= = Later life and death = =
After his political career , Marshall became more interested in writing . He frequently contributed content to the state 's newspapers and occasionally wrote poetry . He founded the American Republic , the only Federalist newspaper in the state , and published its first issue on June 26 , 1810 . Newspapers sympathetic to the Democratic @-@ Republicans soon derided the American Republic as " The Snake " . Undaunted , Marshall added a rattlesnake and the inscription " Tread Not On Me . For My Country . " to the paper 's masthead . Marshall soon changed the name of the paper to the Harbinger , and eventually sold it to Patrick Darby in 1825 . Darby immediately changed the name of the newspaper again , dubbing it the Constitutional Advocate .
= = = Resolution of legal disputes = = =
Harry Innes ' libel suit against Joseph Street was not fully adjudicated in the Jessamine County Circuit Court until 1811 . The jury found in Innes ' favor and awarded $ 750 in damages , although Innes ' counsel , Henry Clay and Robert Wickliffe , insisted that Innes only desired the vindication of a guilty verdict against Street and would not collect the damages . Soon after , Street shuttered the Western World and moved to Illinois .
As the libel suit against Marshall dragged on in Mercer County Circuit Court , Innes and his allies hired author William Littell to publish Innes ' version of his interactions with Spain . Marshall countered by publishing his History of Kentucky in 1812 . Although blatantly partisan , it became the most popular history of Kentucky at the time . When Street returned to Kentucky to give a deposition in the case in 1814 , Innes swore out a writ against him to collect the damages awarded in his case against Street . Unable to pay , Street was imprisoned .
Innes ' case against Marshall ended in a hung jury in 1814 . Rather than retry the case , Marshall and Innes signed an agreement to end the legal battle in 1815 . The agreement stipulated that neither man would write or publish anything that was disrespectful of the other . Innes upheld his part of the agreement , but in 1824 , eight years after Innes ' death , Marshall published an updated two @-@ volume version of his History of Kentucky that was even more critical of Innes and others he suspected of participating in the Spanish Conspiracy .
= = = Death = = =
Marshall retired from public life altogether after selling the Harbinger in 1825 . His wife had died the previous year , and soon after selling his newspaper , he became paralyzed by a palsy on one side . Thus disabled , he soon moved to Lexington to live with his son , Thomas , then a professor at Transylvania University . He died at his son 's home on July 3 , 1841 . A slaveholder for his entire life , Marshall 's will dictated that all of his slaves be emancipated upon his death . He was buried at Glen Willis , his estate in Leestown , Kentucky . No marker was erected above his grave . In 1888 , the General Assembly allocated $ 300 to rebury Marshall 's remains in Frankfort Cemetery and place a marker above the grave , but his family members asked that his remains be undisturbed .
= Kenshiro Abbe =
Kenshiro Abbe ( 阿部 謙四郎 , Abe Kenshirō , 15 December 1915 – 1 December 1985 ) was a prominent Japanese master of judo , aikido , and kendo . He introduced aikido to the United Kingdom in 1955 , and founded the Kyushindo system . Abbe was a graduate of the Budo Senmon Gakko , having studied judo and kendo there . Following an illustrious early career in the martial arts , he served in the Imperial Japanese Army before and during World War II . He then trained in aikido under its founder , Morihei Ueshiba , for a decade . Abbe held dan ranks in several martial arts , most notably 8th dan in judo , 6th dan in aikido , and 6th dan in kendo . After introducing aikido to the UK , he established several Japanese martial arts councils there during the late 1950s . He returned to Japan in 1964 and remained there for most of the remainder of his life . There are contradictory accounts of Abbe 's final years , but it appears that he was in poor spirits and poor health towards the end .
= = Early life = =
Abbe was born on 15 December 1915 in a village in Tokushima Prefecture , on the island of Shikoku , Japan . He was the son of Toshizo Abbe , who was the local school 's headmaster and a kendo instructor , and his wife , Kote Abbe . The couple had four sons and five daughters , and Abbe was the youngest child in the family . On 4 September 1919 , when Abbe was not yet four years old , his father drowned in a flash flood while training in the mountains . A young schoolteacher , Manpei Hino , subsequently became a father figure for the young boy and introduced him to the martial arts , including sumo . Abbe went on to become a local school champion in sumo .
In 1929 , Abbe began learning judo from Kazohira Nakamoto , a former police officer . That same year , he was promoted to the rank of 1st dan in the art and , unusually , he reached 2nd dan the next year , and 3rd dan the year after that . Thus , at the age of 16 , he became the youngest judo student ever promoted to 3rd dan — an honour he received directly from Shohei Hamano , an instructor of the Dai Nippon Butoku Kai ( abbreviated to ' Butoku Kai ' or ' Butokukwai ' ) , which was the official governing body for Japanese martial arts . Abbe also became champion of the Tokushima High School Judo League that year . During his fifth year at the school , Abbe entered a regional tournament involving 30 towns , serving as captain for the team from the town of Kawashima . His speed and agility helped him to many victories , and he received the nickname ' Pegasus ' accordingly .
At his 1st dan judo examination , Abbe had caught the attention of Shotaro Tobata from the Butoku Kai , who had been refereeing at the event . Tobata had suggested to Nakamoto and Abbe that the young man should apply for entry to the renowned Budo Senmon Gakko ( abbreviated to ' Busen , ' and sometimes referred to as ' Busen College ' ) , a specialist college for martial artists . With the additional help of a teacher named Nakano , Abbe now prepared for the entrance examination in Kyoto . Out of all the candidates , of which there were around 300 that year , 20 would be accepted into the judo programme and 20 into the kendo programme . Abbe performed well and was accepted into both programmes .
= = Budo Senmon Gakko training = =
In 1934 , Abbe moved to Kyoto with his mother and his sister Toyoka so that he could attend Busen , training in both the judo and kendo programmes . Abbe learned kendo under the direction of Busen 's head sword instructor , Kinnosuke Ogawa , a master who held the rank of 10th dan . He recalled that his instructor , at the age of 75 years , was so skilled that he could not be touched by any of the students or younger instructors . Every Saturday afternoon at Busen , following tradition , judo tournaments were held . Abbe fought five opponents in succession with each contest lasting five minutes , and he won all or almost all of these matches . In his first year at Busen , he was promoted to 4th dan in judo . In the autumn of his second year there , he was promoted to 5th dan , by which time he was reported to have been fighting 20 opponents in succession .
In May 1935 , Abbe competed in the 5th dan division championship and defeated Masahiko Kimura . This match was one of only four professional career losses for Kimura , who was already well known as one of the best judo competitors in Japan , and would later gain further fame for defeating Hélio Gracie of Brazilian Jiu @-@ Jitsu . According to biographers Keith Morgan and Henry Ellis , Kimura was heard to remark after the match that fighting Abbe was " like fighting a shadow . " Abbe was listed at 5 ' 5 " ( 168 cm ) in height and 156 lb . ( 71 kg ) in weight at the time ; Kimura was only an inch taller , but much heavier at 187 lb . ( 85 kg ) . Two years later , during which time Kimura trained hard , he sought Abbe out at the Kodokan and soundly defeated him in a 20 @-@ minute practice session .
While at Busen , Abbe also enrolled in Hajime Tanabe 's philosophy class at Kyoto University ( then known as Kyoto Teikoku Daigaku , or ' Kyoto Imperial University ' ) . During this period , his sister Toyoko began studying Tendō @-@ ryū naginata under a female instructor named Mitamura Chiyo ( in Japan , arts focusing on the handling of naginata have been practiced almost exclusively by women since the Edo period ) , and she would continue practicing that art for the rest of her life .
Following graduation from Busen , Abbe became an instructor in judo at the college , as well as taking instructor positions with the Osaka police force and a high school in Kyoto . The Butoku Kai promoted him to 6th dan in judo in 1937 .
= = Military service = =
In June 1937 , Abbe enlisted in the Imperial Japanese Army , and was subsequently posted to a garrison in Manchuria . He served there for four years , during which time he was unable to continue training in judo but was able to practise kendo . While abroad , he began formulating his Kyushindo philosophy . His tour of duty ended in 1941 , and he returned to Kyoto , where he met and married his wife Keiko . Abbe did not remain a civilian for long , however , since Japan entered World War II near the end of that year .
Abbe was assigned to a training unit in Tokushima Prefecture , where he studied and mastered jūkendō ( bayonet ) . It was around this time that he first met Morihei Ueshiba , founder of aikido , who had also trained in jūkendō . Ueshiba was around 60 years old at this time , around twice Abbe 's age . Rogers , Ellis , and Eastman ( 2004 ) give the following account of their first meeting :
It was during a train journey in Japan that Abbe first met Ueshiba . Abbe didn 't know who he was and he reacted to Ueshiba looking at him , saying : " What are you staring at , old man ? " Ueshiba replied : " I know who you are , " to which Abbe modestly retorted : " Everyone knows me , I am Kenshiro Abbe , Champion of All Japan . " Ueshiba then introduced himself as the Founder of Aikido , and was told by Abbe that he didn 't look strong enough to be a martial arts master . Ueshiba then offered Abbe his little finger , and said : " But young man , you look very strong indeed . Please break my finger . " Abbe at first declined , but eventually accepted the challenge , presumably to shut the old man up . Abbe claimed that , as he took hold of the old man 's finger and tried to break it , he found himself on the floor of the carriage and totally immobilised . Whilst on the floor Abbe asked Ueshiba for permission to study under him .
Morgan and Ellis ( 2006 ) give a slightly different account :
While travelling on a train Abbe noticed an older man staring at him who then asked if he was a 5th Dan Judo . Abbe replied “ Why yes , how did you know that ? ” “ Because you have the build of a 5th Dan . So who are you ? “ Kenshiro replied : “ Everyone knows who I am , I am Kenshiro Abbe , Judo champion of all Japan ! “ Yes , I can see that , “ the old man replied . The old man continued to talk to Kenshiro much to his annoyance as he wanted to get some sleep . Eventually , the old man put a finger in Kenshiro ’ s face , “ You are so powerful , break my finger ! ” Kenshiro was only too happy to oblige . He took the finger , expecting to snap it like a twig , and wham ! He found himself on the carriage floor under the full control of the old man . The old man allowed Kenshiro to get back into his seat . “ Who are you ? ” Kenshiro Abbe asked . “ I am Morihei Ueshiba , the founder of Aikido . ” Kenshiro Abbe was astounded at the technique of the old man and requested that he become his student .
Abbe studied aikido under Ueshiba for 10 years , eventually reaching the rank of 6th dan in that art . During this period , the Abbes had two daughters : Junko and Noriko .
In 1945 , the Butoku Kai promoted Abbe to 7th dan in judo and 6th dan in kendo . Following the end of World War II , however , the Butoku Kai and Busen were both closed down . Abbe took up the position of a judo teacher for the Kyoto Prefectural Police Department . He became Chief Instructor of judo for the Kyoto police , and also taught at Doshisha University in that city . After the Abbes had a third daughter , Yayoi , Abbe resigned from the Kyoto police . During this period , he felt that judo in Japan was declining , and ended his association with the Kodokan in the 1950s .
= = Europe = =
In 1955 , Abbe travelled to the United Kingdom . He went at the invitation of the London Judo Society ( LJS ) , and was the first master to teach aikido in the UK . That year , he demonstrated aikido at the LJS and at the Royal Albert Hall in London . Abbe came to experience two problems at the LJS : first , he felt that the students there were more concerned with competition than his theories , and second , he felt that the students did not treat him with the appropriate respect for someone of his rank and experience in the martial arts . According to the International Budo Council ( IBC ) , he founded the IBC in 1955 .
Abbe proceeded to teach aikido at his own dojo ( training hall ) , affectionately known as ' The Hut , ' which was located behind a pub in Hillingdon , London . Training was rigorous and , due to Abbe 's poor command of English , he would often make corrections by using a shinai ( practice sword ) to hit the body part that was out of place ; Ellis recalled that Abbe would say , " My English is poor but my shinai speaks fluently . " Abbe 's approach to self @-@ defence matched his no @-@ nonsense approach to training , and was demonstrated when three youths tried to rob him one evening . Geoff Thomson ( 1998 ) wrote :
He was walking down a quiet suburban street on his way home after his usual evening teaching session . He noticed three youths hovering several yards away on the opposite side of the street . When they approached him he was ready . " Give us your money , or you 'll get hurt " said the leader of the three . Abbe looked at each one in turn , then casually took his wallet out of his jacket pocket , throwing it on the floor between himself and the antagonists . He pointed to the wallet and said , " I am prepared to die for that wallet , what about you ? " The three would @-@ be attackers looked at the wallet on the floor , then at Abbe and then at each other and then moved away . Abbe picked up his wallet and calmly walked home .
Speaking about the incident , Ellis said , " Not a lot of love and harmony from Abbe sensei , simply an attitude and language these thugs understood . "
In 1958 , Abbe founded the British Judo Council ( BJC ) , and he went on to establish the British Aikido Council , British Karate Council , British Kendo Council , and British Kyudo Council . At this stage , he was travelling extensively through the UK and Europe , and also invited Japanese martial art masters to teach in the UK ; these included Mitsusuke Harada ( Shotokan karate ) and Tadashi Abe ( aikido ) . During this period , Abbe 's family remained in Japan . Robinson ( 2007 ) wrote , " [ he ] did invite his family to live with him in London however they refused , apparently not at all attracted by the life style that Kenshiro offered them in England . "
Abbe was involved in a car accident in 1960 which left him with severe neck injuries that had lasting effects on his health . While the precise date is unclear , Abbe had been promoted to 8th dan by late 1960 . Independent sources from the late 1960s include this rank with his name . In addition to his ranks in judo , aikido , and kendo , he held the rank of 5th dan in karate and dan ranks in kyūdō and jūkendō .
In 1964 , Abbe returned to Japan for the Summer Olympics in Tokyo . While in his homeland , he met with Ueshiba , updated him on the progress of aikido in the UK , and asked him to send another instructor to the UK to continue teaching the art . In 1966 , Ueshiba sent Kazuo ( T. K. ) Chiba to the UK to continue the work Abbe had begun . Henry O 'Tani ( 2009 ) has stated that during Abbe 's absence from the UK , a dismissed BJC senior executive and several senior instructors misappropriated his financial and organisational resources and set up their own BJC group . In 1969 , Abbe returned to the UK , but was distraught by the situation with this group that he had not authorised . When he asked former colleagues to help him rebuild the organisation , they refused ; he subsequently left the UK , never to return .
= = Later life = =
There are contradictory accounts of Abbe 's last years in Japan . Morgan and Ellis ( 2006 ) state that he lived with his family for the remainder of his life , while Cavalcanti ( 2004 ) and Bagot ( 2007 ) claim that there were problems and that he ended up living apart from his family . Sources appear to agree , however , that Abbe was in poor spirits and poor health towards the end of his life . He suffered a stroke on 17 November 1985 , and was hospitalised .
Abbe died on 1 December 1985 in Japan . According to at least two sources , he had chosen to donate his body for medical education at Saitama University , so it was not immediately laid to rest . Abbe 's funeral was held on 10 June 1986 at Zuiganji Temple , located south of Mount Bizan in Tokushima , and he was buried or commemorated at the family grave there . Robinson ( 2007 ) wrote , " Abbe was the master who introduced Kendo , Aikido , Karate , Kyodo , Jukendo , Iaido , Yarido and Naginatado to Europe yet he died almost totally alone and forgotten by most . "
= Apt Pupil ( film ) =
Apt Pupil is a 1998 American thriller film directed by Bryan Singer and starring Ian McKellen and Brad Renfro . It is based on the 1982 novella of the same name by Stephen King . In the 1980s in southern California , high school student Todd Bowden ( Renfro ) discovers fugitive Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander ( McKellen ) living in his neighborhood under the pseudonym Arthur Denker . Bowden , obsessed with Nazism and acts of the Holocaust , persuades Dussander to share his stories , and their relationship stirs malice in each of them .
The novella was first published in King 's 1982 collection Different Seasons . Producer Richard Kobritz sought to adapt the novella into a film during the 1980s , but two actors he invited to play Dussander died . When filming began in 1987 , a loss of financing led to the production being shut down . Forty minutes of usable footage existed , but production was never revived . In 1995 , when rights to the novella returned to King , Bryan Singer petitioned the author for an opportunity to film the novella . With King 's support , Singer filmed Apt Pupil with McKellen and Renfro in Altadena , California , in 1997 . The director shortened the novella 's storyline , reduced its violence , and changed the ending . Singer called Apt Pupil " a study in cruelty " with Nazism only serving as a vehicle for the capacity of evil .
During the $ 14 million production , a lawsuit was filed by several extras who alleged that they were told to strip naked during a shower scene , but the lawsuit was determined to be without merit . The film was released in the United States and Canada in October 1998 to mixed reviews and made under $ 9 million . The main actors won several minor awards for their performances .
= = Plot = =
In Southern California in 1984 , 16 @-@ year @-@ old high school student Todd Bowden ( Renfro ) discovers that his elderly neighbor , Arthur Denker ( McKellen ) , is in reality Kurt Dussander — a former Sturmbannführer in the SS who is now a fugitive war criminal hiding from justice . Todd blackmails Dussander by threatening to turn him in to the police . However , the teenager is fascinated with Nazi atrocities perpetrated during World War II , and forces Dussander to share disturbing stories of what it was like working at Nazi extermination camps , and how it felt to participate in genocide .
To complicate things even further , Todd even purchases an SS uniform from a costume shop , and forces Dussander to wear it . When he spends more time with the old man , his grades suffer , he loses interest in his girlfriend , and he conceals his bad grades from his parents . In turn , the Nazi blackmails the young boy into studying to restore his grades , threatening to expose the boy 's subterfuge and his dalliance with Nazism to his parents . Dussander even poses as Todd 's grandfather and goes to an appointment with Todd 's school counselor Edward French ( David Schwimmer ) . Talking about the war crimes affects both the old man and the young boy , and an intoxicated Dussander attempts to kill a cat in his gas oven but fails when it attacks him and escapes . Dussander also takes great pride in Todd 's unbelievable turnaround , going from near dropout to straight A 's in a matter of weeks .
One night , Dussander tries to kill a hobo who earlier had seen him in the uniform . When Dussander has a heart attack , he calls Todd , who finishes the job , cleans up , and calls an ambulance for Dussander . At the hospital , Dussander is recognized by a death camp survivor sharing his room and he is arrested , prior to being extradited to Israel . Todd graduates as his school 's valedictorian and gives a speech about Icarus , saying , " All great achievements arose from dissatisfaction . It is the desire to do better , to dig deeper , that propels civilization to greatness . " The scene is juxtaposed in a montage with Dussander 's home being searched and the hobo 's corpse being found in the basement .
Todd is briefly questioned about his relationship with Dussander , but he manages to convince the police that he knew nothing of the old man 's true identity . At the hospital , Dussander hears a group of Neo @-@ Nazis demonstrating outside the hospital ; realizing his identity has been hopelessly compromised , he commits suicide by giving himself an air embolism . When French learns that the man who met Todd at school was not Todd 's grandfather but a war criminal , he confronts Todd , who then blackmails him into silence by threatening to accuse him of making inappropriate sexual advances towards him , and to thereby expose him publicly as a homosexual and pederast .
= = Cast = =
McKellen stars as Kurt Dussander , a Nazi war criminal who hides in America under the pseudonym Arthur Denker . Screenwriter Brandon Boyce described Dussander as being " a composite of these ghosts of World War II " but not based on any real @-@ life individual . McKellen was attracted to the role because he was impressed with Singer 's The Usual Suspects and saw the role of Dussander as " a nice , meaty part and difficult " . Singer , who enjoyed McKellen in John Schlesinger 's 1995 film Cold Comfort Farm , invited the actor to take the role . The character 's language was written originally for " a very stoic German " , but Singer felt that McKellen 's " complex " personality could contribute to the character . The director said of choosing McKellen , " I felt if I could combine his complexity , his colorfulness , to the stoic German character it would create a character that , although evil , would garner more sympathy and would be more enjoyable for the audience to watch . "
Renfro stars alongside McKellen as Todd Bowden , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old who discovers Denker 's criminal past . Singer auditioned a couple hundred young men and chose 14 @-@ year @-@ old Renfro , saying of him , " Brad was the brightest , the most intense and the most real . Not only could he have the intensity when we wanted , there was a hollowness that he could convey , and by the end of the picture he had to become this empty vessel . " Portraying a manipulative character temporarily influenced Renfro , who said that people around him were worried about his state of mind . Renfro said of his performance , " It 's a trip I have to take . People just kind of have to leave me alone when I 'm doing it . It 's my job . " Singer described his impression of the character :
I don 't believe for one minute that [ Todd Bowden ] was pure as the driven snow . The capacity to blackmail an old man — obviously there 's a search for something going on that 's a good hard step beyond innocence . I think he had it within him , some emptiness that needed fulfillment and taken to a new place , a new direction . His school , his parents , his environment weren 't doing it for him . This particular individual came along before some other , but it perhaps could have been drugs , it could have been rape . Todd was probably not a very good guy . But that kind of bad guy can exist within a lot more people than we realize .
Schwimmer plays Edward French , Todd Bowden 's high school guidance counselor . Before Schwimmer , Kevin Pollak was attached to the role . While Schwimmer was known for his comedic role on the television show Friends , Singer was impressed by the actor 's performance in a Los Angeles stage production and decided to cast him as the counselor .
= = Critical analysis = =
= = = Obsession with Nazism and the Holocaust = = =
The obsession with Nazism and the Holocaust that unfolds in Apt Pupil is the result of the paternal bond between Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander and high school student Todd Bowden . Such bonds are common themes in Stephen King 's works : " King 's portrayal of evil most often appears to require an active , illicit bond between a male ( often in the role of a father or father surrogate ) and a younger , formerly innocent individual ( often in the role of a biological or surrogate progeny ) who is initiated into sin " . In the film , the year 1984 highlights , in addition to Orwellian overtones , the time in American history in which the Holocaust is treated as a week @-@ long course with little time " to be tempered with self @-@ questioning as to the motivations behind it " . Bowden 's obsession with the Holocaust is a key plot device " wherein the past has this unbreakable hold on the present " . The film 's opening sequence shows how Bowden treats this history as a simulacrum in which the history becomes his own , as evidenced by his head 's brief overlapping with the Nazis he is studying . Though history becomes alive for Bowden , he perceives it through the perpetrators ( namely Dussander ) and not through the victims , characterizing Bowden as " apt " in the sense of " a natural tendency to ... undesirable behavior " .
Language serves as " a vehicle for corruption " , as Dussander tells Bowden horrific stories of his service at the fictional Death Camp of Patin . Bowden , in listening to the stories , becomes " a vampiric extension of the evil " that Dussander exhibits . The sharing of stories lead both Dussander and Bowden to have nightmares , and for Bowden , the nightmares are " a past that is becoming ever more present " . One of the key motifs of the film is that " a door was opened that could not be shut " , referring to Dussander 's confession about following orders and being unable to hold back . The motif is also conveyed in the scene in which Bowden forces Dussander to put on a Schutzstaffel uniform and to march to Bowden 's commands . Dussander continues marching despite Bowden 's insistences to stop , emulating the premise of the poem The Sorcerer 's Apprentice in which the untrained apprentice uses magic to enchant brooms and lacks the skill to stop them . The scene is " the figurative and literal turning point in the film " .
= = = Sadomasochism , homoeroticism , and homophobia = = =
Sadomasochism , homoeroticism , and homophobia are highlighted in Bryan Singer 's retelling of Stephen King 's novella . The face of evil is represented in the film as Nazism , oft labeled as " quintessentially innate [ and ] supernaturally crafty " , but also " in a more subterranean way , dangerously blurring ... the boundaries between homoeroticism and homosexuality " . The Nazi monstrosity in Apt Pupil is structured through sexual " abnormality " , where a series of binary dichotomies are introduced : " normal versus monstrous , heterosexual versus homosexual , and healthy versus sick " . An additional dichotomy , victimizer ( masculinized ) versus victim ( feminized ) , reflects the film 's " hidden tensions " in which Bowden and Dussander 's roles of powers are reversible . While the " set of perversions " that unfold in the novella are misogynistic , the film unfolds the set as " ambivalently homoerotic and homophobic " . The film removes the novella 's misogyny and leaves intact the underlying homoeroticism of the central characters . The film also expounds the connection between homophobia and how male Holocaust victims are portrayed .
The central characters Todd Bowden and Kurt Dussander are onscreen most of the time , and they are frequently framed in close proximity , " [ intensifying ] a homoerotic intimacy [ which is ] punctuated by dread of contact with the monstrous " . Homoeroticism in Apt Pupil is further demonstrated by the focus on Todd 's body . In the opening scene in which Bowden is in his bedroom during a stormy night , " the ever @-@ encroaching camera and the lighting fetishize Todd 's youthful body " , similar to the fetishism of the female body in films like Psycho ( 1960 ) . This depiction creates a dualism in which " he is now simultaneously dangerous and endangered " in his homophobic and homoerotic ties to Nazism .
When Bowden gives Dussander an SS uniform to wear and in which to march under Bowden 's orders , the student 's demands are more heightened in the film as " more dominant and voyeuristic " . Bowden tells Dussander , " I tried to do this the nice way , but you don 't want it . So fine , we 'll do this the hard way . You will put this on , because I want to see you in it . Now move ! " The editing style of the Nazi march scene juxtaposes Dussander marching in the uniform and Bowden reacting to the march . Shots of Bowden 's reaction are from a low angle , which reflects " the sexual difference between the characters " ; Bowden is masculinized as " the bearer of the [ sexual ] gaze " , and Dussander is feminized as " the object of the gaze " . The cutting between Bowden and Dussander " corroborates a homoerotic arrangement of images " which visualizes the latent homoeroticism of the scene from the novella . When Dussander speeds up his march and Bowden tells him to stop , the sped @-@ up shot reverse shot " radically [ ruptures ] the structure of power " , where Bowden loses " control of his sadistic power over Dussander " .
= = Production = =
= = = Previous production attempt = = =
When Stephen King 's novella Apt Pupil was published as part of his collection Different Seasons in 1982 , producer Richard Kobritz optioned feature film rights to the novella . Kobritz met with actor James Mason to play the novella 's war criminal Kurt Dussander , but Mason died in July 1984 before production as a result of a heart attack . The producer also approached Richard Burton for the role , but Burton also died in August that same year . By 1987 production on the film began with Nicol Williamson cast as Kurt Dussander , and 17 @-@ year @-@ old Rick Schroder was cast as Todd Bowden . In that year , Alan Bridges began direction of the film with a script co @-@ written by Ken Wheat and his brother Jim Wheat . After ten weeks of filming , the production suffered from a lack of funds from its production company Granat Releasing , and the film had to be placed on hold . Kubritz sought to revive production , but when the opportunity came a year later , Schroder had aged too considerably for the film to work . Forty minutes of usable footage was abandoned .
= = = Direction under Bryan Singer = = =
Bryan Singer first read Apt Pupil when he was 19 years old , and when he became a director , he wanted to adapt the novella into a film . In 1995 , Singer asked his friend and screenwriter Brandon Boyce to write a spec script adapting the novella . Boyce recalled the writing process , " I thought it was a great stageplay , actually ... two people , pretty much in a house talking . My script was completely on spec , so , if it didn 't work out , at least I 'd have a writing sample . " When the original option to the novella expired in 1995 , Stephen King sued to get the rights back . Singer and Boyce then provided to King a first draft of their script and a copy of Singer 's film The Usual Suspects ( 1995 ) , which had yet to be publicly released . Impressed with Singer , King optioned the rights to the director for $ 1 , arranging to be compensated when the film was released . Singer said of King 's ultimate response to the film , despite some changes made to the source material , " Stephen loved it . He seemed to think I captured the mood of the piece . " The director appreciated being able to make a Stephen King horror film but with less supernatural terror and more character @-@ driven terror . Singer spoke of his goal : " There have been a lot of fun horror movies like Nightmare on Elm Street and Scream , and I Know What You Did Last Summer . But I miss movies like The Shining , The Exorcist , and The Innocents by Jack Clayton , so this is a movie sort of in the spirit of the real horror movie . "
Singer described the Apt Pupil 's premise as a " study in cruelty " . He prepared for the film by reading books like the 1996 history book Hitler 's Willing Executioners , which confirmed his beliefs that Nazi war criminals felt " guiltless and matter @-@ of @-@ fact about what they did " . He referred to how young Todd Bowden 's interactions with Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander start to affect him : " I liked the idea of the infectious nature of evil ... The notion that anybody has the capacity within them to be cruel if motivated properly is , I think , a scary concept . " The director also perceived the film as not about the Holocaust , believing that the Nazi war criminal could have been replaced by one of Pol Pot 's executioners or a mass murderer from Russia . " It wasn 't about fascism or National Socialism . It was about cruelty and the ability to do awful deeds , to live with them and be empowered by them , " Singer said . To this end , the director sought to avoid overt use of swastikas and other Nazi symbols . He was also attracted to the film as " [ an ] idea that the collective awfulness of this terrible thing that happened decades ago in Europe had somehow crept up across the ocean and through time , like a golem , into this beautiful Southern California suburban neighborhood " .
Singer turned down directing opportunities with films like The Truman Show and The Devil 's Own after the success of The Usual Suspects . He instead pursued Apt Pupil : " It was a very dark subject matter , and it was something that came from passion . " He acknowledged in retrospect that Apt Pupil " wasn 't really supposed to be a big success " . Singer was financially supported by producer Scott Rudin and the production company Spelling Films . Ian McKellen was cast as Dussander , and Brad Renfro was cast as Bowden . With $ 1 million paid toward pre @-@ production , filming was scheduled to begin in June 1996 . Due to financial disagreements between Singer and Rudin , the start date was pushed back and subsequently canceled . Singer and his production team stayed together while producer Don Murphy and his partner Jane Hamsher sought refinancing . Mike Medavoy , a former chairman of TriStar Pictures , rescued the production with the financial backing of his production company Phoenix Pictures . The company provided filmmakers with $ 14 million to produce Apt Pupil . Filming took place on location in Altadena , California . Singer related to how Todd Bowden rebelled against his suburban environment . The director used the name of his high school football team , the Pirates , and the green @-@ and @-@ gold team colors in the film , saying , " I just projected my own childhood right out to Southern California . "
= = = Editing and composing = = =
John Ottman served as both film editor and music composer for Apt Pupil . When he edited the film , he found it a challenge to create the proper musical score . Ottman recalled , " Normally , an editor will score scenes with temporary music from CDs , and so forth , and nothing I could find worked for this film . " The composer sought a mix between the scores of the science fiction film 2001 : A Space Odyssey ( 1968 ) and the military @-@ based comedy 1941 ( 1979 ) to create an " otherworldly pastiche " . Ottman said of his approach :
When you throw a cat in the oven , it 's easy to have someone in the orchestra slam a hammer down on an anvil , scaring the hell out of everyone . The hard part is manipulating the story and accenting the characters . In the beginning , when Todd is laying down the rules , there 's a certain repetitive thematic idea you hear . You hear the same music when Dussander is turning the tables on Todd , which makes you remember the first scene ... You hope people are subliminally making the connection that the tables are turning back and forth .
Another scene in which Ottman meshed his editing and composing duties was when Dussander wakes up in the hospital with the television show The Jeffersons playing in the background . Ottman explained his intent for the scene , " I used The Jeffersons as this innocuous thing — going between him and the television — so that when he does open his eyes , it scares the hell out of you ... I added this deafening Bartok pizz , which is when all the violins pluck their strings really loud and they create this gnarly , unsettling sound . " Ottman recorded the film 's score with the Seattle Symphony .
= = Lawsuit = =
For Apt Pupil , Bryan Singer filmed a shower scene in which Todd Bowden , saturated with horrific stories from Kurt Dussander , imagines his fellow showering students as Jewish prisoners in gas chambers . The scene was filmed at Eliot Middle School in Altadena , California on April 2 , 1997 , and two weeks later , a 14 @-@ year @-@ old extra filed a lawsuit alleging that Singer forced him and other extras to strip naked for the scene . Two boys , 16 and 17 years old , later supported the 14 @-@ year @-@ old 's claim . The boys claimed trauma from the experience , seeking charges against the filmmakers including infliction of emotional distress , negligence , and invasion of privacy . Allegations were made that the boys were filmed for sexual gratification . The local news shows and national tabloid programs stirred the controversy . A sexual crimes task force that included local , state , and federal personnel investigated the incident . The Los Angeles District Attorney 's office determined that there was no cause to file criminal charges , stating , " The suspects were intent on completing a professional film as quickly and efficiently as possible . There is no indication of lewd or abnormal sexual intent . " The civil case was dismissed due to insufficient evidence . The scene was filmed again with adult actors so the film could finish on time .
The lawsuit reflected " a recent cultural concern " about nudity in showers being connected to " sexual or erotic forms of gazing " . The journal Body & Society wrote , " The ways in which the accusation that the director and other crew members identified as gay is seen to collapse gay identity into gay sexual behaviour , but the wholesale collapse of nudity into sexuality . " The incident reflected the cultural trend that being gazed upon while naked would cause different forms of distress , threatening the " stability of the self as subject " . This undermines the subject 's ability to perform and as a result of the discomfort , brings more into question what the displayed nakedness is for .
= = Differences between novella and film = =
Stephen King 's novella Apt Pupil begins in 1974 , when Todd Bowden is in junior high , and it ends with him graduating from high school . In Bryan Singer 's film , the story takes place fully in 1984 , when Todd Bowden is in his last year in high school . In the novella , for three years leading to the end of the story , Todd Bowden and discovered Nazi war criminal Kurt Dussander independently murder a large number of hobos and transients , whereas in the film , the murders are condensed to Dussander 's attempt to kill the hobo Archie . Singer sought to reduce the novella 's violence , not wanting it to appear " exploitative or repetitive " . Unlike in the novella , animosity toward Jews was not explicitly displayed by the characters in the film . The novella 's dream sequence in which Bowden rapes a sixteen @-@ year @-@ old Jewish virgin as a laboratory experiment under Dussander 's guidance was replaced by the film 's dream sequence in which Bowden sees three shower @-@ gas chamber scenes unfold . Reduced in the film was Todd 's encounter with the schoolgirl Betty ( named Becky in the film ) . In the novella , he dreams of Betty as a concentration camp inmate who he can rape and torture . In the film , he has a brief encounter with Becky where he finds himself unable to perform sexually .
In the novella , Bowden 's high school counselor Edward French confronts the student with suspicions that Dussander is not really Bowden 's grandfather , and Bowden murders French in cold blood . Bowden then embarks on a shooting spree from a tree overlooking a freeway , which results in his death five hours later . Singer felt unable to accomplish King 's ending : " I told [ King ] the ending reads so beautifully . I could never measure up to it ; I would have killed it . " In the film , Bowden intimidates French , who suspects Dussander 's false relationship to the student , by threatening to destroy him with " rumor and innuendo " . Stanley Wiater , author of The Complete Stephen King Universe , wrote , " As depicted on screen , Todd is much more consciously evil , in his way , than in the book . This switch , while making the ending less brutal , perhaps , achieves the impossible : it also makes the ending even darker . "
= = Reception = =
Bryan Singer previewed Apt Pupil at the Museum of Tolerance 's L.A. Holocaust Center to assess feedback from rabbis and others about referencing the Holocaust . With a positive response , the director proceeded with the film 's release . Apt Pupil was originally scheduled to be released in February 1998 , but the film 's distributor moved the release date to autumn , feeling that it belonged " alongside other more serious @-@ minded films " . It premiered at the Venice Film Festival in September 1998 . It was then commercially released on October 23 , 1998 in 1 @,@ 448 theaters in the United States and Canada , grossing $ 3 @.@ 6 million on its opening weekend and placing ninth at the weekend box office . The film went on to gross $ 8 @.@ 9 million in the United States and Canada . Apt Pupil was considered a critical and commercial disappointment . The film was less successful than Singer 's previous film The Usual Suspects , with critics describing it as " a somewhat disturbing movie that works as a suspenseful thriller , yet isn 't completely satisfying " .
Roger Ebert , reviewing for the Chicago Sun @-@ Times , wrote that the film was well @-@ made by Bryan Singer and well @-@ acted , especially by Ian McKellen , but that " the film reveals itself as unworthy of its subject matter " . The critic felt that the offensive material lacked a " social message " or an " overarching purpose " and found the film 's later scenes to be " exploitative " . Janet Maslin of The New York Times applauded the production value of Bryan Singer 's direction , liking Newton Thomas Sigel 's " handsomely shot " cinematography and John Ottman 's " stunningly edited " work . Maslin wrote of McKellen and Renfro 's performances , " Both actors play their roles so trickily that tensions escalate until the horror grows unimaginatively gothic . " The critic felt that as the film approached the end , " the story 's cleverness is noticeably on the wane " .
Kathleen Murphy of Film Comment called McKellen and Renfro 's performances " skin @-@ crawling " but felt that it did not complete the film . Murphy wrote , " [ The acting ] makes you wish Apt Pupil had the art and the courage actually to look into evil 's awful abyss . " The critic perceived that Apt Pupil came off as a conventional horror film , that it had Stephen King 's " characteristically unsavory " touches , and that Singer 's " inept " direction " trivialize [ s ] the characters and the subject matter " . Lisa Schwarzbaum of Entertainment Weekly saw Apt Pupil as not a " hunted @-@ Nazi thriller " nor a " full @-@ tilt Stephen King thriller " , but as a " student @-@ teacher parable " that comes off as " disturbing " . Schwarzbaum felt that Singer told " a story with serious moral resonance " , though patience was needed to get past Singer 's " more baroque cinematic touches " of " visual furbelows ... and aural gimmicks " in the film , citing as examples Dussander watching Mr. Magoo on television or the musical piece Liebestod being blared during a bloody scene .
Jay Carr of the Boston Globe called Apt Pupil " most compelling for its moral dimension " , enjoying the " duet between Renfro 's smooth @-@ cheeked latter @-@ day Faust and McKellen 's reawakened Mephistopheles " . While Carr found the film 's framework to be realistic , he noted the change of pace , " Perhaps sensing a narrative slackening and a smothering claustrophobia ... ' Apt Pupil ' veers into melodramatic devices that yank the film out of its disquieting amorality and turn it into something much more ordinary and mundane . " The critic concluded , " It maintains a bleak integrity by not pretending to arrive at remorse . Never is there any discussion . " Michael Wilmington of the Chicago Tribune described Apt Pupil as " a good shocker that misses the ultimate horror " , finding the film 's weakness to be the " contrived " bond between Dussander and Bowden . Wilmington called the plot " overly slick " , asking , " How can Todd not only conveniently find a Nazi war criminal in his hometown but also instantly coerce and control him ? "
= = Accolades = =
Renfro won the Best Actor award at the Tokyo International Film Festival for his performance in Apt Pupil . Ian McKellen won a Critics ' Choice Award for Best Actor and a Florida Film Critics Circle Award for Best Actor for his performance in both Apt Pupil and Gods and Monsters . The Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films awarded a Saturn Award for Best Supporting Actor to McKellen for his performance and awarded the film a Saturn Award for Best Horror Film of 1998 .
= Elgin , Illinois , Centennial half dollar =
The Elgin , Illinois , Centennial half dollar was a fifty @-@ cent commemorative coin issued by the United States Bureau of the Mint in 1936 , part of the wave of commemoratives authorized by Congress and struck that year . Intended to commemorate the centennial of the founding of Elgin , the piece was designed by local sculptor Trygve Rovelstad . The obverse depicts an idealized head of a pioneer man . The reverse shows a grouping of pioneers , and is based upon a sculptural group that Rovelstad hoped to build as a memorial to those who settled Illinois , but which was not erected in his lifetime .
Rovelstad had heard of other efforts to gain authorization for commemorative coins , which were sold by the Mint to a designated group at face value and then retailed to the public at a premium . In 1935 , through his congressman , he had legislation introduced into the House of Representatives for a commemorative coin in honor of Elgin 's centennial that year . Rovelstad hoped that the proposed coin would both depict and be a source of funds for his memorial to the pioneers . Texas coin dealer L.W. Hoffecker heard of the effort and contacted Rovelstad to offer his assistance — Hoffecker had been a force behind the Old Spanish Trail half dollar , issued in 1935 and distributed by him .
The bill for the Elgin coin did not pass until 1936 . Hoffecker was able to sell about 20 @,@ 000 coins , four @-@ fifths of the issue : the remaining 5 @,@ 000 were returned to the Mint for melting . Unlike many commemorative coins of that era , the piece was not bought up by dealers and speculators , but was sold directly to collectors at the issue price . Art historian Cornelius Vermeule considered the Elgin coin among the most outstanding American commemoratives .
= = Inception = =
Elgin , Illinois , is located on the Fox River about 30 miles ( 48 km ) west of Chicago . The community was founded in 1835 by James and Hezekiah Gifford , who named it . It became a village in 1847 and a city in 1854 . In the latter year , a watch company was founded there , and the city became well known for the firm 's timepieces ; it also was notable for the production of tools , shoes , wood products , and weekly church bulletins .
Sculptor Trygve Rovelstad ( 1903 – 1990 ) , born to Norwegian immigrants in the United States , sought to erect a statue in his hometown of Elgin as a monument to those pioneers who had settled Illinois . The city leaders approved , and in 1934 , a foundation was laid for the statue in Davidson Park , the site of the Giffords ' first cabin . Rovelstad was unable to raise the money to construct and erect the statue , but having learned of recent commemorative coin issues , decided this would be a good means of funding the statue . The sculptor had a bill introduced in Congress in May 1935 to authorize a half dollar to celebrate Elgin 's centennial and to honor the pioneer . Nevertheless , the bill initially was not considered .
News of the bill appeared in the July 1935 The Numismatist ( the journal of the American Numismatic Association [ ANA ] ) , and on July 11 , L.W. Hoffecker wrote to the Elgin Centennial Monumental Committee , inquiring how the coins would be distributed . Hoffecker , an El Paso , Texas , coin dealer , was then leading the committee in his hometown that was selling the Old Spanish Trail half dollar to the public . Although some recent commemoratives had sparked outcry from collectors that speculators had been allowed to buy up quantities of the new issues , Hoffecker would gain praise for equitably distributing the Old Spanish Trail piece .
In the correspondence between the two men , Hoffecker gave Rovelstad a number of tips about how to deal with Congress . Even though the bill was still mired in committee , Hoffecker advised what to do once the bill was signed . He did not know yet that Rovelstad was a sculptor , and wrote to him in September 1935 about the models to be submitted for approval , " These should also be 10 [ inches , or 25
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of the anniversary appears .
The reverse side depicts a group of pioneers ( four adults and a baby in its mother 's arms ) . The grouping is a bas relief of the model for the memorial that Rovelstad hoped to build . The child is the second baby to be implied , but not fully seen , on a US coin – one is sketched with the mother inside the Conestoga wagon on the Oregon Trail Memorial half dollar , first struck in 1926 . One would be more fully depicted on the Roanoke Island half dollar in 1937 . The grouping had also appeared on Rovelstad 's 1935 medal for Elgin 's centennial . Rovelstad placed , both on the medal and on the base for the statue , the words , " To the men who have blazed the trails , who have conquered the soil , and who have built an empire in the land of the Illini . " Inclusion of the various mottos required by statute , such as " In God We Trust " , meant that not even part of this dedication could be placed on the coin . The name of the city was not in the original models that Rovelstad sent Hoffecker for his comments ; the numismatist wrote on July 15 , 1936 , " I would not overlook putting the word ' Elgin ' on your coin , as it would be a good ad for your city " .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule , in his volume on the artistry of American coins , had high praise for the coin and its sculptor : " it is more difficult to find a more aesthetically satisfying , technically superior commemorative half @-@ dollar than the Elgin , Illinois , Centennial of 1936 . " Vermeule observed that the figures on the reverse appear almost three @-@ dimensional . He noted that the technique of spacing out the letters of the word " Pioneer " above the head presages that used by later Chief Engraver Gilroy Roberts on the obverse of the Kennedy half dollar . According to Vermeule , Rovelstad " has produced one of the major documents of sculptural plasticity and vibrant relief in the series of commemorative coins . His obverse is worthy of a Roman medallion , and his reverse rivals the great Neoclassic dies of England or Bavaria in the nineteenth century . "
= = Release = =
Once the authorizing legislation was enacted , Hoffecker and Rovelstad came to a new agreement . Hoffecker would advance the money for the new coins and pay for the die making and shipping costs , which were the committee 's responsibility under the legislation . The coins would be sold at $ 1 @.@ 50 each ; Hoffecker would take 35 cents per coin as commission . The coins were to remain on sale through Hoffecker until January 1 , 1937 or until they were sold out , whichever came first . The agreement provided that Hoffecker " use every ethical means known to him to push the sale of these coins " . Coin dealer B. Max Mehl , in his 1937 pamphlet on commemorative coins , stated that he considered the price of $ 1 @.@ 50 too high when there was an issue of 25 @,@ 000 struck .
On July 1 , 1936 , Hoffecker sent 3 @,@ 500 letters offering the new coins , which had not yet been struck , to people who were on his mailing list or had enquired . He claimed to have 7 @,@ 000 orders already , and urged collectors not to delay . His bank offered to have the coins shipped there and to carry the coins as part of its cash on hand , which would allow him to pay for them as orders came in , but Hoffecker preferred to pay for the coins at the start . Hoffecker stated in letters that other coin dealers had offered to buy the entire issue , but he had declined . At this time , there was a boom in commemorative coins , and dealers were trying to get all the special issues they could .
The Philadelphia Mint shipped 24 @,@ 990 coins ( the authorized mintage less the first ten pieces , which Rovelstad had taken ) to Hoffecker on October 7 , 1936 ; they were received in El Paso four days later . Hoffecker wrote to Frank Duffield , editor of The Numismatist , stating that he had the envelopes for already @-@ ordered pieces all prepared , and hoped to mail the last of them out by the evening of October 13 ; the editor commented , " This sounds like real service " . Several hundred pieces had been ordered through banks in Elgin ; they received several consignments and eventually sold over a thousand . The Elgin Watch Company purchased 100 coins .
By November 1936 , 16 @,@ 170 pieces had been sold . Only about 2 @,@ 000 more were sold in the next four months ; Hoffecker 's statement for March 1937 shows 18 @,@ 790 sold with an additional 330 on consignment to the First National Bank of Elgin . Rovelstad had received $ 8 @,@ 680 @.@ 00 and Hoffecker $ 6 @,@ 576 @.@ 50 . At this point , discussion turned to what to do with the remaining pieces , some 5 @,@ 620 ( a few hundred pieces were given away or otherwise disposed of ) . Rovelstad agreed to allow the coin dealer to purchase 250 pieces at $ 1 each ; he was still selling them in 1948 . Other dealers were uninterested in large purchases as the direct sale to collectors meant that few who wanted and could afford the Elgin coin lacked it . With demand at a standstill , Hoffecker feared that the remaining pieces would wind up in the hands of speculators . Five thousand pieces were returned to the Mint for melting .
= = Aftermath and collecting = =
Rovelstad used the profits from the half dollar to continue work on his statuary group . He sought direct funding from the federal government in 1938 and from the Illinois Legislature the following year ; both attempts failed . Through the half century that followed , he progressed on the statues , and by the time of his death in 1990 , he had completed the group in plaster of Paris , that still needed to be bronzed before display . Shortly before his death , he told his wife , " I 've lived a full life and have no regrets . The Pioneer Memorial is now completed . I 've done all I could . Now it 's up to others to see it erected . I can do no more . " Rovelstad 's tenant , Steve Youngren , established a foundation to raise money to complete the project . It raised $ 456 @,@ 000 , exceeding the actual cost by nearly ten percent , and the memorial was completed and dedicated in 2001 .
Hoffecker served as president of the ANA from 1939 to 1941 ; he died January 13 , 1955 at the age of 86 . According to the 2014 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins , the Elgin Centennial half dollar lists at $ 250 in Almost Uncirculated ( AU @-@ 50 ) condition , rising to $ 550 in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 . According to numismatic historian Q. David Bowers , " nothing untoward was associated with the distribution of the Elgin Centennial half dollars , and certainly at the Illinois end of the deal sculptor Trygve A. Rovelstad 's intentions and ethics were of the highest order . L.W. Hoffecker distributed the pieces in a skillfully orchestrated publicity campaign and did as well as anyone could have done at the time . "
= ScienTOMogy =
ScienTOMogy was a New Zealand @-@ based parody site lampooning actor Tom Cruise 's involvement with Scientology . Initially hosted at the domain name scientomogy.info , the site was created in 2005 in response to the extensive media publicity surrounding Cruise 's appearances on The Oprah Winfrey Show and The Today Show .
ScienTOMogy gained press attention after the site proprietor was contacted by the Church of Scientology with a cease and desist letter , alleging copyright infringement by claiming the word " Scientomogy " was too close to the word " Scientology . " The proprietor initially agreed to relent to the Church 's demands , but then decided to keep the site after consulting with attorneys . Internet traffic to the site later increased dramatically as a result of the media attention surrounding the Church of Scientology 's allegations of copyright infringement .
= = Development = =
New Zealand webmaster Glen Stollery created scientomogy.info in July 2005 , after Tom Cruise appeared on The Today Show in an interview speaking about " the dangers of prescription drugs , " and following the incident where he jumped the couch over his love for Katie Holmes during an interview on The Oprah Winfrey Show . The site 's stated goal was " exposing Tom Cruise 's moronic behavior in his relentless crusade to promote the Church of Scientology . "
The site was mainly used to store parody and satire material , including depictions of Cruise and Holmes in straight jackets , as well as a video showing Cruise shooting lightning at Oprah Winfrey . To clarify its position as a parody site , ScienTOMogy contained a disclaimer , which it requested that the reader " understand and agree to .. before continuing . " The site 's disclaimer stated : " Obviously www.scienTOMogy.info has ABSOLUTELY NO connection whatsoever with the Church of Scientology , it ’ s [ sic ] affiliated organizations or , needless @-@ to @-@ say , Tom Cruise . It is designed for commentary and criticism within the limits of Free Speech . All content should be treated as opinion and all trademarks / copyrighted material herein are owned by their respective trademark owners . The Scientology site is here . Thank you . You may continue .. " On the site , a fake Cruise claims that the Church of Scientology should refer to itself as " ScienTOMogy " instead of Scientology , in order to clear up public relations problems . The parody version of Cruise states " It 's kind of like the word gummy bears . Bears by themselves are scary , but if you just add the word gummy to it , it now becomes a fun , enjoyable treat . "
= = Church of Scientology 's response = =
The Web site drew media attention when the Church of Scientology 's attorneys Moxon & Kobrin contacted Stollery , claiming the ScienTOMogy domain name was an infringement of their trademark , despite being a different word by one letter . In September 2005 , the Church of Scientology issued a cease and desist order to Stollery demanding he shut down the site and transfer ownership to the Church , threatening him with a $ 100 @,@ 000 lawsuit . The Church 's law firm stated that " ScienTOMogy " would cause a likelihood of confusion with " Scientology , " violating the Lanham Act , 15 U.S.C. 1125 ( a ) . The Church of Scientology 's letter stated : " You are hereby on notice that the registration and use of this domain name in this fashion has caused your name to be falsely associated with our client ’ s registered mark , SCIENTOLOGY .. The fact that you have changed one letter .. does not protect you from trademark infringement . " Helena Kobrin , a lawyer for the Church of Scientology , was quoted as saying : " You can 't use somebody 's trademark , regardless of what you 're saying , if you haven 't been given permission . "
The site responded with a statement : " The site is purely satirical and is for entertainment . It contains no fact nor claims to do so . The site clearly states in its header , ' This site has absolutely no connection whatsoever with the Church of Scientology , it 's affiliated organisations or , needless to say , Tom Cruise ' . " Stollery originally relented and agreed to change the domain name to " passionofcruise.info " on October 13 , 2005 , which E ! News took to be a parody of the film The Passion of the Christ .
After consulting with his lawyers in October 2005 , Stollery responded to the Church with a far more aggressive stance . Now believing the accusation to be completely frivolous , Stollery publicly refused , challenging the Church with : " I 'm keeping my domain , see you in court . " Again in an interview with ONE News , Stollery reiterated that he was going to retain rights to " ScienTOMogy " , and not transfer the URL to the Church of Scientology , as they had requested . After the media attention , Stollery said he began to receive " annoying calls " from local Scientologists . " The first few I was stupid enough to answer , but now they just call and call and call . When I did speak to ' a church member here in Auckland ' he kept insisting over and over that we meet to talk about my ' vendetta ' with the church . "
= = Aftermath = =
The threats gave the Web site a cult following of its own , taking its normal traffic from one hundred hits per day to one million in a matter of hours . The Wall Street Journal carried reports commenting on the irony of the situation , noting the site 's message that the press exposure due to the threats from the Church of Scientology had increased its traffic over tenfold . Mel Gibson has not raised objections to use of the parody term " PassionofCruise " . E ! News reported that though Stollery had originally agreed to take down the site , it was still running and accessible as of July 2006 , when the United Nations ' World Intellectual Property Organization awarded Cruise rights to the domain name " TomCruise.com " over claims of a cybersquatter .
In addition to hosting the original cease and desist letter , the Berkman Center for Internet & Society also gives legal commentary on various issues pertaining to the " ScienTOMogy " controversy at a page provided by the organization Chilling Effects . They discuss " trademark tarnishment " , which may occur if a non @-@ owner of a trademark uses the work in an " activity that is likely to offend the average person . " However , the page also notes that the tarnishment would be non @-@ actionable if the usage was non @-@ commercial or parody . The Church of Scientology has not since filed a lawsuit or opened litigation on " Scientomogy , " though at present the site scientomogy.info was inactive . Internet Archive 's Wayback Machine last version of the site is from July 8 , 2007 .
= Nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies =
The nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies is a naming scheme for assigning generic , or nonproprietary , names to monoclonal antibodies . An antibody is a protein that is produced in B cells and used by the immune system of humans and other vertebrate animals to identify a specific foreign object like a bacterium or a virus . Monoclonal antibodies are those that were produced in identical cells , often artificially , and so share the same target object . They have a wide range of applications including medical uses .
This naming scheme is used for both the World Health Organization ’ s International Nonproprietary Names ( INN ) and the United States Adopted Names ( USAN ) for pharmaceuticals . In general , word stems are used to identify classes of drugs , in most cases placed word @-@ finally . All monoclonal antibody names end with the stem -mab . Unlike most other pharmaceuticals , monoclonal antibody nomenclature uses different preceding word parts ( morphemes ) depending on structure and function . These are officially called substems and sometimes erroneously infixes , even by the USAN Council itself .
= = Components = =
= = = Stem = = =
The stem -mab is used for monoclonal antibodies as well as for their fragments , as long as at least one variable domain ( the domain that contains the target binding structure ) is included . This is the case for antigen binding fragments and single @-@ chain variable fragments , among other artificial proteins . Other antibody parts ( such as Fc regions ) and antibody mimetics use different naming schemes .
= = = Substem for origin / source = = =
The substem preceding the stem denotes the animal from which the antibody is obtained . The first monoclonal antibodies were produced in mice ( substem -o- , yielding the ending -omab ; usually Mus musculus , the house mouse ) or other non @-@ human organisms . Neither INN nor USAN has ever been requested for antibodies from rats ( theoretically -a- ) , hamsters ( -e- ) and primates ( -i- ) .
These non @-@ human antibodies are recognized as foreign by the human immune system and may be rapidly cleared from the body , provoke an allergic reaction , or both . To avoid this , parts of the antibody can be replaced with human amino acid sequences , or pure human antibodies can be engineered . If the constant region is replaced with the human form , the antibody is termed chimeric and the substem used is -xi- . Part of the variable regions may also be substituted , in which case it is called humanized and -zu- is used ; typically , everything is replaced except the complementarity determining regions ( CDRs ) , the three loops of amino acid sequences at the outside of each variable region that bind to the target structure . Partly chimeric and partly humanized antibodies use -xizu- . These three substems do not indicate the foreign species used for production . Thus , the human / mouse chimeric antibody basiliximab ends in -ximab just as the human / macaque antibody gomiliximab . Pure human antibodies use -u- .
Rat / mouse hybrid antibodies can be engineered with binding sites for two different antigens . These drugs , termed trifunctional antibodies , have the substem -axo- .
= = = Substem for target = = =
The substem preceding the source of the antibody refers to the medicine 's target . Examples of targets are tumors , organ systems like the circulatory system , or infectious agents like bacteria or viruses . The term target does not imply what sort of action the antibody exerts . Therapeutic , prophylactic and diagnostic agents are not distinguished by this nomenclature .
In the naming scheme as originally developed , these substems mostly consist of a consonant , a vowel , then another consonant . The final letter may be dropped if the resulting name would be difficult to pronounce otherwise . Examples include -ci ( r ) - for the circulatory system , -li ( m ) - for the immune system ( lim stands for lymphocyte ) and -ne ( r ) - for the nervous system . The final letter is usually omitted if the following source substem begins with a consonant ( such as -zu- or -xi- ) , but not all target substems are used in their shortened form . -mul- , for example , is never reduced to -mu- because no chimeric or humanized antibodies targeting the musculoskeletal system ever received an INN . Combination of target and source substems results in endings like -limumab ( immune system , human ) or -ciximab ( circulatory system , chimeric , consonant r dropped ) .
New and shorter target substems were adopted in 2009 . They mostly consist of a consonant , plus a vowel which is omitted if the source substem begins with a vowel . For example , human antibodies targeting the immune system receive names ending in -lumab instead of the old -limumab . Some endings like -ciximab remain unchanged . The old system employed seven different substems for tumor targets , depending on the type of tumor . Because many antibodies are investigated for several tumor types , the new convention only has -t ( u ) - .
= = = Prefix = = =
The prefix carries no special meaning . It should be unique for each medicine and contribute to a well sounding name . This means that antibodies with the same source and target substems are only distinguished by their prefix . Even antibodies targeting exactly the same structure are differently prefixed , such as the adalimumab and golimumab , both of which are TNF inhibitors but differ in their chemical structure .
= = = Additional words = = =
A second word following the name of the antibody indicates that another substance is attached , which is done for several reasons .
An antibody can be PEGylated ( attached to molecules of polyethylene glycol ) to slow down its degradation by enzymes and to decrease its immunogenicity ; this is shown by the word pegol as in alacizumab pegol .
A cytotoxic agent can be linked to an anti @-@ tumor antibody for drug targeting purposes . The word vedotin , for example , stands for monomethyl auristatin E which is toxic by itself but predominantly affects cancer cells if used in conjugates like glembatumumab vedotin .
A chelator for binding a radioisotope can be attached . Pendetide , a derivative of pentetic acid , is used for example in capromab pendetide to chelate indium @-@ 111 . If the drug contains a radioisotope , the name of the isotope precedes the name of the antibody . Consequently , indium ( 111In ) capromab pendetide is the name for the above example including indium @-@ 111 .
= = History = =
Emil von Behring and Kitasato Shibasaburō discovered in 1890 that diphtheria and tetanus toxins were neutralized in the bloodstream of animals by substances they called antitoxins , which were specific for the respective toxin . Behring received the first Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their find in 1901 . A year after the discovery , Paul Ehrlich used the term antibodies ( German Antikörper ) for these antitoxins .
The principle of monoclonal antibody production , called hybridoma technology , was published in 1975 by Georges Köhler and César Milstein , who were awarded the 1984 Medicine Nobel Prize for their discovery together with Niels Kaj Jerne . Muromonab @-@ CD3 was the first monoclonal antibody to be approved for clinical use in humans , in 1986 .
The World Health Organization ( WHO ) introduced the system of International Nonproprietary Names in 1950 , with the first INN list being published three years later . The stem -mab for monoclonal antibodies was proposed around 1990 , and the current system with target and source substems was developed between 1991 and 1993 . Due to the collaboration between the WHO and the United States Adopted Names Council , antibody USANs have the same structure and are largely identical to INNs . Until 2009 , more than 170 monoclonal antibodies received names following this nomenclature .
In October 2008 , the WHO convoked a working group to revise the nomenclature of monoclonal antibodies , to meet challenges discussed in April the same year . This led to the adoption of the new target substems in November 2009 . In spring 2010 , the first new antibody names were adopted .
= = Examples = =
= = = New convention = = =
Olaratumab is an antineoplastic . Its name is composed of the components olara @-@ t @-@ u @-@ mab . This shows that the drug is a human monoclonal antibody acting against tumors .
The name of benralizumab , a drug designed for the treatment of asthma , has the components benra @-@ li @-@ zu @-@ mab , marking it as a humanized antibody acting on the immune system .
= = = Old convention = = =
Adalimumab is a drug targeting TNF alpha . Its name can be broken down into ada @-@ lim @-@ u @-@ mab . Therefore , the drug is a human monoclonal antibody targeting the immune system . If adalimumab had been named after 2009 , it would have been adalumab .
Abciximab is a commonly used medication to prevent platelets from clumping together . Broken down into ab @-@ ci @-@ xi @-@ mab , its name shows the drug to be a chimeric monoclonal antibody used on the cardiovascular system . This and the following two names would look the same if the new convention were applied .
The name of the breast cancer medication trastuzumab can be analyzed as tras @-@ tu @-@ zu @-@ mab . Therefore , the drug is a humanized monoclonal antibody used against a tumor .
Alacizumab pegol is a PEGylated humanized antibody targeting the circulatory system .
Technetium ( 99mTc ) pintumomab and technetium ( 99mTc ) nofetumomab merpentan are radiolabeled antibodies , merpentan being a chelator that links the antibody nofetumomab to the radioisotope technetium @-@ 99m .
Rozrolimupab is a polyclonal antibody . Broken down into rozro @-@ lim @-@ u @-@ pab , its name shows the drug to be a human polyclonal antibody acting on the immune system . The suffix -pab shows it is a polyclonal antibody .
= = = Deviations = = =
The monoclonal antibody muromonab @-@ CD3 , approved for clinical use in 1986 , was named before these conventions took effect , and consequently its name does not follow them . Instead , it is a contraction from " murine monoclonal antibody targeting CD3 " .
= Where No One Has Gone Before =
" Where No One Has Gone Before " is the sixth episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation , ( episode 1 - ' Encounter at Farpoint ' is a two part episode ) originally aired October 26 , 1987 , in broadcast syndication in the United States . A high @-@ definition , remastered version of the episode received limited theatrical release for one day ( with the episode " Datalore " ) to celebrate the 25th anniversary of the series on July 23 , 2012 . The story was originally developed with the title " Where None Have Gone Before " and was based on Diane Duane 's book , The Wounded Sky . Duane and Michael Reaves pitched the idea to David Gerrold and Gene Roddenberry , and then submitted a script . Their script was subsequently rewritten by Maurice Hurley , whose first effort was poorly received ; however , his rewritten version was filmed . The episode was the first of the series directed by Rob Bowman , who went on to direct twelve more episodes .
Set in the 24th century , Star Trek : The Next Generation follows the adventures of the crew aboard the Starfleet Starship Enterprise @-@ D. In " Where No One Has Gone Before " , the Enterprise is visited by Mr. Kosinski ( Stanley Kamel ) and an alien known as the Traveler ( Eric Menyuk ) . The Traveler sends the Enterprise to distant parts of the universe , and help is required from Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) to bring the ship back home .
In this episode , Menyuk made the first of three appearances as the Traveler . Biff Yeager made his first appearance as the longest @-@ running chief engineer of the first season .
= = Plot = =
The Enterprise meets the USS Fearless to bring aboard Mr. Kosinski ( Stanley Kamel ) , a Starfleet propulsion expert who plans to run tests on the warp engines to improve their efficiency . With Kosinski is his assistant , an alien being from Tau Alpha C known as the Traveler ( Eric Menyuk ) . As Kosinski and the Traveler explain the tests to the engineering crew , Wesley Crusher ( Wil Wheaton ) quickly grasps what the tests are designed to accomplish and the Traveler expresses admiration for his problem @-@ solving abilities . The test quickly goes awry when the Enterprise speeds up , surpassing the known capabilities of warp engines . Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) orders the ship stopped , and the crew find themselves on the far side of the M33 Galaxy ( more than 2 @.@ 7 million light years from the Milky Way , the Enterprise 's home galaxy ) . Although Kosinski is pleased with the results , he is reprimanded by Picard and asked to simply redo the process to return home . Crusher attempts to warn Commander Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) that during the warp test , the Traveler appeared to drift out of reality , but Riker dismisses him without listening . However , after Kosinski begins the second test , Crusher and Riker both observe the Traveler again drifting out , appearing more tired . The Enterprise again experiences a burst of speed , and when it stops , the crew cannot determine their position . Picard demands that Kosinski get the crew home .
While Kosinski , the Traveler and the engineering crew work on reversing the process , the rest of the crew begin experiencing lifelike visions of their past ( an effect of the strange space around them ) . After having a vision of his mother ( Herta Ware ) , Picard surmises that they have arrived at the theoretical Outer Rim of the universe , and issues a red alert to awaken the crew from their visions . Finding Picard at the spot where he saw his mother , Riker suggests that Kosinski may have had nothing to do with the warp jumps , which were more likely to be a result of the Traveler 's illness ; Trying to determine this theory , Picard has the alien moved to sick bay . Dr. Crusher ( Gates McFadden ) however cannot evaluate the Traveler 's alien biology , and is unable to treat him . When Picard visits him in sick bay , the Traveler explains his ability to channel pure thought into reality . He brought the crew of the Enterprise to the Outer Rim , triggering similar effects in anyone within it to ascertain if they were ready to experience thought as reality . The Traveler confides to Picard that he looks for scientific prodigies such as the young Crusher , and Picard should nurture him . When he returns to the engineering section , the Traveler asks Crusher to assist him in returning the Enterprise to known space . As they concentrate , beginning to return the ship home , the Traveler again phases out and finally disappears . The Enterprise suddenly stops , and the crew is relieved to find themselves back in Federation space . After the incident , Picard finally promotes Crusher to acting ensign ( following his own unspoken suggestion in " The Naked Now " ) on the Enterprise for his performance .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
The original story for " Where No One Has Gone Before " was developed before the start of Star Trek : The Next Generation , with Michael Reaves and Diane Duane invited to pitch story ideas . Duane did not belong to the Writers Guild of America ( a requirement to write for the show at the time ) , and doubted she would be asked to write a script . Duane and Reaves worked together on several ideas ; after a week , Reaves informed Duane that he developed an idea based on her Star Trek novel The Wounded Sky and asked her to collaborate with him . She worked on the story idea with Reaves , and they expanded the story slightly from Reaves ' original idea . One version of the script involved the Enterprise causing the birth of a new universe , with a play on the Genesis creation narrative .
They pitched the story to story editor David Gerrold , who brought them to Star Trek creator Gene Roddenberry . Gene favored the story idea , suggesting changes which Reaves and Duane incorporated into a second draft . The episode was now entitled " Where None Have Gone Before " , differing significantly from the final version : Kosinski roomed with Picard at Starfleet Academy , fathering a son at that time . The ship 's travel differed ; the Traveller was replaced by a " warpdrive booster " with a miniature black hole . In this version , the situation was resolved with a second miniature Enterprise imagined and pushed into the black hole on the full @-@ sized ship . The interaction of the two black holes ( and an even @-@ smaller black hole on the miniature Enterprise ) returns the full @-@ sized ship near the location where it began to travel . After Duane and Reaves turned in the first version of the script based on that premise , nothing was heard from the TNG staff for two weeks .
The script was given to Maurice Hurley to rewrite . He took six weeks for the rewrite , and his initial version was received poorly by TNG executives . Hurley later said , " they absolutely hated it , I think they wanted to fire me , and they would have if I didn 't have a guaranteed contract " . He rewrote the script , and this version was filmed . Hurley was pleased with the result , saying that " everything about that episode worked " . The final version differed significantly from the original Reaves @-@ Duane script ; Duane later said that only two scenes remained : where Picard sees his mother , and where he nearly falls out of the turbolift into space . Reaves later said that the episode " came together much better on the screen than we thought it would when we read the script . We were lucky , because it was out of our hands " .
= = = Direction and casting = = =
Donald Petrie was originally signed to direct the episode , but dropped out to direct the film Mystic Pizza . Executive producer Robert Justman brought in Rob Bowman to direct his first Star Trek episode . Justman later said that this was one of his most @-@ significant achievements on The Next Generation . Bowman worked on storyboards and set blocking for twenty days before shooting the episode . He was initially nervous about working on the show , and felt he had to prove himself because of his relative inexperience as a director . Bowman said that after the second day of filming it became easier , and credited the crew with making him feel welcome . He went on to direct twelve more episodes of The Next Generation .
Eric Menyuk was cast as the Traveler . The actor had previously been runner @-@ up for the role of Data several weeks earlier ( the role went to Brent Spiner ) . He was a Star Trek fan since age six , and would later return as the Traveler twice more : in " Remember Me " and " Journey 's End " . Menyuk 's return in " Journey 's End " would also mark the last on @-@ screen appearance of Wesley Crusher . Biff Yeager made his Next Generation debut in " Where No One Has Gone Before " as Chief Engineer Argyle , who would become the most @-@ frequently @-@ appearing chief engineer of the first season ( appearing twice ) . Geordi La Forge took over that role in the first episode of season two , " The Child " . Stuntman " Dangerous " Dennis Madalone also made his series debut as the ensign threatened by his own ( imagined ) fire . From season three onwards he was stunt coordinator for The Next Generation , and continued to portray a number of crew members . Viewers learned Picard 's mother 's first name in " Chain of Command " ; she was played in " Where No One Has Gone Before " by Herta Ware , who appeared in the 1985 science @-@ fiction film Cocoon .
= = = Visual effects and makeup = = =
Some effects in the episode were created in Robert Legato 's basement with water reflections and Christmas tree lights . The script was vague about what was seen at the end of the universe , so Legato played with the effects of water reflections on his basement wall . Shooting through BoPET film , he created multiple images which were layered over one another for the final effect ( which Legato described as " peculiar and bizarre " ) . Christmas tree lights were suspended and moved , to create the blinking effect seen on screen .
The Klingon Targ was created by dressing a tamed wild boar ( named Emmy Lou ) in an outfit created by costume designer William Ware Theiss . Executive producer Robert Justman later recalled , " That pig smelled horrid . A sweet @-@ sour , extremely pungent odor . I showered and showered , and it took me a week to get rid of it ! " To appear as the Traveler , Eric Menyuk wore a prosthetic piece ( created by Michael Westmore ) on his forehead which ran into his hairline . He also wore a pair of false three @-@ fingered hands , which were sold in the " It 's A Wrap ! " auction after the end of Star Trek : Enterprise . His Traveler costume was also sold at the auction .
= = = Music = = =
" Where No One Has Gone Before " was the second episode scored by Ron Jones . Some themes in the soundtrack were rearrangements of Jerry Goldsmith 's score from Star Trek : The Motion Picture . In the piece " Talk with Mom " ( played during Picard 's meeting with his mother ) , Jones tried to create an effect identical to the finale of Aaron Copland 's 1944 Appalachian Spring . Alexander Courage 's themes from The Original Series are included in a seven @-@ note ostinato in the pieces " Log " , " Visitors " and " Fly @-@ By " .
The score was recorded with a forty @-@ piece orchestra . Jones formatted the orchestra to generate a bigger sound than normally heard on television soundtracks to make it sound more like Goldsmith 's The Motion Picture score . Keyboards were used to make the cellos more prominent , and other changes included an increase in the mid @-@ range of the string section . The soundtrack to " Where No One Has Gone Before " was released ( as part of The Ron Jones Project box set of Star Trek : The Next Generation scores ) in a limited run of 5 @,@ 000 copies in 2010 by Film Score Monthly .
= = Reception = =
" Where No One Has Gone Before " aired in broadcast syndication during the week commencing October 24 , 1987 . It received Nielsen ratings of 10 @.@ 5 , reflecting the percentage of all households watching the episode during its timeslot . This was the highest ratings received by the series since " The Naked Now " three episodes earlier .
Several reviewers revisited the episode after the end of the series . Cast member Wil Wheaton later described the episode as " the first time The Next Generation really started to come together " . However , the episode was flawed in dialogue and in Picard 's changes in tone : " I 'm not sure if that was a deliberate choice , so he would appear as a conflicted man , or if it was Patrick Stewart 's natural warmth and kindness coming through the gruff demeanour Picard was written to have . " When reviewing the show in 2006 for AOL TV , he gave it an overall score of B @-@ plus . Keith DeCandido reviewed the episode for Tor.com , praising the guest actors ; Stanley Kamel was " magnificent " and " ooze [ d ] arrogance , overconfidence , and bull in equal measure " , while Herta Ware brought " tremendous gravitas " to her role . He described the episode as the best of the first season , with strong performances from the main cast , and gave it an overall score of eight ( out of ten ) .
Zack Handlen reviewed the episode for The A.V. Club , saying that while it was an improvement on earlier episodes he had reservations about the use of Wesley Crusher . He called the " thoughts made flesh concept " a " cliche " , but was " gratified to see the series actually trying for something a little beyond their reach , this early in the game " . As for Wesley , Handlen thought that it was imposing a " Chosen One narrative " that brought " an unlikable character even further to the forefront of the action simply because some writer didn 't get enough pats on the head growing up " and gave the episode a B @-@ minus . Jamahl Epsicokhan , on his website Jammer 's Reviews , said that it was the first time in the series that space itself generated " awe and wonder " ; however , he thought the " fresh and intriguing " nature of the episode faded as it went along . He criticized Wesley Crusher , describing him as a " cloying geek " and " you just want to strangle him " . He gave the episode a score of 2 @.@ 5 ( out of 4 ) .
In Richard Hanley 's book The Metaphysics of Star Trek the appearance of the Traveler in " Where No One has Gone Before " was described as a continuation of intellectually @-@ advanced aliens in Star Trek , beginning in The Original Series with Apollo in " Who Mourns for Adonais ? " and Gary Mitchell in " Where No Man Has Gone Before " . Metaphysics is referenced in this episode by Wesley Crusher , who asks if thought is the basis of existence .
= = Home media and theatrical release = =
The first home @-@ media release of " Where No One Has Gone Before " was on VHS cassette on April 1 , 1992 in the United States and Canada . The episode was later included on the Star Trek : The Next Generation season @-@ one DVD box set released in March 2002 .
The most @-@ recent release was as part of the season @-@ one Blu @-@ ray set on July 24 , 2012 . To celebrate the 25th anniversary of Star Trek : The Next Generation and promote the release of the first season on Blu @-@ ray , the episodes " Where No One Has Gone Before " and " Datalore " received a theatrical release in the United States on July 23 , 2012 in nearly 500 theaters . " Where No One Has Gone Before " was chosen by Star Trek experts Mike and Denise Okuda because of the unusual space special effects .
= P. G. Wodehouse =
Sir Pelham Grenville Wodehouse , KBE ( / ˈwʊdhaʊs / ; 15 October 1881 – 14 February 1975 ) was an English author and one of the most widely read humorists of the 20th century . Born in Guildford , the son of a British magistrate based in Hong Kong , Wodehouse spent happy teenage years at Dulwich College , to which he remained devoted all his life . After leaving school he was employed by a bank but disliked the work and turned to writing in his spare time . His early novels were mostly school stories , but he later switched to comic fiction , creating several regular characters who became familiar to the public over the years . They include the feather @-@ brained Bertie Wooster and his sagacious valet , Jeeves ; the immaculate and loquacious Psmith ; Lord Emsworth and the Blandings Castle set ; the Oldest Member , with stories about golf ; and Mr Mulliner , with tall tales on subjects ranging from bibulous bishops to megalomaniac movie moguls .
Although most of Wodehouse 's fiction is set in England , he spent much of his life in the US and used New York and Hollywood as settings for some of his novels and short stories . During and after the First World War , together with Guy Bolton and Jerome Kern , he wrote a series of Broadway musical comedies that were an important part of the development of the American musical . He began the 1930s writing for MGM in Hollywood . In a 1931 interview , his naïve revelations of incompetence and extravagance at Hollywood studios caused a furore . In the same decade , his literary career reached a new peak .
In 1934 Wodehouse moved to France for tax reasons ; in 1940 he was taken prisoner at Le Touquet by the invading Germans and interned for nearly a year . After his release he made six broadcasts from German radio in Berlin to the US , which had not yet entered the war . The talks were comic and apolitical , but his broadcasting over enemy radio prompted anger and strident controversy in Britain , and a threat of prosecution . Wodehouse never returned to England . From 1947 until his death he lived in the US , taking dual British @-@ American citizenship in 1955 . He was a prolific writer throughout his life , publishing more than ninety books , forty plays , two hundred short stories and other writings between 1902 and 1974 . He died in 1975 , at the age of 93 , in Southampton , New York .
Wodehouse worked extensively on his books , sometimes having two or more in preparation simultaneously . He would take up to two years to build a plot and write a scenario of about thirty thousand words . After the scenario was complete he would write the story . Early in his career he would produce a novel in about three months , but he slowed in old age to around six months . He used a mixture of Edwardian slang , quotations from and allusions to numerous poets , and several literary techniques to produce a prose style that has been compared with comic poetry and musical comedy . Some critics of Wodehouse have considered his work flippant , but among his fans are former British prime ministers and many of his fellow writers .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early years = = =
Wodehouse was born in Guildford , Surrey , the third son of Henry Ernest Wodehouse ( 1845 – 1929 ) , a magistrate resident in the British colony of Hong Kong , and his wife , Eleanor ( 1861 – 1941 ) , daughter of the Rev John Bathurst Deane . The Wodehouses , who traced their ancestry back to the 13th century , belonged to a collateral branch of the family of the earls of Kimberley . Eleanor Wodehouse was also of ancient aristocratic ancestry . She was visiting her sister in Guildford when Wodehouse was born there prematurely .
The boy was baptised at the Church of St Nicolas , Guildford , and was named after his godfather , Pelham von Donop . Wodehouse wrote in 1957 , " If you ask me to tell you frankly if I like the name Pelham Grenville Wodehouse , I must confess that I do not . ... I was named after a godfather , and not a thing to show for it but a small silver mug which I lost in 1897 . " The first name was rapidly elided to " Plum " , the name by which Wodehouse became known to family and friends .
Mother and son sailed for Hong Kong , where for his first two years Wodehouse was raised by a Chinese amah ( nurse ) , alongside his elder brothers Peveril ( 1877 – 1951 ) and Armine ( 1879 – 1936 ) . When he was two , the brothers were brought to England , where they were placed under the care of an English nanny in a house adjoining that of Eleanor 's father and mother . The boys ' parents returned to Hong Kong and became virtual strangers to their sons . Such an arrangement was then normal for middle @-@ class families based in the colonies . The lack of parental contact , and the harsh regime of some of those in loco parentis , left permanent emotional scars on many children from similar backgrounds , including the writers Thackeray , Saki , Kipling and Walpole . Wodehouse was more fortunate ; his nanny , Emma Roper , was strict but not unkind , and both with her and later at his different schools Wodehouse had a generally happy childhood . His recollection was that " it went like a breeze from start to finish , with everybody I met understanding me perfectly " . The biographer Robert McCrum suggests that nonetheless Wodehouse 's isolation from his parents left a psychological mark , causing him to avoid emotional engagement both in life and in his works . Another biographer , Frances Donaldson , writes , " Deprived so early , not merely of maternal love , but of home life and even a stable background , Wodehouse consoled himself from the youngest age in an imaginary world of his own " .
In 1886 the brothers were sent to a dame @-@ school in Croydon , where they spent three years . Peveril was then found to have a " weak chest " ; sea air was prescribed , and the three boys were moved to Elizabeth College on the island of Guernsey . In 1891 Wodehouse went on to Malvern House Preparatory School in Kent , which concentrated on preparing its pupils for entry to the Royal Navy . His father had planned a naval career for him , but the boy 's eyesight was found to be too poor for it . He was unimpressed by the school 's narrow curriculum and zealous discipline ; he later parodied it in his novels , with Bertie Wooster recalling his early years as a pupil at a " penitentiary ... with the outward guise of a prep school " called Malvern House .
Throughout their school years the brothers were sent to stay during the holidays with various uncles and aunts from both sides of the family . In the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , Iain Sproat counts twenty aunts and considers that they played an important part not only in Wodehouse 's early life , but , thinly disguised , in his mature novels , as the formidable aunts who dominate the action in the Wooster , Blandings , and other stories . The boys had fifteen uncles , four of whom were clergymen . Sproat writes that they inspired Wodehouse 's " pious but fallible curates , vicars , and bishops , of which he wrote with friendly irreverence but without mockery " .
At the age of twelve in 1894 , to his great joy , Wodehouse was able to follow his brother Armine to Dulwich College . He was entirely at home there ; Donaldson comments that Dulwich gave him , for the first time , " some continuity and a stable and ordered life " . He loved the camaraderie , distinguished himself at cricket , rugby and boxing , and was a good , if not consistently diligent , student . The headmaster at the time was A.H. Gilkes , a respected classicist , who was a strong influence on Wodehouse . In a study of Wodehouse 's works , Richard Usborne argues that " only a writer who was himself a scholar and had had his face ground into Latin and Greek ( especially Thucydides ) as a boy " could sustain the complex sequences of subordinate clauses sometimes found in Wodehouse 's comic prose .
Wodehouse 's six years at Dulwich were among the happiest of his life : " To me the years between 1894 and 1900 were like heaven . " In addition to his sporting achievements he was a good singer and enjoyed taking part in school concerts ; his literary leanings found an outlet in editing the school magazine , The Alleynian . For the rest of his life he remained devoted to the school . The biographer Barry Phelps writes that Wodehouse " loved the college as much as he loved anything or anybody " .
= = = Reluctant banker ; budding writer : 1900 – 08 = = =
Wodehouse expected to follow Armine to the University of Oxford , but the family 's finances took a turn for the worse at the crucial moment . Ernest Wodehouse had retired in 1895 , and his pension was paid in rupees ; fluctuation against the pound reduced its value in Britain . Wodehouse recalled , " The wolf was not actually whining at the door and there was always a little something in the kitty for the butcher and the grocer , but the finances would not run to anything in the nature of a splash " . Instead of a university career , in September 1900 Wodehouse was engaged in a junior position in the London office of the Hongkong and Shanghai Bank . He was unsuited to it and found the work baffling and uncongenial . He later wrote a humorous account of his experiences at the bank , but at the time he longed for the end of each working day , when he could return to his rented lodgings in Chelsea and write . At first he concentrated , with some success , on serious articles about school sports for Public School Magazine . In November 1900 his first comic piece , " Men Who Missed Their Own Weddings " , was accepted by Tit @-@ Bits . A new magazine for boys , The Captain , provided further well @-@ paid opportunities , and during his two years at the bank , Wodehouse had eighty pieces published in a total of nine magazines .
In 1901 , with the help of a former Dulwich master , William Beach Thomas , Wodehouse secured an appointment — at first temporary and later permanent — writing for The Globe 's popular " By the Way " column . He held the post until 1909 . At around the same time his first novel was published — a school story called The Pothunters , serialised incomplete in Public School Magazine in early 1902 , and issued in full in hardback in September . He resigned from the bank that month to devote himself to writing full @-@ time .
Between the publication of The Pothunters 1902 and that of Mike in 1909 , Wodehouse wrote eight novels and co @-@ wrote another two . The critic R.D.B. French writes that , of Wodehouse 's work from this period , almost all that deserves to survive is the school fiction . Looking back in the 1950s Wodehouse viewed these as his apprentice years : " I was practically in swaddling clothes and it is extremely creditable to me that I was able to write at all . "
From his boyhood Wodehouse had been fascinated by America , which he conceived of as " a land of romance " ; he " yearned " to visit the country , and by 1904 he had earned enough to do so . In April he sailed to New York , which he found greatly to his liking . He noted in his diary : " In New York gathering experience . Worth many guineas in the future but none for the moment " . This prediction proved correct : few British writers had first @-@ hand experience of the US , and his articles about life in New York brought him higher than usual fees . He later recalled that " in 1904 anyone in the London writing world who had been to America was regarded with awe and looked upon as an authority on that terra incognita . ... After that trip to New York I was a man who counted . ... My income rose like a rocketing pheasant . "
Wodehouse 's other new venture in 1904 was writing for the stage . Towards the end of the year the librettist Owen Hall invited him to contribute an additional lyric for a musical comedy Sergeant Brue . Wodehouse had loved theatre since his first visit , aged thirteen , when Gilbert and Sullivan 's Patience had made him " drunk with ecstasy " . His lyric for Hall , " Put Me in My Little Cell " , was a Gilbertian number for a trio of comic crooks , with music by Frederick Rosse ; it was well received and launched Wodehouse on a career as a theatre writer that spanned three decades .
Although it made little impact on its first publication , the 1906 novel Love Among the Chickens contained what French calls the author 's first original comic creation : Stanley Featherstonehaugh Ukridge . The character , an amoral , bungling opportunist , is partly based on Wodehouse 's Globe colleague Herbert Westbrook . The two collaborated between 1907 and 1913 on two books , two music hall sketches , and a play , Brother Alfred . Wodehouse would return to the character in short stories over the next six decades .
In early 1906 the actor @-@ manager Seymour Hicks invited Wodehouse to become resident lyricist at the Aldwych Theatre , to add topical verses to newly imported or long @-@ running shows . Hicks had already recruited the young Jerome Kern to write the music for such songs . The first Kern @-@ Wodehouse collaboration , a comic number for The Beauty of Bath titled " Mr [ Joseph ] Chamberlain " , was a show @-@ stopper and was briefly the most popular song in London .
= = = Psmith , Blandings , Wooster and Jeeves : 1908 – 15 = = =
Wodehouse 's early period as a writer came to an end in 1908 with the serialisation of The Lost Lambs , published the following year in book form as the second half of the novel Mike . The work begins as a conventional school story , but Wodehouse introduces a new and strikingly original character , Psmith , whose creation both Evelyn Waugh and George Orwell regarded as a watershed in Wodehouse 's development . Wodehouse said that he based Psmith on the hotelier and impresario Rupert D 'Oyly Carte — " the only thing in my literary career which was handed to me on a silver plate with watercress around it " . Wodehouse wrote in the 1970s that a cousin of his who had been at school with Carte told him of the latter 's monocle , studied suavity , and stateliness of speech , all of which Wodehouse adopted for his new character . Psmith featured in three more novels : Psmith in the City ( 1910 ) , a burlesque of banking ; Psmith , Journalist ( 1915 ) set in New York ; and Leave It to Psmith ( 1923 ) , set at Blandings Castle .
In May 1909 Wodehouse made his second visit to New York , where he sold two short stories to Cosmopolitan and Collier 's for a total of $ 500 , a much higher fee than he had commanded previously . He resigned from The Globe and stayed in New York for nearly a year . He sold many more stories , but none of the American publications offered a permanent relationship and guaranteed income . Wodehouse returned to England in late 1910 , rejoining The Globe and also contributing regularly to The Strand Magazine . Between then and the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 he revisited America frequently .
Wodehouse was in New York when the war began . Ineligible for military service because of his poor eyesight , he remained in the US throughout the war , detached from the conflict in Europe and absorbed in his theatrical and literary concerns . In September 1914 he married Ethel May Wayman , née Newton ( 1885 – 1984 ) , an English widow . The marriage proved happy and lifelong . Ethel 's personality was in contrast with her husband 's : he was shy and impractical ; she was gregarious , decisive and well organised . In Sproat 's phrase , she " took charge of Wodehouse 's life and made certain that he had the peace and quiet he needed to write " . There were no children of the marriage , but Wodehouse came to love Ethel 's daughter Leonora ( 1905 – 1944 ) and legally adopted her .
Wodehouse experimented with different genres of fiction in these years ; his Psmith , Journalist , mixing comedy with social comment on slum landlords and racketeers , was published in 1915 . In the same year The Saturday Evening Post paid $ 3 @,@ 500 to serialise Something New , the first of what became a series of novels set at Blandings Castle . It was published in hardback in the US and the UK in the same year ( the British edition being retitled Something Fresh ) . It was Wodehouse 's first farcical novel ; it was also his first best @-@ seller , and although his later books included some gentler , lightly sentimental stories , it was as a farceur that he became known . Later in the same year " Extricating Young Gussie " , the first story about Bertie and Jeeves , was published . These stories introduced two sets of characters about whom Wodehouse wrote for the rest of his life . The Blandings Castle stories , set in an English stately home , depict the attempts of the placid Lord Emsworth to evade the many distractions around him , which include successive pairs of young lovers , the machinations of his exuberant brother Galahad , the demands of his domineering sisters and super @-@ efficient secretaries , and anything detrimental to his prize sow , the Empress of Blandings . The Bertie and Jeeves stories feature an amiable young man @-@ about @-@ town , regularly rescued from the consequences of his idiocy by the benign interference of his valet .
= = = Broadway : 1915 – 19 = = =
A third milestone in Wodehouse 's life came towards the end of 1915 : his old songwriting partner Jerome Kern introduced him to the writer Guy Bolton , who became Wodehouse 's closest friend and a regular collaborator . Bolton and Kern had a musical , Very Good Eddie , running at the Princess Theatre in New York . The show was successful , but they thought the song lyrics weak and invited Wodehouse to join them on its successor . This was Miss Springtime ( 1916 ) , which ran for 227 performances — a good run by the standards of the day . The team produced several more successes , including Leave It to Jane ( 1917 ) , Oh , Boy ! ( 1917 – 18 ) and Oh , Lady ! Lady ! ! ( 1918 ) , and Wodehouse and Bolton wrote a few more shows with other composers . In these musicals Wodehouse 's lyrics won high praise from critics as well as fellow lyricists such as Ira Gershwin .
Unlike his original model , Gilbert , Wodehouse preferred the music to be written first , fitting his words into the melodies . Donaldson suggests that this is the reason why his lyrics have largely been overlooked in recent years : they fit the music perfectly , but do not stand on their own in verse form as Gilbert 's do . Nonetheless , Donaldson adds , the book and lyrics for the Princess Theatre shows made the collaborators an enormous fortune and played an important part in the development of the American musical . In the Grove Dictionary of American Music Larry Stempel writes , " By presenting naturalistic stories and characters and attempting to integrate the songs and lyrics into the action of the libretto , these works brought a new level of intimacy , cohesion , and sophistication to American musical comedy . " The theatre writer Gerald Bordman calls Wodehouse " the most observant , literate , and witty lyricist of his day " . The composer Richard Rodgers wrote , " Before Larry Hart , only P.G. Wodehouse had made any real assault on the intelligence of the song @-@ listening public . "
= = = 1920s = = =
In the years after the war , Wodehouse steadily increased his sales , polished his existing characters and introduced new ones . Bertie and Jeeves , Lord Emsworth and his circle , and Ukridge appeared in novels and short stories ; Psmith made his fourth and last appearance ; two new characters were the Oldest Member , narrating his series of golfing stories , and Mr Mulliner , telling his particularly tall tales to fellow patrons of the bar at the Angler 's Rest . Various other young men @-@ about @-@ town appeared in short stories about members of the Drones Club .
The Wodehouses returned to England , where they had a house in London for some years , but Wodehouse continued to cross the Atlantic frequently , spending substantial periods in New York . He continued to work in the theatre . During the 1920s he collaborated on nine musical comedies produced on Broadway or in the West End , including the long @-@ running Sally ( 1920 , New York ) , The Cabaret Girl ( 1922 , London ) and Rosalie ( 1928 , New York ) . He also wrote non @-@ musical plays , including The Play 's the Thing ( 1926 ) , adapted from Ferenc Molnár , and A Damsel in Distress ( 1928 ) , a dramatisation of his 1919 novel .
Though never a naturally gregarious man , Wodehouse was more sociable in the 1920s than at other periods . Donaldson lists among those with whom he was on friendly terms writers including A.A. Milne , Ian Hay , Frederick Lonsdale and E. Phillips Oppenheim , and stage performers including George Grossmith , Jr . , Heather Thatcher and Dorothy Dickson .
= = = Hollywood : 1929 – 31 = = =
There had been films of Wodehouse stories since 1915 , when A Gentleman of Leisure was based on his 1910 novel of the same name . Further screen adaptations of his books were made between then and 1927 , but it was not until 1929 that Wodehouse first went to Hollywood , where Bolton was then working as a highly paid writer for Metro @-@ Goldwyn @-@ Mayer ( MGM ) . Ethel was taken with both the financial and social aspects of Hollywood life , and she negotiated a contract with MGM on her husband 's behalf under which he would be paid $ 2 @,@ 000 a week . This large salary was particularly welcome because the couple had lost considerable sums in the Wall Street Crash of 1929 .
The contract started in May 1930 , but the studio found little for Wodehouse to do , and he had spare time to write a novel and nine short stories . He commented , " It 's odd how soon one comes to look on every minute as wasted that is given to earning one 's salary . " Even when the studio found a project for him to work on , the interventions of committees and constant rewriting by numerous contract authors meant that his ideas were rarely used . In a 2005 study of Wodehouse in Hollywood , Brian Taves writes that Those Three French Girls ( 1930 ) was " as close to a success as Wodehouse was to have at MGM . His only other credits were minimal , and the other projects he worked on were not produced . "
When Wodehouse 's contract ended after a year it was not renewed . At MGM 's request , he gave an interview to The Los Angeles Times . Wodehouse , who was described by Herbert Warren Wind as " politically naive [ and ] fundamentally unworldly " , caused a sensation by saying publicly what he had already told his friends privately about Hollywood 's inefficiency , arbitrary decision @-@ making and waste of expensive talent . The interview was reprinted in The New York Times , and there was much editorial comment about the state of the film industry . Many writers have considered that the interview precipitated a radical overhaul of the studio system , but Taves believes it to have been " a storm in a teacup " , and Donaldson comments that in the straitened post @-@ crash era the reforms would sooner or later have been inevitable .
Wind 's view of Wodehouse 's naïveté is not universally held . Biographers including Donaldson , McCrum and Phelps suggest that his unworldliness was only part of a complex character , and that in some respects he was highly astute . He was unsparing of the studio owners in his early @-@ 1930s short stories set in Hollywood , which contain what Taves considers Wodehouse 's sharpest and most biting satire .
= = = Best @-@ seller : 1930s = = =
During the 1930s Wodehouse 's theatrical work tailed off . He wrote or adapted four plays for the West End ; Leave it to Psmith ( 1930 ) , which he adapted in collaboration with Ian Hay , was the only one to have a long run . The reviewer in The Manchester Guardian praised the play , but commented : " It is Mr Wodehouse 's own inimitable narrative comments and descriptions in his own person of the antics of his puppets that one misses . They cannot be got into a play and they are at least half the fun of the novels . " In 1934 Wodehouse collaborated with Bolton on the book for Cole Porter 's Anything Goes ( Porter wrote his own lyrics ) , but at the last minute their version was almost entirely rewritten by others at the instigation of the producer , who disliked the original script . Concentrating on writing novels and short stories , Wodehouse reached the peak of his productivity in this decade , averaging two books each year , and grossing an annual £ 100 @,@ 000 .
His practice of dividing his time between Britain and America caused Wodehouse difficulties with the tax authorities of both countries . Both the UK Inland Revenue and the US Internal Revenue Service sought to tax him as a resident . After lengthy negotiations the matter was settled , but the Wodehouses decided to change their residential status beyond doubt by moving to France , where they bought a house near Le Touquet in northern France .
In 1936 Wodehouse created the last of his regular cast of principal characters , Lord Ickenham , otherwise known as Uncle Fred , who , in Usborne 's words , " leads the dance in four novels and a short story ... a whirring dynamo of misrule " . His other books from the decade include Right Ho , Jeeves , which Donaldson judged his best work , Uncle Fred in the Springtime , which the writer Bernard Levin considered the best , and Blandings Castle , which contains " Lord Emsworth and the Girl Friend " , which Rudyard Kipling thought " one of the most perfect short stories I have ever read " .
Other leading literary figures who admired Wodehouse were A.E. Housman , Max Beerbohm and Hilaire Belloc ; on the radio and in print Belloc called Wodehouse " the best writer of our time : the best living writer of English ... the head of my profession " . Wodehouse regarded Belloc 's plaudit as " a gag , to get a rise out of serious @-@ minded authors whom he disliked " . Wodehouse was never sure that his books had literary merit as well as popular appeal , and , Donaldson suggests , must have been overwhelmed when the University of Oxford conferred an honorary doctorate of letters on him in June 1939 . His visit to England for the awarding ceremony was the last time he set foot in his native land .
= = = Second World War : internment and broadcasts = = =
At the start of the Second World War Wodehouse and his wife remained at their Le Touquet house , where , during the Phoney War , he worked on Joy in the Morning . With the advance of the Germans , the nearby Royal Air Force base withdrew ; Wodehouse was offered the sole spare seat in one of the fighter aircraft , but he turned down the opportunity as it would have meant leaving behind Ethel and their dog . On 21 May 1940 , with German troops advancing through northern France , the Wodehouses decided to drive to Portugal and fly from there to the US . Two miles from home their car broke down , so they returned and borrowed a car from a neighbour ; with the routes blocked with refugees , they returned home again .
The Germans occupied Le Touquet on 22 May 1940 and Wodehouse had to report to the authorities daily . After two months of occupation the Germans interned all male enemy nationals under 60 , and Wodehouse was sent to a former prison in Loos , a suburb of Lille , on 21 July ; Ethel remained in Le Touquet . The internees were placed four to a cell , each of which had been designed for one man . One bed was available per cell , which was made available to the eldest man — not Wodehouse , who slept on the granite floor . The prisoners were not kept long in Loos before they were transported in cattle trucks to a former barracks in Liège which was run as a prison by the SS . After a week the men were transferred to Huy in Liège , Belgium , where they were incarcerated in the local citadel . They remained there until September 1940 , when they were transported to Tost in Upper Silesia ( then Germany , now Toszek in Poland ) .
Wodehouse 's family and friends had not had any news of his location after the fall of France , but an article from an Associated Press reporter who had visited Tost in December 1940 led to pressure on the German authorities to release the novelist . This included a petition from influential people in the US ; Senator W. Warren Barbour presented it to the German ambassador . Although his captors refused to release him , Wodehouse was provided with a typewriter and , to pass the time , he wrote Money in the Bank . Throughout his time in Tost , he sent postcards to his US literary agent asking for $ 5 to be sent to various people in Canada , mentioning his name . These were the families of Canadian prisoners of war , and the news from Wodehouse was the first indication that their sons were alive and well . Wodehouse risked severe punishment for the communication , but managed to evade the German censor .
On 21 June 1941 , while he was in the middle of playing a game of cricket , Wodehouse received a visit from two members of the Gestapo . He was given ten minutes to pack his things before he was taken to the Hotel Adlon , a top luxury hotel in Berlin . He stayed there at his own expense ; royalties from the German editions of his books had been put into a special frozen bank account at the outset of the war , and Wodehouse was permitted to draw upon this money he had earned whilst staying in Berlin . He was thus released from internment a few months before his sixtieth birthday — the age at which civilian internees were released by the Nazis . Shortly afterwards Wodehouse was , in the words of Phelps , " cleverly trapped " into making five broadcasts to the US via German radio , with the Berlin @-@ based correspondent of the Columbia Broadcasting System . The broadcasts — aired on 28 June , 9 , 23 and 30 July , and 6 August — were titled How to be an Internee Without Previous Training , and comprised humorous anecdotes about Wodehouse 's experiences as a prisoner , including some gentle mocking of captors . The German propaganda ministry arranged for the recordings to be broadcast to Britain in August . The day after Wodehouse recorded his final programme , Ethel joined him in Berlin , having sold most of her jewellery to pay for the journey .
= = = Aftermath : reactions and investigation = = =
The reaction in Britain to Wodehouse 's broadcasts was hostile , and he was " reviled ... as a traitor , collaborator , Nazi propagandist , and a coward " , although , Phelps observes , many of those who decried his actions had not heard the content of the programmes . A front page article in The Daily Mirror stated that Wodehouse " lived luxuriously because Britain laughed with him , but when the laughter was out of his country 's heart , ... [ he ] was not ready to share her suffering . He hadn 't the guts ... even to stick it out in the internment camp . " In the House of Commons Anthony Eden , the Foreign Secretary , regretted Wodehouse 's actions . Several libraries removed Wodehouse novels from their shelves .
On 15 July the journalist William Connor , under his pen name Cassandra , broadcast a postscript to the news programme railing against Wodehouse . According to The Times , the broadcast " provoked a storm of complaint ... from listeners all over the country " . Wodehouse 's biographer , Joseph Connolly , thinks the broadcast " inaccurate , spiteful and slanderous " ; Phelps calls it " probably the most vituperative attack on an individual ever heard on British radio " . The broadcast was made at the direct instruction of Duff Cooper , the Minister of Information , who overruled strong protests made by the BBC against the decision to air the programme . Numerous letters appeared in the British press , both supporting and criticising Wodehouse . The letters page of The Daily Telegraph became a focus for censuring Wodehouse , including one from Wodehouse 's friend , A.A. Milne ; a reply from their fellow author Compton Mackenzie in defence of Wodehouse was not published because the editor claimed a lack of space . Most of those defending Wodehouse against accusations of disloyalty , including Sax Rohmer , Dorothy L. Sayers and Gilbert Frankau , conceded that he had acted stupidly . Some members of the public wrote to the newspapers to say that the full facts were not yet known and a fair judgment could not be made until they were . The management of the BBC , who considered Wodehouse 's actions no worse than " ill advised " , pointed out to Cooper that there was no evidence at that point whether Wodehouse had acted voluntarily or under compulsion .
When Wodehouse heard of the furore the broadcasts had caused , he contacted the Foreign Office — through the Swiss embassy in Berlin — to explain his actions , and attempted to return home via neutral countries , but the German authorities refused to let him leave . In Performing Flea , a 1953 collection of letters , Wodehouse wrote , " Of course I ought to have had the sense to see that it was a loony thing to do to use the German radio for even the most harmless stuff , but I didn 't . I suppose prison life saps the intellect " . The reaction in America was mixed : the left @-@ leaning publication P.M. accused Wodehouse of " play [ ing ] Jeeves to the Nazis " , but the Department of War used the interviews as an ideal representation of anti @-@ Nazi propaganda .
The Wodehouses remained in Germany until September 1943 , when Allied bombing led to the couple being allowed to move back to Paris . They were living there when the city was liberated on 25 August 1944 ; Wodehouse reported to the American authorities the following day , asking them to inform the British of his whereabouts . He was subsequently visited by Malcolm Muggeridge , recently arrived in Paris as an intelligence officer with MI6 . The young officer quickly came to like Wodehouse and considered the question of treasonable behaviour as " ludicrous " ; he summed up the writer as " ill @-@ fitted to live in an age of ideological conflict " . On 9 September Wodehouse was visited by an MI5 officer and former barrister , Major Edward Cussen , who formally investigated him , a process that stretched over four days . On 28 September Cussen filed his report , which states that in regard to the broadcasts , Wodehouse 's behaviour " has been unwise " , but advised against further action . On 23 November Theobald Matthew , the Director of Public Prosecutions , decided there was no evidence to justify prosecuting Wodehouse .
In November 1944 Duff Cooper was appointed British ambassador to France and was provided accommodation at the Hôtel Le Bristol , where the Wodehouses were living . Cooper complained to the French authorities , and the couple were moved to a different hotel . They were subsequently arrested by French police and placed under preventive detention , despite no charges being presented . When Muggeridge tracked them down later , he managed to get Ethel released straight away and , four days later , ensured that the French authorities declared Wodehouse unwell and put him in a nearby hospital , which was more comfortable than where they had been detained . While in this hospital , Wodehouse worked on his novel Uncle Dynamite .
While still detained by the French , Wodehouse was again mentioned in questions in the House of Commons in December 1944 when MPs wondered if the French authorities could repatriate him to stand trial . Eden stated that the " matter has been gone into , and , according to the advice given , there are no grounds upon which we could take action " . Two months later George Orwell wrote the essay " In Defence of P.G. Wodehouse " , where he stated that " it is important to realise that the events of 1941 do not convict Wodehouse of anything worse than stupidity " . Orwell 's rationale was that Wodehouse 's " moral outlook has remained that of a public @-@ school boy , and according to the public @-@ school code , treachery in time of war is the most unforgivable of all the sins " , which was compounded by his " complete lack — so far as one can judge from his printed works — of political awareness " .
On 15 January 1945 the French authorities released Wodehouse , but they did not inform him , until June 1946 , that he would not face any official charges and was free to leave the country .
= = = American exile : 1946 – 75 = = =
Having secured American visas in July 1946 , the Wodehouses made preparations to return to New York . They were delayed by
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a cliché just enough to life to kill it " , although Pamela March , writing in The Christian Science Monitor , considers Wodehouse to have " an ability to decliché a cliché " . Medcalf provides an example from Right Ho , Jeeves in which the teetotal Gussie Fink @-@ Nottle has surreptitiously been given whisky and gin in a punch prior to a prize @-@ giving :
The stylistic device most commonly found in Wodehouse 's work is his use of comparative imagery that includes similes . Hall opines that the humour comes from Wodehouse 's ability to accentuate " resemblances which at first glance seem highly incongruous " . Examples can be seen in Joy in the Morning , Chapter 29 : " There was a sound in the background like a distant sheep coughing gently on a mountainside . Jeeves sailing into action " , or Psmith , Chapter 7 : " A sound like two or three pigs feeding rather noisily in the middle of a thunderstorm interrupted his meditation . " Hall also identifies that periodically Wodehouse used the stylistic device of a transferred epithet , with an adjective that properly belongs to a person applied instead to some inanimate object . The form of expression is used sparingly by Wodehouse in comparison with other mechanisms , only once or twice in a story or novel , according to Hall .
Wordplay is a key element in Wodehouse 's writing . This can take the form of puns , such as in Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit , when Bertie is released after a night in the police cells , and says that he has " a pinched look " about him . Linguistic confusion is another humorous mechanism , such as in Uncle Dynamite when Constable Potter says he has been " assaulted by the duck pond . " In reply , Sir Aylmer , confusing the two meanings of the word " by " , asks : " How the devil can you be assaulted by a duck pond ? " Wodehouse also uses metaphor and mixed metaphor to add humour . Some come through exaggeration , such as Bingo Little 's infant child who " not only has the aspect of a mass murderer , but that of a mass murderer suffering from an ingrown toenail " , or Wooster 's complaint that " the rumpuses that Bobbie Wickham is already starting may be amusing to her , but not to the unfortunate toads beneath the harrow whom she ruthlessly plunges into the soup . " Bertie Wooster 's half @-@ forgotten vocabulary also provides a further humorous device . In Jeeves and the Feudal Spirit Bertie asks Jeeves " Let a plugugly like young Thos loose in the community with a cosh , and you are inviting disaster and ... what 's the word ? Something about cats . " Jeeves replies , " Cataclysms , sir ? "
= = Reception and reputation = =
Wodehouse 's early career as a lyricist and playwright was profitable , and his work with Bolton , according to The Guardian , " was one of the most successful in the history of musical comedy " . At the outbreak of the Second World War he was earning £ 40 @,@ 000 a year from his work , which had broadened to include novels and short stories . Following the furore ensuing from the wartime broadcasts , he suffered a downturn in his popularity and book sales ; The Saturday Evening Post stopped publishing his short stories , a stance they reversed in 1965 , although his popularity — and the sales figures — slowly recovered over time .
Wodehouse received great praise from many of his contemporaries , including Max Beerbohm , Rudyard Kipling , A.E. Housman and Evelyn Waugh — the last of whom opines : " One has to regard a man as a Master who can produce on average three uniquely brilliant and entirely original similes on each page . " There are dissenters to the praise . The writer Alan Bennett thinks that " inspired though his language is , I can never take more than ten pages of the novels at a time , their relentless flippancy wearing and tedious " , while the literary critic F.R. Leavis writes that Wodehouse had a " stereotyped humour ... of ingenious variations on a laugh in one place " . In a 2010 study of Wodehouse 's few relatively serious novels , such as The Coming of Bill ( 1919 ) , Jill the Reckless ( 1920 ) and The Adventures of Sally ( 1922 ) , David Heddendorf concludes that though their literary quality does not match that of the farcical novels , they show a range of empathy and interests that in real life — and in his most comic works — the author seemed to lack . " Never oblivious to grief and despair , he opts in clear @-@ eyed awareness for his timeless world of spats and woolly @-@ headed peers . It 's an austere , almost bloodless preference for pristine artifice over the pain and messy outcomes of actual existence , but it 's a case of Wodehouse keeping faith with his own unique art . "
The American literary analyst Robert F. Kiernan , defining " camp " as " excessive stylization of whatever kind " , brackets Wodehouse as " a master of the camp novel " , along with Thomas Love Peacock , Max Beerbohm , Ronald Firbank , E. F. Benson and Ivy Compton @-@ Burnett . The literary critic and writer Cyril Connolly calls Wodehouse a " politicians ' author " — one who does " not like art to be exacting and difficult " . Two former British prime ministers , H. H. Asquith and Tony Blair , are on record as Wodehouse aficionados , and the latter became a patron of the Wodehouse Society . Seán O 'Casey , a successful playwright of the 1920s , thought little of Wodehouse : he commented in 1941 that it was damaging to England 's dignity that the public or " the academic government of Oxford , dead from the chin up " considered Wodehouse an important figure in English literature . His jibe that Wodehouse was " English literature 's performing flea " provided his target with the title of his collected letters , published in 1953 .
The proposed nominations of Wodehouse for a knighthood in 1967 and 1971 were blocked for fear that such an award would " give currency to a Bertie Wooster image of the British character which the embassy was doing its best to eradicate " . When Wodehouse was awarded the knighthood , only four years later , the journalist Dennis Barker wrote in The Guardian that the writer was " the solitary surviving English literary comic genius " . After his death six weeks later , the journalist Michael Davie , writing in the same paper , observed that " Many people regarded ... [ Wodehouse ] as he regarded Beachcomber , as ' one , if not more than one , of England 's greatest men ' " , while in the view of the obituarist for The Times Wodehouse " was a comic genius recognized in his lifetime as a classic and an old master of farce " .
Since Wodehouse 's death there have been numerous adaptations and dramatisations of his work on television and film , and , as of 2015 , the Oxford English Dictionary contains over 1 @,@ 750 quotations from Wodehouse , illustrating terms from crispish to zippiness . McCrum , writing in 2004 , observes , " Wodehouse is more popular today than on the day he died " , and " his comic vision has an absolutely secure place in the English literary imagination . " Voorhees , while acknowledging that Wodehouse 's antecedents in literature range from Ben Jonson to Oscar Wilde , writes :
" [ I ] t is now abundantly clear that Wodehouse is one of the funniest and most productive men who ever wrote in English . He is far from being a mere jokesmith : he is an authentic craftsman , a wit and humorist of the first water , the inventor of a prose style which is a kind of comic poetry . "
= Eckhart Tolle =
Eckhart Tolle ( / ˈɛkɑːrt ˈtɒlə / EK @-@ art TOL @-@ ə ; German pronunciation : [ ˈɛkaʁt ˈtɔlə ] , born Ulrich Leonard Tölle , February 16 , 1948 ) is a German @-@ born resident of Canada , best known as the author of The Power of Now and A New Earth : Awakening to your Life 's Purpose . In 2011 , he was listed by Watkins Review as the most spiritually influential person in the world . In 2008 , a New York Times writer called Tolle " the most popular spiritual author in the United States " .
Tolle has said that he was depressed for much of his life until he underwent , at age 29 , an " inner transformation " . He then spent several years wandering " in a state of deep bliss " before becoming a spiritual teacher . Later , he moved to North America where he began writing his first book , The Power of Now , which was published in 1997 and reached the New York Times Best Seller lists in 2000 .
The Power of Now and A New Earth sold an estimated three million and five million copies respectively in North America by 2009 . In 2008 , approximately 35 million people participated in a series of 10 live webinars with Tolle and television talk show host Oprah Winfrey . Tolle is not identified with any particular religion , but he has been influenced by a wide range of spiritual works . He has lived in Vancouver , British Columbia since 1995 .
= = Early life and education = =
Born Ulrich Leonard Tölle in Lünen , a small town located north of Dortmund in the Ruhr Valley , Germany in 1948 , Tolle describes his childhood as unhappy , particularly his early childhood in Germany . His parents fought and eventually separated , and he felt alienated from a hostile school environment . Tolle also experienced considerable fear and anxiety growing up in post @-@ war Germany , where he would play in bombed @-@ out buildings . He later stated that pain " was in the energy field of the country " . At the age of 13 , he moved to Spain to live with his father . Tolle 's father did not insist that his son attend high school , so Tolle elected to study literature , astronomy and various languages at home .
At the age of 15 , Tolle read several books written by the German mystic Joseph Anton Schneiderfranken , also known as Bô Yin Râ . Tolle has said he responded " very deeply " to those books .
At the age of 19 , about 10 years before his " inner transformation " , Tolle moved to England and for three years taught German and Spanish at a London school for language studies . Troubled by " depression , anxiety and fear " , he began " searching for answers " in his life .
In his early twenties , Tolle decided to pursue his search by studying philosophy , psychology , and literature , and enrolled in the University of London . After graduating , he was offered a scholarship to do postgraduate research at Cambridge University , which he began in 1977 , and from which he dropped out soon after .
= = Inner transformation = =
One night in 1977 , at the age of 29 , after having suffered from long periods of depression , Tolle says he experienced an " inner transformation " . That night he awakened from his sleep , suffering from feelings of depression that were " almost unbearable , " but then experienced a life @-@ changing epiphany . Recounting the experience , Tolle says ,
I couldn ’ t live with myself any longer . And in this a question arose without an answer : who is the ‘ I ’ that cannot live with the self ? What is the self ? I felt drawn into a void ! I didn ’ t know at the time that what really happened was the mind @-@ made self , with its heaviness , its problems , that lives between the unsatisfying past and the fearful future , collapsed . It dissolved . The next morning I woke up and everything was so peaceful . The peace was there because there was no self . Just a sense of presence or “ beingness , ” just observing and watching .
Tolle recalls going out for a walk in London the next morning , and finding that “ everything was miraculous , deeply peaceful . Even the traffic . " The feeling continued , and he began to feel a strong underlying sense of peace in any situation . Tolle stopped studying for his doctorate , and for a period of about two years after this he spent much of his time sitting , “ in a state of deep bliss , " on park benches in Russell Square , Central London , " watching the world go by . ” He stayed with friends , in a Buddhist monastery , or otherwise slept rough on Hampstead Heath . His family thought him “ irresponsible , even insane . " Tolle changed his first name from Ulrich to Eckhart ; by some reports this was in homage to the German philosopher and mystic , Meister Eckhart . A 2012 interview article states that he saw the name Eckhart on one of a pile of books in a dream , and knew he had written the book ; soon after in real life he ran into a psychic friend who called him Eckhart out of nowhere , so Tolle changed his name .
= = Career = =
After this period , former Cambridge students and people he had met by chance began to ask Tolle about his beliefs . He began working as a counselor and spiritual teacher . Students continued to come to him over the next five years . He relocated to Glastonbury , a major centre of alternative living . In 1995 , after having visited the West Coast of North America several times , he settled in Vancouver , British Columbia , where he met his wife to be , Kim Eng .
Tolle 's first book , The Power of Now , was first published in 1997 by Namaste Publishing . Only 3000 copies were published of the first edition . Tolle has stated , " I would personally deliver a few copies every week to some small bookstores in Vancouver ... Friends helped by placing copies of the book in spiritual bookstores farther afield " . The book was republished on a large scale by New World Library in 1999 . In 2000 , Oprah Winfrey recommended it in her magazine , O. In August 2000 it reached the New York Times Best Seller list for Hardcover Advice . After two more years , it was number one on that list . By 2008 , the book had been translated from English into 33 languages ; since then , it has been translated into Arabic . Tolle published his second book , Stillness Speaks , in 2003 . In July 2011 , The Power of Now appeared on the list for the 10 best selling Paperback Advice books for the 102nd time .
In 2005 , Tolle published his third book , A New Earth , which assumed the number one position on the New York Times Best Seller list several times between March and September 2008 . By the end of 2008 , it reached the list for the 46th time . The high sales of A New Earth in that year followed its selection by Oprah Winfrey for her book club in January . In the four weeks following the announcement , 3 @.@ 5 million copies of the book were shipped . Tolle partnered with her to produce a series of webinar sessions beginning in May 2008 . The weekly webinar sessions included discussions between Tolle and Winfrey , silent meditations , and questions from viewers via Skype . Each webinar focused on a specific chapter of A New Earth . The third webinar attracted more than 11 million viewers .
Tolle formed a company to sell products related to his teachings called Eckhart Teachings . He created a website called Eckhart Tolle TV , with streaming video of monthly group meditations and other videos . He gives speeches and workshops in English and occasionally in German or Spanish . He also travels for various speaking engagements , such as seminars and retreats . In a 2003 interview with the Telegraph Magazine , Tolle indicated that he had no intention of creating " a heavy commercial structure " , nor of setting up an ashram or centre . He believes one " could develop organically " and said " one needs to be careful that the organization doesn ’ t become self @-@ serving " .
In September , he appeared with the Dalai Lama and other speakers at the Vancouver Peace Summit . His most recent book , Guardians of Being , is a picture book illustrated by Patrick McDonnell , the creator of the comic strip Mutts .
= = Teachings = =
Tolle writes in the introduction to his second book , Stillness Speaks :
" A true spiritual teacher does not have anything to teach in the conventional sense of the word , does not have anything to give or add to you , such as new information , beliefs , or rules of conduct . The only function of such a teacher is to help you remove that which separates you from the truth ... The words are no more than signposts . "
Tolle says that his book , The Power of Now , is " a restatement for our time of that one timeless spiritual teaching , the essence of all religions " . He writes that religions " have become so overlaid with extraneous matter that their spiritual substance has become almost completely obscured " , that they have become " to a large extent ... divisive rather than unifying forces " and become " themselves part of the insanity " .
Tolle writes that " the most significant thing that can happen to a human being [ is ] the separation process of thinking and awareness " and that awareness is " the space in which thoughts exist " . Tolle says that " the primary cause of unhappiness is never the situation but your thoughts about it " .
According to Tolle 's official website , " at the core of Tolle 's teachings lies the transformation of consciousness , a spiritual awakening that he sees as the next step in human evolution . An essential aspect of this awakening consists in transcending our ego @-@ based state of consciousness . This is a prerequisite not only for personal happiness but also for the ending of violent conflict endemic on our planet " .
In his book A New Earth , Tolle describes a major aspect of the human dysfunction as " ego " or an " illusory sense of self " based on unconscious identification with one 's memories and thoughts , and another major aspect he calls " pain @-@ body " or " an accumulation of old emotional pain " .
Tolle often talks about the relevance of figures in intellectual or popular culture . In A New Earth , he quotes Descartes , Sartre , Nietzsche , Shakespeare and Albert Einstein . He has spoken of movies such as Groundhog Day , American Beauty , The Horse Whisperer , Gran Torino , Titanic , Avatar , Being There , and Forrest Gump , and musicians such as Mozart , The Beatles and The Rolling Stones . He arranged an album of music in 2008 entitled Music to Quiet the Mind including work composed by Erik Satie , Claude Debussy and The Beatles , and music by contemporary artists such as Deva Premal , Jeff Johnson , and Steve Roach .
= = = Influences = = =
According to a 2009 article in the New York Times , Tolle is " not identified with any religion , but uses teachings from Zen Buddhism , Sufism , Hinduism and the Bible " . Tolle has said : " I feel actually that the work I do is a coming together of the teaching ' stream ' , if you want to call it that , of [ Jiddu ] Krishnamurti and Ramana Maharshi . " Tolle himself has mentioned texts such as the Tao Te Ching , the Bhagavad Gita and other Hindu scriptures , the Buddhist scriptures , the Old Testament , the New Testament , and A Course in Miracles ; he has mentioned various individuals such as Zoroaster , Lao Tzu , Mahavira , Gautama Buddha , Heraclitus , Parmenides , Jesus , Epictetus , Marcus Aurelius , Rumi , Meister Eckhart , Hafiz , Rinzai Gigen , Ralph Waldo Emerson , Carl Gustav Jung ; and he has emphasized the mystical schools within religions such as Gnosticism in Christianity , Sufism in Islam , Hasidism and Kabbala in Judaism , Advaita Vedanta in Hinduism , and Zen and Dzogchen in Buddhism . He has met and spoken with Barry Long and Don Miguel Ruiz , and he wrote a foreword for The Diamond in Your Pocket by Gangaji .
= = = Reception = = =
In 2008 , an article in the New York Times referred to Tolle as " the most popular spiritual author in the [ United States ] " . In 2011 , the Watkins Review put him at number 1 in a list of " The 100 Most Spiritually Influential Living People " . By 2009 , total sales of The Power of Now and A New Earth in North America had been estimated at three million and five million copies respectively .
The books have received a wide range of praise and criticism . One book reviewer characterized The Power of Now as " awash in spiritual mumbo @-@ jumbo " , while another reviewer wrote , " Tolle 's clear writing and the obvious depth of his experience and insight set it apart " .
Some critics characterize Tolle 's books as unoriginal or derivative . A 2009 New York Times article said he is " hardly the first writer to tap into the American longing for meaning and success " . Sara Nelson , the editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Publishers Weekly , said Tolle 's writings have been successful due to surging public interest in books that tell you how to be happier , more peaceful and more successful . James Robinson in The Observer called Tolle 's writings " a mix of pseudo @-@ science , New Age philosophy , and teaching borrowed from established religions " .
However , others praise his re @-@ working and synthesis of traditions . New Age writer William Bloom wrote that " Tolle is offering a very contemporary synthesis of Eastern spiritual teaching , which is normally so clothed in arcane language that it is incomprehensible " , thereby providing " a valuable perspective on Western culture " . Publisher Judith Kendra says , " The ideas [ that Tolle is ] talking about have been in existence for thousands of years in both Eastern texts and with the great Western mystics , but he 's able to make them understandable " . Musician Annie Lennox said " [ Tolle ] has some kind of special quality that I 've never encountered before " .
= = = = Reception by Christian theologians = = = =
Some Christian scholars criticize Tolle 's teachings , while others praise them .
James Beverley , Professor of Christian Thought and Ethics at evangelical Tyndale Seminary in Toronto , says that Tolle 's worldview " is at odds with central Christian convictions " and that " Tolle denies the core of Christianity by claiming there is no ultimate distinction between humans and God and Jesus " . John Stackhouse , a professor of theology and culture at evangelical Regent College in Vancouver , says that Tolle " gives a certain segment of the population exactly what they want : a sort of supreme religion that purports to draw from all sorts of lesser , that is , established religions " . Stackhouse has described Tolle as one of several spiritual teachers who " purport to have investigated the world ’ s religions ( quite a claim ) and found them wanting , who routinely subject those religions to withering criticism , and who then champion their own views as superior to all these alternatives " .
In 2008 The Independent noted that " Tolle does have fans in academic , even Christian , circles " . Theologian Andrew Ryder wrote that " Tolle 's writing is based on his own experience and personal reflection . This makes his approach to the challenge of living in the present moment both practical and fresh " even though " he may not use the language of traditional Christian spirituality " .
Stafford Betty , teacher for Religious Studies at CSUB finds common ground between Tolle 's worldview and that of Christian mystics . He notes that " one of the key elements in Tolle 's teaching is that deep within the mind is absolute stillness in which one can experience ' the joy of Being ' " . Betty says that such a view is comparable to the view of contemporary Catholic monk Thomas Keating who wrote that " We rarely think of the air we breathe , yet it is in us and around us all the time . In similar fashion , the presence of God penetrates us , is all around us , is always embracing us , and it is delightful " . Betty also says that " for Mr. Tolle , God is in the world in a more radical way than for the Christian " and that Tolle 's theology " is only a footnote to the therapy he holds out to his audience " .
Roman Catholic priest and theologian Richard Rohr credits Tolle for helping to reintroduce ancient Christian mysticism to modern Christians : " Tolle is , in fact , rather brilliantly bringing to our awareness the older tradition ... [ which is ] both the ground and the process for breaking through to the theological contemplation of God , and acquired contemplation of Jesus , the Gospels , and all spiritual things . He is teaching process , not doctrine or dogma . He is teaching how to see and be present , not what you should see when you are present . Tolle is our friend , and not an enemy of the Gospel . There should be no conflict for a mature Christian . "
Anglican bishop Michael Ingham has said : " I don 't have any criticism of his message . I think the proper attitude to take with new spiritual movements is one of wait and see . "
= = Selected publications = =
= = = Books = = =
The Power of Now : A Guide to Spiritual Enlightenment , New World Library , October , 1999 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 152 @-@ 3 ( HC ) ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 480 @-@ 8 ( PB )
Practicing the Power of Now : Essential Teachings , Meditations , and Exercises from The Power of Now , New World Library , October 10 , 2001 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 195 @-@ 7 ( HC )
Stillness Speaks : Whispers of Now , New World Library , August 2003 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 400 @-@ X
A New Earth : Awakening to Your Life 's Purpose , Dutton , October 11 , 2005 ISBN 0 @-@ 525 @-@ 94802 @-@ 3
Milton 's Secret : An Adventure of Discovery through Then , When , and The Power of Now , Hampton Roads , 2008 ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57174 @-@ 577 @-@ 4
Oneness With All Life : Inspirational Selections from A New Earth , Penguin Group , November 2008
Guardians of Being , New World Library , October 2009 ISBN 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 671 @-@ 8
= = = DVDs = = =
The Flowering of Human Consciousness : Everyone 's Life Purpose , Namaste Publishing , Inc . , 2001 ISBN 1 @-@ 59179 @-@ 154 @-@ 5
Practicing Presence : A Guide for the Spiritual Teacher and Health Practitioner , Eckhart Teachings , 2003 ISBN 1 @-@ 894884 @-@ 45 @-@ 0
Eckhart Tolle 's Findhorn Retreat : Stillness Amidst The World , New World Library , 2006 ISBN 1 @-@ 57731 @-@ 509 @-@ X
Finding Your Life 's Purpose , Eckhart Teachings , 2008 ISBN 1 @-@ 894884 @-@ 52 @-@ 3
The Doorway into Now , Eckhart Teachings , 2009 ISBN 1 @-@ 894884 @-@ 37 @-@ X
= Ilaiyaraaja =
Ilaiyaraaja ( born Gnanathesikan ) is an Indian film composer who works in the South Indian cinema but predominantly in Tamil since the late 1970s . Regarded as one of the finest music composers in India , Ilaiyaraaja is also an instrumentalist , conductor , singer , and songwriter . He has composed more than 6000 songs and provided film scores for more than 1000 films , particularly being acclaimed for his background scores .
Legendary singers S. P. Balasubrahmanyam , K. S. Chithra and S. Janaki have sung more of his songs than any other singers . He integrated folk — in Tamil — and introduced western musical sensibilities into the South Indian musical mainstream . Ilaiyaraja is also known for creating music by fusing symphonic orchestration with traditional Indian instrumentation , often performed by Budapest Symphony Orchestra . In 1993 he organised a full symphony performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra in London and thus became the First Indian to compose a full symphony , with Ravi Shankar being the only other Indian to do so . He is also the first Asian to compose a full symphony performed by the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra . He has won five Indian National Film Awards ( the highest film honor in India ) ; three for Best Music Direction and two for Best Background Score . In 2010 he has received Padma Bhushan , awarded by the Government of India .
In the 2000s , he composed a variety of non @-@ film music , including religious and devotional songs , an oratorio , and world music . He is usually referred to by the title Isaignani ( English : Musical Genius ) , or as The Maestro . Ilaiyaraja is a gold medalist in classical guitar from Trinity College of Music , London . In 2003 , according to an international poll conducted by BBC , people from 155 countries voted his composition Rakkamma Kaiya Thattu from the 1991 film Thalapathi as fourth in the world 's top 10 most popular songs of all time . He was also nominated in the Best Indian album Music Awards category at US based Just Plain Folks Music Organization , which is the largest grassroots music organization in the world , and stood third for his " Music Journey : Live in Italy " . In 2012 he received the Sangeet Natak Akademi Award for his creative and experimental works in music field . In 2014 he has been chosen for his outstanding contribution to the Indian film music and was awarded the SIES Sri Chandrasekarendra Saraswati National Eminence award . In 2015 , he was also honoured with the Centenary Award for lifetime achievement at the 46th International Film Festival of India ( IFFI ) at Panaji , Goa . On December 31 , 2015 , he was nominated by the Kerala Government for Nishagandi Puraskaram , the top award conferred by the Kerala Government 's Tourism Ministry , for his artistic excellence and contributions to the Indian film industry .
Popular world cinema portal Taste of Cinema placed Ilaiyaraja at the 9th position in its list of 25 greatest film composers in the cinema history . In a poll conducted by CNN @-@ IBN celebrating 100 years of Indian cinema in 2013 , Ilaiyaraaja was voted as the greatest music composer of India with a maximum of 49 % .
= = Early life and family = =
Ilaiyaraaja was born as Gnanathesikan in 1943 in a normal middle @-@ class family in Pannaipuram , Theni district , Tamil Nadu , India . When he joined the school his father changed his name as " Rajaiya " but his village people used to call him as " Raasayya " . Ilaiyaraaja joined Dhanraj Master as a student to learn musical instruments and the master renamed and called him as just " Raaja " . In his first movie Annakili , Tamil film producer Panchu Arunachalam added " Ilaiya " ( Ilaiya means younger in Tamil language ) as prefix in his name Raaja and he named as " Ilaiyaraaja " because in the 1970s there was one more music director A. M. Rajah who was a popular one .
Ilaiyaraaja was married to Jeeva and the couple have three children — Karthik Raja , Yuvan Shankar Raja and Bhavatharini — all film composers and singers . His wife Jeeva died on 31 October 2011 . Ilaiyaraaja has a brother Gangai Amaran , who is also a music director and lyricist in Tamil film industry .
= = Early exposure to music = =
Ilaiyaraaja grew up in a rural area , exposed to a range of Tamil folk music . At the age of 14 , he joined a travelling musical troupe headed by his elder brother , Pavalar Varadarajan , and spent the next decade performing throughout South India . While working with the troupe , he penned his first composition , a musical adaptation of an elegy written by the Tamil poet laureate Kannadasan for Jawaharlal Nehru , India 's first prime minister . In 1968 , Ilaiyaraaja began a music course with Professor Dhanraj in Madras ( now Chennai ) , which included an overview of Western classical music , compositional training in techniques such as counterpoint , and study in instrumental performance . Ilaiyaraaja specialized in classical guitar and had taken a course in it at the Trinity College of Music , London .
= = Session musician and film orchestrator = =
In the 1970s in Chennai , Ilaiyaraaja played guitar in a band @-@ for @-@ hire , and worked as a session guitarist , keyboardist , and organist for film music composers and directors such as Salil Chowdhury from West Bengal . After being hired as the musical assistant to Kannada film composer G. K. Venkatesh , he worked on 200 film projects , mostly in Kannada cinema . As G. K. Venkatesh 's assistant , Ilaiyaraaja would orchestrate the melodic outlines developed by Venkatesh . During this period , Ilaiyaraaja also began writing his own scores . To hear his compositions , he would persuade Venkatesh 's session musicians to play excerpts from his scores during their break times .
= = Film composer = =
In 1975 , film producer Panchu Arunachalam commissioned him to compose the songs and film score for a Tamil @-@ language film called Annakkili ( ' The Parrot ' ) . For the soundtrack , Ilaiyaraaja applied the techniques of modern popular film music orchestration to Tamil folk poetry and folk song melodies , which created a fusion of Western and Tamil idioms . Ilaiyaraaja 's use of Tamil music in his film scores injected new influence into the Indian film score milieu . By the mid @-@ 1980s Ilaiyaraaja was gaining increasing stature as a film composer and music director in the South Indian film industry . He has worked with Indian poets and lyricists such as Kannadasan , Vaali , Vairamuthu , O. N. V. Kurup , Sreekumaran Thampi , Veturi Sundararama Murthy , Aacharya Aatreya , Sirivennela Sitaramasastri , Chi . Udaya Shankar and Gulzar and is well known for his association with film makers such as Bharathiraja , S. P. Muthuraman , J. Mahendran , Balu Mahendra , K. Balachander , Mani Ratnam , Sathyan Anthikkad , Priyadarshan , Fazil , Vamsy , K. Vishwanath , Singeetam Srinivasa Rao and R. Balki .
= = = Impact and musical style = = =
Ilaiyaraaja was one of the earliest Indian film composers to use Western classical music harmonies and string arrangements in Indian film music . This allowed him to craft a rich tapestry of sounds for films , and his themes and background score gained notice and appreciation among Indian film audiences . The range of expressive possibilities in Indian film music was broadened by Ilaiyaraaja 's methodical approach to arranging , recording technique , and his drawing of ideas from a diversity of musical styles .
According to musicologist P. Greene , Ilaiyaraaja 's " deep understanding of so many different styles of music allowed him to create syncretic pieces of music combining very different musical idioms in unified , coherent musical statements " . Ilaiyaraaja has composed Indian film songs that amalgamated elements of genres such as Afro @-@ tribal , bossa nova , dance music ( e.g. , disco ) , doo @-@ wop , flamenco , acoustic guitar @-@ propelled Western folk , funk , Indian classical , Indian folk / traditional , jazz , march , pathos , pop , psychedelia and rock and roll .
By virtue of this variety and his interfusion of Western , Indian folk and Carnatic elements , Ilaiyaraaja 's compositions appeal to the Indian rural dweller for its rhythmic folk qualities , the Indian classical music enthusiast for the employment of Carnatic Ragas , and the urbanite for its modern , Western @-@ music sound . Ilaiyaraaja 's sense of visualization for composing music is always to match up with the storyline of the running movie and possibly by doing so , he creates the best experience for the audience to feel the emotions flavored through his musical score . He mastered this art of blending music to the narration , which very few others managed to adapt themselves over a longer time .
Although Ilaiyaraaja uses a range of complex compositional techniques , he often sketches out the basic melodic ideas for films in a very spontaneous fashion .
= = Musical characteristics = =
Ilaiyaraaja 's music is characterised by the use of an orchestration technique that is a synthesis of Western and Indian instruments and musical modes . He uses electronic music technology that integrates synthesizers , electric guitars and keyboards , drum machines , rhythm boxes and MIDI with large orchestras that feature traditional instruments such as the veena , venu , nadaswaram , dholak , mridangam and tabla as well as Western lead instruments such as saxophones and flutes .
The basslines in his songs tend to be melodically dynamic , rising and falling in a dramatic fashion . Polyrhythms are also apparent , particularly in songs with Indian folk or Carnatic influences . The melodic structure of his songs demand considerable vocal virtuosity , and have found expressive platform amongst some of India 's respected vocalists and playback singers , such as Rajkumar , T. M. Soundararajan , K. J. Yesudas , S. P. Balasubrahmanyam , S. Janaki , P. Susheela , Asha Bhosle , Lata Mangeshkar , Jayachandran , S. P. Sailaja , Jency , Swarnalatha , K. S. Chithra , Minmini , Sujatha , Malaysia Vasudevan , Kavita Krishnamurthy , Hariharan , Udit Narayan , Sadhana Sargam and Shreya Ghoshal . Ilaiyaraaja has sung over 400 of his own compositions for films , and is recognisable by his stark , deep voice . He has penned the lyrics for some of his songs in Tamil .
= = Non @-@ cinematic output = =
Ilaiyaraaja 's first two non @-@ film albums were explorations in the fusion of Indian and Western classical music . The first , How to Name It ? ( 1986 ) , is dedicated to the Carnatic master Tyāgarāja and to J. S. Bach . It features a fusion of the Carnatic form and ragas with Bach partitas , fugues and Baroque musical textures . The second , Nothing But Wind ( 1988 ) , was performed by flutist Hariprasad Chaurasia and a 50 @-@ piece orchestra and takes the conceptual approach suggested in the title — that music is a natural phenomenon akin to various forms of air currents ( e.g. , the wind , breeze , tempest etc . ) .
He has composed a set of Carnatic kritis that was recorded by electric mandolinist U. Srinivas for the album Ilayaraaja 's Classicals on the Mandolin ( 1994 ) . Ilaiyaraaja has also composed albums of religious / devotional songs . His Guru Ramana Geetam ( 2004 ) is a cycle of prayer songs inspired by the Hindu mystic Ramana Maharshi , and his Thiruvasakam : A crossover ( 2005 ) is an oratorio of ancient Tamil poems transcribed partially in English by American lyricist Stephen Schwartz and performed by the Budapest Symphony Orchestra . Ilaiyaraaja 's most recent release is a world music @-@ oriented album called The Music Messiah ( 2006 ) .
= = Notable works = =
Ilaiyaraaja 's composition " Rakkama Kaiya Thattu " , sung by SPB , Swarnalatha in the movie Thalapathi ( 1991 ) , was among the songs listed in a BBC World Top Ten music poll . The soundtrack of My Dear Kuttichathan , the first stereoscopic 3D film made in India is composed by him . He composed the music for Nayagan ( 1987 ) , an Indian film ranked by TIME Magazine as one of the all @-@ time 100 best movies , a number of India 's official entries to the Oscars , such as Swathi Muthyam ( 1986 ) , Nayagan ( 1987 ) , Thevar Magan ( 1992 ) , Anjali ( 1991 ) , Guru ( 1997 ) and Hey Ram ( 2000 ) , and for Indian art films such as Adoor Gopalakrishnan 's FIPRESCI Prize @-@ winning Nizhalkuthu ( ' The Shadow Kill ' ) ( 2002 ) . Ilaiyaraaja has composed music for events such as the 1996 Miss World beauty pageant that was held in Bangalore , India , and for a documentary called India 24 Hours ( 1996 ) .
The Black Eyed Peas sampled the Ilaiyaraaja composition " Unakkum Ennakum " from Sri Raghavendra ( 1985 ) , for the song " The Elephunk Theme " on Elephunk ( 2003 ) . The alternative artist M.I.A. sampled " Kaatukuyilu " from the film Thalapathi ( 1991 ) for her song " Bamboo Banga " on the album Kala ( 2007 ) . As well , Gonjasufi sampled " Yeh Hawa Yeh Fiza " from the movie Sadma .
= = Live performances = =
Ilaiyaraaja rarely performs his music live . His last major live performance , the first in 25 years , was a four @-@ hour concert held at the Jawaharlal Nehru Indoor Stadium in Chennai , India on 16 October 2005 . He performed in 2004 in Italy at the Teatro Comunale di Modena , an event @-@ concert presented for the 14th edition of Angelica , Festival Internazionale Di Musica , co @-@ produced with the L 'Altro Suono Festival .
On 23 October 2005 , " A Time For Heroes " , sponsored by different agencies including the Melinda and Bill Gates Foundation , saw Hollywood star Richard Gere , Tamil and Telugu stars converging on the city for an evening of " infotainment " - they spoke in one voice on HIV / AIDS . The event organized at the Gachibowli Indoor Stadium , Hyderabad , on Saturday , 22nd October 2005 , took off with Maestro Ilaiyaraaja 's composition rendered by singer Usha Uthup .
A television retrospective titled Ithu Ilaiyaraja ( ' This is Ilaiyaraja ' ) was produced , chronicling his career . He last performed live at the audio release function of Dhoni film and before that he performed a programme that was conducted and telecasted by Jaya TV titled Enrendrum Raja ( ' Everlasting Raja ' ) on 28 December 2011 at Jahawarlal Nehru Indoor Stadium , Chennai . On 23 September 2012 , he performed live in Bangalore at National High School Grounds . On February 16 , 2013 , Ilayaraja made his first appearance in North America performing at the Rogers Centre in Toronto , Canada . The Toronto concert was promoted by Trinity Events for Vijay TV in India and produced by Sandy Audio Visual SAV Productions with PA + . Following his show at Toronto Ilaiyaraaja also performed at the Prudential Center Newark , New Jersey on February 23 , 2013 and at the HP Pavilion at San Jose on March 1 , 2013 . After his Northern America tour he made a live performance at The O2 Arena in London on August 24 , 2013 , along with Kamal Haasan and his sons Yuvan Shankar Raja and Karthik Raja .
= = Ilaiyaraaja discography = =
= HMS Beagle ( H30 ) =
HMS Beagle was a B @-@ class destroyer built for the Royal Navy ( RN ) around 1930 . Initially assigned to the Mediterranean Fleet , she was transferred to the Home Fleet in 1936 . During World War II , the ship spent the bulk of the war on escort duty , participating in the Norwegian Campaign , the Battle of the Atlantic , Operation Torch , the Russian Convoys , and in the Normandy landings before accepting the surrender of the German garrison of the Channel Islands the day after the formal German surrender on 9 May together with another ship . One exception to this pattern was when she helped to evacuate British soldiers and civilians during the Battle of France in 1940 . During the war , Beagle assisted in sinking one German submarine and claimed to have shot down two German aircraft . Redundant after the war , she was broken up for scrap in 1946 .
= = Description = =
Beagle displaced 1 @,@ 360 long tons ( 1 @,@ 380 t ) at standard load and 1 @,@ 790 long tons ( 1 @,@ 820 t ) at deep load . The ship had an overall length of 323 feet ( 98 @.@ 5 m ) , a beam of 32 feet 3 inches ( 9 @.@ 8 m ) and a draught of 12 feet 3 inches ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) . She was powered by Brown @-@ Curtis geared steam turbines , driving two shafts , which developed a total of 34 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 25 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 35 knots ( 65 km / h ; 40 mph ) . Steam for the turbines was provided by three Admiralty 3 @-@ drum boilers . Beagle carried a maximum of 390 long tons ( 400 t ) of fuel oil that gave her a range of 4 @,@ 800 nautical miles ( 8 @,@ 900 km ; 5 @,@ 500 mi ) at 15 knots ( 28 km / h ; 17 mph ) . The ship 's complement was 134 officers and enlisted men , although it increased to 142 during wartime .
The ship mounted four 45 @-@ calibre quick @-@ firing ( QF ) 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch Mk IX guns in single mounts , designated ' A ' , ' B ' , ' X ' , and ' Y ' from front to rear . For anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) defence , Beagle had two 40 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) QF 2 @-@ pounder Mk II AA guns mounted on a platform between her funnels . She was fitted with two above @-@ water quadruple torpedo tube mounts for 21 @-@ inch ( 533 mm ) torpedoes . One depth charge rail and two throwers were fitted ; 20 depth charges were originally carried , but this increased to 35 shortly after the war began . The ship was fitted with a Type 119 ASDIC set to detect submarines by reflections from sound waves beamed into the water .
By October 1940 , the ship 's anti @-@ aircraft armament was increased when the rear set of torpedo tubes was replaced by a 3 @-@ inch ( 76 @.@ 2 mm ) ( 12 @-@ pounder ) AA gun and ' Y ' gun was removed to compensate for the additional depth charges added . Around December 1941 , the ship was converted to an escort destroyer with the replacement of her ' A ' gun by a Hedgehog anti @-@ submarine spigot mortar and additional depth charge stowage replaced the 12 @-@ pounder high @-@ angle gun . The 2 @-@ pounder mounts were replaced by 20 @-@ millimetre ( 0 @.@ 8 in ) Oerlikon autocannon and two additional Oerlikon guns were also added in the forward superstructure . Sometime before June 1944 , ' A ' gun was reinstalled and the Hedgehog was replaced by a split system , with launchers on each side of the gun . To combat German E @-@ boats , a QF 6 @-@ pounder gun was mounted at the very tip of the bow .
= = Construction and service = =
The ship was ordered on 4 March 1929 from John Brown & Company at Clydebank , Glasgow , under the 1928 Naval Programme . She was laid down on 11 October 1929 , and launched on 26 September 1930 , as the seventh RN ship to carry this name . Beagle was completed on 9 April 1931 at a cost of £ 220 @,@ 342 , excluding items supplied by the Admiralty such as guns , ammunition and communications equipment . After her commissioning , she was assigned to the 4th Destroyer Flotilla with the Mediterranean Fleet until 1936 . Shortly before returning home , Beagle was deployed to Jaffa during the Arab Revolt to support British forces there . The flotilla was reassigned to the Home Fleet in September 1936 and the ship began a refit at Devonport after arriving on 27 August that lasted until 16 January 1937 . She was refitted again from 4 April to 17 September 1938 before being assigned as the plane guard for the aircraft carrier Furious . This assignment lasted only two months before she was refitted yet again from 24 November to 3 January 1939 . Beagle then became the plane guard for the carrier Argus during which she collided with her sister ship Basilisk and required a month 's worth of repairs in April – May . Following their completion on 3 May , the ship was reassigned to Furious before she was docked again before the start of World War II on 3 September .
Beagle was transferred to the 19th Destroyer Flotilla at the beginning of the war and spent her time until April 1940 escorting convoys and patrolling in the English Channel and the North Sea aside from yet another dockyard period from 18 December 1939 to 22 January 1940 . During the Norwegian Campaign , she escorted convoys between the Orkneys and Narvik , Norway . During the Battle of France , Beagle evacuated British troops and civilians from St. Nazaire and Bordeaux , France . During the former action , she rescued 600 survivors of the ocean liner Lancastria , sunk by German aircraft during the evacuation , on 17 June .
The ship was transferred to the 1st Destroyer Flotilla at Dover on 3 July until she was damaged by Junkers Ju 87 " Stuka " dive bombers on 19 July . Beagle 's repairs at Devonport lasted until 16 August and the ship was transferred to the 22nd Destroyer Flotilla upon their completion where she served in the English Channel . She was transferred to Home Fleet for escort duties in October and promptly escorted Argus as she ferried aircraft to Iceland and then escorted a convoy to West Africa . Beagle was assigned to Western Approaches Command and its 4th Escort Group in February 1941 for convoy escort duties between the Clyde and Iceland . While under repair for weather damage that broke her foremast in October , a Type 271 target indication radar was installed above the bridge that replaced her director @-@ control tower and rangefinder . After the ship was more extensively damaged by weather two months later , Beagle was converted into an escort destroyer , a process that lasted until April 1942 . At some point later in the war , a Type 286 short @-@ range surface search radar was fitted .
Beagle was assigned as an escort for Convoy QP 14 to the Soviet port of Murmansk in April and escorted Convoy QP 11 on the return trip . The convoy was attacked by three German destroyers on 1 May , but the four escorting destroyers drove off the German ships despite being seriously outgunned . Beagle was lightly damaged by splinters during the engagement . Upon her return , the ship was assigned to the Greenock Escort Force and escorted convoys between the Clyde and Iceland until October when she was transferred to Force H. She participated in Operation Torch in November , before returning to escort Convoys JW 51A , RA 51 , and JW 52 to and from Russia beginning in December .
After a refit to improve her radar , anti @-@ submarine equipment , and Arctic habitability , Beagle was ordered to Freetown , Sierra Leone in early 1943 where she served as a local escort until November . That month she returned to the Home Fleet and escorted convoys to and from Russia through May 1944 with the 8th Escort Group . Whilst escorting Convoy JW58 , the ship assisted in sinking the German submarine U @-@ 355 on 1 April in conjunction with aircraft from the escort carrier Tracker . Beagle was then assigned to escort and support the forces participating in Operation Overlord during which the ship claimed to have shot down two Junkers Ju 88 medium bombers in June . She began a refit on 19 July at Sheerness Dockyard that lasted until September and rejoined the 8th Escort Group upon their completion . More extensive repairs were required between December 1944 and February 1945 . Beagle was briefly reassigned to the 8th Escort Group before she was transferred to Plymouth Command on 11 March for escort duties . The ship was tasked to blockade the German @-@ occupied ports in France from 12 April and accepted the surrender of the German garrison of the Channel Islands together with her sister Bulldog on 9 May . Beagle was placed in reserve fifteen days later and was approved for scrapping on 22 December . She was turned over for scrapping on 15 January 1946 at Rosyth and moved to the shipbreaking yard of Metal Industries , Limited two days later .
= James T. Brady =
James Topham Brady ( April 9 , 1815 – February 9 , 1869 ) was an American lawyer . Born in New York City , Brady studied law in his father 's practice before being admitted to the New York bar himself . He is most notable for his career as a criminal lawyer , being involved in numerous high @-@ profile proceedings . He tried fifty @-@ two criminal cases and only lost one . Brady died at his home after having the left side of his body paralyzed for several days , and was interred at Calvary Cemetery in New York .
= = Early life = =
Brady was born on April 9 , 1815 , in New York City , the eldest son of Thomas S. Brady and his wife . Later , Brady would have seven siblings , two boys and five girls . The senior Brady had emigrated from Ireland to the United States while the War of 1812 was ongoing , and started a boys school in New York . When James was seven , he attended his father 's school . In 1831 James 's father had left teaching to become a lawyer , and he helped his father in his practice and in trials . In his father 's office , James studied legal material tirelessly , and soon operated most of the firm 's managerial affairs .
= = Career = =
Brady was admitted to the New York Bar in either 1835 or 1836 , when he was about twenty years old . His first case was an insurance proceeding , where he opposed the prominent lawyer , Charles O 'Connor . The plaintiff staked a claim for insurance money from a property allegedly burned down by a fire . Though Brady lost that case , his proficiency for law and oration was immediately noted .
Brady received his first taste of legal notoriety during the Goodyear v. Day patent case , where he worked under Daniel Webster and delivered the opening arguments for the plaintiff . Nevertheless , Brady is best known for his work as a criminal lawyer . In the quarter century preceding his death , he was involved in nearly every notable criminal proceeding in the Eastern United States . Among his most famous legal undertakings was the defense of Daniel Sickles during his trial for the murder of Philip Barton Key , the then Attorney General of the District of Columbia . During this trial , Brady worked with Edwin Stanton , who would go on to become the United States Secretary of War . Brady also defended Lew Baker at the murder trial of the infamous William " Bill the Butcher " Poole , whom Baker shot to death in 1855 at Stanwix Hall , a bar on Broadway in Manhattan . Over his career , Brady tried 52 criminal cases and lost only one , the case of Confederate privateer John Yates Beall .
Though he professed membership in the Democratic Party , Brady was notably disengaged from politics . In 1843 he was made the interim district attorney for New York County . Two years later , Brady was appointed the city 's corporation counsel , a position in which he served two terms , each term lasting for a year . In 1850 Brady ran for , but was not elected to , the position of Attorney General of New York . Brady was on John C. Breckinridge and Joseph Lane 's 1860 Democratic ticket for Governor of New York . When the American Civil War began , Brady switched sides and became an ardent supporter of Abraham Lincoln and his Republican Party . He deeply disdained Southern politics and policy .
= = Personal life and death = =
Brady remained a lifelong bachelor . When a friend asked why , he said , " When my father died , he left five daughters who looked to me for support . All the affection I could have had for a wife went out to those sisters ; and I have never desired to recall it . " On Sunday , February 7 , 1869 the left side of Brady 's body was paralyzed . He died at the age of 53 at his home in New York on February 9 at 4 : 45 pm . Brady 's funeral occurred at St. Patrick 's Cathedral , and he was interred at Calvary Cemetery .
= History of Roman and Byzantine domes =
The History of Roman and Byzantine domes traces the architecture of domes throughout the ancient Roman Empire and its medieval continuation , today called the Byzantine Empire . Domes were important architectural elements in both empires and had widespread influence on contemporary and later styles , from Russian and Ottoman architecture to the Italian Renaissance and modern revivals . The domes were customarily hemispherical , although octagonal and segmented shapes are also known , and they developed in form , use , and structure over the centuries . Early examples rested directly on the rotunda walls of round rooms and featured a central oculus for ventilation and light . Pendentives became common in the Byzantine period , provided support for domes over square spaces .
Early wooden domes are known only from a literary source , but the use of wooden formwork , concrete , and unskilled labor enabled domes of monumental size in the late Republic and early Imperial period , such as the so @-@ called " Temple of Mercury " bath hall at Baiae . Nero introduced the dome into Roman palace architecture in the 1st century and such rooms served as state banqueting halls , audience rooms , or throne rooms . The Pantheon 's dome , the largest and most famous example , was built of concrete in the 2nd century and may have served as an audience hall for Hadrian . Imperial mausolea , such as the Mausoleum of Diocletian , were domed beginning in the 3rd century . Some smaller domes were built with a technique of using ceramic tubes in place of a wooden centering for concrete , or as a permanent structure embedded in the concrete , but light brick became the preferred building material over the course of the 4th and 5th centuries . Brick ribs allowed for a thinner structure and facilitated the use of windows in the supporting walls , replacing the need for an oculus as a light source .
Christian baptisteries and shrines were domed in the 4th century , such as the Lateran Baptistery and the likely wooden dome over the Church of the Holy Sepulchre . Constantine 's octagonal palace church in Antioch may have been the precedent for similar buildings for centuries afterward . The first domed basilica may have been built in the 5th century , with a church in southern Turkey being the earliest proposed example , but the 6th century architecture of Justinian made domed church architecture standard throughout the Roman east . His Hagia Sophia and Church of the Holy Apostles inspired copies in later centuries .
Cruciform churches with domes at their crossings , such as the churches of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki and St. Nicholas at Myra , were typical of 7th and 8th century architecture and bracing a dome with barrel vaults on four sides became the standard structural system . Domes over windowed drums of cylindrical or polygonal shape were standard after the 9th century . In the empire 's later period , smaller churches were built with smaller domes , normally less than 6 meters ( 20 ft ) after the 10th century . Exceptions include the 11th century domed @-@ octagons of Hosios Loukas and Nea Moni , and the 12th century Chora Church , among others . The cross @-@ in @-@ square plan , with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern , as at the Church of St. Panteleimon , was the most popular type from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 .
= = Overview = =
Rounded arches , vaults , and domes distinguish Roman architecture from that of Ancient Greece and were facilitated by the use of concrete and brick . By varying the weight of the aggregate material in the concrete , the weight of the concrete could be altered , allowing lighter layers to be laid at the top of concrete domes . But concrete domes also required expensive wooden formwork , also called shuttering , to be built and kept in place during the curing process , which would usually have to be destroyed to be removed . Formwork for brick domes need not be kept in place as long and could be more easily reused .
Roman domes were used in baths , villas , palaces , and tombs . Oculi were common features . They were customarily hemispherical in shape and partially or totally concealed on the exterior . In order to buttress the horizontal thrusts of a large hemispherical masonry dome , the supporting walls were built up beyond the base to at least the haunches of the dome and the dome was then also sometimes covered with a conical or polygonal roof . A variety of other shapes , including shallow saucer domes , segmental domes , and ribbed domes were also sometimes used . The audience halls of many imperial palaces were domed . Domes were also very common over polygonal garden pavilions . Construction and development of domes declined in the west with the decline and fall of the western portion of the empire .
The term " Byzantine " , invented in 1557 by historian Hieronymus Wolf , became popular in the 19th century and is used to refer to the medieval eastern Roman Empire with its capital at Constantinople , the former town of Byzantion . In the Byzantine period , a supporting structure of four arches with pendentives between them allowed the spaces below domes to be opened up . Pendentives allowed for weight loads to be concentrated at just four points on a more practical square plan , rather than a circle . Domes were important elements of baptisteries , churches , and tombs . They were normally hemispherical and had , with occasional exceptions , windowed drums . Roofing for domes ranged from simple ceramic tile to more expensive , more durable , and more form @-@ fitting lead sheeting .
The domes and drums typically incorporated wooden tension rings at several levels to resist deformation in the mortar and allow for faster construction . Metal clamps between stone cornice blocks , metal tie rods , and metal chains were also used to stabilize domed buildings . Timber belts at the bases of domes helped to stabilize the walls below them during earthquakes , but the domes themselves remained vulnerable to collapse . The surviving ribbed or pumpkin dome examples in Constantinople are structurally equivalent and those techniques were used interchangeably , with the number of divisions corresponding to the number of windows . Aided by the small scale of churches after the 6th century , such ribbed domes could be built with formwork only for the ribs . Pumpkin domes could have been built in self @-@ supporting rings and small domical vaults were effectively corbelled , dispensing with formwork altogether .
= = Late Republic and early Imperial period = =
Roman baths played a leading role in the development of domed construction in general , and monumental domes in particular . Modest domes in baths dating from the 2nd and 1st centuries BC are seen in Pompeii , in the cold rooms of the Terme Stabiane and the Terme del Foro . These domes are very conical in shape , similar to those on an Assyrian bas @-@ relief found in Nineveh . At a Roman era tepidarium in Cabrera de Mar , Spain , a dome has been identified from the middle of the 2nd century BC that used a refined version of the parallel arch construction found in an earlier Hellenistic bath dome in Sicily . According to Vitruvius , the temperature and humidity of domed warm rooms could be regulated by raising or lowering bronze discs located under an oculus . Domes were particularly well suited to the hot rooms of baths circular in plan to facilitate even heating from the walls . However , the extensive use of domes did not occur before the 1st century AD .
Varro 's book on agriculture describes an aviary with a wooden dome decorated with the eight winds that is compared by analogy to the eight winds depicted on the Tower of the Winds , which was built in Athens at about the same time . This aviary with its wooden dome may represent a fully developed type . Wooden domes in general would have allowed for very wide spans . Their earlier use may have inspired the development and introduction of large stone domes of previously unprecedented size . Complex wooden forms were necessary for dome centering and support during construction , and they seem to have eventually become more efficient and standardized over time .
The mortar and aggregate of Roman concrete was built up in horizontal layers laid by hand against wooden form @-@ work with the thickness of the layers determined by the length of the workday , rather than being poured into a mold as concrete is today . Roman concrete domes were thus built similarly to the earlier corbel domes of the Mediterranean region , although they have different structural characteristics . The aggregate used by the Romans was often rubble , but lightweight aggregate in the upper levels served to reduce stresses . Empty " vases and jugs " could be hidden inside to reduce weight . The dry concrete mixtures used by the Romans were compacted with rams to eliminate voids , and added animal blood acted as a water reducer . Because Roman concrete was weak in tension , it did not provide any structural advantage over the use of brick or stone . But , because it could be constructed with unskilled slave labor , it provided a constructional advantage and facilitated the building of large @-@ scale domes .
Domes reached monumental size in the Roman Imperial period . Although imprints of the formwork itself have not survived , deformations from the ideal of up to 22 centimeters ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) at the so @-@ called " Temple of Mercury " in Baiae suggest a centering of eight radiating frames , with horizontal connectors supporting radial formwork for the shallow dome . The building , actually a concrete bath hall dating from the age of Augustus ( 27 BC – 14 AD ) , has the first known large Roman dome . There are five openings in the dome : a circular oculus and four square skylights . The dome has a span of 21 @.@ 5 meters ( 71 ft ) and is the largest known dome built before that of the Pantheon . It is also the earliest preserved concrete dome .
= = First century = =
While there are earlier examples in the Republican period and early Imperial period , the growth of domed construction increased under Emperor Nero and the Flavians in the 1st century AD , and during the 2nd century . Centrally planned halls become increasingly important parts of palace and palace villa layouts beginning in the 1st century , serving as state banqueting halls , audience rooms , or throne rooms . Formwork was arranged either horizontally or radially , but there is not enough surviving evidence from the 1st and 2nd centuries to say what was typical .
The opulent palace architecture of the Emperor Nero ( 54 – 68 AD ) marks an important development . There is evidence of a dome in his Domus Transitoria at the intersection of two corridors , resting on four large piers , which may have had an oculus at the center . In Nero 's Domus Aurea , or " Golden House " , planned by Severus and Celer , the walls of a large octagonal room transition to an octagonal domical vault , which then transitions to a dome with an oculus . This is the earliest known example of a dome in the city of Rome itself .
The Domus Aurea was built after 64 AD and the dome was over 13 meters ( 43 ft ) in diameter . This octagonal and semicircular dome is made of concrete and the oculus is made of brick . The radial walls of the surrounding rooms buttress the dome , allowing the octagonal walls directly beneath it to contain large openings under flat arches and for the room itself to be unusually well lit . Because there is no indication that mosaic or other facing material had ever been applied to the surface of the dome , it may have been hidden behind a tent @-@ like fabric canopy like the pavilion tents of Hellenistic ( and earlier Persian ) rulers . The oculus is unusually large , more than two @-@ fifths the span of the room , and it may have served to support a lightweight lantern structure or tholos , which would have covered the opening . Circular channels on the upper surface of the oculus also support the idea that this lantern , perhaps itself domed , was the rotating dome referred to in written accounts .
According to Suetonius , the Domus Aurea had a dome that perpetually rotated on its base in imitation of the sky . It was reported in 2009 that newly discovered foundations of a round room may be those of a rotating domed dining hall . Also reported in contemporary sources is a ceiling over a dining hall in the palace fitted with pipes so that perfume could rain from the ceiling , although it is not known whether this was a feature of the same dome . The expensive and lavish decoration of the palace caused such scandal that it was abandoned soon after Nero 's death and public buildings such as the Baths of Titus and the Colosseum were built at the site .
The only intact dome from the reign of Emperor Domitian is a 16 @.@ 1 @-@ meter ( 53 ft ) wide example in what may have been a nymphaeum at his villa at Albano . It is now the church of Santa Maria della Rotunda . Domitian 's 92 AD Domus Augustana established the apsidal semi @-@ dome as an imperial motif . Square chambers in his palace on the Palatine Hill used pendentives to support domes . His palace contained three domes resting over walls with alternating apses and rectangular openings . An octagonal domed hall existed in the domestic wing . Unlike Nero 's similar octagonal dome , its segments extended all the way to the oculus . The dining hall of this private palace , called the Coenatio Jovis , or Dining Hall of Jupiter , contained a rotating ceiling like the one Nero had built , but with stars set into the simulated sky .
= = Second century = =
During the reign of Emperor Trajan , domes and semi @-@ domes over exedras were standard elements of Roman architecture , possibly due to the efforts of Trajan 's architect , Apollodorus of Damascus , who was famed for his engineering ability . Two rotundas 20 meters ( 66 ft ) in diameter were finished in 109 AD as part of the Baths of Trajan , built over the Domus Aurea , and exedras 13 and 18 meters ( 43 and 59 ft ) wide were built as part of the markets north @-@ east of his forum . The architecture of Trajan 's successor , Hadrian , continued this style . Although considered an example of Hadrianic architecture , there is brickstamp evidence that the rebuilding of the Pantheon in its present form was begun under Trajan . Speculation that the architect of the Pantheon was Apollodorus has not been proven , although there are stylistic commonalities between his large coffered half @-@ domes at Trajan 's Baths and the dome of the Pantheon . Three 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) wide exedras at Trajan 's Baths have patterns of coffering that , as in the Pantheon , align with lower niches only on the axes and diagonals and , also as in the Pantheon , that alignment is sometimes with the ribs between the coffers , rather than with the coffers themselves .
The Pantheon , a temple in Rome completed by Emperor Hadrian as part of the Baths of Agrippa , is the most famous , best preserved , and largest Roman dome . Its diameter was more than twice as wide as any known earlier dome . Dating from the 2nd century , it is an unreinforced concrete dome 43 @.@ 4 meters ( 142 ft ) wide resting on a circular wall , or rotunda , 6 meters ( 20 ft ) thick . This rotunda , made of brick @-@ faced concrete , contains a large number of relieving arches and is not solid . Seven interior niches and the entrance way divide the wall structurally into eight virtually independent piers . These openings and additional voids account for a quarter of the rotunda wall 's volume . The only opening in the dome is the brick @-@ lined oculus at the top , 9 meters ( 30 ft ) in diameter , that provides light and ventilation for the interior .
The shallow coffering in the dome accounts for a less than five percent reduction in the dome 's mass , and is mostly decorative . The aggregate material hand @-@ placed in the concrete is heaviest at the base of the dome and changes to lighter materials as the height increases , dramatically reducing the stresses in the finished structure . In fact , many commentators cite the Pantheon as an example of the revolutionary possibilities for monolithic architecture provided by the use of Roman pozzolana concrete . However , vertical cracks seem to have developed very early , such that in practice the dome acts as an array of arches with a common keystone , rather than as a single unit . The exterior step @-@ rings used to compress the " haunches " of the dome , which would not be necessary if the dome acted as a monolithic structure , may be an acknowledgement of this by the builders themselves . Such buttressing was common in Roman arch construction . The cracks in the dome can be seen from the upper internal chambers of the rotunda , but have been covered by re @-@ rendering on the inner surface and by patching on the outside . The Pantheon 's roof was originally covered with gilt bronze tiles , but these were removed in 663 by Emperor Constans II and replaced by lead roofing .
The function of the Pantheon remains an open question . Strangely for a temple , its inscription , which attributes this third building at the site to the builder of the first , Marcus Agrippa , does not mention any god or group of gods . Its name , Pantheon , comes from the Greek for " all gods " but is unofficial , and it was not included in the list of temples restored by Hadrian in the Historia Augusta . Circular temples were small and rare , and Roman temples traditionally allowed for only one divinity per room . The Pantheon more resembles structures found in imperial palaces and baths . Hadrian is believed to have held court in the rotunda using the main apse opposite the entrance as a tribune , which may explain its very large size . Later Roman buildings similar to the Pantheon include a temple to Asklepios Soter ( c . 145 ) in the old Hellenistic city of Pergamon and the so @-@ called " Round Temple " at Ostia ( c . 230 – 240 ) , which may have been related to the Imperial cult . The Pergamon dome was about 80 Roman feet wide , versus about 150 for the Pantheon , and made of brick over a cut stone rotunda . The Ostia dome was 60 Roman feet wide and made of brick @-@ faced concrete . No later dome built in the Imperial era came close to the span of the Pantheon . It remained the largest dome in the world for more than a millennium and is still the world 's largest unreinforced concrete dome .
Segmented domes made of radially concave wedges , or of alternating concave and flat wedges , appear under Hadrian in the 2nd century and most preserved examples of the style date from this period . Hadrian 's Villa has examples at the Piazza D 'Oro and in the semidome of the Serapeum . Recorded details of the decoration of the segmented dome at the Piazza D 'Oro suggests it was made to evoke a billowing tent , perhaps in imitation of the canopies used by Hellenistic kings . Other examples exist at the Hadrianic baths of Otricoli and the so @-@ called " Temple of Venus " at Baiae . This style of dome required complex centering and radially oriented formwork to create its tight curves , and the earliest surviving direct evidence of radial formwork is found at the caldarium of the Large Baths at Hadrian 's villa . Hadrian was an amateur architect and it was apparently domes of Hadrian 's like these that Trajan 's architect , Apollodorus of Damascus , derisively called " pumpkins " prior to Hadrian becoming emperor . According to Dio Cassius , the memory of this insult contributed to Hadrian as emperor having Apollodorus exiled and killed .
In the middle of the 2nd century , some of the largest domes were built near present @-@ day Naples , as part of large bath complexes taking advantage of the volcanic hot springs in the area . At the bath complex at Baiae , there are remains of a collapsed dome spanning 26 @.@ 3 meters ( 86 ft ) , called the " Temple of Venus " , and a larger half @-@ collapsed dome spanning 29 @.@ 5 meters ( 97 ft ) called the " Temple of Diana " . The dome of the " Temple of Diana " , which may have been a nymphaeum as part of the bath complex , can be seen to have had an ogival section made of horizontal layers of mortared brick and capped with light tufa . It dates to the second half of the 2nd century and is the third largest dome known from the Roman world . The second largest is the collapsed " Temple of Apollo " built nearby along the shore of Lake Avernus . The span cannot be precisely measured due to its ruined state , but it was more than 36 meters ( 118 ft ) in diameter .
In the second half of the 2nd century in North Africa , a distinctive type of nozzle tube shape was developed in the tradition of the terracotta tube dome at the Hellenistic era baths of Morgantina , an idea that had been preserved in the use of interlocking terracotta pots for kiln roofs . This tube could be mass @-@ produced on potter 's wheels and interlocked to form a permanent centering for concrete domes , avoiding the use of wooden centering altogether . This spread mainly in the western Mediterranean .
Although rarely used , the pendentive dome was known in 2nd century Roman architecture , such as the funerary monuments of the Sedia dei Diavolo and the Torracio della Secchina on the Via Nomentana . It would be used much more widely in the Byzantine period .
= = Third century = =
In the 3rd century , imperial mausolea began to be built as domed rotundas rather than tumulus structures or other types , following similar monuments by private citizens . Pagan and Christian domed mausolea from this time can be differentiated in that the structures of the buildings also reflect their religious functions . The pagan buildings are typically two story , dimly lit , free @-@ standing structures with a lower crypt area for the remains and an upper area for devotional sacrifice . Christian domed mausolea contain a single well @-@ lit space and are usually attached to a church .
Examples from the 3rd century include the brick dome of the Mausoleum of Diocletian , and the mausoleum at Villa Gordiani . The Mausoleum of Diocletian uses small arched squinches of brick built up from a circular base in an overlapping scales pattern , called a " stepped squinches dome " . The scales pattern was a popular Hellenistic motif adopted by the Parthians and Sasanians , and such domes are likely related to Persian " squinch vaults " . Masonry domes were less common in the Roman provinces , although the 3rd century " Temple of Venus " at Baalbek was built with a stone dome 10 meters ( 33 ft ) in diameter . The 24 @-@ meter ( 79 ft ) dome of the Mausoleum of Galerius was built around 300 AD close to the imperial palace as either a mausoleum or a throne room . It was converted into a church in the 5th century . The large rotunda of the Baths of Agrippa , the oldest public baths in Rome , has been dated to the Severan period at the beginning of the 3rd century , but it is not known whether this is an addition or simply a reconstruction of an earlier domed rotunda .
The technique of building lightweight domes with interlocking hollow ceramic tubes further developed in North Africa and Italy in the late 3rd and early 4th centuries . By the 4th century , the thin and lightweight tubed vaulting had become a vaulting technique in its own right , rather than simply serving as a permanent centering for concrete . It was used in early Christian buildings in Italy . Arranging these terracotta tubes in a continuous spiral created a dome that was not strong enough for very large spans , but required only minimal centering and formwork . The later dome of the Baptistry of Neon in Ravenna is an example .
= = Fourth century = =
In the 4th century , Roman domes proliferated due to changes in the way domes were constructed , including advances in centering techniques and the use of brick ribbing . The so @-@ called " Temple of Minerva Medica " , for example , used brick ribs along with step @-@ rings and lightweight pumice aggregate concrete to form a decagonal dome . The material of choice in construction gradually transitioned during the 4th and 5th centuries from stone or concrete to lighter brick in thin shells . The use of ribs stiffened the structure , allowing domes to be thinner with less massive supporting walls . Windows were often used in these walls and replaced the oculus as a source of light , although buttressing was sometimes necessary to compensate for large openings . The Mausoleum of Santa Costanza has windows beneath the dome and nothing but paired columns beneath that , using a surrounding barrel vault to buttress the structure .
The octagonal " Domus Aurea " , or " Golden Octagon " , built by Emperor Constantine in 327 at the imperial palace of Antioch likewise had a domical roof , presumably of wood and covered with gilded lead . It was dedicated two years after the Council of Nicea to " Harmony , the divine power that unites Universe , Church , and Empire " . It may have been both the cathedral of Antioch as well as the court church of Constantine , and the precedent for the later octagonal plan churches near palaces of Saints Sergius and Bacchus and Hagia Sophia by Justinian and Aachen Cathedral by Charlemagne . The dome was rebuilt by 537 – 8 with cypress wood from Daphne after being destroyed in a fire . Most domes on churches in the Syrian region were built of wood , like that of the later Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , and the dome of the Domus Aurea survived a series of earthquakes in the 6th century that destroyed the rest of the building . There is no record of the church being rebuilt after the earthquake of 588 , perhaps due to the general abandonment of many public buildings in what was no longer a capital of the Empire .
Centralized buildings of circular or octagonal plan also became used for baptistries and reliquaries due to the suitability of those shapes for assembly around a single object . Baptisteries began to be built in the manner of domed mausolea during the 4th century in Italy . The octagonal Lateran Baptistery or the baptistery of the Holy Sepulchre may have been the first , and the style spread during the 5th century . The Church of the Holy Apostles , or Apostoleion , probably planned by Constantine but built by his successor Constantius in the new capital city of Constantinople , combined the congregational basilica with the centralized shrine . With a similar plan to that of the Church of Saint Simeon Stylites , four naves projected from a central rotunda containing Constantine 's tomb and spaces for the tombs of the twelve Apostles . Above the center may have been a clerestory with a wooden dome roofed with bronze sheeting and gold accents .
Christian mausolea and shrines developed into the " centralized church " type , often with a dome over a raised central space . The oblong decagon of today 's St. Gereon 's Basilica in Cologne , Germany , was built upon an extraordinary and richly decorated 4th century Roman building with an apse , semi @-@ domed niches , and dome . A church built in the city 's northern cemetery , its original dedication is unknown . It may have been built by Julianus , the governor of Gaul from 355 to 360 who would later become emperor , as a mausoleum for his family . The oval space may have been patterned after imperial audience halls or buildings such as the Temple of Minerva Medica . The Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem was likely built with a wooden dome over the shrine by the end of the 4th century . The rotunda , 33 @.@ 7 meters ( 111 ft ) in diameter and centered on the tomb of Christ , consisted of a domed center room surrounded by an ambulatory . The dome rose over a ground floor , gallery , and clerestory and may have had an oculus . The dome was about 21 meters ( 69 ft ) wide . Razed to the ground in 1009 by the Fatimid Caliph , it was rebuilt in 1048 by Emperor Constantine IX Monomachos , reportedly with a mosaic depicting Christ and the Twelve Apostles . The current dome is a 1977 renovation in thin reinforced concrete .
The largest centrally planned Early Christian church , Milan 's domed San Lorenzo Maggiore , was built in the middle of the 4th century while that city served as the capital of the Western Empire . There are two theories about the shape of this dome : a Byzantine @-@ style dome on spherical pendentives with a ring of windows similar to domes of the later Justinian era , or an octagonal cloister vault following Roman trends and like the vaulting over the site 's contemporary chapel of Saint Aquiline , possibly built with vaulting tubes , pieces of which had been found in excavations . Although these tubes have been shown to date from a medieval reconstruction , there is evidence supporting the use of Roman concrete in the original dome . The original vaulting was concealed by a square drum externally rather than the octagon of today , which dates from the 16th century .
= = Fifth century = =
By the 5th century , structures with small @-@ scale domed cross plans existed across the Christian world . Examples include the Mausoleum of Galla Placidia , the martyrium attached to the Basilica of San Simpliciano , and churches in Macedonia and on the coast of Asia Minor . Small brick domes are also found in towers of Constantinople 's early 5th century land walls . Underground cisterns in Constantinople , such as the Cistern of Philoxenos and the Basilica Cistern , were composed of a grid of columns supporting small domes , rather than groin vaults . The square bay with an overhead sail vault or dome on pendentives became the basic unit of architecture in the early Byzantine centuries , found in a variety of combinations .
Early examples of Byzantine domes existed over the hexagonal hall of the Palace of Antiochos , the hexagon at Gülhane , the martyium of Sts . Karpos and Papylos , and the rotunda at the Myrelaion . The 5th century St. Mary 's church in Ephesus had small rectangular side rooms with sail vaults made of arched brick courses . The brick dome of the baptistery at St. Mary 's was composed of a series of tightly arched meridional sections . The Church of Saint Simeon Stylites likely had a wooden polygonal dome over its central 27 @-@ meter ( 89 ft ) wide octagon .
With the end of the Western Roman Empire , domes became a signature feature of the church architecture of the surviving Eastern Roman Empire . A transition from timber @-@ roofed basilicas to vaulted churches seems to have occurred between the late 5th century and the 7th century , with early examples in Constantinople , Asia Minor , and Cilicia . The first known domed basilica may have been a church at Meriamlik in southern Turkey , dated to between 471 and 494 , although the ruins do not provide a definitive answer . It is possible earlier examples existed in Constantinople , where it has been suggested that the plan for the Meriamlik church itself was designed , but no domed basilica has been found there before the 6th century .
= = Sixth century = =
The 6th century marks a turning point for domed church architecture . Centrally planned domed churches had been built since the 4th century for very particular functions , such as palace churches or martyria , with a slight widening of use around 500 AD , but most church buildings were timber @-@ roofed halls on the basilica plan . The Church of St. Polyeuctus in Constantinople ( 524 – 527 ) was apparently built as a large and lavish domed basilica similar to the Meriamlik church of fifty years before — and to the later Hagia Irene of Emperor Justinian — by Anicia Juliana , a descendent of the former imperial house . There is a story that she used the contribution to public funds that she had promised Justinian on his ascension to the throne to roof her church in gold . The church included an inscription praising Juliana for having " surpassed Solomon " with the building , and it may have been with this in mind that Justinian would later say of his Hagia Sophia , " Solomon , I have vanquished thee ! " .
In the second third of the 6th century , church building by the Emperor Justinian used the domed cross unit on a monumental scale , in keeping with Justinian 's emphasis on bold architectural innovation . His church architecture emphasized the central dome and his architects made the domed brick @-@ vaulted central plan standard throughout the Roman east . This divergence with the Roman west from the second third of the 6th century may be considered the beginning of a " Byzantine " architecture . Timber @-@ roofed basilicas , which had previously been the standard church form , would continue to be so in the medieval west .
The earliest existing of Justinian 's domed buildings is the central plan Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus in Constantinople , completed by 536 . It is called the " Little Hagia Sophia " mosque today , but was actually begun five years earlier than that building . The dome rests on an octagonal base created by eight arches on piers and is divided into sixteen sections . Those sections above the flat sides of the octagon are flat and contain a window at their base , alternating with sections from the corners of the octagon that are scalloped , creating an unusual kind of pumpkin dome . The building was built within the precinct of the Palace of Hormistas , the residence of Justinian before his ascension to the throne in 527 , and includes an inscription mentioning the " sceptered Justinian " and " God @-@ crowned Theodora " .
After the Nika Revolt destroyed much of the city of Constantinople in 532 , including the churches of Hagia Sophia ( " Holy Wisdom " ) and Hagia Irene ( " Holy Peace " ) , Justinian had the opportunity to rebuild . Both had been basilica plan churches and both were rebuilt as domed basilicas , although the Hagia Sophia was rebuilt on a much grander scale . Built by Anthemius of Tralles and Isidore of Miletus in Constantinople between 532 and 537 , the Hagia Sophia has been called the greatest building in the world . It is an original and innovative design with no known precedents in the way it covers a basilica plan with dome and semi @-@ domes . Periodic earthquakes in the region have caused three partial collapses of the dome and necessitated repairs . The precise shape of the original central dome completed in 537 was significantly different from the current one and , according to contemporary accounts , much bolder .
Procopius wrote that the original dome seemed " not to rest upon solid masonry , but to cover the space with its golden dome suspended from heaven . " Byzantine chronicler John Malalas reported that this dome was 20 byzantine feet lower than its replacement . One theory is that the original dome continued the curve of the existing pendentives ( which were partially reconstructed after its collapse ) , creating a massive sail vault pierced with a ring of windows . This vault would have been part of a theoretical sphere 46 meters ( 151 ft ) in diameter ( the distance from the base of one pendentive to the base of the one opposite ) , 7 percent greater than the span of the Pantheon 's dome . Another theory raises the shallow cap of this dome ( the portion above what are today the pendentives ) on a relatively short recessed drum containing the windows . This first dome partially collapsed due to an earthquake in 558 and the design was then revised to the present profile . Earthquakes also caused partial collapses of the dome in 989 and 1346 , so that the present dome consists of portions dating from the 6th century , on the north and south sides , and portions from the 10th and 14th centuries on the west and east sides , respectively . There are irregularities where these sectors meet .
The current central dome , above the pendentives , is about 750 millimeters ( 30 in ) thick . It is about 32 meters ( 105 ft ) wide and contains 40 radial ribs that spring from between the 40 windows at its base . Four of the windows were blocked as part of repairs in the 10th century . The ring of windows at the base of the central dome are in the portion where the greatest hoop tension would have been expected and so they may have been used to help alleviate cracking along the meridians . Iron cramps between the marble blocks of its cornice helped to reduce outward thrusts at the base and limit cracking , like the wooden tension rings used in other Byzantine brick domes . The dome and pendentives are supported by four large arches springing from four piers . Additionally , two huge semi @-@ domes of similar proportion are placed on opposite sides of the central dome and themselves contain smaller semi @-@ domes between an additional four piers . The Hagia Sophia , as both the cathedral of Constantinople and the church of the adjacent Great Palace of Constantinople , has a form of octagonal plan .
The city of Ravenna , Italy , had served as the capital of the Western Roman Empire after Milan from 402 and the capital of the subsequent kingdoms of Odoacer and of Theodoric until Justinian 's reconquest in 540 . The octagonal Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , begun under Theodoric in 525 , was completed under the Byzantines in 547 and contains a terracotta dome . It may belong to a school of architecture from 4th and 5th century Milan . The building is similar to the Byzantine Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus and the later Chrysotriklinos , or throne hall and palace church of Constantinople , and it would be used as the model for Charlemagne 's palace chapel at Aix @-@ la @-@ Chapelle . Hollow amphorae were fitted inside one another to provide a lightweight structure for the dome and avoid additional buttressing . It is 18 meters ( 59 ft ) in diameter . The amphorae were arranged in a continuous spiral , which required minimal centering and formwork but was not strong enough for large spans . The dome was covered with a timber roof , which would be the favored practice for later medieval architects in Italy although it was unusual at the time .
In Constantinople , Justinian also tore down the aging Church of the Holy Apostles and rebuilt it on a grander scale between 536 and 550 . The original building was a cruciform basilica with a central domed mausoleum . Justinian 's replacement was apparently likewise cruciform but with a central dome and four flanking domes . The central dome over the crossing had pendentives and windows in its base , while the four domes over the arms of the cross had pendentives but no windows . The domes appear to have been radically altered between 944 and 985 by the addition of windowed drums beneath all five domes and by raising the central dome higher than the others . The second most important church in the city after the Hagia Sophia , it fell into disrepair after the Latin occupation of Constantinople between 1204 and 1261 and it was razed to the ground by Mehmed the Conqueror in 1461 to build his Fatih Mosque on the site . Justinian 's Basilica of St. John at Ephesus and Venice 's St Mark 's Basilica are derivative of Holy Apostles . More loosely , the Cathedral of St. Front and the Basilica of Saint Anthony of Padua are also derived from this church .
Justinian and his successors modernized frontier fortifications throughout the century . The example at Qasr ibn Wardan ( 564 ) in the desert of eastern Syria is particularly impressive , containing a governor 's palace , barracks , and a church built with techniques and to plans possibly imported from Constantinople . The church dome is unusual in that the pendentives sprang from an octagonal drum , rather than the four main arches , and in that it was made of brick , which was rare in Syria .
The Golden Triclinium , or Chrysotriklinos , of the Great Palace of Constantinople served as an audience hall for the Emperor as well as a palace chapel . Nothing of it has survived except descriptions , which indicate that it had a pumpkin dome containing sixteen windows in its webs and that the dome was supported by the arches of eight niches connecting to adjoining rooms in the building 's likely circular plan . Alternatively , the building may have been octagonal in plan , rather than circular . The dome seems to have had webs that alternated straight and concave , like those of the dome of Justinian 's Church of Saints Sergius and Bacchus , and may have been built about 40 years after that church . It was begun under Emperor Justin II , completed by his successor Tiberius II , and continued to be improved by subsequent rulers . It was connected to the imperial living quarters and was a space used for assembly before religious festivals , high promotions and consultations , as a banqueting hall , a chapel for the emperor , and a throne room . Never fully described in any of its frequent mentions in Byzantine texts , the room was restricted to members of the court and the " most highly rated foreigners " . In the 10th century , the throne in the east niche chamber was directly below an icon of an enthroned Christ .
= = Seventh and eighth centuries = =
The period of Iconoclasm , roughly corresponding to the 7th to 9th centuries , is poorly documented but can be considered a transitional period . The cathedral of Sofia has an unsettled date of construction , ranging from the last years of Justinian to the middle of the 7th century , as the Balkans were lost to the Slavs and Bulgars . It combines a barrel @-@ vaulted cruciform basilica plan with a crossing dome hidden externally by the drum . It resembles some Romanesque churches of later centuries , although the type would not be popular in later Byzantine architecture . Part of the 5th century basilica of St. Mary at Ephesus seems to have been rebuilt in the 8th century as a cross @-@ domed church , a development typical of the 7th to 8th centuries and similar to the cross @-@ domed examples of Hagia Sophia in Thessaloniki , St. Nicholas at Myra , St. Clement 's at Ankara , and the church of the Koimesis at Nicaea .
With the decline in the empire 's resources following losses in population and territory , domes in Byzantine architecture were used as part of more modest new buildings . The large @-@ scale churches of Byzantium were , however , kept in good repair . The upper portion of the Church of Hagia Irene was thoroughly rebuilt after an earthquake in 740 . The nave was re @-@ covered with an elliptical domical vault hidden externally by a low cylinder on the roof , in place of the earlier barrel vaulted ceiling , and the original central dome from the Justinian era was replaced with one raised upon a high windowed drum . The barrel vaults supporting these two new domes were also extended out over the side aisles , creating cross @-@ domed units . By bracing the dome with broad arches on all four sides , the cross @-@ domed unit provided a more secure structural system . These units , with most domes raised on drums , became a standard element on a smaller scale in later Byzantine church architecture , and all domes built after the transitional period were braced with bilateral symmetry .
A small , unisex monastic community in Bithynia , near Constantinople , may have developed the cross @-@ in @-@ square plan church during the Iconoclastic period , which would explain the plan 's small scale and unified naos . The ruined church of St. John at Pelekete monastery is an early example . Monks had supported the use of icons , unlike the government @-@ appointed secular clergy , and monasticism would become increasingly popular . A new type of privately funded urban monastery developed from the 9th century on , which may help to explain the small size of subsequent building .
= = Ninth to twelfth centuries = =
Timber @-@ roofed basilicas , which had been the standard form until the 6th century , would be displaced by domed churches from the 9th century on . In the Middle Byzantine period ( c . 843 – 1204 ) , domes were normally built to emphasize separate functional spaces , rather than as the modular ceiling units they had been earlier . Resting domes on circular or polygonal drums pierced with windows eventually became the standard style , with regional characteristics .
The cross @-@ in @-@ square plan , with a single dome at the crossing or five domes in a quincunx pattern , became widely popular in the Middle Byzantine period . Examples include an early 9th century church in Tirilye , now called the Fatih Mosque , and the palace chapel of the Myrelaion , built around 920 . The Nea Ekklesia of Emperor Basil I was built in Constantinople around 880 as part of a substantial building renovation and construction program during his reign . It had five domes , which are known from literary sources , but different arrangements for them have been proposed under at least four different plans . One has the domes arranged in a cruciform pattern like those of the contemporaneous Church of St. Andrew at Peristerai or the much older Church of the Holy Apostles in Constantinople . Others arrange them in a quincunx pattern , with four minor domes in the corners of a square and a larger fifth in the center , as part of a cross @-@ domed or cross @-@ in @-@ square plan . It is often suggested that the five @-@ domed design of St. Panteleimon at Nerezi , from 1164 , is based on that of the Nea Ekklesia .
The cross @-@ in @-@ square is the most common church plan from the 10th century until the fall of Constantinople in 1453 . This type of plan , with four columns supporting the dome at the crossing , was best suited for domes less than 7 meters ( 23 ft ) wide and , from the 10th to the 14th centuries , a typical Byzantine dome measured less than 6 meters ( 20 ft ) in diameter . For domes beyond that width , variations in the plan were required such as using piers in place of the columns and incorporating further buttressing around the core of the building . The distinctive rippling eaves design for the roofs of domes begins in the 10th century . In mainland Greece , circular or octagonal drums became the most common while , in Constantinople , drums with twelve or fourteen sides were popular beginning in the 11th century . The 11th century rock @-@ cut churches of Cappadocia , such as Karanlik Kilise and Elmali Kilise in Göreme , have shallow domes without drums due to the dim natural lighting of cave interiors .
The domed @-@ octagon plan is a variant of the cross @-@ in @-@ square plan . The earliest extant example is the katholikon at the monastery of Hosios Loukas , with a 9 @-@ meter ( 30 ft ) wide dome built in the first half of the 11th century . This hemispherical dome was built without a drum and supported by a remarkably open structural system , with the weight of the dome distributed on eight piers , rather than four , and corbelling used to avoid concentrating weight on their corners . The use of squinches to transition from those eight supports to the base of the dome has led to speculation of a design origin in Arab , Sasanian , or Caucasian architecture , although with a Byzantine interpretation . Similar openness in design was used in the earlier Myrelaion church , as originally built , but the katholikon of Hosios Loukas is perhaps the most sophisticated design since the Hagia Sophia . The smaller monastic church at Daphni , c . 1080 , uses a simpler version of this plan .
The katholikon of Nea Moni , a monastery on the island of Chios , was built some time between 1042 and 1055 and featured a nine sided , ribbed dome rising 15 @.@ 62 meters ( 51 @.@ 2 ft ) above the floor ( this collapsed in 1881 and was replaced with the slightly taller present version ) . The transition from the square naos to the round base of the drum is accomplished by eight conches , with those above the flat sides of the naos being relatively shallow and those in the corners of the being relatively narrow . The novelty of this technique in Byzantine architecture has led to it being dubbed the " island octagon " type , in contrast to the " mainland octagon " type of Hosios Loukas . Speculation on design influences have ranged from Arab influence transmitted via the recently built domed octagon chapels at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or the Al @-@ Hakim Mosque in Islamic Cairo , to Caucasian buildings such as the Armenian Cathedral of the Holy Cross . Later copies of the Nea Moni , with alterations , include the churches of Agios Georgios Sykousis , Agioi Apostoli at Pyrghi , Panagia Krina , and the Church of the Metamorphosis in Chortiatis .
The larger scale of some Byzantine buildings of the 12th century required a more stable support structure for domes than the four slender columns of the cross @-@ in @-@ square type could provide . The domes of the churches now called Kalenderhane Mosque , Gül Mosque , and the Enez Fatih mosque all had domes greater than 7 meters ( 23 ft ) in diameter and used piers as part of large cruciform plans , a practice that had been out of fashion for several centuries . A variant of the cross @-@ in @-@ square , the " so @-@ called atrophied Greek cross plan " , also provides greater support for a dome than the typical cross @-@ in @-@ square plan by using four piers projecting from the corners of an otherwise square naos , rather than four columns . This design was used in the Chora Church of Constantinople in the 12th century after the previous cross @-@ in @-@ square structure was destroyed by an earthquake .
The 12th century Pantokrator monastic complex ( 1118 – 36 ) was built with imperial sponsorship as three adjoining churches . The south church , a cross @-@ in @-@ square , has a ribbed dome over the naos , domical vaults in the corners , and a pumpkin dome over the narthex gallery . The north church is also a cross @-@ in @-@ square plan . The middle church , the third to be built , fills the long space between the two earlier churches with two oval domes of the pumpkin and ribbed types over what appear to be separate functional spaces . The western space was an imperial mausoleum , whereas the eastern dome covered a liturgical space .
There is a written account by Nicholas Mesarites of a Persian @-@ style muqarnas dome built as part of a late 12th century imperial palace in Constantinople . Called the " Mouchroutas Hall " , it may have been built as part of an easing in tensions between the court of Manuel I Komnenos and Kilij Arslan II of the Sultanate of Rum around 1161 , evidence of the complex nature of the relations between the two states . The account , written by Nicholas Mesarites shortly before the Fourth Crusade , is part of a description of the coup attempt by John Komnenos in 1200 , and may have been mentioned as a rhetorical device to disparage him .
= = Thirteenth to fifteenth centuries = =
The Late Byzantine Period , from 1204 to 1453 , has an unsettled chronology of buildings , especially during the Latin Occupation . The fragmentation of the empire , beginning in 1204 , is reflected in a fragmentation of church design and regional innovations . After 1261 , new church architecture in Constantinople consisted mainly of additions to existing monastic churches , such as the Monastery of Lips and Pammakaristos Church , and as a result the building complexes are distinguished in part by an asymmetric array of domes on their roofs . This effect may have been in imitation of the earlier triple church Pantokrator monastic complex . A 15th century account of a Russian traveler to Constantinople mentions an abandoned hall , presumably domed , " in which the sun , the moon , and the stars succeeded each other as in heaven . "
The church of Hagia Sophia in the Empire of Trebizond dates to between 1238 and 1263 and has a variation on the quincunx plan . Heavy with traditional detailing from Asia Minor , and possibly Armenian or Georgian influence , the brick pendentives and drum of the dome remain Byzantine .
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Kinnaird back in the team , Wanderers overcame indifferent early form to again reach the Cup final , and defeated Oxford University to retain the trophy . Wanderers again dominated the competition in the 1877 – 78 season , scoring nine goals in both their first and second round matches . The final was a rematch of the 1872 final and Wanderers again defeated Royal Engineers to win an unprecedented third consecutive FA Cup . The rules of the competition stated that under such circumstances the trophy would be retired and become the permanent property of the victorious club , but Alcock returned the cup to the FA on the condition that the rule be removed and no other team permitted to claim it on a permanent basis . Following the final , Wanderers played the reigning Scottish Cup holders , Vale of Leven , but lost 3 – 1 .
= = = Decline ( 1879 – 1887 ) = = =
The Wanderers ' fortunes declined rapidly following the club 's hat @-@ trick of FA Cup wins . By 1878 , football clubs had been set up for former pupils of all the leading public schools , and many leading players chose to play for their respective old boys ' team instead . Wanderers ' fixture list was dramatically reduced in the 1878 – 79 season , and the team was knocked out of the FA Cup in the first round , losing 7 – 2 to an Old Etonians team led by Kinnaird . The following season Wanderers managed to reach the third round of the Cup , but lost again to the Etonians , after which many more key players left the club .
The club struggled on into the 1880 – 81 season , but was forced to withdraw from the FA Cup after being unable to raise a team for the scheduled first round match . After 1881 , the club was reduced to playing only one match per year , against Harrow School each Christmas . A book published by the newspaper The Sportsman claimed that the club folded in 1884 , however a match at Harrow was reported in The Times in December 1887 , which Harrow won 3 – 1 .
= = = Reformation ( 2009 – present ) = = =
In 2009 , over 120 years after the last known Wanderers match , a " reformed " Wanderers club was founded in London , reportedly with the approval of descendants of those involved with the original club , with the intention to play occasional matches for charity . In 2011 the club joined the Surrey South Eastern Combination . On 7 November 2012 , the team played the Royal Engineers at The Oval in a rematch of the 1872 FA Cup Final , 140 years after the original event , losing 7 – 1 .
Wanderers gained promotion from the Combination 's Junior Division 4 in 2013 , after finishing as runners @-@ up . In 2014 they achieved a second consecutive promotion after being crowned champions of the Junior Division 3 .
= = Colours and crest = =
Wanderers are known to have played in orange , purple , and black for at least part of their existence , although as no photographs of the team exist , the exact design is not known . A replica shirt sold in the modern era has the three colours in horizontal stripes , a likely arrangement given that horizontally @-@ striped shirts were very common during the Victorian era . The programme for the club 's 1875 away match with Queen 's Park , however , lists Wanderers as playing in white shirts . In the absence of shirt numbering , which would not be introduced for another sixty years , the programme identifies the individual players by the colours of their stockings ( socks ) or caps , with Alcock and Kinnaird both listed as wearing blue and white caps and Jarvis Kenrick identified by his cerise and French grey cap , the colours of his former club Clapham Rovers . The modern club 's crest is derived from the Harrow School crest , which may have adorned the shirts of the original team .
= = Grounds = =
Wanderers played firstly at Snaresbrook near Epping Forest , reputedly close to one of two orphanages in the area ; the Infant Orphan Asylum in Snaresbrook or the Merchant Seaman 's Orphan Asylum in nearby Wanstead . Wanderers played at several locations between 1859 and 1887 throughout London , but predominantly at Kennington Oval ( 151 games ) , Vincent Square ( 31 ) , Harrow ( 23 ) , Harrow School ( 15 ) and Clapham Common ( 12 ) . Battersea Park has been erroneously attributed as Wanderers home ground , however Wanderers played just 10 games there between 1864 and 1867 .
The reformed club play at the Mayfield Stadium in Thornton Heath in the London Borough of Croydon .
= = Rivalries = =
Prior to the formation of The Football Association in 1863 , individual schools played football according to their own particular rules . Due to the connection Wanderers had with Harrow School , the school 's football team played Wanderers frequently – 33 games between the two were recorded between 1865 and 1883 . Among the club 's other regular opponents were Royal Engineers , Clapham Rovers and Civil Service .
= = Players = =
A total of fifteen players who listed Wanderers as their primary club played for the England national team in international matches , as follows :
C. W. Alcock ( 1 cap )
Francis Birley ( 1 cap )
Alexander Bonsor ( 2 caps )
Frederick Green ( 1 cap )
Francis Heron ( 1 cap )
Hubert Heron ( 3 caps )
Leonard Howell ( 1 cap )
William Kenyon @-@ Slaney ( 1 cap )
Robert Kingsford ( 1 cap )
William Lindsay ( 1 cap )
Alfred Stratford ( 1 cap )
Henry Wace ( 3 caps )
Reginald de Courtenay Welch ( 1 cap )
Charles Wollaston ( 4 caps )
John Wylie ( 1 cap )
The following players earned international selection whilst playing at other clubs , but held membership of Wanderers :
Alexander Morten ( 1 cap )
Edward Hagarty Parry ( 3 caps )
John Frederick Peel Rawlinson ( 1 cap )
Francis Sparks ( 3 caps )
Additionally , A. F. Kinnaird made one appearance for Scotland and John Hawley Edwards played his one game for Wales while registered as a Wanderers player . Edwards was the first treasurer of the Welsh Football Association and one of only two players to play for England and Wales at full international level . A number of Wanderers players appeared in the England vs Scotland representative matches which took place prior to what is now recognised as the first official international match . Legendary cricketer W. G. Grace also played for the side , but did not take part in any FA Cup finals .
= = Club officials = =
The first Wanderers secretary was A. W. Mackenzie ( 1859 – 1864 ) . He was succeeded by C. W. Alcock ( 1864 – 1875 ) , Jarvis Kenrick ( 1875 – 1879 ) and Charles Wollaston ( 1879 – 1883 ) . The secretary of the revived club is Mark Wilson , who has held the position since the club was set up .
= = Records and statistics = =
Although records are incomplete , C. W. Alcock is believed to have played the most matches for the Wanderers , with at least 199 appearances , and to have scored the most goals , with at least 82 . He also recorded the highest goalscoring total for an individual season , with 17 known goals in the 1870 – 71 season , including four in a 6 – 1 win over Civil Service . R. K. Kingsford bettered that feat when he scored five goals against Farningham in 1874 , the most goals scored by a Wanderers player in a single match . The 16 – 0 margin of victory in the Farningham match was by far the largest win achieved by Wanderers , with no other scores in double @-@ figures recorded . The most goals conceded by Wanderers was eight , in an 8 – 2 defeat to Clapham Rovers in 1879 ; the club also lost by a six @-@ goal margin on at least one other occasion , a 6 – 0 defeat to Queen 's Park in 1876 .
Wanderers ' total of five FA Cup final wins remained a record until Aston Villa won the competition for the sixth time in 1920 . As of 2011 , only eight clubs have won the tournament more times than the Wanderers .
= = Honours = =
= = = Original club = = =
The club won the first FA Cup , won three in a row and appeared in the FA Cup Final five times , winning each time . Wanderers hold the joint record for most consecutive wins with Blackburn Rovers and A. F. Kinnaird holds the record for appearances in a Final with nine . Wanderers are tied for ninth place with Everton , Manchester City and West Bromwich Albion for the most FA Cup wins .
FA Cup winners
1871 – 72 , 1872 – 73 , 1875 – 76 , 1876 – 77 , 1877 – 78
= = = Reformed club = = =
Surrey South Eastern Combination Junior Division 3 champions
2013 – 14
= Bob Marshall ( wilderness activist ) =
Robert " Bob " Marshall ( January 2 , 1901 – November 11 , 1939 ) was an American forester , writer and wilderness activist . The son of Louis Marshall , a wealthy constitutional lawyer and conservationist , and his wife , Bob Marshall developed a love for the outdoors as a young child . A consummate hiker and climber , he visited the Adirondack Mountains frequently during his youth , ultimately becoming one of the first Adirondack Forty @-@ Sixers . He also traveled to the Alaskan wilderness and wrote numerous articles and books , including the bestselling 1933 book Arctic Village .
A scientist with a Doctor of Philosophy in plant physiology , Marshall became independently wealthy after the death of his father . He held two significant public appointed posts : chief of forestry in the Bureau of Indian Affairs , from 1933 to 1937 , and head of recreation management in the Forest Service , from 1937 to 1939 , during the administration of President Franklin D. Roosevelt .
Defining wilderness as a social as well as an environmental ideal , Marshall promoted organization of a national group dedicated to the preservation of primeval land . In 1935 , he was one of the principal founders of The Wilderness Society and personally provided most of the Society 's funding in its first years . He also supported socialism and civil liberties throughout his life .
Marshall died of heart failure at the age of 38 . Twenty @-@ five years later , partly as a result of his efforts , The Wilderness Society fostered the Wilderness Act , which legally defined the wilderness of the United States and protected some nine million acres ( 36 @,@ 000 km2 ) of federal land . Today , Marshall is considered largely responsible for the wilderness preservation movement . Several landmarks and areas , including The Bob Marshall Wilderness in Montana and Mount Marshall in the Adirondacks , have been named in his honor .
= = Early life and education = =
Born in New York City , Bob Marshall was the third of four children of Louis Marshall ( 1856 – 1929 ) and Florence ( née Lowenstein ) Marshall ( 1873 – 1916 ) . His father , the son of a Jewish immigrant from Bavaria , was a noted constitutional lawyer and a champion of minority rights . The family moved to Syracuse , New York , where Louis Marshall was active in the Jewish community , and co @-@ founder of the American Jewish Committee . In 1891 , he was part of a national delegation that sought federal intervention on behalf of persecuted Russian Jews .
An amateur naturalist and active conservationist , the elder Marshall was instrumental in securing " forever wild " protection for the Adirondack and Catskill Forest Preserves in New York State . He helped found the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University , now SUNY @-@ ESF . Florence Marshall , meanwhile , devoted herself to her family , the education of young Jewish women , and the work of several Jewish welfare organizations .
Bob Marshall attended Felix Adler 's private Ethical Culture School in New York City until 1919 . The school nurtured independent thinking and commitment to social justice . Marshall became involved in nature from a young age ; two of his childhood heroes were Meriwether Lewis and William Clark . His family took him to the Adirondack Mountains when he was six months old ; they returned every summer for the next 25 years . After that , Marshall returned often on his own . His younger brother George later described the family 's visits to Knollwood , their summer camp on Lower Saranac Lake in the Adirondack State Park , as a time when they " entered a world of freedom and informality , of living plants and spaces , of fresh greens and exhilarating blues , of giant , slender pines and delicate pink twinflowers , of deer and mosquitoes , of fishing and guide boats and tramps through the woods " .
= = Schooling and early exploring = =
Marshall was drawn to the outdoors . He discovered his passion for exploring , charting , and a love of climbing mountains , in part through the writings of Verplanck Colvin , who during the post @-@ Civil War decade surveyed the woods of northern New York . Throughout his life , Marshall kept a series of hiking notebooks , which he illustrated with photographs and filled with statistics . In 1915 , Marshall climbed his first Adirondack peak , the 3 @,@ 352 @-@ foot ( 1 @,@ 022 m ) Ampersand Mountain , alongside his brother George and family friend Herb Clark , a Saranac Lake guide . Through Clark , who accompanied them on most of their longer trips during adolescence and early adulthood , the two brothers learned the arts of woodcraft and boating . By 1921 , they became the first climbers to scale all 42 Adirondack Mountains believed to exceed 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) , some of which had never been climbed . In 1924 , the three became the first Adirondack Forty @-@ Sixers , hikers who have climbed to the summits of all 46 High Peaks of the Adirondacks .
After graduating from the Ethical Culture School , Marshall spent a year at Columbia University . In 1920 , he transferred to the New York State College of Forestry at Syracuse University . Marshall had decided in his teens that he wanted to be a forester , writing then about his love of " the woods and solitude ; " he wrote that he " should hate to spend the greater part of my lifetime in a stuffy office or in a crowded city " . For a while he was unhappy and withdrawn at Syracuse . But , he succeeded academically and was known for his individuality . As one classmate put it , Marshall was " always doing something no one else would ever think of doing . He was constantly rating things — the Adirondack peaks , his best days with George , and dozens of others . " Marshall became a member of Alpha Xi Sigma , the forestry college 's honor society . He ran on the Syracuse University freshman track team and participated in both junior varsity lacrosse and cross country running . Halfway through school , Marshall had become a class leader ; he was elected as class secretary and appointed an associate editor of the Empire Forester , the College 's yearbook .
During the early 1920s , Marshall grew interested in promoting Adirondack recreation . In 1922 , he became one of the charter members of the Adirondack Mountain Club ( ADK ) , an organization devoted to the building and maintenance of trails and the teaching of hiking in the park . In 1922 , he prepared a 38 @-@ page guidebook , entitled The High Peaks of the Adirondacks . Based on his pioneering experiences on the peaks , the guide recommends that " it 's a great thing these days to leave civilization for a while and return to nature . " Based on his own climbing experience , Marshall provided a brief description of each peak and arranged them in order of " niceness of view and all around pleasure in view and climb " .
In 1924 , Marshall graduated with a Bachelor of Science degree in forestry , magna cum laude , finishing 4th of 59 at the College of Forestry . The senior yearbook described him as " the Champion Pond Hound of all time , a lad with a mania for statistics and shinnying mountain peaks , the boy who will go five miles [ 8 km ] around to find something to wade thru . And the man who is rear chainman for Bob will have to hump or get wet , and probably both . " By 1925 , he earned a Master 's degree in forestry from Harvard University .
= = Forest Service and Alaska = =
Marshall started work in 1925 with the Forest Service , where he worked until 1928 . Hoping to go to Alaska , he was assigned to the Northern Rocky Mountain Experiment Station at Missoula , Montana , in 1925 . Marshall 's research at the Experimental Station focused on the dynamics of forest regeneration after fires . He had to fight a widespread fire after a July storm started more than 150 fires in Idaho 's Kaniksu National Forest . He was put in charge of supporting and provisioning one of the crews led by the Forest Service . As he later recalled , Marshall worked " 18 to 20 hours a day as time @-@ keeper , Chief of Commissary , Camp Boss , and Inspector of the fire line " . Spending time with loggers and fire fighters , and seeing the conditions under which they worked , Marshall learned vital lessons about labor issues and natural resource use . At the Experimental Station Marshall became interested in the unsafe conditions for many working Americans . He began to develop liberal and socialist philosophies .
In 1929 , Marshall was 28 years old and less than a year away from completing a PhD in plant pathology at Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore , Maryland , when he made his first trip to Alaska , visiting the upper Koyukuk River and the central Brooks Range . The scientific objective of the trip was to study tree growth at the northern timberline near the Arctic Divide . For his 15 @-@ month sojourn in the small town of Wiseman , Alaska , Marshall rented a one @-@ room cabin next to the only roadhouse in the village and furnished it with books , records , a phonograph player , and a writing desk . He placed the desk so that he could sit by the cabin 's single window and admire the view of the Koyukuk River and the range of steep , snow @-@ covered mountains in the background . His travels engendered in him a great love for the central Brooks Range in the Alaskan wilderness . Marshall was one of the first to explore much of the range , especially the headwaters of the North fork of the Koyukuk River , where he bestowed the name " Gates of the Arctic " on a pair of mountains . On September 11 , 1929 , Marshall 's father Louis died in Zürich , Switzerland at the age of 73 . Because their mother had died of cancer in 1916 , the four children inherited most of their father 's estate , worth several million dollars . Although he became financially independent , Bob Marshall continued to work throughout his life .
Marshall received his PhD in 1930 , under the supervision of Dr. Burton E. Livingston at the Johns Hopkins Laboratory of Plant Physiology . Marshall 's doctoral dissertation was titled " An Experimental Study of the Water Relations of Seedling Conifers with Special Reference to Wilting " . In February 1930 , his essay " The Problem of the Wilderness " was published ; a celebrated defense of wilderness preservation , the essay expanded themes developed in his earlier article , " The Wilderness as a Minority Right " . Though rejected by four other magazines before it was published in The Scientific Monthly , the essay has become one of Marshall 's most important works . He argued that wilderness was worth saving not only because of its unique aesthetic qualities , but because of its ability to provide visitors with a chance for adventure . Marshall went on to state : " There is just one hope of repulsing the tyrannical ambition of civilization to conquer every niche on the whole earth . That hope is the organization of spirited people who will fight for the freedom of the wilderness . " The article became a much @-@ quoted call to action and is today considered seminal by wilderness historians .
In July 1930 , Marshall and his brother George climbed nine Adirondack High Peaks in one day , setting a new record . In August , Marshall returned to Alaska . He planned to explore the Brooks Range to pursue more tree research , and he also wanted to make a study of Arctic frontier civilization in Wiseman . He called the village , which was 200 miles north of Fairbanks , " the happiest civilization of which I have knowledge . " Befriending a number of the area 's inhabitants , he meticulously recorded thousands of hours of conversation with them . He persuaded a number of villagers , most of whom were single males , to take intelligence tests , and even developed statistics on all aspects of the villagers ' lives , from their financial resources to their diets to their sexual habits . He spent 12 @-@ 1 / 2 months — from late August 1930 to early September 1931 — exploring and collecting data . The book that resulted from these excursions ( and his previous trip to Alaska ) was 1933 's best @-@ selling Literary Guild selection , Arctic Village . Marshall shared the royalties from the book , a sociological study of life in the wilderness , with the residents of Wiseman .
= = Writing and conservation = =
Marshall returned to the east coast in late September 1931 . Although he busied himself with writing Arctic Village , he also wrote prolifically on other topics and published several articles about American forestry . In particular , he had concerns that few articles during this time addressed the issue of deforestation , and he went so far as to write a letter to the president of the American Forestry Association , George D. Pratt , on the matter . He also pursued a variety of other activities : he accepted an invitation to serve on a committee to dedicate a memorial ( Louis Marshall Memorial Hall ) to his father at the forestry college in Syracuse , and delivered speeches about his travels and wilderness preservation .
Shortly after his return , he was asked by Earle Clapp , head of the Forest Service 's Branch of Research , to help initiate badly needed reforms in the forest @-@ products industry and to create a broader vision of national forest management . Marshall moved to Washington , D.C. in September 1932 to assume the position , which entailed writing initiatives for forest recreation , and immediately began compiling a list of the remaining roadless areas in the United States . He sent this data to regional foresters , urging them to set aside areas for wilderness ; all of them responded negatively . Marshall 's input into what became known as the Copeland Report amounted to three extensive chapters of a two volume , 1 @,@ 677 @-@ page work . He considered it " the best piece of forestry work I have yet done " .
Marshall had clearly defined himself as a socialist by 1932 – 1933 . He told a correspondent : " I wish very sincerely that Socialism would be put into effect right away and the profit system eliminated . " He became active in the Tenants Unemployed League of the District of Columbia , a group that helped unemployed people with housing problems ; later he joined the fight against federal aid cuts to scientific research . Learning of the American Civil Liberties Union from his father , he served as chairman of the Washington branch . Marshall was even arrested briefly for participating in a March 1933 United Front demonstration . He did not forget his conservation causes , however , and soon pondered the question of wilderness and national parks . In the early 1930s , he joined the National Parks Association , eventually becoming a member of its board .
In August 1933 , Marshall was appointed director of the Forestry Division of the Bureau of Indian Affairs ( BIA ) , a position he held for four years . He besieged government personnel with letters , telephone calls , and personal visits in the cause of wilderness , rapidly gaining recognition in Washington as a champion of preservation . One of his last initiatives as chief forester of the BIA was to recommend 4 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 acres ( 19 @,@ 425 km2 ) of Indian lands for management as either " roadless " or " wild " areas ; the order , which created 16 wilderness areas , received approval shortly after Marshall left office to join the Forest Service once more . Marshall became increasingly concerned with civilization 's encroachment upon the wild lands , writing : " The sounds of the forest are entirely obliterated by the roar of the motor . The smell of pine needles and flowers and herbs and freshly turned dirt and all the other delicate odors of the forest are drowned in the stench of gasoline . The feeling of wind blowing in the face and of soft ground under foot are all lost . "
= = The Wilderness Society = =
In 1934 , Marshall visited Knoxville , Tennessee and met with Benton MacKaye , a regional planner and originator of the Appalachian Trail . Together with Harvey Broome , a Knoxville lawyer , they discussed Marshall 's 1930 proposal for an organization dedicated to wilderness preservation . Bernard Frank , a fellow forester , joined them later in the year ; the men mailed an " Invitation to Help Organize a Group to Preserve the American Wilderness " to like @-@ minded individuals . The invitation expressed their desire " to integrate the growing sentiment which we believe exists in this country for holding wild areas sound @-@ proof as well as sight @-@ proof from our increasingly mechanized life " and their conviction that such wildernesses were " a serious human need rather than a luxury and plaything " .
On January 21 , 1935 , the organizing committee published a folder stating that " for the purpose of fighting off invasion of the wilderness and of stimulating ... an appreciation of its multiform emotional , intellectual , and scientific values , we are forming an organization to be known as the WILDERNESS SOCIETY " . They invited Aldo Leopold to act as the Society 's first president , but the position ultimately went to Robert Sterling Yard . Marshall provided the bulk of the Society 's funding in its early years , beginning with an anonymous donation of $ 1 @,@ 000 . His brother George was also deeply involved in the Society .
T. H. Watkins , former editor of the society 's magazine , Wilderness , contended that before Marshall and the Society there was " no true movement " for the preservation of the nation 's roadless and primitive areas . " One could comfortably argue " , Watkins wrote in 1985 on the occasion of the society 's 50th anniversary , " that Robert Marshall was personally responsible for the preservation of more wilderness than any individual in history " .
= = Later efforts and sudden death = =
Marshall 's last years were productive ones . By May 1937 , he had taken charge of the Forest Service 's Division of Recreation and Lands . Over the next two years , Marshall worked on two major initiatives : an effort to extend national forest recreational opportunities to people with lower incomes ( as well as dismantling discriminatory barriers against minority groups ) , and a program to preserve more wilderness within the national forests . His biographer James Glover asserts that Marshall was probably the first high @-@ level official to seriously fight discrimination in Forest Service recreational policies . During this time , Marshall continued to financially support The Wilderness Society , as well as various civil rights , labor , and socialist organizations .
During his last trip to Alaska ( beginning in August 1938 ) , which included further exploration of the Brooks Range , Marshall became a subject of interest for the Dies Committee , a House of Representatives committee investigating " un @-@ American " activities . Named for its chairman , Martin Dies , the committee announced in The New York Times that eight federal officials ( including Marshall ) were contributing to communism because of their connections to such organizations as the Workers Alliance and the American League for Peace and Democracy . Marshall was too busy traveling to respond to the allegations : after leaving Alaska he spent time in Washington State , Montana , Oregon , Nevada , Utah , Arizona , New Mexico and California . He visited Alaska for one last time the following year and made a tour of western national forests , addressing aspects of forest recreation . While he was in Washington state that September , two regulations ( U @-@ 1 and U2 ) developed by Marshall 's committee were signed ; these " U @-@ Regulations " protected wilderness and wild areas from road building , logging , hotels and similarly destructive activities . It also made their protected status more secure .
While on a midnight train from Washington , D.C. to New York City on November 11 , 1939 , Marshall died of apparent heart failure at the age of 38 . His sudden death came as a shock because of his relatively young age and high level of physical activity , and he was greatly mourned by friends and relatives . His brother George ( who lived to be 96 ) said : " Bob 's death shattered me and was the most traumatic event in my life . " Marshall was interred at Salem Fields Cemetery , a Jewish burial ground in Brooklyn , New York City , beside his parents and sister Ruth ( Putey ) Marshall , who had died of cancer at age 38 in 1936 .
= = Legacy = =
A bachelor , Marshall left virtually all of his $ 1 @.@ 5 million estate ( equivalent to $ 25 million today ) to three causes dear to him : socialism , civil liberties and wilderness preservation . Three trusts were established in his will . The first , focused on education related to " the theory of production for use and not for profit " , received half of his estate ; the second , aimed at " safeguarding and advancement of the cause of civil liberties " , received one @-@ quarter of his estate ; and the third supported " preservation of the wilderness conditions in outdoor America " , establishing what became the Robert Marshall Wilderness Fund . Trustees of the latter trust included Robert Sterling Yard , Bob Marshall 's brother George , Irving Clark , Olaus Murie and Bill Zimmerman , early leaders of The Wilderness Society . He left money to only one individual : $ 10 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 168 @,@ 109 today ) to his old friend and guide , Herb Clark .
Marshall 's posthumously published book Alaska Wilderness , Exploring the Central Brooks Range ( 1956 ) , edited by his brother George , became a seminal work , inspiring the establishment of the Gates of the Arctic National Park . His Adirondack writings were published by Lost Pond Press in 2006 , as an anthology titled Bob Marshall in the Adirondacks : Writings of a Pioneering Peak @-@ Bagger , Pond @-@ Hopper and Wilderness Preservationist . It was edited by Phil Brown , editor of the Adirondack Explorer news magazine . According to the publisher , the book includes " numerous accounts of his hikes in the High Peaks and the vast wild region south of Cranberry Lake , spirited defenses of the state 's forever @-@ wild Forest Preserve , a charming portrait of Herb Clark , and excerpts from an unpublished novel set partly in the Adirondacks " .
Since its conception , The Wilderness Society has helped pass many bills and has contributed a total of 109 million acres ( 421 @,@ 000 km2 ) to the National Wilderness Preservation System . Marshall 's dream of permanent wilderness protection became a reality 25 years after his death when President Lyndon B. Johnson signed the Wilderness Act into law on September 3 , 1964 in the Rose Garden of the White House . The ceremony was attended by Alice Zahniser and Mardy Murie , the widows of two prominent members of The Wilderness Society . Written by Howard Zahniser , the bill enabled the United States Congress to set aside selected areas in the national forests , national parks , national wildlife refuges and other federal lands as units to be kept permanently unchanged by humans . In defining wilderness , Zahniser invoked Marshall and his contemporaries , stating that " in contrast with those areas where man and his own works dominate the landscape , [ wilderness ] is hereby recognized as an area where the earth and its community of life are untrammeled by man , where man himself is a visitor who does not remain . " The act 's signing was the most important event in the history of The Wilderness Society ; members Mardy Murie and Alice Zahniser stood beside Johnson as he signed the legislation . With The Wilderness Act , the United States guaranteed permanent protection of wild and scenic natural areas for future generations . The Society 's most prestigious honor , the Robert Marshall Award , is named in Marshall 's honor ; its first recipient was Sigurd F. Olson in 1981 .
= = = Places and dedications = = =
In the same year that the Wilderness Act became law , the Bob Marshall Wilderness , located in Flathead and Lewis and Clark National Forests in Montana , was created . It had previously been set aside in 1941 as the South Fork , Pentagon , and Sun River Primitive Areas . The area encompasses a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) and is one of the best preserved ecosystems in the world . Known as " The Bob , " it is the fifth largest wilderness in the contiguous 48 states . In compliance with the 1964 Wilderness Act , there is no motorized or mechanical equipment ( including bicycles or hang gliders ) permitted . Although camping and fishing are allowed with proper permit , no roads exist in the area , and logging and mining are prohibited . There are a number of US Forest Service cabins in the Bob for use by Forest Service personnel . The Bob Marshall Wilderness Complex ( which encompasses Bob Marshall , Scapegoat , and Great Bear Wildernesses ) is a habitat for the grizzly bear , lynx , cougar , wolf , black bear , moose , elk and a variety of other birds , mammals , and plants .
Mount Marshall ( previously called Mount Herbert ) , which stands 4 @,@ 360 feet ( 1 @,@ 330 m ) high in the Adirondack Mountains , Camp Bob Marshall in the Black Hills , and Marshall Lake in the Brooks Range of Alaska , north of the Arctic Circle , are also named for him . In 2008 , the Adirondack Council was encouraging the state of New York to create the Bob Marshall Great Wilderness near Cranberry Lake in the western Adirondacks ; if successful , it would be the largest wilderness area in the Adirondack Park at 409 @,@ 000 acres ( 639 sq mi ; 1 @,@ 655 km2 ) .
At the State University of New York College of Environmental Science and Forestry ( SUNY @-@ ESF ) , Bob Marshall Fellowships in wilderness management and policy studies are offered to graduate students and faculty engaged in research in recreation resource management ; the fellowships are supported by the college 's Bob Marshall Endowed Fund . Also at SUNY @-@ ESF , a student " outing club " named after Marshall honors his love of the outdoors and the Adirondack mountains , and a bronze plaque commemorating his contributions to wilderness conservation graces the entrance way of Marshall Hall , the hub of campus events and activities , named after his father .
= = Selected list of works = =
Articles
" The Wilderness as a Minority Right " , U.S. Forest Service Bulletin ( 1928 , August 27 ) , pp. 5 – 6 .
" Forest devastation must stop " , The Nation ( 1929 , August 28 )
" The Problem of the Wilderness " , The Scientific Monthly ( 1930 , February ) , pp. 141 – 148
" A Proposed Remedy for Our Forest Illness " , Journal of Forestry 28 ( 1930 , March )
" The Social Management of American Forests " , League for Industrial Democracy ( 1930 )
Books
Arctic Village . New York : The Literary Guild ( 1933 )
( reprinted by the University of Alaska Press , Fairbanks , 1991 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 912006 @-@ 51 @-@ 2 )
The People 's Forests . [ On Forestry in America . ] . New York : H. Smith and R. Haas ( 1933 )
( reprinted by the University of Iowa Press , Iowa City , 2002 . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87745 @-@ 805 @-@ 0 )
Alaska Wilderness : Exploring the Central Brooks Range , 2nd ed . Berkeley : University of California Press ( 1970 ) ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 520 @-@ 01710 @-@ 8
( first published as Arctic Wilderness , in 1956 )
= = Related films = =
Hott , Lawrence , and Diane Garey . 1991 . Wild by Law : The Rise of Environmentalism and the Creation of the Wilderness Act . ISBN 1 @-@ 55974 @-@ 420 @-@ 0 .
Woelber , Paxson . 2013 . The World Beyond the World , a short film with narration adapted from " Alaska Wilderness : Exploring the Central Brooks Range " .
= The Restless Spirit =
The Restless Spirit is a 1913 American silent short drama film written and directed by Allan Dwan , featuring J. Warren Kerrigan and Pauline Bush . The film is based on Thomas Gray 's 1751 poem , Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard , and tells the story of a man who wishes to be a conqueror . The Dreamer heads out into the desert and is nursed back to health by the Desert Flower . A series of illusions follows which shows the futility of conquest when he cannot conquer his own community . He returns and eventually becomes respected by the community that once ridiculed him . The film makes use of numerous dissolves which were technically difficult to execute , and reportedly sent the cameraman to the hospital due to stress . The film may have been the last unbilled appearance by Lon Chaney , and was released on October 27 , 1913 by Universal Film Manufacturing Company under the Victor label . The film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
The film begins with the Dreamer , a restless and disappointed dreamer who has a wife and child . He gazes at his hands and dreams of becoming a conqueror , but laments that no chance comes to him and continues to dream . The Dreamer becomes the subject of ridicule and his wife becomes the subject of pity by the community . The Dreamer decides enter the world of men and abandons his wife leaving her to seek refuge in her father . Her father wishes for her to marry a wealthy gentleman who is also a stranger in the town . The Dreamer heads into the desert and wanders until exhaustion takes its toll . A woman , " The Desert Flower " , finds him and takes him to her hut in the desert . There the woman spends her time looking over the garments of the man who courted her , the same stranger now attempting to marry the Dreamer 's wife . The woman learns of the Dreamer 's story and shows the dreamer the futility of conquering worlds unknown when he cannot conquer his own small corner of the world . The Dreamer sees himself in the roles of great conquerors , but each vision ends with death . The Dreamer 's wife has been kicked out for refusing to marry the stranger , and is reunited with the Dreamer on the edge of the desert . The stranger is sent out into the desert and the Dreamer and his wife return to the town . In time , the Dreamer becomes respected by the community .
= = Cast = =
J. Warren Kerrigan as the Husband / The Dreamer
Pauline Bush as the Wife
Jessalyn Van Trump as The Desert Flower
William Worthington as the Stranger
George Periolat
Lon Chaney as Russian Count / Prince
= = Production = =
The groundwork for The Restless Spirit began when Allan Dwan visited Universal 's offices in New York in late July 1913 . Frederic Lombardi believes that it was during this meeting that Carl Laemmle offered Dwan 's colleagues double their pay from Flying A if they would come to Universal . In the following weeks , J. Warren Kerrigan came to Universal and the two would work together in the production of The Restless Spirit . Dwan credits the idea to adapt and produce a film on Thomas Gray 's Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard as a betting challenge . Dwan also claimed to have studied Gray 's poem and dream about the production before accepting the challenge . Frederic Lombardi , author of Allan Dwan and the Rise and Decline of the Hollywood Studios , writes that Dwan may have been emboldened after the production of the Pickett Guard and the lack of structure in Gray 's poem . Since the poem had no " real story " , Dwan could formulate his own allegorical plot . Dwan was also able to convince his employers that the work would be a box office success and intended to use the film a prestigious multi @-@ role vehicle for Kerrigan 's debut at Universal . Lombardi writes that Dwan was subject to produce overtly artistic films , but these tendencies were kept in check by Dwan 's more practical inclinations .
The film 's ethereal aspects and double exposures were performed in the camera because the ability to create the effects in lab did not yet exist . Dwan made 24 dissolves in the film , each required precise control by the cameramen and that the counts had to be exact otherwise the shot would be ruined . Lombardi notes that the cinematographer , Walter Pritchard , was the man who had to go through the ordeal and that Universal said he was one of the company 's oldest men . Dwan would claim that Pritchard would end up in the hospital from the production . In The Parade 's Gone By , Brownlow instead gives the number of dissolves as 25 and adds to the story by Dwan claiming that the audience could not figure out the effect was done . Dwan also claimed that by the time 15 dissolves were done that the cinematographer was so nervous that the it would keep him up at night and cause his hands to shake so greatly that an assistant would have to reload the film at the right spot before shots . This production may have been the last unbilled movie credit of Lon Chaney . The discovery of Lon Chaney 's role was through Chaney having marked his appearance in a still with an X above his head . Chaney wrote " This is me just below the X sign . Here I am a Russian Prince . " on the back of the still . The image still in particular leaves no question that it comes from the The Restless Spirit because it also appears on the cover of The Universal Weekly for October 23 , 1913 . The second image found on the estate depicts Lon Chaney in the role of a wildman , which Mirsalis attributes to a fantasy sequence in the film .
= = Release = =
On September 6 , 1913 , Motography reported that J. Warren Kerrigan would star in the upcoming picture known as A Restless Spirit with a reference to Kerrigan 's transfer to Universal . Alternate names for the film such as His Restless Spirit and A Restless Spirit .
It is unknown if the film was initially planned or if it was mere assumption , but it was reported that it would be a two reel production in September 1913 . Newspaper accounts change to reference the film as having three reels by October 3 , 1913 . As details spread in the newspaper , the film 's working title continued to be referenced as A Restless Spirit in various papers . Newspaper references began to reference the final title on October 24 , 1913 . The film was released on October 27 , 1913 by Universal Film Manufacturing Company under the Victor label .
With the film 's release on October 27 , it was of minor note that the Alcazar of Atlanta , Georgia would show the film until November 1 , 1913 . The film would be a special for the week at the Hippodrome in Leavenworth , Kansas . Some theaters , such as the Alamo of El Paso , Texas would only show the film for a single day . The Unique theater , also of El Paso , would show the film on October 29 due to a " slip @-@ up " with Universal 's New York office . The advertisement would also mention Kerrigan 's popularity in the area in otherwise apparent contrast to the Alamo 's single day run . Another advertisement noted the film 's artistry and that it is one of the best three @-@ reel films released , but the film would play for only a single day . The film received play in various theaters until at least July 1914 .
= = Reception and fate = =
Advertisements would state the films artistry or that it was one of the best three @-@ reel films released . Lombardi cites a single review from The Moving Picture World in his text and suggests that other reviews may have been more tepid , but the result was that Dwan would not produce any more films of " such experimental nature " at Universal . The film is now considered to be lost . It is unknown when the film was lost , but if it was in Universal 's vaults it would have been deliberately destroyed along with the remaining copies of Universal 's silent era films in 1948 .
= The Living Daylights =
The Living Daylights ( 1987 ) is the fifteenth entry in the James Bond film series and the first to star Timothy Dalton as the fictional MI6 agent James Bond . The film 's title is taken from Ian Fleming 's short story , " The Living Daylights " . It was the last film to use the title of an Ian Fleming story until the 2006 instalment Casino Royale .
The film was produced by Albert R. Broccoli , his stepson , Michael G. Wilson and his daughter , Barbara Broccoli . The Living Daylights was generally well received by most critics and was also a financial success , grossing $ 191 @.@ 2 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
James Bond is assigned to aid the defection of a KGB officer , General Georgi Koskov , covering his escape from a concert hall in Bratislava , Czechoslovakia during intermission . During the mission , Bond notices that the KGB sniper assigned to prevent Koskov 's escape is a female cellist from the orchestra . Disobeying his orders to kill the sniper , he instead shoots the rifle from her hands , then uses the Trans @-@ Siberian Pipeline to smuggle Koskov across the border into Austria and then on to Britain .
In his post @-@ defection debriefing , Koskov informs MI6 that the KGB 's old policy of Smiert Spionom , meaning Death to Spies , has been revived by General Leonid Pushkin , the new head of the KGB . Koskov is later abducted from the safe @-@ house and assumed to have been taken back to Moscow . Bond is directed to track down Pushkin in Tangier and kill him to forestall further killings of agents and escalation of tensions between the Soviet Union and the West . Bond agrees to carry out the mission when he learns that the assassin who killed 004 ( as depicted in the pre @-@ title sequence ) left a note bearing the same message , " Smiert Spionom " .
Bond returns to Bratislava to track down the cellist , Kara Milovy . He determines that Koskov 's entire defection was staged , and that Kara is actually Koskov 's girlfriend . Bond convinces Kara that he is a friend of Koskov 's and persuades her to accompany him to Vienna , supposedly to be reunited with him . They escape Bratislava while being pursued by the KGB , crossing over the border into Austria . Meanwhile , Pushkin meets with arms dealer Brad Whitaker in Tangier , informing him that the KGB is cancelling an arms deal previously arranged between Koskov and Whitaker .
During his brief tryst with Milovy in Vienna , Bond visits the Prater to meet his MI6 ally , Saunders , who discovers a history of financial dealings between Koskov and Whitaker . As he leaves their meeting , Saunders is killed by Koskov 's henchman Necros , who again leaves the message " Smiert Spionom " .
Bond and Kara promptly leave for Tangier , where Bond confronts Pushkin . Pushkin disavows any knowledge of " Smiert Spionom " , and reveals that Koskov is evading arrest for embezzlement of government funds . Bond and Pushkin then join forces and Bond fakes Pushkin 's assassination , inducing Whitaker and Koskov to progress with their scheme . Meanwhile , Kara contacts Koskov , who tells her that Bond is actually a KGB agent and convinces her to drug him so he can be captured .
Koskov , Necros , Kara , and the captive Bond fly to a Soviet air base in Afghanistan , where Koskov betrays Kara and imprisons her along with Bond . The pair escape and in doing so free a condemned prisoner , Kamran Shah , leader of the local Mujahideen . Bond and Milovy discover that Koskov is using Soviet funds to buy a massive shipment of opium from the Mujahideen , intending to keep the profits with enough left over to supply the Soviets with their arms and buy Western arms from Whitaker .
With the Mujahideen 's help , Bond plants a bomb aboard the cargo plane carrying the opium , but is spotted and has no choice but to barricade himself in the plane . Meanwhile , the Mujahideen attack the air base on horseback and engage the Soviets in a gun battle . During the battle , Milovy drives a jeep into the back of the plane as Bond takes off , and Necros also leaps aboard at the last second . After a struggle , Bond throws Necros to his death and deactivates the bomb . Bond then notices Shah and his men being pursued by Soviet forces . He re @-@ activates the bomb and drops it out of the plane and onto a bridge , blowing it up and helping Shah and his men gain an important victory over the Soviets . Bond returns to Tangier to kill Whitaker , infiltrating his estate with Leiter 's help , as Pushkin arrests Koskov , sending him back to Moscow .
Some time later , Kara is the solo cellist in a London performance . Kamran Shah and his men arrive during the intermission and are introduced to now @-@ diplomat General Gogol and the Russians . After her performance , Bond surprises her in her dressing room , and they embrace .
= = Cast = =
Timothy Dalton as James Bond : an MI6 agent assigned to look into the deaths of and conspiracies against several of his allies .
Maryam d 'Abo as Kara Milovy : Koskov 's girlfriend and later Bond 's love interest .
Joe Don Baker as Brad Whitaker : An American arms dealer and self @-@ styled general . Baker called his character " a nut " who " thought he was Napoleon " .
John Rhys @-@ Davies as General Leonid Pushkin : The new head of the KGB , replacing General Gogol .
Art Malik as Kamran Shah : a leader in the Afghan Mujahideen .
Jeroen Krabbé as General Georgi Koskov : Whitaker 's ally and a renegade Soviet general .
Andreas Wisniewski as Necros : Koskov 's henchman , who poses repeated threats to Bond .
Thomas Wheatley as Saunders : Bond 's ally .
Robert Brown as M : The head of MI6 .
Desmond Llewelyn as Q : MI6 's " quartermaster " , who supplies Bond with multi @-@ purpose vehicles and gadgets useful in the latter 's mission .
Geoffrey Keen as Frederick Gray : The British Minister of Defence
Caroline Bliss as Miss Moneypenny : M 's secretary .
John Terry as Felix Leiter : A CIA agent and ally to Bond .
Walter Gotell as General Gogol : The retired head of the KGB , now a diplomat shown in a cameo at the end of the film .
Virginia Hey as Rubavitch : General Leonid Pushkin 's mistress in Morocco
Julie T. Wallace as Rosika Miklos : James Bond 's contact in Bratislava , Czechoslovakia who works at the TransSiberian Pipeline .
Nadim Sawalha cameos as a police chief in Tangier . Sawalha also appeared in a previous 007 film , The Spy Who Loved Me ( 1977 ) , as Aziz Fekkesh .
= = Production = =
Originally the film was proposed to be a prequel in the series , an idea that eventually resurfaced with the reboot of the series in 2006 . SMERSH , the fictionalised Soviet counterintelligence agency that featured in Fleming 's Casino Royale and several other early James Bond novels , was an acronym for Smiert Shpionam – " Death to spies " .
= = = Casting = = =
In Autumn 1985 , following the financial and critical disappointment of A View to a Kill , work began on scripts for the next Bond film , with the intention that Roger Moore would not reprise the role of James Bond . Moore , who by the time of the release of The Living Daylights would have been 59 years old , chose to retire from the role after 12 years and 7 films . Albert Broccoli , however , claimed that he let Moore go from the role . A significant search for a new actor to play Bond saw a number of actors , including New Zealander Sam Neill , Irish @-@ born Pierce Brosnan and Welshman Timothy Dalton audition for the role in 1986 . Bond co @-@ producer Michael G. Wilson , director John Glen , Dana and Barbara Broccoli " were impressed with Sam Neill and very much wanted to use him . " However , Albert Broccoli was not sold on the actor .
The producers eventually offered the role to Brosnan after a three @-@ day screen @-@ test . At the time , he was contracted to the television show Remington Steele which had been cancelled by the NBC network due to falling ratings . The announcement that he would be chosen to play James Bond caused a surge in interest in the series , which led to NBC exercising ( less than three days prior to expiry ) a 60 @-@ day option in Brosnan 's contract to make a further season of the show . NBC 's action caused drastic repercussions , as a result of which Albert Broccoli withdrew the offer given to Brosnan , citing that he did not want the character associated with a contemporary TV series . This led to a drop in interest in Remington Steele , and only five new episodes were filmed before the show was finally cancelled . The edict from Broccoli was that " Remington Steele will not be James Bond . "
Dana Broccoli suggested Timothy Dalton . Albert Broccoli was initially reluctant given Dalton 's public lack of interest in the role , but at his wife 's urging agreed to meet the actor . However Dalton would soon begin filming Brenda Starr and so would be unavailable . In the intervening period , having completed Brenda Starr , Dalton was offered the role once again , which he accepted . For a period , the filmmakers had Dalton , but he had not signed a contract . A casting director persuaded Robert Bathurst , an English actor who would become known for his roles in Joking Apart , Cold Feet , and Downton Abbey to audition for Bond . Bathurst believes that his " ludicrous audition " was only " an arm @-@ twisting exercise " because the producers wanted to persuade Dalton to take the role by telling him they were still auditioning other actors .
The English actress Maryam d 'Abo , who was also a former model , was cast as the Czechoslovakian cellist Kara Milovy . In 1984 , d 'Abo had attended auditions for the role of Pola Ivanova in A View to a Kill . Barbara Broccoli included d 'Abo in the audition for playing Kara , which she later passed .
Originally , the KGB general set up by Koskov was to be General Gogol ; however , Walter Gotell was too sick to handle the major role , and the character of Leonid Pushkin replaced Gogol , who appears briefly at the end of the film , having transferred to the Soviet diplomatic service . This was Gogol 's final appearance in a James Bond film . Morten Harket , the lead vocalist of the Norwegian rock group A @-@ ha ( which performed the film 's title song ) , was offered a small role as a villain 's henchman in the film , but declined , because of lack of time and because he felt they wanted to cast him due to his popularity rather than his acting .
Director John Glen decided to include the macaw from For Your Eyes Only . It can be seen squawking in the kitchen of Brayden House when Necros attacks MI6 's officers .
Other actors considered for the role of James Bond included Mel Gibson , Mark Greenstreet , Lambert Wilson , Antony Hamilton , Christopher Lambert , Finlay Light , and Andrew Clarke .
= = = Filming = = =
The film was shot at Pinewood Studios at its 007 Stage in the UK , as well as Weissensee in Austria . The pre @-@ title sequence was filmed on the Rock of Gibraltar and although the sequence shows a hijacked Land Rover careering down various sections of road for several minutes before bursting through a wall towards the sea , the location mostly used the same short stretch of road at the very top of the Rock , shot from numerous different angles . The beach defences seen at the foot of the Rock in the initial shot were also added solely for the film , to an otherwise non @-@ military area . The action involving the Land Rover switched from Gibraltar to Beachy Head in the UK for the shot showing the vehicle actually getting airborne . Trial runs of the stunt with the Land Rover , during which Bond escapes by parachute from the tumbling vehicle , were filmed in the Mojave Desert , although the final cut of the film uses a shot achieved using a dummy . Other locations included Germany , the United States , and Italy , while the desert scenes were shot in Ouarzazate , Morocco . The conclusion of the film was shot at the Schönbrunn Palace , Vienna and Elveden Hall , Suffolk .
Principal photography commenced at Gibraltar on 17 September 1986 . Aerial stuntmen B. J. Worth and Jake Lombard performed the pre @-@ credits parachute jump . Both the terrain and wind were unfavourable . Consideration was given to the stunt being done using cranes but aerial stunts arranger B. J. Worth stuck to skydiving and completed the scenes in a day . The aircraft used for the jump was a C @-@ 130 Hercules , which in the film had M 's office installed in the aircraft cabin . The initial point of view for the scene shows M in what appears to be his usual London office , but the camera then zooms out to reveal that it is , in fact , inside an aircraft . Although marked as a Royal Air Force aircraft , the one in shot belonged to the Spanish Air Force and was used again later in the film for the Afghanistan sequences , this time in " Russian " markings . During this later chapter , a fight breaks out on the open ramp of the aircraft in flight between Bond and Necros , before Necros falls to his death . Although the plot and preceding shots suggest the aircraft is a C @-@ 130 , the shot of Necros falling away from the aircraft show a twin engine cargo plane , a C @-@ 123 Provider . Worth and Lombard also doubled for Bond and Necros in the scenes where they are hanging on a bag in a plane 's open cargo door .
The press would not meet Dalton and d 'Abo until 5 October 1986 , when the main unit travelled to Vienna . Almost two weeks after the second unit filming on Gibraltar , the first unit started shooting with Andreas Wisniewski and stunt man Bill Weston . During the course of the three days it took to film this fight , Weston fractured a finger and Wisniewski knocked him out once . The next day found the crew on location at Stonor House , doubling for Bladen 's Safe House , the first scene Jeroen Krabbé filmed .
= = = = The return of Aston Martin = = = =
The film reunites Bond with the car maker Aston Martin . Following Bond 's use of the Aston Martin DBS in On Her Majesty 's Secret Service , the filmmakers then turned to the brand new Lotus Esprit in 1977 's The Spy Who Loved Me , which reappeared four years later in For Your Eyes Only . Despite the iconic status of the submersible Lotus however , Bond 's Aston Martin DB5 is recognised as the most famous of his vehicles . As a consequence , Aston Martin returned with their V8 Vantage .
Two different Aston Martin models were used in filming — a V8 Volante convertible , and later for the Czechoslovakia scenes , a hard @-@ top non @-@ Volante V8 saloon badged to look like the Volante . The Volante was a production model owned by Aston Martin Lagonda chairman , Victor Gauntlett .
= = = Music = = =
The Living Daylights was the final Bond film to be scored by composer John Barry . The soundtrack is notable for its introduction of sequenced electronic rhythm tracks overdubbed with the orchestra — at the time , a relatively new innovation .
The title song of the film , " The Living Daylights " , was co @-@ written with Paul Waaktaar @-@ Savoy of the Norwegian pop @-@ music group A @-@ ha and recorded by the band . The group and Barry did not collaborate well , resulting in two versions of the theme song . Barry 's film mix is heard on the soundtrack ( and on A @-@ ha 's later greatest hits album Headlines and Deadlines ) . The version preferred by the band can be heard on the 1988 A @-@ ha album Stay on These Roads . However , in 2006 Paul Waaktaar @-@ Savoy complimented Barry 's contributions : " I loved the stuff he added to the track , I mean it gave it this really cool string arrangement . That 's when for me it started to sound like a Bond thing " . The title song is one of the few 007 title songs that is not performed or written by a British or American performer .
In a departure from previous Bond films , The Living Daylights was the first to use different songs over the opening and end credits . The song heard over the end credits , " If There Was a Man " , was one of two songs performed for the film by Chrissie Hynde of The Pretenders . The other song , " Where Has Everybody Gone " , is heard from Necros 's Walkman in the film . The Pretenders were originally considered to perform Daylights ' title song . However , the producers had been pleased with the commercial success of Duran Duran 's " A View to a Kill " , and felt that A @-@ ha would be more likely to make an impact on the charts .
The original soundtrack release was released on LP and CD by Warner Bros. and featured only 12 tracks . Later re @-@ releases by Rykodisc and EMI added nine additional tracks , including alternate instrumental end credits music . Rykodisc 's version included the gunbarrel and opening sequence of the film as well as the jailbreak sequence , and the bombing of the bridge .
Additionally , the film featured a number of pieces of classical music , as the main Bond girl , Kara Milovy , is a cellist . Mozart 's 40th Symphony in G minor ( 1st movement ) is performed by the orchestra at the Conservatoire in Bratislava when Koskov flees . As Moneypenny tells Bond , Kara is next to perform Alexander Borodin 's String Quartet in D major , and the finale to Act II of Mozart 's The Marriage of Figaro ( in Vienna ) also features . Before Bond is drugged by Kara , Kara is practising the Cello solo from the first movement of Dvořák 's cello concerto in B minor . At the end of the film , Kara and an orchestra ( conducted onscreen by John Barry ) perform Tchaikovsky 's Rococo Variations to rapturous applause .
= = Release and reception = =
The Prince and Princess of Wales attended the film 's premiere on 27 June 1987 at the Odeon Leicester Square in London . The Living Daylights grossed the equivalent of $ 191 @.@ 2 million worldwide . In the United States it earned $ 51 @,@ 185 @,@ 000 , including an opening weekend of $ 11 @,@ 051 @,@ 284 , surpassing the $ 5 million grossed by The Lost Boys that was released on the same day .
In the film , Koskov and Whitaker repeatedly use vehicles and drug packets marked with the Red Cross . This action angered a number of Red Cross Societies , which sent letters of protest regarding the film . In addition , the British Red Cross attempted to prosecute the filmmakers and distributors . However , no legal action was taken . As a result , a disclaimer was added at the start of the film and some DVD releases .
The Living Daylights has a " Fresh " score of 70 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 50 reviews . IGN lauded the film for bringing back realism and espionage to the film series , and showing James Bond 's dark side . Many , including John J. Puccio and Chuck O 'Leary , praised Timothy Dalton 's performance and his performing most of the stunts himself . The Washington Post even said Dalton developed " the best Bond ever . " Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times criticised the lack of humour in the protagonist , however , while Jay Scott of The Globe and Mail wrote of Dalton 's Bond that " you get the feeling that on his off nights , he might curl up with the Reader 's Digest and catch an episode of Moonlighting " .
= Pavel Nedvěd =
Pavel Nedvěd ( Czech pronunciation : [ ˈpavɛl ˈnɛdvjɛt ] ; born 30 August 1972 ) is a Czech retired footballer who played as a midfielder . Described as one of the best footballers of his generation , he is also regarded as one of the most successful players to emerge from the Czech Republic , winning domestic and European accolades with Italian clubs Lazio ( including the last Cup Winners ' Cup ) and Juventus ( whom he led to the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final ) .
Nedvěd was a key member of the Czech team which reached the final of Euro 1996 , during which he attracted international attention . He also captained the national team at Euro 2004 , where they were defeated in the semi @-@ final by eventual champions Greece , and Nedvěd was named as part of the Team of the Tournament . Furthermore , Nedvěd helped his team qualify for the World Cup for the first time since the breakup of Czechoslovakia . Due to his performances , as well as his quick and energetic runs during matches , Nedvěd was nicknamed Furia Ceca ( " Czech Fury " ) by Italian fans and The Czech cannon in English @-@ language media .
Winning the Ballon d 'Or as European Footballer of the Year in 2003 , Nedvěd was the second Czech player to receive the honour and the first since the breakup of Czechoslovakia . During his career Nedvěd received a number of other individual awards , including the second Golden Foot award in 2004 , Czech Footballer of the Year ( four times ) and the Golden Ball ( six times ) . He was also named by Pelé as one of the FIFA 100 , and was placed in the UEFA Team of the Year in 2003 , 2004 , and 2005 . He retired following the 2008 – 09 season , after a 19 @-@ year professional career . Nedvěd played 501 league matches at the club level ( scoring 110 goals ) , and was capped 91 times for the Czech Republic ( scoring 18 times ) .
= = Club career = =
= = = Czech Republic = = =
Born in Cheb and raised in nearby Skalná , Nedvěd began his football career in his native Czechoslovakia . A football fan from an early age , he began playing for his hometown club Tatran Skalná in 1977 at the age of five . Nedvěd moved on to Rudá Hvězda Cheb in 1985 , playing one season before spending five years with Škoda Plzeň . In 1990 , Nedvěd was loaned to Dukla Prague , a club run by the Army , as part of his military service . During his first year at Dukla Prague , he played for VTJ Dukla Tábor , a lower division club also operated by the army . On 28 October 1991 , Nedvěd played his first match for Dukla Prague . He played one season for Dukla in 1991 before finishing his military service , thus ending his loan from Plzeň . He then transferred to Sparta Prague in 1992 . Plzeň was to receive 30 percent of the transfer fee should Nedvěd transfer to a foreign club .
Early in his career at Sparta , Nedvěd was sent off three times in just six matches . With Sparta , Nedvěd won one Czechoslovak First League title , two Gambrinus liga titles and a Czech Cup . In 1994 , he received his first call up to the Czech Republic national football team . His performance at Euro 1996 , including a goal in the group stage match against Italy , attracted attention ; despite a verbal agreement with PSV Eindhoven , Nedvěd moved from Sparta Prague to Italian Serie A team Lazio . Sparta first sold Nedvěd to Slovak club 1 . FC Košice ( which had the same owner as Sparta ) for a transfer fee of 1 @.@ 5 million CZK , and immediately , Košice sold Nedvěd to Lazio . Thus Sparta paid only a small fraction of the transfer fee to Plzeň . After Plzeň 's protest , Czech football association ordered Sparta to pay Plzeň 35 million CZK in compensation .
Nedvěd signed a four @-@ year contract for a fee of ₤ 1 @.@ 2 million .
= = = Lazio = = =
Nedvěd made his league debut for Lazio on 7 September 1996 in a 1 – 0 away defeat against Bologna . He scored his first league goal for the club against Cagliari on 20 October 1996 , finishing the 1996 – 97 season with seven goals . He became an integral part of the side , scoring four goals in three matches early in the 1997 – 98 season . The club had a 24 @-@ game unbeaten streak from November 1997 to April 1998 , ending with a league match against Juventus in which Nedvěd was sent off . That season , Lazio won the 1997 – 98 Coppa Italia and reached the final of the 1997 – 98 UEFA Cup . Nedvěd and Lazio began the 1998 – 99 season with a victory in the Supercoppa Italiana , Nedvěd scoring as the club defeated Juventus 2 – 1 . He played a role in Lazio 's road to the last @-@ ever Cup Winners ' Cup , scoring against Lausanne in the first round and in both legs of Lazio 's 7 – 0 aggregate quarter @-@ final victory over Panionios . In the 1999 UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup Final , Nedvěd scored the decisive goal against Mallorca for Lazio 's 2 – 1 win . This proved to be the last goal of the tournament , which was later discontinued .
Nedvěd was one of the ten highest @-@ paid footballers in the Italian league in 1999 . He played in the 1999 UEFA Super Cup against Manchester United at the beginning of the season , where Lazio won the match by a single goal . The club went on to win the Serie A title and Coppa Italia , completing a domestic double in 2000 with Nedvěd 's help ; he won the Supercoppa Italiana with Lazio for a second time in 2000 . With Siniša Mihajlović , Nedvěd was one of two Lazio players sent off in the quarter @-@ final of the 2000 Coppa Italia held in December ; the defending champions lost 5 – 3 on aggregate to Udinese . Nedvěd played UEFA Champions League football with Lazio , scoring against Real Madrid in a 2 – 2 draw in the second group stage before the Italian side were eliminated . In Lazio 's final Champions League match of the season , Nedvěd was criticised by Leeds United manager David O 'Leary for a challenge on Alan Maybury ( although the referee did not call a foul ) and he received a three @-@ match suspension from European competition from UEFA .
Despite Nedvěd 's signing a new four @-@ year contract with Lazio in April 2001 , the club tried to sell him and teammate Juan Sebastián Verón that summer ; this triggered fan protests against club president Sergio Cragnotti . The players were ultimately sold to Juventus and Manchester United , respectively .
= = = Juventus = = =
After five seasons with Lazio , Nedvěd was speculatively linked to several clubs ( including Manchester United and Chelsea ) before moving to Juventus in 2001 for € 41 million . At Juventus he replaced Zinedine Zidane , who had transferred to Spain 's Real Madrid that summer . Nedvěd was a regular on Juventus ' 2001 – 02 and 2002 – 03 Scudetto @-@ winning teams . Although he was a substantial part of the club 's championship season in 2003 , he was also the subject of controversy . Nedvěd quit the Italian Footballers ' Association in protest of the union 's limit on non @-@ EU players ; his native Czech Republic did not become an EU member until 2004 . Although he was instrumental in leading Juventus to the 2003 UEFA Champions League Final against Milan , he had to sit out the final because of an accumulation of yellow cards after his semifinal booking for a foul on Real Madrid midfielder Steve McManaman .
In December 2003 , Nedvěd was named World Footballer of the Year by World Soccer . Later that month he won the European Footballer of the Year award over Thierry Henry and Paolo Maldini , the second Czech to win the award ( after Josef Masopust in 1962 ) . Nedvěd received further recognition in his home country when he won the 2004 Golden Ball , awarded by Czech sportswriters , for the fifth time in seven years .
The 2004 – 05 season was frustrating for the midfielder , who was sidelined for two months by knee and head injuries and first considered retirement in April 2005 . Although Juventus won Serie A titles that year and in 2006 , the titles were revoked after the Calciopoli match fixing scandal . After the 2005 – 06 season , which ended with Juventus ' relegation from Serie A despite its first @-@ place finish , many stars ( such as Fabio Cannavaro and Lilian Thuram ) left the club and the remaining players ' future was uncertain . After the World Cup Nedvěd dispelled rumours about his departure by reiterating his desire to help Juventus regain promotion to Serie A , citing his family and his commitment to the club as reasons for his decision . He received a five @-@ game ban after a red card against Genoa in December 2006 , and repeated his threat to retire . However , he remained with the club until the end of the season and scored 11 league goals in the 2006 – 07 Serie B.
For the 2007 – 08 season , Juventus again played in Serie A. Nedvěd played frequently for the Bianconeri , contributing as the team 's first @-@ choice left winger and scoring two goals that season . He was again controversial , with his November 2007 tackle of Internazionale midfielder Luís Figo breaking the Portuguese player 's fibula . In April 2008 , Nedvěd was hospitalised overnight for a concussion sustained in a collision with Roberto Guana during a match against Palermo .
Nedvěd scored Juventus ' first league goal of the 2008 – 09 season in a 1 – 1 away draw with Fiorentina , and scored twice against Bologna in a 2 – 1 away win in October . On 26 February 2009 , Nedvěd announced that he would retire at the end of 2008 – 09 season to spend more time with his family . On 10 March 2009 , Nedvěd was substituted due to injury after 12 minutes of the Champions League last @-@ 16 second leg match against Chelsea . Due to his impending retirement and his club 's 3 – 2 loss on aggregate , it was his last European game for Juventus . Nedvěd retired at the end of the season , captaining the final match against former team Lazio and setting up Vincenzo Iaquinta 's goal for a 2 – 0 victory .
= = International career = =
Nedvěd began playing for Czechoslovak national youth teams in 1988 , representing his country in the under @-@ 15 age group before progressing to 16 , 17 and 18 . In 1992 he made his first appearance on the under @-@ 21 team , playing seven times between 1992 and 1993 .
The midfielder debuted for the re @-@ formed Czech national team in June 1994 in a 3 – 1 win over the Republic of Ireland . His first major tournament was Euro 1996 , where he scored his first senior international goal and helped his team reach the final . He was also part of the Czech team that placed third in the 1997 FIFA Confederations Cup , defeating Uruguay in the third @-@ place match . Nedvěd scored two goals during the tournament , both which came during the Czech Republic 's 6 @-@ 1 win over the United Arab Emirates in their final group match , which allowed them to progress to the semi @-@ finals , where they were defeated by eventual champions Brazil .
= = = Euro 1996 = = =
The Czech Republic were not expected to make an impact against the favoured German side in their opening match ; Nedvěd missed two scoring chances and was one of ten players to receive a yellow card as Germany won 2 – 0 . He contributed defensively , however , clearing a goal @-@ bound shot from Christian Ziege off the line .
Nedvěd scored his first senior international goal in his nation 's Group C match against Italy , putting the Czech Republic in the lead 1 – 0 after four minutes . Although Italy scored an equaliser during the first half , they were reduced to ten men and the Czech Republic scored again before halftime for a 2 – 1 win . Nedvěd played in the third group match , against Russia , getting his second yellow card of the tournament as the Czechs tied 3 – 3 to advance to the knockout stage .
Due to a suspension , Nedvěd missed the Czech Republic 's quarter @-@ final game against Portugal ; however , the Czechs won in his absence and progressed . In the semifinal match against France , Nedvěd was named man of the match as the Czech Republic advanced to the final after a penalty shoot – out when he scored his team 's second penalty shot . He and the Czech Republic team lost 2 – 1 in the final to Germany , who scored a golden goal .
= = = Euro 2000 = = =
Before Euro 2000 , Nedvěd was unable to train normally due to an ankle injury . The Czechs ' first match ( against the Netherlands ) saw him and international teammate Jan Koller hit the woodwork without scoring , before the Dutch scored a controversial penalty to win 1 – 0 . In the second match , against France , he was fouled ; the resultant Czech penalty was converted by Karel Poborský to even the score 1 – 1 . Despite two shots on goal , Nedvěd could not beat French goalkeeper Fabien Barthez and France won the match 2 – 1 . He played in the third group match , against Denmark ; despite the Czechs ' 2 – 0 victory , the team was eliminated from the tournament . After Euro 2000 , Nedvěd took over the national team captaincy from Jiří Němec .
= = = Euro 2004 = = =
Nedvěd was instrumental in the Euro 2004 group stage match against the Netherlands . Two goals down after 19 minutes , he gave a man of the match performance as the Czechs rebounded to win 3 – 2 . Nine players ( including Nedvěd ) were rested for the group match against Germany , with the Czechs already qualified for the knockout stage . He received a yellow card , upheld on appeal , in the quarter @-@ final match against Denmark ; this meant that Nedvěd would miss the final if he received another yellow card in the semifinal against Greece . However , Greece defeated the Czech Republic and Nedvěd was substituted after a knee injury . After their exit from the tournament , Nedvěd announced his retirement from the national team ; he was named to the Team of the Tournament with countrymen Petr Čech and Milan Baroš .
= = = 2006 World Cup = = =
The midfielder was persuaded by coach Karel Brückner and his teammates to come out of international retirement in time for the World Cup qualification playoffs against Norway , in which the Czech Republic qualified for the final tournament for the first time since the breakup of Czechoslovakia . Although Nedvěd 's World Cup participation was jeopardised by a June knee injury , he was able to play .
The Czechs won the first match of the 2006 FIFA World Cup with 3 – 0 against the United States , but key players were injured ; they lost their next two group matches against Ghana and eventual winners Italy , finishing third in their group . Nedvěd 's apparent goal at the beginning of the second half in the match against Ghana was ruled offside . His shots on goal against Italy were saved by Juventus teammate Gianluigi Buffon . Nedvěd again announced his retirement from the international scene before the August 2006 friendly match against Serbia and Montenegro , in which he made his 91st ( and final ) appearance . He refused to reverse his decision before Euro 2008 , despite requests from teammates and Brückner . In the 91 appearances he made for his national side , Nedvěd scored 18 goals .
= = Style of play = =
A complete , tenacious and consistent two @-@ footed player , Nedved frequently played as a left @-@ sided , offensive wide midfielder or as a left @-@ winger throughout his career , due to his crossing ability with his left foot , as well as due to his ability to cut inside and shoot with his right foot , although he was capable of playing anywhere in midfield due to his offensive and defensive work @-@ rate . He was also deployed as a central midfielder on occasion , as well as in an attacking midfield and playmaking role , or as a supporting striker , where he excelled as an assist @-@ man due to his excellent dribbling ability , passing range , and vision . Primarily known for his powerful shots and volleys from distance , as well as his stamina , he was also noted for his speed , endurance , technique and goal @-@ scoring ability . He was also an accurate set @-@ piece and penalty kick taker .
Nedvěd was nicknamed Furia Ceca by Italian fans , who noted his skill , consistency and verve , as well as his stamina , pace , power , and determination . In the English @-@ language media , he was called " the Czech cannon " . His former Lazio boss Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson described him as " an atypical midfielder , totally complete " . Despite his ability and tenacious playing style , Nedvěd was also criticised by some in the sport for going to ground too easily when challenged .
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
Nedvěd ran the Prague Half Marathon in 2010 ( his first race at the distance ) , finishing the course in 1 : 49 : 44 . He ran the 2012 Prague Marathon in a time of 3 : 50 : 02 for the 42 @-@ km course . Exor ( the Agnelli family 's investment company ) nominated Nedvěd for a seat on the Juventus board of directors on 12 October 2010 ; he joined the board on 27 October 2012 , and remains a member . Nedvěd was named International Personality at the 2012 FAI International Football Awards in February . In January 2013 , Nedvěd was banned from attending Serie A games for three weeks after he insulted referee Paolo Valeri during Juventus ' game against Sampdoria .
On 23 October 2015 Nedvěd was appointed vice @-@ president of his former club Juventus .
= = Personal life = =
The son of Václav and Anna , Nedvěd has lived with his wife Ivana since 1992 . The couple have two children , named Ivana and Pavel after their parents . Nedvěd 's 2010 autobiography was published in Italian as La mia vita normale : di corsa tra rivoluzione , Europa , e pallone d 'oro . It was translated into Czech as Můj obyčejný život and released in the Czech Republic in 2011 .
= = Career statistics = =
= = = Club = = =
Sources : League matches , Coppa Italia stats at Juventus , European competition stats
Notes
= = = International = = =
= = = = International goals = = = =
Scores and results list Czech Republic 's goal tally first .
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Sparta Prague
Czechoslovak First League : 1992 – 93
Czech Republic Football League : 1993 – 94 , 1994 – 95
Czech Cup : 1996
Lazio
Serie A : 1999 – 2000
Coppa Italia : 1997 – 98 , 1999 – 2000
Supercoppa Italiana : 1998 , 2000
UEFA Cup Winners ' Cup : 1998 – 99
UEFA Super Cup : 1999
UEFA Cup : Runner @-@ up 1997 – 98
Juventus
Serie A : 2001 – 02 , 2002 – 03
Supercoppa Italiana : 2002 , 2003
Serie B : 2006 – 07
UEFA Champions League : Runner @-@ up 2002 – 03
Coppa Italia : Runner @-@ up 2001 – 02 , 2003 – 04
= = = International = = =
Czech Republic
UEFA European Championship :
Runner @-@ up : 1996
Semi @-@ finalist : 2004
FIFA Confederations Cup :
Third place : 1997
= = = Individual = = =
Golden Ball ( Czech Republic ) : 1998 , 2000 , 2001 , 2003 , 2004 , 2009
Největší Čech ( List of Greatest Czechs ) : 41st place
Czech Footballer of the Year : 1998 , 2000 , 2003 , 2004
ESM Team of the Year : 2000 – 01 , 2002 – 03
Sportsperson of the Year ( Czech Republic ) : 2003
Serie A Footballer of the Year : 2003
Serie A Foreign Footballer of the Year : 2003
UEFA Club Best Midfielder of the Year : 2002 – 03
World Soccer Awards Player of the Year : 2003
Ballon d 'Or : 2003
UEFA Team of the Year : 2003 , 2004 , 2005
UEFA European Championship Team of the Tournament : 2004
Golden Foot : 2004
FIFA 100 : 2004
FAI International Football Awards – International Personality : 2012
UEFA Ultimate Team of the Year ( substitute ; published 2015 )
= PS Washington Irving =
The PS Washington Irving was a 4 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) sidewheel day boat and the flagship of the Hudson River Day Line that operated on the Hudson River from 1913 to 1926 .
The Washington Irving collided with an oil barge in the fog on 1 June 1926 on the North River . With the aid of tugboats , it reached shore at Pier 12 , Jersey City , where it sank soon thereafter . Out of 200 passengers and 105 crew , three died as a result of the accident .
Its removal was complicated due to its sinking upon the site of the Holland Tunnel , which was under construction . It remained submerged there until 13 February 1927 , when it was raised and determined to be a total loss . A bond was issued for its replacement .
= = Characteristics = =
The quadruple @-@ decker Washington Irving , named after the author Washington Irving , was built in 1912 by the New York Shipbuilding Company for contract number 126 with machinery built by W. & A. Fletcher Company of Hoboken , New Jersey . The ship was launched 7 December 1912 and delivered 3 May 1913 for use in the New York City @-@ Albany service .
Naval architect Frank E. Kirby , designer of large Great Lakes passenger steamers , collaborated with the New York City firm J. W. Millard & Brothers , designers of ferry boats , to design the ship . Kirby 's Seeandbee , launched 9 November 1912 at the Detroit Shipbuilding Company , was the largest side wheel ship in the world at the time . Preliminary design tests on hull form were conducted by at the University of Michigan determining the best form for minimum wave making resistance in shallow water at high speeds . With a carrying capacity of 6 @,@ 000 passengers , it had the largest passenger @-@ carrying capacity of any riverboat built at the time of its construction .
The steel hulled steamer measured 416 feet 6 inches ( 126 @.@ 9 m ) length overall , 86 feet 6 inches ( 26 @.@ 4 m ) beam over all , 44 feet ( 13 @.@ 4 m ) molded beam , 14 feet 2 inches ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) depth and 8 feet 6 inches ( 2 @.@ 6 m ) draft . The ship 's tonnage was 4 @,@ 000 @-@ short @-@ ton ( 3 @,@ 600 t ) . Seven transverse bulkheads divided the hull with extensive strengthening for rigidity of the five decks to prevent hogging and sagging without use of visible hogging girders prevalent on older vessels of the type . Steel and asbestos were used in hull and superstructure , particularly in high exposure areas such as fire room and galley , whenever practical for fire protection .
Propulsion was by steel , fethering paddles 24 feet 6 inches ( 7 @.@ 5 m ) in diameter 6 @,@ 000 horsepower ( 4 @,@ 500 kW ) driven by a three @-@ cylinder compound inclined engine with cylinders measuring 45 inches ( 110 cm ) , 70 inches ( 180 cm ) and 70 inches ( 180 cm ) with an 84 inches ( 210 cm ) stroke . Four single ended and two double ended Scotch boilers provided steam . The single ended boilers measured 12 feet 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) diameter by 11 feet 11 inches ( 3 @.@ 6 m ) length and the double ended boilers were 12 feet 4 inches ( 3 @.@ 8 m ) diameter by 22 feet ( 6 @.@ 7 m ) in length with coal consumption of five tons per hour. operating speed was 23 @.@ 5 miles per hour ( 37 @.@ 8 km / h ) or , in marine terms , 20 @.@ 4 knots . Two 35 kilowatt Kerr turbo generators provided electrical power .
The ship had three smoke stacks amidships for its boilers , but the forward stack was non @-@ functioning ; only added for aesthetic purposes . The ship began service with the Hudson River Day Line as their flagship steamer from 1913 to 1926 .
Washington Irving was intended solely for passenger day service and neither sleeping nor cargo spaces were incorporated in design . Nineteen private " balcony parlors " were available with the rest of the spaces being large public spaces with decor based on the Irving period . A large writing room 's design was based on the Alhambra . Forward , below the main deck , was a large lunch room patterened on the Old Cock Tavern of London and a ladies lounge was patterned on Irving 's study at " Sunnyside " . The main dining room , on the after main deck , was purely in Colonial style . The main saloon on the main deck blended Moorish and Knickerbocker designs and was among the largest rooms afloat . The vessel had about 2 acres ( 0 @.@ 8 ha ) of outside deck space and rooms were fitted with large plate glass for views of the river . Though licensed for 6 @,@ 000 passengers , breaking a record for such ships previously held by consort Hendrik Hudson , the deck space would have made it possible to carry 1 @,@ 400 more than its 6 @,@ 000 capacity license allowed .
= = Service life = =
The Washington Irving operated daily leisure passenger service up and down the Hudson River . Its maiden voyage was on Saturday , 17 May 1913 from the Desbrosses Street Pier in New York City with a destination of Albany . On that voyage , fifty oil paintings by artists illustrating the Irving period were on view . Tickets for the maiden voyage sold for $ 1 @.@ 00 .
Washington Irving replaced the Robert Fulton on the New York to Albany run . The ship remained in service up until its sinking in 1926 and was the only ship in service ever to be lost by the Day Line . The first pilot of the Washington Irving from 1913 through 1923 was Captain Van Woert .
= = Sinking = =
Soon after departing the Desbrosses Street Pier on its way to Albany in the morning fog of 1 June 1926 , Washington Irving was struck , a little after 9 : 00am , by one of two oil barges being pushed by the tug boat Thomas E. Moran . The collision damaged Washington Irving 's starboard side below the water line just aft of amidships , allowing water to rush into the engine rooms . The collision resulted in a hole measuring 21 feet ( 6 @.@ 4 m ) long and 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) wide . The Captain , David H. Deming , ordered all passengers to put on life preservers and whistled the " Ship 's afire " signal of two long and three short blasts repeatedly . A chaos of shouts prevailed as the passengers tried to don life vests and locate their children in the fog . An inability to see any land increased the alarm of the passengers despite the Captain 's shouts that all would be safe and he ordered the jazz band to resume playing their music and maintain their post until rescue .
Assisted by tug boats , Washington Irving reached shore at the then under construction Pier 12 , Jersey City and sank five minutes later . Three passengers died as a result of the accident . Wylma Wood Hoag , ( wife of Lynne Arthur Hoag and mother to Arthur Allen Hoag ) , their three @-@ year @-@ old daughter Mary , and B. Woods , a steward , who was trapped in a cabin far below deck . The accident was determined to be unavoidable due to " the unusual and unexpected strength of the tidal current , possibly below the surface " after an inquiry by the United States Steamship Inspection Board closed on 9 June 1926 .
Washington Irving was valued at $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 but insured for much less . The barge suffered only $ 8 @,@ 000 of damages . At the time of the sinking , Alexander McKinney was the head porter . He had joined the Day Line in 1905 and continued in their service till at least 1964 .
= = Aftermath = =
Washington Irving had sunk on top of the New York @-@ New Jersey vehicular tube complicating its removal . The wreck became a menace to navigation and was struck at 3am on 16 June by a railroad car float . Washington Irving was raised on 13 February 1927 and towed to a dry dock to determine whether its condition warranted repair . In March , Washington Irving was determined to be a total loss and a bond was issued to refinance the company 's debt and to provide financing for its replacement , the Peter Stuyvesant . The Peter Stuyvesant was originally estimated to cost $ 700 @,@ 000 , but when the boat was completed in June , the final cost was closer to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 .
= Henry Wood =
Sir Henry Joseph Wood CH ( 3 March 1869 – 19 August 1944 ) was an English conductor best known for his association with London 's annual series of promenade concerts , known as the Proms . He conducted them for nearly half a century , introducing hundreds of new works to British audiences . After his death , the concerts were officially renamed in his honour as the " Henry Wood Promenade Concerts " , although they continued to be generally referred to as " the Proms " .
Born in modest circumstances to parents who encouraged his musical talent , Wood started his career as an organist . During his studies at the Royal Academy of Music , he came under the influence of the voice teacher Manuel Garcia and became his accompanist . After similar work for Richard D 'Oyly Carte 's opera companies on the works of Arthur Sullivan and others , Wood became the conductor of a small operatic touring company . He was soon engaged by the larger Carl Rosa Opera Company . One notable event in his operatic career was conducting the British premiere of Tchaikovsky 's Eugene Onegin in 1892 .
From the mid @-@ 1890s until his death , Wood focused on concert conducting . He was engaged by the impresario Robert Newman to conduct a series of promenade concerts at the Queen 's Hall , offering a mixture of classical and popular music at low prices . The series was successful , and Wood conducted annual promenade series until his death in 1944 . By the 1920s , Wood had steered the repertoire entirely to classical music . When the Queen 's Hall was destroyed by bombing in 1941 , the Proms moved to the Royal Albert Hall .
Wood declined the chief conductorships of the New York Philharmonic and Boston Symphony Orchestras , believing it his duty to serve music in the United Kingdom . In addition to the Proms , he conducted concerts and festivals throughout the country and also trained the student orchestra at the Royal Academy of Music . He had an enormous influence on the musical life of Britain over his long career : he and Newman greatly improved access to classical music , and Wood raised the standard of orchestral playing and nurtured the taste of the public , presenting a vast repertoire of music spanning four centuries .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Wood was born in Oxford Street , London , the only child of Henry Joseph Wood and his wife Martha , née Morris . Wood senior had started in his family 's pawnbroking business , but by the time of his son 's birth he was trading as a jeweller , optician and engineering modeller , much sought @-@ after for his model engines . It was a musical household : Wood senior was an amateur cellist and sang as principal tenor in the choir of St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate , known as " the musicians ' church " . His wife played the piano and sang songs from her native Wales . They encouraged their son 's interest in music , buying him a Broadwood piano , on which his mother gave him lessons . The young Wood also learned to play the violin and viola .
Wood received little religious inspiration at St Sepulchre , but was deeply stirred by the playing of the resident organist , George Cooper , who allowed him into the organ loft and gave him his first lessons on the instrument . Cooper died when Wood was seven , and the boy took further lessons from Cooper 's successor , Edwin M. Lott , for whom Wood had much less regard . At the age of ten , through the influence of one of his uncles , Wood made his first paid appearance as an organist at St Mary Aldermanbury , being paid half a crown . In June 1883 , visiting the Fisheries Exhibition at South Kensington with his father , Wood was invited to play the organ in one of the galleries , making a good enough impression to be engaged to give recitals at the exhibition building over the next three months . At this time in his life , painting was nearly as strong an interest as music , and he studied in his spare time at the Slade School of Fine Art . He remained a life @-@ long amateur painter .
After taking private lessons from the musicologist Ebenezer Prout , Wood entered the Royal Academy of Music at the age of seventeen , studying harmony and composition with Prout , organ with Charles Steggall , and piano with Walter Macfarren . It is not clear whether he was a member of Manuel Garcia 's singing class , but it is certain that he became its accompanist and was greatly influenced by Garcia . Wood also accompanied the opera class , taught by Garcia 's son Gustave . Wood 's ambition at the time was to become a teacher of singing , and he gave singing lessons throughout his life . He attended the classes of as many singing teachers as he could , although by his own account , " I possess a terrible voice . Garcia said it would go through a brick wall . In fact , a real conductor 's voice . "
= = = Opera = = =
On leaving the Royal Academy of Music in 1888 , Wood taught singing privately and was soon very successful , attracting " more singing pupils than I could comfortably deal with " at half a guinea an hour . He also worked as a répétiteur . According to his memoirs , he worked in that capacity for Richard D 'Oyly Carte during the rehearsals for the first production of The Yeomen of the Guard at the Savoy Theatre in 1888 . His biographer Arthur Jacobs doubts this and discounts exchanges Wood purported to have had with Sir Arthur Sullivan about the score . Jacobs describes Wood 's memoirs as " vivacious in style but factually unreliable " .
It is certain , however , that Wood was répétiteur at Carte 's Royal English Opera House for Sullivan 's grand opera Ivanhoe in late 1890 and early 1891 , and for André Messager 's La Basoche in 1891 – 92 . He also worked for Carte at the Savoy as assistant to François Cellier on The Nautch Girl in 1891 . Wood remained devoted to Sullivan 's music and later insisted on programming his concert works when they were out of fashion in musical circles . During this period , he had several compositions of his own performed , including an oratorio , St. Dorothea ( 1889 ) , a light opera , Daisy ( 1890 ) , and a one @-@ act comic opera , Returning the Compliment ( 1890 ) .
Wood recalled that his first professional appearance as a conductor was at a choral concert in December 1887 . Ad hoc engagements of this kind were commonplace for organists , but they brought little prestige such as was given to British conductor @-@ composers such as Sullivan , Charles Villiers Stanford and Alexander Mackenzie , or the rising generation of German star conductors led by Hans Richter and Arthur Nikisch . His first sustained work as a conductor was his 1889 appointment as musical director of a small touring opera ensemble , the Arthur Rouseby English Touring Opera . The company was not of a high standard , with an orchestra of only six players augmented by local recruits at each tour venue . Wood eventually negotiated a release from his contract , and after a brief return to teaching he secured a better appointment as conductor for the Carl Rosa Opera Company in 1891 . For that company he conducted Carmen , The Bohemian Girl , The Daughter of the Regiment , Maritana , and Il trovatore . This appointment was followed by a similar engagement with a company set up by former Carl Rosa singers .
When Signor Lago , formerly impresario of the Imperial Opera Company of St. Petersburg , was looking for a second conductor to work with Luigi Arditi for a proposed London season , Garcia recommended Wood . The season opened at the newly rebuilt Olympic Theatre in London , in October 1892 , with Wood conducting the British premiere of Tchaikovsky 's Eugene Onegin . At that time the operatic conductor was not seen as an important figure , but the critics who chose to mention the conducting gave Wood good reviews . The work was not popular with the public , and the season was cut short when Lago absconded , leaving the company unpaid . Before that debacle , Wood had also conducted performances of Maritana and rehearsed Oberon and Der Freischütz . After the collapse of the Olympic opera season , Wood returned once more to his singing tuition . With the exception of a season at the Opera Comique in 1896 , Wood 's subsequent conducting career was in the concert hall .
= = = Early years of the Proms = = =
In 1894 Wood went to the Wagner festival at Bayreuth where he met the conductor Felix Mottl , who subsequently appointed him as his assistant and chorus master for a series of Wagner concerts at the newly built Queen 's Hall in London . The manager of the hall , Robert Newman , was proposing to run a ten @-@ week season of promenade concerts and , impressed by Wood , invited him to conduct . There had been such concerts in London since 1838 , under conductors from Louis Antoine Jullien to Arthur Sullivan . Sullivan 's concerts in the 1870s had been particularly successful , because he offered his audiences something more than the usual light music . He introduced major classical works , such as Beethoven symphonies , normally restricted to the more expensive concerts presented by the Philharmonic Society and others . Newman aimed to do the same : " I am going to run nightly concerts and train the public by easy stages . Popular at first , gradually raising the standard until I have created a public for classical and modern music . "
Newman 's determination to make the promenade concerts attractive to everyone led him to permit smoking during concerts , which was not formally prohibited at the Proms until 1971 . Refreshments were available in all parts of the hall throughout the concerts , not only during intervals . Prices were considerably lower than those customarily charged for classical concerts : the promenade ( the standing area ) was one shilling , the balcony two shillings , and the grand circle ( reserved seats ) three and five shillings .
Newman needed to find financial backing for his first season . Dr George Cathcart , a wealthy ear , nose and throat specialist , offered to sponsor it on two conditions : that Wood should conduct every concert , and that the pitch of the orchestral instruments should be lowered to the European standard diapason normal . Concert pitch in England was nearly a semitone higher than that used on the continent , and Cathcart regarded it as damaging for singers ' voices . Wood , from his experience as a singing teacher , agreed . As members of Wood 's brass and woodwind sections were unwilling to buy new low @-@ pitched instruments , Cathcart imported a set from Belgium and lent them to the players . After a season , the players recognised that the low pitch would be permanently adopted , and they bought the instruments from him .
On 10 August 1895 , the first of the Queen 's Hall Promenade Concerts took place . Among those present who later recalled the opening was the singer Agnes Nicholls :
Just before 8 o 'clock I saw Henry Wood take up his position behind the curtain at the end of the platform – watch in hand . Punctually , on the stroke of eight , he walked quickly to the rostrum , buttonhole and all , and began the National Anthem ... A few moments for the audience to settle down , then the Rienzi Overture , and the first concert of the new Promenades had begun .
The rest of the programme comprised , in the words of an historian of the Proms , David Cox , " for the most part ... blatant trivialities . " Within days , however , Wood was shifting the balance from light music to mainstream classical works , with Schubert 's Unfinished Symphony and further excerpts from Wagner operas . Among the other symphonies Wood conducted during the first season were Schubert 's Great C Major , Mendelssohn 's Italian and Schumann 's Fourth . The concertos included Mendelssohn 's Violin Concerto and Schumann 's Piano Concerto . During the season Wood presented 23 novelties , including the London premieres of pieces by Richard Strauss , Tchaikovsky , Glazunov , Massenet and Rimsky @-@ Korsakov . Newman and Wood soon felt able to devote every Monday night of the season principally to Wagner and every Friday night to Beethoven , a pattern that endured for decades .
The income from the concerts did not permit generous rehearsal time . Wood had nine hours to rehearse all the music for each week 's six concerts . To gain the best results on so little rehearsal , Wood developed two facets of his conducting that remained his trademark throughout his career . First , he bought sets of the orchestral parts and marked them all with minutely detailed instructions to the players ; secondly he developed a clear and expressive conducting technique . An orchestral cellist wrote that " if you watched him , you couldn 't come in wrong . " The violist Bernard Shore wrote , " You may be reading at sight in public , but you can 't possibly go wrong with that stick in front of you " . Thirty @-@ five years after Wood 's death , André Previn recounted a story by one of his players who recalled that Wood " had everything planned out and timed to the minute ... at 10 a.m. precisely his baton went down . You learned things so thoroughly with him , but in the most economical time . "
Another feature of Wood 's conducting was his insistence on accurate tuning ; before each rehearsal and concert he would check the instrument of each member of the woodwind and string sections against a tuning fork . He persisted in this practice until 1937 , when the excellence of the BBC Symphony Orchestra persuaded him that it was no longer necessary . To improve ensemble , Wood experimented with the layout of the orchestra . His preferred layout was to have the first and second violins grouped together on his left , with the cellos to his right , a layout that has since become common .
Between the first and second season of promenade concerts , Wood did his last work in the opera house , conducting Stanford 's new opera Shamus O 'Brien at the Opera Comique . It ran from March until July 1896 , leaving Wood enough time to prepare the second Queen 's Hall season , which began at the end of August . The season was so successful that Newman followed it with a winter season of Saturday night promenade concerts , but despite being popular they were not a financial success , and were not repeated in later years . In January 1897 Wood took on the direction of the Queen 's Hall 's prestigious Saturday afternoon symphony concerts . He continually presented new works by composers of many nationalities , and was particularly known for his skill in Russian music . Sullivan wrote to him in 1898 , " I have never heard a finer performance in England than that of the Tchaikovsky symphony under your direction last Wednesday " . Seventy @-@ five years later , Sir Adrian Boult ranked Wood as one of the two greatest Tchaikovsky conductors in his long experience . Wood also successfully challenged the widespread belief that Englishmen were not capable of conducting Wagner . When Wood and the Queen 's Hall Orchestra performed at Windsor Castle in November 1898 , Queen Victoria chose Tchaikovsky and Wagner for the programme . Wood , who modelled his appearance on Nikisch , took it as a compliment that the queen said to him , " Tell me , Mr Wood , are you quite English ? "
In 1898 , Wood married one of his singing pupils , Olga Michailoff , a divorcée a few months his senior . Jacobs describes it as " a marriage of perfect professional and private harmony " . As a singer , with Wood as her accompanist , she won praise from the critics .
= = = Early 20th century = = =
The promenade concerts flourished through the 1890s , but in 1902 Newman , who had been investing unwisely in theatrical presentations , found himself unable to bear the financial responsibility for the Queen 's Hall Orchestra and was declared bankrupt . The concerts were rescued by the musical benefactor Sir Edgar Speyer , a banker of German origin . Speyer put up the necessary funds , retained Newman as manager of the concerts , and encouraged him and Wood to continue with their project of improving the public 's taste . At the beginning of 1902 , Wood accepted the conductorship of that year 's Sheffield triennial festival . He continued to be associated with that festival until 1936 , changing its emphasis from choral to orchestral pieces . A German critic , reviewing the festival for a Berlin publication , wrote , " Two personalities now represent a new epoch in English musical life – Edward Elgar as composer , and Henry J. Wood as conductor . " Later in the year , overtaxed by his enormous workload , Wood 's health broke down . Even though this was during the Proms season , Cathcart insisted that Wood should have a complete break and change of scene . Leaving the leader of the orchestra , Arthur Payne , to conduct during his absence , Wood and his wife took a cruise to Morocco , missing the Proms concerts from 13 October to 8 November .
In the early years of the Proms there were complaints in some musical journals that Wood was neglecting British music . In 1899 Newman unsuccessfully attempted to secure for Wood the premiere of Elgar 's Enigma Variations , but in the same year Newman passed up the opportunity to introduce the music of Delius to London concertgoers . By the end of the first decade of the new century , however , Wood 's reputation in conducting British music was in no doubt ; he gave the world , British or London premieres of more than a hundred British works between 1900 and 1910 . Meanwhile , he introduced his audiences to many European composers . In the 1903 season , he programmed symphonies by Bruckner ( No. 7 ) , Sibelius ( No. 1 ) , and Mahler ( No. 1 ) . In the same year , he introduced several of Richard Strauss 's tone poems to London , and in 1905 he gave Strauss 's Symphonia Domestica . This prompted the composer to write , " I cannot leave London without an expression of admiration for the splendid Orchestra which Henry Wood 's master hand has created in such a short time . "
Creating the orchestra admired by Strauss had not been achieved without a struggle . In 1904 , Wood and Newman tackled the deputy system , in which orchestral players , if offered a better @-@ paid engagement , could send a substitute to a rehearsal or a concert . The treasurer of the Royal Philharmonic Society described it thus : " A , whom you want , signs to play at your concert . He sends B ( whom you don 't mind ) to the first rehearsal . B , without your knowledge or consent , sends C to the second rehearsal . Not being able to play at the concert , C sends D , whom you would have paid five shillings to stay away . " After a rehearsal in which Wood was faced with a sea of entirely unfamiliar faces in his own orchestra , Newman came on the platform to announce : " Gentlemen , in future there will be no deputies ; good morning . " Forty players resigned en bloc and formed their own orchestra : the London Symphony Orchestra . Wood bore no grudge and attended their first concert , although it was 12 years before he agreed to conduct the orchestra .
Wood had great sympathy for rank @-@ and @-@ file orchestral players and strove for improvements in their pay . He sought to raise their status and was the first British conductor to insist that the orchestra should stand to acknowledge applause along with the conductor . He introduced women into the Queen 's Hall Orchestra in 1913 . He said , " I do not like ladies playing the trombone or double bass , but they can play the violin , and they do . " By 1918 Wood had 14 women in his orchestra .
Wood conducted his own compositions and arrangements from time to time . He gave his Fantasia on Welsh Melodies and Fantasia on Scottish Melodies on successive nights in 1909 . He composed the work for which he is most celebrated , Fantasia on British Sea Songs , for a concert in 1905 , celebrating the centenary of the Battle of Trafalgar . It caught the public fancy immediately , with its mixture of sea @-@ shanties , together with Handel 's " See the Conquering Hero Comes " and Arne 's " Rule , Britannia ! " . He played it at the Proms more than 40 times , and it became a fixture at the " Last Night of the Proms " , the lively concert marking the end of each season . It remained so under his successors , though often rearranged , notably by Sir Malcolm Sargent . A highlight of the Fantasia is the hornpipe ( " Jack 's the Lad " ) ; Wood said of it :
They stamp their feet in time to the hornpipe – that is until I whip up the orchestra to a fierce accelerando which leaves behind all those whose stamping technique is not of the very finest quality . I like to win by two bars , if possible ; but sometimes have to be content with a bar and a half . It is good fun , and I enjoy it as much as they .
Among Wood 's other works was his Purcell Suite , incorporating themes from Purcell 's stage works and string sonatas , which Wood performed at an orchestral festival in Zurich in 1921 , and orchestral transcriptions of works by a range of composers from Albéniz to Vivaldi .
Wood worked with his wife for many concerts , and was her piano accompanist at her recitals . In 1906 , at the Norwich music festival he presented Beethoven 's Choral Symphony and Bach 's St Matthew Passion , with his wife among the singers . In December 1909 , after a short illness , Olga Wood died . Cathcart took Wood away to take his mind off his loss . On his return , Wood resumed his professional routine , with the exception that , after Olga 's death , he rarely performed as piano accompanist for anyone else ; his skill in that art was greatly missed by the critics . In June 1911 , he married his secretary , Muriel Ellen Greatrex ( 1882 – 1967 ) , with whom he had two daughters . In the same year he accepted a knighthood , and declined the conductorship of the New York Philharmonic Orchestra in succession to Mahler , as he felt it his duty to devote himself to the British public .
Throughout the early part of the century , Wood was influential in changing the habits of concertgoers . Until then it had been customary for audiences at symphony or choral concerts to applaud after each movement or section . Wood discouraged this , sometime by gesture and sometimes by specific request printed in programmes . For this he was much praised in the musical and national press . In addition to his work at the Queen 's Hall , Wood conducted at the Sheffield , Norwich , Birmingham , Wolverhampton , and Westmorland festivals , and at orchestral concerts in Cardiff , Manchester , Liverpool , Leicester and Hull . His programming was summarised in The Manchester Guardian , which listed the number of each composer 's works played in the 1911 Proms season ; the top ten were : Wagner ( 121 ) ; Beethoven ( 34 ) ; Tchaikovsky ( 30 ) ; Mozart ( 28 ) ; Dvořák ( 16 ) ; Weber ( 16 ) ; J.S. Bach ( 14 ) ; Brahms ( 14 ) ; Elgar ( 14 ) ; and Liszt ( 13 ) .
The 1912 and 1913 Prom seasons are singled out by Cox as among the finest of this part of Wood 's career . Among those conducting their own works or hearing Wood conduct them were Strauss , Debussy , Reger , Scriabin , and Rachmaninoff . Schoenberg 's Five Pieces for Orchestra also received its first performance ( the composer not being present ) ; during rehearsals , Wood urged his players , " Stick to it , gentlemen ! This is nothing to what you 'll have to play in 25 years ' time " . The critic Ernest Newman wrote after the performance : " It is not often that an English audience hisses the music it does not like , but a good third of the people at Queen 's Hall last Tuesday permitted themselves that luxury after the performance of the five orchestral pieces of Schoenberg . Another third of the audience was only not hissing because it was laughing , and the remaining third seemed too puzzled either to laugh or to hiss ; so that on the whole it does not look as if Schoenberg has so far made many friends in London . " However , when Wood invited Schoenberg himself to conduct the work 's second British performance , on 17 January 1914 , the composer was so delighted with the result , more warmly received than had been the premiere , that he congratulated Wood and the orchestra warmly : " I must say it was the first time since Gustav Mahler that I heard such music played again as a musician of culture demands . "
= = = First World War and post @-@ war = = =
On the outbreak of the First World War in 1914 , Newman , Wood and Speyer discussed whether the Proms should continue as planned . They had by this time become an established institution , and it was agreed to go ahead . However , anti @-@ German feeling forced Speyer to leave the country and seek refuge in the US , and there was a campaign to ban all German music from concerts . Newman put out a statement declaring that German music would be played as planned : " The greatest examples of Music and Art are world possessions and unassailable even by the prejudices and passions of the hour . " When Speyer left Britain , the music publishers Chappell 's took on the responsibility for the Queen 's Hall and its orchestra . The Proms continued throughout the war years , with fewer major new works than before , although there were nevertheless British premieres of pieces by Bartók , Stravinsky and Debussy . An historian of the Proms , Ateş Orga , wrote , " Concerts often had to be re @-@ timed to coincide with the ' All Clear ' between air raids . Falling bombs , shrapnel , anti @-@ aircraft fire and the droning of Zeppelins were ever threatening . But [ Wood ] kept things on the go and in the end had a very real part to play in boosting morale . "
Towards the end of the war , Wood received an offer by which he was seriously tempted : the Boston Symphony Orchestra invited him to become its musical director . He had been guest conductor of the Berlin and New York Philharmonic Orchestras , but he regarded the Boston orchestra as the finest in the world . Nonetheless , as he told Boult , " it was hard to refuse , but I felt it was a patriotic duty to remain in my own country , at the present moment . "
After the war , the Proms continued much as before . The second halves of concerts still featured piano @-@ accompanied songs rather than serious classical music . Chappell 's , having taken over sponsorship of the Proms and spent £ 35 @,@ 000 keeping the Queen 's Hall going during the war , wished to promote songs published by the company . The management of Chappell 's were also less enthusiastic than Wood and Newman about promoting new orchestral works , most of which were not profitable .
In 1921 Wood was awarded the gold medal of the Royal Philharmonic Society , the first English conductor to receive the honour . By now he was beginning to find his position as Britain 's leading conductor under challenge from rising younger rivals . Thomas Beecham had been an increasingly influential figure since about 1910 . He and Wood did not like one another , and each avoided mention of the other in his memoirs . Adrian Boult , who , at Wood 's recommendation , took over some of his responsibilities at Birmingham in 1923 , always admired and respected Wood . Other younger conductors included men who had been members of Wood 's orchestra , including Basil Cameron and Eugene Goossens . Another protégé of Wood was Malcolm Sargent , who appeared at the Proms as a composer @-@ conductor in 1921 and 1922 . Wood encouraged him to abandon thoughts of a career as a pianist and to concentrate on conducting . Wood further showed his interest in the future of music by taking on the conductorship of the student orchestra at the Royal Academy of Music in 1923 , rehearsing it twice a week , whenever possible , for the next twenty years . In the same year , he accepted the conductorship of the amateur Hull Philharmonic Orchestra , travelling three times a year until 1939 to rehearse and conduct its concerts .
In 1925 Wood was invited to conduct four concerts for the Los Angeles Philharmonic Orchestra at the Hollywood Bowl . Such was their success , both artistic and financial , that Wood was invited back , and conducted again the following year . In addition to a large number of English pieces , Wood programmed works by composers as diverse as Bach and Stravinsky . He again conducted there in 1934 .
= = = BBC and the Proms = = =
On his return to England from his first Hollywood trip , Wood found himself in the middle of a feud between the chairman of Chappell 's , William Boosey , and the BBC . Boosey had conceived a passionate hostility to the broadcasting of music , fearing that it would lead to the end of live concerts . He attempted to prevent anyone who wished to perform at the Queen 's Hall from broadcasting for the BBC . This affected many of the artists whom Wood and Newman needed for the Proms . The matter was unresolved when Newman died in 1926 . Shortly afterwards , Boosey announced that Chappell 's would no longer support concerts at the Queen 's Hall . The prospect that the Proms might not be able to continue caused widespread dismay , and there was a general welcome for the BBC 's announcement that it would take over the running of the Proms , and would also run a winter series of symphony concerts at the Queen 's Hall .
The BBC regime brought immediate benefits . The use of the second half of concerts to promote Chappell 's songs ceased , to be replaced by music chosen for its own excellence : on the first night under the BBC 's control , the songs in the second half were by Schubert , Quilter and Parry rather than ballads from Chappell 's . For Wood , the greatest benefit was that the BBC gave him twice as much rehearsal time as he had previously enjoyed . He now had a daily rehearsal and extra rehearsals as needed . He was also allowed extra players when large scores called for them , instead of having to rescore the work for the forces available .
In 1929 , Wood played a celebrated practical joke on musicologists and critics . " I got very fed up with them , always finding fault with any arrangement or orchestrations that I made ... ' spoiling the original ' etc. etc . " , and so Wood passed off his own orchestration of Bach 's Toccata and Fugue in D minor , as a transcription by a Russian composer called Paul Klenovsky . In Wood 's later account , the press and the BBC " fell into the trap and said the scoring was wonderful , Klenovsky had the real flare [ sic ] for true colour etc . – and performance after performance was given and asked for . " Wood kept the secret for five years before revealing the truth . The press treated the deception as a great joke ; The Times entered into the spirit of it with a jocular tribute to the lamented Klenovsky .
As Wood 's working life took a turn for the better , his domestic life started to deteriorate . During the early 1930s , he and his wife gradually became estranged , and their relationship ended in bitterness , with Muriel taking most of Wood 's money and , for much of the time , living abroad . She refused to divorce him . The breach between Muriel and Wood also caused his estrangement from their daughters . In 1934 he began a happy relationship with a widowed former pupil , Jessie Linton , who had sung for him frequently in the past under her professional name of Jessie Goldsack . One of Wood 's players recalled , " She changed him . He had been badly dressed , awful clothes . Jessie got him a new evening suit , instead of the mouldy green one , and he flourished yellow gloves and a cigar ... he became human . " As Wood was not free to remarry , she changed her name by deed poll to " Lady Jessie Wood " and was generally assumed by the public to be Wood 's wife . In his memoirs , Wood mentioned neither his second marriage nor his subsequent relationship .
In his later years , Wood came to be identified with the Proms rather than with the year @-@ round concert season . Boult was appointed director of music at the BBC in 1930 . In that capacity he strove to ensure that Wood was invited to conduct a fitting number of BBC symphony concerts outside the Prom season . The BBC chose Wood for important collaborations with Bartók and Paul Hindemith , and for the first British performance of Mahler 's vast Symphony No. 8 . But Jacobs notes that , in the general concert repertory , Wood now had to compete against well @-@ known foreign conductors such as Bruno Walter , Willem Mengelberg , and Arturo Toscanini , " in comparison with whom he was increasingly seen as a workhorse " .
= = = Last years = = =
In 1936 , Wood was in charge of his final Sheffield festival . The choral works he conducted included the Verdi Requiem , Beethoven 's Missa Solemnis , Berlioz ' Te Deum , Walton 's Belshazzar 's Feast , and , in the presence of the composer , Rachmaninoff 's The Bells . The following year , Wood began planning for a grand concert to mark his fiftieth year as a conductor . The Royal Albert Hall was chosen as the venue , having a far larger capacity than the Queen 's Hall . The concert was given on 5 October 1938 . Rachmaninoff played the solo part in his Second Piano Concerto , and Vaughan Williams , at Wood 's request , composed a short choral work for the occasion : the Serenade to Music for orchestra and 16 soloists . The other composers represented in the programme were Sullivan , Beethoven , Bach , Bax , Wagner , Handel and Elgar . The orchestra comprised players from the three London orchestras : the London Symphony , London Philharmonic and BBC Symphony Orchestras . The concert raised £ 9 @,@ 000 for Wood 's chosen charity , providing health care for musicians . In the same year , Wood published his autobiography , My Life of Music .
In September 1939 , the Second World War broke out and the BBC immediately put into effect its contingency plans to move much of its broadcasting away from London to places thought less susceptible to bombing . Its musical activities , including the orchestra , moved to Bristol . The BBC withdrew not only the players , but financial support from the Proms . Wood determined that the 1940 season would nevertheless go ahead . The Royal Philharmonic Society and a private entrepreneur , Keith Douglas , agreed to back an eight @-@ week season , and the London Symphony Orchestra was engaged . The season was curtailed after four weeks , when intense bombing forced the Queen 's Hall to close . The last Prom given at the Queen 's Hall was on 7 September 1940 . In May 1941 , the hall was destroyed by bombs .
It was immediately agreed that the 1941 season of Proms should be held at the Albert Hall . It was twice the size of the Queen 's Hall , with poor acoustics , but a six @-@ week series was judged a success , and the Albert Hall remained the home of the Proms . Wood , aged seventy @-@ two , was persuaded to have an associate conductor to relieve him of some of the burden . Basil Cameron undertook the task and remained a Prom conductor until his retirement , aged eighty , in 1964 . The BBC brought its symphony orchestra back to London and resumed its backing of the Proms in 1942 ; Boult joined Cameron as Wood 's associate conductor during that season . In early 1943 , Wood 's health deteriorated , and two days after the start of that year 's season , he collapsed and was ordered to have a month in bed . Despite wartime vicissitudes , the 1943 season sold nearly 250 @,@ 000 tickets , with an average audience of about 4 @,@ 000 – many more than could have fitted into the Queen 's Hall .
Despite his age and the difficulties of wartime travel , Wood insisted on going to provincial cities to conduct – as much , according to Jacobs , to help the local orchestras survive as to gratify audiences . His final season was in 1944 . The season began well with Wood in good form , but after three weeks raids by the devastating new German flying bombs caused the government to order the closure of places of entertainment . The Proms were immediately relocated to Bedford some 50 miles ( 80 km ) away , where Wood continued to conduct . He was taken ill in early August and was unable to conduct the fiftieth anniversary Prom on 10 August ; he was forbidden by his doctor even to listen to its broadcast . Wood died just over a week later on 19 August at Hitchin Hospital in Hitchin , Hertfordshire ; his funeral service was held in the town at St Mary 's church , and his ashes were interred in the Musicians ' Chapel of St Sepulchre @-@ without @-@ Newgate .
= = Recordings = =
Wood 's recording career began in 1908 , when he accompanied his wife Olga in " Farewell , forests " by Tchaikovsky , for the Gramophone and Typewriter Company , better known as His Master 's Voice or HMV . They made eight other records together for HMV over the next two years . After Olga 's death , Wood signed a contract with HMV 's rival , Columbia , for whom he made a series of discs between 1915 and 1917 with the singer Clara Butt , including excerpts from Elgar 's The Dream of Gerontius . Between 1915 and 1925 he conducted 65 recordings for Columbia using the early acoustic recording process , including many discs of Wagner excerpts and a truncated version of Elgar 's Violin Concerto with Albert Sammons as soloist . When the microphone and electrical recording were introduced in 1925 , Wood re @-@ recorded the Elgar concerto , with Sammons , and made 36 other discs for Columbia over the next nine years . The 1929 recording of the Elgar concerto has been reissued on compact disc and is well regarded by some critics .
Wood was wooed from Columbia by the young Decca company in 1935 . For Decca he conducted 23 recordings over the next two years , including Beethoven 's Fifth Symphony , Elgar 's Enigma Variations and Vaughan Williams 's A London Symphony . In 1938 he returned to Columbia , for whom his five new recordings included the Serenade to Music with the 16 original singers , a few days after the premiere , and his own Fantasia on British Sea Songs .
Wood 's recordings did not remain in the catalogues long after his death . The Record Guide , 1956 , lists none of his records . A few of his recordings have subsequently been reissued on compact disc , including the Decca and Columbia Vaughan Williams recordings from 1936 and 1938 .
= = Premieres = =
In Jacobs 's 1994 biography , the list of premieres conducted by Wood extends to 18 pages . His world premieres included Frank Bridge 's The Sea ; Britten 's Piano Concerto ; Delius 's A Song Before Sunrise , A Song of Summer , and Idyll ; Elgar 's The Wand of Youth Suite No. 1 , Sospiri and the 4th and 5th Pomp and Circumstance Marches ; and Vaughan Williams 's Norfolk Rhapsody No. 1 , Flos Campi and Serenade to Music .
Wood 's UK premieres included Bartók 's Dance Suite ; Chabrier 's Joyeuse marche ; Copland 's Billy the Kid ; Debussy 's Prélude à l 'après @-@ midi d 'un faune and Ibéria ; Hindemith 's Kammermusik 2 and 5 ; Janáček 's Sinfonietta , Taras Bulba and Glagolitic Mass ; Kodály 's Dances from Galanta ; Mahler 's Symphonies Nos. 4 , 7 and 8 , and Das Lied von der Erde ; Prokofiev 's Piano Concerto No. 1 and Violin Concerto No. 2 ; Rachmaninoff 's Piano Concerto No 1 ; Ravel 's Ma mère l 'oye , Rapsodie espagnole , La valse and Piano Concerto in D ; Rimsky @-@ Korsakov 's Capriccio Espagnol , Scheherazade , and Symphony No. 2 ; Saint @-@ Saëns 's The Carnival of the Animals ; Schumann 's Konzertstück for four horns and orchestra ; Shostakovich 's Piano Concerto No. 1 and Symphonies Nos. 7 and 8 ; Sibelius 's Symphonies Nos. 1 , 6 and 7 , Violin Concerto , Karelia Suite , and Tapiola ; Richard Strauss 's Symphonia Domestica ; Stravinsky 's The Firebird ( suite ) ; Tchaikovsky 's Manfred Symphony and Nutcracker Suite ; and Webern 's Passacaglia .
= = Honours , memorials and reputation = =
In addition to the knighthood bestowed in 1911 , Wood 's state honours were his appointments as Companion of Honour in 1944 , to the Order of the Crown ( Belgium ; 1920 ) , and Officer of the Legion of Honour ( France ; 1926 ) . He received honorary doctorates from five English universities and was a fellow of both the Royal Academy of Music ( 1920 ) and the Royal College of Music ( 1923 ) .
Jacobs lists 26 compositions dedicated to Wood , including , in addition to the Vaughan Williams Serenade to Music , works by Elgar , Delius , Bax , Marcel Dupré and Walton . The poet laureate , John Masefield , composed a poem of six verses in his honour , entitled " Sir Henry Wood " , often referred to by its first line , " Where does the uttered music go ? " . Walton set it to music as an anthem for mixed choir ; it received its first performance on 26 April 1946 at St Sepulchre 's , on the occasion of a ceremony unveiling a memorial stained @-@ glass window in Wood 's honour .
Wood is commemorated in the name of the Henry Wood Hall , the deconsecrated Holy Trinity Church in Southwark , which was converted to a rehearsal and recording venue in 1975 . His bust stands upstage centre in the Royal Albert Hall during the whole of each Prom season , decorated by a chaplet on the Last Night of the Proms . His collection of 2 @,@ 800 orchestral scores and 1 @,@ 920 sets of parts is now in the library of the Royal Academy of Music . For the Academy he also established the Henry Wood Fund , giving financial aid to students . The University of Strathclyde named a building at its Jordanhill campus after him . His best @-@ known memorial is the Proms , officially " the Henry Wood Promenade Concerts " , but universally referred to by the informal short version .
His biographer Arthur Jacobs wrote of Wood :
His orchestral players affectionately nicknamed him " Timber " – more than a play on his name , since it seemed to represent his reliability too . His tally of first performances , or first performances in
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Britain , was heroic : at least 717 works by 357 composers . Greatness as measured by finesse of execution may not be his , particularly in his limited legacy of recordings , but he remains one of the most remarkable musicians Britain has produced .
= James Russell Lowell =
James Russell Lowell ( / ˈloʊəl / ; February 22 , 1819 – August 12 , 1891 ) was an American Romantic poet , critic , editor , and diplomat . He is associated with the Fireside Poets , a group of New England writers who were among the first American poets who rivaled the popularity of British poets . These poets usually used conventional forms and meters in their poetry , making them suitable for families entertaining at their fireside .
Lowell graduated from Harvard College in 1838 , despite his reputation as a troublemaker , and went on to earn a law degree from Harvard Law School . He published his first collection of poetry in 1841 and married Maria White in 1844 . He and his wife had several children , though only one survived past childhood . The couple soon became involved in the movement to abolish slavery , with Lowell using poetry to express his anti @-@ slavery views and taking a job in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , as the editor of an abolitionist newspaper . After moving back to Cambridge , Lowell was one of the founders of a journal called The Pioneer , which lasted only three issues . He gained notoriety in 1848 with the publication of A Fable for Critics , a book @-@ length poem satirizing contemporary critics and poets . The same year , he published The Biglow Papers , which increased his fame . He went on to publish several other poetry collections and essay collections throughout his literary career .
Maria White died in 1853 , and Lowell accepted a professorship of languages at Harvard in 1854 ; he continued to teach there for twenty years . He traveled to Europe before officially assuming his role in 1856 . He married his second wife , Frances Dunlap , shortly thereafter in 1857 . That year Lowell also became editor of The Atlantic Monthly . It was not until 20 years later that Lowell received his first political appointment , the ambassadorship to the Kingdom of Spain . He was later appointed ambassador to the Court of St. James 's . He spent his last years in Cambridge , in the same estate where he was born , and died there in 1891 .
Lowell believed that the poet played an important role as a prophet and critic of society . He used poetry for reform , particularly in abolitionism . However , Lowell 's commitment to the anti @-@ slavery cause wavered over the years , as did his opinion on African @-@ Americans . Lowell attempted to emulate the true Yankee accent in the dialogue of his characters , particularly in The Biglow Papers . This depiction of the dialect , as well as Lowell 's many satires , was an inspiration to writers like Mark Twain and H.L. Mencken .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life = = =
The first of the Lowell family ancestors to come to the United States from Britain was Percival Lowle , who settled in Newbury , Massachusetts , in 1639 . James Russell Lowell was born February 22 , 1819 , the son of the Reverend Charles Russell Lowell , Sr. ( 1782 – 1861 ) , a minister at a Unitarian church in Boston , who had previously studied theology at Edinburgh , and Harriett Brackett Spence Lowell . By the time James Russell Lowell was born , the family owned a large estate in Cambridge called Elmwood . He was the youngest of six children ; his siblings were Charles , Rebecca , Mary , William , and Robert . Lowell 's mother built in him an appreciation for literature at an early age , especially in poetry , ballads , and tales from her native Orkney . He attended school under Sophia Dana , who would later marry George Ripley , and later studied at a school run by a particularly harsh disciplinarian , where one of his classmates was Richard Henry Dana , Jr .
Beginning in 1834 , at the age of 15 , Lowell attended Harvard College , though he was not a good student and often got into trouble . In his sophomore year alone , he was absent from required chapel attendance 14 times and from classes 56 times . In his last year there , he wrote , " During Freshman year , I did nothing , during Sophomore year I did nothing , during Junior year I did nothing , and during Senior year I have thus far done nothing in the way of college studies . " In his senior year , he became one of the editors of Harvardiana literary magazine , to which he contributed prose and poetry that he admitted was of low quality . As he said later , " I was as great an ass as ever brayed & thought it singing . " During his undergraduate years , Lowell was a member of Hasty Pudding and served both as Secretary and Poet .
Lowell was elected the poet of the class of 1838 and , as was tradition , was asked to recite an original poem on Class Day , the day before Commencement , on July 17 , 1838 . Lowell , however , was suspended and not allowed to participate . Instead , his poem was printed and made available thanks to subscriptions paid by his classmates . Lowell had composed the poem in Concord , Massachusetts , where , because of his neglect of his studies , he had been exiled by the Harvard faculty to the care of the Rev. Barzallai Frost . During his stay in Concord , he became friends with Ralph Waldo Emerson , and got to know the other Transcendentalists . The poem satirized the social movements of the day ; abolitionists , Thomas Carlyle , Emerson , and the Transcendentalists were treated .
Not knowing what vocation to choose after graduating , he vacillated among business , the ministry , medicine , and law . Having decided to practice law , he enrolled at Harvard Law School in 1840 and was admitted to the bar two years later . While studying law , however , he contributed poems and prose articles to various magazines . During this time , Lowell was admittedly depressed and often had suicidal thoughts . He once confided to a friend that he held a cocked pistol to his forehead and considered killing himself at the age of 20 .
= = = Marriage and family = = =
In late 1839 , Lowell met Maria White through her brother William , a classmate of his at Harvard , and the two became engaged in the autumn of 1840 . Maria 's father Abijah White , a wealthy merchant from Watertown , insisted that their wedding be postponed until Lowell had gainful employment . They were finally married on December 26 , 1844 , shortly after the groom published Conversations on the Old Poets , a collection of his previously published essays . A friend described their relationship as " the very picture of a True Marriage . " Lowell himself believed she was made up " half of earth and more than half of Heaven . " Like Lowell , she wrote poetry , and the next twelve years of Lowell 's life were deeply affected by her influence . He said his first book of poetry , A Year 's Life ( 1841 ) , " owes all its beauty to her , " though it only sold 300 copies . Her character and beliefs led her to become involved in the movements directed against intemperance and slavery . Maria was a member of the Boston Female Anti @-@ Slavery Society and persuaded her husband to become an abolitionist . James had previously expressed antislavery sentiments , but Maria urged him towards more active expression and involvement . His second volume of poems , Miscellaneous Poems , expressed these antislavery thoughts and its 1 @,@ 500 copies sold well .
Maria was in poor health , and thinking her lungs could heal there , the couple moved to Philadelphia shortly after their marriage . In Philadelphia , he became a contributing editor for the Pennsylvania Freeman , an abolitionist newspaper . In the spring of 1845 , the Lowells returned to Cambridge , Massachusetts , to make their home at Elmwood . They had four children , though only one ( Mabel , born 1847 ) survived past infancy . Their first , Blanche , was born December 31 , 1845 , but lived only fifteen months ; Rose , born in 1849 , survived only a few months as well ; their only son , Walter , was born in 1850 but died in 1852 . Lowell was very affected by the loss of almost all of his children . His grief over the death of his first daughter in particular was expressed in his poem " The First Snowfall " ( 1847 ) . Again , Lowell considered suicide , writing to a friend that he thought " of my razors and my throat and that I am a fool and a coward not to end it all at once . "
= = = Literary career = = =
Lowell 's earliest poems were published without remuneration in the Southern Literary Messenger in 1840 . Lowell , inspired to new efforts towards self @-@ support , joined with his friend Robert Carter in founding a literary journal , The Pioneer . The periodical was distinguished by the fact that most of its content was new rather than material that had been previously published elsewhere , and by the inclusion of very serious criticism , which covered not only literature but also art and music . Lowell wrote that it would " furnish the intelligent and reflecting portion of the Reading Public with a rational substitute for the enormous quantity of thrice @-@ diluted trash , in the shape of namby @-@ pamby love tales and sketches , which is monthly poured out to them by many of our popular Magazines . " William Wetmore Story noted the journal 's higher taste , writing that " it took some stand & appealled to a higher intellectual Standard than our puerile milk or watery namby @-@ pamby Mags with which we are overrun . " The first issue of the journal included the first appearance of " The Tell @-@ Tale Heart " by Edgar Allan Poe . Lowell , shortly after the first issue , was treated for an eye disease in New York , and in his absence Carter did a poor job of managing the journal . After three monthly numbers , beginning in January 1843 , the magazine ceased publication , leaving Lowell $ 1 @,@ 800 in debt . Poe mourned the journal 's demise , calling it " a most severe blow to the cause — the cause of a Pure Taste . "
Despite the failure of The Pioneer , Lowell continued his interest in the literary world . He wrote a series on " Anti @-@ Slavery in the United States " for the London Daily News , though his series was discontinued by the editors after four articles in May 1846 . Lowell had published these articles anonymously , believing they would have more impact if they were not known to be the work of a committed abolitionist . In the spring of 1848 he formed a connection with the National Anti @-@ Slavery Standard of New York , agreeing to contribute weekly either a poem or a prose article . After only one year , he was asked to contribute half as often to the Standard to make room for contributions from Edmund Quincy , another writer and reformer .
A Fable for Critics , one of Lowell 's most popular works , was published in 1848 . A satire , it was published anonymously . It proved popular , and the first three thousand copies sold out quickly . In it , Lowell took good @-@ natured jabs at his contemporary poets and critics . Not all the subjects included were pleased , however . Edgar Allan Poe , who had been referred to as part genius and " two @-@ fifths sheer fudge , " reviewed the work in the Southern Literary Messenger and called it " ' loose ' — ill @-@ conceived and feebly executed , as well in detail as in general . ... we confess some surprise at his putting forth so unpolished a performance . " Lowell offered the profits from the book 's success , which proved relatively small , to his New York friend Charles Frederick Briggs , despite his own financial needs .
In 1848 , Lowell also published The Biglow Papers , later named by the Grolier Club as the most influential book of 1848 . The first 1 @,@ 500 copies sold out within a week and a second edition was soon issued , though Lowell made no profit , having had to absorb the cost of stereotyping the book himself . The book presented three main characters , each representing different aspects of American life and using authentic American dialects in their dialogue . Under the surface , The Biglow Papers was also a denunciation of the Mexican – American War and war in general .
= = = First trip to Europe = = =
In 1850 , Lowell 's mother died unexpectedly , as did his third daughter , Rose . Her death left Lowell depressed and reclusive for six months , despite the birth of his son Walter by the end of the year . He wrote to a friend that death " is a private tutor . We have no fellow @-@ scholars , and must lay our lessons to heart alone . " These personal troubles as well as the Compromise of 1850 inspired Lowell to accept an offer from William Wetmore Story to spend a winter in Italy . To pay for the trip , Lowell sold land around Elmwood , intending to sell off further acres of the estate over time to supplement his income , ultimately selling off 25 of the original 30 acres ( 120 @,@ 000 m2 ) . Walter died suddenly in Rome of cholera , and Lowell and his wife , with their daughter Mabel , returned to the United States in October 1852 . Lowell published recollections of his journey in several magazines , many of which would be collected years later as Fireside Travels ( 1867 ) . He also edited volumes with biographical sketches for a series on British Poets .
His wife Maria , who had been suffering from poor health for many years , became very ill in the spring of 1853 and died on October 27 of tuberculosis . Just before her burial , her coffin was opened so that her daughter Mabel could see her face while Lowell " leaned for a long while against a tree weeping , " according to Henry Wadsworth Longfellow and his wife , who were in attendance . In 1855 , Lowell oversaw the publication of a memorial volume of his wife 's poetry , with only fifty copies for private circulation . Despite his self @-@ described " naturally joyous " nature , life for Lowell at Elmwood was further complicated by his father becoming deaf in his old age , and the deteriorating mental state of his sister Rebecca , who sometimes went a week without speaking . He again cut himself off from others , becoming reclusive at Elmwood , and his private diaries from this time period are riddled with the initials of his wife . On March 10 , 1854 , for example , he wrote : " Dark without & within . M.L. M.L. M.L. " Longfellow , a friend and neighbor , referred to Lowell as " lonely and desolate . "
= = = Professorship and second marriage = = =
At the invitation of his cousin John Amory Lowell , James Russell Lowell was asked to deliver a lecture at the prestigious Lowell Institute . Some speculated the opportunity was because of the family connection , offered as an attempt to bring him out of his depression . Lowell chose to speak on " The English Poets , " telling his friend Briggs that he would take revenge on dead poets " for the injuries received by one whom the public won 't allow among the living . " The first of the twelve @-@ part lecture series was to be on January 9 , 1855 , though by December , Lowell had only completed writing five of them , hoping for last @-@ minute inspiration . His first lecture was on John Milton and the auditorium was oversold ; Lowell had to give a repeat performance the next afternoon . Lowell , who had never spoken in public before , was praised for these lectures . Francis James Child said that Lowell , whom he deemed was typically " perverse , " was able to " persist in being serious contrary to his impulses and his talents . " While his series was still in progress , Lowell was offered the Smith Professorship of Modern Languages at Harvard , a post vacated by Longfellow , at an annual salary of $ 1 @,@ 200 , though he never applied for it . The job description was changing after Longfellow ; instead of teaching languages directly , Lowell would supervise the department and deliver two lecture courses per year on topics of his own choosing . Lowell accepted the appointment , with the proviso that he should have a year of study abroad . He set sail on June 4 of that year , leaving his daughter Mabel in the care of a governess named Frances Dunlap . Abroad , he visited Le Havre , Paris , and London , spending time with friends including Story , Robert Browning and Elizabeth Barrett Browning , and Leigh Hunt . Primarily , however , Lowell spent his time abroad studying languages , particularly German , which he found difficult . He complained : " The confounding genders ! If I die I shall have engraved on my tombstone that I died of der , die , das , not because I caught them but because I couldn 't . "
He returned to the United States in the summer of 1856 and began his college duties . Towards the end of his professorship , then @-@ president of Harvard Charles William Eliot noted that Lowell seemed to have " no natural inclination " to teach ; Lowell agreed , but retained his position for twenty years . He focused on teaching literature , rather than etymology , hoping that his students would learn to enjoy the sound , rhythm , and flow of poetry rather than the technique of words . He summed up his method : " True scholarship consists in knowing not what things exists , but what they mean ; it is not memory but judgment . " Still grieving the loss of his wife , during this time Lowell avoided Elmwood and instead lived on Kirkland Street in Cambridge , an area known as Professors ' Row . He stayed there , along with his daughter Mabel and her governess Frances Dunlap , until January 1861 .
Lowell had intended never to remarry after the death of his wife Maria White . However , in 1857 , surprising his friends , he became engaged to Frances Dunlap , who many described as simple and unattractive . Dunlap , niece of the former governor of Maine Robert P. Dunlap , was a friend of Lowell 's first wife and formerly wealthy , though she and her family had fallen into reduced circumstances . Lowell and Dunlap married on September 16 , 1857 , in a ceremony performed by his brother . Lowell wrote , " My second marriage was the wisest act of my life , & as long as I am sure of it , I can afford to wait till my friends agree with me . "
= = = The war years and beyond = = =
In the autumn of 1857 , The Atlantic Monthly was established , and Lowell was its first editor . With its first issue in November of that year , he at once gave the magazine the stamp of high literature and of bold speech on public affairs . In January 1861 , Lowell 's father died of a heart attack , inspiring Lowell to move his family back to Elmwood . As he wrote to his friend Briggs , " I am back again to the place I love best . I am sitting in my old garret , at my old desk , smoking my old pipe ... I begin to feel more like my old self than I have these ten years . " Shortly thereafter , in May , he left The Atlantic Monthly when James Thomas Fields took over as editor ; the magazine had been purchased by Ticknor and Fields for $ 10 @,@ 000 two years before . Lowell returned to Elmwood by January 1861 but maintained an amicable relationship with the new owners of the journal , continuing to submit his poetry and prose for the rest of his life . His prose , however , was more abundantly presented in the pages of the North American Review during the years 1862 – 1872 . For the Review , he served as a coeditor along with Charles Eliot Norton . Lowell 's reviews for the journal covered a wide variety of literary releases of the day , though he was writing fewer poems .
As early as 1845 , Lowell had predicted the debate over slavery would lead to war and , as the American Civil War broke out in the 1860s , Lowell used his role at the Review to praise Abraham Lincoln and his attempts to maintain the Union . Lowell lost three nephews during the war , including Charles Russell Lowell , Jr , who became a Brigadier General and fell at the battle of Cedar Creek . Lowell himself was generally a pacifist . Even so , he wrote , " If the destruction of slavery is to be a consequence of the war , shall we regret it ? If it be needful to the successful prosecution of the war , shall anyone oppose it ? " His interest in the Civil War inspired him to write a second series of The Biglow Papers , including one specifically dedicated to the preliminary Emancipation Proclamation called " Sunthin ' in the Pastoral Line " in 1862 .
Shortly after Lincoln 's assassination , Lowell was asked to present a poem at Harvard in memory of graduates killed in the war . His poem , " Commemoration Ode , " cost him sleep and his appetite , but was delivered on July 21 , 1865 , after a 48 @-@ hour writing binge . Lowell had high hopes for his performance but was overshadowed by the other notables presenting works that day , including Ralph Waldo Emerson and Oliver Wendell Holmes , Sr. " I did not make the hit I expected , " he wrote , " and am ashamed at having been tempted again to think I could write poetry , a delusion from which I have been tolerably free these dozen years . " Despite his personal assessment , friends and other poets sent many letters to Lowell congratulating him . Emerson referred to his poem 's " high thought & sentiment " and James Freeman Clarke noted its " grandeur of tone . " Lowell later expanded it with a strophe to Lincoln .
In the 1860s , Lowell 's friend Longfellow spent several years translating Dante Alighieri 's Divine Comedy and regularly invited others to help him on Wednesday evenings . Lowell was one of the main members of the so @-@ called " Dante Club , " along with William Dean Howells , Charles Eliot Norton and other occasional guests . Shortly after serving as a pallbearer at the funeral of friend and publisher Nathaniel Parker Willis , on January 24 , 1867 , Lowell decided to produce another collection of his poetry . Under the Willows and Other Poems was released in 1869 , though Lowell originally wanted to title it The Voyage to the Vinland and Other Poems . The book , dedicated to Norton , collected poems Lowell had written within the previous twenty years and was his first poetry collection since 1848 .
Lowell intended to take another trip to Europe . To finance it , he sold off more of Elmwood 's acres and rented the house to Thomas Bailey Aldrich ; Lowell 's daughter Mabel , by this time , had moved into a new home with her husband Edward Burnett , the son of a successful businessman @-@ farmer from Southboro , Massachusetts . Lowell and his wife set sail on July 8 , 1872 , after he took a leave of absence from Harvard . They visited England , Paris , Switzerland , and Italy . While overseas , he received an honorary Doctorate of Law from the University of Oxford and another from Cambridge University . They returned to the United States in the summer of 1874 .
= = = Political appointments = = =
Lowell resigned from his Harvard professorship in 1874 , though he was persuaded to continue teaching through 1877 . It was in 1876 that Lowell first stepped into the field of politics . That year , he served as a delegate to the Republican National Convention in Cincinnati , Ohio , speaking on behalf of presidential candidate Rutherford B. Hayes . Hayes won the nomination and , eventually , the presidency . In May 1877 , President Hayes , an admirer of The Biglow Papers , sent William Dean Howells to Lowell with a handwritten note proffering an ambassadorship to either Austria or Russia ; Lowell declined , but noted his interest in Spanish literature . Lowell was then offered and accepted the role of Minister to the court of Spain at an annual salary of $ 12 @,@ 000 . Lowell sailed from Boston on July 14 , 1877 , and , though he expected he would be away for a year or two , he would not return to the United States until 1885 , with the violinist Ole Bull renting Elmwood for a portion of that time . The Spanish media referred to him as " José Bighlow . " Lowell was well @-@ prepared for his political role , having been trained in law , as well as being able to read in multiple languages . He had trouble socializing while in Spain , however , and amused himself by sending humorous dispatches to his political bosses in the United States , many of which were later collected and published posthumously in 1899 as Impressions of Spain . Lowell 's social life improved when the Spanish Academy elected him a corresponding member in late 1878 , allowing him contribute to the preparation of a new dictionary .
In January 1880 , Lowell was informed he was appointed Minister to England , his nomination made without his knowledge as far back as June 1879 . He was granted a salary of $ 17 @,@ 500 with about $ 3 @,@ 500 for expenses . While serving in this capacity , he addressed an importation of allegedly diseased cattle and made recommendations that predated the Pure Food and Drug Act . Queen Victoria commented that she had never seen an ambassador who " created so much interest and won so much regard as Mr. Lowell . " Lowell held this role until the close of Chester A. Arthur 's presidency in the spring of 1885 , despite his wife 's failing health . Lowell was already well known in England for his writing and , during his time there , he befriended fellow author Henry James , who referred to him as " conspicuously American . " Lowell also befriended Leslie Stephen many years earlier and became the godfather to his daughter , future writer Virginia Woolf . Lowell was popular enough that he was offered a professorship at Oxford after his recall by president Grover Cleveland , though the offer was declined .
His second wife , Frances , died on February 19 , 1885 , while still in England .
= = = Later years and death = = =
He returned to the United States by June 1885 , living with his daughter and her husband in Southboro , Massachusetts . He then spent time in Boston with his sister before returning to Elmwood in November 1889 . By this time , most of his friends were dead , including Quincy , Longfellow , Dana , and Emerson , leaving him depressed and contemplating suicide again . Lowell spent part of the 1880s delivering various speeches , and his last published works were mostly collections of essays , including Political Essays , and a collection of his poems Heartsease and Rue in 1888 . His last few years he traveled back to England periodically and when he returned to the United States in the fall of 1889 , he moved back to Elmwood with Mabel , while her husband worked for clients in New York and New Jersey . That year , Lowell gave an address at the centenary of George Washington 's inauguration . Also that year , the Boston Critic dedicated a special issue to Lowell on his seventieth birthday to recollections and reminiscences by his friends , including former presidents Hayes and Benjamin Harrison and British Prime Minister William Ewart Gladstone as well as Alfred Tennyson and Francis Parkman .
In the last few months of his life , Lowell struggled with gout , sciatica in his left leg , and chronic nausea ; by the summer of 1891 , doctors believed that Lowell had cancer in his kidneys , liver , and lungs . His last few months , he was administered opium for the pain and was rarely fully conscious . He died on August 12 , 1891 , at Elmwood . After services in the Appleton Chapel , he was buried in Mount Auburn Cemetery . After his death , Norton served as his literary executor and published several collections of Lowell 's works and his letters .
= = = Writing style and literary theory = = =
Early in his career , James Russell Lowell 's writing was influenced by Swedenborgianism , a Spiritualism @-@ infused form of Christianity founded by Emanuel Swedenborg , causing Frances Longfellow ( wife of the poet Henry Wadsworth Longfellow ) to mention that " he has been long in the habit of seeing spirits . " He composed his poetry rapidly when inspired by an " inner light " but could not write to order . He subscribed to the common nineteenth @-@ century belief that the poet was a prophet but went further , linking religion , nature , and poetry , as well as social reform . Evert Augustus Duyckinck and others welcomed Lowell as part of Young America , a New York @-@ based movement . Though not officially affiliated with them , he shared some of their ideals , including the belief that writers have an inherent insight into the moral nature of humanity and have an obligation for literary action along with their aesthetic function . Unlike many of his contemporaries , including members of Young America , Lowell did not advocate for the creation of a new national literature . Instead , he called for a natural literature , regardless of country , caste , or race , and warned against provincialism which might " put farther off the hope of one great brotherhood . " He agreed with his neighbor Longfellow that " whoever is most universal , is also most national . " As Lowell said :
I believe that no poet in this age can write much that is good unless he gives himself up to [ the radical ] tendency ... The proof of poetry is , in my mind , that it reduces to the essence of a single line the vague philosophy which is floating in all men 's minds , and so render it portable and useful , and ready to the hand ... At least , no poem ever makes me respect its author which does not in some way convey a truth of philosophy .
A scholar of linguistics , Lowell was one of the founders of the American Dialect Society . He used this interest in his writing , particularly in The Biglow Papers , presenting a heavily ungrammatical phonetic spelling of the Yankee dialect . In using this vernacular , Lowell intended to get closer to the common man 's experience and was rebelling against more formal and , as he thought , unnatural representations of Americans in literature . As he wrote in his introduction to The Biglow Papers , " few American writers or speakers wield their native language with the directness , precision , and force that are common as the day in the mother country . " Though intentionally humorous , this accurate presentation of the dialect was pioneering work in American literature . For example , Lowell 's character Hosea Biglow says in verse :
Lowell is considered one of the Fireside Poets , a group of writers from New England in the 1840s who all had a substantial national following and whose work was often read aloud by the family fireplace . Besides Lowell , the main figures from this group were Longfellow , Holmes , John Greenleaf Whittier , and William Cullen Bryant .
= = Beliefs = =
Although he was an abolitionist , Lowell 's opinions on African @-@ Americans wavered . Though Lowell advocated suffrage for blacks , he noted that their ability to vote could be troublesome . Even so , he wrote , " We believe the white race , by their intellectual and traditional superiority , will retain sufficient ascendancy to prevent any serious mischief from the new order of things . " Freed slaves , he wrote , were " dirty , lazy & lying . " Even before his marriage to the abolitionist Maria White , Lowell wrote : " The abolitionists are the only ones with whom I sympathize of the present extant parties . " After his marriage , Lowell at first did not share White 's enthusiasm for the cause but was eventually pulled in . The couple often gave money to fugitive slaves , even when their own financial situation was not strong , especially if they were asked to free a spouse or child . Even so , he did not always fully agree with the followers of the movement . The majority of these people , he said , " treat ideas as ignorant persons do cherries . They think them unwholesome unless they are swallowed , stones and all . " Lowell depicted Southerners very unfavorably in his second collection of The Biglow Papers but , by 1865 , admitted that Southerners were " guilty only of weakness " and , by 1868 , said that he sympathized with Southerners and their viewpoint on slavery . Enemies and friends of Lowell alike questioned his vacillating interest in the question of slavery . Abolitionist Samuel Joseph May accused Lowell of trying to quit the movement because of his association with Harvard and the Boston Brahmin culture : " Having got into the smooth , dignified , self @-@ complacent , and change @-@ hating society of the college and its Boston circles , Lowell has gone over to the world , and to ' respectability ' . "
Lowell was also involved in other reform movements . He urged for better conditions for factory workings , opposed capital punishment , and supported the temperance movement . His friend Longfellow was especially concerned about his fanaticism for temperance , worrying that Lowell would ask him to destroy his wine cellar . There are many references to Lowell 's drinking during his college years and part of his reputation in school was based on it . His friend Edward Everett Hale denied these allegations and , even then , Lowell considered joining the " Anti @-@ Wine " club and later , during the early years of his first marriage , became a teetotaler . However , as Lowell gained notoriety , he became popular in social circles and clubs and , away from his wife , he drank rather heavily . When he drank , he had wild mood swings , ranging from euphoria to frenzy .
= = Criticism and legacy = =
In 1849 , Lowell said of himself , " I am the first poet who has endeavored to express the American Idea , and I shall be popular by and by . " Poet Walt Whitman said : " Lowell was not a grower — he was a builder . He built poems : he didn 't put in the seed , and water the seed , and send down his sun — letting the rest take care of itself : he measured his poems — kept them within formula . " Fellow Fireside Poet John Greenleaf Whittier praised Lowell by writing two poems in his honor and calling him " our new Theocritus " and " one of the strongest and manliest of our writers – a republican poet who dares to speak brave words of unpopular truth . " British author Thomas Hughes referred to Lowell as one of the most important writers in the United States : " Greece had her Aristophanes ; Rome her Juvenal ; Spain has had her Cervantes ; France her Rabelais , her Molière , her Voltaire ; Germany her Jean Paul , her Heine ; England her Swift , her Thackeray ; and America has her Lowell . " Lowell 's satires and use of dialect were an inspiration for writers like Mark Twain , William Dean Howells , H. L. Mencken , and Ring Lardner .
Contemporary critic and editor Margaret Fuller wrote , " his verse is stereotyped ; his thought sounds no depth , and posterity will not remember him . " Duyckinck thought Lowell was too similar to other poets like William Shakespeare and John Milton . Ralph Waldo Emerson noted that , though Lowell had significant technical skill , his poetry " rather expresses his wish , his ambition , than the uncontrollable interior impulse which is the authentic mark of a new poem ... and which is felt in the pervading tone , rather than in brilliant parts or lines . " Even his friend Richard Henry Dana Jr . , questioned Lowell 's abilities , calling him " very clever , entertaining & good humored ... but he is rather a trifler , after all . " In the twentieth century , poet Richard Armour dismissed Lowell , writing : " As a Harvard graduate and an editor for the Atlantic Monthly , it must have been difficult for Lowell to write like an illiterate oaf , but he succeeded . " The poet Amy Lowell featured her relative James Russell Lowell in her poem A Critical Fable ( 1922 ) , the title mocking A Fable for Critics . Here , a fictional version of Lowell says he does not believe that women will ever be equal to men in the arts and " the two sexes cannot be ranked counterparts . " Modern literary critic Van Wyck Brooks wrote that Lowell 's poetry was forgettable : " one read them five times over and still forgot them , as if this excellent verse had been written in water . " Nonetheless , in 1969 the Modern Language Association established a prize named after Lowell , awarded annually for " an outstanding literary or linguistic study , a critical edition of an important work , or a critical biography . "
Lowell 's poem " The Present Crisis , " an early work that addressed the national crisis over slavery leading up to the Civil War , has had an impact in the modern civil rights movement . The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People named its newsletter The Crisis after the poem , and Martin Luther King , Jr. frequently quoted the poem in his speeches and sermons . The poem was also the source of the hymn Once to Every Man and Nation .
= = List of selected works = =
Poetry collections
A Year 's Life ( 1841 )
Miscellaneous Poems ( 1843 )
The Biglow Papers ( 1848 )
A Fable for Critics ( 1848 )
Poems ( 1848 )
The Vision of Sir Launfal ( 1848 )
Under the Willows ( 1869 )
The Cathedral ( 1870 )
Heartsease and Rue ( 1888 )
Essay collections
Conversations on the Old Poets ( 1844 )
Fireside Travels ( 1864 )
Among My Books ( 1870 )
My Study Windows ( 1871 )
Among My Books ( second collection , 1876 )
Democracy and Other Addresses ( 1886 )
Political Essays ( 1888 )
= Jean Keene =
Jean Keene ( October 20 , 1923 – January 13 , 2009 ) , also known as the Eagle Lady , was a former rodeo trick rider who became the subject of national attention due to her feeding of wild bald eagles on the Homer Spit in Homer , Alaska . Although she had many supporters for the feedings , she was also criticized for drawing a large population of eagles to the area . After her death , the city of Homer passed a law prohibiting the feeding of predatory birds .
= = Early life = =
Jean Marie Hodgdon was born on October 20 , 1923 in Aitkin County , Minnesota . The eldest of three sisters and one brother , she grew up on a dairy farm in Aitkin , where she helped with farm chores including herding , feeding , and milking cows . She learned to ride horses and became a talented horse breaker and trainer .
In 1952 , she was recruited by the traveling rodeo outfit Red River Rodeo as a trick rider , and by the mid @-@ 1950s was anticipating an upcoming appearance at with Red River at Madison Square Garden . However , her rodeo career was abruptly cut short in a riding accident during a performance at Olympia Arena in Detroit , Michigan . While performing a trick called the " death drag " , she missed a handhold after leaning back too far in her saddle . She fell from her horse and was knocked unconscious when her head hit the arena wall . Her foot was still caught in the stirrup , and she was dragged around the arena , tangled in the horse 's legs , until other rodeo personnel were able to stop the horse . She suffered 15 fractures in her left knee . After surgery to repair her knee , she spent several months in recovery encased from the waist down in a plaster cast . After the cast was removed , she was still able to walk and ride , but not with the facility necessary to perform in the rodeo .
For a time she worked as a professional truck driver hauling cattle . In the late 1950s she married , and gave birth to a son , Lonnie , before divorcing . By the early 1960s she was a single mother . She opened up a dog and cat grooming business and also raised and bred cocker spaniels . She later became the owner and operator of Jolly Chef Truck Stop in Minneapolis , Minnesota .
Keene came to Alaska for the first time in the early 1970s to attend a cousin 's wedding . Attracted by the state 's beauty , she returned for several visits before making the decision in 1977 to move there — alone . Her son Lonnie was deemed old enough to make his own decisions , and he chose to remain in Minnesota . Keene took a week to drive from Minnesota to Alaska in a secondhand motorhome , ending in Homer , where she parked the motorhome at the end of Homer Spit in the Homer Spit Campground , where it remained for many years . She took a job at a fish processing facility on the Spit , the Icicle Seafoods subsidiary Seward Fisheries , in the spring of 1977 , where she later became a foreman .
= = Feeding the eagles = =
Keene 's career as the " Eagle Lady " began shortly after her arrival in Homer , when one morning she noticed two bald eagles on the beach near her motorhome . Keene saw offering food to the eagles as a natural extension of her practice of keeping bird feeders filled with sunflower seeds for wild songbirds . She began to bring home surplus fish in a bucket from her job , and each morning would throw some fish to the eagles over the short driftwood fence she had made around her motorhome . By the end of that spring , a half @-@ dozen eagles were showing up for breakfast . The eagles departed with the arrival of summer , when the Spit became more active with human visitors , but they returned in the winter when tourist season had ended , and Keene resumed the daily feeding .
Within ten years , over 200 bald eagles were visiting during winter and early spring each day , and the job of feeding them became more involved . To have enough fish to last through the winter , she would begin in August to stockpile fish scraps and freezer burned fish donated by her employer and by other local companies . The fish was sometimes supplemented by moose meat that Keene salvaged when she heard of a road @-@ killed moose on the highway . She began feeding the eagles at about December 1 of each year , a job that took up to three hours ' work each morning . Keene obtained permission from her employer to use a company forklift to move the large containers of stockpiled fish scraps and freezer @-@ burned salmon , halibut , rockfish , cod , and herring out of the company 's large freezers . She then transferred the fish by hand into barrels or garbage cans , which she loaded up in her pickup truck . Then she would drive the load to her motorhome , about 100 yards ( 91 m ) from the Seward Fisheries plant , and cut the fish into fist @-@ sized pieces to be thrown out to the eagles . If the fish was fully frozen , she would use an axe , chainsaw , or blowtorch to break the fish down into smaller chunks , or might even have to lug the large garbage cans into her motorhome to thaw . " I don 't know if anyone else would do this , " she told a reporter in 1986 . " My motorhome smells like fish . My yard is fish . My truck is fish . I am fish . It gets kind of gross sometimes , especially when you 're handling a lot of slimy carcasses . "
Keene had been persistent in her efforts . In 1985 she broke her leg , but managed to keep to the feeding schedule even on crutches . In the winter of 1994 she was diagnosed with breast cancer and on her doctor 's advice underwent a mastectomy . She hired a friend to conduct feeding operations in her absence , but was back to do it herself three days after surgery .
On July 1 , 1998 , an ammonia leak and explosion at the Seward Fisheries plant caused a fire that led to the evacuation of Homer Spit and the ultimate destruction of the facility , which until then had been the major supplier of fish remains for Keene 's feeding operation . But Keene was able to report when winter came that she had found other sources and was ready for the eagles when they returned .
Although the number of visiting eagles fluctuated , about 200 to 300 eagles would show up each day during the months of winter and early spring . Crows and gulls were also attracted to the area . Keene fed them an estimated 500 pounds ( 227 kg ) of fish per day , about 50 @,@ 000 pounds ( 22 @,@ 680 kg ) per year . Her fish supply included surplus and freezer @-@ burned fish from fish processing facilities still on the Spit , her own purchases using her limited funds from Social Security or retirement benefits , or fish contributed by her supporters . Visitors could come and watch the eagles Keene fed on the Spit at no cost , but were asked to stay in their cars for their own safety and for the safety of the eagles .
= = Public attention = =
Keene 's work has been publicized in Reader 's Digest , National Geographic , The Washington Post , People , Life , " Ripley 's Believe It or Not ! " , and on The Rush Limbaugh Show . A 2004 book , The Eagle Lady by Alaska author and photographer Cary Anderson , documents Keene 's life and her relationship with the eagles . Keene received the 2004 Lifetime Meritorious Service Award from the Bald Eagle Foundation . Many of Keene 's strongest supporters were local hotel owners who got extra business in the normally sluggish winter season , and photographers who were able to use clever framing of shots in order to make it appear they were photographing eagles in the wild . These photographers made enough money from these works that they bought Keene a new house with some of the profits . The news satire program The Daily Show reported on its April 17 , 2006 edition that Homer had been overpopulated by bald eagles due in large part to Keene 's activities . A crew from the show spent two days in March 2006 shooting footage for the show , including a feeding session and interview with Keene and interviews with other Homer residents about Keene and the controversy then in progress about feeding eagles .
= = Criticism = =
Some environmentalists were concerned with the large population of eagles drawn to Homer by Keene . They believed some eagles have been harmed due to their familiarity with people . Others were worried about the spread of disease or the change in the birds ' natural migrations . Allegedly , some other bird populations in the area , such as sandhill cranes , loons , and kittiwakes , have been driven out or killed by eagles , though there is no direct evidence . In fact , kittiwakes have increased in the area to the degree of founding a new colony close to Keene 's home . According to an ABC News broadcast , many Homer residents now consider the birds a " menace " , as they have been known to cause car accidents and steal pets . In a few cases , the birds have been shot at . An ordinance passed by the Homer City Council in 2006 prohibits the feeding of eagles within the city limits ; however , the city council granted Keene an exemption , giving her special permission to continue feeding bald eagles within city limits until April 2010 , at which time Keene would have been 86 .
= = Death = =
Keene died at home on January 13 , 2009 , aged 85 , from a respiratory condition . After her death , the Homer city council passed a new resolution banning the feeding of eagles , crows , ravens and other predatory and scavenger birds by any person , effective March 19 , 2009 . The resolution 's effective date was delayed until spring out of concern that the birds would either die of starvation or become highly aggressive if the feeding ended in the middle of winter . A memorial to Keene is planned at a nearby hotel that was a favorite dining spot of Keene 's and supplied much of her fish .
= Breathe on Me =
" Breathe on Me " is a song recorded by American singer Britney Spears for her fourth studio album In the Zone ( 2003 ) . It was written by Stephen Lee , Steve Anderson and Lisa Greene and produced by Mark Taylor . " Breathe on Me " is a dance and pop song that incorporates trip hop influences with sensual lyrics that use heavy breathing as a metaphor for sex , as a woman begs a man to " breathe on me " ; it culminates in a bridge resembling sexual climax .
" Breathe on Me " received generally positive reviews from contemporary music critics , some of whom praised the song 's production while others criticized Spears ' Lolita persona . It drew comparisons to the work of Janet Jackson , Madonna , and Kylie Minogue . Despite not being released as a single , official remixes of the song were commissioned and released . Spears performed the song at Rain Nightclub ahead of the album 's release . It was also performed on The Onyx Hotel Tour ( 2004 ) , The M + M 's Tour ( 2007 ) , The Circus Starring Britney Spears ( 2009 ) , and Spears ' revamped Las Vegas residency show , Britney : Piece of Me ( 2016 – 17 ) .
= = Background = =
After the Dream Within a Dream Tour in support of Britney finalized in July 2002 , Spears announced she would take a break from her career for six months . In November 2002 , she revealed that she had started working on her next studio album . She explained , " Well , actually , I just said that I wanted two or three weeks off . [ .... ] And the whole world was like , ' Ohmigod , [ sic ] she 's gone ... " When asked by The Hollywood Reporter about the direction of the record , Spears responded it was an organic evolution , adding , " It should just happen naturally from the way you feel . [ ... ] Whatever happens , happens " . Steve Anderson , Lisa Greene and Stephen Lee wrote " Breathe on Me " at Metrophonic Studios in London , England . Before meeting with the other writers , Anderson thought of two concepts for songs specifically for Spears : one he had worked on " for ages " , and " Breathe on Me " , which he drafted on the morning of the sessions . Greene and Lee did not like the first concept , and they wrote " Breathe on Me " with Anderson . The song was produced by Mark Taylor , who kept most of the programming done by Anderson . With Taylor , Spears recorded " Breathe on Me " and " And Then We Kiss " , which did not make the album .
Spears described " Breathe on Me " as " very vibe @-@ y , trance @-@ y , " explaining that the song " is basically about being with a guy and not even having to really be with each other , but just the intensity and the anxiety between not saying anything . You don 't even have to touch me , just breathe on me . " Britney 's " Lolita persona is revived " on the track .
= = Composition = =
" Breathe on Me " is a dance and pop song with trip hop influences that lasts for a duration of three minutes and forty @-@ three seconds ( 3 : 43 ) . The track " includes moaning and heavy breathing . " Britney pleads , " Boy , don 't stop , ' cause I 'm half way there / It 's not complicated , we 're just syncopated . " The " sexy thump " of the song is briefly interrupted as Spears whispers , " Monogamy is the way to go / Just put your lips together and blow , " a reference to Lauren Bacall in the 1944 film To Have and Have Not . The song was described as Spears exploring " the eroticism of restraint . " The track has " swirling beats and pounding bass . " The lyrics are " a thinly veiled reference to oral sex " , in particular cunnilingus .
Jennifer Vineyard of MTV News wrote , " Of the songs on In the Zone , " Breathe on Me " most earns the trip @-@ hop comparisons . " The song received comparisons to Australian singer Kylie Minogue , a frequent collaborator of Steve Anderson , particularly her songs " Breathe " and " Confide in Me " ( the latter of which was co @-@ written by Anderson ) . " Breathe on Me " was also likened to the work of Madonna , who Spears collaborated with on " Me Against the Music " , and Janet Jackson , with a review saying " Britney clearly learned from the greats , Janet and Madonna , and positioned herself neatly as a legend alongside them . "
= = Remixes = =
" Breathe on Me " was intended to be released as a single in 2004 , but the In the Zone era was cut short due to a knee injury Spears received on the set of " Outrageous " music video . Official remixes of " Breathe on Me " were commissioned by Jive Records . James Holden produced remixes of the song . Bradley Stern of MuuMuse wrote , " The remix takes the throbbing trance perfection of the original and brings it to somewhat spookier new heights , stretching and distorting the singer ’ s sexy moans into lonesome cries on top of spaced @-@ out synthesizers and bright flourishes of electronica . " Stuart Price also produced the Jacques Lu Cont remixes of the song ; the Jacques Lu Cont Mix appeared on the bonus remix disk of Greatest Hits : My Prerogative in 2004 and Jacques Lu Cont 's Thin White Duke Mix appeared on B in the Mix : The Remixes in 2005 . The former was described as " faster and brighter , with a looped Giorgio Moroder @-@ style beat " while the latter " is half as long even though it slows the beat down to something slinky and lounge @-@ y , even slightly off @-@ key , making the song darker and dirtier . " Official remixes were also commissioned for Junior Vasquez , but even though his remixes have circulated on the internet , they remain unreleased .
= = Critical response = =
" Breathe on Me " received generally favorable reviews from contemporary critics . Tom Bishop of BBC News described the track as " a sumptuous seduction bearing the stamp of Kylie collaborator Steve Anderson . " Louis Viriel of AfterElton.com labeled it one of Britney 's most underrated songs , and a highlight from In the Zone . He said the song is a " sinister triumph " and " a steamy , yet icy affair that recalls the naughtiness of Kylie . " Linda McGee of RTÉ.ie compared " Breathe on Me " favorably to Madonna , commenting that " the pop princess treads , convincingly , on the territory of the Queen of Pop . " Additionally , " Breathe on Me " also drew comparisons to Janet Jackson . Jane Stevenson of Jam ! called the track a " throbbing " and " sexy , sweaty dance tune . " It was labeled an " album highlight and stellar pop song " with its " pulsing electronic beat and overwhelming sexuality . " MuuMuse referred to " Breathe on Me " as " the single that never was , " while PopEater named the song the best Britney Spears song that " you probably don 't know . "
The song , however , drew criticism for the revival of Spears ' Lolita persona . Elysa Gardner of USA Today wrote , " Purring and moaning through overheated numbers such as Breathe on Me and Early Mornin ' , she still sounds creepily like a little girl trying to excite the older boys . " Bernard Zuel of the Sydney Morning Herald pinpointed " Breathe on Me " as a weaker track from the album : " Breathe on Me is breathy tosh that sounds frighteningly like Kylie . " Matthew Wilder of City Pages felt that moments of the song " access that queer @-@ o @-@ centric , cool @-@ to @-@ cold club sound of ' Vogue ' -era Madonna , but with a poignant difference . Britney is too thick , too slow , too homecoming queen to get over in Boys ' Town . "
= = Live performances = =
" Breathe on Me " was performed for the first time as part of a surprise thirty @-@ minute set at Rain Nightclub at the Palms Casino Resort in Las Vegas , Nevada on September 14 , 2003 . Spears and her dancers crawled on the floor , onto a daybed , and pretended to make out with one another . One of the dancers ripped Spears ' top off , exposing her red bra . The song was also performed as part of Spears ' headlining set at Staples Center in Los Angeles , California for the annual KIIS @-@ FM Jingle Ball .
Spears performed the song on The Onyx Hotel Tour in support of In the Zone in 2004 . Following a costume change , Spears reappeared on a mini platform where she descended to the main stage on a pole . She wore pink lingerie and " cavorted on one of the stage 's two beds with a male dancer , thrashing her sizable blonde mane to and fro . " It was described as " easily the raciest in the oversexed show . "
On 2007 's The M + M 's Tour , which included six secret shows at House of Blues venues , Spears " seductively gyrated on the chair before her dancers returned and pulled a male fan from the audience to be serenaded by Spears . " The song was performed on 2009 's The Circus Starring Britney Spears tour alongside " Touch Of My Hand " . Spears stripped " down to panties and a barely @-@ there sheer top with strategically placed cones , and sang while suspended inside a giant picture frame that slowly spun around center stage . Landing on a couch adorned with men , she donned a blindfold and ascended halfway to the rafters again . Finally , it was just her grinding away with a muscleman . "
In the revamped concerts of Spears 's residency , Britney : Piece of Me ( 2016 @-@ 2017 ) , the song was added to the setlist , again , alongside " Touch Of My Hand " . Both songs were also performed in a medley at the 2016 Billboard Music Awards .
= Interstate 205 ( California ) =
Interstate 205 ( abbreviated I @-@ 205 ) is a short auxiliary Interstate Highway that connects Interstate 5 with Interstate 580 in the San Joaquin Valley in the U.S. state of California . Along with those highways , I @-@ 205 forms the north side of a triangle around the city of Tracy . The route provides access from the San Francisco Bay Area to the northern San Joaquin Valley . It is officially designated as the Robert T. Monagan Freeway after the California legislator who represented the area from 1961 to 1973 .
When I @-@ 205 opened in December 1970 , it replaced 11th Street , which passed through downtown Tracy , as part of the primary all @-@ land connection between the Bay Area and Sacramento until the Carquinez Bridge opened in 1927 , and carried the Lincoln Highway and later U.S. Route 50 . 11th Street is now signed as Interstate 205 Business .
= = Route description = =
Interstate 205 begins at the bottom of I @-@ 580 's eight @-@ lane descent from Altamont Pass into the San Joaquin Valley . Here I @-@ 580 turns southeast to a junction with I @-@ 5 , paralleling the California Aqueduct and Delta @-@ Mendota Canal along the foothills , while I @-@ 205 continues east as a six @-@ lane roadway , immediately crossing both waterways . The first interchange is with Mountain House Parkway , formerly Patterson Pass Road , which serves the planned community of Mountain House . Next is a split with Business 205 , a business loop that follows 11th Street through Tracy . As I @-@ 205 curves east @-@ northeast and back east through the northern part of Tracy , it has interchanges with Grant Line Road ( County Route J4 towards Antioch ) , Tracy Boulevard ( County Route J13 through downtown Tracy ) , and MacArthur Drive . After several miles without an interchange , the highway ends at a merge with I @-@ 5 , where traffic can continue northeast to the junction with SR 120 near Manteca and then east on SR 120 towards Yosemite National Park or north on I @-@ 5 towards Stockton .
As it connects to I @-@ 580 , I @-@ 205 is a frequently @-@ congested major commuter route to the Bay Area . Signs on eastbound I @-@ 580 instruct travelers to take I @-@ 205 , SR 120 , and SR 99 to reach Modesto instead of using the direct , but non @-@ freeway , route SR 132 . I @-@ 205 also serves to connect the Bay Area with popular weekend destinations such as Yosemite , Reno , and Lake Tahoe . The Altamont Commuter Express provides commuters with an alternate route over Altamont Pass to San Jose and San Francisco , the latter through a transfer to BART .
= = History = =
When the Department of Engineering laid out the initial state highway system after the state 's voters approved a bond issue to pay for it in 1910 , they included Route 5 , connecting Santa Cruz and Oakland with Stockton via Altamont Pass . San Joaquin County paved the portion near Tracy with asphalt with their own bond issue , passed in 1909 , and the state later resurfaced it with concrete . In addition , the new concrete road bypassed Banta , which the old county road had passed through via Banta Road , F Street , and Grant Line Road . Otherwise , the road was relatively direct , coming down from Altamont Pass onto Grant Line Road , following Byron Highway into Tracy , and leaving east and northeasterly on 11th Street to the San Joaquin River at the Mossdale Crossing . The Lincoln Highway Association chose this route in 1913 for their transcontinental highway , where it remained until the Carquinez Bridge opened in 1927 , creating a shorter route via Vallejo . In 1926 , the American Association of State Highway Officials designated the Stockton @-@ Bay Area route as US 48 , which was absorbed by an extension of US 50 by the early 1930s .
A 1938 four @-@ lane bypass of the old road around Altamont Pass was extended east to Tracy as a four @-@ lane expressway on November 16 , 1954 . By then , the entire route between the Bay Area and Stockton was four or more lanes , following the present I @-@ 580 ( eastbound lanes where they separate ) , I @-@ 205 , 11th Street , and I @-@ 5 from Livermore through Tracy to Stockton . During early planning for the Interstate Highway System , the main north @-@ south route through California ( now I @-@ 5 ) was to use SR 99 through the San Joaquin Valley ; a connection to the Bay Area split near Modesto and roughly followed US 50 . The Bureau of Public Roads approved a move to the proposed Westside Freeway in May 1957 , and in November they added a North Tracy Bypass that would connect I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 580 . Construction began in the late 1960s , incorporating part of the 1954 expressway and a new alignment bypassing Tracy to the north , and the $ 14 million road opened to traffic on December 21 , 1970 . ( A short piece at the west end , including the bridge over the California Aqueduct , was upgraded several years earlier when I @-@ 580 and I @-@ 5 to the south were built . )
Since 1970 , I @-@ 205 has seen few changes . The largest have been widening from four to six lanes west of Business 205 in 1999 , and converting two diamond interchanges to partial cloverleafs — Grant Line Road in about 1997 and Mountain House Parkway in 2007 ( including ramp meters ) . As of Summer 2009 , I @-@ 205 has been widened to six lanes ( three in each direction ) for its entire route . Also , the 1970s concrete pavement has been resurfaced with fresh asphalt from the junction of I @-@ 5 to due east of the 11th street connector ramp .
= = Future = =
Caltrans has plans to improve merging distances by constructing auxiliary lanes between the interchanges , and to add new interchanges at Lammers Road and Paradise Road .
= = Tracy business loop = =
Interstate 205 Business is a locally maintained business route . It locally follows 11th Street , the historic four @-@ lane alignment of U.S. Route 50 , through Tracy . The route begins at a split with I @-@ 205 west of the city . After passing through downtown Tracy , it curves northeast at a junction with former SR 33 , which has been truncated to the south at I @-@ 5 . The final stretch of Interstate 205 Business runs diagonally to a merge with I @-@ 5 , which comes from the south and continues northeast along the former US 50 alignment . The east end of Interstate 205 Business is about 3 / 4 mile ( 1 km ) southwest of the end of I @-@ 205 ; normally Interstate 205 Business would return to I @-@ 205 at both ends , but here I @-@ 205 and Interstate 205 Business both end at I @-@ 5 .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Philip Humber 's perfect game =
Philip Humber of the Chicago White Sox pitched a perfect game against the Seattle Mariners by retiring all 27 batters he faced on April 21 , 2012 , as the White Sox defeated the Mariners 4 – 0 . It was the 21st perfect game in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) history and the third by a member of the White Sox . It was Humber 's first career complete game , although he had come close to achieving no @-@ hitters on several occasions at several levels of organized baseball . The game was played in Seattle and broadcast regionally by Fox Sports in the two teams ' metropolitan areas .
Humber , a top pitching prospect from a Texas high school , attended Rice University , where he had a successful career . A high draft pick by the New York Mets , he debuted in MLB for the Mets before headlining a group of four prospects traded to the Minnesota Twins for Johan Santana . After two ineffective seasons with the Twins , Humber pitched a season for the Kansas City Royals . Acquired on waivers by the Chicago White Sox in 2011 , Humber had his first successful season in an MLB starting rotation . The perfect game , Humber 's 30th career start and his second of the 2012 season , totaled 96 pitches .
= = Background = =
Humber was named 2001 Texas High School Class 4A Player of the Year and enrolled at Rice University for the next season . Humber flirted with a no @-@ hitter in college , pitching for the Rice Owls baseball team . On April 6 , 2002 he held a no @-@ hitter going into the eighth inning against the San Jose State Spartans baseball team . In that contest , he surrendered a pinch hit single in the eighth , but did not allow any runs until a ninth @-@ inning home run .
The New York Mets drafted Humber with the third overall draft choice in that year 's amateur draft . After pitching in the minor leagues , he pitched in five games for the Mets during the 2006 and 2007 seasons . He also came close to a no hitter in minor league baseball . On August 22 , 2007 he pitched eight and one @-@ third no @-@ hit innings for the Class @-@ AAA New Orleans Zephyrs of the Pacific Coast League against the Iowa Cubs . Humber ended up with a no decision .
The Mets traded Humber along with Carlos Gómez , Kevin Mulvey , and Deolis Guerra for two @-@ time Cy Young Award @-@ winning pitcher Johan Santana that offseason . Humber pitched for the Twins in 2008 and 2009 and then signed a minor league contract with the Kansas City Royals after the 2009 season . After pitching for Kansas City for 2010 , the Oakland Athletics claimed him on waivers from the Royals , but waived him a week later , at which point he was taken by the Chicago White Sox .
Humber nearly achieved a no hitter for the 2011 Chicago White Sox twice . On April 25 , 2011 , in the sixth start of his career , he took a no @-@ hitter into the seventh inning against the New York Yankees at Yankee Stadium but , with one out , Alex Rodriguez singled up the middle , leaving Humber to finish with seven scoreless innings . Later that year he took a no @-@ hitter into the sixth inning against the Washington Nationals on June 26 , but ended up earning a 2 – 1 loss when he surrendered a seventh inning home run to Danny Espinosa . In that contest , Jerry Hairston , Jr. broke up the no @-@ hitter leading off the sixth after Roger Bernadina earned a hit by pitch to break up the perfect game in the fourth .
In 2011 Humber pitched a career @-@ high 163 innings , but expected to pitch more and build on his success with the departure of Mark Buehrle from the White Sox . Although the 2012 Chicago White Sox ' rotation was said to be made up of five number three starters , Humber was the number five starter entering the season , of which his perfect game was Humber 's second start . Humber was scheduled to make his 2012 season debut for the White Sox on April 10 , but the game was rained out . He was then made available for middle relief . In his season debut , on April 16 , Humber allowed one run and ten baserunners in 5 1 ⁄ 3 innings , throwing 115 pitches .
= = The game = =
Humber 's second start of the season took place on the road in Safeco Field in Seattle , Washington on April 21 , 2012 and was played in front of a crowd of 22 @,@ 472 people . The White Sox ' catcher was A. J. Pierzynski and Humber 's mound opponent , Blake Beavan , was a 2007 Texas high school player of the year . The home plate , first , second , and third base umpires were Brian Runge , Marvin Hudson , Tim McClelland , and Ted Barrett respectively . The game was broadcast on Fox , with Mariners ' broadcaster Dave Sims and Eric Karros on the call and its duration was two hours , seventeen minutes . Eric Karros , before the game , describing Humber 's previous few games , remarked , " Gotta be a little better today . "
Beavan threw a quality start for Seattle , while Humber retired all 27 batters he faced , as his fastball reached 92 miles per hour ( 148 km / h ) . The closest a batter got to a hit was Dustin Ackley 's fourth inning line drive over the head of right fielder Alex Ríos , which resulted in a warning track leaping catch . The Mariners began talking about Humber 's dominance in the fifth inning as they sought to break up the perfect game . Humber recorded the final out on a check @-@ swing strikeout of Brendan Ryan . The ball got away from catcher Pierzynski , but home plate umpire Runge ruled that Ryan had failed to check his swing . Ryan took steps toward first base but , when he saw that Pierzynski had successfully gathered the ball and thrown to first , he argued the call with Runge . The FOX Sports broadcast never showed any angle which definitively proved whether Ryan had successfully checked his swing , but many fans and media members felt the call was incorrect . Ryan himself refused to discuss the play after the game and offered nothing but praise for Humber .
Humber finished the game with nine strikeouts ; the other batters were retired with five groundouts and 13 flyouts . Humber threw only 96 pitches , making this the first perfect game thrown in under 100 pitches since David Cone 's perfect game on July 18 , 1999 . Humber had only started 29 Major League games prior to throwing his perfect game , making him the pitcher with the second fewest starts prior to throwing a perfect game , behind fellow White Sox player Charlie Robertson . MLB.com has made available the video of the last out .
The game was only available on television in the Chicago and Seattle markets , because a game between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox at Fenway Park , also on the network , was broadcast by more affiliates . Games between those two rivals generate a great deal of interest and receive extensive media coverage , including being broadcast on national television . Fox did , however , cut away from Yankees – Red Sox game , which was already in the seventh inning , to show the final three outs of Humber 's perfect game , even in the Boston and New York markets .
= = Aftermath = =
It was the 21st perfect game in MLB history and the first since Roy Halladay 's perfect game on May 29 , 2010 . It was the third perfect game in White Sox history ( tying them with the Yankees for most perfect games ) after Charlie Robertson 's ( who threw the only other perfect game in April in MLB history ) on April 30 , 1922 and Mark Buehrle 's on July 23 , 2009 , and the 18th no @-@ hitter in White Sox history ( tying them with the Red Sox for second most no @-@ hitters ) . It was Humber 's second start of the 2012 season and first career complete game .
Humber went 1 – 0 with a 0 @.@ 63 ERA in 14 1 ⁄ 3 innings while striking out 16 over two starts that week , including the perfect game , resulting in his selection as American League Player of the Week for the week ending April 22 . He received a congratulatory phone call from President Barack Obama , a noted White Sox fan , and received news that his perfect game would be memorialized with a plaque at the National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum . Humber made an appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman on April 23 , where he read the Top Ten List .
Humber became the seventh former member of the Mets to go on to throw a no @-@ hitter for another team . The other six are Nolan Ryan , Tom Seaver , Mike Scott , Dwight Gooden , Hideo Nomo and David Cone . The New York Mets , at the time of Humber 's perfect game , had never had a no @-@ hitter thrown by a player in the 50 @-@ year history of the franchise ( Johan Santana has since accomplished this feat ) .
The Mariners went hitless for the third time in franchise history and this was the first time that no Mariner reached base . However , they went on to pitch two no @-@ hitters in 2012 , both of which took place at Safeco Field and winning both games 1 @-@ 0 . One of them was the first perfect game in franchise history , by Félix Hernández , making them the first team to be on both the losing and winning end of a perfect game in the same season , and marking the first time two perfect games were thrown in the same park in the same season .
= = Statistics = =
Chicago White Sox 4 , Seattle Mariners 0 , April 21 , 2012
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= Norway Airlines =
Norway Airlines A / S was a Norwegian airline which operated between 1988 and 1992 . Focusing on charter , the airline operated two Boeing 737 @-@ 300 aircraft from 1988 to 1992 , after which it operated two McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 aircraft , one MD @-@ 83 and one MD @-@ 87 . The airline flew a single scheduled route , between Oslo Airport , Fornebu and London Gatwick Airport , at first on contract with Air Europe and from 1991 at its own expense . At its peak , Norway Airlines had 196 employees . The company struggled financially and lost more than 100 million Norwegian krone ( NOK ) before terminating operations , having never made a profit .
The airline was established by Trøndelag @-@ based investors on 2 April 1987 , having been originally intended to operate charter flights to the Mediterranean area . Ansett Australia was an early investor , but soon sold out . The company suffered with its main contractor , Sun Tours , going bankrupt in 1988 , after which the airline moved to the British charter market . Air Europe 's holding company bought a third of Norway Airlines in October 1989 ; this allowed the Norwegian company to start flying Air Europe 's route between Oslo and Gatwick as a wet lease operation , in addition to several international destinations from London . Air Europe went bankrupt in March 1991 , causing Norway Airlines to temporarily halt operations .
Sterling Airways came in as a new strategic minority owner , and the two airlines started an alliance along with Transwede . Their key goal was to secure concessions to fly between the Scandinavian capital cities of Oslo , Stockholm and Copenhagen , but no permission was ever granted . Instead Norway Airlines started its own service between Oslo and London . Operations ceased on 14 October 1992 after the board had filed for bankruptcy .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
Norway Airlines was established on 2 April 1987 by Kjell Adserø and his holding company Hell Holding , along with several other investors from Trøndelag — the largest of which was Lyng Industrier . The business model was to operate charter flights from Norway to the Mediterranean ; eighty percent of the market was carried out with foreign airlines and Adserø believed that Norwegians not only would prefer a Norwegian carrier , but would be willing to pay more for one . The company had an initial share capital of NOK 10 million and established its head office and main base at Stavanger Airport , Sola . Separate companies , organized as kommandittselskap , wer established to own each aircraft and lease them to the airline . The aircraft owner companies paid 28 @.@ 7 million United States dollars for each Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , which were delivered new from Boeing Commercial Airplanes . Shares in the aircraft owning companies was offered to the public with a four @-@ percent annual return on investment . Part of the investment model was based on tax advantages .
The share capital was expanded to NOK 20 million in September 1987 . Among the purchasers was Ansett Australia , who bought a twenty @-@ percent stake . Ragnar Lyng replaced Adeserø as chairman and Johan H. Gedde @-@ Dahl was hired as managing director . Original plans were to start operations on 24 October 1987 , but this had to be postponed due to late delivery of the aircraft . Revenue flights commenced in February 1988 , after delivery of the airline 's first 148 @-@ passenger Boeing 737 @-@ 300 , City of Trondheim . The airline 's second 737 @-@ 300 , City of Stavanger , was delivered the same month , but was leased to Monarch Airlines . About sixty percent of the company 's initial business was flying on contract with Sun Tours .
Gedde @-@ Dahl was replaced by Kristian Åreskjold in March 1988 . The company lost NOK 15 million in 1987 and budgeted with a deficit of NOK 13 million the following year . To cover the losses , the airline issued a private placement for NOK 12 million and a public issue of NOK 18 million . The airline retained only a single aircraft in operation until late 1989 and the staff of 50 to 60 employees was too much for the revenue form a single aircraft to cover . The airline planned to acquire a third aircraft in 1990 and budgeted with a profit of NOK 7 million in 1989 and NOK 32 million in 1990 . Sun Tours filed for bankruptcy in late May 1988 . However , Åreskjold stated that the bankruptcy " came at a convenient time " as in the short term Norway Airlines would fly back Sun Tours customers at the expense of the Norwegian Travel Guarantee Fund and that there was a deficit of aircraft on the European charter market . Within a week , Norway Airlines had signed a contract to fly with both aircraft for Britannia Airways out of London Gatwick Airport . A new issue of shares for NOK 25 to 30 million took place in June 1988 and the company stated its intent to list itself on the Trondheim Stock Exchange . Nils Erik Christensen had by then been appointed chairman .
= = = Air Europe = = =
The airline was by September again in need of new capital . The contracts with Britannia ended on 1 November . While there was a high demand for 737 @-@ 300 aircraft , aviation regulations hindered Norway Airlines from wet leaseing the aircraft ( with full crew ) and limited them to dry leaseing ( without crew ) , which jeopardized the jobs of 86 employees . There were speculations in mid @-@ October that Air Europe was planning to purchase Norway Airlines . Lyng had by then bought Ansett 's share and held a 55 @-@ percent ownership . Norway Airlines announced on 25 October that they would lease both their aircraft to Air Europe on a five @-@ year contract , one aircraft from November 1988 and one from March 1989 . The airline would have to continue with ad @-@ hoc charters for the one aircraft until March . The deal also involved that the United Kingdom @-@ based International Leisure Group ( ILG ) would purchase a 33 @-@ percent share of Norway Airlines through a private placement of NOK 25 million .
Air Europe announced on 6 December 1988 that they would start a scheduled service between Oslo @-@ Fornebu and London @-@ Gatwick and intended to offer cheaper flights than the incumbents Scandinavian Airlines System ( SAS ) and British Airways . Operations started on 15 May , using Norway Airline 's 737 @-@ 300 , which was reconfigured to seat 142 passengers in a two @-@ class layout . Norway Airlines announced that they would take the brand name Air Europe Scandinavia and would paint their aircraft in the Air Europe livery , albeit with the Flag of Norway . Air Europe simultaneously started services from Copenhagen and Stockholm to London . The Oslo – London route immediately achieved an eighty @-@ percent cabin factor , with about twenty percent of its sales in business class . The capacity was doubled from November to two daily round trips . Other routes flown on behalf of Air Europe were from London to Rome , Gibraltar and Malta , although occasionally the aircraft could be used on other services . The London routes had after a year achieved a twenty @-@ percent market share . Norway Airlines had by July 1990 lost an accumulated NOK 75 million and new shares worth NOK 40 million were issued to finance continued operations .
Norway Airlines applied in 1990 for permission to operate a charter route from Oslo to Penang , Malaysia , using a Boeing 757 . The application was dismissed by the Ministry of Transport and Communications to protect SAS ' route from Copenhagen to Singapore . The Penang route was necessary for Norway Airlines to procure a third aircraft , which according to the company was necessary to generate a profit , and would have created 100 new jobs . In the mean time , Tjæreborg Reiser sent their charter passengers with scheduled flights to London and onwards with British carriers to Malaysia . The dismissal was appealed to Minister of Transport and Communications , Lars Gunnar Lie of the Christian Democratic Party . The issue became a political issue within Syse 's Cabinet , as the Conservative Party and the Progress Party were both in favor of increased deregulation of the airline industry . The issue was complicated by the common aviation policy of the three Scandinavian counties , which had largely been established to protect SAS ' interest on international services . The cabinet therefore opened for discussion a further deregulation with the governments of Sweden and Denmark . The Conservative Party stated that this was in part a response to Danish and Swedish authorities allowing charter services to Phuket , Thailand , which could be seen as competing to SAS ' route to Bangkok . Syse 's Cabiet resigned on 3 November over issues regarding Norway and the European Union , before a reply to the application could be made .
The airline reached a non @-@ public settlement with Thor Tjøntveit on 10 September regarding the latter 's right to purchase one of Norway Airline 's aircraft . Norway Airlines lost NOK 12 million in 1990 . In January 1991 , the airline won the contract to fly personnel the Norwegian Armed Forces , as the airline priced half a million krone lower than Busy Bee . Operations started in April and secured sufficient business that the airline could order its third aircraft , along with a contract from Gullivers Reiser for additional charter flights . Within a week it received concession to operate scheduled flights between Oslo , Copenhagen and Stockholm to London . A similar concession was also granted to Braathens SAFE , but they stated that the intense competition on the route would make it difficult for them to start a service . However , the five @-@ year concession required that Norway Airlines not have any foreign citizens in the board ; as two representatives for ILG sat on the board , they would have to resign for the concession to be valid . The Progress Party called for the law to be changed . Norway Airlines also applied for a route from Bergen and Stavanger to London .
Air Europe fell under financial distress in 1991 and terminated all its Gatwick operations on 8 March . This resulted in Norway Airlines having to ground both its aircraft . Before operations could commence , the two creditors of the aircraft , Fokus Bank and Christiania Bank , had to refinance the two holding companies . As the aircraft remained grounded when the military contract started on 1 April , Norway Airlines had to lease aircraft externally to operate the charters . The aircraft were freed up towards the end of April , allowing the services with Gullivers Reiser to commence on 28 April . Originally the leases on the aircraft expired 1 April 1993 and 1994 , respectively , but Norway Airlines renegotiated them to both expire 1 April 1994 . The Gullivers Reiser contract involved flying from Norway to Greece , Spain , Portugal and Turkey . Air Europe 's bankruptcy cost Norway Airlines NOK 6 million and required the company to reduce its staff from 196 to 106 employees . One aircraft was fully utilized , although the second was occasionally operated for Star Tour , Vingreiser and British Airways .
= = = Nordic cooperation = = =
Denmark 's Sterling Airways bought ILG 's share of Norway Airlines in mid July . The airlines announced a partnership , which also included Transwede . The Wallenberg @-@ controlled NRT owned a 48 @-@ percent stake in Sterling and 66 percent of Transwede — the remaining third owned by Sterling . The three airlines applied for concessions to operate on the capital triangle between Oslo , Copenhagen and Stockholm . SAS held a monopoly on these routes and the airlines intended to capture the leisure market between the capital regions . Both ILG and Sterling were hindered in owning more than a third of Norway Airlines because of Norwegian corporate legislation . Fokus Bank had gradually become the largest shareholder in Norway Airline and owned 40 @.@ 6 percent of the company in July 1991 . At a shareholders meeting in July , Stein Øxseth was appointed chairman and all non @-@ Norwegian board members were replaced .
In September 1991 , the government changed the policy for the military 's procurement of air transport from 1 April 1992 . This involved that the transport of 200 @,@ 000 people annually would be transferred to scheduled services , resulting in Norway Airlines losing the opportunity to extend its engagement with the military . The route from Oslo to London was introduced on 3 October , at first with four weekly services , increasing to nine from 23 October . The three partner airlines launched their alliance as the TransNordic Group and would use a bowler hat as their common symbol . However , the routes arrived so late in the evening that the last flights from Fornebu to Trondheim , Bergen , Stavanger and Tromsø had all departed . After five months the airline had achieved a 55 @-@ percent cabin factor on the London route . The ministry rejected in December 1991 the airline 's application for flying to Stockholm and Copenhagen . By December the British airline Dan @-@ Air had also established itself on the Oslo – London route . To meet the price competition , SAS launched discounted business class tickets . In the course of twelve months from late 1991 to late 1992 , the capacity between Oslo and London doubled , as also Norsk Air introduced a service from Sandefjord Airport , Torp .
Norway Airlines lost NOK 32 to 33 million in 1991 . Norway Airlines replaced its two 737 @-@ 300 aircraft with two McDonnell Douglas MD @-@ 80 aircraft leased from Transwede , one MD @-@ 83 and one MD @-@ 87 . For the owners of the Boeing aircraft the move meant that they had to find a new lessee in a marketed where leasing prices had fallen from US $ 250 @,@ 000 to US $ 150 – 180 @,@ 000 per month . An interlining agreement was signed by Norway Airlines in March with British Airways and 25 other airlines at Gatwick . Norway Airlines announced on 15 March that it would take over the 25 Sterling employees in Norway in October . TransNordic Group started negotiations in June with Braathens SAFE , Maersk Air and Conair of Scandinavia for them to join the alliance . Prior to the roll @-@ out of Amadeus reservation system in July 1992 , Norway Airlines had not been included in the default searched of travel agents , who had to phone the airline to get a price quote .
Foreign airlines were from 1 April 1992 permitted to fly passengers between the Scandinavian capitals , and both TAP Portugal and Delta Air Lines started flying passengers as extensions to their existing routes . This was negotiated as part of bilateral agreements and intra @-@ Scandinavian agreements continued to hinder Norway Airlines from flying any of the routes . As of May , the Ministry of Transport and Communications had received applications to operate from Oslo to the other Scandinavian capitals by six airlines : Norway Airlines , Braathens SAFE , Transwede , Sterling , Maersk Air and Conair .
Norway Airline 's board voted on 14 October 1992 to file for bankruptcy , and all aircraft were grounded on 15 October 1992 . The official reason was " the crisis in the airline industry and unacceptable profitability " , combined with Norwegian authorities ' lack of willingness to grant the airline concessions . The airline had lost more than NOK 100 million by the start of the year and had failed to make a profit during 1992 . Norway Airlines entered negotiations with Air Holland for the latter to purchase the airline , but the deal fell through on 1 December . Within days of the bankruptcy , Dan @-@ Air also terminated operations . Braathens SAFE therefore decided to start flying the Fornebu – Gatwick route . Six days after Dan @-@ Air 's closure , the first schedules were published in the newspaper ; slots and British permission was granted three days after that . The service started another two days later .
= = Organization = =
When established , the company was based at Tananger in Sola outside Stavanger and had its main operative base at Stavanger Airport , Sola . The head office was later moved to Fornebu in Bærum outside Oslo , and the main base moved to Oslo Airport , Fornebu . At its peak the company had 196 employees , of which 144 were based in Norway . At the time of bankruptcy , the company had 120 employees , of which 78 were flight staff . Air Europe 's CEO Rod Lynch stated that Air Europe , and in extension Norway Airlines , had forty percent lower operating costs than Lufthansa and twenty percent lower than British Airways . Lynch emphasized the lack of trade unions as a key to holding costs down . Air Europe claimed a thirty @-@ four percent market share on passengers between Oslo and London .
Norway Airlines had a single @-@ class service on their route and in their marketing claimed that they offered " business class service to everyone " . The airline served a warm in @-@ flight meal and drinks at the level of business class on other airlines . The airline hoped to attract business travelers to travel at a more reasonable fare , while attracting leisure travelers with better service . Norway Airlines pioneered smoke @-@ free flights from Norway .
= = Destinations = =
Norway Airlines only operated a single scheduled service , between Oslo and London . The route was flown nine times per week , two round trips per day on Thursdays , Fridays and Sundays , and one round trip per day on Mondays , Tuesdays and Wednesdays . The route saw an average 60 @,@ 000 to 70 @,@ 000 passengers per year .
= = Fleet = =
Norway Airlines operated the following aircraft :
= Ted Kennedy =
Edward Moore " Ted " Kennedy ( February 22 , 1932 – August 25 , 2009 ) was a United States Senator from Massachusetts and a member of the Democratic Party . He was the second most senior member of the Senate when he died and was the fourth @-@ longest @-@ serving senator in United States history , having served there for almost 47 years . The most prominent living member of the Kennedy family for many years , he was the last surviving son of Joseph P. Kennedy , Sr. and Rose Kennedy ; the youngest brother of President John F. Kennedy and Senator Robert F. Kennedy , both victims of assassination ; and the father of Congressman Patrick J. Kennedy .
Kennedy entered the Senate in a November 1962 special election to fill the seat once held by his brother John . He was elected to a full six @-@ year term in 1964 and was reelected seven more times . The Chappaquiddick incident on July 18 , 1969 , resulted in the death of his automobile passenger , Mary Jo Kopechne . Kennedy pleaded guilty to a charge of leaving the scene of an accident ; the incident and its aftermath hindered his chances of ever becoming President of the United States . His one attempt , in the 1980 presidential election , resulted in a Democratic primary campaign loss to incumbent President Jimmy Carter .
Kennedy was known for his charisma and oratorical skills . His 1968 eulogy for his brother Robert and his 1980 rallying cry for modern American liberalism were among his best @-@ known speeches . He became recognized as " The Lion of the Senate " through his long tenure and influence . More than 300 bills that Kennedy and his staff wrote were enacted into law . Unabashedly liberal , Kennedy championed an interventionist government emphasizing economic and social justice , but was also known for working with Republicans to find compromises between senators with disparate views . Kennedy played a major role in passing many laws , including laws addressing immigration , cancer research , health insurance , apartheid , disability discrimination , AIDS care , civil rights , mental health benefits , children 's health insurance , education and volunteering . During the 2000s , he led several unsuccessful immigration reform efforts . Over the course of his Senate career and continuing into the Obama administration , Kennedy continued his efforts to enact universal health care , which he called the " cause of my life . "
In May 2008 , Kennedy was hospitalized after suffering a seizure and was diagnosed with a malignant brain tumor , which limited his appearances in the Senate . He died on August 25 , 2009 , at his Hyannis Port , Massachusetts home . By the later years of his life , he had come to be viewed as a major figure and spokesman for American progressivism .
= = Early life = =
Edward Moore Kennedy was born in St. Margaret 's Hospital on February 22 , 1932 , in the Dorchester section of Boston , Massachusetts . He was the youngest of nine children of Joseph P. Kennedy Sr. and Rose Fitzgerald , who were members of prominent Irish American families in Boston , and who constituted one of the wealthiest families in the nation . His elder siblings included Joseph Jr . , John , Eunice , and Robert . John asked to be the newborn 's godfather , a request his parents honored , though they did not agree to his request to name the baby George Washington Kennedy ( the newborn had entered the world on the first president 's 200th birthday ) ; they named
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the season @-@ ending Harvard @-@ Yale game in the snow at the Yale Bowl on November 19 , which Yale won 21 – 7 , Kennedy caught a pass to score Harvard 's only touchdown ; the team finished the season with a 3 – 4 – 1 record . Academically , Kennedy received mediocre grades for his first three years , improved to a B average for his senior year , and finished barely in the top half of his class . At age 24 , Kennedy graduated from Harvard in 1956 with an A.B. in history and government .
Not accepted by Harvard Law School due to his grades , Kennedy followed his brother Bobby and enrolled in the University of Virginia School of Law in 1956 . That acceptance was controversial among faculty and alumni who judged Kennedy 's past cheating episode incompatible with the University of Virginia 's honor code and it took a full faculty vote to admit him . Kennedy also attended the Hague Academy of International Law during one summer . At Virginia , Kennedy felt that he had to study " four times as hard and four times as long " as other students to keep up with them . His grades were mostly C 's ; he was in the middle of the class ranking , but was the winner of the prestigious William Minor Lile Moot Court Competition . He was elected head of the Student Legal Forum and via his family connections brought many prominent speakers to the campus . While there , his fast automotive habits were curtailed when he was charged with reckless driving and driving without a license . While attending law school , he was officially named as manager of his brother John 's 1958 Senate re @-@ election campaign ; Ted 's ability to connect with ordinary voters on the street helped bring a record @-@ setting victory margin that gave credibility to John 's presidential aspirations . Ted graduated from law school in 1959 .
= = Family and early career = =
Early in his second year of law school in October 1957 , Kennedy met Virginia Joan Bennett at Manhattanville College , following a dedication speech for a gymnasium that his family donated at the campus in Purchase , New York . Bennett was a senior there , had worked as a model and won beauty contests , but was unfamiliar with the world of politics . After their engagement , she grew nervous about marrying someone she did not know that well , but his father insisted that the wedding should proceed . They were married by Cardinal Francis Spellman on November 29 , 1958 , at St. Joseph 's Church in Bronxville , New York , with the reception being held at the nearby Siwanoy Country Club . Together they had three children : Kara ( February 27 , 1960 – September 16 , 2011 ) , Ted , Jr . ( born September 26 , 1961 ) , and Patrick J. ( born July 14 , 1967 ) . By the mid @-@ 1960s , their marriage was in trouble due to Ted 's womanizing and Joan 's growing alcoholism .
Kennedy was admitted to the Massachusetts Bar in 1959 . In 1960 , John ran for President of the United States and Ted managed his campaign in the Western states . Ted learned to fly and during the Democratic primary campaign he barnstormed around the western states , meeting with delegates and bonding with them by trying his hand at ski jumping and bronc riding . The seven weeks he spent in Wisconsin helped his brother win the first contested primary of the season there and a similar time spent in Wyoming was rewarded when a unanimous vote from that state 's delegates put his brother over the top at the 1960 Democratic National Convention .
Following his victory in the presidential election , John vacated his seat as U.S. Senator from Massachusetts , but Ted was not eligible to fill the vacancy until February 22 , 1962 , when he would turn thirty . Initially Ted wanted to stay out West and do something other than run for office right away ; he said , " The disadvantage of my position is being constantly compared with two brothers of such superior ability . " His brothers were not in favor of his running immediately either , but Ted coveted the Senate seat as an accomplishment to match his brothers ' and their father overruled them . Therefore , John asked Massachusetts Governor Foster Furcolo to name Kennedy family friend Ben Smith as interim senator for John 's unexpired term , which he did in December 1960 . This kept the seat available for Ted . Meanwhile , Ted started work in February 1961 as an assistant district attorney for Suffolk County , Massachusetts ( for which he took a nominal $ 1 salary ) , where he first developed a hard @-@ nosed attitude towards crime . He took many overseas trips , billed as fact @-@ finding tours with the goal of improving his foreign policy credentials . On a nine @-@ nation Latin American trip in 1961 , FBI reports from the time showed Kennedy meeting with Lauchlin Currie , an alleged former Soviet spy , together with locals in each country whom the reports deemed left @-@ wingers and Communist sympathizers . Reports from the FBI and other sources had Kennedy renting a brothel and opening up bordellos after hours during the tour . The Latin American trip helped to formulate Kennedy 's foreign policy views , and in subsequent Boston Globe columns he warned that the region might turn to Communism if the U.S. did not reach out to it in a more effective way . Kennedy also began speaking to local political clubs and organizations .
In the 1962 U.S. Senate special election in Massachusetts , Kennedy initially faced a Democratic Party primary challenge from Edward J. McCormack , Jr . , the state Attorney General . Kennedy 's slogan was " He can do more for Massachusetts " , the same one John had used in his first campaign for the seat ten years earlier . McCormack had the support of many liberals and intellectuals , who thought Kennedy inexperienced and knew of his suspension from Harvard , a fact which later became public during the race . Kennedy also faced the notion that with one brother President and another U.S. Attorney General , " Don 't you think that Teddy is one Kennedy too many ? " But Kennedy proved to be an effective street @-@ level campaigner . In a televised debate , McCormack said " The office of United States Senator should be merited , and not inherited , " and said that if his opponent 's name was Edward Moore , not Edward Moore Kennedy , his candidacy " would be a joke " . Voters thought McCormack 's performance overbearing , and with the family political machine 's finally getting fully behind him , Kennedy won the September 1962 primary by a two @-@ to @-@ one margin . In the November special election , Kennedy defeated Republican George Cabot Lodge II , product of another noted Massachusetts political family , gaining 55 percent of the vote .
= = United States Senator = =
= = = First years and assassinations of two brothers = = =
Kennedy was sworn in to the Senate on November 7 , 1962 . He maintained a deferential attitude towards the older , seniority @-@ laden Southern members when he first entered the Senate , avoiding publicity and focusing on committee work and local issues . Compared to his brothers in office , he lacked John 's sophistication and Robert 's intense , sometimes grating drive , but was more affable than either of them .
On November 22 , 1963 , while Kennedy was presiding over the Senate — a task given to junior members — an aide rushed in to tell him that his brother , President John F. Kennedy , had been shot ; his brother Robert soon told him that the President was dead . Ted , with his sister Eunice Kennedy Shriver , flew to the family home in Hyannis Port , Massachusetts , to tell his father ( afflicted by a stroke suffered in December 1961 ) the news .
On June 19 , 1964 , Kennedy was a passenger in a private Aero Commander 680 airplane flying in bad weather from Washington to Massachusetts . It crashed into an apple orchard in the western Massachusetts town of Southampton on the final approach to the Barnes Municipal Airport in Westfield . The pilot and Edward Moss , one of Kennedy 's aides , were killed . Kennedy was pulled from the wreckage by fellow Senator Birch Bayh and spent months in a hospital recovering from a severe back injury , a punctured lung , broken ribs and internal bleeding . He suffered chronic back pain for the rest of his life . Kennedy took advantage of his long convalescence to meet with academics and study issues more closely , and the hospital experience triggered his lifelong interest in the provision of health care services . His wife Joan did the campaigning for him in the regular 1964 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts , and he defeated his Republican opponent by a three @-@ to @-@ one margin .
Kennedy returned to the Senate in January 1965 , walking with a cane and employing a stronger and more effective legislative staff . He took on President Lyndon B. Johnson and almost succeeded in amending the Voting Rights Act of 1965 to explicitly ban the poll tax at the state and local level ( rather than just directing the Attorney General to challenge its constitutionality there ) , thereby gaining a reputation for legislative skill . He was a leader in pushing through the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1965 , which ended a quota system based upon national origin and which , despite Kennedy 's predictions , would have a profound effect on the demographic makeup of the United States . He played a role in creation of the National Teachers Corps .
Following in the Cold Warrior path of his fallen brother , Kennedy initially said he had " no reservations " about the expanding U.S. role in the Vietnam War , acknowledging that it would be a " long and enduring struggle " . Kennedy held hearings on the plight of refugees in the conflict , which revealed that the U.S. government had no coherent policy for refugees . Kennedy also tried to reform " unfair " and " inequitable " aspects of the draft . By the time of a January 1968 trip to Vietnam , Kennedy was disillusioned by the lack of U.S. progress , and suggested publicly that the U.S. should tell South Vietnam , " Shape up or we 're going to ship out . "
Ted initially advised his brother Robert against challenging the incumbent President Johnson for the Democratic nomination in the 1968 presidential election . Once Eugene McCarthy 's strong showing in the New Hampshire primary led to Robert 's presidential campaign starting in March 1968 , Ted recruited political leaders for endorsements to his brother in the Western states . Ted was in San Francisco as his brother Robert won the crucial California primary on June 4 , 1968 ; and then after midnight , Robert was shot in Los Angeles and died a day later . Ted Kennedy was devastated by this death , as he was closest to Robert among those in the Kennedy family ; Kennedy aide Frank Mankiewicz said of seeing Ted at the hospital where Robert lay mortally wounded : " I have never , ever , nor do I expect ever , to see a face more in grief . " Ted Kennedy delivered a eulogy at Robert 's funeral , which included the oft @-@ quoted :
My brother need not be idealized , or enlarged in death beyond what he was in life ; to be remembered simply as a good and decent man , who saw wrong and tried to right it , saw suffering and tried to heal it , saw war and tried to stop it . Those of us who loved him and who take him to his rest today , pray that what he was to us and what he wished for others will some day come to pass for all the world . As he said many times , in many parts of this nation , to those he touched and who sought to touch him : " Some men see things as they are and say why . I dream things that never were and say why not . "
At the chaotic 1968 Democratic National Convention in August , Mayor of Chicago Richard J. Daley and some other party factions feared that Hubert Humphrey could not unite the party , and so encouraged Ted Kennedy to make himself available for a draft . The 36 @-@ year @-@ old Kennedy was seen as the natural heir to his brothers , and " Draft Ted " movements sprang up from various quarters and among delegates . Thinking that he was only being seen as a stand @-@ in for his brother and that he was not ready for the job himself , and getting an uncertain reaction from McCarthy and a negative one from Southern delegates , Kennedy rejected any move to place his name before the convention as a candidate for the nomination . He also declined consideration for the vice @-@ presidential spot . George McGovern remained the symbolic standard @-@ bearer for Robert 's delegates instead .
After the deaths of his brothers , Ted Kennedy took on the role of a surrogate father for his 13 nephews and nieces . By some reports , he also negotiated the October 1968 marital contract between Jacqueline Kennedy and Aristotle Onassis .
Following Republican Richard Nixon 's victory in November , Kennedy was widely assumed to be the front @-@ runner for the 1972 Democratic nomination . In January 1969 , Kennedy defeated Louisiana Senator Russell B. Long by a 31 – 26 margin to become Senate Majority Whip , the youngest person to attain that position . While this further boosted his presidential image , he also appeared conflicted by the inevitability of having to run for the position . The reluctance was in part due to the danger ; Kennedy reportedly observed , " I know that I 'm going to get my ass shot off one day , and I don 't want to . " Indeed , there were a constant series of death threats made against Kennedy for much of the rest of his career .
= = = Chappaquiddick incident = = =
On the night of July 18 , 1969 , Kennedy was on Martha 's Vineyard 's Chappaquiddick Island at a party he gave for the " Boiler Room Girls " , a group of young women who had worked on his brother Robert 's presidential campaign the year before . Kennedy left the party , driving a 1967 Oldsmobile Delmont 88 with one of the women , 28 @-@ year @-@ old Mary Jo Kopechne , and later drove off Dike Bridge into the Poucha Pond inlet , a tidal channel on Chappaquiddick Island . Kennedy escaped the overturned vehicle , and , by his description , dove below the surface seven or eight times , vainly attempting to reach Kopechne . Ultimately , he swam to shore and left the scene . He contacted authorities the next morning , but Kopechne 's body had already been discovered .
On July 25 , Kennedy pleaded guilty to leaving the scene of an accident and was given a sentence of two months in jail , suspended . That night , he gave a national broadcast in which he said , " I regard as indefensible the fact that I did not report the accident to the police immediately , " but denied driving under the influence of alcohol and denied any immoral conduct between him and Kopechne . Kennedy asked the Massachusetts electorate whether he should stay in office or resign ; after getting a favorable response in messages sent to him , Kennedy announced on July 30 that he would remain in the Senate and run for re @-@ election the next year .
In January 1970 , an inquest into Kopechne 's death was held in Edgartown , Massachusetts . At the request of Kennedy 's lawyers , the Massachusetts Supreme Judicial Court ordered the inquest be conducted in secret . The presiding judge , James A. Boyle , concluded that some aspects of Kennedy 's story of that night were not true , and that negligent driving " appears to have contributed to the death of Mary Jo Kopechne " . A grand jury on Martha 's Vineyard conducted a two @-@ day investigation in April 1970 but issued no indictment , after which Boyle made his inquest report public . Kennedy deemed its conclusions " not justified " . Questions about the Chappaquiddick incident generated a large number of articles and books over the next several years .
= = = 1970s = = =
At the end of 1968 , Kennedy had joined the new Committee for National Health Insurance at the invitation of its founder , United Auto Workers president Walter Reuther . In May 1970 , Reuther died and Senator Ralph Yarborough , chairman of the full Senate Labor and Public Welfare Committee and its Health subcommittee , lost his primary election , propelling Kennedy into a leadership role on the issue of national health insurance . In August 1970 , Kennedy introduced a bipartisan bill for universal national health insurance with no cost sharing , paid for by payroll taxes and general federal revenue .
Kennedy easily won re @-@ election to another term in the Senate in November 1970 with 62 percent of the vote against underfunded Republican candidate Josiah Spaulding , although he received about 500 @,@ 000 fewer votes than in 1964 .
In January 1971 , Kennedy lost his position as Senate Majority Whip when he lost the support of several members and was defeated by Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia , 31 – 24 . He would later tell Byrd that the defeat was a blessing , as it allowed him to focus more on issues and committee work , where his best strengths lay and where he could exert influence independently from the Democratic party apparatus , and began a decade as chairman of the Subcommittee on Health and Scientific Research of the Senate Labor and Public Welfare Committee .
In February 1971 , President Nixon proposed health insurance reform — an employer mandate to offer private health insurance , federalization of Medicaid , and support for health maintenance organizations . Hearings on national health insurance were held in 1971 , but no bill had the support of House Ways and Means and Senate Finance Committee chairmen Wilbur Mills and Russell Long . Kennedy sponsored and helped pass the limited Health Maintenance Organization Act of 1973 . He also played a leading role , with Senator Jacob Javits , in the creation and passage of the National Cancer Act of 1971 .
In October 1971 , Kennedy made his first speech about The Troubles in Northern Ireland : he said that " Ulster is becoming Britain 's Vietnam " , demanded that British troops leave the northern counties , called for a united Ireland , and declared that Ulster Unionists who could not accept this " should be given a decent opportunity to go back to Britain " ( a position he backed away from within a couple of years ) . Kennedy was harshly criticized by the British , and formed a long political relationship with Irish Social Democratic and Labour Party founder John Hume . In scores of anti @-@ war speeches , Kennedy opposed President Richard Nixon 's policy of Vietnamization , calling it " a policy of violence [ that ] means more and more war " . In December 1971 , Kennedy strongly criticized the Nixon administration 's support for Pakistan and its ignoring of " the brutal and systematic repression of East Bengal by the Pakistani army " . He traveled to India and wrote a report on the plight of the 10 million Bengali refugees . In February 1972 , Kennedy flew to Bangladesh and delivered a speech at the University of Dhaka , where a killing rampage had begun a year earlier .
Chappaquiddick had greatly damaged Kennedy 's future presidential prospects and he had declared , shortly after the incident , that he would not be a candidate in the 1972 U.S. presidential election . Nevertheless , polls in 1971 suggested he could win the nomination if he tried , and Kennedy gave some thought to running . In May of that year he decided not to , saying he needed " breathing time " to gain more experience and to take care of the children of his brothers and that in sum , " It feels wrong in my gut . " Nevertheless , in November 1971 , a Gallup Poll still had him in first place in the Democratic nomination race with 28 percent . Once George McGovern was near clinching the Democratic nomination in June 1972 , various anti @-@ McGovern forces tried to get Kennedy to enter the contest at the last minute , but he declined . At the 1972 Democratic National Convention McGovern repeatedly tried to recruit Kennedy as his vice presidential running mate , but was turned down . When McGovern 's choice of Thomas Eagleton stepped down soon after the convention , McGovern again tried to get Kennedy to take the nod , again without success . McGovern instead chose Kennedy 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Sargent Shriver .
In 1973 , Kennedy 's son Edward Kennedy , Jr . , was discovered to have chondrosarcoma ; his leg was amputated and he underwent a long , difficult , experimental two @-@ year drug treatment . The case brought international attention both among doctors and in the general media , as did the young Kennedy 's return to the ski slopes half a year later . Son Patrick was suffering from severe asthma attacks . The pressure of the situation mounted on Joan Kennedy , who several times entered facilities for alcoholism and emotional strain and was arrested for drunk driving after a traffic accident .
In February 1974 , President Nixon proposed more comprehensive health insurance reform — an employer mandate to offer private health insurance and replacement of Medicaid by state @-@ run health insurance plans available to all with income @-@ based premiums and cost sharing . In April 1974 , Kennedy and Mills introduced a bill for near @-@ universal national health insurance with benefits identical to the expanded Nixon plan , both of which were criticized by labor and senior citizen organizations because of their substantial cost sharing . In August 1974 , after Nixon 's resignation and President Ford 's call for health insurance reform , Mills tried to advance a compromise based on Nixon 's plan , but gave up when the conservative half of his committee instead backed the American Medical Association 's limited voluntary tax credit plan .
In the wake of the Watergate scandal , Kennedy pushed campaign finance reform ; he was a leading force behind passage of the Federal Election Campaign Act Amendments of 1974 , which set contribution limits and established public financing for presidential elections . In April 1974 , Kennedy travelled to the Soviet Union , where he met with leader Leonid Brezhnev and advocated a full nuclear test ban as well as relaxed emigration , gave a speech at Moscow State University , met with Soviet dissidents , and secured an exit visa for famed cellist Mstislav Rostropovich . Kennedy 's Subcommittee on Refugees and Escapees continued to focus on Vietnam , especially after the Fall of Saigon in 1975 .
Kennedy had initially opposed busing schoolchildren across racial lines , but grew to support the practice as it became a focal point of civil rights efforts . After federal judge W. Arthur Garrity ordered the Boston School Committee in 1974 to racially integrate Boston 's public schools via busing , Kennedy made a surprise appearance at a September 1974 anti @-@ busing rally in City Hall Plaza to express the need for peaceful dialogue and was met with extreme hostility . The predominantly white crowd yelled insults about his children and hurled tomatoes and eggs at him as he retreated into the John F. Kennedy Federal Building and went so far as to push against one of its glass walls and break it .
Kennedy was again much talked about as a contender in the 1976 U.S. presidential election , with no strong front @-@ runners among the other possible Democratic candidates . But Kennedy 's concerns about his family were strong , and Chappaquiddick was still in the news , with The Boston Globe , The New York Times Magazine , and Time magazine all reassessing the incident and raising doubts about Kennedy 's version of events . In September 1974 , Kennedy announced that for family reasons he would not run in the 1976 election , declaring that his decision was " firm , final , and unconditional . " The eventual Democratic nominee , Jimmy Carter , built little by way of a relationship with Kennedy during his primary campaign , the convention , or the general election campaign . Kennedy was up for Senate re @-@ election in 1976 ; he defeated a primary challenger angry at his support for school busing in Boston , then won the general election with 69 percent of the vote .
The Carter administration years were difficult for Kennedy ; he had been the most important Democrat in Washington ever since his brother Robert 's death , but now Carter was , and Kennedy at first did not have a full committee chairmanship with which to wield influence . Carter in turn sometimes resented Kennedy 's status as a political celebrity . Despite generally similar ideologies , their priorities were different . Kennedy expressed to reporters that he was content with his congressional role and viewed presidential ambitions as almost far @-@ fetched .
Kennedy and his wife Joan separated in 1977 , although they still staged joint appearances at some public events . He held Health and Scientific Research Subcommittee hearings in March 1977 that led to public revelations of extensive scientific misconduct by contract research organizations , including Industrial Bio @-@ Test Laboratories . Kennedy visited China on a goodwill mission in late December 1977 , meeting with leader Deng Xiaoping and eventually gaining permission for a number of Mainland Chinese nationals to leave the country ; in 1978 , he also visited the Soviet Union and Brezhnev and dissidents there again . During the 1970s , Kennedy also showed interest in nuclear disarmament , and as part of his efforts in this field even visited Hiroshima in January 1978 and gave a public speech to that effect at Hiroshima University . He became chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee in 1978 , by which time he had amassed a wide @-@ ranging Senate staff of a hundred .
As a candidate , Carter had proposed health care reform that included key features of Kennedy 's national health insurance bill , but in December 1977 , President Carter told Kennedy his bill must be changed to preserve a large role for private insurance companies , minimize federal spending ( precluding payroll tax financing ) , and be phased @-@ in so as to not interfere with Carter 's paramount domestic policy objective — balancing the federal budget . Kennedy and labor compromised and made the requested changes , but broke with Carter in July 1978 when he would not commit to pursuing a single bill with a fixed schedule for phasing @-@ in comprehensive coverage . Frustrated by Carter 's budgetary concerns and political caution , in a December 1978 speech on national health insurance at the Democratic midterm convention , Kennedy said regarding liberal goals overall that " sometimes a party must sail against the wind " and in particular should provide health care as " a basic right for all , not just an expensive privilege for the few . "
In May 1979 , Kennedy proposed a new bipartisan universal national health insurance bill — choice of competing federally regulated private health insurance plans with no cost sharing financed by income @-@ based premiums via an employer mandate and individual mandate , replacement of Medicaid by government payment of premiums to private insurers , and enhancement of Medicare by adding prescription drug coverage and eliminating premiums and cost sharing . In June 1979 , Carter proposed more limited health insurance reform — an employer mandate to provide catastrophic private health insurance plus coverage without cost sharing for pregnant women and infants , federalization of Medicaid with extension to all of the very poor , and enhancement of Medicare by adding catastrophic coverage . Neither plan gained any traction in Congress , and the failure to come to agreement represented the final political breach between the two . ( Carter wrote in 1982 that Kennedy 's disagreements with Carter 's proposed approach " ironically " thwarted Carter 's efforts to provide a comprehensive health @-@ care system for the country . In turn , Kennedy wrote in 2009 that his relationship with Carter was " unhealthy " and that " Clearly President Carter was a difficult man to convince – of anything . " )
= = = 1980 presidential campaign = = =
Kennedy finally decided to seek the Democratic nomination in the 1980 presidential election by launching an unusual , insurgent campaign against the incumbent Carter , a member of his own party . A midsummer 1978 poll had shown Democrats preferring Kennedy over Carter by a 5 @-@ to @-@ 3 margin . During spring and summer 1979 , as Kennedy deliberated whether to run , Carter was not intimidated despite his 28 percent approval rating , saying publicly : " If Kennedy runs , I 'll whip his ass . " Carter later asserted that Kennedy 's constant criticism of his policies was a strong indicator that Kennedy was planning to run for the presidency . Labor unions urged Kennedy to run , as did some Democratic party officials who feared that Carter 's unpopularity could result in heavy losses in the 1980 congressional elections . By August 1979 , when Kennedy decided to run , polls showed him with a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 advantage over Carter , and Carter 's approval rating slipped to 19 percent . Kennedy formally announced his campaign on November 7 , 1979 , at Boston 's Faneuil Hall . He had already received substantial negative press from a rambling response to the question " Why do you want to be President ? " during an interview with Roger Mudd of CBS News broadcast a few days earlier . The Iranian hostage crisis , which began on November 4 , and the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan , which began on December 27 , prompted the electorate to rally around the president and allowed Carter to pursue a Rose Garden strategy of staying at the White House , which kept Kennedy 's campaign out of the headlines .
Kennedy 's campaign staff were disorganized and Kennedy was initially an ineffective campaigner . The Chappaquiddick incident emerged as a more significant issue than the staff had expected , with several newspaper columnists and editorials criticizing Kennedy 's answers on the matter . In the January 1980 Iowa caucuses , which initiated the primaries season , Carter demolished Kennedy by a 59 – 31 percent margin . Kennedy 's fundraising immediately declined and his campaign had to downsize , but he remained defiant , saying " [ Now ] we 'll see who is going to whip whose what . " Nevertheless , Kennedy lost three New England contests . Kennedy did form a more coherent message about why he was running , saying at Georgetown University : " I believe we must not permit the dream of social progress to be shattered by those whose premises have failed . " However , concerns over Chappaquiddick and issues related to personal character prevented Kennedy from gaining the support of many people who were disillusioned with Carter . During a St. Patrick 's Day Parade in Chicago , Kennedy had to wear a bullet @-@ proof vest due to assassination threats , and hecklers yelled " Where 's Mary Jo ? " at him . In the key March 18 primary in Illinois , Kennedy failed to gain support of Catholic voters , and Carter crushed him , winning 155 of 169 delegates .
With little mathematical hope of winning the nomination , and polls showing another likely defeat in the New York primary , Kennedy prepared to withdraw from the race . However , partially due to Jewish voter unhappiness with a U.S. vote at the United Nations against Israeli settlements in the West Bank , Kennedy staged an upset and won the March 25 vote by a 59 – 41 percent margin . Carter responded with an advertising campaign that attacked Kennedy 's character in general without explicitly mentioning Chappaquiddick , but Kennedy still managed a narrow win in the April 22 Pennsylvania primary . Carter won 11 of 12 primaries held in May , while on the June 3 Super Tuesday primaries , Kennedy won California , New Jersey , and three smaller states out of eight contests . Overall , Kennedy had won 10 presidential primaries against Carter , who won 24 .
Although Carter now had enough delegates to clinch the nomination , Kennedy carried his campaign on to the 1980 Democratic National Convention in August in New York , hoping to pass a rule there that would free delegates from being bound by primary results and open the convention . This move failed on the first night of the convention , and Kennedy withdrew . On the second night , August 12 , Kennedy delivered the most famous speech of his career . Drawing on allusions to and quotes of Martin Luther King , Jr . , Franklin Delano Roosevelt , and Alfred Lord Tennyson to say that American liberalism was not passé , he concluded with the words :
For me , a few hours ago , this campaign came to an end . For all those whose cares have been our concern , the work goes on , the cause endures , the hope still lives , and the dream shall never die .
The Madison Square Garden audience reacted with wild applause and demonstrations for half an hour . On the final night , Kennedy arrived late after Carter 's acceptance speech and while he shook Carter 's hand , he failed to raise Carter 's arm in the traditional show of party unity . Carter 's difficulty in securing Kennedy supporters during the election campaign was a contributory factor that led to his defeat in November by Ronald Reagan .
= = = 1980s = = =
The 1980 election saw the Republicans capture not just the presidency but control of the Senate as well , and Kennedy was in the minority party for the first time in his career . Kennedy did not dwell upon his presidential loss , but instead reaffirmed his public commitment to American liberalism . He chose to become the ranking member of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee rather than of the Judiciary Committee , which he would later say was one of the most important decisions of his career . Kennedy became a committed champion of women 's issues and of gay rights , and established relationships with select Republican senators to block Reagan 's actions and preserve and improve the Voting Rights Act , funding for AIDS treatment , and equal funding for women 's sports under Title IX . To combat being in the minority , he worked long hours and devised a series of hearings @-@ like public forums to which he could invite experts and discuss topics important to him . Kennedy could not hope to stop all of Reagan 's reshapings of government , but was often nearly the sole effective Democrat battling him .
In January 1981 , Ted and Joan Kennedy announced they were getting a divorce . The proceedings were generally amicable , and she received a reported $ 4 million settlement when the divorce was granted in 1982 . Later that year , Kennedy created the Friends of Ireland organization with Senator Daniel Moynihan and House Speaker Tip O 'Neill to support initiatives for peace and reconciliation in Northern Ireland .
Kennedy easily defeated Republican businessman Ray Shamie to win re @-@ election in 1982 . Senate leaders granted him a seat on the Armed Services Committee , while allowing him to keep his other major seats despite the traditional limit of two such seats . Kennedy became very visible in opposing aspects of the foreign policy of the Reagan administration , including U.S. intervention in the Salvadoran Civil War and U.S. support for the Contras in Nicaragua , and in opposing Reagan @-@ supported weapons systems , including the B @-@ 1 bomber , the MX missile , and the Strategic Defense Initiative . Kennedy became the Senate 's leading advocate for a nuclear freeze and was a critic of Reagan 's confrontational policies toward the Soviet Union . A 1983 memorandum from KGB Chairman Viktor Chebrikov to General Secretary Yuri Andropov noted this stance and asserted that Kennedy , through former Senator John Tunney 's discussions with Soviet contacts , had suggested that U.S.-Soviet relations might be improved if Kennedy and Andropov could meet in person to discuss arms control issues and if top Soviet officials , via Kennedy 's help , were able to address the American public through the U.S. news media . Andropov was unimpressed by the idea .
Kennedy 's staff drew up detailed plans for a candidacy in the 1984 presidential election that he considered , but with his family opposed and his realization that the Senate was a fully satisfying career , in late 1982 he decided not to run . Kennedy campaigned hard for Democratic presidential nominee Walter Mondale and defended vice presidential nominee Geraldine Ferraro from criticism over being a pro @-@ choice Catholic , but Reagan was re @-@ elected in a landslide .
Kennedy staged a tiring , dangerous , and high @-@ profile trip to South Africa in January 1985 . He defied both the apartheid government 's wishes and militant anti @-@ white AZAPO demonstrators by spending a night in the Soweto home of Bishop Desmond Tutu and also visited Winnie Mandela , wife of imprisoned black leader Nelson Mandela . Upon returning , Kennedy became a leader in the push for economic sanctions against South Africa ; collaborating with Senator Lowell Weicker , he secured Senate passage , and the overriding of Reagan 's veto , of the Comprehensive Anti @-@ Apartheid Act of 1986 . Despite their many political differences , Kennedy and Reagan had a good personal relationship , and with the administration 's approval Kennedy traveled to the Soviet Union in 1986 to act as a go @-@ between in arms control negotiations with reformist Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev . The discussions were productive , and Kennedy also helped gain the release of a number of Soviet Jewish refuseniks , including Anatoly Shcharansky .
Although Kennedy was an accomplished legislator , his personal life was troubled during this time . His weight fluctuated wildly , he drank heavily at times – although not when it would interfere with his Senate duties – and his cheeks became blotchy . Kennedy later acknowledged , " I went through a lot of difficult times over a period in my life where [ drinking ] may have been somewhat of a factor or force . " He chased women frequently , and also was in a series of more serious romantic relationships but did not want to commit to anything long @-@ term . He often caroused with fellow Senator Chris Dodd ; twice in 1985 they were in drunken incidents in Washington restaurants , with one involving unwelcome physical contact with a waitress . In 1987 Kennedy and a young female lobbyist were surprised in the back room of a restaurant in a state of partial undress .
After again considering a candidacy for the 1988 presidential election , influenced by his personal difficulties and family concerns , and content with remaining in the Senate , in December 1985 Kennedy publicly cut short any talk that he might run . He added : " I know this decision means I may never be president . But the pursuit of the presidency is not my life . Public service is . " Kennedy used his legislative skills to achieve passage of the COBRA Act , which extended employer @-@ based health benefits after leaving a job . Following the 1986 congressional elections , the Democrats regained control of the Senate and Kennedy became chair of the Labor and Public Welfare Committee . By now Kennedy had become what colleague Joe Biden termed " the best strategist in the Senate , " who always knew when best to move legislation . Kennedy continued his close working relationship with ranking Republican Senator Orrin Hatch , and they were close allies on many health @-@ related measures .
One of Kennedy 's biggest battles in the Senate came with Reagan 's July 1987 nomination of Judge Robert Bork to the U.S. Supreme Court . Kennedy saw a possible Bork appointment as leading to a dismantling of civil rights law that he had helped put into place , and feared Bork 's originalist judicial philosophy . Kennedy 's staff had researched Bork 's writings and record , and within an hour of the nomination – which was initially expected to succeed – Kennedy went on the Senate floor to announce his opposition :
Robert Bork 's America is a land in which women would be forced into back @-@ alley abortions , blacks would sit at segregated lunch counters , rogue police could break down citizens ' doors in midnight raids , schoolchildren could not be taught about evolution , writers and artists could be censored at the whim of the Government , and the doors of the Federal courts would be shut on the fingers of millions of citizens ...
The incendiary rhetoric of what became known as the " Robert Bork 's America " speech enraged Bork supporters , who considered it slanderous , and worried some Democrats as well . But the Reagan administration was unprepared for the assault , and the speech froze some Democrats from supporting the nomination and gave Kennedy and other Bork opponents time to prepare the case against him . When the September 1987 Judiciary Committee hearings began , Kennedy challenged Bork forcefully on civil rights , privacy , women 's rights , and other issues . Bork 's own demeanor hurt him , and the nomination was defeated both in committee and the full Senate . The tone of the Bork battle changed the way Washington worked – with controversial nominees or candidates now experiencing all @-@ out war waged against them – and the ramifications of it were still being felt two decades later .
During the 1988 presidential election , Kennedy supported the eventual Democratic nominee , Massachusetts Governor Michael Dukakis , from the start of the campaign . In the fall , Dukakis lost to George H. W. Bush , but Kennedy won re @-@ election to the Senate over Republican Joseph D. Malone in the easiest race of his career . Kennedy remained a powerful force in the Senate . In 1988 Kennedy co @-@ sponsored an amendment to the Fair Housing Act of 1968 , which prohibits discrimination in the rental , sale , marketing , and financing of the nation 's housing ; the amendment strengthened the ability of the Office of Fair Housing and Equal Opportunity to enforce the Act and expanded the protected classes to include disabled persons and families with children . After prolonged negotiations during 1989 with Bush chief of staff John H. Sununu and Attorney General Richard Thornburgh to secure Bush 's approval , he directed passage of the landmark Americans with Disabilities Act of 1990 . Kennedy had personal interest in the bill due to his sister Rosemary 's condition and his son 's lost leg , and he considered its enactment one of the most important successes of his career . In the late 1980s Kennedy and Hatch staged a prolonged battle against Senator Jesse Helms to provide funding to combat the AIDS epidemic and provide treatment for low @-@ income people affected ; this would culminate in passage of the Ryan White Care Act . In late November 1989 , Kennedy traveled to see first @-@ hand the newly fallen Berlin Wall ; he spoke at John @-@ F.-Kennedy @-@ Platz , site of the famous " Ich bin ein Berliner " speech in 1963 , and said " Emotionally , I just wish my brother could have seen it . "
= = = Fall and rise = = =
Kennedy 's personal life came to dominate his image . In 1989 the European paparazzi stalked him on a vacation there and photographed him having sex on a motorboat . In February 1990 , Michael Kelly published his long , thorough profile " Ted Kennedy on the Rocks " in GQ magazine . It captured Kennedy as " an aging Irish boyo clutching a bottle and diddling a blonde , " portrayed him as an out @-@ of @-@ control Regency rake , and brought his behavior to the forefront of public attention . The death from cancer of brother @-@ in @-@ law Stephen Edward Smith in August 1990 left Kennedy emotionally bereft at the loss of a close family member and troubleshooter . Kennedy pushed on , but even his legislative successes , such as the Civil Rights Act of 1991 , which expanded employee rights in discrimination cases , came at the cost of being criticized for compromising with Republicans and Southern Democrats .
On Easter weekend 1991 , Kennedy was at a get @-@ together at the family 's Palm Beach , Florida , estate when , restless and maudlin after reminiscing about his brother @-@ in @-@ law , he left for a late @-@ night visit to a local bar , getting his son Patrick and nephew William Kennedy Smith to accompany him . Patrick Kennedy and Smith returned with women they met there , Michelle Cassone and Patricia Bowman . Cassone said that Ted Kennedy subsequently walked in on her and Patrick , dressed only in a nightshirt and with a weird look on his face . Smith and Bowman went out on the beach , where they had sex that he said was consensual and she said was rape . The local police made a delayed investigation ; soon Kennedy sources were feeding the press with negative information about Bowman 's background and several mainstream newspapers broke a taboo by publishing her name . The case quickly became a media frenzy . While not directly implicated in the case , Kennedy became the frequent butt of jokes on The Tonight Show and other late @-@ night television programs . Time magazine said Kennedy was being perceived as a " Palm Beach boozer , lout and tabloid grotesque " while Newsweek said Kennedy was " the living symbol of the family flaws . "
Along with Bork , the other most contentious Supreme Court nomination in United States history has been the one for Clarence Thomas . When the Thomas hearings began in September 1991 , Kennedy pressed Thomas on his unwillingness to express an opinion about Roe v. Wade , but the nomination appeared headed for success . But when the sexual harassment charges by Anita Hill broke the following month , and the nomination battle dominated public discourse , Kennedy was hamstrung by his past reputation and the ongoing developments in the William Kennedy Smith case . He said almost nothing until the third day of the Thomas – Hill hearings , and when he did it was criticized by Hill supporters for being too little , too late .
Biographer Adam Clymer rates Kennedy 's silence during the Thomas hearings as the worst moment of his Senate career . Writer Anna Quindlen said " [ Kennedy ] let us down because he had to ; he was muzzled by the facts of his life . " On the day before the full Senate vote , Kennedy gave an impassioned speech against Thomas , declaring that the treatment of Hill had been " shameful " and that " [ t ] o give the benefit of the doubt to Judge Thomas is to say that Judge Thomas is more important than the Supreme Court . " He then voted against the nomination . Thomas was confirmed by a 52 – 48 margin , the narrowest ever for a successful nomination .
Due to the Palm Beach media attention and the Thomas hearings , Kennedy 's public image suffered . A Gallup Poll gave Kennedy a very low 22 percent national approval rating . A Boston Herald / WCVB @-@ TV poll found that 62 percent of Massachusetts citizens thought Kennedy should not run for reelection , by a 2 @-@ to @-@ 1 margin thought Kennedy had misled authorities in the Palm Beach investigation , and had Kennedy losing a hypothetical Senate race to Governor William Weld by 25 points . Meanwhile , at a June 17 , 1991 , dinner party , Kennedy saw Victoria Anne Reggie , a Washington lawyer at Keck , Mahin & Cate , a divorced mother of two , and the daughter of an old Kennedy family ally , Louisiana judge Edmund Reggie . They began dating and by September were in a serious relationship . In a late October speech at the John F. Kennedy School of Government , Kennedy sought to begin a political recovery , saying : " I am painfully aware that the criticism directed at me in recent months involves far more than disagreements with my positions ... [ It ] involves the disappointment of friends and many others who rely on me to fight the good fight . To them I say , I recognize my own shortcomings — the faults in the conduct of my private life . I realize that I alone am responsible for them , and I am the one who must confront them . " In December 1991 , the William Kennedy Smith rape trial was held ; it was nationally televised and the most watched until the O. J. Simpson murder case three years later . Kennedy 's testimony at the trial seemed relaxed , confident , and forthcoming , and helped convince the public that his involvement had been peripheral and unintended . Smith was acquitted .
Kennedy and Reggie continued their relationship and he was devoted to her two children , Curran and Caroline . They became engaged in March 1992 , and were married by Judge A. David Mazzone on July 3 , 1992 , in a civil ceremony at Kennedy 's home in McLean , Virginia . She would gain credit with stabilizing his personal life and helping him resume a productive career in the Senate .
With no presidential ambitions left , Kennedy formed a good relationship with Democratic President Bill Clinton upon the latter taking office in 1993 , despite his having initially backed former fellow Massachusetts Senator Paul Tsongas in the 1992 Democratic presidential primaries . Kennedy floor @-@ managed successful passage of Clinton 's National and Community Service Trust Act of 1993 that created the AmeriCorps program , and despite reservations supported the president on the North American Free Trade Agreement ( NAFTA ) . On the issue Kennedy cared most about , national health insurance , he supported but was not much involved in formation of the Clinton health care plan , which was run by First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton and others . It failed badly and damaged the prospects for such legislation for years to come . In 1994 , Kennedy 's strong recommendation of his former Judiciary Committee staffer Stephen Breyer played a role in Clinton appointing Breyer to the U.S. Supreme Court . During 1994 Kennedy became the first senator with a home page on the World Wide Web ; the product of an effort with the MIT Artificial Intelligence Laboratory , it helped counter the image of Kennedy as old and out of touch .
In the 1994 U.S. Senate election in Massachusetts , Kennedy faced his first serious challenger , the young , telegenic , and very well @-@ funded Mitt Romney . Romney ran as a successful entrepreneur and Washington outsider with a strong family image and moderate stands on social issues , while Kennedy was saddled not only with his recent past but the 25th anniversary of Chappaquiddick and his first wife Joan seeking a renegotiated divorce settlement . By mid @-@ September 1994 , polls showed the race to be even . Kennedy 's campaign ran short on money , and belying his image as endlessly wealthy , he was forced to take out a second mortgage on his Virginia home . Kennedy responded with a series of attack ads , which focused both on Romney 's shifting political views and on the treatment of workers at a paper products plant owned by Romney 's Bain Capital . Kennedy 's new wife Vicki proved to be a strong asset in campaigning . Kennedy and Romney held a widely watched late October debate without a clear winner , but by then Kennedy had pulled ahead in polls and stayed ahead afterward . In the November election , despite a very bad outcome for the Democratic Party nationally , Kennedy won re @-@ election by a 58 percent to 41 percent margin , the closest re @-@ election race of his career .
Kennedy 's mother Rose died in January 1995 at the age of 104 . Kennedy intensified practice of his Catholicism from then on , often attending Mass several times a week .
= = = Carrying on = = =
Kennedy 's role as a liberal lion in the Senate came to the fore in 1995 , when the Republican Revolution took control and legislation intending to fulfill the Contract with America was coming from Newt Gingrich 's House of Representatives . Many Democrats in the Senate and the country overall were depressed , but Kennedy rallied forces to combat the Republicans . By the beginning of 1996 , the Republicans had overreached ; most of the Contract had failed to pass the Senate ; and the Democrats could once again move forward with legislation , almost all of it coming out of Kennedy 's staff .
In 1996 , Kennedy secured an increase in the minimum wage law , a favorite issue of his ; there would not be another increase for ten years . Following the failure of the Clinton health care plan , Kennedy went against his past strategy and sought incremental measures instead . Kennedy worked with Republican Senator Nancy Kassebaum to create and pass the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act in 1996 , which set new marks for portability of insurance and confidentiality of records . The same year , Kennedy 's Mental Health Parity Act forced insurance companies to treat mental health payments the same as others with respect to limits reached . In 1997 , Kennedy was the prime mover behind the State Children 's Health Insurance Program , which used increased tobacco taxes to fund the largest expansion of taxpayer @-@ funded health insurance coverage for children in the U.S. since Medicaid began in the 1960s . Senator Hatch and First Lady Hillary Rodham Clinton also played major roles in SCHIP passing .
Kennedy was a stalwart backer of President Clinton during the 1998 Lewinsky scandal , often trying to cheer up the president when he was gloomiest and getting him to add past Kennedy staffer Greg Craig to his defense team , which helped improve the president 's fortunes . In the trial after the 1999 impeachment of Bill Clinton , Kennedy voted to acquit Clinton on both charges , saying " Republicans in the House of Representatives , in their partisan vendetta against the President , have wielded the impeachment power in precisely the way the framers rejected , recklessly and without regard for the Constitution or the will of the American people . "
On July 16 , 1999 , tragedy struck the Kennedy family again when a Piper Saratoga light aircraft crashed into the Atlantic Ocean off the coast of Martha 's Vineyard . The accident killed its pilot John F. Kennedy , Jr . , and also his wife and sister @-@ in @-@ law . As patriarch , Ted consoled his extended family along with President Clinton at the public memorial service . He paraphrased William Butler Yeats by saying of his nephew : " We dared to think , in that other Irish phrase , that this John Kennedy would live to comb gray hair , with his beloved Carolyn by his side . But like his father , he had every gift but length of years . " Ted now served as a role model for Maria Shriver , Kerry Kennedy Cuomo , Robert F. Kennedy , Jr . , Joseph Patrick Kennedy II , and other family members . The Boston Globe wrote of the changed role : " It underscored the evolution that surprised so many people who knew the Kennedys : Teddy , the baby of the family , who had grown into a man who could sometimes be dissolute and reckless , had become the steady , indispensable patriarch , the one the family turned to in good times and bad . "
= = = 2000s = = =
Kennedy had an easy time with his re @-@ election to the Senate in 2000 , as Republican lawyer and entrepreneur Jack E. Robinson III was sufficiently damaged by his past personal record that Republican state party officials refused to endorse him . Kennedy got 73 percent of the general election vote , with Robinson splitting the rest with Libertarian Carla Howell . During the long , disputed post @-@ presidential election battle in Florida in 2000 , Kennedy supported Vice President Al Gore 's legal actions . After the bitter contest was over , many Democrats in Congress did not want to work with incoming President George W. Bush . Kennedy , however , saw Bush as genuinely interested in a major overhaul of elementary and secondary education , Bush saw Kennedy as a potential major ally in the Senate , and the two partnered together on the legislation . Kennedy accepted provisions governing mandatory student testing and teacher accountability that other Democrats and the National Education Association did not like , in return for increased funding levels for education . The No Child Left Behind Act was passed by Congress in May and June 2001 and signed into law by Bush in January 2002 . Kennedy soon became disenchanted with the implementation of the act , however , saying for 2003 that it was $ 9 billion short of the $ 29 billion authorized . Kennedy said , " The tragedy is that these long overdue reforms are finally in place , but the funds are not , " and accused Bush of not living up to his personal word on the matter . Other Democrats concluded that Kennedy 's penchant for cross @-@ party deals had gotten the better of him . The White House defended its spending levels given the context of two wars going on .
Kennedy was in his Senate offices meeting with First Lady Laura Bush when the September 11 , 2001 , attacks took place . Two of the airplanes involved had taken off from Boston , and in the following weeks , Kennedy telephoned each of the 177 Massachusetts families who had lost members in the attacks . He pushed through legislation that provided healthcare and grief counseling benefits for the families , and recommended the appointment of his former chief of staff Kenneth Feinberg as Special Master of the government 's September 11th Victim Compensation Fund . Kennedy maintained an ongoing bond with the Massachusetts 9 / 11 families in subsequent years .
In reaction to the attacks , Kennedy was a supporter of the American @-@ led 2001 overthrow of the Taliban government in Afghanistan . However , Kennedy strongly opposed the Iraq War from the start , and was one of 23 senators voting against the Iraq War Resolution in October 2002 . As the Iraqi insurgency grew in subsequent years , Kennedy pronounced that the conflict was " Bush 's Vietnam . " In response to losses of Massachusetts service personnel to roadside bombs , Kennedy became vocal on the issue of Humvee vulnerability , and co @-@ sponsored enacted 2005 legislation that sped up production and Army procurement of up @-@ armored Humvees .
Despite the strained relationship between Kennedy and Bush over No Child Left Behind spending , the two attempted to work together again on extending Medicare to cover prescription drug benefits . Kennedy 's strategy was again doubted by other Democrats , but he saw the proposed $ 400 billion program as an opportunity that should not be missed . However , when the final formulation of the Medicare Prescription Drug , Improvement , and Modernization Act contained provisions to steer seniors towards private plans , Kennedy switched to opposing it . It passed in late 2003 , and led Kennedy to again say he had been betrayed by the Bush administration .
In the 2004 Democratic Party presidential primaries , Kennedy campaigned heavily for fellow Massachusetts Senator John Kerry and lent his chief of staff , Mary Beth Cahill , to the Kerry campaign . Kennedy 's appeal was effective among blue collar and minority voters , and helped Kerry stage a come @-@ from @-@ behind win in the Iowa caucuses that propelled him on to the Democratic nomination .
After Bush won a second term in the 2004 general election , Kennedy continued to oppose him on Iraq and many other issues . However , Kennedy sought to partner with Republicans again on the matter of immigration reform in the context of the ongoing United States immigration debate . Kennedy was chair of the United States Senate Judiciary Subcommittee on Immigration , Border Security , and Refugees , and in 2005 , Kennedy teamed with Republican Senator John McCain on the Secure America and Orderly Immigration Act . The " McCain @-@ Kennedy bill " did not reach a Senate vote , but provided a template for further attempts at dealing comprehensively with legalization , guest worker programs , and border enforcement components . Kennedy returned again with the Comprehensive Immigration Reform Act of 2007 , which was sponsored by an ideologically diverse , bipartisan group of senators and had strong support from the Bush administration . The bill aroused furious grassroots opposition among talk radio listeners and others as an " amnesty " program , and despite Kennedy 's last @-@ minute attempts to salvage it , failed a cloture vote in the Senate . Kennedy was philosophical about the defeat , saying that it often took several attempts across multiple Congresses for this type of legislation to build enough momentum for passage .
In 2006 , Kennedy released a children 's book from the view of his dog Splash , My Senator and Me : A Dog 's @-@ Eye View of Washington , D.C. Also in 2006 , Kennedy released a political history entitled America Back on Track .
Kennedy again easily won re @-@ election to the Senate in 2006 , winning 69 percent of the vote against Republican language school owner Kenneth Chase , who suffered from very poor name recognition .
= = = Illness and a new president = = =
Kennedy initially stated that he would support John Kerry again should he run for president in 2008 , but in January 2007 , Kerry said he would not . Kennedy then remained neutral as the 2008 Democratic nomination battle between Senator Hillary Rodham Clinton and Senator Barack Obama intensified , as his friend Chris Dodd was also running . After the initial caucuses and primaries had been split between the two and Dodd had withdrawn , Kennedy became dissatisfied with the tone of the Clinton campaign and what he saw as racially tinged remarks by Bill Clinton . Kennedy gave an endorsement to Obama on January 28 , 2008 , despite appeals by both Clintons not to do so . In a move that was seen as a symbolic passing of the torch , Kennedy said that it was " time again for a new generation of leadership , " and compared Obama 's ability to inspire with that of his fallen brothers . In return Kennedy gained a commitment from Obama to make universal health care a top priority of his administration if elected . Kennedy 's endorsement was considered among the most influential that any Democrat could get , and raised the possibility of improving Obama 's vote @-@ getting among unions , Hispanics , and traditional base Democrats . It dominated the political news , and gave national exposure to a candidate who was still not well known in much of the country , as the Super Tuesday primaries across the nation approached .
On May 17 , 2008 , Kennedy suffered a seizure , and then another one as he was rushed from the Kennedy Compound to Cape Cod Hospital and then by helicopter to Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston . Within days , doctors announced that Kennedy had a malignant glioma , a type of cancerous brain tumor . The grim diagnosis brought reactions of shock and prayer from many senators of both parties and from President Bush .
Doctors initially told Kennedy the tumor was inoperable , but he looked around for other opinions and decided on the most aggressive and exhausting course of treatment possible . On June 2 , 2008 , Kennedy underwent brain surgery at Duke University Medical Center in an attempt to remove as much of the tumor as possible . The 3 ½ -hour operation , conducted by Dr. Allan Friedman while Kennedy was conscious to minimize any permanent neurological effects , was deemed successful in its goals . Kennedy left the hospital a week later to begin a course of chemotherapy and radiation treatment . Opinions varied regarding Kennedy 's prognosis : the surgery typically only extended survival time by a matter of months , but sometimes people lived for years .
The operation and follow @-@ up treatments left Kennedy thinner , prone to seizures , weak and short on energy , and hurt his balance . Kennedy made his first post @-@ illness public appearance on July 9 , when he surprised the Senate by showing up to supply the added vote to break a Republican filibuster against a bill to preserve Medicare fees for doctors . Though additionally ill from an attack of kidney stones and against the advice of some associates , Kennedy insisted on appearing during the first night of the 2008 Democratic National Convention on August 25 , 2008 , where a video tribute to him was played . Introduced by his niece , Caroline Kennedy , the senator said , " It is so wonderful to be here . Nothing – nothing – is going to keep me away from this special gathering tonight . " He then delivered a speech to the delegates ( which he had to memorize , as his impaired vision left him unable to read a teleprompter ) in which , reminiscent of his speech at the 1980 Democratic National Convention , he said , " this November , the torch will be passed again to a new generation of Americans . So , with Barack Obama and for you and for me , our country will be committed to his cause . The work begins anew . The hope rises again . And the dream lives on . " The dramatic appearance and speech electrified the convention audience , as Kennedy vowed that he would be present to see Obama inaugurated .
On September 26 , 2008 , Kennedy suffered a mild seizure while at his home in Hyannis Port , for which he was examined and released from hospital on the same day . Doctors believed that a change in his medication triggered the seizure . Kennedy relocated to Florida for the winter , continuing his treatments , sailing a lot , and staying in touch with legislative matters via telephone . In his absence , many senators wore blue " Tedstrong " bracelets .
On January 20 , 2009 , Kennedy attended Barack Obama 's presidential inauguration in Washington , but then suffered a seizure at the luncheon immediately afterwards . He was taken via wheelchair from the Capitol building and then by ambulance to Washington Hospital Center . The following morning , he was released from the hospital to his home in Washington , as doctors attributed the episode to " simple fatigue " .
As the 111th Congress began , Kennedy dropped his spot on the Senate Judiciary Committee to focus all his attentions on health care issues , which he regarded as " the cause of my life " . He saw the characteristics of the Obama administration and the Democratic majorities in Congress as representing the third and best great chance for universal health care , following the lost 1971 Nixon and 1993 Clinton opportunities , and as his last big legislative battle . Kennedy made another surprise appearance in the Senate to break a Republican filibuster against the Obama stimulus package . As spring arrived , Kennedy appeared on Capitol Hill more frequently , although staffers often did not announce his attendance at committee meetings until they were sure Kennedy was well enough to appear . On March 4 , 2009 , Prime Minister of the United Kingdom Gordon Brown announced that Kennedy had been granted an honorary knighthood by Queen Elizabeth II for his work in the Northern Ireland peace process , and for his contribution to UK – US relations , although the move caused some controversy in the UK due to his connections with Gerry Adams of the Irish republican political party Sinn Féin . Later in March , a bill reauthorizing and expanding the AmeriCorps program was renamed the Edward M. Kennedy Serve America Act by Senator Hatch in Kennedy 's honor . Kennedy threw the ceremonial first pitch at Fenway Park before the Boston Red Sox season opener in April , echoing what his grandfather " Honey Fitz " – a member of the Royal Rooters – had done to open the park in 1912 . Even when his illness prevented him from being a major factor in health plan deliberations , his symbolic presence still made him one of the key senators involved .
However , by spring 2009 , Kennedy 's tumor had spread and treatments clearly were not going to cure it , although this was not disclosed publicly . By June 2009 Kennedy had not cast a Senate vote in three months , and his health had forced him to retreat to Massachusetts , where he was undergoing another round of chemotherapy . In his absence , premature release of his health committee 's expansive plan resulted in a poor public reception . Kennedy 's friend Chris Dodd had taken over his role on the Health , Education , Labor and Pensions Committee , but Republican senators and other observers said that the lack of Kennedy 's physical presence had resulted in less consultation with them and was making successful negotiation more difficult . Democrats also missed Kennedy 's ability to smooth divisions on the health proposals . Kennedy did cut a television commercial for Dodd , who was struggling early on in his 2010 re @-@ election bid . In July , HBO began showing a documentary tribute to Kennedy 's life , Teddy : In His Own Words . A health care reform bill was voted out of the committee with content Kennedy favored , but still faced a long , difficult process before having a chance at becoming law . At the end of July 2009 , Kennedy was awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom . He could not attend the ceremony to receive this medal , and attended a private service but not the public funeral when his sister Eunice Kennedy Shriver died at age 88 in mid @-@ August . By the end , Kennedy was in a wheelchair and had difficulty speaking , but consistently said that " I 've had a wonderful life . "
= = Death = =
Fifteen months after his original diagnosis , Kennedy succumbed to his disease on August 25 , 2009 , at age 77 at his home in Hyannis Port . He was survived by his former wife Joan , his wife Vicki , his sister Jean , his three children , two stepchildren , four grandchildren , in @-@ laws Edmund and Doris Reggie , and many nieces and nephews . In a statement , Kennedy 's family thanked " everyone who gave him care and support over this last year , and everyone who stood with him for so many years in his tireless march for progress toward justice " .
= = = Reaction = = =
President Obama said that Kennedy 's death marked the " passing of an extraordinary leader " and that he and First Lady Michelle Obama were " heartbroken " to learn of Kennedy 's death , while Vice President Biden said " today we lost a truly remarkable man , " and that Kennedy " changed the circumstances of tens of millions of Americans " . Mitt Romney , former Massachusetts Governor and Kennedy 's opponent in the 1994 senate race , called Kennedy " the kind of man you could like even if he was your adversary " and former First Lady Nancy Reagan said she was " terribly saddened " . She went on , " Given our political differences , people are sometimes surprised how close Ronnie and I have been to the Kennedy family . ... I will miss him . " Senator Robert Byrd of West Virginia , the President pro tempore of the Senate , issued a statement on Kennedy 's death in which he said " My heart and soul weeps at the loss of my best friend in the Senate , my beloved friend , Ted Kennedy . " ( Byrd had broken down on the Senate floor and cried uncontrollably when Kennedy 's cancer diagnosis was made public the previous year . ) Upon his death , his sister Jean is the only one still living of the nine Kennedy siblings .
There were also tributes from outside politics as well , including a moment of peace in the fierce rivalry between the New York Yankees and the Boston Red Sox as both teams observed a moment of silence . Flags at Fenway Park were flown at half @-@ staff and " Taps " was performed as players stood along the baselines before a Red Sox game . The Yankees observed a moment of silence for Kennedy before a game at Yankee Stadium as well .
= = = Funeral services = = =
Kennedy 's body traveled a 70 @-@ mile ( 110 km ) journey from the Kennedy Compound in Hyannis Port , past numerous landmarks named after his family , to the John F. Kennedy Library in Boston , Massachusetts , where it lay in repose and where over 50 @,@ 000 members of the public filed by to pay their respects . On Saturday , August 29 , a procession traveled from the library to the Our Lady of Perpetual Help Basilica in Boston , for a funeral Mass . Present at the funeral service were President Obama and former Presidents Jimmy Carter , Bill Clinton , and George W. Bush ( also representing his father , former President George H. W. Bush , who decided not to attend ) , along with Vice President Biden , three former Vice Presidents , 58 senators , 21 former senators , many members of the House of Representatives , and several foreign dignitaries . President Obama delivered the eulogy .
The funeral service also drew celebrities and other notables from outside politics from Boston , Washington , and across the United States , including singers Tony Bennett and Plácido Domingo , actors Jack Nicholson and Brian Stokes Mitchell , cellist Yo @-@ Yo Ma , actress Lauren Bacall , presidents and chancellors of Boston @-@ area colleges and universities including Harvard University President Drew G. Faust and University of Massachusetts President Jack M. Wilson , and sports figures including Boston Celtics legend Bill Russell and the top management of the Red Sox .
Kennedy 's body was returned to Washington , D.C. , for burial at Arlington National Cemetery , near the graves of his assassinated brothers . Kennedy 's grave marker is identical to his brother Robert 's : a white oak cross and a white marble foot marker bearing his full name , year of birth , and death .
= = = Aftermath = = =
True Compass , the memoir that Kennedy worked on throughout his illness , was published three weeks after his death . It debuted atop the New York Times Best Seller list and by mid @-@ December 2009 had total sales of some 400 @,@ 000 copies .
A special election was scheduled for January 19 , 2010 , for the U.S. Senate seat from Massachusetts left vacant by Kennedy 's death . Shortly before his death , Kennedy had written to Democratic Governor of Massachusetts Deval Patrick and the Massachusetts legislature to change state law to allow an appointee to fill a U.S. Senate vacancy , for a term expiring upon the special election . ( Kennedy had been instrumental in the prior 2004 alteration of this law to prevent Governor Mitt Romney from appointing a Republican senator should John Kerry 's presidential campaign succeed . ) The law was amended , and on September 24 , 2009 , Paul G. Kirk , former Democratic National Committee chairman and former aide to Kennedy , was appointed to occupy the Senate seat until the completion of the special election . Kirk announced that he would not be a candidate in the special election . In that election , Republican State Senator Scott Brown won the seat in a stunning upset , ending Democratic control of it going back to 1953 .
Brown 's victory ended the 60 @-@ vote supermajority in the Senate that the Democrats had held since mid @-@ 2009 , and appeared to spell the end for health care reform legislation . But Democrats rallied and passed the measure ; Speaker Nancy Pelosi , who was instrumental in doing so , credited Kennedy 's life work in her final remarks on the House floor before the final vote . Kennedy 's widow Vicki attended the signing of the Patient Protection and Affordable Care Act , at which both she and President Obama wore blue " Tedstrong " bracelets . Congressman Patrick Kennedy brought a copy of a national health insurance bill his father had introduced in 1970 as a gift for the president . Patrick Kennedy then laid a note on his father 's grave that said , " Dad , the unfinished business is done . " ( Patrick 's earlier decision not to seek re @-@ election meant that in January 2011 , a 64 @-@ year streak of a Kennedy holding elective office in Washington came to an end , but it resumed with the November 2012 election of Ted 's great @-@ nephew , Joseph P. Kennedy III , to the House . Democratic control of Kennedy 's Senate seat was also regained following Brown 's 2012 loss to Elizabeth Warren . )
= = Political positions = =
Political scientists gauge ideology in part by comparing the annual ratings by the Americans for Democratic Action ( ADA ) with the ratings by the American Conservative Union ( ACU ) . Kennedy had a lifetime liberal 90 percent score from the ADA through 2004 , while the ACU awarded Kennedy a lifetime conservative rating of 2 percent through 2008 . Using another metric , Kennedy had a lifetime average liberal score of 88 @.@ 7 percent , according to a National Journal analysis that places him ideologically as the third @-@ most liberal senator of all those in office in 2009 . A 2004 analysis by political scientists Joshua D. Clinton of Princeton University and Simon Jackman and Doug Rivers of Stanford University examined some of the difficulties in making this kind of analysis , and found Kennedy likely to be the 8th @-@ to @-@ 15th @-@ most liberal Senator during the 108th Congress . The Almanac of American Politics rates congressional votes as liberal or conservative on the political spectrum , in three policy areas : economic , social , and foreign . For 2005 – 2006 , Kennedy 's average ratings were as follows : the economic rating was 91 percent liberal and 0 percent conservative , the social rating was 89 percent liberal and 5 percent conservative , and the foreign rating was 96 percent liberal and 0 percent conservative .
Various interest groups gave Kennedy scores or grades as to how well his votes aligned with the positions of each group . The American Civil Liberties Union gave him an 84 percent lifetime score as of 2009 . During the 1990s and 2000s , NARAL Pro @-@ Choice America and Planned Parenthood typically gave Kennedy ratings of 100 percent , while the National Right to Life Committee typically gave him a rating of less than 10 percent . The Brady Campaign to Prevent Gun Violence gave Kennedy a lifetime rating of 100 percent through 2002 , while the National Rifle Association gave Kennedy a lifetime grade of ' F ' ( failing ) as of 2006 .
= = Cultural and political image = =
When he died , Kennedy was the second @-@ most senior member of the Senate , after President pro tempore Robert Byrd of West Virginia , and the third longest @-@ serving senator of all time , behind Byrd and Strom Thurmond of South Carolina ( he was passed later in 2009 by Daniel Inouye ) .
Following his presidential bid , Kennedy became one of the most recognizable and influential members of the party , and was sometimes called a " Democratic icon " as well as " The Lion of the Senate " . Kennedy and his Senate staff authored around 2 @,@ 500 bills , of which more than 300 were enacted into law . Kennedy co @-@ sponsored another 550 bills that became law after 1973 . Kennedy was known for his effectiveness in dealing with Republican senators and administrations , sometimes to the irritation of other Democrats . During the 101st Congress under President George H. W. Bush , at least half of the successful proposals put forward by the Senate Democratic policy makers came out of Kennedy 's Labor and Human Resources Committee . During the 2000s , almost every bipartisan bill signed during the George W. Bush administration had significant involvement from Kennedy . A late 2000s survey of Republican senators ranked Kennedy first among Democrats in bipartisanship . Kennedy strongly believed in the principle " never let the perfect be the enemy of the good , " and would agree to pass legislation he viewed as incomplete or imperfect with the goal of improving it down the road . In April 2006 , Kennedy was selected by Time as one of " America 's 10 Best Senators " ; the magazine noted that he had " amassed a titanic record of legislation affecting the lives of virtually every man , woman and child in the country " and that " by the late 1990s , the liberal icon had become such a prodigious cross @-@ aisle dealer that Republican leaders began pressuring party colleagues not to sponsor bills with him " . In May 2008 , soon @-@ to @-@ be Republican presidential nominee John McCain said , " [ Kennedy ] is a legendary lawmaker and I have the highest respect for him . When we have worked together , he has been a skillful , fair and generous partner . " Republican Governor of California and Kennedy relative Arnold Schwarzenegger described " Uncle Teddy " as " a liberal icon , a warrior for the less fortunate , a fierce advocate for health @-@ care reform , a champion of social justice here and abroad " and " the rock of his family " . At the time of Kennedy 's death , sociologist and Nation board member Norman Birnbaum wrote that Kennedy had come to be viewed as the " voice " and " conscience " of American progressivism .
Despite his bipartisan legislative practices , for many years Kennedy was a polarizing symbol of American liberalism . Republican and conservative groups long viewed Kennedy as a reliable " bogeyman " to mention in fundraising letters , on a par with Hillary Rodham Clinton and similar to Democratic and liberal appeals mentioning Newt Gingrich . The famous racially motivated " Hands " negative ad used in North Carolina Senator Jesse Helms 's 1990 re @-@ election campaign against Harvey Gantt accused Gantt of supporting " Ted Kennedy 's racial quota law " . University of California , San Diego political science professor Gary Jacobson 's 2006 study of partisan polarization found that in a state @-@ by @-@ state survey of job approval ratings of the state 's senators , Kennedy had the largest partisan difference of any senator , with a 57 percentage point difference in approval between Massachusetts 's Democrats and Republicans . The Associated Press wrote that , " Perhaps because it was impossible , Kennedy never tried to shake his image as a liberal titan to admirers and a left @-@ wing caricature to detractors . "
Ted Kennedy was , from 1968 on , the most prominent living member of the Kennedy family , and was the last surviving son of Joseph P. Kennedy and Rose Fitzgerald Kennedy . John F. Kennedy had said in 1957 , " Just as I went into politics because Joe died , if anything happened to me tomorrow , my brother Bobby would run for my seat in the Senate . And if Bobby died , Teddy would take over for him . " However , Ted was never able to carry on the " Camelot " mystique in the same way that both of his fallen brothers had , with much of it disappearing during his failed 1980 presidential bid . The loss of life at Chappaquiddick and Kennedy 's well @-@ documented later personal problems further tarnished his image in relation to the Kennedy name , and Chappaquiddick significantly damaged Ted 's chances of ever becoming president . The Associated Press wrote that , " Unlike his brothers , Edward M. Kennedy has grown old in public , his victories , defeats and human contradictions played out across the decades in the public glare . " But Kennedy 's legislative accomplishments remained , and as The Boston Globe wrote , " By the early 21st century , the achievements of the younger brother would be enough to rival those of many presidents . " His death prompted the realization that the " Camelot era " was truly over . Kennedy 's New York Times obituary described him via a character sketch : " He was a Rabelaisian figure in the Senate and in life , instantly recognizable by his shock of white hair , his florid , oversize face , his booming Boston brogue , his powerful but pained stride . He was a celebrity , sometimes a self @-@ parody , a hearty friend , an implacable foe , a man of large faith and large flaws , a melancholy character who persevered , drank deeply and sang loudly . He was a Kennedy . "
= = Awards and honors = =
Senator Kennedy received many awards and honors over the years . These include an honorary knighthood bestowed by Queen Elizabeth II of the United Kingdom , the Order of the Aztec Eagle from Mexico , the U.S. Presidential Medal of Freedom , the Order of the Merit of Chile , and honorary degrees from a number of institutions including Harvard University .
= = Electoral history = =
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lesions in which antioxidants can help induce neuroprotective and immunomodulatory effects . Probably the most clear disease modifying factor ( for worse ) is smoking , and therefore to quit smoking should be considered .
Other alternative treatments include relaxation techniques such as yoga , herbal medicine ( including the use of medical cannabis ) , hyperbaric oxygenation , self @-@ infection with hookworm ( known generally as helminthic therapy ) and bee venom therapy , reflexology or acupuncture . Regarding the characteristics of users , they are more frequently women , have had MS for a longer time and tend to be more disabled . Moreover , they also have lower levels of satisfaction with conventional healthcare .
= The Body ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
" The Body " is the sixteenth episode of the fifth season of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( 1997 – 2003 ) . It was written and directed by series creator Joss Whedon and originally aired on the WB network in the United States on February 27 , 2001 . In the series , Buffy Summers is a teenager chosen by mystical forces and endowed with superhuman powers to defeat vampires , demons , and other evils in the fictional town of Sunnydale . She is supported in her struggles by a close circle of friends and family , nicknamed the Scooby Gang . In " The Body " , Buffy is powerless as she comes upon her lifeless mother , who has died of a brain aneurysm .
Although Buffy and her friends deal with death every week , often in very gruesome and fantastic ways , in this episode they are bewildered by the natural death of Joyce Summers , the divorced mother of Buffy and her sister Dawn and occasionally a mother figure to their friends . They struggle to comprehend what the loss means to each of them and to the group . Buffy must begin to face her life and her duties as the Slayer without parental support and comfort .
The episode was stripped of all music — a regular staple of the Buffy series — and disorienting effects were included to convey the sense of displacement and loss associated with the death of a close family member . For its frank depiction of grief and coping with a very realistic death when the show usually used monsters or demons as figurative symbols , " The Body " has been described by multiple critics as one of the best television episodes ever broadcast .
= = Background = =
Buffy ( Sarah Michelle Gellar ) is assisted from season one by her close friends , who collectively refer to themselves as the Scooby Gang : Xander Harris ( Nicholas Brendon ) , whose primary strength is his devotion to Buffy , and Willow Rosenberg ( Alyson Hannigan ) , who begins dabbling in witchcraft and grows progressively more powerful . They are mentored by Rupert Giles ( Anthony Stewart Head ) , Buffy 's " Watcher " , and joined by Xander 's girlfriend Anya Jenkins ( Emma Caulfield ) , who was a vengeance demon until her powers were taken away . Anya is often at a loss to know how to communicate with humans , and her speech is frequently abrupt . In the fourth season , Willow became romantically involved with Tara Maclay ( Amber Benson ) , also a witch .
Each season of Buffy the Vampire Slayer ( often simplified as Buffy ) presents an overall theme episodes tie into . Roz Kaveney identifies family and belonging as the overall theme of the fifth season . Buffy 's mother Joyce ( Kristine Sutherland ) begins experiencing headaches at the beginning of the season , once collapsing and requiring hospitalization . She subsequently has a brain tumor removed . She has been recovering well . In the previous episode , she receives flowers from a male suitor , which Buffy finds at the end of that episode . The fifth season also introduces Dawn ( Michelle Trachtenberg ) , Buffy 's 14 @-@ year @-@ old sister . Each season has a primary antagonist called the Big Bad ; in the fifth season this takes the form of a powerful goddess named Glory ( Clare Kramer ) .
= = Plot = =
Beginning where the previous episode left off , Buffy arrives home and sees the flowers sent from Joyce 's suitor . She calls out to her mother and hears no answer . Buffy sees Joyce lying lifeless on the sofa , staring at the ceiling .
The credits appear over a flashback to a Christmas dinner where all the Scoobies are present , having a typical lighthearted conversation as Joyce and Buffy discuss a pie that drops on the floor . The scene snaps back to Buffy in the living room , shaking Joyce and screaming at her . She calls for an ambulance and attempts CPR , accidentally snapping a rib in the process , but to no avail . Buffy calls Giles . The paramedics arrive and work on Joyce and she revives , the paramedics declare it a miracle in the ambulance , and Joyce , Buffy , and Dawn rejoice in the hospital . The scene snaps back to the living room where the paramedics continue to work on Joyce until they stop and tell Buffy that Joyce is dead . They leave , and Buffy goes into the hall and vomits . Giles arrives and Buffy tells him not to move the body , shocking herself by using that word .
At school , Dawn is crying in the bathroom upset that a girl called her a freak . In art class she talks with a boy as they sketch , and the two share a moment of understanding about being troubled . Buffy arrives and pulls Dawn out of class into the hall . Through the windows of the art room , the class watches Buffy tell her that Joyce has had an accident . The rest of the conversation is muffled . Dawn collapses in the hall , sobbing .
In Willow 's dormitory room , Tara tries to help Willow find a shirt to wear . Xander and Anya arrive and double @-@ park . Willow panics , rejecting shirt after shirt , not knowing how to appear for Buffy and Dawn . She asks why her clothes are stupid and she is childish , weeping until Tara kisses and calms her . Anya asks Xander what she is supposed to do ; he cannot answer . Willow changes her shirt again and Xander expresses his desire to find Glory and exact justice , then complains about Joyce 's negligent doctors . Anya asks if they will see the body , then if the body will be cut open , and Willow responds angrily . Anya tearfully says she does not understand how to behave , or why Joyce cannot go back into her own body , unable to understand human death , she states that it is all " stupid and mortal " , and no one will tell her why things are happening . Xander puts his fist through the wall , making him bleed but feel oddly better . As the group leaves to visit Buffy at the hospital , Xander gets a parking ticket .
In the waiting room outside the morgue , the doctor tells Buffy that Joyce died of an aneurysm suddenly and painlessly . Left alone with Buffy , Tara tells her that her own mother died when she was 17 and she went through something similar . Dawn goes alone to the morgue to see Joyce 's body . While she is there , one of the bodies , now a vampire , gets up . After noticing Dawn has not come back , Buffy goes to look for her and finds her in the morgue , being attacked by the vampire . As Buffy fights and kills the vampire , the sheet falls from Joyce 's face . Looking at her mother , Dawn asks where she went , as she reaches out to touch her cheek .
= = Production and writing = =
From the start of writing the Buffy series , Joss Whedon asserted that it would never have a " very special episode " as in contemporary series Beverly Hills , 90210 , The Wonder Years , or Party of Five , where the core cast of characters addresses a single issue ( AIDS , drug abuse , or alcoholism , for example ) and resolve all the problems at the end . Whedon was not interested in finding a life @-@ affirming lesson for " The Body " . Rather , he wanted to capture the isolation and boredom involved in the minutes and hours after finding a loved one has died , what he termed " the black ashes in your mouth numbness of death " . He did not intend to resolve any religious or existential questions about the end of life , but wanted to examine the process in which a person becomes a mere body . Whedon 's mother , a teacher , also died of a cerebral aneurysm , and he drew on his own experiences , and those of friends and other writers , in constructing the episode . He tried to achieve an " unlovely physicality " in " The Body " to portray the upsetting minutiae involved in attempting to comprehend what is incomprehensible .
Small details became significant : to protect her dignity Buffy pulls the hem of Joyce 's skirt down after it rode up when she attempted CPR ; the camera focuses on a breeze through wind chimes while Buffy vomits ; to emphasize Buffy 's isolation , the scene has no exterior establishing shots of the house .
The opening sequence of " The Body " was also the closing scene of the previous episode , " I Was Made to Love You " ; this is the only episode in the series that was first aired without a " Previously on Buffy " lead @-@ in . The Christmas dinner scene was used both to contrast the stark reality of the rest of the episode , and to avoid having the credits appear over the beginning scenes where Buffy is trying to revive her mother .
The episode is presented in four acts , each beginning in total silence and with a close @-@ up shot of Joyce 's pale , staring face . Shooting the first act was difficult for Gellar ( Buffy ) . Whedon shot the scene where she finds her mother as one long take , showing her move through the house and calling the paramedics , about seven times . The rest of the scenes in the act were shot in sequence . At the end , Giles arrives and also attempts to revive Joyce , but Buffy blurts , " We 're not supposed to move the body ! " Both Gellar and Trachtenberg ( Dawn ) were raised by single women , and Gellar later spoke about the experience of acting something that was very real and close to her , stating , " you try to separate it as best you can and at the same time it adds that extra layer " . As soon as the scene was finished with Gellar " at a fever pitch " , they restarted it where she comes in the door happily , which Whedon regretted for the emotional range Gellar was required to endure .
Kristine Sutherland ( Joyce ) was informed during the third season that her character would be killed off , which she accepted because she intended to spend time in Europe . She is absent from most of the fourth season because she was traveling . She reported that the atmosphere on the set of " The Body " was strange and tense because she had been a regular character through the series and she was suddenly playing a corpse . She found the part difficult to play , not only for the stillness , but getting into the make @-@ up , and lying on the morgue table with other bodies .
The most difficult scene for Whedon to film was Willow panicking in her dormitory room . Her obsession about what to wear to visit Buffy was inspired by Whedon 's own experiences when he was at a loss for what tie to wear for a friend 's funeral . He praised Alyson Hannigan 's acting , saying that she was able to be consistently emotional in every take and make him and the crew cry every time . Whedon acknowledged his difficulty speaking on the DVD commentary while watching Hannigan in the scene .
Whedon 's rejection of the " very special episode " format impelled him to address the physicality of Willow and Tara 's relationship within " The Body " . Before this episode , they had held hands and danced on screen , but they had not kissed . A genre of television specials dealing with female homosexuality developed as the " lesbian kiss episode " in the 1990s , where a female character kissed another female but no relationship is further explored . Whedon set out to acknowledge Willow 's and Tara 's affection without making it the primary focus of the show . For attempting this , he received resistance from the airing network , the WB . Whedon informed them that the kiss between Willow and Tara was " not negotiable " . According to Whedon , the conversation about the kiss was approached by the network executives , who were concerned with the number of gay relationships on the network . Whedon countered that the kiss was " true to character " and said he would quit the show if the network forbade it . It was the only time during the series he threatened to do so .
When Willow and Tara first met in the fourth season , the writers did not intend the relationship to be romantic but the actors had such chemistry that , two episodes later , Whedon and the writing team took Alyson Hannigan and Amber Benson aside to inform them where it would go . For the rest of the season , the sexual relationship between Willow and Tara was represented metaphorically by witchcraft , and none of the WB executives realized it . In the end , Whedon praised the way the WB handled the display of affection in " The Body " , saying " They raised an eyebrow , but they 've been great . I give the WB props when it came to the [ characters ' first ] kiss . What I want to show is real affection , and ' The Body ' turned out to be the perfect place to put it in . To the network 's credit , they not only aired it , but they did not advertise it . I thought that was pretty classy . " Stephen Tropiano in Prime Time Closet : A History of Gays and Lesbians on TV writes that this approach was " truly groundbreaking " ; no long speech , no huge discovery : " Like Willow , we 're made to feel as if her love for Tara is the most natural thing in the world " . Tropiano calls it " A simple kiss . A quiet , simple moment . Two lovers kissing . Just like lovers do . "
Audiences reacted more emotionally than Whedon expected to Emma Caulfield 's performance . Anya 's blunt innocence was similar to a plot twist , as viewers did not expect the depth of sensitivity that she portrayed in her monologue , which Whedon considers " the heart of the experience " and critic Noel Murray reiterates as the " whole point of the episode in bolded , capital letters " . Xander 's punching the wall and hurting his hand served to give the four in this scene something to concentrate on , to redirect their helplessness , which was another facet of the physicality of dealing with the crisis . Whedon used another long tracking shot from Joyce 's face in the morgue following the doctor down the hall to speak with Buffy and the Scoobies to cement the reality of their being so close in proximity , as opposed to cutting shots to give the possibility that it was part of another set located somewhere else . The vampire that attacks Dawn in the morgue was a touch many viewers took to be out of place for the episode . This scene contrasts the more fantasy @-@ related deaths common in the series with Joyce 's realistic death . Furthermore , similar to Xander 's parking ticket and the sounds of life outside Buffy 's house , in Sunnydale vampires are a normal experience , and it was intended to show that life for Buffy continues .
= = Themes = =
= = = Grief = = =
In Nikki Stafford 's analysis , the reactions of Buffy , Dawn , Xander , Willow , Anya , and Tara represent stages of Elisabeth Kübler @-@ Ross ' five stages of grief in different parts . Joss Whedon stated on the DVD commentary how surprised he was at the response from viewers who wrote to say that the episode allowed them to accept the death of a close family member , even if they had not acknowledged it for months or years . Joyce 's death was the first by natural causes in the series .
In The Psychology of Joss Whedon , two academic psychologists identify the source of Buffy 's strength as her mother , paired with Giles ' mentorship . Joyce did not know all along that Buffy was a Slayer and had difficulty accepting what her daughter was called to do . She was nonetheless always attentive and available when Buffy 's confidence was shaken , and both Joyce 's and Giles ' devotion to her " gave her the self @-@ assurance to wield her power to its full potential " . Joyce served as a parent figure to all of Buffy 's friends , whose home lives were often unstable or unloving , thus making her death more poignant to all of them . Willow mentions her parents several times throughout the series , but her father is never seen . Her mother is portrayed only once in " Gingerbread " , at first as an academic so preoccupied with her career that she is unable to communicate with Willow , and then — with Joyce — under the spell of a demon and in the throes of moral panic , attempting to burn her own daughter at the stake for being involved in witchcraft . Xander 's parents are described by him and those who have been to his house as alcoholic and verbally abusive . Even Anya , severely wanting in social graces , has lost someone she admires and trusts . Giles also grieves for the loss of a friend and — in one episode when the adults fall under a spell making them retreat into an adolescent state — a lover . Lorna Jowett in Sex and the Slayer writes that Joyce represents stability and normality . For the Scoobies , her death destroys the illusion that normal life is trouble @-@ free ; it is just as challenging as encountering supernatural forces .
Finding her mother 's body , Buffy at first denies what she sees , to the point of imagining alternate realities . Whedon stated that these mini dream sequences were like documentaries ; people who find their loved ones dead are desperate to imagine a different , better outcome , and they create fantasies that cause much more pain when they are forced to return to the harshness of reality . Later in the hospital , Buffy imagines what she might have been able to do to save Joyce , although the doctor tells her there was nothing to be done . Willow and Xander express anger and helplessness . Anya , new to mortality and human connections , is childlike in her innocence and questions . Xander 's anger and Anya 's confusion allow them to be mothered somewhat by Willow , who needs to take care of someone . Dawn is deeply in denial , unable to understand that the woman she thought she had known all her life was gone . Tara , who has gone through the ordeal before , represents the acceptance phase , soothing and helping the others to work through what they are experiencing . Buffy toward the end also begins to see acceptance when she tells Dawn that the body in the morgue is not their mother ; Joyce is gone .
The episode also emphasizes another theme of the season : Buffy 's response to forces that she cannot fight . Throughout the season she encounters the much more powerful goddess Glory , but Joyce 's death leaves her feeling the most helpless . In Joyce 's death there is no evil force to combat ; she simply dies , and Buffy , with all her power , is ill @-@ equipped to grasp the enormity of her situation . In her shock , Buffy retreats to a childlike state of confusion , calling to her mother when she does not answer : " Mom ? ... Mom ? ... Mommy ? " Emma Caulfield was also given the direction for her voice to rise to a childlike pitch at the end of her speech to give the same effect . According to Buffy scholar Rhonda Wilcox , the themes of maturation and facing adult responsibilities begin with the departure of Buffy 's boyfriend Riley Finn six episodes before , and crystallize in the preceding episode in which Buffy realizes she does not need a boyfriend to be fulfilled . At the end of that episode she is confronted with Joyce 's death , which is fully explored in " The Body " . Facing responsibilities became the major theme of the sixth season . One critic writes , " Drastic as it was , killing off Joyce was the logical way to bring Buffy and Dawn closer together , sever Buffy 's last ties to girlhood and emphasize Buffy 's inability to accept the limits of her power , a recurring theme this season . "
= = = Reality = = =
Whedon uses several disorienting effects to heighten the reality of the situations in the episode to the point that they seem surreal . The long opening shot of Buffy coming home and finding Joyce was filmed with one hand @-@ held camera in constant movement as she walks through the house to the phone and back to her mother again . The buttons on Buffy 's phone are abnormally large , an effect that Whedon added because he experienced it when his mother died . Buffy is so bewildered by the paramedic telling her that Joyce is dead that she can only focus on his mouth in an attempt to understand what he is saying . The camera uses her perspective and only the bottom part of the paramedic 's face is in view . Instead of a normal " over @-@ the @-@ shoulder " view , Buffy is shot at the same height as the paramedic 's shoulder , barely squeezed into the frame as if to portray her , according to Whedon , as trapped by reality . Kristine Sutherland stated that the script was " amazing " , specifically at capturing the detachment : " It 's not something you can process . I mean mortality is just not part of your vocabulary when you 're that age . "
In the hospital , as Buffy listens to the doctor confirm how Joyce died , the doctor says something , but the words " I have to lie to you to make you feel better " are spoken discordantly , as though , according to cinema scholar Katy Stevens , Buffy " constructs what she believes to be an unmentionable truth — her culpability in her mother 's death " . In the same scene , Dawn is shot with a hand @-@ held camera that drifts , giving her a slightly unreal moment as she struggles to believe , unlike what Buffy already knows , that her mother 's body is down the hall on a steel table . The scene with Buffy and Tara sitting in the waiting room was noted by Rhonda Wilcox for its reality in showing Gellar as ragged and distinctly unglamorous , particularly because she had been presented in a specific way to attract male viewers and was a spokeswoman for Maybelline while Buffy aired . Buffy sits with circles under her eyes , unflattering hair , and slumped posture next to Tara , who had been criticized for being too heavy , despite her body type being more typical of women her age .
Foremost of the disorienting effects , to critics and scholars , is Whedon 's use of sound and silence . While Buffy performs CPR , she cracks one of Joyce 's ribs with a startling snap . After Buffy vomits on the floor , she stands in the back doorway listening to life carrying on : children playing , someone practicing a trumpet , and birds singing . Long pauses between dialogue create gaps that turn awkward as the characters try to think of what to say , made especially notable in a series famous for its rapid banter . The transition between the Christmas dinner scene and the living room scene is abrupt , and the sound of Buffy and Joyce shouting because they dropped a pie on the floor carries over into the silence of Joyce 's lifeless face and Buffy standing alone in the living room . This effect is also used when shifting between Buffy 's alternate version of her mother being " good as new " in the hospital and the paramedics trying to revive her . In the car on the way to Willow 's dormitory , Anya is shot by a camera mounted on the front bumper , separated from the audience by the windshield . Xander , driving , faces the other way ; neither of them speak and only the sound of the car can be heard . Joyce Millman at Salon.com writes of the sound issues , " The effect was almost Bergmanesque in its starkness . The spooky stillness and the long , spacey pauses in conversation as characters struggled to articulate their feelings exaggerated the sense of time elongating and standing still . "
Katy Stevens notes that the dialogue in " The Body " was recorded with microphones very close to the actors , making variations in their voices — cracks , rises , and whispers — more prominent to the audience , to close the distance between the actors and the viewer . Conversely , the scene in which Dawn is told of Joyce 's death was shot through a large classroom window , muffling Dawn 's emotional reaction , to isolate Buffy and Dawn from the class and the audience . Several moments of silence follow this scene . Whedon shot the conversation up close several times , filming over @-@ the @-@ shoulder and reaction shots , but eventually went with a more distanced point of view . Michelle Trachtenberg later said of this effect , " obviously you know in the end result there was no sound and I thought that was actually one of the most brilliant ideas [ he 's ] ever had because it allows everyone to sort of attach their own emotional plug into whatever might have happened in your life . I think it allowed the audience to really connect with Dawn for the first time . "
Presenting the episode without music was Whedon 's way of denying the audience any comfort , forcing them to discern their own meanings from the characters ' actions and words . As two musicologists write about this absence , " Without music 's acoustic balm , all our empathetic attention is on the characters and their state of bewilderment ... Music would provide a conceptualization and a catharsis ... but a catharsis at this point would in some measure trivialize the loss . " Television critic Gareth McLean writes that this decision is " a move that makes it more courageous than , for instance , ER . There were no soaring strings or plaintive piano to trigger an emotional response . Instead the soundtrack took in the ambient noises of wind chimes , doors squeaking , footsteps on carpets . Conversations were stilted and awkward , but the spaces in between always mattered . "
= = Reception = =
Critics praised the episode , and have continued to count it as one of the finest episodes of television ever broadcast . David Bianculli in the New York Daily News commends the acting abilities of Sarah Michelle Gellar , Michelle Trachtenberg , Alyson Hannigan , and Amber Benson . " The Body " , according to Bianculli is " Emmy @-@ worthy ... It also will haunt you — but not in the normal way associated with this still @-@ evolving , still @-@ achieving series . " Television critic Alesia Redding and editor Joe Vince of the South Bend Tribune write , " I was riveted by this show ... This isn 't just one of the best Buffy episodes of all time . It 's one of the best episodes of TV of all time . " Redding adds , " If you watch this incredible episode and don 't recognize it as great TV , you 're hopeless ... A ' fantasy ' show delivers the most stark and realistic take on death I 've ever seen , deftly depicting how a loved one who dies suddenly becomes ' the body ' . "
Gareth McLean in The Guardian rejects the notion that Buffy is similar to other " schmaltzy American teen show ( s ) " like Dawson 's Creek : " This episode was a brave , honest and wrenching portrayal of death and loss . The way this was handled by Joss Whedon ... was ingenious . Time slowed down and the feeling of numbness was palpable as Buffy and her gang tried to come to terms with Joyce 's death . " McLean especially appreciated the small details of Buffy protecting Joyce 's dignity and the confusion shown by the characters . He concludes , " Joyce may be dead but long live Buffy the Vampire Slayer . " Joe Gross in the Austin American @-@ Statesman calls the episode " devastatingly calm " and states that " the entire cast and crew should have received some sort of Emmy for ' The Body ' " .
At Salon.com , Joyce Millman writes , " there hasn 't been a finer hour of drama on TV this year than ... ' The Body ' ... You have to hand it to the writers ; Joyce 's demise came as a complete surprise . In that instant , Buffy 's childhood officially ends . Even if Buffy gets stiffed in every other Emmy category this year , ' The Body ' should convince the nominating committee that Gellar is for real ... I can 't remember the last time I saw a more wrenching portrayal of the shock of loss . " Andrew Gilstrap at PopMatters declares it " possibly the finest hour of television I 've seen , bar none ... It is an incredibly moving episode , one that finally admits that you don 't walk away from death unscathed . It also shows that , for all the group 's slaying experience , they really weren 't prepared for death when it stole a loved one . " Gilstrap went on to say the series did not again address death and grief of this magnitude until , in another shocking turn of events , Tara dies of a stray gunshot in the sixth season . Jerry McCormick in The San Diego Union @-@ Tribune agrees , rating Joyce 's death as having the same emotional impact as Tara 's in " Seeing Red " , both of which he listed as the saddest in the series .
Kira Schlechter in The Patriot @-@ News declares " The Body " " one of the finest episodes of any series ever " , stating that the silence and novel cinematography are " remarkable and the writing is brilliant " . Buffy and Dawn 's conversation at her school , Schlechter says , is " positively wrenching " . When the series ended in 2003 , Amy Antangelo in the Boston Herald and Siona LaFrance of the New Orleans Times @-@ Picayune both rated the best Buffy episodes giving " The Body " equal billing at the top with " Hush " and " Once More , with Feeling " , LaFrance designating the episode an " instant classic " . Jonathan Last in The Weekly Standard lists " The Body " eighth out of the ten best Buffy episodes , writing that it is " the series ' most difficult episode because it 's real — and not real in the way ER or The Practice or Law & Order , all hyper @-@ versions of reality , are real . At some point , most of us will experience a day like Buffy has in ' The Body ' and we sense that the writers have gotten nearly every detail of that day — right down to the absence of a musical score — right . " In the A.V. Club , Noel Murray also finds small details compelling , such as the camera 's focus on the paper towel Buffy uses to cover the vomit on the carpet . He does , however , write that some of the shots " come off a little gimmicky , but the ones that work are so effective that it seems petty to complain that Whedon overdoes it at times . ( Besides , different moments are likely to move different people . ) "
In addition to praising Gellar 's often under @-@ appreciated acting , Buffy scholar Ian Shuttleworth comments on the cast and the nuanced numbness and confusion of the characters , paired with the moments of silence in the episode : " It is simply one of the finest pieces of television drama , and the single finest depiction of bereavement in any medium , that I have ever seen . " Nikki Stafford , author of Bite Me ! The Unofficial Guide to Buffy the Vampire Slayer , calls " The Body " " an absolute masterpiece " , explaining that it is " hands down the single most terrifying , heart @-@ breaking , painful , and amazing hour of television I have ever seen " . She praises the entire cast equally , but highlights Gellar , Alyson Hannigan , and Emma Caulfield . Stafford also praised Kristine Sutherland — as did Whedon — for having to lie motionless with her eyes open for hours upon hours over eight days of filming .
In 2015 , Gavin Hetherington of SpoilerTV looked back at the episode fourteen years later . Upon reviewing the episode , he called it " one of the best hours of television " he had ever seen and went on to say " I don 't think any other supernatural show has ever had a more beautiful episode than The Body " .
When the episode was originally broadcast in the United States on the WB network on February 27 , 2001 , it received a Nielsen rating of 3 @.@ 5 and a share of 5 , and was watched by 6 million viewers . The episode placed fifth in its timeslot , and 82nd among broadcast television for the week of February 26 – March 4 , 2001 . It was the most watched program on the WB that night , and the second most watched program that week , trailing 7th Heaven . This was a slight increase from a 3 @.@ 4 rating and 87th position achieved by the previous episode . The episode was released on DVD on October 28 , 2002 in Region 2 , and December 9 , 2003 in Region 1 . Although the episode received positive reviews , it was not nominated for any Emmy awards . Rhonda Wilcox attributes this to the Emmys being a " bastion of conservative popular taste " , automatically rejecting television shows in the fantasy / science fiction genres . The script was nominated for a Nebula Award , given for excellence in science fiction / fantasy writing .
= Pennsylvania Route 858 =
Pennsylvania Route 858 ( designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 0858 ) is a 16 @.@ 465 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 26 @.@ 498 km ) state highway located in Susquehanna County in Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at PA 706 in Rush Township . The northern terminus is the New York state line in Little Meadows . The route from there continues as Tioga County Route 41 . The route was assigned in 1928 , completed a year later , and has remained the same since , with an exception of its southern terminus changing designations from Pennsylvania Route 67 .
= = Route description = =
PA 858 begins at an intersection with PA 706 in the Rush Township community of Rushville . The highway begins its long trek in Susquehanna County by progressing northward in a patch of forests . PA 858 , which runs west of a creek , is sparsely populated and homes are rare . PA 858 winds its way in and out of forests , heading on a northeast direction . Soon after , there is an intersection with Keefs Hill Road , a locally maintained highway . After Keefs Hill Road , PA 858 heads back into a dense patch of trees . In the forest , is an intersection with C. Warner Road , and soon after comes one for Shadduck Road .
Although the dense forest ends , trees continue to surround the highway . The route turns a short drift off its alignment at an intersection with Miller Road . The route turns from the northward direction it was heading to a northwestern direction and intersects eventually with Guilton Road . The dense forestry returns , and Route 858 begins winding its way along . Residential homes have all but disappeared from the route , with trees showing the way into Middletown Center . PA 858 passes a pond to the east , intersecting with the former alignment of PA 859 , now a locally maintained highway known as Vet Davis Road and Camp Corby Road .
After leaving Middletown Center , PA 858 continues northward and sometimes northeastward . After Middletown Center , PA 858 is surrounded by nothing but trees . There is a break in the trees when PA 858 intersects with an unnamed road , which serves as a connector to Township Road 768 . The state traffic route continues to the northwest , intersecting with Township Road 687 . As PA 858 continues , it enters Apolacon Township , where the dense forestry begins to break , and homes begin to show the way . After a short pond is passed , the highway enters Little Meadows . At Maple Avenue , PA 858 runs on its final stretch , passing homes all the way to the New York state line . There , PA 858 ends and becomes County Route 41 upon entering Tioga County , New York .
= = History = =
PA 858 was first assigned in the mass numbering of state traffic routes in Pennsylvania in 1928 . However , the southern terminus of the highway was not an intersection with Pennsylvania Route 706 . Instead , it was an intersection with PA 67 . When it was assigned , it only ran from U.S. Route 106 to Town House Road , since the rest had not been completed yet . The final , already paved segment of SR 858 was completed by the next year . In 1932 , the route south of Town House Road was paved . In 1972 , PA 67 was decommissioned , and the route at the southern terminus became PA 706 .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Susquehanna County .
= Circumcision =
Male circumcision is the removal of the foreskin from the human penis . In the most common procedure , the foreskin is opened , adhesions are removed , and the foreskin is separated from the glans . After that , the circumcision device ( if used ) is placed , and then the foreskin is removed . Topical or locally injected anesthesia is occasionally used to reduce pain and physiologic stress . For adults and children , general anesthesia is an option , and the procedure may be performed without a specialized circumcision device . The procedure is most often an elective surgery performed on babies and children for religious and cultural reasons . In other cases it may be done as a treatment for a condition or for preventative reasons . Medically , it is a treatment option for problematic cases of phimosis , balanoposthitis that does not resolve with other treatments , and chronic urinary tract infections ( UTIs ) . It is contraindicated in cases of certain genital structure abnormalities or poor general health .
The positions of the world 's major medical organizations range from considering elective circumcision of babies and children as having no benefit and significant risks to having a modest health benefit that outweighs small risks . No major medical organization recommends either universal circumcision for all males ( aside from the recommendations of the World Health Organization ( WHO ) for areas with high rates of HIV ) , or banning the procedure . Ethical and legal questions regarding informed consent and human rights have been raised over the circumcision of babies and children for non @-@ medical reasons , and for that reason the procedure is controversial .
Evidence supports that male circumcision reduces the risk of HIV infection among heterosexual men in sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Therefore , The WHO recommends considering circumcision as part of a comprehensive HIV prevention program in areas with high rates of HIV , such as Sub Saharan Africa . However , evidence for a health benefit against HIV for men who have sex with men is less clear . Additionally , the effectiveness of using circumcision to prevent HIV in the developed world is also unclear . Circumcision in general is associated with reduced rates of cancer causing forms of HPV and risk of both UTIs and cancer of the penis . Prevention of those conditions , however , is not a justification for routine circumcision of infants . Studies of its potential protective effects against other sexually transmitted infections have been unclear . A 2010 review of literature found circumcisions performed by medical providers to have a typical complication rate of 1 @.@ 5 % for babies and 6 % for older children , with few cases of severe complications . Bleeding , infection and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin are the most common complications cited . Complication rates are higher when the procedure is performed by an inexperienced operator , in unsterile conditions , or when the child is at an older age . Circumcision does not appear to have a negative impact on sexual function .
An estimated one @-@ third of males worldwide are circumcised . The procedure is most common in the Muslim world and Israel ( where it is near @-@ universal for religious reasons ) , the United States , and parts of Southeast Asia and Africa . It is relatively rare in Europe , Latin America , parts of Southern Africa , and most of Asia . The origin of circumcision is not known with certainty ; the oldest documented evidence for it comes from ancient Egypt . Various theories have been proposed as to its origin , including as a religious sacrifice and as a rite of passage marking a boy 's entrance into adulthood . It is part of religious law in Judaism and is an established practice in Islam , Coptic Christianity , and the Ethiopian Orthodox Church . The word circumcision is from Latin circumcidere , meaning " to cut around " .
= = Indications and contraindications = =
= = = Routine or elective = = =
Neonatal circumcision is usually elected by the parents for non @-@ medical reasons , such as religious beliefs or personal preferences , possibly driven by societal norms . Outside the parts of Africa with high prevalence of HIV / AIDS , the positions of the world 's major medical organizations on non @-@ therapeutic neonatal circumcision range from considering it as having a modest net health benefit that outweighs small risks to viewing it as having no benefit with significant risks for harm . No major medical organization recommends universal neonatal circumcision , and no major medical organization calls for banning it either . The Royal Dutch Medical Association , which expresses some of the strongest opposition to routine neonatal circumcision , does not call for the practice to be made illegal out of their concern that parents who insist on the procedure would turn to poorly trained practitioners instead of medical professionals . This argument to keep the procedure within the purview of medical professionals is found across all major medical organizations . In addition , the organizations advise medical professionals to yield to some degree to parental preferences , which are commonly based upon cultural or religious views , in their decision to agree to circumcise .
Owing to the HIV / AIDS epidemic there , sub @-@ Saharan Africa is a special case . The finding that circumcision significantly reduces female @-@ to @-@ male HIV transmission has prompted medical organizations serving the affected communities to promote circumcision as an additional method of controlling the spread of HIV . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) and UNAIDS ( 2007 ) recommend circumcision as part of a comprehensive program for prevention of HIV transmission in areas with high endemic rates of HIV , as long as the program includes " informed consent , confidentiality , and absence of coercion " .
= = = Medical indications = = =
Circumcision may be used to treat pathological phimosis , refractory balanoposthitis and chronic , recurrent urinary tract infections ( UTIs ) . The World Health Organization promotes circumcision as a preventive measure for sexually active men in populations at high risk for HIV . Circumcision is also recommended for HIV prevention by the International Antiviral Society @-@ USA for all sexually active heterosexual males and is recommended that it be discussed with MSM who engage in primarily insertive anal sex with other men , especially in areas where HIV is common .
= = = Contraindications = = =
Circumcision is contraindicated in infants with certain genital structure abnormalities , such as a misplaced urethral opening ( as in hypospadias and epispadias ) , curvature of the head of the penis ( chordee ) , or ambiguous genitalia , because the foreskin may be needed for reconstructive surgery . Circumcision is contraindicated in premature infants and those who are not clinically stable and in good health . If an individual , child or adult , is known to have or has a family history of serious bleeding disorders ( hemophilia ) , it is recommended that the blood be checked for normal coagulation properties before the procedure is attempted .
= = Technique = =
The foreskin extends out from the base of the glans and covers the glans when the penis is flaccid . Proposed theories for the purpose of the foreskin are that it serves to protect the penis as the fetus develops in the mother 's womb , that it helps to preserve moisture in the glans , and that it improves sexual pleasure . The foreskin may also be a pathway of infection for certain diseases . Circumcision removes the foreskin at its attachment to the base of the glans .
= = = Removal of the foreskin = = =
For infant circumcision , devices such as the Gomco clamp , Plastibell and Mogen clamp are commonly used in the USA . These follow the same basic procedure . First , the amount of foreskin to be removed is estimated . The practitioner opens the foreskin via the preputial orifice to reveal the glans underneath and ensures it is normal before bluntly separating the inner lining of the foreskin ( preputial epithelium ) from its attachment to the glans . The practitioner then places the circumcision device ( this sometimes requires a dorsal slit ) , which remains until blood flow has stopped . Finally , the foreskin is amputated . For adults , circumcision is often performed without clamps , and non @-@ surgical alternatives such as the elastic ring controlled radial compression device or the Shang ring are available .
= = = Pain management = = =
The circumcision procedure causes pain , and for neonates this pain may interfere with mother @-@ infant interaction or cause other behavioral changes , so the use of analgesia is advocated . Ordinary procedural pain may be managed in pharmacological and non @-@ pharmacological ways . Pharmacological methods , such as localized or regional pain @-@ blocking injections and topical analgesic creams , are safe and effective . The ring block and dorsal penile nerve block ( DPNB ) are the most effective at reducing pain , and the ring block may be more effective than the DPNB . They are more effective than EMLA ( eutectic mixture of local anesthetics ) cream , which is more effective than a placebo . Topical creams have been found to irritate the skin of low birth weight infants , so penile nerve block techniques are recommended in this group .
For infants , non @-@ pharmacological methods such as the use of a comfortable , padded chair and a sucrose or non @-@ sucrose pacifier are more effective at reducing pain than a placebo , but the American Academy of Pediatrics ( AAP ) states that such methods are insufficient alone and should be used to supplement more effective techniques . A quicker procedure reduces duration of pain ; use of the Mogen clamp was found to result in a shorter procedure time and less pain @-@ induced stress than the use of the Gomco clamp or the Plastibell . The available evidence does not indicate that post @-@ procedure pain management is needed . For adults , general anesthesia is an option , and the procedure requires four to six weeks of abstinence from masturbation or intercourse to allow the wound to heal .
= = Effects = =
= = = Sexually transmitted diseases = = =
= = = = Human immunodeficiency virus = = = =
There is strong evidence that circumcision reduces the risk of HIV infection in heterosexual men in high @-@ risk populations . Evidence among heterosexual men in sub @-@ Saharan Africa shows an absolute decrease in risk of 1 @.@ 8 % which is a relative decrease of between 38 percent and 66 percent over two years , and in this population studies rate it cost effective . Whether it is of benefit in developed countries is undetermined .
There are plausible explanations based on human biology for how circumcision can decrease the likelihood of female @-@ to @-@ male HIV transmission . The superficial skin layers of the penis contain Langerhans cells , which are targeted by HIV ; removing the foreskin reduces the number of these cells . When an uncircumcised penis is erect during intercourse , any small tears on the inner surface of the foreskin come into direct contact with the vaginal walls , providing a pathway for transmission . When an uncircumcised penis is flaccid , the pocket between the inside of the foreskin and the head of the penis provides an environment conducive to pathogen survival ; circumcision eliminates this pocket . Some experimental evidence has been provided to support these theories .
The WHO and the Joint United Nations Programme on HIV / AIDS ( UNAIDS ) state that male circumcision is an efficacious intervention for HIV prevention , but should be carried out by well @-@ trained medical professionals and under conditions of informed consent ( parents ' consent for their infant boys ) . The WHO has judged circumcision to be a cost @-@ effective public health intervention against the spread of HIV in Africa , although not necessarily more cost @-@ effective than condoms . The joint WHO / UNAIDS recommendation also notes that circumcision only provides partial protection from HIV and should not replace known methods of HIV prevention .
The available evidence does not indicate that circumcision provides HIV protection for heterosexual women . Data is lacking regarding the effect circumcision may have on the transmission rate of men who engage in anal sex with a female partner . It is undetermined whether circumcision benefits men who have sex with men .
= = = = Human papillomavirus = = = =
Human papillomavirus ( HPV ) is the most commonly transmitted sexually transmitted infection , affecting both men and women . While most infections are asymptomatic and are cleared by the immune system , some types of the virus cause genital warts , and other types , if untreated , cause various forms of cancer , including cervical cancer and penile cancer . Genital warts and cervical cancer are the two most common problems resulting from HPV .
Circumcision is associated with a reduced prevalence of oncogenic types of HPV infection , meaning that a randomly selected circumcised man is less likely to be found infected with cancer @-@ causing types of HPV than an uncircumcised man . It also decreases the likelihood of multiple infections . No strong evidence indicates that it reduces the rate of new HPV infection , but the procedure is associated with increased clearance of the virus by the body , which can account for the finding of reduced prevalence .
Although genital warts are caused by a type of HPV , there is no statistically significant relationship between being circumcised and the presence of genital warts .
= = = = Other infections = = = =
Studies evaluating the effect of circumcision on the incidence of other sexually transmitted infections have reached conflicting conclusions . A 2006 meta @-@ analysis found that circumcision was associated with lower rates of syphilis , chancroid and possibly genital herpes . A 2010 review found that circumcision reduced the incidence of HSV @-@ 2 ( herpes simplex virus , type 2 ) infections by 28 % . The researchers found mixed results for protection against trichomonas vaginalis and chlamydia trachomatis and no evidence of protection against gonorrhea or syphilis . Among men who have sex with men , reviews have found poor evidence for protection against sexually transmitted infections other than HIV , with the possible exception of syphilis .
= = = Phimosis , balanitis and balanoposthitis = = =
Phimosis is the inability to retract the foreskin over the glans penis . At birth , the foreskin cannot be retracted due to adhesions between the foreskin and glans , and this is considered normal ( physiological phimosis ) . Over time the foreskin naturally separates from the glans , and a majority of boys are able to retract the foreskin by age three . Less than one percent are still having problems at age 18 . If the inability to do so becomes problematic ( pathological phimosis ) circumcision is a treatment option . This pathological phimosis may be due to scarring from the skin disease balanitis xerotica obliterans ( BXO ) , repeated episodes of balanoposthitis or forced retraction of the foreskin . Steroid creams are also a reasonable option and may prevent the need for surgery including in those with mild BXO . The procedure may also be used to prevent the development of phimosis . Phimosis is also a complication that can result from circumcision .
An inflammation of the glans penis and foreskin is called balanoposthitis , and the condition affecting the glans alone is called balanitis . Most cases of these conditions occur in uncircumcised males , affecting 4 – 11 % of that group . The moist , warm space underneath the foreskin is thought to facilitate the growth of pathogens , particularly when hygiene is poor . Yeasts , especially Candida albicans , are the most common penile infection and are rarely identified in samples taken from circumcised males . Both conditions are usually treated with topical antibiotics ( metronidazole cream ) and antifungals ( clotrimazole cream ) or low @-@ potency steroid creams . Circumcision is a treatment option for refractory or recurrent balanoposthitis , but in recent years the availability of the other treatments have made it less necessary .
= = = Urinary tract infections = = =
A UTI affects parts of the urinary system including the urethra , bladder , and kidneys . There is about a one percent risk of UTIs in boys under two years of age , and the majority of incidents occur in the first year of life . There is good but not ideal evidence that circumcision reduces the incidence of UTIs in boys under two years of age , and there is fair evidence that the reduction in incidence is by a factor of 3 – 10 times . Prevention of UTIs does not justify routine use of the procedure , however . Circumcision is most likely to benefit boys who have a high risk of UTIs due to anatomical defects , and may be used to treat recurrent UTIs .
There is a plausible biological explanation for the reduction in UTI risk after circumcision . The orifice through which urine passes at the tip of the penis ( the urinary meatus ) hosts more urinary system disease @-@ causing bacteria in uncircumcised boys than in circumcised boys , especially in those under six months of age . As these bacteria are a risk factor for UTIs , circumcision may reduce the risk of UTIs through a decrease in the bacteria population .
= = = Cancers = = =
Circumcision has a protective effect against the risks of penile cancer in men , and cervical cancer in the female sexual partners of heterosexual men . Penile cancer is rare , with about 1 new case per 100 @,@ 000 people per year in developed countries , and higher incidence rates per 100 @,@ 000 in sub @-@ Saharan Africa ( for example , 1 @.@ 6 in Zimbabwe , 2 @.@ 7 in Uganda and 3 @.@ 2 in Swaziland ) . Penile cancer development can be detected in the carcinoma in situ ( CIS ) cancerous precursor stage and at the more advanced invasive squamous cell carcinoma stage . Childhood or adolescent circumcision is associated with a reduced risk of invasive squamous cell carcinoma in particular . There is an association between adult circumcision and an increased risk of invasive penile cancer ; this is believed to be from men being circumcised as a treatment for penile cancer or a condition that is a precursor to cancer rather than a consequence of circumcision itself . Penile cancer has been observed to be nearly eliminated in populations of males circumcised neonatally .
Important risk factors for penile cancer include phimosis and HPV infection , both of which are mitigated by circumcision . The mitigating effect circumcision has on the risk factor introduced by the possibility of phimosis is secondary , in that the removal of the foreskin eliminates the possibility of phimosis . This can be inferred from study results that show uncircumcised men with no history of phimosis are equally likely to have penile cancer as circumcised men . Circumcision is also associated with a reduced prevalence of cancer @-@ causing types of HPV in men and a reduced risk of cervical cancer ( which is caused by a type of HPV ) in female partners of men . Because penile cancer is rare ( and may get more rare with increasing HPV vaccination rates ) , and circumcision has risks , the practice is not considered to be valuable solely as a prophylactic measure against penile cancer in the United States .
A 2015 meta @-@ analysis found a non @-@ statistically significant reduced risk of prostate cancer associated with circumcision , but that this reduction was significant among blacks and in studies looking at post @-@ PSA and -testing groups .
= = Adverse effects = =
Neonatal circumcision is generally safe when done by an experienced practitioner . The most common acute complications are bleeding , infection and the removal of either too much or too little foreskin . These complications occur in approximately 0 @.@ 12 % of procedures , and constitute the vast majority of all acute circumcision complications in the United States . Minor complications are reported to occur in three percent of procedures . Severe complications are rare . A specific complication rate is difficult to determine due to scant data on complications and inconsistencies in their classification . Complication rates are greater when the procedure is performed by an inexperienced operator , in unsterile conditions , or when the child is at an older age . Significant acute complications happen rarely , occurring in about 1 in 500 newborn procedures in the United States . Severe to catastrophic complications , including death , are so rare that they are reported only as individual case reports . Other possible complications include buried penis , chordee , phimosis , skin bridges , urethral fistulas , and meatal stenosis . These complications may be avoided with proper technique , and are most often treatable without requiring a hospital visit .
= = = Pain = = =
The circumcision procedure may carry the risks of heightened pain response for newborns and dissatisfaction with the result . Newborns that experience pain due to being circumcised have different responses to vaccines given afterwards , with higher pain scores observed .
= = = Sexual effects = = =
Circumcision does not appear to decrease the sensitivity of the penis , harm sexual function or reduce sexual satisfaction . A 2013 systematic review found that circumcision did not appear to adversely affect sexual desire , pain with intercourse , premature ejaculation , time until ejaculation , erectile dysfunction or difficulties with orgasm . However , the study found that the existing evidence is not very good . Another 2013 systematic review found that the highest @-@ quality studies reported no adverse effects of circumcision on sexual function , sensitivity , sensation or satisfaction .
= = = Psychological effects = = =
Behavioral effects have been observed following infant circumcision including changes in sleep patterns , irritability , changes in feeding , and parental bonding . Some men who were circumcised as an infant involuntary , described their feelings about the procedure using the terms " violation , torture , mutilation and sexual assault " .
= = Prevalence = =
Circumcision is one of the world 's most widely performed procedures . Approximately 37 % to 39 % of males worldwide are circumcised , about half for religious or cultural reasons . It is most often practiced between infancy and the early twenties . The WHO estimated in 2007 that 664 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 males aged 15 and over were circumcised ( 30 – 33 % global prevalence ) , almost 70 % of whom were Muslim . Circumcision is most prevalent in the Muslim world , Israel , South Korea , the United States and parts of Southeast Asia and Africa . It is relatively rare in Europe , Latin America , parts of Southern Africa and Oceania and most of Asia . Prevalence is near @-@ universal in the Middle East and Central Asia . Non @-@ religious circumcision in Asia , outside of the Republic of Korea and the Philippines , is fairly rare , and prevalence is generally low ( less than 20 % ) across Europe . Estimates for individual countries include Taiwan at 9 % and Australia 58 @.@ 7 % . Prevalence in the United States and Canada is estimated at 75 % and 30 % respectively . Prevalence in Africa varies from less than 20 % in some southern African countries to near universal in North and West Africa .
The rates of routine neonatal circumcision over time have varied significantly by country . In the United States , hospital discharge surveys estimated rates at 64 @.@ 7 % in the year 1980 , 59 @.@ 0 % in the year 1990 , 62 @.@ 4 % in the year 2000 , and 58 @.@ 3 % in the year 2010 . These estimates are lower than the overall circumcision rates , as they do not account for non @-@ hospital circumcisions , or for procedures performed for medical or cosmetic reasons later in life ; community surveys have reported higher neonatal circumcision . Canada has seen a slow decline since the early 1970s , possibly influenced by statements from the AAP and the Canadian Pediatric Society issued in the 1970s saying that the procedure was not medically indicated . In Australia , the rate declined in the 1970s and 80s , but has been increasing slowly as of 2004 . In the United Kingdom , rates are likely to have been 20 – 30 % in the 1940s , but declined in the late 40s . One possible reason may have been a 1949 British Medical Journal article which stated that there was no medical reason for the general circumcision of babies . The overall prevalence of circumcision in South Korea has increased markedly in the second half of the 20th century , rising from near zero around 1950 to about 60 % in 2000 , with the most significant jumps in the last two decades of that time period . This is probably due to the influence of the United States , which established a trusteeship for the country following World War II .
Medical organizations can affect the neonatal circumcision rate of a country by influencing whether the costs of the procedure are borne by the parents or are covered by insurance or a national health care system . Policies that require the costs to be paid by the parents yield lower neonatal circumcision rates . The decline in the rates in the UK is one example ; another is that in the United States , the individual states where insurance or Medicaid covers the costs have higher rates . Changes to policy are driven by the results of new research , and moderated by the politics , demographics , and culture of the communities .
= = History = =
Circumcision is the world 's oldest planned surgical procedure , suggested by anatomist and hyperdiffusionist historian Grafton Elliot Smith to be over 15 @,@ 000 years old , pre @-@ dating recorded history . There is no firm consensus as to how it came to be practiced worldwide . One theory is that it began in one geographic area and spread from there ; another is that several different cultural groups began its practice independently . In his 1891 work History of Circumcision , physician Peter Charles Remondino suggested that it began as a less severe form of emasculating a captured enemy : penectomy or castration would likely have been fatal , while some form of circumcision would permanently mark the defeated yet leave him alive to serve as a slave .
The history of the migration and evolution of the practice of circumcision is followed mainly through the cultures and peoples in two separate regions . In the lands south and east of the Mediterranean , starting with Sudan and Ethiopia , the procedure was practiced by the ancient Egyptians and the Semites , and then by the Jews and Muslims , with whom the practice travelled to and was adopted by the Bantu Africans . In Oceania , circumcision is practiced by the Australian Aborigines and Polynesians . There is also evidence that circumcision was practiced among the Aztec and Mayan civilizations in the Americas , but little detail is available about its history .
= = = Middle East , Africa and Europe = = =
Evidence suggests that circumcision was practiced in the Arabian Peninsula by the 4th millennium BCE , when the Sumerians and the Semites moved into the area that is modern @-@ day Iraq . The earliest historical record of circumcision comes from Egypt , in the form of an image of the circumcision of an adult carved into the tomb of Ankh @-@ Mahor at Saqqara , dating to about 2400 – 2300 BCE . Circumcision was done by the Egyptians possibly for hygienic reasons , but also was part of their obsession with purity and was associated with spiritual and intellectual development . No well @-@ accepted theory explains the significance of circumcision to the Egyptians , but it appears to have been endowed with great honor and importance as a rite of passage into adulthood , performed in a public ceremony emphasizing the continuation of family generations and fertility . It may have been a mark of distinction for the elite : the Egyptian Book of the Dead describes the sun god Ra as having circumcised himself .
Though secular scholars consider the story to be literary and not historical , circumcision features prominently in the Hebrew Bible . The narrative in Genesis chapter 17 describes the circumcision of Abraham and his relatives and slaves . In the same chapter , Abraham 's descendants are commanded to circumcise their sons on the eighth day of life as part of a covenant with God .
In addition to proposing that circumcision was taken up by the Israelites purely as a religious mandate , scholars have suggested that Judaism 's patriarchs and their followers adopted circumcision to make penile hygiene easier in hot , sandy climates ; as a rite of passage into adulthood ; or as a form of blood sacrifice .
Alexander the Great conquered the Middle East in the 4th century BCE , and in the following centuries ancient Greek cultures and values came to the Middle East . The Greeks abhorred circumcision , making life for circumcised Jews living among the Greeks ( and later the Romans ) very difficult . Antiochus Epiphanes outlawed circumcision , as did Hadrian , which helped cause the Bar Kokhba revolt . During this period in history , Jewish circumcision called for the removal of only a part of the prepuce , and some Hellenized Jews attempted to look uncircumcised by stretching the extant parts of their foreskins . This was considered by the Jewish leaders to be a serious problem , and during the 2nd century CE they changed the requirements of Jewish circumcision to call for the complete removal of the foreskin , emphasizing the Jewish view of circumcision as intended to be not just the fulfillment of a Biblical commandment but also an essential and permanent mark of membership in a people .
A narrative in the Christian Gospel of Luke makes a brief mention of the circumcision of Jesus , but the subject of physical circumcision itself is not part of the received teachings of Jesus . Paul the Apostle reinterpreted circumcision as a spiritual concept , arguing the physical one to be no longer necessary . The teaching that physical circumcision was unnecessary for membership in a divine covenant was instrumental in the separation of Christianity from Judaism . Although it is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran ( early 7th century CE ) , circumcision is considered essential to Islam , and it is nearly universally performed among Muslims . The practice of circumcision spread across the Middle East , North Africa and Southern Europe with Islam .
Genghis Khan , and the following Yuan Emperors in China forbade Islamic practices such as halal butchering and circumcision . This led Chinese Muslims to eventually take an active part in rebelling against the Mongols and installing the more tolerant Ming Dynasty .
The practice of circumcision is thought to have been brought to the Bantu @-@ speaking tribes of Africa by either the Jews after one of their many expulsions from European countries , or by Muslim Moors escaping after the 1492 conquest of Spain . In the second half of the 1st millennium CE , inhabitants from the North East of Africa moved south and encountered groups from Arabia , the Middle East and West Africa . These people moved south and formed what is known today as the Bantu . Bantu tribes were observed to be upholding what was described as Jewish law , including circumcision , in the 16th century . Circumcision and elements of Jewish dietary restrictions are still found among Bantu tribes .
= = = Indigenous peoples of Australia , the Pacific and Americas = = =
Circumcision is practised by some groups amongst Australian Aboriginal peoples , Polynesians , and Native Americans . Little information is available about the origins and history of circumcision among these peoples , compared to circumcision in the Middle East .
For Aboriginal Australians and Polynesians , circumcision likely started as a blood sacrifice and a test of bravery , and became an initiation rite with attendant instruction in manhood in more recent centuries . Often seashells were used to remove the foreskin , and the bleeding was stopped with eucalyptus smoke .
Christopher Columbus reported circumcision being practiced by Native Americans . It was also practiced by the Incas , Aztecs , and Mayans . It probably started among South American tribes as a blood sacrifice or ritual mutilation to test bravery and endurance , and its use later evolved into a rite of initiation .
= = = Modern times = = =
Circumcision did not become a common medical procedure in the Anglophone world until the late 19th century . At that time , British and American doctors began recommending it primarily as a deterrent to masturbation . Prior to the 20th century , masturbation was believed to be the cause of a wide range of physical and mental illnesses including epilepsy , paralysis , impotence , gonorrhea , tuberculosis , feeblemindedness , and insanity . In 1855 , motivated in part by an interest in promoting circumcision to reduce masturbation , English physician Jonathan Hutchinson published his findings that Jews had a lower prevalence of certain venereal diseases . While pursuing a successful career as a general practitioner , Hutchinson went on to advocate circumcision for health reasons for the next fifty years , and eventually earned a knighthood for his overall contributions to medicine . In America , one of the first modern physicians to advocate the procedure was Lewis Sayre , a founder of the American Medical Association . In 1870 , Sayre began using circumcision as a purported cure for several cases of young boys diagnosed with paralysis or significant motor problems . He thought the procedure ameliorated such problems based on a " reflex neurosis " theory of disease , which held that excessive stimulation of the genitals was a disturbance to the equilibrium of the nervous system and a cause of systemic problems . The use of circumcision to promote good health also fit in with the germ theory of disease during that time , which saw the foreskin as being filled with infection @-@ causing smegma ( a mixture of shed skin cells and oils ) . Sayre published works on the subject and promoted it energetically in speeches . Contemporary physicians picked up on Sayre 's new treatment , which they believed could prevent or cure a wide @-@ ranging array of medical problems and social ills . Its popularity spread with publications such as Peter Charles Remondino 's History of Circumcision . By the turn of the century , in both America and Great Britain , infant circumcision was near universally recommended .
After the end of World War II , Britain moved to a nationalized health care system , and so looked to ensure that each medical procedure covered by the new system was cost @-@ effective and the procedure for non medical reasons was not covered by the national health care system . Douglas Gairdner 's 1949 article " The Fate of the Foreskin " argued that the evidence available at that time showed that the risks outweighed the known benefits . Circumcision rates dropped in Britain and in the rest of Europe . In the 1970s , national medical associations in Australia and Canada issued recommendations against routine infant circumcision , leading to drops in the rates of both of those countries . The United States made similar statements in the 1970s , but stopped short of recommending against it — simply stating that it has no medical benefit . Since then they have amended their policy statements several times with the current recommendation being that the benefits outweigh the risks , but they do not recommend it routinely .
An association between circumcision and reduced heterosexual HIV infection rates was suggested in 1986 . Experimental evidence was needed to establish a causal relationship , so three randomized controlled trials were commissioned as a means to reduce the effect of any confounding factors . Trials took place in South Africa , Kenya and Uganda . All three trials were stopped early by their monitoring boards on ethical grounds , because those in the circumcised group had a lower rate of HIV contraction than the control group . Subsequently , the World Health Organization promoted circumcision in high @-@ risk populations as part of an overall program to reduce the spread of HIV , although some have challenged the validity of the African randomized controlled trials , prompting a number of researchers to question the effectiveness of circumcision as an HIV prevention strategy . The Male Circumcision Clearinghouse website was formed in 2009 by WHO , UNAIDS , FHI and AVAC to provide current evidence @-@ based guidance , information and resources to support the delivery of safe male circumcision services in countries that choose to scale up the procedure as one component of comprehensive HIV prevention services .
= = Society and culture = =
= = = Cultures and religions = = =
In some cultures , males are generally required to be circumcised shortly after birth , during childhood or around puberty as part of a rite of passage . Circumcision is commonly practiced in the Jewish and Islamic faiths .
= = = = Judaism = = = =
Circumcision is very important to most branches of Judaism , with over 90 % of adherents having the procedure performed as a religious obligation . The basis for its observance is found in the Torah of the Hebrew Bible , in Genesis chapter 17 , in which a covenant of circumcision is made with Abraham and his descendants . Jewish circumcision is part of the brit milah ritual , to be performed by a specialist ritual circumciser ( a mohel ) on the eighth day of a newborn son 's life ( with certain exceptions for poor health ) . Jewish law requires that the circumcision leave the glans bare when the penis is flaccid . Converts to Conservative and Orthodox Judaism must also be circumcised ; those who are already circumcised undergo a symbolic circumcision ritual . Circumcision is not required by Judaism for one to be considered Jewish , but some adherents foresee serious negative spiritual consequences if it is neglected .
According to traditional Jewish law , in the absence of a grown free Jewish male expert , a woman , a slave , or a child , that has the required skills , is also authorized to perform the circumcision , provided that she or he is Jewish . However , most streams of non @-@ Orthodox Judaism allow female mohels , called mohalot ( Hebrew : מוֹהֲלוֹת , plural of מוֹהֶלֶת mohelet , feminine of mohel ) , without restriction . In 1984 , Deborah Cohen became the first certified Reform mohelet ; she was certified by the Berit Mila program of Reform Judaism .
Some contemporary Jews choose not to circumcise their sons . They are assisted by a small number of Reform and Reconstructionist rabbis , and have developed a welcoming ceremony that they call the brit shalom ( " Covenant [ of ] Peace " ) for such children , also accepted by Humanistic Judaism .
This ceremony of brit shalom is not officially approved of by the Reform or Reconstructionist rabbinical organizations , who make the recommendation that male infants should be circumcised , though the issue of converts remains controversial and circumcision of converts is not mandatory in either movement .
= = = = Islam = = = =
Although there is some debate within Islam over whether it is a religious requirement , circumcision ( called khitan ) is practiced nearly universally by Muslim males . Islam bases its practice of circumcision on the Genesis 17 narrative , the same Biblical chapter referred to by Jews . The procedure is not explicitly mentioned in the Quran , however it is a tradition established by Islam 's prophet Muhammad directly ( following Abraham ) , and so its practice is considered a sunnah ( prophet 's tradition ) and is very important in Islam . For Muslims , circumcision is also a matter of cleanliness , purification and control over one 's baser self ( nafs ) . There is no agreement across the many Islamic communities about the age at which circumcision should be performed . It may be done from soon after birth up to about age 15 ; most often it is performed at around six to seven years of age . The timing can correspond with the boy 's completion of his recitation of the whole Quran , with a coming @-@ of @-@ age event such as taking on the responsibility of daily prayer or betrothal . Circumcision may be celebrated with an associated family or community event . Circumcision is recommended for , but is not required of , converts to Islam .
= = = = Christianity = = = =
The New Testament chapter Acts 15 records that Christianity does not require circumcision ; Christianity does not forbid it either . The Catholic Church currently maintains a neutral position on the practice of non @-@ religious circumcision , although in 1442 it banned the practice of religious circumcision in the 11th Council of Florence . Coptic Christians practice circumcision as a rite of passage . The Ethiopian Orthodox Church calls for circumcision , with near @-@ universal prevalence among Orthodox men in Ethiopia . In South Africa , some Christian churches disapprove of the practice , while others require it of their members .
= = = = African cultures = = = =
Certain African cultural groups , such as the Yoruba and Igbo of Nigeria , customarily circumcise their infant sons . The procedure is also practiced by some cultural groups or individual family lines in the Sudan , Zaire , Uganda and in southern Africa . For some of these groups , circumcision appears to be purely cultural , done with no particular religious significance or intention to distinguish members of a group . For others , circumcision might be done for purification , or it may be interpreted as a mark of subjugation . Among these groups , even when circumcision is done for reasons of tradition , it is often done in hospitals . It is not clear how many deaths and injuries result from traditional circumcisions which occur outside of hospitals .
= = = = Australian cultures = = = =
Some Australian Aborigines use circumcision as a test of bravery and self @-@ control as a part of a rite of passage into manhood , which results in full societal and ceremonial membership . It may be accompanied by body scarification and the removal of teeth , and may be followed later by penile subincision . Circumcision is one of many trials and ceremonies required before a youth is considered to have become knowledgeable enough to maintain and pass on the cultural traditions . During these trials , the maturing youth bonds in solidarity with the men . Circumcision is also strongly associated with a man 's family , and it is part of the process required to prepare a man to take a wife and produce his own family .
= = = Filipino culture = = =
In the Philippines , circumcision known as " tuli " is sometimes viewed as a rite of passage . About 93 % of Filipino men are circumcised .
= = = Ethical and legal issues = = =
There is a long @-@ running and vigorous debate over ethical concerns regarding circumcision , particularly neonatal circumcision for reasons other than intended direct medical benefit . There are three parties involved in the decision to circumcise a minor : the minor as the patient , the parents ( or other guardians ) and the physician . The physician is bound under the ethical principles of beneficence ( promoting well @-@ being ) and non @-@ maleficence ( " first , do no harm " ) , and so is charged with the responsibility to promote the best interests of the patient while minimizing unnecessary harms . Those involved must weigh the factors of what is in the best interest of the minor against the potential harms of the procedure .
With a newborn involved , the decision is made more complex due to the principles of respect for autonomy and consent , as a newborn cannot understand or engage in a logical discussion of his own values and best interests . A mentally more mature child can understand the issues involved to some degree , and the physician and parents may elicit input from the child and weigh it appropriately in the decision @-@ making process , although the law may not treat such input as legally informative . Ethicists and legal theorists also state that it is questionable for parents to make a decision for the child that precludes the child from making a different decision for himself later . Such a question can be raised for the decision by the parents either to circumcise or not to circumcise the child .
Generally , circumcision on a minor is not ethically controversial or legally questionable when there is a clear and pressing medical indication for which it is the accepted best practice to resolve . Where circumcision is the chosen intervention , the physician has an ethical responsibility to ensure the procedure is performed competently and safely to minimize potential harms . Worldwide , most legal jurisdictions do not have specific laws concerning the circumcision of males , but infant circumcision is considered legal under the existing laws in countries such as Australia , Canada , New Zealand , the United Kingdom , and the United States . A few countries have passed legislation on the procedure : Germany allows non @-@ therapeutic circumcision , while routine neonatal circumcision is illegal in Finland , and non @-@ religious routine circumcision is illegal in South Africa and Sweden .
Throughout society , circumcision is often considered for reasons other than medical need . Public health advocates of circumcision consider it to have a net benefit , and therefore feel that increasing the circumcision rate is an ethical imperative . They recommend performing the procedure during the neonatal period , when it is less expensive and has a lower risk of complications . While studies show there is a modest epidemiological benefit to circumcision , critics argue that the number of circumcisions that would have be performed would yield an overall negative public health outcome due to the resulting number of complications or other negative effects ( such as pain ) . Pinto ( 2012 ) writes " sober proponents and detractors of circumcision agree that there is no overwhelming medical evidence to support either side . " This type of cost @-@ benefit analysis is highly dependent on the kinds and frequencies of health problems in the population under discussion and how circumcision affects those health problems .
Parents are assumed to have the child 's best interests in mind . Ethically , it is imperative that the medical practitioner inform the parents about the benefits and risks of the procedure and obtain informed consent before performing it . Practically , however , many parents come to a decision about circumcising the child before he is born , and a discussion of the benefits and risks of the procedure with a physician has not been shown to have a significant effect on the decision . Some parents request to have their newborn or older child circumcised for non @-@ therapeutic reasons , such as the parents ' desires to adhere to family tradition , cultural norms or religious beliefs . In considering such a request , the physician may consider ( in addition to any potential medical benefits and harms ) such non @-@ medical factors in determining the child 's best interests and may ethically perform the procedure . Equally , without a clear medical benefit relative to the potential harms , a physician may take the ethical position that non @-@ medical factors do not contribute enough as benefits to outweigh the potential harms and refuse to perform the procedure . Medical organization such as the British Medical Association state that their member physicians are not obliged to perform the procedure in such situations .
The German Academy for Pediatric and Adolescent Medicine ( Deutsche Akademie für Kinder- und Jugendmedizin e.V. , DAKJ ) recommend against routine non @-@ medical infant circumcision .
= = = Economic considerations = = =
The cost @-@ effectiveness of circumcision has been studied to determine whether a policy of circumcising all newborns or a policy of promoting and providing inexpensive or free access to circumcision for all adult men who choose it would result in lower overall societal healthcare costs . As HIV / AIDS is an incurable disease that is expensive to manage , significant effort has been spent studying the cost @-@ effectiveness of circumcision to reduce its spread in parts of Africa that have a relatively high infection rate and low circumcision prevalence . Several analyses have concluded that circumcision programs for adult men in Africa are cost @-@ effective and in some cases are cost @-@ saving . In Rwanda , circumcision has been found to be cost @-@ effective across a wide range of age groups from newborn to adult , with the greatest savings achieved when the procedure is performed in the newborn period due to the lower cost per procedure and greater timeframe for HIV infection protection . Circumcision for the prevention of HIV transmission in adults has also been found to be cost @-@ effective in South Africa , Kenya and Uganda , with cost savings estimated in the billions of US dollars over 20 years . Hankins et al . ( 2011 ) estimated that a $ 1 @.@ 5 billion investment in circumcision for adults in 13 high @-@ priority African countries would yield $ 16 @.@ 5 billion in savings .
The overall cost @-@ effectiveness of neonatal circumcision has also been studied in the United States , which has a different cost setting from Africa in areas such as public health infrastructure , availability of medications , and medical technology and the willingness to use it . A study by the CDC suggests that newborn circumcision would be societally cost @-@ effective in the United States based on circumcision 's efficacy against the heterosexual transmission of HIV alone , without considering any other cost benefits . The American Academy of Pediatrics ( 2012 ) recommends that neonatal circumcision in the United States be covered by third @-@ party payers such as Medicaid and insurance . A 2014 review that considered reported benefits of circumcision such as reduced risks from HIV , HPV , and HSV @-@ 2 stated that circumcision is cost effective in both the United States and Africa and may result in health care savings . However , A 2014 literature review found that there are significant gaps in the current literature on male and female sexual health that need to be addressed for the literature to be applicable to North American populations .
= Liverpool Town Hall =
Liverpool Town Hall stands in High Street at its junction with Dale Street , Castle Street , and Water Street in Liverpool , Merseyside , England . It is recorded in the National Heritage List for England as a designated Grade I listed building , and described in the list as " one of the finest surviving 18th @-@ century town halls " . The authors of the Buildings of England series refer to its " magnificent scale " , and consider it to be " probably the grandest ... suite of civic rooms in the country " , and " an outstanding and complete example of late Georgian decoration " .
It is not an administrative building but a civic suite , Lord Mayor 's parlour and Council chamber ; local government administration is centred at the nearby Municipal Buildings . The town hall was built between 1749 and 1754 to a design by John Wood the Elder replacing an earlier town hall nearby . An extension to the north designed by James Wyatt was added in 1785 . Following a fire in 1795 the hall was largely rebuilt and a dome designed by Wyatt was built . Minor alterations have subsequently been made . The streets surrounding its site have altered since its initiation , notably when viewed from Castle Street , the south @-@ side , it appears as off @-@ centre . This is because Water Street which ran to the junction with Dale Street , the west @-@ east axis , was continuous and built up across the junction so that the Town Hall was not visible originally from that aspect . The structures were removed 150 years after this to expose the building from this position .
The ground floor contains the city 's Council Chamber and a Hall of Remembrance for the Liverpool servicemen killed in the First World War . The upper floor consists of a suite of lavishly decorated rooms which are used for a variety of events and functions . Conducted tours of the building are arranged for the general public , and the hall is licensed for weddings .
= = History = =
The first recorded town hall in Liverpool was in 1515 and it was probably a thatched building . It was replaced in 1673 by a building slightly to the south of the present town hall . This town hall stood on " pillars and arches of hewen stone " and under it was the exchange for merchants and traders to carry out their business .
Building of the present town hall began in 1749 on a site slightly to the north of its predecessor ; its foundation stone was laid on 14 September . The architect was John Wood the Elder , who has been described as " one of the outstanding architects of the day " . It was completed and opened in 1754 . The ground floor acted as the exchange , and a council room and other offices were on the upper floor . The ground floor had a central courtyard surrounded by Doric colonnades but it was " dark and confined , and the merchants preferred to transact business in the street outside " . Above the building was a large square dome with a cupola . The Town Hall was bombarded by striking seamen during the 1775 Liverpool Seamen 's Revolt .
The very last act of the American Civil War was when Captain Waddell walked up the steps of Town Hall in November 1865 with a letter to present to the mayor surrendering his vessel , the CSS Shenandoah , to the British government .
Improvements began in 1785 with an extension to the north designed by James Wyatt . Buildings close to the west and north sides were demolished , and John Foster prepared plans for the west façade . In 1786 Wood 's square dome was demolished and plans were made by Wyatt for a new dome over the central courtyard . In 1795 , before the new dome was built , the hall was seriously damaged by a fire . Wyatt 's north extension was not significantly damaged , but Wood 's original building was gutted . The building was reconstructed and Wyatt 's new dome was added . The work was supervised by Foster and completed in 1802 . Under the dome the central courtyard was replaced with a hall containing a staircase . In 1811 a portico was added to the south side . The construction and decoration of the interior was completed by about 1820 .
In 1881 an attempt to blow up the town hall by the Fenians was aborted . In 1899 – 1900 the portico on the south face was rebuilt and extended , and the northern extension was enlarged to form a recess in the Council Chamber for the Lord Mayor 's chair . In 1921 a room on the ground floor was made into the Hall of Remembrance to commemorate the military men from Liverpool who died in the First World War . Part of the building was damaged in the Liverpool Blitz of 1941 ; this restored after the end of the Second World War . Further restoration was carried out between 1993 and 1995 .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Exterior = = =
The town hall is built of stone with a slate roof and a lead dome . Its plan consists of a rectangle with a portico extending to the south and Wyatt 's rectangular extension to the north . The extension is slightly narrower than the rest of the building , and also has a projecting portico . The building has two storeys and a basement ; the stonework of the basement and lower storey is rusticated . The south face , overlooking Castle Street , has nine bays . Its central three bays are occupied by the portico . This has three rounded arches on the ground floor , and four pairs of Corinthian columns in the upper storey surrounding a balcony . The east and west faces also have nine bays in the original part of the building , plus an additional three bays to the north on Wyatt 's extension . The middle three bays of the nine original bays project slightly forward and are surmounted by a pediment . The roof of the north face is higher than that of the main building . This face has five bays , with a central portico of three bays . On its first floor are four pairs of Corinthian columns and standing on the roof above these are four statues dating from 1792 by Richard Westmacott ; these statues have been moved from the Irish Houses of Parliament . Above the upper storey windows on all faces are panels containing carvings , some of which relate to Liverpool 's foreign trade . The dome stands on a high drum supported on Corinthian columns . Around the base of the dome are four clock faces , each of which is supported by a lion and unicorn . On the summit of the dome is a statue , representing Minerva . It is 10 feet ( 3 m ) high and was designed by John Charles Felix Rossi .
= = = Interior = = =
= = = = Ground floor = = = =
The main door in the south face leads to the Vestibule or Entrance Hall . It has a floor of encaustic tiles which include depictions of the arms of Liverpool and the liver bird .
The room is panelled and on the east side is a large wooden fireplace containing 17th @-@ century Flemish carvings . It has a groin @-@ vaulted ceiling , and in the lunettes are murals painted in 1909 depicting events in Liverpool 's history . Below these are brass tablets containing the names of the freemen of Liverpool . Also in the entrance hall are bardic chairs from the two Eisteddfods held in the city .
At the rear of the ground floor in Wyatt 's extension is the Council Chamber . This has mahogany @-@ panelled walls and can seat 160 people . Adjacent to the Council Chamber is the Hall of Remembrance . On its wall are panels bearing the names of the military men who lost their lives in the First World War , and eight murals painted by Frank O. Salisbury in 1923 .
In the centre of the ground floor is the Staircase Hall described in the Buildings of England series as " one of the great architectural spaces of Liverpool " . A broad staircase rises between two pairs of Corinthian columns to a half @-@ landing , and narrower flights climb from that on each side to the upper floor . On the ground floor on each side of the staircase are display cabinets holding the city 's silver . On the half @-@ landing is a statue of George Canning dated 1832 by Francis Chantrey , and hanging on the wall above this is a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II by Sir Edward Halliday .
Above the staircase the dome is carried by four pendentives ; it rises to a height of 106 feet ( 32 m ) and its interior is coffered . Around the base of the dome is inscribed Liverpool 's motto , " Deus Nobis Haec Otia Fecit " , and in the pendentives are paintings dated 1902 by Charles Wellington Furse depicting scenes of dock labour .
= = = = Upper floor = = = =
All the rooms on this floor are designed for entertainment and they have connecting doors that allow for a complete circuit of the floor . The middle room on the south side of the building is the Central Reception Room . It has a circular ceiling with pendentives , and plasterwork in neoclassical style designed by Francesco Bernasconi . The room leads to the balcony overlooking Castle Street . A door to the right leads to the West Reception Room , with a segmented @-@ vaulted ceiling ; it contains a marble chimneypiece with brass and cast iron fittings . This room leads to the Dining Room which occupies the west side of the building . It has been described as " the most sumptuous room in the building " . Around the room are Corinthian pilasters . The plaster ceiling has moulded compartments , and under these is a frieze decorated with scrolls , urns and crouching dogs . The roundels between the capitals of the pilasters contain paintings of pairs of cupids .
The next room on the circuit is a small room which leads into the Large Ballroom . This occupies the whole of Wyatt 's north extension and measures 89 feet ( 27 m ) by 42 feet ( 13 m ) ; the ceiling is 40 feet ( 12 m ) high . Around the room are Corinthian pilasters and on each of the shorter walls is a massive mirror . In the south wall is a niche for musicians , over which is a coffered semi @-@ dome ; on each side of this is a white marble chimneypiece . Hanging from the ceiling are " three of the finest Georgian chandeliers in Europe " ; each is 28 feet ( 9 m ) high , contains 20 @,@ 000 pieces of cut glass crystal , and weighs over one ton . They were made in Staffordshire in 1820 . The floor is a maple sprung dance floor . Most of the east side of the hall is occupied by the Small Ballroom , also known as the East Reception Room or Music Room . This room is surrounded by pilasters and at each end is a shallow apse ; the apse in the north wall has two niches for musicians . Suspended from the ceiling are three 19th @-@ century chandeliers . Completing the circuit is the East Reception Room , similar in style to the West Reception Room . The rooms contain a number of portraits ; one of these is of James Maury , America 's first consul .
= = Current use and surroundings = =
The city council meets every seven weeks in the Council Chambers to conduct the business of the city . The town hall is open to the general public each month when conducted tours take place . The hall is licensed for weddings and , in addition to providing a venue for the ceremony , catering facilities can be supplied for a reception or a meal . Catering is also available for other events and functions .
Immediately to the north of the Town Hall is a paved square known as Exchange Flags ; this is surrounded on all sides by modern office buildings . In the square is the Nelson Monument , celebrating the achievements of Horatio Nelson . It is a Grade II * listed building and is the earliest surviving public monument in the city .
= = Gallery = =
= The International ( 2009 film ) =
The International is a 2009 German – American political thriller drama film directed by Tom Tykwer . The film follows an Interpol agent and an American district attorney who investigate corruption within the IBBC , a fictional merchant bank based in Luxembourg . It serves organized crime and corrupt governments as a banker and as an arms broker . The bank 's ruthless managers assassinate potential threats including their own employees .
Inspired by the Bank of Credit and Commerce International ( BCCI ) scandal of the 1980s , the film 's script , written by Eric Warren Singer , raises concerns about how global finance affects international politics across the world . Production began in Berlin in September 2008 , including the construction of a life @-@ size replica of the Guggenheim Museum in New York for the film 's climactic shoot @-@ out scene . The film opened the 59th Berlin International Film Festival on 5 February 2009 . Reviews were mixed : some praised the sleek appearance and prescient themes — The Guardian called it a thriller with " brainpower as well as firepower " — but The New Yorker criticised the development of the characters .
= = Plot = =
Louis Salinger , of Interpol , and Eleanor Whitman , an Assistant District Attorney from Manhattan , are investigating the International Bank of Business and Credit ( IBBC ) , which funds activities such as money laundering , terrorism , arms trading , and the destabilization of governments . Salinger 's and Whitman 's investigation takes them from Berlin to Milan , where the IBBC assassinates Umberto Calvini , an arms manufacturer who is an Italian prime ministerial candidate . The bank 's assassin diverts suspicion to a local assassin with political connections , who is promptly killed by a corrupt policeman . Salinger and Whitman get a lead on the second assassin , but the corrupt policeman shows up again and orders them out of the country . At the airport they are able to check the security camera footage for clues on the whereabouts on the bank 's assassin , and follow a suspect to New York .
In New York , Salinger and Whitman are met by two New York Police Department ( NYPD ) detectives , Iggy Ornelas and Bernie Ward , who have a photograph of the assassin 's face when he arrived in New York airport . Salinger , Ornelas , and Ward locate Dr. Isaacson to whose practice the assassin 's leg brace has been traced . They find the assassin and follow him to the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum .
Jonas Skarssen , the chairman of the IBBC , reveals to his senior men White and Wexler that the bank had Calvini killed so that they could deal with his sons to buy missile guidance systems in which the bank has invested . Since the bank knows that Salinger and Whitman are close to finding their assassin , they send a hit team to kill him at a meeting between him and his handler , Wexler . Wexler leaves and is arrested by Ornelas . As Salinger speaks to the assassin , a spectacular gunfight at the Guggenheim erupts when a number of gunmen attempt to kill them with automatic weapons . They escape , but the assassin is mortally wounded .
In interrogation , Wexler , a former Stasi colonel , explains to Salinger that the IBBC is practically untouchable because of its utility to terrorist organizations , drug cartels , governments , and powerful corporations of all complexions . Even if he succeeds in bringing the IBBC down there are hundreds of other banks which will replace them . If Salinger wants justice , he needs to go outside the system , and Wexler indicates a willingness to help . In Italy , Salinger tells the Calvini brothers of the IBBC 's responsibility for their father 's murder , prompting them to cancel the deal with the bank and have White killed .
Salinger then accompanies Wexler to Istanbul , where Skarssen is buying the crucial components from their only other manufacturer . Salinger attempts to record the conversation so that he can obstruct the deal by proving to the buyers that the missiles will be useless , but he ultimately fails . Both Wexler and Skarssen are then killed by a hitman contracted by Enzo and Mario Calvini to avenge their father 's murder by the bank . Salinger is left stunned , his investigation , pursuit , and determination to bring down the IBBC , have led him to nothing .
During the closing credits , it is indicated that the bank is successfully continuing with its operations despite the death of its Chairman — as Skarssen had predicted to Salinger before he was killed . However with the new and more aggressive chairman , it is hinted that the IBBC 's increased expansion and aggression will ultimately lead to its downfall , as shown by the last panel , revealing the beginnings of a United States Senate investigation , headed by Whitman .
= = Cast = =
Clive Owen as Louis Salinger
Naomi Watts as Eleanor Whitman
Armin Mueller @-@ Stahl as Wilhelm Wexler
Ulrich Thomsen as Jonas Skarssen
Brían F. O 'Byrne as The Consultant
Michel Voletti as Viktor Haas
Patrick Baladi as Martin White
Jay Villiers as Francis Ehames
Fabrice Scott as Nicolai Yeshinski
Haluk Bilginer as Ahmet Sunay
Luca Barbareschi as Umberto Calvini
Alessandro Fabrizi as Inspector Alberto Cerutti
Felix Solis as Detective Iggy Ornelas
Jack McGee as Detective Bernie Ward
Nilaja Sun as Detective Gloria Hubbard
Steven Randazzo as Al Moody
Tibor Feldman as Dr. Isaacson
James Rebhorn as New York D.A.
Remy Auberjonois as Sam Purvitz
Ian Burfield as Thomas Schumer
Axel Milberg as Klaus Diemer
Ben Whishaw as Rene Antall
= = Production = =
The screenplay was written by Eric Warren Singer after he developed an interest in the banking scandals from the 1980s and 90s , he was looking for " a paranoid thriller vibe " from that period ; " The Godfather III was really the only film up to this point that dealt with the banking scandals , because it was really gangster warfare on a corporate level , and I thought that was the best part of the film . " Later reviewers compared it directly to The Parallax View ( 1974 ) and All The President 's Men ( 1976 ) . Ridley Scott initially expressed an interest in directing the film , and the studio agreed to finance the project , only for Scott to drop out . A year later Tom Tykwer got involved through his agent , but decided a contemporary setting would work better . In April 2007 , Clive Owen agreed to perform in The International . He said the script interested him because he was reminded of " those ' 70s paranoia pictures " and because it combined a factual , intelligent basis with an international thriller plot . The following July , actress Naomi Watts was cast opposite Owen . In August , the film received US $ 5 @.@ 4 million from the German Federal Film Fund toward its budget . The following month its funding increased to $ 7 @.@ 9 million , based on the board 's assessment that two @-@ thirds of The International would be produced in Germany and that a number of Germans were in important roles , such as actors Armin Mueller @-@ Stahl and Axel Milberg , cinematographer Frank Griebe , and production designer Uli Hanisch . Filming began in Berlin on 10 September 2007 . Part of the production took place in Babelsberg Studios .
Clive Owen called the shoot @-@ out scene " one of the most exquisitely executed sequences I 've been involved in " . Tom Tykwer planned the scene in detail and toured the museum with the principals months in advance . The lobby entrance scene was filmed in the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum in New York , but for the shooting sequences a one hundred and eighteen foot wide , life @-@ size replica , including an audio visual exhibition with works of Julian Rosefeldt , was built in Germany . This set was too large for the studio , so it was instead built in a disused locomotive warehouse outside Berlin ; its construction took ten weeks . Having filmed in the real museum interior and on the sound stage in Germany , the film crew had to track the lights and camera angles carefully throughout to ensure continuity . The scene includes a sequence in which the protagonist sends a huge art @-@ chandelier hanging from the ceiling crashing to the ground ; the entire stunt was created using computer generated imagery .
= = Themes = =
Clive Owen , discussing the film 's relevance , said it " ultimately does ask questions about whether banks use people 's money appropriately , and if they 're completely sound institutions . " More baldly put , Philip French , reviewing the film in The Observer , surmised the sentiment as " Let 's kill all the bankers " , a modern day version of Dick the Butcher 's " First thing we do , let 's kill all the lawyers " from Shakespeare 's Henry the Sixth , Part II . Salinger 's ( Owen ) central revelation is that the world is governed by anonymous forces , staffed by disposable individuals . The powerlessness of the ordinary citizen is symbolised by the huge , impersonal buildings that the villains inhabit .
The film draws on a number of macabre incidents from international banking : the Bank of Credit and Commerce International crisis in 1991 , the murder of Roberto Calvi , an alleged banker to the Sicilian Mafia , in London in 1982 , and the assassination by poisoning of Georgi Markov in London in 1978 . The bank is making large loans to rogue states and simultaneously acting as their munitions broker . The script offers the chilling insight that the creditors are the real winners of any conflict . A.O. Scott commented on the opportunity to make a film critical of international finance , " that multinational weapons manufacturers can be portrayed as more decent , civic @-@ minded and principled than global financiers surely says something about the state of the world . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Box office = = =
The International was first screened on 5 February 2009 at the 59th Berlin International Film Festival and was released in the United States and Canada on 13 February 2009 . In a six @-@ week run in America , it earned $ 25 million at the box office . It was released in Australia on 19 February and the United Kingdom on 27 February 2009 . Its total theatrical earnings worldwide were $ 60 @,@ 161 @,@ 391 .
It was released in France under the title " L 'Enquête " ( " The Investigation " ) on 11 March 2009 , it earned € 264 @,@ 054 during a three @-@ week theatrical release .
Reviewers called the film " topical " and " remarkably prescient " , due to its release just after the financial crisis of 2007 – 08 during the start of the Great Recession . The film was released on DVD and Blu @-@ ray in the United States on 9 June 2009 . It contains a digital copy for portable devices .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The International has received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Based on a sample of 201 reviews the film has a 59 % rating on Rotten Tomatoes and has been certified " Rotten " . The consensus statement reads " The International boasts some electric action sequences and picturesque locales , but is undone by its preposterous plot . " Metacritic gives the film a 52 % rating based on 34 reviews .
In his review for The Guardian , Peter Bradshaw wrote , " I felt occasionally that Owen 's rumpled performance is in danger of becoming a little one @-@ note ... but this is still an unexpectedly well – made thriller with brainpower as well as firepower " . Philip French , in his review for The Observer , called the film a " slick , fast @-@ moving conspiracy thriller " and the gunfight in the Guggenheim " spectacular " . In his review for The Independent , Anthony Quinn wrote , " It 's reasonably efficient , passably entertaining , and strenuously playing catch @-@ up with the Bourne movies : flat @-@ footed Owen doesn 't look as good as Matt Damon sprinting through city streets , and the editing doesn 't match Paul Greengrass 's whiplash pace " . The New Yorker magazine 's David Denby wrote , " And there 's a big hole in the middle of the movie : the director , Tom Tykwer , and the screenwriter , Eric Warren Singer , forgot to make their two crusaders human beings " . In his review for The New York Post , Lou Lumenick wrote , " There , an anticlimactic rooftop chase reminds us that Tykwer , the German director who reinvented the Euro thriller with Run , Lola , Run a decade ago , has been far surpassed by Paul Greengrass and the Bourne adventures , yet thankfully lacking the rampant and nonsensical roller @-@ coaster style of editing , where no shot lingers for longer than a nano @-@ second . " . A.O. Scott , in his review for The New York Times , wrote , " The International , in contrast , is so undistinguished that the moments you remember best are those that you wish another , more original director had tackled " . Citing the climatic shoot @-@ out in the Guggenheim , hailed by other critics as spectacular , Scott wonders if another , such as Brian de Palma could have " turned into a fugue of architectural paranoia " ?
In his review for the Los Angeles Times , Kenneth Turan wrote , " It 's got some effective moments and aspects , but the film goes in and out of plausibility , and its elements never manage to unify into a coherent whole " . Claudia Puig , in her review for USA Today , wrote , " The dialogue by screenwriter Eric Warren Singer is spotty . There are some great , pithy lines and others whose attempt at profundity ring false " . Roger Ebert gave the film three out of four stars and wrote , " Clive Owen makes a semi @-@ believable hero , not performing too many feats that are physically unlikely . He 's handsome and has the obligatory macho stubble , but he has a quality that makes you worry a little about him " . Entertainment Weekly gave the film a " B – " rating and Lisa Schwarzbaum wrote , " the star of the pic may well be NYC 's Guggenheim Museum and Istanbul 's Grand Bazaar , both of which figure in cool action chase sequences that pay handsome dividends " .
The film earned an average rating of three stars from five from French critics according to AlloCiné . Le Monde , which gave the film one star , said that the modern , destructive forces of political fantasy and derivative finance which power the film 's plot should have created sparks , " but in reality , the film trudges along . While the film constituted a thrilling geographic tour of the genre tropes , it forgot to focus on characters and mood . "
= 68 @-@ pounder gun =
The 68 @-@ pounder cannon was an artillery piece designed and used by the British Armed Forces in the mid @-@ 19th century . The cannon was a smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading gun manufactured in several weights , the most common being 95 long cwt ( 4 @,@ 800 kg ) , and fired projectiles of 68 lb ( 31 kg ) . Colonel William Dundas designed the 112 cwt version in 1841 and it was cast the following year . The most common variant , weighing 95 cwt , dates from 1846 . It entered service with the Royal Artillery and the Royal Navy and saw active service with both arms during the Crimean War . Over 2 @,@ 000 were made and it gained a reputation as the finest smoothbore cannon ever made .
The gun was produced at a time when new rifled and breech loading guns were beginning to make their mark on artillery . At first the 68 @-@ pounder 's reliability and power meant that it was retained even on new warships such as HMS Warrior , but eventually new rifled muzzle loaders made all smoothbore muzzle @-@ loading guns obsolete . However , the large surplus stocks of 68 @-@ pounders were given new life when converted to take rifled projectiles ; the cannon remained in service and was not declared obsolete until 1921 .
= = Design = =
The cannon was designed in response to the need for heavier weaponry as armour on ships of the line improved . Colonel William Dundas , the government 's Inspector of Artillery between 1839 and 1852 , designed the cannon in 1846 . It was cast by the Low Moor Iron Works in Bradford in 1847 and entered service soon after . Like numerous cannon before it , it was a cast iron smoothbore loaded from the muzzle . The cannon was relatively cheap to produce – the Royal Commission on the Defence of the United Kingdom estimated that each cannon cost approximately £ 167 . ( 2010 : £ 12645 ) . Over 2000 were cast before 1861 and its exceptional durability , range and accuracy earned it a reputation as the finest smoothbore cannon ever made .
= = Operation = =
The gun was a traditional muzzleloader ; it needed to be loaded from the end of the barrel . Before it could be loaded the bore of the barrel was cleaned with a sponge , after which a propellant charge ( gunpowder in a cloth bag ) was rammed down into the breech . This was followed by a projectile , often encased in wadding . The gun was primed ( using a metal spike inserted through the vent that pierced the charge ) , and fired using a percussion cap ( which ignited the charge and forced the projectile out of the barrel ) .
The 68 @-@ pounder had an effective range of approximately 3 @,@ 000 yd ( 2 @,@ 700 m ) , however at its maximum elevation of 15 degrees it had a maximum range of 3 @,@ 620 yd ( 3 @,@ 310 m ) , a distance that the projectile would cover in 15 seconds . With a 16 lb ( 7 @.@ 3 kg ) powder charge ( the " far " charge , although the gun was proofed to 25 lb charges ) the cannon fired a 68 lb ( 31 kg ) solid shot at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 579 ft / s ( 481 m / s ) .
The cannon could fire solid shot , explosive shells , grapeshot , case shot and " Martins Liquid Iron Shell " ( thin walled shells filled with molten iron , intended to serve as heated shot ) . Although the cannon 's barrel bore was 8 @.@ 12 inches ( 20 @.@ 6 cm ) , both shot and shells were 7 @.@ 92 inches ( 20 @.@ 1 cm ) in diameter . This allowed a windage gap of 0 @.@ 1 in ( 0 @.@ 25 cm ) around the projectile ; enough to aid the loading process , but not enough to seriously diffuse the propellant gasses .
The official weight of the shot was listed at 68 lbs but in reality this varied according to the material of the shot itself ; cast iron shot weighed 67 lb ( 30 kg ) , wrought iron shot and steel shot weighed 72 lb ( 33 kg ) , and chilled steel weighed 68 lb 8 oz ( 31 @.@ 1 kg ) . It was estimated that one 68 @-@ pound shot had the destructive power equivalent to five 32 @-@ pound shot . The explosive shells were primed with 4 lb ( 1 @.@ 8 kg ) of gunpowder . They were fitted with simple fuses that were ignited by the flash of the charge – early wooden fuses were eventually replaced by more reliable fuses designed by Captain Edward Boxer in 1849 . The gun crew still had to gauge the best length of fuse for the range they were firing – ideally the shell should explode just before hitting its target . To prevent the shell exploding in the barrel it was fitted with a sabot to ensure the fuse faced away from the charge .
On land a minimum crew of nine men ( usually commanded by a non @-@ commissioned officer ) was required to fire the gun , which was normally mounted on a traversing gun carriage . On board a ship the gun crew could be doubled to 18 men who needed to traverse the gun carriage by hand , using hand spikes and rope tackles . The extra crew was on account of the fact that sailing ships usually only fired their cannon from one side of the deck . In the unlikely event of both sides being in action at once , nine men would be detached to man the gun opposite . In both cases the gun was elevated using wooden wedges driven under the breech of the barrel by brute force . It was aimed using an advanced hexagonal sighting mechanism marked with the elevation on one face and the gun 's range ( according to different weights of cartridge charges ) on the other five faces .
= = Service = =
The cannon was put to use both on land and at sea . It was fitted to numerous Royal Navy warships of different sizes such as HMS Queen , Odin , Victor Emmanuel , Sepoy and the Conqueror @-@ class ships of the line . Several of these ships saw action during the Crimean War where the 68 @-@ pounder was used extensively during the Siege of Sevastopol . Along with 32 @-@ pounders and Lancaster guns they were taken from their ship mountings and dragged up to siege batteries by the Naval Brigade , from where they regularly bombarded Russian positions for the next year . The cannon was also fitted in large numbers to the Aetna @-@ class ironclad floating batteries , although these had little impact on the war .
Most notably the 68 @-@ pounder was fitted to the Warrior @-@ class ironclads Warrior and Black Prince . Originally it was intended to fit forty 68 @-@ pounders , primarily on one gun deck , but this specification changed during their building and they were finally equipped with twenty @-@ six 68 @-@ pounders ( 13 on each side ) . Alongside these , the ships were equipped with new rifled breech loading Armstrong guns of two types ; 7 inch and 40 pounders . Although the Armstrong guns represented a new direction in artillery , the breech loading mechanism meant that they were unable to withstand the explosion of a heavy cartridge . Smaller cartridge charges were therefore required and the gun 's muzzle velocity suffered as a result . Ironically the Armstrong Guns were therefore incapable of penetrating the armour fitted to the Warrior @-@ class ships , while the 68 @-@ pounder ( with its high muzzle velocity ) could . As late as 1867 it was planned to fit the new Plover @-@ class gunvessels with 68 @-@ pounders , but they were instead completed with a RML 7 inch gun and a RML 64 pounder 64 cwt gun .
On land the 68 @-@ pounder was used extensively in British coastal defences constructed during the 1850s - notably at forts like Gomer and Elson defending Portsmouth , and Forts Victoria , Albert and Freshwater Redoubt defending the Needles Passage . The 1859 Royal Commission envisaged arming the numerous new forts they proposed with the 68 @-@ pounder cannon and costed for them accordingly . The introduction of the Armstrong gun initially led many to think that weapon would be used instead , but whilst the forts were being built , the Armstrong gun 's weaknesses were exposed and the military reverted to using muzzle loaded weapons . However , the advantages of rifling and the Armstrong 's wrought iron construction were retained , leading to a new design of artillery piece – rifled muzzle loaders .
= = Conversion to rifled muzzle loader = =
The introduction of rifled muzzle loaders ( also classed as RMLs ) rendered smoothbore guns largely obsolete . However , the 68 @-@ pounder and other smoothbores still existed in large numbers and various attempts were made to adapt the guns to fire new projectiles . Eventually Captain William Palliser patented a method of boring out the gun barrel and inserting a wrought iron rifled liner . This allowed rifled shot and shells to be fired from old smoothbore cannon and experiments revealed that it made them even more powerful than they had been before . Introduced in 1872 , 68 @-@ pounders adapted in this way had a calibre of 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 16 @.@ 00 cm ) and were known as a RML 68 @-@ pounder , or officially as the RML 80 @-@ pounder 5 ton . With a 10 lb ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) powder charge they could fire an 80 lb ( 36 kg ) projectile at a muzzle velocity of 1 @,@ 240 feet per second ( 380 m / s ) . They were deployed as coast defence and garrison artillery around the British Empire and remained in service until eventually declared obsolete in 1921 .
At least two 68 pounders were converted to 7 inch 6 @.@ 5 tons RML guns firing a 115 lb or 150 lb double shot .
= = Surviving examples = =
Southsea Castle
Fort Nelson , Hampshire , Royal Amouries Collection
Bradleys Head , Sydney Harbour , Australia
Flagstaff Hill Fort , NSW , Australia
Two guns at Port Fairy , Victoria , Australia - from Flickr
= Attributed arms =
Attributed arms are Western European coats of arms given retrospectively to persons real or fictitious who died before the start of the age of heraldry in the latter half of the 12th century . Arms were assigned to the knights of the Round Table , and then to biblical figures , to Roman and Greek heroes , and to kings and popes who had not historically borne arms ( Pastoreau 1997a , 258 ) . Each author could attribute different arms for the same person , but the arms for major figures soon became fixed .
Notable arms attributed to biblical figures include the arms of Jesus based on the instruments of the Passion , and the shield of the Trinity . Medieval literature attributed coats of arms to the Nine Worthies , including Alexander the Great , Julius Caesar , and King Arthur . Arms were given to many kings predating heraldry , including Edward the Confessor and William I of England . These attributed arms were sometimes used in practice as quarterings in the arms of their descendants .
= = History = =
Attributed or imaginary arms appeared in literature in the middle of the 12th century , particularly in Arthurian legends . During the generation following Chrétien de Troyes , about 40 of Arthur 's knights had attributed coats of arms ( Pastoreau 1997a , 259 ) . A second stage of development occurred during the 14th and 15th centuries when Arthurian arms expanded to include as many as 200 attributed coats of arms .
During the same centuries , rolls of arms included invented arms for kings of foreign lands ( Neubecker , 30 ) . Around 1310 , Jacques de Longuyon wrote the Voeux de Paon ( " Vows of the Peacock " ) , which included a list of nine famous leaders . This list , divided into three groups of three , became known in art and literature as the Nine Worthies ( Loomis 1938 , 37 ) . Each of the Nine Worthies were given a coat of arms . King David , for instance , was assigned a gold harp as a device ( Neubecker , 172 ) .
Once coats of arms were the established fashion of the ruling class , society expected a king to be armigerous ( Loomis 1922 , 26 ) . In such an era , it was " natural enough to consider that suitable armorial devices and compositions should be assigned to men of mark in earlier ages " ( Boutell , 18 ) . Each author could attribute different arms for the same person , although regional styles developed , and the arms for major figures soon became fixed ( Turner , 415 ) .
Some attributed arms were incorporated into the quarterings of their descendants ' arms . The quarterings for the family of Lloyd of Stockton , for instance , include numerous arms originally attributed to Welsh chieftains from the 9th century or earlier ( Neubecker , 94 ) . In a similar vein , arms were attributed to Pope Leo IX based on the later arms of his family 's descendants ( Turner , 415 ) .
In the 16th and 17th centuries , additional arms were attributed to a large number of saints , kings and popes , especially those from the 11th and 12th centuries . Pope Innocent IV ( 1243 – 1254 ) is the first pope whose personal coat of arms is known with certainty ( Pastoreau 1997a , 283 – 284 ) . By the end of the 17th century , the use of attributed arms became more restrained ( Neubecker , 224 ) .
The tinctures and charges attributed to an individual in the past provide insight into the history of symbolism ( Pastoreau 1997b , 87 ) .
= = Arthurian heraldry = =
In the Arthurian legends , each knight of the Round Table is often accompanied by a heraldic description of a coat of arms . Although these arms could be arbitrary , some characters were traditionally associated with one coat or a few different coats .
King Arthur was assigned many different arms , but from the 13th century , he was most commonly given three gold crowns on an azure field ( Loomis 1938 , 38 ) . In a 1394 manuscript depicting the Nine Worthies , Arthur is shown holding a flag with three gold crowns ( Neubecker , 172 ) . The reason for the triple @-@ crown symbol is unknown , but it was associated with other pre @-@ Norman kings , with the seal of Magnus II of Sweden , with the relics of the Three Wise Men in Cologne ( which led to the three crowns in the seal of the University of Cologne ) , and with the grants of Edward I of England to towns which were symbolized by three crowns in the towns ' arms . The number of crowns increased to eleven , thirteen and even thirty at times ( Brault , 44 – 46 ) .
Other arms were associated with Arthur . In a manuscript from the later 13th century , Arthur 's shield has three gold leopards , a likely heraldic flattery of Edward I of England ( Brault , 22 ) . Geoffrey of Monmouth assigned Arthur a dragon on his helmet and standard , which is possibly canting arms on Arthur 's father 's name , Uther Pendragon ( Brault , 23 ) . Geoffrey also assigned Arthur a shield with an image of the Virgin Mary ( Brault , 24 ) . An illustration of the latter by D. Endean Ivall , based on the battle flag described by Nennius ( a cross and the Virgin Mary ) and including the motto " King Arthur is not dead " in Cornish , can be found on the cover of W. H. Pascoe ’ s 1979 A Cornish Armory .
Other characters in the Arthurian legends are described with coats of arms . Lancelot starts with plain white arms but later receives a shield with three bends gules signifying the strength of three men ( Brault 47 ) . Tristran was attributed a variety of arms . His earliest arms , a gold lion rampant on red field , are shown in a set of 13th @-@ century tiles found in Chertsey Abbey ( Loomis 1915 , 308 ) . Thomas of Britain in the 12th century attributed these arms ( Loomis 1938 , 47 ) in what is believed to be heraldic flattery of his patron , either Richard I or Henry II , whose coats of arms contained some form of lion ( Loomis 1922 , 26 ) . In other versions the field is not red , but green . Gottfried von Strassburg attributed to Tristan a silver shield with a black boar rampant ( Loomis 1922 , 24 ; Loomis 1938 , 49 ) . In Italy , however , he was attributed geometric patterns ( argent a bend gules per Loomis 1938 , 59 ) .
= = = Plain arms = = =
The Arthurian legends contain numerous instances of red knights , black knights or green knights challenging the knights of the Round Table . In most cases , the color was chosen at random and has no symbolic significance ( Brault , 29 ) . Such arms of one tincture create an atmosphere . Plain arms were rare in the 12th century , and were used in literature to suggest a primitive heraldry of a time long past . Geoffrey of Monmouth noted with favor that in the Arthurian age , worthy knights used arms of one color , suggesting 12th century heraldic ornamentation was partly pretence ( Brault , 29 ) .
Plain arms also often function as a disguise for major characters . In the Chrétien de Troyes ' Lancelot , the Knight of the Cart , Lancelot bears plain red arms as a disguise . The hero of Cligès competes in a jousting tournament with plain black , green , and red arms on three successive days ( Brault , 30 ) .
= = Kings = =
Arms were attributed to important pre @-@ heraldic kings . Among the best known are those assigned to the King of the Franks , who was given three toads . The three fleurs @-@ de @-@ lis of France supposedly derive from these ( Neubecker , 225 ) .
William the Conqueror , the first Norman king of England , had a coat of arms with two lions . Richard the Lionheart used such a coat of arms with two lions on a red field ( Loomis 1938 , 47 ) , from which the three lions of the coat of arms of England derive . However , there is no proof that William 's arms were not attributed to William after his death ( Boutell , 18 ) .
The earlier Saxon Kings were assigned a gold cross on a blue shield , but this did not exist until the 13th century . The arms of Saint Edward the Confessor , a blue shield charged with a gold cross and five gold birds , appears to have been suggested by heralds in the time of Henry III of England ( Boutell , 18 ) based on a coin minted in Edward 's reign ( Neubecker , 30 ) . These arms were later used by Richard II of England out of devotion to the saint ( Fraser , 44 ) .
Arms were attributed to the kingdoms of the Anglo @-@ Saxon heptarchy . The Kingdom of Essex , for instance , was assigned a red shield with three notched swords ( or " seaxes " ) . This coat was used by the counties of Essex and Middlesex until 1910 , when the Middlesex County Council applied for a formal grant from the College of Arms ( The Times , 1910 ) . Middlesex was granted a red shield with three notched swords and a " Saxon Crown " . The Essex County Council was granted the arms without the crown in 1932 .
Even the kings of Rome were assigned arms , with Romulus , the first King of Rome signified by the she @-@ wolf ( Neubecker , 224 – 225 ) .
Flags were also attributed . While the King of Morocco was attributed three rooks as arms , which are therefore canting arms ( Neubecker , 224 ) , the whole chessboard was shown in some sources , resulting in the 14th @-@ century checkered version of the Flag of Morocco ( see Flags of the World , 2007 ) .
= = Religious figures = =
= = = Jesus and Mary = = =
Heralds could have attributed to Jesus the harp for arms inherited as a descendant of David . Nevertheless , the cross was regarded as Christ 's emblem , and it was so used by the Crusaders . Sometimes the arms of Christ feature a Paschal lamb as the principal charge . By the 13th century , however , numerous indulgences had brought increased veneration for the instruments of the Passion . These instruments were described in heraldic terms and treated as personal to Christ much as a coat of arms ( Dennys , 96 ) . An early example in a seal from c . 1240 includes the Cross , nails , lance , crown of thorns , sponge and whips .
The instruments of the Passion were sometimes split between a shield and crest in the form of an achievement of arms ( Neubecker , 222 ) . The Hyghalmen Roll ( c . 1447 – 1455 ) shows Christ holding an azure shield charged with Veronica 's Veil proper . The heraldry continues with the 15th century jousting helmet , which is covered by the seamless robe as a form of mantling , and the Cross , scepter ( of mockery ) and flagellum ( whip ) as crest . The banner 's long red schwenkel is a mark of eminence in German heraldry , but it was omitted when this image was copied into Randle Holme 's Book ( c . 1464 – 1480 ) . The image on the opposing page ( shown above ) includes a shield quartered with the five Wounds of Christ , three jars of ointment , two rods , and the head of Judas Iscariot with a bag of money ( Dennys , 97 – 98 ) .
While Christ was associated with the images of the Passion , Mary was associated with images from the prophecy of Simeon the Righteous ( Luke 2 : 34 – 35 ) ; the resulting attributed arms include a winged heart pierced with a sword and placed on a blue field ( Dennys , 102 ) . Mary is also attributed a group of white lily flowers . An example can be found on the lower part of the coat of arms of the College of Our Lady of Eton beside Windsor ( Dennys , 10
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2 @.@ 3 major hurricanes ( storms exceeding Category 3 strength in the Saffir @-@ Simpson Hurricane Scale ) . A normal season , as defined by NOAA , has 6 – 14 named storms , with 4 – 8 of those reaching hurricane strength , and 1 – 3 major hurricanes .
= = = Pre @-@ season forecasts = = =
On December 5 , 2005 , Klotzbach 's team issued its initial extended @-@ range forecast for the 2006 season , predicting an above average of 17 named storms , nine of them hurricanes , and five classified as Category 3 intensity or higher .
As in the 2005 season , the team predicted it was highly probable that at least one major hurricane would directly impact the United States . The forecast suggested an 81 % probability that at least one major hurricane would strike the U.S. mainland , a 64 % chance of at least one major hurricane striking the East Coast of the United States ( including the Florida peninsula ) , and a 47 % chance of at least one major hurricane striking the Gulf Coast of the United States from the Florida Panhandle westward . The team also predicted that the potential for major hurricane activity in the Caribbean was above average . A few months later , on April 4 , 2006 , CSU issued another forecast confirming its December predictions .
On May 22 , 2006 , NOAA released its pre @-@ season forecast for the 2006 season . The prediction was for 13 – 16 named storms , 8 – 10 of those becoming hurricanes , and 4 – 6 becoming major hurricanes .
On May 31 , 2006 , Klotzbach 's team released its final pre @-@ season forecast for 2006 , confirming its earlier prediction .
= = = Midseason outlooks = = =
On August 3 , 2006 , Klotzbach 's team lowered its season estimate to 15 named storms , with 7 becoming hurricanes and 3 becoming major hurricanes , noting that conditions had become less favorable for storms than they had been earlier in the year . The sea @-@ level pressure and trade wind strength in the tropical Atlantic were reported to be above normal , while sea surface temperature anomalies were on a decreasing trend .
On August 8 , 2006 , NOAA revised its season estimate to 12 – 15 named storms , with 7 – 9 becoming hurricanes and 3 – 4 becoming major hurricanes . The reduction was attributed to less favorable environmental conditions , a decrease in La Niña conditions , and the lack of a " very persistent upper @-@ level ridge pattern over the eastern U.S. and western Atlantic . "
On September 1 , Klotzbach 's team also revised its season estimate , to 13 named storms , 5 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes , citing a larger volume of the Saharan Air Layer and an El Niño trend in the Pacific . The team again reduced the number of tropical storms expected for the season a month later , on October 3 , with an updated forecast of 11 named storms , 6 hurricanes and 2 major hurricanes , citing the ongoing El Niño .
= = Season summary = =
Tropical Storm Zeta formed on December 30 , 2005 , and lasted until January 6 , 2006 . Although the majority of its existence was spent in 2006 , it is officially a storm of the 2005 Atlantic hurricane season because that is the year in which it formed . Zeta joined Hurricane Alice as only the second North Atlantic tropical cyclone in recorded history to span two calendar years .
The season started on June 1 , 2006 , and officially ended on November 30 , 2006 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cylones form in the Atlantic basin . Ten days into the start of the season , Tropical Storm Alberto developed in the Caribbean Sea , and after four months of activity , Hurricane Isaac dissipated on October 3 south of Newfoundland . Compared to the devastating 2005 Atlantic hurricane season , 2006 was not severe in terms of deaths and damage . Three tropical storms made landfall in the United States . The first of them , Tropical Storm Alberto , made landfall in Florida with winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , causing flooding and light damage . Tropical Storm Beryl made landfall on Nantucket , but left little impact . The third and more significant storm was Hurricane Ernesto , which killed two people in Virginia and two in Florida , as well as causing $ 500 million in damage ( 2006 USD ) . During the season , only one tropical cyclone in the Atlantic – Alberto – affected Mexico . Canada was affected by several tropical cyclones during 2006 , including Alberto , the unnamed storm , Beryl , Florence , and Isaac .
On June 20 , an upper @-@ level disturbance formed east of the Bahamas and moved westward across the islands . Between June 24 and 26 , areas of convection developed occasionally , and a low @-@ level disturbance formed . The system turned northward and upon reaching the Gulf Stream on June 27 , it began to mature . It made landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina and moved northeastward along the U.S. East Coast . The storm contributed to severe and deadly flooding in the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . While the NHC did not operationally classify it , data from reconnaissance aircraft , NEXRAD weather radar , and surface observations suggest it may have met the criteria for a tropical cyclone .
The National Hurricane Center 's pre @-@ season activity outlook predicted 13 – 16 named storms , 8 – 10 hurricanes and 4 – 6 major hurricanes . They also predicted a high risk of at least one major hurricane strike to the Southeast United States . In the event , only ten storms formed during the season , the lowest number since the 1997 season , when there were seven . Five of the ten storms developed into hurricanes — also the lowest number since 1997 — and only two attained major hurricane status , tying with 2002 for the fewest since 1997 . Only one named storm was observed during October , the lowest number since 1994 , when none were seen during that month . Additionally , only three named storms made landfall in the United States , the fewest since 2001 . Because of several factors , including a rapidly forming El Niño event , the Saharan Air Layer over the tropical Atlantic and the presence of a high pressure area to the Azores high situated near Bermuda , it contributed to a below average season . Also , sea surface temperatures in the western Atlantic were just at or slightly below average . In contrast , sea surface temperatures during the 2005 season were well above average .
Overall , the season 's activity was reflected with a low cumulative accumulated cyclone energy ( ACE ) rating of 79 . ACE is , broadly speaking , a measure of the power of the hurricane multiplied by the length of time it existed , so storms that last a long time , as well as particularly strong hurricanes , have high ACEs . ACE is only calculated for full advisories on tropical systems at or exceeding 34 knots ( 39 mph , 63 km / h ) or tropical storm strength . Subtropical cyclones are excluded from the total .
= = Storms = =
= = = Tropical Storm Alberto = = =
On June 10 , an area of disturbed weather associated with a broad low pressure area off the coast of Belize organized over the warm waters of the Caribbean Sea into the first tropical depression of the season . It dropped light rainfall in Mexico , with a 24 @-@ hour total peaking at 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in Peto , Yucatán . Southwesterly vertical wind shear initially prevented significant development , but as it moved closer to Florida , the depression strengthened into a tropical storm on June 11 . Passing over the warm , deep water of the Loop Current allowed accelerated development , and the cyclone reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 115 km / h ) , just shy of hurricane strength . Subsequent weakening occurred as it moved over the cooler waters of the continental shelf , and Alberto made landfall near Adams Beach , Florida , on June 14 with winds of about 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) . Losing its tropical characteristics , Alberto moved northeastward and produced heavy rainfall in South Carolina and North Carolina . The remnants tracked off the East Coast and transitioned into a powerful extratropical storm which affected Nova Scotia with high winds , heavy rain , and rough surf , leaving four fisherman missing offshore .
Alberto caused record rainfall in North Carolina , peaking at eight in ( 200 mm ) . In Florida , two people died , and damage was estimated at $ 250 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ) . Later , the storm left four sailors missing about 230 miles ( 370 km ) south of Nova Scotia .
= = = Unnamed Tropical Storm = = =
A cold front exited the eastern United States on July 13 and subsequently stalled over the western Atlantic Ocean . It decayed and dissipated , leaving behind two areas of low pressure . The southern area near North Carolina became Tropical Storm Beryl , and the northern system became an extratropical low on July 16 south @-@ southeast of Cape Cod , Massachusetts . Moving northeastward over warm waters , the system separated itself from the dissipating front later that day . Convection developed near the center , and the system transitioned into a tropical depression early on July 17 about 240 miles ( 390 km ) southeast of Nantucket , Massachusetts . Accelerating northeastward , the depression intensified into a tropical storm six hours later . Banding features became prominent , and after continued strengthening , the storm attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) late on July 17 , while located about 245 miles ( 395 km ) south of Halifax , Nova Scotia . Shortly thereafter , the storm encountered much cooler water temperatures after leaving the Gulf Stream . The storm quickly weakened as the convection rapidly diminished , and on July 18 degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low . The remnants crossed Newfoundland before turning to the east @-@ northeast and dissipating on July 19 . The storm greatly weakened prior to moving across Newfoundland , and as a result impact was minimal .
Operationally , the storm was considered as a non @-@ tropical gale , connected to a cold front . However , a post @-@ season analysis provided enough evidence of tropical characteristics , indicating no frontal features and no cold air intrusion at the time of peak winds . Observations analyzed the storm as having a symmetric warm @-@ core , whereas in real time it was considered subtropical . The National Hurricane Center officially re @-@ classified the system as an unnamed tropical storm on December 15 , 2006 .
= = = Tropical Storm Beryl = = =
The same frontal system that developed the previous system spawned another low pressure area east of North Carolina . On July 18 , it developed into a tropical depression , and with associated deep convection , the storm organized sufficiently to be upgraded to Tropical Storm Beryl on July 19 . It tracked northeast and passed over Nantucket before dissipating southwest of Nova Scotia on July 21 . Waves along the southern coast of Nantucket reached 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) in height as the storm approached the island , resulting in four people being rescued by lifeguards from rip currents . The remnants of Tropical Storm Beryl dropped moderate precipitation in Atlantic Canada , with totals of up to 3 @.@ 5 inches ( 88 mm ) ; in some locations 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain fell in an hour . Moderate winds were reported along its path , which peaked at 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) in southern Nova Scotia .
= = = Tropical Storm Chris = = =
By late July , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa and traversed the Atlantic Ocean . The associated convection organized and became a tropical depression on July 31 about 160 miles ( 260 km ) east of Antigua . The depression tracked westward and soon intensified into Tropical Storm Chris before reaching peak winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) northeast of the United States Virgin Islands . The storm was forecast to strengthen further and become a hurricane as it moved into the Bahamas . However , Chris began to be affected by wind shear and became disorganized . The storm weakened to a tropical depression on August 4 , and dissipated as it approached the Cuban coast on August 5 .
The storm 's effects were limited to moderate rainfall in Hispaniola and Cuba . Cruise lines such as Royal Caribbean re @-@ routed their ships to avoid the storm . In Puerto Rico , rainfall from the storm caused the Fajardo River to overflow its banks . The overflown waters temporarily closed a highway in the northeastern portion of the island . Rainfall reached up to 2 inches ( 50 mm ) across portions of Hispaniola , the Turks and Caicos , the Bahamas , and eastern Cuba , and reached 4 inches ( 100 mm ) in some mountainous areas .
= = = Tropical Storm Debby = = =
On August 20 a tropical wave emerged off the coast of Africa for the Atlantic Ocean . Immediately following , the wave developed convective banding and a broad circulation . At 1800 UTC on August 21 , a tropical depression formed to the south @-@ southeast of the Cape Verde Islands . The depression was a large , well @-@ organized system , and tracking west @-@ northwestward it intensified into Tropical Storm Debby on August 23 .
Later on August 23 , the storm attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) , which it maintained for about two days . However , Debby entered a dry and stable air mass and deteriorated in organization . An upper @-@ level trough increased southerly wind shear and displaced the convection from the center . The cyclone began to weaken , and on August 26 Debby weakened to a tropical depression before degenerating into a remnant low . The circulation lasted another two days .
= = = Hurricane Ernesto = = =
Hurricane Ernesto originated from a tropical wave which moved off the coast of Africa on August 18 . The wave progressed westward and reached the Western Atlantic , spawning a tropical depression on August 24 near the Windward Islands . It moved west @-@ northwestward through the Caribbean Sea and intensified into Tropical Storm Ernesto on August 25 . The storm briefly attained hurricane status on August 27 to the southwest of Haiti , before land interaction caused weakening . Ernesto made landfall near Guantanamo Bay , Cuba , early in the morning on August 28 as a tropical storm . At one point the storm was predicted to become a major hurricane in the Gulf of Mexico and threaten parts of the Gulf Coast . However , Ernesto moved much farther east than anticipated , and made landfall as a tropical storm on the southern tip of Florida on August 29 . Ernesto retained tropical storm strength as it crossed Florida and emerged from land near Cape Canaveral , and was just below hurricane strength when it made landfall again in North Carolina on August 31 . Ernesto transitioned into an extratropical cyclone over Virginia on September 1 , which ultimately dissipated over Quebec on September 4 .
Early in its duration , Ernesto killed five people in Haiti from rainfall . Later , two people died in Florida in traffic accidents due to slick roads . Damage was heaviest in Virginia , where heavy rains left severe flooding . Damage in the United States was estimated at $ 500 million ( 2006 USD ) .
= = = Hurricane Florence = = =
Hurricane Florence originated on September 3 from the complex merging of two tropical waves , creating one large low pressure area . The disturbance moved westward and became a tropical depression in the open waters of the Atlantic . On September 5 , it organized further and was upgraded into Tropical Storm Florence . With a disorganized structure and multiple circulation centers , Florence remained a weak tropical storm for several days , even after external conditions became favorable for strengthening . Florence tracked west @-@ northwest and intensified into a hurricane on September 10 while south of Bermuda . The storm passed just to the east of Bermuda as a Category 1 hurricane on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale as it reached its peak intensity of 90 mph ( 145 km / h ) . It moved north before losing its tropical characteristics and passing over the Canadian Maritimes as a strong extratropical storm .
Large swells , rip tide , and undertow were reported on Bermuda , the Leeward Islands , the Virgin Islands , and Hispaniola . Florence affected Bermuda with wind gusts up to 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and heavy rain which left 23 @,@ 000 houses without electricity . In all , the storm caused $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2006 USD ; $ 235 thousand 2016 USD ) in damage . Florence then brought heavy rains across Newfoundland as an extratropical storm , destroying one house and causing minor damage to several others . There were no fatalities as a result of the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Gordon = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa on September 1 . The wave tracked westward across the Atlantic for several days until it reached an area of relaxed wind shear and its associated low pressure area organized into a tropical depression . It moved east @-@ northeast and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Gordon on September 11 , while located over the open waters of the Atlantic . Gordon turned north , and became a hurricane on September 13 . It intensified to Category 3 status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale and reached its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) on September 14 . Tracking northward , it began to lose tropical characteristics . On September 20 , the system affected Britain with high winds and heavy rain as an extratropical cyclone . During Gordon 's passage through Britain , 120 @,@ 000 homes were left without power after winds of 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) affected the country .
= = = Hurricane Helene = = =
On September 11 , a vigorous tropical wave moved off the west coast of Africa . The wave organized rapidly and spawned a tropical depression to the south @-@ southeast of Cape Verde . On September 14 , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Helene while tracking west @-@ northwest . Helene continued to intensify and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 16 . The storm began to execute a northward track , and reached Category 3 hurricane status on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale on September 18 , before reaching its peak intensity of 120 mph ( 195 km / h ) . It started to weaken when it reached the cold waters of the North Atlantic , and Helene dissipated on September 20 , without having had major effects on land other than moderate wind gusts in the British Isles .
= = = Hurricane Isaac = = =
Hurricane Isaac originated in a tropical wave that moved off the coast of Africa on September 18 . The wave tracked west , produced a tropical depression , and became a tropical storm on September 28 . Isaac moved north @-@ northwest and was upgraded to a hurricane on September 30 . It turned north and reached its peak intensity of 85 mph ( 135 km / h ) before weakening and brushing Nova Scotia . Isaac produced moderate winds on land in Newfoundland , peaking at 60 mph ( 96 km / h ) with a sustained wind of 46 mph ( 74 km / h ) was recorded .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for storm names in the North Atlantic in 2006 . This is the same list used in the 2000 season except for Kirk , which replaced Keith . No storm was given a previously unused name , for the first time since the 1993 season . It was the first hurricane season since the 1997 season that no Atlantic names were retired . The same list was used for the 2012 season .
The World Meteorological Organization determined at its annual meeting in the spring of 2006 to again use names from the Greek alphabet , starting with Alpha , if the main list should become exhausted .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of all the storms that have formed in the 2006 Atlantic hurricane season . It includes their duration , names , landfall ( s ) , denoted in parentheses , damages , and death totals . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but were still related to that storm . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical , a wave , or a low , and all the damage figures are in 2006 USD .
= Battle of Garnett 's & Golding 's Farm =
The Battle of Garnett 's and Golding 's Farms took place June 27 – 28 , 1862 , in Henrico County , Virginia , as part of the Seven Days Battles of the American Civil War 's Peninsula Campaign . While the battle at Gaines 's Mill raged north of the Chickahominy River , the forces of Confederate general John B. Magruder conducted a reconnaissance in force that developed into a minor attack against the Union line south of the river at Garnett 's Farm . The Confederates attacked again near Golding 's Farm on the morning of June 28 but in both cases were easily repulsed . The action at the Garnett and Golding farms accomplished little beyond convincing McClellan that he was being attacked from both sides of the Chickahominy .
= = Background = =
= = = Military situation = = =
Richmond , Virginia , as the center of the Southern rebellion , was a city of obvious strategic importance to both sides of the American Civil War . In this context , General George McClellan and his Army of the Potomac began a campaign on the Virginia Peninsula to take the city . His early attempts were successful . In fact , on nearly every front , the Northerners had an advantage over the Confederates . By the end of May 1862 however , McClellan 's army was split in half along the banks of the Chickahominy River , with one wing , encompassing two Union corps , to the south river , and the other wing , with some three Federal corps , to the north . On May 31 , Joseph E. Johnston , the general @-@ in @-@ chief of the Confederate Army of Northern Virginia , sought to capitalize on the bifurcation and led three columns of soldiers towards the Union position at the south of the river . The resulting conflict , called the Battle of Seven Pines ( or Fair Oaks ) , was inconclusive . Johnston 's plan fell apart , and the Army of the Potomac lost no ground . Johnston himself was wounded however , and the next day , June 1 , Jefferson Davis , the President of the Confederate States , appointed his military adviser , General Robert E. Lee , to lead the Confederate armies . There was a lull in the fighting on the Peninsula in subsequent weeks , ending in a Union offensive at Oak Grove on June 25 . Lee 's men managed to halt the attacking Federals , and the next day , the Confederates went on the offensive in the Battle of Mechanicsville ( or Beaver Dam Creek ) . The battle ended in a Confederate repulse and heavy Southern casualties . Nevertheless , the victorious Federals , under General McClellan 's orders , retreated to Boatswain 's Swamp at the south Chickahominy and established a formidable battle line . There , on June 27 , the Confederate armies launched an attack at Gaines 's Mill , which would become one of the bloodiest battles of the Peninsula Campaign . While the conflict at Gaines 's Mill raged , another conflict was brewing near two farms to the south , which would turn into the Battle of Garnett 's and Golding 's Farm .
= = Opposing forces = =
= = = Union = = =
= = = Confederate = = =
= = Battle = =
James M. Garnett 's farm , near Old Tavern , was situated on the edge of the bluffs at the banks of the Chickahominy River . Near the Garnett farm was Golding 's Plain , belonging to Simon Gouldin . Between the two farms was a precipitous ravine , a creek and a hill named Garnett 's Hill . Union soldiers from Brigadier General William T. H. Brooks 's brigade of William F. " Baldy " Smith 's VI Corps began placing artillery pieces on Garnett 's Hill the night before the battle . This activity was resumed by Brigadier General Winfield Scott Hancock 's brigade of the same Corps the following morning – June 27 , 1862 . Six batteries of reserve artillery were placed .
While the Federals worked , Confederate soldiers of Major General David R. Jones 's division began taking up positions in the area . Brigadier General Robert Toombs 's brigade positioned themselves at the west side of the ravine , while Colonel George T. Anderson 's brigade took up a position northwest of the area , less than a mile from the Garnett house . Anderson 's and Toombs 's artillerists were ordered to fire on the Union soldiers whenever the opportunity presented itself . The Federals , now preparing for a general engagement , were told to avoid a clash with the Confederates . The result was a brisk shelling that lasted about an hour , and ended in a Confederate withdrawal . The Union 's twenty @-@ three , well @-@ positioned guns withstood the Confederates 's ten guns , which were situated in an open field . Later , some of Major General Lafayette McLaws 's men advanced towards the Union line at the Garnett farm at about 4 pm , but withdrew after ten minutes under heavy fire . There was a lull in the subsequent hours , ending with Toombs 's attack on the Union line at about 7 pm . Toombs was ordered to reconnoiter or " feel the enemy " . Instead , he engaged the Federals in a " sharp and sustained fight " . After nightfall , Toombs 's advance was repelled by Winfield Hancock 's brigade after about an hour and a half of fighting . The Confederates suffered some 271 casualties during the day 's conflict . The action at the Garnett farm accomplished little .
The following day , June 28 , Union and Confederate soldiers clashed again near the Golding house . Jones suspected that the Federals near the house were withdrawing , and authorized Toombs to perform a reconnaissance @-@ in @-@ force to ascertain whether this was true . However , Toombs turned the reconnaissance operation into a full engagement and advanced with some of Anderson 's men . Before he could be countermanded , the Confederates had already been repulsed by the VI Corps .
= = Aftermath = =
In the two days of fighting at the Garnett and Golding farms , the Confederates suffered 438 casualties , while the Federals suffered 189 . Anderson 's men , who bore the brunt of the Federal counterattack , suffered 156 casualties on the second day of fighting . This battle accomplished little , but helped to convince McClellan that he was being attacked from both sides of the Chickahominy . On the evening of June 28 , McClellan convened a meeting with his generals . He announced that he was willing to pursue an attack on Richmond , but such an attack could spell the defeat and destruction of the Army of the Potomac . The result of the meeting was that the Federals would begin a retreat . " The commanding general announced to us his purpose to begin a movement to the James River on the next day , " noted Union general William B. Franklin . McClellan 's decision to withdraw to the James set the stage for the subsequent Battle of Savage 's Station .
= The Boat Race 1925 =
The 77th Boat Race took place on 28 March 1925 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by former rower Frederick I. Pitman , Cambridge won in a time of 21 minutes 50 seconds as Oxford were waterlogged and unable to finish the race . The victory took the overall record in the event to 40 – 36 in Oxford 's favour .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities and followed throughout the United Kingdom and worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1924 race by four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half lengths , while Oxford led overall with 40 victories to Cambridge 's 35 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by G. C. Bourne who had rowed for the university in the 1882 and 1883 races , Stanley Garton ( who had rowed three times between 1909 and 1911 ) and E. D. Horsfall ( who had rowed in the three races prior to the First World War ) . Cambridge 's coaches were Francis Escombe , P. Haig @-@ Thomas ( four @-@ time Blue who had rowed between 1902 and 1905 ) , Sir Henry Howard ( coach of the Lady Margaret Boat Club ) and David Alexander Wauchope ( who had rowed in the 1895 race ) . For the seventeenth year the umpire was Old Etonian Frederick I. Pitman who had rowed for Cambridge in the 1884 , 1885 and 1886 races .
As a result of various illnesses , the Oxford crew was not finalised until five days before the race , and according to former Dark Blue rower and author George Drinkwater , " the innumerable changes prevented the crew from ever really getting together " . Drinkwater also stated that the Oxford boat rowed with " three unfit men in the boat " . Similarly , Cambridge were affected by illness , in particular the boat club president Robert Morrison who was forced to leave the crew .
= = Crews = =
The Oxford crew weighed an average of 12 st 0 @.@ 875 lb ( 78 @.@ 5 kg ) , 0 @.@ 375 pounds ( 0 @.@ 2 kg ) per rower more than their opponents . Cambridge 's crew included six participants with Boat Race experience , all of whom had made their first appearance in the event the previous year . Oxford saw three rowers return to the boat , including G. J. Mower @-@ White who was rowing in his third consecutive race . All of the participants in the race were registered as British .
= = Race = =
Cambridge won the toss and elected to start from the Middlesex station , handing the Surrey side of the river to Oxford . Pitman got the race underway at 3 : 41 p.m. in a strong wind diagonally across the start which made the Surrey virtually unnavigable ; within a minute , the Dark Blues ' boat was waterlogged . Cambridge enjoyed the shelter of the Middlesex wall and rapidly went away . Despite being advised to stop by their coach Garton , it was not until The Doves pub that Oxford gave up . Cambridge slowed to a " strong paddle " and passed the finishing post in a time of 21 minutes 50 seconds .
It was the slowest winning time since the 1912 race and the third time in the history of the event that one or both of the crews sank ( in the 1859 and 1912 races ) . According to author and former Oxford rower George Drinkwater , the race was " a complete ' washout ' in the literal sense of the word " . Following the race , Pitman was heavily criticised for his placement of the stakeboats ; Drinkwater disagreed , noting that " when the take @-@ boats were being placed ... the water was possible for both boats . " Indeed , prior to the race he had followed the requests of both boat club presidents to move the boats closer to the Middlesex station but did not want to give an inappropriate advantage to the crew starting from that side of the river . In a letter from Pitman , published in The Field , he wrote that " I hope that the umpire may be relieved from the duty of fixing the course , or that he may have the assistance of a representative of both Universities on his launch in fixing the stake @-@ boats and deciding whether the race can be rowed . "
= Diabetes mellitus type 2 =
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is a long term metabolic disorder that is characterized by high blood sugar , insulin resistance , and relative lack of insulin . Common symptoms include increased thirst , frequent urination , and unexplained weight loss . Symptoms may also include increased hunger , feeling tired , and sores that do not heal . Often symptoms come on slowly . Long @-@ term complications from high blood sugar include heart disease , strokes , diabetic retinopathy which can result in blindness , kidney failure , and poor blood flow in the limbs which may lead to amputations . The sudden onset of hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state may occur ; however , ketoacidosis is uncommon .
Type 2 diabetes primarily occurs as a result of obesity and not enough exercise . Some people are more genetically at risk than others . Type 2 diabetes makes up about 90 % of cases of diabetes , with the other 10 % due primarily to diabetes mellitus type 1 and gestational diabetes . In diabetes mellitus type 1 there is an absolute lack of insulin due to breakdown of islet cells in the pancreas . Diagnosis of diabetes is by blood tests such as fasting plasma glucose , oral glucose tolerance test , or A1C .
Type 2 diabetes is partly preventable by staying a normal weight , exercising regularly , and eating properly . Treatment involves exercise and dietary changes . If blood sugar levels are not adequately lowered , the medication metformin is typically recommended . Many people may eventually also require insulin injections . In those on insulin , routinely check blood sugar levels is advised , however this may not be needed in those taking pills . Bariatric surgery often improves diabetes in those who are obese .
Rates of type 2 diabetes have increased markedly since 1960 in parallel with obesity . As of 2013 there were approximately 368 million people diagnosed with the disease compared to around 30 million in 1985 . Typically it begins in middle or older age , although rates of type 2 diabetes are increasing in young people . Type 2 diabetes is associated with a ten @-@ year @-@ shorter life expectancy . Diabetes was one of the first diseases described . The importance of insulin in the disease was determined in the 1920s .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The classic symptoms of diabetes are polyuria ( frequent urination ) , polydipsia ( increased thirst ) , polyphagia ( increased hunger ) , and weight loss . Other symptoms that are commonly present at diagnosis include a history of blurred vision , itchiness , peripheral neuropathy , recurrent vaginal infections , and fatigue . Many people , however , have no symptoms during the first few years and are diagnosed on routine testing . People with type 2 diabetes mellitus may rarely present with hyperosmolar hyperglycemic state ( a condition of very high blood sugar associated with a decreased level of consciousness and low blood pressure ) .
= = = Complications = = =
Type 2 diabetes is typically a chronic disease associated with a ten @-@ year @-@ shorter life expectancy . This is partly due to a number of complications with which it is associated , including : two to four times the risk of cardiovascular disease , including ischemic heart disease and stroke ; a 20 @-@ fold increase in lower limb amputations , and increased rates of hospitalizations . In the developed world , and increasingly elsewhere , type 2 diabetes is the largest cause of nontraumatic blindness and kidney failure . It has also been associated with an increased risk of cognitive dysfunction and dementia through disease processes such as Alzheimer 's disease and vascular dementia . Other complications include acanthosis nigricans , sexual dysfunction , and frequent infections .
= = Cause = =
The development of type 2 diabetes is caused by a combination of lifestyle and genetic factors . While some of these factors are under personal control , such as diet and obesity , other factors are not , such as increasing age , female gender , and genetics . A lack of sleep has been linked to type 2 diabetes . This is believed to act through its effect on metabolism . The nutritional status of a mother during fetal development may also play a role , with one proposed mechanism being that of altered DNA methylation . The intestinal bacteriæ Prevotella copri and Bacteroides vulgatus have been connected with type 2 diabetes .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
A number of lifestyle factors are known to be important to the development of type 2 diabetes , including obesity and being overweight ( defined by a body mass index of greater than 25 ) , lack of physical activity , poor diet , stress , and urbanization . Excess body fat is associated with 30 % of cases in those of Chinese and Japanese descent , 60 – 80 % of cases in those of European and African descent , and 100 % of cases in Pima Indians and Pacific Islanders . Those who are not obese often have a high waist – hip ratio . Smoking also appears to increase the risk of type 2 diabetes mellitus .
Dietary factors also influence the risk of developing type 2 diabetes . Consumption of sugar @-@ sweetened drinks in excess is associated with an increased risk . The type of fats in the diet are also important , with saturated fats and trans fatty acids increasing the risk , and polyunsaturated and monounsaturated fat decreasing the risk . Eating lots of white rice appears to also play a role in increasing risk . A lack of exercise is believed to cause 7 % of cases . Persistent organic pollutants may also play a role .
= = = Genetics = = =
Most cases of diabetes involve many genes , with each being a small contributor to an increased probability of becoming a type 2 diabetic . If one identical twin has diabetes , the chance of the other developing diabetes within his lifetime is greater than 90 % , while the rate for nonidentical siblings is 25 – 50 % . As of 2011 , more than 36 genes had been found that contribute to the risk of type 2 diabetes . All of these genes together still only account for 10 % of the total heritable component of the disease . The TCF7L2 allele , for example , increases the risk of developing diabetes by 1 @.@ 5 times and is the greatest risk of the common genetic variants . Most of the genes linked to diabetes are involved in beta cell functions .
There are a number of rare cases of diabetes that arise due to an abnormality in a single gene ( known as monogenic forms of diabetes or " other specific types of diabetes " ) . These include maturity onset diabetes of the young ( MODY ) , Donohue syndrome , and Rabson @-@ Mendenhall syndrome , among others . Maturity onset diabetes of the young constitute 1 – 5 % of all cases of diabetes in young people .
= = = Medical conditions = = =
There are a number of medications and other health problems that can predispose to diabetes . Some of the medications include : glucocorticoids , thiazides , beta blockers , atypical antipsychotics , and statins . Those who have previously had gestational diabetes are at a higher risk of developing type 2 diabetes . Other health problems that are associated include : acromegaly , Cushing 's syndrome , hyperthyroidism , pheochromocytoma , and certain cancers such as glucagonomas . Testosterone deficiency is also associated with type 2 diabetes .
= = Pathophysiology = =
Type 2 diabetes is due to insufficient insulin production from beta cells in the setting of insulin resistance . Insulin resistance , which is the inability of cells to respond adequately to normal levels of insulin , occurs primarily within the muscles , liver , and fat tissue . In the liver , insulin normally suppresses glucose release . However , in the setting of insulin resistance , the liver inappropriately releases glucose into the blood . The proportion of insulin resistance versus beta cell dysfunction differs among individuals , with some having primarily insulin resistance and only a minor defect in insulin secretion and others with slight insulin resistance and primarily a lack of insulin secretion .
Other potentially important mechanisms associated with type 2 diabetes and insulin resistance include : increased breakdown of lipids within fat cells , resistance to and lack of incretin , high glucagon levels in the blood , increased retention of salt and water by the kidneys , and inappropriate regulation of metabolism by the central nervous system . However , not all people with insulin resistance develop diabetes , since an impairment of insulin secretion by pancreatic beta cells is also required .
= = Diagnosis = =
The World Health Organization definition of diabetes ( both type 1 and type 2 ) is for a single raised glucose reading with symptoms , otherwise raised values on two occasions , of either :
fasting plasma glucose ≥ 7 @.@ 0 mmol / l ( 126 mg / dl )
or
with a glucose tolerance test , two hours after the oral dose a plasma glucose ≥ 11 @.@ 1 mmol / l ( 200 mg / dl )
A random blood sugar of greater than 11 @.@ 1 mmol / l ( 200 mg / dL ) in association with typical symptoms or a glycated hemoglobin ( HbA1c ) of ≥ 48 mmol / mol ( ≥ 6 @.@ 5 DCCT % ) is another method of diagnosing diabetes . In 2009 an International Expert Committee that included representatives of the American Diabetes Association ( ADA ) , the International Diabetes Federation ( IDF ) , and the European Association for the Study of Diabetes ( EASD ) recommended that a threshold of ≥ 48 mmol / mol ( ≥ 6 @.@ 5 DCCT % ) should be used to diagnose diabetes . This recommendation was adopted by the American Diabetes Association in 2010 . Positive tests should be repeated unless the person presents with typical symptoms and blood sugars > 11 @.@ 1 mmol / l ( > 200 mg / dl ) .
Threshold for diagnosis of diabetes is based on the relationship between results of glucose tolerance tests , fasting glucose or HbA1c and complications such as retinal problems . A fasting or random blood sugar is preferred over the glucose tolerance test , as they are more convenient for people . HbA1c has the advantages that fasting is not required and results are more stable but has the disadvantage that the test is more costly than measurement of blood glucose . It is estimated that 20 % of people with diabetes in the United States do not realize that they have the disease .
Diabetes mellitus type 2 is characterized by high blood glucose in the context of insulin resistance and relative insulin deficiency . This is in contrast to diabetes mellitus type 1 in which there is an absolute insulin deficiency due to destruction of [ islet cells in the pancreas and gestational diabetes mellitus that is a new onset of high blood sugars associated with pregnancy . Type 1 and type 2 diabetes can typically be distinguished based on the presenting circumstances . If the diagnosis is in doubt antibody testing may be useful to confirm type 1 diabetes and C @-@ peptide levels may be useful to confirm type 2 diabetes , with C @-@ peptide levels normal or high in type 2 diabetes , but low in type 1 diabetes .
= = Screening = =
No major organization recommends universal screening for diabetes as there is no evidence that such a program improve outcomes . Screening is recommended by the United States Preventive Services Task Force ( USPSTF ) in adults without symptoms whose blood pressure is greater than 135 / 80 mmHg . For those whose blood pressure is less , the evidence is insufficient to recommend for or against screening . There is no evidence that it changes the risk of death in this group of people . They also recommend screening among those who are overweight and between the ages of 40 and 70 .
The World Health Organization recommends testing those groups at high risk and in 2014 the USPSTF is considering a similar recommendation . High @-@ risk groups in the United States include : those over 45 years old ; those with a first degree relative with diabetes ; some ethnic groups , including Hispanics , African @-@ Americans , and Native @-@ Americans ; a history of gestational diabetes ; polycystic ovary syndrome ; excess weight ; and conditions associated with metabolic syndrome . The American Diabetes Association recommends screening those who have a BMI over 25 ( in people of Asian descent screening is recommending for a BMI over 23 .
= = Prevention = =
Onset of type 2 diabetes can be delayed or prevented through proper nutrition and regular exercise . Intensive lifestyle measures may reduce the risk by over half . The benefit of exercise occurs regardless of the person 's initial weight or subsequent weight loss . Evidence for the benefit of dietary changes alone , however , is limited , with some evidence for a diet high in green leafy vegetables and some for limiting the intake of sugary drinks . In those with impaired glucose tolerance , diet and exercise either alone or in combination with metformin or acarbose may decrease the risk of developing diabetes . Lifestyle interventions are more effective than metformin . While low vitamin D levels are associated with an increased risk of diabetes , correcting the levels by supplementing vitamin D3 does not improve that risk .
= = Management = =
Management of type 2 diabetes focuses on lifestyle interventions , lowering other cardiovascular risk factors , and maintaining blood glucose levels in the normal range . Self @-@ monitoring of blood glucose for people with newly diagnosed type 2 diabetes may be used in combination with education , however the benefit of self monitoring in those not using multi @-@ dose insulin is questionable . In those who do not want to measure blood levels , measuring urine levels may be done . Managing other cardiovascular risk factors , such as hypertension , high cholesterol , and microalbuminuria , improves a person 's life expectancy . Decreasing the systolic blood pressure to less than 140 mmHg is associated with a lower risk of death and better outcomes . Intensive blood pressure management ( less than 130 / 80 mmHg ) as opposed to standard blood pressure management ( less than 140 / 85 – 100 mmHg ) results in a slight decrease in stroke risk but no effect on overall risk of death .
Intensive blood sugar lowering ( HbA1c < 6 % ) as opposed to standard blood sugar lowering ( HbA1c of 7 – 7 @.@ 9 % ) does not appear to change mortality . The goal of treatment is typically an HbA1c of around 7 % or a fasting glucose of less than 7 @.@ 2 mmol / L ( 130 mg / dL ) ; however these goals may be changed after professional clinical consultation , taking into account particular risks of hypoglycemia and life expectancy . It is recommended that all people with type 2 diabetes get regular ophthalmology examination . Treating gum disease in those with diabetes may result in a small improvement in blood sugar levels .
= = = Lifestyle = = =
A proper diet and exercise are the foundations of diabetic care , with a greater amount of exercise yielding better results . Aerobic exercise leads to a decrease in HbA1c and improved insulin sensitivity . Resistance training is also useful and the combination of both types of exercise may be most effective . A diabetic diet that promotes weight loss is important . While the best diet type to achieve this is controversial , a low glycemic index diet or low carbohydrate diet has been found to improve blood sugar control . Culturally appropriate education may help people with type 2 diabetes control their blood sugar levels , for up to six months at least . If changes in lifestyle in those with mild diabetes has not resulted in improved blood sugars within six weeks , medications should then be considered . There is not enough evidence to determine if lifestyle interventions affect mortality in those who already have DM2 .
= = = Medications = = =
There are several classes of anti @-@ diabetic medications available . Metformin is generally recommended as a first line treatment as there is some evidence that it decreases mortality ; however , this conclusion is questioned . Metformin should not be used in those with severe kidney or liver problems .
A second oral agent of another class or insulin may be added if metformin is not sufficient after three months . Other classes of medications include : sulfonylureas , thiazolidinediones , dipeptidyl peptidase @-@ 4 inhibitors , SGLT2 inhibitors , and glucagon @-@ like peptide @-@ 1 analog . There is no significant difference between these agents . Rosiglitazone , a thiazolidinedione , has not been found to improve long @-@ term outcomes even though it improves blood sugar levels . Additionally it is associated with increased rates of heart disease and death . Angiotensin @-@ converting enzyme inhibitors ( ACEIs ) prevent kidney disease and improve outcomes in those with diabetes . The similar medications angiotensin receptor blockers ( ARBs ) do not . A 2016 review recommended treating to a systolic blood pressure of 140 to 150 mmHg .
Injections of insulin may either be added to oral medication or used alone . Most people do not initially need insulin . When it is used , a long @-@ acting formulation is typically added at night , with oral medications being continued . Doses are then increased to effect ( blood sugar levels being well controlled ) . When nightly insulin is insufficient , twice daily insulin may achieve better control . The long acting insulins glargine and detemir are equally safe and effective , and do not appear much better than neutral protamine Hagedorn ( NPH ) insulin , but as they are significantly more expensive , they are not cost effective as of 2010 . In those who are pregnant insulin is generally the treatment of choice .
= = = Surgery = = =
Weight loss surgery in those who are obese is an effective measure to treat diabetes . Many are able to maintain normal blood sugar levels with little or no medications following surgery and long @-@ term mortality is decreased . There however is some short @-@ term mortality risk of less than 1 % from the surgery . The body mass index cutoffs for when surgery is appropriate are not yet clear . It is recommended that this option be considered in those who are unable to get both their weight and blood sugar under control .
= = Epidemiology = =
Globally as of 2010 it was estimated that there were 285 million people with type 2 diabetes making up about 90 % of diabetes cases . This is equivalent to about 6 % of the world 's adult population . Diabetes is common both in the developed and the developing world . It remains uncommon , however , in the underdeveloped world .
Women seem to be at a greater risk as do certain ethnic groups , such as South Asians , Pacific Islanders , Latinos , and Native Americans . This may be due to enhanced sensitivity to a Western lifestyle in certain ethnic groups . Traditionally considered a disease of adults , type 2 diabetes is increasingly diagnosed in children in parallel with rising obesity rates . Type 2 diabetes is now diagnosed as frequently as type 1 diabetes in teenagers in the United States .
Rates of diabetes in 1985 were estimated at 30 million , increasing to 135 million in 1995 and 217 million in 2005 . This increase is believed to be primarily due to the global population aging , a decrease in exercise , and increasing rates of obesity . The five countries with the greatest number of people with diabetes as of 2000 are India having 31 @.@ 7 million , China 20 @.@ 8 million , the United States 17 @.@ 7 million , Indonesia 8 @.@ 4 million , and Japan 6 @.@ 8 million . It is recognized as a global epidemic by the World Health Organization .
= = History = =
Diabetes is one of the first diseases described with an Egyptian manuscript from c . 1500 BCE mentioning " too great emptying of the urine . " The first described cases are believed to be of type 1 diabetes . Indian physicians around the same time identified the disease and classified it as madhumeha or honey urine noting that the urine would attract ants . The term " diabetes " or " to pass through " was first used in 230 BCE by the Greek Apollonius Of Memphis . The disease was rare during the time of the Roman empire with Galen commenting that he had only seen two cases during his career .
Type 1 and type 2 diabetes were identified as separate conditions for the first time by the Indian physicians Sushruta and Charaka in 400 – 500 AD with type 1 associated with youth and type 2 with being overweight . The term " mellitus " or " from honey " was added by the Briton John Rolle in the late 1700s to separate the condition from diabetes insipidus which is also associated with frequent urination . Effective treatment was not developed until the early part of the 20th century when the Canadians Frederick Banting and Charles Best discovered insulin in 1921 and 1922 . This was followed by the development of the long acting NPH insulin in the 1940s .
= ARA Rivadavia =
ARA Rivadavia was an Argentine battleship built during the South American dreadnought race . Named after the first Argentine president , Bernardino Rivadavia , it was the lead ship of its class . Moreno was Rivadavia 's only sister ship .
In 1907 , the Brazilian government placed an order for two of the powerful new " dreadnought " warships as part of a larger naval construction program . Argentina quickly responded , as the Brazilian ships outclassed anything in the Argentine fleet . After an extended bidding process , contracts to design and build Rivadavia and Moreno were given to the American Fore River Shipbuilding Company . During their construction , there were rumors that the ships might be sold to a country engaged in the First World War , but both were commissioned into the Argentine Navy . Rivadavia underwent extensive refits in the United States in 1924 and 1925 . The ship saw no active service during the Second World War , and its last cruise was made in 1946 . Stricken from the naval register in 1957 , Rivadavia was sold later that year and broken up for scrap starting in 1959 .
= = Background = =
Rivadavia 's genesis can be traced to the naval arms races between Chile and Argentina which were spawned by territorial disputes over their mutual borders in Patagonia and Puna de Atacama , along with control of the Beagle Channel . These arms races flared up in the 1890s and again in 1902 ; the latter was eventually stopped through British mediation . Provisions in the dispute @-@ ending treaty imposed restrictions on both countries ' navies . The United Kingdom 's Royal Navy bought the two Constitución @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleships that were being built for Chile , and Argentina sold its two Rivadavia @-@ class armored cruisers under construction in Italy to Japan .
After HMS Dreadnought was commissioned by the United Kingdom , Brazil decided in early 1907 to halt the construction of three obsolescent pre @-@ dreadnoughts and begin work on two dreadnoughts ( the Minas Geraes class ) . These ships , which were designed to carry the heaviest battleship armament in the world at the time , came as a shock to the navies of South America , and Argentina and Chile quickly canceled the 1902 armament @-@ limiting pact . Argentina in particular was alarmed at the possible power of the ships . The Minister of Foreign Affairs , Manuel Augusto Montes de Oca , remarked that even one Minas Geraes @-@ class ship could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets . While this may have been hyperbole , either one was much more powerful than any single vessel in the Argentinian fleet . Debates raged in Argentina over whether to spend more than two million pounds sterling to acquire dreadnoughts . With further border disputes , particularly with Brazil near the Río de la Plata ( River Plate ) , Argentina made plans to contract for their own dreadnoughts . After an extended bidding process , Rivadavia and Moreno were ordered from the Fore River Shipbuilding Company in the United States .
= = Construction and trials = =
Laid down on 25 May 1910 , Rivadavia was launched and christened on 26 August 1911 by Isabel , the wife of the Argentine Minister to the United States Rómulo Sebastián Naón . Thousands of people were present to witness the event , including representatives from the Argentine Navy and the country 's legation in Washington . The United States sent the assistant chief of the Latin American Division in the State Department , Henry L. James , to be its official representative . Two United States Navy bureau chiefs also attended .
In mid @-@ September 1913 , Rivadavia conducted trials off Rockland , Maine , after a two @-@ week delay due to turbine malfunctions . During speed trials on the 16th , the dreadnought was able to obtain a maximum speed of 22 @.@ 567 knots ( 25 @.@ 970 mph ; 41 @.@ 794 km / h ) . On a 30 @-@ hour endurance trial starting the next day , Rivadavia damaged one of its turbines and had to put in at President Roads , one of Boston Harbor 's deep @-@ water anchorages . The turbines were still a problem as late as August 1914 . One was dropped by a crane in July and had to be removed for repairs in August .
= = Attempted sale = =
Over the course of their construction , Rivadavia and Moreno had been the subject of rumors that Argentina would accept the ships and then sell them to Japan , a fast @-@ growing military rival to the United States , or to a European country . The rumors were partially true ; some in the government were looking to get rid of the battleships and devote the proceeds to opening more schools , and The New York Times reported in late 1913 that the country had received several offers from interested parties . This angered the American government , which did not want its warship technology offered to the highest bidder . Neither did they want to exercise a contract @-@ specified option that gave the United States first choice if the Argentines decided to sell , as naval technology had already progressed past the Rivadavia class , particularly in the adoption of the " all @-@ or @-@ nothing " armor scheme . Instead , the United States and its State Department and Navy Department put diplomatic pressure on the Argentine government .
After socialist gains in the legislature , the Argentine government introduced several bills in May 1914 which would have put the battleships up for sale , but they were all defeated by late June . Following the commencement of the First World War , the German and British ambassadors to the United States both complained to the US State Department ; the former believed that the British were going to be given the ships as soon as the ships reached Argentina , and the latter considered it the responsibility of the United States to ensure that the ships never left Argentina 's possession . International armament companies attempted to get Argentina to sell to one of the smaller Balkan countries and expected that the ships would then find their way into the war .
= = Service = =
Rivadavia was commissioned into the Armada de la República Argentina on 27 August 1914 at the Charlestown Navy Yard , although it was not fully completed until December . On 23 December 1914 , Rivadavia left the United States for Argentina . It arrived in its capital , Buenos Aires , on 19 February 1915 . Over 47 @,@ 000 people came out to see the new ship over the next three days , including the President Victorino de la Plaza . In April 1915 , Rivadavia was put into the training division of the Navy , remaining there until 1917 , when the navy transferred the ship into the First Division . In 1917 , Rivadavia sailed to Comodoro Rivadavia when communist oil workers went on strike .
Later in 1917 , the Argentines had to sharply curtail Rivadavia 's activities because of a fuel shortage , but they voyaged to the United States with the Argentine ambassador in 1918 . Rivadavia then took on a load of gold bullion and brought it back to Argentina , docking in Puerto Belgrano on 23 September 1918 . In December 1920 , Rivadavia participated in ceremonies that marked the 400th anniversary of the discovery of the Strait of Magellan . On the 2nd , the ship called on Valparaíso in Chile ; 25 days later , it took part in an international naval review . Two years later , Rivadavia was placed into reserve .
In 1923 , the Navy decided to send Rivadavia to the United States to be modernized . The ship departed on 6 August 1924 and reached Boston on the 30th , where it spent the next two years . Rivadavia was converted to use fuel oil instead of coal and had " a general machinery overhaul " . A new fire @-@ control system was fitted with rangefinders on the fore and aft superfiring turrets , and the aft mast was replaced by a tripod . A funnel cap was installed so that smoke from the funnels did not interfere with accurate rangefinding of enemy ships . The 6 @-@ inch secondary armament was retained , but the smaller 4 @-@ inch guns were taken off in favor of four 3 @-@ inch ( 76 mm ) anti @-@ aircraft guns and four 3 @-@ pounders .
After sailing back to Argentina in March and April 1926 , Rivadavia spent the remainder of the year undergoing sea trials . The dreadnought joined the training division once again in 1927 , but after Rivadavia made four training cruises , the division was disbanded , and the ship remained moored in Puerto Belgrano until 1929 . This began a series of cyclic activity followed by being demoted to the reserve fleet . Although active in both 1929 and 1930 , Rivadavia was placed in reserve on 19 December 1930 . Shortly thereafter , it was restored to active service to serve as the flagship for 1931 fleet exercises . Rivadavia went back into reserve in 1932 before coming back out in January 1933 . It remained in full commission for most of the rest of the decade as part of the Battleship Division , alongside Moreno .
In January 1937 , the ship called on Valparaíso and Callao in Peru . In company with Moreno , Rivadavia left Puerto Belgrano for Europe on 6 April . After crossing the ocean , they split up , with Rivadavia mooring at the French port of Brest while Moreno took part in the British Coronation Review in Spithead . The two ships then journeyed to several German ports : both put in at Wilhelmshaven before Rivadavia went to Hamburg and Moreno to Bremen . They returned to Argentina on 29 June .
While Rivadavia made an official visit to Rio de Janeiro , Brazil , in 1939 , Argentina remained neutral for the majority of the Second World War , and the aging dreadnought saw no active service . Its next cruise came after the war ended ( 29 October to 22 December 1946 ) , when it called on countries in the Caribbean and northern South America , including Trinidad , Venezuela , and Colombia . This was the last time the ship would be in service under its own power . Moored in Puerto Belgrano from 1948 on , the ship was rendered inoperable in 1951 and cannibalized for many years for useful arms and equipment . On 18 October 1956 , the ship was listed for disposal , and it was stricken from the Navy on 1 February 1957 . On 30 May , Rivadavia was sold to an Italian ship breaking company for US $ 2 @,@ 280 @,@ 000 . Beginning on 3 April 1959 , the ship was towed by two tugboats to Savona , Italy , where they arrived on 23 May . It was thereafter broken up in Genoa .
= = Endnotes = =
= Porcelain Black =
Alaina Marie Beaton ( born October 1 , 1985 ) , better known by her stage name Porcelain Black , is an American industrial pop singer @-@ songwriter , rapper , and model . At age eighteen , she embarked on her music career as a solo act under the name Porcelain and the Tramps with Virgin Records . However , Black and Virgin could not agree on the music she would record . The music she recorded was posted to her Myspace account , " rockcitynosebleed " , where she gained millions of hits . After three years of trying to get out of the contract , she signed with RedOne 's Universal Republic imprint , 2101 Records , late in 2009 and began working on her debut album . After many internal problems between the artist and record producer , RedOne , Porcelain Black announced the partnership had come to an end , with anticipation of releasing her debut album in the vein of her Porcelain and the Tramps project in 2015 .
She has appeared in multiple music videos , including Jack White 's " Freedom at 21 " and Travie McCoy 's " We 'll Be Alright " . As a songwriter , she is credited on songs performed by One Direction , Orianthi , The Used and Mexican pop singer Belinda , among others . As a solo act , she has released three singles , " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " , " Naughty Naughty " , and " One Woman Army " , the first featuring guest vocals from Lil Wayne . The first two songs charted on the Billboard Hot Dance Club Songs chart . " One Woman Army " was a top @-@ forty hit in France , Spain , and Wallonia , outselling all of her previous singles in France and becoming her first number @-@ one hit on that country 's iTunes chart .
After the release of her first single , Lil Wayne invited her on the second half of his I Am Music Tour as an opening act . She made her first televised appearance on the Late Show with David Letterman , performing " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " . Musically , she fuses industrial themes with pop music conventions such as electronic synths and a heavy reliance upon hooks . She is best known for her guttural vocals and two @-@ toned hair . She considers her music the " love child " of Marilyn Manson and Britney Spears . Vocally compared to Courtney Love , Porcelain Black was approached to record backing vocals for Love 's 2008 album .
= = Life and career = =
= = = Early life and career beginnings = = =
Having lived on the 8 Mile , in Royal Oak , in Rochester , and in the suburb Sterling Heights , Black grew up in and spent most of her life in various parts of Detroit , Michigan . Her mother is an accountant ; her father was a hairstylist . He owned a hair salon and brought her along to fashion shows and photoshoots . Her parents separated when she was six years old . After her mother remarried , they moved from Royal Oak and settled in Rochester where she attended high school at Bishop Foley Catholic High School . At age fifteen , she was expelled for fighting and attended Rochester High School where she was also expelled , shortly after , for the same reason . Until the age of sixteen , when she was legally able to dropout , she feigned homeschooling . Having lived in less affluent areas prior to the move , Black found that she did not fit in with her privileged classmates , becoming an outcast . Her father died when she was sixteen . Black had taken part in national competitive dancing , taking jazz , hip @-@ hop , tap , and ballet lessons , since she was young , and , at one point , was training to perform on Broadway . She also considered becoming a backup dancer . After being expelled from her last school , Black ran away from home . She started begging , doing drugs , and drinking while crashing at friends ' houses at night . After going on tour with Armor for Sleep , she returned to Detroit and stopped taking drugs .
= = = Porcelain and the Tramps : 2006 – 09 = = =
While on a road trip in New York , Black was approached by her first manager who told her to look for him in Los Angeles when she turned 18 . Eighteen months later , Black moved to Los Angeles , found her manager and was signed to Virgin Records two weeks later . Recording under the pseudonym Porcelain and the Tramps , Black worked with Tommy Henriksen and John Lowery in London while at Virgin . However , she and the label could not agree on the music she made . Virgin wanted Black to record pop music in the vein of Avril Lavigne , despite already knowing what kind of music she made when signing her . She also faced skepticism from her collaborators who questioned her desire to mix industrial rock sounds with dance pop . Black began posting the songs she recorded on Myspace , gaining upwards of 10 million views in a matter of months . Black co @-@ wrote and sang backup vocals for the song " Lunacy Fringe " by The Used . She was approached by Courtney Love on MySpace to provide backing vocals for a solo album she was working on . She also was featured on a song by the Street Drum Corps 's " Action ! " . " How Do You Love Someone ? " , co @-@ penned by Black , Billy Steinberg , and Josh Alexander around the time Black left Virgin , was recorded by Ashley Tisdale for her second album , Guilty Pleasure . Black was initially reluctant to give the song away , but relented and later got to record the song for her own album with production from RedOne .
= = = Mannequin Factory : 2009 – 2014 = = =
Through a mutual A & R friend , producer RedOne heard about Black and was interested in meeting her . RedOne asked to meet Black in his studio in November 2009 , which led to them writing her debut single " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " the next day . RedOne helped Black get out of her contract with Virgin Records and signed her to his Universal Republic imprint , 2101 Records . RedOne also introduced her to a new manager , Derrick " EI " Lawrence , who also manages Lil Wayne . Wayne invited her to join him on his I Am Music Tour after meeting her . She changed her name to Porcelain Black because it caused confusion to people who thought Porcelain and the Tramps was a band . Her stage name came from her childhood nickname , Porcelain , which was due to an extensive collection of porcelain dolls given to her by her aunt . Her aunt thought that the dolls resembled her in appearance , with strawberry blond hair and pale skin . She adopted Black in her name because she felt that it represented the opposite of " fragile " Porcelain . She made plans to revisit the Porcelain and the Tramps project in the future . The songs " King of the World " and " I 'm Your Favorite Drug " were remastered for her debut album . Black co @-@ wrote " Lolita " for Mexican pop singer Belinda . She also made appearances in the music videos for Travie McCoy 's " We 'll Be Alright " , Swizz Beatz 's " Rock ' N ' Roll " and Jeffree Star 's " Get Away With Murder " in 2010 . Black had a cameo role in Rock of Ages with RedOne 's help , playing the lead singer of a 1980s glam metal band . Black sang one of the sole original songs for the film , " Rock Angels " . " Rock Angels " was written by Adam Anders and Desmond Child . Along with RedOne , Black composed " Save You Tonight " , the closing song for One Direction 's debut album , Up All Night .
Black appeared on Oxygen 's Best Ink , where the working title of her debut album was said to be Mannequin Factory . Challengers on the show were tasked with creating cover art for the album in a style that Porcelain Black termed " stripper couture " . The album has experienced numerous setbacks and rescheduled releases , and has not yet been released . Initially , RedOne was said to have produced and co @-@ wrote all but one of the tracks with her . However , Black later recorded songs with other producers after the album 's release date was pushed back . She made her television debut on the Late Show with David Letterman on July 21 , 2011 . After " This is What Rock and Roll Looks Like " , " Naughty Naughty " , the second single from her album , was released at the end of 2011 . " This Is What Rock n ' Roll Looks Like " was a modest hit on Billboard ' s Dance Club chart while the second single peaked at number 6 on the chart . Black featured in the song " DNA " for rapper Rye Rye 's debut album , Go ! Pop ! Bang ! . At some point succeeding the release of her singles , 2102 Records became an imprint of Capitol Records when Universal Republic went under , further delaying the release of any new material by the industrial songstress .
During the summer of 2013 , Porcelain Black performed a private gig in West Hollywood , featuring all new material . Of the songs performed , " Rich Boi " and " Mama Forgive Me " received critical commentary . Several months later , 2101 Records released five songs in five weeks , following 8 August 2013 . " Mama Forgive Me " was the first released . Her long anticipated debut album is expected to be released after the five week promotional period , with two brand new singles preceding it . After " Mama Forgive Me " , Porcelain performed three new songs , whose titles were : " Pretty Little Psycho " , " Rich Boi " , and " One Woman Army " respectively . Popjustice hosted the songs " Rich Boi " and " One Woman Army " as their weekly Big Songs . Peaking at number 14 on the French Singles Chart , " One Woman Army " crowned the iTunes chart after she performed the song on the radio station NRJ and at the Fête de la Musique on the French channel France 2 on 21 June 2014 , becoming her first number @-@ one hit .
Later that year , Black announced through French radio station , Skyrock , that the album had no confirmed title , revealing she had considered the names Black Rainbow and Mannequin Factory , but that those titles might not make it to the album as she had recorded more songs .
Feuds erupted on social media when Porcelain Black 's record label released an updated version of Deadmau5 's " Arcadia " instrumental , featuring Porcelain Black 's vocals . The lyrical version was renamed " Sweeter " . Idolator , a music @-@ reporting website , called the track a " [ ... ] sizzling electronic kiss @-@ off with shady lyrics like " I bet the bitch you 're with in the club is dancing to this right now ! " Sounds like a surefire winner ? " Deadmau5 rejected the collaboration as copyright infringement , referencing a similar event involving one of his songs and pop singer , Neon Hitch , that occurred in 2011 .
= = = Departure from 2101 Records and new album = = =
After many internal conflicts between Porcelain Black and her long @-@ time collaborator , RedOne , the artist announced via social media that plans to release her long @-@ anticipated album were cancelled . Plans to release a new album , in the vein of her previous project , Porcelain and the Tramps , are expected for late 2015 . Music from her new project will feature the same attitude of the singer 's previous works with slower , mid @-@ tempo songs and rapping .
= = Personal life = =
In April 2012 , she married model Bradley Soileau , who has appeared with singer Lana Del Rey in the music videos for " Blue Jeans " , " Born to Die " , and " West Coast " .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Black 's voice has been described as raspy , death growls often appearing in her music . In an interview with The Advocate , Black revealed that she has always had this talent and that it is something she has never practiced . RedOne , the producer who signed her to his label , says that Black 's voice and attitude reminded him of Joan Jett . He concluded that " [ s ] he can scream and do things with her voice that nobody can do . She is uncompromising in pursuing her own creative vision . She 's taking everything that 's old and making it futuristic and bringing rock and roll back in her own way . " Black styled her musical genre " horror @-@ pop " . It has been described as the love child between Marilyn Manson and Britney Spears , a fusion of dance @-@ pop and darker industrial themes . Black cites that Spears inspires her deep love for choreography , while Manson inspires the sound and attitude of her lyrics and performance style .
Recalling the songwriting style she used when she had collaborated with RedOne , Porcelain Black said she would enter the studio with an idea she had come up with on her own at the piano and play it for RedOne . At other times , RedOne would play a beat he had constructed for her , and she would listen to it and see what vibes emerged from hearing it . Usually , Porcelain Black creates a song title , then forges the song around that . She finds the most difficult songwriting process to be starting with melody , because making the syllables of her lyrics match the melody produces an effect that sounds forced and contrived . When working with RedOne , Porcelain Black said they would construct the melodies together , but all of the song lyrics were written exclusively by her ; RedOne did not contribute to her music lyrically while they were working together on her first attempt at a debut album . Lyrically , Porcelain Black writes all of her own songs . On the topic , she has said : " I write all my own stuff . I don 't understand artists that don ’ t write their own songs . I 'm thankful for artists like Britney , but I don ’ t understand how you can ’ t write your own music . It 's such a personal way of expressing yourself . "
= = = Public image = = =
Critics have noted that her sound is more pop than rock , but Black is militant at her rock and roll image , saying " ... I know I 'm rock n roll . " When asked about what it means to be rock and roll , she stated :
Genre @-@ wise , her sound has been called " industrial pop " , a fusion of pop and industrial metal . Her flashy and irreverent image has been compared to the work of many other artists . Often , comparisons are drawn between her and Lady Gaga , but she has also been compared to Joan Jett , Courtney Love , and Nicki Minaj . Black 's two @-@ tone hairstyle and fashion is inspired by both Manson and Spears as well , along with her desire to develop a persona in which a stable duality between " good " and " bad " exists . The former has gained her comparisons to the cartoon character Cruella de Vil . Black disavows the association as completely unfounded , specifically saying , " She 's a [ expletive ] cartoon . Are you serious ? " Black calls her fans " trainwrecks " , alluding to the tattoo on the inside of her middle finger . Malcolm Harris , writing for The Huffington Post , discovered Porcelain Black on the cover of UnSound and reacted to her image :
Following trends in music where women experiment with bisexuality , Black said she was an " equal opportunist " . Thematically , her music has been said to resonate with LGBT and adolescence , gaining her notoriety as a gay icon . On this subject , Black has said :
Popjustice writer Peter Robinson said Porcelain Black was one of pop music 's most confusingly styled artists , attributing the shift from her edgier , rock @-@ inspired look to one resembling Jennifer Lopez as an attempt by her team to make her image more marketable . Despite the appraisal , he critiqued her song " Rich Boi " as being influenced by rock icons , Def Leppard and Steve Miller Band . In another review , Robinson commented on another record called " One Woman Army " from Porcelain Black 's private Hollywood show . Stylistically in vein with Porcelain Black 's pop rock genre hybrid , " One Woman Army " contains rapping , which Robinson said was " completely ridiculous and we love it . " Blogging " What a chorus ! " , he called attention to the chorus , saying " ... haven 't we all at some point in our lives been on a battlefield like ' oh my God ' ? "
= = = Influences = = =
Her biological father 's love for rock music by Led Zeppelin , David Bowie , and Jimi Hendrix also influences her . She has also listed Nine Inch Nails and its frontman , Trent Reznor , Björk , Fiona Apple , Aaliyah , Skinny Puppy , AC / DC , Hole and Oasis as musical influences , citing the albums ( What 's the Story ) Morning Glory ? and Live Through This as the most influential to her current sound . She has also mentioned Janet Jackson as a primary influence , saying " I love everything she does . " The first concert she attended was an AC / DC concert with her father . Recalling the experience , she told Revolver , " ... I was like , when I grow up , this is what I want to do ! "
= = Discography = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = As lead artist = = =
= = = As featured artist = = =
= = = Guest appearances = = =
= = = Videography = = =
= = Filmography = =
= = Tours = =
Opening act
2008 : I Am Music Tour ( Lil Wayne )
= Counseling ( The Office ) =
" Counseling " is the second episode of the seventh season of the American comedy television series The Office and the shows 128th episode overall . It originally aired on NBC on September 30 , 2010 . The episode was written by B. J. Novak and directed by Jeffrey Blitz . " Counseling " guest stars Eric Zuckerman as a store clerk , Vincent Angelo as a vendor , and Michael Schur as Mose Schrute . Evan Peters also appears as Luke Cooper in archival footage from the previous episode .
The series depicts the everyday lives of office employees in the Scranton , Pennsylvania branch of the fictional Dunder Mifflin Paper Company . In the episode , Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is forced to have six hours of counseling with Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) after he physically reprimanded his nephew Luke ( Peters ) , but Michael refuses to make Toby 's job easy . Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) attempts to finagle a promotion to office administrator and Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) boycotts the Steamtown Mall after a shop owner refuses to serve him .
" Counseling " received mostly positive reviews from television critics . The episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 36 million viewers and received a 3 @.@ 7 rating among adults between the age of 18 and 49 , marking a significant drop in the ratings when compared to the previous week . Despite this , the episode was the highest @-@ rated NBC series of the night that it aired , as well as the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports NBC broadcast for the week it aired .
= = Plot = =
Michael Scott ( Steve Carell ) is assigned six hours of counseling with Toby Flenderson ( Paul Lieberstein ) after he physically reprimanded his nephew Luke ( Evan Peters ) , but Michael refuses to speak to Toby . One hour into their session , Toby tells Michael that he will not fill in the official assessment form unless Michael talks to him , so Michael begins telling ridiculous stories . Toby then tries the common counseling method of playing games with the client to get them to open up more . The method works , and Michael opens up to Toby about his personal history and relationships with people ( he mentions seeing a baseball game with his stepfather where he was told that the team 's manager deserved respect and how he never forgot that ) , and Toby makes an important discovery that Michael needs to be liked . Michael realizes what is happening , gets angry at Toby , and denigrates his counseling ability . Toby gives up and gives Michael the official form , allowing him to fill it out however he wants . In his haste , Michael accidentally checks off on the form that he is severely depressed and homicidal . Gabe contacts Toby , confused by his extreme assessment of Michael . Although Michael initially blames Toby for the mishap , he turns his ire to Gabe Lewis ( Zach Woods ) , even making Toby laugh . Michael openly offers to return to the break room with Toby and " bang this out " . At the end of the episode , they are both talking and drawing pictures .
Meanwhile , Pam Halpert ( Jenna Fischer ) realizes that although she has her dream job of salesman , that she just might not be cut out for it after all since she makes few sales and very little money . A chance visit from a vendor gives her an idea to finagle a promotion to office administrator , hopefully for some added income . She informs Gabe of her promotion " from a few months back " and tells him she has not been paid accordingly , to which Gabe promises her he will get the missing wages if she can get all of the department heads to sign off on it . While she is busy convincing everyone that she has become the new administrator , Gabe catches on that she might be lying , and confronts her about it . Using a strategy she learned from watching poker , she stands her ground against Gabe and becomes de facto office administrator .
Dwight Schrute ( Rainn Wilson ) has decided to boycott the Steamtown Mall after a shop owner refuses to serve him , going so far as to cancel orders to businesses there . Jim Halpert ( John Krasinski ) and the rest of the office convince Dwight to get revenge on the shop owner by making Dwight appear to be high @-@ class , and then having him refuse to buy from the shop , a scheme the office references from the movie Pretty Woman . Using tips from the rest of the office to make himself appear more sophisticated , Dwight , with Jim and Andy Bernard ( Ed Helms ) , return to the shop . To their surprise , the shop owner immediately recognizes Dwight even in his new attire , and explains that they did not serve him before because they were intimidated by his blood @-@ soaked hands ( actually beet juice ) . Dwight , somewhat flustered from the truth of the situation being revealed to him , stumbles over his words before finally saying the line he had came all the way there to say , " You made a big mistake . Huge ! " , while waving his shopping bags . The group leaves somewhat embarrassed , but not before Dwight buys what he came for : a pewter wizard statuette holding a crystal ball .
= = Production = =
" Counseling " was written by B. J. Novak , a producer and screenwriter for the series who also portrays the character of Ryan Howard on the show . The entry was directed by Jeffrey Blitz , who had also directed the previous episode " Nepotism " . " Counseling " features Eric Zuckerman , Vincent Angelo and Michael Schur in guest appearances as a store teller , a vendor , and Mose Schrute , respectively . Evan Peters also appears as Luke Cooper in archival footage from the previous episode . With the seventh season of The Office being Carell 's last , the writers decided to divide the season into two distinct halves ; the first half would " celebrate Carell 's finale year and highlight different actors on the show " , whereas the second half would focus on his departure and the search for a new manager . As such , " Counseling " was one of the first episode of the season to specifically highlight other characters , in this case Lieberstein 's character , Toby .
The Season Seven DVD contains a number of deleted scenes from this episode . Notable cut scenes include Stanley discussing boycotting Kellogs , Dwight putting on his fancy clothing , Dwight getting his pipe from Creed , Kevin giving Dwight a tissue , extended footage of Michael 's counseling session , Michael discussing dogs , and extended footage of Dwight in the mall .
= = Cultural references = =
At Dwight 's daycare , a poster for the American hip hop duo Insane Clown Posse is hung on the wall ; however , Dwight has scribbled out the words " Insane " and " Posse " to make it fit into the daycare . In the episode , Dwight 's subplot is inspired by as Julia Roberts 's character did in the film Pretty Woman . Dwight even attempts to use Roberts 's line , " Big mistake " , but instead renders it as " You made a big mistake . Huge ! " During Michael 's counseling session , he sardonically tells Toby that he was probed by ALF , the alien star of the eponymous television series . Michael and Toby later pass the time playing Connect Four . Darryl notes to Pam that he saw a TLC show about Kate Walsh 's home office , and he wants one similar .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast , " Counseling " was viewed by an estimated 7 @.@ 36 million viewers with a 3 @.@ 7 rating / 10 % share among adults between the ages of 18 and 49 . This means that it was seen by 3 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 10 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . This marked a decrease in a million viewers and a 14 percent decrease in the 18 – 49 demographic from the previous episode . The episode became the highest @-@ rated non @-@ sports related NBC program for the original week it aired and also became the twenty @-@ first most @-@ watched show for the week of broadcast among adults aged 18 – 49 .
Joel Keller of AOLTV called it a " vast improvement " from the previous episode " Nepotism " , because he felt that " everyone at Dunder @-@ Mifflin [ sic ] Scranton acted like themselves " . Keller called Toby and Michael 's counseling session " great " and enjoyed the way Toby was able to trick Michael . Kelly Gerlach of TV Equals enjoyed the episode and noted that it " felt like the earlier seasons " because " there wasn ’ t forced humor , nothing made me cringe in my seat because of bad writing , and the awkward situations were written specifically to be awkward . " In the end , she called the episode " decent " .
Alan Sepinwall of HitFix felt that the main story employed " one of the show 's most reliable running jokes " . Furthermore , he felt that Michael softening to Toby was an interesting element to the episode , and he wondered if " this was a one @-@ time thing , or if Michael 's treatment of Toby will be softened , even a little . " Sepinwall also felt that Pam 's story was the stronger of the two subplots , and felt that an office controlled by her would be interesting . Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic awarded the episode four out of five stars and called it " pleasant " . While he noted that each of the three stories " weren 't flat out funny " , he wrote that they were all " enjoyable " . Furthermore , he positively commented on the main plot , noting that the Michael and Toby rivalry was fun .
Not all reviews were positive . Myles McNutt of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " grade . While he enjoyed the main storyline revolving around Michael and Toby and felt that it " came together both comically and dramatically at the end of the day " , he felt the rest of the episode was " quite uneven " with elements that were " ridiculous " , such as how Pam attained her new job . McNutt 's largest complaint with the remainder of the episode was that neither ended in " a logical place " ; he felt Dwight 's plot featured a disconnect from the character , and that Pam 's story was " lazy " .
= Persecution of Zoroastrians =
Persecution of Zoroastrians is the religious persecution inflicted upon the followers of the Zoroastrian faith . The persecution of Zoroastrians occurred throughout its history . The discrimination and harassment began in the form of sparse violence and forced conversions . Muslims are recorded to have destroyed fire temples . Zoroastrians living under Muslim rule were required to pay a tax called Jizya .
Zoroastrian places of worship were desecrated , shrines were destroyed and mosques built in their place . Many libraries were burned and much cultural heritage was lost . Gradually there were increased number of laws regulating Zoroastrian behavior , limiting their ability to participate in society . Over time , persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread , and the number of believers decreased significantly .
Many converted , some superficially , to escape the systematic abuse and discrimination by the law of the land . Once a Zoroastrian family converted to Islam , the children had to go to an Islamic school and learn Arabic and the teachings of the Quran and these children lost their Zoroastrian identity , although under the Samanids , who were Zoroastrian converts to Islam , the Persian language flourished . On occasion , the Zoroastrian clergy assisted Muslims against those who they deemed Zoroastrian heretics .
At other times , Zoroastrians persecuted other Zoroastrians , in what were deemed heretical Zoroastrian sects . According to Hinnells , persecution is pivotal to Zoroastrians ' sense of identity , and as the Jewish communities cannot be understood without an appreciation of the reality of anti @-@ Semitism , so too the Zoroastrian experience of exclusion must be taken into account .
= = Persecution of Zoroastrians by Muslims = =
= = = Islamic conquest = = =
Until the Arab invasion and subsequent Muslim conquest , in the mid 7th century Persia ( modern @-@ day Iran ) was a politically independent state , spanning from the Aegean Sea to the Indus River and dominated by a Zoroastrian majority . Zoroastrianism was the official state religion of four pre @-@ Islamic Persian empires , the last being the Sassanian empire that passed a decree solidifying this in 224 CE . The Arab invasion abruptly brought to an end the religious domination of Zoroastrianism in Persia and instituted Islam as the official religion of the state .
After the Muslim conquest of Persia , Zoroastrians were given dhimmi status and subjected to persecutions ; discrimination and harassment began in the form of sparse violence . Those paying Jizya were subjected to insults and humiliation by the tax collectors . Zoroastrians who were captured as slaves in wars were given their freedom if they converted to Islam .
Many fire temples , with their four axial arch openings , were usually turned into mosques simply by setting a mihrab ( prayer niche ) on the place of the arch nearest to qibla ( the direction of Mecca ) . Zoroastrian temples converted into mosques in such a manner could be found in Bukhara , as well as in and near Istakhr and other Persian cities . Urban cities where Arab governors made their quarters were most vulnerable to such religious persecution , great fire temples were turned into mosques , and the citizens were forced to conform or flee . Many libraries were burnt and much cultural heritage was lost .
Gradually there were increased number of laws regulating Zoroastrian behavior , limiting their ability to participate in society , and made life difficult for the Zoroastrians in the hope that they would convert to Islam . Over time , persecution of Zoroastrians became more common and widespread , and the number of believers decreased significantly . Many converted , some superficially , to escape the systematic abuse and discrimination by the law of the land . Others accepted Islam because their employment in industrial and artisan work would , according to Zoroastrian dogma , make them impure as their work involved defiling fire . According to Thomas Walker Arnold , Muslim missionaries did not encounter difficulty in explaining Islamic tenants to Zoroastrians , as there were many similarities between the faiths . According to Arnold , for the Persian , he would meet Ahura Mazda and Ahriman under the names of Allah and Iblis .
Once a Zoroastrian family converted to Islam , the children had to go to Muslim religion school and learn Arabic and the teachings of the Quran and these children lost their Zoroastrian identity . These factors continued to contribute to increasing rates of conversion from Zoroastrianism to Islam . A Persian scholar commented , “ Why so many had to die or suffer ? Because one side was determined to impose his religion upon the other who could not understand . "
= = = 642 CE to 10th Century = = =
In the 7th century CE Persia succumbed to the invading Arabs . With the death of Yazdegerd III , who was treacherously slain in that year after being defeated in battle , the Sasanid line came to an end and the Zoroastrian faith , which had been the state religion for more than a thousand years , was deposed , and Islam took its place as the national religion of Persia .
In the following centuries , Zoroastrians faced much religious discrimination and persecution , harassments , as well as being identified as najis ( polluted ) and impure to Muslims , making them unfit to live alongside Muslims , and therefore forcing them to evacuate from cities and face major sanctions in all spheres of life . Zoroastrians have been subject to public humiliation through dress regulations , to being labeled as najis and to exclusion in the fields of society , education and work .
= = = = Rashidun Caliphs ( 642 – 661 CE ) = = = =
Under the first four Caliphs , Persia remained predominantly Zoroastrian . Zoroastrians were awarded the status of People of the Book or dhimmi status by the Caliph Umar , although some practices contrary to Islam were prohibited .
When the Persian capital of Ctesiphon in province of Khvârvarân ( today known as Iraq ) fell to the Muslims during the Islamic conquest of Persia in 637 under the military command of Sa 'ad ibn Abi Waqqas during the caliphate of Umar , the palaces and their archives were burned . According to an account in Tarikh al @-@ Tabari by Al @-@ Tabari , the Arab Commander Sa 'ad ibn Abi Waqqas wrote to Caliph Umar ibn al @-@ Khatta @-@ b asking what should be done with the books at Ctesiphon . Umar wrote back : " If the books contradict the Qur 'an , they are blasphemous . On the other hand , if they are in agreement , they are not needed , as for us Qur 'an is sufficient . " Thus , the huge library was destroyed and the books , the product of the generations of Persian scientists and scholars were thrown into fire or the Euphrates . Nearly 40 @,@ 000 captured Persian noblemen were taken as slaves and sold in Arabia . The Arabs called the Persians ' Ajam ' meaning foreign . The first voice of protest came from Piruz Nahavandi , an enslaved Persian artisan , who assassinated Umar . When the city of Estakhr in the south , a Zoroastrian religious center , put up stiff resistance against the Arab invaders , 40 @,@ 000 residents were slaughtered or hanged .
= = = = The Umayyads ( 661 – 750 CE ) = = = =
The Umayyads who ruled from Syria followed the Caliphs . The persecution increased in the 8th century , during the reign of the late Umayyad Caliphs , whose dynastic predecessors had conquered most of the last Zoroastrian state by 652 . Jizya tax was imposed upon Zoroastrians , and the official language of Persia became Arabic instead of the local Persian . In 741 , the Umayyads officially decreed that non @-@ Muslims be excluded from governmental positions .
The Iranian Muslims at this time started a new tradition , which made Islam appear as a partly Iranian religion . They pointed out that an Iranian , Salaman @-@ I @-@ Farsi had a great influence on Muhammad , the prophet . Another myth was created that Husayn , the son of the fourth Caliph had married a Sassanian princess , named Shahr @-@ Banu , the Lady of the Land , whose son became the fourth Muslim Imam ( and started the Shia branch of Islam ) . The Iranian Muslims thus believed that Shia Islam was derived from Sassanian Royalty . These two beliefs made it easier for Zoroastrians to convert . An instance of religious oppression is recorded when an Arab governor appointed a commissioner to supervise the destruction of shrines throughout Iran , regardless of treaty obligations . One of the Umayyad Caliphs was quoted saying , " milk the Persians and once their milk dries , suck their blood " .
Yazid @-@ ibn @-@ Mohalleb , a general under the Umayyads , was appointed the head of a great army to lead the Mazandaran expedition . On the way to Mazandaran , the general ordered captives to be hanged at the two sides of the road so that the victorious Arab army pass through . The attack on Tabarestan ( present @-@ day Mazandaran ) failed , but he established his control in Gorgan . By the orders of Yazid @-@ ibn @-@ Mohalleb so many Persians were beheaded in Gorgan that their blood mixed with water would energize the millstone to produce as much as one day meal for him , as he had vowed . Extent of his brutality represented itself by running watermills by people 's blood for three days and he fed his army with the bread made from that very bloody flour . But , Tabarestan remained invincible until the majority of Zoroastrians migrated towards India and the rest converted to Islam gradually .
= = = = The Abbasids ( 752 – 804 CE ) = = = =
The Umayyads were followed by the Abbasid dynasty which came to power with the help of Iranian Muslims . The persecution of Zoroastrians increased significantly under the Abbasids , temples and sacred @-@ fire shrines were destroyed . Also during Abbasid rule , the status of Zoroastrians in Persian lands was reduced from zimmi ( or dhimmi , people who were protected by the state and generally considered ' People of the Book ' ) to ' kafirs ' ( non @-@ believers ) . As a result , Zoroastrians were not granted the same rights and status as Jews and Christians . Iranian Muslims were welcomed to the court , but not Zoroastrians . Zoroastrians were denied access to bathhouses on the grounds that their bodies were polluted .
Hardly any Zoroastrian family was able to avoid conversion to Islam when employed by the Abbasids . Because of their harshness towards unbelievers , and due to their lavish patronage of Persian Muslims , the Abbasids proved to be deadly foes of Zoroastrianism . According to Dawlatshah , Abdollah @-@ ibn @-@ Tahir , an Arabicized Persian , and governor of Khorasan for the Abbasid caliphs , banned publication in Persian and by his order all the Zoroastrians were forced to bring their religious books to be thrown in the fire . As a result , many literary works written in Pahlavi script disappeared . During the Abbasid reign the Zoroastrians , for the first time became a minority in Iran . Nevertheless , there were instances of toleration during the Abbasid era , particularly under the reign of Al @-@ Mu 'tasim who flogged an imam and muezzin for destroying a fire @-@ temple and replacing it with a mosque .
= = = = The Saffarids ( 869 – 903 CE ) = = = =
The Abbasids were followed by the Saffarids . Zoroastrians lived under the leadership of their High Priest , since they had no king . In Iraq , the political center of the Sassanian state , Zoroastrian institutions were viewed as appendages of the royal government and family , and suffered much destruction and confiscation . Closely associated with the power structures of the Persian Empire , Zoroastrian clergy quickly declined after it was deprived of the state support .
= = = = The Samanids ( 819 – 999 CE ) = = = =
The Samanids were of Zoroastrian theocratic nobility who voluntarily converted to Sunni Islam . During their reign , approximately 300 years after the Arab conquest , fire temples were still found in almost every province of Persia including Khorasan , Kirman , Sijistan and other areas under Samanid control . According to Al @-@ Shahrastani , there were fire @-@ temples even in Baghdad at the time . The historian Al @-@ Masudi , a Baghdad @-@ born Arab , who wrote a comprehensive treatise on history and geography in about 956 , records that after the conquest :
Zorastrianism , for the time being , continued to exist in many parts of Iran . Not only in countries which came relatively late under Muslim sway ( e.g Tabaristan ) but also in those regions which early had become provinces of the Muslim empire . In almost all the Iranian provinces , according to Al Masudi , fire temples were to be found – the Madjus he says , venerate many fire temples in Iraq , Fars , Kirman , Sistan , Khurasan , Tabaristan , al Djibal , Azerbaijan and Arran .
He also added Sindh and Sin of the Indian subcontinent ( Al @-@ Hind ) to the list . This general statement of al Masudi is fully supported by the medieval geographers who make mention of fire temples in most of the Iranian towns .
= = = 10th to 20th century = = =
= = = = Migration to India = = = =
At the beginning of the 10th century a small group of Zoroastrians living around the town of Nyshapour and Fort of Sanjan in the province of ( greater ) Khorasan , decided that Iran was no longer safe for Zoroastrians and their religion , and decided to emigrate to India . They traveled to the island of Hormazd in the Persian Gulf , and after three years ' preparation set sail for India . They landed on Diu Island of the coast of Gujarat in the year 936 CE . There they lived for about 20 years in great difficulty . They learned the local language and presented their case to Jadi Rana , the Hindu king of that region .
Jadi Rana in return for some promises of behavior , allowed them to settle in his kingdom . The refugees accepted the conditions and founded the settlement of Sanjan ( Gujarat ) , which is said to have been named after the city of their origin ( Sanjan , near Merv , in present @-@ day Turkmenistan ) , that they had left behind in Iran nearly 30 years earlier . They consecrated their first Atash Behram fire within five years of coming to Sanjan ( Gujarat ) .
This attracted other Zoroastrians from Iran and also some Zoroastrians who had individually come over the years and settled in various parts of western India . This first group was followed by a second group , also from Greater Khorasan , within five years of the first , and this time having religious implements with them ( the alat ) . In addition to these Khorasanis or Kohistanis – mountain folk , as the two initial groups are said to have been initially called – at least one other group is said to have come overland from Sari ( in present @-@ day Mazandaran , Iran ) . After that , there were several smaller migrations from different parts of Iran into the same region of India , with each wave bringing with them their own ways of performance of Zoroastrian ceremonies and rituals .
This was the start of the Parsis in India . They have since lived in peace with the Hindus and their relationship with Hindus is full of accord and amity . The community still exists in western India , and it currently contains the largest concentration of Zoroastrians in the world . " Parsi legends regarding their ancestors ' migration to India depict a beleaguered band of religious refugees escaping the harsh rule of fanatical Muslim invaders in order to preserve their ancient faith . " The epic poem Qissa @-@ i @-@ Sanjan ( Story of Sanjan ) is an account of the early years of Zoroastrian settlers on the Indian subcontinent . It is only in recent times that Parsis have become aware of the extent of the oppression that their ancestors in Iran had to endure .
= = = = The Safavids ( 1502 – 1747 CE ) = = = =
Zoroastrians had difficult time during the Safavid period and faced repeated persecution and forced conversion . Safavid kings sought to compel them to accept Shia Islam , Sunnis too were forced to convert to Shia or were killed . Zoroastrians were also branded as impure , in addition to being infidels . As earlier in the century , so this period also witnessed sporadic campaigns for the conversion of Armenians and Zoroastrians , focusing blame for economic and other ills on these and other minorities whose involvement in the spice export , for example , was well known .
In the early 16th century the great Safavid king , Shah Abbas I settled a number of Zoroastrians in a suburb of his new capital , Isfahan . The suburb of Isfahan where the Zoroastrians lived was called Gabr @-@ Mahal , Gabristan or Gabrabad , derived from the word Gabr . Europeans who visited his court left accounts of the ' Gabars ' or ' Gabrs ' , ( an insulting term used for Zoroastrians by the Muslims ) , agree on the poverty and simplicity of their lives . Fearing desecration by Muslims , Zoroastrians hid the sacred fires , and conversed in a newly invented dialect called Dari . Later Safavid kings were not as tolerant as Shah Abbas . Muhammad Baqir Majlisi persuaded Sultan Husayn ( 1688 – 1728 CE ) to decree the forcible conversion of Zoroastrians , those who refused were killed .
The accounts in Mino Khirad , written during the Savafid period , demonstrate that the Zoroastrians were subjected to harassment by the Shi 'ite majority , their places of worship were under a constant threat of being destroyed . By 1707 , when Le Bruyn visited Isfahan , the Zoroastrians were no longer able practice their religion freely . He notes that the most deprived Zoroastrians had been brought to Isfahan , and had been forced to become Muslim three years earlier . In 1821 , Ker Porter visiting Isfahan notes that there were hardly any Zoroastrians left in Isfahan and Gabrabad was in ruins .
= = = = Qajar Dynasty ( 1796 – 1925 CE ) = = = =
A Zoroastrian astrologer named Mulla Gushtasp predicted the fall of the Zand dynasty to the Qajar army in Kerman . Because of Gushtasp 's forecast , the Zoroastrians of Kerman were spared by the conquering army of Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar . Despite the aforementioned favorable incident , the Zoroastrians during the Qajar dynasty remained in agony and their population continued to decline . Even during the rule of Agha Mohammad Khan , the founder of the dynasty , many Zoroastrians were killed and some were taken as captives to Azerbaijan . Zoroastrians regard the Qajar period as one of their worst .
Many foreign visitors to Iran of the time had commented on their pitiful situation . Traveller A.V.W. Jackson noted that Zoroastrians lived in constant fear of persecution by Muslim extremists and their lives were in danger whenever the fanatical spirit of Islam broke out , such as the one witnessed by him in Yazd . According to Edward Browne , the wall of Zoroastrian houses had to be lower than that of the Muslims and prohibited from marking their houses with distinctive signs . Zoroastrians were forbidden from erecting new houses and repairing old ones .
Various methods were used to proselytize the minorities . According to a law , if any member of family converted to Islam , he / she was entitled to all inheritance . They were forbidden from taking up lucrative occupations . The community was regarded as outcast , impure and untouchable . The Zoroastrians and their food was considered impure and many public places refused to serve them . When they shopped in the bazaar , they were not allowed to touch any food or fruits . They were threatened with forced conversions , beaten up and fleeced , and their religious sanctuaries were regularly desecrated . Harassments and persecution were the norms of daily life . Zoroastrians were often attacked and beaten by Muslims in the streets . The murders of Zoroastrians were not punished . At times , Zoroastrian girls were kidnapped and forcefully converted and married to Muslims and brought to town in fanfare .
Zoroastrians were subjected to public discrimination through dress regulations – not allowed to wear new or white clothes , and compelled by enactments to wear the dull yellow raiment already alluded to as a distinguishing badge . They were not allowed to wear overcoats but were compelled to wear long robes called qaba and cotton geeveh on their feet even in winter . Wearing eyeglasses , long cloak , trousers , hat , boots , socks , winding their turbans tightly and neatly , carrying watch or a ring , were all forbidden to Zoroastrians . During the rainy days they were not allowed carry umbrellas or to appear in public , because the water that had run down through their bodies and cloths could pollute the Muslims . Zoroastrian men in Yazd would carry a large shawl that they would place under their feet when visiting a Muslim 's home so as to prevent the carpet from being polluted . Forbidden from riding horses and only allowed to ride mules or donkeys , upon facing a Muslim they had to dismount . Not until 1923 , was the general proscription against Zoroastrians ' riding horses and donkeys lifted by Reza Shah .
On top of all the misery the Zoroastrians had to pay a heavy religious tax known as Jizya . Zoroastrian sources record the method of extracting this as designed to humiliate the dhimmi , the taxed person , who was compelled to stand while the officer receiving the money sat on a high throne . Upon receiving the payment , the officer gave the dhimmi a blow on the neck and drove him roughly away . The public was invited to watch the spectacle . Arab tax collectors would mock Zoroastrians for wearing Kushti and would rip it off , hanging the cord around the necks of the beleaguered faithful . Due to corruption of the tax officials , at times twice and even three times the official figure would be collected , because every intermediary had to receive his share . If the families could not afford paying the Jizya , their children were beaten and even tortured and their religious books were thrown in fire . That is how the term “ the bookless ” came about . Under the woeful conditions , some had to convert and there were those who declared themselves Muslims , picked up Islamic names , but in secret continued Zoroastrian practices . Today the latter group among the Zoroastrians is known as Jaddid . In response to persecution and segregation policies , the Zoroastrians community became closed , introverted , and static .
Zoroastrian massacres did not cease during the Qajar rule . The last two are recorded at the villages surrounding the city of Boarzjan and Turkabad near Yazd . Today , the village of Maul Seyyed Aul near Borazjan , among the local people is known as “ killing site ” ( Ghatl @-@ Gauh ) , and Zoroastrian surnames of Turk , Turki , Turkian and Turkabadi reflect lineage to the survivors of Turkabad . In the 1850s , Comte de Gobineau , the French Ambassador to Iran wrote : " Only 6000 of them are left and just a miracle may save them from extinction . These are the descendants of the people who one day ruled the world . "
Due to the extent of oppression , and destitution , many Zoroastrians ventured to the hazardous journey to India . Those who could not afford the voyage aboard the ships , risked their lives by crossing the hostile desert on donkeys or even on foot . In India , they were recognized for Sedreh and Kushti and were sheltered by their Parsi brethren . There , they formed the second major Indian Zoroastrian community known as the Iranis .
= = = = Emissaries to Iran = = = =
When the news of their plight reached the Parsis , who by this time had become quite prosperous , Parsi funds were set up to help the Iranian Zoroastrians and emissaries were dispatched to Iran . A Parsi philanthropist , Maneckji Limji Hataria , was sent to help them . He found only 7711 Zoroastrians in Kerman , Yazd and Tehran ( now the capital of Iran ) . Using his influence with the British government he managed to get some of the repression against Zoroastrians removed . Jizya was paid by the Zoroastrian minority until 1882 , when it was removed by pressure on the Qajar government from the Persian Zoroastrian Amelioration Fund .
= = = = Islamic Republic of Iran ( 1979 @-@ Present CE ) = = = =
The 1979 Islamic Revolution was equally traumatic for the remaining Zoroastrians , and their numbers reduced drastically . Immediately after the revolution , during Bazargan 's premiership , Muslim revolutionaries " walked into the main Zoroastrian fire temple in Tehran and removed the portrait of the Prophet Zoroaster and replaced it with one of [ Ayatollah ] Khomeini " .
Iran is regarded by the United Nations and other non @-@ governmental organizations as among the world 's worst offenders against freedom of religion — alongside Saudi Arabia and Sudan . Members of religious minorities are , by law and practice , barred from being elected to a representative body ( except to the seats in the Majles reserved for minorities , as provided for in the Constitution ) and from holding senior government or military positions . They also suffer discrimination in the legal system , receiving lower awards in injury and death lawsuits , and incurring heavier punishments , than Muslims . Muslim men are free to marry non @-@ Muslim women but marriages between Muslim women and non @-@ Muslim men are not recognized .
= = Persecution of minority Zoroastrian groups by other Zoroastrians = =
Mazdakism was viewed by the Zoroastrian hierarchy as a heresy and consequently persecuted by Zoroastrian Sassanian leaders . The Sassanian ruler Khosrau I launched a campaign against the Mazdakis in 524 or 528 , culminating in a massacre killing most of the adherents , including Mazdak himself and restored orthodox Zoroastrianism as state religion .
Various accounts specify the way of death : e.g. the Shahnameh states that the three thousand Mazdakis were buried alive with the feet upwards in order to present Mazdak with the spectacle of a " human garden " , whereas Mazdak himself was hanged upside down and shot with countless arrows ; other stories specify other torturous methods of execution . In any case , Anushiravan then proceeded to implement his own far @-@ reaching social and administrative reforms . Mazdakism almost disappeared after the massacre . Later , there were instances in which Zoroastrian clergy were assisted by Muslims against Zoroastrians whom the Zoroastrian clergy considered to be heretics or separatists .
= = Persecution of Zoroastrians by Christians = =
According to Mary Boyce , Zoroastrians living under Christian rule in Asia Minor were noted to have undergone hardship , notably during the long conflict between the Roman Empire and Persia . Christians living in Sassanian @-@ held territory were noted to have destroyed many fire @-@ temples and Zoroastrian places of worship . Christian priests deliberately extinguished the sacred fire of the Zoroastrians and characterized adherents as " followers of the wicked Zardusht ( Zoroaster ) , serving false gods and the natural elements . "
= Hitmixes =
Hitmixes is the second extended play ( EP ) by American recording artist Lady Gaga , released on August 25 , 2009 . Featuring remixes of songs from Gaga 's debut album , The Fame ( 2008 ) , the album was only released in Canada , by Universal Music Canada . Hitmixes features mixes from various musicians , including RedOne and Space Cowboy , who previously worked with Gaga . The EP hosts 1980s @-@ influenced and house remixes . Hitmixes received positive reviews from the Calgary Herald and Blare Magazine , and peaked at number eight on the Canadian Albums Chart .
= = Background and composition = =
Lady Gaga released her debut album , The Fame , on August 19 , 2008 ; It spawned five singles : " Just Dance " , " Poker Face " , " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " , " LoveGame " and " Paparazzi " . " Eh , Eh " was not released in North America , and was not remixed for Hitmixes . The other four singles all reached the top three of the Canadian Hot 100 . The album 's title track , " The Fame " , was also remixed and included on the EP . Gaga 's main producer , RedOne , produced a remix of " Just Dance " for the record ; other producers were Robots to Mars , Chew Fu , Space Cowboy , Moto Blanco and Guéna LG . Hitmixes was released as a compact disc on August 25 , 2009 in Canada only by Universal Music Canada . Moto Blanco 's " Paparazzi " remix and the Glam as You remix of " The Fame " have 1980s influences , while the " LoveGame " Chew Fu Ghettohouse Fix and Space Cowboy 's mix of " Poker Face " feature house styles , including incorporation of trance music and synthesizers . Rock singer Marilyn Manson and rapper Kardinal Offishall contribute additional vocals to the EP as featured artists .
= = Reception = =
Due to its Canada @-@ only release , Hitmixes did not receive many professional reviews , however , in its review , the Calgary Herald stated that several tracks were " artfully and decadently remixed " . Dan Rankin of Blare Magazine gave the EP three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , saying that the mixes showed " varying degrees of success " . Rankin especially praised Kardinal Offishall 's vocals on the RedOne remix of " Just Dance " and singled it and the " LoveGame " Chew Fu Ghettohouse Fix as the best tracks on the album . Hitmixes debuted and peaked on the Canadian Albums Chart at number eight , on the issue dated September 12 , 2009 . The next week it fell to number sixteen , and spent its third and final week on the chart at number twenty @-@ two .
= = Track listing = =
Notes
Track listing and credits from album booklet .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Hitmixes , adapted from Allmusic :
= Maria Ulfah Santoso =
Meester Hajjah Maria Ulfah Soebadio Sastrosatomo ( 18 August 1911 – 15 April 1988 ) , better known by her first married name Maria Ulfah Santoso , was an Indonesian women 's rights activist and politician . She was the first Indonesian woman to receive a degree in law as well as the first female Indonesian cabinet member .
Santoso , the daughter of a politician , became interested in women 's rights after seeing numerous injustices in her youth . Despite pressure to become a doctor , she graduated with a degree in law from Leiden University in 1933 ; while in the Netherlands she also became involved in the Indonesian nationalist movement , Upon returning to the Dutch East Indies , Santoso began teaching and working towards marriage reform . She was a member of the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence , and later became the social minister from 12 March 1946 to 26 June 1947 . After her term , she continued to work with the government in various capacities .
Chosen for the cabinet post in part for her emancipatory activities , Santoso paved the way for other female cabinet members , including S. K. Trimurti in 1947 . She received several awards from the Indonesian government for her activities .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and activism = = =
Santoso was born in Serang , Banten , Dutch East Indies , on 18 August 1911 to R.A.A. Mohammad Achmad and his wife R.A. Hadidjah Djajadiningrat . The youngest of three children , Santoso spent her childhood in Kuningan , where her father served as regent . One day , an ill aunt came over looking for help . However , upon receiving a letter from her husband , the aunt returned home and died not long after . Santoso later described this incident as inspiring her to work for women 's rights .
While Santoso was still in elementary school , her father sent her to Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) to live with a Dutch family at Willemslaan Elementary School ; while in Batavia she completed her middle schooling at Koning Willem III Middle School . While in Batavia , Santoso observed further women 's issues , such as how women were devastated when their husbands took second wives or divorced them without cause . Despite her father wanting her to be a doctor , Santoso insisted on going into law .
Santoso went to The Hague , in the Netherlands , in 1929 with her father , who was furthering his studies . Santoso then enrolled at Leiden University in Leiden , from which she graduated in 1933 with a Meester in de Rechten ( Master of Laws ) degree ; this made her the first Indonesian woman to earn a law degree . During her studies , she became involved with the Indonesian nationalist movement and its leaders , including Mohammad Hatta and Sutan Sjahrir .
In 1934 , Santoso returned to Batavia and took a teaching job at the Muhammadiyah @-@ run teacher 's college there , refusing a position in the colonial government to do so . While teaching , she continued to be active in the nationalist movement , helping Adam Malik to establish the news agency Antara . On February 1938 she married R. Santoso Wirodihardjo . That same year , she led a congress dealing with marriage reform , to better protect the rights of women ; the reforms passed in 1941 . Santoso also worked to promote women 's literacy through sewing groups ; women who came to study sewing would be invited to learn to read and about marriage rights and child @-@ rearing .
= = = Government work = = =
After the Japanese occupied Indonesia in 1942 , Santoso left her work as a teacher and found employment as legal assistant to Soepomo , who later became the country 's first minister of justice . In 1945 , with the Japanese preparing to withdraw from the Indies and the proclamation of independence looming , Santoso became a member of the Committee for Preparatory Work for Indonesian Independence . On 12 March 1946 , Santoso became the first ever female cabinet member when she was selected as services minister in the Second Sjahrir Cabinet . Working quickly and efficiently , she found herself organising the return of internees from Japanese @-@ run camps . She was kept on through the Third Sjahrir Cabinet , but when it dissolved on 26 June 1947 , Santoso refused another term as social minister . She instead chose to work as head of prime minister Amir Sjarifuddin 's secretariat . She kept this position into the First Hatta Cabinet . During Operation Kraai , a Dutch @-@ led offensive on the city of Yogyakarta on 19 December 1948 , her husband was killed outside Maguwo .
In 1949 , Santoso was part of a committee tasked with preparing a marriage bill " in keeping with the spirit of modern times " . Throughout the 1950s , Santoso kept herself busy with numerous social works . From 1950 until 1961 she served as the head of Indonesia 's film censorship bureau , a position which she held reluctantly . She also served as the head of the National Women 's Congress , Kowani , from 1950 to 1961 .
Santoso married again , this time to Indonesian Socialist Party figure Soebadio Sastrosatomo , on 10 January 1964 . The couple were often separated when Sastrasatomo was imprisoned for his political activities , but they were able to go on the hajj together . During the 1960s Santoso continued to be politically active , serving in the State Secretariat from 1962 to 1967 and on the State Advisory Council from 1967 to 1972 . While with Sastrosatomo , she adopted a child .
In her final years , Santoso and Sastrosatomo lived off of their pensions in Jakarta ; in her obituary , Tempo magazine reported that the pension was barely enough for day @-@ to @-@ day expenses . She died at 2 : 15 am on 15 April 1988 , after being treated at Gatot Subroto Air Force Hospital in Jakarta for more than a month . She was buried at Kalibata Heroes Cemetery .
= = Legacy = =
Soebadio Sastrosatomo wrote that Santoso 's selection as social minister was important for several reasons . Firstly , her selection showed that the government truly respected women 's contributions to the nationalist movement . Secondly , it was a way for Sjahrir to show that the Indonesian people were committed to the needs of their people , by having a woman deal with women 's issues . After Santoso , other women have held government positions . The second female Indonesian minister , S. K. Trimurti , served as minister of labour from 1947 to 1948 . In 2001 , Megawati Sukarnoputri became the first female president of Indonesia .
Santoso received several awards from the Indonesian government , including the Satya Lencana Karya Satya ( Level II ) ( Medal of Great Work ) , Satya Lencana Peringatan Perjuangan Kemerdekaan ( Medal in Memory of Freedom Fighting ) , and Bintang Mahaputra Utama ( Third Class ) ( Mahaputra Star ) . The Bintang Mahaputra is Indonesia 's highest award for civilians .
= Good Enough ( Evanescence song ) =
" Good Enough " is a song by American rock band Evanescence . It was released in 2007 as the fourth and final single from their second studio album , The Open Door . The song was written by lead vocalist Amy Lee and produced by Dave Fortman . According to Lee it was written for her long @-@ time friend and husband , Josh Hartzler . It was placed as the last track on the album to symbolize a new beginning for the band . According to Lee , " Good Enough " was written for the soundtrack of the movie The Chronicles of Narnia : The Lion , the Witch and the Wardrobe , but was not included . The producers of Narnia rebutted her claim , stating that no Evanescence music had been planned for inclusion in the soundtrack .
The song is a piano ballad set in a moderately slow tempo and features piano and strings . Musically it has been compared to songs by Sarah McLachlan and Tori Amos . " Good Enough " was critically acclaimed , with many music critics praising the piano sound . An accompanying music video , directed by Marc Webb and Rich Lee , was filmed in Budapest , Hungary , and released on September 10 , 2007 . It features Lee in a warehouse singing and playing the piano while surrounded by flames . " Good Enough " was part of the set @-@ list during Evanescence 's 2006 The Open Door Tour .
= = Background = =
" Good Enough " was written by Amy Lee for her long @-@ time friend and husband , Josh Hartzler . It was produced by Dave Fortman and recorded in Record Plant Studios , Los Angeles . The single was scheduled for release in Germany in a basic and premium format on December 14 , 2007 , but a release date was never officially announced . While discussing Evanescence 's then upcoming album , The Open Door , Lee revealed that one of the tracks would be called " Good Enough " . She said , " It 's called ' Good Enough , ' and it 's completely , completely , completely different for me because it sort of [ has a ] happy ending . It 's the last song that I wrote for the record , and it 's sort of the bravest , I think , for me because I had to tell the truth and the truth is , I feel , good now . The rest of the album is pretty aggressive and dark and everything else , but the last one is like , I got to the good place that I was heading for and I wrote about how good I felt . It turned out amazing , but it 's like nothing we 've ever done . I just have to write from my heart and be genuine , because I think that 's what people loved about our music to begin with , and if that changes , then that changes . "
The song , which was the last one written for the album , was placed at the end of the album because it " marks a new beginning " for the band , which was the theme on the album and a theme in Lee 's life . In the booklet of The Open Door , she stated that her long @-@ time friend and husband , Josh Hartzler , was the main inspiration for the song . In the booklet she wrote , " Josh , you are my muse . Nothing inspires me the way you do . Thank you for all my missing pieces . Thank you for your strength and love . Thank you for letting me see myself through your eyes , because only then could I know that I am good enough for you . " One of the band 's previous singles , " Bring Me to Life " , was also written about Josh Hartzler . In an interview with VH1 , Lee further revealed the inspiration behind the song , saying " I had gone through a lot of difficult things during the writing of the whole album , and by the end of it , I had stepped away from those bad situations . That 's really hard . You have to be really brave and strong about it . After doing that , I felt so amazing . For the first
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= = Traffic and publicity = =
As of 2006 , Slashdot had approximately 5 @.@ 5 million users per month . As of January 2013 , the site 's Alexa rank is 2 @,@ 000 , with the average user spending 3 minutes and 18 seconds per day on the site and 82 @,@ 665 sites linking in . The primary stories on the site consist of a short synopsis paragraph , a link to the original story , and a lengthy discussion section , all contributed by users . Discussion on stories can get up to 10 @,@ 000 posts per day . Slashdot has been considered a pioneer in user @-@ driven content , influencing other sites such as Google News and Wikipedia . There has been a dip in readership as of 2011 , primarily due to the increase of technology @-@ related blogs and Twitter feeds . In 2002 , approximately 50 % of Slashdot 's traffic consisted of people who simply check out the headlines and click through , while others participate in discussion boards and take part in the community . Many links in Slashdot stories caused the linked site to get swamped by heavy traffic and its server to collapse . This is known as the " Slashdot effect " , a term which was first coined on February 15 , 1999 that refers to an article about a " new generation of niche Web portals driving unprecedented amounts of traffic to sites of interest " . Today , most major websites can handle the surge of traffic , but the effect continues to occur on smaller or independent sites . These sites are then said to have been " Slashdotted " .
Slashdot has received over twenty awards , including People 's Voice Awards in 2000 in both of the categories for which it was nominated ( Best Community Site and Best News Site ) . It was also voted as one of Newsweek 's favorite technology Web sites and rated in Yahoo ! ' s Top 100 Web sites as the " Best Geek Hangout " ( 2001 ) . The main antagonists in the 2004 novel Century Rain , by Alastair Reynolds – The Slashers – are named after Slashdot users . The site was mentioned briefly in the 2000 novel Cosmonaut Keep , written by Ken MacLeod .
Several celebrities have stated that they either checked the website regularly or participated in its discussion forums using an account . Some of these celebrities include : Apple co @-@ founder Steve Wozniak , writer and actor Wil Wheaton , and id Software technical director John Carmack .
= Empire of the Sun ( film ) =
Empire of the Sun is a 1987 American epic coming @-@ of @-@ age war film based on J. G. Ballard 's semi @-@ autobiographical novel of the same name . Steven Spielberg directed the film , which stars Christian Bale , John Malkovich , Miranda Richardson , and Nigel Havers . The film tells the story of Jamie " Jim " Graham , a young boy who goes from living in a wealthy British family in Shanghai , to becoming a prisoner of war in a Japanese internment camp , during World War II .
Harold Becker and David Lean were originally to direct before Spielberg came on board , initially as a producer for Lean . Spielberg was attracted to directing the film because of a personal connection to Lean 's films and World War II topics . He considers it to be his most profound work on " the loss of innocence " . The film received critical acclaim but was not initially a box office success , earning only $ 22 @,@ 238 @,@ 696 at the US box office , but it eventually more than recouped its budget through revenues in other markets .
= = Plot = =
Amidst Japan 's invasion of China during World War II , Jamie Graham — a British upper middle class schoolboy — is enjoying a privileged and spoiled life in the Shanghai International Settlement . After the Attack on Pearl Harbor , the Japanese begin to occupy the settlement , and in the ensuing chaos to escape the city Jamie is separated from his parents . Jamie 's mother shouts at him over the panicked mob to wait at their house and promises that they will come back for him . He spends some time living in his deserted home , but after eating all the food he ventures out into the city .
Hungry , Jamie tries to surrender to some Japanese soldiers , who shrug and laugh him off . After being chased by a street urchin , he is taken in by Basie — an American expatriate and hustler — and his partner Frank , who nicknames him " Jim " . They intend to leave the boy in the streets when they are unable to sell his teeth for cash , but Jamie promises to lead them back to his neighborhood where there are valuables to loot . There , Jamie finds his house lit and sees a figure in the window whom he thinks is his mother . He runs to the door only to discover the house is occupied by Japanese troops , who take the trio prisoner . They are then taken to Lunghua Civilian Assembly Center in Shanghai for processing . A truck later arrives to take selected internees to the Suzhou Creek Internment Camp ; Basie is among those selected to go but Jamie is not . Because he knows of the camp 's location , a desperate Jamie convinces the soldiers to take him . On arrival at the camp Jim wanders to the airfield to witness workers servicing a squadron of Zero fighters . As Jim reaches out to touch one he is confronted by a trio of fighter pilots . Jim salutes the pilots , and they salute Jim in return .
It is now 1945 , nearing the end of the Pacific War . Despite the terror and poor living conditions of the camp , Jim survives by establishing a successful trading network — which even involves the camp 's commander , Sergeant Nagata . Dr. Rawlins , the camp 's British doctor , becomes a father figure and teacher to Jim . One night after a bombing raid , Nagata orders the destruction of the prisoners ' infirmary as reprisal . He only stops when Jim ( now fluent in Japanese ) begs forgiveness . Through the barbed wire fencing , Jim befriends a Japanese teenager , who is a trainee pilot . Jim also visits Basie in the American POW barracks , where Jim idolizes the Americans and their culture . Basie eventually sends Jim to set snare traps outside the camp 's wire ; though Jim succeeds , Basie is only using him to test the area for land mines — plotting to escape . As a reward , Basie allows Jim to move into the American barracks with him .
One morning at dawn , Jim witnesses a kamikaze ritual . Overcome with emotion , he salutes and sings the Welsh song " Suo Gân " . The base is suddenly attacked by a group of American P @-@ 51 Mustang fighter aircraft . Jim is overjoyed and climbs the ruins of a nearby pagoda to better watch the airstrike . Dr. Rawlins chases Jim up the pagoda to save him , where the boy breaks down in tears — he cannot remember what his parents look like . As a result of the attack the Japanese decide to evacuate the camp . Basie escapes during the confusion , though he had promised to take Jim with him . The camp 's prisoners march through the wilderness where many die of fatigue , starvation , and disease .
Arriving at a football stadium near Nantao — filled with luxuries confiscated by the Japanese — Jim recognizes his parents ' Packard . Waking up next to the corpse of a woman , Jim witnesses flashes from the atomic bombing of Nagasaki hundreds of miles away . Jim slips away from the group and wanders back to Suzhou Creek . Along the way he hears news of Japan 's surrender and the end of the war . He encounters the Japanese teenager he befriended earlier , who has since become a pilot but is now disillusioned . The youth remembers Jim and offers him a mango , and will cut it for him with his katana . Basie reappears with a group of armed Americans who have arrived to loot the Red Cross containers being airdropped over the area . One of the Americans , thinking Jim is in danger , shoots and kills the Japanese youth . Basie offers to help Jim find his parents , but Jim — infuriated over his friend 's death — chooses to stay behind .
Jim is eventually found by American soldiers and placed in an orphanage . Here , the film ends with a deeply traumatized Jim reuniting with his mother and father over the sound of the Welsh lullaby .
The final scene shows " Jim ’ s suitcase floating in the river in Shanghai ( which he had thrown in the water during the march to Nantao stadium ) . We know that inside are Jim ’ s cherished cutouts of American magazines , the closest thing he has to memories , and aptly echoes the opening shot of a coffin floating in the same river . "
= = Cast = =
Christian Bale as Jamie " Jim " Graham , who goes from living in a wealthy British family in Shanghai , to becoming a prisoner of war during World War II . J.G. Ballard felt Bale had a physical resemblance to himself at the same age . The actor was 12 years old when he was cast . Amy Irving , Bale 's co @-@ star in the television movie Anastasia : The Mystery of Anna , recommended Bale to her then @-@ husband , Steven Spielberg , for the role . More than 4 @,@ 000 child actors auditioned . Jim 's singing voice was provided by English performer James Rainbird .
John Malkovich as Basie : An American ship steward stranded in Shanghai during the Japanese occupation . He forms a friendship with Jamie , giving him the nickname " Jim " .
Miranda Richardson as Mrs. Victor : A British woman who was Jim 's " neighbor " at Suzhou . She dies in a stadium to which they moved right after the bombing of the prison camp . Jim sees a bright light in the sky to the East . He believes it is her soul floating to Heaven but finds out later it was the flash from the atomic bombing of Nagasaki , hundreds of miles away .
Nigel Havers as Dr. Rawlins : Jim 's father figure at Suzhou . Rawlins finds difficulty teaching Jim humility .
Joe Pantoliano as Frank Demarest : A companion of Basie , he was the one who almost hit Jamie with a truck . He joins Basie and Jamie at the prison camp .
Leslie Phillips as Maxton
Masatō Ibu as Sergeant Nagata
Emily Richard as Mary Graham
Ben Stiller as Dainty
Robert Stephens as Mr. Lockwood
Guts Ishimatsu as Sergeant Uchita
James Walker as Mr. Radik
Yvonne Gilan as Mrs. Lockwood
Ralph Michael as Mr. Partridge
James Greene as British Prisoner
Peter Copley as British Prisoner
Burt Kwouk as Mr. Chen
Paul McGann as Lieutenant Price
J.G. Ballard as Masquerade Party Guest
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Warner Bros. purchased the film rights , intending Harold Becker to direct and Robert Shapiro to produce . Tom Stoppard wrote the first draft of the screenplay , on which Ballard briefly collaborated . Becker dropped out , and David Lean came to direct with Spielberg as producer . Lean explained , " I worked on it for about a year and in the end I gave it up because I thought it was too similar to a diary . It was well @-@ written and interesting , but I gave it to Steve . " Spielberg felt " from the moment I read J. G. Ballard 's novel I secretly wanted to direct myself . " Spielberg found the project to be very personal . As a child , his favorite film was Lean 's The Bridge on the River Kwai , which similarly takes place in a Japanese prisoner of war camp . Spielberg 's fascination with World War II and the aircraft of that era was stimulated by his father 's stories of his experience as a radio operator on North American B @-@ 25 Mitchell bombers in the China @-@ Burma Theater . Spielberg hired Menno Meyjes to do an uncredited rewrite before Stoppard was brought back to write the shooting script .
= = = Filming = = =
Empire of the Sun was filmed at Elstree Studios in the United Kingdom , and on location in Shanghai and Spain . The filmmakers searched across Asia in an attempt to find locations that resembled 1941 Shanghai . They entered negotiations with Shanghai Film Studios and China Film Co @-@ Production Corporation in 1985 . After a year of negotiations , permission was granted for a three @-@ week shoot in early March 1987 . It was the first American film shot in Shanghai since the 1940s . The Chinese authorities allowed the crew to alter signs to traditional Chinese characters , as well as closing down city blocks for filming . Over 5 @,@ 000 local extras were used , some old enough to remember the Japanese occupation of Shanghai 40 years earlier . Members of the People 's Liberation Army played Japanese soldiers . Other locations included Trebujena in Andalusia , Knutsford in Cheshire and Sunningdale in Berkshire . Lean often visited the set during the England shoot .
Spielberg attempted to portray the era accurately , using period vehicles and aircraft . Four Harvard SNJ aircraft were lightly modified in France to resemble Mitsubishi A6M Zero aircraft . Two additional non @-@ flying replicas were used . Three restored P @-@ 51D Mustangs , two from ' The Fighter Collection ' of England , and one from the ' Old Flying Machine Company ' , were flown in the film . These P @-@ 51s were flown by Ray Hanna ( who was featured in the film flying at low @-@ level past the child star with the canopy back , waving ) , his son Mark and " Hoof " Proudfoot and took over 10 days of filming to complete due to the complexity of the planned aerial sequences , which included the P @-@ 51s actually dropping plaster @-@ filled replica 500 lb bombs at low level , with simulated bomb blasts . A number of large scale remote control flying models were also used , including an 18 @-@ foot wingspan B @-@ 29 , but Spielberg felt the results were disappointing , so he extended the film contract with the full @-@ size examples and pilots on set in Trebujena , Spain . J.G. Ballard makes a cameo appearance at the costume party scene .
= = = Special effects = = =
Industrial Light & Magic designed the visual effects sequences with some computer @-@ generated imagery also used for the atomic bombing of Nagasaki . Norman Reynolds was hired as the production designer while Vic Armstrong served as the stunt coordinator .
= = Reception = =
Empire of the Sun was given a limited release on December 11 , 1987 , before being wide released on Christmas Day , 1987 . The film earned $ 22 @.@ 24 million in North America , and $ 44 @.@ 46 million in other countries , accumulating a worldwide total of $ 66 @.@ 7 million , earning more than its budget but still considered a box office disappointment by Spielberg .
= = = Critical response = = =
Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 83 % based on reviews from 40 critics . By comparison Metacritic calculated an average score of 60 out of 100 based on 17 reviews . J. G. Ballard gave positive feedback , and was especially impressed with Christian Bale 's performance . Critical reaction was not universally affirmative , but Richard Corliss of Time stated that Spielberg " has energized each frame with allusive legerdemain and an intelligent density of images and emotions . " Janet Maslin from The New York Times called the film " a visual splendor , a heroic adventurousness and an immense scope that make it unforgettable . " Julie Salamon of The Wall Street Journal wrote that the film as " an edgy , intelligent script by playwright Tom Stoppard , Spielberg has made an extraordinary film out of Mr. Ballard 's extraordinary war experience . " J. Hoberman from The Village Voice decried that the serious subject was undermined by Spielberg 's " shamelessly kiddiecentric " approach . Roger Ebert gave a mixed reaction , " Despite the emotional potential in the story , it didn 't much move me . Maybe , like the kid , I decided that no world where you can play with airplanes can be all that bad . " On his TV show with Gene Siskel , Ebert said that the film “ is basically a good idea for a film that never gets off the ground ” . Siskel added , “ I don ’ t know what the film is about . It ’ s so totally confused and taking things from different parts . On one hand , if it wants to say something about a child ’ s @-@ eye view of war , you got a movie made by John Boorman called Hope and Glory that was just released that is much better , and much more daring in showing the whimsy that children ’ s view of war is . On the other hand , this film wants to hedge its bet and make it like an adventure film , so you ’ ve got like Indiana Jones with the John Malkovich character helping the little kid through all the fun of war . I don ’ t know what Spielberg wanted to do . "
= = = Awards = = =
In his second starring role , Bale received a special citation for Best Performance by a Juvenile Actor from the National Board of Review of Motion Pictures , an award specially created for his performance in Empire of the Sun . At the 60th Academy Awards , Empire of the Sun was nominated for Art Direction , Cinematography , Editing , Original Music Score , Costume Design ( Bob Ringwood ) , and Sound ( Robert Knudson , Don Digirolamo , John Boyd and Tony Dawe ) . It did not convert any of the nominations into awards . Allen Daviau , who was nominated as cinematographer , publicly complained , " I can 't second @-@ guess the Academy , but I feel very sorry that I get nominations and Steven doesn 't . It 's his vision that makes it all come together , and if Steven wasn 't making these films , none of us would be here . " The film won awards for cinematography , sound design , and music score at the 42nd British Academy Film Awards . The nominations included production design , costume design , and adapted screenplay . Spielberg was honored by his work from the Directors Guild of America , while the American Society of Cinematographers honored Allen Daviau . Empire of the Sun was nominated for Best Motion Picture ( Drama ) and Original Score at the 45th Golden Globe Awards . John Williams earned a Grammy Award nomination .
= = Themes = =
Flying symbolizes Jim 's possibility and danger of escape from the prison camp . His growing alienation from his prewar self and society is reflected in his hero @-@ worship of the Japanese aviators based at the airfield adjoining the camp . " I think it 's true that the Japanese were pretty brutal with the Chinese , so I don 't have any particularly sentimental view of them , " Ballard recalled . " But small boys tend to find their heroes where they can . One thing there was no doubt about , and that was that the Japanese were extremely brave . One had very complicated views about patriotism [ and ] loyalty to one 's own nation . Jim is constantly identifying himself , first with the Japanese ; then , when the Americans start flying over in their Mustangs and B @-@ 29s , he 's very drawn to the American . "
The apocalyptic wartime setting and the climactic moment when Jim sees the distant white flash of the atomic bombing of Nagasaki gave Spielberg powerful visual metaphors " to draw a parallel story between the death of this boy 's innocence and the death of the innocence of the entire world . " Spielberg reflected he " was attracted to the idea that this was a death of innocence , not an attenuation of childhood , which by my own admission and everybody 's impression of me is what my life has been . This was the opposite of Peter Pan . This was a boy who had grown up too quickly . " Other topics that Spielberg previously dealt with , and are presented in Empire of the Sun , include a child being separated from his parents ( The Sugarland Express , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial , Close Encounters of the Third Kind and Poltergeist ) and World War II ( 1941 , and Raiders of the Lost Ark ) . Spielberg explained " My parents got a divorce when I was 14 , 15 . The whole thing about separation is something that runs very deep in anyone exposed to divorce . "
= = In popular culture = =
The dramatic attack on the Japanese prisoner of war camp carried out by P @-@ 51 Mustangs is accompanied by Jim 's whoops of " ... the Cadillac of the skies ! " , a phrase believed to be first used in Ballard 's text as " Cadillac of air combat " and in the screenplay that has now entered urban mythology as being attributed to the war years . Steven Bull quotes the catchwords in the Encyclopedia of Military Technology and Innovation ( 2004 ) as originating in 1941 . John Williams ' soundtrack includes the " Cadillac of the Skies " as an individual score cue . The phrase has now been appropriated by other aircraft including the General Dynamics F @-@ 111 Aardvark in Australian service . Ben Stiller conceived the idea for Tropic Thunder while performing in Empire of the Sun .
= Lovas killings =
The Lovas killings ( Croatian : masakr u Lovasu , Serbian : zločini u Lovasu , Cyrillic : злочини у Ловасу ) involved the killing of 70 Croat civilian residents of the village of Lovas between 10 – 18 October 1991 , during the Croatian War of Independence . The killings took place during and in the immediate aftermath of the occupation of the village by the Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) supported by Croatian Serb forces and Dušan Silni paramilitaries on 10 October , two days after Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia . The occupation occurred during the Battle of Vukovar , as the JNA sought to consolidate its control over the area surrounding the city of Vukovar . The killings and abuse of the civilian population continued until 18 October , when troops guarding a group of civilians forced them to walk into a minefield at gunpoint and then opened fire upon them .
After the Croatian Serb forces , the JNA and the paramilitaries established their control in the village , the Croat population was required to wear white armbands and mark their houses using white sheets . The church in Lovas was torched and 261 houses were looted and destroyed , while 1 @,@ 341 civilians were forced to leave their homes . The bodies of the victims were retrieved from a mass grave and ten individual graves in 1997 . Lovas was rebuilt after the war , but its population size shrunk by one third compared to its pre @-@ war level .
The occupation of Lovas and the killing and expulsion of its civilian population was included in the International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) indictments of the President of Serbia , Slobodan Milošević , and Goran Hadžić — a high @-@ ranking official of the Croatian Serb @-@ declared wartime breakaway region of SAO Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Syrmia . Milošević died before his trial was completed , and as of 2014 Hadžić 's trial is ongoing . Serbian authorities tried and convicted a group of four for the killings , but a retrial was ordered following an appeal in 2014 . Croatia indicted 17 persons in connection with the killings , although only two were available to the authorities . One of them was acquitted and the other declared unfit to stand trial .
= = Background = =
After the Croatian Democratic Union won 1990 parliamentary elections in the Socialist Republic of Croatia , ethnic tensions between Croats and Serbs within the Republic worsened . The ethnic groups are also divided along religious lines as the Croats are Catholics while the Serbs are Orthodox Christians . The Yugoslav People 's Army ( Jugoslovenska Narodna Armija – JNA ) confiscated the weapons of Croatia 's Territorial Defence ( Teritorijalna obrana - TO ) forces to minimize resistance . On 17 August , tensions escalated into an open revolt by Croatian Serbs , centred on the predominantly Serb @-@ populated areas of the Dalmatian hinterland around Knin , and parts of the Lika , Kordun , Banovina and eastern Croatia . This revolt was followed in January 1991 , by two unsuccessful attempts by Serbia , supported by Montenegro and Serbia 's provinces of Vojvodina and Kosovo , to obtain the Yugoslav Presidency 's approval for a JNA operation to disarm Croatian security forces .
After a bloodless skirmish between Serb insurgents and Croatian special police in March , the JNA itself , supported by Serbia and its allies , asked the Federal Presidency to give it wartime authorities and declare a state of emergency . The request was denied on 15 March , and in consequence , Serbia abandoned the goal of a more centralised Yugoslavia for that of the Greater Serbia . The leadership of the JNA , fragmented between supporters of the federal government of Ante Marković and others aligned with Serbia since the breakup of the League of Communists of Yugoslavia in 1990 , came under the control of Serbian President Slobodan Milošević . The control shifted after Milošević publicly declared that he no longer recognized the authority of the Federal Presidency and planned to establish a Serbian army which would draw JNA 's Serbian personnel to the new force . The initial objective of the JNA , that of Yugoslav unity , was either abandoned or sought through support for Milošević . Even though he preferred a campaign to expand Serbia rather than to preserve Yugoslavia , the JNA equated protecting Serbs in Croatia with preservation of Yugoslavia . By summer , Milošević had the JNA under full control through his control of the rump Federal Presidency and his influence over the federal defence minister and top @-@ ranked JNA officer , General of the Army Veljko Kadijević and JNA chief of staff , Colonel General Blagoje Adžić .
By the end of March , the conflict had escalated into the Croatian War of Independence . The JNA stepped in , increasingly supporting the Croatian Serb insurgents and preventing Croatian police from intervening . In early April , the leaders of the Croatian Serb revolt declared their intention to integrate the area under their control , known as SAO Krajina , with Serbia . The Government of Croatia viewed this declaration as an attempt to secede .
In May , the Croatian government responded by forming the Croatian National Guard ( Zbor narodne garde - ZNG ) , but its development was hampered by a United Nations ( UN ) arms embargo introduced in September . On 8 October , Croatia declared independence from Yugoslavia . Late 1991 saw the fiercest fighting of the war , as the 1991 Yugoslav campaign in Croatia culminated in the Siege of Dubrovnik , and the Battle of Vukovar .
= = Timeline = =
Armed clashes in eastern Slavonia gradually intensified as the JNA committed significant new units to the Battle of Vukovar , including the 453rd Mechanised Brigade , the 1st Proletarian Guards Mechanised Division , and the 252nd Armoured Brigade . During the initial stage of the battle , the JNA bypassed a number of Croat villages southeast of the city of Vukovar — including Lovas . In late September 1991 , the easternmost Croatian positions in the area ran along a line connecting the villages of Nijemci – Ilača – Lovas and those were defended by the 2nd Battalion of the 3rd Guards Brigade and the 109th Infantry Brigade .
On 1 October , after the JNA took control of the Nuštar – Marinci – Bogdanovci – Vukovar road , the 2nd Battalion of the 3rd Guards Brigade and the 109th Infantry Brigade were moved south of Vukovar in an attempt to restore Croatian control of the route between Vinkovci and Vukovar . The JNA tasked the 2nd Proletarian Guards Mechanised Brigade , to clear the Croatian pocket centered on Lovas . The JNA was supported by Dušan Silni Serbian paramilitaries under control of Dragoslav Bokan and the Serbian National Renewal party , as well as Croatian Serb TO forces .
The JNA , supported by the paramilitaries and the TO , entered Lovas unopposed on the morning of 10 October . According to court testimony of one of the paramilitaries who took part in the events , the troops moving against Lovas were told to expect 300 – 400 ZNG troops defending the village . Once the attacking force entered the village , the troops continued to throw grenades and shoot at houses at random for several hours . During the assault , 22 civilians were killed in their homes or back yards . In the immediate aftermath of the takeover of Lovas , Croat civilians were required to wear white armbands and their houses were marked using white sheets . The marked houses were looted and torched by the TO and paramilitaries . Authority in the village was turned over to Ljuban Devetak , a member of the Dušan Silni paramilitaries . He was styled as the commander of the village , but the JNA remained in overall control of the entire region . Over the following week , 23 more civilians were killed by the paramilitaries and the TO troops in improvised detention facilities . The improvised prisons were also used for torture and abuse of captives , including war rape , causing serious injuries to 18 civilians .
On 17 October , all men aged 18 to 60 were ordered to report for a meeting , but were detained overnight instead on the pretext that someone had fired shots in the village the previous night . The detainees were beaten , and otherwise abused that night . Approximately 20 were released in the morning , and the rest were told that they were assigned to grape harvest duty . The civilians walked out of the village under a military escort . One of the civilians was killed by the guards , before the group reached a point within 1 to 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 62 to 1 @.@ 24 miles ) of the Vukovar – Tovarnik road , where they were ordered into a cloverfield at gunpoint . The men were told to hold hands and sweep their feet in front of them across the ground . The JNA had previously placed land mines in the field . Several mines were set off , while the troops guarding the civilian detainees fired at the men in the field . The survivors were then forced to retrieve the dead and injured and clear the remaining mines . Out of 50 civilians forced into the minefield , 21 were killed in the minefield itself . The number of persons wounded by mine explosions or gunfire is variously reported as 14 or 15 . Three more civilians were killed in Lovas by the end of November .
= = Aftermath = =
In the immediate aftermath of the takeover of the village by the JNA and the paramilitaries , 1 @,@ 341 civilians were forced to leave Lovas . The local Roman Catholic church of St. Michael was torched and 261 houses destroyed . In 1995 , the establishment of the United Nations Transitional Administration for Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Sirmium ( UNTAES ) and the gradual restoration of Croatian control in the region was agreed between Croatian authorities and Croatian Serbs in the region through the Erdut Agreement . United Nations experts began exhuming victims from a mass grave in Lovas on 2 June 1997 . Sixty @-@ eight bodies , including those of people killed in Lovas , were ultimately recovered from the mass grave , and ten more were recovered from nearby individual graves . The exhumed victims were reburied on 21 March 1998 . A monument to the civilian victims was erected at the site of the mass grave on 27 May 1999 , as was a cross to mark the location of the minefield . Another mass grave containing the bodies of six individuals was discovered in nearby Jelaš Forest , along with three individual graves . Similar to the other burial sites , the victims buried there included those killed in Lovas , as well as others , killed elsewhere in the area . Lovas was rebuilt after the war , but its population declined by one third compared to the pre @-@ war level .
The International Criminal Tribunal for the former Yugoslavia ( ICTY ) included war crimes against civilians and property committed in Lovas in October 1991 in its indictment of Milošević . Milošević 's trial commenced on 12 February 2002 , but Milošević died in March 2006 before a verdict could be reached .
In 1994 and 2004 Croatian authorities filed two separate cases against a total of 17 persons , including Devetak , and indicted them on charges of genocide and war crimes committed against the civilian population of Lovas . The group included fifteen who were tried in absentia . In 2009 , the process was split for Milan Tepavac and Ilija Vorkapić who were available to Croatian authorities , and once more a year later when Tepavac was judged not fit to stand trial . Vorkapić was acquitted in 2012 .
Serbian authorities charged four persons associated with former Croatian Serb authorities in the eastern Slavonia with war crimes committed in Lovas , consisting of four JNA officers and six former members of the Dušan Silni paramilitaries . The trial started in 2008 . In 2012 , the group was convicted of killing of 70 Croat civilians and sentenced to a total of 128 years in prison . Devetak received a prison term of 20 years , while the others received prison sentences ranging from four to fourteen years . However , in 2014 , the court of appeals ordered a new trial .
The ICTY also indicted Goran Hadžić , the Croatian Serb political leader in the eastern Slavonia region and head of the SAO Eastern Slavonia , Baranja and Western Syrmia government declared by the Croatian Serbs in the region at the time before it merged into the Republic of Serbian Krajina . The charges include war crimes of persecutions , extermination , murder , imprisonment , torture , inhumane acts and cruel treatment , deportation , forcible transfer of population , wanton destruction and plunder of property . As of March 2014 his trial , which commenced on 16 October 2012 , is in progress .
= Royal Tunbridge Wells =
Royal Tunbridge Wells ( often shortened to Tunbridge Wells ) is a large affluent town in western Kent , England , about 40 miles ( 64 km ) south @-@ east of central London by road , 34 @.@ 5 miles ( 55 @.@ 5 km ) by rail . The town is close to the border of the county of East Sussex . It is situated at the northern edge of the High Weald , the sandstone geology of which is exemplified by the rock formations at the Wellington Rocks and High Rocks .
The town came into being as a spa in the Restoration and had its heyday as a tourist resort under Beau Nash when the Pantiles and its chalybeate spring attracted visitors who wished to take the waters . Though its popularity waned with the advent of sea bathing , the town remains popular and derives some 30 percent of its income from the tourist industry .
The town has a population of around 56 @,@ 500 and is the administrative centre of Tunbridge Wells Borough and the UK parliamentary constituency of Tunbridge Wells . In the United Kingdom , Royal Tunbridge Wells has a reputation as being the archetypal conservative " Middle England " town , a stereotype that is typified by the fictional letter @-@ writer " Disgusted of Tunbridge Wells " .
= = History = =
Evidence suggests that during the Iron Age people farmed the fields and mined the iron @-@ rich rocks in the Tunbridge Wells area , and excavations in 1940 and 1957 – 61 by James Money at High Rocks uncovered the remains of a defensive hill @-@ fort . It is thought that the site was occupied into the era of Roman Britain , and the area continued to be part of the Wealden iron industry until its demise in the late eighteenth century — indeed , an iron forge remains in the grounds of Bayham Abbey , in use until 1575 and documented until 1714 .
The area which is now Tunbridge Wells was part of the parish of Speldhurst for hundreds of years , but the origin of the town as it is today , however , came in the seventeenth century . In 1606 Dudley , Lord North , a courtier to James I who was staying at a hunting lodge in Eridge in the hope that the country air might improve his ailing constitution , discovered a chalybeate spring . He drank from the spring and , when his health improved , he became convinced that it had healing properties . He persuaded his rich friends in London to try it , and by the time Queen Henrietta Maria , wife of King Charles I , visited in 1630 it had established itself as a spa retreat . By 1636 it had become so popular that two houses were built next to the spring to cater for the visitors , one for the ladies and one for the gentlemen , and in 1664 Lord Muskerry , Lord of the Manor , enclosed it with a triangular stone wall , and built a hall " to shelter the dippers in wet weather . "
Until 1676 little permanent building took place — visitors were obliged either to camp on the downs or to find lodgings at Southborough , — but at this time houses and shops were erected on the walks , and every " convenient situation near the springs " was built upon . Also in 1676 a subscription for a " chapel of ease " was opened , and in 1684 the Church of King Charles the Martyr was duly built and the town began to develop around it . In 1787 Edward Hasted described the new town as consisting of four small districts , " named after the hills on which they stand , Mount Ephraim , Mount Pleasant and Mount Sion ; the other is called the Wells ... "
The 1680s saw a building boom in the town : carefully planned shops were built beside the 175 yards ( 160 m ) long Pantiles promenade ( then known as the Walks ) , and the Mount Sion road , on which lodging house keepers were to build , was laid out in small plots . Tradesmen in the town dealt in the luxury goods demanded by their patrons , which would certainly have included Tunbridge ware , a kind of decoratively inlaid woodwork .
" They have made the wells very commodious by the many good building all about it and two or three miles around which are lodgings for the company that drink the waters . All the people buy their own provisions at the market , which is just by the wells and is furnished with great plenty of all sorts of fish and fowl . The walk which is between high trees on the market side which are shops full of all sorts of toys , silver , china , milliners and all sorts of curious wooden ware besides which there are two large coffee houses for tea , chocolate etc. and two rooms for the lottery and hazard board ( i.e. for gambling ) . " — Celia Fiennes , 1697
Following Dr Richard Russell 's 1750 treatise advocating sea water as a treatment for diseases of the glands , fashions in leisure changed and sea bathing became more popular than visiting the spas , which resulted in fewer visitors coming to the town . Nevertheless , the advent of turnpike roads gave Tunbridge Wells better communications — on weekdays a public coach made nine return journeys between Tunbridge Wells and London , and postal services operated every morning except Monday and every evening except Saturday . During the eighteenth century the growth of the town continued , as did its patronage by the wealthy leisured classes — it received celebrity cachet from visits by figures such as Cibber , Johnson , Garrick , Richardson and the successful bookseller Andrew Millar and his wife — and in 1735 Richard ( Beau ) Nash appointed himself as master of ceremonies for all the entertainments that Tunbridge Wells had to offer . He remained in this position until his death in 1762 , and under his patronage the town reached the height of its popularity as a fashionable resort .
By the early nineteenth century Tunbridge Wells experienced growth as a place for the well @-@ to @-@ do to visit and make their homes . It became a fashionable resort town again following visits by the Duchess of Kent , Queen Victoria and Prince Albert , and benefited from a new estate on Mount Pleasant and the building of the Trinity church in 1827 , and improvements made to the town and the provision of facilities such as gas lighting and a police service meant that by 1837 the town population had swelled to 9 @,@ 100 . In 1842 an omnibus service was set up that ran from Tonbridge to Tunbridge Wells , enabling visitors to arrive from London within two hours , and in 1845 the town was linked to the railway network via a branch from South Eastern Railway 's London @-@ Hastings Hastings Line at Tonbridge . During this time Decimus Burton developed John Ward 's Calverley Park estate .
In 1889 the town was awarded the status of a Borough , and it entered the 20th century in a prosperous state . 1902 saw the opening of an Opera House , and in 1909 the town received its " Royal " prefix . Due to its position in South East England , during the First World War Tunbridge Wells was made a headquarters for the army , and its hospitals were used to treat soldiers who had been sent home with a " blighty wound " ; the town also received 150 Belgian refugees . The Second World War affected Tunbridge Wells in a different way — it became so swollen with refugees from London that accommodation was severely strained . Over 3 @,@ 800 buildings were damaged by bombing , but only 15 people lost their lives .
= = = Toponymy = = =
Edward Hasted made the assertion that although the wells were originally named the " Queen 's @-@ Wells " , they soon took on the name of Tunbridge Wells due to their proximity to the town of Tonbridge ( then known as " Tunbridge " ) :
In compliment to [ queen Henrietta Maria 's ] doctor , Lewis Rowzee , in his treatise on them , calls these springs the Queen 's @-@ wells ; but this name lasted but a small time , and they were soon afterwards universally known by that of Tunbridge @-@ wells , which names they acquired from the company usually residing at Tunbridge town , when they came into these parts for the benefit of drinking the waters — Edward Hasted , 1797
The prefix " Royal " dates to 1909 , when King Edward VII granted the town its official " Royal " title to celebrate its popularity over the years among members of the royal family . Royal Tunbridge Wells is one of only three towns in England to have been granted this ( the others being Royal Leamington Spa and Royal Wootton Bassett , which became a Royal town in 2011 ) .
Although " Wells " has a plural form , it refers to the principal source , the chalybeate spring in the Pantiles ( where the waters were taken ) .
= = Governance = =
Royal Tunbridge Wells is the administrative centre for both Tunbridge Wells Borough and the parliamentary constituency of Tunbridge Wells . The Borough is governed by 48 Councillors , representing 20 wards ( eight wards fall within the town of Tunbridge Wells itself ) . Elections are held for 16 Council seats each year on a rotational basis , with elections to Kent County Council taking place in the fourth year of the cycle . Each councillor serves a four @-@ year term .
Tunbridge Wells local elections show a pattern since 1973 of Conservative party dominance , apart from a two @-@ year period from 1994 to 1996 of no overall control and a two @-@ year period from 1996 to 1998 when the Liberal Democrats held a majority . The most recent elections , held in May 2008 , gave the Conservatives a large majority with 44 seats compared with the Liberal Democrats ' four . The extent of the Conservatives ' dominance is further illustrated by the fact that in some wards ( e.g. Park ) Labour did not even field a candidate in the 2008 council elections .
The Member of Parliament for Tunbridge Wells is the Conservative Greg Clark , who was elected in 2005 with a majority of 9 @,@ 988 and held the seat in 2010 with a majority of 15 @,@ 576 . The constituency has been Conservative since its inception in 1974 for the 1974 General Election ; the two previous MPs were Sir Patrick Mayhew ( 1974 – 1997 ) and the former Asda chairman Archie Norman ( 1997 – 2005 ) .
= = Demography = =
In 2006 the town of Royal Tunbridge Wells was estimated to have a population of approximately 56 @,@ 500 . The wider borough of Royal Tunbridge Wells is home to considerably more people — some 104 @,@ 000 in 2001 , up from around 99 @,@ 500 in 1991 .
The population of Royal Tunbridge Wells is predominantly White and British in its ethnic origin and Christian in its religious affiliation : 97 @.@ 5 % of residents of the district described themselves as white in the 2001 census , and 75 @.@ 0 % identified themselves as being Christian .
The statistics for crime in Royal Tunbridge Wells show that in 2005 / 6 there were fewer crimes occurring in the area than the national average .
= = Geography = =
Tunbridge Wells is located at 51 ° 07 ′ 55 ″ N 00 ° 15 ′ 46 ″ E on the Kentish border with East Sussex , about 31 miles ( 50 km ) south of London ; the original centre of the settlement lies directly on the Kent / East Sussex border , as recalled by the county boundary flagstone that still lies outside the church of King Charles the Martyr .
The town is situated at the northern edge of the High Weald , a ridge of hard sandstone that runs across southern England from Hampshire along the borders of Surrey , West Sussex , East Sussex and Kent — the town 's geology is illustrated by the exposed sandstone outcrops at the Wellington Rocks and High Rocks ( a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to its exposed gulls ) , and the quarries at nearby Langton Green from which sandstone was taken to build houses in Tunbridge Wells . The town is sited at the head of a valley that runs south @-@ east to Groombridge ; like the River Teise , which originates in Tunbridge Wells , the stream in the valley is one of the many tributaries of the River Medway , which runs through a much larger valley north of the High Weald .
Nearby villages have been subsumed into the built @-@ up area of the town , so that now it incorporates High Brooms to the north , Hawkenbury to the south , and Rusthall ( whose name resonates with the iron content of the rocks ) to the west .
= = = Twinning = = =
Royal Tunbridge Wells is twinned with :
Wiesbaden , Germany
In 1960 , through an advertisement in the national press , contact was made between former paratroopers in Wiesbaden and four English ex @-@ servicemen in Royal Tunbridge Wells . Through this contact the friendship that now exists between the two towns sprang up , leading to the signing in 1989 of the official Twinning Charter . Also through this the Tunbridge Wells Twinning and Friendship Association ( TWTFA ) was formed .
= = = Climate = = =
Tunbridge Wells , like the rest of Britain , has a temperate maritime climate , lacking in weather extremes . The nearest official weather station is Goudhurst , about 8 @.@ 5 mi ( 14 km ) to the east of the town centre .
The absolute maximum temperature in Goudhurst stands at 34 @.@ 7 ° C ( 94 @.@ 5 ° F ) , recorded in August 1990 , compared to the average annual warmest day maximum of 28 @.@ 7 ° C ( 83 @.@ 7 ° F ) . In total , 11 @.@ 8 days should attain a temperature of 25 @.@ 1 ° C ( 77 @.@ 2 ° F ) or above .
The absolute minimum temperature recorded in Goudhurst was − 19 @.@ 2 ° C ( − 2 @.@ 6 ° F ) during January 1940 , compared to the average annual coldest night minimum of − 8 @.@ 3 ° C ( 17 @.@ 1 ° F ) . In total 52 @.@ 8 nights should report an air frost .
Annual rainfall averages in Goudhurst 823 @.@ 3 mm ( 32 @.@ 41 in ) , with over 1 mm ( 0 in ) falling on 120 @.@ 7 days .
= = Economy = =
The economy of the town no longer depends on the chalybeate spring . Hardly anyone comes to the town purely to take the waters .
As of 2002 there were around 50 @,@ 000 people employed in the borough of Tunbridge Wells . The largest sector of the local economy consists of hotels , restaurants , and retail ( the centrally located Royal Victoria Place shopping centre , opened in 1992 , covers 29 @,@ 414 square metres ( 316 @,@ 610 sq ft ) ) , which accounts for around 30 % of all jobs ; the finance and business sector makes up just under a quarter of jobs , as does the public administration , education and health sector . Royal Tunbridge Wells is arguably the most important retail centre between London and Hastings .
The largest single employer in the town used to be the Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Trust , at the Kent and Sussex and Pembury Hospitals , employing around 2500 people ; the largest single commercial employer was AXA PPP healthcare , employing around 1 @,@ 700 in four offices ( PPP House , Union House , Phillips House and International House ) . Tunbridge Wells enjoys a relatively low unemployment rate of around 1 @.@ 0 % as of August 2008 , compared to a UK national rate of around 5 @.@ 4 % .
= = Transport = =
Tunbridge Wells is at the hub of a series of roads , the primary ones being the A26 , which runs from Maidstone to Newhaven ; the A264 , which runs from Five Oaks to Pembury ( via Crawley and East Grinstead ) ; and the A267 , which runs south from Tunbridge Wells to Hailsham . The A21 passes to the east of the town , following the route of its turnpike ancestor , from London to Hastings .
Bus services are operated chiefly by Arriva Kent & Sussex , providing local town and rural services to Tonbridge , Paddock Wood and Sevenoaks , as well as express services to locations such as Bromley and Maidstone . Eastbourne and Brighton on the south coast are accessible on services run by Stagecoach in Eastbourne and Brighton & Hove respectively , and Metrobus operates hourly services to Crawley .
Tunbridge Wells town historically had three railway stations : two of these are still in use by National Rail services . Tunbridge Wells station is , as its former name of Tunbridge Wells Central suggests , centrally located within the town at the end of the High Street , whilst High Brooms station is situated in High Brooms , to the north of the town . Both stations are located on the double @-@ tracked electrified Hastings Line ; services are operated by the Southeastern train operating company .
Tunbridge Wells West station was opened by the London , Brighton and South Coast Railway in 1866 as the terminus of its competing line to Tunbridge Wells , but closed in 1985 along with that line . The station building — a Grade II listed building — is now a restaurant , and a Sainsbury 's supermarket occupies the former goods yard . In 1996 , however , part of the line was reopened by the Tunbridge Wells and Eridge Railway Preservation Society , which now — as the Spa Valley Railway — operates a steam heritage railway that runs from Tunbridge Wells West to Eridge via High Rocks and Groombridge . The western end of the service was extended from Groombridge to Eridge , on the London @-@ Uckfield line of Southern Railway , on 25 March 2011 , serving a platform at Eridge which had been disused for many years . The tunnelled link line between the West and erstwhile Central stations , opened in 1876 , remains closed .
In 2009 Network Rail installed a 12 @-@ car turnback siding just south of Tunbridge Wells station between the Grove Hill and Strawberry Hill tunnels , at a cost of £ 10 @.@ 4 million , to allow London trains starting or terminating at Tunbridge Wells to be operated in 12 @-@ car formations , providing the rolling stock was equipped with Selective Door Opening ( e.g. the Class 375 trains which currently run to Tunbridge Wells ) . Previously such services were 11 @-@ car at most due to the platform length between the tunnels at each end of Tunbridge Wells station . The new turnback siding also facilitated the operation of the new timetable from December 2009 with 4 trains per hour between London Charing Cross and Tunbridge Wells in the off @-@ peak , instead of only 2 trains per hour .
Average daily passenger flows on trains between Tunbridge Wells and London have increased from about 10 @,@ 000 in 1999 to over 12 @,@ 500 in 2008 , a compound growth rate of about 2 @.@ 5 percent per year . Average daily passenger flows between Tunbridge Wells and Sevenoaks , and between Tunbridge Wells and Tonbridge , have grown considerably faster , though are still much smaller than the flows between Tunbridge Wells and London .
= = Education = =
Kent County Council is one of fifteen local authorities in the UK that still provides selective education through the eleven plus exam .
Royal Tunbridge Wells does not have a university of its own , but the Salomons Campus of Canterbury Christ Church University is located just outside the town ( near Southborough ) and provides postgraduate programmes .
= = Sports = =
= = = Football = = =
Tunbridge Wells ' football team , Tunbridge Wells F.C. , plays in the Southern Counties East Football League at the Culverden Stadium , and has a history that stretches back to 1886 . Tunbridge Wells F.C. were finalists in the 2013 FA Vase and competed at Wembley Stadium on 4 May , coming second to Spennymoor .
= = = Motorsport = = =
Tunbridge Wells Motor Club is one of the oldest motor clubs in the UK , being founded in 1911 . It is still active in the Tunbridge Wells area promoting grass roots motorsport organising an autotest series and several sprint races throughout the year at circuits such as Lydden Hill and Goodwood .
= = = Rugby Union = = =
Tunbridge Wells RFC plays its home games at St Mark 's , and plays London 2 South East Rugby at RFU level 7 .
= = = Rugby League = = =
Weald Warriors RLFC are a Rugby League team based in the town , also at St Mark 's . The Warriors were founded in 2012 and currently compete in the 4th tier of English rugby league in the London & South East Men 's League .
= = = Cricket = = =
The Nevill Ground hosts county and international cricket , and Kent County Cricket Club uses it regularly as one of its outgrounds . Tunbridge Wells came into the cricketing spotlight during the 1983 Cricket World Cup when Kapil Dev and Syed Kirmani scored 126 not out for India against Zimbabwe at the Nevill Ground on 6 July 1983 ; this is the record for the highest 9th wicket partnership score in a one @-@ day international . Also based at the Nevill Ground is Tunbridge Wells Hockey Club , which competes in the Kent / Sussex Regional ( men ) and East Premier ( women ) divisions .
Linden Park Cricket Club , which plays in local leagues , hosts its home matches at the Higher Cricket Ground on Tunbridge Wells Common .
= = = Swimming = = =
The RTW Monson Swimming Club competes in swimming , diving and water polo and is based at the Tunbridge Wells Sports Centre . Former Monson member Joanne Rout , née Round , took part in the Swimming events at the 1988 Summer Paralympics in Seoul , aged just 12 , winning two relay Gold Medals ( also setting two new world records ) and three individual Silver Medals ; and as of 2012 remains the youngest ever British Paralympian . A plaque can be found located in the club 's trophy display . Tunbridge Wells Borough Council honoured Joanne with the award of their Civic Medallion after her return from Seoul in recognition of her efforts and achievements at such a young age .
= = = Running = = =
The Tunbridge Wells Half Marathon is an open road race that takes place every February , organised by the Tunbridge Wells Harriers running club .
= = = Squash = = =
Tunbridge Wells Squash Club on London Road is a traditional Squash ( sport ) club with three courts . There are internal leagues for squash and raquetball , and both men 's and ladies ' teams in the Kent Priory squash league .
= = Public services = =
Health services are provided by the West Kent Primary Care Trust . Maidstone and Tunbridge Wells NHS Trust runs the new Tunbridge Wells Hospital at Pembury ( usually referred to as Pembury Hospital ) , nearly three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) from the town , which opened in 2011 .
Royal Tunbridge Wells is policed by Kent Police , and in May 2000 the main police station for the area moved from Royal Tunbridge Wells to a new building in Tonbridge and operations at the Royal Tunbridge Wells station , in Crescent Road , were scaled back so that it now operates as an administrative centre . Fire services are carried out by Kent Fire and Rescue Service , which operates one station in Grove Hill Road that is manned 24 hours a day by both full @-@ time and retained firefighters .
The electricity Distribution Network Operator is UK Power Networks , and water services are managed by Southern Water ; the main reservoir in the area is Bewl Water .
The Kent and Sussex Crematorium and Cemetery opened in 1873 , known initially as the Frant Forest Cemetery due to its location , laid out over 23 acres ( 9 @.@ 3 ha ) by the then town surveyor .
Royal Tunbridge Wells also has a library , museum and art gallery in Civic Way .
= = Cultural references = =
References to Royal Tunbridge Wells occur in literature as diverse as Arthur Conan Doyle 's The Valley of Fear , H. G. Wells ' Christina Alberta 's Father , Thomas Pynchon 's Gravity 's Rainbow , Philip Reeve 's Mortal Engines , E. M. Forster 's A Room with a View , Oscar Wilde 's The Importance of Being Earnest and Zadie Smith 's White Teeth . The Inspector Bone mysteries by Susannah Stacey are also set in and around Tunbridge Wells . In Fanny Burney 's 1796 novel Camilla , several characters make an excursion to Tunbridge Wells , and there are many references to The Pantiles and other local sites . In Bleak House by Charles Dickens the children find a mug in the cupboard entitled " A Present From Tunbridge Wells . "
David Lean 's epic film Lawrence of Arabia closes with Mr. Dryden answering King Feisal : " Me , your Highness ? On the whole , I wish I 'd stayed in Tunbridge Wells " , and in the James Bond film On Her Majesty 's Secret Service Tracy Di Vicenzo says to Bond that she " looks forward to living as Mr and Mrs James Bond of Acacia Avenue , Tunbridge Wells " . Less well known is H. G. Wells 's sending up in his 1925 book Christina Alberta 's Father : " Tunbridge Wells is Tunbridge Wells , and there is nothing really like it upon our planet " .
In Spitting Image , when Britain enters a revolution , Royal Tunbridge Wells declares independence under the slogan of ' liberty , equality , gardening ' .
In the TV sketch comedy series Rutland Weekend Television , there is a musical sketch that tells the tale of 3 US Navy sailors who plan to spend an exciting — " More exciting than a book of Norman Mailer 's " — and glamour @-@ filled 24 hours in Royal Tunbridge Wells .
= = = " Disgusted " = = =
In the UK Royal Tunbridge Wells has a reputation as being a bastion of the middle class and a typical example of " Middle England " . This is reflected by the locution " Disgusted of Tunbridge Wells " , a fictional writer of letters to national newspapers in the 1950s to express outrage and defend conservative values .
= = Parks and landmarks = =
The Pantiles and its chalybeate spring have been the landmarks most readily associated with Royal Tunbridge Wells ever since the founding of the town , though the 5 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 16 ft ) steel Millennium Clock at the Fiveways area in the centre of town , designed by local sculptor Jon Mills for the Millennium celebrations , stakes a claim to be a modern landmark .
Tunbridge Wells contains green spaces that range from woodland to maintained grounds and parks . The most substantial areas of woodland are the Tunbridge Wells and Rusthall Commons , which comprise 250 acres ( 0 @.@ 39 sq mi ; 1 @.@ 0 km2 ) of wood and heathland and are close to the centre of the town . Open areas of the common are popular picnic spots , and there is a maintained cricket ground situated next to Wellington Rocks .
Located in the town centre opposite the railway station , Calverley Grounds is a historic park with ornamental gardens and a bandstand ( now demolished ) . The park was part of Mount Pleasant House — which was converted into a hotel in 1837 — until 1920 when the Borough Council purchased it for the town . The bandstand dated from 1924 and was damaged by an incendiary bomb in 1940 and parts of the metalwork were sold for scrap metal . The subsequently repaired bandstand and the adjacent pavilion were intended to form part of a new centre to the park but were never completed . The bandstand was demolished in 2010 although the pavilion still exists as a café . Just inside the entrance to the park coming from the station is a memorial to Air Chief Marshal Lord Dowding , hero of the Battle of Britain , who lived and died in Tunbridge Wells .
Dunorlan Park , at 78 acres ( 0 @.@ 122 sq mi ; 0 @.@ 32 km2 ) the largest maintained green space in the town , was once a private garden that was part of the millionaire Henry Reed 's now demolished mansion , and only passed into public possession in 1941 . The gardens were designed by the renowned Victorian gardener James Green , but over the years they became overgrown , making it hard to distinguish the full scope of Marnock 's design . In 1996 Tunbridge Wells Borough Council applied to the Heritage Lottery Fund for a grant to restore the park in line with the original designs , and in 2003 / 4 Dunorlan underwent a £ 2 @.@ 8 million restoration . The River Teise rises in the park , and two dams on it have created a pond and a boating lake . Dunorlan is listed as Grade II on English Heritage 's National Register of Historic Parks and Gardens .
Great Culverden Park is a small , 9 ½ acre woodland in the Mt . Ephraim area behind the site of the old Kent and Sussex Hospital and is the remnant grounds of the previous Great Culverden House designed by Decimus Burton that used to stand on Mt . Ephraim .
The oldest public park in Royal Tunbridge Wells is Grosvenor Recreation Ground designed by landscape architect Robert Marnock , located close to the town centre on Quarry Road . It was opened in 1889 by Mayor John Stone @-@ Wigg , on the land that was formerly Caverley Waterworks . The lake area with dripping wells remains , but the other lakes , bandstand and open air pool have all gone . There is a bowls club , café , toilets and children 's play area , including cycle track . It is adjoined by the Hilbert recreation ground , parts of which have been designated as a local nature reserve by the Kent High Weald Partnership ; these include Roundabout Woods and the adjoining grass areas . The Hilbert Recreation Ground was donated to the town by Cllr Edward Strange in 1931 , on the site of the form John Beane 's Charity Farm . There are two football pitches , built as part of the King George V playing fields scheme , and a skatepark .
The Salomons Museum preserves the home of Sir David Salomons , the first Jew to serve as Lord Mayor of London and the first non @-@ Christian to sit in Parliament . It preserves the bench from which Salomons rose to speak as the first Jewish MP ever to speak in Parliament .
= = The arts = =
The town 's largest theatre is the Assembly Hall in Crescent Road , which has a capacity of 1020 . Nearby , in Church Road , is the Trinity Arts Centre which is a converted church .
The Forum is a 250 @-@ capacity live music venue in the town , run by Jason Dormon , where many bands have played their early concerts on their way to success .
Unfest is an annual free music festival which takes place in May .
Royal Tunbridge Wells held its first TEDxRoyalTunbridgeWells on 6 June 2015 .
= = Local media = =
Royal Tunbridge Wells has one local commercial radio station , KMFM West Kent . Many London stations can also be picked up in the town . The BBC has its regional centre in the town at the Great Hall Arcade . It is the base of BBC Radio Kent and for BBC South East regional programming , the complex containing studios , offices and a BBC shop .
= = Notable people = =
= New Jersey Route 184 =
Route 184 is a state highway in New Jersey , United States . It is an old section of Route 440 that was rerouted . Route 184 's western end is at an intersection with the Garden State Parkway in Woodbridge Township ; NJ 184 's eastern end is at an intersection with Route 35 in Perth Amboy . The highway passes several local landmarks along the highway , but is less populated than the surrounding area . The entire highway is concurrent with County Route 501 , but is not county @-@ maintained .
The route originated as Route S4 , which became NJ 440 on January 1 , 1953 . In 1974 , a part of Route 440 was bypassed and rerouted , and the New Jersey State Highway Department reassigned the former alignment as NJ 184 .
= = Route description = =
Route 184 begins at an interchange with the Garden State Parkway 's exit 129 and County Route 501 ( CR 501 ) n Woodbridge Township . The route , immediately concurrent with CR 501 is known as King Georges Road , which turns to the north near Fords Park . Just after the split from King Georges Road , Route 184 enters a partial cloverleaf interchange with US 9 and passes south of Hopelawn Park . After passing the local cemetery , the route crosses a junction with CR 655 ( Florida Grove Road ) . Continuing east , the route becomes known as Pfieffer Boulevard and crosses an interchange with Route 440 in Perth Amboy .
Just east of Route 440 , the route continues northward until reaching an intersection with Route 35 ( Convery Boulevard ) , marking the eastern terminus of Route 184 .
= = History = =
Route 184 originated as a prefixed spur of Route 4 ( currently an alignment of U.S. Route 9 ) , New Jersey State Highway Route S @-@ 4 , first defined in 1927 . The highway was an alignment from the new Outerbridge Crossing to Route 4 . It was eventually extended from Route 4 to the recently built Route 4 Parkway ( now the Garden State Parkway ) in 1951 . In the 1953 renumbering on January 1 , 1953 , Route S @-@ 4 was decommissioned and renumbered to Route 440 to match up with New York State Route 440 in Staten Island .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in Middlesex County .
= John Morrison and The Miz =
John Morrison and The Miz was a professional wrestling tag team in World Wrestling Entertainment . The duo performed on its ECW brand , but also appeared on the SmackDown and Raw brands due to ECW 's talent exchanges with those brands during their tenure as a team . The team had no official name , although they had been referred to as " The In Crowd " or " The Dirt Sheet Duo " , after the name of their Slammy Award @-@ winning online webshow , The Dirt Sheet . Both were former WWE Tough Enough contestants , with Morrison winning the show 's third season and Miz the runner @-@ up of its fourth season .
They first began teaming together in 2007 . Originally rivals , John Morrison and The Miz became partners as a result of winning the WWE Tag Team Championship and making the title exclusive to the ECW brand , for a brief time . They eventually dropped the title in July 2008 . During their title reign , Morrison and The Miz developed a gimmick that resulted in the duo being given their own webshow , The Dirt Sheet , and their own in @-@ ring interview segment of the same name on ECW . In December 2008 they won the Slammy Award in the category for Tag Team of the Year and won the World Tag Team Championship . The team split in April 2009 , after the Miz was drafted to the Raw brand and Morrison was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 WWE Draft .
= = History = =
= = = Tag Team Champions ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
Before they formed a partnership , John Morrison and The Miz were opponents , competing for the ECW Championship in October 2007 . On the November 16 , 2007 , episode of SmackDown ! , then @-@ rivals Morrison and The Miz were paired together to face Matt Hardy and MVP in a match for the WWE Tag Team Championship , which they subsequently won after MVP turned on Hardy . After winning the title , Morrison and The Miz brought the title to the ECW brand . Soon after winning the WWE Tag Team Championship , the two were no longer portrayed as enemies , but rather as trusting friends . They would defend the title on numerous occasions on both ECW and SmackDown as well as multiple pay @-@ per @-@ views against opponents like Shannon Moore and Jimmy Wang Yang , Jesse and Festus , and Tommy Dreamer and Colin Delaney . The team 's gimmick was further expanded upon when they were given a show on WWE.com called The Dirt Sheet . During the sixth annual WWE Draft on June 23 , 2008 , on Monday Night Raw , the duo defeated the Hardys ( Matt and Jeff ) which earned ECW its only draft pick , which turned out to be Matt Hardy . At the Great American Bash in July , Morrison and The Miz lost the title in a four team tag match to Curt Hawkins and Zack Ryder ; however , neither The Miz nor Morrison were pinned during the match .
After losing the tag team title , Morrison and The Miz entered a feud with ECW newcomers Evan Bourne and Ricky Ortiz , who they had previously mocked ( and continued to do so ) on the Dirt Sheet . They also had an Internet @-@ centered feud with Raw 's Cryme Tyme ( Shad Gaspard and JTG ) based on which WWE.com online show was better : the Dirt Sheet or Cryme Tyme 's Word Up . Morrison and The Miz won a match between the two teams at Cyber Sunday , which was voted for by fans over a World Tag Team Championship match .
Throughout October , the team mocked D @-@ Generation X ( DX ) ( Triple H and Shawn Michaels ) , using phrases such as " Are you 50 ? " instead of DX 's usual catchphrase " Are you Ready ? " to mock their ages due to DX being formed in 1997 , when both Morrison and Miz were in high school . On the October 28 episode of ECW , their feud with DX continued as they mocked them after a live Dirt Sheet and then proceeded to attack two impostors playing Michaels and Triple H. On the 800th episode celebration of Raw , Morrison and The Miz competed in a match against DX , and were defeated . During the match , they mocked DX 's signature moves , with Morrison successfully performing a superkick ( mocking Michaels ' Sweet Chin Music ) on Triple H as well as The Miz attempting a Pedigree on Triple H. Following their feud with DX , they continued to feud with Cryme Tyme . Morrison and The Miz were part of John " Bradshaw " Layfield 's team at the annual Survivor Series but they lost to the team of Shawn Michaels .
On the December 8 episode of Raw , Morrison and The Miz won the 2008 Slammy Award for Tag Team of the Year and also for the Best WWE.com exclusive , for their show , The Dirt Sheet . On December 13 , at a house show in Hamilton , Ontario , Morrison and The Miz won the World Tag Team Championship for the first time , defeating Kofi Kingston and CM Punk . In a dark match at WrestleMania XXV , Morrison and the Miz lost the World Tag Team title to The Colóns ( Carlito and Primo ) in a Lumberjack match to unify the World Tag Team and the WWE Tag Team Championships .
= = = Split and feud ( 2009 – 2011 ) = = =
On the April 13 episode of Raw , The Miz lost a match to Kofi Kingston after Morrison accidentally got Miz disqualified , which gave Raw a draft pick in the 2009 WWE Draft . The pick was then revealed to be The Miz , and he subsequently attacked Morrison , ending their partnership . Two days later on April 15 , Morrison was drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2009 Supplemental Draft .
In October 2009 , WWE premiered a new pay @-@ per @-@ view event based around inter @-@ brand matches . At the time , The Miz was the second @-@ tier champion on Raw after winning the United States Champion and was subsequently booked against SmackDown 's Intercontinental Champion , John Morrison . In the build up to their first match since splitting , the two hosted a one @-@ off edition of The Dirt Sheet on the October 16 episode of SmackDown where the two compared themselves to ' 80s tag team The Rockers , debating over which is more comparable to the successful Shawn Michaels and which was the less successful Marty Jannetty . At Bragging Rights , Miz pinned Morrison to become the only member of the Raw roster to win an interpromotional match . The following month at Survivor Series , Miz captained a team of five wrestlers against Team Morrison in a five @-@ on @-@ five Survivor Series elimination match and once again bested his former partner . At the Tribute to the Troops in December , Miz rolled up Morrison for the win in a singles match . The two had another match the following March , when John Morrison and his new partner R @-@ Truth challenged for the Unified Tag Team Championships held by The Miz and the Big Show . Morrison was finally able to defeat The Miz in a singles match , however Morrison could not pick up the victory for the titles at WrestleMania XXVI .
In 2011 , after The Miz won the WWE Championship , he retained the title against Morrison in a Falls Count Anywhere match on the January 3 , 2011 , episode of Raw . At May 's Extreme Rules , Cena won the title in a triple threat steel cage match against The Miz and Morrison . Later that year in November , The Miz and Morrison had another Falls Count Anywhere match , in which The Miz caused Morrison a scripted injury ; this was used to write Morrison off WWE television as his contract had expired .
= = In wrestling = =
Signature tag team moves
Catapult ( Miz ) into a forearm smash ( Morrison ) , knocking the opponent backwards , followed by a slingshot elbow drop ( Morrison ) onto the opponent draped over Miz 's knees
Double belly to back wheelbarrow facebuster
Double gutbuster
Double spinebuster
Simultaneous powerbomb ( Morrison ) / neckbreaker ( The Miz ) combination
Morrison 's finishing moves
Moonlight Drive ( Corkscrew neckbreaker )
The Miz 's finishing moves
Reality Check ( Running knee lift followed by a neckbreaker slam )
Managers
Nikki Bella
Nicknames
" The ( self – proclaimed ) Greatest Tag Team of the 21st Century "
" The Dirt Sheet Duo "
" The In Crowd "
Entrance themes
" Ain 't No Make Believe " by Stonefree Experience
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Most Improved Wrestler of the Year ( 2009 ) – Morrison
Ranked Morrison 43 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
Ranked The Miz 54 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 2008
World Wrestling Entertainment
World Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
WWE Tag Team Championship ( 1 time )
Slammy Award ( 2 time )
Best WWE.com Exclusive ( 2008 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter Awards
Most Improved ( 2008 and 2009 ) – The Miz
Tag Team of the Year ( 2008 )
= Islands of the Forth =
The Islands of the Forth are a group of small islands located in the Firth of Forth and in the estuary of the River Forth on the east coast of Scotland . Most of the group lie in the open waters of the firth , between the Lothians and Fife , with the majority to the east of the city of Edinburgh . Two islands lie further west in the river estuary .
The islands have a varied geology and history and several have both ecclesiastical connections and were involved in military occupations throughout the centuries of recorded history . Various lighthouses and other aids to navigation have been erected on the islands and skerries , one dating to the 17th century , but only one of the islands is still permanently inhabited . The area has a diversity of bird and sea life and the scientific name for the northern gannet is derived from this bird 's connection with the Bass Rock .
There are few islands off eastern Scotland and most of any size are in this group .
= = Geography = =
Furthest east is the Isle of May , off the coast of Fife south of Crail . To the south in the outer Firth there is a group of islands off East Lothian near North Berwick and Gullane ; from east to west they are the Bass Rock ( also known simply as " The Bass " ) , Craigleith , The Lamb , Fidra and Eyebroughy . A second group lie in the inner Firth of Forth . Inchkeith and Inchcolm are off Kinghorn and Aberdour on the north shore , Inchgarvie lies midway between North and South Queensferry , and Inchmickery and Cramond Island are nearer to Edinburgh on the south shore . Alloa Inch and Tullibody Inch are furthest west in the estuarine waters of the River Forth .
Only one of these islands , Inchcolm , has had a resident population in recent years , although there have been monasteries , hermitages , lighthouses and fortifications on most of them in the past . In the late 19th century the Isle of May had a population of over 20 . Many of the island names have the first element , " Inch- " ( from Innis , the Gaelic word for " island " ) .
= = Geology = =
Geologically , most of the islands are the remnants of igneous intrusions . The Isle of May 's rock is " fine grained basalt of a dark @-@ grey colour with tinges of green and greenstone " . Fidra is also largely basalt and The Bass is a phonolite volcanic plug . Craigleith is a laccolith made up of essexite which is popular for making curling stones and Cramond island is made up of dolerite . Inchmickery and Inchgarvie are of igneous origin and the latter is partly made up of picrite . Studies of the landscape beneath the waters of the firth have revealed that the visible surface of Inchgarvie is only the top of a larger crag and tail structure similar in structure to Edinburgh Castle and the Royal Mile created by glacial action . The tidal islet of Eyebroughy is about 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) to the west of Fidra . Its component rock is trachyte and Lower Carboniferous in origin .
Most of Inchkeith is of volcanic origin but there are also sections of sandstone , coal , limestone and shale , the last named containing numerous fossils . There are also several springs on the island . Inchcolm is similarly varied , consisting of greenstone , sandstone , shale and limestone .
= = Natural history = =
The Firth is an important area for nature conservation and has a range of habitats including extensive mudflats , shingle shorelines and saltmarsh . The last named , which is well developed on Alloa Inch , is typically dominated by saltmarsh rush , sea club @-@ rush , sea aster and common saltmarsh @-@ grass . The inner Firth is important for nationally and internationally important numbers of wintering wildfowl and wading birds and hosts populations of shelduck , knot , redshank , great crested grebe , teal and goldeneye . The outer islands support significant numbers of nesting seabirds . The Bass Rock has more than 150 @,@ 000 nesting northern gannets and is the largest single rock gannetry in the world . When viewed from the mainland much of the rock looks white due to the sheer number of birds ( and their droppings , which give off 152 tonnes of ammonia per year ) . The scientific names for this gannet , Sula bassana and Morus bassanus , are derived from the rock . The bird was traditionally known locally as the solan goose , and its eggs and meat were considered delicacies . It is estimated that in 1850 almost 2000 birds were harvested from the rock . Other bird species on the rock include guillemot , razorbill , cormorant , puffin , eider duck and numerous gulls .
Craigleith lies close to North Berwick 's harbour and historically was used as a rabbit warren . The rabbits were bred for food but they were wiped out by myxomatosis in the 1950s . The Atlantic puffin colony on Craigleith , once one of the largest in Britain with 28 @,@ 000 pairs , became endangered from 1999 onwards , due to an invasion of the non @-@ endemic plant tree mallow , which choked the puffins ' burrows , preventing them from rearing their chicks , or " pufflings " . A five @-@ year project , SOS Puffin , led by the Scottish Seabird Centre at North Berwick , was launched early in 2007 . Since then , hundreds of volunteers have been working hard to rid the island of the problem , ferried out by boat from the Seabird Centre during the winter months , when the puffins are at sea . There are signs that the puffins are starting to return to the island to breed . Fidra , Inchmickery and Eyebroughy are RSPB reserves , the last being noted for its cormorants . Over 240 species of bird and 60 varieties of seaweed have been recorded on the Isle of May .
= = History = =
Several of the islands contain pre @-@ historic remains created by cultures whose names are unknown . They have also been affected by the successive influences of Celtic , Norse and English @-@ speaking peoples during the historic period and this is reflected in their names . The islands also came under attack from Vikings during the early Historic period .
= = = 15th century = = =
During the reign of King James IV Inchkeith was the site of an extraordinary experiment . According to the historian Robert Lyndsay of Pitscottie , in 1493 James directed that a dumb woman and two infants be transported to the island , to ascertain which language the infants would grow up to speak when isolated from the rest of the world . It was thought that this would be the " original " language , or language of God . There is no reliable account of how the infants spoke although Lyndsay of Pitscottie reported that " some say they spoke good Hebrew " .
In 1497 Inchkeith and Inchgarvie were used as an isolated refuge for victims of syphilis and in 1589 , history repeated itself when Inchekith was used to quarantine the passengers of a plague @-@ ridden ship . ( More plague sufferers came from the mainland in 1609 and in 1799 , Russian sailors who died of an infectious disease were buried there . )
Inchcolm is mentioned in Shakespeare 's Macbeth where it is described as " Saint Colmes ynch " .
= = = English garrisons = = =
Inchcolm was raided by English troops during the 14th century Wars of Independence . In the 16th century Inchkeith , Inchcolm and Inchgarvie all suffered English occupation . The Earl of Somerset garrisoned the islands in 1547 after the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh . His force of marines were ordered to reinforce Inchkeith , and they built a large square fort , with corner towers , on the site of the present day lighthouse . His forces , mainly Italian mercenaries , were ejected by a combined Franco @-@ Scottish force under General D ’ Essé in 1549 .
= = = Later fortifications = = =
Several islands including Inchkeith and Inchgarvie were fortified in subsequent years both from fear of Napoleonic invasion , and during the two World Wars . Inchmickery was used as a gun emplacement during both World Wars and the derelict concrete structures were designed to make the island look like a battleship from a distance . These buildings were later used for filming scenes of the film Complicity .
= = = Ecclesiastical associations = = =
Many of the islands were said to have Culdee connections , and had chapels on them . Various saints also have connections with the islands . St Thaney or Thenaw was reputedly the mother of St Kentigern and is said to have been cast adrift in an oarless coracle in deep waters beyond the Isle of May by her father King Leudonus , which resulted in an abundance of fish in the seas nearby . St Adrian of May was murdered there by invading Danes in 870 ( who killed St Monance in the same raid ) . He was buried in a stone coffin on the island but is said to have floated across the Firth before coming to rest in a churchyard at Anstruther . The Isle of May has a long history of ecclesiastical activity and there are various remains including that of a 13th @-@ century Benedictine church .
The Irish missionary Saint Baldred of Tyninghame resided on The Bass in the 8th century and there is a ruined 12th century chapel on Fidra dedicated to St Nicholas . Inchcolm has connections to St Columba and King Alexander I was marooned on the island , and decided to make it the site of an Augustinian monastery . In the 7th century St Adomnán of Iona founded a " school of the prophets " on Inchkeith in the late 7th century having met St Serf there . Inchmickery 's name may be derived from the Gaelic for " island of the vicar " .
= = Navigation = =
Many of the isles act as an aid to navigation . There are various lighthouses and numerous devices to guide shipping in the busy waters near the ports of Leith and Rosyth .
In 1803 , construction was begun of Inchkeith Lighthouse , designed and built by Thomas Smith and Robert Stevenson . The lighthouse stands 67 metres high and was operational by 1804 . The Fidra light was built in 1885 and automated in 1970 . The light on the small rock of Oxcars was automated as early as 1894 . At that time it was controlled by a clockwork timer and was powered using gas delivered weekly from Granton gasworks . A lighthouse was constructed on the Bass Rock in 1902 .
The Isle of May light has a long history having been in operation since 1635 when a crude coal @-@ fired structure was erected . The existing building was constructed in 1816 , which was converted to a " rock station " in 1972 and automated in March 1989 . The island is owned by the Commissioners of the Northern Lights although managed by Scottish Natural Heritage as a National Nature Reserve .
None of the islands are accessible by public transport except Inchcolm , which has a regular summer service .
= = Islands = =
= = = Outer islands = = =
The Isle of May is in the north of the outer Firth of Forth , about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) off the coast of mainland Fife . It is 1 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 1 mi ) long , less than 0 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 31 mi ) wide and has a total area of 45 hectares ( 110 acres ) making it by far the largest of the Forth islands . Although often inhabited in the past nobody has been recorded as living there since the automation of the lighthouse . Rona is a tidal islet to the north joined to the main island by a bridge . Further north are North Ness , the Mars Rocks and Norman Rock . Clett and the Middens are stacks to the east and The Pillow is a skerry to the south east . Maiden Rocks and Maiden Hair lie just offshore to the south .
The Bass Rock is about 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) offshore , and 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) north @-@ east of North Berwick . This steep @-@ sided island is currently uninhabited , but was lived on for many centuries . It has a castle dating from the 14th century , which was later used as a prison and there are the remains of a chapel built circa 1491 . The Lauder family owned the island for almost six centuries , and it now belongs to Sir Hew Dalrymple whose family purchased it in 1701 . The rock features in various works of fiction , including Robert Louis Stevenson 's Catriona . At 7 @.@ 5 hectares ( 19 acres ) in extent the Bass Rock is the second largest of the islands of the Forth . The Middens is a small stack that lies just offshore to the northwest .
Craigleith lies north of North Berwick harbour . It was also purchased by Sir Hew Dalrymple , from North Berwick Town Council in 1814 .
The Lamb is an uninhabited island about 100m long by 50m wide , flanked by the skerries North Dog and South Dog . There are other skerries between it and the shore including Bubbly Buss , the Law Rocks and the Hummel Ridges . In February 2009 , the island was bought by the Israeli paranormalist Uri Geller for £ 30 @,@ 000 .
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coast there is another West Vows and East Vows at Earlsferry . The Carr Brigs are a hazard to shipping at the entrance to the Firth just off Fife Ness .
There are fewer skerries on the south coast of the Firth . Little Ox lies off Musselburgh and the Black Rocks , including the Middle and Eastern Craigs lie just outside the Port of Leith .
= Folk Singer ( album ) =
Folk Singer is the fourth studio album by Muddy Waters , released in April 1964 by Chess Records . The album features Waters on acoustic guitar , backed by Willie Dixon on string bass , Clifton James on drums , and Buddy Guy on acoustic guitar . It is Waters 's only all @-@ acoustic album . Numerous reissues of Folk Singer include bonus tracks from two subsequent sessions , in April 1964 and October 1964 .
Despite not charting in any country , Folk Singer received critical acclaim ; most reviewers praised its high @-@ quality sound , especially on remastered versions , as well as the instrumentation . In 2003 , the album was ranked number 280 on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the 500 greatest albums of all time .
= = Background = =
After his successful performance at Newport Jazz Festival and tours through America , Chess Records encouraged Waters to record songs for a new studio album . Before the recording , several musicians had Waters 's band , and other had joined Waters . Andrew Stephens , who played at Newport , was replaced in the following years with numerous bassists . The drummer Francis Clay was replaced by Willie " Big Eyes " Smith , who played in the Muddy Waters Junior Band . Pat Hare was sentenced to life in prison for the murder of his wife ( while in jail , he formed the band Sounds Incarcerated ) . Hare was replaced by a succession of guitarists , including James " Pee Wee " Madison , who played a right @-@ handed guitar left handed . Madison played guitar on some of the reissue bonus tracks , as did Sammy Lawhorn . Lawhorn allegedly suffered from narcolepsy ( Elvin Bishop denied this , believing that Lawhorn 's sleepiness was due to alcoholism ) . The electric guitarist Buddy Guy , who had recorded with Waters on Blues from Big Bill 's Copacabana , released by Chess in 1963 , was hired . Guy had been discovered by Waters shortly after Guy arrived in Chicago from Louisiana .
= = Recording = =
Folk Singer is an " unplugged " recording and differs from his earlier albums , which featured an electric blues sound . The title of the album was chosen by Chess Records because it was recorded during the time when folk music was popular . In order to appeal to fans of folk music , Chess recorded a more acoustic album with two acoustic guitarists . Buddy Guy was hired as the second guitarist . Other guitarists played on bonus tracks . Guy played on all original songs , except the last song , " Feel Like Going Home " , together with Waters .
The recording took place at the Tel Mar Recording Studios , in Chicago , in September 1963 , and was produced by Willie Dixon . The original vinyl release includes nine songs , most of which are performed at a slower tempo , with the exception of the uptempo " Good Morning Little Schoolgirl " . During recording , Waters emphasized his singing with hums and sighs .
= = Releases and tour = =
The original album was released as an LP in April 1964 by Chess Records . Since then , numerous record labels have released different versions on CD , with different bonus tracks from Waters 's 1964 sessions . One of the first CD versions was released in 1993 by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab , containing two bonus tracks , " You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " and " The Same Thing . " The 1999 remastered version contains five bonus tracks , " The Same Thing " , " You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " , " My John the Conqueror Root " , " Short Dress Woman " and " Put MeiIn Your Lay Away " .
The supporting tour through Europe , the second American Folk Blues Festival , began one month after the recording of Folk Singer . The first gig out of seventeen took place in London ; other performances were in Belgium , Germany , France and Denmark . In London , Waters began with the unreleased " My Captain " , followed by " Rollin ' Stone " . In keeping with the folk theme , quiet versions of " Five Long Years " , " Blow Wind Blow " , " Trouble No More " , " My Home Is in the Delta " and " Got My Mojo Working " were performed .
= = Critical reception = =
In a contemporary review , Down Beat magazine found Waters 's singing " forced and artificial " , writing that Folk Singer suffers from a major flaw : " He only begins to come close to the power and unforced intensity of the original numbers and style from time to time , as on ' You Gonna Need My Help ' and ' My Home Is in the Delta ' " . In a retrospective review , Cub Koda , writing for AllMusic was more enthusiastic , deeming the record 's sound fresh and vital . In 2003 , Rolling Stone ranked Folk Singer number 280 on its list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of AllTime " , writing that the " unplugged " playing was pioneering and has since been " beloved by blues and folk fans alike " . In a 1994 issue of Rolling Stone , a reviewer wrote , " ... There aren 't too many blues albums that qualify as audiophile recordings , but Muddy Waters Folk Singer surely does . A wonderfully intimate session , it delivers Waters ' voice in all its power and subtlety , while rendering his guitar work ... with such vivid realism , you would think you were sitting in the studio .... "
= = Track listing = =
" My Home Is in the Delta " ( Waters ) – 3 : 58
" Long Distance " ( Waters ) – 3 : 30
" My Captain " ( Willie Dixon ) – 5 : 10
" Good Morning Little Schoolgirl " ( Sonny Boy Williamson ) – 3 : 12
" You Gonna Need My Help " ( Waters ) – 3 : 09
" Cold Weather Blues " ( Waters ) – 4 : 40
" Big Leg Woman " ( John Temple ) – 3 : 25
" Country Boy " ( Waters ) – 3 : 26
" Feel Like Going Home " ( Waters ) – 3 : 52
= = = 1993 bonus tracks = = =
" The Same Thing " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 57
" You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " ( Waters ) – 2 : 46
= = = 1999 bonus tracks = = =
" The Same Thing " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 57
" You Can 't Lose What You Never Had " ( Waters ) – 2 : 46
" My John the Conqueror Root " ( Dixon ) – 2 : 22
" Short Dress Woman " ( John T. Brown ) – 2 : 49
" Put Me in Your Lay Away " ( L.J. Welch ) – 2 : 56
= = Personnel = =
Credits are adapted from AllMusic .
= Admiral Nakhimov @-@ class cruiser =
The Admiral Nakhimov @-@ class cruisers were a group of four light cruisers built for the Imperial Russian Navy just before World War I began in 1914 . Construction was interrupted by the Russian Revolution and only two of the ships were eventually completed well after the end of the Russian Civil War by the Soviets . Chervona Ukraina was the first ship completed and was built to essentially the original design . Krasnyi Kavkaz was much modified and completed five years after Chervona Ukraina . Both ships participated in the Sieges of Odessa and Sevastopol after the Germans invaded Russia in June 1941 . They ferried troops into the cities , evacuated wounded and bombarded the besieging German troops . Chervona Ukraina was bombed and sunk by dive bombers in November during one of these missions and Krasny Kavkaz was badly damaged by the same type of aircraft in January 1942 . After her lengthy repairs were completed , the ship transported reinforcements to cities on the Black Sea coast during the Battle of the Caucasus . She was reclassified as a training ship in 1947 before she was sunk as a target in 1956 . Chervona Ukraina was salvaged in 1947 and then became a hulked . She became a target ship in 1950 .
= = Description = =
The ships were essentially enlarged versions of the Svetlana @-@ class cruisers , modified after consultations with the Scottish firm of John Brown & Company .
As designed , the ships displaced 7 @,@ 600 long tons ( 7 @,@ 700 t ) . They had an length at the waterline of 535 ft 6 in ( 163 @.@ 2 m ) , a beam of 51 ft 6 in ( 15 @.@ 7 m ) and a mean draft of about 18 ft 3 in ( 5 @.@ 6 m ) . They were powered by four Brown @-@ Curtis steam turbines , each driving one shaft , which developed a total of 55 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 41 @,@ 000 kW ) and gave a maximum speed of 29 @.@ 5 knots ( 54 @.@ 6 km / h ; 33 @.@ 9 mph ) . The engines were powered by 14 Yarrow water @-@ tube boilers . Four were coal @-@ fired while the rest were mixed @-@ firing . The ship carried a maximum of 540 long tons ( 550 t ) of coal and an additional 690 long tons ( 700 t ) of fuel oil that was sprayed on the coal to increase its burn rate in the mixed @-@ firing boilers . At full capacity , she could steam for 1 @,@ 200 nautical miles ( 2 @,@ 200 km ; 1 @,@ 400 mi ) at a speed of 14 knots ( 26 km / h ; 16 mph ) . The ships ' crew numbered 630 officers and men .
The ships ' main armament consisted of fifteen 55 @-@ caliber 130 mm / 55 B7 Pattern 1913 guns in single mounts . Six of these were mounted in casemates . Her anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) armament consisted of four 63 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 5 in ) guns . They also mounted two submerged 457 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo tubes . The ships were intended to carry one seaplane .
The cruisers ' waterline belt consisted of 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of Krupp cemented armor and above it was an upper belt 1 inch ( 25 mm ) thick . The gun shields were protected by 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of armour . Each of the armored decks was .75 inches ( 19 mm ) thick . The armor of the conning tower was 3 inches ( 76 mm ) thick .
In 1917 , the Naval General Staff decided to add another seaplane and a crane to handle them . It also decided to upgrade Admiral Nakhimov 's anti @-@ aircraft guns to 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) weapons and the other ships of the class would receive 4 @-@ inch ( 102 mm ) AA guns . Neither decision was implemented before construction was suspended .
= = Ships = =
= = Construction and modifications = =
The first pair of ships was ordered in March 1914 and the second in October . The hulls of all four ships were to be built by the Russud Shipyard and fitted out by the Naval Shipyard . Construction was slowed by the Russian Revolution and the hulls of both Admiral Nakhimov and Admiral Lazarev were seized by the Germans when they captured Nikolayev in 1918 . They were later turned over the Allies in November in accordance with the Armistice . The Allies in turn handed them over to the White Russians the following year who assigned them to Wrangel 's fleet . Admiral Nakhimov was run aground by the dock workers while fitting @-@ out in Nikolayev later in 1919 to prevent her use by the Whites . She was later salvaged in 1920 by the Bolsheviks . Neither Admiral Istomin nor Admiral Kornilov were in shape to be completed after years of neglect and they were scrapped in 1922 – 23 .
Admiral Nakhimov was renamed Chervona Ukraina , ( Червона Украина – Red Ukraine ) on 26 December 1922 by the Soviets and completed on 21 March 1927 . She was mostly finished to the original design with some of the modifications proposed by the Naval General Staff in 1917 . A pair of cranes was fitted abreast the central funnel to lift the pair of seaplanes on and off the water and the area immediately abaft that funnel was modified to stow the aircraft . Her foremast was converted from a pole to a tripod and the submerged torpedo tubes were removed and replaced by four triple 533 @-@ millimetre ( 21 @.@ 0 in ) torpedo mounts carried on her deck , two on each broadside . Chervona Ukraina was given a lengthy refit in 1939 – 41 where her aircraft and their handling equipment was removed and fire @-@ control equipment was modernized . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament was replaced by three twin Italian Minizini 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) gun mounts , ten single 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns and seven 12 @.@ 7 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 50 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machine guns . One pair of her torpedo tubes was also removed .
Admiral Lazarev was renamed Krasnyi Kavkaz ( Красный Кавказ – Red Caucasus ) on 14 December 1926 . The Soviets intended to upgrade her armament and finally settled on the new 57 @-@ caliber 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) B @-@ 1 @-@ K gun in four single gun turrets , two at each end . Her superstructure was massively revised to accommodate these turrets and all of her original armament removed , as was her forward funnel . Her anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of four 30 @-@ caliber 76 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 3 in ) Lender guns mounted between her funnels . Like her sister , she also received four triple torpedo mounts . She was given an aircraft @-@ handling crane , but a catapult wasn 't installed aft of her rear funnel until 1935 when a Heinkel catapult was imported from Germany . She was also fitted for mine rails with a capacity of up to 120 mines .
She was refitted before Operation Barbarossa , probably about 1940 , her catapult was removed , and her anti @-@ aircraft armament was greatly increased . Her four 76 @.@ 2 mm Lender AA guns were exchanged for four twin 50 @-@ caliber 100 mm AA mounts and she received four single mounts for the semi @-@ automatic 45 mm 21 @-@ K gun were fitted as well as six 12 @.@ 7 mm AA machine guns . Two single mounts for 76 @.@ 2 mm 34 @-@ K guns were also fitted . While under repair at Poti in late 1942 she landed her aft pair of torpedo tubes and received two more Minizini mounts salvaged from the sunken Chervona Ukraina . Ten single mounts for the naval version of the 37 mm AA gun was also fitted . By 1944 she was also carrying one quadruple Vickers .50 machine gun MK III mount on top of each of her superfiring main gun turrets and she may have been using Oerlikon 20 mm cannon .
= = Service = =
The light cruiser Komintern collided with Krasnyi Kavkaz in May 1932 , shortly after she was commissioned , and badly damaged her bow . It was extensively rebuilt and increased her overall length by over 11 meters ( 36 ft 1 in ) . Both ships made port visits to Turkey , Greece and Italy before World War II .
Chervona Ukraina , in company with Krasnyi Kavkaz , Komintern and a number of destroyers , laid down a defensive minefield protecting the Black Sea Fleet base at Sevastopol on 22 June 1941 . They provided gunfire support to Soviet forces during the Siege of Odessa and escorted convoys bringing reinforcements into Odessa . Krasny Kavkaz transported one battalion of the 3rd Marine Regiment from Sevastopol in a successful amphibious assault behind Romanian lines to destroy Romanian coastal batteries near Fontanka and Dofinovka . Both ships escorted convoys from Odessa to Sevastopol in October when the evacuation of Odessa was ordered . During the Siege of Sevastopol , they provided gunfire support and evacuated cut @-@ off troops from elsewhere in the Crimea into Sevastopol and brought in reinforcements from Caucasian ports . Chervona Ukraina was hit three times by bombs from German Junkers Ju 87 Stuka dive @-@ bombers on 12 November 1941 , but didn 't sink until the next day after her crew was ordered to abandon her . Her guns were salvaged and most of the guns and crew were incorporated into the port 's defenses ,
Krasnyi Kavkaz continued to ferry reinforcements into Sevastopol . During the Kerch @-@ Feodosiya Operation the ship sailed into the harbor of Feodosiya on 29 December 1941 , landed reinforcements , and provided gunfire support for Soviet troops already ashore . In early January 1942 , she was severely damaged by German dive bombers . She made it to Novorossiysk , escorted by the destroyer Sposobnyi , where she was patched up enough to make to Poti where more permanent repairs could be made . These took until October 1942 and the opportunity was taken to reinforce her anti @-@ aircraft armament .
She was awarded the Guards title on 3 April in recognition of her performance . Between 20 and 23 October , she helped to transport 12 @,@ 600 men from Poti to Tuapse to reinforce the defenses there . On the night of 4 February 1943 the Soviets made a series of amphibious landings to the west of Novorossiysk , behind German lines . Krasnyi Kavkaz provided fire support for the main landing , but the Soviet troops there were wiped out by 6 February . The loss of three destroyers attempting to interdict the German evacuation of the Taman Bridgehead on 6 October 1943 caused Stalin to forbid the deployment of large naval units without his express permission and this meant the end of the ship 's active participation in the war .
= = = Post @-@ war activities = = =
Chervona Ukraina was raised on 3 November 1947 , repaired , and used as a training hulk until 30 October 1950 when she became a target ship . On 10 May 1952 , she was grounded on a spit to serve as a fixed target . Little is known about Krasny Kavkaz 's activities after the end of the war other than she was redesignated as a training ship on 13 May 1947 . She was sunk as a target ship by SS @-@ N @-@ 1 missiles on 21 November 1952 .
= Altes Stadthaus , Bonn =
The Altes Stadthaus is a former administration building in Bonn , built for the French occupation forces after World War I. It was designed by the Munich architect German Bestelmeyer in 1922 . Construction was completed in 1924 – 25 . The building most recently served as a public library and administration building . As of 2012 , the Altes Stadthaus is being renovated and extended as a " House of Learning " ( German : " Haus der Bildung " ) , which will accommodate the community college and the library .
= = Location and architecture = =
German Bestelmeyer designed the building to make an impressive entry point to the city on the north side . It was erected on a bastion that remained from the former city walls , opposite the University of Bonn , which occupies the former residential palace of the prince @-@ elector of Cologne on the site of the south bastion . A curved section adjoins Windeckstraße on the south side and defines the remaining bastion as a garden space . Along with the " Old Toll @-@ House " , this bastion is one of the few parts of the old fortifications accessible to the public . In the 1980s , a new access route was created from the Florentiusgraben , and the courtyard was landscaped and trees planted . In the late 1990s part of this small park was turned into a playground .
The Altes Stadthaus is arranged around two rectangular internal courtyards . The main section , which faces Mühlheimer Platz , has a mansard roof and is framed by four @-@ storey turrets . The main entrance is at the southwest corner of Bottlerplatz , and the building bridges Windeckstraße , with two low arched openings . Bestelmayer 's building was intended to be the nucleus of future development in the centre of Bonn . However , the only other construction there was the tax office on the corner of Mülheimer Platz and Münsterstraße , built in 1937 , and some further building on Bottlerplatz . After the Neues Stadthaus — the new city administration building — was built , the main floor of the section of Altes Stadthaus facing Mühlheimer Platz was rebuilt to house the library . In the course of this restructuring , the two courtyards were roofed over and several interior walls replaced with columns . The east wing of the building was demolished to make way for a C & A department store .
= = History = =
After World War II , the Bundesministerium für gesamtdeutsche Fragen was housed in the Altes Stadthaus between 1949 and 1957 , primarily in the now demolished section of the building .
In the summer of 2006 , the mayor and the speaker of the Social Democratic Party of Germany group in the city council announced plans to sell the Altes Stadthaus , relocating the library , the community college , and the city museum to a new building in Quantiusstraße , near the station . The Stadthaus was to be used as retail space .
= = = House of Learning = = =
The announcement to sell the building sparked a fierce public debate . The Green Party , at the time in a coalition with the SPD , strongly disagreed with the plan . The Christian Democratic Union party held a meeting in October 2006 . The director of the Bonn Women 's Museum , Marianne Pitzen , accused the initiators of the plan of selling off public property and underestimating the value of cultural heritage .
At the end of October 2006 , a citizens ' group was formed to promote the creation of a " House of Learning " ( German : " Haus der Bildung " ) at Bottlerplatz . The group demanded that the existing building and library should be kept and renovated .
At its session of 23 November 2006 , the planning committee of the city council charged its staff with examining how the Altes Stadthaus could be used for large @-@ scale retail without damaging it as an architectural landmark . The report , which was presented at the end of December , recommended reuse of the already modified internal space housing the library , and creation of additional usable space up to a total of approximately 1600 m ² . This could be done by lowering the floor to street level and modifying stairway areas without changing the external appearance of the building , which is characteristic of government buildings of the 1920s , particularly in its blocky ground floor . Changes to the upper floors , which remained largely in their original condition , were not recommended .
On 21 January 2007 , the SPD and CDU city councillors announced that they had agreed to house the " Haus der Bildung " in the Altes Stadthaus . The building will be extended to accommodate it . On 31 January 2007 , the city council voted to accept this plan , with Greens , Citizens ' Coalition , CDU and SPD members voting for it . The cost of the necessary remodelling and renovations is expected to exceed € 19 million .
An architectural contest concluded in October 2008 ; the entry of the Alexander Koblitz architecture firm of Berlin was chosen . The adjacent office building , the Siemenshaus , was demolished and on its site an extension to the Stadthaus is being erected that will incorporate a new main entrance . The work was planned to be completed in 2013 .
= Belenggu =
Belenggoe ( Perfected Spelling : Belenggu ; translated to English as Shackles ) is a novel by Indonesian author Armijn Pane . The novel follows the love triangle between a doctor , his wife , and his childhood friend , which eventually causes each of the three characters to lose the ones they love . Originally published by the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe in three instalments from April to June 1940 , it was the magazine 's only published novel . It was also the first Indonesian psychological novel .
Belenggu was based on themes present in two of Pane 's early short stories : " Barang Tiada Berharga " ( " Worthless Thing " ; 1935 ) and " Lupa " ( " Forget " ; 1936 ) . The resulting novel , written to represent a stream of consciousness and using ellipses and monologues to show internal struggle , was very different from earlier Indonesian novels . Unlike said works , which kept to traditional themes such as good versus evil , Belenggu mainly focused on its characters ' psychological conflict . It also showed modernity and traditionalism as a binary system , unable to reach a compromise .
After completion , Belenggu was offered to the Dutch colonial government 's state publisher , Balai Pustaka , in 1938 , but rejected as " immoral " . It was then picked up by Poedjangga Baroe . Initial critical reception to the novel was mixed . Proponents argued that it served as an honest representation of the internal conflicts faced by Indonesian intellectuals , while opponents dismissed the novel as " pornographic " because of its inclusion of prostitution and adultery as normal facets of life . Later reviews have been more positive : in 1976 , the writer Muhammad Balfas called Belenggu " in every respect the best novel of pre @-@ war Indonesian literature " . The novel has been translated into several languages , including into English in 1989 .
= = Background = =
The first modern Indonesian novels published by the state @-@ owned publisher of the Dutch East Indies Balai Pustaka were often written to show intergenerational conflict and conflict between traditional ( adat ) and modern culture . These novels , published beginning in the 1920s , spearheaded the use of Indonesian as a national language . This national awakening , which was also realised through political actions , was followed in July 1933 with the establishment of the literary magazine Poedjangga Baroe ( New Writer ) . The literary magazine , which Belenggu 's author Armijn Pane helped establish , was the first written mainly in Indonesian and with exclusively Indonesian editors .
Of the staff and contributors to Poedjangga Baroe , Pane was one of the biggest proponents for Westernisation . While others , such as his elder brother Sanusi , stressed the need for " Asian " values , the younger Pane disregarded conventional Indonesian morality . The literary historian Heather Sutherland writes that this may have been a result of Pane 's education at a school for Dutch children ; the others received Dutch @-@ language education for Indonesians .
= = Plot = =
The novel begins as Sukartono ( Tono ) , a Dutch @-@ trained doctor , and his wife Sumartini ( Tini ) , residents of Batavia ( modern day Jakarta ) , are suffering a marital breakdown . Tono is busy treating his patients , leaving no time for him to be with Tini . In response , Tini has become active in numerous social organisations and women 's groups , leaving her little time to deal with household work . This further distances Tono from her , as he expects her to behave like a traditional wife and be waiting for him at home , with dinner ready , when he returns from work .
One day , Tono receives a call from a Miss Eni , who asks him to treat her at a hotel . After Tono arrives at the hotel where Eni is staying , he discovers that she is actually his childhood friend Rohayah ( Yah ) . Yah , who has had romantic feelings for Tono since childhood , begins seducing him , and after a while he accepts her advances . The two begin furtively meeting , often taking long walks at the port Tanjung Priok . When Tini goes to Surakarta to attend a women 's congress , Tono decides to stay at Yah 's house for a week .
While at Yah 's , Tono and Yah discuss their pasts . Tono reveals that after he graduated from elementary school in Bandung , where he studied with Yah , he attended medical school in Surabaya and married Tini for her beauty . Meanwhile , Yah was forced to marry an older man and move to Palembang . After deciding that life as a wife was not for her , she moved to Batavia and became a prostitute , before serving as a Dutchman 's mistress for three years . Tono falls further in love with Yah , as he feels that she is more likely to be a proper wife for him ; Yah , however , does not consider herself ready for marriage .
Tono , a fan of traditional kroncong music , is asked to judge a singing competition at Gambir Market . While there , he discovers that Yah is also his favourite singer , who sings under the pseudonym Siti Hayati . At Gambir , he also meets with his old friend Hartono , a political activist with the political party Partindo , who enquires about Tini . On a later date , Hartono visits Tono 's home and meets Tini . It is revealed that Tini was romantically involved with Hartono while the two of them were in university , where Tini surrendered her virginity to him ; this action , unacceptable in traditional culture , made her disgusted with herself and unable to love . Hartono had made the situation worse by breaking off their relationship through a letter . When Hartono asks her to take him back , Tini refuses .
Tini discovers that Tono has been having an affair , and is furious . She then goes to meet Yah . However , after a long talk she decides that Yah is better for Tono and tells the former prostitute to marry him ; Tini then moves back to Surabaya , leaving Tono in Batavia . However , Yah feels that she would only ruin Tono 's respected status as a doctor because of her history . She decides to move to New Caledonia , leaving a note for Tono as well as a record with a song recorded especially for him as a way of saying goodbye . On the way to New Caledonia , Yah pines for Tono and hears his voice calling from afar , giving a speech on the radio . Tono , now alone , dedicates himself to his work in an attempt to fill the void left in his heart .
= = Characters = =
Sukartono
Sukartono ( abbreviated as Tono ) is a doctor , Tini 's husband and Yah 's lover . He treats poor patients for free and thus is well @-@ liked by the general populace . He is also a big fan of traditional kroncong music : in medical school he preferred to sing rather than study , and as a doctor he keeps a radio in his treatment room . Suffering from loneliness in his loveless marriage with the modern @-@ minded Tini , he becomes involved with Yah , whom he perceives as being more willing to play the traditional wife . However , when Tini and Yah leave him , he is left alone .
The Australian scholar of Indonesian literature A. Johns writes that Tono 's inner turmoil is caused by his inability to understand Tini , Yah , or the bacteria which he must kill to cure his patients .
Sumartini
Sumartini ( abbreviated as Tini ) is Tono 's ultra @-@ modern wife . While in university , she was very popular and enjoyed partying . During this time she lost her virginity to Hartono , an act which is viewed as unacceptable in traditional Indonesian culture ; when Hartono left her , Tini became increasingly aloof and distant from men . After marrying Tono , she felt increasingly lonely and became involved in social work as an effort to give her life meaning . After learning of Tono 's infidelity and seeing that Yah could take better care of him , Tini leaves her husband and moves to Surabaya .
Yoseph Yapi Taum , a lecturer at Sanata Dharma University in Yogyakarta , views Tini 's aloof nature as a major force driving Tono to Yah ; her lifestyle , of which Tono is not a part , alienates him and drives him to find a more traditional woman . Tham Seong Chee , a political scientist from Singapore , views her as a weak @-@ willed character , unwilling to act before meeting Hartono again and even then unable to solve her marital difficulties with Tono . He also sees her as being fettered by her own values , which are incompatible with those held by the general Indonesian populace . The Indonesian writer and literary critic Goenawan Mohamad views her as driven in part by the stress placed on her by her husband 's expectations .
Rohayah
Rohayah ( also known by the pseudonyms Nyonya Eni and Siti Hayati ; abbreviated Yah ) is Tono 's childhood friend and later lover , as well as a popular kroncong singer . After Tono , who is three years her elder , graduated from elementary school , Yah was forcibly married to a man twenty years her senior and brought from Bandung to Palembang . After escaping him and returning to Bandung , where she found that her parents had died , she moved to Batavia and became a prostitute ; she also became a popular kroncong singer under the pseudonym Siti Hayati . When she discovers that Tono has become a doctor in Batavia , she pretends to be a patient and seduces him . Although the two fall deeply in love , Yah decides to leave Tono and move to New Caledonia because she feels that society would view the doctor poorly if he married a former prostitute .
Tham sees Yah as being a good match for Tono in personality , as she shows a willingness to serve as the traditional wife . The American scholar of Indonesian literature Harry Aveling writes that Yah 's employment as a prostitute was likely a capitulation by Pane to cultural constraints ; Indonesian readers at the time would not have accepted Tono having an affair with someone of the same socio @-@ economic status . Mohamad describes her as being fatalistic and notes that she downplays her past by saying that any of a thousand girls in Tanjung Priok could tell the same story ; he found her touching without being melodramatic , and notes that Yah was the first prostitute featured portrayed sympathetically in an Indonesian work .
Hartono
Hartono is Tini 's lover from university ; he was also Tono 's friend . After hearing that Tini enjoys partying , he approaches her and they begin dating . After they have sex , he breaks off their relationship through a letter . He then drops out of university and becomes involved with the nascent nationalist movement , following future @-@ president Sukarno ; these acts cause his family to disown him . He later comes to Batavia to search for Tono and is surprised to find that Tini has married the doctor . Hartono asks her to run away with him , but she refuses . He then goes to Surabaya .
Clive Christie , a lecturer on Southeast Asian Studies at the School of Oriental and African Studies in London , describes Hartono as the only overtly political character in the novel .
Women 's group
The various members of Tini 's women 's group , including Mrs. Sutatmo , Mrs. Padma , Mrs. Rusdio , and Aminah , aid her in planning different social events . Mrs. Rusdio is Tini 's friend from university . Aminah was one of Tini 's competitors for Tono and enjoys interfering in the couple 's lives . The other two disapprove of Tini 's modernness and her lack of attention to Tono .
Servants
Tono and Tini are served by two men , Karno and Abdul . Karno , Tono 's loyal manservant , dislikes Tini and considers her overly emotional . Abdul is their driver , who usually drives Tono to meet his patients .
= = Influences = =
Bakri Siregar , an Indonesian literary critic associated with the socialist literary organisation Lekra , notes that Pane was influenced in part by Sigmund Freud 's theories on psychoanalysis ; he writes that it is most evident in the dialogue , especially that of Tini . Taum , while noting psychoanalysis ' influence , notes that the novel follows the individual characters stream of consciousness , which gives the reader a greater understanding of the characters and their conflicts . The novel was written in the middle of the writer 's career , and two of Pane 's earlier short stories , " Barang Tiada Berharga " ( " Worthless Thing " ; 1935 ) and " Lupa " ( " Forget " ; 1936 ) , contained plot points used in Belenggu . " Barang Tiada Berharga " also dealt with a doctor and his wife , named Pardi and Haereni , who were characterised in a similar manner as Sukartono and Sumartini , while " Lupa " introduced the main character Sukartono . As the reigning Dutch colonial government forbade the involvement of politics in literature , Pane minimised the explicit effects of colonialism in the novel . Taum writes that Belenggu 's theme of contrasting modernity and traditionalism may have been influenced by , or even written as a response to , Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana 's 1936 novel Layar Terkembang ( With Sails Unfurled ) , which dealt with a similar theme but fully supported modernisation .
= = Style = =
Belenggu uses ellipses and internal monologues heavily to represent the main characters ' turmoil ; the Dutch scholar of Indonesian literature A. Teeuw calls it a " three @-@ pronged interior monologue " , noting that the novel has minimal use of descriptive passages and dialogue . Unlike works published by Balai Pustaka , Belenggu does not provide full exposition ; instead , it only explicitly states key points and leaves the rest for the reader to interpret , thus inviting more active participation . Siregar notes that the characters are introduced one at a time , almost as if the novel were a film ; he writes that , as a result , at times the transition between characters is unclear .
Unlike authors of earlier works published by Balai Pustaka , Pane does not use old Malay proverbs ; he instead uses similes . Another way in which he writes differently from earlier writers is by limiting his use of the Dutch language ; earlier writers such as Abdul Muis and Sutan Takdir Alisjahbana had used Dutch words – representative of the dominant colonial power – to illustrate the intellectualism of the main characters . Instead , in Belenggu Pane relies on the Indonesianised loanwords , with a glossary of difficult or uncommon words provided with early editions of the novel . Siregar wrote that Pane 's language reflected the actual use of Indonesian well .
= = Symbolism = =
According to Taum , the title Belenggu reflects the inner conflicts the main characters face that limit their actions . Taum points to the climax of the novel – in which Rohayah refuses to marry Sukartono because if she were to marry him he would lose face because of her past – as a prime example of these limitations . Siregar notes that such a reading is supported by dialogue between Hartono and Sukartono , in which they note that humans are inherently held back by their reminiscences of the past .
Uncommonly for Indonesian literature during this time period , Belenggu 's chapters were labelled with only a number – other works , such as Abdul Muis ' 1928 novel Salah Asuhan ( Wrong Upbringing ) , gave both a number and subtitle to the chapters . According to Taum , this change in style represents a stream of consciousness , as opposed to the earlier style which kept chapters separate .
= = Themes = =
= = = General = = =
Teeuw notes that , unlike most Indonesian novels at the time , Belenggu did not feature a good and pure protagonist in a struggle against an evil antagonist , or present conflict and differences between generations . It also eliminated the common themes of forced marriage and the youth 's nonacceptance of adat ( traditional culture ) . Instead , it showed a love triangle – common in Western literature but then unheard of in Indonesian literature – without an indication of whether any characters were good , evil , right , or wrong . Teeuw writes that the novel portrayed the interior struggle of a " new kind of human " , one who is the result of a mixture of Eastern and Western cultures . According to Christie , earlier themes in Indonesian literature such as feudalism and forced marriage are not intrinsically significant to the character 's lives in Belenggu .
= = = Living in the past = = =
A main theme found in Belenggu , reflected in the title , is if one is " shackled " to the past , then one cannot flourish ; Taum notes that this is reflected in Hartono 's dialogue to Tini , as follows :
" Mengapa tidak ? Mengapa bergantung kepada zaman dahulu ? ... Jangan dibesar @-@ besarkan , jangan persusah perkara mudah , nanti pikiran sebagai dibelenggu . ... Lupakanlah , matikanlah angan @-@ angan . Lepaskanlah belenggu ini . Buat apa tergantung pada zaman dulu ? "
" Why not ? Why be hung up on the past ? ... Don 't blow it out of proportion , don 't complicate simple things , your thoughts will be as if they are shackled . ... Forget it , kill those reveries . Release these shackles . Why be hung up on the past ?
Several further instances have been expounded by critics . Taum notes that Yah 's guilt over her past as a prostitute leads her to the ( unfounded ) fear that Tono would leave her if their relationship were known ; her guilt ultimately causes their separation , while Tono feels nostalgic for the past , in which he felt happier . Balfas notes that a factor driving Tono from Tini is the latter 's former relationship with Hartono ; due to her guilt over the affair , she is unable to express her love for the doctor . Siregar writes that such a theme is reflected in dialogue between Tono and Hartono , from which he suggests the novel derives its title . Balfas writes that there is no solution to the human problems presented in the novel .
= = = Modernity and traditionalism = = =
Taum indicates that Belenggu presents modernity and traditionalism as a binary system , contrasting the new with the old . For example , Sukartono , a doctor ( a position considered a symbol of modernity ) , is obsessed with the past , including his schoolmate Rohayah , and prefers traditional kroncong music over modern genres . Through the contrast of Sukartono and his ultra @-@ modern , emancipatory wife Sumartini , Pane emphasises that modernity does not necessarily bring happiness . Aveling agrees , writing that the conflict arises over Tini 's refusal to " mother " her husband as expected from a traditional wife . According to Taum , Tono wishes for Tini to perform traditional duties , such as removing his shoes . However , Tini , refuses to do so and instead keeps herself busy with social activities . This need for a wife who behaves as he wishes ultimately becomes a factor in his falling for Yah , who does everything expected from a traditional wife . However , in the end neither modern nor traditional values alone are enough to guarantee happiness .
= = = Intellectuals in society = = =
Christie notes that Belenggu contains a strong sense of alienation . He writes that the characters seem to be part of a " society suspended in a vacuum " , without an explicit connection to colonialism but also unable to come to terms with traditional mores . Christie describes Sukartono 's relationship with Rohayah as symbolic of attempts by intellectual to engage with the masses through a shared popular culture , but ultimately failing ; Taum notes such an thing occurring in a scene where Tini plays a sonata by Ludwig van Beethoven on her violin in front of a group of regular citizens who prefer local music . Teeuw agrees , writing that the novel shows a psychological burden borne by native intellectuals who found themselves physically fit for a modern existence , but mentally unprepared for the transition from a traditional lifestyle to a more modern one . He notes that the sceptical , modern intellectual , a category in which he includes Tono and Tini , was uncommon in local literature at the time . Tham sees the underlying message of Yah 's refusal to marry Tono as that " morals and ethical standards are frequently beyond the ken of intellect , reason , or rationality " , indicating that intellectuals may not be able to collaborate effectively with the masses . Johns notes that , although the Tono and Tini are thought to be decisive persons by society , they are actually confused and unsure .
= = Release = =
Belenggu was submitted to Balai Pustaka for publication in 1938 , but was accepted because of its perceived dissonance with public morality , particularly its portrayal of adultery and prostitution – key components of the plot – as acceptable . Eventually Belenggu was picked up by Poedjangga Baroe and published in a serial format in three editions between April and June 1940 . Belenggu was the only novel published by the magazine and the first Indonesian psychological novel . In 1969 , Belenggu received the first annual Literary Prize from the government of Indonesia , along with Marah Rusli 's Sitti Nurbaya ( 1922 ) , Salah Asuhan , and Achdiat Karta Mihardja 's Atheis ( Atheist ; 1949 ) .
Belenggu has been translated into multiple languages : in 1962 , Mandarin as 桎梏 ( Zhìgù ) ; in 1964 , Russian as Okovy ; in 1965 , Malay under the original title ; in 1989 , English as Shackles ; and in 1993 , German as In Fesseln . The Russian translation was done by A Pavlenko . The English translation , published by the Lontar Foundation , was done by John H. McGlynn . The German translation was done by Renate Lödel . As of 2008 the Indonesian @-@ language edition has seen twenty @-@ one printings .
= = Reception = =
Belenggu received a mixed reception upon its release . Proponents of the novel stated that it was daring , as it dealt with themes based on societal realities . For example , journalist S. K. Trimurti wrote that the novel clearly reflected issues faced by highly educated Indonesians in dealing with traditional culture . However , opponents of the novel dismissed it as " pornographic " , emphasising traditionally taboo acts like prostitution and adultery . The December 1940 issue of Poedjangga Baroe included comments from several other writers and literary critics , including Alisjahbana , HB Jassin , Karim Halim , and S. Djojopoespito . Alisjahbana wrote that the novel was fatalistic and defeatist , as he felt it did not portray the freedom of spirit necessary for people to choose their own destiny ; he decried the plot as lacking causality . Jassin found the characters to resemble caricatures , as their emotions were overly melodramatic , but considered the novel representative of works yet to come . Halim wrote that Belenggu represented a new school in Indonesian literature , with new language and new stories . Djojopoespito decried the book 's language , which he did not consider smooth , and plotlines , which he found uninteresting . According to Teeuw , the initial mixed reception was due in part to Indonesian readers – accustomed to idealised literature – being shocked by the realistic portrayals in Belenggu .
Later reviews have generally been more positive . In 1955 Johns wrote that Belenggu was a " great advance on any previous work " , with which the Indonesian novel came to maturity ; he praises the structure , plot , and presentation . Siregar , writing in 1964 , praised the novel 's diction , noting that Pane handled technical discussions especially well . Jassin wrote in 1967 that , although he found the characters still came across as caricatures , the novel was capable of making readers stop and think about modern conditions . In 1969 , Indonesian writer and literary critic Ajip Rosidi wrote that the novel was more interesting than earlier works because of its multi @-@ interpretable ending . The Indonesian writer and literary critic Muhammad Balfas wrote in 1976 that Belenggu was " in every respect the best novel of pre @-@ war Indonesian literature " . In his 1980 book on Indonesian literature , Teeuw wrote that despite several flaws in the psychological portrayal of the main characters , Belenggu was the only novel from before the Indonesian National Revolution in which a Western reader would feel truly involved ; he also called the novel Pane 's greatest contribution to Indonesia literature . Tham , writing in 1981 , described the novel as the best reflection of the then @-@ growing consciousness that Western values , such as individualism and intellectualism , contradicted traditional values .
= Trucking industry in the United States =
The trucking industry serves the American economy by transporting large quantities of raw materials , works in process , and finished goods over land — typically from manufacturing plants to retail distribution centers . Trucks are also used in the construction industry , as dump trucks and portable concrete mixers move the large amounts of rocks , dirt , concrete , and other building materials used in construction . Trucks in America are responsible for the majority of freight movement over land , and are tools in the manufacturing , transportation , and warehousing industries .
Large trucks and buses require a commercial driver 's license ( CDL ) to operate . Obtaining a CDL requires extra education and training dealing with the special knowledge requirements and handling characteristics of such a large vehicle . Drivers of commercial motor vehicles ( CMVs ) must adhere to the hours of service , which are regulations governing the driving hours of commercial drivers . These , and all other rules regarding the safety of interstate commercial driving , are issued by the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration ( FMCSA ) . The FMCSA is a division of the United States Department of Transportation ( USDOT ) , which governs all transportation @-@ related industries such as trucking , shipping , railroads , and airlines . Some other issues are handled by another branch of the USDOT , the Federal Highway Administration ( FHWA ) .
Developments in technology , such as computers , satellite communication , and the Internet , have contributed to many improvements within the industry . These developments have increased the productivity of company operations , saved the time and effort of drivers , and provided new , more accessible forms of entertainment to men and women who often spend long periods of time away from home . In 2006 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency implemented revised emission standards for diesel trucks ( reducing airborne pollutants emitted by diesel engines ) which promises to improve air quality and public health .
= = History = =
The trucking industry has affected the political and economic history of the United States in the 20th century . Before the invention of automobiles , most freight was moved by train or horse @-@ drawn vehicle .
Trucks were first used extensively by the military during World War I. With the increase in construction of paved roads , trucking began to achieve significant foothold in the 1930s . Public safety concerns made it necessary to implement various government regulations ( such as the 1965 hours of service rule ; recently revised with a compliance date of July 1 , 2012 ) of how long drivers were allowed to work and drive each day / week . In 1956 , Congress provided funds to build the Interstate Highway System , an extensive network of highways and freeways that linked major cities across the continent . The addition of Interstate Highway System also made it possible for the trucking industry to grow substantially in the late 1950s and early 1960s and trucking has come to dominate the freight industry in the latter portion of the 20th century .
Trucking achieved national attention during the 1960s and 70s , when songs and movies about truck driving were major hits . Truck drivers participated in widespread strikes against the rising cost of fuel , during the energy crises of 1973 and 1979 . Congress deregulated the trucking industry with the passage of the Motor Carrier Act of 1980 .
= = 1990s @-@ present = =
Advances in modern technology have enabled significant improvements within the trucking industry . Trucks are commonly equipped with satellite communication features , automatic transmissions are gaining in popularity , and truck stops featuring WiFi Internet access are now commonplace .
= = = Exhaust emissions = = =
Components of diesel exhaust were confirmed as an animal carcinogen in 1988 by the National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health , and by 2002 , the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) considered it " likely to be carcinogenic to humans " . The particulate matter of diesel exhaust has been linked to ( among other health effects ) lung cancer , chronic bronchitis , and aggravated asthma ; it has also been identified as a greenhouse gas . " For these and other reasons , alternatives and improvements to standard diesel fuel have been developed .
Biodiesel ( in its pure form ) is a non @-@ toxic , biodegradable form of diesel fuel made from vegetable oil , usually soybean oil or recycled restaurant grease . Biodiesel promises a reduction in some exhaust emissions , as well as reduced dependence on foreign petroleum supplies .
Starting in June 2006 , petroleum refiners were required by the EPA to begin producing ultra @-@ low sulfur diesel ( ULSD ) fuel , which has 97 % less sulfur than the previous low sulfur diesel fuel . When fuel containing sulfur is burned , sulfur dioxide is produced , a main component of acid rain . ULSD , together with new air pollution control technologies required in trucks ( starting with model year 2007 ) , will reduce harmful emissions by 90 % .
By the time the action is fully implemented , the EPA estimates that 2 @.@ 6 million tons of smog @-@ causing nitrogen oxide emissions will be eliminated each year . Soot or particulate matter will be reduced by an estimated 110 @,@ 000 tons a year . The reduction in sulfur will also prevent an estimated 8 @,@ 300 premature deaths , 5 @,@ 500 cases of chronic bronchitis and 17 @,@ 600 cases of acute bronchitis in children . In addition , an estimated 360 @,@ 000 asthma attacks and 386 @,@ 000 cases of respiratory symptoms in asthmatic children will also be avoided every year .
When not driving , truck drivers need to idle their engines to maintain climate control within the truck cab ( interior ) , as well as provide electricity for appliances . Engine idling is inefficient and only adds to the problem of air pollution . This unnecessary idling can be remedied with shore power ( which is a term and idea borrowed from the shipping industry ) , or Truck Stop Electrification . When ships are docked in a port , they connect to a land @-@ based power supply to provide electricity and eliminate the need to idle their engines . The idea of shore power was transferred to the trucking industry , and now there are companies such as IdleAire and Shorepower which provide electricity to diesel trucks , which eliminates the need for the driver to idle the engine . IdleAire also provides access to the Internet , cable television , and land line phone services . IdleAire promises to eliminate one @-@ eighth of nitrogen oxide pollution through " electrified parking " , however , particulate pollution may increase in those areas where the electricity is provided by coal burning power plants . Some drivers are also experimenting with hydrogen fuel cells , which provide clean and silent power for appliances when trucks are not running .
= = = Fuel efficiency = = =
With the fuel price increases of the 2000s , the EPA and many companies have sought to increase diesel truck fuel economy . One such example is the hydraulic hybrid vehicle , which stores energy in hydraulic tanks and hydraulic motors ( as opposed to the electric hybrid vehicle which uses batteries and regenerative brakes ) . Electric hybrid vehicles are another option , with savings of 35 to 60 percent over traditional vehicles . Drivers themselves may improve fuel efficiency by using a method called progressive shifting , in which the driver shifts through the gears ( typical trucks may have between 10 and 18 gears ) in such a manner as to optimize the power range of the engine .
= = = Technology = = =
Like many other industries , the trucking industry has benefited from the use of computers and the Internet . The Internet helps firms explore new opportunities by aggressive sales and marketing . The incremental cost of conducting business transactions on the Internet is as little as one fifteenth as expensive as paper transactions .
Given the limitations on truck weight and size , increased productivity in the industry comes from two sources : fewer empty miles and less time waiting between loads . U.S. Department of Transportation figures indicate that empty routes have continued to account for 29 % of single @-@ unit truck traffic ; this has been equated to an annualized 15 billion gallons of gasoline , $ 30 billion cost , or 149 million tons of excess carbon emissions . Traditional freight brokers acted as intermediaries to manage the coordination of freight , helping independent drivers or companies match loads with available empty trucks . Increasingly , computerized brokers are threatening the future of traditional human brokers by offering increased efficiency . In addition , shipper @-@ driven brokerage over the Internet enables shippers to post loads and solicit bids directly from carriers . Instead of relying upon traditional freight brokers , shippers function as their own brokers , dealing directly with freight companies .
Developments in satellite technology have fostered increased communication and productivity within the trucking industry . Drivers may input the information from a bill of lading into a simple text @-@ only dot matrix display screen ( commonly called a " Qualcomm " , for their ubiquitous OmniTRACS system ) . This allows the driver to communicate with their dispatcher , who is normally responsible for determining and informing the driver of their pick @-@ up and drop @-@ off locations . Drivers are no longer required to find the nearest public phone in order to relay information regarding their load status , it can be done without leaving the truck cab .
The driver inputs the information , using a keyboard , into an automated system of pre @-@ formatted messages known as macros . There are macros for each stage of the loading and unloading process , such as " loaded and leaving shipper " and " arrived at final destination " . This system also allows the company to track the drivers fuel usage , speed , gear optimization , engine idle time , location , direction of travel , and amount of time spent driving .
Trucks equipped with GPS satellite navigation units have enabled drivers to forgo a traditional paper @-@ based map , saving time and effort . Drivers willing to pay for satellite radio or who work for a company that pays for it can listen to commercial @-@ free music , sports , news , and talk radio coast @-@ to @-@ coast without interruption of signals between cities ( as terrestrial radio signals are limited to a certain radius from the broadcasting tower ) . Digital satellite television allows smaller dish sizes , which means truck drivers are not limited to free terrestrial broadcast television , and have more options about what they watch during their off @-@ duty periods .
= = = Automatic transmissions = = =
Increasingly , companies have been equipping their trucks with automatic transmissions for a variety of reasons . Operating a manual transmission requires more skill and attention on the part of the driver , partly due to the unsynchronized transmission found in heavy @-@ duty trucks . Companies have found that switching from manual to automatic transmissions has many benefits , including increased fuel efficiency , increased driver retention , reduced wear and tear on the internal gears of transmissions ( inexperienced drivers may frequently grind the gears if proper shifting techniques are not followed ) , reduced driver fatigue , and reduced accidents ( manuals require more attention from the driver , thus increasing the chances for an accident ) . All of these factors together add up to benefit the company by reducing costs incurred from transmission repairs , accidents , and driver turnover ( a driver frustrated by a manual transmission may decide to quit his / her job ) .
= = = Top US trucking firms = = =
As of May 2015 , over 90 @.@ 0 % of players in the United States long @-@ distance freight trucking industry are owner @-@ operators . Therefore , even the top corporate operators only hold a small share of the total market . According to the industry market research firm IBISWorld , J.B. Hunt Transport Services holds an estimated 2 @.@ 5 % market share , YRC Worldwide holds 1 @.@ 8 % , FedEx holds 1 @.@ 6 % , United Parcel Service of America owns 1 @.@ 5 % , and Con @-@ way holds 1 @.@ 4 % .
In 2005 the Logistics Management ranked the top 10 US trucking firms ( by net revenue ) as :
( Industry overview , ranking TL and LTL trucking firms together . )
= = Economic impact = =
The importance of trucking is communicated by the industry adage : " If you bought it , a truck brought it . " Retail stores , hospitals , gas stations , garbage disposal , construction sites , banks , and even a clean water supply depends entirely upon trucks to distribute vital cargo . Even before a product reaches store shelves , the raw materials and other stages of production materials that go into manufacturing any given product are moved by trucks .
In modern times , railroads are primarily used to haul bulk quantities of cargo over long distances . Unless a manufacturing or distribution facility has a direct connection to the railroad , the remainder of the trip must be handled by truck . Recent implementation of " just in time " strategies have resulted in the increased use of trucks to help satisfy businesses ' fluid inventory needs . Using this strategy , businesses gain the ability to reduce the costs associated with excess inventory and larger warehousing facilities by requiring more frequent deliveries . According to an industry group , many retail , commercial , and government services require daily or weekly deliveries to keep supplies or merchandise on hand . Many hospitals have also moved to " just in time " inventory systems . The nation 's busiest gas stations require deliveries of fuel several times per day , while the average station receives fuel every two to three days . Grocery stores require deliveries of perishable food items every two to three days .
Trucks are vitally important to U.S. industry , however , measuring the impact of trucking on the economy is more difficult , because trucking services are so intertwined with all sectors of the economy . According to the measurable share of the economy that trucking represents , the industry directly contributes about 5 percent to the gross domestic product annually . In addition , the industry plays a critical support role for other transportation modes and for other sectors of the economy such as the resource , manufacturing , construction , and wholesale and retail trade industries .
Within the energy industry , approximately 4 percent of crude oil and petroleum products were shipped by truck in 2012 . These shipments are handled by oil and gas logistics firms , which are midstream service providers that also handle transport by pipeline , rail , and barge . Dominant companies in this space include Aux Sable , Bridger Group , DCP Midstream , Enbridge Energy Partners , Enterprise Products Partners , Genesis Energy , Gibson Energy , Inergy Midstream , Kinder Morgan Energy Partners , Oneok Partners , Sunoco Logistics , Targa Midstream Services , TransCanada , and Williams Companies .
Agricultural products totaling $ 118 @,@ 832 @,@ 000 , or 82 @.@ 7 percent , were shipped by truck in 2007 ( excluding animal feed , cereal grains , and forage products ) . About half of that agricultural freight was shipped by for @-@ hire trucks and half by private trucks . More than 92 percent of prepared foods , including dairy products and prepared fruit , vegetable , and nut products , were moved by truck in 2007 .
Within the health care industry , trucking moved $ 501 @,@ 445 @,@ 000 worth , or 65 percent of the total value , of pharmaceutical products in 2007 .
Lumber and other wood products totaling $ 168 @,@ 913 @,@ 000 were shipped by truck in 2007 , accounting for 91 @.@ 9 percent of this class of product .
Over 80 percent of all communities in the US rely exclusively on trucks to deliver all of their fuel , clothing , medicine , and other consumer goods . The trucking industry employs 10 million people ( out of a total national population of 300 million ) in jobs that relate directly to trucking . The trucking industry is the industry of small business , considering 93 percent of interstate motor carriers ( over 500 @,@ 000 ) operate 20 or fewer trucks .
= = Rules and regulations = =
A division of the U.S. Department of Transportation , the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration ( FMCSA ) regulates nearly all aspects of the trucking industry . Truck drivers are limited by the number of daily and weekly hours they may drive , the roads and highways they may drive upon , and a lower legal definition of drunkenness . The Federal Highway Administration has established 0 @.@ 04 percent as the blood alcohol concentration ( BAC ) level at or above which a CMV driver is deemed to be driving under the influence of alcohol . States maintain a BAC level between 0 @.@ 08 and 0 @.@ 10 percent for non @-@ CMV drivers . In some states , trucks also have special speed limits , in addition to restrictions on driving in certain lanes ( normally the far left lanes of multi @-@ lane highways ) .
= = = Commercial driver 's license = = =
Trucks come in many different sizes , creating the need for a truck classification system . Truck drivers are required to have a commercial driver 's license ( CDL ) to operate a CMV carrying more than 16 passengers , carrying a certain amount of hazardous materials , or weighing in excess of 26 @,@ 000 pounds ( 12 @,@ 000 kg ) . Acquiring a CDL requires a skills test ( driving test ) , and knowledge test ( written test ) covering the unique handling qualities of driving a large , heavily loaded 18 @-@ wheeler ( e.g. , backing maneuvers ) , and the mechanical systems required to operate such a vehicle ( e.g. , air brakes and vehicle inspection procedures ) .
= = = Hours of service = = =
The FMCSA defines a CMV as a single or combination ( truck and trailer ) vehicle with a gross weight of 10 @,@ 001 pounds ( 4 @,@ 536 kg ) or more , or a vehicle used to transport hazardous materials in quantities requiring the vehicle to be marked or placarded under the hazardous materials regulations . The length of time a driver may spend operating a CMV is limited by a set of rules known as the hours of service ( HOS ) . These laws are designed to protect the general motoring public by reducing accidents caused by driver fatigue .
The first version of the HOS were enacted in 1938 , and four revisions have been made since . The more recent revisions have relied on research into the human circadian rhythm ( the tendency for humans to follow a natural 24 @-@ hour cycle with 8 hours of uninterrupted sleep ) . As of July 1 , 2013 a driver is limited to 11 hours of actual driving within a 14 @-@ hour period , and requires a 30 @-@ minute break during the first 8 hours of on duty time . After which he / she must rest for 10 hours . The rules do not explicitly require that a driver must sleep , only that a driver must take a period of " rest " within the sleeper berth or off duty ( i.e. , at home ) .
Keeping track of a driver 's HOS requires the use of a log book . A truck driver 's log book is a legally defined form containing a grid outlining the 24 @-@ hour day into 15 @-@ minute increments . The driver must specify where and when he / she stopped between driving shifts , what duties were performed ( if any ) , along with the driver 's name , truck number , company info , and other information . The driver must also present his or her log book to authorities upon request , for inspection . In lieu of a log book , a motor carrier may substitute an electronic on @-@ board recorder to record the driver 's hours .
= = = Weight , size , and route restrictions = = =
The FMCSA regulates the length , width , and weight limits of CMVs for interstate commercial traffic . Interstate commercial traffic is generally limited to a network of interstate freeways , U.S. highways and state highways known as the National Network ( NN ) . Provided the truck remains on the NN , they are not subject to the state limits . State limits ( which can be lower or higher than federal limits ) come into effect for intrastate commercial traffic , provided the vehicle is not on the NN .
There is no federal height limit , and states may set their own limits which range from 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) ( mostly on the east coast ) to 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) ( west coast ) . , As a result , the majority of trucks are somewhere between 13 feet 6 inches ( 4 @.@ 11 m ) and 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) high . Truck drivers are responsible for checking bridge height clearances ( usually indicated by a warning sign ) before passing underneath an overpass or entering a tunnel . Not having enough vertical clearance can result in a " top out " or " bridge hit , " causing considerable traffic delays and costly repairs for the bridge or tunnel involved .
The federal gross weight limit for a Class 8 truck is 80 @,@ 000 pounds ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) ( combined weight of truck , trailer , and cargo ) with axle weights limited to 12 @,@ 000 pounds ( 5 @,@ 400 kg ) ( steering axle ) and 34 @,@ 000 pounds ( 15 @,@ 000 kg ) ( tandem axles ) . Truck drivers are responsible for checking their own vehicle 's weight , usually by paying to be weighed at a truck stop scale . CMVs are subject to various state and federal laws regarding limitations on truck length ( measured from bumper to bumper ) , and truck axle length ( measured from axle to axle , or fifth wheel kingpin to axle for trailers ) . The relationship between axle weight and spacing , known as the Federal Bridge Gross Weight Formula , is designed to protect bridges . Truck weights and sizes are checked by state authorities at a weigh station or port @-@ of @-@ entry .
= = Truck drivers = =
= = = Definition = = =
Truck drivers are persons employed as the operator of a CMV . CMVs can be of varying shapes and sizes , from 10 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 4 @,@ 500 kg ) pickup trucks assigned to haul specialized or small quantities of freight , all the way up to 80 @,@ 000 @-@ pound ( 36 @,@ 000 kg ) semi @-@ trailer trucks . Trucks are assigned a class rating based upon the gross vehicle weight rating ( GVWR ) . The facts in this section refer to drivers of " heavy duty " trucks ( with a GVWR of at least 26 @,@ 000 pounds ( 12 @,@ 000 kg ) , which require a commercial driver 's license to operate ) .
= = = Working environment = = =
Truck drivers spend up to 11 hours a day driving , and up to 14 hours a day engaged in various duties ( including driving time ) such as fueling , filling out paperwork , obtaining vehicle repairs and conducting mandatory vehicle inspections . Long @-@ haul drivers often spend weeks away from home , spending their time off and sleeping at truck stops or rest areas . Driving is relatively dangerous work , as truck drivers account for 12 percent and the highest total number of all work @-@ related deaths , and are five times more likely to die on the job than the average worker . Smoking , lack of exercise , unhealthy eating habits , and work @-@ related injuries also contribute to the driver 's generally risk @-@ prone lifestyle . A survey by the National Institutes of Health found 67 percent of long @-@ haul drivers were smokers or had quit smoking .
= = = Turnover = = =
In 2006 , the U.S. trucking industry employed 1 @.@ 8 million drivers of heavy trucks . A major problem for the long @-@ haul trucking industry is that a large percentage of these drivers are aging , and are expected to retire . Very few new hires are expected in the near future , resulting in a driver shortage . As of 2005 , within the long @-@ haul sector , there is an estimated shortage of 20 @,@ 000 drivers . That shortage was projected to increase to 111 @,@ 000 by 2014 , however the actual shortage of truck drivers in 2014 was around 38 @,@ 000 . The trucking industry ( especially the long @-@ haul sector ) is also facing an image crisis due to the long working hours , long periods of time away from home , the dangerous nature of the work , and the average earnings compared to other forms of labor ( such as construction , which was 1 percent higher than trucking in 2004 ) .
Employee turnover within the long @-@ haul trucking industry is notorious for being extremely high . In the 4th quarter of 2005 , turnover within the largest carriers in the industry reached a record 136 percent , which means for every 100 new employees hired , 136 quit their jobs . This has resulted in a " revolving door " within most long @-@ haul trucking companies , as drivers are constantly switching jobs or quitting the industry altogether . Driver turnover within the short @-@ haul and less @-@ than @-@ truckload ( LTL ) industries is considerably less ( around 15 percent ) , mainly due to the better working conditions , higher pay , and unionized workers . One study suggests that larger companies with irregular routes , longer average lengths of hauls , and older equipment experience much higher rates of driver turnover .
= = = Serial killings controversy = = =
In 2009 , the Federal Bureau of Investigation ( FBI ) released the results of a five @-@ year @-@ long study ( the Highway Serial Killings Initiative ) investigating the unsolved murders of prostitutes , hitchhikers , and stranded motorists . Over 500 female victims have been compiled in a database , most of whom were killed or discarded at truck stops , hotels , and roadsides . The FBI has speculated that many of these victims were murdered by long @-@ haul truck drivers , some of whom may be serial killers . Investigators speculate that the easy access to potential victims , mobility , and lack of supervision enjoyed by long @-@ haul truck drivers have contributed to this phenomenon . The head of the initiative , Michael Harrigan , says most of the victims lead high @-@ risk lifestyles ( e.g. , prostitution ) which left them particularly vulnerable . In 2004 , the FBI began investigating a string of murders in which the victims were found along the Interstate 40 corridor in Oklahoma and several other states , which sparked the creation of the Highway Serial Killings Initiative .
In response to the investigation , executive vice president of the Owner @-@ Operator Independent Drivers Association , Todd Spencer , said " Truckers are just absolutely outraged that various media sources or the FBI would draw the conclusion that truckers are over @-@ represented in the ranks of serial killers " .
= = Trucking organizations = =
Teamsters Union
Owner @-@ Operator Independent Driver Association
American Trucking Association
= The Baby Shower ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Baby Shower " is the tenth episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld , and the show 's 15th episode overall . In the episode , Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) throws a baby shower for her friend Leslie ( Christine Dunford ) at Jerry 's ( Jerry Seinfeld ) apartment , while he is out of town . Jerry 's friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) once had a terrible date with Leslie and intends to confront her at the shower . Meanwhile , Jerry is convinced by his neighbour Kramer ( Michael Richards ) to install illegal cable television .
Larry Charles wrote the episode , which was directed by Tom Cherones , and was partly based on a friend of his who was pregnant but did not want to experience childbirth . The episode also contained a dream sequence in which the title character was killed , as Charles was interested in " the Quentin Tarantino version of a sitcom " . All of the characters ' storylines intersect in the final scenes , an element that the writing staff would continue to use in later episodes . The episode 's first broadcast in the United States on May 16 , 1991 gained a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 / 21 and was negatively received by critics .
= = Plot = =
Elaine holds a baby shower for her friend Leslie at Jerry 's apartment , while Jerry is performing in Buffalo . George is excited , as he expects the baby shower to be the perfect opportunity to confront the woman who gave him the worst date of his life by pouring Bosco chocolate sauce on his red collared shirt while doing performance art . Jerry is frustrated by his television 's bad reception , and is convinced by Kramer to have cable illegally installed by two Russians ( Vic Polizos and James Lashly ) .
As Jerry is sleeping on the plane he dreams of returning to his apartment only to find several FBI agents there interrogating Kramer , who apparently has ratted out Jerry . When Jerry protests that he had nothing to do with it , they reveal that the Russian was an undercover FBI agent . Jerry tries to flee only to be gunned down by the agents . This jolts him awake . He finds his show is canceled due to bad weather , and George picks up Jerry at the airport . Jerry is initially amazed that George is perfectly willing , even anxious to drive Jerry home . When he informs George they cannot go back to his apartment because of the baby shower , George insists and Jerry discovers that George is wearing the red shirt and is just using the favor as a chance to encounter Leslie at the baby shower . Meanwhile , Kramer and the two Russians crash the shower to install cable television , start to eat all the food and get into a heated argument . When George and Jerry arrive , George 's plan proves unsuccessful , as he cannot muster the courage confront Leslie and instead awkwardly tries to curry her favor . He is interrupted when one of the other party guests suddenly confronts Jerry because he never called her back after a date . This unpleasant scene is the final straw and the guests leave hurriedly . On the way out of the bathroom the angry woman bumps Leslie and her dessert into George , adding a chocolate cake stain to the Bosco stain already on the shirt . Jerry changes his mind about the cable hook @-@ up , but is still charged with a large amount of money . When he refuses to pay , the Russians break the picture tube of his television set .
= = Production = =
" The Baby Shower " was written by Larry Charles and directed by Tom Cherones , who directed all of season two 's episodes . The episode was the first episode written by Charles , who would remain with the show through the fifth season . Charles had met Seinfeld co @-@ creator Larry David and Richards , when he was part of the writing staff of the ABC sketch show Fridays , David and Richards were part of the show 's ensemble cast . He had been unable to write for the show 's first season , as Charles had been writing for The Arsenio Hall Show during its production . Charles frequently had difficulty with writing Jerry 's stand @-@ up material , therefore , in " The Baby Shower " , Seinfeld used some of his own material . The episode was a combination of loose storylines that had been brought to the writers table . Charles explained that the writing staff of the show considered it a challenge to weave together loose ideas into one episode . The episode was partly based on a friend of Charles , who was pregnant but did not want to experience childbirth and therefore asked the doctor to anesthetize her . Charles thought this was very ironic . The Leslie character was largely based on Karen Finley and Johanna Went , two performance artists who both used foods in their acts , Charles considered them " a ripe target for satire " .
As Charles was always trying to find elements that were unusual in sitcoms , the episode had a scene in which Jerry dreams he is interrogated by the FBI for his illegal cable hookup , and is killed when he tries to escape . Charles recalled the dream sequence as " one of the most ambiguous scenes we did [ in season two ] " and felt it was very Tarantino @-@ like . At the end of the dream Kramer holds Jerry in his arm , stating " what have you done to my little cable boy ? " ; this scene had to be filmed multiple times , as it was hard for Seinfeld not to laugh when Richards stated the line . In audio commentary he recorded for the Seinfeld : Volume 1 DVD set , Charles noted how he established three of the episode 's four storylines in one scene , in which the characters eat and talk at Monk 's Cafe . " The Baby Shower " also is one of the few episodes of season two in which the primary storylines of all four characters come together in the final scene . In " The Busboy " , which had been filmed earlier , the four storylines also intersected in the final scene , but the episode aired as the final episode of season two . Charles also felt the episode defined the Kramer character more , as it is the first episode in which Kramer speaks out against the system . In addition , the episode also establishes Elaine 's interest in the Kennedys , a plot element that would return later in the season four episode " The Virgin " .
" The Baby Shower " was first read by the show 's cast on November 14 , 1990 . It was filmed in front of a live audience on November 20 . A technique called " Poor Man 's Process " was used during the car scene with George and Jerry ; one or two crew members would shake the car to give the impression that it was moving , though it never actually was . Other crew members would move lights around the set to simulate street lights or headlights of other cars . Behind the car , two lights on a wheeled stand were placed to give the impression that there was a car behind it . A cheap plastic sticker was put on Jerry 's television screen to give the impression that it was broken . A number of scenes were changed or cut during production of the episode . In early drafts of the script , the episode opened with Kramer telling Jerry about the Russian cable installers . In the first draft of the script Elaine and Jerry would realize ahead of time that the baby shower and the cable installation would take place at the same time . This was changed as the writers felt it would be better left as a surprise . Some dialogue was removed from the scene , as Kramer initially told Jerry Benjamin Franklin would have wanted free cable . Additional dialogue between the baby shower guests regarding turning off men was also cut . The scene in which Mary Cantardi , a woman Jerry went out with once but never called afterwards , makes a scene at the baby shower was not in the original script , but was added during rehearsals to give Seinfeld more involvement in the final scene .
Don Perry guest starred as an airplane passenger next to Jerry , when he wakes up from his nightmare . Perry states that he might be the last person Jerry will see alive . This line was not in the original script , but was added because Perry , as Charles explained , " just had the right look " . Christine Dunford was cast as Leslie , Charles commented " she just came in ; gave a great reading . At this point in our show business history , I don 't think we knew anybody " . Dunford would return later as a saleswoman in the season five episode " The Pie " . Margaret Reed , best known for her role on the soap opera As the World Turns , appeared as Mary Cantardi , a woman who screams at Jerry for not calling her back after a date . Vic Polizos and James Lashly guest @-@ starred as the Russian cable installers . Norman Brenner , who worked as Richards ' stand @-@ in on the show for all its nine seasons , appears as an extra in the first scene of the episode , standing at the counter at Monk 's Cafe .
= = Reception = =
" The Baby Shower " was first broadcast in the United States on NBC on May 16 , 1991 . It received a Nielsen rating of 12 @.@ 4 and an audience share of 21 , indicating that 12 @.@ 4 % of American households watched the episode , and that 21 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it .
" The Baby Shower " met with negative responses from critics . Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling of Entertainment Weekly graded the episode with a D , stating " After a promising opening , this baby quickly degenerates into heavy @-@ handed farce " . The episode was ranked third on a list of Seinfeld 's " Not @-@ so @-@ top episodes " , compiled by the New York Daily News .
= Cynthia Lennon =
Cynthia Lennon ( née Powell ; 10 September 1939 – 1 April 2015 ) was the first wife of English musician John Lennon , and mother of Julian Lennon . She grew up in the middle @-@ class section of Hoylake , on the Wirral Peninsula in North West England . At the age of 12 , she was accepted into the Junior Art School , and was later enrolled in the Liverpool College of Art . John Lennon also attended the college ; a meeting with Powell in a calligraphy class led to their relationship .
When John was performing in Hamburg with the Beatles , she rented his bedroom from his aunt and legal guardian , Mimi Smith . After Powell became pregnant , she and John were married on 23 August 1962 at the Mount Pleasant register office in Liverpool and from 1964 to 1968 , they lived at Kenwood in the Surrey town of Weybridge , where she kept house and participated with her husband in a London @-@ based social life . In 1968 , John left her for Japanese avant @-@ garde conceptual artist Yoko Ono and as a result , the couple 's divorce was legally granted on 8 November 1968 on the grounds of John 's adultery with Ono .
She married Italian hotelier Roberto Bassanini in 1970 , divorcing him in 1973 . In 1976 , she married John Twist , an engineer from Lancashire , but divorced him in 1983 . After her divorce from Twist , she changed her name back to " Lennon " by deed poll and met Jim Christie , her partner for 17 years . She was later married to Noel Charles , a night club owner , from 2002 until his death in 2013 . She published a book of memoirs , A Twist of Lennon , in 1978 , and a more intimate biography , John , in 2005 . Over the years she staged several auctions of memorabilia associated with her life with John Lennon . In 2006 , she and her son Julian Lennon attended the Las Vegas premiere of the Cirque du Soleil production of Love whose theme is the music of the Beatles . Until her death in 2015 , she lived in Majorca , Spain .
= = Early years = =
Cynthia Powell was born on 10 September 1939 in Blackpool , Lancashire , England , the youngest of three children of Charles Powell and his wife Lillian ( née Roby ) , who already had two sons a number of years older , Charles and Anthony . Charles Powell worked for the GEC company . The Powells had lived in Liverpool , but along with other pregnant women , Lillian Powell was sent to the safer Blackpool after World War II had been declared , and lived in a small room in a bed @-@ and @-@ breakfast on the Blackpool seafront . After the birth , with Liverpool becoming a frequent target of German air raids , the Powell family moved to a two @-@ bedroomed semi @-@ detached house in Hoylake . This was a middle @-@ class area on the Wirral Peninsula , considered " posh " by those in Liverpool .
At the age of 11 , she won an art prize in a competition organised by the Liverpool Echo . One year later she was accepted into Liverpool 's Junior Art School , which was also attended by Bill Harry , later editor of Liverpool 's Mersey Beat newspaper .
= = Art college = =
When Powell was 17 , her father died after a long battle with lung cancer . Before he died , he told her she would have to get a job to support her mother , and would not be able to go to art school . As her mother wanted her to receive an education , she rented out a room to four apprentice electricians . In September 1957 , Powell gained a place at the Liverpool College of Art . Although studying graphics , she also took lettering classes , as did Lennon . He never had any drawing tools with him , so he constantly borrowed pens and pencils from Powell , who discovered he was only there because other teachers had refused to instruct him . She had an air of respectability and moved in different social circles than her future husband . Lennon and an art school friend , Geoff Mohammed , used to make fun of her by stopping the conversation when she walked in the room , saying : " Quiet please ! No dirty jokes ; it 's Cynthia . "
Powell once overheard Lennon give a compliment to a girl with blonde hair in the college , who looked similar to the French actress Brigitte Bardot . The next Saturday , Powell turned up at the college with her hair several shades blonder . Lennon noticed straight away , exclaiming , " Get you , Miss Hoylake ! " ( Lennon 's nickname for her , along with " Miss Powell " or " Miss Prim " ) . Dressed like a Teddy Boy , he sometimes brought a guitar with him into class , and once sang " Ain 't She Sweet " directly to Powell .
= = = Relationship with John Lennon = = =
After a college party to celebrate the end of term , Lennon asked Powell if she would like to " go out " with him . She quickly replied that she was engaged to a young man in Hoylake , he replied , " I didn 't ask you to marry me , did I ? " He later approached her and asked if she would go to the Ye Cracke pub . She was confused when he ignored her all evening , but eventually invited her into the group with a joke .
They began dating , with Lennon now referring to her as " Cyn " . In the autumn of 1958 , she ended her engagement to be with him , and he ended his relationship with another art student , Thelma Pickles . His jealousy could also manifest itself in violent behaviour towards her , as when he slapped her across the face ( causing her head to hit a wall ) , after watching her dance with Stuart Sutcliffe . After the incident , she broke up with Lennon for three months , but resumed their relationship after his profuse apology . Another time a cleaning woman at the college caught Lennon hitting her and suggested she stay away from him .
Her work at art school began to suffer , and teachers told her the relationship with Lennon was doing her no good . Lennon continued to be casually inconsiderate towards her , later saying , " I was in sort of a blind rage for two years . I was either drunk or fighting . It had been the same with other girl friends I 'd had . There was something the matter with me . " Tony Bramwell — a friend of Lennon 's since his youth — later said : " Cynthia was beautiful , physically , and on the inside . Although she knew he [ Lennon ] was apt to find love on the road , she was totally dedicated to his success ... and extremely influential . He was insecure and Cynthia was there to pump him up , to buttress , sort of , his weak side . "
The Beatles ' first Hamburg residency took place in 1960 , with Lennon writing frequent and passionate letters back home to Powell . After returning home , Lennon 's aunt and legal guardian , Mimi Smith , threw a hand @-@ mirror at him for spending a lot of money on a suede coat for Powell . Smith later referred to her as " a gangster 's moll " , and was often unpleasant towards her . The Beatles went to Hamburg for a second time in 1961 , and both Powell and Dot Rhone ( Paul McCartney 's girlfriend at the time ) , visited them two weeks later , during the Easter holidays . They had to stay up all night because of the long sets , with both taking Preludin to stay awake , which the group were also taking . Lennon and Powell stayed with Sutcliffe 's girlfriend , Astrid Kirchherr , at her mother 's house . After the trip to Hamburg , Powell 's mother Lillian said Powell 's cousin and husband were emigrating to Canada with their new @-@ born baby , and that she , Lillian , would be going with them while they studied to become teachers . Powell waited until Lennon came back from Hamburg before she asked Smith — who had taken in lodgers before at 251 Menlove Avenue — if she would rent a room to her . Smith rented out the box @-@ room above the front door ( which had been Lennon 's bedroom ) , but insisted she also do chores around the house . To pay the rent , she took a job at a Woolworths store in Liverpool , after her student grant had run out . In the same year , when Lennon was 21 years old , he received £ 100 from his aunt Mater who lived in Edinburgh , and went to Paris with McCartney . Powell could not accompany them as she was studying for her final exams .
When Lennon went to Hamburg again in April 1962 , she found a bedsit in a terraced house at 93 Garmoyle Road , Liverpool . Shortly after having failed her art teacher 's diploma exam , in August 1962 , she found she was pregnant with Lennon 's child . She later explained that she and Lennon had never used contraception , had never talked about it , and didn 't think about it at the time . When she told Lennon he said , " There 's only one thing for it Cyn , we 'll have to get married " .
= = Marriage and Julian = =
The Lennons were married on 23 August 1962 at the Mount Pleasant Register office in Liverpool . Fellow Beatles McCartney and George Harrison were in attendance , as was their manager , Brian Epstein , who was best man ; no parents were there . The wedding was farcical , because as soon as the ceremony began a workman in the backyard of the building opposite started using a pneumatic drill which drowned out anything the registrar , Lennon , or Powell said . When the registrar asked for the groom to step forward , Harrison stepped forward instead . With no photographs or flowers the wedding party celebrated afterwards , at Epstein 's invitation , in Reece 's restaurant in Clayton Square , which was the same restaurant where Lennon 's parents , Alfred Lennon and Julia Lennon , had celebrated their marriage in 1938 . Lennon was 21 years old , and Powell 22 . The newlyweds had no honeymoon , as Lennon had to play an engagement at the Riverpark Ballroom in Chester the same night , although they did travel to the Hotel George V in Paris , for a belated honeymoon on 16 September , but were accompanied by Epstein , even though he had not been invited to join them .
During her pregnancy , Epstein offered the couple the use of his flat at 36 Falkner Street , and later paid for a private hospital room when the pregnancy was coming to term . Although still completely unknown outside Liverpool , by now the Beatles had a fanatical following among girls within the city . Epstein had one condition which the Lennons had to follow : the marriage and the baby were to be kept a close secret , so as not to upset any of these fans . One time when news of the wedding leaked out , the group denied it . Cynthia was happy to keep a low profile , not wanting to be the subject of public attention the way her husband was .
The Lennons ' son , John Charles Julian Lennon , was born at 7 @.@ 45 am on 8 April 1963 , in Sefton Hospital . Lennon , being on tour at the time , did not see his son until three days later , and when he finally arrived at the hospital , said : " He 's bloody marvellous , Cyn ! ... Who 's gonna be a famous rocker like his Dad then ? " He then explained that he would be going on a four @-@ day holiday to Barcelona , with Epstein . Lennon later referred to Julian as a " Saturday night special ; the way that most people get here " , or said that his son " came out of a whisky bottle " .
= = Beatlemania = =
Around the time of Julian 's birth , the Beatles became a pop sensation across Britain , a phenomenon which became known as Beatlemania . That one of the members was married and had a son was not publicly known at the time ; a 1963 " Lifelines of the Beatles " page in the New Musical Express detailed over 25 biographical facts about each member of the group , but never gave any hint Lennon was married , even reporting " girls " as one of his hobbies . The press heard rumours about Lennon 's wife and child at the end of 1963 — after Beatlemania had already swept the UK and Europe — and descended on her mother 's house in Hoylake ( where mother and son were staying ) , in November and December . Friends and neighbours protected their anonymity , but she was often approached by journalists . In November she had her son christened at the Hoylake parish church , but didn 't tell Lennon ( who was on tour at the time ) , because she feared a media circus . She told him two days after , and he was angry as he hadn 't wanted his son to be christened , even though Epstein had asked to be Julian 's godfather . Not long after the christening , every newspaper was full of the story about Lennon 's secret wife and baby boy . Epstein told the other Beatles to make the best of the situation , and hoped newspapers would not say Cynthia was pregnant before marrying him . After living at Lennon 's aunt 's house for some months , the couple moved to London and found a three @-@ bedroomed flat at 13 Emperor 's Gate , off Cromwell Road . The top floor flat was the third of three , which were each built over two floors . This meant climbing six flights of stairs , as the building had no lift . Cynthia firstly had to carry Julian up to the flat , and then go back down to collect shopping bags . The Beatles ' fans soon found out where they were living , and she would find them camping out in the hallway , and have to push through them when leaving or arriving .
She accompanied Lennon to America on the first Beatles ' tour there , with Lennon allowing the press to photograph them together , which infuriated Epstein , as he had wanted to keep their marriage a secret . On the tour , she was left behind in New York when Lennon and the other Beatles were quickly ushered into a car , and in Miami she had to ask the help of fans to convince a security guard who she was . Lennon 's response was , " Don 't be so bloody slow next time — they could have killed you " . It would be the only time Cynthia would go on tour with them . At the Emperor 's Gate address the situation grew worse , with fans sticking chewing gum in the lock of the flat and tearing at any article of clothing when she or Lennon were leaving or arriving . American girls would write her letters proclaiming their desperate love for John ; the women in the lives of the other Beatles received equivalent missives . As late as 1967 , Beatles ' wives were still dealing with occasional physical danger from female Beatles ' fans , with Cynthia being kicked in the legs by one who demanded she " leave John alone ! "
As Lennon was either touring or recording , supposed family holidays in 1966 were skiing in St. Moritz , with producer George Martin and his girlfriend , or staying at a castle in Ireland , with George Harrison and Pattie Boyd ( Harrison 's wife ) . Even these were subject to being discovered by fans , with Cynthia and Pattie having to escape the Irish location by being dressed as maids . As a result of the long recording sessions and tours , Lennon usually slept for days afterwards . When Lennon started filming How I Won the War in Almeria , Spain , he promised his wife and son they could join him there after two weeks of filming . The small apartment they were allocated was swiftly replaced by a villa when Starr and his wife joined them .
= = Kenwood = =
= = = Domestic life = = =
The Beatles ' accountant told Epstein the group members should move to houses near his in Esher , so Lennon bought a house called Kenwood in July 1964 . It was a mock @-@ Tudor @-@ style house on three acres in Weybridge , where Cliff Richard already lived . Lennon then spent twice the original £ 20 @,@ 000 purchase price on renovations for Kenwood , reducing its 22 rooms to 17 . The new kitchen was so modern and complicated , someone had to be sent to explain how everything worked , and during the extensive renovations the couple had to live in the attic bedroom for nine months . Although Cynthia enjoyed entertaining in the larger rooms , Lennon could usually be found in a small sunroom at the back of the house overlooking the swimming pool , which was similar to his aunt 's conservatory in Liverpool . They had a cat called " Mimi " , named after Lennon 's aunt . Cynthia took care of Julian herself , without a nanny , although babysitters were frequently employed . She also did the cooking herself , but employed a housekeeper , gardener , and chauffeur , who lived off the premises .
When she passed her driving test , Lennon serially bought her a white Mini , a gold Porsche , a red Ferrari , and a green Volkswagen Beetle , usually as surprises without consulting her first . Cynthia enjoyed the closeness of Pattie Boyd ( George Harrison 's wife ) and Maureen Starkey ( Ringo Starr 's wife ) , as both lived nearby , often going on holiday together or shopping . She was often photographed at Beatles ' movie premieres and special occasions , and sometimes with Lennon and Julian at home , which meant she had the role of a Beatle wife , as well as being a mother . The Lennons often went to a nightclub in central London until nearly dawn , after which she took Julian to school . Kenwood became the place to visit for the other Beatles , various American musicians , and total strangers who Lennon had met the previous night in London nightclubs .
In 1965 , she opened the front door of Kenwood to see a man who " looked like a tramp " , but with her husband 's features . He explained that he was Alfred Lennon , the father whom Lennon had supposedly not seen for years . Lennon was annoyed when he came home , telling her for the first time that his father had visited the NEMS office , Epstein 's business , a few weeks before . Three years after the meeting in the NEMS office , Alfred Lennon ( who was then 56 years old ) turned up at Kenwood again with his fiancée , 19 @-@ year @-@ old student Pauline Jones . He asked if the Lennons could give Pauline a job , so she was hired to help with Julian and the piles of Beatles ' fan mail . Lennon 's father and his fiancée then spent a few months living in the attic bedroom . During an interview at Kenwood with Evening Standard reporter Maureen Cleave , Lennon said , " Here I am in my Hansel and Gretel house , famous and loaded , and I can 't go anywhere . There 's something else I 'm going to do , only I don 't know what it is , but I do know this isn 't it for me " .
= = = Drugs = = =
Cynthia knew her husband took drugs like Preludin , and regularly smoked cannabis but thought of them as not being very dangerous , especially the cannabis . On 27 March 1965 , at a dinner party given by a dentist , John Riley , the Lennons , Harrison , and Boyd were given LSD without their knowledge . Although told not to leave the house , Harrison drove them to various nightclubs , with Riley following them by taxi . At the Ad Lib club , they thought the lift up to the club was on fire and started screaming , before finally crawling out of the lift for which Mick Jagger , Marianne Faithfull , and Starr were waiting . Harrison later drove them back home in Boyd 's Mini Cooper at no more than 10 mph , as he was also feeling the effects of the drug . They stayed up all night at Kenwood , experiencing the full effects of their first LSD trip .
Lennon then started taking LSD on a regular basis , as well as his daily use of cannabis . After much encouragement from him , Cynthia agreed to try LSD one more time , but the adverse effects were the same . Although she said at the time she would never take the drug again , she relented and took it for the last time a few weeks later , on the way to a party at Epstein 's country house in Warbleton , East Sussex . Although she hated the psychological effects of the drug , from this point she could see the change taking place in her husband : " It was like living with someone who had just discovered religion ... Tensions , bigotry , and bad temper were replaced by understanding and love " . In 1970 , Lennon confessed he had probably taken LSD one thousand times since 1965 , saying : " I used to just eat it all the time " . In the decades ahead , Cynthia would always maintain that John 's drug use was the beginning of the end for the couple .
On 22 July 1967 , Harrison , Boyd , Starr , and assistant Neil Aspinall flew to Athens , where they stayed overnight until Lennon , his wife and son , McCartney , and Jane Asher ( McCartney 's girlfriend ) , Boyd 's 16 @-@ year @-@ old sister , Paula , roadie Mal Evans , and publicist Alistair Taylor set off for Athens . Looking for an island they could buy to live on together , they chartered a yacht , the MV Arvi . McCartney later said that whilst sailing around Greek islands , everybody just " sat around and took LSD " . Lennon and the other Beatles publicly renounced drugs — although never completely — after their initial meetings with the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi in London , and Bangor , Wales .
By 1967 , Lennon 's aggressive edges from his childhood had disappeared , and he spent considerable amounts of time sitting in his sunroom or garden and daydreaming for hours at end . He became somewhat uncommunicative towards most people , including Cynthia ( but not with the other Beatles , who had an almost unspoken ability to understand one another ) . Cynthia once complained , saying : " What I 'd like is a holiday of our own ... John , Julian and me " . Lennon replied with , " OK , I know , we 'll all retire to a little cottage on a cliff in Cornwall , all right ? " Then adding , " No , I 've got these bloody songs to write . I have to work , to justify living . " She understood his temperament , but felt frustrated at never having developed her own career by using her art college background .
= = = India and Ono = = =
The Beatles were scheduled to fly to India to visit the Maharishi for two or three months of Transcendental Meditation . Before they left , Cynthia found letters from Yoko Ono to Lennon which indicated he had had contact with her over a period of some time . Lennon denied he was involved with Ono , explaining that she was just some " crazy artist " who wanted to be sponsored , although Ono kept up a stream of telephone calls and visits to Kenwood . On 15 February 1968 , the Lennons flew to India , followed by the other Beatles and their partners four days later : Boyd , Asher , and Maureen Starkey ( Starr 's wife ) . The division between the sexes was emphasised by the male musicians sitting outside at night composing songs , while their partners gathered together in one of their rooms , often talking about life as the wife or partner of a Beatle . The Lennons shared a four @-@ poster bed at the ashram , with Lennon playing guitar and Cynthia drawing and writing poetry between their long sessions of meditation .
" Magic Alex " ( Greek @-@ born Alex Mardas , who controlled Apple Electronics ) arrived later , smuggling in alcohol from the nearest village as it was not allowed in the ashram . After two weeks Lennon asked to sleep in a separate room , saying he could only meditate when he was alone , but walked down to the local post office every morning to see if he had received a telegram from Ono , who sent one almost daily . Cynthia found out about these secretive trips much later , saying : " I had thought our magical interlude with the Maharishi would be
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November 1st 2014 for the first time in 11 years . Maryland defeated Penn State 20 @-@ 19 , and at the conclusion of the game , Randy Edsall finished his interview by saying " You know what ? Let the rivalry begin " . The following year , the rivalry game was played at M & T Bank Stadium in Baltimore , Penn State defeated Maryland 31 @-@ 30 .
= = = Virginia = = =
Main Article : Maryland @-@ Virginia football rivalry
The Maryland @-@ Virginia rivalry was a designated official ACC cross @-@ divisional series when Maryland was an ACC member and the teams have a long @-@ standing rivalry due to proximity and history . The programs also vie for recruits in the same region , and more recently , an additional factor has been the schools ' academic competition . Maryland and Virginia have occasionally served as spoilers for one another by precluding a championship or bowl game appearance . Since Maryland is moving out of the ACC and into the Big Ten , the future of this series is in question .
= = = West Virginia = = =
Main Article : Maryland @-@ West Virginia football rivalry
West Virginia has often been called Maryland 's biggest rival , and the teams have met 51 times since their first game in 1919 . The Maryland @-@ West Virginia rivalry had a chance of becoming an annual game with West Virginia potentially joining the ACC in 2012 , but the Mountaineers wound up joining the Big 12 Conference . In 2001 , both programs hired new head coaches , with West Virginia being taken over by Rich Rodriguez . Due to their proximity , the schools regularly raid their opponent 's recruiting areas . The long @-@ running series was put on hiatus for the 2008 and 2009 seasons , but resumed in 2010 .
= = = Navy = = =
Main Article : Crab Bowl Classic
Maryland played the Naval Academy , which is also located in the state of Maryland , several times between the 1930s and 1960s . The rivalry is known as the Crab Bowl Classic . In 1964 , an incident in which a Terrapins player flashed an obscene gesture prompted Navy officials to suspend the series for 40 years . They finally played again in 2005 . As of 2010 , the winner of the Crab Bowl Classic is awarded the Crab Bowl Trophy .
= = = Top 10 rivals = = =
Below are Maryland 's record against its top ten most @-@ played opponents .
= = = Big Ten rivals = = =
Below are Maryland 's record against its Big Ten opponents .
= = = = East = = = =
= = = = West = = = =
= = Team achievements = =
Maryland has accumulated various titles and distinctions in its 116 years of intercollegiate competition . Some of the most prestigious achievements are annotated below :
National championships : 1951 ( retroactive ) , 1953
Atlantic Coast Conference championships : 1953 , 1955 , 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 2001
Southern Conference championships : 1937 , 1951
Undefeated regular seasons : 1893 , 1951 , 1953 , 1955 , 1976
Undefeated conference seasons : 1937 , 1943 , 1949 , 1951 , 1953 , 1954 , 1955 , 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1984 , 1985
Bowl appearances : 1947 , 1949 , 1951 , 1953 , 1955 , 1973 , 1974 , 1975 , 1976 , 1977 , 1978 , 1980 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 , 1985 , 1990 , 2001 , 2002 , 2003 , 2006 , 2007 , 2008 , 2010 , 2013 , 2014
= = Individual honors = =
Over the years , many Maryland players have received All @-@ American honors . Eleven Terps have been named consensus ( received a majority of votes ) first @-@ team All @-@ Americans and one , E.J. Henderson , has received that honor twice . Additionally , some have been awarded prestigious awards , including the Bednarik Award , Butkus Award , Lou Groza Award , Outland Trophy , and Lombardi Award . While no Terrapin has ever received the Heisman Trophy , which is bestowed upon college football 's most outstanding player , several have received votes by the award 's selection committee . Quarterbacks Jack Scarbath and Bernie Faloney finished second and fourth in the voting in 1952 and 1953 , respectively . Additionally , Bob Pellegrini , Gary Collins , Randy White , and Boomer Esiason all finished in the top @-@ ten of the voting for a Heisman . Six Maryland players and four coaches have been inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame . Bear Bryant , Jerry Claiborne , Clark Shaughnessy , and Jim Tatum were inducted as coaches . The players included Dick Modzelewski , Bob Pellegrini , Jack Scarbath , and Bob Ward . Stan Jones and Randy White were also inducted into the Pro Football Hall of Fame .
= = = College Football Hall of Famers = = =
^ denotes player is also in Pro Football Hall of Fame
= = Future non @-@ conference opponents = =
Announced schedules as of February 2 , 2016
= Washington State Route 525 =
State Route 525 ( SR 525 ) is a 30 @.@ 68 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 49 @.@ 37 km ) state highway located in Snohomish and Island counties in the western region of the U.S. state of Washington . SR 525 begins at an interchange with Interstate 5 ( I @-@ 5 ) and I @-@ 405 in Lynnwood and travels north to SR 99 as a four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access freeway . From Lynnwood , the highway serves Mukilteo and becomes the terminus of SR 526 before taking its ferry route to Clinton on Whidbey Island . SR 525 traverses the island 's interior as part of the Whidbey Island Scenic Byway before the designation ends at an intersection with SR 20 south of Coupeville .
SR 525 was established during the 1964 state highway renumbering as the successor to Secondary State Highway 1D ( SSH 1D ) on Whidbey Island and SSH 1I in Mukilteo and Lynnwood , themselves established in 1937 . The highway , at its codification in 1970 , traversed the north – south length of Whidbey Island and ended at SR 536 near Anacortes until it was replaced by SR 20 in 1973 . SR 525 was converted to its present freeway in Lynnwood during the 1980s and widened to four lanes during the late 1990s , including an overpass over SR 99 . The highway also has a spur route in Mukilteo that has connected SR 525 to SR 526 via Paine Field Boulevard since it was signed in 2001 .
= = Route description = =
SR 525 begins at the Swamp Creek Interchange with I @-@ 5 , also serving as the northern terminus of I @-@ 405 , located in Lynnwood in southern Snohomish County . The four @-@ lane controlled @-@ access freeway travels north past Alderwood Mall and a partial cloverleaf interchange with Alderwood Mall Parkway , which serves the eponymous mall . SR 525 continues north under overpasses carrying 164th Street and 148th Street before reaching its partial cloverleaf interchange with SR 99 , where the freeway ends . The highway becomes the four @-@ lane Mukilteo Speedway and travels northwest into the city of Mukilteo , serving its commercial and industrial areas located south of Paine Field . SR 525 intersects its spur route , which travels north as Paine Field Boulevard towards the Boeing Everett Factory , before it serves as the western terminus of SR 526 . The highway gains a ferry holding lane on its northbound shoulder as it approaches the Mukilteo ferry terminal , located between the Mukilteo Lighthouse Park and the local train station , where the designation of SR 525 is carried onto the Whidbey Island Ferry across Possession Sound . The ferry , operated by Washington State Ferries ( WSF ) , takes approximately 20 minutes for each of its 39 daily round @-@ trip crossings . As of May 2012 , WSF charges a fare of $ 4 @.@ 65 per walk @-@ on passenger and $ 7 @.@ 85 per vehicle during off @-@ peak seasons , with varying fares depending on passenger age and vehicle size . SR 525 leaves the ferry terminal at Clinton and travels west through the interior of Whidbey Island in unincorporated Island County as part of the Whidbey Island Scenic Byway , a state scenic byway . The highway turns north along Holmes Harbor in Freeland and continues through Greenbank before SR 525 terminates at SR 20 south of Coupeville .
Every year , the Washington State Department of Transportation ( WSDOT ) conducts a series of surveys on its highways in the state to measure traffic volume . This is expressed in terms of average annual daily traffic ( AADT ) , which is a measure of traffic volume for any average day of the year . In 2012 , WSDOT calculated that the busiest section of SR 525 was its southern terminus at I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 405 , serving 61 @,@ 000 vehicles , while the least busiest section of the highway was at the Mukilteo ferry terminal , serving 5 @,@ 700 vehicles . SR 525 is designated as part of the National Highway System from Lynnwood to the Mukilteo ferry terminal , classifying it as important to the national economy , defense , and mobility . WSDOT designates the entire route of SR 525 as a Highway of Statewide Significance , which includes highways that connect major communities in the state of Washington .
= = History = =
SR 525 uses the Whidbey Island Ferry between Mukilteo and Clinton , which began as a route of the Island Transportation Company in 1919 . The ferry was later taken over by the Puget Sound Navigation Company , who were sold to the state of Washington in 1951 during the formation of the WSF . The discontinuous road sections of SR 525 were added to the state highway system in 1937 as SSH 1D and SSH 1I , both branches of PSH 1 . SSH 1D traveled 54 @.@ 73 miles ( 88 @.@ 08 km ) on Whidbey and Fidalgo islands from the Clinton ferry dock to an intersection with the Anacortes branch of PSH 1 at Sharps Corner . SSH 1I traveled 10 @.@ 63 miles ( 17 @.@ 11 km ) in a circular arc from Everett to Lynnwood , traveling on Mukilteo Boulevard and the Mukilteo Speedway .
SR 525 was established during the 1964 state highway renumbering and codified in 1970 as the successor to both SSH 1D and SSH 1I , traveling 62 @.@ 04 miles ( 99 @.@ 84 km ) north from the newly constructed Swamp Creek Interchange at I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 405 in Lynnwood , opened in 1965 , to SR 536 south of Anacortes . The highway was truncated to its present terminus south of Coupeville after SR 20 was extended east as the North Cascades Highway in 1973 . SR 525 was re @-@ aligned onto a two @-@ lane freeway within Lynnwood in the 1980s replacing the local streets it had used to connect to I @-@ 5 and SR 99 . The Swamp Creek Interchange , where SR 525 meets I @-@ 5 and I @-@ 405 , was opened in November 1984 .
WSF ferry routes were added to its respective state highways in 1994 , eliminating one of two gaps along the route of SR 525 , the other being a concurrency with SR 99 that was replaced by a partial cloverleaf interchange in 2000 during the widening of the freeway segment in Lynnwood . A spur route , located completely in Mukilteo , was added to SR 525 in 2001 along the route of the four @-@ lane Paine Field Boulevard , connecting the main highway to SR 526 .
= = Major intersections = =
= = Spur route = =
SR 525 has a 0 @.@ 86 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 1 @.@ 38 km ) spur route on Paine Field Boulevard in Mukilteo that connects the northbound lanes of the Mukilteo Speedway to SR 526 eastbound towards Everett and the local Boeing factory . Paine Field Boulevard was built in 1999 and signed as SR 525 Spur in 2001 , subsequently being widened and improved in 2003 by WSDOT . A proposal to extend Paine Field Boulevard through Japanese Gulch and create a bypass of the Mukilteo ferry terminal has been a part of the city 's transportation plan since 2001 , but has not been built . WSDOT estimated , during its annual AADT survey , that 21 @,@ 000 vehicles used the highway in 2012 .
= Lady Gaga =
Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta ( / ˈstɛfəniː dʒɜːrməˈnɒtə / STEF @-@ ə @-@ nee jur @-@ mə @-@ NOT @-@ ə ; born March 28 , 1986 ) , known professionally as Lady Gaga , is an American singer , songwriter , and actress . She performed initially in theater , appearing in high school plays , and studied at CAP21 through New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts before dropping out to pursue a musical career . After leaving a rock band , participating in the Lower East Side 's avant garde performance art circuit , and being dropped from a contract with Def Jam Recordings , Gaga worked as a songwriter for Sony / ATV Music Publishing . There , recording artist Akon noticed her vocal abilities and helped her to sign a joint deal with Interscope Records and his own KonLive Distribution .
Her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) was a critical and commercial success that produced global chart @-@ topping singles such as " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " . A follow @-@ up extended play ( EP ) , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , was met with a similar reception and " Bad Romance " , " Telephone " , and " Alejandro " were released becoming successful singles . Her second full @-@ length album Born This Way was released in 2011 , topping the charts in more than 20 countries , including the United States , where it sold over one million copies in its first week . The album produced the number @-@ one single " Born This Way " . Her third album Artpop , released in 2013 , topped the US charts and included the successful single " Applause " . In 2014 , Gaga released a collaborative jazz album with Tony Bennett titled Cheek to Cheek , which became her third consecutive number one in the United States . For her work in the television series American Horror Story : Hotel , Gaga won a Golden Globe Award in 2016 .
With global album and single sales of 27 million and 146 million respectively , as of January 2016 , she is one of the best @-@ selling musicians of all time . Her achievements include twelve Guinness World Records , three Brit Awards , and six Grammy Awards . She is also the first artist to win the Songwriters Hall of Fame 's Contemporary Icon Award . Other accolades include a Fashion Icon lifetime achievement award from the Council of Fashion Designers of America ( 2011 ) , regular appearances on Billboard 's Artists of the Year lists and Forbes 's power and earnings rankings . In 2013 , Gaga finished second on Time 's readers ' poll of the most influential people of the past ten years , while in 2015 , she was named Billboard 's Woman of the Year . She is known for her philanthropic work and social activism , including LGBT rights and the Born This Way Foundation .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1986 – 2004 : Early life = = =
Stefani Joanne Angelina Germanotta was born on March 28 , 1986 , at the Lenox Hill Hospital on Manhattan 's Upper East Side to a Catholic family . She is the elder daughter of Cynthia Louise " Cindy " ( Bissett ) and Internet entrepreneur Joseph Anthony " Joe " Germanotta , Jr . Gaga is of 75 percent Italian descent , and also has French Canadian ancestry . Gaga 's sister Natali is a fashion student . Despite her affluent upbringing on Manhattan 's Upper West Side , she says that her parents " both came from lower @-@ class families , so we 've worked for everything — my mother worked eight to eight out of the house , in telecommunications , and so did my father . " From age eleven , she attended the Convent of the Sacred Heart , a private , all @-@ girls Roman Catholic school on Manhattan 's Upper East Side . She described her academic life in high school as " very dedicated , very studious , very disciplined " but also " a bit insecure " . " I used to get made fun of for being either too provocative or too eccentric , so I started to tone it down . I didn 't fit in , and I felt like a freak . " Gaga began playing the piano at the age of four , wrote her first piano ballad at thirteen , and started to perform at open mic nights by the age of fourteen . She performed lead roles in high school productions , including Adelaide in Guys and Dolls and Philia in A Funny Thing Happened on the Way to the Forum . She also appeared in a very small role as a mischievous classmate in the television drama series The Sopranos in a 2001 episode titled " The Telltale Moozadell " . She auditioned for New York shows without success . She also studied method acting at the Lee Strasberg Theatre and Film Institute for ten years .
After high school , her mother encouraged her to apply for the Collaborative Arts Project 21 ( CAP21 ) , a musical theater training conservatory at New York University 's Tisch School of the Arts . One of 20 students to gain early admission , she , aged 17 , lived in an NYU dorm on 11th Street . In addition to sharpening her songwriting skills , she composed essays and analytical papers on art , religion , social issues , and politics , including a thesis on pop artists Spencer Tunick and Damien Hirst . She also auditioned for various roles and won the part of an unsuspecting diner customer for MTV 's Boiling Points , a prank reality television show .
= = = 2005 – 07 : Career beginnings = = =
At age 19 , Gaga withdrew from CAP21 in the second semester of her sophomore year , deciding to focus on her musical career . In the mid @-@ 2005 , Gaga recorded a couple of songs with hip @-@ hop singer Grandmaster Melle Mel , for an audio book accompanying Cricket Casey 's children 's book The Portal in the Park . She also formed a band called the Stefani Germanotta Band ( SGBand ) with some friends from NYU . The band played at gigs around New York becoming a local fixture of the downtown Lower East Side club scene . After the 2006 Songwriters Hall of Fame New Songwriters Showcase at The Cutting Room in June , Gaga was recommended to music producer Rob Fusari by talent scout Wendy Starland . Fusari collaborated with Gaga , who traveled daily to New Jersey , to work on songs she had written and to compose new material with him . According to the producer , they began dating in May 2006 , and he claimed to have created the " Lady Gaga " moniker after the Queen song " Radio Ga Ga " . The singer was in the process of trying to come up with a stage name when she received a text message from Fusari that read " Lady Gaga " . He explained , " Every day , when Stef came to the studio , instead of saying hello , I would start singing ' Radio Ga Ga ' " . The text message was the result of a predictive text glitch that changed " radio " to " lady " . Fusari said she texted back , " That 's it " , and declared , " Don 't ever call me Stefani again . "
Fusari and Gaga established a company called Team Lovechild LLC to promote her career . They recorded and produced electropop tracks and sent them to music industry executives . Joshua Sarubin , the head of A & R at Def Jam Recordings , responded positively and after agreement from his boss , Antonio " L.A. " Reid , Gaga was signed to Def Jam in September 2006 . However , she was dropped by the label after only three months – a period of her life that later inspired the music video of her 2011 single " Marry the Night " . Devastated , Gaga returned to the solace of the family home for Christmas and the nightlife culture of the Lower East Side . She became increasingly experimental : fascinating herself with emerging neo @-@ burlesque shows , go @-@ go dancing at bars dressed in little more than a bikini , in addition to experimenting with drugs . Gaga explained her antics represented freedom : " I went to a Catholic school but it was on the New York underground that I found myself . " Her relationship with Fusari ended in January 2007 following which she became romantically involved with a heavy metal drummer . She compared this relationship and the subsequent breakup to the musical film Grease : " I was his Sandy , and he was my Danny , and I just broke . "
During this time , she met performance artist Lady Starlight , who helped mold her onstage persona . Like SGBand , the pair soon began performing at many of the downtown club venues like the Mercury Lounge , The Bitter End , and the Rockwood Music Hall . Their live performance art piece was known as " Lady Gaga and the Starlight Revue " and , billed as " The Ultimate Pop Burlesque Rockshow " , was a low @-@ fi tribute to 1970s variety acts . Their performance at the 2007 Lollapalooza music festival was critically acclaimed .
Having initially focused on avant @-@ garde electronic dance music , Gaga found her musical niche when she began to incorporate pop melodies and the glam rock of David Bowie and Queen into her music . While Gaga and Starlight were busy performing , Fusari continued to work on the songs he had created with Gaga . He sent these songs to his friend , producer and record executive Vincent Herbert . The latter was quick to sign her to his label Streamline Records , an imprint of Interscope Records , established in 2007 . Gaga later credited Herbert as the man who discovered her , adding : " I really feel like we made pop history , and we 're gonna keep going . " Having served as an apprentice songwriter during an internship at Famous Music Publishing , ( later acquired by Sony / ATV Music Publishing ) , Gaga subsequently struck a music publishing deal with Sony / ATV . As a result , she was hired to write songs for Britney Spears and label mates New Kids on the Block , Fergie , and The Pussycat Dolls . At Interscope , singer @-@ songwriter Akon recognized her vocal abilities when she sang a reference vocal for one of his tracks in studio . Akon then convinced Interscope Geffen A & M Chairman and CEO Jimmy Iovine to form a joint deal by having her also sign with his own label Kon Live , making her his " franchise player " .
Towards the end of 2007 , Gaga met with songwriter and producer RedOne . Gaga collaborated with him in the recording studio for a week on her debut album , and also joined the roster of Cherrytree Records , an Interscope imprint established by producer and songwriter Martin Kierszenbaum ; she also wrote four songs with Kierszenbaum . Despite her secure record deal , she admitted that there was fear about her being too " racy " , " dance @-@ oriented " and " underground " for the mainstream market . Her response : " My name is Lady Gaga , I 've been on the music scene for years , and I 'm telling you , this is what 's next . "
= = = 2008 – 10 : The Fame and The Fame Monster = = =
By 2008 , Gaga relocated to Los Angeles in order to work extensively with her record label to complete her debut album , The Fame , and set up her own creative team called the Haus of Gaga , modeled on Andy Warhol 's Factory . The Fame was released on August 19 , 2008 , with positive reception . Critics noted the album 's combination of genres , " from Def Leppard drums and hand claps to metal drums on urban tracks " , the inspiration drawn from 1980s synthpop and incorporation of dance music . The Fame went to number one in Austria , Canada , Germany , Ireland , Switzerland and the UK and appeared in the top five in Australia , the US and 15 other countries . Its first two singles , " Just Dance " and " Poker Face " , became worldwide commercial successes . " Poker Face " won the award for Best Dance Recording at the 52nd Annual Grammy Awards while The Fame won Best Dance / Electronica Album at the same ceremony . Three other successful singles were released from the album — " Eh , Eh ( Nothing Else I Can Say ) " , " LoveGame " , and " Paparazzi " .
Following her opening act on The Pussycat Dolls ' 2009 Doll Domination Tour in Europe and Oceania , Gaga embarked on her own worldwide The Fame Ball Tour , which ran from March to September 2009 . While she traveled the globe , Gaga released The Fame Monster , an EP of eight songs , in November 2009 . Each song dealt with the darker side of fame from personal experience , expressed through a monster metaphor . Lead single " Bad Romance " topped the charts in 18 countries and reached number two in the US , Australia and New Zealand ; it won the Grammy Award for Best Female Pop Vocal Performance and Best Short Form Music Video . Two other singles were released from the EP , " Telephone " ( featuring Beyoncé ) and " Alejandro " . The former became Gaga 's fourth UK number one single , while the latter faced controversy for its music video , which was deemed blasphemous by the Catholic League . Despite the controversy surrounding her music videos , Gaga became the first artist to gain over one billion viral views on video @-@ sharing website YouTube . At the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards , Gaga won 8 of her 13 nominations , including Video of the Year for " Bad Romance " . In addition , The Fame Monster won the Grammy Award for Best Pop Vocal Album . Gaga also released , The Remix , which became her final record with Cherrytree Records . Forbes first listed Gaga on their 2010 Celebrity 100 and World 's Most Powerful Women lists ranking her fourth and seventh , respectively .
The success of The Fame and The Fame Monster allowed Gaga to start her second worldwide concert tour , The Monster Ball Tour , just weeks after finishing The Fame Ball Tour . Critically and commercially successful , the tour began in November 2009 and ended in May 2011 , and grossed $ 227 @.@ 4 million , making it the highest @-@ grossing for a debut headlining artist . Concerts performed at Madison Square Garden in New York City were filmed for an HBO television special titled Lady Gaga Presents the Monster Ball Tour : At Madison Square Garden . Gaga also performed songs from the albums at international events such as the 2009 Royal Variety Performance , 52nd Annual Grammy Awards , and the 2010 BRIT Awards . Other performances might have included her participation in Michael Jackson 's This Is It concert series at London 's O2 Arena had he not died of a drug overdose . Gaga clarified that she was : " actually asked to open for Michael on his tour ... We were going to open for him at the O2 and we were working on making it happen . I believe there was some talk about us , lots of the openers , doing duets with Michael on stage . "
During this era Gaga ventured into business , collaborating with consumer electronics company Monster Cable Products to create a pair of in @-@ ear , jewel @-@ encrusted , headphones titled Heartbeats . " They are designed to be the first ever fashion accessories that double as the absolute best sonically sounding headphones in the world , " she commented . Gaga also partnered with Polaroid in January 2010 as their Creative Director and revealed a trio of new photo capturing products called Grey Label . But her collaboration with past producer , and ex @-@ boyfriend , Rob Fusari led to her production team , Mermaid Music LLC , being sued in March 2010 when he claimed that he was entitled to a 20 % share of the company 's earnings . The New York Supreme Court dismissed both the lawsuit and a countersuit by Gaga . In addition to such strife , Gaga was tested borderline positive for lupus , but claimed not to be affected by the symptoms . The singer addressed the matter in an interview with Larry King , saying she hopes to avoid symptoms by maintaining a healthy lifestyle .
= = = 2011 – 14 : Born This Way , Artpop and Cheek to Cheek = = =
In February 2011 , Gaga released the lead single " Born This Way " from her studio album of the same name . The song debuted atop the Billboard Hot 100 , becoming the 1,000th number @-@ one single in the history of the charts . Its second single " Judas " also peaked within the top ten in several major musical markets , while " The Edge of Glory " , first a commercial success in digital outlets , was later released as a single to rave critical reviews . Born This Way , released on May 23 , 2011 , debuted atop the Billboard 200 with first @-@ week sales of 1 @.@ 108 million copies , and topped the charts in more than 20 other countries . The album sold eight million copies worldwide , and received three Grammy Award nominations , including her third Album of the Year listing . The album 's following singles " You and I " and " Marry the Night " failed to match the international success . In July 2011 , she started dating actor and model Taylor Kinney , whom she met while filming the " You and I " music video . The accompanying tour for Born This Way , titled the Born This Way Ball , began in April 2012 and concluded in February 2013 . Some of the tour 's shows were cancelled due to a labral tear of her right hip . Shortly thereafter Gaga confirmed that she had hip surgery , and was recovering . The tour earned $ 183 million globally . Gaga was ranked as the second most @-@ played artist of 2011 in the United Kingdom by the PPL . She also topped the Celebrity 100 List , with earnings of US $ 90 million , and was the highest ranked entertainer on Forbes World 's Most Powerful Women in the eleventh position . In March 2012 , Gaga was ranked fourth on Billboard 's list of top moneymakers of 2011 with earnings of $ 25 million , which included sales from Born This Way and her Monster Ball Tour .
During this period , Gaga recorded a jazz version of " The Lady Is a Tramp " with Tony Bennett and lent her vocals to a song with Elton John for the animated feature film , Gnomeo & Juliet . She held a concert at the Sydney Town Hall , Australia , to promote Born This Way , and at the celebration of former US president Bill Clinton 's 65th birthday . Later that year , Gaga directed the critically acclaimed Thanksgiving Day television special , A Very Gaga Thanksgiving , which attained 5 @.@ 749 million American viewers , and spawned the release of her fourth EP , A Very Gaga Holiday . In May 2012 , Gaga guest @-@ starred as an animated version of herself on the 23rd season finale of The Simpsons , titled " Lisa Goes Gaga " . She also appeared n Tony Bennett 's documentary film , The Zen of Bennett ( 2012 ) . The following month , she announced her first fragrance in association with Coty , Inc . , Lady Gaga Fame , which was released worldwide in September 2012 .
New songs for Gaga 's third studio album , Artpop , were beginning to take definite form as she worked with producer Fernando Garibay in early 2012 . Work on the album continued well into the Born This Way Ball tour . She yearned to make audiences have " a really good time " with Artpop , crafting the album to mirror " a night at the club " . Artpop was released in November 2013 . Despite mixed reviews , it debuted atop the Billboard 200 chart , and has sold 2 @.@ 5 million copies as of July 2014 . The album spawned successful singles in " Applause " and " Do What U Want " , featuring R & B singer R. Kelly . A third release , " G.U.Y. " , became Gaga 's weakest performing single to date . Gaga embarked on the accompanying ArtRave : The Artpop Ball tour several months later , building upon concepts from her ArtRave promotional event . Scooping up $ 83 million , the itinerary saw her visit new cities and several locations initially included in the Born This Way Ball tour . Meanwhile , Gaga split from longtime manager Troy Carter over " creative differences " , and by June 2014 , she and new manager Bobby Campbell joined Artist Nation , the artist management division of Live Nation Entertainment . She topped Forbes ' List of Top @-@ Earning Celebs Under 30 , and ranked second on the Celebrity 100 List and Time 's anniversary poll of the most influential people of the past ten years .
Gaga starred in Robert Rodriguez 's Machete Kills ( 2013 ) , a critical and commercial failure that earned her a Golden Raspberry Award for Worst Supporting Actress nomination . The singer also hosted the November 16 , 2013 episode of Saturday Night Live , where she performed " Do What U Want " ( with Kelly ) and an album cut , " Gypsy " . Later that month , she held her second Thanksgiving Day television special on ABC , Lady Gaga and the Muppets ' Holiday Spectacular . Gaga had a cameo in another Robert Rodriguez film , Sin City : A Dame to Kill For , released on August 22 , 2014 . She was confirmed as the Versace 's spring @-@ summer 2014 face with a campaign called " Lady Gaga For Versace " .
In 2014 , Gaga collaborated with American jazz singer Tony Bennett on the jazz album Cheek to Cheek . It debuted atop the Billboard 200 , becoming Gaga 's third consecutive number @-@ one record in the United States . The album won a Grammy Award for Best Traditional Pop Vocal Album . The duo recorded a concert special , called Tony Bennett and Lady Gaga : Cheek to Cheek Live ! , and embarked on the Cheek to Cheek Tour , which began in December 2014 and concluded in August 2015 . The same year , Gaga also had a seven @-@ day residency show commemorating the final performance at New York 's Roseland Ballroom before its closure . She also released her second fragrance in association with Coty Inc . , named Eau de Gaga .
= = = 2015 – present : American Horror Story and fifth studio album = = =
In February 2015 , Gaga became engaged to Taylor Kinney . At the 87th Academy Awards , she performed a tribute to The Sound of Music , singing a medley of songs from the film . The performance triggered over 214 @,@ 000 interactions per minute globally on Facebook . Gaga performed a piano version of John Lennon 's " Imagine " at the opening ceremony of the 2015 European Games in Baku , Azerbaijan . Gaga and Diane Warren co @-@ wrote a song titled " Til It Happens to You " for the documentary The Hunting Ground , which earned them the Satellite Award for Best Original Song and an Academy Award nomination in the same category . On October 2 , 2015 , a fashion film , directed by Nick Knight , was released for Tom Ford 's 2016 spring campaign , which depicts Gaga among several models dancing around a catwalk . It featured a new version of Chic 's " I Want Your Love " , recorded by Gaga in collaboration with Nile Rodgers . The singer received other accolades in 2015 , including the Contemporary Icon Award at the 2015 Annual Songwriters Hall of Fame Awards , the Young Artist Award at the 2015 National Arts Awards , and she ranked number 25 as the third female singer on the 2015 Forbes Celebrity 100 list , with earnings of US $ 59 million . Billboard also named Gaga its 2015 Woman of the Year . In November 2015 , Gaga and Bennett were featured in a commercial for Barnes & Noble 's 2015 holiday campaign , for which they recorded a rendition of " Baby , It 's Cold Outside " .
Gaga starred in American Horror Story : Hotel , the fifth season of American Horror Story , which ran from October 2015 to January 2016 . She played Elizabeth , the owner of the titular hotel . Despite her performance receiving mixed reviews , she won a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Miniseries or Television Film at the 2016 ceremony . Following her win , she signed with the Creative Artists Agency ( CAA ) having previously been signed with William Morris Endeavor ( WME ) . Gaga told Entertainment Weekly that the experience with American Horror Story will influence the creative process of her fifth studio album , claiming : " I have returned to something I 've believed in so much , which is the art of darkness . " She confirmed that the album will be released during 2016 . In March 2016 , she announced that she would return for the sixth season of American Horror Story .
In January 2016 , Gaga was invited to be the guest editor for the V magazine for its 99th issue , which features sixteen different covers . She subsequently received the award for Editor of the Year for her work on the magazine in March during the Fashion Los Angeles Awards . Her live performances in 2016 included singing the US national anthem on February 7 , at Super Bowl 50 , partnering with Intel and Nile Rodgers for a tribute performance to the late David Bowie at the 58th Annual Grammy Awards , and singing " Til It Happens to You " at the 88th Academy Awards , where she was introduced by Joe Biden and accompanied on @-@ stage by 50 sexual assault survivors . On April 4 , 2016 she was honored at the Jane Ortner Education Award by The Grammy Museum , with the Jane Ortner Artist Award , which recognizes artists who has demonstrated passion and dedication to education through the arts . Gaga and Elton John released a clothing and accessories line on Macy 's on May 9 , 2016 , to support their charities .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Musical style = = =
Continually experimenting with new musical ideas and images , Gaga 's musical and performance style is the subject of much analysis and scrutiny from critics . She professes that she is " liberating " herself by constantly reinventing her sound and image , insisting that she has been drawn to such a practice since her childhood . Refusing to lip sync , Gaga – whose range is frequently compared to those of Madonna and Gwen Stefani – has manipulated her vocal style over the course of her career yet considers Born This Way ( 2011 ) " much more vocally up to par with what I 've always been capable of . " In summation of her voice , Entertainment Weekly wrote : " There 's an immense emotional intelligence behind the way she uses her voice . Almost never does she overwhelm a song with her vocal ability , recognizing instead that artistry is to be found in nuance rather than lung power . "
Although her early lyrics have been criticized for lacking intellectual stimulation , " [ Gaga ] does manage to get you moving and grooving at an almost effortless pace . " Gaga believes that " all good music can be played on a piano and still sound like a hit . " She has covered a wide variety of topics in her songs : while The Fame ( 2008 ) meditates on the lust for stardom , The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) expresses fame 's dark side through monster metaphors . Born This Way ( 2011 ) is sung in English , French , German , and Spanish and includes common themes in Gaga 's controversial songwriting such as : sex , love , religion , money , drugs , identity , liberation , sexuality , freedom , and individualism .
Her music style has been described as electropop and as dance @-@ pop and the structure of her music is said to be influenced by classic 1980s pop and 1990s Europop . Her debut album The Fame ( 2008 ) provoked The Sunday Times to assert " in combining music , fashion , art and technology , [ Gaga ] evokes Madonna , Gwen Stefani circa ' Hollaback Girl ' , Kylie Minogue 2001 or Grace Jones right now " , and a critic from The Boston Globe to comment that she draws : " obvious inspirations from Madonna to Gwen Stefani ... in [ her ] girlish but sturdy pipes and bubbly beats . " Music critic Simon Reynolds wrote that : " Everything about Gaga came from electroclash , except the music , which wasn 't particularly 1980s , just ruthlessly catchy naughties pop glazed with Auto @-@ Tune and undergirded with R & B @-@ ish beats . " The follow @-@ up The Fame Monster ( 2009 ) , saw Gaga 's taste for pastiche , drawing on " Seventies arena glam , perky ABBA disco , and sugary throwbacks like Stacey Q " while Born This Way ( 2011 ) also draws on the records of her childhood and still has the " electro @-@ sleaze beats and Eurodisco chorus chants " of its predecessor but includes genres as diverse as opera , heavy metal , disco , and rock and roll . " There isn 't a subtle moment on the album , but even at its nuttiest , the music is full of wide @-@ awake emotional details , " wrote Rolling Stone , which concluded : " The more excessive Gaga gets , the more honest she sounds . " With 2014 's Cheek to Cheek , Gaga dabbled in the jazz genre . Although critically appreciated for her love of the music , and the songs she recorded on the album , it was noted that Gaga 's attempt to switch genres , with " her rhythmically square , shouty delivery " , left her vocals sounding more like a Broadway singer than a real jazz musician .
= = = Influences = = =
Gaga grew up listening to artists such as : The Beatles , Stevie Wonder , Queen , Bruce Springsteen , Pink Floyd , Mariah Carey , The Grateful Dead , Led Zeppelin , Whitney Houston , Elton John , Blondie , and Garbage , who all influenced her . She has cited heavy metal bands as an influence , stating that Iron Maiden " changed my life " and describing herself as " the biggest Black Sabbath fan on Earth " . Gaga 's musical inspiration varies from dance @-@ pop singers like Madonna and Michael Jackson to glam rock artists like David Bowie and Freddie Mercury , as well as the theatrics of the pop artist Andy Warhol and her own performance roots in musical theater . Gaga has often been compared to Madonna who admits that she sees herself reflected in Gaga . In response to the comparisons , Gaga stated in February 2011 : " I don 't want to sound presumptuous , but I 've made it my goal to revolutionize pop music . The last revolution was launched by Madonna 25 years ago " in addition to commenting that : " there is really no one that is a more adoring and loving Madonna fan than me . " Like Madonna , Gaga has continued to reinvent herself and has drawn inspiration from the music and performances of a diverse mix of artists including : Whitney Houston , Blondie frontwoman Debbie Harry , Lily Allen , Marilyn Manson , Yoko Ono , Beyoncé , Britney Spears , and Christina Aguilera .
Another spiritual influence on Gaga has been the Indian physician , public speaker , and writer Deepak Chopra . Labeling him a " true inspiration " , she stated that " he 's always reminded me to work in a life of service to my fans and to fulfill my vision and my destiny " in addition to thinking about Chopra when it comes to her work as a musician : " I want so much for it to go beyond the music for my fans . " Gaga also lifted a quote from Osho 's book Creativity on Twitter . When asked about her connection to him , Gaga said she was influenced by his work and that , for her , " the creativity is the greatest way of rebellion " : " Equality " , she concluded , " is one of the most important things in my life . "
Gaga has identified fashion as a major influence and claimed that her interest in fashion came from her mother who was " always very well kept and beautiful . " Her musical endeavors are directly linked with fashion with the singer explaining : " When I 'm writing music , I 'm thinking about the clothes I want to wear on stage . It 's all about everything altogether — performance art , pop performance art , fashion . " Gaga has been stylistically compared to Leigh Bowery , Isabella Blow , and Cher . She commented that as a child , she somehow absorbed Cher 's out @-@ there fashion sense and made it her own . Gaga considers Donatella Versace her muse , and the late English fashion designer and close friend Alexander McQueen as an inspiration , admitting that " I miss Lee every time I get dressed " while channeling him in some of her work . In turn , Versace calls Lady Gaga " the fresh Donatella " . Modeled on Andy Warhol 's Factory , Gaga has her own creative production team , which she handles personally , called the Haus of Gaga , who create many of her clothes , stage props , and hairdos . Other fashion influences came from Princess Diana : " I love Princess Diana so much . She was an enormous influence on me when I was younger because my mother worshiped her so much . When she died , I 'll never forget , my mother was crying . It was this very powerful moment in my childhood watching my mother so connected to someone " .
= = = Videos and stage = = =
With constant costume changes and provocative visuals , Gaga 's music videos are often described as short films . " Being provocative is not just about getting people 's attention . It 's about saying something that really affects people in a real way , in a positive way , " she professes . According to author Curtis Fogel , exploring bondage and sadomasochism in addition to highlighting prevalent feminist themes , " the three central themes that shape Gaga 's music videos are sex , violence , and power . " While she labels herself " a little bit of a feminist " and asserts that she is " sexually empowering women " , Gaga strives to empower young women to stand up for what they believe in . " She not only reiterates her assertion of total originality , " professed pop critic Ann Powers , " but also finesses it until it 's both a philosophical stance about how constructing a persona from pop @-@ cultural sources can be an expression of a person 's truth — a la those drag queens Gaga sincerely admires — and a bit of a feminist act . " In summation of her videos , Rolling Stone used the rhetoric : " does anyone look to a Lady Gaga video for restraint ? "
Her performances are described as " highly entertaining and innovative " ; the blood @-@ spurting performance of " Paparazzi " at the 2009 MTV Video Music Awards was described as " eye @-@ popping " by MTV News . She continued the " blood soaked " theme during The Monster Ball Tour , and triggered protests in England from family groups and fans in the aftermath of a local tragedy , in which a taxi driver had murdered 12 people . Her unconventionality continued at the 2011 MTV Video Music Awards : appearing in drag as her male alter ego , Jo Calderone , and delivering a lovesick monologue before a performance of her song " You and I " . As Gaga 's choreographer and creative director , Laurieann Gibson provided material for her shows and videos for four years only to be replaced by Gibson 's assistant Richard Jackson . Gaga admits to being a perfectionist when it comes to her elaborate shows . " I 'm very bossy . I can scream my head off if I see one light fixture out . I 'm very detailed – every minute of the show has got to be perfect . "
= = Public image = =
Public reception of Gaga 's music , fashion sense and persona are polarized . Her status as a role model , self @-@ esteem booster for her fans , trailblazer , and fashion icon who breathes new life into the industry is by turns affirmed and denied . Critics have pointed out her unique place in pop music , the need for new movements in popular culture , the attention Gaga brings to modern social issues , and the inherently subjective nature of her art . In view of her influence on modern culture and her rise to global fame , sociologist Mathieu Deflem of the University of South Carolina has offered a course titled " Lady Gaga and the Sociology of the Fame " since spring 2011 with the objective of unravelling : " some of the sociologically relevant dimensions of the fame of Lady Gaga . " When Gaga briefly met with US president Barack Obama at a Human Rights Campaign fundraiser , he described the interaction as " intimidating " as she was dressed in 16 @-@ inch heels making her undoubtedly the tallest woman in the room .
Towards the end of 2008 , comparisons were made between the fashions of Gaga and Aguilera , that noted similarities in their styling , hair , and make @-@ up . Aguilera stated that she was " completely unaware of [ Gaga ] " . Comparisons continued into 2010 , when Aguilera released the music video of her single " Not Myself Tonight " . Critics noted similarities between the song and its accompanying music video and Gaga 's video for " Bad Romance " . When interviewed by Barbara Walters for her annual ABC News special 10 Most Fascinating People in 2009 , Gaga dismissed the claim that she is intersex as an urban legend . Responding to a question on this issue , she stated , " At first it was very strange and everyone sorta said , ' That 's really quite a story ! ' But in a sense , I portray myself in a very androgynous way , and I love androgyny . "
Gaga 's outlandish fashion sense has also been one of her characteristic aspects . The Global Language Monitor named " Lady Gaga " as the Top Fashion Buzzword with her trademark " no pants " a close third . Entertainment Weekly put her outfits on its end of the decade " best @-@ of " list , saying : " Whether it 's a dress made of Muppets or strategically placed bubbles , Gaga 's outré ensembles brought performance art into the mainstream . " Time placed Gaga on their All @-@ Time 100 Fashion Icons List amongst some of Gaga 's inspirations such as Michael Jackson , Madonna , and The Beatles , stating : " Lady Gaga is just as notorious for her outrageous style as she is for her pop hits . After all , Gaga , born Stefani Germanotta , has sported outfits made from plastic bubbles , Kermit the Frog dolls , and raw meat . "
Gaga wore a dress made of raw beef to the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards which was supplemented by boots , a purse , and a hat also made out of raw beef . Partly awarded in recognition of the dress , Vogue named her one of the Best Dressed people of 2010 while Time named the dress the Fashion Statement of 2010 . However , it promted divided opinions , attracting the attention of worldwide media but also invoking the fury of animal rights organization PETA . In 2012 , Gaga became a feature of a temporary exhibition The Elevated : From the Pharaoh to Lady Gaga marking the 150th anniversary of the National Museum in Warsaw . Gaga was presented in a dress of raw meat , described by Polish weekly Wprost as : " an icon of modernity elevated by the power which she exercises over mass media " . The meat dress was later displayed at the National Museum of Women in the Arts , and entered the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in September 2015 . As Gaga appeared at the 87th Academy Awards and subsequent events , she changed her style and fashion , transforming into a more glamorous person ; Vogue compared her to that of Marilyn Monroe and MTV News described the change as " more acceptably ' natural ' or ' classic ' " .
While devout followers call Gaga " Mother Monster " , Gaga often refers to her fans as " Little Monsters " which she had tattooed on herself in dedication . To some , this dichotomy contravenes the concept of outsider culture . Camille Paglia , in her 2010 cover story " Lady Gaga and the death of sex " in The Sunday Times , asserts that Gaga : " is more an identity thief than an erotic taboo breaker , a mainstream manufactured product who claims to be singing for the freaks , the rebellious and the dispossessed when she is none of those . " Writing for The Guardian , Kitty Empire opined that the dichotomy : " ... allows the viewer to have a ' transgressive ' experience without being required to think . At [ her performance 's ] core , though , is the idea that Gaga is at one with the freaks and outcasts . " In July 2012 , Gaga also co @-@ founded the website LittleMonsters.com with Silicon Valley entrepreneur Joseph Primiani , which became the first official social network devoted to fans of an artist .
= = Activism = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Alongside her music career , Gaga has contributed to various charities . For natural disasters , Gaga has helped various relief efforts . Although declining an invitation to appear on the single " We Are the World 25 " to benefit victims of the 2010 Haiti earthquake , she donated the proceeds of her concert of January 24 , 2010 , at New York 's Radio City Music Hall to the country 's reconstruction relief fund . All profits from her official online store on that day were also donated . Gaga announced that an estimated total of US $ 500 @,@ 000 was collected for the fund . Hours after the 2011 Tōhoku earthquake and tsunami hit Japan on March 11 , 2011 , Gaga tweeted a message and a link to Japan Prayer Bracelets . All revenue from a bracelet she designed in conjunction with the company was donated to relief efforts . As of March 29 , 2011 , the bracelets raised $ 1 @.@ 5 million . However , attorney Alyson Oliver filed a lawsuit against Gaga in Detroit in June 2011 , noting that the bracelet was subject to a sales tax and an extra $ 3 @.@ 99 shipping charge was added to the price . She also believed that not all proceeds from the bracelets would go to the relief efforts , demanding a public accounting of the campaign and refunds for people who had bought the bracelet . Gaga 's spokesperson called the lawsuit " meritless " and " misleading " . On June 25 , 2011 , Gaga performed at MTV Japan 's charity show in Makuhari Messe , which benefited the Japanese Red Cross .
In 2012 , Gaga joined the anti fracking campaign Artists Against Fracking . In October 2012 , Gaga was reported to have met the founder of Wikileaks , Julian Assange , at the Ecuadorean embassy in London . On October 9 , 2012 , Yoko Ono gave Gaga and four other activists the LennonOno Grant for Peace in Reykjavík , Iceland . On November 6 , 2012 , Gaga pledged to donate $ 1 million to the American Red Cross to help the victims of Hurricane Sandy . Gaga also contributes in the fight against HIV and AIDS , focusing on educating young women about the risks of the disease . In collaboration with Cyndi Lauper , Gaga joined forces with MAC Cosmetics to launch a line of lipstick under their supplementary cosmetic line , Viva Glam . In a press release , Gaga declared , " I don 't want Viva Glam to be just a lipstick you buy to help a cause . I want it to be a reminder when you go out at night to put a condom in your purse right next to your lipstick . " The sales of Gaga @-@ endorsed Viva Glam lipstick and lip gloss have raised more than $ 202 million to fight HIV and AIDS .
On April 7 , 2016 , Gaga joined Vice President Joe Biden at the University of Nevada , Las Vegas , to support Biden 's It 's On Us campaign as he travels to colleges on behalf of the organization , which has seen 250 @,@ 000 students from more than 530 colleges sign a pledge of solidarity and activation . On June 26 , 2016 , Gaga attended the 84th Annual US Conference of Mayors in Indianapolis where she joined with Dalai Lama to talk about the power of kindness and how to make the world a more compassionate place . The Chinese government added Gaga to list of hostile foreign forces , and Chinese websites and media organizations were ordered to stop uploading or distributing her songs . The Publicity Department of the Communist Party of China ( CCPPD ) also issued order for State @-@ controlled media to condemn this meeting .
= = = Born This Way Foundation = = =
In 2012 , she launched the Born This Way Foundation ( BTWF ) , a non @-@ profit organization that focuses on youth empowerment and issues like self @-@ confidence , well @-@ being , anti @-@ bullying , mentoring , and career development . It takes its name from the 2011 single and album . The foundation plans to work with a number of partners , including the John D. and Catherine T. MacArthur Foundation , The California Endowment , and the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University . Media proprietor Oprah Winfrey , writer Deepak Chopra , and United States Secretary of Health and Human Services Kathleen Sebelius spoke at the inauguration at Harvard University . The foundation 's original funding included $ 1 @.@ 2 million from Gaga , $ 500 @,@ 000 from the MacArthur Foundation , and $ 850 @,@ 000 from Barneys New York . The foundation works in partnership with the Berkman Center for Internet & Society at Harvard University , the MacArthur Foundation , the California Endowment , and , as lead media partner , Viacom . In July 2012 , the BTWF partnered with Office Depot , which will donate 25 % of the sales @-@ a minimum of $ 1million @-@ of a series of limited edition back @-@ to @-@ school products that promote the foundation 's message The foundation 's initiatives have included , in March – April 2012 , a poster competition that asked participants to submit images that answer the question " What does bravery mean to you ? " ; the " Born Brave Bus " that would follow her on tour as a youth drop @-@ in center as an initiative against bullying , and the " Born Brave " community and school groups .
On October 24 , 2015 , at the Yale Center for Emotional Intelligence , Gaga joined 200 high school students , top policy makers , and academic officials , including Yale President Peter Salovey , a pioneer in the study of emotional intelligence , to discuss ways to recognize and channel emotions for positive outcomes . In 2016 , the foundation partnered with Intel , Vox Media and Re / code to fight online harassment . It was also announced that the sale of the cover of the 99th issue of the V magazine , which featured Gaga and Kinney , was donated to the foundation to bring cutting @-@ edge , social @-@ emotional intelligence research . Gaga and Elton John released a clothing and accessories line on Macy 's on May 9 , 2016 , entitled Love Bravery , in which twenty @-@ five percent of each purchase will support the Born This Way Foundation and the Elton John AIDS Foundation .
= = = LGBT advocacy = = =
Gaga is an outspoken activist for LGBT rights worldwide . She attributes much of her early success as a mainstream artist to her gay fans and is considered a gay icon . Early in her career she had difficulty getting radio airplay , and stated , " The turning point for me was the gay community . " She thanked FlyLife , a Manhattan @-@ based LGBT marketing company with whom her label Interscope works , in the liner notes of The Fame . One of her first televised performances was in May 2008 at the NewNowNext Awards , an awards show aired by the LGBT television network Logo . In June of the same year , she performed at the San Francisco Pride event . After The Fame was released , she revealed that the song " Poker Face " was about her bisexuality . In an interview with Rolling Stone , she spoke about how her boyfriends tended to react to her bisexuality , saying : " The fact that I 'm into women , they 're all intimidated by it . It makes them uncomfortable . They 're like , ' I don 't need to have a threesome . I 'm happy with just you ' . " When she appeared as a guest on The Ellen DeGeneres Show in May 2009 , she praised DeGeneres for being : " an inspiration for women and for the gay community " .
Gaga spoke at the 2009 National Equality March in Washington , D.C. in support of LGBT movement , and described the appearance as " the single most important moment " of her career . She attended the 2010 MTV Video Music Awards accompanied by four gay and lesbian former members of the United States Armed Forces who had been unable to serve openly under the U.S. military 's " Don 't ask , don 't tell " ( DADT ) policy . Gaga released three videos on YouTube urging her fans to contact their Senators in an effort to overturn DADT . In September 2010 she spoke at a Servicemembers Legal Defense Network 's rally in Portland , Maine . Following this event , editors of The Advocate commented that she had become a " fierce advocate " for gays and lesbians . Gaga appeared at Europride , a pan @-@ European international event dedicated to LGBT pride , held in Rome in June 2011 . She criticized the intolerant state of gay rights in many European countries and described gay people as " revolutionaries of love " . Gaga was ordained as a minister by the Universal Life Church Monastery so that she could officiate the wedding of long @-@ time friends , both of whom were women . In June 2016 , during a vigil held in Los Angeles for victims of the attack at the gay nightclub Pulse in Orlando , Gaga read aloud the names of the 49 people killed in the attack , and also gave a supporting speech . Also in June 2016 , the Human Rights Campaign released a video in tribute to the victims of that attack ; in the video , Gaga and others told the stories of the people killed there .
= = Legacy = =
Gaga has been regarded as a trail blazer throughout several points in her career , sometimes utilizing controversy to bring attention to various issues . With the meteoric success of The Fame , Gaga is credited as being one of the frontrunners of the rise in the popularity of synthpop in the late 2000s and early 2010s . Writer Brian Solis says , " It 's all about how you cultivate your community , " Solis said . " Celebs have never shied away from causes and in many ways it 's expected that they will use their celebrity to gain attention for those causes . But it 's what ( Gaga ) does over time and how her community responds that starts the lean @-@ over into the influence factor . Polaroid CEO , after working with Gaga , said : " she 's a true artist who inspires her fans and the creative community . The relationship she has with her fans is exceptionally close and she is consistently in contact with them via social networks , making her messages accessible , authentic and far reaching . " Named the " Queen of Pop " by Rolling Stone magazine , her work has influenced Miley Cyrus , Nicki Minaj , Ellie Goulding , Nick Jonas , Tyler Oakley , Lohanthony , Sam Smith , Greyson Chance , Debbie Harry of Blondie , and MGMT .
Gaga has been commemorated in the scientific names of several organisms . A new genus of ferns , Gaga , and two species , G. germanotta and G. monstraparva have been named in her honor . The name monstraparva alluded to Gaga 's fans known as " little monsters " since their symbol is the outstretched " monster claw " hand , which resembles a tightly in @-@ rolled young fern leaf prior to unfurling . Gaga also has an extinct mammal , Gagadon minimonstrum , and a parasitic wasp , Aleiodes gaga , named for her .
= = Achievements = =
As of January 2016 , Gaga had sold an estimated 27 million albums and 146 million singles worldwide ; her singles are some of the best @-@ selling worldwide , making her one of the best @-@ selling music artists . She is also noted as a touring force as she has grossed more than $ 300 million in revenue from 3 @.@ 2 million tickets for her first three worldwide concert tours . Her other achievements include six Grammy Awards , three Brit Awards , a Golden Globe Award , thirteen MTV Video Music Awards , twelve Guinness World Records , a Songwriters Hall of Fame 's Contemporary Icon Award , which she was the first artist ever to win , a National Arts Awards ' Young Artist Award , which honors individuals who have achieved incredible accomplishments and exemplary leadership while still early in their career , and honored at the Jane Ortner Education Award by The Grammy Museum , with the Jane Ortner Artist Award , which recognizes artists who has demonstrated passion and dedication to education through the arts . She has also been recognized by the Council of Fashion Designers of America ( CFDA ) with the Fashion Icon lifetime achievement award , a special prize reserved for : " an individual whose style has made a significant impact on popular culture on an international stage " .
Gaga has consecutively appeared on Billboard magazine 's Artists of the Year ( scoring the definitive title in 2010 ) , and named as Woman of the Year in 2015 , is the fourth best selling digital singles artist in the United States according to RIAA with a total of 59 million certified . She also became the first woman to receive the Digital Diamond Award from RIAA , and is the first and only artist to have two songs pass 7 million downloads ( " Poker Face " and " Just Dance " ) . She is regularly placed on lists composed by Forbes magazine , including their list of The World 's 100 Most Powerful Women from 2010 to 2014 , named one of the most influential people in the world by Time magazine in 2010 , and the " second most influential people of the past ten years " through a readers ' poll in 2013 .
= = Discography = =
The Fame ( 2008 )
The Fame Monster ( 2009 )
Born This Way ( 2011 )
Artpop ( 2013 )
Cheek to Cheek ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
The Zen of Bennett ( 2012 )
Katy Perry : Part of Me ( 2012 )
Machete Kills ( 2013 )
Muppets Most Wanted ( 2014 )
Sin City : A Dame to Kill For ( 2014 )
Jeremy Scott : The People 's Designer ( 2015 )
= = Concerts = =
= Flag of Bhutan =
The national flag of Bhutan ( Dzongkha : ཧྥ ་ རན ་ ས ་ ཀྱི ་ དར ་ ཆ ་ ; Wylie : hpha @-@ ran @-@ sa @-@ kyi dar @-@ cho ) is one of the national symbols of Bhutan . The flag is based upon the tradition of the Drukpa Lineage of Tibetan Buddhism and features Druk , the Thunder Dragon of Bhutanese mythology . The basic design of the flag by Mayum Choying Wangmo Dorji dates to 1947 . A version was displayed in 1949 at the signing of the Indo @-@ Bhutan Treaty . A second version was introduced in 1956 for the visit of Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuk to eastern Bhutan ; it was based upon photos of its 1949 predecessor and featured a white Druk in place of the green original .
The Bhutanese subsequently redesigned their flag to match the measurements of the flag of India , which they believed fluttered better than their own . Other modifications such as changing the red background color to orange led to the current national flag , in use since 1969 . The National Assembly of Bhutan codified a code of conduct in 1972 to formalize the flag 's design and establish protocol regarding acceptable flag sizes and conditions for flying the flag .
= = Origins = =
Historically Bhutan is known by numerous names , but the Bhutanese call the country Druk after the name of the Bhutanese thunder dragon . This tradition dates to 1189 when Tsangpa Gyare Yeshe Dorje , founder of the Drukpa lineage of Tibetan Buddhism , was in Phoankar ( Tibet ) where he reportedly witnessed the Namgyiphu valley glowing with rainbow and light . Considering this an auspicious sign , he entered the valley to choose a site for the construction of a monastery , whereupon he heard three peals of thunder – a sound produced by the druk ( dragon ) according to popular Bhutanese belief . The monastery that Tsangpa Gyare built that year was named Druk Sewa Jangchubling , and his school of teaching became known as Druk . The Druk school later split into three lineages . One of these three , Drukpa , was founded by Tsangpa Gyare 's nephew and spiritual heir Önrey Dharma Sengye and afterward spread throughout Bhutan . The nation itself would also later become known as Druk . This legend offers one explanation for how the symbolism of the dragon came to form the basis of the national flag of Bhutan . An alternative hypothesis maintains that the notion of symbolizing sovereign and state in the form of a dragon emerged in neighboring China and was adopted by the rulers of Bhutan as a symbol of royalty in the early 20th century .
= = Current national flag = =
= = = Design = = =
The current flag is divided diagonally from the lower hoist @-@ side corner , with the upper triangle yellow and the lower triangle orange . Centred along the dividing line is a large black and white dragon facing away from the hoist side . The dragon is holding a norbu , or jewel , in each of its claws . The background colours of the flag , yellow and orange , are identified as Pantone 116 and 165 respectively . Equivalents of these shades and the white of the Druk are specified by various other codes according to particular matching systems as indicated below .
The dimensions of the flag must maintain a 3 : 2 ratio . The following sizes have been declared standard by the Government of Bhutan :
21 ft × 14 ft ( 6 @.@ 4 m × 4 @.@ 3 m )
12 ft × 8 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m × 2 @.@ 4 m )
6 ft × 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m × 1 @.@ 2 m )
3 ft × 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 9 m × 0 @.@ 6 m )
9 in × 6 in ( 23 cm × 15 cm ) , for car flags .
= = = Symbolism = = =
According to The Legal Provisions of the National Flag of the Kingdom of Palden Drukpa as Endorsed in Resolution 28 of the 36th Session of the National Assembly held on June 8 , 1972 , and as restated in the Constitution of 2008 , the yellow signifies civil tradition and temporal authority as embodied in the Druk Gyalpo , the Dragon King of Bhutan , whose royal garb traditionally includes a yellow kabney ( scarf ) . The orange half signifies Buddhist spiritual tradition , particularly the Drukpa Kagyu and Nyingma schools . Druk , the Thunder Dragon , spreads equally over the line between the colors . The placement of Druk in the center of the flag over the dividing line between the flag 's two colors signifies the equal importance of both civic and monastic traditions in the Kingdom of Druk ( Bhutan ) and evokes the strength of the sacred bond between sovereign and people . The white color of Druk signifies the purity of inner thoughts and deeds that unite all the ethnically and linguistically diverse peoples of Bhutan . The jewels held in Druk 's claws represent Bhutan 's wealth and the security and protection of its people , while the dragon 's snarling mouth symbolizes Bhutanese deities ' commitment to the defense of Bhutan .
= = Historic evolution = =
The Centre for Bhutan Studies , an independent Bhutanese research centre , in 2002 issued a paper ( henceforth the " CBS document " ) that is the only readily available account from Bhutan of the historical development of the national flag . The document draws heavily on first @-@ hand accounts obtained through interviews with individuals personally involved in the creation and modification of the flag in Bhutan , from the late 1940s until the adoption of the current flag around 1970 . This report is therefore a significant primary source for information about the history of the Bhutanese flag . But in the description of the flag from 1949 , the document is not in complete accord with photos of the flag ( as discussed below ) , making it difficult to interpret some of the document 's assertions . As a record , however , of the few primary sources remaining – namely , the people involved in the flag 's history and the handful of existing government records – it represents a valuable source of information about the otherwise poorly documented evolution of the Bhutanese flag .
= = = First national flag ( 1949 ) = = =
The CBS document states that the first national flag was designed upon the request of Jigme Wangchuk , the second Druk Gyalpo of the 20th @-@ century Kingdom of Bhutan , and was introduced in 1949 during the signing of the Indo @-@ Bhutan Treaty . While the document does not provide an illustration of the original design , black @-@ and @-@ white photographs taken at this historic event provide images of the first Bhutanese flag at the ceremony .
The design of the flag is credited to Mayeum Choying Wongmo Dorji in 1947 . Lharip Taw Taw , one of the few painters available to the royal court at the time , is said to have embroidered the flag . Druk was colored green in accordance with traditional and religious references to yu druk ngonm ( Dzongkha : གཡུ ་ རབྲུག ་ སྡོནམ ) , or " turquoise druk . " Today , a modern reproduction of this historic original ( with several significant changes influenced by the modern flag ) is displayed behind the throne in the National Assembly Hall in Thimphu .
According to the CBS document , the original Bhutanese flag was a bicolour square flag divided diagonally from the lower hoist to the upper fly . The field of yellow extended from the hoist to the upper fly , and the red field extended from the fly end to the lower hoist . In the centre of the flag , at the convergence of the yellow and red fields , is a green Druk , located parallel to the bottom edge and facing the fly .
However , the CBS document does not illustrate the early versions of the flag and its description of the 1949 flag is not entirely consistent with the photos surviving from 1949 . It describes the flag as " square " , while the proportions of the flag in the photographs appear closer to 4 : 5 . The document describes the dragon as " facing the fly end " , while the dragon visible in the photos faces the hoist . The dragon is described as " parallel to the fly " ( meaning , according to a diagram in the document , parallel to the length along the bottom edge of the flag ) , while the dragon in the photos appears to have a slightly rising vertical slant . The dragon is described as " green " , but the shade in the photos , if indeed green , must be very pale .
Western flag books until after 1970 generally show the Bhutanese flag closely resembling the 1949 photos .
= = = Changes in 1956 = = =
The second version of the national flag was developed in 1956 for the visit of the third Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuk to eastern Bhutan . During the trip the Druk Gyalpo 's Secretariat began to use flags of a new design based upon a photograph of the first national flag of 1949 , with the colour of the dragon changed from green to white . The retinue of the Druk Gyalpo included a convoy consisting of over one hundred ponies ; a small version of the flag was placed on the saddle of every tenth pony , and a large flag approximately 6 square feet ( 0 @.@ 56 m2 ) in size was flown in the camp every evening , hoisted to the sound of a bugle .
= = = Changes after 1956 = = =
Beginning in the late 1950s , Dasho Shingkhar Lam , former Secretary to Jigme Dorji Wangchuck and Sixth Speaker of the National Assembly ( 1971 – 74 ) , was requested by the king to make several modifications to the flag ; he is responsible for its current design , which has remained unchanged since 1969 . The king was reportedly dissatisfied that the early square Bhutanese flags did not flutter like the rectangular Indian flag displayed on the visit of an Indian official to the country . The standard measurements of the flag of Bhutan were thereafter altered to resemble the flag of India , which was 9 feet by 6 feet .
In another change , the dragon , which had formerly been placed in a roughly horizontal position in the center of the flag , was repositioned to spread out over the diagonal dividing line between the background colours . This change sought to avoid having the dragon " face the earth " when the flag was hanging limp . Bhutanese artist Kilkhor Lopen Jada painted a new design for the druk in which the curves of the dragon 's body are relaxed to create a somewhat longer and more gently undulating shape .
The CBS document states that the king ordered the colour of the lower half changed from red to orange " sometime in 1968 or 69 . "
The Bhutanese flag was flown abroad beside another nation 's flag for the first time in 1961 during a state visit to India by Jigme Dorji Wangchuck . This visit inaugurated a new level of relations between the two countries .
= = Code of conduct = =
On 8 June 1972 the National Assembly of Bhutan approved Resolution 28 , bringing into effect National Flag Rules drafted by the Cabinet . The rules have eight provisions covering the description and symbolism of the flag 's colouring , fields and design elements . Other rules relate to the size of the flag as well as flag protocol including the appropriate places and occasions for flying the flag and who may display the flag on cars . In general , the flag is given as much respect as the Bhutanese state and the head of state . As in the United States Flag Code , no other flags must be placed higher than the Bhutanese flag , the flag cannot be used as a cover or drape ( with some exceptions ) and the flag must not touch the ground . Other provisions include prohibitions on including the design in other objects or in a logo . Exceptionally , the flag may be used to drape coffins , but only those of high @-@ ranking state officials such as ministers or military personnel .
The 1972 rules also provide that " every dzongkhag [ district headquarters ] will hoist the national flag . Where there are no dzongkhag , the national flag will be hoisted in front of the office of the main government officer . "
Officials above the rank of minister are allowed to fly the flag at their residence provided they do not live near the capital . The tradition of flying the national flag in front of government offices had not existed in Bhutan prior to 1968 but was decreed standard practice by the Druk Gyalpo after his Secretariat was moved from the city of Taba to Tashichho Dzong in that year . The only flag day prescribed in the 1972 rules is National Day , which is held annually on December 17 . National Day commemorates the crowning of Ugyen Wangchuck as the first king of Bhutan on December 17 , 1907 .
= Meat ( Torchwood ) =
" Meat " is the fourth episode of the second series of British science fiction television series Torchwood , which was first broadcast by BBC Two on 6 February 2008 . It was written by Catherine Tregenna , who had previously written episodes for the first series of the show , directed by Colin Teague and produced by Richard Stokes and Chris Chibnall . The episode featured the five initial series regulars John Barrowman , Eve Myles , Burn Gorman , Naoko Mori and Gareth David Lloyd plus recurring actor Kai Owen in a central role .
Torchwood initially depicts a small team of alien @-@ hunters known as Torchwood Three , based in the Welsh city of Cardiff . In the premiere episode of the first series Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) is introduced as a newcomer to the organisation who keeps her job secret from boyfriend Rhys Williams ( Kai Owen ) . The episode " Meat " depicts the two aspects of Gwen 's double life coming into conflict as Rhys finds himself caught up in Torchwood 's investigation into a corrupt meat trade stemming from human exploitation of a stranded benevolent alien . Rhys helps Torchwood in their attempts to apprehend the human villains of the episode and his bravery makes Gwen realise that she should no longer keep secrets from him .
The episode was filmed in and around Cardiff between June and July 2007 as part of the second production block of the series . The production team used the episode to expand Rhys ' role in the series , due to their appreciation of actor Kai Owen 's performances in the first series and the contention of executive producer Russell T Davies that the character should be seen as less of a " sap " in the second series . The alien " space whale " seen in the episode was created using computer @-@ generated imagery , with the exception of a cut section wound where the humans had been carving meat from . Tregenna characterised the monster as resembling " a giant kebab " . A more elaborate design was previously considered , but both Tregenna and Davies felt that this would detract from the alien 's suitability to the plot .
According to consolidated figures the episode was watched by 3 @.@ 28 million viewers on its BBC two debut , aggregated to 4 @.@ 74 million viewers after taking into consideration two repeat broadcasts the same week . Reviews of the episode ranged from mostly negative to very positive . Most commentators praised the larger role of Rhys in the episode , the performance of actor Kai Owen and the realism of the acting and dialogue overall . However , a large proportion of reviewers criticised the special effects used to create the alien and it was subsequently compared by some to resembling a sock puppet or hand puppet . Whilst some reviewers identified with the plight of the alien , others felt that its poor realisation meant that it was hard to feel any sympathy for it .
= = Plot = =
= = = Background = = =
The central premise of the first two series of Torchwood is focused on a team of alien investigators known as Torchwood Three tracking down alien life which arrives in Cardiff via a space @-@ time rift located in the city . Gwen Cooper ( Eve Myles ) , a South Wales Police officer , is recruited into the organisation by its leader , Jack Harkness ( John Barrowman ) , in the premiere episode but due to the pressures of her work keeps it a secret from her boyfriend , trucking manager , Rhys ( Kai Owen ) . He believes reports of alien sightings to be a result of hallucinations induced by psychotropic drugs in the water supply and Gwen 's job to be working in " special ops " . By the second series Gwen is the second in command of Torchwood Three and now engaged to Rhys , who still remains in the dark regarding her vocation .
= = = Events = = =
Rhys is out driving when he is telephoned by his secretary Ruth ( Patti Clare ) , who informs him that one of their firm 's lorry drivers has crashed . At the crash Rhys discovers that one of his employees and friends has died whilst transporting meat to an abattoir . As he contemplates moving the lorry , a police officer ( Colin Baxter ) tells him that there is something suspicious in the back and that Torchwood want to investigate . The secret alien response team appears on the scene and Rhys spots his fiancée Gwen amongst them . The Torchwood team confiscate the meat that the lorry was transporting , due to suspicions that it originates from an alien . Gwen recognises the lorry as one from Harwood 's — Rhys ' firm . Back at their base of operations , known as the Hub , the team briefly consider that Rhys may be involved with the alien meat . Toshiko Sato ( Naoko Mori ) rings Rhys ' office for information , pretending to be the police . Meanwhile , analysing a sample of the meat , Torchwood 's resident medic Owen Harper ( Burn Gorman ) conjectures that it is being used for human consumption . Rhys texts Gwen asking for her to come home . He attempts to get her to confess to being at the crash site by questioning her on the police response to the lorry crash , but she is evasive .
After following Gwen from home , Rhys sees her meeting up with her boss Jack Harkness near the invisible lift in Roald Dahl Plass and follows them to a warehouse on the outskirts of Cardiff . While there he is captured by a group of men ( Garry Lake , Gerard Carey and Matt Ryan ) and subsequently taken inside the warehouse . Jack and Gwen see this and mistake his actions for collaboration . When questioned by his captors Rhys informs them of his colleagues death and in an act of self @-@ preservation claims to have destroyed the meat sample and offers to assume his colleagues job in trafficking the alien meat . The men subsequently show Rhys that they have captured a live " space whale " ( nicknamed the " cash cow " by its captors ) which is the source of the meat and which continues to grow despite them cutting chunks of its flesh away while it is still alive . Back at their flat , Rhys and Gwen argue over his presence at the warehouse and her presence at the lorry crash . Rhys suspects Gwen of infidelity with Jack . After their argument escalates , she is forced to confess that she catches aliens for a living . Rhys is initially disbelieving , and demands that she proves it . In response she takes him to the Hub . After recounting his findings and discussing the situation , Rhys agrees to help Torchwood investigate the warehouse .
As Rhys is expected by the alien 's captors , the team hides in his van as he drives them to the factory where the team sneaks in . They locate the creature and plan to stun the men and sedate it so they can move it back to the Hub until the Cardiff space @-@ time Rift reopens so they can send it back . They confirm that the creature is sentient , and experience empathy over its plight . The presence of Torchwood is discovered , Rhys is handcuffed by the three men . During the ensuing confrontation Rhys breaks free and takes a bullet for Gwen . Torchwood are able to stun the men and feed them amnesia pills . The creature becomes distressed and Owen can see no other option but to reluctantly euthanise it as it poses a threat to them by struggling . Back at the Hub , Owen patches up Rhys ' wound and Jack orders Gwen to give Rhys a pill too . After realising that Rhys is willing to support her life with Torchwood and that she enjoys being honest with him , Gwen cannot bring herself to do so . Jack relents , disappointed about this but unwilling to fire Gwen and face losing her from the team .
= = Production = =
" Meat " was made alongside " Sleeper " , the second episode of the series which was also directed by Teague , as part of block two of production which ran from 3 June to 5 July 2007 . It originally had the working title " Another Working Day " . In discussing the origins of the central alien writer Catherine Tregenna states that " we were just throwing ideas around and true to form Russell [ T Davies ] said " why isn 't it just a great big whale in a warehouse ? " " Davies states the alien was designed to be " one of Torchwood and Doctor Who 's biggest monsters " not in terms of concept but its " literal size " . He felt this provided insight into " the strangeness of life " . Producer Richard Stokes states that the concept design team created an idea of what they envisaged the whale to look like . Tregenna felt that the original design for the creature was " a little fanciful " in that it was a bit too " beautiful and exotic " before deciding " if it looked like that they [ the villains ] would exhibit it , it would be a freak show . " She characterises the final design as resembling " a giant kebab " . Contrary to observations from commentators , Tregenna did not intend the story to promote vegetarianism as she is not a vegetarian — she simply wanted to write an episode that was more action based than her series one episodes ( " Out of Time " and " Captain Jack Harkness " ) . The hypothetical size of the space whale resulted in Teague having to find this " huge great warehouse " and hire a fifty @-@ foot crane for camera angles . Whilst the main body of the alien was created using computer @-@ generated imagery a prosthetic version of the cut wound in the side of the alien was available for the actors to interact with on set . Actor Eve Myles describes it as being like filming within a " blood soaked , soppy big sponge " . The opening of the creature 's eye was created using green screen . Owen felt having to react to this to be the most unusual acting experience he 'd had whilst filming Torchwood .
In regards to the relationship between Gwen and Rhys , Davies felt that the episode provided a " rite of passage for the couple " . Director Colin Teague remarked that the character of Rhys " puts up with a lot from his wife to be . " The production team had previously planned to kill the character off at the end of the previous series but retained the character , partly because they liked Owen as an actor . In storylining the second series Davies states that " one of the first decisions we made was that we can 't make this guy look like a sap any longer . He 's got to be made aware of what 's going on . " Tregenna identified one of the central themes of the episode as the " love triangle between Gwen , Rhys and Jack " . The argument in which Gwen ultimately reveals to Rhys that she catches aliens for a living was partly improvised by Owen and Myles . The denouement of the episode sees the character of Rhys take a bullet to protect Gwen . To create this scene Owen 's clothing was fitted with a minor explosive , the gunshot effect " [ nipped ] a bit " which both Teague and Owen felt helped with the timing of the actor 's reaction . Location filming for the episode took place around Roald Dahl Plass on 3 July for several scenes , including the final scene with Gwen and Rhys on Mermaid Quay , and the earlier scene where Rhys observes Jack and Gwen by the water fountain . A warehouse near Roath Dock , Cardiff Bay was used as the location for the abandoned warehouse @-@ meat processing plant , whilst the Imperial Park Bypass was used for some of the road scenes . During the episode Gwen asks " What is this , Scooby @-@ Doo ? " in regards to Rhys ' suggestion the team hide in his van in order to carry out a sting operation . Torchwood Magazine suggest that this was a knowing reference from Tregenna to the critic and satirist Charlie Brooker 's reaction to the first series of the show .
= = Broadcast = =
On overnight returns , The Guardian reported that the episode had an 11 % audience share and 2 @.@ 9 million viewers for its first BBC Two broadcast at 9pm on 6 February . According to consolidated figures released by the Broadcasters ' Audience Research Board the episode 's first broadcast had an estimated total audience of 3 @.@ 28 million viewers . The episode had an audience appreciation index of 85 , regarded as excellent . A late night repeat of the episode aired on BBC sister channel BBC Three the same night at 11pm and a further pre @-@ watershed repeat , edited to be child friendly , of the episode aired the next day , 7 February , at 7pm . Stephen James Walker , a writer of reference works on Doctor Who and its spin @-@ offs , noted that " Meat " " was one of the more heavily edited episodes of the series for its pre @-@ watershed repeat " . Cut scenes included " some of the particularly gory scenes " and an exchange between Gwen and Jack which implied the latter performing oral sex on an alien . The dialogue in Gwen and Rhys ' big argument was also censored with two instances of the phrase " piss off ! " being removed , whilst Rhys ' line " you fucking him ( Jack ) , or what ? " was redubbed to the less profane " you seeing him , or what ? " . The edited repeat had an air time of 49m 33s , as opposed to the original episode 's air time of 50m 15s . Overnight ratings suggested that the pre @-@ watershed version of the episode was viewed by 1 @.@ 00 million viewers and had a 4 @.@ 9 % audience share . Final figures released by BARB indicated that the total viewing figures for the BBC3 repeat and the pre @-@ watershed BBC2 repeat were 0 @.@ 37 million viewers and 1 @.@ 09 million viewers respectively , giving the episode an aggregated total of 4 @.@ 74 million viewers across its three initial broadcasts .
A corresponding 10 @-@ minute episode of Torchwood Declassified , a behind the scenes documentary on the production of the show , entitled " Save the Whale " was broadcast on BBC Two following the episode between 9.50pm and 10pm and featured contributions from Tregenna , Davies , Teague , Myles and Owen .
= = = Reception = = =
Previewing the episode as one of his TV choices for the day , The Guardian 's Gareth McClean stated that amongst " the snarling , shouting and awful , contrived sexual tension between Captain Pratt and the team , there 's an interesting idea here — the consequences of leading a double life . " He described Gwen as " the moral centre of the show " and joked that her " nice @-@ but @-@ dim boyfriend " must be the last person in Cardiff not to know of Torchwood 's existence . He concluded by stating " that a giant telepathic alien manatee is involved should by no means discourage viewing . " The Daily Mirror 's Jane Simon also selected the episode as her single pick of the day , praising scenes where Rhys and Torchwood formulate their infiltration plan as containing " the kind of sharp , sarcastic banter that made Buffy such fun to watch " . However , she felt that it was a " shame they can 't keep it up for the entire episode . " Ben Rawson @-@ Jones of Digital Spy gave the episode four out of five stars , feeling it to be a " juicy treat to devour , combining heightened drama , genuine emotion and nice touches of humour . " He praised the decision to foreground the character of Rhys , the contrast he provided to the operations of the Torchwood team and the realism of the arguments between him and Gwen . He also felt that the episode 's " eco @-@ friendly plot " made it easy to sympathise with the alien space whale stating " the emotive howls of pain , big puppy @-@ dog eyes and heartfelt score all [ combined ] to test the tear ducts . " However , he criticised the human antagonists for being " two @-@ dimensional plot functions rather than humans " and pointed out the " moral black hole " of Torchwood continuing to buy meat products despite condemning the plight of the space whale . Richard Edwards of SFX magazine also gave the episode four stars , feeling it highlighted how the " series has evolved " in that " the in @-@ fighting and gratuitous swearing have been replaced with slick dialogue that sizzles with humour and drama – not to mention a team that feels like a properly cohesive unit . " He also praised the increased role of Rhys and opined that the episode made the relationship between him and Gwen " the show 's most believable . " However , he felt that Jack , as the leader of a top secret organisation , should have pressed harder to have Rhys ' memory wiped .
Alan Stanley Blair of Airlock Alpha gave the episode a mixed review . He felt it was refreshing to have a story about aliens that weren 't invading and opined that " the brutal scenes at the abattoir and the whale @-@ like moans of agony from the beast tug on a few heartstrings . " However , he criticised the realisation of the alien describing it as " basically a giant , moaning turd sitting in the middle of a warehouse " and " a large lump of putty with eyes " . He felt that the episode gave Rhys " a chance to step into the spotlight for a change and prove he has what it takes to carry a story " and felt his reaction to the existence of aliens to be " perhaps the most realistic that the genre has produced " . Despite this , he felt that Rhys finding out about Torchwood put an end to the " fun " of Gwen " keeping secrets and concealing her double life " and expressed disappointment that Jack didn 't wipe his memory at the end of the episode . Travis Fickett of IGN rated the episode 7 @.@ 6 on a one to ten scale and felt it provided a " messy , odd and somewhat unsettling twist on alien encounters " but felt the episode had several weak points . He felt it was hard not to see Rhys as " a buffoon " and questioned why Torchwood would use a civilian during a sting operation . He also felt that it pushed " beyond the limits of its capacity to create convincing special effects " and the creature itself looked like " a hand puppet " . Andrew Mickel of Den of Geek felt that Rhys has always been the " Welsh heart of the show " and praised his role in the episode for being " actually rather entertaining , approaching everything with invigorating gusto . " However he also criticised the denouement of the episode for being " daftly mawkish " and opined that " it ’ s always impossible to care about CGI characters " .
Jason Hughes of AOL TV felt the creature to look like a " sock puppet when it was loose and flailing about angrily " and felt this to be " almost like a nod to old Doctor Who , which had awesomely awful special effects at times " . He also felt that Rhys becoming aware of Torchwood " adds a new and interesting dynamic to the show . " Stephen Frank , writing for the gay and bisexual male entertainment site AfterElton indicated that he was " all in favour " of getting " to know our favorite Cardiff cuckold [ Rhys ] a little bit better " . Though critical of Gwen 's characterisation in previous episodes , he praised her defense of Rhys ' memories at the end of the episode as her " finest moment on this show " and stated that it " helps rehabilitate her " . He stated overall that " Meat " had " performed something of a minor miracle in the way it ’ s made me reassess my views of both Gwen and Rhys and their relationship . " Alasdair Stewart of Firefox News felt that Tregenna had written some of the strongest episodes of the series in the past and stated the episode " should be one of the highlights of the series " but " instead , it 's a mess " . He criticised the plausibility of the villains , the poor special effects of the alien and the incompetency of the Torchwood team , describing the episode as containing a " total lack of consistency " and " a total lack of basic understanding of what Torchwood are supposed to be capable of " . He felt Kai Owen provided " a bright spot in the episode " describing him as " clearly a powerhouse of an actor " and opining that " the scenes where he uncorks on first Eve Myles and then John Barrowman " also brought out " the best in both actors " . Conversely , io9 's Charlie Jane Anders felt the alien half of the episode to be " one of the best examples of a humans @-@ are @-@ the @-@ real @-@ monsters story ever " but felt that " the other half of the episode was Torchwood at its rock @-@ bottom worst " . She criticised the argument scenes stating : " I was having psychic chunks carved off me by a man in a yellow helmet , every time Gwen screamed at Rhys or Jack " and felt overall that the episode contained " too much screaming " . She enjoyed the innuendos made by Jack , but criticised the scene where Gwen stared " psycho @-@ killerishly " at him whilst kissing Rhys .
John Beresford of TV Scoop felt that " Meat " finally provided " a story that was well conceived , realised and paced " opining that at last " Torchwood came of age " and that it was " easily the best Torchwood story so far . " He did have some problems such as " really pathetic alien , the odd off @-@ colour innuendo about alien " meat " and the lazy convenience of the amnesia pills " but felt that these were relatively minor . The strongest points of the episode for him were the acting which he felt to be " uniformly better than usual and on occasion almost incandescent " and the dialogue which was " so natural it didn ’ t actually sound like " dialogue " at all " . Stephen James Walker , in his own analysis of the episode , gave a mostly favourable review . He criticised the alien space whale as the " one less @-@ than @-@ wonderful " aspect of the episode but praised the opening sequence and the use of the " bleak industrial setting " by director Colin Teague . He felt that the expanded role of Rhys was one of the most pleasing aspects of the scripts and praised the humorous interactions that constituted " male bonding " between him and Jack . He singled out a scene where Gwen turns " a gesture of affection " toward Rhys " into a teasing come @-@ on " to Jack by making eye @-@ contact with the latter whilst kissing the former as characteristic of the " moral ambiguity " which makes her " such a great character " . He also felt that whilst they did not have much to do , Tosh , Owen and Ianto had some good scenes which further demonstrated " Tregenna 's adeptness at handling the show 's regular characters " .
= Willy Vandersteen =
Willy Vandersteen ( 15 February 1913 – 28 August 1990 ) was a Belgian creator of comic books . In a career spanning 50 years , he created a large studio and published more than 1 @,@ 000 comic albums in over 25 series , selling more than 200 million copies worldwide .
Considered together with Marc Sleen the founding father of Flemish comics , he is mainly popular in Belgium , the Netherlands and Germany . Hergé called him " The Brueghel of the comic strip " , while the creation of his own studio and the mass production and commercialization of his work turned him into " the Walt Disney of the Low Countries " .
Vandersteen is best known for Suske en Wiske ( published in English as Spike and Suzy , Luke and Lucy , Willy and Wanda or Bob and Bobette ) , which in 2008 sold 3 @.@ 5 million books . His other major series are De Rode Ridder with over 200 albums and Bessy ) with almost 1 @,@ 000 albums published in Germany .
= = Biography = =
= = = 1913 – 1939 = = =
Willebrord Jan Frans Maria Vandersteen was born in Antwerp in 1913 . His family lived in the Seefhoek , a poor quarter of the city , where his father Francis Vandersteen worked as a decorator and stone sculptor . His studio lay next to a printer that produced De Kindervriend , one of the first weekly youth magazines in Flanders . Willy Vandersteen , only four years old , read the new magazine there every week , including Blutske , an early comic strip . His mother Anna Gerard was more interested in ballet and singing . One of her favourites , Wiske Ghijs , may well have been the inspiration for the name " Wiske " he gave to one of the main characters in his main series " Spike and Suzy " .
Vandersteen was creatively active from his youth . He drew pictures with crayons on sidewalks , and invented stories for his friends about knights and legends . He even convinced his young friends to buy him crayons so he could depict the local cycling championship . At school as well , he was more interested in telling stories and learning about art than anything else . His best memory of these schooldays is of a teacher who introduced him to the works of Pieter Brueghel . Outside school , he spent most of his time with comic magazines and adventure books by Jules Verne or books about Nick Carter and Buffalo Bill . At 13 , he enrolled at the Academie voor Schone Kunsten in Antwerp to study sculpture , and two years later he started working as sculptor and decorator , just like his father .
The same year , the family moved to Deurne , a suburb of Antwerp , where he came in contact with nature and with scouting , which both had a profound impact on his character and his later work . With the scouts , he became the troop reporter , writing down heavily illustrated reports on their outings and adventures , in a similar vein as what Hergé did in his scouting period . Through the scouts , he also came into contact with Le Boy @-@ Scout Belge , the Walloon scouting magazine where Hergé made Totor , his first published comic . Vandersteen made a few sequels to these adventures for his friends as amusement , which are the earliest preserved comics he made . He continued to follow the work of Hergé later on . Meanwhile , Vandersteen combined his studies at the Academy with his work in his father 's workshop until 1935 , when the market for stone decorations for houses collapsed .
In between some odd jobs , Vandersteen became an avid sporter , from gymnastics over cycling to wrestling . His chances improved in 1936 when he was hired as a decorator for the shop and the display windows of L 'Innovation , a Belgian chain of supermarkets . In the same year , he met Paula Van Den Branden , whom he married on 9 October 1937 . After living in Antwerp for two years and having a daughter , Helena , in 1938 , the first of their four children , the couple moved to the more rural Schilde in 1939 .
While doing research for his decorations , he read in an American magazine the article Comics in your Life . Fascinated , Vandersteen searched for more information on the subject . He rediscovered Hergé with The Adventures of Tintin in Le Petit Vingtième , but also the realistic work of Hal Foster in Prince Valiant . But it took a few more years before this fascination translated into steady publication of his own comics . Meanwhile , his first published drawings appeared in Entre Nous , the internal magazine of L 'Innovation .
= = = 1940 – 1944 = = =
In March 1940 , two months before the start of World War II in Belgium , Bob , his second child , was born . When the first tribulations of the war were over , Vandersteen could restart his work at L 'Innovation . From November 1940 until August 1942 , he created his first published comic , Kitty Inno , for the company , consisting of short , simple gags . When the German occupier forbade the publication of American and British comics in the Belgian newspapers and magazines , opportunies arose for local people . On 19 March 1941 , the first comic strip of Tor de holbewoner ( Tor the troglodyte ) appeared in the newspaper De Dag . It continued until January 1942 . Already on 26 March 1941 it was joined by De lollige avonturen van Pudifar ( The funny adventures of Pudifar ) , a weekly comic strip about a cat . This was in May of the same year replaced by Barabitje , another comic about a cat , which ended in October 1941 .
In 1942 , Vandersteen quit his job at L 'Innovation and started working at the Landbouw- en Voedingscorporatie ( a government organisation for the agricultural sector ) , where he illustrated some magazines . In those years , the family Vandersteen moved , this time to Wilrijk , another suburb of Antwerp .
That same year , he illustrated the pro @-@ occupation book Zóó zag Brussel de Dietsche Militanten under the pen name Kaproen . In the 1970s Willy denied rumors , based on drawing style , that he had been the real artist behind Kaproen , but in 2010 these allegations were confirmed after an investigation demanded by his own family . Unlike his partners , Vandersteen was later not persecuted for his part in publishing the antisemitic drawings , which were considered collaboration with the Nazis .
At the Corporatie , Vandersteen met a colleague whose wife worked at Bravo , a weekly Flemish comics magazine that appeared since 1936 and had a French @-@ language version since 1940 . Due to the war conditions , they were desperately in need of local artists to replace the American comics they used to publish . Led by established Walloon illustrator Jean Dratz , a young team was gathered , with artists like Edgar P. Jacobs and Jacques Laudy . Vandersteen joined in 1943 , and here his comics career really took off . First he created Tori , a reprise of the prehistoric Tor , and a few weeks later his new comic Simbat de Zeerover ( Simbat the Sailor ) was published on the cover and in colour , a first for Vandersteen .
For the Antwerp publisher Ons Volk , he created three comics , published as books without a prepublication in a newspaper or magazine . Piwo , about the adventures of a wooden horse , became his first comic album in 1943 , and was followed by two sequels in 1944 and 1946 . Those comics were also published in French . For the same editor , he illustrated 11 children books . In the same years , he also created the cover illustration for a number of novels from other publishers . In 1944 , he also started working for two more magazines , De Rakker and De Illustratie , where he created some comics and made numerous illustrations . To help him with all this work , his wife Paula inked many of his pencil drawings in these years .
= = = 1944 – 1949 = = =
After the liberation of Belgium in September 1944 , there was a boom of new magazines for the youth , both in French and Dutch . Many of those tried to mix American comics with local artists . Vandersteen worked in these early years for countless publications . He continued publishing in Bravo , with the medieval gags of Lancelot . Having moved to the suburbs of Brussels to avoid the bombardments of Antwerp , he came into contact with some French language editors . French language magazines he contributed
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giant as having " between his legs , three rude letters , scarcely legible , and over them in modern figures , 748 " , ( rude meaning " roughly cut " ) and being the representation of Cenric , the son of Cuthred , King of Wessex .
Proponents of a 17th @-@ century origin suggest that the giant was carved during the English Civil War by servants of the Lord of the Manor , Denzil Holles , and was intended as a parody of Oliver Cromwell . Cromwell was sometimes mockingly referred to as " England 's Hercules " by his enemies . The Hercules connection is strengthened by the 1996 discovery of the cloak , as Hercules was often depicted with a cloak made from the Nemean Lion 's skin .
= = = Modern history = = =
In 1920 , the giant and the 4 @,@ 000 square metres ( 0 @.@ 99 acres ) site where he stands was donated to the National Trust by its then land @-@ owners , Alexander and George Pitt @-@ Rivers , and it is now listed as a Scheduled Monument . During World War II the giant was camouflaged with brushwood by the Home Guard in order to prevent use as a landmark for enemy aircraft .
According to the National Trust , the grass is trimmed regularly and the giant is fully re @-@ chalked every 25 years . Traditionally , the National Trust has relied on sheep from surrounding farms to graze the site . However , in 2008 a lack of sheep , coupled with a wet spring causing extra plant growth , forced a re @-@ chalking of the giant , with 17 tonnes of new chalk being poured in and tamped down by hand . In 2006 , the National Trust carried out the first wildlife survey of the Cerne Abbas Giant , identifying wild flowers including the green @-@ winged orchid , clustered bellflower and autumn gentian , which are uncommon in England .
In 1921 Walter Long of Gillingham , Dorset objected to the giant 's nudity and conducted a campaign to either convert it to a simple nude , or to cover its supposed obscenity with a leaf . Long 's protest gained some support , including that of two bishops , and eventually reached the Home Office . The Home Office considered the protest to be in humour , though the chief constable responded to say the office could not act against a protected scheduled monument .
= = = Archaeology = = =
A 1617 land survey of Cerne Abbas makes no mention of the Giant , suggesting that it may not have been there at the time or perhaps overgrown . The first published survey appeared in the September 1763 issue of Royal Magazine , reprinted in the October 1763 issue of St James Chronicle , and also in the August 1764 edition of Gentleman 's Magazine together with the first drawing that included measurements .
Egyptologist and archaeology pioneer Sir Flinders Petrie surveyed the Giant , probably during the First World War , and published his results in a Royal Anthropological Institute paper in 1926 . Petrie says that he made 220 measurements , and records slight grooves across the neck , and from the shoulders down to the armpits . He also notes a row of pits suggesting the place of the spine . He concludes that the Giant is very different from the Long Man of Wilmington , and that minor grooves may have been added from having been repeatedly cleaned .
In 1764 , William Stukeley was one of the first people to suggest that the Giant resembles Hercules ( Heracles ) . In 1938 , British archaeologist Stuart Piggott agreed , and like Hercules , should also be carrying a lion @-@ skin . In 1979 , a resistivity survey was carried out , and together with drill samples , confirmed the presence of the lion @-@ skin . Another resistivity survey in 1995 also found evidence of a cloak and changes to the length of the phallus , but did not find evidence ( as rumoured ) of a severed head , horns , or symbols between the feet .
= = = = Earthworks = = = =
North @-@ east of the head of the Giant is an escarpment called Trendle Hill , on which are some earthworks now called The Trendle or Frying Pan . It is a scheduled monument in its own right . Antiquarian John Hutchins wrote in 1872 that " These remains are of very interesting character , and of considerable extent . They consist of circular and other earthworks , lines of defensive ramparts , an avenue , shallow excavations , and other indications of a British settlement . "
Unlike the Giant , the earthworks belong to Lord Digby , rather than the National Trust . Its purpose is unknown , though it is thought to be the site of maypole dancing . It has been considered to be Roman , or perhaps an Iron @-@ Age burial mound containing the tomb of the person represented by the Giant .
= = Folklore = =
Whatever its origin , the giant has become an important part of the culture and folklore of Dorset . Some folk stories indicate that the image is an outline of the corpse of a real giant . One story says the giant came from Denmark leading an invasion of the coast , and was beheaded by the people of Cerne Abbas while he slept on the hillside .
Other folklore , first recorded in the Victorian era , associates the figure with fertility . In the past locals would erect a maypole on the earthwork , around which childless couples would dance to promote fertility . According to folk belief , a woman who sleeps on the figure will be blessed with fecundity , and infertility may be cured through sexual intercourse on top of the figure , especially the phallus .
In 1808 , Dorset poet William Holloway published his poem " The Giant of Trendle Hill " , in which the Giant is killed by the locals by piercing its heart .
= = In popular culture = =
In modern times the giant has been used for several publicity stunts and as an advertisement . For example , Ann Bryn @-@ Evans of the Pagan Federation recalls that the Giant has been used to promote " ... condoms , jeans and bicycles . "
In 1998 , pranksters made a pair of jeans out of plastic mesh with a 21 @-@ metre ( 69 ft ) inside leg , and fitted them to the giant to publicise American Jeans manufacturer Big Smith . In 2002 , the BLAC advertising agency on behalf of " ... the Family Planning Association ( FPA ) as part of its mission to promote condom @-@ wearing [ .. ] donned balaclavas and spent Sunday night rolling the enormous latex sheet down the Giant 's member . "
As a publicity stunt for the opening of The Simpsons Movie on 16 July 2007 , a giant Homer Simpson brandishing a doughnut was outlined in water @-@ based biodegradable paint to the left of the Cerne Abbas giant . This act displeased local neopagans , who pledged to perform rain magic to wash the figure away .
An August 2007 report in the Dorset Echo said that a man claiming to be the " Purple Phantom " had painted the Giant 's penis purple . It was reported that the man was from Fathers 4 Justice but the group said that they did not know who it was .
The Cerne Abbas Giant has appeared in several films and TV programmes , including the title sequence of the 1986 British historical drama film Comrades , a 1996 episode of the Erotic Tales series " The Insatiable Mrs Kirsch " , directed by Ken Russell ( featuring a replica of the Giant ) , in 1997 , the series 6 finale " Sofa " of the comedy series Men Behaving Badly , and the 2000 film Maybe Baby directed by Ben Elton .
In 2012 , pupils and members of the local community recreated the Olympic torch on the Giant , to mark the passing of the official torch in the run @-@ up to the 2012 London Olympics .
In November 2013 , the National Trust supported Movember , which raises awareness of prostate and testicular cancer . It authorised the temporary placement of a huge grass moustache on the giant . The moustache was 12 metres ( 39 ft ) wide and 3 metres ( 10 ft ) deep according to the designer but both the National Trust and the BBC reported it as being 11 by 27 metres ( 36 by 89 ft ) .
= = = Representations = = =
In 1980 , Devon artist Kenneth Evans @-@ Loud planned to produce a companion 70 @-@ metre ( 230 ft ) female figure on the opposite hill , featuring Marilyn Monroe in her iconic pose from the film The Seven Year Itch where her dress is blown by a subway grating .
In 1989 , Turner Prize winning artist Grayson Perry designed a set of motorbike leathers inspired by the Cerne Abbas Giant . In 1994 , girls from Roedean School painted an 24 @-@ metre ( 79 ft ) replica of the Giant on their playing field , the day before sports day . In 1999 , a plaque was discovered near the nose of the Marree Man , a modern geoglyph discovered a year earlier , " claiming that a clue to its origins are to be found buried in a sealed container near the Cerne Giant " .
In 2003 , pranksters created their own 23 @-@ metre ( 75 ft ) version of the Giant on a hill in English Bicknor , but " wearing wellies , an ear of corn hanging from its mouth and a tankard of ale in its hand " . In 2005 , the makers of Lynx deodorant created a 9 @.@ 300 square metres ( 100 @.@ 10 sq ft ) advert on a field near Gatwick , featuring a copy of the Giant wearing underpants , frolicking with two scantily @-@ clad women . In 2006 , artist Peter John Hardwick produced a painting " The Two Dancers with the Cerne Abbas Giant , with Apologies to Picasso " that is on display at Poole Hospital NHS Foundation Trust . In 2009 , the Giant was given a red nose , to publicize the BBC 's Comic Relief charity event . In 2011 , English animators The Brothers McLeod produced a 15 @-@ second cartoon giving their take on what the Giant does when no one is watching .
In 2015 , the giant was used as a character in an online comic book published by Eco Comics ; the giant 's character appeared in various adventures accompanying a character based on St George , though his erect penis was removed from the artwork as many " outlets , particularly in the US , refuse any form of nudity in comic books " .
= = Gallery = =
= = = Books = = =
Rodney Castleden , with a foreword by Rodney Legg , The Cerne Giant , published by Wincanton DPC , 1996 , ISBN 0948699558 .
Michael A. , Hodges MA . , Helis , the Cerne Giant , and his links with Christchurch , Christchurch , c.1998 , 15pp .
Dr. T. William Wake Smart , Ancient Dorset , 1872 , " The Cerne Giant , " p . 319 – 327 .
Darvill , T , Barker , K , Bender , B , and Hutton , R. , The Cerne Giant : An Antiquity on Trial , 1999 , . Oxbow . ISBN 1 @-@ 900188 @-@ 94 @-@ 5 , 978 @-@ 1 @-@ 900188 @-@ 94 @-@ 4 , [ 3 ]
Legg , R , 1990 , Cerne ; Giant and Village Guide , Dorset Publishing Company , 2nd edition , ISBN 0948699175 , 978 @-@ 0948699177 . [ 4 ]
Knight , Peter , The Cerne Giant – Landscape , Gods and the Stargate , 2013 , Stone Seeker Publishing .
= = = Journal articles = = =
Dr Wake Smart , " The Cerne Giant " , Journal of the British Archaeological Association , Volume : 28 , 1872 .
Hy . Colley March M.D. F.S.A. , " The Giant and the Maypole of Cerne " , Proceedings , Dorset Natural History and Archaeological Society , Vol.22 , 1901 .
W. M. F. Petrie , The Hill Figures of England , " III . The Giant of Cerne " , Royal Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland , Occasional Paper No. 7 , 1926
O. G. S. Crawford , " The Giant of Cerne and other Hill @-@ figures " , Antiquity , Vol.3 No.11 , September 1929 , Pages 277 – 282
Stuart Piggott , " Notes and News : The name of the giant of Cerne " , Antiquity Vol.6 , No.22 , June 1932 , pages 214 – 216 .
Stuart Piggott , " The Hercules Myth — beginnings and ends " , Antiquity Vol.12 No.47 , September 1938 , Page : 323 – 331
" Editorial : regarding the Home Office file , Obscene Publications : the Cerne Abbas Giant ( PRO HO 45 / 18033 ) " , Antiquity , Vol.50 No.198 , June 1976 , pages 93 – 94 .
Leslie Grinsel , " The Cern Abbas Giant 1764 – 1980 " , Antiquity , Vol.54 No.210 , March 1980 , pp. 29 – 33 .
J. H. Bettey , " The Cerne Abbas giant : the documentary evidence " , Antiquity , Vol.55 , No.214 , July 1981 , pages 118 – 121 .
J. H. Bettey , " Notes and News : The Cerne Giant : another document ? " , Antiquity , Vol.56 No.216 , March 1982 , pages 51 – 52
Temple Willcox , " Hard times for the Cerne Giant : 20th @-@ century attitudes to an ancient monument " ( abstract ) , Antiquity , Vol.62 No.236 , September 1988 , pages 524 – 526
Chris Gerrard , " Cerne Giant " , British Archaeology , Issue no 55 , October 2000 . A review of the book : The Cerne Giant : an Antiquity on Trial by Timothy Darvill , Katherine Barker , Barbara Bender and Ronald Hutton ( eds ) , Oxbow , ISBN 1 @-@ 900188 @-@ 94 @-@ 5 .
= = = National Monument Records = = =
1979 Resistivity survey by A J Clark , A D H Bartlett and A E U David , which " found evidence for the ' lion skin ' feature over the giant 's left arm "
1988 – 1989 Resistivity surveys , testing for the existence of possible additional features , 1988 , 1989 , 1994
1995 Resistivity survey finding evidence of a cloak , penis length change , and naval , but , not for a severed head , horns , nor lettering / symbols between the feet
" Cerne Giant " , National Monument Records , No . ST 60 SE 39 ( on Pastscape.org.uk )
= Tropical Storm Zeke ( 1992 ) =
Tropical Storm Zeke was the final named storm of the record @-@ breaking 1992 Pacific hurricane season . Forming out of a tropical wave on October 25 , Zeke began as a disorganized depression . Tracking west @-@ northwestward , the system gradually developed organized convection and intensified into a tropical storm . However , it soon entered a high wind shear environment , causing Zeke to weaken to a tropical depression . The following day , the storm re @-@ intensified despite unfavorable conditions and later attained peak winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) on October 29 . Rapid weakening followed shortly thereafter as convection dissipated and the center became exposed . During the afternoon of October 30 , Zeke degenerated into a remnant low pressure system and dissipated several days later several hundred miles south of Baja California Sur .
On October 29 , tropical storm watches and warnings were issued for portions of the Mexican coastline ; however , these were canceled the following day due to the storm 's rapid weakening . Although the storm did not move over land , its outer bands brought locally heavy rain and gusty winds to Sinaloa and Jalisco .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Zeke originated from a tropical wave that was first identified off the west coast of Africa on October 6 , 1992 . Initially , well @-@ organized convection was associated with the system as it tracked westward ; however , once over the Caribbean Sea , shower and thunderstorm activity diminished . Between October 21 and 23 , the poorly defined wave moved across Central America and entered the Pacific Ocean . Over the following few days , convection gradually increased and the system became better organized . On October 25 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) to classify it as Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Seven @-@ E , at which time the storm was situated roughly 805 mi ( 1 @,@ 295 km ) south of the southern tip of Baja California Sur , Mexico . Upon being classified , the depression was relatively disorganized , but deep convection had maintained itself near the center of circulation .
Throughout October 25 , banding features developed and the upper @-@ level outflow became better established . In response to a ridge to the east , the depression tracked in a general west @-@ northwest direction . Intensification was likely as the system was forecast to remain within an environment characterized by low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures . Later that day , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Zeke , the record @-@ breaking twenty @-@ fourth named storm of the year . Within several hours of being upgraded , Zeke began to degrade for unknown reasons , with convection lessening around the center . Increasing westerly wind shear , associated with a mid to upper @-@ level trough approaching the west coast of the United States , later caused the system to weaken further ; however , Zeke managed to maintain tropical storm intensity until the morning of October 27 .
As Zeke continued to be hampered by strong shear , it gradually began to turn towards the north as the trough that caused it to weaken moved further east . Late on October 27 , convection redeveloped over the center of circulation , allowing the storm to re @-@ attain tropical storm intensity . The strengthening followed the passage of a shortwave trough ; however , shear over the system remained strong . Despite the unfavorable conditions , Zeke maintained its intensity , through intermittent bursts of convection , and began to turn towards the northeast . Late on October 29 , a large burst of deep convection over the center of the storm allowed for intensification . Around this time , the storm attained its peak intensity with winds of 50 mph ( 85 km / h ) with a barometric pressure of 1000 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 53 inHg ) .
Not long after attaining its peak intensity , Zeke began to weaken once more due to increasing westerly wind shear . By the early morning of October 30 , the center of circulation became devoid of thunderstorm activity and the system had turned eastward . Later that day , Zeke weakened to a tropical depression before degenerating into a remnant low pressure system . The NHC continued to monitor the low @-@ level swirl of clouds associated with Zeke for several more days as the system meandered several hundred miles south of Baja California Sur .
= = Preparations , impact and records = =
On October 29 , the forecast track for Zeke produced by the National Hurricane Center indicated that the storm would skirt Baja California before striking the western coast of Mexico as a tropical depression . In response to this , the Government of Mexico issued a tropical storm warning for areas between Cabo San Lázaro and Los Burros . Additionally , a tropical storm watch was raised for areas along mainland Mexico between Los Mochis , Sinaloa and Puerto Vallarta . Roughly 24 hours after these advisories were issued , they were canceled as Zeke rapidly dissipated over open waters . Although the center of the storm never moved over land , the system 's outer bands brought locally heavy rain and gusty winds to parts of Sinaloa and Jalisco . When the National Hurricane Center upgraded Tropical Depression Twenty @-@ Seven @-@ E to Tropical Storm Zeke on October 25 , it marked the first time that a storm name beginning with the letter " Z " was used on record in the basin . Zeke also continued to further the record of named storms in a single season in the eastern Pacific , being the 24th tropical storm .
= Pope Paul III and His Grandsons =
Pope Paul III and His Grandsons ( Italian : Paolo III e i nipoti Alessandro e Ottavio Farnese ) is a painting in oil on canvas by Titian , housed in the Museo di Capodimonte , Naples . It was commissioned by the Farnese family and painted during Titian 's visit to Rome between autumn 1545 and June 1546 . It depicts the thorny relationship between Pope Paul III , born Alessandro Farnese , and two of his grandsons , Ottavio and Alessandro . Ottavio is shown in the act of kneeling , to his left ; Alessandro , wearing a cardinal 's dress , stands behind him to his right . The painting explores the effects of ageing and the manoeuvring behind succession ; Paul was at the time in his late seventies and operating within an uncertain political climate as Charles V , Holy Roman Emperor , came into ascendancy .
Paul was not a religious man ; he viewed the papacy as a means to consolidate his family 's position . He appointed Alessandro as cardinal against accusations of nepotism , fathered a number of illegitimate children , and spent large sums of church money collecting art and antiquities . Around 1545 Charles took the political and military advantage , weakening Paul 's hold on the papacy . Aware of the changing tides of influence , Titian abandoned the commission before completion , and for the next 100 years the painting languished unframed in a Farnese cellar .
Pope Paul III and His Grandsons ranks as one of Titian 's finest and most penetrating works . Although unfinished and less technically accomplished than his Portrait of Pope Paul III of a few years earlier , it is renowned for its rich colouring ; the deep reds of the tablecloth and the almost spectral whites of Paul 's gown . The panel contains subtle indications of the contradictions in the character of the Pope , and captures the complex psychological dynamic between the three men .
= = Background = =
Alessandro Farnese , as Paul III , was the last of the popes appointed by the ruling Medici family of Florence . He was socially ambitious , a careerist and not particularly pious . He kept a concubine , fathered four children out of wedlock and viewed the throne as an opportunity to fill his coffers while he placed his relatives in high positions . A talented and cunning political operator , Paul was precisely the sort of man the Florentines needed to assist them in their defence against French and Spanish threats .
He became pope in 1534 when he was 66 years old , and immediately appointed members of his family to key positions . He anointed his eldest grandson Alessandro , the eldest child of his illegitimate son Pier Luigi , cardinal at the age of 14 , marking a break with the Farnese tradition of marrying off the first @-@ born to carry on the family name . This move was considered necessary because the next oldest grandson , Ottavio , was then just 10 years old ; such a young cardinal would have been politically unacceptable . Paul 's advanced years meant that the family could ill afford to wait until the younger brother was of age . Thus Alessandro became a cardinal deacon ; this appointment did not necessitate taking major orders , but it compelled him to celibacy and to forgo the rights of primogeniture , which instead went to Ottavio . Alessandro was to bitterly regret the obligations . Paul appointed Ottavio as Duke of Camerino in 1538 , and in the same year married him to Charles V 's daughter , Margaret , later Margaret of Parma . Both of Paul 's grandsons ' advancements were widely criticised as evidence of nepotism .
Ottavio 's marriage troubled Alessandro ; he struggled with the burden of chastity and entertained fantasies of marrying a princess . He resented his younger brother 's arrangement ; during the wedding ceremony he " became more deathly pale than death itself , and , so they say , is unable to bear this thing , that he , the first @-@ born , should see himself deprived of such splendid status and of the daughter of an Emperor . " In 1546 Paul gave Pier Luigi the duchies of Parma and Piacenza as papal fiefs , a highly political move by the pope : in doing so he gave titles and wealth to Pier and appointed a lord who was subservient and owed a debt of gratitude , guaranteeing that the duchies would remain under papal control . At the same time , Ottavio was posted to the North of Italy to support Charles . By 1546 Ottavio was 22 years old , married to Margaret of Austria and an accomplished and distinguished individual . In 1547 his father was assassinated and Ottavio claimed the dukedom of Parma and Piacenza against the express wishes of both Charles , his father @-@ in @-@ law , and Paul . In doing so , Ottavio acted in opposition to the pope 's desire to maintain the duchies as papal fiefs , and to Charles , whom he believed responsible for the plot to assassinate Pier Luigi .
Titian was a personal friend of Charles ; the commissioning of the portrait was most likely intended by Paul as a signal of allegiance to the emperor . Pressure from reforming monarchs in France and Spain , coupled with a general shift of influence in France 's favour , ended the Farnese hold on the papacy soon after Paul 's death . Ottavio excelled as a military commander and was awarded the Golden Fleece by the emperor . While the post had been given as a means to strengthen the family position , it did not come without cost . His success bred resentment amongst his family , as he began to see himself unaccountable to Rome .
At the time of the portrait Paul had convinced Alessandro to retain the post , hinting that he would later succeed him as pope – an aspiration that was ultimately frustrated . As Alessandro realised the emptiness of the promise he lost confidence in both his grandfather 's word and political credibility .
= = Commission = =
The painting was commissioned in 1546 after Titian had made a number of portraits of Paul . He had already depicted Pier Luigi and three of his children – Vittoria , Alessandro and Ranuccio . Ottavio was perhaps again portrayed by him in 1552 , and most likely commissioned the original Naples panel in Titian 's Danaë series , although Lodovico Dolce believed it was Alessandro who had approached Titian .
The artist 's reputation was such that he had already been called to Rome a number of times in the early 1540s ; first by Cardinal Pietro Bembo and then by the Farnese family . By the mid @-@ 1540s Titian was the preferred portraitist for the Farnese . Following a number of earlier portraits of Pier Luigi and Paul , they commissioned a set to mark their ascendancy after Paul 's papacy , all of which were – given their political awareness and ambition – clearly intended as public statements on their social elevation . Paul was aware of Titian 's influence in Venice , and after 1538 allowed only Titian to portray him .
Titian disliked travelling and refused the offers . When Paul travelled to northern Italy for negotiations with Charles in 1543 he met Titian for the first time and sat for Portrait of Paul III without a Cap . Around this time , Titian 's son Pomponio decided to enter the clergy , and the painter sought to use his contacts with the papacy to gain a church and lands for him . Working through his contacts with Cardinal Alessandro , he asked that in return for the Farnese portraits Pomponio be granted the abbey of San Pietro in Colle Umberto , in grounds bordering Titian 's own in Ceneda . Charles respected Titian and so the painter had influence in negotiating with the Farnese . When he received their offers of a commission and invitation to Rome , he made it clear he would only undertake the patronage in return for the grant of the benefice . This was at first rejected , but on 20 September 1544 Titian seemed assured enough to send a message to Cardinal Alessandro that he would visit to " paint Your Honor 's illustrious household down to the last cat " . Even so , Titian made no move until October of the following year . When he did finally arrive in Rome , he was treated as the most important guest to the city and given an apartment at the Belvedere . In the end the portrait was not completed . Probably once the benefice was granted , he no longer felt there was any reason to remain in Rome and abandoned the composition .
= = Description = =
The portrait depicts the tensions and manoeuvrings of 16th century court politics . The deep red background and heavy brushstrokes establish an anxious and tense atmosphere , and the uneasy relationship between the Pope and his suitors . The pope is old , ill and tired , and glares at Ottavio in an accusatory manner . His hat or camauro cloaks his baldness , but there are tell @-@ tale signs of age in his long nose , dark beady eyes , stooped shoulders and long uneven beard . He is noticeably older than in the second Naples portrait of 1543 . This fact is reinforced by the clock placed on the table beside him , which serves both as a memento mori and a reminder that time is running out . Given this , the presence of his grandsons indicates that the commission was prompted by thoughts of succession .
Nevertheless , Paul retains elements of a powerful and alert patriarch . The painting is set at a curious angle , so that although Paul is positioned low in the pictorial space , the viewer still looks upwards towards him as if in respect . He is dressed in full pomp , wearing wide fur @-@ lined sleeves ( a typical Venetian device to convey status ) , and his cape is laid across his upper body to suggest physical presence .
The work is often compared to Raphael 's Pope Leo X with Cardinals of 1518 – 19 and the 1511 – 12 portrait of Julius II for its colouring and psychological dynamic . Titian follows the older master in some respects , emphasising the pope 's age and showing him in a naturalistic , rather than reverential , setting , but Titian goes further : while Raphael 's portraits show a high @-@ minded and introspective pope , Titian presents his subject glaring outwards , caught in a moment of fearful but ruthless calculation . His piercing glare has been described by art historian Jill Dunkerton as having captured his " small bright eyes , but ... missed his genius " .
The canvas is dramatically divided in two by a diagonal line separated by colour and tone . The lower two @-@ thirds are dominated by heavy red and white pigments ; browns and whites are prominent in the upper right @-@ hand section . This division is delineated by a diagonal reaching from the upper edge of the curtain down to Ottavio 's leggings in the right mid @-@ ground . Other echoes of the colours and patterns include the red of Paul 's robes against the velvet of his chair and the overhanging curtain . This dramatic colour and luminosity can be in part attributed to this design , and to the manner in which Titian reverses the usual painterly technique in building tone : he began with a dark background , then layered the lighter hues before the darker passages . The effect has been described as a " tour de force of symphonic colourism " , and a high point of his blending of red and ochre pigments . Titian uses a variety of brushstrokes . While the pope 's robes are painted with very broad strokes , his cape ( mozzetta ) , ageing face and visible hand were captured in minute detail with thin brushes , with his hairs rendered at the level of individual strands .
Ottavio , shown as tall and muscular , is about to kneel to kiss the Pope 's feet , a contemporary manner of greeting a pope : a guest would make three short bows followed by the kissing of the papal feet . Titian indicates this step in the ceremony by showing Paul 's shoe decorated with a cross , poking from underneath his gown . Ottavio 's head is bowed , but his stern facial expression conveys that he is acting as protocol dictates , rather than with genuine diffidence .
The grandsons are depicted in very different styles : Alessandro acts in a formal manner and wears clothes of similar colour and tones to Paul . Ottavio , by contrast , wears the browns of the upper right @-@ hand passage , an area of the painting that cuts him physically from the pope . His pose is awkward and difficult to interpret , but he is rendered in a more naturalistic manner than his brother . Alessandro has a distracted , brooding expression . He holds the knob of Paul 's backrest , in an echo of Raphael 's portrait where Clement VII holds the chair of Leo X as an indicator of his ambitions of succession . Thus Alessandro seems better placed politically , standing to Paul 's right in a pose that recalls traditional depictions of Paul the Apostle , and his hand is raised as if in blessing . In the end , Paul was unable to influence his succession after Charles V weakened the Medici hold on the office .
The work is unfinished ; a number of details , most noticeably the pope 's right hand , are missing . Other passages are bland and uniform , with some key areas still blocked by the underdrawing . Many of Titian 's characteristic finishing touches are missing ; Paul 's fur @-@ lined sleeves do not contain the polishing white strokes of the 1543 portrait , or his usual final overglaze or glossing .
= = Interpretation = =
Although the work is often thought of as an unflattering and cold look at an ageing pope besieged by cunning and opportunistic relatives , the reality is more complex and the artist 's intention more subtle . It is certainly a very unguarded portrait of one of the most powerful men of his day , and in stark contrast to Titian 's two earlier portraits of Paul , both of which were deferential . It is widely accepted as one of the most politically difficult portrait commissions in art history , requiring an understanding of the interplay of relationships with a depth " worthy of Shakespeare " , in the opinion of art historians Rodolfo Pallucchini and Harold Wethey . However , it was one Titian seems to have resolved ; while the complexity of the relationships is all on the canvas , it may have been intended as an indicator to Charles that Paul retained his position as the dominant patriarch – old and frail but still a man of vitality , and in control of his squabbling descendants .
Moreover , working under commission from the Farnese family , Titian would not have sought to portray the sitters in an obviously unsympathetic manner . While Paul is shown as old and frail , he is given a broad chest and cunning eyes that indicate his intelligence and guile . Ottavio is presented as cold and impervious , but this was probably a device to show his strength of character and conviction . Alessandro is favoured by his positioning closest to the Pope , yet x @-@ ray analysis reveals he had originally stood to the left of the pope and was moved , probably on request by Alessandro himself , to a position where his hand was resting on the papal throne , indicating his claim on the papacy .
= = Provenance = =
Titian abandoned the painting before completion and for the next hundred years it was kept unframed and unhung in a Farnese cellar . Alessandro 's large collection of art and antiques , which included the Titian portraits commissioned by Paul , was eventually inherited by Elisabetta Farnese ( 1692 – 1766 ) . Elisabetta , who married Philip V of Spain in 1714 , passed on the collection to her son Carlos , who became Duke of Parma and later King of Spain . In 1734 , he conquered the kingdoms of Sicily and Naples , and the collection was transferred to Naples . In 1738 Carlos built the Palace of Capodimonte , which includes the Museo di Capodimonte , in part to house the Farnese art collection . The painting remains there today , hanging in the Farnese Gallery section . The Museo di Capodimonte was designated a national museum in 1950 .
= This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) =
" This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1975 studio album Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) . Harrison wrote the song as a sequel to his popular Beatles composition " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , in response to the personal criticism he had received during and after his 1974 North American tour with Ravi Shankar , particularly from Rolling Stone magazine . " This Guitar " was issued as a single in December 1975 – the final release for Apple Records in its original incarnation – but it failed to chart in either the United States or Britain .
The song follows in a tradition established by singers such as Woody Guthrie and Pete Seeger , of attributing emotions and actions to a musical instrument . The lyrics also serve as an example of a dialogue that was commonplace during the 1970s between songwriters and music critics . Contributing to Harrison 's sense of injustice in " This Guitar " , he and his tour musicians believed that detractors had ignored the successful aspects of the 1974 shows – which blended rock , jazz , funk and Indian classical music – and had focused instead on his failure to pay due respect to the legacy of the Beatles . Rolling Stone 's scathing assessment of Harrison 's tour and accompanying album , Dark Horse , represented an about @-@ face by the publication , previously one of his most vocal supporters , and led to Harrison 's continued resentment towards the magazine over subsequent decades .
Harrison recorded " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " in Los Angeles during April and May 1975 , a period marked by his post @-@ tour despondency . The recording features guitar solos played by Harrison and American musician Jesse Ed Davis . The song serves as a rare guitar @-@ oriented selection on the keyboard @-@ heavy Extra Texture album , although David Foster , Gary Wright and Harrison all contributed keyboard parts to the track . " This Guitar " has traditionally received a mixed reception from reviewers , partly due to the inevitable comparisons with " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " . Harrison re @-@ recorded the song in 1992 with former Eurythmic Dave Stewart , who used it to promote his Platinum Weird project in 2006 . This version appears as a bonus track on the 2014 Apple Years 1968 – 75 reissue of Extra Texture .
= = Background = =
George Harrison 's stated aim for his North American tour with Indian musician Ravi Shankar , which took place from 2 November to 20 December 1974 , was to offer concert @-@ goers " another kind of experience " from the typical mid @-@ 1970s rock show . With its blending of Western rock , funk and jazz genres with Indian classical music , author Robert Rodriguez describes the result as a musical form " [ that ] one day would be called ' world music ' " . Of the critical reception given to the Harrison – Shankar venture , tour @-@ wide , Rodriguez writes of the " genuine highlights that went mostly unreported " , since : " Smaller press outlets without axes to grind tended to review the shows the best , whereas rock establishment coverage , such as Rolling Stone 's , tended to spin the tour as something close to an unmitigated disaster ... "
Along with Harrison and band leader Tom Scott , tour musicians Jim Horn , Jim Keltner and Andy Newmark have each challenged the reliability of these negative reports , Horn declaring the Harrison – Shankar tour " one of the best I 've been on " . Concert @-@ goers likewise questioned their accuracy ; according to author Nicholas Schaffner , Beatles fanzine Strawberry Fields Forever had been " deluged with letters protesting the nasty reviews " .
Harrison biographer Simon Leng describes this phenomenon as " one of the stranger episodes in rock music " and writes : " While the majority of reviews were positive , in some cases ecstatic , the ' given ' view of the tour comes from the Rolling Stone articles . " Chief among these was a feature by Ben Fong @-@ Torres , titled " Lumbering in the Material World " , covering the opening , West Coast portion of the tour . Feng @-@ Torres condemned Harrison for refusing to pander to critics ' and the public 's nostalgia for the Beatles , and for the perilous state of his singing voice , after Harrison had contracted laryngitis while rushing to complete his new album during the tour rehearsals . In addition to Scott airing his objections to Fong @-@ Torres ' article for focusing excessively on the uneven opening concert at Vancouver 's Pacific Coliseum , Harrison complained that Rolling Stone had deliberately " edited everything positive out " about the shows , which Fong @-@ Torres later told him had been the case .
Leng writes that " Testimony " on the Harrison – Shankar tour , and a " savagely personal " attack on Harrison , came with the magazine 's review for his delayed Dark Horse album . Under the heading " Transcendental mediocrity " , Rolling Stone critic Jim Miller wrote of the " disastrous album " appearing " in the wake of his disastrous tour " – completing what Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley describes as the magazine 's " volte @-@ face " on an artist it had traditionally supported .
Harrison never completely forgave Rolling Stone for its treatment of the so @-@ called " Dark Horse Tour " . While members of his 1974 tour group , including future wife Olivia Arias , have spoken of Harrison 's defiant attitude towards the negative reviews , Leng suggests that he " reacted to them as personal attacks " . During a holiday in Hawaii with Arias over Christmas that year , Harrison wrote " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " , a song that , he told Musician magazine in 1987 , " came about because the press and critics tried to nail me on the 1974 – 5 tour , [ and ] got really nasty " .
= = Composition = =
The song title is a play on that of his 1968 composition " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , released on the Beatles ' White Album and performed by Harrison throughout the 1974 tour . While concert reviewers had focused on his altering of the lyric to " While my guitar gently smiles " and " ... tries to smile " , Harrison told BBC Radio 1 's Paul Gambaccini in September 1975 that it was a track that was consistently well received by audiences during the tour . Harrison described the new composition as " Son of ' Guitar Gently Weeps ' " .
Like the Beatles track , " This Guitar " is structured around short , minor @-@ key verses ( in this case , in the key of G minor ) that conclude with the song title , rather than distinct choruses . Author Ian Inglis also notes the " evident similarity " between the melody of the two compositions . As with Harrison 's lyrics for " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " , Inglis writes , " This Guitar " follows in a tradition established by Woody Guthrie , Pete Seeger and Bo Diddley , of attributing emotions and actions to a musical instrument .
The song lyrics begin , " Found myself out on a limb / But I 'm happier than I 've ever been " , the second line of which echoes Harrison 's statements to Fong @-@ Torres and other interviewers during the tour , that he had never been as happy as he was now – in a band with Scott , Billy Preston and Willie Weeks , and as a servant of the Hindu god Krishna instead of living out the public 's perception of him as " Beatle George " . Referring to the released recording of the song , Inglis opines that , rather than happiness , " the bitterness in his vocal performance tells a different story . "
In his brief discussion of " This Guitar " in his autobiography , Harrison introduces the lyrics to verse two with a mention of the need to " struggle " through adversity , in an effort " to become better human beings " :
Learned to get up when I fall
Can even climb Rolling Stone walls
This guitar can 't keep from crying .
Noting that Harrison was " bound to fight back against what he saw as unfair , malicious criticism " , Leng views these and other lines in the song as typical of a dialogue then common in rock music , between artists and critics . Leng cites Joni Mitchell , Neil Young and John Lennon as other singer @-@ songwriters who encouraged this dialogue and in some instances suffered for doing so .
Theologian Dale Allison writes of Harrison 's " deep hurt " being reflected in the lyrics to " This Guitar " . The two bridge sections document the " unwarranted abuse that comes his way " , Inglis writes , while typifying the theme that " [ Harrison ] is the guitar " :
This here guitar can be quite sad
Can be high strung , sometimes gets mad
Can 't understand or deal with hate
Responds much better to love .
After Harrison has named Rolling Stone as the main perpetrator of his anguish , Leng suggests that he is unable to sustain the previous " artifice " , whereby the lyrics ' shift in perspective from first @-@ person to third @-@ person represented the apparently " happy " private man versus the " wounded " musician , as " personified by his guitar " . Instead , Harrison " flays his detractors " in the song 's subsequent verses . These final verses contain the rhyming couplets " Thought by now you knew the score / You missed the point just like before " and " While you attack , create offence / I 'll put it down to your ignorance " . Lindsay Planer of AllMusic describes the lines as " suggesting that there is more to Harrison 's music than is being taken into consideration by narrow @-@ minded journalists " .
= = Recording = =
Harrison started recording his follow @-@ up to Dark Horse , Extra Texture ( Read All About It ) , in April 1975 , while in Los Angeles working on business associated with his Dark Horse record label . Leng remarks on Harrison 's " almost unseemly " haste in returning to a studio and suggests that his " bitterness and dismay " post @-@ Dark Horse was evident on much of the recording . Early on in the sessions , during his radio interview with WNEW @-@ FM 's Dave Herman , Harrison bemoaned the abandoning of 1960s idealism within the music industry and related this to the critical backlash he had recently received , from people who were " just dropping apart at the seams with hate " , adding : " I 'm talking about Rolling Stone actually – talking about [ founding editor ] Jann Wenner . "
Harrison recorded the basic track for " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " at A & M Studios in Hollywood between 21 April and 7 May . Harrison played 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , with support from David Foster on piano , and sparse , floor tom @-@ heavy drumming from Jim Keltner . Klaus Voormann , Harrison 's regular bass player and a friend since the Beatles ' Hamburg years , chose to not participate in many of the sessions for Extra Texture , later citing the abundance of cocaine and Harrison 's " frame of mind when he was doing this album " . Harrison overdubbed the song 's bass part using an ARP synthesizer , while Gary Wright provided the ARP strings atmospherics , a sound that characterised his hit album The Dream Weaver around this time .
When discussing " This Guitar " with Paul Gambaccini in London , in September , Harrison described the song as " a cheap excuse to play some guitar " . Harrison played the slide guitar parts throughout the track , including the closing solo . Leng identifies both " Pete Drake stylings " and the influence of " raga microtones " in Harrison 's performance . The wah @-@ effected guitar solo midway through the song was performed by Jesse Ed Davis , who , having first supported Harrison at the Concert for Bangladesh in August 1971 , had since mirrored the ex @-@ Beatle 's guitar style on John Lennon 's recent hit song " # 9 Dream " . Davis overdubbed his contribution to " This Guitar " on 5 June , the day before the Foster @-@ arranged orchestrated strings were recorded .
= = Release = =
Extra Texture was issued on Apple Records in September 1975 , with " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " sequenced as the third track , in between " The Answer 's at the End " and Harrison 's Smokey Robinson tribute " Ooh Baby ( You Know That I Love You ) " . Aside from the well @-@ received lead single , " You " , the album offered little in the way of " hook @-@ laden potential hit [ s ] " , author Bruce Spizer writes . On 8 December , Apple released " This Guitar " as the follow @-@ up single in America , with Apple catalogue number 1885 . The single version of the song was edited down to a running time of 3 : 49 , by fading out early during Harrison 's closing solo . Underlining the paucity of radio @-@ friendly selections on Extra Texture , the B @-@ side was " Māya Love " , taken from the Dark Horse album . The single 's UK release ( as Apple R 6012 ) was delayed until 6 February 1976 .
In America and Britain , " This Guitar " was available only in a plain sleeve . The German picture sleeve , featuring black text on a white background , contained a large black @-@ on @-@ red Om symbol , reflecting an aspect of Roy Kohara 's design for Extra Texture , where the symbol appeared in blue on a vivid orange background . The Japanese sleeve incorporated Kohara 's colour scheme from the parent album , surrounding an image of Harrison on stage during the 1974 tour . The picture was taken by tour photographer Henry Grossman , who worked extensively with the Beatles in the 1960s . Harrison did no promotion for the single , but his guest appearance on friend Eric Idle 's Rutland Weekend Television 1975 Christmas special , singing the purpose @-@ written " The Pirate Song " , heralded a return to form for him in 1976 .
" This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " failed to place on either the US Billboard Hot 100 or the UK 's official singles chart , then just a top 50 . " This Guitar " ' s failure to chart in America was a surprise , since all of Harrison 's previous singles had made the top 40 there . Robert Rodriguez attributes its lack of success to the fact that Apple was " [ r ] unning on fumes " by this point and the company 's promotion for the single was therefore nonexistent . By the time the single appeared in Britain , close to five months after the song 's initial release , Harrison 's involvement with Apple was officially over , following his signing with A & M @-@ distributed Dark Horse Records in January 1976 .
Despite its commercial failure , " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " is notable as the final release on the original Apple record label . While observing that the song became the first single by a former Beatle not to place on any of the three main US charts , Spizer adds : " It was a sad end and [ a ] far cry from the success of Apple 's first release , ' Hey Jude ' . "
= = Reception = =
In his discussion of Extra Texture in The Beatles Forever ( 1977 ) , Nicholas Schaffner wrote of Harrison 's " worldly critics " responding " like bulls to a red flag " to " This Guitar " and other " treatises on how reviewers always ' miss the point ' " . Aside from their objections to the song 's subject matter , Robert Rodriguez observes , " Critics by nature tended to regard the Beatles ' catalog as sacrosanct " and therefore " dissed [ Harrison ] for producing a sequel to ' While My Guitar Gently Weeps ' " . The consensus of critical opinion was that " This Guitar " paled beside the Beatle original , with NME writers Roy Carr and Tony Tyler adding : " The lack of a tune doesn 't help . " Dave Marsh of Rolling Stone dismissed much of the album 's first side as " padded subterfuge " while opining that " there just isn 't compensation here for the failed promise of ' This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) ' " .
More recently , AllMusic 's Richard Ginell views the song as an " attractive " sequel to " While My Guitar Gently Weeps " and includes it among Harrison 's best solo compositions . Elliot Huntley has written of reviewers ' derision of the track as a " lame " follow @-@ up : " Harrison made a fatal mistake in making it sound like a sequel . ' This Guitar ( Can 't Keep From Crying ) ' is a good song in its own right , with excellent lead guitar work from the master ... " Author Andrew Grant Jackson features the track in his book Still the Greatest : The Essential Solo Beatles Songs , and admires " the group 's synergy " on the recording , as well as Forster 's " fine string arrangement " . Jackson adds : " Probably no one bitched more about their critics than the solo Beatles until Public Enemy and Eminem came along … [ ' This Guitar ' ] could have been one of the most depressing ex @-@ Beatles tunes ever , but its strange groove compels repeated listening . "
Writing in Mojo magazine , John Harris describes " This Guitar " as " a serviceable sequel … in which GH 1 ) does a neat Dylan impression , and 2 ) plays yet another lovely slide solo " . Reviewing the 2014 Apple Years reissues of Harrison 's catalogue , New Zealand Herald journalist Graham Reid considers the track to be " a much better song than it seemed at the time " , while Oregano Rathbone of Record Collector cites it as an example of how each of Harrison 's Apple albums after the acclaimed All Things Must Pass " contains shivery moments of release " . Writing for the website Vintage Rock , Shawn Perry views the track as one of its composer 's " most overshadowed songs " and a highlight of " a creative and introspective album that 's aged well " .
Among Harrison biographers , Alan Clayson sees " This Guitar " as the " soundest choice " for a second single off an album that represents Harrison 's " lowest ebb " . Simon Leng describes it as a " harrowing song " , with a " passionate and powerful " Harrison vocal , and draws parallels between " This Guitar " and Neil Young 's similarly anti @-@ journalistic " Ambulance Blues " . Ian Inglis writes of the " gulf " separating Harrison 's 1968 composition from the 1975 song : " While the first was a poignant and satisfying commentary that drew attention to his newfound maturity as a songwriter , this is a petulant and rather arrogant statement in which he appears to want to put himself above criticism ... Both words and music depict a sour and troubled performer , whose resentment is all too clear . " Dale Allison describes " This Guitar " as a " beautiful song " with " ardent lyrics " , and groups it with Harrison compositions such as " Isn 't It a Pity " , " The Light That Has Lighted the World " , " Blow Away " and " Sat Singing " – all songs that " remain close to the hearts of those familiar with them " .
= = Other versions = =
Harrison 's experiences as a headline performer in 1974 led to him not touring again for seventeen years , when he undertook a short tour of Japan with Eric Clapton 's band in December 1991 . In November that year , during rehearsals at Bray Studios in Berkshire , " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " was one of 35 songs that Harrison considered for the concert setlist , but he did not perform it at any of the shows .
Former Eurythmic Dave Stewart recalls recording a version of " This Guitar " with Harrison in London . The recording was made in 1992 , ten years after which Ringo Starr , Dhani Harrison and Kara DioGuardi overdubbed contributions , on drums , acoustic guitar and backing vocals , respectively . The song was then published over the internet to promote Stewart 's Platinum Weird project , in March 2006 – over four years after Harrison 's death from cancer at the age of 58 . Although it did not appear on Platinum Weird 's album , Make Believe , this version of " This Guitar " was included as a bonus track on the 2014 reissue of Extra Texture . Writing for Blogcritics , Seattle @-@ based critic Chaz Lipp views it as a " tighter rock @-@ oriented remake " , while Graham Reid describes the bonus track as " a fascinating undated update " .
= = Personnel = =
The following musicians played on the original version of " This Guitar ( Can 't Keep from Crying ) " :
George Harrison – vocals , 12 @-@ string acoustic guitar , ARP bass , slide guitars
Jesse Ed Davis – electric guitar
David Foster – piano , string arrangement
Gary Wright – ARP strings
Jim Keltner – drums
= McBride & the Ride =
McBride & the Ride was an American country music band initially composed of Terry McBride ( lead vocals , bass guitar ) , Ray Herndon ( background vocals , guitar , Dobro ) , and Billy Thomas ( background vocals , drums , percussion ) . The group was founded in 1989 through the assistance of record producer Tony Brown . McBride & the Ride 's first three albums — Burnin ' Up the Road , the gold @-@ certified Sacred Ground , and Hurry Sundown , released in 1991 , 1992 , and 1993 , respectively — were all issued on MCA Nashville . These albums also produced several hits on the Billboard country charts , including the Top 5 hits " Sacred Ground " ( their highest @-@ peaking , at number 2 ) , " Going Out of My Mind " , " Just One Night " , and " Love on the Loose , Heart on the Run " .
In 1994 , the label removed Herndon and Thomas from the group , which was renamed Terry McBride & the Ride . McBride remained lead singer , while the other members were replaced with Keith Edwards ( drums ) , Kenny Vaughan ( electric guitar ) , Gary Morse ( steel guitar ) , Jeff Roach ( keyboards ) , and Randy Frazier ( bass guitar ) , who had formerly been a member of the band Palomino Road . Roach and Vaughan were respectively replaced by Rick Gerken and Bob Britt shortly before their fourth album ( 1994 's Terry McBride & the Ride ) , after which McBride & the Ride disbanded . During the hiatus , MCA issued a compilation called Country 's Best , while McBride and Herndon wrote singles for other artists . McBride , Thomas , and Herndon reunited as McBride & the Ride in 2000 , releasing Amarillo Sky on Dualtone Records in 2002 before splitting up again . McBride then joined the backing band for the duo Brooks & Dunn , and co @-@ wrote several of the duo 's singles , while Herndon self @-@ released a solo album .
= = History = =
McBride & the Ride was created in 1989 when Tony Brown , then the executive vice president of MCA Records , decided to establish a new country music band in order to compete with Alabama , who he thought was falling out of favor with country radio . At the time , guitarist Ray Herndon ( born July 14 , 1960 ) was serving as a backing musician for Lyle Lovett , then a recording artist for MCA . Brown suggested that Herndon join lead vocalist Terry McBride ( born September 16 , 1958 ) , whom Herndon did not yet know , in the new band that Brown had planned . McBride , a musician since childhood , had worked as a backing musician for his father , Dale McBride , and later for Delbert McClinton and Rosie Flores . At the Fan Fair in Nashville , Tennessee , Brown introduced McBride and Herndon to drummer Billy Thomas ( born October 24 , 1953 ) , who had previously played for Emmylou Harris and Mac Davis , and the band 's lineup was in place .
= = Musical career = =
McBride & the Ride performed its first concert in Detroit , Michigan . In 1990 , the band released its first single , " Felicia , " which peaked at number 74 on the RPM country charts in Canada in 1990 but did not enter the U.S. country charts . Its followup , " Every Step of the Way " , failed to chart in both countries . The band was almost dropped from MCA 's roster due to poor chart performance , until the release of " Can I Count on You " , which peaked at number 15 on the Billboard country charts and was made into a music video . This song 's success led to the release of McBride & the Ride 's 1991 debut album Burnin ' Up the Road , on which McBride co @-@ wrote all but one of the songs . The last single from this album , " Same Old Star , " peaked at number 28 . After the album 's release , the band began touring the United States with The Judds and Highway 101 . Thomas also played drums for The Remingtons , a country vocal group featuring former Bread member Jimmy Griffin , on its 1991 debut album Blue Frontier , while Thomas and Herndon sang background vocals on then @-@ labelmate Marty Stuart 's 1991 album Tempted .
Sacred Ground , the band 's second album , came out in 1992 . This album was McBride & the Ride 's most successful , with all three of its singles reaching Top 5 on the country charts : " Sacred Ground " at number 2 , followed by " Going Out of My Mind " ( which McBride co @-@ wrote with Kostas ) and " Just One Night , " both at number 5 . " Sacred Ground " was co @-@ written by Kix Brooks , who had previously released the song in 1989 from his self @-@ titled debut album for Capitol Records before joining Ronnie Dunn to form Brooks & Dunn in 1991 . In 1992 , McBride & the Ride received a Best New Vocal Group or Duo nomination from the Country Music Association and Vocal Group of the Year nomination from the Academy of Country Music . More than four years after its release , Sacred Ground was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipping 500 @,@ 000 copies .
McBride & the Ride 's third album , Hurry Sundown , was released in 1993 . It produced the band 's fourth and final Top 5 hit in the number 3 " Love on the Loose , Heart on the Run " ( which Kostas also co @-@ wrote ) , as well as a Top 20 in its title track , the only other single release . " Hangin ' In and Hangin ' On " , the B @-@ side to " Love on the Loose , Heart on the Run " , was later released by David Ball as a single from his 1996 album Starlite Lounge . In 1994 , the band charted its last Top 40 hit , " No More Cryin ' " , which McBride and Josh Leo co @-@ wrote for the soundtrack to the film 8 Seconds . The same album featured John Anderson 's rendition of the title track to Burnin ' Up the Road . Also that same year , McBride & the Ride recorded a cover version of Southern rock band Lynyrd Skynyrd 's " Saturday Night Special " on the MCA compilation album Skynyrd Frynds , which featured country artists ' renditions of Lynynrd Skynyrd songs .
= = = Change to Terry McBride & the Ride and first disbanding = = =
By March 1994 , Herndon and Thomas left the group , as the label had decided to shift the band 's focus to McBride , and Herndon did not want to be " push [ ed ] to the background . " According to Herndon , the members " parted as friends . " A new bass guitarist , Randy Frazier , was brought in , also as part of the label 's decision to focus more on McBride . Frazier had previously been a member of Palomino Road , which recorded one album for Liberty Records in 1992 . Completing the new lineup were Keith Edwards ( drums ) , Kenny Vaughan ( lead guitar ) , Gary Morse ( steel guitar ) , and Jeff Roach ( keyboards ) , who had previously played in McBride & the Ride 's road band . McBride then bought the naming rights to the band and renamed it Terry McBride & the Ride . One album ( also titled Terry McBride & the Ride ) and three singles were released under the new name , with Josh Leo serving as producer . By the time of the album 's release , Rick Gerken had replaced Roach , and Bob Britt had replaced Vaughan . Additionally , only McBride and Morse performed on it , with the rest of the instruments performed by session musicians and Roach . The album 's singles , " Been There " , " High Hopes and Empty Pockets " , and " Somebody Will " , all failed to reach Top 40 , and the band broke up in 1995 . MCA released a compilation package entitled Country 's Best in 1996 , which included their first ten singles , from " Felicia " to " No More Cryin ' " . River Road later released a version of " Somebody Will " from their 1997 self @-@ titled debut album .
Herndon and McBride both worked as songwriters during McBride & the Ride 's hiatus . Herndon co @-@ wrote Kenny Chesney 's 1996 single " Me and You " with Skip Ewing , while McBride co @-@ wrote four singles for Brooks & Dunn : the Top Five hits " I Am That Man " , " He 's Got You " and " I Can 't Get Over You " , as well as the Number One " If You See Him / If You See Her " , which featured guest vocals from Reba McEntire . Thomas , meanwhile , worked as a backing musician for Vince Gill , and Vaughan went on to join Trent Summar & the New Row Mob in 2000 .
= = = Reunion and second disbanding = = =
In September 2000 , Herndon reunited with McBride and Thomas after meeting them at a party at the Handlebar @-@ J Restaurant & Bar in Scottsdale , Arizona , to celebrate the club 's 25th anniversary . After they performed " No More Cryin ' " there , Herndon suggested that they officially reunite as McBride & the Ride , saying " This thing in my gut was telling me that this was the right time for this . " The trio recorded demo tapes and began searching for a record deal , signing to the independent Dualtone Records in 2002 . Working with pianist and record producer Matt Rollings , McBride & the Ride recorded its only album for Dualtone , titled Amarillo Sky , and released it in September of that year . Unlike previous albums , the band wrote most of the songs and played most of the instruments itself because , according to Thomas , " Terry thought this would be even more of a band @-@ like situation if we wrote together more . It would bring us even tighter as a unit . "
Lead @-@ off single " Anything That Touches You " reached number 50 on the country charts in 2002 , representing the band 's final chart entry . Following it were the non @-@ charting singles " Squeeze Box " ( a cover of a song made famous by The Who ) and " Amarillo Sky . " The latter was co @-@ written by Big Kenny and John Rich ( who would later form the duo Big & Rich ) , and was later recorded by Jason Aldean on his 2005 self @-@ titled debut album . Aldean 's version was released in late 2006 and peaked at number 4 on the country charts in early 2007 . Also included on Amarillo Sky was the track " Hasta Luego " , co @-@ written by McBride and previously found on David Ball 's 1999 album Play .
McBride & the Ride 's members disbanded a second time after the release of Amarillo Sky . After this disbanding , McBride became the bass guitarist in Brooks & Dunn 's road band . He continued to co @-@ write songs for them , including the Number One hit " Play Something Country " from 2005 , as well as " Proud of the House We Built " , " Cowgirls Don 't Cry " , and several album cuts . McBride also co @-@ wrote Josh Gracin 's 2005 single " Stay with Me ( Brass Bed ) " with Jedd Hughes and Brett James . Herndon self @-@ released a solo album entitled Livin ' the Dream in late 2005 . This album included his own rendition of " Me and You " with background vocals from Sonya Isaacs , and a duet with Clint Black on " Grain of Salt . " McBride has also written for Reba McEntire and Casey James . Meanwhile , Thomas toured with the Little River Band .
= = Musical stylings and critical reception = =
McBride & the Ride 's sound was defined by close , three @-@ part vocal harmonies . Between their vocal styles and the " crisp , gentle rockers " that the MCA albums contained , McBride & the Ride was compared to other rock @-@ influenced country vocal bands such as Alabama and Southern Pacific . In his book The Encyclopedia of Country Music , writer Paul Kingsbury describes McBride & the Ride as having " found success with a series of middle @-@ of @-@ the @-@ road singles with tight harmonies . "
Ronnie Dunn , with whom McBride collaborated when he wrote songs for Brooks & Dunn , said that he was a fan of the band before McBride joined the duo 's road band . In an interview with CMT , Dunn said , " They 're amazingly tight as a group . I first heard them on the radio in the early ' 90s , shortly after their first single . I liked Terry 's singing style . It had a familiar Texas twang . " Dunn has also said that he enjoys writing with McBride , because both of them are Texas natives with a similar upbringing and musical influences .
The band 's albums have received mixed reception from music critics . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Alanna Nash criticized the first two albums for lacking strong material outside of " Sacred Ground " ( a ballad in which the male narrator tries to convince another man not to commit adultery on the narrator 's wife ) , but gave Hurry Sundown a B rating , saying it was " filled with catchy hooks , tight hillbilly harmonies , soulful songs , and [ … ] a collective personality . " Allmusic critic Jason Ankeny gave four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five for both the second and third albums , noting of Hurry Sundown that it " continue [ d ] to hone the group 's close @-@ harmony style . " Amarillo Sky received a three @-@ star review from Allmusic critic Robert L. Doerschuk , who considered it " tight , seamless , [ and ] a bit impersonal " , while About.com critic Matt Bjorke said it was a " wonderful collection of songs " .
= = Former members = =
Terry McBride – lead vocals , bass guitar ( 1989 – 1995 , 2000 – 2002 )
Ray Herndon – background vocals , electric guitar , Dobro ( 1989 – 1994 , 2000 – 2002 )
Billy Thomas – background vocals , drums ( 1989 – 1994 , 2000 – 2002 )
Keith Edwards – drums ( 1994 – 1995 )
Randy Frazier – bass guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Gary Morse – steel guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Jeff Roach – keyboards ( 1994 – 1995 )
Kenny Vaughan – electric guitar ( 1994 – 1995 )
Bob Britt — lead guitar ( 1995 )
Rick Gerken — keyboards ( 1995 )
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums = = =
= = = Compilation albums = = =
= = = Singles = = =
= = = Music videos = = =
= Candide =
Candide , ou l 'Optimisme ( / ˌkænˈdiːd / ; French : [ kɑ ̃ did ] ) is a French satire first published in 1759 by Voltaire , a philosopher of the Age of Enlightenment . The novella has been widely translated , with English versions titled Candide : or , All for the Best ( 1759 ) ; Candide : or , The Optimist ( 1762 ) ; and Candide : or , Optimism ( 1947 ) . It begins with a young man , Candide , who is living a sheltered life in an Edenic paradise and being indoctrinated with Leibnizian optimism ( or simply " optimism " ) by his mentor , Professor Pangloss . The work describes the abrupt cessation of this lifestyle , followed by Candide 's slow , painful disillusionment as he witnesses and experiences great hardships in the world . Voltaire concludes with Candide , if not rejecting optimism outright , advocating a deeply practical precept , " we must cultivate our garden " , in lieu of the Leibnizian mantra of Pangloss , " all is for the best " in the " best of all possible worlds " .
Candide is characterised by its sarcastic tone as well as by its erratic , fantastical and fast @-@ moving plot . A picaresque novel with a story similar to that of a more serious Bildungsroman , it parodies many adventure and romance clichés , the struggles of which are caricatured in a tone that is mordantly matter @-@ of @-@ fact . Still , the events discussed are often based on historical happenings , such as the Seven Years ' War and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake . As philosophers of Voltaire 's day contended with the problem of evil , so too does Candide in this short novel , albeit more directly and humorously . Voltaire ridicules religion , theologians , governments , armies , philosophies , and philosophers through allegory ; most conspicuously , he assaults Leibniz and his optimism .
As expected by Voltaire , Candide has enjoyed both great success and great scandal . Immediately after its secretive publication , the book was widely banned because it contained religious blasphemy , political sedition and intellectual hostility hidden under a thin veil of naïveté . However , with its sharp wit and insightful portrayal of the human condition , the novel has since inspired many later authors and artists to mimic and adapt it . Today , Candide is recognized as Voltaire 's magnum opus and is often listed as part of the Western canon ; it is among the most frequently taught works of French literature . The British poet and literary critic Martin Seymour @-@ Smith listed Candide as one of the 100 most influential books ever written .
= = Historical and literary background = =
A number of historical events inspired Voltaire to write Candide , most notably the publication of Leibniz 's " Monadology " , a short metaphysical treatise , the Seven Years ' War , and the 1755 Lisbon earthquake . Both of the latter catastrophes are frequently referred to in Candide and are cited by scholars as reasons for its composition . The 1755 Lisbon earthquake , tsunami , and resulting fires of All Saints ' Day , had a strong influence on theologians of the day and on Voltaire , who was himself disillusioned by them . The earthquake had an especially large effect on the contemporary doctrine of optimism , a philosophical system which implies that such events should not occur . Optimism is founded on the theodicy of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz that says all is for the best because God is a benevolent deity . This concept is often put into the form , " all is for the best in the best of all possible worlds " ( Fr . Tout est pour le mieux dans le meilleur des mondes possibles ) . Philosophers had trouble fitting the horrors of this earthquake into the optimist world view .
Voltaire actively rejected Leibnizian optimism after the natural disaster , convinced that if this were the best possible world , it should surely be better than it is . In both Candide and Poème sur le désastre de Lisbonne ( " Poem on the Lisbon Disaster " ) , Voltaire attacks this optimist belief . He makes use of the Lisbon earthquake in both Candide and his Poème to argue this point , sarcastically describing the catastrophe as one of the most horrible disasters " in the best of all possible worlds " . Immediately after the earthquake , unreliable rumours circulated around Europe , sometimes overestimating the severity of the event . Ira Wade , a noted expert on Voltaire and Candide , has analysed which sources Voltaire might have referenced in learning of the event . Wade speculates that Voltaire 's primary source for information on the Lisbon earthquake was the 1755 work Relation historique du Tremblement de Terre survenu à Lisbonne by Ange Goudar .
Apart from such events , contemporaneous stereotypes of the German personality may have been a source of inspiration for the text , as they were for Simplicius Simplicissimus , a 1669 satirical picaresque novel written by Hans Jakob Christoffel von Grimmelshausen and inspired by the Thirty Years ' War . The protagonist of this novel , who was supposed to embody stereotypically German characteristics , is quite similar to the protagonist of Candide . These stereotypes , according to Voltaire biographer Alfred Owen Aldridge , include " extreme credulousness or sentimental simplicity " , two of Candide 's , and Simplicius 's , defining qualities . Aldridge writes , " Since Voltaire admitted familiarity with fifteenth @-@ century German authors who used a bold and buffoonish style , it is quite possible that he knew Simplicissimus as well . "
A satirical and parodic precursor of Candide , Jonathan Swift 's Gulliver 's Travels ( 1726 ) is one of Candide 's closest literary relatives . This satire tells the story of " a gullible ingenue " , Gulliver , who ( like Candide ) travels to several " remote nations " and is hardened by the many misfortunes which befall him . As evidenced by similarities between the two books , Voltaire probably drew upon Gulliver 's Travels for inspiration while writing Candide . Other probable sources of inspiration for Candide are Télémaque ( 1699 ) by François Fénelon and Cosmopolite ( 1753 ) by Louis @-@ Charles Fougeret de Monbron . Candide 's parody of the bildungsroman is probably based on Télémaque , which includes the prototypical parody of the sagacious tutor on whom Pangloss may have been partly based . Likewise , Monbron 's protagonist undergoes a disillusioning series of travels similar to those of Candide .
= = Creation = =
Born François @-@ Marie Arouet , Voltaire ( 1694 – 1778 ) , by the time of the Lisbon earthquake , was already a well @-@ established author , known for his satirical wit . He had been made a member of the Académie Française in 1746 . He was a deist , a strong proponent of religious freedom , and a critic of tyrannical governments . Candide became part of his large , diverse body of philosophical , political and artistic works expressing these views . More specifically , it was a model for the eighteenth- and early nineteenth @-@ century novels called the contes philosophiques . This genre , of which Voltaire was one of the founders , included previous works of his such as Zadig and Micromegas .
It is unknown exactly when Voltaire wrote Candide , but scholars estimate that it was primarily composed in late 1758 and begun as early as 1757 . Voltaire is believed to have written a portion of it while at his house in Ferney and also while visiting Charles Théodore , the Elector @-@ Palatinate at Schwetzingen , for three weeks in the summer of 1758 . Despite solid evidence for these claims , a popular legend persists that Voltaire wrote Candide in three days . This idea is probably based on a misreading of the 1885 work La Vie intime de Voltaire aux Délices et à Ferney by Lucien Perey ( real name : Clara Adèle Luce Herpin ) and Gaston Maugras . The evidence indicates strongly that Voltaire did not rush or improvise Candide , but worked on it over a significant period of time , possibly even a whole year . Candide is mature and carefully developed , not impromptu , as the intentionally choppy plot and the aforementioned myth might suggest .
There is only one extant manuscript of Candide that was written before the work 's 1759 publication ; it was discovered in 1956 by Wade and since named the La Vallière Manuscript . It is believed to have been sent , chapter by chapter , by Voltaire to the Duke and Duchess La Vallière in the autumn of 1758 . The manuscript was sold to the Bibliothèque de l 'Arsenal in the late eighteenth century , where it remained undiscovered for almost two hundred years . The La Vallière Manuscript , the most original and authentic of all surviving copies of Candide , was probably dictated by Voltaire to his secretary , Wagnière , then edited directly . In addition to this manuscript , there is believed to have been another , one copied by Wagnière for the Elector Charles @-@ Théodore , who hosted Voltaire during the summer of 1758 . The existence of this copy was first postulated by Norman L. Torrey in 1929 . If it exists , it remains undiscovered .
Voltaire published Candide simultaneously in five countries no later than 15 January 1759 , although the exact date is uncertain . Seventeen versions of Candide from 1759 , in the original French , are known today , and there has been great controversy over which is the earliest . More versions were published in other languages : Candide was translated once into Italian and thrice into English that same year . The complicated science of calculating the relative publication dates of all of the versions of Candide is described at length in Wade 's article " The First Edition of Candide : A Problem of Identification " . The publication process was extremely secretive , probably the " most clandestine work of the century " , because of the book 's obviously illicit and irreverent content . The greatest number of copies of Candide were published concurrently in Geneva by Cramer , in Amsterdam by Marc @-@ Michel Rey , in London by Jean Nourse , and in Paris by Lambert .
Candide underwent one major revision after its initial publication , in addition to some minor ones . In 1761 , a version of Candide was published that included , along with several minor changes , a major addition by Voltaire to the twenty @-@ second chapter , a section that had been thought weak by the Duke of Vallière . The English title of this edition was Candide , or Optimism , Translated from the German of Dr. Ralph . With the additions found in the Doctor 's pocket when he died at Minden , in the Year of Grace 1759 . The last edition of Candide authorised by Voltaire was the one included in Cramer 's 1775 compilation , l 'éditions encadrées , meaning " supervised editions " .
Voltaire strongly opposed the inclusion of illustrations in his works , as he stated in a 1778 letter to the writer and publisher Charles Joseph Panckoucke :
Je crois que des Estampes seraient fort inutiles . Ces colifichets n 'ont jamais été admis dans les éditions de Cicéron , de Virgile et d 'Horace . ( I believe that these illustrations would be quite useless . These baubles have never been allowed in the works of Cicero , Virgil and Horace . )
Despite this protest , two sets of illustrations for Candide were produced by the French artist Jean @-@ Michel Moreau le Jeune . The first version was done , at Moreau 's own expense , in 1787 and included in Kehl 's publication of that year , Oeuvres Complètes de Voltaire . Four images were drawn by Moreau for this edition and were engraved by Pierre @-@ Charles Baquoy . The second version , in 1803 , consisted of seven drawings by Moreau which were transposed by multiple engravers . The twentieth @-@ century modern artist Paul Klee stated that it was while reading Candide that he discovered his own artistic style . Klee illustrated the work , and his drawings were published in a 1920 version edited by Kurt Wolff .
= = List of characters = =
= = = Main characters = = =
Candide : The title character . Illegitimate son of the sister of the baron of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh . In love with Cunégonde .
Cunégonde : The daughter of the baron of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh . In love with Candide .
Professor Pangloss : The royal educator of the court of the baron . Described as " the greatest philosopher of the Holy Roman Empire " .
The Old Woman : Cunégonde 's maid while she was the mistress of Don Issachar and the Grand Inquisitor of Portugal . Fled with Candide and Cunégonde to the New World . Illegitimate daughter of Pope Urban X.
Cacambo : From a Spanish father and a Peruvian mother . Lived half his life in Spain and half in Latin America . Candide 's valet while in America .
Martin : Dutch amateur philosopher and Manichaean . Met Candide in Suriname , travelled with him afterwards .
The baron of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh : Son of the original Baron ( a secondary character ) and brother of Cunégonde . Thought to have been killed by the Bulgarians . Became a Jesuit in Paraguay .
= = = Secondary characters = = =
The baron and baroness of Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh : Father and mother of Cunégonde and the second baron . Both slain by the Bulgarians .
The king of the Bulgarians .
Jacques the Anabaptist : Saved Candide from a lynching in the Netherlands . Drowned in the port of Lisbon .
Don Issachar : Jewish landlord in Portugal . Cunégonde became his mistress , shared with the Grand Inquisitor of Portugal . Killed by Candide .
The Grand Inquisitor of Portugal : Sentenced Candide and Pangloss at the auto @-@ da @-@ fé . Cunégonde was his mistress jointly with Don Issachar . Killed by Candide .
Don Fernando d 'Ibarra y Figueroa y Mascarenes y Lampourdos y Souza : Spanish governor of Buenos Aires . Wanted Cunégonde as a mistress .
The king of El Dorado , who helped Candide and Cacambo out of El Dorado and made them rich .
Mynheer Vanderdendur : Dutch ship captain . Offered to take Candide from America to France for 30 @,@ 000 gold coins , but then departed without him , stealing all his riches .
The abbot of Perigord : Befriended Candide and Martin , led the police to arrest them ; he and the police officer accepted three diamonds each and released them .
The marchioness of Parolignac : Parisian wench who took an elaborate title .
The scholar : One of the guests of the " marchioness " . Argued with Candide about art .
Paquette : The one who gave Pangloss syphilis . After the slaying by the Bulgarians , worked as a prostitute . Became the property of Friar Giroflée .
Friar Giroflée : Theatin friar . In love with the prostitute Paquette .
Signor Pococurante : A Venetian noble . Candide and Martin visited his estate , where he discussed his disdain of most of the canon of great art .
In an inn in Venice , Candide and Martin ate with six foreigners who turned out to be deposed monarchs . They were :
Ahmed III
Ivan VI of Russia
Charles Edward Stuart
Augustus III of Poland
Stanisław Leszczyński
Theodore of Corsica
= = Synopsis = =
Candide contains thirty episodic chapters , which may be grouped into two main schemes : one consists of two divisions , separated by the protagonist 's hiatus in El Dorado ; the other consists of three parts , each defined by its geographical setting . By the former scheme , the first half of Candide constitutes the rising action and the last part the resolution . This view is supported by the strong theme of travel and quest , reminiscent of adventure and picaresque novels , which tend to employ such a dramatic structure . By the latter scheme , the thirty chapters may be grouped into three parts each comprising ten chapters and defined by locale : I – X are set in Europe , XI – XX are set in the Americas , and XXI – XXX are set in Europe and the Ottoman Empire . The plot summary that follows uses this second format and includes Voltaire 's additions of 1761 .
= = = Chapters I – X = = =
The tale of Candide begins in the castle of the Baron Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh in Westphalia , home to : the Baron 's daughter , Lady Cunégonde ; his bastard nephew , Candide ; a tutor , Pangloss ; a chambermaid , Paquette ; and the rest of the Baron 's family . The protagonist , Candide , is romantically attracted to Cunégonde . He is a child of " the most unaffected simplicity " , whose face is " the index of his mind " . Dr. Pangloss , professor of " métaphysico @-@ théologo @-@ cosmolonigologie " ( English translation : " metaphysico @-@ theologo @-@ cosmoronology " ) and self @-@ proclaimed optimist , teaches his pupils that they live in the " best of all possible worlds " and that " all is for the best " .
All is well in the castle until Cunégonde sees Pangloss sexually engaged with Paquette in some bushes . Encouraged by this show of affection , Cunégonde drops her handkerchief next to Candide which entices him to kiss her . For this infraction , Candide is evicted from the castle , at which point he is captured by Bulgar ( Prussian ) recruiters and coerced into military service , where he is flogged , nearly executed , and forced to participate in a major battle between the Bulgars and the Abares ( an allegory representing the Prussians and the French ) . Candide eventually escapes the army and makes his way to Holland where he is given aid by Jacques , an Anabaptist , who strengthens Candide 's optimism . Soon after , Candide finds his master Pangloss , now a beggar with syphilis . Pangloss reveals he was infected with this disease by Paquette and shocks Candide by relating how Castle Thunder @-@ ten @-@ Tronckh was destroyed by Bulgars , and that Cunégonde and her whole family were killed . Pangloss is cured of his illness by Jacques , losing one eye and one ear in the process , and the three set sail to Lisbon .
In Lisbon 's harbor , they are overtaken by a vicious storm which destroys the boat . Jacques attempts to save a sailor , and in the process is thrown overboard . The sailor makes no move to help the drowning Jacques , and Candide is in a state of despair until Pangloss explains to him that Lisbon harbor was created in order for Jacques to drown . Only Pangloss , Candide , and the " brutish sailor " who let Jacques drown survive the wreck and reach Lisbon , which is promptly hit by an earthquake , tsunami and fire that kill tens of thousands . The sailor leaves in order to loot the rubble while Candide , injured and begging for help , is lectured on the optimistic view of the situation by Pangloss .
The next day , Pangloss discusses his optimistic philosophy with a member of the Portuguese Inquisition , and he and Candide are arrested for heresy , set to be tortured and killed in an " auto @-@ da @-@ fé " set up to appease God and prevent another disaster . Candide is flogged and sees Pangloss hanged , but another earthquake intervenes and he escapes . He is approached by an old woman , who leads him to a house where Lady Cunégonde waits , alive . Candide is surprised : Pangloss had told him that Cunégonde had been raped and disemboweled . She had been , but Cunégonde points out that people survive such things . However , her rescuer sold her to a Jewish merchant who was then threatened by a corrupt Grand Inquisitor into sharing her . Her owners arrive , find her with another man , and Candide kills them both . Candide and the two women flee the city , heading to the Americas . Along the way , Cunégonde falls into self @-@ pity , complaining of all the misfortunes that have befallen her . The old woman reciprocates by revealing her own tragic life , which included having a buttock cut off in order to feed some starving men .
= = = Chapters XI – XX = = =
The trio arrives in Buenos Aires , where Governor Don Fernando d 'Ibarra y Figueroa y Mascarenes y Lampourdos y Alejandro asks to marry Cunégonde . Just then , an alcalde ( a Spanish fortress commander ) arrives , pursuing Candide for killing the Grand Inquisitor . Leaving the women behind , Candide flees to Paraguay with his practical and heretofore unmentioned manservant , Cacambo .
At a border post on the way to Paraguay , Cacambo and Candide speak to the commandant , who turns out to be Cunégonde 's unnamed brother . He explains that after his family was slaughtered , the Jesuits ' preparation for his burial revived him , and he has since joined the order . When Candide proclaims he intends to marry Cunégonde , her brother attacks him , and Candide stabs him through with his rapier . After lamenting all the people ( mainly priests ) he has killed , he and Cacambo flee . In their flight , Candide and Cacambo come across two naked women being chased and bitten by a pair of monkeys . Candide , seeking to protect the women , shoots and kills the monkeys , but is informed by Cacambo that the monkeys and women were probably lovers .
Cacambo and Candide are captured by Oreillons , or Orejones ; members of the Inca nobility who widened the lobes of their ears , and are depicted here as the fictional inhabitants of the area . Mistaking Candide for a Jesuit by his robes , the Oreillons prepare to cook Candide and Cacambo ; however , Cacambo convinces the Oreillons that Candide killed a Jesuit to procure the robe . Cacambo and Candide are released and travel for a month on foot and then down a river by canoe , living on fruits and berries .
After a few more adventures , Candide and Cacambo wander into El Dorado , a geographically isolated utopia where the streets are covered with precious stones , there exist no priests , and all of the king 's jokes are funny . Candide and Cacambo stay a month in El Dorado , but Candide is still in pain without Cunégonde , and expresses to the king his wish to leave . The king points out that this is a foolish idea , but generously helps them do so . The pair continue their journey , now accompanied by one hundred red pack sheep carrying provisions and incredible sums of money , which they slowly lose or have stolen over the next few adventures .
Candide and Cacambo eventually reach Suriname , where they split up : Cacambo travels to Buenos Aires to retrieve Lady Cunégonde , while Candide prepares to travel to Europe to await the two . Candide 's remaining sheep are stolen , and Candide is fined heavily by a Dutch magistrate for petulance over the theft . Before leaving Suriname , Candide feels in need of companionship , so he interviews a number of local men who have been through various ill @-@ fortunes and settles on a man named Martin .
= = = Chapters XXI – XXX = = =
This companion , Martin , is a Manichaean scholar based on the real @-@ life pessimist Pierre Bayle , who was a chief opponent of Leibniz . For the remainder of the voyage , Martin and Candide argue about philosophy , Martin painting the entire world as occupied by fools . Candide , however , remains an optimist at heart , since it is all he knows . As they arrive in England , they see an admiral ( based on Admiral Byng ) being shot for not killing enough of the enemy . Martin explains that Britain finds it necessary to shoot an admiral from time to time " pour l 'encouragement des autres " ( to encourage the others ) . Candide , horrified , arranges for them to leave Britain immediately . After various scenes satirising other European institutions , Candide and Martin meet Paquette , the chambermaid who infected Pangloss with his syphilis , in Venice . She is now a prostitute , and is spending her time with a monk , Brother Giroflée . Although both appear happy on the surface , they reveal their despair : Paquette has led a miserable existence as a sexual object , and the monk detests the religious order in which he was indoctrinated .
Later , while Candide and Martin are eating supper , Cacambo returns to Candide and informs him that Cunégonde is in Constantinople , and that she has been enslaved . She is now washing dishes for a prince of Transylvania , and has become ugly . On the way to rescue her , Candide finds Pangloss and Cunégonde 's brother rowing in the galley . Candide buys their freedom and further passage at steep prices . The baron and Pangloss relate how they survived , but despite the horrors he has been through , Pangloss 's optimism remains unshaken : " I still hold to my original opinions , because , after all , I 'm a philosopher , and it wouldn 't be proper for me to recant , since Leibniz cannot be wrong , and since pre @-@ established harmony is the most beautiful thing in the world , along with the plenum and subtle matter . "
The travellers arrive on the Ottoman coast where they rejoin Cunégonde and the old woman . Cunégonde has indeed become hideously ugly , but Candide nevertheless buys their freedom and marries Cunégonde to spite her brother ( who is secretly sold back into slavery ) . Paquette and Brother Giroflée , too , are reconciled with Candide on a farm which he just bought with the last of his finances .
One day , the protagonists seek out a dervish known as a great philosopher of the land . Pangloss asks him why Man is made to suffer so , and what they all ought to do . The dervish responds by asking rhetorically why Pangloss is concerned about the existence of evil and good . The dervish describes human beings as mice on a ship sent by a king to Egypt ; their comfort does not matter to the king . The dervish then slams his door on the group . Returning to their farm , Candide , Pangloss , and Martin meet a Turk whose philosophy is to devote his life only to simple work and not concern himself with external affairs . He and his four children work a small farm to keep " free of three great evils : boredom , vice and necessity " , or " poverty " as per John Butt 's 1947 translation . Candide , Pangloss , Martin , Cunégonde , Paquette , Cacambo , the old woman , and Brother Giroflée all set to work ( on this " louable dessein " , or " commendable plan " , as the narrator calls it ) on a farm of their own , each to one specific task . Candide ignores Pangloss 's insistence that all turned out for the best by necessity , instead telling him " we must cultivate our garden " .
= = Style = =
As Voltaire himself described it , the purpose of Candide was to " bring amusement to a small number of men of wit " . The author achieves this goal by combining his sharp wit with a fun parody of the classic adventure @-@ romance plot . Candide is confronted with horrible events described in painstaking detail so often that it becomes humorous . Literary theorist Frances K. Barasch described Voltaire 's matter @-@ of @-@ fact narrative as treating topics such as mass death " as coolly as a weather report " . The fast @-@ paced and improbable plot — in which characters narrowly escape death repeatedly , for instance — allows for compounding tragedies to befall the same characters over and over again . In the end , Candide is primarily , as described by Voltaire 's biographer Ian Davidson , " short , light , rapid and humorous " .
Behind the playful façade of Candide which has amused so many , there lies very harsh criticism of contemporary European civilization which angered many others . European governments such as France , Prussia , Portugal and England are each attacked ruthlessly by the author : the French and Prussians for the Seven Years ' War , the Portuguese for their Inquisition , and the British for the execution of John Byng . Organised religion , too , is harshly treated in Candide . For example , Voltaire mocks the Jesuit order of the Roman Catholic Church . Aldridge provides a characteristic example of such anti @-@ clerical passages for which the work was banned : while in Paraguay , Cacambo remarks , " [ The Jesuits ] are masters of everything , and the people have no money at all … " . Here , Voltaire suggests the Christian mission in Paraguay is taking advantage of the local population . Voltaire depicts the Jesuits holding the indigenous peoples as slaves while they claim to be helping them .
= = = Satire = = =
The main method of Candide 's satire is to contrast ironically great tragedy and comedy . The story does not invent or exaggerate evils of the world — it displays real ones starkly , allowing Voltaire to simplify subtle philosophies and cultural traditions , highlighting their flaws . Thus Candide derides optimism , for instance , with a deluge of horrible , historical ( or at least plausible ) events with no apparent redeeming qualities .
A simple example of the satire of Candide is seen in the treatment of the historic event witnessed by Candide and Martin in Portsmouth harbour . There , the duo spy an anonymous admiral , supposed to represent John Byng , being executed for failing to properly engage a French fleet . The admiral is blindfolded and shot on the deck of his own ship , merely " to encourage the others " ( Fr . " pour encourager les autres " ) . This depiction of military punishment trivializes Byng 's death . The dry , pithy explanation " to encourage the others " thus satirises a serious historical event in characteristically Voltairian fashion . For its classic wit , this phrase has become one of the more often quoted from Candide .
Voltaire depicts the worst of the world and his pathetic hero 's desperate effort to fit it into an optimistic outlook . Almost all of Candide is a discussion of various forms of evil : its characters rarely find even temporary respite . There is at least one notable exception : the episode of El Dorado , a fantastic village in which the inhabitants are simply rational , and their society is just and reasonable . The positivity of El Dorado may be contrasted with the pessimistic attitude of most of the book . Even in this case , the bliss of El Dorado is fleeting : Candide soon leaves the village to seek Cunégonde , whom he eventually marries only out of a sense of obligation .
Another element of the satire focuses on what William F. Bottiglia , author of many published works on Candide , calls the " sentimental foibles of the age " and Voltaire 's attack on them . Flaws in European culture are highlighted as Candide parodies adventure and romance clichés , mimicking the style of a picaresque novel . A number of archetypal characters thus have recognisable manifestations in Voltaire 's work : Candide is supposed to be the drifting rogue of low social class , Cunégonde the sex interest , Pangloss the knowledgeable mentor and Cacambo the skilful valet . As the plot unfolds , readers find that Candide is no rogue , Cunégonde becomes ugly and Pangloss is a stubborn fool . The characters of Candide are unrealistic , two @-@ dimensional , mechanical , and even marionette @-@ like ; they are simplistic and stereotypical . As the initially naïve protagonist eventually comes to a mature conclusion — however noncommittal — the novella is a bildungsroman , if not a very serious one .
= = = Garden motif = = =
Gardens are thought by many critics to play a critical symbolic role in Candide . The first location commonly identified as a garden is the castle of the Baron , from which Candide and Cunégonde are evicted much in the same fashion as Adam and Eve are evicted from the Garden of Eden in Genesis . Cyclically , the main characters of Candide conclude the novel in a garden of their own making , one which might represent celestial paradise . The third most prominent " garden " is El Dorado , which may be a false Eden . Other possibly symbolic gardens include the Jesuit pavilion , the garden of Pococurante , Cacambo 's garden , and the Turk 's garden .
These gardens are probably references to the Garden of Eden , but it has also been proposed , by Bottiglia , for example , that the gardens refer also to the Encyclopédie , and that Candide 's conclusion to cultivate " his garden " symbolises Voltaire 's great support for this endeavour . Candide and his companions , as they find themselves at the end of the novella , are in a very similar position to Voltaire 's tightly knit philosophical circle which supported the Encyclopédie : the main characters of Candide live in seclusion to " cultivate [ their ] garden " , just as Voltaire suggested his colleagues leave society to write . In addition , there is evidence in the epistolary correspondence of Voltaire that he had elsewhere used the metaphor of gardening to describe writing the Encyclopédie . Another interpretative possibility is that Candide cultivating " his garden " suggests his engaging in only necessary occupations , such as feeding oneself and fighting boredom . This is analogous to Voltaire 's own view on gardening : he was himself a gardener at his estates in Les Délices and Ferney , and he often wrote in his correspondence that gardening was an important pastime of his own , it being an extraordinarily effective way to keep busy .
= = Philosophy = =
= = = Optimism = = =
Candide satirises various philosophical and religious theories that Voltaire had previously criticised . Primary among these is Leibnizian optimism ( sometimes called Panglossianism after its fictional proponent ) , which Voltaire ridicules with descriptions of seemingly endless calamity . Voltaire demonstrates a variety of irredeemable evils in the world , leading many critics to contend that Voltaire 's treatment of evil — specifically the theological problem of its existence — is the focus of the work . Heavily referenced in the text are the Lisbon earthquake , disease , and the sinking of ships in storms . Also , war , thievery , and murder — evils of human design — are explored as extensively in Candide as are environmental ills . Bottiglia notes Voltaire is " comprehensive " in his enumeration of the world 's evils . He is unrelenting in attacking Leibnizian optimism .
Fundamental to Voltaire 's attack is Candide 's tutor Pangloss , a self @-@ proclaimed follower of Leibniz and a teacher of his doctrine . Ridicule of Pangloss 's theories thus ridicules Leibniz himself , and Pangloss 's reasoning is silly at best . For example , Pangloss 's first teachings of the narrative absurdly mix up cause and effect :
Il est démontré , disait @-@ il , que les choses ne peuvent être autrement ; car tout étant fait pour une fin , tout est nécessairement pour la meilleure fin . Remarquez bien que les nez ont été faits pour porter des lunettes ; aussi avons @-@ nous des lunettes .
It is demonstrable that things cannot be otherwise than as they are ; for as all things have been created for some end , they must necessarily be created for the best end . Observe , for instance , the nose is formed for spectacles , therefore we wear spectacles .
Following such flawed reasoning even more doggedly than Candide , Pangloss defends optimism . Whatever their horrendous fortune , Pangloss reiterates " all is for the best " ( Fr . " Tout est pour le mieux " ) and proceeds to " justify " the evil event 's occurrence . A characteristic example of such theodicy is found in Pangloss 's explanation of why it is good that syphilis exists :
c 'était une chose indispensable dans le meilleur des mondes , un ingrédient nécessaire ; car si Colomb n 'avait pas attrapé dans une île de l 'Amérique cette maladie qui empoisonne la source de la génération , qui souvent même empêche la génération , et qui est évidemment l 'opposé du grand but de la nature , nous n 'aurions ni le chocolat ni la cochenille ;
it was a thing unavoidable , a necessary ingredient in the best of worlds ; for if Columbus had not caught in an island in America this disease , which contaminates the source of generation , and frequently impedes propagation itself , and is evidently opposed to the great end of nature , we should have had neither chocolate nor cochineal .
Candide , the impressionable and incompetent student of Pangloss , often tries to justify evil , fails , invokes his mentor and eventually despairs . It is by these failures that Candide is painfully cured ( as Voltaire would see it ) of his optimism .
Interestingly , this critique of Voltaire 's seems to be directed almost exclusively at Leibnizian optimism . Candide does not ridicule Voltaire 's contemporary Alexander Pope , a later optimist of slightly different convictions . Candide does not discuss Pope 's optimistic principle that " all is right " , but Leibniz 's that states , " this is the best of all possible worlds " . However subtle the difference between the two , Candide is unambiguous as to which is its subject . Some critics conjecture that Voltaire meant to spare Pope this ridicule out of respect , although Voltaire 's Poème may have been written as a more direct response to Pope 's theories . This work is similar to Candide in subject matter , but very different from it in style : the Poème embodies a more serious philosophical argument than Candide .
= = = Conclusion = = =
The conclusion of the novella , in which Candide finally dismisses his tutor 's optimism , leaves unresolved what philosophy the protagonist is to accept in its stead . This element of Candide has been written about voluminously , perhaps above all others . The conclusion is enigmatic and its analysis is contentious .
Voltaire develops no formal , systematic philosophy for the characters to adopt . The conclusion of the novel may be thought of not as a philosophical alternative to optimism , but as a prescribed practical outlook ( though what it prescribes is in dispute ) . Many critics have concluded that one minor character or another is portrayed as having the right philosophy . For instance , a number believe that Martin is treated sympathetically , and that his character holds Voltaire 's ideal philosophy — pessimism . Others disagree , citing Voltaire 's negative descriptions of Martin 's principles and the conclusion of the work in which Martin plays little part .
Within debates attempting to decipher the conclusion of Candide lies another primary Candide debate . This one concerns the degree to which Voltaire was advocating a pessimistic philosophy , by which Candide and his companions give up hope for a better world . Critics argue that the group 's reclusion on the farm signifies Candide and his companions ' loss of hope for the rest of the human race . This view is to be compared to a reading that presents Voltaire as advocating a melioristic philosophy and a precept committing the travellers to improving the world through metaphorical gardening . This debate , and others , focuses on the question of whether or not Voltaire was prescribing passive retreat from society , or active industrious contribution to it .
= = = Inside vs. outside interpretations = = =
Separate from the debate about the text 's conclusion is the " inside / outside " controversy . This argument centers on the matter of whether or not Voltaire was actually prescribing anything . Roy Wolper , professor emeritus of English , argues in a revolutionary 1969 paper that Candide does not necessarily speak for its author ; that the work should be viewed as a narrative independent of Voltaire 's history ; and that its message is entirely ( or mostly ) inside it . This point of view , the " inside " , specifically rejects attempts to find Voltaire 's " voice " in the many characters of Candide and his other works . Indeed , writers have seen Voltaire as speaking through at least Candide , Martin , and the Turk . Wolper argues that Candide should be read with a minimum of speculation as to its meaning in Voltaire 's personal life . His article ushered in a new era of Voltaire studies , causing many scholars to look at the novel differently .
Critics such as Lester Crocker , Henry Stavan , and Vivienne Mylne find too many similarities between Candide 's point of view and that of Voltaire to accept the " inside " view ; they support the " outside " interpretation . They believe that Candide 's final decision is the same as Voltaire 's , and see a strong connection between the development of the protagonist and his author . Some scholars who support the " outside " view also believe that the isolationist philosophy of the Old Turk closely mirrors that of Voltaire . Others see a strong parallel between Candide 's gardening at the conclusion and the gardening of the author . Martine Darmon Meyer argues that the " inside " view fails to see the satirical work in context , and that denying that Candide is primarily a mockery of optimism ( a matter of historical context ) is a " very basic betrayal of the text " .
= = Reception = =
Though Voltaire did not openly admit to having written the controversial Candide until 1768 ( until then he signed with a pseudonym : " Monsieur le docteur Ralph " , or " Doctor Ralph " ) , his authorship of the work was hardly disputed .
Immediately after publication , the work and its author were denounced by both secular and religious authorities , because the book openly derides government and church alike . It was because of such polemics that Omer @-@ Louis @-@ François Joly de Fleury , who was Advocate General to the Parisian parliament when Candide was published , found parts of Candide to be " contrary to religion and morals " .
Despite much official indictment , soon after its publication , Candide 's irreverent prose was being quoted . " Let us eat a Jesuit " , for instance , became a popular phrase for its reference to a humorous passage
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money had still not arrived from England . News about Paul 's [ McCartney ] visit to the club the previous night had spread , and the place was jammed . Now Paul , being a generous sort of person , had built up quite a bar bill , when the manager of the club arrived demanding that we pay immediately . On explaining who Paul was and what had happened , he answered , ' You either pay the bill , or I call the police . ' It certainly looked like we were going to get thrown in jail . It was ironical , sitting in a club with a millionaire , unable to pay the bill . "
= = = India and Apple = = =
The Beatles flew to India in February 1968 , to visit the Maharishi Mahesh Yogi 's ashram ( after first meeting him on 24 August 1967 , at the London Hilton hotel ) . Evans arrived in India a few days earlier to inspect the ashram , but as soon as Starr got off the plane , he demanded that Evans find a doctor , as his inoculation shots were causing him pain . Evans : “ When we arrived at the local hospital , I tried to get immediate treatment for him [ Starr ] , to be told curtly by the Indian doctor , ' He is not a special case and will have to wait his turn . ' So off we go to pay a private doctor ten rupees for the privilege of hearing him say ' It will be all right ' . " Evans wrote in his diary on 17 February 1968 : " The press really tried kicking down the gates into the Ashram , the Indian people on the Ashram called me half way through , but as soon as an Indian reporter told me " No bloody foreigner is going to stop me in my own country " , I cooled it . " Evans ' diary says that he enjoyed his time in India : " It 's hard to believe that a week has already passed . I suppose the peace of mind and the serenity one achieves through meditation makes the time fly , " and that he also enjoyed the food , unlike Starr , who had brought a suitcase full of baked beans with him . After leaving India , Harrison and Evans flew to New York , visiting Bob Dylan and The Band , who were rehearsing at their Big Pink house / studio , in Woodstock .
When Apple was formed in 1968 , Evans was promoted from road manager to personal assistant , although his weekly £ 38 salary remained the same . Evans : " January 13 , 1969 : Paul [ McCartney ] is really cutting down on the Apple staff members . I was elevated to office boy [ Evans was made MD of Apple , but very briefly ] and I feel very hurt and sad inside — only big boys don 't cry . Why I should feel hurt and reason for writing this is ego . ... I thought I was different from other people in my relationship with The Beatles and being loved by them and treated so nice , I felt like one of the family . Seems I fetch and carry . I find it difficult to live on the £ 38 I take home each week and would love to be like their other friends who buy fantastic homes and have all the alterations done by them , and are still going to ask for a rise . I always tell myself — look , everybody wants to take from , be satisfied , try to give and you will receive . After all this time I have about £ 70 to my name , but was content and happy . Loving them as I do , nothing is too much trouble , because I want to serve them . Feel a bit better now — EGO ? " Evans ' financial problems started to become such a problem that he had to ask Harrison for money : " April 24 : " Had to tell George [ Harrison ] — ' I 'm broke ' . Really miserable and down because I 'm in the red , and the bills are coming in , poor old Lil [ his wife ] suffers as I don 't want to get a rise . Not really true don 't want to ask for a rise , fellows are having a pretty tough time as it is . "
Evans was the only member of the Apple entourage to be invited to attend ( and be a witness ) when McCartney and Linda Eastman were married at Marylebone Registry Office on 12 March 1969 . Evans wrote in his diary that he was due to be there at 9 @.@ 45 am , but McCartney 's brother , Michael 's train from Birmingham was late . Peter Brown and Evans passed the register office at 9 @.@ 15 , and saw that there were only a few photographers and ardent fans standing in the rain , but when they left , after the wedding at 11 @.@ 30 am , they were mobbed by a crowd of about 1 @,@ 000 people . When the Beatles played on the roof of Apple 's offices in Savile Row , Evans was told to delay the policemen ( who had arrived to stop the concert ) , as long as was possible . Evans was responsible for the signing of Badfinger ( Iveys ) to the Apple label in 1968 . They were the first rock @-@ band to be assigned to the label . Badfinger 's portrait by photographer Les Smithers has now been acquired by the National Portrait Gallery .
= = = Allen Klein = = =
Evans enjoyed an executive position at Apple until 1969 , when Allen Klein was hired as a manager to reorganise the whole company . Evans was fired by Klein the next year , because Klein complained to Lennon that Aspinall and Evans were " living like kings ; like fucking emperors " . Evans was later reinstated after McCartney , Harrison and Starr complained . On 13 September 1969 , Evans accompanied Lennon , Yoko Ono , Klaus Voorman , Alan White and Eric Clapton to Toronto , Canada , for the Toronto Rock and Roll Revival concert . He later wrote : " I was really enjoying myself . It was the first show I had roadied for three years and I was really loving every minute of plugging the amps in and setting them up on stage , making sure that everything was right . Everyone wanted the show to go particularly well because Allen Klein , who had flown over , had organised for the whole of John 's performance to be filmed . This was on top of it being video @-@ taped by Dan Richter . "
= = = Musical contributions = = =
Evans contributed to many recordings , including singing in the chorus of " Yellow Submarine " . He played single organ notes on " You Won 't See Me " , and harmonica on " Being for the Benefit of Mr. Kite ! " . McCartney explained that he showed Evans where the notes were on the organ , and then nodded his head when he wanted Evans to play , and shook it when he wanted him to stop .
On " A Day in the Life " , Evans controlled an alarm clock ; counting the measures in the original 24 @-@ bar pause , and was one of the five piano players simultaneously hitting the last chord of the song . He played tambourine on " Dear Prudence " , and trumpet on " Helter Skelter " , where he played a double solo with Lennon , even though neither was proficient on the instrument . Evans contributed background vocals , and stirred a bucket of gravel ( as part of the rhythm ) , on " You Know My Name ( Look Up The Number ) " . He also contributed to the White Album out @-@ take , " What 's the New Mary Jane " , and hit an anvil on " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " , because Starr could not lift the hammer high enough to get the right sound and keep in time with the song .
According to Evans ' diaries , he helped to compose songs for the Sgt. Pepper album . He wrote , on 27 January 1967 : " Sgt Pepper . Started writing song with Paul [ McCartney ] upstairs in his room , he on piano " and " Did a lot more of " where the rain comes in " [ a lyric from " Fixing a Hole " ] . Hope people like it . Started Sergeant Pepper " . On 1 February : " Sergeant Pepper sounds good . Paul tells me that I will get royalties on the song — great news , now perhaps a new home . " On 2 February : " Recording voices on Captain [ sic ] Pepper . All six of us doing the chorus in the middle , worked until about midnight . "
Keith Badman — author of The Beatles off the Record — referred to a tape recording of Evans speaking shortly before his death , on which Evans reiterated some of the statements made in the diary . According to Badman , Evans was asked at the time if it would be a problem that he was not credited as a writer , because the Lennon – McCartney writing name was " a really hot item " . For reasons unclear , Evans did not receive any royalties and stayed at his £ 38 @-@ a @-@ week pay ( £ 622 in modern currency ) .
= = = On film = = =
Evans appeared in four ( out of five ) Beatles ' films . During the filming of the Beatles ' first feature film , A Hard Day 's Night , Evans appeared in a cameo role , carrying an upright bass in between John Lennon and Millie in the backstage scene in which Millie mistakes Lennon for someone else . In Help ! , Evans played a confused channel swimmer who pops up through an ice @-@ hole in Austria , and on a beach in the Bahamas . Evans and Aspinall were asked to find and hire the actors that were needed to perform in the Magical Mystery Tour film , and to hire an old 60 @-@ seater coach , on which they were told to paint the Magical Mystery Tour logo , which McCartney had designed . Evans later appeared in the film as one of the magicians , who cast mysterious spells on the passengers of the bus .
In the Let It Be film , Evans can be seen playing the anvil during early versions of " Maxwell 's Silver Hammer " , and can be seen talking to police officers on the Savile Row rooftop when they came to stop the performance . Before the concert , Evans placed a camera and a microphone in a corner of Apple 's reception area , so that when the police came in to complain about the noise — which was expected — they could be filmed and recorded . The Beatles were often filmed by Evans during his time with them ( without sound ) , and a collection of his own film recordings was later released on DVD .
= = After The Beatles = =
In 1968 , Evans had seen the group Badfinger ( then known as The Iveys ) play live , and suggested that they be signed to Apple . Evans then produced several of their songs in 1969 and 1970 , the most notable of which was " No Matter What " , which charted on Billboard 's Top 10 in December 1970 . Evans also discovered the group Splinter and brought them to the Apple label , although they would subsequently move to George Harrison 's Dark Horse Records . Evans ' other production credits include Jackie Lomax ' 1969 single " New Day " ( on Apple ) and some of the tracks on Keith Moon 's only solo album Two Sides of the Moon ( 1975 ) .
Evans separated from his wife in 1973 and moved to Los Angeles where Lennon had moved to live with May Pang after his own separation from Yoko Ono . Evans is credited on Harrison 's All Things Must Pass and the John Lennon / Plastic Ono Band album as providing " tea and sympathy " . Evans cowrote " You and Me ( Babe ) " with Harrison . The track appeared on Starr 's 1973 solo album Ringo . He also cowrote the Splinter song " Lonely Man " , the musical centrepiece of Little Malcolm , an Apple feature film produced by Harrison .
Evans was asked to produce the group Natural Gas , and was working on a book of memoirs called Living The Beatles ' Legend which he was due to deliver to his publishers , Grosset & Dunlap , on 12 January 1976 . Evans was depressed about the separation from his wife ( who had asked for a divorce before Christmas ) even though he was then living with his new girlfriend , Fran Hughes , in a rented motel apartment at 8122 West 4th Street in Los Angeles .
= = Death = =
On 5 January 1976 , Evans was so despondent that Hughes phoned Evans ' cowriter for his biography , John Hoernie , and asked him to visit them . Hoernie saw Evans " really doped @-@ up and groggy " but Evans told Hoernie to make sure he finished Living The Beatles ' Legend . Hoernie helped Evans up to an upstairs bedroom , but during an incoherent conversation , Evans picked up an air rifle . Hoernie struggled with Evans , but Evans , being much stronger , held onto the weapon .
Hughes then phoned the police and told them that Evans was confused , had a rifle , and was on valium . Four policemen arrived and three of them , David D. Krempa , Robert E. Brannon and Lieutenant Higbie , went up to the bedroom . They later reported that as soon as Evans saw the three policemen he pointed a rifle at them . The officers repeatedly told Evans to put down the rifle ( which they did not know at the time was an air rifle ) but Evans constantly refused . The police fired six shots , four hitting Evans , killing him instantly . Evans had previously been awarded the badge of " Honorary Sheriff of Los Angeles County " , but in the Los Angeles Times , he was referred to as a “ jobless former road manager for the Beatles ” .
Evans was cremated on 7 January 1976 , in Los Angeles . None of the former Beatles attended his funeral , but Harry Nilsson and other friends did . Harrison arranged for Evans ' family to receive £ 5 @,@ 000 , as Evans had not maintained his life insurance premiums , and was not entitled to a pension .
= = Aftermath = =
In 1986 , a trunk containing Evans ' diaries and other effects was found in the basement of a New York publisher , and then sent to his family in London . In 1992 , Lennon 's original pages of lyrics to " A Day in the Life " were sold by the Evans estate for £ 56 @,@ 600 at Sotheby 's in London . In 2010 , a double @-@ sided sheet of paper containing the hand @-@ written lyrics and notes to " A Day in the Life " were sold at auction at Sotheby 's in New York to an anonymous American buyer for $ 1.2m ( £ 810 @,@ 000 ) . Other lyrics collected by Evans have been subject to legal action over the years : In 1996 , McCartney went to the High Court in England and prevented the sale of the original lyrics to " With a Little Help from My Friends " that Evans ' ex @-@ wife had tried to sell , by claiming that the lyrics were collected by Evans as a part of his duties , and therefore belonged to The Beatles , collectively . A 2004 report of the discovery of a further collection of Evans 's Beatles ' memorabilia proved to be false .
A notebook in which McCartney wrote the lyrics for " Hey Jude " was sold in 1998 , for £ 111 @,@ 500 . The notebook also contains lyrics for " Sgt. Pepper 's Lonely Hearts Club Band " and " All You Need Is Love " . It also contained lyrics , notes , drawings and poems by Lennon , McCartney , Harrison and Starr , as well as by Evans .
A new one @-@ man play about Mal Evans called Beatle Mal 's Legendary Band was presented at the Edinburgh Festival Fringe between 5 and 27 August 2012 . It had previously previewed at the Cavern Club in Liverpool on Wednesday 25 July , with members of Mal 's family in the audience . Featuring actor Nik Wood @-@ Jones in the role of Mal , the play took the form of Mal looking back at his time with the Beatles and was presented as an entertainment with original music .
= Turahan Bey =
Turahan Bey or Turakhan Beg ( Turkish : Turahan Bey / Beğ ; Albanian : Turhan Bej ; Greek : Τουραχάνης , Τουραχάν μπέης or Τουραχάμπεης ; died in 1456 ) was a prominent Ottoman military commander and governor of Thessaly from 1423 until his death in 1456 . He participated in many Ottoman campaigns of the second quarter of the 15th century , fighting against the Byzantines as well as against the Crusade of Varna . His repeated raids into the Morea transformed the local Byzantine despotate into an Ottoman dependency and opened the way for its conquest . At the same time , his administration of Thessaly , where he settled new peoples , founded the town of Tyrnavos and revitalized the economy , set the groundwork for Ottoman rule in the area for centuries to come .
= = Life = =
Nothing is known of his birth date or early life , except that he was the son of Pasha Yiğit Bey , who conquered Skopje in 1392 and was the first Ottoman governor of Bosansko Krajište .
He is first mentioned in 1413 as governor of Vidin , and then again in 1422 , when he fought against the Byzantine governor of Lamia , Kantakouzenos Strabomytes . He was one of the supporters of Mustafa Çelebi during the latter 's struggle against Mehmed I and Murad II . He became governor of Thessaly in early 1423 , and led his first major expedition in May – June of the same year , against the Peloponnese peninsula in southern Greece . His cavalry breached the recently rebuilt Hexamilion wall on 21 / 22 May and ravaged the interior of the peninsula unopposed . He attacked some Byzantine towns and settlements like Mystras , Leontari , Gardiki and Dabia . Aside from the plunder , the expedition was also probably a reconnaissance mission ultimately aimed against Venetian possessions in the area , as Venice was the main driving force behind attempts to unite the various Christian rulers of Greece against the Ottoman advance . Soon after , the Byzantine historian Doukas reports Turahan 's presence on the shores of the Black Sea . At about the same time , he also campaigned in Epirus , defeated local Albanian tribes and made them tributary to the Ottoman state . In the 1430s along with Ali Bey and Ishak Bey he participated in the campaigns that suppressed an Albanian revolt , led by Gjergj Arianiti and Andrew Thopia .
Despite the devastation visited upon the Peloponnese , Turahan 's 1423 expedition was only a raid , and the Byzantine Despots of the Morea were able to restore their position and gradually over the next few years bring the entire peninsula under their control . In 1431 however Turahan again breached and destroyed the Hexamilion and took Thebes in 1435 , to prevent it from falling into the hands of the Moreot Byzantines . The Despotate of the Morea , under the constant threat of renewed Turkish invasion clung on to a precarious independence only through continuous gifts and tribute to Turahan .
In November 1443 Turahan participated in the Battle of Niš against John Hunyadi , which ended in an Ottoman defeat . During their retreat from Niš , Turahan Bey and Kasim Pasha burned all villages between Niš and Sofia . Turahan persuaded Sultan Murad II to abandon Sofia as well , and follow a consequent scorched earth strategy against the Hungarian advance . Although the Hungarians were badly mauled in the Battle of Zlatitsa , in a subsequent action at Kunovica they were able to capture Mahmud Bey , the Sultan 's son @-@ in @-@ law , creating the impression of an overall victorious campaign . Contemporary Ottoman sources blame rivalry between Kasim and Turahan for the defeat at Kunovica , while some claim that the Serbian Despot Đurađ Branković bribed Turahan not to participate in the battle . Turahan fell from favour as a result and was banished by the Sultan to a prison in Tokat .
Nevertheless , he was soon restored to his position , as he was present in Murad 's 1446 campaign against the Morea . Murad was reportedly disheartened by the strength of the Hexamilion , but Turahan insisted on an assault . Aided by an artillery bombardment , the Ottomans again breached the Byzantine defences and ravaged the Peloponnese at will . As a result , the Morea was now officially reduced to an Ottoman vassal state . In early October 1452 , Turahan and his sons Ahmed and Ömer led a large force into the Peloponnese . Sultan Mehmed II ordered them to remain there during the winter in order to prevent despots Thomas and Demetrios from assisting their brother , Emperor Constantine XI , during the Siege of Constantinople in 1453 . Turahan again stormed the Hexamilion and penetrated into the Morea , raiding from Corinth through the Argolid and Arcadia to Messenia . The Byzantines put up little resistance after Hexamilion , although Turahan 's son Ahmed was captured in an ambush at Dervenakia and imprisoned in Mystras .
The fall of Constantinople on 29 May 1453 had great repercussions in the Morea . The two despots , the brothers Demetrios and Thomas , heartily detested each other and were unpopular among their own subjects . A rebellion broke out against them in autumn , supported both by the local Albanian immigrants and the native Greeks , and spread quickly . As the Sultan 's vassals , the despots called upon Turkish aid , and Turahan 's son Ömer arrived in December . After a few successes , he departed after securing the release of his brother from captivity . The revolt did not subside , and in October 1454 Turahan himself was forced to intervene . After sacking a few fortresses , the rebellious populace capitulated . Turahan advised the two Palaiologoi to compose their differences and rule well , and then departed the peninsula . The two brothers were however unable to reconcile themselves , and soon reverted to quarrelling and conspiring with Western powers against the Sultan . In retaliation , Mehmed II campaigned in the Morea in 1458 and seized the northwestern half of the country , which became an Ottoman province under Ömer . The rest of the despotate followed in 1460 .
Turahan himself was recalled to Adrianople in October 1455 and died ca . August 1456 . He was buried at Kirk Kvak near Uzun Köprü in Thrace , but his memorial tomb ( türbe ) survives to this day in the city . His descendants , the Turahanoğlu , were wealthy landowners in Thessaly until the end of the Ottoman rule there in the late 19th century ; with the exception of his sons however , they did not rise to any wider prominence .
= = Legacy = =
Turahan Bey ranked among the great , practically semi @-@ autonomous Ottoman " marcher @-@ lords " ( uç beyi ) of the 15th @-@ century Balkans , along the likes of Gazi Evrenos . He was instrumental in the establishment of Ottoman rule in Thessaly and central Greece in general . Aside from his campaigns of conquest , he brought in 5 @,@ 000 Turkish settlers ( Yörüks and Koniars ) whom he settled in a string of twelve villages across the province to strengthen Ottoman military control . In addition , according to Turahan 's Arab @-@ language biography , which the Scottish traveller David Urquhart reported to be still extant in the 1830s in Tyrnavos , he was also the first to institute a Greek militia for the lawless mountainous regions of central Greece , the forerunners of the later Armatoloi .
Turahan also took several measures to restore order and prosperity in his province , most notably the foundation ( or re @-@ foundation ) of the town of Tyrnavos , which before was a small pastoral settlement . To attract and protect the local Greek Orthodox population , he granted it special privileges , such as special administrative status as a waqf ( a religious endowment ) of the Sharif of Mecca , tax exemptions and the prohibition of Ottoman troops from passing through the town . He also endowed it with both a mosque ( destroyed after the Greek annexation of Thessaly in 1881 ) and a church , St Nicholas Turahan , which survives to this day . Turahan also endowed many other public buildings such as mosques , monasteries , madrasas , schools , caravanserais , bridges and baths across the province . He also took care to maintain and foster the Thessalian cotton , silk and wool textile industry , to the extent that later generations attributed to him the introduction of new dye techniques based on yellow berries , madder and the kali plant , used in the manufacture of potash . From there these materials spread to the rest of Rumelia and thence to Western Europe .
= = Family tree = =
After Franz Babinger in the Encyclopedia of Islam :
= Miami Valley Hospital South =
Miami Valley Hospital South ( MVHS ) is a hospital in Centerville , Ohio . It is a branch of Miami Valley Hospital in Dayton , Ohio and is managed by Premier Health . Designed and constructed in 2007 as an outpatient facility with an emergency room , the facility grew faster than expected and became a full service hospital with as office building for physicians and a five @-@ story patient wing added between 2009 and 2013 . As of 2013 , the hospital is a 579 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 53 @,@ 800 m2 ) complex on a 115 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) campus adjacent to Interstate 675 . It has 60 beds and features a number of specialty care options including oncology , cardiology , sports medicine , and maternity care to cater to the suburban community surrounding the hospital .
= = History = =
Miami Valley Hospital South sits on a 115 @-@ acre ( 47 ha ) campus along Interstate 675 south of Dayton , Ohio . The land had been owned by Premier Health for 20 years before the hospital was built in 2007 , after several decades of planning for an outpatient hospital facility to serve southwestern Greene County , specifically Centerville and Bellbrook where significant suburban housing development was taking place . It was also constructed with partnerships with local high schools in mind to expand athletic training services for student athletes . The project was overseen by Premier Health employee Joann Ringer , who later became chief operating officer of the facility .
The original 268 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 24 @,@ 900 m2 ) outpatient facility was opened in October 2007 at a construction cost of $ 79 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 , and featured a general surgery emergency room with 10 operating rooms . It had a total of 200 employees , many of whom were trained at Miami Valley Hospital . The facility also featured a helipad for CareFlight service , as emergencies were transferred to the Level I Trauma Center at Miami Valley Hospital . Originally called Miami Valley South Health Center , traffic to the hospital quickly escalated beyond what was projected , in part because of consumer demand for care in a single facility and without the need to transfer to other hospitals .
In November 2008 , the first inpatient beds were added following demand for recovery services from the emergency room , including several observation beds and 10 short @-@ stay beds , at which point the facility was renamed Miami Valley Hospital South . These expansions were completed in June 2009 . In late 2010 , the hospital added a 215 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 20 @,@ 000 m2 ) , five story patient wing to the facility , initially planned to cost $ 64 @,@ 200 @,@ 000 . A $ 20 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 comprehensive cancer care center was also added along with an office building for physicians . Ultimately this expansion was completed at a cost of $ 51 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 , which brought the hospital size to 579 @,@ 000 square feet ( 53 @,@ 800 m2 ) . The new patient wing opened in March 2012 . This new wing included a 24 @-@ bed general surgery floor , a 24 @-@ bed orthopedic surgery floor , and a 12 @-@ bed maternity ward completed in August 2012 , for a total of 60 beds . At the end of this expansion , the number of staff grew to 478 full- and part @-@ time employees . The hospital saw admittance to its emergency room grow from 19 @,@ 500 in 2007 to 2008 to 32 @,@ 000 in 2012 . From August 2012 to February 2013 the number of babies born in the maternity ward was 550 .
The facility features architecture intended to evoke a sense of calm . It was constructed with a central courtyard and a number of windows overlooking it , as well as nature @-@ related artwork and architecture . There are also separate hallways for staff and visitors in order to make the interior appear less crowded . The hospital also features a substantial amount of parking and a shuttle service to the entrance . Miami Valley Hospital South was constructed with future expansion in mind . Two of the five floors in the patient wing are empty and can be filled adding 24 beds each . A third hallway can be added to the wing which will add 60 beds , and the maternity ward can also be expanded with a second floor to add 12 beds , which means the facility could be expanded to 180 beds .
= = Services = =
The hospital features a number of inpatient support services including a cafeteria food facility which also delivers food to patient rooms , housekeeping and environmental services . Among the hospital 's medical specialties are general surgery , obstetrics and orthopedics . The hospital also features a high @-@ risk breast cancer center aimed at preventative care for patients at risk of developing cancer , staffed by surgical oncologists and staff nurses . Among other specialty services are cardiology , sports medicine , and a hyperbaric oxygen therapy chamber . The hospital has equipment for cardiac monitoring , magnetic resonance imaging , and computed tomography
The facility also features a physician office building which houses staff practitioners as well as offices for physicians with independent practices within the community . The 78 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 7 @,@ 200 m2 ) building , opened in January 2013 , also features a comprehensive cancer care center focused on outpatient cancer care treatment , as well as space for patient education and support groups . In addition to physician labs , the facility also houses a concrete enclosed vault which houses a linear accelerator , which is used for precision cancer treatments . When Miami Valley Hospital South opened , the specialists for ovarian cancer and uterine cancer were moved there from Miami Valley Hospital .
= Bart King =
John Barton " Bart " King ( October 19 , 1873 – October 17 , 1965 ) was an American cricketer , active in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . King was part of the Philadelphia team that played from the end of the 19th century until the outbreak of World War I. This period of cricket in the United States was dominated by " gentlemen cricketers " — men of independent wealth who did not need to work . King , an amateur from a middle @-@ class family , was able to devote time to cricket thanks to a job set up by his teammates .
A skilled batsman who proved his worth as a bowler , King set numerous records in the continent of North America during his career and led the first @-@ class bowling averages in England in 1908 . He successfully competed against the best cricketers from England and Australia . King was the dominant bowler on his team when it toured England in 1897 , 1903 , and 1908 . He dismissed batsmen with his unique delivery , which he called the " angler " , and helped develop the art of swing bowling in the sport . Sir Pelham Warner described Bart King as " one of the finest bowlers of all time " , and Donald Bradman called him " America 's greatest cricketing son . "
= = Early and personal life = =
King was born in Philadelphia in 1873 . Early in his life , he worked in a linen trade . Although this was the family business , his father later allowed him to leave to enter the insurance industry . King was not a member of the aristocratic and wealthy families of Philadelphia that produced many of the era 's top cricketers . King 's obituary in Cricket Quarterly suggests that his career in insurance was set up for him by those families to allow him to continue playing the game . In 1913 ( or 1911 ) , King married Fannie Lockhart ; the marriage lasted for fifty years . King 's wife died in 1963 , and he died in 1965 in his native Philadelphia two days before his 92nd birthday .
Bart King was regarded by many of his contemporaries as an affable person . Ralph Barker called him the Bob Hope of cricket thanks to his quips and stories . King was also noted for making jabs at opponents , but leaving them laughing at themselves . The same held true when he would question umpires that turned down his appeals . He is said to have spoken for ninety minutes at a dinner during his last tour to England , punctuated every few seconds with laughs . The dinner guests were kept laughing even while King spoke with a dead @-@ pan expression . One man who attended the dinner noted that King " told his impossible tales with such an air of conviction ... that his audiences were always in doubt when to take him seriously . He made their task doubly difficult by sprinkling in a fair mixture of truth with his fiction . "
= = Cricketing career = =
Like most young American men of this era , Bart King came to cricket only after first playing baseball . He began to play club cricket at Tioga Cricket Club in 1888 , aged 15 , starting out as a batsman . Tioga was one of the lesser Philadelphian cricket clubs . King played his first recorded match for the club in 1889 , when he was tried as a bowler due to his physique . He took 37 wickets for 99 runs for the club in the 1889 cricket season .
King played for Tioga until 1896 , when he joined Belmont Cricket Club . King joined the Philadelphian cricket team for three tours of England while playing at Belmont . King 's most dominating matches came during these tours , playing with the premier American team of the era .
= = = Australia in Philadelphia = = =
In 1893 , the Australian team stopped by Philadelphia on its way home from a tour of England . Australia fielded a strong side , but the team was tired after a long tour and trip . In spite of this fatigue , the Australians chose to face the full strength of the Gentlemen of Philadelphia in a three @-@ day match starting September 29 .
On a small ground at Belmont , the September grass was coarse . It had been rolled so that the ball moved very quickly across the ground . The Australian side , fielding first , dropped many catches and could not cope with the short boundary , allowing the Philadelphians to reach a huge total of 525 runs . King came in to bat last , at number 11 , making 36 runs . The leading Australian bowlers , Hugh Trumble and George Giffen , took 2 for 104 and 0 for 114 respectively . When the Australians came to bat , they hoped that they would , by now , have recovered from their tiring journey , but ran into problems when dealing with Bart King 's developing swing bowling . The side was all out for 199 , with King taking 5 wickets for 78 runs . The Australians followed on and were all out again for 268 , allowing the Gentlemen of Philadelphia to win by an innings and 68 runs .
The cricket world was stunned that a single American city could turn out a side capable of beating the full strength of Australia . The Australians won the return match on October 6 by six wickets , but the Australian captain , Jack Blackham , said to the Americans , " You have better players here than we have been led to believe . They class with England 's best . "
= = = Tour of England in 1897 = = =
King won the Child 's Bowling Cup , the premier award for bowling in American cricket , for the first time in 1896 , and joined the Philadelphian cricket team 's tour of England in 1897 . The tour was very ambitious , and was arranged mainly for educational purposes : few of those on the American side expected to win many matches . Previous tours had tended to involve amateur English sides with a low level of competition . In 1897 , the tour started on June 7 at Oxford , ending in late July at The Oval almost 2 months later . The schedule included fifteen matches against all of the top county cricket teams , the Oxford and Cambridge University teams , the Marylebone Cricket Club , and two other sides , though only a few of the counties thought it worthwhile to put their best elevens onto the field .
While the tour initially aroused some curiosity , many English fans lost interest until Bart King and the Philadelphians met the full Sussex team at Brighton on June 17 . King demonstrated his batting ability in the first innings with a fourth @-@ wicket stand of 107 with John Lester . He then took 7 wickets for 13 runs , and Philadelphia dismissed Sussex for 46 in less than an hour . King took 6 for 102 in Sussex 's second innings , helping the Philadelphians to victory by 8 wickets .
Despite the excitement surrounding King 's performance , the Americans did not fare well overall , and the results may have been worse than hoped for by the tour 's promoters . Philadelphia won only two of their fifteen matches , losing nine and earning a draw in the remaining four . After their win against Sussex , the only other win of the tour came against Warwickshire . During this match , King took 5 for 95 and 7 for 72 and scored 46 runs . According to Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack , King proved himself to be the best bowler on the American side and had to do much of the work . He bowled three hundred overs , more than anyone else in the team , taking 72 wickets with a bowling average of a little over 24 runs . In addition to his bowling , King scored 441 runs as a batsman at a batting average of just over 20 .
Following the 1897 tour , many English counties were interested in securing King 's services . It was thought that he would not play as a professional , so alternative means of remuneration had to be found : one county reportedly offered to arrange a marriage with a widow who had an income of £ 7000 per year . In the end , King returned to the United States , where he continued to perform very well in club cricket .
= = = Tour of England in 1903 = = =
The Philadelphian team returned to England in 1903 . This proved to be King 's most successful tour , particularly his performances in the matches against Lancashire and Surrey . King played in 13 of the 15 matches on the tour , missing two with a strained side . In his first match , against Cambridge University , he took 5 for 136 and 4 for 28 . He followed that with 8 for 39 in the first innings against Oxford University , though the match was eventually abandoned as a draw due to rain . In his next match , against Gloucestershire , he took 2 for 26 in the first innings but did not bowl in the second . He also took 7 for 51 and 2 for 28 against a strong MCC side at Lord 's . Then came the Lancashire match at Old Trafford Cricket Ground .
In Lancashire 's first innings , King bowled 27 overs and took 5 wickets for 46 runs . The Philadelphians passed Lancashire 's first innings score , but their lead was quickly overtaken in Lancashire 's second innings . With the wind strong over King 's left shoulder , the scene was set for him to dominate the opposition . In his first over after the lunch break on day two of the match , he yorked one of Lancashire 's opening batsmen and his replacement with successive balls . He clean bowled two more batsmen in his second over , and bowled a stump out of the ground in the third . In 3 overs , he had taken 5 wickets for 7 runs . After this performance , King had to be rested in the field . One batsman was run out before King returned to take 4 more wickets , ending the innings with 9 for 62 . The Philadelphians won next morning by nine wickets .
Against Surrey on August 6 , King was overpowering again . It was in this match that King gave what Barker called his finest first @-@ class performance ever . Batting first , he scored 98 runs in the Philadelphian 's first innings before being run out , and he then took 3 for 89 in Surrey 's reply . In the second innings , he made 113 not out and then took 3 for 98 . Surrey lost the match by 110 runs . Apparently , King was so exhausted after his performance that he fell asleep during a speech by the Lord Chief Justice Lord Alverstone at a banquet after the match .
= = = Tour of England in 1908 = = =
King toured England with the Philadelphians a third time in 1908 . This tour included both first @-@ class matches and more minor ones . The first match that was played was against South Wales in Cardiff . The Philadelphians won by 36 behind the bowling of King and Ranji Hordern . The pair took all 20 wickets of the Welsh side . After this , the first @-@ class matches began with Worcestershire on July 9 . Again the Philadelphians won and again Hordern and King took most of the wickets . This trend continued throughout the tour . In the first @-@ class matches that King played , the Philadelphians recorded four wins and six losses . Although he was already 35 years old , King had posted extraordinary numbers in his bowling . He topped the bowling averages for the entire 1908 English cricket season at 11 @.@ 01 . This mark was not bettered until 1958 , when Les Jackson of Derbyshire posted an average of 10 @.@ 99 .
= = = Later career = = =
King 's cricketing career did not end with his last first @-@ class match . He continued to play club matches in Philadelphia and participated in non @-@ first @-@ class fixtures around the continent . King is noted for holding the bowling record against Canada . On a rainy afternoon at Philadelphia in 1906 , King bowled into a slight breeze to capture 8 wickets for 17 runs . This record came in a four @-@ year period during which King focused on club cricket in Philadelphia , when he won the city 's batting award three times and the bowling award four times .
King played in his last two international matches in 1912 , against Australia . His performances were of the highest quality , given that he was nearing his fortieth year . In the first match , he took 9 wickets for 78 runs to help Philadelphia win by 2 runs ; in the second , Australia won by 45 runs despite him taking 8 for 74 .
King joined the Philadelphia Cricket Club after the 1912 season . Despite being well past his 40th year , he continued to play competitive cricket for another 4 years . His 27 @-@ year career ended with his last game for the Philadelphia Cricket Club against Frankford , on July 20 , 1916 . On this occasion , his bowling and batting skills had declined , but he maintained a batting average of 43 @.@ 33 for that final season .
= = Death = =
King died at a nursing home in his native Philadelphia in 1965 , two days short of his 92nd birthday . The Times newspaper in the UK ran an obituary for him , which quoted Plum Warner as saying that : " Had he been an Englishman or an Australian , he would have been even more famous than he was . "
= = Achievements and legacy = =
Though King focused on bowling throughout his career , he was also a very fine batsman . In 1905 , he established a North American record batting record by scoring 315 at the Germantown Cricket Club . The following year , he scored 344 not out for Belmont against the Merion Cricket Club , setting a North American batting record which still stands . He scored 39 centuries in his North American career , and he topped 1 @,@ 000 runs in six seasons . He took over 100 wickets in eight seasons , including a double of 1 @,@ 000 runs and 100 wickets in four seasons . In his whole career , he scored 19 @,@ 808 runs at an average of 36 @.@ 47 , and took 2 @,@ 088 wickets at an average of 10 @.@ 47 . He took all 10 wickets in an innings on three occasions , and took 9 wickets in an innings five times . One of these occasions , in the Gentlemen of Ireland 's first innings in 1909 , was followed by a hat @-@ trick in the second innings .
There is an apocryphal story of King emulating a famous baseball pitcher of the day , Rube Waddell , by sending all his fielders back into the pavilion and finishing off the opponent 's innings on his own . King and Belmont were playing Trenton in the Halifax Cup at Elmwood Cricket Ground . Some versions of the story have him banishing the fielders and then calling one of them to a position 22 yards ( 20 m ) back and 4 yards ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) to the leg side . This fielder was stationed there to pick up the bails which landed at his feet after King bowled his trademark " angler " . This story was disputed some years later by the captain of Trenton , who claimed that when he " went in to bat that afternoon , King had four balls left in his over . " He claimed to have " hit the first delivery to cover point but of course there was no one there . The ball stopped within three feet of the boundary , and King had to chase it . By the time he got back we had run six . " The captain claimed to be the only batsmen to have hit four consecutive sixes off King , but commended the bowler on his ability to spin a tale .
Thanks to his dominant performance over his career and his renown in the world of cricket , King was elected an honorary member of the Incogniti Cricket Club in 1908 and an honorary life member of the Marylebone Cricket Club in 1962 . When Plum Warner was asked to name the greatest bowler who ever lived , he said that John Barton King , " at the top of his power and speed , was at least the equal of the greatest of them all . "
King is credited as one of the first bowlers to utilise swing bowling deliberately . Other bowlers in his time could sometimes get the ball to swing , but King was one of the first to do so at will with an old or new ball . He made use of a lethal delivery which he called the " angler " , a product of his experience as a baseball pitcher , to confuse the English batsmen . He would come in with the ball clasped above his head in both hands as would a baseball pitcher . He was famous for his late swing — in and out — and would produce the in @-@ swinger with his right hand coming down from a point over his left shoulder . He described it as an in @-@ swinger which , if properly bowled , would change direction sharply in the last 10 or 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) of flight . King used this ball only sparingly and only against good batsmen . After a tour to Philadelphia by an Australian side in 1896 , George Giffen said " the Philadelphians really have some high @-@ class players , but it was the fact of their bowlers playing us with baseball curves that upset our batsmen . "
= Siren ( Millennium ) =
" ' Siren " is the seventeenth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It premiered on the Fox network on March 20 , 1998 . Millennium concerns offender profiler Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) as he investigates crimes for the Millennium Group . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed Allen Coulter . " Siren " featured guest appearances by Vivian Wu , Tzi Ma and Kristen Cloke .
When offender profiler Black investigates several deaths on a cargo ship , he encounters a mysterious woman who shows him visions of a life in which he had never joined the Millennium Group . Upon recovering , his experience leads him to doubt his role in the organisation . " Siren " was viewed by approximately 5 @.@ 68 million households during its original broadcast . The episode received positive critical reviews , with one reviewer drawing comparisons with the film It 's a Wonderful Life .
= = Plot synopsis = =
Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) is an offender profiler working for a private investigative firm called the Millennium Group , who consult with local or federal law enforcement on criminal cases . The Millennium Group , and Black , specialise in examining violent crimes or those of a millenarian nature .
As a cargo ship pulls into harbour , it is surrounded by Immigration and Naturalization Service agents . On board , the captain , Law ( Tzi Ma ) , sends two of his crew to kill a " monster " in the cargo hold . Before they can do so , the ship is boarded and the men arrested . Inside the hold , INS agents find a glamorous woman ( Vivian Wu ) bound in chains .
Black 's wife Catherine ( Megan Gallagher ) has brought their daughter Jordan to the hospital where she works ; there , Jordan sees the captive woman and is convinced she will be significant to her father . Black works for Catherine brings the woman 's file to Black , who becomes interested in the case . However , attempts to communicate with her fail , as a translator insists the woman is speaking a wholly unknown language .
Stymied , Black and fellow Group member Lara Means ( Kristen Cloke ) investigate the ship , finding several bodies hidden in a crate , all having died of exposure . Black then interviews Law and his crew individually , each time being given a contradicting story of how the woman came to be on board the ship . However , they all agree that after she boarded , crew were discovered daily , dead of exposure on the ship 's bow ; Law had the woman chained up in the belief she was responsible .
Black traces the woman 's fingerprints through a Millennium Group database , finding they belong to a Tamara Shui Fa Lee , who disappeared at sea near Hong Kong ten years prior — and who Black believes is now dead . Black visits " Lee " at the hospital , where she speaks to him in perfect English , discussing personal events from his life of which she would have no knowledge . As he drives home , he sees her on the side of the highway and stops to investigate ; however , he finds no sign of her and returns home , where he shares an intimate dinner with Catherine and Jordan , later retiring to bed with Catherine — despite their estrangement . Black gradually notices more differences from how his life had been , realizing he has never been a member of the Millennium Group and founded a private investigation firm after leaving the Federal Bureau of Investigation . Returning home again one day , he sees a demon holding Jordan 's lifeless body .
Back on the highway , an ambulance crew try to resuscitate Black , who has been outside his car through the night after his vision of Lee . After he comes to , he realizes this alternate reality was Lee showing him a life without the Millennium Group . However , he is left unsure whether his role within the Group is protecting his family from evil , or exposing them to it . Black seeks out Lee in a refugee camp ; meanwhile , Law and his crewmen are also tracking her , conspiring to kill her to avenge their fellow crew . Lee turns the men against each other with her visions , before Black arrives to rescue her . As Black questions her as to the Group 's influence , she resumes speaking in her unknown tongue , leaving Black without the answer he seeks .
= = Production = =
" Siren " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong . It was the fourteenth episode to have been written by the pair , who had penned several across the first and second seasons of the series . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers during the second season . The episode was directed by Allen Coulter , in his third and final contribution to the series ; Coulter had previously helmed the earlier second season episodes " Beware of the Dog " and " The Pest House " .
= = Release and reception = =
" Siren " was first broadcast on the Fox Network on March 20 , 1998 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 5 @.@ 8 during its original broadcast , meaning that 5 @.@ 8 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 5 @.@ 68 million households , and left the episode the eighty @-@ second most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
The episode received mildly positive reviews from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a " B " . He compared its central premise to the film It 's A Wonderful Life , and considered this a common trope in television ; VanDerWerff also felt that the plot structure , with a supernatural event being encountered during a criminal investigation , was overly reminiscent of Millennium 's sister show The X @-@ Files . However , he considered that the episode worked well overall , highlighting its alternate @-@ reality section and its decision not to answer every question raised . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 3 out of 5 , finding that its motif of temptation was an intriguing one , but that overall the episode 's spiritual themes were muddied by its reliance on a " routine cops and robbers " framework . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " Siren " three stars out of five . Shearman found the episode 's alternate reality section to be " touching " but " not especially revelatory " , considering it and the episode as a whole to have been more interesting in premise than in execution . Shearman compared the episode to " The Curse of Frank Black " and " Midnight of the Century " , though finding that the immigration plot left it less focused and interesting than those installments .
= The Boat Race 1936 =
The 88th Boat Race took place on 4 April 1936 . Held annually , the Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing race between crews from the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge along the River Thames . Umpired by the former Boat Race coach Francis Escombe , Cambridge won by five lengths in a time of 21 minutes 6 seconds . The record thirteenth consecutive victory took the overall record in the event to 47 – 40 in Cambridge 's favour . The heaviest crew up to that year in Boat Race history , Cambridge were the first to weigh more than an average of 13 st ( 82 @.@ 4 kg ) per individual .
= = Background = =
The Boat Race is a side @-@ by @-@ side rowing competition between the University of Oxford ( sometimes referred to as the " Dark Blues " ) and the University of Cambridge ( sometimes referred to as the " Light Blues " ) . The race was first held in 1829 , and since 1845 has taken place on the 4 @.@ 2 @-@ mile ( 6 @.@ 8 km ) Championship Course on the River Thames in southwest London . The rivalry is a major point of honour between the two universities ; it is followed throughout the United Kingdom and , as of 2014 , broadcast worldwide . Cambridge went into the race as reigning champions , having won the 1935 race by four and a half lengths , and led overall with 46 victories to Oxford 's 40 ( excluding the " dead heat " of 1877 ) .
Oxford were coached by William Rathbone ( who rowed for Oxford in the 1926 and 1927 races ) , and former Cambridge rowers John Houghton Gibbon ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1899 and 1900 races ) and Kenneth Payne ( who rowed for Cambridge in the 1932 and 1934 races ) . Cambridge 's coaches were F. E. Hellyer ( who had rowed for the Light Blues in the 1910 and 1911 races ) , B. C. Johnstone , D. H. E. McCowen ( who had rowed in the 1932 race ) and C. H. Rew ( who had coached the Light Blues the previous year ) . The race was umpired by Francis Jerram Escombe who had coached Cambridge fifteen times between 1904 and 1934 , and Oxford the previous year . Both boats were made by Sims and both crews used Ayling 's oars .
The rowing correspondent for The Times suggested that on arrival at Putney , " Cambridge were almost certainly the fastest crew ever to come to the tideway . Oxford were equally certain one of the worst " . He went on to report that while Cambridge still looked " remarkably neat " , they " have actually got slower " ; at the same time Oxford " improved their pace , if not their appearance , in a measure that most critics would have thought quite impossible " .
= = Crews = =
The Cambridge crew weighed an average of 13 st 0 @.@ 5 lb ( 82 @.@ 6 kg ) , 3 @.@ 75 pounds ( 1 @.@ 7 kg ) per rower more than their opponents , the heaviest crew ever at the time . It was the first time in the race history that a crew weighed more than an average of 13 st ( 82 @.@ 4 kg ) . Oxford saw two participants with Boat Race experience return to the crew in number five B. J. Sciortino and stroke D. M. de R. Winser . Cambridge 's crew contained five former Blues , four of whom were making their third appearance including cox Noel Duckworth , and Jack Wilson and Ran Laurie , who would win the Coxless pairs Gold medal at the 1948 Olympics . Three of the race participants were registered as non @-@ British : Oxford 's J. S. Lewes and S. R. C. Wood , along with Cambridge 's Thomas Cree were all Australian .
= = Race = =
Oxford won the toss and elected to start from the Surrey station , handing the Middlesex side of the river to Cambridge . Umpire Escombe started the race at 11 : 40 a.m in relatively calm water . Cambridge made the quicker start , out @-@ rating the Dark Blues , but struggled in patches of rougher water such that Oxford held a slight lead by the end of the Fulham Wall . With the bend in the river against them , the Dark Blues held a half @-@ length lead as the crews passed the Mile Post and , according to former Oxford rower E. P. Evans , writing in The Manchester Guardian , " were going well ... and seemed to be forging ahead at every stroke " . At Harrods Furniture Depository , Cambridge stroke Ran Laurie pushed on to reduce Oxford 's advantage as the long bend in the river favoured them : the crews passed under Hammersmith Bridge with Cambridge trailing by half a length .
A series of spurts from Cambridge combined with intelligent steering from their cox , pushing the Dark Blue boat out of the tide , resulted in a reversal of fortune with Cambridge leading , and by the end of Chiswick Eyot , they were nearly clear of Oxford . Passing Chiswick Steps four seconds ahead , the Light Blues continued to increase their advantage , passing below Barnes Bridge four lengths ahead . They passed the finishing post five lengths ahead in a time of 21 minutes 6 seconds . It was the largest winning margin since the 1929 race and the slowest winning time since the 1925 race when Oxford sank in adverse conditions . It was Cambridge 's thirteenth consecutive victory , a record streak in the history of the Boat Race , and took the overall record in the event to 47 – 40 in their favour . E. P. Evans wrote that " no praise is too much for the gallant Oxford crew " while of Cambridge he noted " though they may not have produced their best form in the early part of the race they made up for it later " . The rowing correspondent for The Times stated that " it was an exciting race over the first half of the course " and praised the Light Blues saying " all credit is due to the Cambridge crew for the manner in which they recovered themselves after being led through such bad water " . William Beach Thomas , writing in The Observer , claimed " Cambridge were described as the best crew in the chronicles of rowing kings , and Oxford the very worst " .
= History of Brasenose College , Oxford =
The history of Brasenose College , Oxford stretches back to 1509 , when the college was founded on the site of Brasenose Hall . Its name is believed to derive from the name of a bronze knocker that adorned the hall 's door . The college was associated with Lancashire and Cheshire , the county origins of its two founders – Sir Richard Sutton and the Bishop of Lincoln , William Smyth – a link that was maintained strongly until the latter half of the nineteenth century . The first principals navigated Brasenose , with its Catholic sympathisers , through the reformation and continuing religious reforms . Most of Brasenose favoured the Royalist side during the English Civil War , although it produced notable generals and clergy on both sides . The library and chapel were completed in the mid @-@ seventeenth century , despite Brasenose suffering continuing financial problems .
The post @-@ 1785 period would see an era of prosperity of the college under Principal William Cleaver . The college began to be populated by gentlemen , its income doubling between 1790 and 1810 , and academic success considerable . Efforts to reconstruct Brasenose were not completed , however , until the second half of the century with the addition of New Quad between 1886 and 1911 . Brasenose 's financial position remained secure , although under the tenure of Principal Edward Hartopp Cradock Brasenose 's academic record waned greatly , with much of its success focussed on sports – where it excelled most notably in cricket and rowing . The mid @-@ Century Royal Commissions were navigated – although they were opposed in form , their recommendations welcomed including the submission of accounts . The election of Charles Buller Heberden as Principal in 1889 led to a reversal in Brasenose 's academic failures , although its sporting performance suffered . Heberden was the first lay Principal , presiding over an increasingly secular college , opening up the library to undergraduates , instituting an entrance exam for the first time and accepting Rhodes scholarships .
Brasenose lost 115 men in the First World War ( including a quarter of the 1913 year ) , with its undergraduate numbers greatly reduced . Lord Curzon 's post @-@ War reforms were successfully instituted . The inter @-@ war period was defined by William Stallybrass , who as fellow and eventual Principal ( until 1948 ) dominated college life . Brasenose once again produced top sportsmen – cricketers , rowers , and others . This came at the cost of falling academic standards and poorly performing finances , which would see Stallybrass ' authority challenged . He died in a railway accident before he could be forced out , however . After the war , sporting achievements waned ( although there were notable exceptions ) but academic success did not improve significantly , in what was now one of Oxford 's largest colleges .
The 1970s saw considerable social change in Brasenose : the admission of women beginning in 1974 , more post @-@ graduate attendees and fewer domestic staff . There was also considerable construction work to ensure that undergraduates could be housed for the entirety of their degree on the main site and on the Frewin site ; this task was only completed in 1997 with the opening of the St Cross Building and Frewin extension . Law continued to be a strong subject for Brasenose ( following on from Stallybrass , through Principals Barry Nicholas and Herbert Hart ) as was the emerging subject of Philosophy , Politics and Economics ( PPE ) , starting with the fellowship of Vernon Bogdanor . Brasenose 's finances were secured , and it thus entered the twenty @-@ first century in a good position with regards financial , extracurricular and academic success – the last having significantly recovered from its lows , helped by PPE .
= = Foundation and early history = =
The first reference to a " Brasenose Hall " is found in the forged charter of 1219 , occupying at that time only one small part of the current site . It was recorded in 1278 as having four scholars , although over the next fifty years it was to acquire some corporate strength . The name " Brasenose " is thought to originate from a brass – lead door knocker in the shape of leopard ( or lion ) head ; the nose @-@ shaped door knocker of which one version now hangs above the high table of the main hall of Brasenose College . An alternative theory is that the name is a corruption of brasenhuis ( brewhouse ) , but this is not widely accepted , although the college did have its own brewhouse up until 1889 . This theory is believed to date back only to 1837 .
During the 1333 disturbances in Oxford , a group of clerks from Brasenose Hall left the ongoing violence and made their way to Stamford , Lincolnshire . The Brasenose knocker was taken with them as a symbol of continuity , and only believed returned in 1890 . Although Edward III intervened , ordering the students to return , some persisted in Stamford and acquired a second " Brasenose Hall " there . In 1381 , Brasenose Hall , Oxford , acquired a lease from University College for parts of the current site . The Stamford establishment was considered a rival , and candidates for degrees at Brasenose , Oxford , were required to swear that they would not give or attend lectures in Stamford as late as 1827 . Between 1480 and 1509 the Hall was responsible for supplying a vice @-@ chancellor of the University and two of its proctors . Throughout this period , Brasenose appears to have aligned itself with Oxford 's " Northerners " during periods of Northerner – Southerner violence in Oxford .
= = = Foundation = = =
The College is traditionally considered to have been founded in 1509 by a lawyer , Sir Richard Sutton , of Prestbury , Cheshire , and the Bishop of Lincoln , William Smyth . It was on 1 June 1509 that the foundation stone for Staircase I was laid . It was not until 15 January 1512 that a royal charter was obtained from Henry VIII . It was on 20 October 1508 that Smyth and eight other members of the college leased the site for the college – Brasenose Hall and neighbouring Little University Hall – from University College for ninety @-@ two years at the cost of £ 3 a year , provided that they spend £ 40 improving the site within a year . William Smyth has risen quickly through the ranks of the Church – albeit as a more able administrator than prelate – to become Bishop of Lincoln in 1496 , Chancellor of the university between 1500 and 1503 and Lord President of the Marches in 1501 , assisted by the influence of Lady Margaret Beaufort . The transition between hall and college was not clear @-@ cut ; rather , the hall was left standing whilst the new buildings for the college were completed . Matthew Smyth , last principal of the hall , became first principal of the College , although he was referred to as " Principal of the College and Hall of Brasen Nose " as late as September 1514 . It was in 1523 that Sutton transferred the lease formally over to the Principal and Fellows of the new college .
The Abbey of Oseney leased several halls to the new college , including Haberdasher , Glass , Black and Little St. Edmund , in 1530 , and in 1556 Lincoln College let Staple Hall to Brasenose on a nominal rent of twenty shillings a year . These complemented other halls which had been taken on as Brasenose Hall had grown , including St Thomas 's Hall , Shield Hall , Ivy Hall , St Mary 's Entry , Salissury Hall and Broadgates Hall . The early college was governed by the statutes laid down by the formal charter of foundation in 1511 – 12 ( altered by a revised code of Sutton after Smyth 's death ) which was prefaced with the words :
In the name of the Holy and undivided Trinity , Father , Son and Holy Spirit , and of the most blessed Mother of God , Mary the glorious Virgin , and of Saints Hugh and Chad confessors , and also of St. Michael the archangel : We , William Smyth , Bishop of Lincoln , and Richard Sutton , Esquire , confiding in the aid of the Supreme Creator , who knows , directs , and disposes the wills of all that trust in him , do out of goods which in this life , not by our merits , but of the grace of His fulness , we have received abundantly , by royal authority and charter found , institute and establish in the University of Oxford , a perpetual College of porr and indignant scholars , who shall study and make progress in philosophy and sacred theology ; commonly called The King 's Haule and College of Brasennose in Oxford ; to the praise , glory , and honour of Almighty God , of the glorious Virgin Mary , Saints Hugh and Chad confessors , St. Michael the archangel and All Saints ; for the support and exaltation of the Christian Faith , for the advancement of holy church , and for the furtherance of divine worship .
Smyth had planned for a college of a Principal and sixty bachelor fellows ; however , Sutton lowered this to only twelve . The Principal was required to be over thirty , a graduate and priest , and have the support of the Visitor , the Bishop of Lincoln . He was entitled to take up ecclesiastic office or duties that did not interfere overly with his job as principal ; the fellows were required to be resident for ten months of each year . Entrants to the college would have been only 11 or 12 years old , with an intake both from those whose income was very low , alongside those from gentlemanly backgrounds . Fellows had a high degree of autonomy , but received only board and lodging as reward .
= = = Early history = = =
The college remained associated with Lancashire and Cheshire , with a particular preference for those from Prestbury and Prescot , the founders ' birthplaces . This was also reflected in early benefactors . These included the donation of John Port , serjeant @-@ at @-@ law , for two fellowships for natives of Chester in 1522 ; that of William Clyfton , the sub @-@ dean of York , for residents of York , Lincoln and Nottingham in 1538 ; and for the Brian Higden , Dean of York , who sponsored a fellowship for those in Yorkshire and Lincolnshire in 1549 . Another notable benefactor during this period was John Claymond , the first President of Corpus Christi College , Oxford , who in 1538 gave funds to maintain six scholars at Brasenose , provided that their lectures on humanity and Greek take place at his own college . Only in 1572 was a Lectureship in Greek established at Brasenose , symptomatic of a conservatism that attached Brasenose to a monastic teaching style that was increasingly problematic during the reformation . By the end of the sixteenth century , however , the college did boast lectureships ( " public readerships " ) in the new disciplines of logic and natural philosophy . By 1547 , the income of the college had increased to almost £ 200 yearly , with an endowment that placed it squarely in the midst of other colleges in size ; it did , however , make a yearly loss .
The original buildings took some time to finish ; only the original gateway was lavished upon from the beginning . The buildings were only of a modest splendour : the hall was not completed until the end of the seventeenth century ; the rooms economically decorated without wood panelling ; the main quadrangle only of one story and garrets . Although an earlier chapel is suspected , the area above Staircase I – now the Senior Common Room – was in use by 1521 . It appears that the ecclesiastical furnishings promised by Smyth never arrived , and have been presumed taken by the College 's first Visitor , Cardinal Wolsey . Although the chapel ( or perhaps oratory ) was plain , two chalices and two patens survived from the original three of each and have been identified as older than those of Corpus or Trinity , dating to the late fifteenth century . Similarly the Old Library , now staircase IV , room 4 , was completed in 1520 – 1 , was not intended to be permanent but kept a considerable collection of books , most attained from benefactors , of which the most valuable were those donated by Henry Mason during the reign of James I. The library remained in that location until 1663 .
The first two principals of the college , Matthew Smyth and John Hawarden , successfully navigated the college through the reformation period . The college retained strong Catholic tendencies , and support for the reforms of Henry VIII and Edward VIII was minimal . The Chapel 's Dean , Thomas Hawarden , was opposed to the reforms , and was once called to the King 's Privy Council to answer for his actions . Eventually , though , the continuing reforms were carried through ; in particular , despite an exception for the University from the Act of Uniformity in 1549 for services other than mass , the enforcement of the Book of Common Prayer severely limited the ability of the college to maintain the old Catholic services whilst outwardly adopting the new reforms . The careful , and generally slow , path trod was exposed under Queen Mary , when five Fellows the left the college over its failings to reinstate the full Catholic mass quickly enough . Under Thomas Blanchard and Richard Harris the college finally accepted the reglious reforms , and , moving into the later sixteenth century the college was responsible for housing several important figures of Protestantism : John Foxe , publicist , Christopher Goodman , protégé of Peter Martyr , Nicholas Grimald and Alexander Nowell . Despite producing several Anglican and evangelical sympathisers , the college retained many Catholic sympathisers . Six Brasenose fellows were executed for their loyalty to the pope : John Shert , Thomas Cottam and Laurence Johnson at Tyburn in 1582 , and Robert Anderson , Francis Ingleby and George Nichols thereafter , only smaller in number than St. John 's .
= = Seventeenth century = =
= = = Civil War period = = =
The chancellorship of Archbishop William Laud , beginning in 1630 , was a calm and profitable time for the University as a whole , dominating as it did the city of Oxford . The Parliamentarian occupation during the Civil War in 1642 , and the subsequent Royalist siege ended this , however . Although the Parliamentarian army was careful to protect the University 's buildings and freedoms upon regaining the city following its surrender in 1646 . These events , and the plague that came to Oxford in 1643 , did not escape Brasenose . Brasenose produced members of both sides of the war , although in generally leant in favour of the Royalists : the Protestation of 1641 was met with reservation and ingenious mechanisms to avoid reply on the part of many members of the college . Members of Parliament William Brereton , Humphrey Salway , Henry Brooke and John Cartwright , James Chaloner , Colonel Thomas Croxton , Major General and MP William Jephson and commandant John Bingham all fought for parliament ; James Bradshawe and Peter Ince , among Brasenose 's many clergy , also supported the Roundheads . On the Royalist side stood Sir Alexander Radcliffe , Major Peter Leicester , MP Sir Edward Littleton , Edward Fischer ( author of Appeal to the Conscience ) , Francis Newman ( brother of Cardinal John Henry Newman ) and the majority of Brasenose 's clergy . Some Royalists stayed in the college during the civil war , including Sir William Le Neve ( Clarenceux King of Arms ) , Dr Edward Lake , and the Duchess of Buckingham ; two , Sir John Spelman and Sir Henry St George ( Garter King of Arms ) died during their stay .
Following the war , three visitations reformed the University of Oxford in the Parliamentarians ' preferred style , including purging Brasenose of its remaining loyalists . Sir William Petty , a former student , was among those promoted to fellow of the college . Samuel Radcliffe , Principal , was to be replaced with Dr Daniel Greenwood , a long @-@ term fellow of the college of Puritan sympathies by order of the visitors . However , the college held out repeatedly against efforts to expel or remove its fellows and principal , most through deliberate inactivity . Radcliffe was ill and continued to personally oppose handing over control of the college to Greenwood , particularly the college archives and treasury . The fellows , also opposing Greenwood , instead elected Thomas Yate to replace Radcliffe upon his death , although owing to the visitors ' choice of Greenwood he would not take up his post fully for twelve years . Over this period , thirteen of Brasenose 's sixteen remaining fellows were expelled , but the college survived .
Radcliffe was also responsible for the institution of four lectureships , philosophy , humanity , Greek , and Hebrew , although not all were new to Brasenose . However , Radcliffe 's Principalship continued the mismanagement of Brasenose 's finances , which had sunk into debt by the start of the seventeenth century : battels had gone unpaid , debts to tradesmen run up . Radcliffe 's sale of two college leases landed the College in unsuccessful litigation with Radcliffe 's family . A " draconian " visitation took place in 1643 , when the college owed £ 1 @,@ 750 . By 1646 , after the civil war , Brasenose still owed £ 1 @,@ 214 8s 0d . During the war , the college had loaned the King £ 600 , which it would not get back . However , the post @-@ civil war period saw Brasenose receive support from both current members and those expelled ; Greenwood and the bursar , John Houghton , continued the building work started by Radcliffe . Finances were gradually improved , with assistance from the government , up to the Restoration .
The seventeenth century saw a second wave of building at Brasenose , started under the Principalship of Samuel Radcliffe . Under his leadership an attic story was added to Old Quad in the 1630s , and the current chapel and library both constructed between 1656 and 1666 . The chapel , in particular , was a mix of architectural styles – Gothic revival and baroque – and thus not without criticism . The work totalled some £ 4 @,@ 000 , achieved eventually despite Brasenose 's previous money problems ; by 1680 , college income was a sustainable £ 600 a year . A Senior Common Room , believed to be Staircase 2 , Room 3 , had been added by 1682 .
= = = Restoration period = = =
Throughout the second half of the century , Brasenose remained around the fourth largest college of the University behind Christ Church and Exeter ; the proportion of students and Fellows from lower income groups was much higher than most other colleges , having improved during the second half of the century . Entrants were also heavily biased towards those from Cheshire and Lancashire : two @-@ thirds of Oxford entrants from those counties went to Brasenose in the first half of the century ; three @-@ quarters by its end . Indeed , by that time , the majority of Brasenose student hailed from one of those two north @-@ western counties , assisted by the localised scholarships . In 1679 , the college received an endowment from Sarah Seymour , Duchess of Somerset to fund four " Somerset " scholars , to be drawn from a free school of Manchester . She also donated further money for additional scholarships ( drawn alternately from Manchester , Marlborough , and Hereford ) upon her death in 1686 .
The Restoration , along with a return to the pre @-@ war Laudian church and the passing of the Act of Uniformity in 1662 , posed few problems for the sympathetic and quickly reformed Brasenose ; only one fellow left without agreeing . For some , nominal allegiance to the new regime was the order of the day , supported by a weary college . The Restoration period was one of disciplinary laxity across the university ; Brasenose was no different , with some of its students taking part in riots . Yate was instituted as successor – and somewhat retrospectively as predecessor – to Greenwood ; six of the thirteen fellows that had been expelled returned ; other personnel in the college were replaced . The period saw a rejuvenation of teaching in the University as a whole and a new cache of new thinkers , including Brasenose 's Petty .
During this time , French physician Samuel de Sorbière and English contemporary Samuel Pepys were among visitors . Alumni of the period included James Alban Gibbes , George Clarke and Elias Ashmole , although only Petty formed part of the emerging mathematics and sciences .
= = = Glorious revolution period = = =
Upon William and Mary 's rise to the throne in 1688 , Oxford became an established centre of the new regime . The revolution itself was smoothly accepted by Brasenose , with the exception of only a handful . Brasenose , however , remained fairly small , with only six senior fellows , although among colleges it retained some power . The College itself remained loyal to the church above the king and allegiance to oaths and ceremony was enforced , even if college members themselves were not always devout Anglicans . William Hulme gave lands in the then county of Lancaster for the maintenance of " four exhibitioners of the poorest sort " in 1691 , drawn from the selections of the Warden of Manchester , the Rector of Prestwich and the Rector of Bury .
= = Eighteenth century = =
Throughout the Georgian period , Brasenose remained " tactically Hanoverian but Jacobite by instinct " , and a strong bias towards Lancashire and Cheshire , and lesserly towards the north of England as a whole , from where over half of members of the college would come in the 1690 – 1799 period . Admissions were predominantly from the lower orders – either in terms of class or wealth . John Meare , Principal since 1681 , was himself a commoner and a supporter of the Glorious revolution ; his election to the Vice @-@ Chancellorship of the University in 1697 was greeted angrily by Tories .
At Brasenose , in 1710 , Meare was replaced by Robert Shippen , a prominent crypto @-@ Jacobite in Oxford . Shippen , a Tory , was personally despised . He mounted several campaigns for further power , acquiring several advowsons in East London , including the rectory of Whitechapel . Shippen wanted it for himself and ejected the incumbent at the cost of much personal animosity from parishioners . He then went on to become Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University , and to continually interfere in the institutions of Oxford – the Ashmolean , the Bodleian and other colleges . He was responsible for the much @-@ need purchase of seven sites on the High Street , the completion of a new common room for fellows . However , he had much grander plans for both Brasenose and Oxford – ostensibly to put Brasenose at the centre of a new " forum " for the University – that were not completed , despite some considerably time and money spent on them . In this regard he worked alongside Dr George Clarke , sometime Brasenose student and more recently designer of several colleges and library buildings , and Nicholas Hawksmoor . Brasenose , and Shippen and his allies , did , however , play a crucial role in formulating and completing the plans for the Radcliffe Camera . Shippen 's own Jacobitism appeared to subside – perhaps adjudicating on the mood of the time – but Brasenose 's did not ; ale verses were sung to " our true English king " ( rather than the Hanoverian George I ) . A panegyric for James II was even said yearly for at least ten years from 1701 , at the bequest of Sir Francis Bridgeman ( married 1673 ) . The First Jacobite Rising of 1715 caused a riot in Oxford , and not without Brasenose involvement .
Little changed in the century up to 1785 ; the average age of fellows , mostly " youthful clerics " , remained a little under thirty , having been elected to the fellowship at 23 , on average , to serve for around fifteen years . Helped by the Duchess of Somerset 's bequest , Manchester Grammar School supplied up to a sixth of Brasenose 's intake , and proportionately far more of its fellows . Despite this , the college resisted the growing cause of Methodism .
Towards the second half of the century , Brasenose began to lose its reputation for ignorance ; it also became wealthier . Its social ranking improved , and it attracted more members . The accounts were much improved : from a deficit of £ 444 in 1761 to a surplus of £ 476 in 1781 . This must have been helped by the introduction of Arabic numerals ( rather than Roman numerals ) as late as 1773 . The Radcliffe Camera was opened in 1749 , assisting the college 's attempts at self @-@ improvement . Social barriers were broken down – both by the reduction in the duties of the lowest groups and the privileges of the richest , and the increasing wealth of entrants to the college generally . The college remained far from the most elite or exclusive of colleges ; nor , by the standards of wealthier colleges , did its members misbehave . Among the 1774 intake , 20 were gentlemen , but it was one of the remaining seven – Henry Addington – who would achieve most fame as Brasenose 's first prime minister . It was into this setting that William Cleaver was made Principal in 1785 , the principals of the previous eighty years – Francis Yarborough , William Gwyn , Ralph Cawley , and Thomas Barker – being without real note . Yarborough oversaw improvements to library and hall , the former guided by the addition of his own considerable collection of books . It was also set upon that improvements to accommodation were needed ; two properties on the High Street were bought , to be turned into the Principal 's residence , the lodgings above the Lodge becoming accommodation for bursar and fellows . This was overseen by Gwyn , but he too did not live to see its completion . It would continue to be the Principal 's residence until 1886 . Barker was a man of modest means ; thus , it was Cleaver who would take Brasenose into a new age of prosperity .
Wholesale reform of Oxford examinations began in the late eighteenth century , proposed by , among others , Brasenose 's John Napleton in his pamphlet Considerations on the Public Exercises for the First and Second Degrees in the University of Oxford . It was Cleaver and his successor Frodsham Hodson that would continue the reforms and apply them to Brasenose itself . Cleaver was from the minor gentry and set out from the start to make Brasenose the place of rich men . Unable to secure the librarianship of the Bodleian whilst fellow , he had instead become tutor to his patron George Nugent @-@ Temple @-@ Grenville , 1st Marquess of Buckingham – a position which he used to lead two of the Duke 's sons and other members of the family to Brasenose ; the sons ' uncle , Baron Grenville , became the University 's Chancellor . Under his leadership into the early nineteenth century , numbers improved dramatically and so did the class of people coming : Brasenose began to be dominated by gentlemen like the Egertons , the Grenvilles , and of Richard Rainshaw Rothwell I. Its income over doubled between 1790 and 1810 to £ 9 @,@ 200 per annum , with the college maintaining its links to the north @-@ west . Among the other acquisitions of Cleaver was the services of Hodson , a Liverpudlian .
The Phoenix Common Room ( the oldest dining club in Oxford ) was founded at Brasenose in 1782 , and certainly in place by 1786 . It came to have a uniform , code of practice , and extensive wine cellar . It also took part of the role of the modern Junior Common Room in respect of social activities – although membership was limited to 12 , it was elected on rotation .
= = Nineteenth century = =
= = = Regency period = = =
Cleaver and Hodson made another attempt to redesign the High Street frontage of Brasenose , securing first the services of James Wyatt and later approaching John Nash when Wyatt failed to deliver . No plans were ever laid down , however . Three sets of designs were produced eventually by John Soane , but rather too expensive for the college . The next years would see only temporary buildings on the High Street site . Hodson was made principal in 1809 following Cleaver 's resignation . A year before , and under Hodson 's guidance , the exiled Louis XVIII had visited Brasenose ; in 1814 , the royal families of the United Kingdom , Russia , and Prussia dined in the Radcliffe Camera – food and pre @-@ dinner arrangements organised by Brasenose . In 1815 , in the first inter @-@ collegiate boat race , Brasenose went to the head of the river . Brasenose 's academic record was good , with seven of thirty @-@ seven first class degrees awarded across Oxford between 1808 and 1810 . Among these was that of William Gregson ( later draughtsman of the Great Reform Bill ) – deemed the best the examiners had ever seen . The 1810 – 20 period contained several academic reforms , particularly to the nature of examinations – the institution of terminally collections , including in mathematics and natural philosophy , something of a break from the focus of the past . Brasenose went into the regency one of only three colleges – the others being Christ Church and Oriel – to be both fashionable and academically successful ; it ran a waiting list whilst other colleges had spare places .
Alongside the Phoenix Common Room ran the Alfred Lodge ( founded in 1769 ) , The Club ( 1790 ) and the Apollo ; together they made Brasenose central to Oxford socialization in this period . Between 1818 and 1837 , however , life at Oxford was changing : it became far more " diligent and orderly " , less boisterous . Brasenose maintained its reputation for some time longer ( there were still stories of excess , particularly drink ) . In 1840 , several members of the Phoenix resigned , and Sunday meetings and Satanic toasts abolished , after John Woodhouse 's death in a meeting – according to tradition , dragged through the bars of a window ovelrooking Brasenose Lane immediately upon toasting the devil . It ushered in a period of Victorian morality for Brasenose .
Ashurst Turner Gilbert was elected Principal in 1822 , aged only 35 ; he had secured the fellowship in 1809 on the strength of a first . He disliked teaching – although he admitted it paid the bills – and much preferred being Principal . There , he would be eventually made Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University and later Bishop of Chichester . Gilbert committed Brasenose to a cause of neutral politics and mainstream Anglicanism , strongly rejecting Tractarian and Evangelical ideas including supporting the censure of Dr. Renn D. Hampden . His time was spent pre @-@ occupied with the religious tensions of the University , having spent time opposing changes to religious services in Oxford on behalf of Oxford Tories .
Despite an intake dominated by commoners at Brasenose , Oxford had become a university dominated by the independently wealthy ; the Edinburgh Review decried it as " simply a great public school " .
= = = Victorian period = = =
Gilbert 's successor in 1842 was Richard Harrington , who inherited a college in good shape : income was around £ 15 @,@ 000 ; only Christ Church was significantly bigger in size . Academic reforms , particularly with regard to examinations – which were to be administered by the university , rather than the college – were instituted across Oxford in the first half of the century . Brasenose 's proportion of first @-@ class degrees fell sharply from its previous peak . By 1850 , no matriculation exam was instituted at Brasenose , as at other colleges , although the other examinations were altered : responsions moved forward and moderations instituted . Brasenose , like the University , was yet to truly reform the range of subjects studied , however . It was only in 1849 that modern sciences were only given a separate School ( and thus examination ) in 1849 ; law and modern history a year later .
Edward Hartopp Cradock ( known as " Chief " ) became Principal in 1853 , and would lead the college until 1886 ; most notable in his tenure was the introduction of organised sports and the resulting public image of Brasenose as a sporting college . This included the membership of oarsman Walter Bradford Woodgate , founder of Vincent 's Club , and sometime president of the club Tom Cottingham Edwards @-@ Moss . It produced many blues rowers , seven in 1860 – 1867 alone . Between 1870 and 1872 , the Oxford varsity cricket team was similarly dominated by Brasenose men , including Conrad Wallroth . One , Arthur Heath , went on to become a Conservative Party politician , although legal and careers in the church still dominated . Brasenose was also very well turned out in rugby and football – including Cuthbert Ottaway and Heath – but cricket and rowing defined its success .
Among other pursuits , amateur dramatics flourish ( even though Brasenose was an all @-@ male college ) . Overall , the intake and careers of undergraduates remained dominated by the Church ( up to half ) , drawn from a range of backgrounds . The college remained largely independent of the large public schools . Brasenose 's academic record remained solid , if unremarkable ; its strengths lay in classics , although one of its most prominent academics – Arthur Evans – studied modern history .
Brasenose was staunchly opposed to the establishment of the first Royal Commission of 1850 – 51 into standards at the Universities of Oxford and Cambridge , claiming that it lacked authority and served an " ignorant " purpose . The college believed that if it were to support the commission , it might " at all future times be exposed to fluctatuions of political parties , attacks and influences very injurious to the peace and to the steady performance of its duties " . It instead petitioned the crown to abandon the commission , citing certain freedoms under the Bill of Rights 1689 . However , the commissioners were granted the authority to force cooperation and the petition rejected .
As it turned out , the college was happy to pursue many of the commission 's aims : the restriction of the preference for candidates from the north @-@ west ( although the Somerset scholars remained ) , and the reduction of living expenses – something for which new buildings offering cheaper living and even union with Lincoln College were considered but ultimately rejected . More problematic were reforms to the distribution of power and funding between senior and junior fellows – although in 1855 – 7 ordinances were put in place giving junior fellows the same role in governance as their seniors . Thus the situation began to improve for junior fellows as the older fellows were gradually replaced . The changes made by the second Royal Commission ( brought to " inquire into the property and income " of Oxford and Cambridge colleges ) to the running of the accounts and the system of university @-@ wide finances were unopposed by Brasenose . The accounts which the college submitted reveal an income of £ 16 @,@ 000 , of which nearly £ 10 @,@ 000 came from land , other property , stocks and shares . Expenditure was around £ 13 @,@ 600 , which left Brasenose in a secure financial position . Although the university as a whole was hit hard by the agricultural crisis of the latter quarter of the century , Brasenose 's income from agrarian sources was already low , and increasing yields from urban holdings made up most of the fall . Brasenose 's response to the weakening economy was to increase its student intake by 1875 to three times what it had been in 1860 , almost levelling that of the mid @-@ regency period . This did , however , increase considerably the proportion of applicants from public schools .
Between 1859 and 1860 , Frewin Hall housed the future Edward VII whilst he attended Christ Church . The chapel and old kitchen were planned to form part of a new , third , quadrangle for Brasenose . The valuable rents that the shops on the south side of Brasenose earned the college provided the most significant reason for the delay in further expansion , which only began in 1886 when work on the west side was started . It was finally completed in 1911 , the last work having been done to the High Street frontage . Frewin Hall was reconstructed between 1887 and 1896 , as were the chapel and antechapel . It had been in 1886 that Cradock had died and was replaced by Albert Watson .
Walter Pater , a writer , was sometime fellow of Brasenose ; his writing would later be accused of being " immoral " and inappropriate letters to a student at Balliol , Walter Hardinge , got Pater into trouble . He survived , however , and continued to form part of the literary scene in Oxford and London , tutoring poet C. L. Shadwell and writer Humphrey Ward , lecturing Oscar Wilde and dining with Simeon Solomon and Oscar Browning . Another alumnus of this period was Frederic Weatherly , sometime lyricist and lawyer . It was Weatherley , Brasenose 's coxswain , who threw himself out the boat in 1868 and thus invented the coxless four – although Brasenose won the race , they were disqualified . In 1880 , the future Earl Haig entered Brasenose , although he was among very few statesmen to come through its ranks during the century .
Charles Buller Heberden became principal in 1889 . He saw sporting as a means to the institution of civility than an end in itself ; together with Richard Lodge , it was this spirit that dominated his tenure as principal . Academic rigour was reintroduced to the college , and the staff of Brasenose were increasingly successful in maintaining discipline . Until the end of the century , however , the number of students achieving blues outnumbered those attaining firsts . Author John Buchan joined in 1895 , a man of this new era – although his work continued to portray Brasenose as its previous muscular stereotype . Heberden was also the first lay principal , although he was personally committed to the church – purchasing an organ for the chapel out of his own personal funds . Brasenose was frequently represented as boasting no academic prowess at all . Three of the ten fellows were set aside for non @-@ classicists ; a Junior Common Room ( JCR ) was created in 1887 ; in 1897 the library was opened up to undergraduates ; in 1899 , Fellows were granted a right to sabbatical leave . The fellows themselves were increasingly secular ; only four of fourteen fellows were clergy .
= = First half of the twentieth century = =
In the pre @-@ War period , the shift in focus to academia continued . Brasenose 's rowing sides sunk down the tables . In 1901 , the college introduced an entrance exam , and new Rhodes Scholarships were created in 1904 . The Pater Society was founded in 1907 , in memory of the fellow .
Like much of the UK , Brasenose suffered a considerable number of casualties in the First World War : 661 members served , with 114 killed , for the Allies ; four members served in the German military , of whom two were killed . Canadian Talbot Mercer Papineau , who had attended Brasenose on a Rhodes Scholarship , was among those to support the war . Over a quarter of the 1913 year were killed , in a college that was considerably smaller than it had been . Some members were decorated : Arnold Jackson became the British Army 's youngest Brigadier , and received the Distinguished Service Order with three bars . By 1918 , Brasenose had just eight undergraduates .
= = = Inter @-@ war period = = =
The inter @-@ war period saw Brasenose adapt to changing conditions within the university : the abolition of Greek as a compulsory language ; the admission of women to degrees ; and the acceptance of the first government funding . Across the university , these were spearheaded by Chancellor Lord Curzon ( appointed in 1907 ) , who wished to avoid another Royal Commission . There were also attempts to broaden the University 's intake of students from poorer backgrounds , but living costs of £ 400 across a three @-@ year degree made this difficult . Curzon was supported by his Vice @-@ Chancellor , now Brasenose 's Heberden . Within Brasenose , however , he was opposed by Brasenose 's youngest fellow , William Teulon Swan Sonnenschein ( who in 1917 took the surname " Stallybrass " ) .
Charles Henry Sampson , Principal between 1920 and 1936 , did little more than " keep the ship on an even keel " : it was Stallybrass as Vice @-@ Principal ( 1914 – 36 ) that defined Brasenose between the wars . Stallybrass was a keen sportsman , although like Heberden he saw it only as a means to an end – albeit a plethora of laudable ends . Brasenose had a middling income of £ 24 @,@ 000 a year , with a similarly average 180 undergraduates . Religious attendance was relaxed , and fees for returning to college between 9 and 11PM abolished . Brasenose 's collegiate link with Gonville and Caius College , Cambridge was established . Staircases XIV and XV were created , the only significant changes to the college buildings ; the twenty fellows gradually replaced in Stallybrass ' own image . Brasenose went back to the head of the river in 1928 , rising from 22nd in 1922 . Although Oxford 's performance in rowing was poor , Brasenose was central to its few successes against Cambridge . It would sink to sixth in 1934 – although notable among its members was John Gorton , future Prime Minister of Australia . Success in rowing was matched in rugby and cricket – with Brasenose producing players such as Alexander Obolensky and Ian Smith . Brasenose rugby only reached its peak after the Second World War , with players such as Brian Boobbyer and Philip Moore , Baron Moore of Wolvercote . In cricket , Geoffrey Legge and Greville Stevens were early players ; Ian Peebles Gerry Chalk and Roger Kimpton followed them : between 1934 and 1938 at least five members of the University team came from Brasenose. it may have been Brasenose 's attachment to sport that meant it was slow to phase out Pass men . The effect on academic success was considerable ; Brasenose slumped in performance except in law , where it excelled . In the 1930s Brasenose recorded no more than six firsts in a year ; a total assisted by seven firsts in 1937 – 9 in law , out a total of 13 across the University . The future Lord Scarman ( Lord of Appeal in Ordinary ) was among undergraduates ; two contemporaries and aspiring students , Richard Holdsworth and Michael Peacock were killed in the Second World War .
In terms of intake , by 1937 there were 201 undergraduates ; it was a uniform selection that was almost completely middle class , like the rest of the University . Over 60 % of entrants came from independent schools , perhaps because of the £ 250 a year cost of reading towards a degree . It had , unlike some other college , students from several other nations : Muhammad Aslam Khan Khattak and Abbas Khaleeli from British India among them . Students were varied : Baptist Thomas George Cowling became an astronomer and member of the Royal Society , in contrast , Jew Paul Dehn went on to become a film critic and screenwriter . Other alumni of this period include Charles Langbridge Morgan , Edward Atiyah and William Golding .
= = = Second World War = = =
Brasenose was a smaller community during the war , but it kept going . Once again , union with Lincoln College was discussed : but in other areas , temporary merger was more appropriate ; thus , Brasenose and Christ Church fielded single sports teams . The College hosted military personnel as it had in the First World War ; a Nissen hut was even set up in Deer Park . Brasenose sent a flood of undergraduates into the forces ; in particular , the college 's sporting , masculine ethos meant many joined the Royal Air Force . This would contribute significantly to a high death total – 123 for the Allies and 1 for the Germans – more than in the First World War , although proportionately less . Many of Brasenose 's sporting heroes died ; among survivors were future Archbishop of Canterbury Robert Runcie and cricketer Pieter van der Bijl .
The immediate post @-@ War period once again reform on the agenda with , in particular , the passing of the Education Act 1944 . The effect was dramatic : state support , through bursaries and central grants , was hugely increased ; the proportion of state school entrants increased considerably ; for the first time in over a hundred years , there was considerable competition over places . Stallybrass , made Vice @-@ Chancellor of the University in 1947 , was sceptical about state education . It was not the quality of the students , but rather the means of state control that worried him . Annual grants from government were made to the University , not colleges , and might yet replace endowments as Brasenose 's primary source of income , making it dependent on University support and increasing " federation " of colleges in a University superstructure . Stallybrass worried over this loss of college autonomy , although it was matched with a doubled grant from the government and huge sums set aside for capital spending . The right of Brasenose to choose its own students might be under threat , he thought ; as it happened , the Labour government decided against corporate admission and threats to Stallybrass ' power mostly resided within Brasenose .
Some members of the governing body , returning in some cases from the war , wished to realign the College with the new national spirit . The Principal 's considerable role in admissions – which Stallybrass had used to elevate sportsmen – was the subject of criticism and accusations of financial under @-@ performance and over @-@ spending were made . A challenge was made directly in the bringing of a motion calling for a review of Brasenose 's financial performance since 1922 . However , before it could be debated , Stallybrass was killed , having apparently fallen from a train whilst returning to Oxford from a University meeting in London . Although the possibility of suicide was considered , the coroner ruled the case one of " death by misadventure " . Hugh Last was elected in his place , although reluctantly : he had been told by his doctor that he was terminally ill , but the fellows were insistent .
= = Second half of the twentieth century = =
Brasenose 's finances entered the second half of the century in poor shape , and considerably worse than the period between 1930 and 1931 , slipping relative to other colleges from 3rd to 8th . But they were improved during Last 's tenure , along with undergraduate admissions ; the college showed a surplus in 1952 – 53 , and income in 1957 ( £ 104 @,@ 000 ) was double what it had been in 1938 . Pay for fellows was still poor , and they were small in number compared to other colleges . There was a sizeable entertainment budget , however , something which , combined with the long hours , have contributed to short lifespans . Only in 1987 did a sitting fellow reach retirement age . Last resigned as Principal in 1956 , dying shortly after . Turnover was considerable , although some fellows stayed on : Maurice Platnauer became Principal in 1956 , and retired in 1960 ; he was replaced by Sir Noel Hall . Hall 's tenure was troubled , not externally , but rather from Hall 's patchy knowledge of the college and staff ; his selection , faute de mieux , was sometimes questioned , although he remained well @-@ liked . However , the college , which had thus far stayed assured , found itself in a changing environment . Herbert Hart , however , Principal between 1973 and 1978 , was the first to be elected from outside Brasenose . Lord Windlesham , made principal in 1989 , was the first to hold Cabinet Office .
Brasenose 's reputation for law remained , under firstly Ron Maudsley – a Tutorial Fellow in the Stallybrass mould – and Roman and Civil law lecturer and tutor Barry Nicholas , then Peter Birks , another Roman lawyer and sometime Regius Professor of Civil Law at All Souls , Harry Lawson , the first Professor of Comparative Law , and Sir Otto Kahn @-@ Freund , an employment law specialist . There was also a growing reputation for English literature – staff Ian Jack and Alastair Fowler among them . Other notable staff included Robert Shackleton , tutor in French , sometime librarian and Senior Dean ; Sir Ronald Syme , Camden Professorship of Ancient History ( previously held by Last , with whom we would continue a personal dispute ) . It would all mean the Brasenose 's fellows in 1970 were dominated by Britain 's top academic minds , however disjunct from academic success that would become . One subject to develop after 1970 , however , was Politics , Philosophy and Economics ( PPE ) . Bogdanor continued to lead a formidable group of fellows and undergraduates : Peter J.N. Sinclair , Michael Woods , John Foster , and Tony Courakis ; Lord Robin Janvrin , Kate Allen , Catharine Hill , and British Prime Minister David Cameron .
In the history department , Syme was succeeded by Peter Brunt . In the sciences , Dr John Baltrop was sometime Bursar ; Bryan Birch , Professor of Arithmetic and co @-@ author of the Birch and Swinnerton @-@ Dyer conjecture ; and Nicholas Kurti , Vice @-@ President of the Royal Society . Overall , although the immediate post @-@ War staff remained traditional – if not overly conservative in nature – with a third drawn from Brasenose itself , the late sixties signalled a change on this front . Then , a wave of new face emerged : among them , Laszlo Solymar ( later Professor of Applied Electromagnetism ) , Vernon Bogdanor ( Professor of Government ) , Robert Evans ( Regius Professor of Modern History ) and Graham Richards , Oxford 's Chairman of Chemistry .
During Last 's tenure , Brasenose had a very high number of undergraduates : a peak of 104 in 1949 , second in the University . Results , however , were poor : two firsts in 1950 , placing the college 18th . It was only near the end that things picked up , perhaps a result of Last 's stern manner ; there were 13 firsts in 1955 . However , until 1970 , they remained poor , with only a small increase on the pre @-@ War years . Brasenose sat twenty @-@ first in the Norrington Table in 1968 , twenty @-@ sixth in 1975 , and twenty @-@ seventh in 1980 . It was into this that Hart made his reforms , to bring students closer to the governing body and make them responsible for more of their own care – cleaning and washing , for example . By 2001 , Brasenose had climbed the tables once again , coming in third place in the Norrington Table with 30 firsts .
There were still sportsmen , though : A. W. Ramsay ( future RFU President ) , Kenneth Spence and Pete Dawkins among a dwindling set of rugby players ; Colin Cowdrey among the college 's cricketers . There were no Brasenose men in the Varsity cricket team between 1972 and 1989 , certainly a slide on previous times . In rowing , the decline was even more significant : sixteenth among colleges in 1964 ; twentieth in 1976 . It was only in the 1990s that rowing would return to success , firstly with the women and then with the men . Outside sport , a young Jeffrey Archer successfully invited The Beatles to Brasenose , the peak of a fundraising campaign for Oxfam .
In the 1960s onwards , there was a certain progressiveness in the air , and the first women guests were admitted in 1964 . Women members were first admitted to the 1974 – 5 year . The college 's first comprehensive @-@ schooled student ( Paul Barker ) had arrived in 1955 . It was also almost completely secular – with the exception of the chaplain and his deputies ; the chaplain 's role itself dominated by pastoral work . The students themselves concentrated more and more on the exams – marks improved across the university – but this left a class gulf between some staff and undergraduates , most visible in " gentlemanly " sports . Michael Palin and Robert Hewison were among new creative talent . Since the 1950s , over 70 % of students were state @-@ assisted , half of undergraduates drawn from state or direct grant schools , a figure very close to the University average . Brasenose merged entrance and scholarship exams in 1961 , abolished closed scholarships in the decade after , and open entrance awards in 1984 . Brasenose 's traditional link with the north @-@ west also floundered , although it is perhaps surprising that it lasted until the 1970s . In its place , there were more entrants , paying higher fees , from elsewhere in the world .
The expectation had been since the 1920s that undergraduates would spend at least one of their years living in College ; however , post @-@ war expectations grew and Brasenose began another construction programme to ensure it could house students for longer . Designs were drawn up by Philip Powell and Hidalgo Moya , in a then @-@ modern style . The new buildings cost £ 76 @,@ 000 to design , housing 32 rooms , and forming staircases XVI , XVII and XVIII . The architecture , which has since come to be thoroughly disliked , was praised . The rather more popular rooms on the Frewin site were also constructed , at a total cost of £ 3 million , including commercial units . In 1996 , the St Cross Building was finished ; in 1997 the final extensions to Frewin were completed , allowing the college to house all undergraduates for the duration of their course . Finances had been secured with a late revival , and accounts early in the twenty @-@ first century showed a 6 % surplus and a ranking of 13th out of 36th in endowment income .
= = Twenty @-@ first century = =
Professor Roger Cashmore , a particle physicist , became Brasenose 's first scientist Principal in 2003 . He was replaced in 2011 by Alan Bowman , former Camden Professor of Ancient History . Kitchen and servery areas were rebuilt in 2010 – 12 , along with other changes to dining and some living rooms , in a series of building work known as " Project Q " .
= Alfie ( Lily Allen song ) =
" Alfie " is a song by British recording artist Lily Allen from her debut studio album , Alright , Still ( 2006 ) . Written by Allen and Greg Kurstin , the song was released as the fourth and final single from the album , on 5 March 2007 , by Regal Recordings . In the United Kingdom , it was marketed as a double A @-@ side single , along with " Shame for You " . While the melody incorporates a sample of Sandie Shaw 's " Puppet on a String " , the lyrics directly describe Allen 's real life younger brother , actor Alfie Allen , criticising him for his lazy behaviour .
Contemporary critics gave the song mixed reviews , some complimenting the production , while others considered it fell flat as the album 's last song . The single peaked inside the top 20 of the charts in New Zealand and on the UK Singles Chart , where it became her third single to do so . The accompanying music video portrayed Allen 's brother as a puppet while the storyline follows the lyrical meaning of the song . The song was performed live by Allen during her 2007 concert tour , as part of the encore .
= = Background = =
Musically , the song is set in common time and has a tempo of 120 beats per minute . While it is played in the key of C major and has backing piano and guitar sounds , " Alfie " also uses a sample from Sandie Shaw 's 1967 Eurovision Song Contest winning song " Puppet on a String " . In an interview with Pitchfork Media , Allen stated that the song 's lyrics describe her younger brother , Alfie Allen . She further explained :
When I wrote " Alfie " , nobody really knew who I was . At first he was really upset about it , because he thought that I was just pointing out all of his bad points and attacking him . I thought it was really flattering [ Laughs ] . I thought he 'd be really , really happy because it proved to him how much I loved him , that I care about him , and I want him to do something with his life . I suppose his paranoia — induced by smoking so much weed — made him think , " Why are you trying to be mean ? "
In the song , she tries to persuade him to emerge from his room and stop wasting his life away , while complaining that he is spending too much time stuck in his room smoking weed , watching television and playing computer games . Alfie Allen treated the song with good humour , but declared that his sister was also lazy when she was pregnant : " She 's at home in bed and everyone is running around after her . Mind you , you have to look after Lily even if she isn 't pregnant . "
The cover of the single released in the United Kingdom is different from the EP one used in Japan , as it also shows " Shame for You " written on it . " Alfie " was performed live , as part of the setlist of Allen 's 2007 concert tour .
= = Critical and commercial reception = =
Rosie Swash from The Guardian described the song 's sound as " fairground pomp " . She then suggested that Allen has fused together a " uniquely acidic brand of pop " , with the icing on the cake being " that brutally barbed tongue " . Rob Webb from Drowned in Sound considered that " Alfie " rescued the lack of wit and imagination of some previous tracks on the album , while Blender reporter Jon Dolan thought that the " silly waltz @-@ rap " of the song is an example at how Allen " casually and wittily blurs the line between fan and friend " . Sal Cinquemani from Slant Magazine praised the production of " Alfie " , as well as " Shame for You " , with " plenty of catchy melodies and clever samples " , but claimed that Allen lacks charisma . Heather Phares of Allmusic gave a negative review for the song , claiming it " falls especially flat as the album 's final song " , with the album losing stream at the end , and NME 's Priya Elan considered that if " the pop dreams get slightly tarnished by the graffiti put @-@ downs of ' Not Big ' and ' Alfie ' , then that 's not too worrying , as with a personality this size , this isn ’ t the last time you ’ ll be hearing from [ Allen ] " . It was considered by reviewer Ronan Hunt @-@ Murphy from Two Way Monologues that the song could be used for a children 's TV show , if the swearing and drug references were cut .
The single failed to achieve commercial success . It debuted at 44 and peaked inside the top 20 of the UK Singles Chart , at number 15 for only one week , where it charted as the double A @-@ sided single , " Alfie " / " Shame for You " . Other moderate chart peaks include Ireland , at 31 , and New Zealand at 15 . In Japan , " Alfie " was only released as an extended play , made exclusively for that country , which was ineligible to chart on the Singles Chart , so it peaked on the Albums Chart at 226 . In Europe , it reached position 55 on the Eurochart Hot 100 Singles compiled by Billboard .
= = Music video = =
The music video was directed by Sarah Chatfield , who wanted to do a Tom and Jerry @-@ like video , where the human character is cut off at the waist . Hence Allen was not going to be part of it originally . However , she did appear on the video . The singer declared on her official blog that ,
I did a video shoot for the next single , which is Alfie , and that was quite a lot of fun , Alfie was played by a puppet and the whole thing looks like an episode of a mixture Tom and Jerry and Roger Rabbit , you 'll understand when you see it . The whole day was a pleasurable experience [ ... ]
The video starts off with an opening title parodying Looney Tunes and shows Allen in the kitchen preparing a cup of tea , while Alfie , impersonated by a puppet , smokes in his miniature bedroom , watching television . The singer enters the room and takes away his bong , as he unsuccessfully tries to get it back . Next , Allen irons his tuxedo and marks a job announcement called " The Puppet Show " in the newspaper , as the lyric " You need to get a job because the bills need to get paid " is sung . Meanwhile , Alfie is in his bed , staring at a magazine in which there are undressed dolls , titled " Roxy & Babs get it on ! " and proceeds to masturbate . Allen walks in on him with the newspaper and suit as he does so , but immediately exits out of embarrassment . With the start of the bridge , puppet birds sing outside the home , while Alfie sneaks out of his room and tries to get beer out of the refrigerator , but is ultimately caught by Allen . She then takes off his " stupid fitted cap " , as he scrawls a picture of her , which is also the cover of " Littlest Things " . The final scene happens at night , in the kitchen , where Allen is lying on the floor , watching her brother dance . After the last lyrics , " Please don 't despair , my dear , mon frere " is sung , he punches her and the video ends .
There is also an alternate version , where the words " weed " , " THC " and " twat " are blanked , the bong is replaced by a joystick , Alfie does not smoke , and , when Allen walks in on him masturbating , there is a big " censored " sign . The video won " Best Pop Video " and " Best New Director " at the CADs Music Vision Awards in June 2007 , and nominated at the 2007 Q Awards for " Best Video " , but lost to " Ruby " by Kaiser Chiefs .
= = Track listing and formats = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Lead vocals — Lily Allen
Written by — Lily Allen and Greg Kurstin
Produced by — Greg Kurstin
Mastered by — Tim Burrell , Tim Debney
Audio mixing — Greg Kurstin
= = Charts = =
Notes :
= U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( Hagerstown – Frederick , Maryland ) =
U.S. Route 40 Alternate ( US 40 Alternate ) is an alternate route of US 40 in the U.S. state of Maryland . The highway runs 22 @.@ 97 miles ( 36 @.@ 97 km ) from Potomac Street in Hagerstown east to US 40 in Frederick . US 40 Alternate parallels US 40 and much of Interstate 70 ( I @-@ 70 ) to the south through eastern Washington County and western Frederick County . The alternate route connects Hagerstown and Frederick with Funkstown , Boonsboro , Middletown , and Braddock Heights . US 40 Alternate crosses two major north – south components of the Blue Ridge Mountains that separate the Great Appalachian Valley and the Piedmont : South Mountain between Boonsboro and Middletown and Catoctin Mountain , which is locally known as Braddock Mountain , at Braddock Heights .
US 40 Alternate is the old alignment of US 40 . The highway 's path was blazed in the mid @-@ 18th century to connect the Hagerstown Valley and Shenandoah Valley with eastern Pennsylvania and central Maryland . In the early 19th century , US 40 Alternate 's path was improved as part of a series of turnpikes to connect Baltimore with the eastern terminus of the National Road in Cumberland . The highway was improved as one of the original state roads in the early 1910s and designated US 40 in the late 1920s . Construction on a relocated US 40 between Hagerstown and Frederick with improved crossings of South Mountain and Braddock Mountain began in the mid @-@ 1930s ; the new highway was completed in the late 1940s . US 40 Alternate was assigned to the old route of US 40 in the early 1950s .
= = Route description = =
US 40 Alternate is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from Edgewood Drive in Funkstown to its underpass of I @-@ 70 south of Funkstown and from Old Hagerstown Road near Middletown to US 40 in Frederick .
= = = Hagerstown to South Mountain = = =
US 40 Alternate begins as Baltimore Street at its intersection with one @-@ way southbound Potomac Street within the Hagerstown Historic District on the southern edge of downtown Hagerstown . Baltimore Street , which continues west as a city street toward the Hagerstown City Park , runs east – west two blocks south of US 40 , which comprises a one @-@ way pair of Washington Street eastbound and Franklin Street westbound . After heading east for two blocks , during which US 40 Alternate intersects one @-@ way northbound Locust Street , the municipally @-@ maintained alternate route turns southeast onto Frederick Street at a five @-@ way junction that also includes north – south Mulberry Street . US 40 Alternate intersects Memorial Boulevard , which heads east past Municipal Stadium , home of the minor league baseball Hagerstown Suns . The highway meets a CSX rail spur at grade while passing through an industrial area that extends to the southern city limits of Hagerstown at Kenly Avenue .
US 40 Alternate continues southeast as a state @-@ maintained highway that passes the historic home Garden Hill and crosses Antietam Creek into Funkstown , where the highway 's name changes to Westside Avenue . Within the Funkstown Historic District , the alternate route turns east onto Baltimore Street , then southeast onto Frederick Street . At the southern town limits of Funkstown , US 40 Alternate becomes Boonsboro Pike , which passes through farmland as it parallels Antietam Creek . The highway passes under I @-@ 70 ( Eisenhower Memorial Highway ) with no access and intersects Poffenberger Road , which leads west to the historic home Valentia . The highway veers away from Antietam Creek , passes through the hamlet of Benevola , and traverses Landis Spring Branch and Beaver Creek on its way to Boonsboro .
US 40 Alternate enters the town of Boonsboro and its name changes to Main Street at its intersection with Maryland Route 68 ( MD 68 ) ( Lappans Road ) . The highway meets the south end of MD 66 ( Maple Avenue ) next to the Bowman House and the east end of MD 34 ( Potomac Street ) in the center of town . US 40 Alternate leaves the town of Boonsboro after its intersection with MD 67 ( Rohrersville Road ) . The alternate route continues southeast as Boonsboro Pike and starts to ascend South Mountain . At the summit , known as Turner 's Gap , US 40 Alternate intersects Washington Monument Road , which leads north to Washington Monument State Park , and passes the Dahlgren Chapel and the Old South Mountain Inn .
= = = South Mountain to Frederick = = =
US 40 Alternate 's name changes to Old National Pike as it intersects the Appalachian Trail at the Washington – Frederick county line and begins its curvaceous descent of South Mountain into the Middletown Valley . In the western part of the valley , the highway passes the Henry Shoemaker Farmhouse and intersects Mount Tabor Road , which parallels South Mountain north past the historic Daniel Sheffer Farm and Routzahn @-@ Miller Farmstead . In Spoolsville , US 40 Alternate crosses Catoctin Creek and meets Old Hagerstown Road , which passes the Bowlus Mill House . The alternate route 's name becomes Main Street as it heads east through Middletown . US 40 Alternate passes the Stonebraker and Harbaugh @-@ Shafer Building and intersects MD 17 ( Church Street ) within the Middletown Historic District . The highway passes through the Airview Historic District before leaving the town limits .
East of Middletown , US 40 Alternate passes through a suburban area then begins to ascend Braddock Mountain . The highway gains a climbing lane eastbound to the top of the mountain , which contains the community of Braddock Heights . On the descent of Braddock Mountain , US 40 Alternate expands to a four @-@ lane road , with one lane eastbound , two lanes westbound , and a center turn lane . At the base of the mountain , the alternate route temporarily expands to a four @-@ lane divided highway through its half @-@ diamond interchange with I @-@ 70 , which has ramps to and from the direction of Frederick . East of I @-@ 70 , US 40 Alternate reduces to two lanes and passes the Highland Lodge . The alternate route reaches its eastern terminus at a partial intersection with US 40 ( Patrick Street ) at the western edge of Frederick and the Frederick Golden Mile , a heavily commercialized area east to US 15 ( Frederick Freeway ) . There is no direct access from eastbound US 40 Alternate to westbound US 40 or from eastbound US 40 to the westbound alternate route ; those movements are made by using Old Camp Road .
= = History = =
= = = Early paths and turnpikes = = =
The portion of US 40 Alternate between Frederick and Boonsboro roughly follows the Monocacy Road , a pack @-@ horse trail blazed by settlers from Pennsylvania around 1730 . The trail connected Philadelphia , Lancaster , and Hanover with Winchester , Virginia by way of what is now Taneytown , Frederick , Boonsboro , and Williamsport . The portion of the Monocacy Road from Frederick to Williamsport was used by the Braddock Expedition on its way from Alexandria to Cumberland to commence its ill @-@ fated assault on Fort Duquesne . Following the founding of Hagerstown in 1762 , a road was laid out north from Boonsboro to connect the new town with the eastern part of the colony . While the Monocacy Road as a whole was disused by 1794 , the portion followed by US 40 Alternate remained an important connection between Baltimore and Western Maryland .
The Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike Company was chartered in 1805 to build a road along the 62 @-@ mile ( 100 km ) path from Baltimore to Boonsboro . This turnpike was the first step in connecting Baltimore with Cumberland , the eastern terminus of the just @-@ commenced National Road . By 1808 , the turnpike had been completed west 20 miles ( 32 km ) from Baltimore and another 17 miles ( 27 km ) was under construction . The Baltimore and Fredericktown Turnpike was completed in 1812 . That same year , keen for an improved road to fully extend between Baltimore and Cumberland , the Maryland General Assembly conscripted the state 's banks to fund turnpike companies to complete the gap between Boonsboro and Cumberland with the benefit of having their charters extended from 1816 to 1835 . The banks opposed this measure but reluctantly bankrolled the construction of a road from Conocheague Creek to Cumberland between 1816 and 1818 and from Hagerstown to Conococheague Creek in 1818 and 1819 . The Maryland General Assembly used their powers again in 1821 , agreeing to extend the banks ' charters to 1845 if they would fund a turnpike in the gap between Boonsboro and Hagerstown . When the National Turnpike was completed in 1823 , it became the first macadam road constructed in the United States . The Baltimore and Fredericktown and National turnpikes remained in operation through 1909 .
= = = State road construction and bypass = = =
In 1909 , the nascent Maryland State Highway Administration ( MDSRC ) designated the road between Frederick and Hagerstown for improvement as one of the original state roads . The commission 's first task was to acquire the necessary right @-@ of @-@ way by purchasing the two turnpikes in 1911 . MDSRC reconstructed the road between Frederick and Hagerstown with a 14 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) wide macadam surface from Frederick to Middletown and from South Mountain to Boonsboro in 1913 . The state road was built from Middletown to South Mountain and from Boonsboro to Hagerstown in 1914 . The portion of the highway within Boonsboro was paved in 1915 . The last portion of the Frederick – Hagerstown state road to be constructed was within Funkstown , where the highway was surfaced with concrete by 1919 . The highway was designated part of US 40 in 1927 .
Around 1926 , US 40 received its first improvement when concrete shoulders were added to expand the roadway from 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) in width . By 1934 , MDSRC recommended widening the highway to 30 feet ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) from 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) west of Frederick to 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) east of Hagerstown . Ultimately , the commission decided to construct a new highway between the two cities that would shorten the distance by 1 @.@ 25 miles ( 2 @.@ 01 km ) and bypass the sharp curves and limited sight distances of the old road . Grading and drainage work on the new highway began in 1936 and was completed in 1938 for the first roadway of what would ultimately become a divided highway . The first 20 @-@ foot ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) wide concrete roadway was constructed from downtown Hagerstown southeast to near Beaver Creek Road in 1938 . Surfacing of the remainder of the relocated National Pike was delayed by World War II ; construction resumed in 1946 and the new highway opened in 1948 .
The relocated National Pike was originally designated US 40 Alternate ; the old and new roads switched to their present designations in 1952 . Despite the construction of a new highway , improvements continued on the original road . Trolley tracks of the Hagerstown and Frederick Railway were removed from the highway in Funkstown and the street was resurfaced in 1940 . Hill climbing lanes were added for a length of 800 to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 240 to 300 m ) on both sides of Braddock Mountain and South Mountain around 1942 . The highway between Funkstown and Boonsboro had curves modified and was widened and resurfaced in 1949 . US 40 Alternate from US 40 in Frederick west to Braddock Mountain underwent the same type of work in 1951 and 1952 .
= = Junction list = =
= = Work cited = =
= This Time Around ( Michael Jackson song ) =
" This Time Around " is a song by American recording artist and songwriter Michael Jackson that features the vocals from rapper The Notorious B.I.G. The song appears on Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set . The song and lyrics were written by Michael Jackson , while the music was composed by Dallas Austin , Bruce Swedien and Rene Moore . Dallas Austin and Michael Jackson produced the song , while Bruce Swedien and René Moore served as co @-@ producers . The song 's lyrics details a musician 's problems with being famous and dealing with stardom . In December 1995 , the track was released as a promotional single in the United States only , containing a radio edit and remixes . " This Time Around " had a good chart performance , having charted solely due to radio airplay throughout the country . The song received positive reviews from contemporary music critics .
= = Background and composition = =
The song and lyrics were written by Michael Jackson , while the music was composed by Dallas Austin , Bruce Swedien and Rene Moore . " This Time Around " is a song by Jackson that features vocals by rapper The Notorious B.I.G. Austin and Jackson produced the song , while Swedien and Moore co @-@ produced the song . It was recorded by both American musicians in 1994 and 1995 for Jackson 's ninth studio album , entitled HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , which was released in 1995 as a two @-@ disc set .
" This Time Around " was written in common time , and was played in the key of D minor . The track 's tempo is a moderate 108 beats per minute . The track has a basic sequence of Dm11 – Dm9 as its chord progression . The song 's lyrics are about Michael and Biggie 's problems with being famous and dealing with stardom , and throughout the song Jackson asserts that he 's been " falsely accused " . On December 26 , 1995 , the track was released by Epic Records as a promotional single in the United States only . The promo was formatted in three different versions , which were as a standalone CD single with just the song , as a 12 " single with remixes and as a maxi @-@ single .
= = Release and reception = =
" This Time Around " received positive reviews from contemporary music critics in their review for the album . James Hunter of Rolling Stone described the song as being a " dynamite jam ... done with Atlanta R & B hotshot Dallas Austin that 's ripe for remixes " . Jon Pareles of The New York Times believed that Jackson " muttered " lyrics such as " They thought they really had control of me " . Although " This Time Around " did not chart on the Billboard Hot 100 , the track had a good chart performance on music component charts in the United States . The song charted on music charts based solely on radio airplay throughout the country . It charted within the top 40 of the Billboard Rhythmic Top 40 chart in 1995 , peaking at number 36 . The song peaked at number 18 on the Billboard Dance Music / Club Play Singles music charts 1996 . In 1996 , the track also peaked at number 23 on the Billboard Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart .
= = Track listings and formats = =
= = Charts = =
= Sermons of Jonathan Swift =
Jonathan Swift , as Dean of St. Patrick 's Cathedral in Dublin , produced many sermons during his tenure from 1713 to 1745 . Although Swift is better known today for his secular writings such as Gulliver 's Travels , A Tale of a Tub , or the Drapier 's Letters , Swift was known in Dublin for his sermons that were delivered every fifth Sunday . Of these sermons , Swift wrote down 35 , of which 12 have been preserved . In his sermons Swift attempted to impart traditional Church of Ireland values to his listeners in a plain manner .
Of the surviving twelve sermons
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part of a railtour organised by the Locomotive Club of Great Britain . Bearing the nameplate " The South Eastern Limited " , the train travelled the line as part of its " Farewell to Steam " tour . Later that day it also navigated the remaining section of the K & ESR from Robertsbridge to Tenterden - the northern section to Headcorn having closed in 1954 . Amongst the carriages that formed the train was S7874 , a Pullman carriage built in 1926 . Both locomotives are preserved on the Bluebell Railway . Theodora is preserved on the Kent and East Sussex Railway .
The track was lifted in 1964 , the contract for the work was awarded to The Demolition and Construction Co Ltd , of Croydon , Surrey . By March 1964 , Goudhurst station yard was in use for the dismantling of track panels into their component parts . Sleepers with chairs attached and rails being loaded separately into goods wagons for removal . The track lifting had been completed by October of that year . The station sites were offered for sale in 1967 . Electric services on the South Eastern Main Line through Paddock Wood commenced on 12 June 1961 , the first day on which there was no service on the Hawkhurst Branch .
= = = The Old Pull N ' Push TV series = = =
Elisabeth Beresford , who was subsequently well known as the creator of The Wombles , wrote a children 's book Danger on the " Old Pull ' n Push " based on the Hawkhurst Branch . Subsequently this was televised by Rediffusion for ITV in two six @-@ part series The Old Pull ' n Push and Return of the old Pull ' n Push , shown in 1960 @-@ 61 . These were filmed on the Hawkhurst Line shortly before it closed .
= = Present @-@ day scene = =
= = = Remains = = =
The platform bay at Paddock Wood from which most of the line 's trains departed is now part of a car park , with the edge of the platform fenced off . Parts of the line are still visible , such as the embankment through Swig 's Hole valley and the approach to Horsmonden tunnel . Some bridges still remain , although the plate girder bridge over Goudhurst Road , Horsmonden has been removed .
Horsmonden station has been converted to a private garage trading as the " Old Station Garage " , with the old stationmaster 's house in use as a private dwelling . A station sign is preserved on the garage wall and part of the platform survives in the workshop . Goudhurst station , yard and level crossing have disappeared as a result of road @-@ widening and residential development ; a private house called " Haltwhistle " stands on part of the old goods yard . The old station lights have been re @-@ used along the drive of the house . Cranbrook station was used for many years as a pottery , and its stationmaster 's house is now a private dwelling , with part of the goods yard also having survived . The signal box has survived and the station building has been extended to meet with it ; the trackbed is now part of the lawn . The site of Hawkhurst station is now occupied by Kent Woodware Co , a wood turnery business . The main station building was demolished in the 1960s but the engine and goods sheds , stationmaster 's house and signal box are still extant . The owner , a railway enthusiast , ensures that the signal box receives " a good coat of paint every other year " .
= = = Proposed cycleway = = =
In September 2008 representatives from Hawkhurst , Goudhurst , Horsmonden and Paddock Wood Parish Councils met to discuss the possibility of converting all or part of the former line into a trail which could be used by cyclists and walkers . The proposal was supported by Kent County Council and a 2 @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) section between Hawkhurst and Goudhurst has been identified as being easily convertible into a trail . The remainder to Paddock Wood is said to be " more difficult but not impossible " . Horsmonden Parish Council has declined to participate in the scheme on the basis that any trail would not be able to follow the former railway alignment in its area due to private ownerships and in @-@ filled sections . On 10 June 2011 , Kent County Council organised a walk of the trackbed from Gills Green to demonstrate the work that would be needed to convert the trackbed for use by walkers and cyclists . The Kent and Sussex Courier reported that the project was keenly supported by all parish councils involved except for Horsmonden . The scheme was initially suggested by Hawkhurst Community Partnership . The proposed cycleway will be known as The Hop Pickers ' Line should it be constructed . On 15 July 2011 , it was reported that an application for a £ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 grant from the Heritage Lottery Fund was to be made in the coming week , with the result of the application being known in September 2011 . In March 2013 , it was reported that a decision from the Heritage Lottery Fund was still awaited .
= The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution =
" The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " is the eighth episode of the twenty @-@ third season of the American animated sitcom The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . In the episode , Krusty the Clown becomes depressed after getting fired from his television show for being unpopular with children . The Simpson family encourages him to make a comeback , suggesting that he seek help from an agent they met earlier at a television museum . This agent turns out to be Annie Dubinsky , who was Krusty 's first agent and former girlfriend . Krusty left her when he became successful but now he begs her to take him as a client again . She accepts and together they are able to get him back on television , hosting a show for adults that features his clown tricks . However , Annie soon begins to interfere too much , which frustrates the network executives .
The episode , which contains parodies of films such as The King 's Speech , The Social Network , and Black Swan , was written by cast member Dan Castellaneta and his wife Deb Lacusta . Comedian and actress Joan Rivers , who was a big fan of The Simpsons , guest starred as the character Annie . Other guest performances in the episode came from Kevin Dillon and Janeane Garofalo as themselves and Jackie Mason as Krusty 's father . Reception of " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " from television critics has been mixed , with praise directed at Rivers ' appearance and the development of Krusty 's character . During its original American broadcast , the episode was seen by approximately nine million people .
= = Plot = =
During an episode of The Krusty the Clown Show , three Itchy & Scratchy cartoons are shown . This angers Krusty , the host of the show , since he thinks he should be the star of the show and not the Itchy and Scratchy characters . Meanwhile , the Simpsons visit a television museum that is soon to be closed . After a while , they come to an exhibit displaying The Adventures of Fatso Flanagan , which is one of Homer 's favorite television shows . There , the family is approached by Annie Dubinsky , the agent of the actor who played Fatso Flanagan . They start chatting and become acquainted . At the Channel 6 studios , during a board meeting , Krusty is fired because " Today 's children are uncomfortable with a clown whose every reference they have to look up on Wikipedia " , and because Itchy and Scratchy are shown to be more popular with the children . Krusty goes to his current agent , hoping to get a new job , but the agent drops him since he got fired .
After the Simpsons have left the museum , they head for Krusty Burger where they discover Krusty crying in a ball pit . Krusty is encouraged by them into making a comeback , and they inform him that they met an agent that can help him out . However , when they all go to Annie 's office , Annie instantly recognizes Krusty and angrily slams the door before he gets a chance to enter . It is revealed that Annie was the one who discovered Krusty , became his first agent , and was responsible for his rise to success . They also had a romantic relationship together . Once he achieved fame , Krusty fired Annie and replaced her with a more acclaimed agent , and as a result their relationship ended . Back in the present , he begs her to take him back as a client , and she eventually accepts .
Krusty starts performing his clown tricks at a theater in front of adults , and not children like before . This is because Annie knows that there is nothing adults enjoy more than the things they liked as children . The performances are praised by both the audience and the critics , and Krusty and Annie initiate a relationship again . Soon , a premium cable television network called HBOWTIME ( an obvious portmanteau of HBO and Showtime , straight down to their parody of HBO 's longtime slogan , " It 's not just TV , it 's more expensive . " ) gives Krusty his own show and Annie is hired as the producer on his demand . The stars of the series Entourage , such as Kevin Dillon , become Krusty 's assistants . The network executives soon become frustrated with Annie for meddling too much in the show . For example , she refuses to let Janeane Garofalo appear only because Garofalo is funnier than Krusty . She also runs over an intern with a stage car for sharpening her pencil too much . The executives decide to fire Annie , but Krusty refuses to continue without her . The couple therefore turns to another network where they start a show called Sex Over Sixty , with them as the stars .
= = Production = =
" The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " was written by Dan Castellaneta , who voices characters such as Homer and Krusty on The Simpsons , and his wife Deb Lacusta . American comedian and actress Joan Rivers guest starred in the episode as Annie . She recorded her lines in March 2011 . In an interview with E ! News at that time , Rivers noted that this was not her first animated voice @-@ over role , though it was her biggest one yet . She further added that she is a fan of the show because it is " so clever and so funny on so many levels . So when they called and said , ' Do you want to do it ? ' without even reading a script I said , ' Absolutely . ' " Adam Buckman , a former television columnist at the New York Post , noted on his blog that the story of the episode is similar to a period in Rivers ' life at the end of the 1980s . At that time , she was hosting The Late Show Starring Joan Rivers on the Fox network . When Rivers challenged Fox executives who wanted to fire her husband Edgar Rosenberg as the show 's executive producer , the network fired them both . Rosenberg committed suicide just three months later . Buckman wrote that the story of " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " was " no doubt devised with Rivers ’ approval and possibly with her input " , and that " only a comedian of her stature and experience " would attempt to spoof a personal tragedy such as this one . Other guest stars in the episode include actor Kevin Dillon and stand @-@ up comedian Janeane Garofalo as themselves , and stand @-@ up comedian Jackie Mason in a minor reprisal of his role as Krusty 's father , speaking only one line .
Several references to popular culture , including a meta @-@ reference to The Simpsons , are included in " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " . The three The Itchy & Scratchy cartoons that are shown at the beginning of the episode as Krusty is hosting his show are all parodies of films released in 2010 : the first one , titled The Cat 's Speech , is a parody of The King 's Speech ; the second one , titled The Social Petwork , parodies The Social Network in that the storyline is partially explained through the use of screens containing nothing but text ; and the final one , titled Black and Blue Swan , references Black Swan . After the three cartoons are shown , Krusty points out that " It ’ s like those parodies were written when the movies came out , but it took so long to animate them that we look dated and hacky ! " This is a reference to the long time it takes to produce an episode of The Simpsons — hence why cultural references on the show can often be seen as dated . Pop culture allusions at the television museum include a brief appearance by the main characters of the animated series King of the Hill as cardboard cutouts being taken down in a process similar to the opening of the show , an exhibit devoted to the sitcom The Beverly Hillbillies , and the showing of one of Homer 's favorite television shows , Fatso Flanagan , which is a knockoff of the sitcom The Honeymooners . The TV network Krusty 's new show is on , HBOWTIME , is an obvious merging of the names of pay @-@ tv channels HBO and Showtime ; their slogan , " It 's not just TV , it 's more expensive . " , is a parody of HBO 's longtime slogan , " It 's not just TV , it 's HBO . " The scenes seen during a bumper for HBOWTIME reference the current / former HBO shows Game of Thrones , John Adams , The Sopranos , and The Ricky Gervais Show .
The music that is played during the parody of The King 's Speech is " Symphony No. 7 " by Ludwig van Beethoven , and a musical piece from the Swan Lake ballet is played during the Black Swan parody . For the King of the Hill visual gag , the Simpsons staff acquired the rights to use the actual theme song from that show . The music that is played as Krusty performs his new show in front of adults at the theater is a mixture of the old Krusty theme and the theme from Playboy After Dark , a television show hosted by Hugh Hefner that started airing in the 1960s and featured parties from a Playboy club . This musical combination was composed by Alf Clausen after The Simpsons music editor Chris Ledesma came with the suggestion . On his blog , Ledesma wrote that theme for Playboy After Dark " was cool and jazzy and just right for its time . Alf ’ s homage to that theme , wrapped around Krusty ’ s theme was very clever indeed . "
= = Release and reception = =
" The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on December 4 , 2011 . It was watched by approximately nine million people during this broadcast . In the demographic for adults aged 18 – 49 , the episode received a 4 @.@ 0 Nielsen rating ( a fifty @-@ four percent increase over the previous episode ) and a ten percent share . The high rating was the result of the episode being preceded by a popular National Football League game . The Simpsons became the highest @-@ rated program in Fox 's Animation Domination lineup that night in terms of both total viewers and in the 18 – 49 demographic , finishing ahead of new episodes of Family Guy , The Cleveland Show , and Allen Gregory . For the week of November 28 – December 4 , 2011 , " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " placed seventh in the ratings among all prime @-@ time broadcasts in the 18 – 49 demographic .
Since airing , the episode has received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Hayden Childs of The A.V. Club praised the choice of having Rivers guest star since she was able to " employ her trademark humor within the world of The Simpsons without hijacking the plot or satire . " He also noted that while the Simpson family does not appear heavily , " Krusty is such a large part of the supporting cast that he carries this episode well . While it may seem a little funny that Castellaneta , who voices Krusty , wrote such a large part for himself , it is also a testament to his empathy for Krusty that this episode both deepens our understanding of Krusty and actually allows him growth as a character in an organic fashion . " Ology 's Josh Harrison similarly praised " The Ten @-@ Per @-@ Cent Solution " for having " some wonderful Krusty the Klown moments and some clutch guest star appearances " . He also cited the visual gags in the episode as " clever " . Harrison concluded his review by writing that though the episode " wasn 't Simpsons gold , it was a great chance to focus on a secondary character and an opportunity for Joan Rivers to , um , be Joan Rivers . I imagine your assessment of the episode may be based largely on your opinion of the guest star . That said ? I dug it . "
AOL TV 's Jason Hughes was more negative , criticizing the episode for taking a " soft approach " to the television industry when it " had a chance for some sharp satire " . He elaborated that the writers " had a little bit of fun talking about networks meddling in shows – as well as agents trying to control content as when Joan Rivers booted Janeane Garofalo for being funnier than Krusty – and the differences between cable original programming and broadcast programming . But they had the potential they had to make some bold statements about television and how the industry works throughout , and simply didn 't . " Hughes did , however , like the King of the Hill appearance , which he described as a " fun nod " .
= Metacomet Ridge =
The Metacomet Ridge , Metacomet Ridge Mountains , or Metacomet Range of southern New England , United States , is a narrow and steep fault @-@ block mountain ridge known for its extensive cliff faces , scenic vistas , microclimate ecosystems , and communities of plants considered rare or endangered . An important recreation resource located within 10 miles ( 16 km ) of a population corridor of over 1 @.@ 5 million people , the ridge is home to four long @-@ distance hiking trails and over a dozen parks and recreation areas including several state and nationally recognized historic sites . Because of its natural , historic , and recreational value , the ridge has been the focus of ongoing conservation efforts involving municipal , state , and national agencies and nearly two dozen non @-@ profit organizations .
The Metacomet Ridge extends from New Haven and Branford , Connecticut , on Long Island Sound , through the Connecticut River Valley region of Massachusetts , to northern Franklin County , 2 miles ( 3 km ) short of the Vermont and New Hampshire borders , a distance of 100 miles ( 160 km ) . Younger and geologically distinct from the nearby Appalachian Mountains and surrounding uplands , the Metacomet Ridge is composed of volcanic basalt , also known as trap rock , and sedimentary rock in faulted and tilted layers many hundreds of feet thick . In most but not all cases , the basalt layers are dominant , prevalent , and exposed . Although only 1 @,@ 200 feet ( 370 m ) above sea level at its highest , with an average summit elevation of 725 feet ( 221 m ) , the Metacomet Ridge rises dramatically from much lower valley elevations , making it a prominent landscape feature .
= = Geographic definitions = =
There is no universal consensus on the name for this topographic feature . The Metacomet Ridge is described by some sources as a traprock ridge beginning on the Holyoke Range in Belchertown , Massachusetts , and ending at the Hanging Hills in Meriden , Connecticut . A 2004 report conducted for the National Park Service extends that definition to include the entire traprock ridgeline from Greenfield , Massachusetts , to Long Island Sound . The Sierra Club has referred to the entire range in Connecticut as " The Traprock Ridge " . Geologically and visually , the traprock ridgeline exists as one continuous landscape feature from Belchertown , Massachusetts , to Branford , Connecticut at Long Island Sound , a distance of 71 miles ( 114 km ) , broken only by the river gorges of the Farmington River in northern Connecticut and the Westfield and Connecticut Rivers in Massachusetts . Until January 2008 , the United States Board on Geographic Names ( USBGN ) did not recognize Metacomet Ridge , Traprock Ridge or any other name , although several sub @-@ ranges were identified . Geologists usually refer to the overall range generically as " the traprock ridge " or " the traprock mountains " or refer to it with regard to its prehistoric geologic significance in technical terms . Further complicating the matter is the fact that traprock only accounts for the highest surface layers of rock strata on the southern three – fourths of the range ; an underlying geology of related sedimentary rock is also a part of the structure of the ridge ; in north central Massachusetts it becomes the dominant strata and extends the range geologically from the Holyoke Range another 35 miles ( 56 km ) through Greenfield to nearly the Vermont border . This article describes the entire Metacomet Ridge and all geologic extensions of it .
Easier to explain is the name " Metacomet " or " Metacom , " borrowed from the 17th century sachem of the Wampanoag Tribe of southern New England who led his people during King Philip 's War in the mid – 17th century . Metacomet was also known as King Philip by early New England colonists . A number of features associated with the Metacomet Ridge are named after the sachem , including the Metacomet Trail , the Metacomet @-@ Monadnock Trail , King Philip 's Cave , King Philip Mountain , and Sachem Head . According to legend , Metacomet orchestrated the burning of Simsbury , Connecticut , and watched the conflagration from Talcott Mountain near the cave now named after him . The names Metacomet and King Philip have been applied to at least sixteen landscape features and over seventy @-@ five businesses , schools , and civic organizations throughout southern New England .
= = Geography = =
Beginning at Long Island Sound , the Metacomet Ridge commences as two parallel ridges with related sub @-@ ridges and outcrops in between ; the latter include the high butte – like cliffs of East Rock and the isolated peak of Peter 's Rock . The western ridgeline of the Metacomet Ridge begins in New Haven , Connecticut , as West Rock Ridge and continues as Sleeping Giant , Mount Sanford , Peck Mountain , and Prospect Ridge , for a distance of 16 miles ( 26 km ) before diminishing into a series of low profile outcrops just short of Southington , Connecticut , 2 @.@ 75 miles ( 4 @.@ 4 km ) west of the Hanging Hills in Meriden .
To the east , beginning on the rocky prominence of Beacon Hill , 130 feet ( 40 m ) , in Branford , Connecticut , overlooking the East Haven River estuary , the Metacomet Ridge continues as a traprock ridge 60 miles ( 97 km ) north to Mount Tom in Holyoke , Massachusetts ; it then breaks east across the Connecticut River to form the Holyoke Range , which continues for 10 miles ( 16 km ) before terminating in Belchertown , Massachusetts . Several scattered parallel ridges flank it ; the most prominent of these are the hills of Rocky Hill , Connecticut , and the Barn Door Hills of Granby , Connecticut .
North of Mount Tom and the Holyoke Range , the apparent crest of the Metacomet Ridge is broken by a discontinuity in the once dominant traprock strata . Underlying sedimentary layers remain but lack the same profile . Between the Holyoke Range and the Pocumtuck Ridge , a stretch of 9 miles ( 14 km ) , the Metacomet Ridge exists only as a series of mostly nondescript rises set among flat plains of sedimentary bedrock . Mount Warner , 512 feet ( 156 m ) , in Hadley , Massachusetts , the only significant peak in the area , is a geologically unrelated metamorphic rock landform that extends west into the sedimentary strata .
The Metacomet Ridge picks up elevation again with the Pocumtuck Ridge , beginning on Sugarloaf Mountain and the parallel massif of Mount Toby , 1 @,@ 269 feet ( 387 m ) , the high point of the Metacomet Ridge geography . Both Sugarloaf Mountain and Mount Toby are composed of erosion @-@ resistant sedimentary rock . North of Mount Sugarloaf , the Pocumtuck Ridge continues as alternating sedimentary and traprock dominated strata to Greenfield , Massachusetts . From Greenfield north to 2 miles ( 3 km ) short of the Vermont – New Hampshire – Massachusetts tri – border , the profile of the Metacomet Ridge diminishes into a series of nondescript hills and low , wooded mountain peaks composed of sedimentary rock with dwindling traprock outcrops .
In Connecticut , the high point of the Metacomet Ridge is West Peak of the Hanging Hills at 1 @,@ 024 feet ( 312 m ) ; in Massachusetts , the highest traprock peak is Mount Tom , 1 @,@ 202 feet ( 366 m ) , although Mount Toby , made of sedimentary rock , is higher . Visually , the Metacomet Ridge is narrowest at Provin Mountain and East Mountain in Massachusetts where it is less than 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 1 km ) wide ; it is widest at Totoket Mountain , over 4 miles ( 6 km ) . However , low parallel hills and related strata along much of the range often make the actual geologic breadth of the Metacomet Ridge wider than the more noticeable ridgeline crests , up to 10 miles ( 16 km ) across in some areas . Significant river drainages of the Metacomet Ridge include the Connecticut River and tributaries ( Falls River , Deerfield River , Westfield River , Farmington River , Coginchaug River ) ; and , in southern Connecticut , the Quinnipiac River .
The Metacomet Ridge is surrounded by rural wooded , agricultural , and suburban landscapes , and is no more than 6 miles ( 10 km ) from a number of urban hubs such as New Haven , Meriden , New Britain , Hartford , and Springfield . Small city centers abutting the ridge include Greenfield , Northampton , Amherst , Holyoke , West Hartford , Farmington , Wallingford , and Hamden .
= = Geology = =
The Metacomet Ridge is the result of continental rifting processes that took place 200 million years ago during the Triassic and Jurassic periods . The basalt ( also called traprock ) crest of the Metacomet Ridge is the product of a series of massive lava flows hundreds of feet thick that welled up in faults created by the rifting apart of the North American continent from Eurasia and Africa . Essentially , the area now occupied by the Metacomet Ridge is a prehistoric rift valley which was once a branch of ( or a parallel of ) the major rift to the east that became the Atlantic Ocean .
Basalt is a dark colored extrusive volcanic rock . The weathering of iron @-@ bearing minerals within it results in a rusty brown color when exposed to air and water , lending it a distinct reddish or purple – red hue . Basalt frequently breaks into octagonal and pentagonal columns , creating a unique " postpile " appearance . Extensive slopes made of fractured basalt talus are visible at the base of many of the cliffs along the Metacomet Ridge .
The basalt floods of lava that now form much of the Metacomet Ridge took place over a span of 20 million years . Erosion and deposition occurring between the eruptions deposited layers of sediment between the lava flows which eventually lithified into sedimentary rock layers within the basalt . The resulting " layer cake " of basalt and sedimentary rock eventually faulted and tilted upward ( see fault @-@ block ) . Subsequent erosion wore away many of the weaker sedimentary layers at a faster rate than the basalt layers , leaving the abruptly tilted edges of the basalt sheets exposed , creating the distinct linear ridge and dramatic cliff faces visible today on the western and northern sides of the ridge . Evidence of this layer @-@ cake structure is visible on Mount Norwottuck of the Holyoke Range in Massachusetts . The summit of Norwottuck is made of basalt ; directly beneath the summit are the Horse Caves , a deep overhang where the weaker sedimentary layer has worn away at a more rapid rate than the basalt layer above it . Mount Sugarloaf , Pocumtuck Ridge , and Mount Toby , also in Massachusetts , together present a larger " layer cake " example . The bottom layer is composed of arkose sandstone , visible on Mount Sugarloaf . The middle layer is composed of volcanic traprock , most visible on the Pocumtuck Ridge . The top layer is composed of a sedimentary conglomerate known as Mount Toby Conglomerate . Faulting and earthquakes during the period of continental rifting tilted the layers diagonally ; subsequent erosion and glacial activity exposed the tilted layers of sandstone , basalt , and conglomerate visible today as three distinct mountain masses . Although Mount Toby and Mount Sugarloaf are not composed of traprock , they are part of the Metacomet Ridge by virtue of their origin via the same rifting and uplift processes .
Of all the summits that make up the Metacomet Ridge , West Rock , in New Haven , Connecticut , bears special mention because it was not formed by the volcanic flooding that created most of the traprock ridges . Rather , it is the remains of an enormous volcanic dike through which the basalt lava floods found access to the surface .
While the traprock cliffs remain the most obvious evidence of the prehistoric geologic processes of the Metacomet Ridge , the sedimentary rock of the ridge and surrounding terrain has produced equally significant evidence of prehistoric life in the form of Triassic and Jurassic fossils ; in particular , dinosaur tracks . At a state park in Rocky Hill , Connecticut , more than 2 @,@ 000 well preserved early Jurassic prints have been excavated . Other sites in Holyoke and Greenfield have likewise produced significant finds .
= = Ecosystem = =
The Metacomet Ridge hosts a combination of microclimates unusual to the region . Dry , hot upper ridges support oak savannas , often dominated by chestnut oak and a variety of understory grasses and ferns . Eastern red @-@ cedar , a dry @-@ loving species , clings to the barren edges of cliffs . Backslope plant communities tend to be similar to the adjacent upland plateaus and nearby Appalachians , containing species common to the northern hardwood and oak @-@ hickory forest ecosystem types . Eastern hemlock crowds narrow ravines , blocking sunlight and creating damp , cooler growing conditions with associated cooler climate plant species . Talus slopes are especially rich in nutrients and support a number of calcium @-@ loving plants uncommon in the region . Miles of high cliffs make ideal raptor habitat , and the Metacomet Ridge is a seasonal raptor migration corridor .
Because the topography of the ridge offers such varied terrain , many species reach the northern or southern limit of their range on the Metacomet Ridge ; others are considered rare nationally or globally . Examples of rare species that live on the ridge include the prickly pear cactus , peregrine falcon , northern copperhead , showy lady 's slipper , yellow corydalis , ram 's – head lady 's slipper , basil mountain mint , and devil 's bit lily .
The Metacomet Ridge is also an important aquifer . It provides municipalities and towns with public drinking water ; reservoirs are located on Talcott Mountain , Totoket Mountain , Saltonstall Mountain , Bradley Mountain , Ragged Mountain , and the Hanging Hills in Connecticut . Reservoirs that supply metropolitan Springfield , Massachusetts , are located on Provin Mountain and East Mountain .
= = History = =
= = = Pre @-@ colonial era = = =
Native Americans occupied the river valleys surrounding the Metacomet Ridge for at least 10 @,@ 000 years . Major tribal groups active in the area included the Quinnipiac , Niantic , Pequot , Pocomtuc , and Mohegan . Traprock was used to make tools and arrowheads . Natives hunted game , gathered plants and fruits , and fished in local bodies of water around the Metacomet Ridge . Tracts of woodland in the river bottoms surrounding the ridges were sometimes burned to facilitate the cultivation of crops such as corn , squash , tobacco , and beans .
Natives incorporated the natural features of the ridgeline and surrounding geography into their spiritual belief systems . Many Native American stories were in turn incorporated into regional colonial folklore . The giant stone spirit Hobbomock ( or Hobomock ) , a prominent figure in many stories , was credited with diverting the course of the Connecticut River where it suddenly swings east in Middletown , Connecticut , after several hundred miles of running due south . Hobbomuck is also credited with slaying a giant human @-@ eating beaver who lived in a great lake that existed in the Connecticut River Valley of Massachusetts . According to native beliefs as retold by European settlers , the corpse of the beaver remains visible as the Pocumtuck Ridge portion of the Metacomet Ridge . Later , after Hobbomuck diverted the course of the Connecticut River , he was punished to sleep forever as the prominent man @-@ like form of the Sleeping Giant , part of the Metacomet Ridge in southern Connecticut . There seems to be an element of scientific truth in some of these tales . For instance , the great lake that the giant beaver was said to have inhabited may very well have been the post @-@ glacial Lake Hitchcock , extant 10 @,@ 000 years ago ; the giant beaver may have been an actual prehistoric species of bear – sized beaver , Castoroides ohioensis , that lived at that time . Many features of the Metacomet Ridge region still bear names with Native American origins : Besek , Pistapaug , Coginchaug , Mattabesett , Metacomet , Totoket , Norwottuck , Hockanum , Nonotuck , Pocumtuck , and others .
= = = Colonization , agricultural transformation , and industrialization = = =
Europeans began settling the river valleys around the Metacomet Ridge in the mid – 17th century . Forests were cut down or burned to make room for agriculture , resulting in the near complete denuding of the once contiguous forests of southern New England by the 19th century . Steep terrain like the Metacomet Ridge , while not suitable for planting crops , was widely harvested of timber as a result of the expanding charcoal industry that boomed before the mining of coal from the mid – Appalachian regions replaced it as a source of fuel . In other cases , ridgetop forests burned when lower elevation land was set afire , and some uplands were used for pasturing . Traprock was harvested from talus slopes of the Metacomet Ridge to build house foundations ; copper ore was discovered at the base of Peak Mountain in northern Connecticut and was mined by prisoners incarcerated at Old Newgate Prison located there .
With the advent of industrialization in the 19th century , riverways beneath the Metacomet Ridge were dammed to provide power as the labor force expanded in nearby cities and towns . Logging to provide additional fuel for mills further denuded the ridges . Traprock and sandstone were quarried from the ridge for paving stones and architectural brownstone , either used locally or shipped via rail , barge , and boat .
= = = Transcendentalism = = =
Increased urbanization and industrialization in Europe and North America resulted in an opposing aesthetic transcendentalist movement characterized in New England by the art of Thomas Cole , Frederic Edwin Church , and other Hudson River School painters , the work of landscape architects such as Frederick Law Olmsted , and the writings of philosophers such as Henry David Thoreau and Ralph Waldo Emerson . As was true of other scenic areas of New England , the philosophical , artistic , and environmental movement of transcendentalism transformed the Metacomet Ridge from a commercial resource to a recreational resource . Hotels , parks , and summer estates were built on the mountains from the mid @-@ 1880s to the early 20th century . Notable structures included summit hotels and inns on Mount Holyoke , Mount Tom , Sugarloaf Mountain , and Mount Nonotuck . Parks and park structures such as Poet 's Seat in Greenfield , Massachusetts , and Hubbard Park ( designed with the help of Frederick Law Olmsted ) of the Hanging Hills of Meriden , Connecticut , were intended as respites from the urban areas they closely abutted . Estates such as Hill @-@ Stead and Heublein Tower were built as mountain home retreats by local industrialists and commercial investors . Although public attention gradually shifted to more remote and less developed destinations with the advent of modern transportation and the westward expansion of the United States , the physical , cultural , and historic legacy of that early recreational interest in the Metacomet Ridge still supports modern conservation efforts . Estates became museums ; old hotels and the lands they occupied , frequently subject to damaging fires , became state and municipal parkland through philanthropic donation , purchase , or confiscation for unpaid taxes . Nostalgia among former guests of hotels and estates contributed to the aesthetic of conservation .
= = = Trailbuilding = = =
Interest in mountains as places to build recreational footpaths took root in New England with organizations such as the Appalachian Mountain Club , the Green Mountain Club , the Appalachian Trail Conference , and the Connecticut Forest and Park Association . Following the pioneering effort of the Green Mountain Club in the inauguration of Vermont 's Long Trail in 1918 , the Connecticut Forest and Park Association , spearheaded by Edgar Laing Heermance , created the 23 miles ( 37 km ) Quinnipiac Trail on the Metacomet Ridge in southern Connecticut in 1928 and soon followed it up with the 51 miles ( 82 km ) Metacomet Trail along the Metacomet Ridge in central and northern Connecticut . More than 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) of " blue blaze trails " in Connecticut were completed by the association by the end of the 20th century . While the focus of the Appalachian Mountain Club was geared primarily toward the White Mountains of New Hampshire in its early years , as club membership broadened , so did interest in the areas closer to club members ' homes . In the late 1950s , the 110 miles ( 180 km ) Metacomet @-@ Monadnock Trail was laid out by the Berkshire Chapter of the Appalachian Mountain Club under leadership of Professor Walter M. Banfield of the University of Massachusetts Amherst . The trail follows the Metacomet Ridge for the first one – third of its length . Overall , trailbuilding had a pro @-@ active effect on conservation awareness by thrusting portions of the Metacomet Ridge into the public consciousness .
= = = Suburbanization and land conservation = = =
Although the Metacomet Ridge has abutted significant urban areas for nearly two hundred years , because of its rugged , steep , and rocky terrain , the ridge was long considered an undesirable place to build a home except for those wealthy enough to afford such a luxury . However , suburbanization through urban exodus and automobile culture , and modern construction techniques and equipment have created a demand for homes on and around the once undeveloped Metacomet Ridge and its surrounding exurban communities . As of 2007 , the metropolitan areas bordering the range — New Haven , Meriden , New Britain , Hartford , Springfield and Greenfield — had a combined population of more than 2 @.@ 5 million people . Populations in exurban towns around the range in Connecticut have increased 7 @.@ 6 percent between the mid @-@ 1990s to 2000 , and building permits increased 26 percent in the same period . Considered an attractive place to build homes because of its views and proximity to urban centers and highways , the Metacomet Ridge has become a target for both developers and advocates of land conservation . Quarrying , supported by the increased need for stone in local and regional construction projects , has been especially damaging to the ecosystem , public access , and visual landscape of the ridge . At the same time , the boom in interest in outdoor recreation in the latter 20th century has made the Metacomet Ridge an attractive " active leisure " resource . In response to public interest in the ridge and its surrounding landscapes , more than twenty local non @-@ profit organizations have become involved in conservation efforts on and around the ridge and surrounding region . Most of these organizations came into being between 1970 and 2000 , and nearly all of them have evidenced a marked increase in conservation activity since 1990 . Several international and national organizations have also become interested in the Metacomet Ridge , including The Nature Conservancy , the Sierra Club , and the Trust for Public Land .
= = Recreation = =
Steepness , long cliff – top views , and proximity to urban areas make the Metacomet Ridge a significant regional outdoor recreation resource . The ridge is traversed by more than 200 miles ( 320 km ) of long @-@ distance and shorter hiking trails . Noteworthy trails in Connecticut include the 51 @-@ mile ( 82 km ) Metacomet Trail , the 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) Mattabesett Trail , the 23 @-@ mile ( 37 km ) Quinnipiac Trail , and the 6 @-@ mile ( 10 km ) Regicides Trail . Massachusetts trails include the 110 @-@ mile ( 177 km ) Metacomet @-@ Monadnock Trail , the 47 @-@ mile ( 76 km ) Robert Frost Trail , and the 15 @-@ mile ( 24 km ) Pocumtuck Ridge Trail . Site – specific activities enjoyed on the ridge include rock climbing , bouldering , fishing , boating , hunting , swimming , backcountry skiing , cross @-@ country skiing , trail running , bicycling , and mountain biking . Trails on the ridge are open to snowshoeing , birdwatching and picnicking as well . The Metacomet Ridge hosts more than a dozen state parks , reservations , and municipal parks , and more than three dozen nature preserves and conservation properties . Seasonal automobile roads with scenic vistas are located at Poet 's Seat Park , Mount Sugarloaf State Reservation , J.A. Skinner State Park , the Mount Tom State Reservation , Hubbard Park , and West Rock Ridge State Park ; these roads are also used for bicycling and cross – country skiing . Camping and campfires are discouraged on most of the Metacomet Ridge , especially in Connecticut . Museums , historic sites , interpretive centers , and other attractions can be found on or near the Metacomet Ridge ; some offer outdoor concerts , celebrations , and festivals .
= = Conservation = =
Because of its narrowness , proximity to urban areas , and fragile ecosystems , the Metacomet Ridge is most endangered by encroaching suburban sprawl . Quarry operations , also a threat , have obliterated several square miles of traprock ridgeline in both Massachusetts and Connecticut . Ridges and mountains affected include Trimountain , Bradley Mountain , Totoket Mountain , Chauncey Peak , Rattlesnake Mountain , East Mountain , Pocumtuck Ridge , and the former Round Mountain of the Holyoke Range . The gigantic man @-@ like profile of the Sleeping Giant , a traprock massif visible for more than 30 miles ( 50 km ) in south central Connecticut , bears quarrying scars on its " head " . Mining there was halted by the efforts of local citizens and the Sleeping Giant Park Association .
Development and quarrying threats to the Metacomet Ridge have resulted in public open space acquisition efforts through collective purchasing and fundraising , active solicitation of land donations , securing of conservation easements , protective and restrictive legislation agreements limiting development , and , in a few cases , land taking by eminent domain . Recent conservation milestones include the acquisition of a defunct ski area on Mount Tom , the purchase of the ledges and summits of Ragged Mountain through the efforts of a local rock climbing club and the Nature Conservancy , and the inclusion of the ridgeline from North Branford , Connecticut , to Belchertown , Massachusetts , in a study by the National Park Service for a new National Scenic Trail now tentatively called the New England National Scenic Trail .
= Senghenydd colliery disaster =
The Senghenydd colliery disaster , also known as the Senghenydd explosion ( Welsh : Tanchwa Senghennydd ) , occurred at the Universal Colliery in Senghenydd , near Caerphilly , Glamorgan , Wales , on 14 October 1913 . The explosion , which killed 439 miners and a rescuer , is still the worst mining accident in the United Kingdom . Universal Colliery , located on the South Wales Coalfield , produced steam coal which was much in demand . Some of the region 's coal seams contained high quantities of firedamp , a highly explosive gas consisting of methane and hydrogen , and were prone to explosions .
In an earlier disaster in May 1901 , three underground explosions at the colliery killed 81 miners . The inquest established that the colliery had high levels of airborne coal dust , which would have exacerbated the explosion and carried it further into the mine workings . The cause of the 1913 explosion is unknown , but the subsequent inquiry thought the most likely cause was a spark from underground signalling equipment that could have ignited any firedamp present . The miners in the east side of the workings were evacuated , but the men in the western section bore the brunt of the explosion , fire and afterdamp — a poisonous mixture of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen left after an explosion .
Fires in the workings hampered rescue efforts , and it took several days before they were under control . It took six weeks for most of the bodies to be recovered and the fire to be extinguished . The subsequent enquiry pointed to errors made by the company and its management leading to charges of negligence against Edward Shaw , the colliery manager , and the owners . Shaw was fined £ 24 while the company was fined £ 10 ; newspapers calculated the cost of each miner lost was just 51 ⁄ 2 pence .
In 1981 a memorial to the men who died in the disaster was unveiled by the National Coal Board , followed by a second in 2006 , to honour the dead of both the 1901 and 1913 explosions . In October 2013 , on the centenary of the tragedy , a Welsh national memorial to those killed in all Wales 's mining disasters was unveiled at the former pithead , depicting a rescue worker coming to the aid of one of the survivors of the explosion .
= = Background = =
= = = Welsh coal industry = = =
The Welsh coal industry employed 1 @,@ 500 workers in 1800 ; and as the industry expanded , the workforce rose to 30 @,@ 000 by 1864 , and to 250 @,@ 000 by 1913 . As employment became available , many people moved to the area of the South Wales Coalfield ; between 1851 and 1911 the population increased by 320 @,@ 000 . By 1913 the Welsh collieries were extracting 56 @.@ 8 million long tons of coal ( 63 @.@ 6 million short tons ) a year , up from 8 @.@ 5 million long tons ( 9 @.@ 5 million short tons ) in 1854 ; collieries in the region mined a fifth of all coal produced in the UK , and employed a fifth of its miners in the mid @-@ nineteenth century . In 1913 Britain was responsible for 25 per cent of world coal production and 55 percent of all world coal exports .
The South Wales Coalfield produced the sought @-@ after anthracite , bituminous and steam coals — the latter a grade between the two comprising a hard coal without the coking elements . Some of the region 's coal seams contained high quantities of firedamp , a highly explosive gas consisting of methane and hydrogen , and were therefore prone to explosions ; firedamp rises into the higher points of workings , including cavities or , as at Senghenydd , when the seams were being mined in an upward gradient . An additional danger of firedamp is afterdamp , a poisonous mixture of gases left after an explosion , primarily constituted of carbon dioxide , carbon monoxide and nitrogen . They combine with haemoglobin in the bloodstream to stop cells carrying oxygen , which can result in suffocation by lack of oxygen or anoxia . If survivors from an explosion are not rescued quickly , they face the possibility of being killed by the gas . The presence of firedamp contributed to a higher @-@ than @-@ average proportion of accidents : between 1880 and 1900 South Wales accounted for 18 % of Britain 's miners , but 48 per cent of all UK mining deaths occurred in the region . As coal output from British collieries reached its peak in 1913 there was a correspondingly large number of accidents around this time .
= = = Senghenydd and the Universal Colliery = = =
Senghenydd — Senghennydd in Welsh — is situated at the northern end of the Aber Valley , approximately four miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) north @-@ west of Caerphilly and eleven miles ( 18 km ) north @-@ west of Cardiff . When geological surveys for coal began in 1890 it was a farming hamlet of around 100 people . Coal was found , and sinking of the first mineshaft for Universal Colliery — which was owned and developed by William Lewis — began in 1891 ; the first coal was extracted in 1896 . The colliery 's two shafts were both 1 @,@ 950 feet ( 590 m ) deep , the downcast Lancaster and the upcast York . Development of the pit coincided with the Boer War , and sectors of the underground workings were named after key places in the war , such as Pretoria , or the lifting of the sieges at Ladysmith , Mafeking and Kimberley .
South Wales miners , including those at Universal , were paid on a rate determined by the Sliding Scale Committee , which fixed wages on the price coal fetched at market . When the price of coal slumped in the late 1890s , low wages led to industrial unrest and , in 1898 , a strike that the men at Universal joined at the end of April . The Monmouthshire and South Wales Coal Owners ' Association refused to replace the scale , and the strike ended on 1 September with some small concessions granted by the owners . The colliery resumed production and in 1899 was producing 3 @,@ 000 long tons ( 3 @,@ 400 short tons ) of coal a week .
The industrial historians Helen and Baron Duckham consider Universal Colliery to have been " an unlucky mine " . At approximately 5 : 00 am on 24 May 1901 three underground explosions occurred as the night shift was exiting the pit . Because the explosion damaged the pit winding gear , it took time to clear the debris from the pithead to allow rescuers to begin work . They descended at 11 : 00 am and rescued one man , an ostler , found alongside the corpse of the horse he was tending . There were no other survivors and 81 men died . Although the funerals for the victims started four days later , the rescue and recovery operations lasted for six weeks .
The Mines Inspectorate began an enquiry , chaired by the mining engineer Professor William Galloway . The report was published on 15 July . It stated that the mine was hot with high levels of coal dust present . The method used to load coal onto underground trucks created quantities of dust , which had aggravated a small explosion and created a chain reaction of related explosions throughout the workings . An inquest held in the October concluded that various safety precautions had not been followed , and that the mine had been insufficiently watered — which would have reduced the coal dust held in the air . The colliery had further problems in October 1910 when a heavy roof fall in the Mafeking return released trapped firedamp , which caused the mine to be temporarily evacuated .
In 1906 a major explosion at a colliery in Courrières , northern France , caused the deaths of more than 1 @,@ 000 miners . The subsequent report blamed the accidental ignition of firedamp , exacerbated by coal dust in the air . Concerned that a similar disaster might happen in British collieries , the Royal Commission was formed , reporting back in 1907 , 1909 and 1911 . The reports led to the Coal Mines Act 1911 , which came force into December that year . Among other changes to the health and safety culture , the Act required that ventilation fans in all collieries be capable of reversing the air current underground ; this measure was to be implemented by 1 January 1913 .
In 1913 the colliery was producing 1 @,@ 800 long tons ( 2 @,@ 000 short tons ) of coal a day , and Senghenydd 's population had grown to just under 6 @,@ 000 . No work was undertaken at Senghenydd to implement the requirement , and the Mines Inspectorate gave the management an extended deadline of September 1913 to complete the work , but this was missed .
= = 14 October 1913 = =
At 3 : 00 am on 14 October 1913 , the day firemen descended the pit to conduct the daily checks for gas ; they had three hours to complete their investigations . The firemen for the Mafeking return had to travel more than two miles from the shaft bottom to the workface . It left insufficient time in which to make a thorough check of the workings — which involved placing a naked flame into cavities to see if the flame lengthened — although the historian Michael Lieven states that " the company considered any other form of inspection to be too time @-@ consuming " . Between 5 : 10 and 6 : 00 am 950 men descended the shaft for a shift that was due to last until 2 : 00 pm .
Just after 8 : 00 am an explosion occurred in the west side of the underground workings . It is possible there were two explosions as survivors stated a smaller explosion preceded the main one , although the official report referred only to one . The cause was probably a build @-@ up of firedamp that was ignited by an electric spark from equipment such as electric bell signalling gear . The initial explosion ignited airborne coal dust , and a shock wave ahead of the explosion raised yet more coal dust , which also combusted . Many victims who were not killed immediately by the explosion and fire died from the effects of afterdamp . The explosive wave travelled up the Lancaster shaft to the surface , destroying the headframe ; it killed the winder — the man in charge — and badly wounded his deputy .
Edward Shaw , the colliery manager , was on the surface and the remaining shift foremen were still underground and unable to give assistance . He took charge and descended the York shaft , accompanied by overman D R Thomas . The descent was slow , and they had to clear several girders and obstructions before they reached the bottom . They found that the men from the east side of the workings ( approximately 450 workers ) were unharmed , and their evacuation was ordered . Shaw and Thomas moved to the western side , where they found other men , alive but injured , and arranged for them to travel to the surface . Thomas later reported that the view into the western workings " was exactly like looking into a furnace " .
Shaw explored what he could of the western workings , before he and some of the survivors began tackling the fire . The water pipes from the surface in the Lancaster shaft were all fractured , and hand @-@ extinguishers were used . Shaw returned to the surface at 9 : 30 am to arrange for rescue and fire @-@ fighting teams from neighbouring collieries . From 11 : 00 am the specialist mines rescue teams began arriving at the colliery from the Rhymney and Rhondda Valleys , as did Red Cross workers and local ambulance services ; a police detachment was sent from Cardiff in a special train . Members of the Inspectorate of Mines were quickly on the scene , and an inspector descended to view the mine the same morning .
Lieven recounts how the rescue parties " in their desperation , ... were reckless with their lives " in their attempts to find survivors ; many were injured in small roof collapses , or suffered the effects of carbon monoxide poisoning . Their endeavours saved lives throughout the remainder of the day and into the night , including a group of 18 men found at around 1 : 00 am . They were the last survivors found . A total of 432 miners had died that day — although some bodies were not found until later — and 7 others died later in hospital or at home . A journalist from The Times wrote : " The numbers are truly awful . We talk in awed terms of the decimation of a regiment in a bloody battle , but here a great community engaged in the pursuit of a peaceful vocation is threatened with the loss of at least a quarter of its able bodied manhood " . On the surface the townsfolk waited for news ; a reporter for The Dundee Courier thought : " the scene at Senghenydd last night was depressing in the extreme . The streets were full of silent throngs of people who moved aimlessly about or stood stolidly at the street corners . "
= = Rescue , fire @-@ fighting and recovery : 15 October to 30 November = =
Work continued throughout the night of 15 October and into the following day . It focused on finding survivors and fighting the fire that blocked the entry into some workings of the western returns . The fire caused the roof supports to become unstable , and falls triggered outbursts of methane . Several rescuers were injured by the falls , one fatally . Before descending the mine many of the firefighters wrote what they thought might be their last letters home , and some made their wills . As the water pipe in the shaft was out of operation , fire @-@ fighting continued with hand extinguishers and work was only possible in 20 @-@ minute shifts . Despite wearing respirators , several rescuers were overcome by the effects of firedamp . During the course of the day , 56 bodies were raised to the surface and , that evening , a new water supply , connected by three @-@ quarters of a mile ( 1 @.@ 2 km ) of pipes to a nearby reservoir , was installed in the Lancaster shaft .
Reginald McKenna , the Home Secretary , visited the colliery on 15 October representing King George V , who was attending the marriage of Prince Arthur of Connaught and Princess Alexandra , 2nd Duchess of Fife . The king sent a £ 500 donation to a disaster relief fund , while the royal couple displayed their wedding presents at St James 's Palace and charged a shilling for entrance , raising £ 1 @,@ 200 for the fund . The fund was started by the Lord Mayor of Cardiff , while another collection , the Mansion House Fund set up by the Lord Mayor of London , raised more than £ 3 @,@ 000 on its first day .
William Brace , the local MP speaking on behalf of the South Wales Miners ' Federation , announced on 16 October that the priority would be given to putting out the fire and that no more search parties would be looking for survivors . Brace observed that the fire was blocking the western workings and consuming the oxygen in the air , making it unlikely that anyone was left alive . Progress in tackling the fire over the previous days had been slow , and it had only been extinguished in the first 30 yards of the roadway — still two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) from the coal face . Two coroner 's inquests were opened : one in Senghenydd for the men who died in the colliery , and one in Cardiff for those who had died in hospital ; both were adjourned the same day . The first funerals took place the following day , Friday 17 October . An estimated 150 @,@ 000 mourners gathered for the 11 men buried on the Saturday and 8 on the Sunday .
The firefighters built bashings , walls of sandbags , turf and sand , approximately 18 feet ( 5 @.@ 5 metres ) deep and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 metres ) up to the tunnel 's roof to prevent smoke filling the rest of the workings and allow men to explore areas previously cut off . Within two days the temperatures dropped and the volume of smoke was reduced . Although the fire was contained , miners still faced several obstacles , including roof collapses and large pockets of trapped firedamp . The first collapse consisted of more than 100 tons of debris , while another fall was more than 300 feet ( 91 @.@ 5 metres ) long and 30 to 40 feet ( 10 – 12 metres ) high . Clearing the falls and finding bodies was slow , and it took until 8 November for the first of the 4 working districts to be explored and cleared of bodies . Many victims were unidentifiable — either the explosion , fire or subsequent decomposition had taken its toll — and many had to be identified by their personal effects , although some bodies remained unidentified .
By 17 November the Mafeking and Pretoria districts had been fully explored , with more than 200 bodies raised to the surface in the preceding two days . On 20 November an official announcement reported that 439 miners had died , of whom 33 were still unaccounted for . Toward the end of the month , the men voted to return to work , even though the western workings were still out of action and 11 bodies were still missing .
A photographer , W Benton , took a series of photographs as the disaster unfolded , and later published them as a set of postcards . Their publication is described by the National Library of Wales as " an excellent example of early photo @-@ journalism " . The photographs came with a caption , shown below :
= = Aftermath = =
The Senghenydd explosion remains the worst mining disaster in Britain . The deaths of 440 men on a small community had a devastating effect ; 60 victims were younger than 20 , of whom 8 were 14 years old ; 542 children had lost their fathers and 205 women were widowed . The impact on individual households was great : 12 homes lost both a father and son , 10 homes lost two sons each , while the death of one father and son left an 18 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to raise her 6 siblings alone ; another woman lost her husband , 2 sons , a brother and her lodger .
The inquiry into the disaster opened on 2 January 1914 with R A S Redmayne , the Chief Inspector of Mines , as the commissioner ; he was assisted by two assessors , Evan Williams , the chairman of the South Wales and Monmouthshire Coal Owners Association , and Robert Smillie , the president of the Miners ' Federation of Great Britain . The inquiry ran for three days before being adjourned to allow for the coroner 's inquest to run at Senghenydd . It reopened on 27 January and ran until 21 February . Over the 13 days it heard evidence , 21 @,@ 837 questions were put to 50 witnesses . The coroner 's inquest chaired by David Rees lasted for 5 days from 5 January 1914 . A total of 9 @,@ 000 questions were put to 50 witnesses , and the jury returned verdicts of accidental death .
The inquiry report failed to identify a definite cause , although it was considered that the most likely cause was a spark from the signalling gear . It would have ignited the firedamp , exacerbated and fuelled by coal dust in the air . The report was critical of many aspects of the management 's practices , and considered it had breached the mining regulations in respect of measuring and maintaining the air quality in the workings , and in the removal of coal dust from the tracks and walkways . The report pointed out that because the management had not implemented the changes needed to the ventilation fans as demanded by the Coal Mines Act 1911 , the fans were unable to reverse the direction of the airflow , which would have blown the smoke out through the Lancaster shaft , although Redmayne and his colleagues held differing opinions on the advisability of reversing or stopping the airflow . The historian John H Brown , in his examination of the disaster , states that had the airflow been reversed , firedamp or afterdamp could have been extracted from some sectors into the blaze , causing another explosion .
Further criticism was directed toward the emergency procedures . The lack of respirators at the mine was deemed to have cost lives . The lack of an adequate water supply for fire fighting was criticised , and Redmayne wrote : " I should have thought , in view of the fact that the colliery was such a gassy one , and it had already been devastated by an explosion , that the management would have made arrangements for a supply of water adequate to meet an emergency of the kind that actually occurred . "
Shaw 's actions were described by Lieven as those that " gained him a degree of respect from the local mining community which remained over the years ; they probably also cost the lives of scores of miners . " The Duckhams describe Shaw 's inaction in fixing the ventilation fan before the explosion , as well as his delay in sending for assistance from rescue teams until he exited the mine an hour and a half after the explosion . The official report considered there had been a " disquieting laxity in the management of the mine " , although Shaw was described by the Duckhams as " undoubtedly a highly capable manager " . The report led to Shaw being charged with 17 breaches of the Mines Act 1911 , and four charges were made against the company . Shaw was found guilty of failing to keep adequate environmental records and failing to replace a broken lamp locker ; he was fined £ 24 . The company was convicted of failing to provide a ventilation system that could reverse the airflow and was fined £ 10 with £ 5 5 shillings costs . One newspaper , Pioneer , calculated " Miners ' Lives at 1 / 11 ⁄ 4 each " ( 1 shilling 11 ⁄ 4d or 51 ⁄ 2p each ) .
After it reopened the colliery never reached the same levels of employment as before the explosion . William Lewis died in August 1914 ; Shaw continued as manager of the mine until November 1928 , when it closed .
A stage play based on the disaster , by the journalist and broadcaster Margaret Coles , was first performed at the Sherman Cymru , Cardiff in 1991 . The disaster at Senghenydd has provided the backdrop to two printed works of historical fiction : Alexander Cordell 's This Sweet and Bitter Earth ( 1977 ) and Cwmwl dros y Cwm ( 2013 ) by Gareth F Williams .
In 1981 a memorial to those lost in the disaster was unveiled by the National Coal Board . Based outside Nant @-@ y @-@ parc Primary School , which is built on the site of the former colliery , the monument is a 20 feet ( 6 m ) high replica of the colliery 's winding gear . A second monument was unveiled in 2006 to the dead from both the 1901 and 1913 explosions .
On 14 October 2013 , the centenary of the disaster , a Welsh national memorial to all mining disasters was unveiled at the former pithead . Funded by the Aber Valley Heritage Group and their patron Roy Noble , with matched funding from the Welsh Government , a bronze statue by Les Johnson depicting a rescue worker coming to the aid of one of the survivors of the explosion , was unveiled by Carwyn Jones , the First Minister of Wales . Jones said : " Mining is central to the story of Wales . It has shaped our history and communities and its social and physical legacy is still with us to this day . ... It is only right that we have a permanent memorial . "
= Zhu De =
Zhu De ( Chu Teh ; Chinese : 朱德 ; pinyin : Zhū Dé ; pronounced [ ʈʂú tɤ ̌ ] ; 1 December 1886 – 6 July 1976 ) was a Chinese general , warlord , politician , revolutionary , and one of the pioneers of the Communist Party of China . Born poor in 1886 in Sichuan , Zhu was adopted by a wealthy uncle at age nine ; this prosperity provided him a superior early education that led to his admission into a military academy . After his time at the academy , he joined a rebel army , and soon became a warlord . It was after this period that he adopted communism . He ascended through the ranks of the Red Army as it closed in on securing the nation . By the time China was under Mao 's control , Zhu was a high @-@ ranking official within the Communist Party of China . He served as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief during the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War . In 1955 , Zhu became one of the Ten Marshals of the People 's Liberation Army , of which he is regarded as the principal founder . Zhu remained a prominent political figure until his death in 1976 . As the chairman of the Standing Committee of the National People 's Congress from 1975 to 1976 , Zhu was the head of state of the People 's Republic of China .
= = Life = =
= = = Early life = = =
Zhu was born on December 18 , 1886 to a poor tenant farmer 's family in Hung , a town in Yilong County , a hilly and isolated part of northern Sichuan province . Of the fifteen children born to the family only eight survived . His family relocated to Sichuan during the migration from Hunan province and Guangdong province . His origins are often given as Hakka , but Agnes Smedley 's biography of him says his people came from Guangdone and speaks of Hakka as merely associates of his . She also says that older generations of his family had spoken the ' Kwangtung dialect ' ( which would be close to but probably different from modern Cantonese . And that his generation also spoke the ' Szechwan dialect ' , Sichuanese Standard Chinese , a distinct regional variant that is however intelligable to other speakers of Standard Chinese ( Mandarin ) .
In spite of the family 's poverty , by pooling resources , Zhu was chosen to be sent to a regional private school in 1892 . At age nine , Zhu was adopted by his prosperous uncle , whose political influence allowed him to gain access to Yunnan Military Academy . Before the suspension of imperial examinations in 1906 , he attained the rank of Xiucai , which allowed him to qualify as a civil servant . He enrolled in a Sichuan high school around 1907 , and graduated in 1908 . Subsequently , he returned to Yilong 's primary school as a gym instructor . An advocate of modern science and political teaching , rather than the strict classical education afforded by schools , he was dismissed from his post and entered the Yunnan Military Academy in Kunming . There , he joined the Beiyang Army and the Tongmenghui secret political society ( the forerunner of the Kuomintang ) .
= = = Nationalism and Warlordism = = =
It was at the Yunnan Military Academy in Kunming , that Zhu first met Cai E ( Tsai Ao ) . He taught at the Academy after his graduation in July 1911 . Siding with the revolutionary forces after the Chinese Revolution , he joined Brigadier Cai E in the October 1911 expeditionary force that marched on Qing forces in Sichuan . He served as a regimental commander in the campaign to unseat Yuan Shikai in 1915 @-@ 16 . When Cai became governor of Sichuan after Yuan 's death in June 1916 , Zhu was made a brigade commander .
Following the death of his mentor Cai E ( November 1916 ) and of his first wife , Zhu developed a severe opium habit that afflicted him until 1922 , when he underwent treatment in Shanghai . His troops continued to support him , and so he consolidated his forces to become a warlord . In 1920 , after his troops were driven from Sichuan toward the Tibetan border , he returned to Yunnan as a public security commissioner of the provincial government . Around this time , his second wife and child were murdered by rival warlords , which is believed to have contributed to his decision to leave China for study in Europe . He first traveled to Shanghai where he broke his opium habit and , according to historians of the Kuomintang , met Dr Sun Yat @-@ sen . He attempted to join the Chinese Communist Party in early 1922 , but was rejected due to his being a warlord .
= = = Converting to Communism = = =
In late 1922 , Zhu went to Berlin . He resided in Germany until 1925 , studying at one point at Göttingen University . Here he met Zhou Enlai and was expelled from Germany for his role in a number of student protests . Around this time he joined the Communist Party of China ; Zhou Enlai was one of his sponsors ( having sponsors being a condition of probationary membership , the stage before actual membership ) . In July 1925 , after being expelled from Germany , he traveled to the Soviet Union to study military affairs and Marxism at the Communist University of the Toilers of the East , returning to China in July 1926 to unsuccessfully persuade Sichuan warlord Yang Sen to support the Northern Expedition .
In 1927 , following the collapse of the First United Front , Kuomintang authorities ordered Zhu to lead a force against Zhou Enlai and Liu Bocheng 's Nanchang Uprising . Having helped orchestrate the uprising , Zhu and his army defected from the Kuomintang . The uprising failed to gather support , however , and Zhu was forced to flee Nanchang with his army . Under the false name of Wang Kai , Zhu managed to find shelter for his remaining forces by joining the warlord Fan Shisheng . He was soon named head of a new First United Front military institute in Nanchang .
= = = ' Zhu @-@ Mao ' = = =
Zhu 's close affiliation with Mao Zedong began in 1928 when under the assistance of Chen Yi and Lin Biao , Zhu defected from Fan Shisheng 's protection and marched his army of 10 @,@ 000 men to Jiangxi and the Jinggang Mountains . Here Mao had formed a soviet in 1927 , and Zhu began building up his army into the Red Army , consolidating and expanding the Soviet areas of control .
Zhu 's leadership made him a figure of immense prestige ; locals even credited him with supernatural abilities . During this time Mao and Zhu became so closely connected that to the local peasant farmers they were known collectively as " Zhu @-@ Mao " ( homophonic to 猪毛 , or pig 's pelage ) .
In 1929 , Zhu and Mao were forced to flee Jinggangshan to Ruijin following Kuomintang military pressure . Here they formed the Jiangxi Soviet , which would eventually grow to cover some 30 @,@ 000 square kilometers ( 11 @,@ 584 square miles ) and include some three million people . In 1931 , Zhu was appointed leader of the Red Army in Ruijin by the CPC leadership . Zhu successfully led a conventional military force against the Kuomintang in the lead up to the Fourth Counter Encirclement Campaign ; However , he was not able to do the same during the Fifth Counter Encirclement Campaign and the CPC fled . Zhu helped form the 1934 break @-@ out that began the Long March .
= = = Red Army leader = = =
During the Long March , Zhu and Zhou Enlai organized certain battles in tandem . There were few positive effects since the real power was in the hands of Bo Gu and Otto Braun . In the Zunyi Conference , Zhu supported Mao Zedong ’ s criticisms of Bo and Braun . After the conference , Zhu cooperated with Mao and Zhou on military affairs . In July 1935 , Zhu and Liu Bocheng were with the Fourth Red Army while Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai with the First Red Army . When separation between the two divisions occurred , Zhu was forced by Zhang Guotao , the leader of Fourth Red Army , to go south . The Fourth Red Army barely survived the retreat through Sichuan Province . Arriving in Yan 'an , Zhu directed the reconstruction of the Red Army under the political guidance of Mao .
During the Second Sino @-@ Japanese War and the Chinese Civil War , he held the position of Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Red Army and , in 1940 , Zhu , alongside Peng Dehuai , devised and organized the Hundred Regiments Offensive . Initially , Mao supported this offensive . While a successful campaign , Mao later attributed it as the main provocation for the devastating Japanese Three Alls Policy later and used it to criticize Peng at the Lushan Conference .
= = = Later life = = =
In 1949 Zhu was named Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the People 's Liberation Army ( PLA ) ; it is in this way posterity regards him as a principal founder of the PLA . He also served as the Vice @-@ Chairman of the Communist Party ( 1956 – 1966 ) and Vice @-@ Chairman of the People 's Republic of China ( 1954 – 1959 ) . Zhu oversaw the PLA during the Korean War within his authority as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief . In 1955 , he was conferred to the rank of marshal . At the Lushan Conference , he tried to protect Peng Dehuai , by giving some mild criticisms of Peng ; rather than denouncing him , he merely gently reproofed his targeted comrade , who was a target of Mao Zedong . Mao wasn 't satisfied with Zhu De 's behavior . After the conference , Zhu was dismissed from vice chairmen of Central Military Commission , not in least part due to his loyalty for the fallen Peng .
In April 1969 , during the summit of the Cultural Revolution , Zhu was dismissed from his position on the Politburo Standing Committee of the Communist Party of China , and the activity of the National People 's Congress was halted . However , due to the support of Zhou Enlai , he was not harmed or imprisoned . In August 1969 , Lin Biao issued a command that dispatched important martial figures to distant areas due to the tension between China and Soviet Union , and Zhu De was driven to Guangzhou . In 1973 Zhu was reinstated in the Standing Committee .
He continued to be a prominent elder statesman until his death on 6 July 1976 . His passing came six months after the death of Zhou Enlai , and just two months before the death of Mao Zedong . Zhu was cremated three days later , and received a funeral days afterwards . During a " Strike Hard " anti @-@ crime campaign in 1983 , one of Zhu 's grandsons , Guohua , was sentenced to death due to a rape conviction in Tianjin .
= = Personal life = =
Zhu De was married four times , according to the unfinished biography written by Agnes Smedley . His first two wives were educated women to whom he was introduced by brothers who were fellow officers in the Yunan Army . They were :
Hsiai Chu @-@ fen , married in 1912 . She died of a fever in 1916 after bearing him a son .
Chen Yu @-@ chen , married in 1916 . Killed by the Kuomintang in 1935 . Zhu 's only child , son of the first wife , vanished and is presumed also to have been killed .
Zhu viewed himself as separated from Chen Yu @-@ chen after leaving her 1922 . He felt free to marry again , though there had been no formal divorce .
Wu Yu @-@ lan , married in 1928 . A peasant leader from an educated family . Captured and killed by the Kuomintang in 1929 .
Kang Keqing , also knowns as K 'ang K 'e @-@ ching or Kang Keh @-@ chin . Also a peasant leader , but not educated before she joined the Red Army . Outlived him and was famous in her own right .
= Weldon Humble =
Weldon Gaston " Hum " Humble ( April 24 , 1921 – April 14 , 1998 ) was an American football guard who played five seasons in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) and National Football League ( NFL ) for the Cleveland Browns and Dallas Texans in the late 1940s and early 1950s .
Humble grew up in Texas and was a mult @-@ sport athlete at his San Antonio high school . He enrolled at Rice University in Houston , Texas in 1940 and played three seasons on the school 's football team . Humble then spent three years in the U.S. Marines during World War II , serving in the Pacific War and earning a Bronze Star Medal before returning to complete his college studies in 1946 . Sportswriters named him a first @-@ team All @-@ American after the Rice Owls finished with an 8 – 2 win – loss record and beat Tennessee in the Orange Bowl .
The AAFC 's Baltimore Colts signed Humble in 1947 , but the Browns acquired him in a trade before the season . Humble became an anchor on Cleveland 's offensive line , helping the team win three straight AAFC titles in the late 1940s . When the AAFC dissolved in 1949 , Cleveland moved to the NFL and won another championship in 1950 . Humble , who remained in the Marine Reserves , was called into service in the Korean War after the season . He was expected to return to Cleveland the following year , but head coach Paul Brown traded him to the Texans before the 1952 season began . He retired after one year in Dallas .
After his playing career , Humble worked as a bank executive and at an office supply company . He was also the chairman of the selection committee for the Bluebonnet Bowl . Humble was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1961 , and was named to the Texas Sports Hall of Fame and the South Texas Football Hall of Fame in 1969 . He is also a member of the Rice University Athletics Hall of Fame . He died in 1998 in Houston following a long illness .
= = Early life and college career = =
Humble was born in Nixon , Texas , a suburb of San Antonio , in 1921 . His athletic career began at San Antonio 's G.W. Brackenridge High School . Humble played as an end for two seasons and a fullback for a third season on the football team . He also played on the basketball , track and swimming teams before graduating and enrolling at Rice University in Houston , Texas in 1940 .
Humble began play on Rice 's freshman team as an end in 1940 . He advanced to the varsity team the next year . While he started as an end , coach Jess Neely switched him to guard before the first game of the season . He thrived in the new position , and was named a sophomore all @-@ star by the Associated Press after the Rice Owls finished 1941 with a 6 – 3 – 1 win – loss – tie record . The following year , Humble earned All @-@ Southwestern Conference honors and won the George Martin Award , given to Rice 's most valuable player , as Rice put up a 7 – 2 – 1 record .
Humble left Rice in 1943 for the University of Louisiana at Lafayette , then called Southwestern Institute , to prepare for service in World War II in a V @-@ 12 U.S. Navy training program . As he trained , he played alongside enlistees from Tulane University , the University of Tulsa and Louisiana State University on a military team that won six straight games and was selected to play in the first Oil Bowl in Houston . Captained by Humble , Southwestern beat a service team from Randolph Air Force Base in San Antonio .
After the season , Humble enlisted in the United States Marine Corps and was sent to fight in the Pacific War . He rose to the rank of first lieutenant and won a Bronze Star Medal . Upon his discharge in 1946 , Humble returned to Rice . He lettered in football and track and field and was voted a consensus first @-@ team All @-@ American guard while captain of Rice 's Southwestern Conference co @-@ champion team . He was also named lineman of the week by the Associated Press in November for his strong tackling in a game against the Texas A & M Aggies . After finishing with an 8 – 2 record , Rice beat Tennessee in the Orange Bowl game in early 1947 . Rice was ranked the 10th @-@ best college team in the nation in the AP Poll .
= = Professional football career = =
Paul Brown , the coach of the Cleveland Browns in the All @-@ America Football Conference ( AAFC ) , met Humble while vacationing in Florida in 1946 . Brown came to watch the Orange Bowl on New Year 's Day , and was staying in the same hotel as the Rice team . He saw Humble and his wife Lorraine , whom Humble had met while in training at Southwestern , on a dance floor at the hotel . " He appeared to be the sort of fellow we like to have on our team , " Brown said later in 1947 . " Then I watched him in that Tennessee game and after that made up my mind he 'd be with my club if I ever had the chance to make a deal for him . " The AAFC 's Baltimore Colts selected Humble in the league 's draft , but Brown got his chance in August . He engineered a trade that sent four players including quarterback Steve Nemeth and guard George Cheroke to the Colts , plus two players to be named later .
Before joining the Browns , Humble played in the College All @-@ Star Game , a now @-@ defunct annual matchup between the National Football League ( NFL ) champion and a selection of the best college players from around the country . The college all @-@ stars won the game , defeating the Chicago Bears 16 – 0 . In Cleveland , Humble was part of an offensive line that included Lin Houston , Ed Ulinski and Bob Gaudio . Their job was to protect quarterback Otto Graham from opposing defenders and open up running room for fullback Marion Motley . They chanted " nobody touches Graham " when they broke the huddle .
Helped by strong line play , Graham , Motley and Cleveland ends Dante Lavelli and Mac Speedie led a potent offense that dominated the AAFC for three years . The Browns won the AAFC championship in 1947 , 1948 and 1949 before the league disbanded and Cleveland was absorbed by the more established NFL . Humble was a consensus second @-@ team All @-@ Pro selection in 1948 , when Cleveland won all of its games . Cleveland 's success continued in the NFL in 1950 , when Humble was used on occasion as a linebacker on defense . The Browns finished the season with a 10 – 2 record and beat the Los Angeles Rams in the NFL championship game . Humble was selected to play in the first @-@ ever Pro Bowl , the NFL 's all @-@ star game .
Humble continued as a member of the Marine Reserves as his professional career continued , and in 1951 he was in danger of being called up for service in the Korean War . He re @-@ enlisted in the summer and played for a military team at Marine Corps Base Quantico later in the year . After the season , he was named the best service player in the country by the Washington Touchdown Club .
Humble was expected to return to the Browns after his discharge from the military in 1952 . In a surprise move , however , Brown traded him before the season to the Dallas Texans for fullback Sherman Howard . The trade was unexpected because Cleveland 's other guards , including Gaudio and Alex Agase , were getting older and nearing retirement . " I 'm sure we 'll be all right at the guard position , " Brown said at the time . " But we do have a definite fullback problem . " Humble played one season for the Texans before retiring . Dallas had a 1 – 11 record in 1952 .
= = Later life and death = =
After his football career , Humble worked for 20 years at First City National Bank in Houston . He later became vice @-@ president of an office supply firm called Stationers , Inc . He maintained an affiliation with his Texas alma mater , serving as president and later director of the R Association , an alumni group for former Rice student @-@ athletes . In the late 1960s , he became the president of the Greater Houston Bowl Association , which organized the Bluebonnet Bowl . By the mid @-@ 1970s , he was chairman of the Bowl 's selection committee .
Humble won numerous honors after his career . He became the first Rice player inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1961 . He was included on a 50th anniversary All @-@ Southwest Conference team in 1968 , and in 1970 was one of the first people inducted into the Rice University Athletics Hall of Fame . Humble was inducted into the Texas Sports Hall of Fame and the South Texas Football Hall of Fame in 1969 .
Later in life , Humble worked for the Harris County Appraisal Review Board and was a salesman for an office furniture supply company . He died in 1998 in Houston after a long illness . Humble and his wife Lorraine had three children .
= Barbara Hershey =
Barbara Hershey ( born Barbara Lynn Herzstein ; February 5 , 1948 ) , once known as Barbara Seagull , is an American actress . In a career spanning nearly 50 years , she has played a variety of roles on television and in cinema in several genres , including westerns and comedies . She began acting at age 17 in 1965 but did not achieve much critical acclaim until the latter half of the 1980s . By that time , the Chicago Tribune referred to her as " one of America 's finest actresses . "
Hershey won an Emmy and a Golden Globe for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Miniseries / TV Film for her role in A Killing in a Small Town ( 1990 ) . She has also received Golden Globe nominations for Best Supporting Actress for her role as Mary Magdalene in Martin Scorsese 's The Last Temptation of Christ ( 1988 ) and for her role in Jane Campion 's Portrait of a Lady ( 1996 ) . For the latter film , she was also nominated for an Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and won the Los Angeles Film Critics Award for Best Supporting Actress . In addition , she has won two Best Actress awards at the Cannes Film Festival for her roles in Shy People ( 1987 ) and A World Apart ( 1988 ) . She was also featured in Woody Allen 's critically acclaimed Hannah and Her Sisters ( 1986 ) , for which she was nominated for the British Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress and Garry Marshall 's melodrama Beaches ( 1988 ) , and she earned a second British Academy Award nomination for Darren Aronofsky 's Black Swan ( 2010 ) .
Establishing a reputation early in her career as a " hippie , " Hershey experienced conflict between her personal life and her acting goals . Her career suffered a decline during a six @-@ year relationship with actor David Carradine , with whom she had a child . She experimented with a change in stage name that she later regretted . During this time her personal life was highly publicized and ridiculed . It was not until she separated from Carradine and changed her stage name back to Hershey that her acting career became well established . Later in her career , she began to keep her personal life private .
= = Early life = =
Barbara Herzstein was born in Hollywood , California . She is the daughter of Melrose ( née Moore ) and Arnold Nathan Herzstein . Her father , a horse racing columnist , was Jewish ( his parents had emigrated from Hungary and Russia ) and her mother , a native of Arkansas , was a Presbyterian of Irish descent .
The youngest of three children , Barbara always wanted to be an actress , and her family nicknamed her " Sarah Bernhardt . " She was shy in school and so quiet that people thought she was deaf . By the age of 10 she proved herself to be an " A " student . Her high school drama coach helped her find an agent , and in 1965 , at age 17 , she landed a role on Sally Field 's television series Gidget . Barbara said that she found Field to be very supportive of her in her first acting role . According to The New York Times All Movie Guide , Barbara graduated from Hollywood High School in 1966 , but David Carradine , in his autobiography , said she dropped out of high school after she began acting .
= = Career = =
Barbara 's acting debut , three episodes of Gidget , was followed by the short @-@ lived television series The Monroes ( 1
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that the problem that caused his retirement had been discovered the night before . He added : " We had two possibilities , retire the car without even starting the race or try our maximum , knowing that maybe one or two laps was the maximum we could achieve [ ... ] . We did one lap , for respect of the fans because they were amazing all weekend . "
Following their worst weekend in almost ten years , Ferrari were self @-@ critical . Sebastian Vettel was quoted as describing his race as " a shit job " , and later took full responsibility for his race ending crash , saying that he " probably just ask [ ed ] or want [ ed ] a little bit too much " . Speaking about the collision between Kimi Räikkönen and Valtteri Bottas , Ferrari team principal Maurizio Arrivabene said : " It 's an accident , it 's part of the show . I don 't want to blame anybody . " He went on to describe the weekend as " a good lesson " for the team , taking positive things from the race , such as the good race pace shown by both cars . As a result of their double retirement , both Ferrari drivers lost their respective positions in the Drivers ' Championship . While Vettel was overtaken by Rosberg into second place , Räikkönen lost fourth position to Valtteri Bottas . In the Constructors ' Standings , Williams moved closer to Ferrari in second place , now trailing them by 131 points . At the FIA Prize Giving Ceremony on 3 December 2015 , the organizers were awarded the prize as Best Promoter .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
Notes :
^ 1 — Kimi Räikkönen received a ten- and four five @-@ place grid penalties for exceeding the allowed allocation of four of his power unit components , as well as a five @-@ place grid penalty for an unauthorized gearbox change .
^ 2 — Fernando Alonso received a ten @-@ place grid penalty for an engine change and a five @-@ place grid penalty for an unauthorized gearbox change .
^ 3 — Jenson Button did not set a lap time during Q1 . He received permission from the stewards to start the race . Additionally , he received 70 @-@ place ( three ten- and eight five @-@ place ) grid penalties for exceeding the allowed allocation of five of his power unit components , unscheduled engine and gearbox changes .
= = = Race = = =
= = = Championship standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
Bold text indicates 2015 World Champions .
= Columbian mammoth =
The Columbian mammoth ( Mammuthus columbi ) is an extinct species of mammoth that inhabited North America as far north as the northern United States and as far south as Costa Rica during the Pleistocene epoch . It was one of the last in a line of mammoth species , beginning with M. subplanifrons in the early Pliocene . The Columbian mammoth evolved from the steppe mammoth , which entered North America from Asia about 1 @.@ 5 million years ago . The pygmy mammoths of the Channel Islands of California evolved from Columbian mammoths . The closest extant relative of the Columbian and other mammoths is the Asian elephant .
Reaching 4 m ( 13 ft ) at the shoulders and 8 – 10 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 lb ) in weight , the Columbian mammoth was one of the largest species of mammoth . It had long , curved tusks and four molars , which were replaced six times during the lifetime of an individual . It most likely used its tusks and trunk like modern elephants — for manipulating objects , fighting , and foraging . Bones , hair , dung and stomach contents have been discovered , but no preserved carcasses are known . The Columbian mammoth preferred open areas , such as parkland landscapes , and fed on sedge , grass , and other plants . It did not live in the Arctic regions of Canada , which were instead inhabited by woolly mammoths . The ranges of the two species may have overlapped , and genetic evidence suggests that they interbred . Several sites contain the skeletons of multiple Columbian mammoths , either because they died in a single incident such as a flash flood , or because these locations were natural traps in which individuals accumulated over time .
For a few thousand years prior to their extinction , Columbian mammoths coexisted in North America with Palaeoamericans – the first humans to inhabit the Americas – who hunted them for food , used their bones for making tools , and depicted them in ancient art . Columbian mammoth remains have been found in association with Clovis culture artifacts ; these remains may have stemmed either from hunting or from scavenging . The Columbian mammoth disappeared at the end of the Pleistocene around 11 @,@ 000 years ago , most likely as a result of habitat loss caused by climate change , hunting by humans , or a combination of both .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Columbian mammoth was first scientifically described in 1857 by Scottish naturalist Hugh Falconer , who named the species Elephas columbi after Christopher Columbus . The animal was brought to Falconer 's attention in 1846 by Charles Lyell , who sent him molar fragments found during the 1838 excavation of the Brunswick – Altamaha Canal in Georgia , in the southeastern United States . At the time , similar fossils from across North America were attributed to woolly mammoths ( then Elephas primigenius ) . Falconer found that his specimens were distinct , confirming his conclusion by examining their internal structure and studying additional molars from Mexico . Although William Phipps Blake and Richard Owen believed that E. texianus was more appropriate for the species , Falconer rejected the name ; he also suggested that E. imperator and E. jacksoni , two other American elephants described from molars , were based on remains too fragmentary to classify properly . More complete material that may be from the same quarry as Falconer 's fragmentary holotype molar was reported in 2012 , and could help shed more light on that specimen , since doubts about its adequacy as a holotype have been raised .
In the early 20th century , the taxonomy of extinct elephants became increasingly complicated . In 1942 , Henry Fairfield Osborn 's posthumous monograph on the Proboscidea was published , wherein he used various genus and subgenus names that had previously been proposed for extinct elephant species , such as Archidiskodon , Metarchidiskodon , Parelephas , and Mammonteus . Osborn also retained names for many regional and intermediate subspecies or " varieties " , and created recombinations such as Parelephas columbi felicis and Archidiskodon imperator maibeni . The taxonomic situation was simplified by various researchers from the 1970s onwards : all species of mammoth were retained in the genus Mammuthus , and many proposed differences between species were instead interpreted as intraspecific variation . In 2003 , palaeontologist Larry Agenbroad summarised current views about North American mammoth taxonomy , and concluded that several species had been declared junior synonyms , and that M. columbi ( the Columbian mammoth ) and M. exilis ( the pygmy mammoth ) were the only species of mammoth endemic to the Americas ( as other species lived both there and in Eurasia ) . The idea that species such as M. imperator ( the imperial mammoth ) and M. jeffersoni ( Jefferson 's mammoth ) were either more primitive or advanced stages in Columbian mammoth evolution was largely dismissed , and they were regarded as synonyms . In spite of these conclusions , Agenbroad cautioned that American mammoth taxonomy is not yet fully resolved .
= = = Evolution = = =
The earliest known members of Proboscidea , the clade that contains the elephants , existed about 55 million years ago around the Tethys Sea area . The closest living relatives of the Proboscidea are the sirenians ( dugongs and manatees ) and the hyraxes ( an order of small , herbivorous mammals ) . The family Elephantidae existed six million years ago in Africa , and includes the living elephants and the mammoths . Among many now extinct clades , the mastodon ( Mammut ) is only a distant relative , and part of the distinct family Mammutidae , which diverged 25 million years before the mammoths evolved . The Asian elephant ( Elephas maximus ) is the closest extant relative of the mammoths . The following cladogram shows the placement of the Columbian mammoth among other proboscideans , based on characteristics of the hyoid bone in the neck :
Since many remains of each species of mammoth are known from several localities , it is possible to reconstruct the evolutionary history of the genus through morphological studies . Mammoth species can be identified from the number of enamel ridges ( or lamellar plates ) on their molars : primitive species had few ridges , and the number increased gradually as new species evolved to feed on more abrasive food items . The crowns of the teeth became deeper in height and the skulls became taller to accommodate this . At the same time , the skulls became shorter from front to back to minimise the weight of the head . The short , tall skulls of woolly and Columbian mammoths are the culmination of this process .
The first known members of the genus Mammuthus are the African species M. subplanifrons from the Pliocene , and M. africanavus from the Pleistocene . The former is thought to be the ancestor of later forms . Mammoths entered Europe around 3 million years ago . The earliest European mammoth has been named M. rumanus ; it spread across Europe and China . Only its molars are known , which show that it had 8 – 10 enamel ridges . A population evolved 12 – 14 ridges , splitting off from and replacing the earlier type , becoming M. meridionalis about 2 – 1 @.@ 7 million years ago . In turn , this species was replaced by the steppe mammoth ( M. trogontherii ) with 18 – 20 ridges , which evolved in eastern Asia around 2 – 1 @.@ 5 million years ago . The Columbian mammoth evolved from a population of M. trogontherii that had crossed the Bering Strait and entered North America about 1 @.@ 5 million years ago ; it retained a similar number of molar ridges . Mammoths derived from M. trogontherii evolved molars with 26 ridges 400 @,@ 000 years ago in Siberia and became the woolly mammoth ( M. primigenius ) . Woolly mammoths entered North America about 100 @,@ 000 years ago .
A population of Columbian mammoths that lived between 80 @,@ 000 and 13 @,@ 000 years ago on the Channel Islands of California , 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) away from the mainland , evolved to be less than half the size of the mainland Columbian mammoths . They are therefore considered to be the distinct species M. exilis , the pygmy mammoth ( or a subspecies , M. c. exilis ) . These mammoths presumably reached the islands by swimming there when sea levels were lower , and decreased in size due to the limited food provided by the islands ' small areas . Bones of larger specimens have also been found on the islands , but it is unknown whether these were stages in the dwarfing process , or later arrivals of Columbian mammoths .
A 2011 study of the complete mitochondrial genome ( inherited through the female line ) showed that two examined Columbian mammoths , including the morphologically typical " Huntington mammoth " , were grouped within a subclade of woolly mammoths . This suggests that the two populations interbred and produced fertile offspring . One possible explanation is introgression of a haplogroup from woolly to Columbian mammoths , or vice versa . A similar situation has been documented in modern species of African elephant ( Loxodonta ) , the African bush elephant ( L. africana ) and the African forest elephant ( L. cyclotis ) . The authors of the study also suggest that the North American type formerly referred to as M. jeffersonii may have been a hybrid between the two species , as it is apparently morphologically intermediate . These findings were not expected by scientists ; nuclear DNA and more specimens will have to be analysed to clarify the situation .
A 2015 study of mammoth molars confirmed that M. columbi evolved from Eurasian M. trogontherii , not M. meridionalis as had been suggested earlier , and noted that M. columbi and M. trogontherii were so similar in morphology that their classification as separate species may be questionable . The study also suggested that the animals in the range where M. columbi and M. primigenius overlapped formed a metapopulation of hybrids with varying morphology . In 2016 , a genetic study of North American mammoth specimens confirmed that M. columbi and M. primigenius interbred extensively , were both descended from M. trogontherii , and concluded that morphological differences between fossils may therefore not be reliable for determining taxonomy . The authors also questioned whether M. columbi and M. primigenius should be considered " good species " , considering that they were able to interbreed after supposedly being separated for a million years , but cautioned that more specimens need to be sampled .
= = Description = =
The Columbian mammoth reached 4 m ( 13 ft ) tall at the shoulder , and weighed up to 8 – 10 tonnes ( 18 @,@ 000 – 22 @,@ 000 lb ) . It was about the same size as the earlier mammoth species M. meridionalis and M. trogontherii , and was larger than the modern African elephant and the woolly mammoth , both of which reached about 2 @.@ 7 to 3 @.@ 4 m ( 8 @.@ 9 to 11 @.@ 2 ft ) . Males were generally larger and more robust . The best indication of sex is the size of the pelvic girdle , since the opening that functions as the birth canal is always wider in females than in males . Like other mammoths , the Columbian mammoth had a high , single @-@ domed head and a sloping back with a high shoulder hump ; this shape resulted from the spinous processes ( protrusions ) of the back vertebrae decreasing in length from front to rear . Juveniles , on the other hand , had convex backs like Asian elephants . Other skeletal features include a short , deep rostrum ( front part of the jaws ) , a rounded mandibular symphysis ( central jaw ridge ) and the coronoid process of the mandible ( upper protrusion of the jaw bone ) extending above the molar surfaces .
Apart from its larger size and more primitive molars , the Columbian mammoth also differed from the woolly mammoth by its more downturned mandibular symphysis ; the dental alveoli ( tooth sockets ) of the tusks were directed more laterally away from the midline . Its tail was intermediate in length between that of modern elephants and the woolly mammoth . Since no Columbian mammoth soft tissue has been found , much less is known about its appearance than that of the woolly mammoth . It lived in warmer habitats than the woolly mammoth , and probably lacked many of the adaptations seen in that species . Hair thought to be that of the Columbian mammoth has been discovered in Bechan Cave in Utah , where mammoth dung has also been found . Some of this hair is coarse , and identical to that known to belong to woolly mammoths ; however , since this location is so far south it is unlikely to be woolly mammoth hair . The distribution and density of fur on the living animal is unknown , but it was probably less dense than that of the woolly mammoth due to the warmer habitat .
= = = Dentition = = =
Columbian mammoths had very long tusks ( modified incisor teeth ) , which were more curved than those of modern elephants . The largest known mammoth tusk , 4 @.@ 9 m ( 16 ft ) long , belonged to a Columbian mammoth , and others range from 3 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 121 m ( 11 @.@ 48 to 13 @.@ 52 ft ) long . Columbian mammoth tusks were usually not much larger than those of woolly mammoths , which reached 4 @.@ 2 m ( 14 ft ) . The tusks of females were much smaller and thinner . About a quarter of the tusks ' length was inside the sockets ; they grew spirally in opposite directions from the base , curving until the tips pointed towards each other , and sometimes crossed . Most of their weight would have been close to the skull , with less torque than straight tusks would have provided . The tusks were usually asymmetrical , with considerable variation ; some tusks curved down , instead of outwards , or were shorter due to breakage . Columbian mammoth tusks were generally less twisted than those of woolly mammoths . At six months of age calves developed milk tusks a few centimeters long , which were replaced by permanent tusks a year later . Annual tusk growth of 2 @.@ 5 – 15 cm ( 0 @.@ 98 – 5 @.@ 91 in ) continued throughout life , slowing as the animal reached adulthood .
Columbian mammoths had four functional molar teeth at a time , two in the upper jaw and two in the lower . About 23 cm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) of the crown was within the jaw , and 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 in ) was above . The crown was pushed forward and up as it wore down , comparable to a conveyor belt . The teeth had separated ridges of enamel , which were covered in " prisms " directed towards the chewing surface . Wear @-@ resistant , they were held together with cementum and dentin . A mammoth 's molars were replaced five times over the animal 's lifetime . The first molars were about the size of those of a human , 1 @.@ 3 cm ( 0 @.@ 51 in ) ; the third were 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 9 in ) long , and the sixth were about 30 cm ( 1 ft ) long and weighed 1 @.@ 8 kg ( 4 lb ) . With each replacement , the molars grew larger and gained more ridges ; the number of plates varied between individuals . Growing 18 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) of ridge took about 10 @.@ 6 years .
= = Palaeobiology = =
Like that of modern elephants , the mammoth 's sensitive , muscular trunk was a limb @-@ like organ with many functions . It was used for manipulating objects and social interaction . Although healthy adult mammoths could defend themselves from predators with their tusks , trunks and size , juveniles and weakened adults were vulnerable to pack hunters such as wolves and big cats . Bones of juvenile Columbian mammoths , accumulated by Homotherium ( the scimitar @-@ toothed cat ) , have been found in Friesenhahn Cave in Texas . Tusks may have been used in intra @-@ species fighting for territory or mates and for display , to attract females and intimidate rivals . Two Columbian mammoths that died in Nebraska with tusks interlocked provide evidence of fighting behavior . The mammoths could use their tusks as weapons by thrusting , swiping or crashing them down , and used them in pushing contests by interlocking them , which sometimes resulted in breakage . The tusks ' curvature made them unsuitable for stabbing . On Goat Rock Beach in Sonoma Coast State Park , blueschist and chert outcrops ( nicknamed " Mammoth Rocks " ) show evidence of having been rubbed by Columbian mammoths or mastodons . The rocks have polished areas 3 – 4 m ( 9 @.@ 8 – 13 @.@ 1 ft ) above the ground , primarily near their edges , and are similar to African rubbing rocks used by elephants and other herbivores to rid themselves of mud and parasites . Similar rocks exist in Hueco Tanks , Texas , and on Cornudas Mountain in New Mexico .
Accumulations of modern elephant remains have been called " elephants ' graveyards " , because these sites were erroneously thought to be where old elephants went to die . Similar accumulations of mammoth bones have been found ; it is thought these are the result of individuals dying near or in rivers over thousands of years and their bones being accumulated by the water ( such as in the Aucilla River in Florida ) , or animals dying after becoming mired in mud . Some accumulations are thought to be the remains of herds which died at the same time , perhaps due to flooding . Columbian mammoths are occasionally preserved in volcanic deposits such as those in Tocuila , Texcoco , Mexico , where a volcanic lahar mudflow covered at least seven individuals 12 @,@ 500 years ago . It is unknown how many mammoths lived at one location at a time , but it is likely that the number varied by season and life cycle . Modern elephants can form large herds , sometimes consisting of multiple family groups , and these herds can include thousands of animals migrating together . Mammoths may have formed large herds more often than modern elephants , since animals living in open areas are more likely to do this than those in forested areas . Although it is unclear to what extent Columbian mammoths migrated , an isotope analysis of Blackwater Draw in New Mexico indicated that they spent part of the year in the Rocky Mountains , 200 km ( 120 mi ) away . The study of tusk rings may aid further study of mammoth migration .
Like modern elephants , Columbian mammoths were probably social and lived in matriarchal ( female @-@ led ) family groups ; most of their other social behavior was also similar to that of modern elephants . This is supported by fossil assemblages such as the Dent Site in Colorado and the Waco Mammoth National Monument in Waco , Texas , where groups consisting entirely of female and juvenile Columbian mammoths have been found ( implying female @-@ led family groups ) . The latter assemblage includes 22 skeletons , with 15 individuals representing a herd of females and juveniles that died in a single event , probably a flash flood ; the arrangement of some of the skeletons suggests that the females may have formed a defensive ring around the juveniles . At the same site another group , consisting of a bull and six females , also appears to have been killed by a flash flood ; although both groups died between 64 @,@ 000 and 73 @,@ 000 years ago , whether they died in the same event is unknown . At the Murray Springs Clovis Site in Arizona , where several Columbian mammoth skeletons have been excavated , a trackway similar to that left by modern elephants leads to one of the skeletons . The mammoth may have made the trackway before it died , or another individual may have approached the dead or dying animal — similar to the way modern elephants guard dead relatives for several days .
= = = Natural traps = = =
Many specimens also accumulated in natural traps , such as sinkholes and tar pits . The Hot Springs Mammoth Site in South Dakota is a 26 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old , approximately 40 m ( 130 ft ) -long sinkhole that functioned for 300 to 700 years before filling with sediment . The site is the opposite scenario of that in Waco ; all but one of the at least 55 skeletons — additional skeletons are excavated each year — are male , and accumulated over time rather than in a single event . It is assumed that like modern male elephants , male mammoths primarily lived alone , were more adventurous ( especially young males ) and more likely to encounter dangerous situations than the females . The mammoths may have been lured to the hole by warm water or vegetation near the edges , slipping in and drowning or starving . Isotope studies of growth rings have shown that most of the mammoths died during spring and summer , which may have correlated with vegetation near the sinkhole . One individual , nicknamed " Murray " , lies on its side , and probably died in this pose while struggling to get free . Deep footprints of mammoths attempting to free themselves from the sinkhole 's mud can be seen in vertically @-@ excavated sections of the site .
Since the early 20th century , excavations at the La Brea Tar Pits in Los Angeles have yielded 100 tonnes of fossils from 600 species of flora and fauna , including several Columbian mammoths . Many of the fossils are the remains of animals that became stuck in asphalt puddles which seeped to the surface of the pits , 40 @,@ 000 to 11 @,@ 500 years ago . Dust and leaves likely concealed the liquid asphalt , which then trapped unwary animals . Mired animals died from hunger or exhaustion ; their corpses attracted predators , which sometimes became stuck themselves . The tar pits ' fossil record is dominated by the remains of predators , such as large canids and felids . Fossils of different animals are found stuck together when they are excavated from the pits . The tar pits do not preserve soft tissue , and a 2014 study concluded that asphalt may degrade the DNA of animals mired in it after an attempt was made to extract DNA from a Columbian mammoth .
= = = Diet = = =
An adult Columbian mammoth would have needed more than 180 kg ( 400 lb ) of food per day , and may have foraged for twenty hours a day . Mammoths chewed their food by using their powerful jaw muscles to move the mandible forward and close the mouth , then backward while opening ; the sharp enamel ridges thereby cut across each other , grinding the food . The ridges were wear @-@ resistant , enabling the animal to chew large quantities of food which contained grit . The trunk could be used for pulling up large tufts of grass , picking buds and flowers or tearing leaves and branches from trees and shrubs , and the tusks were used to dig up plants and strip bark from trees . Digging is indicated on preserved tusks by flat , polished sections of the surface that would have reached the ground . Isotope studies of Columbian mammoths from Mexico and the United States have shown that their diet varied by location , consisting of a mix of C3 ( most plants ) and C4 plants ( such as grasses ) , and they were not restricted to grazing or browsing .
Stomach contents from Columbian mammoths are rare , since no carcasses have been found , but plant remains were discovered between the pelvis and ribs of the " Huntington mammoth " when it was excavated in Utah . Microscopy showed that these chewed remains consisted of sedge , grass , fir twigs and needles , oak and maple . A large amount of mammoth dung has been found in two caves in Utah . The dry conditions and stable temperature of Bechan Cave ( bechan is Navajo for " large faeces " ) has preserved 16,000- to 13 @,@ 500 @-@ year @-@ old elephant dung , most likely from Columbian mammoths . The dung consists of 95 percent grass and sedge , and varies from 0 to 25 percent of woody plants between dung boluses , including saltbush , sagebrush , water birch and blue spruce . This is similar to the diet documented for the woolly mammoth , although browsing seems to have been more important for the Columbian mammoth . The cover of dung is 41 cm ( 16 in ) thick , and has a volume of 227 m ³ ( 8 @,@ 000 cubic ft ) , with the largest boluses 20 cm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) in diameter . The Bechan dung could have been produced by a small group of mammoths over a relatively short time , since adult African elephants drop an average of 11 kg ( 24 lb ) of dung every two hours and 90 – 135 kg ( 198 – 298 lb ) each day .
It has been proposed that giant North American fruits of plants such as the Osage @-@ orange , Kentucky coffeetree and honey locust evolved in tandem with now @-@ extinct American megafauna such as mammoths and other proboscideans , since there are no extant endemic herbivores able to ingest these fruits and disperse their seeds . Introduced cattle and horses have since taken over this ecological role .
= = = Life history = = =
The lifespan of the Columbian mammoth is thought to have been about 80 years . The lifespan of a mammal is related to its size ; Columbian mammoths are larger than modern elephants , which have a lifespan of about 60 years . The age of a mammoth can be roughly determined by counting the growth rings of its tusks when viewed in cross section . However , ring @-@ counting does not account for a mammoth 's early years ; early growth is represented in tusk tips , which are usually worn away . In the remainder of the tusk each major line represents a year , with weekly and daily lines found in between . Dark bands correspond to summer , making it possible to determine the season in which a mammoth died . Tusk growth slowed when foraging became more difficult , such as during illness or when a male mammoth was banished from the herd ( male elephants live with their herds until about the age of ten ) .
Mammoths continued growing during adulthood , as do other elephants . Males grew until age 40 , and females until age 25 . Mammoths may have had gestation periods of 21 – 22 months , like those of modern elephants . Columbian mammoths had six sets of molars in the course of a lifetime . At 6 – 12 months the second set of molars would erupt , with the first set worn out at 18 months of age . The third set of molars lasted for ten years , and this process was repeated until the sixth set emerged at 30 years of age . When the last set of molars wore out the animal would be unable to chew , and would die of starvation .
Almost all vertebrae of the " Huntington mammoth " , a very aged specimen , were deformed by arthritic disease , and four of its lumbar vertebrae were fused ; some bones also indicate bacterial infection , such as osteomyelitis . The condition of the bones suggests the specimen died of old age and malnutrition .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
Columbian mammoths inhabited the southern half of North America , ranging from the northern United States across Mexico as far south as Costa Rica . One Costa Rican specimen , a molar , was reported in 1963 but has since been lost . The environment in these areas may have had more varied habitats than those inhabited by woolly mammoths in the north ( the mammoth steppe ) . Some areas were covered by grass , herbaceous plants , trees and shrubs ; their composition varied from region to region , and included grassland , savanna and aspen parkland habitats . There were also wooded areas ; although mammoths would not have preferred forests , clearings could provide them with grass and herbs .
The Columbian mammoth shared its habitat with other now @-@ extinct Pleistocene mammals ( such as Glyptodon , Smilodon , ground sloths , Camelops and the American mastodon ) , horses and buffalos . It did not live in Arctic Canada , which was inhabited by woolly mammoths . Fossils of woolly and Columbian mammoths have been found in the same place in a few areas of North America where their ranges overlapped , including the Hot Springs Site . It is unknown whether the two species were sympatric and lived there simultaneously , or if the woolly mammoths entered southern areas when Columbian mammoth populations were absent . The Columbian mammoth coexisted with the other extinct proboscideans Stegomastodon mirificus and Cuvieronius tropicus at sites in Texas and New Mexico during the early Irvingtonian .
= = Relationship with humans = =
Humans entered the Americas through Beringia , and evidence documents their interactions with Columbian mammoths . Tools made from Columbian mammoth remains have been discovered in several North American sites . At Tocuila , Mexico , mammoth bones were quarried 13 @,@ 000 years ago to produce lithic flakes and cores . At the Lange @-@ Ferguson Site in South Dakota , the remains of two mammoths were found with two 12 @,@ 800 @-@ year @-@ old cleaver choppers made from a mammoth shoulder blade ; the choppers had been used to butcher the mammoths . At the same site , a flake knife made from a long mammoth bone was also found wedged against mammoth vertebrae . At Murray Springs , archaeologists discovered a 13 @,@ 100 @-@ year @-@ old object made from a mammoth femur ; the object is thought to be a shaft wrench , a tool for straightening wood and bone to make spear @-@ shafts ( the Inuit use similar tools ) .
The earliest suggested evidence of Columbian mammoth @-@ butchering in America ( from Lovewell , Kansas ) dates from 18 @,@ 000 to 21 @,@ 000 years ago . Paleo @-@ Indians of the Clovis culture , which arose 7 @,@ 000 years later , may have been the first humans to hunt mammoths extensively . These people are thought to have hunted Columbian mammoths with Clovis pointed spears which were thrown or thrust . Although Clovis points have been found with Columbian mammoth remains at several sites , archaeologists disagree about whether the finds represent hunting , scavenging dead mammoths , or are coincidental . A female mammoth at the Naco @-@ Mammoth Kill Site in Arizona , found with eight Clovis points near its skull , shoulder blade , ribs and other bones , is considered the most convincing evidence for hunting . In modern experiments , replica spears have been able to penetrate the rib cages of African elephants with re @-@ use causing little damage to the points .
Other sites show more circumstantial evidence of mammoth hunting , such as piled bones bearing butcher marks . Some of these sites are not closely associated with Clovis points . The Lehner Mammoth @-@ Kill Site and the Dent Site , where multiple juvenile and adult mammoths have been found with butcher marks and in association with Clovis points , were once interpreted as the killing of entire herds by Clovis hunters . However , isotope studies have shown that the accumulations represent individual deaths at different seasons of the year , and therefore not herds killed in single incidents . Many other such assemblages of bones with butcher marks may also represent accumulations over time , and are therefore ambiguous as evidence for large scale hunting .
Petroglyphs in the Colorado Plateau depict either Columbian mammoths or mastodons . A 13 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old bone fragment from Vero Beach , Florida , the earliest example of art in the Americas , is engraved with either a mammoth or a mastodon . 11 @,@ 000 – 13 @,@ 000 @-@ year @-@ old petroglyphs from the San Juan River in Utah are thought to include depictions of two Columbian mammoths ; the mammoths ' domed heads distinguish them from mastodons . They are also shown with two " fingers " on their trunks , a feature known from European depictions of mammoths . The tusks are short , which may indicate they are meant to be females . A carving of a bison ( possibly the extinct Bison antiquus ) is superimposed on one of the mammoth carvings and may be a later addition . Other possible depictions of Columbian mammoths have been shown to be either misinterpretations or fraudulent .
The Columbian mammoth is the state fossil of Washington and South Carolina . Nebraska 's state fossil is " Archie " , a Columbian mammoth specimen found in the state in 1922 . " Archie " is currently on display at Elephant Hall in Lincoln , Nebraska , and is the largest mounted mammoth specimen in the United States .
= = Extinction = =
Columbian and woolly mammoths both disappeared during the late Pleistocene and early Holocene , alongside most of the Pleistocene megafauna . The most recent Columbian mammoth remains have been dated to around 11 @,@ 500 years ago . This extinction formed part of the Quaternary extinction event , which began 40 @,@ 000 years ago and peaked between 14 @,@ 000 and 11 @,@ 500 years ago . Scientists do not know whether these extinctions happened abruptly or were drawn out . During this period , 40 mammal species disappeared from North America , almost all of which weighed over 40 kg ( 88 lb ) ; the extinction of the mammoths cannot be explained in isolation .
Scientists are divided over whether climate change , hunting , or a combination of the two , drove the extinction of the Columbian mammoths . According to the climate change hypothesis , warmer weather led to the shrinking of suitable habitat for Columbian mammoths , which turned from parkland to forest , grassland and semi @-@ desert , with less diverse vegetation . The overkill hypothesis , on the other hand , attributes the extinction to hunting by humans . This idea was first proposed by Paul S. Martin in 1967 ; more recent research on this subject have varied in their conclusions . A 2002 study concluded that the archaeological record did not support the overkill hypothesis , given that only 14 Clovis sites ( 12 with mammoth remains and two with mastodon remains ) out of 76 examined provided strong evidence of hunting . In contrast , a 2007 study found that the Clovis record indicated the highest frequency of prehistoric exploitation of proboscideans for subsistence in the world , and supported the overkill hypothesis . Whatever the actual cause of extinction , large mammals are generally more vulnerable than smaller ones due to their smaller population size and low reproduction rates .
= Tejano Music Award for Female Vocalist of the Year =
The Tejano Music Award for Female Vocalist of the Year is an honor presented to female Tejano music recording artists . The Tejano Music Awards , first bestowed in 1981 , was established to recognize the most talented performers of the genre — a subcategory of regional Mexican music , with roots in the music of early European settlers in Texas . The awards are presented by the Texas Talent Musicians Association ( TTMA ) , to " promote excellence in the Tejano music industry " using the popular vote method to select the winner of the female vocalist of the year . Historically , female musicians fared less favorably in the male @-@ dominated genre and were seen as inferior to their male counterparts . The award was established by Rick Trevino , a male Tejano performer , who founded the Awards in 1981 .
The award was first presented to American singer Lisa Lopez . Laura Canales won the award five nonconsecutive times , and is considered Tejano music 's first leading lady before the genre 's golden age in the 1990s . Selena holds the record for most wins , winning 11 of her 12 nominations . The singer has been called the Queen of Tejano music , and is credited with catapulting the genre into the mainstream market . Following her death in March 1995 , the genre suffered and its popularity waned . In 1998 Shelly Lares won for the first time since she was initially nominated in 1986 . She holds the record for most nominations at 28 . The following year Jennifer Peña won the award ; the first time the award was won by two different participants since 1982 . The current award holder is Elida Reyna who shares the record with Selena for most consecutive wins - nine .
= = Background and nomination process = =
Tejano music is a blend of polka , jazz , rhythm and blues , and country music , with influences of American pop music . Early European settlers introduced the accordion and bajo sexto , one of the major musical components used in the genre , to the state of Texas . Tejano music has since been urbanized with the introduction of keyboards and synthesizers . Historically , female musicians were seen as inferior and less successful commercially than their male counterparts , and were often turned down by music concert organizers who wanted sellouts . The female vocalist category was introduced at the first awards ceremony which was pioneered by Rick Trevino , a male Tejano musician , in 1981 .
Nominees were originally selected by a voting poll conducted by program directors and disc jockeys at Spanish @-@ language radio stations in Texas . Winners were previously chosen by Tejano radio station KIWW listeners in the 1980s , and later by fans of Tejano musicians in the Southwest of the United States . Currently , winners are selected through a survey of 50 @,@ 000 Texas households with Hispanic surnames , though anyone with Internet access is eligible to vote on the official website page .
By 1987 , the awards ceremony was broadcast by 32 radio stations and 25 local television channels in Texas , New Mexico , Arkansas , Oklahoma , and Louisiana . The awards ceremony was originally held at the Henry B. Gonzalez Convention Center , then at the San Antonio Convention Center until 1994 , and the Alamodome until 1999 . As of 2015 , the ceremony is held annually at the Tobin Center for the Performing Arts in San Antonio , Texas .
= = Recipients = =
The award was first presented to American singer Lisa Lopez , who had a US Billboard Regional Mexican Airplay number one single with " Si Quieres Verme Llorar " ( 1982 ) . Lopez ' core audience was Mexicans , and she became the first female Tejano singer to appear on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart in October 1986 . Laura Canales , who popularized grupos in the 1970s , won the award five nonconsecutive times . She was considered Tejano music 's first leading lady before the genre 's golden age in the 1990s . At the sixth Tejano Music Awards ( 1986 ) , Female Vocalist of the Year nominees included newcomers Shelly Lares and Selena who were up against veteran winner Canales . Selena won the award and won again at the seventh Tejano Music Awards in 1987 ; Canales won the honor in 1988 . Beginning in 1989 , Selena won the award for seven consecutive years .
At the 10th Tejano Music Awards ( 1990 ) , the nomination pool increased to include newcomers Cathy Chavez , Jean Le Grand , Agnes Torres , and veteran performers Selena , Lares , Elsa Garcia , and Canales . From the 11th ( 1991 ) and 12th Tejano Music Awards ( 1992 ) , the nominees remained the same with Selena , Lares , and Canales . The 13th Tejano Music Awards nominees included newcomer Esmeralda along with Selena and Lares . At the 14th Tejano Music Awards , Elsa Garcia was nominated for the first time in four years . Selena twice won the award posthumously after her shooting death in March 1995 . She was called the Queen of Tejano music and was credited with catapulting the genre into the mainstream U.S. market . Following the singer 's death , Tejano music 's popularity faded and has never recovered . At the 16th Tejano Music Awards ( 1998 ) , Shelly Lares won the honor for the first time since she was nominated in 1986 . Among the nominees for the 16th annual ceremony was newcomer Jennifer Peña , who was pegged as " the next Selena " , and Elida Reyna who was first nominated in 1996 . Peña was awarded the honor in 1999 , 2001 , and 2003 before retiring from the music industry .
In 2000 , Elida Reyna took home the award . At the 22nd Tejano Music Awards , Lares won out over Reyna and Peña . For the 24th Tejano Music Awards nominees Kacy Zavala and Megan Leyva were up against veterans Reyna and Lares , with the former winning the title . The nomination pool increased for the 25th Tejano Music Awards with nominees including newcomers Delia Gonzáles , Julia Pizano , Linna Martínez , Machy De La Garza , Michelle , Stefani Montiel , and Yvette , while Kacy Zavala and Megan Leyva were up against veterans Reyna and Lares who won the award . Lares continued to win the award with her last win at the 26th Tejano Music Awards , when she was up against Montiel , Reyna , and newcomers Tracy Perez and Rebecca Valadez . Beginning in 2007 , Reyna dominated the award and remains the title holder as of 2015 .
= = = General = = =
= = = Specific = = =
= The Girl of the Northern Woods =
The Girl of the Northern Woods is a 1910 American silent short drama produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film is a drama that follows Lucy Dane and Will Harding and a jealous halfbreed trapper named José . Considering Will his rival , José attempts to ambush Will , but instead shoots Will 's assistant . José then blames Will for the deed and Will is bound by a lynch mob and set to be executed . Lucy frees Will and sends the lynch mob away , but José encounters Will and the two fight . José is wounded and falls over a cliff , but Will is recaptured by the mob . From the bottom of the cliff , José calls out for help and Lucy responds to him . José confesses his crime to Lucy and she rushes to Will and prevents his execution . The film was directed by Barry O 'Neil and was released on June 3 , 1910 . An incomplete print of the film survives in the Library of Congress after its rediscovery in 1978 as part of the Dawson City Collection .
= = Plot = =
The original synopsis of the film was published in the The Moving Picture World , it states : " This picture tells the story of Lucy Dane , a Canadian lumberman 's daughter , and of Will Harding 's love for her . Will is a worthy young surveyor and Lucy feels honored to have his love , and returns it . José , halfbreed trapper , adores Lucy and necessarily dislikes Will , whom he correctly counts his successful rival . More , he bears Will a grudge for responding to Lucy 's cries for help when he forced his attentions on her in the lonely neck of the woods . His chance to even matters with Will come shortly when he fastens on the surveyor 's responsibility for the shooting of the latter 's assistant , of which the halfbreed is himself guilty , having shot the assistant from ambush in mistake for Will . José claims he witnessed Will 's alleged deed and his falsehoods are believed by the lumbermen . Rarely are the courts resorted to in that portion of the North where these events transpired and the rough lumbermen quickly decide to lynch Will . Lucy hears of the fate intended for her sweetheart and cuts his bonds . Further , she sends the lumbermen off in the wrong direction when they set out to recapture Will . The fugitive is spied by the halfbreed , who steals up from behind and attempts to knife him . The surveyor turns just in time , and in the ensuing struggle the halfbreed is wounded and falls over a precipice . At this juncture Will is retaken by the lumbermen . "
" They are leading him to his execution , when the faithful Lucy encounters her sweetheart and whispers : ' Ask for a drink at the brook ! ' Will follows her suggestion , and on stooping to drink finds a revolver which Lucy has placed there for his use . But he is overpowered when he attempts to use the gun and despite Lucy 's effort seems doomed to die . José , the guilty halfbreed , dying at the bottom of the precipice , calls for help . His cries are heard by Lucy , who responds and finds José expiring and repentant . He wishes to clear his conscious before facing his Maker and tells Lucy that he shot Will 's assistant . He puts his confession in writing and , relieved , passes peacefully away . In the meantime the lumbermen have completed the preparations that will make an innocent man pay the penalty of another man 's crime . Already the noose is about Will 's neck and a death prayer on his lips and then , in the nick of time , Lucy arrives with the precious confession , and Will gathers his faithful sweetheart to him in the tenderest scene that has ever closed a thrilling picture . "
= = Cast = =
Anna Rosemond as Lucy Dane
Frank H. Crane as Will Harding
= = Production = =
The film was directed by Barry O 'Neil , the stage name of Thomas J. McCarthy , who would direct many important Thanhouser pictures , including its first two @-@ reeler , Romeo and Juliet . The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it is presumably Lloyd Lonergan . Lonergan was an experienced newspaperman still employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . He was the most important script writer for Thanhouser , averaging 200 scripts a year from 1910 to 1915 . Edwin Thanhouser would later recall that this production featured a minor part of a woodsman who ended up ruining the scene through excessive smoking . He described the young actor trying to focus attention on himself by smoking " like the consolidation of seven chimneys " , but ended up obscuring the action of the scene . The two known credits in the film are for the leading players , Anna Rosemond and Frank H. Crane . Rosemond was one of two leading ladies for the first year of the company . Crane was also involved in the very beginnings of the Thanhouser Company and acted in numerous productions before becoming a director at Thanhouser .
According to an article in the New Rochelle Pioneer the film was produced in New Rochelle and according to a news release the film was shot in the mountains during real blizzard weather . Bowers believes this film was shot during the winter and kept for its later June release . The winter of 1909 through 1910 contained two notable snow events that might have possibly been used in the production . A major snow storm from December 25 to December 26 , 1909 , would make its way through New York City with snow total of about 10 inches and wind gusts up to 58 mph . A second major snow event occurred three weeks later , on January 14 through 15 , 1910 , with New York City getting 15 inches of snow . Another lesser snow event , deemed a blizzard in the press , was recorded in early February .
= = Release and reception = =
The one reel drama , approximately 935 feet , was released on June 3 , 1910 . The film was originally set to be the first release distributed through the Motion Picture Distribution and Sales Company , but a dispute with Carl Laemmle pushed the date back more than a month . The film was reviewed positively in the The Moving Picture World for the real snow and weather and for being a high @-@ class drama . A shorter modern synopsis from the incomplete surviving print from the Library of Congress indicates that the film is lost after the halfbreed falls from the precipice . The film was released nationwide and theater advertisements for the film are known in Kansas , Indiana , Oklahoma , Pennsylvania , and Arizona .
The survival and rediscovery of this film was by happenstance in the Canadian gold rush town of Dawson City , in Yukon , Canada . Beginning in 1903 , the Dawson Amateur Athletic Association began showing films and the unreturned films were deposited in the Canadian Bank of Commerce and stored in the Carnegie library 's basement . The Dawson Amateur Athletic Association later converted a pool to an ice rink , but because of improper conversion the ice rink suffered from uneven temperatures in the middle of the rink . In 1929 , Clifford Thomson , then @-@ employed by the Canadian Bank of Commerce and also treasurer of the hockey association , solved the problem of the library 's stock of film and the inadequate ice rink . Thomson took 500 @,@ 000 feet of film and stacked the reels in the pool , covered the reels with boards and leveled the rink with a layer of earth . Dawson Amateur Athletic Association continued to receive new nitrate films which would later fuel the destruction of the entire complex in a fire in 1951 . The films stored under the ice rink were preserved and uncovered in 1978 when a new recreation center was being built . The Dawson City Collection films were collected and preserved , with these prints becoming the last surviving records of these studios . The surviving and incomplete print of The Girl of the Northern Woods was one of the films recovered at Dawson City .
= Elizabeth David bibliography =
Elizabeth David , the British cookery writer , published eight books in the 34 years between 1950 and 1984 ; the last was issued eight years before her death . After David 's death , her literary executor , Jill Norman , supervised the publication of five more books , drawing on David 's unpublished manuscripts and research and on her published writings for books and magazines .
David 's first five books , particularly the earlier works , contained recipes interspersed with literary quotation and descriptions of people and places that inspired her . By the time of her third book , Italian Food , David had begun to add sections about the history of the cuisine and the particular dishes that she wrote about . Her interest in the history of cooking led her in her later years to research the history of spices , baking , and ice .
Many of the recipes in David 's early books were revised versions of her articles previously published in magazines and newspapers , and in An Omelette and a Glass of Wine ( 1984 ) she collected her favourites among her articles and presented them unedited with her afterthoughts appended . A second volume of reprinted articles was published after her death . David 's biographer , Artemis Cooper , wrote , " She was hailed not only as Britain 's foremost writer on food and cookery , but as the woman who had transformed the eating habits of middle @-@ class England . "
= = Background = =
David 's interest in cooking was sparked by a 21st birthday gift from her mother of The Gentle Art of Cookery by Hilda Leyel , her first cookery book . She later wrote , " I wonder if I would have ever learned to cook at all if I had been given a routine Mrs Beeton to learn from , instead of the romantic Mrs Leyel with her rather wild , imagination @-@ catching recipes . "
In 1938 , David and a boyfriend travelled through France to Antibes , where she met and became greatly influenced by the ageing writer Norman Douglas , about whom she later wrote extensively . He inspired her love of the Mediterranean , encouraged her interest in good food , and taught her to " search out the best , insist on it , and reject all that was bogus and second @-@ rate . " She continued her exploration of Mediterranean food and the use of fresh , local ingredients in Greece in 1940 . When the Germans invaded Greece in April 1941 , she fled to Egypt . There , she and her employer engaged a Greek cook who , she wrote , produced magnificent food : " The flavour of that octopus stew , the rich wine dark sauce and the aroma of mountain herbs was something not easily forgotten . " In 1942 , she moved to Cairo , where she was asked to set up and run the Ministry of Information 's reference library . The library was open to everyone and was much in demand by journalists and other writers . She employed a Sudanese suffragi ( a cook @-@ housekeeper ) of whom she recalled :
Suleiman performed minor miracles with two Primus stoves and an oven which was little more than a tin box perched on top of them . His soufflés were never less than successful . … For three or four years I lived mainly on rather rough but highly flavoured colourful shining vegetable dishes , lentil or fresh tomato soups , delicious spiced pilaffs , lamb kebabs grilled over charcoal , salads with cool mint @-@ flavoured yoghurt dressings , the Egyptian fellahin dish of black beans with olive oil and lemon and hard @-@ boiled eggs – these things were not only attractive but also cheap . "
Returning to England after the Second World War and her years of access to superior cooking and a profusion of fresh ingredients , David encountered terrible food : " There was flour and water soup seasoned solely with pepper ; bread and gristle rissoles ; dehydrated onions and carrots ; corned beef toad in the hole . I need not go on . " Partly to earn some money , and partly from an " agonized craving for the sun " , David began writing articles on Mediterranean cookery . Her first efforts were published in 1949 in the British magazine Harper 's Bazaar . From the outset , David refused to sell the copyright of her articles , and so she was able to collect and edit them for publication in book form . Even before all the articles had been published , she had assembled them into a typescript volume called A Book of Mediterranean Food .
The success of David 's books put her in great demand by magazine editors . Among the publications for whom she regularly wrote for some period were Vogue magazine , The Sunday Times and The Spectator .
= = Mediterranean Food ( 1950 ) = =
David 's first book , A Book of Mediterranean Food , frequently referred to by the abbreviated title of Mediterranean Food , was published by John Lehmann in 1950 , only a year after David 's first articles had started appearing in British periodicals . The original typescript of the book consisted almost entirely of reused versions of her recent articles . It was submitted to and turned down by a series of publishers , one of whom told her that it needed something more than just the bare recipes . David took note , and wrote some linking text , interspersing her own brief prose with relevant excerpts from a wide range of authors known for their writings about the Mediterranean . They included Norman Douglas , Lawrence Durrell , Gertrude Stein , D. H. Lawrence , Osbert Sitwell , Compton Mackenzie , Arnold Bennett , Henry James and Théophile Gautier .
Lehmann accepted the work for publication , and gave David an advance of £ 100 . He commissioned a dust @-@ jacket painting and black and white illustrations from the artist John Minton . Writers including Cyril Ray and John Arlott commented that Minton 's drawings added to the attractions of the book . David thought good illustration important . Although she did not like Minton 's black and white drawings , she described his jacket design ( right ) as " stunning " . She was especially taken with " his beautiful Mediterranean bay , his tables spread with white cloths and bright fruit " and the way that " pitchers and jugs and bottles of wine could be seen far down the street . "
The book appeared when food rationing imposed during the Second World War remained fully in force in Britain . As David later put it , " almost every essential ingredient of good cooking was either rationed or unobtainable . " She therefore adapted some of the recipes she had learned during in the years when she lived in Mediterranean countries , " to make up for lack of flavour which should have been supplied by meat or stock or butter . " The Times Literary Supplement observed , " while one might hesitate to attempt ' Lobster à la Enfant Prodigue ' ( with champagne , garlic , basil , lemon , chervil , mushrooms and truffles ) , the resourceful cook with time to explore London 's more individual shops , and money , should not often be nonplussed . " The Observer commented that the book deserved " to become the familiar companion of all who seek uninhibited excitement in the kitchen . "
The chapters of Mediterranean Food dealt with : soups ; eggs and luncheon dishes ; fish ; meat ; substantial dishes ; poultry and game ; vegetables ; cold food and salads ; sweets ; jams , chutneys and preserves ; and sauces . The book was reprinted in 1951 ; an American edition was published by Horizon Press in 1952 ; and a paperback edition was published by Penguin Books in 1955 . In 1956 , David revised the work , which was published by Penguin . Translations have been published in Danish and Chinese . In 2009 , the Folio Society published an edition with an introduction by Julian Barnes and colour illustrations by Sophie MacCarthy together with Minton 's original black and white illustrations .
= = French Country Cooking ( 1951 ) = =
In this book , David acknowledged her debt to books published in French , by Edmond Richardin , Austin De Croze , Marthe Daudet ( 1878 @-@ 1960 ) known as Pampille , and J. B. Reboul . French Country Cooking drew less on David 's magazine articles than its predecessor , although one of her best known and most influential chapters , " Wine in the kitchen " , was reprinted from an article written for a wine merchant .
The main text of the book begins with " Batterie de cuisine " , a serious and thorough examination of the equipment that David thought necessary in a good kitchen . Many of the items she mentioned were not widely available in England in the 1950s , such as moulinettes for puréeing , mandolines for slicing vegetables , hâchoires ( or mezzalunas ) for chopping . The second section of the book is " Wine in the kitchen " , which opens :
Nobody has ever been able to find out why the English regard a glass of wine added to a soup or stew as a reckless and foreign extravagance and at the same time spend pounds on bottled sauces , gravy powders , soup cubes , ketchups and artificial flavourings . If every kitchen contained a bottle each of red wine , white wine and inexpensive port for cooking , hundreds of store cupboards could be swept clean for ever of the cluttering debris of commercial sauce bottles and all synthetic aids to flavouring .
The remaining chapters of the book follow the pattern of Mediterranean Food : soups ; fish ; eggs ; luncheon , supper and family dishes ; meat ; poultry ; game ; vegetables ; salads ; sweets ; sauces ; and preserves .
The Manchester Guardian classified the book as more ornamental than useful , a book to make " good reading " rather than " good cooks " . Its reviewer , Lucie Marion , took issue with many of David 's recipes : " I cannot think that Mrs. David has actually tried to make many of the dishes for which she gives recipes . " The Observer , by contrast , considered French Country Cooking " of outstanding merit . The book is eminently practical … its directions are so lucid that the reader might be receiving a concrete demonstration . "
As with Mediterranean Food , a second edition was soon called for . By 1956 , the book had been reprinted six times in the UK and published in the US . In 1958 , David responded to the improved availability in Britain of good ingredients by revising the work , eliminating sections on specialist suppliers , to whom by 1958 it was no longer necessary to resort . In the second edition David also applied second thoughts , eliminating " a few of the longer and more elaborate recipes " .
= = Italian Food ( 1954 ) = =
David 's third book differed from its predecessors in that it drew little from anything she had already written . She spent many months in Italy researching it before starting work on the typescript . While she was away , the firm of her publisher , John Lehman , was closed down by its principal shareholder , and she found herself under contract to the far less congenial company , Macdonald .
While in Venice during her culinary tour of Italy , David met the artist Renato Guttuso . They struck up a friendship , and he agreed to illustrate her book , which he did , despite the very small fee offered by David 's publisher . With two successful books already published , David felt less in need of extracts from earlier writers to bolster her own prose . The Times Literary Supplement said , " More than a collection of recipes , this is book is in effect a readable and discerning dissertation on Italian food and regional dishes , and their preparation in the English kitchen . The text is divided into kinds of food , with chapters on rice , pasta and Italian wines . " In The Observer , Freya Stark wrote , " Mrs. David … may be counted among the benefactors of humanity . " In The Sunday Times , Evelyn Waugh named Italian Food as one of the two books that had given him the most pleasure in that year . In 2009 , Sir Terence Conran called it " the very best book about Italian food that has ever been published here " .
Italian Food begins with a chapter on " The Italian store cupboard " , giving British cooks , who at that time were generally unacquainted with most of Italy 's cuisine and methods , an insight into Italian herbs , spices , tinned , bottled or dried staples including anchovies , tuna , funghi , prosciutto , and chickpeas , and Italian essentials such as garlic and olive oil , both seldom seen in Britain in the early 1950s . The rest of the book follows the basic pattern of the earlier works , with chapters on soups , fish , meat , vegetables and sweets , with the addition of extra subjects relevant to Italian food , pasta asciuta , ravioli and gnocchi , rice , and Italian wine . In a description of the 2009 edition , the publisher wrote :
Even in the 1963 edition Elizabeth David felt the need to explain that a courgette was " a tiny marrow " and lamented the difficulty of finding basil and pine nuts . Yet she refused to participate in what she called the " censorship " of assuming English cooks were too timid or stupid to try anything different ; she included recipes for wood pigeon and squid @-@ ink pasta alongside aromatic marinades , wholesome soups and delicious breads . … [ British ] supermarket aisles were not always filled with packets of fresh herbs , dried porcini and regional olive oils . Elizabeth David was among those responsible for the change , because she inspired a generation with her own curiosity and appreciation for the mouth @-@ watering variety of authentic Italian food .
The first American edition was published by Alfred A. Knopf in 1958 , after much argument between the head of the company , Alfred Knopf , and the author . Knopf wanted to drop the Guttuso illustrations and rewrite the text for an American audience ; David refused , and Knopf eventually gave way . David revised the book for its first Penguin edition in 1963 , made further minor revisions for reprints in 1969 and 1977 and revised it again , more extensively , for the 1987 edition , published in hardback by Barrie and Jenkins and , in 1989 , by Penguin in paperback . In 2009 , the Folio Society published an edition with new illustrations by Sophie MacCarthy and an introduction by Sir Terence Conran .
= = Summer Cooking ( 1955 ) = =
This , David 's fourth book , reverted to some extent to the pattern of the first two , drawing extensively on her articles previously published in magazines . She had severed her ties with the publishers Macdonalds , who had acquired the publishing rights to her first three books when her original publisher was forced out of business . Her new publisher was the Museum Press of London . The illustrations were by Adrian Daintrey .
In her introduction , David wrote :
By summer cookery I do not necessarily mean cold food ; although cold dishes are always agreeable in summer at most meals , however hot the weather , one hot dish is welcome , but it should be a light one , such as a very simply cooked sole , an omelette , a soup of the young vegetables which are in season – something fresh which provides at the same time a change , a new outlook .
Summer Cooking reflected David 's strong belief in eating food in season ; she loved " the pleasure of rediscovering each season 's vegetables " and thought it " rather dull to eat the same food all year round . " Unconstrained by the geographical agendas of her first three books , David wrote about dishes from Britain , India , Mauritius , Russia , Spain and Turkey , as well as France , Italy and Greece . Reviewing the first edition , The Observer said :
Men who pretend to know about it can be more pretentiously precious over cooking than almost anything else . Thank heavens that the women are at last beginning to put them right . The latest blow at food in fancy dress and out of season ( a male weakness from Apicius to Escoffier ) is Elizabeth David 's forthright Summer Cooking . … For her food has more to do with the seasons , the sea and the countryside than with tin and deep freeze , and cooking concerns saucepan , fire and flavour rather than pretty picture colour patterns . The book is a tonic whether you dabble nervously in the kitchen or have " views " on cooking .
In addition to those subjects like soups , fish and meat common to all her books to date , David included chapters about hors d 'oeuvre and salads , preserves , buffet food , and " Improvised cooking for holidays " . Among her recipes are asparagus with Parmesan cheese , cold roast duck on a bed of fresh mint , paupiettes of sole in lettuce leaves , broad beans with bacon , and aubergines à la Provençale .
David revised the book for a second edition , published in the UK and the U.S. by Penguin Books . Translations were published in Italian in 1975 and Danish in 1980 . David further revised and enlarged the book for a third edition , published by Penguin in 1987 . In 2009 the Folio Society published an edition with new illustrations by Sophie MacCarthy and an introduction by Rose Prince .
= = French Provincial Cooking ( 1960 ) = =
The fifth , and last , of David 's volumes consisting primarily of recipes is by far the longest of all her books . The 1970 paperback edition published by Penguin Books runs to 584 pages . David 's biographer Artemis Cooper describes it as " a book that only needed assembling " , because it was based on previously published articles and her own collection of notes and recipes from the previous two decades . David researched her recipes thoroughly , and whenever several supposedly classic and mutually contradictory recipes existed she " knew how to reduce a recipe to its bare essentials , and then reconstruct it " . By the 1960s , she was described in the British press as " the most revered goddess of cooking " , and The Observer said , " It is difficult to think of any home that can do without Elizabeth David 's French Provincial Cooking .
The layout of the book follows that of the earlier volumes , with the recipes grouped by subject . Each chapter has its own introductory essay , up to four pages in length , and within each chapter sub @-@ sections also have their own preliminary essays ; for instance , the chapter on meat has a two @-@ page opening essay , with individual essays on beef , lamb , pork and veal before the recipes for each .
The Folio Society , which published a new edition of the book in 2008 , wrote , " French Provincial Cooking is considered to be the crowning achievement of Elizabeth David 's career , incorporating exquisite recipes from great chefs alongside those gathered from local cooks and one of the finest bibliographies of good cookery books ever compiled . " The bibliography runs to 16 pages , and ranges from 18th @-@ century French cookery books beginning with Le Ménage des champs et le jardinier français ( 1711 ) and ending with modern works by Simone Beck , Louisette Bertholle and Julia Child , and Jane Grigson .
A typical example of David 's approach in this book is her section on pot au feu , which covers six pages , with sub @-@ sections on the choice of meat , the vegetables , the saucepan , quantities , preparation , cooking , serving , using leftovers , and regional variations of the dish .
The Times Literary Supplement commented , " French Provincial Cooking needs to be read rather than referred to quickly . It discourses at some length the type and origin of the dishes popular in various French regions , as well as the culinary terms , herbs and kitchen equipment used in France . But those who can give the extra time to this book will be well repaid by dishes such as La Bourride de Charles Bérot and Cassoulet Colombié , " ( respectively , a Provençal dish of fillets of white fish in an aïoli and cream sauce , and a Languedoc casserole of beans with pork , mutton , sausage and goose . ) Reviewing the 1977 edition , The Times called it " arguably the most influential cookery book of our age , one which brought food writing into the realms of literature . "
The first edition , illustrated by Juliet Renny , was published by Michael Joseph , with a simultaneous paperback issue by Penguin Books . The first American edition was published by Harper and Row in 1962 . A revised edition was published by Michael Joseph in 1965 and by Penguin in 1967 . Further reprints with minor revisions followed in 1969 , 1970 , 1977 , 1981 , 1984 , 1986 and 1997 . A new edition was published by Penguin in 1998 ( London ) and 1999 ( New York ) . A Portuguese translation Cozinha francesa regional was published in 2000 . The Folio Society issued a new edition in 2008 , with illustrations by Sophie MacCarthy in addition to the originals by Renny .
= = Spices , Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen ( 1970 ) = =
The book is in two parts . David wrote the first four chapters , " Spices and Condiments , " " Aromatic Herbs , Dried or Fresh , " " More Flavourings " and " Measurements and Temperatures " specifically for the book , drawing on an earlier pamphlet , Dried Herbs , Aromatics and Condiments , written in 1967 for sale in her kitchen shop . In these chapters , David writes about the background of the herbs and spices and condiments that came into use in British kitchens over the previous centuries , and sketches the history of their adoption from Asia and continental Europe . The Times Literary Supplement called this part of the book " as difficult to put down as a good thriller . "
In the longer second part of the book , David gives recipes for such dishes as spiced beef , smoked fish , cured pork and sweet fruit pickles . Not all use unfamiliar spices : her " Sussex stewed steak " , adds to the beef only port , stout , vinegar or ketchup , and black pepper . The book contains " practical notes on how to make an authentic paella , cook vegetables crisp like the Chinese , and , with assistance from notes by long @-@ dead Indian colonels , how to prepare a genuinely Indian curry . "
As David remarked in this section , her approach to measuring out ingredients had changed since her early days : " By temperament a non @-@ measurer , I have myself , first through the wish to communicate recipes and now by force of habit , become the reverse . I find that the discipline of weighing and measuring does one 's cooking nothing but good , provided that one does not waste time messing about with quarter @-@ saltspoons and five @-@ eighths of pints , nor , above all , expect that precision will eliminate the necessity to keep one 's head or train one 's eye and palate . " The author does not conceal her dislike for some much @-@ used herbs : sage " deadens the food with its musty dried blood scent " and rosemary " acrid taste … the spiky little leaves get stuck between your teeth . "
The book was published as the first of a planned series for Penguin Books , " English Cooking , Ancient and Modern . " Penguin reprinted the book with revisions in 1973 , 1981 and 1987 . In 2000 Grub Street publishers issued a new edition .
= = English Bread and Yeast Cookery ( 1977 ) = =
David follows the pattern of Spices , Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen , devoting the first part of the book to history and the second to recipes . Reviewing the new book , Jane Grigson wrote : " Mrs. David gives the history of wheat and milling … She goes into weights and cost from the establishment in 1266 of the Assize of Bread up to present @-@ day regulations , with a separate chapter on costing your own bread vis @-@ à @-@ vis bought loaves . "
In the second part , David devotes chapters to recipes for various forms of baking . Bread comes first , followed by recipes for , among many other things , buns , yeast cakes , soda @-@ bread , brioches , croissants , pain au chocolat , and pizza . As in her earlier books , the recipes are interspersed with excerpts from earlier authors , including Fernand Braudel , Auguste Escoffier , and the painter John Constable .
In The Observer , Hilary Spurling called the book " a scathing indictment of the British bread industry " and also " a history of virtually every development since Stone Age crops and querns " . Spurling rejoiced in the range of David 's recipes : " It contains directions for baking anything from the common cob and Coburg to Peggy @-@ tub or Flowerpot bread , Sussex Plum Heavies , Scotch bun and Selkirk bannock , not forgetting splits , baps , muffins , crumpets , wiggs and chudleighs . " The Times said , " This is probably Mrs. David 's most academic work yet . However , not one ounce of the familiar charm , good sense , asperity ( reserved for modern commercial white bread ) , clarity or warmth is missing . "
The book was published by Alan Lane in hardback and Penguin Books in paperback , with reprints in 1978 and 1979 . The first American edition was published by Viking Press in 1980 , and a rewritten American edition was published by Penguin in 1982 . In 1995 , Biscuit Books of Newton , Mass. published a new American edition . A new edition was published in London by Grub Street books in 2010 .
= = An Omelette and a Glass of Wine ( 1984 ) = =
Although David had drawn on her many magazine articles for material in her earlier books , An Omelette and Glass of Wine was the first straightforward anthology of her work . Compiled with the assistance of Jill Norman , it consists of David 's selections from her essays and articles published since 1949 in publications " from the Sunday Times to Nova , from Vogue to the Spectator , from the long defunct travel magazine Go to Cyril Ray 's Compleat Imbiber , Peter Dominic 's Wine Mine and a quite a few others . " Jane Grigson wrote of it , " An Omelette and a Glass of Wine is different from any other book by Elizabeth David . Yet in a sense it includes them , holds them together . We feel closer to Mrs David herself in this book , and I suppose it is the closest we are likely to get to an autobiography "
The article from which the volume takes its title is an essay on " the almost primitive and elemental meal evoked by the words : ' Let 's just have an omelette and a glass of wine . ' " Among the other subjects are profiles of people including Norman Douglas , Marcel Boulestin , Mrs Beeton , and " A gourmet in Edwardian London " , Colonel Nathaniel Newnham @-@ Davis . Several sections are devoted to descriptions of the markets at Cavaillon , Yvetot , Montpellier , Martigues and Valence , and unpretentious restaurants and hotels in France . There are articles on lemons , potted meat , mayonnaise , pizza , syllabubs , truffles , and on the cuisines of Spain and Morocco . For most of the articles David provided either an introduction or an afternote , or both .
The Times described the book as " this serenely unhurried gathering of essays , book reviews , pamphlets , travellers ' tales and cookery articles . The food writer Alan Davidson spoke of David 's " intellectual vitality , her amazing memory for detail , her passionate interest in getting everything right , her feeling for style in the larger sense , " qualities that the chef Rowley Leigh found demonstrated in An Omelette and a Glass of Wine .
The book was published by Robert Hale . In 1985 Dorling Kindersley published an edition , and the first US edition was published by Viking , New York , in the same year . The first paperback edition was published by Penguin Books in 1986 . Translations have been published in Danish , Swedish and Dutch . The book was reprinted in 1986 , 1996 , and 1997 . In 2009 a new edition was published by Grub Street , London ; in 2010 a new US edition was issued by Lyons Press , Guilford , Conn .
= = Posthumous publications = =
David had worked with the editor Jill Norman since the 1960s , and Norman became intimately familiar with David 's writings . The success of David 's last book , in collaboration with Norman , and David 's express wishes that Norman complete some of her work in progress , led Norman to edit and publish five books of David 's work after David 's death in 1992 .
= = = Harvest of the Cold Months ( 1994 ) = = =
David had been working on this book intermittently for several years before her last illnesses . When she realised that she would not live to complete it , she asked Jill Norman to do so . It was a demanding task ; Norman found that " the book had grown without a structure … it was a collection of essays , really . " It was noticeably more academic in tone than any of its predecessors , a book for the scholar rather than the cook . Reviewing the work , Candice Rodd wrote :
Harvest of the Cold Months is not a cookery book but an awe @-@ inspiring feat of detective scholarship , the literally marvellous story of how human beings came to ingest lumps of flavoured frozen matter for pleasure . It bulges with recipes variously crude , exquisite and fantastical , but most are for wonderment rather than use . You sense the writer 's quiet triumph as she turns the musty , fragile pages of yet another ancient memoir or book of receipts and sees one more piece of the fascinating global jigsaw slip satisfyingly into place . You remember that before she was a cook she was a history student .
The book traces the history of ice in the cuisines of Europe from mediaeval times , when it had to be brought from the mountains and kept in ice houses ( " anything from a hole in the ground lined with straw to elaborate domes " ) . It was published in London by Michael Joseph and in New York by Viking . It was reprinted in 1995 and 1996 .
= = = South Wind Through the Kitchen ( 1997 ) = = =
Among the projects of David 's later years with which she worked with her editor , Jill Norman , was a single @-@ volume collection of the best of her extensive writings . When David 's health deteriorated , the project was shelved . In 1996 , Norman revived it , and invited chefs , writers and David 's friends to choose their favourite articles and recipes . Many of the contributors , such as the chef Simon Hopkinson , contributed an introduction or afterword to the pieces they chose . The extracts and recipes are taken from all David 's books published by 1996 . There are more than 200 recipes , organised in the customary way with sections on courses and ingredients – eggs and cheese , fish and shellfish , meat , poultry and game , vegetables , pasta , pulses and grains , sauces , sweet dishes and cakes , preserves , and bread – interspersed , as in David 's earlier works , with articles and essays .
The title of the book comes from an essay published in 1964 and reprinted in An Omelette and a Glass of Wine , and is a reference to South Wind , a novel by David 's greatly loved friend Norman Douglas .
The book was published by Michael Joseph . An American edition was published by North Point Press , New York , in 1998 . A Chinese translation was published in 2000 .
= = = Is There a Nutmeg in the House ? ( 2000 ) = = =
This book is a successor to An Omelette and a Glass of Wine , consisting , like its predecessor , of magazine articles , essays and other earlier writings . When selecting the material for the earlier book , David and Jill Norman , who assisted her , found too many articles to fit into a single volume , and many were filed away for a sequel . After David 's death , Norman supplemented them with articles written by David in the 1980s . The first section of the book is a short autobiographical piece , a rarity from David , who guarded her privacy carefully . David 's interest in the historical aspects of cuisine is given scope in essays on the history of Oxo and Bovril , Alexis Soyer and the potato . Articles aimed at the domestic cook include " Do not Despair over Rice " , " Making Ice Cream " , and one propounding a view for which she was famous : " Garlic Presses are Utterly Useless " .
The book was published in hardback by Michael Joseph , and in paperback by Penguin , in 2001 . An American edition was published by Viking in 2001 .
= = = Elizabeth David 's Christmas ( 2003 ) = = =
David and her editor Jill Norman had discussed such a book as early as the 1970s , but work on other projects precluded it . After David 's death , Norman found when sorting out her papers that David had written and compiled far more material on a Christmas theme than anyone else had realised . Among the papers was an introduction that David had written for the projected volume , in which she said that one of her motives for writing a book about Christmas cooking was to head off the annual last @-@ minute requests for recipes from her friends and relations . Those she had found most frequently asked for formed the core of the book . Together with some Christmas recipes from Mediterranean Food , French Provincial Cooking , and Spices , Salt and Aromatics in the English Kitchen , and revised articles published in previous years in magazines , they were turned into a 214 @-@ page book . The chapters dealt with the social and historical side of Christmas , first courses and cold meats , soups , poultry and game , meat , vegetables and salads , sauces , pickles and chutneys , and desserts , cakes and drinks .
The book reprints one of David 's most quoted sentences , first printed in Vogue in 1959 , and included in Is there a Nutmeg in the House in 2000 : " If I had my way – and I shan 't – my Christmas Day eating and drinking would consist of an omelette and cold ham and a nice bottle of wine at lunchtime , and a smoked salmon sandwich with a glass of champagne on a tray in bed in the evening . " The pattern of the book follows that of earlier ones , with recipes interspersed with more discursive essays on subjects such as avocado pears , persimmons , historical menus , and Christmas hampers , and extracts from prose by writers whom David admired , including Sybille Bedford and George Eliot .
The book was published by Michael Joseph . An American edition was published by David R. Godine , Boston , in 2008 .
= = = At Elizabeth David 's Table ( 2010 ) = = =
The book was published to mark the 60th anniversary of David 's first book . With prefatory contributions from several prominent British chefs ( Jamie Oliver , Johnny Grey , Rose Gray , Sally Clarke , Simon Hopkinson , and Hugh Fearnley @-@ Whittingstall ) it assembles recipes and essays from David 's previously published works . There are twelve chapters , including ones on soups , starters , meat , fish , desserts and baking . It was published in London by Michael Joseph and in New York by Ecco in 2010 .
= Real and True =
" Real and True " is a song written and performed by American rapper Future , American singer Miley Cyrus , and English singer Mr Hudson . It was released as a single on November 5 , 2013 , by A1 Records , Freebandz , and Epic Records . Produced by the artists ' frequent collaborator Mike Will Made It , the song is a pop and R & B track , the lyrics of which describe an everlasting love .
" Real and True " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented its overall production and lyrical content , but felt that the vocals were over @-@ processed . Its accompanying music video premiered on November 10 , 2013 , preceding the rebroadcast of the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards in the United States .
= = Background and composition = =
Future and Cyrus had first collaborated on the track " My Darlin ' " for Cyrus ' fourth studio album Bangerz ( 2013 ) . The lyrics of " My Darlin ' " concern the angst following a failed relationship and the simultaneous desire to reconcile . Later , Cyrus expressed interest in " Real and True " , recording her vocals for the chorus . Mr Hudson also recorded vocals for the chorus , which were incorporated with Cyrus ' singing . Future wrote the remaining verses to complement the contributions of Cyrus and Mr Hudson , though the two received credits for being co @-@ writers . The track was released on November 5 , 2013 . Future raps the first verse , which is in third @-@ person perspective , Cyrus raps the second verse and Future raps the third verse . Mr Hudson sings the chorus ( except the second time , where it is sung by Cyrus ) and Cyrus and Future join Mr Hudson on the chorus the fourth and fifth time . The song had originally leaked with an extra verse from Future , but it was cut from the final version .
" Real and True " is pop and R & B song , the lyrics of which describe an everlasting love . During the chorus , Cyrus and Mr. Hudson sing the lyrics " When the sun dies and the stars fade from view / Our love will remain real and true / Through the distance and cold depths of space / The radio sings our song / It 's a love real and true " . Carolyn Menyes from MusicTimes noted that the artists ' vocals heavily relied on Auto @-@ Tune technology , which she credited with providing a " cohesive sound throughout the track " . Future suggested that " Real and True " was lyrically inspired by his fiancée , American recording artist Ciara , commenting " it might surprise people what I 'm saying ' cause I 'm speaking on my relationship and everything I 'm going through right now and trying to capture that moment . " " Real and True " was produced by Mike Will Made It , who frequently collaborates with Cyrus and Future .
= = Critical reception = =
" Real and True " received generally favorable reviews from music critics , who complimented its overall production and lyrical content , but felt that the vocals were over @-@ processed . Erika Ramirez from Billboard felt that " Cyrus steals the spotlight with her vocal prowess " during her verse of the track , while Alex Young of Consequence of Sound commended the recording as a " feel good love song highlighted by an impressive hook " , adding that Future delivered a " delicate mix of rap and sensual croons " . Writing for Exclaim ! , Josiah Hughes enjoyed the " general feeling of love and goodness " present throughout the song . Carl Williott from Idolator complimented Mike Will Made It 's production contributions , and called the track " pretty " . Carolyn Menyes of MusicTimes commented that the track " gets its point across and is tender " despite " under @-@ utilizing " Cyrus ' vocals .
= = Music video = =
An accompanying music video for " Real and True " premiered on November 10 , 2013 , preceding the rebroadcast of the 2013 MTV Europe Music Awards in the United States . The clip begins as astronauts Future and Mr Hudson discover the corpse of another astronaut , portrayed by Cyrus . After being revived on an operating table , Cyrus ( covered in silver glitter ) and Future are shown intimately singing their respective verses to one another . Interspersed throughout the video are scenes of Mr Hudson singing the chorus . As the clip finishes , Future and Mr Hudson are shown leaving the planet where they found Cyrus on their damaged rocket .
Referencing earlier pictures from the music video prior to its official release , Edwin Ortiz stated that its theme was a " space age love story " , further opining that it shared a space @-@ themed concept with Future 's debut studio album Pluto ( 2012 ) . Zoe Shenton from the Daily Mirror provided a favorable review for the music video , commenting " clothes or no clothes , [ Cyrus ] looks and sounds incredible " . A writer for The Huffington Post thought that the " appropriately futuristic visuals " complemented the space @-@ themed lyrics in the song .
= = Charts = =
" Real and True " debuted on the South Korea Gaon Single Chart at number 189 during the week of November 3 to 9 , 2013 . In the United States , the song peaked at number 3 on the US Bubbling Under Hot 100 singles chart .
= = Release history = =
= Santa María de la Cabeza castle =
Santa María de la Cabeza castle is a colonial castle built in the seventeenth century by the Spanish monarchy in the center of the city of Cumaná , Venezuela . It was built as a replacement for the San Antonio de la Eminencia castle . Its construction was ordered by Sancho Fernando de Angulo y Sandoval , governor of the Province of Cumaná . The building was designed using the trace italienne style popular during the seventeenth century , with a proportional geometric floor design . Bastions were used as the main defensive elements . The castle housed a garrison of 250 soldiers , and was the seat of government for the Province of Cumaná .
Construction began in 1668 when Angulo y Sandoval 's predecessor , Juan de Urtarte , wrote a memorandum to the King of Spain stating that the San Antonio de la Eminencia castle was unfit for defense . Several years later ( and without proper authorization ) , Angulo y Sandoval began construction of a fortress that would be more useful for the defense of the city than the two existing fortifications . The castle underwent several renovations to repair damage caused by severe earthquakes . A 1684 quake severely damaged the castle and another in 1929 left the structure in ruins . The castle was declared a cultural and municipal asset in May 2005 .
= = Description = =
The Santa María de la Cabeza castle is a fortress built c . 1669 – 73 in the city of Cumaná on the orders of Sancho Fernando de Angulo y Sandoval , governor of the Province of Cumaná , as a replacement for the San Antonio de la Eminencia castle . It is located in the center of the city next to St. Agnes Church , about 400 metres ( 1 @,@ 300 ft ) from the San Antonio castle , on a small hill . The castle is square with bastions ( designed by Angulo y Sandoval ) at its corners . It has been described as having minor defensive capability .
The castle was built using the trace italienne style popular during the seventeenth century ; its floor has a geometric design , and bastions are the main defensive elements . However , unlike other permanent bastioned fortifications , its defensive walls were designed as two sections : the lower part of the wall is vertical ( perpendicular to the base ) and the upper part , above the string course , is inclined inwards . This design makes the fort unique in Venezuela ; in most castles , the lower portion of the walls inclines outwards at the base and the upper parts are vertical ( perpendicular to the base ) .
The primary material used to create the bricks for the castle was margosa limestone ( a type of sedimentary rock composed of limestone and clay ) . The front of the castle is oriented to the east , and there was a ditch around the entire perimeter , including between the castle and the Plaza de Armas ( Weapons Square ) . As of 2008 the building had lost its parapets and shelters , but the main defensive structures and walls have been preserved . The fort housed a garrison of 250 soldiers , and was the residence of the governor of the Province of Cumaná .
= = Origins = =
On 22 November 1668 , Don Juan de Urtarte ( governor of the province from 9 June 1668 to 26 July 1669 ) wrote a memorandum to the King of Spain stating that Fort Santiago was unfit for defense because of its round shape and its mud and stone construction . Several years later , Governor Don Sancho Fernando de Angulo y Sandoval began — without authorization from the war council — construction of a new fortress with the rationale that the San Antonio de la Eminencia castle did not meet the city 's defensive requirements , as it is located on a hilltop far from the city and the coast . The governor claimed that the castle also lacked a suitable water supply and accommodation for soldiers , and thus was unable to resist prolonged sieges .
Unlike his predecessor Urtarte , who requested financing to supply and improve San Antonio , Angulo y Sandoval decided to build a new castle , one better able to defend the city than the two existing fortifications . The resulting fortress was called Santa María de la Cabeza ; the governor then requested that the two older structures be demolished .
= = History = =
On 4 May 1684 an earthquake devastated the city , severely damaging the Santa María castle . A road linking the Santa María de la Cabeza and San Antonio de la Eminencia castles was mentioned by Agustín Crame in a 1777 proposal for the defense of the city . Crame opposed the idea , but stated that if a road were built it should be a gravel one . The Santa María de la Cabeza castle was partially destroyed in a powerful earthquake felt throughout the state in 1797 .
After an earthquake in 1853 , the reliquary enclosing an image of Nuestra Señora del Carmen ( Our Lady of Mount Carmel ) , originally situated at the Mount Carmel chapel , was moved to the Santa María de la Cabeza castle , where Santos Berrizbeitia built a new chapel in 1912 to protect the image ; it was later moved to St. Agnes Church . The ditch was filled in for construction of the Mount Carmel chapel and the deteriorated parapets were demolished . The original slopes and terraces present on Diaz Fajardo 's 1737 map were probably also buried in the process . The chapel in the castle was the final resting place for Berrizbeitia ; his remains , originally interred at Holy Trinity Cemetery ( which he had built ) , were exhumed and moved five years after his death .
Between the late eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries , Cumaná experienced an increase in population . The areas around the castles and the Manzanares River became densely populated . New buildings were constructed that were attached to the castle walls , completely closing off the perimeter and making direct access impossible . Another earthquake in 1929 left the structure in ruins and rendered it unusable . The offices of the seat of government for the Province of Cumaná were moved elsewhere and the building was abandoned . The castle was declared a Cultural and Municipal Asset in May 2005 by the state Cultural Assets Institute .
= = Gallery = =
= Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park =
Black Canyon of the Gunnison National Park is a United States National Park located in western Colorado and managed by the National Park Service . There are three entrances to the park . The south rim entrance is located 15 miles ( 24 km ) east of Montrose , while the north rim entrance is 11 miles ( 18 km ) south of Crawford and is closed in the winter . The park contains 12 miles ( 19 km ) of the 48 @-@ mile ( 77 km ) long canyon of the Gunnison River . The national park itself contains the deepest and most dramatic section of the canyon , but the canyon continues upstream into Curecanti National Recreation Area and downstream into Gunnison Gorge National Conservation Area . The canyon 's name owes itself to the fact that parts of the gorge only receive 33 minutes of sunlight a day , according to Images of America : The Black Canyon of the Gunnison . In the book , author Duane Vandenbusche states , " Several canyons of the American West are longer and some are deeper , but none combines the depth , sheerness , narrowness , darkness , and dread of the Black Canyon . "
= = Geology = =
The Gunnison River drops an average of 34 feet per mile ( 6 @.@ 4 m / km ) through the entire canyon , making it the 5th steepest mountain descent in North America . By comparison , the Colorado River drops an average of 7 @.@ 5 feet per mile ( 1 @.@ 42 m / km ) through the Grand Canyon . The greatest descent of the Gunnison River occurs within the park at Chasm View dropping 240 feet per mile ( 45 m / km ) . The Black Canyon is so named due its steepness which makes it difficult for sunlight to penetrate into its depths . As a result , the canyon is often shrouded in shadow , causing the rocky walls to appear black . At its narrowest point the canyon is only 40 ft ( 12 m ) wide at the river .
The extreme steepness and depth of the Black Canyon formed as the result of several geologic processes acting together . The Gunnison River is primarily responsible for carving the canyon , though several other geologic events had to occur in order to form the canyon as it is seen today .
= = = Precambrian = = =
The Precambrian gneiss and schist that make up the majority of the steep walls of the Black Canyon formed 1 @.@ 7 billion years ago during a metamorphic period brought on by the collision of ancient volcanic island arcs with the southern end of what is present @-@ day Wyoming . The lighter @-@ colored pegmatite dikes that can be seen crosscutting the basement rocks formed later during this same period .
= = = Cretaceous - Tertiary = = =
The entire area underwent uplift during the Laramide orogeny between 70 and 40 million years ago which was also part of the Gunnison Uplift . This raised the Precambrian gneiss and schist that makes up the canyon walls . During the Tertiary from 26 to 35 million years ago large episodes of volcanism occurred in the area immediately surrounding the present day Black Canyon . The West Elk Mountains , La Sal Mountains , Henry Mountains , and Abajo Mountains all contributed to burying the area in several thousand feet of volcanic ash and debris .
The modern Gunnison River set its course 15 million years ago as the run @-@ off from the nearby La Sal and West Elk Mountains and the Sawatch Range began carving through the relatively soft volcanic deposits .
= = = Quaternary = = =
With the Gunnison River ’ s course set , a broad uplift in the area 2 to 3 million years ago caused the river to cut through the softer volcanic deposits . Eventually the river reached the Precambrian rocks of the Gunnison Uplift . Since the river was unable to change its course , it began scouring through the extremely hard metamorphic rocks of the Gunnison Uplift . The river ’ s flow was much larger than currently , with much higher levels of turbidity . As a result , the river dug down through the Precambrian gneiss and schist at the rate of 1 @-@ inch ( 25 mm ) every 100 years . The extreme hardness of the metamorphic rock along with the relative quickness with which the river carved through them created the steep walls that can be seen today .
A number of feeder canyons running into the Black Canyon slope in the wrong direction for water to flow into the canyon . It is believed that less @-@ entrenched streams in the region shifted to a more north @-@ flowing drainage pattern in response to a change in the tilt of the surrounding terrain . The west @-@ flowing Gunnison , however , was essentially trapped in the hard Precambrian rock of the Black Canyon and could not change its course .
= = History = =
The Ute Indians had known the canyon to exist for a long time before the first Europeans saw it . They referred to the river as " much rocks , big water , " and are known to have avoided the canyon out of superstition . By the time the United States declared independence in 1776 , two Spanish expeditions had passed by the canyons . In the 1800s , the numerous fur trappers searching for beaver pelts would have known of the canyon 's existence but they left no written record . The first official account of the Black Canyon was provided by Captain John Williams Gunnison in 1853 , who was leading an expedition to survey a route from Saint Louis and San Francisco . He described the country to be " the roughest , most hilly and most cut up , " he had ever seen , and skirted the canyon south towards present @-@ day Montrose . Following his death at the hands of Ute Indians later that year , the river that Captain Gunnison had called the Grand was renamed in his honor .
In 1881 , William Jackson Palmer 's Denver and Rio Grande Railroad had reached Gunnison from Denver . The line was built to provide a link to the burgeoning gold and silver mines of the San Juan mountains . The rugged terrain precluded using 4 ' 8 1 / 2 " standard rail ; Palmer decided to go with the narrower 3 ' gauge . It took over a year for Irish and Italian laborers to carve out a 15 @-@ mile roadbed from Sapinero to Cimarron , costing a staggering $ 165 @,@ 000 a mile . The last mile is said to have cost more than the entire Royal Gorge project .
On August 13 , 1882 , the first passenger train passed through the Black Canyon . The editor of the Gunnison Review @-@ Press rode in one of the observation cars ; he remarked that the canyon was " undoubtedly the largest and most rugged canon in the world traversed by the iron horse . We had often heard of the scenery of this canyon , but no one can have the faintest conception of its grandeur and magnificence until they have made a trip through it . It is a narrow gorge with walls of granite rising in some places to a height of thousands of feet … Throughout its entire length there is probably not a quarter of a mile of straight track on it . It is a serpentine road in every respect and the curves are frequent and sharp . In hundreds of places the walls of granite are perpendicular and in many places the road bed is blasted out in the side of the walls of rock which overhang the track . " He went on to proclaim , " Another such a feat of railroad engineering probably can not be found in the world , and there is probably no section of Colorado or of the whole country where such a varied and interesting lot of scenery can be found . "
In the hopes of running the railroad through the rest of the Black Canyon , Palmer sent his top engineer Bryan Bryant on an inner canyon exploration . Bryant set off with a 12 @-@ man crew in December 1882 expecting to complete the survey in 20 days ; he returned in 68 . " Eight of the twelve @-@ man crew left after a few days , terrified of the task in front of them . What the rest of the men saw was spectacular and had never been seen by another human . " Bryant reported that the Black Canyon was impenetrable , and that it was impossible to build anything in its depths .
Heeding Bryant 's advice , Palmer decided to route the railroad south of the canyon and in March 1883 , it completed its connection to Salt Lake City and for a brief period the canyon was on the main line of a transcontinental railroad system . While the railroad and early visitors used the canyon as a path to Utah and mines to the southwest , later visitors came to see the canyon as an opportunity for recreation and personal enjoyment . Rudyard Kipling described his 1889 ride through the canyon in the following words : " We entered a gorge , remote from the sun , where the rocks were two thousand feet sheer , and where a rock splintered river roared and howled ten feet below a track which seemed to have been built on the simple principle of dropping miscellaneous dirt into the river and pinning a few rails a @-@ top . There was a glory and a wonder and a mystery about the mad ride , which I felt keenly ... "
By 1890 , an alternate route through Glenwood Springs had been completed and the route through the Black Canyon , being more difficult to operate , lost importance for through trains . The route was finally abandoned in 1955 .
In 1901 , the U.S. Geological Survey sent Abraham Lincoln Fellows and William Torrence into the canyon to look for a site to build a diversion tunnel bringing water to the Uncompahgre Valley , which was suffering from water shortages due to an influx of settlers into the area . Torrence , a Montrose native and an expert mountaineer , had taken part in a failed expedition the previous year , and his experience proved valuable on his second excursion . He opted to bring a single rubber air mattress instead of the heavy wooden boats that had doomed his previous journey into the canyon . They entered the canyon on August 12 equipped with " only hunting knives , two silk lifeline ropes , and rubber bags to encase their instruments . " After a harrowing 10 days braving rock falls , waterfalls , and 76 river crossings , they emerged
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his uncles , whereupon several senior commanders switched sides . The Abbasids entered the Egyptian capital Fustat in January 905 without a fight , completing the reconquest of the province .
= No. 5 Service Flying Training School RAAF =
No. 5 Service Flying Training School ( No. 5 SFTS ) was a Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) flight training unit that operated during World War II . It was one of eight Service Flying Training Schools established by the RAAF to provide intermediate and advanced flying instruction to new pilots as part of Australia 's contribution to the Empire Air Training Scheme . No. 5 SFTS was formed at RAAF Station Uranquinty , New South Wales , in October 1941 , and disbanded in February 1946 . Its staff and equipment were employed to re @-@ establish No. 1 Flying Training School , which transferred to RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , the following year . Care and Maintenance Unit Uranquinty was also formed from No. 5 SFTS 's facilities , to look after surplus aircraft at the base prior to their disposal , and disbanded in December 1948 .
= = History = =
RAAF aircrew training expanded dramatically following the outbreak of World War II , in response to Australia 's participation in the Empire Air Training Scheme ( EATS ) . The Air Force 's pre @-@ war flight training facility , No. 1 Flying Training School at RAAF Station Point Cook , Victoria , was supplanted in 1940 – 41 by twelve Elementary Flying Training Schools ( EFTS ) , eight Service Flying Training Schools ( SFTS ) , and the Central Flying School ( CFS ) . While CFS turned out new flight instructors , the EFTS provided basic training to prospective pilots who , if successful , would go on to an SFTS for further instruction that focussed on operational ( or " service " ) flying techniques .
The course at SFTS typically consisted of two streams , intermediate and advanced , and included such techniques as instrument flying , night flying , advanced aerobatics , formation flying , dive bombing , and aerial gunnery . The total duration of training varied during the war as demand for aircrew fluctuated . Initially running for 16 weeks , the course was cut to 10 weeks ( which included 75 hours flying time ) in October 1940 . A year later it was raised to 12 weeks ( including 100 hours flying time ) , and again to 16 weeks two months later . It continued to increase after this , peaking at 28 weeks in June 1944 .
No. 5 Service Flying Training School ( No. 5 SFTS ) was formed at RAAF Station Uranquinty , New South Wales , in October 1941 , and came under the control of No. 2 Training Group . Along with No. 2 Service Flying Training School at nearby RAAF Station Forest Hill , and the later No. 1 Basic Flying Training School at Uranquinty , No. 5 SFTS was one of the so @-@ called " Wagga Flying Training Schools " , which together graduated over 3 @,@ 000 pilots in the 1940s and ' 50s . The unit 's inaugural commanding officer was Group Captain Ulex Ewart , a graduate of the Royal Military College , Duntroon , who had been seconded to the Air Force and learnt to fly on the first cadet course at No. 1 Flying Training School in 1923 . At the time of its formation , No. 5 SFTS had a strength of 792 personnel , responsible for training about 200 pilots . One of its original instructors was Flying Officer Bill Newton , who was later awarded the Victoria Cross for bombing raids in New Guinea . Following the outbreak of the Pacific War in December 1941 , the school 's CAC Wirraway single @-@ engined trainers were classified as Second Line ( Reserve ) aircraft in the defence of Australia .
No. 5 SFTS began flight training in February 1942 using 28 Wirraways . The unit grew over the next two years , and by early 1944 was operating 128 Wirraways , two de Havilland DH.84 Dragons , two de Havilland Moth Minors and a CAC Wackett . It typically graduated one course of pilots each month , although the wastage rate sometimes exceeded 40 per cent . Among its graduates was Len Waters , the first Aboriginal Australian military aviator , and the only one to serve as a fighter pilot in the RAAF during World War II . As a training facility , No. 5 SFTS regularly suffered flying accidents . Forty @-@ two of its students died during the war , an average of around one per month . A near miss involving more experienced pilots occurred at the school in December 1943 , when aces Clive Caldwell and John Waddy , then instructors at No. 2 Operational Training Unit in Mildura , almost collided when they crossed paths during an aerobatics display over the base .
No. 5 SFTS reached a strength of some 2 @,@ 000 personnel during the war , and graduated 1 @,@ 515 pilots . The rate of flying conducted at the school declined during 1945 and , by November , its aircraft were being readied for storage . In February 1946 , No. 5 SFTS was disbanded and its staff and equipment used to re @-@ establish No. 1 Flying Training School ( No. 1 FTS ) , which had operated during the war as No. 1 Service Flying Training School prior to disbanding in 1944 . No. 1 FTS was allocated 55 Wirraways , two de Havilland Tiger Moths , and one Avro Anson , though in the event it undertook little flying before relocating to Point Cook in August 1947 . Post @-@ war demobilisation saw the establishment of several RAAF Care and Maintenance Units ( CMU ) , which were responsible for the upkeep of surplus equipment prior to disposal . No. 5 SFTS spawned Care and Maintenance Unit Uranquinty to look after aircraft stored at the base . These were auctioned off in November 1948 , and CMU Uranquinty was dissolved the next month .
= = Legacy = =
Following the departure of No. 1 FTS in 1947 , no flying was conducted at Uranquinty until 1951 , when the newly formed No. 1 Basic Flying Training School ( No. 1 BFTS ) inherited the base facilities . No. 1 BFTS transferred to Point Cook in 1958 , at which point Uranquinty was closed . The RAAF units that operated at the base formed a close connection with the local community . In 1999 , a memorial to No. 5 SFTS was erected at Wirraway Park , Uranquinty . An additional panel to the memorial was unveiled in September 2002 by the Governor @-@ General of Australia , Peter Hollingworth ; the proceedings included an aerial display by a Pilatus PC @-@ 9 of the Roulettes aerobatic team , and the arrival of a Wirraway from Temora Aviation Museum , the first time in 45 years that one of these trainers had landed at Uranquinty .
= Mary of Hungary ( governor of the Netherlands ) =
Mary of Austria ( 15 September 1505 – 18 October 1558 ) , also known as Mary of Hungary , was queen consort of Hungary and Bohemia as the wife of King Louis II , and was later Governor of the Habsburg Netherlands .
The daughter of Queen Joanna and King Philip I of Castile , Mary married King Louis II of Hungary and Bohemia in 1515 . Their marriage was happy but short and childless . Upon her husband 's death following the Battle of Mohács in 1526 , Queen Mary governed Hungary as regent in the name of the new king , her brother , Ferdinand I.
Following the death of their aunt Margaret in 1530 , Mary was asked by her eldest brother , Emperor Charles V , to assume the governance of the Netherlands and guardianship over their nieces , Dorothea and Christina of Denmark . As governor of the Netherlands , Mary faced riots and a difficult relationship with the Emperor . Throughout her tenure she continuously attempted to ensure peace between the Emperor and the King of France . Although she never enjoyed governing and asked for permission to resign several times , the Queen succeeded in creating a unity between the provinces , as well as in securing for them a measure of independence from both France and the Holy Roman Empire . After her final resignation , the frail Queen moved to Castile , where she died .
Having inherited the Habsburg lip and not very feminine looks , Mary was not considered physically attractive . Her portraits , letters , and comments by her contemporaries do not assign her the easy Burgundian charm possessed by her grandmother , Duchess Mary of Burgundy , and her aunt Margaret . Nevertheless , she proved to be a determined and skillful politician , as well as an enthusiastic patron of literature , music , and hunting .
= = Early life = =
Born in Brussels on 15 September 1505 , between ten and eleven in the morning , Archduchess Mary of Austria was the fifth child of King Philip I and Queen Joanna of Castile . Her birth was very difficult ; the Queen 's life was in danger and it took her a month to recover . On 20 September , she was baptized by Nicolas Le Ruistre , Bishop of Arras , and named after her paternal grandmother , Mary of Burgundy , who had died in 1482 . Her godfather was her paternal grandfather , Holy Roman Emperor Maximilian I.
On 17 March 1506 , Emperor Maximilian promised to marry her to the first son born to King Vladislaus II of Hungary . At the same time , the two monarchs decided that a brother of Mary would marry Vladislaus ' daughter Anne . Three months later , Vladislaus ' wife , Anne of Foix @-@ Candale , gave birth to a son , Louis Jagiellon . Queen Anne died in childbirth and the royal physicians made great efforts to keep the sickly Louis alive .
After the death of Mary 's father in September 1506 , her mother 's mental health began to deteriorate . Mary , along with her brother , Archduke Charles , and her sisters , Archduchesses Eleanor and Isabella , was put into the care of her paternal aunt , Archduchess Margaret , while two other siblings , Archduke Ferdinand and posthumously @-@ born Archduchess Catherine , remained in Castile . Mary , Isabella , and Eleanor were educated together at their aunt 's court in Mechelen . Their music teacher was Henry Bredemers .
= = Queen of Hungary and Bohemia = =
Mary was summoned to the court of her grandfather Maximilian in 1514 . On 22 July 1515 , Mary and Louis were married in St. Stephen 's Cathedral , Vienna . At the same time , Louis ' sister Anne was betrothed to an as yet unspecified brother of Mary , with Emperor Maximilian acting as proxy . Due to their age , it was decided that the newly married couple would not live together for a few more years . Anne eventually married Mary 's brother Ferdinand and came to Vienna , where the double sisters @-@ in @-@ law were educated together until 1516 . That year , Mary 's father @-@ in @-@ law died , making Louis and Mary king and queen of Hungary and Bohemia . Mary moved to Innsbruck , where she was educated until 1521 . Maximilian encouraged her interest in hunting , while childhood lessons prompted an interest in music . This passion would later be demonstrated during her tenure as governor of the Netherlands .
= = = Life with Louis = = =
Mary travelled to Hungary in June 1521 , two and a half years after Emperor Maximilian 's death . She was anointed and crowned queen of Hungary by Simon Erdődy , Bishop of Zagreb , in Székesfehérvár on 11 December 1521 . The queen 's coronation was followed by brilliant festivities . The royal marriage was blessed on 13 January 1522 in Buda . Mary 's anointment and coronation as queen of Bohemia took place on 1 June 1522 .
Mary and Louis fell in love when they were reunited in Buda . At first , Queen Mary had no influence over politics of Hungary and Bohemia because of her youth . Her court was replete with Germans and Dutch , who formed a base for the interests of the House of Habsburg . By 1524 Mary negotiated significant authority and influence for herself . In 1525 , she took control over one powerful political faction and neutralised another . Austria 's ambassador , Andrea de Borgo , was appointed by the Queen herself .
During her tenure as queen of Hungary , Mary attracted the interest of Martin Luther , who dedicated four psalms to her in 1526 . Despite her brother Ferdinand 's strong disapproval , Luther 's teachings held great appeal for Mary during her marriage and even more for her sister Isabella and her brother @-@ in @-@ law King Christian II of Denmark . Mary turned away from his teachings mostly because of pressure from Ferdinand . Her trusted court preacher , Johann Henckel , is also considered responsible for Mary 's return to orthodox Roman Catholicism . The return was lukewarm , but historian Helmut Georg Koenigsberger considers Mary 's reputation for sympathy with Lutheranism " much @-@ exaggerated " .
Louis and Mary spent their free time riding and hunting in the open country near the palace . They tried unsuccessfully to mobilize the Hungarian nobility against an imminent Ottoman invasion . Louis had inherited the crown of a country whose noblemen were fighting among themselves and against the peasantry . Hungary was deeply divided when , by the end of 1525 , it became clear that the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman I was planning to invade .
= = = Ottoman invasion = = =
On 29 August 1526 , Suleiman and his army broke through Hungary 's southern defences . Louis and his entire government marched out with a small army of 20 @,@ 000 men . The Battle of Mohács was over in less than two hours , with the entire Hungarian army virtually annihilated . Louis tried to flee the site of the battle but slipped from his frightened horse and drowned . Mary would mourn him for the rest of her life .
Hungary was divided into three parts : Ottoman Hungary - a part of the Ottoman Empire , Royal Hungary - ruled by Mary 's brother Ferdinand , and Eastern Hungarian Kingdom - ruled by John Zápolya . Ferdinand was elected King of Bohemia . Mary took a vow to never remarry and always wore the heart @-@ shaped medallion worn by her husband in the fatal Battle of Mohács .
= = Regency in Hungary = =
The day after her husband 's death , Mary notified Ferdinand of the defeat and asked him to come to Hungary . She requested troops to support her until his arrival . Ferdinand , busy in Bohemia where he had already been elected king , instead named Mary his regent in Hungary .
Mary spent the following year working to secure the election of Ferdinand as King of Hungary . On 14 February 1527 , she asked for his permission to resign as regent . Permission was denied , and Mary had to remain in the post until the summer of 1527 , when he finally came to Hungary and assumed the crown , to Mary 's relief .
Mary soon experienced financial troubles , illnesses , and loneliness . In 1528 , her aunt Margaret suggested that she should marry King James V of Scotland . Mary rejected the idea because she had loved her husband and did not wish another marriage . In 1530 Charles again suggested that she should remarry ; he proposed to arrange a marriage to Frederick of Bavaria , who had unsuccessfully courted Mary 's sister Eleanor sixteen years before . Mary rejected him as well .
Ferdinand offered Mary the post of regent again in 1528 , but she declined , saying that " such affairs need a person wiser and older " . Ferdinand persisted in drawing Mary into his affairs throughout 1529 . Archduchess Margaret died on 1 December the next year , leaving the position of Governor of the Seventeen Provinces in the Netherlands vacant . Ferdinand informed her about their aunt 's death , saying that her affairs might now " take a different course " .
= = Governor of the Netherlands = =
On 3 January 1531 , Mary 's older brother , Holy Roman Emperor Charles V , requested that she assume the regency of the Netherlands . Charles was ruling a vast empire and was constantly in need of reliable family members who could govern his remote territories in his name . Mary reluctantly accepted on Charles ' insistence . On 6 October 1537 , in Monzón , the Emperor wrote to her :
I am only one and I can 't be everywhere ; and I must be where I ought to be and where I can , and often enough only where I can be and not where I would like to be ; for one can 't do more than one can do .
Mary served as regent of the Netherlands so well that Charles forced her to retain the post and granted her more powers than their aunt had enjoyed . Unlike her aunt , Mary was deeply unhappy during her tenure as governor and never enjoyed her role . In May 1531 , having governed for only four months , Mary told her brother Ferdinand the experience was like having a rope around her neck . While Margaret had been considered truly feminine , flexible , adaptable , humorous and charming , Mary was unyielding and authoritarian . Margaret accomplished her goals using a smile , a joke , or a word of praise , but Mary used cynical and biting comments . Unlike her aunt , Mary was unable to forgive or forget . She recognized this lack of " power as a woman " as her main problem .
= = = Guardianship over nieces = = =
Assuming the regency in the Netherlands meant assuming the guardianship of her nieces , Dorothea and Christina of Denmark , the daughters of her older sister , Queen Isabella of Denmark , who had died in 1526 . Upon Isabella 's death , the princesses had been cared for by Archduchess Margaret . Charles now relied upon Mary to arrange marriages for them , especially for Dorothea , whom he wanted to place on the Danish throne .
In 1532 , Francesco II Sforza , Duke of Milan , proposed a marriage with Christina , who was then 11 years old . Charles agreed to the marriage and allowed its immediate consummation . Mary determinedly opposed this decision , explaining to Charles that Christina was too young for consummation of the marriage . Charles ignored her , but she nevertheless managed to delay the marriage . She first told the Milanese envoy that her niece was ill and then took her to another part of the Netherlands for " serious affairs " . Christina was finally married on 28 September 1532 , but Mary managed to postpone her departure until 11 March 1533 .
Immediately after Christina 's departure , Mary fell ill and requested that she be allowed to resign as governor , but Charles did not allow it . A year later , Dorothea too was married . A few months after Dorothea 's departure , the now widowed Christina returned to her aunt 's court . King Henry VIII of England immediately proposed marriage to Christina , and Charles urged Mary to negotiate the marriage . She was not in favour of the union , and delayed . Henry was excommunicated in 1539 , at which point Charles had to end the negotiations .
= = = Relationship with Charles = = =
The Emperor assured Mary that he had no doubts about her loyalty to the Roman Catholic Church . He had learned that the Queen could not easily be bullied , especially not in matters which affected her personally . Yet , upon leaving the States General in October 1531 , Charles gave her a warning , saying that if his parent , wife , child or sibling became a follower of Luther , he would consider them his greatest enemy . Mary was thus forced to suppress Protestantism in the Netherlands , regardless of her own religious tolerance . However , she always strived to enforce her brother 's laws on religion as little as possible . She was accused of protecting Protestants on several occasions .
Her determination sometimes caused clashes of wills with Charles . In most matters of patronage , Mary had to defer to Charles , which is why his relations in this area were not much better with Mary than with their aunt Margaret . He often criticized her decisions , which negatively affected their otherwise affectionate relationship .
= = = Riots = = =
Mary became worried about losing authority and was having trouble with the finances in February 1534 . She complained that the budget could not be balanced even during the times of peace . Charles assured her that she was doing her best .
The Queen complained to Charles in August 1537 that the Low Countries were no longer governable and said he should come himself . In fact , Mary handled the crisis quite well and kept a cool head in public . In October , she travelled to the north of France to meet her brother @-@ in @-@ law , King Francis I of France , the second husband of her sister Eleanor . On October 23 , they signed a treaty . Francis thereby promised Mary that he would not help those who rebelled against her , while the Queen promised to compensate certain French noblemen who lost their land in the Low Countries during the Italian Wars .
= = = Seeking peace = = =
In 1534 , Mary prepared a proposal for a defensive union of all the provinces in her councils . She made the proposal at the States General in Mechelen in July , citing her brother , who had requested the provinces assist each other . The plan had to be given up and , after Mary and Eleanor 's failure to negotiate peace between the Empire and France , Mary 's letters to Charles began to resemble the theatrical outbursts of their aunt Margaret .
Mary strived for peace in the Netherlands . Charles paid no attention to the problems she was facing as governor and often ignored her warnings . One such incident led to Charles 's loss of the city of Metz to France . Mary was forced to wage war against France in 1537 and to deal with the Revolt of Ghent between 1538 and 1540 . Mary 's appointment as Governor of the Netherlands was renewed on 14 October 1540 , after the revolt in Ghent had been subdued .
= = = Resignation = = =
The Queen had to mediate between her brothers in 1555 , when Charles decided to abdicate as emperor and leave the government of the Netherlands to his son Philip , despite Ferdinand 's objections . When Mary learned of Charles 's decision , she informed him that she too would resign . Both Charles and Philip urged her to remain in the post , but she refused . She chronicled the difficulties she had faced due to her gender , the fact that she could not act as she thought she should have because of disagreements with Charles , and her age . Furthermore , she did not wish to accommodate to the ways of her nephew after years of getting used to Charles 's demands . The actual reason for Mary 's resignation was her numerous disagreements with her nephew . She asked for Charles 's permission to leave the Netherlands upon her resignation , fearing that she would be drawn into politics again if she remained .
Charles finally allowed his sister to resign . She formally announced her decision on 24 September 1555 and dismissed her household on 1 October . On 25 October , her authority was transferred to Philip , who , despite his personal dislike of his aunt , tried to convince her to resume the post . After another quarrel with Philip , Mary retired to Turnhout . She remained in the Netherlands one more year .
= = Life in Castile = =
Mary wished to retire to Castile and live with her recently widowed sister Eleanor , near Charles , who had retired . She was afraid of moving to Castile because , although her mentally unstable mother Joanna ( who died aged 77 in April 1555 ) had been sovereign there , Mary had never lived in Castile . She was afraid that Eleanor 's death would leave her alone in a country whose customs she did not know . In the end , she decided to move to Castile , while retaining the possibility of moving back to the Netherlands in case she could not adjust to the Castilian customs . Charles , Eleanor , and Mary sailed from Ghent on 15 September 1556 .
Although she repeatedly assured her brother that she had no intention of occupying herself with the affairs of state , Mary offered to become adviser to her niece Joan , who was serving as regent for Philip . Joan did not wish to share power and declined her aunt 's offer .
Mary did not enjoy her retirement for long ; Eleanor died in her arms in February 1558 . The grief @-@ stricken queen travelled to Charles to ask him for advice about her future . Charles told her that he wanted her to resume regency in the Netherlands , and promised a home and a large income , but Mary declined the offer . Her nephew Philip then urged her advisor to convince her to return . When Charles became ill in August , Mary accepted the offer and decided that she would become governor once again .
In September , Mary was fully prepared to depart for the Netherlands and resume her post when she was informed of Charles 's death . Distressed by the death of another sibling , the Queen , who had suffered from a heart disease most of her life , had two heart attacks in October . Both were so severe that her doctors thought that she had died . When Joan visited her , Mary was still determined to fulfill the promise she had given to Charles and assume the regency in the Netherlands , but she was weak and feverish . She died only few weeks later , in Cigales on 18 October 1558 .
In her last will , Mary left all her possessions to Charles . Since Charles had died , Philip inherited his aunt 's property . Shortly before her death , she decided that Philip and Joan should execute her will . She requested that her heart @-@ shaped gold medallion , once worn by her husband , be melted down and the gold distributed to the poor .
Queen Mary was first buried in the Monastery of Saint Benedict in Valladolid . Fifteen years after her death , Philip ordered that the remains be transferred to El Escorial .
= = Legacy = =
Mary was a keen art collector , and owned several important masterpieces of Early Netherlandish painting as well as more contemporary works . These included the Deposition of Christ by Rogier van der Weyden , now in the Museo de Prado , and the Arnolfini Portrait by Jan van Eyck , now in the National Gallery , London . Most of the collection passed to the Spanish Royal Collection after her death .
Queen Mary of Hungary was a great patron of music . She supported both sacred and secular music at her court in the Netherlands , where her maître de chappelle was Benedictus Appenzeller . Several elaborate music manuscripts that she commissioned during her governance are preserved in Spain in the monastery of Montserrat .
= = = Arms = = =
= = Ancestry = =
= New Jersey Route 208 =
Route 208 is a state highway in the northern part of New Jersey in the United States . It runs 10 @.@ 07 miles ( 16 @.@ 21 km ) from an interchange with Route 4 and County Route 79 ( Saddle River Road ) in Fair Lawn northwest to an interchange with Interstate 287 in Oakland . The route runs through suburban areas of Bergen and Passaic counties as four- to six @-@ lane divided highway . It is constructed like a freeway , as intersections with cross roads are controlled by interchanges , but is not a controlled access road as several driveways exist . The route runs through the communities of Fair Lawn , Glen Rock , Hawthorne , Wyckoff , and Franklin Lakes along the way , interchanging with County Route 507 in Fair Lawn and County Route 502 in Franklin Lakes .
What is now Route 208 was initially planned as Route S4B in 1929 , a spur of Route 4 that was to run from Fair Lawn northwest to the New York border in Greenwood Lake , where it would eventually connect to New York State Route 208 . This route replaced what was planned as a part of Route 3 in 1927 between Paterson and Greenwood Lake . By the time the route was renumbered to Route 208 in 1953 to match NY 208 , only a portion of the route in Fair Lawn from Route 4 to Maple Avenue had been built . Route 208 was completed west to U.S. Route 202 in Oakland by 1960 as a two @-@ lane undivided road ; it would be built into its present configuration in later years . A Route 208 freeway was planned across the Ramapo Mountains from Oakland to connect to a proposed NY 208 freeway at Greenwood Lake ; however , it was never built . After Interstate 287 was extended from Montville to the New York border in 1993 , it took over the alignment of Route 208 between U.S. Route 202 and the route ’ s current northern terminus . The last traffic signal along Route 208 at McBride Avenue was removed in 1997 and the interchange with Route 4 and Saddle River Road was reconstructed in 2002 .
= = Route description = =
Route 208 ( dedicated as the World War II Veterans Memorial Highway ) is constructed like a freeway , however , at no point does it meet the standard of controlled access . Several streets and private driveways abut the road throughout its length , with right @-@ in / right @-@ out access ; however , no traffic may cross the highway at grade . Traffic moves in at least two lanes in each direction for the road 's entire length of 10 @.@ 07 miles ( 16 @.@ 21 km ) , widening briefly to three lanes next to a commercial area in Fair Lawn and near its northern terminus .
The road originates at an interchange with Route 4 in Fair Lawn , Bergen County that also includes ramps for County Route 79 ( Saddle River Road ) , heading to the west near residential areas . Shortly after beginning , a ramp from southbound Route 208 provides access via Virginia Drive to westbound Route 4 . The next exit is a partial interchange with County Route 78 ( Morlot Avenue ) , followed by a full interchange with Plaza Road . Past the latter , the route passes over New Jersey Transit ’ s Bergen County Line and comes to a southbound exit and entrance with Berdan Avenue . From here , the road turns to the northwest , passing near more neighborhoods before coming to an interchange with County Route 76 ( Fair Lawn Avenue ) . Past this interchange , the northbound direction of Route 208 widens to three lanes and it continues into commercial areas , with some driveways along the road and an intersection with McBride Avenue . At this point , the highway passes an industrial park , including a Nabisco plant on the right side . A short distance later , the road reaches the interchange with County Route 507 ( Maple Avenue ) and County Route 127 ( Harristown Road ) . Past this interchange , the road enters Glen Rock and has a northbound exit and entrance with De Boer Drive before crossing over the New Jersey Transit Main Line . Past the railroad crossing , Route 208 heads through wooded residential areas prior to a northbound interchange with County Route 653 ( Lincoln Avenue ) , where it enters Hawthorne , Passaic County . County Route 653 and Route 208 are connected by a short segment of County Route 664 ( Rea Avenue ) .
The highway has turnoffs in each direction for Utter Avenue before passing beneath the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railway track prior the interchange with County Route 659 ( Goffle Road ) . Past here , the highway turns north and climbs a hill , passing the Hawthorne Gospel Church on the right . It re @-@ enters Bergen County in Wyckoff , just before the Grandview Avenue interchange . From here , Route 208 largely resembles a wooded parkway , although there are a few driveways off the road . The road turns northwest and interchanges with County Route 93 ( Cedar Hill Avenue ) before passing near more homes and coming to an interchange with County Route S93 ( Russell Avenue ) . The road continues into Franklin Lakes and interchanges with County Route 502 ( Ewing Avenue ) before turning west @-@ northwest and coming to an exit for County Route S89 ( Summit Avenue ) . Past Summit Avenue , the road has two interchanges providing access to the Becton Dickinson headquarters campus , where the road carries three lanes in each direction . It narrows back to two lanes in each direction before coming to the interchange with County Route 117 ( Colonial Road ) and County Route 89 ( High Mountain Road ) . The final exit heading northbound is for Interstate 287 north , an interchange that includes another crossing of the New York , Susquehanna and Western Railway . After passing the exit , Route 208 northbound merges into Interstate 287 southbound at the Franklin Lakes and Oakland border .
= = History = =
NJ 208 was first plotted in 1929 as Route S4B , a spur off Route 4 that was to run from Fair Lawn northwest through Ringwood , and West Milford to the New York border near Greenwood Lake . This route was to replace what was to be a portion of Route 3 between Paterson and the New York border that was designated in the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering . The road was projected to continue into New York and continue through Sterling Forest and Monroe , New York , where it would join New York 's Route 208 at its intersection with New York State Route 17 . By 1953 , the portion of Route S4B between Route 4 and Maple Avenue in Fair Lawn was completed ; that same year , it was renumbered to Route 208 in order to match NY 208 . By 1960 , the road was extended to a northern terminus at U.S. Route 202 and West Oakland Avenue in Oakland , where traffic could exit and continue over Skyline Drive to Ringwood . When first constructed , this portion of Route 208 was a two @-@ lane undivided road . By 1969 , the portion between Maple Avenue and Goffle Road was widened to a divided highway with the entire route built into a multi @-@ lane divided highway by the 1980s .
Meanwhile , plans still existed to build Route 208 past Oakland to the New York border . Passaic County called for a divided highway to bypass Skyline Drive , and in 1967 the New Jersey Department of Transportation proposed a Route 208 freeway through the Ramapo Mountains that would run from Oakland to the New York border in Greenwood Lake , where it would connect to a proposed NY 208 freeway ( called the Orange Expressway ) that would continue north to Interstate 84 in Maybrook , New York . This freeway , which was to cost $ 66 @.@ 3 million , was to improve traffic in the resort areas of the Ramapo Mountains and also connect to the proposed Route 94 freeway leading to Warren County and the proposed Route 178 freeway leading to Morris County . In 1975 , this proposed freeway was recommended by the Tri @-@ State Regional Planning Commission to be completed by 2000 . However , it was never built .
When Interstate 287 was extended from Montville to the New York border in 1993 , it took over the alignment of Route 208 between U.S. Route 202 and the current northern terminus of Route 208 . In 1995 , the last traffic signal along Route 208 at McBride Avenue was turned off . In 2002 , construction was completed on a $ 32 million project that improved the interchange with Route 4 in Fair Lawn . This interchange saw improvements of the ramps and bridges , including the Route 208 bridge over Saddle River Road . The Route 208 freeway , like many others in New Jersey , once had solar powered emergency call boxes every 1 @.@ 0 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) ; however with the advent of cell phones the usage of these call boxes became extremely limited . To save on maintenance costs , the NJDOT removed these call boxes in 2005 .
= = Exit list = =
= Len Hutton =
Sir Leonard " Len " Hutton ( 23 June 1916 – 6 September 1990 ) was an English cricketer who played as an opening batsman for Yorkshire from 1934 to 1955 and for England in 79 Test matches between 1937 and 1955 . Wisden Cricketers ' Almanack described him as one of the greatest batsmen in the history of cricket . He set a record in 1938 for the highest individual innings in a Test match in only his sixth Test appearance , scoring 364 runs against Australia , a milestone that stood for nearly 20 years ( and remains an England Test record ) . In 1952 , he became the first professional cricketer of the 20th Century to captain England in Tests ; under his captaincy England won the Ashes the following year for the first time in 19 years . Following the Second World War , he was the mainstay of England 's batting , and the team depended greatly on his success .
Marked out as a potential star from his teenage years , Hutton made his debut for Yorkshire in 1934 and quickly established himself at county level . By 1937 , he was playing for England and when the war interrupted his career in 1939 , critics regarded him as one of the leading batsmen in the country , and even the world . During the war , he received a serious injury to his arm while taking part in a commando training course . His arm never fully recovered , forcing him to alter his batting style . When cricket restarted , Hutton resumed his role as one of England 's leading batsmen ; by the time of England 's tour to Australia in 1950 – 51 , the team relied heavily on his batting and did so for the remainder of his career . As a batsman , Hutton was cautious and built his style on a sound defence . Although capable of attacking strokeplay , both Yorkshire and England depended on him , and awareness of this affected his style . Hutton remains statistically among the best batsmen to have played Test cricket .
Hutton captained the England Test team between 1952 and 1955 , although his leadership was at times controversial . He pursued a cautious approach and faced criticism for negativity . Never comfortable in the role , Hutton felt that the former amateur players who administered and governed English cricket did not trust him . In 23 Tests as captain , he won eight Tests and lost four with the others drawn . Worn out by the mental and physical demands of his role , Hutton retired from regular first @-@ class cricket during the 1955 season . Knighted for his contributions to cricket in 1956 , he went on to be a Test selector , a journalist and broadcaster . He also worked as a representative for an engineering firm until retiring from the job in 1984 . Hutton remained involved in cricket , and became president of Yorkshire County Cricket Club in 1990 . He died a few months afterwards in September 1990 , aged 74 .
= = Early life = =
Hutton was born on 23 June 1916 in the Moravian community of Fulneck , Pudsey , the youngest of five children to Henry Hutton and his wife Lily ( née Swithenbank ) . Many of his family were local cricketers and Hutton soon became immersed in the sport , which he both played and read about with enthusiasm . He practised in the playground of Littlemoor Council School , which he attended from 1921 until 1930 , and at Pudsey St Lawrence Cricket Club , which he joined as a junior . At the age of 12 , he made his first appearance for Pudsey St Lawrence 's second eleven and by 1929 had reached the first team . Locals encouraged him to meet the Yorkshire and England cricketer Herbert Sutcliffe , a neighbour , from whom Hutton received coaching in Sutcliffe 's garden . Sutcliffe was impressed by the young batsman , and commended him to Yorkshire as a good prospect .
Following this endorsement , Hutton went to the county 's indoor practice shed at Headingley in February 1930 . George Hirst , a former Yorkshire cricketer responsible for assessing and coaching young players , believed that Hutton 's batting technique was essentially already complete . Bill Bowes , the Yorkshire pace bowler , was equally impressed , and helped Hutton to correct a minor flaw in his technique . Hutton was sufficiently encouraged to decide to attempt a career in professional cricket , but at the prompting of his parents decided to learn a trade as well . During 1930 , he watched the Australian Don Bradman hit 334 not out at Headingley in a Test match , then a record individual score in Tests — which he himself would surpass eight years later . Later that year , Hutton enrolled at Pudsey Grammar School where he spent a year studying technical drawing and quantitative work before joining his father at a local building firm , Joseph Verity . After becoming a professional cricketer , Hutton continued to work for the company during winter months until 1939 .
= = Career before the Second World War = =
= = = First years with Yorkshire = = =
By 1933 , Hutton was regularly opening the batting for the Pudsey St Lawrence first team in the Bradford Cricket League . By close observation of his opening partner , the former Yorkshire county batsman Edgar Oldroyd , Hutton further developed his batting technique , especially in defence . The local press soon identified Hutton as a player of promise , particularly after he scored a match @-@ winning 108 not out in the Priestley Cup . Senior figures within Yorkshire cricket identified him as a potential successor to Percy Holmes as an opening partner to Sutcliffe ; at this stage in his career , Hutton was also considered a promising leg spin bowler . In the 1933 season Hutton was selected for the Yorkshire Second Eleven . Although he failed to score a run in either of his first two innings , over the season he scored 699 runs at an average of 69 @.@ 90 . Yorkshire appointed Cyril Turner as Hutton 's mentor ; Hedley Verity and Bowes also offered Hutton guidance in his early career .
Hutton made his first @-@ class debut for Yorkshire in 1934 , at the age of 17 the youngest Yorkshire player since Hirst , 45 years earlier . In his first match , against Cambridge University , he was run out for a duck but scored an unbeaten 50 runs in his second match ; he followed this with another half @-@ century against Warwickshire on his County Championship debut . He played regularly for the rest of the season but to prevent his overexposure to Championship cricket , Yorkshire limited his appearances and returned him periodically to the second eleven . In matches for the first team , Hutton shared large first @-@ wicket partnerships with Wilf Barber and with Arthur Mitchell , before scoring his maiden first @-@ class century in an innings of 196 against Worcestershire . At the time , he was the youngest Yorkshire batsman to score a first @-@ class century . He finished the season with a total of 863 runs at an average of 33 @.@ 19 ;
An operation on his nose before the 1935 season delayed Hutton 's appearance on the cricket field that year . Attempting to return too quickly , he endured poor health which limited his subsequent appearances and effectiveness ; by the middle of August he had scored a total of just 73 runs . A century against Middlesex led to run of bigger scores , and his contribution to Yorkshire 's County Championship victory that season was 577 runs at an average in first @-@ class matches of 28 @.@ 85 . In the winter of 1935 – 36 Hutton went on his first overseas tour , as Yorkshire visited Jamaica . In the 1936 season he reached 1 @,@ 000 runs in a season for the first time — 1 @,@ 282 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 81 — and was awarded his county cap in July . He took part in several large partnerships through the season , including one of 230 with Sutcliffe , although he experienced a sequence of low scores in May and June .
Throughout his first seasons , Hutton faced press criticism for his caution and reluctance to play attacking shots . Although regarding him a certain England selection in the future , critics thought Hutton slightly dull and pedestrian . Yorkshire remained unconcerned ; cricket writer Alan Hill believes Hutton 's subsequent success was built on this initial establishment of a defensive technique . His achievements brought limited recognition , owing to the high level of expectation surrounding him . This sense of frustration was heightened by comments from Sutcliffe in 1935 , when he wrote that Hutton was " a certainty for a place as England 's opening batsman . He is a marvel – the discovery of a generation ... His technique is that of a maestro . " Such praise was rare from Sutcliffe , but Hutton found the comments a burden , while others found them embarrassing .
= = = Test match debut = = =
After Hutton began 1937 with a series of high scores — including an innings of 271 against Derbyshire , the reigning County Champions , and 153 against Leicestershire two days later when he and Sutcliffe shared a 315 @-@ run opening partnership — he was chosen to play for England against New Zealand in the first Test match of the season . On 26 June , he made his Test debut at Lord 's Cricket Ground , scoring 0 and 1 . Retaining his place in the England team after scoring centuries for Yorkshire in the following games , he scored his maiden Test hundred on 24 July in the second Test at Old Trafford , Manchester . He batted for three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours to score exactly 100 runs and shared a century opening partnership with Charlie Barnett . Hutton 's remaining two innings in the Test series yielded 14 and 12 , giving him 127 runs at an average of 25 @.@ 40 . Also in 1937 , Hutton made his first appearance for the Players against the Gentlemen at Lord 's . In total that year he scored 2 @,@ 888 runs , more than double his previous seasonal best , at an average of 56 @.@ 62 and including ten centuries . He also recorded the best bowling performance of his career , six wickets for 76 against Leicestershire , altogether taking ten wickets in the match — the only time he achieved this . His performances that year earned him selection as one of Wisden 's Cricketers of the Year . The citation praised his attitude , technique , fielding and bowling , noting however that some commentators continued to criticise his overcaution .
In early matches of the 1938 season , with an Ashes series against Australia pending , Hutton made three centuries and scored 93 not out . Selected for a Test trial , he shared a century opening partnership with Bill Edrich , and was selected for the first Test at Trent Bridge in Nottingham beginning on 28 June . In just over three hours , Hutton scored 100 from 221 deliveries on his Ashes debut , adding 219 with Charlie Barnett for the first wicket . England , in Wally Hammond 's first match as Test captain , posted a total of 658 for eight wickets , but the match was drawn . Hutton failed in the second Test , with two single figure scores in another drawn game . He was generally unsuccessful with the bat in the following weeks , during which the third Test was entirely rained off . Following a sequence of low scores for Yorkshire , Hutton 's finger was broken in a match against Middlesex played on a dangerous pitch at Lord 's . Consequently , he could not play in the fourth Test , played at his home ground , Headingley , in which England were soundly beaten . After missing a month of cricket , Hutton played just two games before his selection for the final Test of the series .
= = = Test record score = = =
The last Test was played at The Oval and began on 20 August 1938 . Hammond won the toss on a very good pitch for batting , and after an early wicket fell , Hutton and Maurice Leyland , his Yorkshire teammate , took the score to 347 for one wicket after the first day . Hutton was unbeaten on 160 although Australia missed a chance to dismiss him , stumped , when he had scored 40 . After a rest day , the Yorkshire batsmen took their partnership to 382 before Leyland was out . Hutton then shared substantial partnerships with Hammond and Joe Hardstaff junior , taking his personal score to 300 at the end of the second day , out of a total of 634 for five . In the process he surpassed the previous highest Test score by an England batsman in a home match . Hutton maintained caution throughout ; Wisden commented that his dominance of the bowling had become slightly monotonous after two days , although it recognised his skill . On the third day ( 23 August ) , the Australians made a concerted effort to dismiss Hutton before he broke Bradman 's 1930 record Ashes score of 334 — the record score in a Test match was Hammond 's 336 not out against New Zealand , but it was compiled against what was perceived as inferior bowling , and Bradman 's total was more prestigious . Although showing nerves as he approached the record , Hutton passed Bradman 's score with a cut off Chuck Fleetwood @-@ Smith , and extended his score to 364 before he was out , caught . Lasting for more than 13 hours , with 847 balls faced , Hutton 's innings was the longest in first @-@ class cricket at the time . It was only the sixth Test of his career . The innings was the highest individual score in a Test until Garfield Sobers scored 365 in 1958 ; in 2016 it remains the 6th highest in Tests and is the most runs scored in an innings by an English player . England eventually scored 903 , the highest team total in a Test at that time , before Hammond declared the innings closed . Australia were bowled out twice and England won by an innings and 579 runs to draw the series with one victory apiece .
Commentators mainly praised Hutton 's concentration and stamina ; his slow scoring , particularly when compared to Bradman 's innings of 334 , was excused on the grounds that the Oval match was played without a time limit , and run accumulation was more important than fast scoring . Furthermore , Hammond had instructed Hutton to bat as long as possible . Among views expressed by Test cricketers , Les Ames believed that while Hutton had shown great skill , a combination of a very easy wicket for batting and an unusually weak bowling attack presented an ideal opportunity . Former England captain Bob Wyatt described the innings as one of the greatest feats of concentration and endurance in the history of the game . Some critics expressed distaste at England 's approach , but this opinion was not widely shared . In the aftermath of the innings , Hutton became famous , in constant demand from the public and press who compared him to Bradman . Hutton later described the acclamation he received as one of the worst things that happened to him , not least because expectations were unreasonably high every time he subsequently batted . When the season ended , Hutton had scored 1 @,@ 874 runs in all matches at an average of 60 @.@ 45 .
= = = Leading batsman = = =
From October 1938 , Hutton toured South Africa with the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) — the name by which England teams toured at the time — under the captaincy of Hammond ; England won the series 1 – 0 , with the other four games drawn . He scored centuries in two early matches but in a match against Transvaal , a delivery from Eric Davies knocked him unconscious and forced him to miss the first Test . Unsuccessful on his return in the second Test , Hutton scored a double century in the following tour match , but had another low score in the third Test , which England won . He was more successful in the final Tests . In the fourth , on a difficult pitch for batting , he scored 92 . The final Test was drawn after ten days of play in a supposedly " timeless " Test . In a match which set a record aggregate of runs , Hutton scored 38 and 55 but his contributions were overshadowed by the heavy scoring of others . Although Hutton scored 265 runs in the Test series , at an average of 44 @.@ 16 , critics were disappointed , expecting more after his record innings of 1938 . In all first @-@ class matches , he scored 1 @,@ 168 runs at an average of 64 @.@ 88 , the highest aggregate among the tourists , and accumulated five centuries . Spectators found his batting attractive and the Wisden correspondent regarded him the most accomplished batsman on the tour .
In its summary of the 1939 season , Wisden noted the development of Hutton into a more exciting batsman to watch , observing that he " gave further evidence of being one of the world 's greatest batsmen " . He began to dominate opening partnerships with Sutcliffe , in contrast to prior seasons when he was the junior partner . In total , he scored 2 @,@ 883 runs , over 400 more than any other batsman and his average of 62 @.@ 27 placed him second in the national averages behind Hammond . Among his twelve centuries , Hutton scored his highest total for Yorkshire , 280 not out in six hours against Hampshire , sharing an opening partnership of 315 with Sutcliffe . His contributions helped Yorkshire to their third successive Championship . He was also successful in representative matches , scoring 86 for the Players against the Gentlemen , and compiling 480 runs ( averaging 96 @.@ 00 ) in the Test matches against West Indies . England won the series , after recording victory in the first match and drawing the others . Hutton scored 196 in the first Test , hitting his last 96 runs in 95 minutes ; he and Denis Compton scored 248 runs together in 133 minutes . After low scores in the second Test , Hutton scored 73 and 165 not out in the final game at the Oval . Facing a West Indian lead of 146 , he batted five hours in the second innings , sharing a partnership of 264 with Hammond . He ended his season with a century against Sussex in Yorkshire 's final match before the war ; two days after its conclusion , the Second World War began .
= = Wartime injury and recovery = =
At the beginning of the war , Hutton volunteered for the army and was recruited to the Army Physical Training Corps as a sergeant @-@ instructor . Although no first @-@ class cricket was played during the war , league and charity cricket matches continued and Hutton played several high @-@ profile matches in 1940 . But in March 1941 , his future in cricket was threatened by a serious injury . On the last day of a commando training course in York , Hutton fell in the gymnasium when a mat slipped from under him . He suffered a fractured left forearm and dislocated his ulna at the wrist . By the summer , surgery and rest initially looked to have repaired the injury ; Hutton returned to his unit and resumed cricket , scoring a century in one game . However , he began to suffer increasing pain and underwent more surgery to graft bone from his legs onto the injured arm . A first operation failed , but the second attempt at the end of 1941 eventually proved successful . The surgery left him with a left arm almost two inches shorter than the right . He was discharged from the army in the summer of 1942 and , after a period of recovery , began work as a civilian for the Royal Engineers , inspecting the condition of government @-@ owned properties . Hutton 's recovery and return to cricket was closely followed by the wartime press , which kept track of many pre @-@ war cricketers .
Hutton resumed professional cricket with Pudsey St Lawrence in 1943 , briefly captaining the team before poor results and a disagreement with the committee led him to resign the captaincy . He played for Pudsey until 1945 , batting successfully and helping the team to the Priestley Cup , but his relationship with the club remained strained and he did not play for them again after 1945 . When the war ended in 1945 , a programme of first @-@ class matches was organised , involving counties and other teams . A series of matches was played between England and an Australian Services cricket team , called Victory Tests although they were not official Test matches . Hutton played in all three games with mixed success . He scored 46 in the second match , but was struck painfully on his weak arm by a short ball from Keith Miller , whom he encountered for the first time . After scoring 81 for Yorkshire against the Australian team , Hutton scored 104 and 69 in the final " Test " . Another century followed for Yorkshire against the Australians , taking his first @-@ class run aggregate to 782 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 87 in nine games . Commentators were satisfied that his batting technique remained effective and that he could still succeed at the highest level . The showpiece match of the season was England against the Dominions at Lord 's , but Hutton was prevented from appearing by his commitments to Pudsey .
= = Career after the war = =
= = = First tour to Australia = = =
County cricket fully resumed in 1946 . Hutton was troubled by his injury ; his wrists no longer rotated fully and he abandoned the hook shot . Nevertheless , he scored 1 @,@ 552 runs at an average of 48 @.@ 50 , and was recognised by Wisden as Yorkshire 's most effective batsman as the county won their fourth consecutive championship title . His four centuries included 183 not out against the touring Indian team , but he was less successful in the three Tests , scoring 123 runs at an average of 30 @.@ 75 . England won the series 1 – 0 but Hutton 's only fifty was a defensive innings in the second Test , when he was troubled by a bad back . He was omitted from the Gentlemen and Players match , but was part of the MCC team touring party for the 1946 – 47 tour of Australia .
The MCC were reluctant to tour so soon after the war , but the Australian authorities were insistent . The tourists , led once more by Wally Hammond , were beaten 3 – 0 in the Test series , finding their opponents much stronger than expected . Hutton began the tour well , scoring two early centuries , the latter of which was described by Wisden as the best English innings of the tour . A string of other good performances drew praise from press and former players ; one such report named him the best batsman in the world . However , Hutton failed to reach a score of 50 runs in the first three Tests ; in the first , he was out for a first ball duck , and in the second , a short ball from Keith Miller struck him on his injured arm . In the second innings of the latter game , he quickly scored 37 , frequently driving the bowling of Miller and Fred Freer before the bat slipped from his hand and hit the wicket , ending the innings . Even so , the display was praised by critics .
In the final two Tests , Hutton shared three consecutive century opening partnerships with Cyril Washbrook . A four @-@ hour 94 in the first innings was followed by 76 in the second . Press opinion was divided over Hutton 's performance ; some critics , including the Australian bowlers , detected insecurity against fast bowling , particularly the bouncers with which Ray Lindwall and Miller targeted him . Hutton 's preferred tactic of ducking under the ball reinforced the impression that he was afraid . In the final Test , Hutton scored a century , batting through the first day to score 122 not out , his first Test century in Australia , despite another barrage from Lindwall and Miller . The Sydney Morning Herald criticised the high number of short balls bowled by the Australian pacemen , bowled at Hutton as often as three times per over . After the second day was rained off , Hutton was taken ill overnight with tonsillitis , missed the remainder of the match and flew home soon after . In all first @-@ class matches on tour , Hutton scored 1 @,@ 267 runs at an average of 70 @.@ 38 , while in the Tests , he managed 417 runs at an average of 52 @.@ 12 ; he topped both sets of averages . Wisden noted that it took him time to find form in the Tests , but that he often batted well despite ill health . Bill Bowes , covering the tour as a journalist , believed that Hutton was unable to master bowling faster than he had encountered for eight years , but acquitted himself reasonably well .
= = = Series against South Africa and West Indies = = =
Hutton 's tonsils were removed before the start of the 1947 season but his poor health continued , forcing him to miss some games at the start of the season . Nevertheless , his form remained good and he scored four centuries in early matches . Yorkshire dropped to equal seventh in the County Championship , affected by the retirement of key players and the frequent loss of Hutton to representative cricket . In the Test matches Hutton did not initially score heavily . His highest innings after three Tests was only 24 runs , and critics called his place into question . He returned to form during the fourth Test , his first at Headingley , with a four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ hour century on a difficult pitch for batting . Hutton scored 83 and 36 in the drawn final Test , and England won the series 3 – 0 with the other two games drawn . Hutton hit 344 runs in the Test series at an average of 44 @.@ 00 ; in all first @-@ class matches , he scored eleven centuries and totalled 2 @,@ 585 runs at an average 64 @.@ 62 , although his achievements that season were overshadowed by those of Denis Compton and Bill Edrich , who both broke the previous record for most runs scored in a season .
After 16 months of continuous cricket , Hutton chose to miss the 1947 – 48 winter MCC tour of the West Indies . However , injuries severely affected that team , and its captain Gubby Allen requested reinforcements . Subsequently , Hutton flew out to join the tour ; Immediately after he arrived , having travelled for four days , Hutton played against British Guiana , scoring 138 and 62 not out , before appearing in the third Test . After a century against Jamaica , Hutton played innings of 56 and 60 in the fourth and final Test , giving him 171 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 75 in the series . He came top of the first @-@ class averages for the tourists , with 578 runs at an average of 64 @.@ 22 , and was judged by Wisden as one of the few batting successes in a team which lost the four @-@ Test series 2 – 0 and failed to win a single match on tour .
= = = Struggles against pace = = =
During 1948 , Hutton scored heavily for Yorkshire . Despite missing more than half the County Championship matches , he scored more runs at a better average than anyone else in the side . In county matches , Hutton averaged 92 @.@ 05 and scored eight centuries . Some Yorkshire critics expressed concern at the team 's dependence on Hutton and the poor performance of other batsmen . Hutton 's main challenge that season came from the Australian side which toured England undefeated and won the Test series 4 – 0 . In the early part of the tour , the Australians , and particularly the pace bowlers Lindwall and Miller , tried to shake Hutton 's confidence by targeting him . Although Hutton failed on a difficult pitch in Yorkshire 's match against the tourists , he was the only successful batsman against them when he appeared for MCC shortly after .
Hutton was selected for the first Test , but England were overwhelmed by the Australian fast bowlers and lost the match . After a failure in the first innings , Hutton scored 74 in the second , and briefly established dominance over Miller , who responded with a series of bouncers , one of which struck Hutton on the shoulder and provoked an angry reaction from the crowd . Miller bowled him in very poor light at the start of the fourth day 's play . At Lord 's in the second Test , also lost by England , Hutton scored 20 and 13 , but of more concern to critics was the manner in which he batted . In the second innings , England had to bat for a long time to save the game , Wisden noted that Hutton , in contrast to his opening partner Washbrook , looked " plainly uncomfortable " . He was nearly dismissed several times before he was out for 13 , and returned to the pavilion to an uncomfortable silence from the crowd . The former Australian batsman Jack Fingleton , covering the tour as a journalist , described it as Hutton 's worst effort in a Test . Bill O 'Reilly , another former Australian player working as a journalist , said Hutton seemed to be struggling with concentration and was a shadow of his former self .
Following his struggles at Lord 's , Hutton was omitted from the team for the third Test . Observers had noticed Hutton backing away from the fast bowlers , which the English selectors saw as a poor example from a leading batsman . The decision generated considerable acrimony , but surprised and pleased the Australians , who felt Hutton was their most formidable opponent with the bat . Press and critics generally judged the omission a mistake , although the Wisden correspondent believed the decision to be correct as Hutton benefited from a break . In later years , Norman Yardley , the England captain , agreed that the choice was a poor one . Hutton , who escaped most of the debate by playing in Scotland for Yorkshire , found the situation unsettling and Patrick Murphy , a sports journalist , writes that it " served to drive a reserved man further in on himself . " Meanwhile , Hutton was chosen to captain the Players against the Gentlemen at Lord 's ; he scored 59 and 132 not out .
Recalled to the England team for the fourth Test at Headingley , Hutton scored 81 and 57 . Given an excellent reception by his home crowd , he shared a century opening partnership with Washbrook in both innings , the second time they had accomplished this feat . Critics considered Hutton to be a better batsmen when he returned and that these innings repaired his damaged reputation . Australia needed 404 to win on a pitch favouring spin , but the poor performances of the main bowlers allowed Australia to record a seven wicket win described by Wisden as " astonishing " . Hutton 's contribution to the second Australian innings was to bowl four overs and concede 30 runs . Australia 's dominance in the series was sealed by a crushing win in the fifth Test . England were bowled out for 52 runs in the first innings , of which Hutton scored 30 before being last out to an exceptional catch down the leg side from wicketkeeper Don Tallon . Wisden described Hutton as " the one exception to complete failure " , while other critics noted he always looked comfortable . Facing a huge deficit in their second innings , England were bowled out for 188 . Hutton scored 64 , playing a similar defensive role to his first innings . In the Test series , Hutton scored 342 runs at an average of 42 @.@ 75 . In all first @-@ class matches , he reached 2 @,@ 654 runs at an average of 64 @.@ 73 .
= = = Leading batsman again = = =
Hutton toured South Africa in the winter of 1948 – 49 with the MCC under the captaincy of George Mann . Wisden described Hutton 's tour as a succession of triumphs until he tired at the end : " Hutton 's driving aroused the greatest admiration , but all his strokes were stamped with the hallmark of class . " Before the Test matches began , Hutton scored three centuries and then contributed 83 as England won the first Test . The next three Tests were drawn . In the second match , Hutton and Washbrook set a new Test match record opening partnership . In easy batting conditions , they shared 359 runs on the first day before Hutton was out for 158 after almost five hours batting . In more favourable bowling conditions in the third Test , Hutton scored 41 and 87 , followed by 123 in the fourth game which settled England 's second innings at a dangerous time . England won the final game to take the series 2 – 0 , and Hutton finished the Test series with 577 runs at an average of 64 @.@ 11 , while in all first @-@ class matches he recorded 1 @,@ 477 runs at an average of 73 @.@ 85 .
The most successful season of Hutton 's career in terms of runs scored was 1949 ; he scored 3 @,@ 429 runs at an average of 68 @.@ 58 , the fourth highest aggregate of runs in an English season . In both June and August he scored over 1 @,@ 000 runs ; his 1 @,@ 294 runs in June was a record for a single month and only Herbert Sutcliffe had previously passed 1 @,@ 000 runs for a calendar month twice in a season . He scored a double century against Lancashire , only the second for a Yorkshire batsman in the fixture . With Hutton available for more matches than in the previous few seasons , Yorkshire shared the County Championship with Middlesex , their last success until 1959 . In the four Test matches against the touring New Zealanders , all of which were drawn , Hutton scored 469 runs at an average of 78 @.@ 16 . He scored 101 in the first Test , and fifties in the second and third matches , before ending the series with an innings of 206 in the fourth Test , in which the second hundred runs took only 85 minutes .
Hutton scored 2 @,@ 049 runs at an average of 56 @.@ 91 in the 1950 season . Batting effectively on a succession of early season rain @-@ affected wickets , Hutton frequently top @-@ scored for Yorkshire . Hutton 's benefit match against Middlesex was affected by rain , but other events , collections and insurance for loss of play gave Hutton £ 9 @,@ 713 , a record at that point for a Yorkshire cricketer . Two @-@ thirds of the amount was invested on Hutton 's behalf by the Yorkshire committee , following their usual practice ; Hutton resented this paternalism from the committee , particularly as he did not receive the full amount until 1972 . Hutton played in three of the four Tests against West Indies . In the first Test , hampered by a finger injury , he scored 39 and 45 as England recorded their only victory of the series . The West Indies won the second Test , their first Test victory in England , and won the final two Tests to take the series 3 – 1 ; Hutton missed the third Test with lumbago but in the fourth Test scored 202 not out , carrying his bat through England 's first innings . The West Indian spinners Sonny Ramadhin and Alf Valentine caused difficulties for all the batsmen except Hutton , who always appeared comfortable . Wisden praised his effort as unforgettable .
= = = Australia 1950 – 51 = = =
Hutton was chosen to go on the MCC tour of Australia in 1950 – 51 , under the captaincy of the amateur Freddie Brown . The latter was an unexpected choice as captain , after a struggle to find a suitable amateur for the role . As a compromise aimed at critics who favoured the appointment of a professional captain , the professional Denis Compton was made vice @-@ captain , but Brown came to rely more on Hutton than on Compton for advice . The tour selectors , in an attempt to strengthen the batting line @-@ up , asked Hutton to bat in the middle order rather than his usual position as opener . He batted well in the early games but the team struggled . In the first Test , England dismissed Australia for 228 before rain made the pitch difficult for batting . In reply , England collapsed to 68 for seven before Brown declared to make Australia bat again while the pitch was still treacherous . Australia in turn struggled to 32 for seven , before declaring to leave England needing 193 to win . By the end of the third day 's play , victory seemed unlikely as England were 30 for six . Next morning on a slightly easier pitch , Hutton scored 62 not out , an innings which was widely acclaimed in the press . Wisden observed that he had " given yet another exhibition of his wonderful batsmanship on tricky turf ... Hutton thrashed the fast bowlers majestically and played the turning or lifting ball with the ease of a master craftsman . " However , the team were bowled out for 122 and Australia won by 70 runs .
Hutton remained in the middle order for the second Test , which England lost by 28 runs , but resumed his role as opener for the rest of the tour and scored a century in the following state game . Hutton scored 62 in the third Test , but the Australian spinner Jack Iverson , who caused the touring batsmen huge problems all series , bowled Australia to victory . Hutton 's form continued in the fourth Test as he carried his bat for the second time in six months . Wisden observed : " Against Hutton the bowling looked almost mediocre , but most of the other batsmen made it appear lethal . " He scored 156 not out and added 45 more runs in the second innings , but Australian won by 274 runs . With the series lost , England won the final game , their first victory over Australia since the war and Australia 's first defeat in 26 matches ; Hutton contributed scores of 79 and 60 not out and struck the winning run . Hutton scored 553 Test runs at an average of 88 @.@ 83 , and in all first @-@ class matches accumulated 1 @,@ 199 runs with five centuries and an average of 70 @.@ 52 . In contrast to his previous Australian tour , Hutton played the short ball comfortably . Reviewing the tour , Wisden stated , " With Hutton , figures did not lie . He stood head and shoulders above every other batsman and , taking all factors into consideration , worthily earned the description of the finest present @-@ day batsman in the world . "
= = = 100th century = = =
Hutton scored 2 @,@ 145 runs in 1951 with nine centuries , including his 100th in first @-@ class cricket . The South Africans toured England , losing the Test series 3 – 1 . After Hutton scored fifty in the first Test , which was won by South Africa , his 100th century almost came during the third Test , when he scored an unbeaten 98 in the second innings to take England to victory . But the innings provoked controversy when Hutton 's team @-@ mates seemed to decline easy runs to allow Hutton the opportunity to reach his hundred before the end of the match , thereby jeopardising England 's chances of victory in unsettled weather . The 100th century came a week later , against Surrey , when Hutton became the thirteenth player to achieve the landmark . He followed this immediately with 194 not out against Nottinghamshire and 100 , in the drawn fourth Test at Headlingley . In the final Test , which England won to take the series , Hutton became the first man in Tests , and only the fourth in all first @-@ class cricket , to be given out obstructing the field : he edged a ball in the air and legitimately knocked it away from his wickets with his bat ; in doing so , he prevented a catch being taken and was given out . This remains the only such instance in Tests . Hutton ended the Test series with 378 runs at an average of 54 @.@ 00 . Late in the season , he scored a century against Gloucestershire to become the second Yorkshire player after Sutcliffe to complete centuries against the other 16 first @-@ class counties .
= = Captain of England = =
= = = Appointment = = =
Brown 's resignation from the captaincy of England at the end of 1951 left no obvious replacement candidate . Traditionally , captains in county or Test cricket were amateurs , who usually came from privileged backgrounds , in contrast to professionals , who often came from the working classes . Consequently , class distinction pervaded cricket which was organised and administered by former and current amateurs , many of whom reasoned that professionals would not make good captains owing to their worries over safeguarding their contracts or concerns about affecting the livelihoods of other professionals . In 1952 , the selectors judged that none of the serving amateur county captains possessed the required ability or experience to fill the role of England captain . Consequently , the selectors decided to radically depart from tradition and appoint a professional captain . All previous England captains in home Test matches had been amateurs , and no professional had captained England in any match in the 20th century . But , as widely anticipated by the press , Hutton was appointed to captain England in the first Test of a four @-@ match series against the 1952 Indian tourists . He harboured private doubts whether the cricket establishment would accept a professional captain , but declined to turn amateur , as Wally Hammond had done in 1938 . The decision met with broad approval from the press , and the editor of Wisden wrote : " In breaking with tradition and choosing a professional as captain the Selection Committee made a vital decision in the interests of England , because it should mean that in future no man will be picked as leader unless he is worth a place in the side . " Hutton had not expected to be asked and had thought an amateur would have been appointed as usual . He presumed his appointment was an interim measure until a more suitable candidate could be found .
Before his home crowd at Headingley , Hutton 's first match as captain was a success , although his tactics were cautious . The Wisden correspondent wrote : " For Hutton the match was a personal triumph . Tradition had been broken ... and he must have known that the eyes of the world were upon him . He did not falter and his astute leadership earned him many admirers " . England won comfortably , although Hutton failed with the bat . In the second Test , Hutton scored 150 out of a total of 537 , and although cautious once more , the Wisden editor believed his captaincy helped to secure a win . Following this match , the selectors appointed Hutton captain for the rest of the series . In the final two Tests , Hutton scored 104 and 86 and his bowlers dominated the Indian batsmen . The drawn final Test was ruined by weather , but England won the four match series 3 – 0 , and Hutton scored 399 runs at an average of 79 @.@ 80 ; in the whole summer he scored 2 @,@ 567 first @-@ class runs at an average of 61 @.@ 11 with eleven centuries .
= = = Ashes victory = = =
During the 1953 season , Australia toured England having held the Ashes since 1934 but critics considered England to have a good chance of winning the series . Hutton was retained as England captain initially on a match @-@ by @-@ match basis . His health was uncertain and he was troubled by fibrositis which restricted his movement and adversely affected his fielding . He top @-@ scored in both England innings with 43 and 60 not out in the drawn first Test , and batted effectively for Yorkshire against the Australians . After dropping three catches in Australia 's first innings in the second Test , Hutton scored 145 runs in his first innings . However , he was dismissed early in the second innings ; England managed to draw the match , but Hutton faced press criticism for his cautious tactics . Rain prevented a result in the third Test , but Hutton scored 66 and his tactics were praised . After the match , he was confirmed as captain for the remainder of the series , and the forthcoming MCC winter tour of West Indies .
The fourth Test , in front of Hutton 's home crowd , was his least successful of the series . He was bowled second ball by a yorker from Lindwall and England struggled to remain competitive throughout the match . In the fourth innings of the game , Australia needed 177 runs to win , with 115 minutes of play remaining . Hutton used Trevor Bailey to bowl negatively and slow Australia down ; his tactics , including time @-@ wasting and the use of leg theory , meant Australia could not score the runs in the available time and the match was drawn . It is possible that the idea came from Bailey himself , but the Australian press criticised Hutton for his negativity . In contrast , English critics believed the tactics were justified . Amid great public interest for the deciding fifth Test , Hutton lost his fifth successive toss but replying to Australia 's first innings of 275 , England established a narrow first @-@ innings lead . Surviving an early scare when a bouncer from Lindwall nearly knocked his cap onto his wickets , Hutton scored 82 . In reply , Australia collapsed before the England spinners and England scored the necessary 132 runs to win their first series against Australia since 1932 – 33 and their first such home series win since 1926 . Wisden praised Hutton 's strategy and tactical sense , and he was widely acclaimed in the press , particularly for the good spirit which he and Hassett , the Australian captain , maintained . Hutton scored 443 runs at an average of 55 @.@ 37 in the Tests , but found it mentally tiring to lead England . Meanwhile , some Yorkshire observers felt he should do more to improve discipline at the county . In the whole summer , he scored 2 @,@ 458 runs at an average of 63 @.@ 02 .
= = = Captain in the West Indies = = =
In the winter of 1953 – 54 , Hutton led the MCC on a tour of West Indies . Before the team left England , critics queried his appointment , arguing that a professional captain was unsuitable to lead a tour . Hutton 's authority was also compromised by the MCC , who did not give him the tour manager he requested ; instead , they appointed the inexperienced Charles Palmer , the Leicestershire captain , who had already been selected as a player on the tour . Palmer 's dual role as player and manager blurred the lines of command . Hutton also found some of the professionals in the team to be difficult to lead , particularly Godfrey Evans , and Fred Trueman . Off @-@ field events often overshadowed the cricket . Amid growing independence movements in the region , Hutton believed his team was used as a political instrument to support colonial rule . The situation was further inflamed as journalists and English residents in the Caribbean placed great emphasis on an English victory , and the perception was that the series would establish the unofficial world champions . The standards of local umpiring were a further source of controversy . The crowds often made noisy protests about on @-@ field events , often related to umpiring . The climax came in the third Test when missiles were thrown onto the outfield when the umpire judged Cliff McWatt was out ; Hutton kept his team and the umpires on the field , possibly defusing a dangerous situation . The attitude of some English players inflamed feelings , either through a perceived lack of courtesy , or their negative reactions to events on the field . Some critics held Hutton responsible for this , but the editor of Wisden later wrote : " [ Hutton ] was involved in the most thankless task any cricket captain has undertaken when he went to West Indies . Instead of finding a friendly cricket atmosphere he and his players were subjected to the impact of deep political and racial feeling — an experience all of them wish to forget . A few members of the team did not hide their innermost feelings , with the result that Hutton came under severe criticism , although his behaviour was blameless . "
Hutton wanted to exploit what he saw as a West Indian weakness against pace , picking four fast bowlers for the first Test . In doing so , he misjudged the pitch ; West Indies made a large score and won by 140 runs . Both captains employed time @-@ wasting tactics in the match , and used negative leg theory bowling , outside leg stump . In the second Test , Hutton scored 72 and 77 but could not prevent another defeat after losing his seventh consecutive toss in Tests . England batted slowly throughout ; Hutton was himself barracked for his slow , defensive batting during the match . England won the third Test by nine wickets , their first victory in the Caribbean since 1935 . Hutton , who finally won the toss , scored 169 in seven hours and West Indies were bowled out twice . After a drawn fourth Test , England had to win the final Test to draw the series . Hutton lost the toss but his bowlers dismissed West Indies cheaply in good batting conditions . Hutton then batted for almost nine hours to score 205 , his nineteenth and final Test century . Wisden observed that " For concentration and control , Hutton 's innings ... scarcely could have been excelled . " The innings ended amid another controversy when local officials and journalists accused Hutton of snubbing the congratulations of the Chief Minister Alexander Bustamante during a tea interval . Hutton apologised , not having noticed Bustamante speaking to him , but was dismissed immediately when play resumed ; the incident was prominently reported the following day . England 's bowlers bowled out West Indies a second time and England scored the required runs to record a series @-@ levelling victory , West Indies ' first defeat in Jamaica in a Test . In its summary of the tour , Wisden said that Hutton showed mastery over every bowler . The correspondent wrote , " From first to last no batsman compared with Hutton ... Considering the weight of his many responsibilities and worries , Hutton played magnificent cricket " . The press were generally supportive despite reservations over his caution . Swanton and Alan Gibson later credited England 's recovery in the series to Hutton 's batting and leadership . In five Tests , he scored 677 runs — his largest aggregate in a series — at an average of 96 @.@ 71 , the highest on either side . In all first @-@ class matches , he made 780 runs at an average of 78 @.@ 00 .
= = = Appointment of Sheppard = = =
Hutton missed large parts of the 1954 season on medical advice , suffering from mental and physical exhaustion brought about by the West Indian tour . He played in the first Test against Pakistan , on their first tour of England , scored a duck and missed the next two matches . In Hutton 's absence , the selectors appointed the amateur David Sheppard , a theology student at the time ; Sheppard achieved little batting success , but England won the two Tests in which he was captain . According to Wisden editor Norman Preston , influential figures within the cricket hierarchy blamed Hutton for the previous winter 's events and attempted to replace him as captain . Two former England cricketers , Errol Holmes and Walter Robins , the latter also a selector that year , favoured Sheppard over Hutton and persuaded him to offer his candidacy to captain the MCC in Australia that winter . Sheppard indicated he would accept the post and take a leave of absence from his studies if required . The press speculated that Hutton would step aside , but most newspapers favoured his continued leadership and ran stories alleging MCC prejudice against professional cricketers . Neither Hutton nor Sheppard publicly expressed an opinion , although Hutton informed the MCC he would tour Australia as captain or player as required , and both men remained on good personal terms throughout . Robins , seeing the strength of opinion , backed down . When Hutton returned to cricket in July , scoring two centuries , he was appointed captain of the MCC for the winter tour . Returning to captain a slightly weakened team for the fourth and final Test , Hutton failed with the bat , and Pakistan recorded their first Test victory . In his three Test innings of the season , Hutton scored just 19 runs . Owing to his reduced appearances , Hutton failed to reach 1 @,@ 000 first @-@ class runs for the first time since 1936 , reaching 912 runs at an average of 35 @.@ 07 .
= = = Captain in Australia = = =
Expectations before the Australian tour were low after the confusion of the 1954 summer and some controversial selections . Trueman , Jim Laker and Tony Lock , part of the winning 1953 team , were omitted ; Colin Cowdrey and Vic Wilson were included . Hutton further downplayed his team 's chances through exaggerating its inexperience to the Australian press ; newspapers were already sympathetic to Hutton as a professional captain of a class @-@ driven country . The team began the tour well . Hutton made a series of good scores in the opening games . But for the first Test , Hutton did not include a spinner in the team and chose to bowl on winning the toss , an unusual strategy in Australia . The home side scored 601 , England dropped 12 catches and , with the key players Evans and Compton injured , lost by an innings ; the press blamed Hutton for choosing to bowl . Despite the result , Hutton saw potential in Frank Tyson 's bowling and arranged for Alf Gover , a respected coach who was in Australia as a journalist , to improve and shorten Tyson 's run to the wicket . For the second Test , Hutton left out the unfit Alec Bedser , England 's most reliable bowler since the war , to include two spinners , but in a low @-@ scoring game , Tyson made the difference and England won by 38 runs . Hutton was unwell before the third Test , suffering from fibrositis and a heavy cold , and had to be persuaded out of bed by members of his team . He decided to play at the last minute and unexpectedly left out Bedser again , although he was fit to play . Hutton neglected to inform Bedser , who only learned of his omission when he saw the team list displayed in the dressing room before the match . Hutton contributed few runs , but Cowdrey and Peter May made large scores and Tyson took seven wickets as Australia were bowled out for 111 in their second innings , giving England a 128 @-@ run victory . The fourth Test was crucial , and Hutton 's innings of 80 runs in four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half hours was the highest of the game . Wisden believed Hutton 's tactics were instrumental in giving his team the upper hand , and in the final innings , England needed 94 to win and retain the Ashes . Early wickets , including Hutton 's , fell to Miller , and when the captain returned to the dressing room , he said that Miller had " done us again . " Compton , the next man in , replied " I haven 't been in yet " , and stayed at the wicket until the match was won by five wickets . Many commentators viewed this as a sign that Hutton 's reserve had slipped in the critical situation , but Alan Gibson believes it was a deliberate ploy to inspire Compton . England went on to draw the final Test in a match ruined by rain . Hutton was out to the fourth ball of the match , but Australia were forced to follow on for the first time by England since 1938 , and Hutton took a wicket with the last ball of the match before time ran out . This ended the series , which England won 3 – 1 .
Hutton 's tactical approach in the series was praised by Australian and English commentators ; they noted how Hutton observed his opponents carefully to spot weaknesses . His caution was criticised , but the main complaint was that he deliberately slowed the speed of play , reducing the number of overs bowled , allowing the fast bowlers to rest and restricting the rate at which Australia scored . With the bat , Hutton scored 220 runs in Tests at an average of 24 @.@ 44 . In all first @-@ class matches in Australia , he scored 959 runs at 50 @.@ 47 . The tour ended with two Tests in New Zealand ; England won the first by eight wickets , and the second by an innings and 20 runs . New Zealand were bowled out for 26 in their second innings , which , in 2016 , remains the lowest Test score . In the latter match , Hutton scored 53 batting at number five in his final Test innings . He had played in 79 Test matches , scoring 6 @,@ 971 runs at an average of 56 @.@ 67 with 19 hundreds . As England captain in 23 matches , he won eight Tests and lost four , and along with Percy Chapman was the only England captain to win consecutive series against Australia .
= = = Retirement = = =
On Hutton 's return to England , he was made an honorary member of the MCC , which changed its rules to allow a current professional to join the club . The selectors appointed him England captain for the entire forthcoming series against South Africa , a rare indication of confidence . After a poor start to the season , Hutton captained MCC against the tourists , but withdrew from the final day of the match with lumbago . His uncertain health led him to resign the England captaincy . The selectors made Peter May captain in his place and appointed Hutton as a selector . Hutton played for Yorkshire until the end of June . Against Nottinghamshire , he scored 194 in five hours , his final first @-@ class century . His last 100 runs came in an hour . After the following match , his back was too painful to continue and he did not play again that season . In eleven first @-@ class matches , he scored 537 runs at an average of 29 @.@ 83 . In June , he was knighted for services to cricket . Following the advice of a specialist , Hutton announced his retirement from first @-@ class cricket in January 1956 . He was 39 , an early retirement age for the period . He played one further match in 1957 for MCC against Lancashire , and two matches in 1960 for MCC and L. C. Stevens ' XI . In all first @-@ class cricket , he scored 40 @,@ 140 runs at an average of 55 @.@ 51 with 129 hundreds .
= = Style and technique = =
= = = Batting = = =
Wisden viewed Hutton , with Jack Hobbs , as " one of the two most accomplished professional batsmen to have played for his country " , and following the Second World War , critics regarded him as the best batsman in the world . In October 2010 , he was chosen as part of the ESPNCricinfo All @-@ time World XI , a team selected by a panel of respected commentators and cricket writers to represent the greatest cricketers of all time . As part of the same process , he was also chosen in England 's greatest team . The official Yorkshire history describes him as " technically and aesthetically the best batsman to play for Yorkshire " . E. W. Swanton believed that if Hobbs was the greatest professional batsman , Hutton , along with Hammond and Compton , came next . Hutton was more cautious than these others . Following the lead of Herbert Sutcliffe , he saw the role of an opening batsman as defensive . The basis of his game was a good defensive technique , although he was able to accelerate and play attacking shots when the situation demanded . Cricket historian David Frith believes that " there was an apparent touch of genius about his batsmanship " , and Alan Gibson described Hutton 's off drive as " the glory of the game . " He was particularly effective on difficult batting pitches . Of the next generation of England batsmen , Peter May tried to adopt Hutton 's mental approach to both batting and captaincy , while Colin Cowdrey later said " I had tried to model myself on Len Hutton ever since I started playing serious cricket . " Statistically , Hutton stands near the highest achievers . When he retired , only two men had scored more than his 6 @,@ 971 Test runs ; his average of 56 @.@ 67 is seventh highest of those who played at least fifty Test matches , as of 2016 , while only Sutcliffe has a higher average among openers who scored over 4 @,@ 000 runs . He also displayed consistency ; his annual average only fell below 50 three times , he averaged over 50 each year from 1947 to 1954 and scored 20 or more in 90 of his 138 innings .
Hutton 's batting technique was orthodox and conventional . John Woodcock writes that he seemed to possess great intuition , for example playing mystery spinners Ramadhin and Iverson with ease . His batting stance was relaxed and still , his first movement being to slide his right foot back and across towards middle stump . He often played the ball off the back foot , getting right back onto his stumps , but never played as far forward , preferring to let the ball come to him and play it late . Occasionally , he left a slight gap between his bat and pads , meaning he was sometimes bowled through it when out of form . This arose mainly through the wartime injury to his arm and by 1950 he had adjusted his technique to compensate and had fewer problems . Immediately before the war , Hutton batted in a more attacking style and several of his contemporaries remembered his attractive strokeplay . By his own admission , Hutton was not the same player after the war . A combination of the effects of his injury and the responsibility of opening the batting in generally weak Yorkshire and England teams , whose success often depended on Hutton , meant that he batted cautiously . Hutton only played attacking shots when they presented no risk , and he rarely lifted the ball in the air ; he hit just seven sixes in Test matches . However , Patrick Murphy writes : " Just now and again he would play an innings of genius , when bowlers could not contain him . " One such innings was his score of 37 in the second Test of 1946 – 47 in which the attacking shots he played reminded older spectators of Victor Trumper , regarded as the ultimate Australian strokeplayer . In all his innings , he was expert at hitting the ball just out of the reach of fieldsmen to allow runs to be taken . Several of his contemporaries believed he did not get enough credit for surviving the short @-@ pitched attacks of the Australian bowlers following the war .
= = = Captaincy = = =
As captain , Hutton believed that the key to success was a strong pace attack , stemming from his experiences against Lindwall and Miller , which influenced his selection of several promising fast bowlers . His natural inclination and the background to his appointment made him a cautious captain , for example slowing down the game to allow the fast bowlers to rest , which set a precedent for other captains . Tactically , Norman Yardley found him " sound rather than venturesome " . Run saving was his main priority , but during matches , he quickly adjusted his approach to attack the weakness of particular batsmen . Jim Kilburn believed that Hutton pursued a serious approach to all matches , to the point where he missed some enjoyment of the game . Kilburn wrote that the " outstanding characteristic of his captaincy was shrewdness . He made no romantic gestures ; he lit no fires of inspiration . He invited admiration rather than affection and would have exchanged either or both for effective obedience . "
Some of his selections as captain were widely debated . Following incidents in the Caribbean , Trueman did not play for England again under Hutton 's captaincy , although he was still regarded as an England prospect . Jim Laker was also omitted from the team , possibly because Hutton doubted Laker 's commitment . Both Jim McConnon , Laker 's replacement , and Vic Wilson were controversial choices for the 1954 – 55 Australian tour , whose selections Trevor Bailey attributed to Hutton ; neither played a substantial role on the tour . A poor communicator , Hutton distanced himself from his team when a stronger lead was required . Trueman and Bailey thought Hutton found it hard to talk to his players : amateur critics considered this an inevitable consequence of a professional leading other professionals . On the other hand , Hutton played a key role in the development of fast bowlers Trueman , Tyson and Brian Statham . Tyson and Statham later acknowledged his advice and encouragement as factor in their subsequent success . Cowdrey also acknowledged Hutton 's advice and assistance when the former began his career . Furthermore , on the 1954 – 55 tour of Australia , Hutton took a close interest in him and was a particular comfort when Cowdrey 's father died during the tour .
Cricket followers from the south of England remained slightly distrustful of Hutton owing to the perception that he occasionally carried professionalism to excess . When he was appointed England captain , many in the cricketing establishment held his professionalism against him with the result that Hutton never felt comfortable dealing with the amateurs who ran English cricket at the time . While captain , he was criticised for caution and negativity but also was expected to lead a successful team at a time when results began to assume a far greater importance than in previous years . Consequently , Hutton never felt secure in the position and was often uncomfortable around the amateur establishment . Like Herbert Sutcliffe , he attempted to alter his accent to match that of leading southern amateurs to help him to fit in . But he did not enjoy the attention that went with the captaincy , and he often worried about the impression he was making .
Hutton rarely captained Yorkshire , except in the absence of the official captain , through a combination of poor health , frequent absences with England and the presence of the amateur Norman Yardley in the side . Yardley claimed several times that he would have stood down in Hutton 's favour , but the committee remained distrustful of professional captaincy and thought Hutton a hypochondriac who used his health as an excuse not to play . Hutton was a reserved man for whom the Yorkshire dressing room clashes of the 1950s held little appeal . As the side 's senior professional , he did not always provide the guidance which younger players in the side were seeking . The team was divided and the players frequently clashed with each other ; some critics believe this was a factor in the county 's failure to win the County Championship in the 1950s . Ray Illingworth , a player at the time , believes that Hutton was the only man who could have changed the negative attitude around the team , but " he didn 't do anything about it " . Illingworth recalled that he was a " distant hero " , saying : " He was a funny man was Len — slightly sarcastic all the time . He 'd hear an argument in the dressing room and he 'd throw a bit of wood on the fire to keep it going . He looked after himself , he was very much of a loner . "
= = Later life = =
Hutton married Dorothy Mary Dennis , the sister of former Yorkshire cricketer Frank Dennis , on 16 September 1939 at Wykeham near Scarborough ; they met at an end @-@ of @-@ season dance which Dorothy had attended with her brother . They had two sons : Richard , who later played cricket for Yorkshire and England , in 1942 , and John in 1947 .
During and after the war , Hutton worked for a paper manufacturer , but writing and journalism provided a more permanent career . Hutton worked with Thomas Moult , a journalist and writer , to produce a book of memoirs , Cricket is My Life in 1949 , and he wrote for the News of the World while still playing . Following his cricketing retirement , Hutton worked in broadcasting until 1961 , and after 1955 , he wrote for the London Evening News until 1963 . A second book , Just my story , followed in 1956 in collaboration with journalist , R. J. Hayter . In 1958 – 59 , Hutton travelled to Australia to cover the MCC tour as correspondent for the Evening News , again assisted by a professional journalist , while between 1963 and 1986 , he wrote for The Observer . He wrote a third book , Thirty Years in Cricket , in 1984 . Hutton 's increasing commitments in the south of England meant he moved to North London in 1959 . In 1960 , Hutton was invited to join the engineering firm of J. H. Fenner , mainly working in a public relations capacity . Later , he moved into marketing and overseas promotion of products , became a director of the firm in 1973 , and retired in 1984 .
Although he disliked committees , Hutton served as an England Test selector in 1975 and 1976 , but business commitments limited his availability so he resigned in 1977 . Hutton became involved with Surrey cricket in later years but maintained links with Yorkshire , and became president of Yorkshire county cricket in January 1990 . In his final years , Hutton suffered from ill health and became increasingly frail . In September 1990 , he suffered a ruptured aorta shortly after watching a cricket match at the Oval . After an unsuccessful operation , he died on 6 September .
= Pachycephalosaurus =
Pachycephalosaurus ( / ˌpækᵻˌsɛfələˈsɔːrəs / ; meaning " thick @-@ headed lizard , " from Greek pachys- / παχυς- " thick " , kephale / κεφαλη " head " and sauros / σαυρος " lizard " ) is a genus of pachycephalosaurid dinosaurs . The type species , P. wyomingensis , is the only known species . It lived during the Late Cretaceous Period ( Maastrichtian stage ) of what is now North America . Remains have been excavated in Montana , South Dakota , and Wyoming . It was an herbivorous or omnivorous creature which is primarily known from a single skull and a few extremely thick skull roofs , though more complete fossils have been found in recent years . Pachycephalosaurus was one of the last non @-@ avian dinosaurs before the Cretaceous – Paleogene extinction event . Another dinosaur , Tylosteus of western North America , has been synonymized with Pachycephalosaurus .
Like other pachycephalosaurids , Pachycephalosaurus was a bipedal omnivore with an extremely thick skull roof . It possessed long hindlimbs and small forelimbs . Pachycephalosaurus is the largest known pachycephalosaur .
The thick skull domes of Pachycephalosaurus and related genera gave rise to the hypothesis that pachycephalosaurs used their skulls in intra @-@ species combat . This hypothesis has been disputed in recent years .
= = Description = =
The anatomy of Pachycephalosaurus is poorly known , as only skull remains have been described . Pachycephalosaurus is famous for having a large , bony dome atop its skull , up to 25 cm ( 10 in ) thick , which safely cushioned its tiny brain . The dome 's rear aspect was edged with bony knobs and short bony spikes projected upwards from the snout . The spikes were probably blunt , not sharp .
The skull was short , and possessed large , rounded eye sockets that faced forward , suggesting that the animal had good vision and was capable of binocular vision . Pachycephalosaurus had a small muzzle which ended in a pointed beak . The teeth were tiny , with leaf @-@ shaped crowns . The head was supported by an " S " - or " U " -shaped neck .
Pachycephalosaurus was probably bipedal and was the largest of the pachycephalosaurid ( bone @-@ headed ) dinosaurs . It has been estimated that Pachycephalosaurus was around 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 15 ft ) long and weighed 450 kilograms ( 990 lb ) . Based on other pachycephalosaurids , it probably had a fairly short , thick neck , short fore limbs , a bulky body , long hind legs and a heavy tail , which was likely held rigid by ossified tendons .
= = History of discovery = =
Remains attributable to Pachycephalosaurus may have been found as early as the 1850s . As determined by Donald Baird , in 1859 or 1860 Ferdinand Vandiveer Hayden , an early fossil collector in the North American West , collected a bone fragment in the vicinity of the head of the Missouri River , from what is now known to be the Lance Formation in southeastern Montana . This specimen , now ANSP 8568 , was described by Joseph Leidy in 1872 as belonging to the dermal armor of a reptile or an armadillo @-@ like animal . It became known as Tylosteus . Its actual nature was not found until Baird restudied it over a century later and identified it as a squamosal ( bone from the back of the skull ) of Pachycephalosaurus , including a set of bony knobs corresponding to those found on other specimens of Pachycephalosaurus . Because the name Tylosteus predates Pachycephalosaurus , according to the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature Tylosteus would normally be preferred . In 1985 , Baird successfully petitioned to have Pachycephalosaurus used instead of Tylosteus because the latter name had not been used for over fifty years , was based on undiagnostic materials , and had poor geographic and stratigraphic information . This may not be the end of the story ; Robert Sullivan suggested in 2006 that ANSP 8568 is more like the corresponding bone of Dracorex than that of Pachycephalosaurus . The issue is of uncertain importance , though , if Dracorex actually represents a juvenile Pachycephalosaurus , as has been recently proposed .
P. wyomingensis , the type and currently only valid species of Pachycephalosaurus , was named by Charles W. Gilmore in 1931 . He coined it for the partial skull USNM 12031 , from the Lance Formation of Niobrara County , Wyoming . Gilmore assigned his new species to Troodon as T. wyomingensis . At the time , paleontologists thought that Troodon , then known only from teeth , was the same as Stegoceras , which had similar teeth . Accordingly , what are now known as pachycephalosaurids were assigned to the family Troodontidae , a misconception not corrected until 1945 , by Charles M. Sternberg .
In 1943 , Barnum Brown and Erich Maren Schlaikjer , with newer , more complete material , established the genus Pachycephalosaurus . They named two species : Pachycephalosaurus grangeri , the type species of the genus Pachycephalosaurus , and Pachycephalosaurus reinheimeri . P. grangeri was based on AMNH 1696 , a nearly complete skull from the Hell Creek Formation of Ekalaka , Carter County , Montana . P. reinheimeri was based on what is now DMNH 469 , a dome and a few associated elements from the Lance Formation of Corson County , South Dakota . They also referred the older species " Troodon " wyomingensis to their new genus . Their two newer species have been considered synonymous with P. wyomingensis since 1983 .
= = Classification = =
Pachycephalosaurus gives its name to the Pachycephalosauria , a clade of herbivorous ornithischian ( " bird hipped " ) dinosaurs which lived during the Late Cretaceous Period in North America and Asia . Despite their bipedal stance , they were likely more closely related to the ceratopsians than the ornithopods .
Pachycephalosaurus is the most famous member of the Pachycephalosauria ( though not the best @-@ preserved member ) . The clade also includes Stenopelix , Wannanosaurus , Goyocephale , Stegoceras , Homalocephale , Tylocephale , Sphaerotholus and Prenocephale . Within the tribe Pachycephalosaurini , Pachycephalosaurus is most closely related to Dracorex and Stygimoloch , although these may be juvenile forms of Pachycephalosaurus .
Below is a cladogram modified from Evans et al . , 2013 .
= = Paleobiology = =
= = = Growth = = =
The pachycephalosaurs Dracorex and Stygimoloch may be specimens of Pachycephalosaurus in which the dome and horns are not well @-@ developed , either because the animal was a juvenile or a female . This consideration was supported at the 2007 annual meeting of the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology . Jack Horner of Montana State University presented evidence , from analysis of the skull of the single existing Dracorex specimen , that this dinosaur may well be a juvenile form of Stygimoloch . In addition , he presented data that indicates that both Stygimoloch and Dracorex may be juvenile forms of Pachycephalosaurus . Horner and M.B. Goodwin published their findings in 2009 , showing that the spike / node and skull dome bones of all three ' species ' exhibit extreme plasticity , and that both Dracorex and Stygimoloch are known only from juvenile specimens while Pachycephalosaurus is known only from adult specimens . These observations , in addition to the fact that all three forms lived in the same time and place , lead them to conclude that Dracorex and Stygimoloch were simply juvenile Pachycephalosaurus , which lost spikes and grew domes as they aged . The discovery of baby skulls assigned to Pachycephalosaurus that were described in 2016 from two different bone beds in the Hell Creek Formation have been presented as further evidence for this hypothesis . The fossils , as described by David Evans and Mark Goodwin et al are identical to all three supposed genera in the placement of the rugose knobs on their skulls . This and further studies of the different , more mature skulls , suggested that the knobs present in the skull developed very early in the dinosaur 's life while the iconic , domed head developed later . A 2010 study by Nick Longrich and colleagues also supported the hypothesis that all flat @-@ skulled pachycephalosaurs were juveniles , suggesting that flat @-@ skulled forms like Goyocephale and Homalocephale represent juveniles of dome @-@ skulled adults .
= = = Fighting behavior = = =
Scientists once suspected that Pachycephalosaurus and its relatives were the bipedal equivalents of bighorn sheep or musk oxen ; that male individuals would ram each other headlong . It was also believed that they would make their head , neck , and body horizontally straight , in order to transmit stress during ramming . However , it is now believed that the pachycephalosaurs could not have used their domes in this way .
Foremost , the skull roof could probably not have adequately sustained impact associated with such ramming . Also , there is no definitive evidence of scars or other damage on fossilized Pachycephalosaurus skulls , although recent findings may contradict this . Furthermore , the cervical and anterior dorsal vertebrae show that the neck was carried in an " S " - or " U " -shaped curve , rather than a straight orientation , and thus unfit for direct head @-@ butting . Lastly , the rounded shape of the skull would lessen the contacted surface area during head @-@ butting , resulting in glancing blows . However , CT scan comparsions of the skulls of Stegoceras validum , Prenocephale prenes and several head @-@ striking artiodactyls supported pachycephalosaurids being well @-@ equipped for head @-@ butting .
Alternatively , Pachycephalosaurus and other pachycephalosaurid genera engaged in flank @-@ butting in intraspecific combat . In this scenario , an individual may have stood roughly parallel or faced a rival directly , using intimidation displays to cow its rival . If intimidation failed , the Pachycephalosaurus would bend its head downward and to the side , striking the rival pachycephalosaur on its flank . This hypothesis is supported by the relatively broad width of most pachycephalosaurs , a trait that would have protected vital organs from harm . The flank @-@ butting theory was first proposed by Sues in 1978 , and
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to determine the probability and effectiveness of every action , including attacks and saving throws . The player character can recruit companions during the campaign , and may form a party with up to three of them . Party members can be controlled directly by the player or given orders dictating how to behave in combat .
The game is set in the Forgotten Realms campaign setting . The party is able to explore various areas of Faerûn — including its cities , forests , and dungeons — while earning experience points and treasure by defeating monsters and completing quests . The entire party collaborates during combat , with characters ' behavior determined by their class and abilities . Upon gaining specified amounts of experience , characters level up which allows them to earn new abilities such as magic spells and feats . Some races , like the drow , are more powerful than others and require characters to accumulate more experience to earn levels . Characters can access Prestige classes , more specialized versions of base classes , by fulfilling certain requirements . The warpriest , for example , is available to divine spellcasters such as clerics after they have reached a set level of power . Items such as weapons , armor , potions , and scrolls can be used or equipped by characters , and some equipment changes will affect a character 's appearance . As the game progresses , the player character acquires a keep that can be used as a base of operations . Initially , the keep is in a state of disrepair and must be refurbished using party funds . As the keep is improved , it can generate income and gain stronger defenses to repel sieges . Non @-@ player characters such as equipment vendors can be recruited to work at the keep , and the player must manage the training of guards and the allocation of resources .
Before the online component was disabled ( see Development below ) , the campaign of Neverwinter Nights 2 could be played with other players , but only from the beginning of the storyline . The rules could be modified for multiplayer games , such as deactivating friendly fire . A BioWare community account was required to play online , and players were able to search for game servers matching their style of play . Players could upload and play modules online created with the Electron toolset , which is included with the Windows version of the game .
= = Story = =
= = = Setting and characters = = =
Neverwinter Nights 2 takes place in and around the city of Neverwinter , in the Sword Coast region of Faerûn . The first part of the game is set in the small Sword Coast village of West Harbor , which was the site of a battle between an evil host led by an entity known as the " King of Shadows " and the warriors aligned with Neverwinter . The player character 's fate is tied to this battle , during which his or her mother was killed . During the campaign , the player has the opportunity to recruit party members to aid in the cause , including the violent dwarf Khelgar and a vocal young tiefling . Antagonists include the King of Shadows , a manipulative Luskan diplomat named Torio , and the warlock Ammon Jerro .
= = = Plot = = =
Neverwinter Nights 2 is composed of three distinct acts . The game 's first act begins in the village of West Harbor , where the player 's character was raised as an orphan by the elven ranger Daeghun . After a festival , the town is attacked by a group of githyanki in search of an unnamed object . Afterward , the character is sent to retrieve a mysterious silver shard from a nearby cave , which was left there years earlier after the defeat of the King of Shadows . The character then sets out for Neverwinter , meeting other adventurers along the way , several of whom are available for recruitment . In Neverwinter , Daeghun 's half @-@ brother Duncan offers a more comprehensive explanation of the situation . In Neverwinter , Duncan instructs the party to speak with Aldanon , a sage who reveals the shard 's connection with a dead warlock and his descendant , a farmer named Shandra Jerro . However , the githyanki kidnap Shandra and the player character must rescue her . At the end of Act I , the party dispatches the githyanki , rescues Shandra , and learns of the origin of the shards .
In act two , the party discovers that an evil wizard , Black Garius , is plotting to subsume the power of a powerful entity known as the King of Shadows . The party interrupts Garius during the scheme and Garius is apparently killed . As a reward , the protagonist earns a title of nobility and is awarded a stronghold , Crossroads Keep , by Neverwinter 's political leader , Lord Nasher . After tracking down Ammon Jerro , the warlock who fought the King of Shadows and the grandfather of Shandra Jerro , the player character learns that the King of Shadows was once known as the Guardian , a powerful creation of the ancient fallen empire of Illefarn . The Guardian was corrupted after tapping into a dark magical energy called the Shadow Weave . Thereafter the Guardian destroyed Illefarn in a misguided attempt to protect it . Ammon is initially unwilling to help the player character , but after inadvertently slaying his descendant Shandra , he repents and joins the party .
Act three introduces the Shadow Reavers , a sect of powerful undead mages that include a revived Garius , still intent on resurrecting the King of Shadows . The player must prepare Crossroad Keep for imminent battle by fortifying its troops and lands . After additional shards are retrieved by defeating Shadow Reavers , the shards are reformed into a powerful unique weapon for the player character , the Silver Sword of Gith . The sword , stolen by Ammon Jerro in the first battle against the King of Shadows , is the only weapon that can resist the enemy 's power . The army of the Shadow Reavers lays siege to Crossroads Keep and is repelled by the occupants . After making their way through Garius ' new stronghold , the party engages the mage in a second confrontation . After Garius is defeated , good members of the party begin the final fight against the King of Shadows . Evil and neutral characters ( including the player character , if applicable ) can decide to attack the King or fight alongside him . A cutscene afterwards details the battle 's effect on the world , and ends on a cliffhanger which is continued in the Mask of the Betrayer expansion pack .
= = Development = =
Neverwinter Nights 2 was unofficially announced on April 1 , 2004 , when an Atari employee listed the names of several games in development , including a " NWN2 " in response to an inflammatory comment on Atari 's forums . The company officially announced the game on August 4 , 2004 . Obsidian Entertainment handled development of the game , and BioWare , the company that created the first Neverwinter Nights , offered support and guidance to Obsidian . The two companies collaborated in a similar manner on Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic II , an Obsidian – developed sequel to a BioWare game . BioWare joint CEO Ray Muzyka said " Neverwinter Nights remains one of the most important titles BioWare has ever created . We certainly plan to remain involved in the production and development of Neverwinter Nights 2 " . Obsidian employed several game designers from the defunct Black Isle Studios , which developed other Dungeons & Dragons role @-@ playing video games such as Planescape : Torment , the Icewind Dale series , and the Baldur 's Gate series . Development of Neverwinter Nights 2 began in July 2004 , when Obsidian assigned several staff members to work on the project . Staff included Darren Monahan , the producer of several Icewind Dale and Baldur 's Gate : Dark Alliance games ; Marc Holmes , art director of the first Neverwinter Nights ; and Chris Avellone , lead designer of Planescape : Torment and Knights of the Old Republic II .
BioWare provided its Aurora Engine from Neverwinter Nights for the sequel . One of the decisions to use Aurora rather than build a new engine from scratch was the toolset — Obsidian wanted players to continue to be able to make content for the game , which may not have been possible with a new engine . BioWare made itself available to Obsidian with technical support on the engine , but Obsidian planned on completely overhauling Aurora , including its code . The designers wanted to improve the visuals of the first game with additions such as better lighting and textures , which required significant changes to the engine . The upgraded engine was referred to as Electron . Electron was designed to incorporate DirectX to make it compatible for a potential Xbox 360 release , but Obsidian eventually abandoned plans for a port to the system for financial reasons . The toolset that was used to create the game was also revamped , and included several additions like a customizable interface , a new dialogue format , and building assistants — similar to the wizards found in Microsoft Word and Excel . Like Neverwinter Nights , the toolset was included in the game 's release for players to use .
Obsidian drew on older computer RPGs for inspiration on the storyline and gameplay , like Fallout and the Ultima series . Obsidian CEO Feargus Urquhart said " We 've been thinking about a lot of older RPGs , and we have this feeling that something has been lost with recent RPGs . " He compared Neverwinter Nights 2 to Baldur 's Gate II , stating that he wanted to expand upon the city of Neverwinter as Baldur 's Gate II had done with its setting , Athkatla . " We 're looking at how to make Neverwinter a really intriguing place to be , and make it a place where you go and come back to and go and come back to and have it really be a center for the game , " Urquhart said . The game 's story , while still revolving around the city of Neverwinter , would be unrelated to Neverwinter Nights . Instead of starting the game as a powerful , important character , players would begin Neverwinter Nights 2 as nobodies . Obsidian wanted realism in the game and concrete consequences for the player 's actions . The story would be centered on the player character , who would have to gradually earn the respect of Lord Nasher and the city of Neverwinter .
" At the beginning of the game , the main character will run into a person of importance and be ignored like any other lump of crap with legs . The powerful simply don 't notice those weaker than themselves . It 's this kind of philosophy that promises a more cohesive story . "
Instead of the henchmen system used in Neverwinter Nights , Obsidian overhauled the game 's party format to mimic Knights of the Old Republic II . Like the Neverwinter Nights expansion Hordes of the Underdark , the player would be able to recruit more than one party member . Each character could be directly controlled , but party members would also be able to come to a player 's aid even when not controlled , such as summoning a rogue to open a locked chest . Companions would have distinct personalities and their own agendas , but it would be possible for the player character to influence them . Characters can leave the party permanently under certain circumstances . Other changes from the first game include the addition of prestige classes and more exotic races , like planetouched and Elven subraces .
In 2012 , GameSpy , the company providing multiplayer support for the game , was purchased by Glu Mobile . After the purchase , Glu Mobile raised the fees being charged to publishers to provide online services for their games . The new owners then shut down a number of the online services for different games , including Neverwinter Nights 2 . GameSpy claimed that the developers had allowed their contracts to lapse , and , after providing free services for a time , were no longer willing to continue .
= = Release = =
Neverwinter Nights 2 was ready for mass production on October 17 , 2006 and was released on October 31 in the United States , on November 3 in Europe , and on November 16 in Australia . The Electron toolset was available early for consumers who pre @-@ ordered the game through GameStop or Best Buy , as well as exclusive class @-@ specific special items . Alongside the standard version , Atari also published a special edition . The United States and Australia " Limited Edition " contained several physical items like a cloth map depicting the Sword Coast , as well as in @-@ game benefits like the " Blessed of Waukeen " feat that grants players a bonus to saving throws . The Europe special edition was split into two separate boxes , dubbed " Lawful Good Limited Edition " and " Chaotic Evil Limited Edition " , a reference to the Dungeons & Dragons concept of moral alignment . Each box contained the collectibles available in the United States and Australia versions , as well as copies of the original Neverwinter Nights and its expansions , and a trial code for Dungeons & Dragons Online : Stormreach .
Atari licensed Aspyr Media to develop a port of Neverwinter Nights 2 for the Apple Macintosh ; the game was announced shortly before the Windows release . The initial announcement gave a December 2007 release date , but the port was not shipped to retailers until February 2008 . It included the full version of Neverwinter Nights 2 with the exception of the editor toolkit . Atari announced in March 2008 that many of its PC games , including Neverwinter Nights 2 and its first expansion , Mask of the Betrayer , would be available online via Valve Corporation 's digital distribution service Steam . A " Gold Edition " bundle was also published in May 2008 containing copies of Neverwinter Nights 2 and Mask of the Betrayer . A platinum edition containing the original game and both its expansion packs was released on the Steam platform on December 27 , 2010 . As of May 2013 , Neverwinter Nights 2 is no longer sold through Steam .
A complete edition that contains the original game and the three expansion packs ( Mask of the Betrayer , Storm of Zehir , Mysteries of Westgate ) was released on GOG.com on January 24 , 2013 .
= = Expansions = =
Mask of the Betrayer , the game 's first expansion pack , was announced in April 2007 by Atari and Obsidian Entertainment . It was released on September 28 , 2007 in Europe , on October 9 in the United States , and on November 1 in Australia . Mask of the Betrayer 's story begins shortly after the events of Neverwinter Nights 2 and is set in the country of Rashemen , a matriarchy near Thay . The expansion contains several new options for character development , including additional races and prestige classes . It received favorable reviews from critics .
Storm of Zehir was announced in June 2008 . The pack is set on the Sword Coast and Chult areas of the Forgotten Realms and was released on November 18 , 2008 in the United States , on November 21 in Europe , and on December 11 in Australia . Despite being released after the introduction of the D & D 4th edition ruleset , Storm of Zehir made use of the 3 @.@ 5 ruleset like its predecessors . The expansion featured gameplay with similarities to previous D & D video game series Baldur 's Gate and Icewind Dale and received mixed reviews .
Mysteries of Westgate was announced in October 2007 . Atari referred to it as an " adventure pack " , comparing it to the premium modules of Neverwinter Nights . The game was developed by Canadian @-@ based Ossian Studios , the designers of the cancelled premium module Darkness over Daggerford . It is set in the Dragon Coast city of Westgate . Atari 's initial press release gave a release date of fall 2007 for Mysteries of Westgate , but it was not released until April 29 , 2009 .
= = Reception = =
Reception of Neverwinter Nights 2 was generally favorable . It placed number 6 on Amazon 's video game pre @-@ order list the week before its release , and was a best @-@ seller for several weeks afterwards . It received GameSpot 's " Best Story " award for 2006 , beating out the reader 's choice , The Elder Scrolls IV : Oblivion . It was also nominated for a Golden Joystick Award for Best PC Game of 2006 .
While some reviewers considered Neverwinter Nights 2 superior to its predecessor , Neverwinter Nights , the sequel received lower overall review ratings . Implementation of the Dungeons & Dragons 3 @.@ 5 ruleset was praised as faithful to the pen @-@ and @-@ paper version , with GameDaily stating " The 3 @.@ 5 edition ruleset is in full swing in Neverwinter Nights 2 , where critical hits can devastate your entire party . " The game 's representation of the Forgotten Realms campaign setting was also well received . The storyline was widely considered one of the game 's strong points and an improvement over Neverwinter Nights . GameSpy stated that the single – player campaign was " worthy of its exhaustive pedigree " , and Game Informer 's reviewer said " This title easily trumps the original NWN ’ s campaign with a vastly superior story and characters " . Another reviewer declared it " one of the best written games in history " . Aaron R. Conklin of The Wisconsin State Journal said , " It 'd be very easy to be turned off by the first mundane chapters of the game 's sprawling plot .... Stick with it : Once your party hits Neverwinter ( and reaches level seven or so ) , the proceedings become significantly more interesting — especially in terms of character interaction and development .... NWN2 is a masterpiece of storytelling and scope . " Conklin and Matt Slagle of Deseret News were pleased with the ethical choices in the game , with both noting approvingly that diplomacy was a very valid option that could succeed in place of combat .
Other reviewers were less convinced , with Australia 's PALGN referring to the story as " rather predictable and clichéd " . Jonathan Parkyn of Personal Computer World wrote , " Dialogue is NWN2 's key component .... but those who favour fisticuffs may find it tiresome after playing for several billion hours . " Similarly , reception of Neverwinter Nights 2 's graphics was mixed . Some reviewers referred to the visuals as " new age " and " beautiful " , but others noticed inconsistencies in their rendering and performance , especially on lower @-@ end PCs . The Sydney Morning Herald said " The detailed 3D engine allows for lush scenery , giving you a greater sense of exploration as you poke around the rustic villages and murky swamps " . Several comments on the audio and voice acting were positive , though one reviewer expressed disappointment that some sound effects had apparently been recycled from Neverwinter Nights . Conklin called the in @-@ game camera " abysmal " and said the game had a many graphical glitches . Slagle agreed , writing , " I had a lot of stuttering graphics and voiceovers that were out of synch with the characters ' on @-@ screen animations . "
The most common criticism of the game was its numerous technical glitches . Adam Diamond of Isthmus was not happy with the pathfinding , writing , " I often found myself traveling solo through a dungeon , my companions spread out far behind me , leaving me vulnerable to attack . What 's the point of having henchmen if they 're not there to protect you ? " . Some reviews compared Neverwinter Nights 2 to Star Wars : Knights of the Old Republic II , a previous Obsidian game that had received similar complaints . The bugs were described as disruptive to gameplay and " downright infuriating " , and one reviewer encountered a " showstopper bug " in the initial retail version that prevented him from playing the game past a certain point . The bugs were said to negatively affect NPC AI , camera operation , and pathfinding . One review stated " The launch – to – load time is fairly long so be prepared to wonder if the game has crashed or is loading . " Obsidian was quick to release fixes for several bugs , but later reviews still described the glitches as a serious problem . 1UP.com 's review , written two weeks after the game 's release , stated " But the sad truth is that NWN2 shipped in a pretty messy state , and even after a couple patches ( as of this writing ) , the biggest problems remain . "
The level editor and design toolset were widely praised , with Deseret referring to them as " insanely powerful and complex " . The Mac version received mixed reception , and reviewers complained about its lack of the editor toolkit and its high system requirements .
1UP.com writer Matt Peckham caused controversy with his initial review of Neverwinter Nights 2 . A 1UP editor pulled the review from the site and officially retracted it from the print version of the January 2007 issue of Games for Windows : The Official Magazine , explaining that " we felt that this particular review of Neverwinter Nights 2 did a disservice to fans of the [ role @-@ playing game ] genre . " The subsequent review by Jeff Green gave the game a score of C + and is one of the most negative reviews among major outlets . A modified version of Peckham 's review was later published by the Sci Fi Channel , and another version of the review can be found at Penny @-@ Arcade .
= Bajkam =
Abū al @-@ Husayn Bajkam al @-@ Mākānī ( Arabic : أبو الحسين بجكم المكاني ) , referred to as Bajkam , Badjkam or Bachkam ( from Bäčkäm , a Persian and Turkish word meaning a horse- or yak @-@ tail ) , was a Turkish military commander and official of the Abbasid Caliphate . A former ghulam of the Ziyarid dynasty , Bajkam entered Abbasid service following the assassination of the Ziyarid ruler Mardavij in 935 . During his five @-@ year tenure at the Caliphate 's court at Baghdad , he was granted the title of amir al @-@ umara , consolidating his dominance over the Caliphs ar @-@ Radi and al @-@ Muttaqi and giving him absolute power over their domains . Bajkam was challenged throughout his rule by various opponents , including his predecessor as amir al @-@ umara , Muhammad ibn Ra 'iq , the Basra @-@ based Baridis , and the Buyid dynasty of Iran , but he succeeded in retaining control until his death . He was murdered by a party of Kurds during a hunting excursion in 941 , shortly after the accession of al @-@ Muttaqi as Caliph . Bajkam was known both for his firm rule and for his patronage of Baghdad intellectuals , who respected and in some cases befriended him . His death led to a void in central power , resulting in a brief period of instability and fighting in Baghdad .
= = Early military career and service under Ibn Ra 'iq = =
Details of Bajkam 's early life are unknown . He was one of the ghilman ( military slaves , usually of Turkish origin ) of the Daylamite warlord Makan ibn Kaki in northern Iran . Makan took care of the young Bajkam 's training and education , something for which the latter showed his gratitude by adopting his patron 's name as his nisba ( surname ) . After Makan , Bajkam entered the service of Mardavij , founder of the Ziyarid dynasty , who came to control Daylam , Jibal and Tabaristan . Mardavij mistreated his ghilman , who consequently murdered him at Isfahan in January 935 , an act in which Bajkam may have been complicit . After Mardavij 's death , most of the ghilman in Ziyarid service dispersed . Bajkam and his fellow officer Tuzun assumed the leadership of a large group and , after first offering their services to the new governor of Jibal , Hasan ibn Harun , proceeded to the Abbasid court at Baghdad . At first , their offers were rejected by the court , where the Caliph 's Hujari bodyguards jealously guarded their prerogatives , but the ghilman were eventually taken into the service of Muhammad ibn Ra 'iq , governor of Basra and Wasit in southern Iraq . Now known as Bajkam Ra 'iqi , Bajkam created a large military force under his command consisting of his own followers as well as additional Turks and Daylamites summoned from Jibal .
In early November 936 , the Caliph al @-@ Radi ( reigned 934 – 940 ) bestowed the newly created title of amir al @-@ umara ( " commander of commanders " ) on Ibn Ra 'iq , who was effectively granted absolute control over the Caliphate . This provoked the reaction of various provincial governors as well as that of powerful interest groups in Baghdad itself , such as the caliphal bodyguards . Against them , Ibn Ra 'iq employed Bajkam and his Turkish supporters . With their aid , he managed to neutralize the Hujari and Saji guard units , after which , in February 937 , Bajkam was rewarded with the posts of sahib al @-@ shurta ( chief of police ) and governor of the eastern provinces .
Far more difficult and protracted was the war against the ambitious governor of Ahwaz , Abu Abdallah al @-@ Baridi , who aimed to supplant Ibn Ra 'iq . Al @-@ Baridi 's family was of Basran origin , and had served the Abbasids in various roles as officials before managing to assert a weak hold over Khuzistan . Ibn Ra 'iq himself was defeated and forced to leave Basra to the Baridis , but Bajkam saved the situation by scoring two major victories , despite being outnumbered , that allowed him to take possession of Khuzistan . The hard @-@ pressed al @-@ Baridi now turned to his powerful neighbour , the Buyid ruler of Fars , Ali ibn Buya , for help . Ali 's brother Ahmad soon took over Khuzistan , and Ibn Ra 'iq was forced to offer possession of the province as an independent domain if Bajkam would recover it . Bajkam however was repulsed by the Buyid forces , and fell back to Wasit .
Ignoring Ibn Ra 'iq 's orders to retake Khuzistan , Bajkam remained at Wasit , and began plotting to depose Ibn Ra 'iq himself . To this end , Bajkam began seeking allies : he offered the governorship of Wasit to the Baridis , and through the former vizier Ibn Muqla , who wished to avenge himself on Ibn Ra 'iq for his own downfall and confiscation of his property , gained the covert support of Caliph al @-@ Radi himself . In September 938 , Bajkam led his troops from Wasit to Baghdad . Ibn Ra 'iq tried without success to impede his advance by destroying the great dams of the Nahrawan Canal and flooding the plain , but Bajkam 's army entered the Abbasid capital without opposition , and al @-@ Radi immediately transferred Ibn Ra 'iq 's title of amir al @-@ umara to Bajkam .
= = Amir al @-@ umara = =
Despite the continued relegation of al @-@ Radi to a ceremonial role , the relationship between the Caliph and Bajkam was strong , with al @-@ Radi praising Bajkam for his harsh discipline and referring to the latter as his " protégé " . Al @-@ Radi was appreciative of Bajkam 's respect for his position as Caliph , and promised his support for the amir al @-@ umara .
In October – November 938 , Bajkam and the Caliph campaigned against the influential Hamdanid emir of Mosul , Hasan ibn Abdallah , who had taken advantage of the turmoil in Iraq to cease forwarding his province 's revenue to Baghdad . Although Bajkam 's army captured Mosul , Hasan fled before him to the remotest corners of his domain , where Bajkam 's forces pursued him in vain . In the meantime , the local population resented the presence of the caliphal troops and launched guerilla warfare against them , while Ibn Ra 'iq used Bajkam 's absence to take control of Baghdad at the head of a Carmathian force . These developments forced Bajkam to negotiate with his rivals : the Hamdanids were restored in their province in exchange for the payment of the tax arrears , and Ibn Ra 'iq was bought off with the governorship of the provinces of Tariq al @-@ Furat , Diyar Mudar , Qinnasrin and al- ' Awasim , which were also claimed by the Ikhshidids of Egypt . This arrangement allowed Bajkam and the Caliph to return to Baghdad in February 939 .
Bajkam , having consolidated his control over Baghdad , now turned to face the threat posed by the Buyids . To this end , he strengthened his ties with the Baridis of Basra , by handing over Wasit , as previously agreed , appointing Abu Abdallah al @-@ Baridi as vizier of the Abbasid court ( although the latter remained at Wasit and did not visit Baghdad ) , and , finally , by marrying himself to one of al @-@ Baridi 's daughters . Bajkam 's success against the Buyids was mixed : Wasit was saved from Buyid attack , and the Baridis led a successful campaign in Susiana , but an expedition into Jibal was crushed by the third Buyid brother , Hasan . The alliance with the Baridis quickly soured , however , as al @-@ Baridi still maintained his ambition of replacing Bajkam , and ajkam was aware of this . In late August 940 , Bajkam removed al @-@ Baridi from the vizierate and launched an attack on Wasit , which the Baridis abandoned without resistance . In the meantime , the Baghdad was in turmoil as religious violence had become commonplace , with fanatical members of the Hanbali school imposing their tenets on the general populace .
In December 940 , al @-@ Radi died . Bajkam remained at Wasit , but sent his secretary to Baghdad to convene a council of Abbasid aristocrats , who selected al @-@ Muttaqi ( r . 940 – 944 ) , al @-@ Radi 's brother , as Caliph . Bajkam also sent a slave named Takinak to the deceased Caliph 's palace , the Dar al @-@ Sultan , to procure various items , including the valuable al @-@ Yatimah pearl . He also obtained three female slaves from al @-@ Radi 's palace , whose singing he remembered from his earlier visits to the Caliph .
Among al @-@ Muttaqi 's first actions as Caliph was the confirmation of Bajkam as amir al @-@ umara . Despite al @-@ Muttaqi 's gesture of support , Bajkam still faced opposition among the semi @-@ autonomous provincial governors , including al @-@ Baridi .
= = Death and ensuing anarchy = =
Bajkam opened a campaign against al @-@ Baridi in early spring 941 . His lieutenants were at first defeated by the Baridis , whereupon Bajkam himself left Wasit to take the field . On his way to join his army , however , he was informed that his generals had achieved a major victory over the Baridis , and decided to return to Wasit . On 21 April 941 , while travelling , he took part in a hunting excursion , during which he and his party inadvertently encountered a band of Kurdish brigands . During a brief skirmish , Bajkam was slain when one of the Kurds stabbed him in the back with his lance .
Bajkam 's unexpected death created a power vacuum in Baghdad , with disagreements between Daylamite and Turkish forces prompting the former to join the defeated al @-@ Baridi . With their assistance , he marched on Wasit and Baghdad , capturing them , but was soon forced to flee due to the disorder that followed his usurpation of power . A Daylamite chief named Kurankij replaced him as de facto ruler of Baghdad , but he imposed tyrannical rule , and al @-@ Muttaqi appealed to the former amir al @-@ umara Ibn Ra 'iq for assistance .
Ibn Ra 'iq soon retook control of Baghdad , but political turmoil did not cease with his re @-@ installation as amir al @-@ umara . Once again , al @-@ Baridi captured the city , and Ibn Ra 'iq fled with the Caliph to Mosul , from where the Hamdanid rulers launched a successful attempt to restore them . The Hamdanid emir Hasan , after ordering the assassination of Ibn Ra 'iq , was made amir al @-@ umara and given the laqab of Nasir al @-@ Dawla ( " Defender of the Dynasty " ) . In 943 , the Hamdanids were forced to retreat to Mosul when Tuzun , one of Bajkam 's officers , seized power with military support ; the following year , Tuzun captured , blinded , and deposed al @-@ Muttaqi , assuming the role of amir al @-@ umara . The Caliph 's brother , al @-@ Mustakfi ( r . 944 – 946 ) , was appointed as his successor . The competition for control of the Caliph ended in 945 , when the Buyid Ahmad took over the position of amir al @-@ umara with the title of Mu 'izz al @-@ Dawla . This begun the period of undisputed Buyid control over Baghdad and Iraq , which lasted until the Seljuk conquest in the 1050s .
= = Character = =
Despite his slave origin , Bajkam was educated in Arabic ( although he reportedly did not speak it for fear of making mistakes ) , respected by intellectuals and was known to seek the company of such men as al @-@ Suli and the physician Sinan ibn Thabit . It is in their writings that glimpses of his character survive . According to the researcher Marius Canard , Bajkam was " covetous of power and money , he did not hesitate to resort to dissimulation and ruse , corruption and torture to attain his ends ; he was at times cruel , though his bravery was legendary , and was more upright in character than Ibn Ra 'iq " . Bajkam was also solicitous for the welfare of his subjects , and especially the inhabitants of Wasit cherished his memory .
= Brazilian battleship Minas Geraes =
Minas Geraes , spelled Minas Gerais in some sources , was a dreadnought battleship of the Brazilian Navy . Named in honor of the state of Minas Gerais , the ship was laid down in April 1907 as the lead ship of its class , making the country the third to have a dreadnought under construction and igniting a naval arms race between Brazil , Argentina , and Chile .
Two months after its completion in January 1910 , Minas Geraes was featured in Scientific American , which described it as " the last word in heavy battleship design and the ... most powerfully armed warship afloat " . In November 1910 , Minas Geraes was the focal point of the Revolt of the Lash . The mutiny spread from Minas Geraes to other ships in the Navy , including its sister São Paulo , the elderly coastal defense ship Deodoro , and the recently commissioned cruiser Bahia . Led by the " Black Admiral " João Cândido Felisberto , the mutineers threatened to bombard the Brazilian capital of Rio de Janeiro if their demands were not met . As it was not possible to end the situation militarily — the only loyal troops nearby being small torpedo boats and army troops confined to land — the National Congress of Brazil gave in and the rebels disbanded .
When Brazil entered the First World War in 1917 , Britain 's Royal Navy declined Brazil 's offer of Minas Geraes for duty with the Grand Fleet because the ship was outdated ; it had not been refitted since entering service , so range @-@ finders and a fire @-@ control system had not been added . São Paulo underwent modernization in the United States in 1920 ; in 1921 , Minas Geraes received the same treatment . A year later , Minas Geraes sailed to counter the first of the Tenente revolts . São Paulo shelled the rebels ' fort , and they surrendered shortly thereafter ; Minas Geraes did not fire its guns . In 1924 , mutineers seized São Paulo and attempted to persuade the crews of Minas Geraes and several other ships to join them , but were unsuccessful .
Minas Geraes was modernized at the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard in the 1930s , and underwent further refitting from 1939 to 1943 . During the Second World War , the ship was anchored in Salvador as the main defense of the port , as it was too old to play an active part in the war . For the last nine years of its service life , Minas Geraes remained largely inactive , and was towed to Italy for scrapping in March 1954 .
= = Background = =
Beginning in the late 1880s , Brazil 's navy fell into obsolescence , helped along by an 1889 revolution , which deposed Emperor Dom Pedro II , and naval revolts in 1891 and 1893 – 94 . By the turn of the 20th century it was lagging behind the Chilean and Argentine navies in quality and total tonnage , despite Brazil having nearly three times the population of Argentina and almost five times the population of Chile .
At the turn of the twentieth century , soaring demand for coffee and rubber brought prosperity to the Brazilian economy . The government of Brazil used some of the extra money from this economic growth to finance a large naval building program in 1904 , which authorized the construction of a large number of warships , including three battleships . The Minister of the Navy , Admiral Júlio César de Noronha , signed a contract with Armstrong Whitworth for three battleships on 23 July 1906 . While the first designs for these ships were derived from the Norwegian coastal defense ship Norge and the British ( originally Chilean ) Swiftsure class , the contracted ships were to follow Armstrong Whitworth 's Design 439 ( Design 188 in Vickers ' files ) . They would displace 11 @,@ 800 long tons ( 12 @,@ 000 tonnes ) , have a speed of 19 knots ( 22 mph ; 35 km / h ) , and be protected by belt armor of 9 inches ( 23 cm ) and deck armor of 1 @.@ 5 in ( 3 @.@ 8 cm ) . Each ship would be armed with twelve 10 @-@ inch ( 25 cm ) guns mounted in six twin turrets . These turrets would be mounted in a hexagonal configuration , similar to the later German Nassau @-@ class battleships .
Two of these ships were laid down by Armstrong in Elswick ( Minas Geraes and Rio de Janeiro ) , while the other was subcontracted out to Vickers in Barrow ( São Paulo ) . The new dreadnought concept , which premiered in December 1906 upon the completion of the namesake ship in December 1906 , rendered the Brazilian ships obsolete . The money authorized for naval expansion was redirected by new Minister of the Navy , Rear Admiral Alexandrino Fario de Alencar , to building two dreadnoughts , with plans for a third dreadnought after the first was completed , two scout cruisers ( which became the Bahia class ) , ten destroyers ( the Pará class ) , and three submarines . The three battleships on which construction had just begun were demolished beginning on 7 January 1907 , and the design of the new dreadnoughts was approved by the Brazilians on 20 February 1907 .
Even though the greater cost of these ships meant that only two ships could begin immediately , plans went ahead . Minas Geraes , the lead ship , was laid down by Armstrong on 17 April 1907 , while São Paulo followed thirteen days later at Vickers . The news shocked Brazil 's neighbors , especially Argentina , whose Minister of Foreign Affairs remarked that either Minas Geraes or São Paulo could destroy the entire Argentine and Chilean fleets . In addition , Brazil 's order meant that they had laid down a dreadnought before many of the other major maritime powers , such as Germany , France or Russia , and the two ships made Brazil just the third country to have dreadnoughts under construction , behind the United Kingdom and the United States . In particular , the United States now actively attempted to court Brazil as an ally ; caught up in the spirit , U.S. naval journals began using terms like " Pan Americanism " and " Hemispheric Cooperation " . Newspapers and journals around the world , particularly in Britain and Germany , speculated that Brazil was acting as a proxy for a naval power which would take possession of the two dreadnoughts soon after completion , as they did not believe that a previously insignificant geopolitical power would contract for such powerful armament .
= = Early career = =
Minas Geraes was christened by Senhora Regis de Oliveira , the wife of the Brazilian minister to Great Britain , and launched at Newcastle @-@ on @-@ Tyne on 10 September 1908 . During fitting @-@ out , it was moved to Vickers ' Walker Yard , and thousands turned out to see the incomplete ship squeeze barely underneath and through overhead and swing bridges . After completion , Minas Geraes was handed over by Armstrong on 5 January to the Brazilian Commission on behalf of the Brazilian government , while the ship 's company was mustered on deck . The British Royal Navy carried out its gunnery trials at the request of Armstrong 's and with the agreement of the Brazilian government . Although the idea of having superfiring turrets was not new — the American South Carolina @-@ class battleships were also designed and built in this fashion around the same time — the trials attracted interest from a few nations , who sent representatives to observe . They wanted to resolve two major questions : the effect that firing the upper superfiring turrets would have on the crewmen in the lower guns , and whether smoke from the discharge of the lower guns would hinder the targeting capabilities of the upper turret . The tests resolved both questions satisfactorily .
Minas Geraes left the Tyne on 5 February 1910 and traveled to Plymouth before beginning a voyage to the United States on 8 February . When the ship reached Norfolk , Virginia , it escorted the American armored cruiser North Carolina , which was carrying the body of the former Brazilian ambassador to the United States Joaquim Nabuco ( who had died in Washington , D.C. on 17 January ) to Rio de Janeiro . The two ships set sail on 17 March 1910 and reached Rio de Janeiro one month later , where Minas Geraes was commissioned into the Brazilian Navy on 18 April .
Soon after Minas Geraes ' arrival in Brazil , the country 's prosperity began to wane , and a severe depression hit the Brazilian economy . The economic hardship , the racism prevalent in all branches of the Brazilian armed forces , and the severe discipline enforced on all navy ships spawned a mutiny known as the Revolt of the Lash , or Revolta da Chibata , among sailors on the most powerful ships .
= = = Revolt of the Lash = = =
The initial spark was provided on 16 November 1910 when Afro @-@ Brazilian sailor Marcelino Rodrigues Menezes was brutally flogged 250 times for insubordination . The sailor 's back was later described by José Carlos de Carvalho , a retired navy captain assigned to be the Brazilian government 's representative to the mutineers , as " a mullet sliced open for salting . " Many Afro @-@ Brazilian sailors were sons of former slaves , or were former slaves freed under the Lei Áurea ( abolition ) but forced to enter the navy . They had been planning a revolt for some time , and Menezes became the catalyst . The revolt began aboard Minas Geraes at around 10 pm on 22 November ; the ship 's commander and several loyal crewmen were murdered in the process . Soon after , São Paulo , the new cruiser Bahia , the coast @-@ defense ship Deodoro , the minelayer República , the training ship Benjamin Constant , and the torpedo boats Tamoio and Timbira all revolted with relatively little violence . The first four ships represented the newest and strongest ships in the navy ; Minas Geraes , São Paulo , and Bahia had been completed and commissioned only months before . Deodoro was twelve years old and had recently undergone a refit . The crews of the smaller warships made up only two percent of the mutineers , and some moved to the largest ships after the revolt began .
The ships were well @-@ supplied with foodstuffs , ammunition , and coal , and the only demand of mutineers — led by João Cândido Felisberto — was the abolition of what they called slavery : they objected to low pay , long hours , inadequate training , and punishments including bolo ( being struck on the hand with a ferrule ) and the use of whips or lashes ( chibata ) , which eventually became a symbol of the revolt . By the 23rd , the National Congress had begun discussing the possibility of a general amnesty for the sailors . Senator Ruy Barbosa , long an opponent of slavery , lent a large amount of support , and the measure unanimously passed the Federal Senate on 24 November . The measure was then sent to the Chamber of Deputies .
Humiliated by the revolt , naval officers and the president of Brazil were staunchly opposed to amnesty , so they quickly began planning to assault the rebel ships . The officers believed such an action was necessary to restore the service 's honor . The rebels , believing an attack was imminent , sailed their ships out of Guanabara Bay and spent the night of 23 – 24 November at sea , only returning during daylight . Late on the 24th , the President ordered the naval officers to attack the mutineers . Officers crewed some smaller warships and the cruiser Rio Grande do Sul , Bahia 's sister ship with ten 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns . They planned to attack on the morning of the 25th , when the government expected the mutineers would return to Guanabara Bay . When they did not return and the amnesty measure neared passage in the Chamber of Deputies , the order was rescinded . After the bill passed 125 – 23 and the president signed it into law , the mutineers stood down on the 26th .
During the revolt , the ships were noted by many observers to be well handled , despite a previous belief that the Brazilian Navy was incapable of effectively operating the ships even before being split by a rebellion . João Cândido Felisberto ordered all liquor thrown overboard , and discipline on the ships was recognized as exemplary . The 4 @.@ 7 @-@ inch guns were often used for shots over the city , but the 12 @-@ inch guns were not , which led to a suspicion among the naval officers that the rebels were incapable of using the weapons . Later research and interviews indicate that Minas Geraes ' guns were fully operational , and while São Paulo 's could not be turned after salt water contaminated the hydraulic system , British engineers still on board the ship after the voyage from the United Kingdom were working on the problem . Still , historians have never ascertained how well the mutineers could handle the ships .
The crews of the torpedo boats remained loyal to the government , and army troops moved to the presidential palace and the coastline , but neither group could stop the mutineers ; a major problem for the authorities was that many of the men who manned Rio de Janeiro 's harbor defenses were sympathetic to the mutineers ' cause . The additional possibility of the capital being bombarded forced the National Congress of Brazil to give in to the rebels ' demands . The demands included the abolition of flogging , improved living conditions , and the granting of amnesty to all mutineers . The government also issued official pardons and a statement of regret . Its submission resulted in the rebellion 's end on 26 November , when control of the four ships was handed back to the navy .
In 1913 , Minas Geraes took the Brazilian Minister of Foreign Affairs , Lauro Müller , to the United States , reciprocating the visit U.S. Secretary of State Elihu Root had paid to Brazil seven years earlier .
= = First World War = =
Even though the First World War did not touch Brazilian soil , it had crushing effects on Brazil 's economy . Prices for rubber and coffee plummeted ; the war had only a small need for rubber , and Britain allowed no coffee into Europe as space on merchant ships was reserved for " essential items " . In addition , coffee was declared to be contraband , so every Brazilian shipment to the Central Powers was subject to search and seizure ; even shipments to some neutral countries were barred to ensure that no coffee would get through . Despite these restrictions , neutral Brazil was pro @-@ Allied for the first three years of the war because of its sizable merchant fleet ; as merchantmen from Allied countries were sunk , Brazilian ships were able to take over routes that had been vacated . This policy exposed them to attack by German submarines , and after the German declaration of unrestricted submarine warfare in February 1917 , several Brazilian ships were sunk , driving the country closer to declaring war on the Central Powers .
Brazil revoked its neutrality in the war between the United States and Germany on 1 June 1917 , but did not declare war . At the same time , all German merchant ships interned in Brazilian harbors , 45 in all , were boarded and seized ; most were unusable due to neglect or sabotage . On 28 June , Brazil revoked its neutrality between all of the Allied and Central Powers but again stopped short of declaring war ; this move allowed Brazilian merchantmen to travel in Allied convoys .
The Brazilian Navy was sent out to patrol the South Atlantic with French , British and American naval units , even though none of its ships had anti @-@ submarine capabilities and , not being at war with the Central Powers , its ships were not supposed to engage any threat outside territorial waters . Another Brazilian merchant ship , Macao , was sunk by German submarine U @-@ 93 off Spain on 18 October , and eight days later Brazil declared war .
Brazil offered to send Minas Geraes and São Paulo to serve with the British Grand Fleet , but this offer was declined because both ships were in poor condition and lacked modern fire @-@ control systems . Neither of the two dreadnoughts had undergone any form of refitting since their original construction in Britain . Indicative of their poor condition , fourteen of São Paulo 's eighteen boilers failed when voyaging to New York in June 1918 for a modernization .
= = Inter @-@ war period = =
São Paulo 's refit was finished on 17 January 1920 and it returned to Brazil ; on 15 July Minas Geraes departed for New York for its own refit . Beginning on 22 August , the day it arrived , and finishing on 4 October 1921 , the battleship was dramatically modernized , with Sperry fire @-@ control equipment and Bausch and Lomb range @-@ finders for the two superfiring turrets fore and aft . A vertical armor bulkhead was fitted inside the main turrets , and the secondary battery of 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns was reduced from 22 to 12 ; five guns in casemates were removed from each side . A few modern AA guns were fitted : two 3 " / 50 caliber guns from Bethlehem Steel were added on the aft superstructure , 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns were added near each turret , and 3 @-@ pounder guns were removed from the tops of turrets .
In July 1922 , Minas Geraes joined São Paulo in helping to quash the first of the Revolução Tenentista ( English : Tenente revolts ) , in which the garrison of Rio de Janeiro 's Fort Copacabana rebelled and began bombarding the city . São Paulo shelled the fort , and the rebels surrendered shortly thereafter ; Minas Geraes did not fire its guns .
In 1924 , Minas Geraes was involved in another mutiny , but remained on the side of the government . First Lieutenant Hercolino Cascardo , seven second lieutenants and others commandeered São Paulo in Rio de Janeiro 's harbor on 4 November 1924 . Their goal was to force the government to release prisoners who had participated in the 1922 Tenente revolts from confinement aboard the prison ship Cuibaba ; the mutineers ' demands were not met . São Paulo 's boilers were then fired , and the ship " steamed menacingly " around Minas Geraes in an attempt to entice its and other ships to join the rebellion . São Paulo was only able to sway the crew of one old torpedo boat to its cause. its crew , angry that Minas Geraes would not join them , shot a six @-@ pounder at Minas Geraes , wounding a cook . The mutineers then sailed out of the harbor , exchanging shots with forts at the entrance along the way , and set course for Montevideo , Uruguay . The condensers failed along the way , and they reached Montevideo on 10 November making only 9 knots ( 10 mph ; 17 km / h ) . The rebellious members of the crew disembarked and were granted asylum , while the remainder re @-@ hoisted the colors of Brazil .
Between June 1931 and April 1938 , Minas Geraes was totally reconstructed and modernized at the Rio de Janeiro Naval Yard . It was converted from its old coal – oil combination to all @-@ oil firing . All eighteen of the original Babcock & Wilcox boilers were removed in favor of six new John I. Thornycroft & Company boilers . The former No. 1 boiler room and all twelve of the side coal bunkers were converted to fuel oil storage tanks ; the upper coal bunkers were removed . In addition , Minas Geraes ' dynamos were replaced with new turbogenerators . The most striking aesthetic change was the trunking of the boiler uptakes into a single funnel . The fire @-@ control systems that had been fitted after the First World War were also modernized in favor of Zeiss range @-@ finders . The guns were overhauled ; two extra 4 @.@ 7 in ( 120 mm ) guns were added ( making 14 total ) , and six 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) Madsen guns were installed , including two on the top of ' X ' turret . The maximum elevation of the 12 @-@ inch guns was upped from 13 ° to 18 ° .
= = Second World War and later career = =
As in the First World War , Brazil was neutral during the early years of the Second World War . German attacks on Brazilian merchant ships pushed the country into war on the Allied side ; Brazil declared war on 21 August 1942 , taking effect on 31 August .
Apart from three destroyers launched in 1940 and four submarines from the inter @-@ war years , Brazil 's warships were old and mostly obsolete pre @-@ First World War vessels . The mainstays of the fleet , Minas Geraes , São Paulo , Bahia , and Rio Grande do Sul , were all over thirty years old . Although Minas Geraes had been further refitted from 1939 to 1943 , the ship was still too old and in too poor a condition for any active role in the Second World War ; instead , the dreadnought was anchored as a floating battery in the port of Salvador for the duration of the war .
Minas Geraes was inactive for much of the rest of its career . Decommissioned on 16 May 1952 , it was used as a stationary headquarters for the Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the Brazilian Navy until 17 December of that year . The ship was removed from the naval register on 31 December , and sold to the Italian ship breaking company SA Cantiere Navale de Santa Maria . Minas Geraes was taken under tow on 1 March 1954 and arrived in Genoa on 22 April ; the old dreadnought , which had been in service for more than forty years , was broken up for scrap later that year .
= = Endnotes = =
= Líf and Lífþrasir =
In Norse mythology , Líf ( identical with the Old Norse feminine noun meaning " life , the life of the body " ) and Lífþrasir ( Old Norse masculine name from líf and þrasir . Lexicon Poëticum defines this name as " Livæ amator , vitæ amans , vitæ cupidus " , " Líf 's lover , lover of life , zest for life " ) , sometimes anglicized as Lift and Lifthrasir , — female and male respectively — are two humans who are foretold to survive the events of Ragnarök by hiding in a wood called Hoddmímis holt , and after the flames have abated , to repopulate the newly risen and fertile world . Líf and Lífþrasir are mentioned in the Poetic Edda , compiled in the thirteenth century from earlier traditional sources , and the Prose Edda , written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson . Scholarly theories have been proposed about the underlying meaning and origins of the two names .
= = Attestations = =
In the poem Vafþrúðnismál , collected in the Poetic Edda , the god Odin poses a question to the jötunn Vafþrúðnir , asking who among mankind will survive when the winter at the end of the world Fimbulvetr occurs . Vafþrúðnir responds that they will be Líf and Lífþrasir , that the two will have hidden in the wood of Hoddmímis Holt , they will consume the morning dew as food , and " from them generations will spring " .
In chapter 53 of the Prose Edda book Gylfaginning , High tells Gangleri ( king Gylfi in disguise ) that two people , Líf and Lífþrasir , will lie hid in Hoddmímis Holt during " Surt 's fire " , and that " from these people there will be descended such a great progeny that the world will be inhabited . " The above mentioned stanza of Vafþrúðnismál is then quoted .
= = Theories = =
Carolyne Larrington notes that it is nowhere expressly stated what will happen to the world tree Yggdrasil at Ragnarök , points to a connection between Mímir and Yggdrasil in the poem Völuspá , and theorizes that " it is possible that Hoddmimir is another name for Mimir , and that the two survivors hide in Yggdrasill . "
Rudolf Simek theorizes that the survival of Líf and Lífþrasir is " a case of reduplication of the anthropogeny , understandable from the cyclic nature of the Eddic eschatology . " Simek says that Hoddmímis holt " should not be understood literally as a wood or even a forest in which the two keep themselves hidden , but rather as an alternative name for the world @-@ tree Yggdrasill . Thus , the creation of mankind from tree trunks ( Askr , Embla ) is repeated after the Ragnarǫk as well . " Simek says that in Germanic regions , the concept of mankind originating from trees is ancient . Simek additionally points out legendary parallels in a Bavarian legend of a shepherd who lives inside a tree , whose descendants repopulate the land after life there has been wiped out by plague ( citing a retelling by F. R. Schröder ) . In addition , Simek points to an Old Norse parallel in the figure of Örvar @-@ Oddr , " who is rejuvenated after living as a tree @-@ man ( Ǫrvar @-@ Odds saga 24 – 27 ) " .
= Ås Station =
Ås Station ( Norwegian : Ås stasjon ) is a railway station in Ås , Norway on the Østfold Line . The station was opened on 2 January 1879 and designed by Peter A. Blix in Swiss chalet style . The station was modernized in 1992 , when the section between Ski and Moss was upgraded to double track and speeds up to 160 kilometres per hour ( 99 mph ) . In 2006 , a cultural meeting place comprising a café , concert hall and an art exhibition was established inside the station 's building , initiated by the local organization " Galleri Texas " and to the governmental corporation Follo Futura . Galleri Texas and Follo Futura had been arguing a while over how the operating of the café should be , and in 2010 , all the maintenance and operation of the meeting place were transferred entirely from Galleri Texas to Follo Futura , since Galleri Texas no longer were satisfied with Follo Futuras work . The station is served by commuter trains on the Line L21 of the Oslo Commuter Rail , running from Stabekk over Oslo to Moss . Ski Station and Vestby Station are the preceding and the following stations , respectively .
= = History = =
The station opened on 2 January 1879 , and was designed by the Norwegian architect Peter Andreas Blix in Swiss chalet style . The Norwegian author Knut Hamsun wrote several letters at the station between 1897 and 1906 . When the section between Ski and Moss Station was upgraded to double tracks in 1992 , Ås Station received a major renovation . In 2000 , a 16 @-@ year @-@ old boy had huffed lighter gas at the station , and was found dead on the platform the next morning . On 25 October 2006 , a cultural meeting place was established inside the station building , initiated by the association " Galleri Texas " . The building is located in Brekkeveien 4 , and houses a tiny café known as " Kafé Åsheim " , an art gallery , and a small gift shop . The café serves local commuters riding to Oslo in the morning , as well as dining and lunch guests residing in the area around the station . In the weekends , there are sometimes arranged concerts with local bands and musicians .
In 2008 , controversy between the local organisation Galleri Texas and the state @-@ owned corporation Follo Futura arose , regarding the hiring contract of the station building , and which of them were to operate the cultural meeting place . Follo Futura , which together with the Norwegian National Rail Administration and Rom Eiendom officially owned the station building wanted to take over the café business . They argued that they were better fit to operate it , since Galleri Texas did not have the economical capacity to run the café with the art exhibition and gift shop the whole week . The local community wanted Galleri Texas to operate the café , arguing that replacing a local company for a governmental one would weaken the local and patriotic spirit of the café . On 1 January 2010 , the operation of the café and the cultural meeting place was transferred from Galleri Texas to Follo Futura , since Galleri Texas no longer could pay the rental costs . In 2010 , smoke was tumbling out of the station , but it turned out that it was only a cigarette that had not been quenched , and had been laying overnight in a flower basket .
= = Facilities = =
The station 's facilities are designed similarly to most of the other stations on the Østfold Line , apart from the station building , which dates back to 1877 . There is step @-@ free access to the platforms . There is a glulam walkway over the rail tracks in the south end of the station , which shapes together with the stairways one minimalistic construction down to the platforms . At the north end of the station , there is a second walkway which runs under the tracks . There are sheds and ticket machines on the platforms . The station 's parking area has room for 200 cars and 8 bicycles . Akershus Kollektivterminaler operates a bus terminal a few metres away from the station . Ås Station is located north of Vestby Station and south of Ski Station on the Østfold Line , 31 @.@ 15 kilometres ( 19 @.@ 36 mi ) from Oslo Central Station .
= = Service = =
Ås Station is served by the line L21 of the Oslo Commuter Rail , operated by the Norwegian State Railways . The line runs from Stabekk through Oslo to Moss . The travel time from Ås to Oslo Central Station is 28 minutes and to Moss Station 21 minutes . The public transport authority Ruter operates feeder bus services to the station from Drøbak , Ski , Vinterbro and other conurbations around Ås .
= Pot o ' Gold ( Glee ) =
" Pot o ' Gold " is the fourth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ eighth overall . It was written by Ali Adler , directed by Adam Shankman , and was first broadcast on Fox in the United States on November 1 , 2011 . The episode featured the arrival of Irish foreign exchange student Rory Flanagan ( Glee Project prizewinner Damian McGinty ) at McKinley High , a new challenger to Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) in her congressional race , and the ongoing fragmentation of the show 's central glee club , New Directions .
The episode as a whole received mixed reviews from reviewers . The storyline involving Quinn , Puck and Shelby was extensively criticized , while the injection of Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) into the congressional race as Sue 's opponent was greeted with enthusiasm . The music was received with somewhat more favor than the episode itself , especially " Candyman " , sung by the newly constituted Troubletones .
All five song covers performed in the episode were released as singles , available for download , and one of them , " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " , charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 7 @.@ 47 million American viewers and earned a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership numbers and rating / share were down significantly from the previous episode , " Asian F " , which had been broadcast four weeks earlier on October 4 , 2011 .
= = Plot = =
Rory Flanagan ( Damian McGinty ) , a foreign exchange student from Ireland , has begun attending McKinley High and is regularly being bullied . He is staying at Brittany 's ( Heather Morris ) house ; she believes that he is a leprechaun . Rory , who has a crush on Brittany , does not disabuse her of this belief because she has promised to let him into her " pot o ' gold " if he grants her three wishes . He easily fulfills her first two wishes in mundane ways .
Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) is recruiting for the new all @-@ girl show choir directed by Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) , and asks Santana ( Naya Rivera ) — a member of the school 's existing glee club , New Directions — to join . Santana balks at leaving Brittany behind , and when she and Brittany go out on a dinner date , Santana tries to recruit her , but Brittany is unwilling to leave her New Directions friends . She tells Santana of Rory 's supposed magical powers , and Santana later coerces Rory into telling Brittany that Santana has wished for her to join Shelby 's glee club . Brittany believes she must obey that wish , but her third wish is that doing so does not hurt anybody 's feelings . New Directions co @-@ captain Finn Hudson ( Cory Monteith ) tries to persuade Brittany not to leave : he tells her that leprechauns are not real and that she is being stupid . Brittany , insulted , quits anyway .
Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) offer to babysit Beth , their biological daughter who they gave up to Shelby for adoption . While babysitting , Quinn hides hot sauce , sharp knives , books on child cannibalism and other items to make Shelby look like an unfit mother ; she subsequently calls Child Protective Services , under the assumption that they will ultimately restore Beth to her after they investigate and find the evidence . Puck later returns to secretly gather up the items . He also sings " Waiting for a Girl Like You " to calm a crying Beth and to comfort Shelby , who confesses she is extremely lonely . In the episode 's closing moments , Puck and Shelby kiss .
Congressional candidate and cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) — whose campaign platform includes the elimination of funding for school arts programs — editorializes on television to rescind the budget of the school 's production of West Side Story . She succeeds after an angry mother throws a brick at Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) . Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) recruits the members to sell advertising space in the program book to raise money ; when Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) asks his father Burt Hummel ( Mike O 'Malley ) to purchase an ad , he instead gathers a group of businessmen to fund the musical . He then announces that he is running for congress against Sue .
At a meeting of Shelby 's group , which is dubbed the Troubletones , a newly arrived Santana overawes Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) into surrendering her central role . The Troubletones later give a dynamic performance of " Candyman " , which is witnessed by a dismayed Finn and Will . Finn later apologizes to Brittany for his insensitive remarks and wishes her and the Troubletones the best , after which Rory claims that he has fulfilled Brittany 's third wish . However , she chastises him , saying that Finn 's feelings clearly were hurt by the defection and that she now knows leprechauns are not real . Later , when Rory is being harassed by bullies , Finn comes to his rescue and invites him to join New Directions ; he successfully auditions with the song " Take Care of Yourself " .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by co @-@ executive producer Ali Adler , making it the first episode not to be written by any of the co @-@ creators of Glee — Ryan Murphy , Brad Falchuk and Ian Brennan — and it was the second to be directed by choreographer Adam Shankman , who helmed " The Rocky Horror Glee Show " in the second season . Shankman started working on the episode on September 2 , 2011 , and filming ended on September 22 , 2011 . This episode and the prior one were shot in parallel for several days until " Asian F " finished filming its musical finale on September 16 , 2011 .
McGinty , one of the two winners of The Glee Project 's top prize of a seven @-@ episode recurring character role on Glee , makes his first appearance in this episode as Rory Flanagan , an Irish exchange student . Murphy revealed that on McGinty 's first day of filming " he was shoved into a locker 25 times " , and that on " his first take in his first song , the crew gave him a huge ovation . " Rory is living with Brittany 's family , and the idea of McGinty 's character interacting with Brittany was first broached in the penultimate episode of The Glee Project , with the judges speculating that Brittany would not be able to understand a word the character said due to his Irish accent .
Additional recurring guest stars appearing in this episode include Menzel as Shelby Corcoran , Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , Kurt 's father Burt Hummel , Burt 's wife and Finn 's mother Carole Hudson @-@ Hummel ( Romy Rosemont ) , student Sugar Motta ( Vanessa Lengies ) , and TV news co @-@ anchors Rod Remington ( Bill A. Jones ) and Andrea Carmichael ( Earlene Davis ) .
This episode features five covers , all of which were made available for download as digital singles : Christina Aguilera 's " Candyman " performed by Rivera , Morris , and Riley , Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " with Criss on lead vocals , Foreigner 's " Waiting for a Girl Like You " performed by Salling , and " Bein ' Green " from Sesame Street and Teddy Thompson 's " Take Care of Yourself " , both performed by McGinty .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Pot o ' Gold " was first broadcast on November 1 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 0 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 7 @.@ 47 million American viewers during its initial airing . It continued the streak of coming in second in its timeslot to NCIS on CBS , which earned a 3 @.@ 9 / 11 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . It had been four weeks since the previous Glee episode was broadcast , and the show 's viewership numbers were down over 11 % from the 3 @.@ 6 / 10 rating / share and 8 @.@ 42 million viewers from the " Asian F " broadcast on October 4 , 2011 . " Pot o ' Gold " tied for the second @-@ lowest rating / share Glee had ever received in the 18 – 49 demographic — the fourth episode of the first season , " Preggers " , also earned 3 @.@ 0 / 8 rating / share , though it only had 6 @.@ 62 million viewers . It was still ahead of the eleventh episode of the first season , " Hairography " , which received a 2 @.@ 5 / 7 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic and 6 @.@ 08 million viewers when broadcast on November 25 , 2009 , the night before Thanksgiving .
Viewership also decreased in other countries . In the United Kingdom , " Pot o ' Gold " was watched on Sky1 by 1 @.@ 05 million viewers , down nearly 5 % compared to " Asian F " four weeks earlier , when 1 @.@ 10 million viewers were watching . In Australia , " Pot o ' Gold " was watched by 724 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fourteenth most @-@ watched program of the night . The viewership was down 11 % from " Asian F " , which was watched by 843 @,@ 000 viewers . It was the lowest number of viewers of the third season , just below the second episode , " I Am Unicorn " , which drew 729 @,@ 000 viewers . In Canada , 1 @.@ 62 million viewers watched the episode , and it was the eighteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down four slots and 11 % from the 1 @.@ 82 million viewers who watched " Asian F " , though up 8 % from the 1 @.@ 50 million viewers who watched " I Am Unicorn " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
" Pot o ' Gold " received mixed reviews from critics , which ranged from reasonably positive to very negative . In the latter camp were Bobby Hankinson of The Houston Chronicle , who called it " a disaster " , and Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman , who said it was " stale and unfunny " and " outright failed to keep up the momentum started by the season 's first three episodes " . Robert Canning of IGN took the opposite view from Futterman with regard to the show 's progress : he gave it a " good " rating of 7 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and wrote that while it was not a " stunning return after four weeks off " , it " kept the momentum and focus of the first few episodes of this season intact " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff characterized it as " an episode that tries a lot of things " but " produced too many duds " , while Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times felt that the fact that it was the first episode not written by one of the show 's co @-@ creators meant it was " a lot more subtle " but " seemed a bit lifeless at times " . AOLTV 's Crystal Bell was " pleasantly surprised " and said the episode was " better than a majority " of those from the second season , and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly described it as a " pretty solid return " after the hiatus .
The entire storyline that centered around Quinn , Puck and Shelby was roundly criticized by reviewers . West wrote that it made her feel " queasy " , and she called Quinn 's actions " abhorrent " . Bell was one of several who thought it was highly implausible that Child Protective Services would be backed up , much less for two weeks , given the gravity of Quinn 's accusations . Hankinson wondered why they " made Quinn a total sociopath " who went from " dancing on desks " to " framing someone for child endangerment " with great ease ; VanDerWerff was also critical of these actions , and called Quinn 's sabotage of Shelby 's apartment " a move that takes a potentially good character , played by a fine actress , and just guts her " . Kevin P. Sullivan of MTV had a different view , and wrote that the " storyline stuck out throughout the episode as the most interesting " . He also noted that it was " cathartic and definitely nice to see a sweeter Puck balance out the earnest craziness of Quinn " . The final scene of the episode , when Puck kissed Shelby , was characterized as " creepy " and " super awkward " by Bell , as either " super creepy " or " romantic " by BuddyTV 's John Kubicek , as " groan @-@ inducing " in the " You 're actually going to go there ? " vein by Canning and " as realistic as Lord Tubbington pooping candy bars " by Michael Slezak of TVLine .
Sue 's campaign for congress in the third season has not heretofore found much favor with reviewers , though Futterman felt that the addition of Burt Hummel as a rival candidate " gives us a sliver of hope , mainly because Mike O 'Malley has managed to do no wrong thus far " as Burt , and VanDerWerff , while otherwise unimpressed , said he liked " the idea of the show pitting its most purely heroic figure against its most purely villainous " . Bell was pleased with the new development , and noted that in three seasons , " no character has grown more than Burt " . Canning said he loved having Burt as Sue 's nemesis , and Kubicek wrote that the two are " awesome together " .
Several reviewers felt that the introduction of Rory overdid his Irishness . Benigno called it " cheap stereotyping " , and " juvenile " on the part of the writers . West , while she admitted that " it may have been a little heavy @-@ handed " to have Rory in green , felt it " worked " , especially for his opening solo and " his isolation " during it . Jen Chaney of The Washington Post characterized the tweaking of that solo to be about " Irish exchange students being bullied " as " forced " , and VanDerWerff wrote that he was tired of " people just randomly getting shoved around for no real reason " . Benigno noted that Sugar was also being bullied — by Santana — and wrote that he was " not a fan " of this " on a show that supposedly glorifies outcasts and promotes their successes " . Santana came in for praise from Kubicek , along with Brittany , for their " fantastic date " and their relationship which is " the most interesting one on the show " . The new show choir they join , the Troubletones , was acclaimed by Bell : " I 'm really loving Shelby 's diva troupe . "
The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg called the use of Katy Perry 's " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " in the episode " completely out of place " , and Sullivan characterized its inclusion as " barely justified " . Raymund Flandez of The Wall Street Journal pointed out that both Criss and McHale had major roles in Perry 's video of the song , and the Glee performance " winks at [ that ] fact " . West was annoyed by Finn 's recent tendency to " succumb " to his less nice and less responsible side as exemplified in the episode by his failure to " stand up for Rory " and for blasting " Brittany 's simple , goofy belief system " , even if he does eventually do the right thing .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances in this episode were received with a bit more enthusiasm than the episode itself . Benigno described them as " decent songs " , but though Canning wrote that " Candyman " was " fun " , he also said that the " rest of the music " prevented the episode " from being much better " . Indeed , " Candyman " was a favorite of many reviewers : The Star @-@ Ledger 's Vicki Hyman called it " bouncy and fun " , Futterman praised the " tight harmonies " and the " diva notes from Mercedes and Santana " , and Slezak gave the number an " A " and said he loved the Troubletones " absolutely soaring " in their performance . Hankinson , Hyman , and Chaney singled out the production values of the number — Hyman to call them " amazing " ; Chaney to note , as she gave the song an " A − " , that the costuming cost for the number would have rivaled the $ 2 @,@ 004 budget of West Side Story that had Sue so upset ; and Hankinson , although he said it would have been his favorite in a " blind test " , to call it " a classic example of the kind of inexplicably elaborate performance I hate the most on this show " .
Most of the reviewers had positive things to say about new character Rory Flanagan 's singing voice , including Futterman , who said his was " quite lovely " and had " rich tones " , and Rae Votta of Billboard , who called him a " smooth crooner " . Hankinson , however , said he had never been " floored " by McGinty 's voice , " so both of his numbers fell extremely flat to me " , and Futterman maintained that both songs were a " weird fit " for the episode , while Votta thought having him perform two solos was " overkill on his character introduction " . In general , " Bein ' Green " was considered less impressive than " Take Care of Yourself " , though it had its supporters : Votta and Bell both referred to it as " a nice introduction " , and West declared that his " simple , clear @-@ voiced ode to being an outsider rang true and was hauntingly beautiful " , and gave it an " A − " . Canning was not impressed : " Perhaps if it had been sung with more feeling , it could have worked better . " For " Take Care of Yourself " , both West and Goldberg agreed with Rachel 's assessment that the performance was " magical " , and West graded it with an " A + " . The Los Angeles Times 's Amy Reiter was " blown away " , and Chaney gave it an " A " with the comment that Rory " handled it with adorable aplomb " . Slezak and VanDerWerff , however , thought the number was somewhat sleep @-@ inducing .
Puck 's rendition of " Waiting for a Girl Like You " was almost universally described as " sweet " . Flandez went further , and wrote " he oozes sweet and sexy , and you can ’ t help but feel good " , and Goldberg still further when she stated that it " ends up being one of the episode ’ s — and season ’ s — sweetest moments thus far " . West praised the " lovely little guitar solo " and gave the song a " B " ; Chaney bestowed the same grade and called it a " cheesy moment " but a " nice job " by Salling . Futterman commented that Puck got to " showcase his nice falsetto " .
" Last Friday Night " evoked a wide range of opinions from reviewers . Chaney wrote that the performance " incorporated several Glee tropes " and was a routine seen before ; she gave it a " B − " . Futterman characterized the choreography as " full of forced sunshine " and said " Blaine 's normally effortless voice sounds breathy " . West noted that the song " wasn 't the best showcase for his voice " but added that " it was exactly the playful little interlude it needed to be " , and gave it a " B + " . Goldberg called it " fantastic " , and Kubicek said " it 's hard not to love his singing " . Slezak stated that " Darren Criss is better than this song " , and gave it a " D " . Votta pointed out that the song was " one of the first truly current pop hits on Glee this season " , described the performance as " pure Glee " and the dancing " disorganized and joyful " , and the whole number as why the show " connects with the youth of America " .
= = = Chart history = = =
One of the five cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 : " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " debuted at number seventy @-@ two . " Last Friday Night ( T.G.I.F. ) " also debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 chart , at number eighty @-@ six . In addition , it is the one single from the episode to be included on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , Volume 7 . An additional song from the episode , " Take Care of Yourself " , was included as one of the five bonus tracks available on the Target edition of the album .
= Come Dancing ( song ) =
" Come Dancing " is a 1982 song written by Ray Davies and performed by British rock group the Kinks on their 1983 album State of Confusion . The song was inspired by Ray 's memories of his older sister , Rene , who died of a heart attack while dancing at a dance hall . The track , sung from the perspective of an " East End barrow boy , " contains lyrics about dates at a local Palais dance hall .
When first released as a single in United Kingdom in November 1982 , " Come Dancing " failed to chart . Although Arista Records founder Clive Davis had reservations about releasing the single in the United States due to the English subject matter of dance halls , the track saw an American single release in April 1983 . " Come Dancing " reached number six on the Hot 100 , becoming the band 's highest US charting single in over a decade and tying with " Tired of Waiting for You " as the band 's highest charting single ever . This success was achieved largely with the help of a promotional music video directed by Julien Temple that saw frequent airing on MTV . As a result of its American success , the single was re @-@ released in Britain . Unlike its first release , the single became a top 20 British hit , reaching number 12 .
In addition to its presence on State of Confusion , " Come Dancing " has appeared on numerous compilations albums since its release . It spawned a successful follow @-@ up single , " Don 't Forget to Dance , " which became a top 40 hit in the United States . Come Dancing , a musical written by Ray Davies that premiered in 2008 , was named after the song .
= = Background = =
" Come Dancing " is a tribute to the Davies brothers ' sister Rene . Living in Canada with her reportedly abusive husband , the 31 @-@ year @-@ old Rene was visiting her parental home in Fortis Green at the time of Ray Davies ' thirteenth birthday — 21 June 1957 — on which she surprised him with a gift of the Spanish guitar he had tried to persuade his parents to buy him . That evening , Rene , who had a weak heart as a result of a childhood bout of rheumatic fever , suffered a fatal heart attack while dancing at the Lyceum ballroom .
Ray later said that the pop song was an attempt to return to the " warmer " style they had prior to their transformation to an arena rock act , explaining , " I wanted to regain some of the warmth I thought we ’ d lost , doing those stadium tours . ' Come Dancing ' was an attempt to get back to roots , about my sisters ’ memories of dancing in the ’ 50s . " The song is a nostalgic look back at childhood memories of its writer : the Kinks ' frontman Ray Davies , remembering his older sister going on dates to the local Palais dance hall where big bands would play .
Davies later claimed that the song was about a spiv , saying , " it was about an East End spiv , sung in a London voice . If anybody had lost any faith in us being real people , that record [ ' Come Dancing ' ] would restore it . " Davies also claimed that the song was sung from a " barrow boy 's " point of view , saying , " [ ' Come Dancing ' ] is sung by an East End barrow boy — I think there ’ s cockney rhyming slang in it ! "
= = Writing and recording = =
In a 1983 interview , Ray Davies claimed that writing the song was an " easy " and quick process , but the idea for the song had been in his head for a long time . He reportedly began writing the song in March 1982 on a flight home from Tokyo using a newly purchased Casio keyboard . The song was completed in London that October . Author Nick Hasted claimed that the song was also written " to reach out to the Kinks ' lost British audience . "
A demo for the song was created at Konk Studios , the recording facility in Hornsey that Ray Davies owned , in October 1982 . A master backing track with bass , acoustic guitar , and drums was made during that same month , with overdubs following . Dave Davies later claimed that the recording was completed on the day after an intense argument with brother Ray . Also completed that month was " Don 't Forget to Dance , " which later competed with " Come Dancing " for the A @-@ side of the first single from State of Confusion .
In the song , Ray Davies sung in a strong British accent , later claiming that he " tried to retain the Englishness . " While recording " Come Dancing , " Ray was asked to sing in an " American accent , " a request he turned down . He said of this , " Back when the Kinks were recording ' Come Dancing , ' which was a big hit in the States , the record company actually asked me to sing it in more of an American accent . I just refused . " Ray has singled out Mick Avory 's drum performance on the song , saying , " Just keep Mick Avory nervous , and you 'll get great performances from him . He 's responsible for some of the great comedy drum parts . His drum roll into ' Come Dancing , ' ... it 's totally a beat late . It 's totally unplanned , and that 's what was so magical , when we were rolling . "
= = Release = =
When deciding the band 's next single , Ray Davies pushed for " Come Dancing " to be released rather than " Don 't Forget to Dance , " which had been suggested by the record company as the first single from State of Confusion . The UK branch of Arista Records approved this decision , releasing 7 @-@ inch and 12 @-@ inch versions of the new single on 19 November 1982 with " Noise " as the B @-@ side . However , Clive Davis initially had reservations ; Davies recalls that Davis " didn 't want to put it out because it was too much of an English subject matter " . Davis also thought it was just a " ditty " and did not have enough substance to be a single .
The US single of the song was finally released on 21 April 1983 after Davis was convinced by the success of the track 's music video and the impressive US sales of import copies of the single . The track 's promotional video became a staple of the fledgling MTV network , which gave the single sufficient momentum to enter the Billboard Hot 100 that May , ascending to the Top 40 in June 1983 and peaking at number six on 11 July . " Come Dancing " became the highest charting US single of the band 's career , tying " Tired of Waiting for You " from 1965 .
" Come Dancing " was re @-@ released during July 1983 in Britain due to its immense popularity in America , thus delaying the UK release of follow @-@ up " Don 't Forget to Dance " in the process . The track peaked at number twelve on the UK singles chart on 27 August 1983 . A Top of the Pops broadcast on 24 September 1983 featured videos of several current US hits including a lip @-@ sync performance of " Come Dancing " by the band and a three @-@ piece horn section , the Kinks ' first appearance on the show since 1972 . On 27 October 1983 , Ray was given the One of the Most Played Songs of 1983 award by ASCAP for the song . " Don 't Forget to Dance " was later released as a follow @-@ up single , charting at number 29 in the United States .
Despite the success the single reached , it would be one of the Kinks ' final hits in either Britain or America , ending the comeback the band had during the late 1970s and early 1980s . Ray said in 1996 , " [ I ] wanted to quit in 1984 , after ' Come Dancing . ' I felt that that was the end of an era for the Kinks , and I wanted to stop the treadmill and step back and reappraise the whole thing , but we had another album to deliver . It seemed like we always had another album to deliver . " Mick Avory left the band in 1984 , a year after " Come Dancing " peaked in the USA . He later said , " I think leaving after a world wide hit with ' Come Dancing ' was a good note to leave on . "
Following its release , the song became a mainstay in the band 's live set @-@ list until the band 's break @-@ up . Live versions of the song appeared on both 1988 's Live : The Road and the 1996 US double @-@ album version of To the Bone . The studio version of the song has also appeared on multiple compilations , being used as the namesake for the 1986 greatest @-@ hits package Come Dancing With the Kinks : The Best of the Kinks 1977 @-@ 1986 .
= = Critical reception = =
" Come Dancing " has generally received positive reviews from music critics . In his review of State of Confusion , Rolling Stone critic Parke Puterbaugh said that the song " sums up the bittersweet mood that wafts through [ State of Confusion ] in calming counterpoint to its more turbulent moments . " George Kalogerakis , also of Rolling Stone , said in his review of the album Live : The Road that the song was an " undeniable winner , " claiming that " hearing [ the song ] in th [ is ] crackling live version is like running into [ an ] old friend . " AllMusic writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine noted the song as one of the " quieter moments " on State of Confusion where the album " came to life , " praising its " buoyant nostalgia . " On the band 's Rolling Stone biography , the song was called " delightfully nostalgic . " Author Rob Jovanovic called the song " incredibly catchy " and said that , as the song 's title suggested , it " made [ him ] want to move his feet . " Andrew Hickey said in his book , Preservation : The Kinks ' Music 1964 @-@ 1974 , that the track was a " great pop song . " Thomas M. Kitts praised its " big band sound " in his book , Ray Davies : Not Like Everybody Else .
= = Music video = =
The promotional music video for " Come Dancing " was shot in November 1982 at Ilford Palais in Essex . The video was produced by Michael Hamlyn and directed by Julien Temple , with choreography done by Jim Cameron . Dave Davies later said of Temple , " Julian was such a posey sod , walking around in a fur coat like he was Orson Welles , even though he was only doing a promo video . " Local fans of the band appeared as the audience . The video was first broadcast in Britain in December 1982 on The Tube , a show on Channel 4 , making its American debut on MTV on 25 March 1983 .
In the video , the lyrics of " Come Dancing " are used as the storyline . Calling back to his youth , Ray starred as the " spiv " character who took the sister out to dance . Ray 's character , according to author Johnny Rogan , was inspired by the Davies brothers ' uncle , Frank Willmore , who Dave Davies described as " an old school kind of cockney " . The members of the Kinks were featured as the band performing at the palais at the end of the video , with the spiv character solemnly watching the performance . Temple said of this scene , " I was standing behind [ Martin ] Scorcese at a bar , and he was going on about that shot , saying it was one of his favorites ever . There 's a [ Luis ] Buñuel film , Simon of the Desert , where this guy who 's been suffering on his pillar in the desert in BC whatever ends up in some
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and low humidity exacerbate the dry conditions .
Temperatures in northwest Argentina vary by altitude . The temperate valleys have a temperate climate , with mild summers and dry and cool winters with regular frosts.In the Quebrada de Humahuaca valley , mean annual temperatures range from 12 @.@ 0 to 14 @.@ 1 ° C ( 53 @.@ 6 to 57 @.@ 4 ° F ) , depending on altitude . In the Calchaquí Valleys in Salta Province , the climate is temperate and arid with large thermal amplitudes , long summers , and a long frost @-@ free period . In the valleys in the south in La Rioja Province , Catamarca Province and the southwest parts of Santiago del Estero Province , which is part of the arid Chaco ecoregion , temperatures during the summer are very high , averaging 26 ° C ( 79 ° F ) in January while winters are mild , averaging 12 ° C ( 54 ° F ) . Cold fronts from the south bringing cold Antarctic air can cause severe frosts in the valleys of La Rioja Province and Catamarca Province . In contrast , the Zonda wind , which occurs more often during the winter months , can raise temperatures up to 35 ° C ( 95 ° F ) with strong gusts , sometimes causing crop damage . Temperatures in the Puna region are much colder , with a mean annual temperature of less than 10 ° C ( 50 ° F ) owing to the high altitude . The Puna region is characterized by being cold with a large diurnal range but sunny throughout the year .
= = = Cuyo = = =
The Cuyo region has an arid or a semi @-@ arid climate . The region 's wide range in latitude , combined with altitudes ranging from 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to nearly 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) , means that it has a variety of different climate types . In general , most of the region has a temperate climate , with valleys at higher altitudes having a milder climate . At the highest altitudes ( over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) ) , icy conditions persist year round .
Average annual precipitation ranges from 100 to 500 mm ( 4 to 20 in ) , though it is generally unpredictable . More than 85 % of annual rainfall occurs from October to March , which constitutes the warm season . In contrast , the winter months are dry . Eastern and southeastern areas of the region receive more precipitation than the western areas since they receive more summer rainfall . Precipitation is highly variable from year to year and appears to follow a cycle between dry and wet years in periods of about 2 , 4 – 5 , 6 – 8 , and 16 – 22 years . In wet years , easterly winds caused by the subtropical South Atlantic High are stronger , causing moisture to flow towards this region ; during dry years , these winds are weaker .
Summers in the region are hot and generally sunny ; winters are dry and cold . Since this region has a wide range of altitudes , ranging from 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) to nearly 7 @,@ 000 m ( 23 @,@ 000 ft ) , temperatures can vary widely . The Sierras Pampeanas , which cross into both San Juan Province and San Luis Province , have a milder climate with mean annual temperatures ranging from 12 to 18 ° C ( 54 to 64 ° F ) . Throughout the region , the diurnal range is great , with very high temperatures during the day followed by cold nights . In all locations , at altitudes over 3 @,@ 800 m ( 12 @,@ 500 ft ) , permafrost is present ; icy conditions persist year round at altitudes over 4 @,@ 000 m ( 13 @,@ 000 ft ) .
The Zonda , a Foehn wind characterized by warm , dry air , can cause temperatures to exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) and occasionally 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) , as occurred in 2003 . However , cold waves are also common , caused by the channeling by the Andes of cold air from the south , making for frequent cold fronts during the winter months and bringing temperatures that can fall below freezing , and occasionally below − 10 to − 30 ° C ( 14 to − 22 ° F ) at higher altitudes .
= = = Pampas = = =
The Pampas region has land that is appropriate for agriculture and raising livestock . It is a mostly flat area , interrupted only by the Tandil and Ventana sierras in its southern portion . The climate of the Pampas is characterized as temperate and humid with no dry season , featuring hot summers and mild winters ( Cfa / Cfb according to the Köppen climate classification ) . The weather in the Pampas is variable due to the contrasting air masses and frontal storms that impact the region . Annual temperatures range from 17 ° C ( 63 ° F ) in the north to 14 ° C ( 57 ° F ) in the south . Precipitation increases toward the east and ranges from under 500 mm ( 20 in ) in the south and west to 1 @,@ 200 mm ( 47 in ) in the northeast . Precipitation is fairly evenly distributed throughout the year in the easternmost parts of the Pampas ; in the western parts , most of the precipitation is concentrated during the summer months , and winters are drier . The Pampas are influenced by the El Niño Southern Oscillation , which is responsible for variation in annual precipitation . An El Niño year leads to higher precipitation while a La Niña year leads to lower precipitation .
Summers in the Pampas are hot and humid with coastal areas being modified by the cold Malvinas Current . Afternoon thunderstorms , which can bring intense amounts of precipitation , are common , as are heat waves that can bring temperatures in the 36 to 40 ° C ( 97 to 104 ° F ) range for a few days . These thunderstorms are known to have the most frequent lightning and highest convective cloud tops in the world . The severe thunderstorms produce intense hailstorms , floods , including flash floods , as well as the most consistently active tornado region outside the central and southeastern US . These are usually followed a day or two of strong Pampero winds from the south , which bring cool , dry air . Precipitation in the summer is high , with monthly amounts averaging between 90 mm ( 4 in ) and 160 mm ( 6 in ) in most places .
Autumn arrives in March and brings periods of very rainy weather followed by dry , mild stretches and cool nights . Some places in the east receive rainfall throughout autumn whereas in the west , after the rains , the weather quickly becomes very dry . Generally , frost arrives in early April in the southernmost areas , in late May in the north , and ends by mid @-@ September , although the dates of the first and last frosts can vary from year to year . Frost is rarely intense or prolonged and may not occur each year .
Winters are mild with frequent frosts and cold spells . Temperatures are usually mild during the day and cold during the night . Most precipitation results from frontal systems associated with cyclogenesis and sudestada , which bring long periods of precipitation , cloudiness and cooler temperatures , particularly in the southern and eastern parts . Dull , gray and damp weather characterize winters in the Pampas . Occasionally , tropical air masses from the north may move southward , providing relief from the cool , damp temperatures . Snowfall is extremely rare . When it does snow , it usually lasts for only a day or two .
= = = Patagonia = = =
The Patagonian climate is classified as arid to semi @-@ arid and temperate to cool temperate . One defining characteristic are the strong winds from the west which blow year round ( stronger in summer than in winter ) , which favors evaporation and is a factor in making the region mostly arid . There are three major factors that influence the climate of the region : the Andes , the South Pacific High and South Atlantic High , and an isolation that is more pronounced in eastern than western areas .
The north – south orientation of the Andes creates a barrier for humid air masses coming from the Pacific Ocean , forming an extensive rain shadow and causing most of the region to be arid . South of 52 ° S , the Andes are lower in elevation , reducing the rain shadow effect in Tierra del Fuego Province and allowing forests to thrive on the Atlantic coast . Patagonia is located between the subtropical high pressure belt and the subpolar low pressure zone , meaning it is exposed to westerly winds that are strong , since south of 40 ° S there is little land to block these winds . Because Patagonia is located between the semi @-@ permanent anticyclones of the Pacific Ocean and the Atlantic Ocean at around 30 ° S , and the Subpolar Low at around 60 ° S , the movement of the high and low pressure systems along with ocean currents determine the precipitation pattern .
The influence of the Pacific Ocean , general circulation patterns , and the topographic barrier caused by the Andes results in one of the strongest precipitation gradients in the world . Precipitation steeply decreases from west to east , ranging from 4 @,@ 000 mm ( 160 in ) in the west on the Andean foothills at 41 ° S to 150 mm ( 6 in ) in the central plateaus . The high precipitation in the Andes in this region allows forests to thrive as well as glaciers and permanent snowfields . Most of the region receives less than 200 mm ( 8 in ) of precipitation per year . The aridity of the region is due to the combination of low precipitation , strong winds , and high temperatures in the summer months , all of which cause high evaporation rates . In most of Patagonia , precipitation is concentrated in the winter months , except for the northeastern and southern parts , where precipitation is more evenly distributed . Thunderstorms are infrequent , occurring only during summer . Snowfall occurs mainly in the west and south , which can result in strong snowstorms .
Patagonia 's temperatures are relatively cold for its latitude due to the cold Malvinas Current and the high altitude . A characteristic of the temperature pattern is the NW – SE distribution of isotherms due to the presence of the Andes . The warmest parts of the region are in northern parts of Rio Negro Province and Neuquén Province , where mean annual temperatures range from 13 to 15 ° C ( 55 to 59 ° F ) , while the coldest are in western Santa Cruz Province and Tierra del Fuego Province , where mean temperatures range from 5 to 8 ° C ( 41 to 46 ° F ) . At higher altitudes in the Andes stretching from Neuquén Province to Tierra del Fuego Province , mean annual temperatures are below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . Strong westerly winds can decrease the perception of temperature ( wind chill ) , particularly in summer . The annual range of temperatures in Patagonia is lower than at similar latitudes in the northern hemisphere owing to the narrowness of the region at higher latitudes and the stronger maritime influence .
= = Statistics = =
Shown below are the mean monthly temperature and precipitation for selected places in Argentina along with the overall averages for the country ( based on a 0.5o latitude / longitude grid ) . Year @-@ round averages and totals are displayed along with conversions to imperial units .
= = = Temperature = = =
= = = Precipitation = = =
= = = Overall averages = = =
= = Extremes = =
= = = High = = =
According to the World Meteorological Organization , the highest temperature ever recorded in South America was 48 @.@ 9 ° C ( 120 @.@ 0 ° F ) in Rivadavia , Salta Province on December 11 , 1905 .
= = = Low = = =
The lowest temperature ever recorded in South America was − 32 @.@ 8 ° C ( − 27 @.@ 0 ° F ) in Sarmiento , Chubut Province on June 1 , 1907 .
= = = Precipitation = = =
With an average annual precipitation of 3 @,@ 668 mm ( 144 @.@ 4 in ) , Lago Frías in Río Negro Province is considered to be the wettest place in Argentina . Although an average annual precipitation of 6 @,@ 251 mm ( 246 @.@ 1 in ) has been recorded in Lago Tromen in Neuquén Province , the validity of the data is dubious owing to fewer years of data . Lago Frías also has the record for wettest monthly precipitation in Argentina : 1 @,@ 147 mm ( 45 @.@ 2 in ) of precipitation was recorded in May 1951 . In contrast , the driest place is Angualasto , San Juan Province , which only receives 24 mm ( 0 @.@ 94 in ) of precipitation a year . The highest recorded one @-@ day rainfall total occurred on April 2 , 2013 , when 392 @.@ 2 mm ( 15 @.@ 44 in ) of rain fell in La Plata at the La Plata Astronomical Observatory , causing massive flooding and power outages .
= = Natural disasters = =
= = = Floods = = =
Argentina 's geomorphic characteristics make the country highly vulnerable to floods . These floods can damage infrastructure , cause loss of life , increase the risk of diseases , and negatively impact agricultural productivity , which is one of the main economic activities of the country . Many of the large Argentinean cities and agriculturally productive areas lie near rivers . The plains are at highest risk for flooding , particularly in the northeastern and central parts of the country , including Greater Buenos Aires . This is because these plains , which cover 35 % of the land area in the country ( including the Chaco and Pampean areas ) , are characterized by a flat landscape , which can impede proper water drainage . Both the Parana and Paraguay basins have a flat landscape and are thus highly susceptible to flooding due to river overflows following high rainfall . These floods can last for months , particularly in the Parana River , owing to its large basin . In the most extreme case , during the year 1982 – 1983 , the floods in the Parana River persisted for more than a year , negatively impacting the area both socially and economically . Major flooding events in the Parana River include those of 1992 and 1997 and have been more frequent since the 1980s due to higher precipitation trends . Similarly , in Buenos Aires Province , flooding occurs due to river overflows and poor water drainage ; major flooding events in the province occurred in 1987 , 2002 / 2003 , 2012 and in 2014 , causing damage to agriculture production . Most of the flooding events occur in El Niño years owing to higher rainfall . Flooding can also affect Patagonia and urban centers in the northwest , but the number of people affected and economic losses are lower than those in the Pampas owing to lower population densities . Flooding can jeopardize access to safe water . A leptospirosis outbreak occurred following a flood in 1998 .
= = = Droughts and dust storms = = =
Argentina is highly dependent on water supplies originating outside its borders , making it highly vulnerable to changes in water supply due to climate change . Droughts are frequent and devastating . Several years of droughts during the last decade have severely affected agricultural production and reduced economic growth . A drought in 2009 was the worst drought in more than 50 years . Many cattle died of hunger , and huge swaths of soy , corn and wheat fields were affected . It was estimated that the country lost more than US $ 5 billion from the drought . A drought in 2011 affected farming of soy and corn , causing losses of US $ 2 @.@ 5 billion .
Drier parts of the country are highly prone to dust storms . These include areas west of Buenos Aires , which can average more than eight dust storms per year , and parts of Patagonia , owing to its aridity and windy climate . Certain areas in the Altiplano are also highly prone to dust storms owing to extensive areas of closed depressions and the presence of salt flats that erode the rock , which becomes a source of fine material that can travel large distances during periods of strong wind . Dust storms are more frequent during droughts , particularly in agricultural areas . Dust storms can effect large areas , leading to numerous impacts . These dust storms can lead to loss of crop and livestock , affecting the local economy . Productive topsoil may be lost during dust storms , leading to loss in soil productivity , which can increase soil erosion and negatively affect crop productivity in the long term . In addition to the impact on agriculture , dust storms can damage cars and buildings , lower visibility on roads , affect air quality , and affect water quality in rivers and lakes .
= = = Tornados and severe storms = = =
Argentina experiences frequent tornados each year . Tornados occur in the South American " tornado alley " ( Spanish : Pasillo de los Tornados ) , which includes the provinces of Entre Ríos , Córdoba Province , Santa Fe , La Pampa and Greater Buenos Aires . The frequency of tornadoes is similar to the one found in Tornado Alley in North America . However , there is no exact number of tornado occurrences per year , owing to the lack of data . These regions have the most frequent and intense mesoscale convective systems . Tornados occur between November and April . In this region , which occupies most of the Pampas , cold air from Patagonia meets warm , humid air from Brazil with dry air coming from the Andes . When these air masses collide , they can produce intense storms , frequently becoming supercells that can produce tornados . With a larger number of convective storms , there is a higher chance that some of these storms will produce tornados . Most tornados are relatively weak and rarely cause deaths . The strongest tornado recorded in Argentina occurred in 1973 when a tornado struck San Justo , Santa Fe . The tornado was an F5 on the Fujita scale , with winds up to 500 km / h ( 310 mph ) , making it the worst tornado in Latin America and the Caribbean .
Severe storms impact large cities more often and can damage cars , houses and disrupt public services such as transportation and collection and disposal of urban solid waste . The foothills of the Andes and the Sierras de Cordoba are vulnerable to hail . This is because the Andes force humid air from the Atlantic upwards , intensifying the updrafts within thunderstorms , making hail more likely . Mendoza , a city located in the Andean foothills , experiences frequent hailstorms that can impact the agriculture of the region . Hailstorms have caused serious losses in both urban and rural areas . It is estimated that wine and fruit production experience yearly losses of US $ 50 million and US $ 30 million , respectively , due to hail . Most of these hailstorms occur in the summer although they can occur in winter , particularly in the east where warm and humid air from the north frequently collides with cold air from the south , leading to convective thunderstorms that can produce hail .
Storm surges caused by extratropical cyclones have been recorded along the coastal areas . These storm surges are formed from strong winds that blow towards the land . They are formed due to the interaction between the semi @-@ permanent South Pacific High and a low pressure system over the Atlantic , southeast of Argentina , creating strong winds from the south or southwest . The sudestada , which brings the worst storm surges , occurs when there is a high pressure system over southern Argentina in the Atlantic Ocean that interacts with a low pressure over Uruguay and southern Brazil , causing strong winds from the southeast . Storm surges have caused flooding of coastal areas , leading to extensive property loss and other damage . It is also the main natural factor in the erosion of coastlines . The flooding as a result of storm surges are particularly destructive in flat coastal areas such as the Rio de La Plata shores , and the Salado Basin .
= = = Snowstorms and cold waves = = =
Argentina regularly receives cold air from the south that can reach low latitudes owing to the influence of the Andes . Cold waves are usually accompanied with severe snowstorms or extremely cold conditions that can have a devastating impact on the country 's economy . These snowstorms and / or extremely cold conditions can partially or completely paralyze activities in large areas of Patagonia and the center of the country . In addition , cold conditions can lead to energy shortages during the winter months due to increased demand . The low temperatures brought by these cold waves can cause frosts that can damage plants , severely affecting agricultural production and devastating the local economy .
= = Climate change = =
According to the national government and scientists , climate change is predicted to have a significant effect on the climate of Argentina . There has been an increase in annual precipitation in almost all of Argentina during the 20th century , particularly in the northeast and the center of the country , where agricultural production has expanded to the west by more than 100 km ( 62 mi ) in areas that were previously too dry during middle of the 20th century . In contrast , the Andean part of Patagonia , along with the Cuyo region , has seen a decrease in precipitation , leading to a reduction in river flow in the last 100 years . These trends were observed with an increase in the river – stream flows in most of the country , excluding rivers originating from the Andes , and an increase in extreme precipitation events that led to considerable socioeconomic losses . The increase in precipitation has led to more variability in precipitation from year to year in the northern parts of the country , with a higher risk of prolonged droughts .
Mean temperatures have increased by 0 @.@ 5 ° C ( 0 @.@ 9 ° F ) between 1901 and 2012 , slightly lower than the global average . Temperatures in the Andean part of Patagonia have increased by more than 1 ° C ( 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) , which has caused the retreat of almost all of the glaciers . This is affecting water availability to the arid areas of the country that depend on glacier meltwater . Higher temperatures can reduce winter snowfall , causing river flow to decrease , which in turn can reduce hydroelectric energy production ; losses of up to 40 % have been observed . In the last half of the 20th century , the lack of snow in the highest peaks in the Cuyo region has impacted agriculture and viticulture production due to the decrease in available water in the rivers . Outside of Patagonia , mean temperatures have increased at a slower rate since the increase in minimum temperatures is counteracted by the decrease in maximum temperatures . There has been a decrease in the number of days with frost , and there have been increases in the frequency of hot nights and heat waves throughout the country .
Within the next two or three decades ( 2016 – 2035 ) , mean temperatures are predicted to increase by 0 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 0 ° C ( 0 @.@ 9 to 1 @.@ 8 ° F ) under the two scenarios ( RCP 4 @.@ 5 and RCP 8 @.@ 5 ) from the IPCC Fifth Assessment Report . In both scenarios , the projected warming will be more pronounced during the summer months . The predicted trend for precipitation is not as clear as the one for temperature . In the northern and central regions , precipitation is predicted to increase while in most of central – western Argentina and Patagonia , precipitation is predicted to decrease . Because Argentina is potentially vulnerable to climate change , such projected changes based on the models could exacerbate current problems or create new problems associated with climate change in Argentina .
Scientists predict that glaciers will continue to recede and melt or , in some areas , disappear . It is also predicted that the Cuyo region could face a potential water crisis due to an increase in water demand caused by a reduction in river streamflows . In northern Patagonia , a similar situation is projected in which there will be a negative impact on fruit and vegetable growing owing to a reduction in the river flow in the Colorado and Chubut rivers . In the north and central parts of the country , the higher temperatures and lower precipitation projected for this region will lead to higher evaporation , intensifying droughts and leading to desertification . Heat waves could become more frequent and intense , negatively impacting agricultural production while placing more demand on energy needs . Intense precipitation could become more common , increasing the likelihood of suffering from events such as flooding , since most of its population lives in urban areas near a body of water ( rivers , lakes and oceans ) . Climate change could extend the habitats of vectors carrying tropical diseases such as malaria southwards . Though most of the coastal regions of Argentina will not suffer permanent flooding associated with sea level rise , it is predicted that storm surges will become more frequent in coastal areas , affecting locations such as Buenos Aires .
= = = General overview = = =
Geography and Climate of Argentina
Argentina overview
Descriptions of the climate in most provinces of Argentina . Some of them include climatic statistics of selected locations in each province ( Spanish )
Third National Communication of Argentina for Climate Change ( Spanish )
Second National Communication of Argentina for Climate Change ( Spanish )
= = = Maps and imagery = = =
Servicio Meteorológico Nacional ( Spanish )
Climatic Atlas ( Spanish )
= = = Climate statistics = = =
WMO climate normals of various stations in Argentina from the period 1961 – 1990
Bioclimatic data for 173 stations in Argentina ( Spanish )
Estadísticas meteorológicas decadiales ( Spanish )
Climatic statistics for selected locations in Argentina from the period 1981 – 1990 ( Spanish )
Agrometeorological data for stations operated by Instituto Nacional de Tecnología Agropecuaria ( Spanish )
= Velvet McIntyre =
Velvet McIntyre is a retired Irish @-@ Canadian professional wrestler . After beginning her career in 1980 , she wrestled in North American independent promotions , before joining the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) . She had rivalries with both The Fabulous Moolah and Sherri Martel and held the WWF Women 's Championship and WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship . After the WWF 's women 's division went on hiatus in the 1990s , McIntyre wrestled in several Canadian promotions , holding several titles . She was known for wrestling barefoot and her high flying wrestling maneuvers .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Independent circuit = = =
After finishing high school , Velvet McIntyre moved to Oregon in 1980 to train with Sandy Barr , under whom she trained with her future opponent and tag team partner , Princess Victoria . McIntyre made her professional wrestling debut in Idaho in 1980 , but she did not begin wrestling full @-@ time until three months later . She then joined Vancouver 's All Star Wrestling in 1981 , where she feuded with Princess Victoria . She continued to feud with Victoria for the remainder of the year in both singles and tag team matches in Vancouver and the NWA Pacific Northwest under promoter Don Owen . In 1982 , however , she joined the World Wrestling Federation where she began teaming with Princess Victoria , and in March , the duo lost a series of matches against the team of The Fabulous Moolah and Wendi Richter . McIntyre , however , defeated Richter in two separate matches in Bill Watts 's Mid @-@ South Wrestling Association . In November and December 1982 , McIntyre worked for Stampede Wrestling , where she teamed with Judy Martin against Richter and Joyce Grable ; the feud between the two teams resumed in April 1983 in Verne Gagne 's American Wrestling Association .
In May 1983 , McIntyre returned to Stampede Wrestling , where she continued her rivalry with Richter and Grable ; this time , however , she teamed once again with Princess Victoria . Victoria and McIntyre won the NWA Women 's World Tag Team Championship on May 13 in Calgary .
= = = World Wrestling Federation = = =
In 1983 , the World Wrestling Federation withdrew from the National Wrestling Alliance , and when McIntyre and Victoria rejoined the promotion in 1984 , they were immediately recognized as holding the WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship . The duo defended the championship against the team of Wendi Richter and Peggy Lee . Desiree Petersen later replaced Victoria in the team , and the new duo lost the title in August 1985 to Judy Martin and Leilani Kai ( known as The Glamour Girls ) in Egypt .
McIntyre then began wrestling as a singles wrestler , immediately feuding with The Fabulous Moolah , unsuccessfully challenging her at Wrestlemania 2 ( the referee counted the pin on McIntyre despite her left leg being draped over the bottom rope which should have stopped the count ) . She won the WWF Women 's Championship on July 3 , 1986 when she defeated Moolah at the Brisbane Festival Hall on the WWF 's 1986 Australian tour , but re @-@ lost the title to Moolah six days later at the Sydney Entertainment Centre ( the only two times the WWF Women 's Championship changed hands in the Southern Hemisphere ) . Years later , Moolah called McIntyre the best female wrestler in Canada . In 1987 , McIntyre consistently lost matches to Moolah and Sherri Martel . She also competed at the Survivor Series , teaming with Moolah , Rockin ' Robin , and the Jumping Bomb Angels against Martel , Leilani Kai , Judy Martin , Donna Christanello , and Dawn Marie . By 1990 , however , the women 's division in the WWF was again on hiatus .
= = = Canada = = =
After leaving the WWF , McIntyre continued to wrestle sporadically on the independent circuit . At that time , there were not many opportunities for females in the business . She competed in the Women 's Pro Wrestling organization in the early 1990s . In November 1993 , she won the Canadian Wrestling Alliance 's Women 's Championship from Iron Maiden , but lost it to Iron Maiden again in January 1994 . They continued to feud into 1996 , when the two women joined Extreme Canadian Championship Wrestling , where the two traded the Women 's Championship , which McIntyre held for two months . In September , they competed in a strap match — a match where the wrestlers must compete while connected via a leather strap — in which McIntyre was victorious .
In November 1997 , as a part of the International Championship Wrestling , she won the WWWA Women 's Championship from Bertha Faye . She also held the ICW Women 's Championship , which she lost in July 1998 .
= = Personal life = =
It is a common misconception that she is the daughter of professional wrestler Stan Mykietowich . Growing up , she had three brothers with whom she wrestled .
McIntyre wore wrestling boots for the first four years of her career , but she later wrestled bare foot when someone took one of her boots as a joke , and she was forced to wrestle without them . Wrestling barefoot later became one of her trademarks , as well as her high flying wrestling maneuvers .
She retired from wrestling in 1998 after discovering she was pregnant , and she later gave birth to twins . In her spare time , McIntyre makes and sells crafts .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
McIntyre Roll ( Victory roll )
Swinging hurricanrana
Signature moves
Running Spinning Crossbody
Single leg dropkick
Splash
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Canadian Wrestling Alliance
CWA Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
Extreme Canadian Championship Wrestling
ECCW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
International Championship Wrestling
ICW Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
WWWA Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Women 's Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) - with Princess Victoria
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 1 time )
WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship ( 1 time , inaugural ) - first with Princess Victoria , then with Desiree Petersen
= History of the Ottawa Senators ( 1992 – ) =
Founded and established by Ottawa real estate developer Bruce Firestone , the Ottawa Senators are the second National Hockey League ( NHL ) franchise to have the Ottawa Senators name . The original Ottawa Senators , founded in 1883 , had a famed history , winning 11 Stanley Cups and played in the NHL from 1917 until 1934 . On December 6 , 1990 , after a two @-@ year public campaign by Firestone to return the NHL to Ottawa , the NHL awarded a new franchise , which began play in the 1992 – 93 season .
The club has seen its share of struggles , both on and off the ice . The team has had two changes of ownership , from Firestone to Rod Bryden in 1993 due to the arena development process and its financing , and subsequently to Eugene Melnyk after the team filed for bankruptcy in 2003 . On the ice , the club finished last in the League in its first four seasons . Changes in hockey management have led to steady improvement of the team 's play , resulting in the team qualifying for the Stanley Cup playoffs in 11 of the last 12 seasons , winning the Presidents ' Trophy in 2002 – 03 and making it to the Stanley Cup Finals in 2007 .
= = The " Bring back the Senators " campaign = =
At the weekly Terrace Investments Ltd. management meeting on December 4 , 1987 , Duncan MacDonald tabled the initial idea of the NHL coming to Ottawa after learning ( Ottawa Citizen , Sports section ) about the League 's expansion plans for three new francises in the 1990s . The idea incubated with real estate developer Bruce Firestone for months and accepted that Ottawa was now ready to again support a franchise . He decided to launch a bid for the Ottawa franchise through his development firm Terrace Investments . Firestone first told his fellow Terrace executives , Cyril Leeder , and Randy Sexton , after a game of shinny hockey in March 1988 . Both were surprised ; Leeder thought the idea was " ridiculous " .
Terrace did not have enough assets to finance the team , but Firestone believed that they could do so as part of a development project . Their plan was to build a mini @-@ city ( named West Terrace ) of 9 @,@ 000 around a $ 100 million arena and hotel development on approximately 500 acres ( 2 @.@ 0 km2 ) . Getting an NHL club for the arena would drive up the price of the surrounding lands and Terrace 's net worth would jump from $ 100 million to $ 400 million by 1997 . The strategy was straightforward : " Buy the site , win the franchise , build the building . " In 1989 , Terrace found a suitable site west of Ottawa , 600 acres ( 2 @.@ 4 km2 ) of farmland , located on both sides of the 417 Highway west of Terry Fox Drive in the then City of Kanata .
On June 22 , 1989 , Terrace publicly announced their intentions to acquire an NHL franchise and revive the Senators name . The name choice provoked threats of legal action , though Firestone obtained permission from original @-@ era / 1950s era Senators club owner Tommy Gorman 's descendants to use the old Senators name and settled with the Ottawa Jr . Senators ' owners .
To kick off the " Bring Back the Senators " campaign , Terrace held a press conference with special guests Frank Finnigan , representing the old Senators ' players , and Joe Gorman , representing the Gorman family . Finnigan , the last surviving member of the Senators ' last Stanley Cup championship ( in 1927 ) , was presented with a new number 8 jersey and the promise to have him drop the first puck at the first game if they emerged victorious . Terrace unveiled drawings of the $ 55 million , 22 @,@ 500 seat arena , now named the Palladium , designed by Rossetti Associates , architects of The Palace of Auburn Hills arena . Also unveiled was a logo for the team using a stylized Peace Tower and Canadian flag , designed by David O 'Malley of Ottawa . The theme song for the franchise drive was Tom Petty 's " I Won 't Back Down . "
The Senators ' bid was considered something of a longshot . Jim Durrell , the mayor of Ottawa at the time , but later part of the Senators ' front office , said , " It 's not that the area isn 't a big enough market to support a professional hockey team , it 's just that we 're not going to get it . " National Hockey League Players ' Association ( NHLPA ) head Alan Eagleson was quoted as saying , " Local fans are being led through the petunia patch if Bruce Firestone thinks he can land an NHL expansion franchise for Ottawa this century , well into the next or ever . " Despite the naysayers , 11 @,@ 000 fans sent in $ 25 non @-@ refundable pledges toward season @-@ tickets by November 1990 .
In December 1990 , the NHL held a meeting in Palm Beach , Florida , to consider expansion applications . The NHL executives were reportedly impressed by the Ottawa presentation , including Finnigan 's participation , the several hundred fans and the marching band who traveled to Palm Beach , but apparently were more impressed at the fact that the group was one of the few applicants willing to pay the $ 50 million franchise fee without reservations . On December 6 , 1990 , the Terrace group was approved to purchase one of the two franchises ( along with the Tampa Bay Lightning ) to start play in the 1992 – 93 season .
= = Financing struggles = =
= = = The Palladium project = = =
Since the location for the new arena was on land designated for agriculture , the arena and development had to be approved by the Ontario Government . The Ontario New Democratic Party government of Bob Rae was not sympathetic to the conversion of farmland and would not lend any assistance to the project . As the rezoning hearings dragged on , Firestone was offered $ 20 million to relocate to Anaheim , which had an arena , but no team . Firestone turned it down , claiming , " I didn ’ t bring back the Ottawa Senators to play in Anaheim . " Eventually , the rezoning was approved with conditions . The Palladium 's size was reduced to 18 @,@ 500 , and Terrace had to pay for a necessary highway interchange . Terrace had to suspend its plans for the rest of the " West Terrace " development , which limited the site 's value . Only the lands to the south of the 417 were allowed to be developed , and the lands on the north side of the 417 were to remain farmland . According to Firestone , Terrace 's investment lost $ 80 million in value to secure the zoning . Eventually , the strain to complete the payment on the franchise to the NHL and to build the arena led to Firestone 's resignation on August 17 , 1993 , after Terrace missed mortgage and development payments . He was replaced as club president by Bryden , who would lead the franchise for the next ten years .
Financing of the arena project was difficult . Terrace had four financing deals fail . As it became clear that the Senators could not finance a needed highway interchange without government backing , the provincial government was persuaded successfully to provide a $ 27 million loan for the highway interchange construction . In the end , the firm of Ogden Entertainment , a New York City facilities management firm , backed the project with a $ 20 million loan in exchange for a 30 @-@ year contract to manage the facility . In addition , American banks loaned $ 110 million , the federal government gave the Senators $ 6 million , $ 10 million from Terrace and $ 15 million from a Canadian pension fund .
The Senators played the first game at the Palladium ( today called Canadian Tire Centre ) on January 17 , 1996 . One month after opening , Corel Corporation bought the naming rights and the arena was renamed the Corel Centre ' .
= = = The bankruptcy = = =
The debt payments weighed heavily on the Senators . For several years , Bryden tried to reschedule the debt on the arena . There were various attempts at filing tax losses to write off the debt , all rejected by the federal government . In 2002 , Ogden went bankrupt . It had re @-@ invented itself as Covanta Energy and failed not long after the Enron scandal . This led to the Senators filing for bankruptcy on January 9 , 2003 , when it could not arrange financing to pay all it owed to Covanta , becoming due because of Covanta 's bankruptcy .
On August 26 , 2003 the team and arena was purchased by Biovail chief executive officer ( CEO ) and Toronto St. Michael 's Majors owner Eugene Melnyk , who had shown interest for several years in the team . The limited partnership between Terrace and the limited partners was dissolved and Covanta 's creditors received the proceeds of the sale towards the money it was owed for the NHL franchise fee and the Palladium .
= = 1992 – 95 : Expansion club struggles = =
The team would name Mel Bridgman as their first general manager ( GM ) in 1991 after being turned down by Scotty Bowman and John Muckler . The decision was criticized by the press due to Bridgman 's lack of GM experience . In the coaching department , the club would pick Rick Bowness , formerly the Boston Bruins ' head coach , as their first head coach , assisted by Alain Vigneault , E. J. Maguire and Chico Resch . John Ferguson , Sr. , would be named director of player personnel .
The Expansion draft day on June 18 , 1992 , was memorable . The team 's laptop computer failed and the club was unprepared with a backup plan , picking several ineligible players . Not much talent was available as other teams protected young prospects . The players the Senators did select were " journeymen NHLers or players who had good years in minor leagues but no longer were considered prospects . " While side @-@ deals during the Draft were not allowed , the team would select players in concert with the other teams and in return , other teams gave the Senators Neil Brady , Jody Hull , Brad Marsh and Steve Weeks during the summer , all who would ultimately make the team . In the Entry Draft , the Senators would name Alexei Yashin their first @-@ ever pick , though he would not join the team until 1993 .
= = = 1992 – 93 = = =
The new Senators played their first game on October 8 , 1992 , at the Ottawa Civic Centre against the Montreal Canadiens . There was much pre @-@ game spectacle — the skating of Brian Orser , the raising of banners commemorating the original Senators ' eight Stanley Cup wins , retirement of Frank Finnigan 's jersey number and the singing of the anthem by Alanis Morissette .
NHL President Gil Stein took part , presenting Bruce Firestone with a " certificate of reinstatement " to commemorate Ottawa 's return to the NHL after 58 years . The ceremonial face @-@ off between Laurie Boschman and Denis Savard was done by Frank Finnigan , Jr . , ( his father having died on December 25 , 1991 ) , Firestone , Stein and original Senator Ray Kinsella . The Senators would play in the 10 @,@ 000 seat Civic Centre until January 1996 .
The Senators would defeat the eventual Stanley Cup champion Canadiens 5 – 3 that night , but it would turn out to be their only highlight of the season for the Senators . The club would tie with the San Jose Sharks for the worst record in the League that year , winning just ten games with 70 losses and four ties ( 24 points ) in the 1992 – 93 season . The Senators still hold the NHL record for least road wins for their record that season , with one . Their points total for the season was one point better than the NHL record for least points in a season ever . The Senators had aimed low . Firestone had set beating the old record the Senators ' goal for the season , as the team planned to finish low in the standings for its first few years in order to receive high draft picks .
Daigle Cup
Among the disappointments during the early years of the resurrected Senators was Alexandre Daigle , the number one overall pick in the 1993 NHL Entry Draft . During the 1992 – 93 season , it had become clear that Daigle would be the number one pick . The Quebec Nordiques publicly announced that they would trade several players for him , as they wished to build a new arena and needed a marquee francophone player . As the season progressed , both the Senators and the San Jose Sharks were neck @-@ and @-@ neck in last place , and at that time , NHL rules meant the worst team would receive the first overall pick . This " competition " was variously dubbed the " Daigle Cup " and the " Yelnats Puc . "
Near the end of the season , the Senators would call other teams to ask for their opponent 's best players to be playing them in upcoming matches , making plans to field a weaker squad if their opponent did so also . The club made no trades to improve its position , not wanting to lose the number one pick . After the season , Bruce Firestone would make comments to the press about how the team deliberately lost games , expecting that comments would be " off the record . " Instead , his comments were reported , the NHL investigated , and the team was fined $ 100 @,@ 000 for his comments . The NHL changed its rules as of the 1995 Draft so that a lottery would be held for the top draft picks .
In 1993 , the Senators would sign Daigle to a $ 12 @.@ 25 million contract , the largest rookie salary in League history , which would lead to a cap on rookie contracts a few years later . The club would promote Daigle over Alexei Yashin , nominating Daigle for rookie of the year over Yashin . His play did not justify full @-@ time status and in 1995 , coaches Rick Bowness and Alain Vigneault demoted Daigle to part @-@ time status . The move led to Bowness and Vigneault being fired . In the end , Daigle did not come close to the career the Senators hoped for . After scoring only 74 goals in just over four seasons , he was traded to the Philadelphia Flyers , and is widely regarded as one of the biggest draft busts in sports history .
= = = 1993 – 95 = = =
After the 1992 – 93 season , Bridgman was fired and replaced by Senators Vice @-@ President Randy Sexton . In the 1993 – 94 season , the club added prospects Daigle and Yashin . Yashin would have an outstanding rookie season and become a finalist for the Calder Memorial Trophy . Yashin led the team in points with 30 goals and 79 points , while Daigle had 51 points . The Senators would make some progress , improving their record to 14 wins and 37 points , but would again finish last in the League . The Senators would select Radek Bonk with their pick , third overall , in the 1994 Draft .
During this period , the club may have been more focused on building the Palladium , for which construction began in July 1994 . In the lockout @-@ shortened 1994 – 95 season , Yashin and Daigle led the club in points again , although their point totals declined . The 1994 – 95 Senators team record declined also from the previous season , finishing with nine wins and 23 points ( this was over only 48 games ) , to finish last in the League again .
= = 1995 – 98 : Ottawa 's turnaround = =
One month before the Senators were to open the new Palladium , after three @-@ straight last place finishes , and poor attendance at the Civic Centre , the Senators organization was in turmoil . Star player Alexei Yashin , angered that management favoured Daigle over him despite posting higher numbers , was a contract hold @-@ out . First @-@ round draft choice Bryan Berard , who had left the Senators training camp unsigned to a contract , had publicly stated that he would never report to the Senators . After Head Coach Rick Bowness demoted Daigle had been demoted to the fourth line , General Manager Randy Sexton fired Bowness and Assistant Coach Alain Vigneault on November 20 , 1995 . He replaced the coaches with Prince Edward Island Senators coach Dave Allison and gave the assistant coaching job to former Hartford Whalers Head Coach Pierre McGuire , who was working at the time as a scout for the Senators . Daigle was returned to full @-@ time duty , but Sexton 's changes did not improve the team 's play .
The situation was a large concern for the Senators ownership and especially for Ogden , which had much invested in the soon @-@ to @-@ open Palladium and which did not want to open the Palladium to poor attendance . Ogden brought in Roy Mlakar to assist in sorting out the turmoil ; he would eventually become team president and CEO .
The turnaround process started with the firing of Sexton on December 11 , 1995 , and the hiring of the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim Assistant General Manager Pierre Gauthier as GM , Ottawa 's first with previous NHL executive experience . Before the end of January , Gauthier had signed Yashin to a three @-@ year contract , traded Berard to the New York Islanders for Wade Redden , and hired Jacques Martin as head coach .
In the midst of the upheaval , the new Palladium had opened . The Senators , still coached by Allison , lost their opening game in the arena 3 – 0 to Montreal on January 17 , 1996 . The event was much more subdued than their franchise 's first game . The Cup banners were raised , but the winches jammed , blocking the view of many fans . There were no entertainment big names , and only Firestone and Bryden participated in the ceremonial face @-@ off . The club would lose its first four games at the Palladium , winning none for Allison , who was later fired on January 24 after the team lost 22 of 25 games . While Ottawa finished last in the League for the fourth year in a row , the 1995 – 96 season ended with renewed optimism , partly from the debut of new star Daniel Alfredsson , who won the Calder Trophy , the NHL rookie of the year award , the first Senator to do so . Alfredsson , selected 133rd overall in 1994 , was also selected to play in the 1996 NHL All @-@ Star Game .
The 1996 – 97 season would see the Senators qualify for the Stanley Cup playoffs for the first time , in dramatic fashion . They clinched the seventh seed on the last game of the regular season thanks to a late goal from Steve Duchesne against the Buffalo Sabres ' Dominik Hasek , giving the Senators a 1 – 0 win and the first playoff appearance for an Ottawa @-@ based team in 67 years . The Senators then faced Buffalo in the first round of the playoffs and were eliminated in the full seven games . Despite holding a lead in Game 7 , Alexei Yashin put the puck in his own net , allowing Buffalo to tie the game and eventually win the game and the series on a goal by Derek Plante in overtime .
The next season , 1997 – 98 , saw the Senators improve further . They improved their regular season record , finishing with their first winning record in franchise history ( one game over .500 ) . In the first play @-@ off round , they upset the top @-@ seeded and the heavily @-@ favoured New Jersey Devils in six games to win their first playoff series . The Senators next faced the eventual Eastern Conference champion Washington Capitals and lost in five games . It was in this season that the team unveiled its " third jersey " in red with the Centurion head logo " rotated " to face forward . The jersey and logo would be used until the end of the 2006 – 07 season .
After the season , Rick Dudley would become general manager after Pierre Gauthier returned to Anaheim to become the Ducks ' general manager . Dudley would be the Ottawa GM for only a year , however , leaving to join Tampa Bay ( for which the Senators received Rob Zamuner as compensation ) , and was replaced by Marshall Johnston .
= = 1998 – 2004 : Emergence as Stanley Cup contenders = =
The Senators met with limited success in the playoffs , only winning five series in their first nine trips to the post @-@ season .
In 1998 – 99 , the Senators jumped from 14th in the previous season to third , with 103 points — the first 100 @-@ point season in club history . The team , however , took an embarrassing pratfall in the playoffs , being swept by Buffalo after scoring just three goals in the entire series .
Ottawa was locked in a contract dispute with then @-@ captain Alexei Yashin during the 1999 – 2000 season . Yashin held out for the entire season , hoping either to play elsewhere or claim his contract was for 1999 – 2000 , not a year of service . The team responded by suspending him for the entire season and granting the captaincy to Daniel Alfredsson . Yashin tried to sign on with a team in Switzerland , but the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) banned him from playing internationally until the dispute with the Senators was resolved . An NHL arbitrator rejected Yashin 's request to make him a free agent , instead ruling that he owed the Senators one more season if he ever returned to the NHL . The Senators even took legal action to recover damages suffered as a result of the dispute .
Despite the distraction , the Senators ' regular season was successful as they finished with 93 points to qualify for the playoffs in sixth place in the Eastern Conference . Like the previous year , they had a quick playoff exit , losing in six games in the first round to the Toronto Maple Leafs .
Yashin returned for the 2000 – 01 season , though no longer the captain of the team . Despite being booed at home and in most arenas , being cursed as " Alexei Cashin " or " Cashin Yashin " by the fans , he played well for the Senators . The Senators had another successful season , finishing with 109 points , winning the Division and placing second in the East . For the third @-@ straight season , however , the Senators could not win a playoff round , losing again to Toronto in the first round , this time in a 4 – 0 sweep . After the season , on the day of the 2001 NHL Entry Draft , Yashin would be dealt to the New York Islanders in exchange for Zdeno Chara , Bill Muckalt and the Islanders ' first @-@ round draft pick ( second overall ) , which the Senators used to select Jason Spezza . Yashin would sign a $ 87 @.@ 5 million ten @-@ year contract with the Islanders .
In 2001 – 02 , the Senators regular season points total dropped to 94 points , third in the Division , but the team did qualify for the playoffs . Jacques Martin stepped aside as head coach for the final two games to allow Assistant Coach Roger Neilson to have 1 @,@ 000 games as head coach in the NHL . In the first round , they upset the Philadelphia Flyers in five games , limiting the Flyers ' high @-@ powered offence to just two goals for the franchise 's second playoff series win . This led to a second round series with Toronto , the third @-@ straight year the Senators had met the Maple Leafs in the " Battle of Ontario . " The Maple Leafs won the series in a tense seven @-@ game affair , despite the Senators leading the series 3 – 2 after five games .
After the disappointing end to the season , there was speculation that front @-@ office changes were coming . In the end , GM Marshall Johnston retired , but Martin and Mlakar were re @-@ signed . John Muckler was hired on June 12 , 2002 , the Senators ' sixth GM , and the first with previous experience as a general manager ( with Buffalo ) . He had been interested in the Ottawa job in 1991 , but he chose not to wait for the Senators to make him an offer , and he joined the Sabres organization .
In 2002 – 03 , off @-@ ice problems dominated the headlines . The Senators filed for bankruptcy on January 9 , 2003 , after a long history of debt . They continued regular season play after getting some emergency financing from the NHL . Despite the off @-@ ice problems , Ottawa won the Presidents ' Trophy , finishing with a franchise @-@ record 113 points , making them the first Canadian team to win it since the Calgary Flames in 1989 . This was also the highest finish by an Ottawa team in 77 years ( since the original Senators finished first overall in 1926 ) . In the 2003 playoffs , they defeated Yashin and his New York Islanders and the Philadelphia Flyers before coming within one game of making it into the Finals , falling to the eventual Stanley Cup champions , the New Jersey Devils .
= = = 2003 – 04 : End of the Jacques Martin era = = =
In the off @-@ season , Eugene Melnyk would purchase the club to bring financial stability and the team entered the 2003 – 04 season with high expectations . Head Coach Jacques Martin would guide the team to another good regular season , finishing with 102 points . This was good for only third in the tightly contested Northeast Division , as Boston would have 104 and Toronto 103 .
The seedings meant that the Senators would play the Maple Leafs in the first round of the 2004 playoffs for the fourth @-@ straight time . By now , Ottawa had developed a strong rivalry with their Ontario rivals , and there was a great deal of pressure on the team to finally defeat the Leafs . Despite missing their captain Mats Sundin and other veterans , the Maple Leafs would win the series on the back of goaltender Ed Belfour , who had two shutouts in the series , defeating the Senators in seven games . In Game 7 , Senators goaltender Patrick Lalime would surrender three goals before the first period was done and would be replaced by backup Martin Prusek . The Senators were not able to come back from the 3 – 0 deficit , losing 4 – 1 . It was Lalime 's last appearance in a Senators ' uniform , and Martin 's last game as coach — two days after the loss , Martin was fired. and Lalime was later traded to the St. Louis Blues for a fourth @-@ round pick in the 2005 NHL Draft .
After losing eight of 12 playoff series , including all four series in five years against Toronto , team management felt that a new coach was required for playoff success . Muckler even suggested that the new coach would have " to fix the dressing room " , implying the team was not responding to Martin . On June 8 , 2004 , Bryan Murray became the team 's fifth head coach , leaving the Mighty Ducks of Anaheim , where he had been general manager . He would not actually coach until 2005 due to the 2004 – 05 NHL lockout , instead spending time on scouting .
= = 2004 – present : Bryan Murray era = =
2004 – 05
Lockout time
The Senators , like the other NHL teams , did not play during the lockout . Most players chose to play in Europe , although some , including Jason Spezza , played for the Senators ' farm team , the Binghamton Senators . Prior to the lockout , the Senators had acquired free agent goaltender Dominik Hasek . He did not play for any teams during the season , instead practicing with Binghamton . Daniel Alfredsson had a very good season in Sweden with Frölunda HC , winning the Swedish championship .
= = = 2005 – 06 : High expectations unfulfilled = = =
The media predicted the Senators to be Stanley Cup contenders , as they had a strong core back after the lockout , played in an up @-@ tempo style fitting the new rule changes and Hasek was expected to provide top @-@ notch goaltending . The team rushed out of the gate , winning 19 of the first 22 games , in the end winning 52 games and 113 points , placing first in the East , and second overall in the League .
Prior to the season , the Senators had acquired Dany Heatley in a blockbuster trade with the Atlanta Thrashers for Marian Hossa and Greg DeVries . Heatley , Alfredsson and Spezza immediately formed one of the League 's top offensive lines , dubbed the " CASH line " by fans in a contest held by the Ottawa Citizen . ( The name is made from the initials of Captain Alfredsson , Spezza , and Heatley . Another nickname the line has picked up is the " Pizza Line " , and is the nickname used by the Citizen 's rival paper , the Ottawa Sun . ) The line made a dramatic debut in the first game , with Alfredsson scoring a goal to force overtime and Alfredsson and Heatley scoring goals in the League 's first @-@ ever shootout round . Heatley became the first player in franchise history to reach 100 points and the first to reach the 50 @-@ goal mark . The line is notable as a top offensive line , the top line of all time for the Senators , and is widely regarded as one of the top lines in the NHL earning such quotes as " best trio in the NHL , " " most dangerous line in hockey , " " high @-@ flying trio , " " League 's highest scoring line " and " potent first line " in the sports media and hockey fans , both of the Senators and other teams .
Despite the regular season success , the team entered the playoffs under a cloud . In February , Hasek had suffered an adductor muscle injury while playing for the Czech Republic men 's national ice hockey team during the 2006 Winter Olympics in Turin . He had played only one game for the Czechs and returned to Ottawa to heal , but would never play for the Senators again . Rookie goaltender Ray Emery had to take over the starting goaltender duties , leading the media to predict an early playoff exit due to Hasek 's absence . Hopes were raised in the first round , however , when Emery would become the first rookie goaltender since Philadelphia 's Brian Boucher in 2000 to win a playoff series when the Senators defeated the Tampa Bay Lightning four games to one . However , the Senators then lost to the Buffalo Sabres in the second round , a series in which all games were decided by one goal .
This was the last hurrah for several Senators , as Zdeno Chara , Dominik Hasek , Martin Havlat , Bryan Smolinski and Brian Pothier all left the team after the season ; Chara , Hasek and Pothier departed via free agency , while Havlat and Smolinski were both dealt to the Chicago Blackhawks .
= = = 2006 – 07 : Trip to the Stanley Cup Finals = = =
The Senators ' season went off to a poor start , and was marked by a struggle to reach a .500 win @-@ loss ratio . Until December , the team had a 21 – 18 – 1 record , though they had much more success in the remaining half of the season , eventually finishing second in the Division after the Presidents ' Trophy @-@ winning Sabres and earning the fourth seed in the East . They ultimately finished with 105 points , their fourth @-@ straight 100 @-@ point season and sixth in their last eight .
In the playoffs , Ottawa 's fourth placing in the Conference meant that the first @-@ round playoff series was against the fifth @-@ seeded Pittsburgh Penguins . Some media were expecting the Penguins to win the series for three reasons — the Penguins had won the season series , the Senators ' past playoff troubles and the strong young talent of the Penguins , particularly young star Sidney Crosby . The Senators , however , won easily by a score of four games to one , including a 3 – 0 shutout win in Game 5 . This was the only series where the Senators were the higher @-@ seeded team .
The second @-@ round series was against the Atlantic Division @-@ leading New Jersey Devils in a rematch of the 2003 Eastern Conference Finals . The Senators again won by a score of four games to one .
Next , the Senators faced off against Buffalo in the Conference Final , looking to get even for losing to the Sabres in the 2006 playoffs . The Senators took the series , again by a score of four games to one , earning the Prince of Wales Trophy as the Eastern Conference champions and advancing to the Stanley Cup Finals to face the Western Conference @-@ winning Anaheim Ducks . Daniel Alfredsson scored the series @-@ winning goal , ( see video ) in overtime , redemption for being beaten a year before on the goal that eliminated Ottawa from the playoffs . It was also the first series win by the Senators against the Sabres .
First Stanley Cup finals in the capital in 80 years
The 2006 – 07 Senators thus became the first Ottawa team to be in the Stanley Cup Finals since the 1927 Stanley Cup Finals . Despite the 80 @-@ year gap , one fan attended games both the 1927 and the 2007 Finals — the third game of the series and first home game for Ottawa on June 2 was attended by 99 @-@ year @-@ old Russell Williams as a guest of the Senators . He had attended the last Finals game in Ottawa on April 13 , 1927 , played in the old Ottawa Auditorium . Both the 1927 and 2007 games were won by the Senators .
The city was swept up in the excitement of being in the Finals . Businesses along all the main streets posted large hand @-@ drawn " Go Sens Go " signs , residents put up large displays in front of their homes or decorated their cars . A large Senators flag was draped on the City Hall , along with a large video screen showing the games . A six @-@ story likeness of Daniel Alfredsson was hung on the Corel building and the Senators organization held rallies at City Hall , and car rallies of decorated cars paraded from Lynx stadium , through downtown to Scotiabank Place .
The series marked the first time that an NHL team with a captain from Europe had made the Finals , as Senators captain Alfredsson hails from Sweden . ( Previously , only Americans or Canadians had captained teams in the Finals . ) Alfredsson would be one of the bright lights for the Senators in the series , as he had been in all the playoff series . But he would be one of the few bright lights as Anaheim won the series in five games bolstered by strong defensive play and opportunistic scoring .
The first two games were in Anaheim , both won by the Ducks by one @-@ goal margins . Game 3 went to the Senators , but Game 4 in Ottawa was won by the Ducks , for an insurmountable three games to one lead . The Ducks would finish the series in Game 5 at home . The Ducks had been favoured to win the Cup since before the season started . The Senators were the third consecutive Canadian franchise to reach the Final and they suffered the same fate as the Calgary Flames of 2004 and the Edmonton Oilers of 2006 .
= = = 2007 – 08 : Stanley Cup hangover = = =
The Senators made major changes in their hockey staff during the off @-@ season . On June 17 , 2007 , General Manager John Muckler was fired ; he had been in the last year of his contract . Head Coach Bryan Murray was subsequently promoted to GM . On July 5 , 2007 , he hired his nephew Tim Murray as assistant GM , followed by the promotion of Assistant Coach John Paddock to head coach on July 6 , 2007 . On August 15 , Goaltending Coach Ron Low was named as assistant coach while Eli Wilson was named goaltending coach . Assistant Coach Greg Carvel retained his duties .
On November 5 , 2007 , the Senators set a franchise record eighth @-@ straight win with their victory over the Maple Leafs . On November 6 , six Senators were named to the All @-@ Star Game ballot : Daniel Alfredsson , Ray Emery , Dany Heatley , Chris Phillips , Wade Redden and Jason Spezza , the most from any one team in the NHL . The " CASH line " was named to the All @-@ Star roster in its entirety , Alfredsson to the starting lineup and Dany Heatley and Jason Spezza as reserves . On January 24 , 2008 , Alfredsson recorded a franchise @-@ record seven points ( three goals and four assists ) against the Tampa Bay Lightning , taking over the NHL scoring lead momentarily .
After the hot start , a prolonged slump through January and February occurred during which the Senators won only seven of 21 games , and Murray fired Head Coach Paddock and Assistant Coach Ron Low on February 27 , 2008 , taking over the coaching duties himself . After the coaching switch , team performance improved but did not match the performance of the beginning of the season . A playoff spot was in doubt until the Senators ' last game of the season , a loss to Boston , but the team qualified due to the Carolina Hurricanes losing . After all other games were played , the team ended up as the seventh seed and faced the Pittsburgh Penguins in the opening round , a repeat of the 2007 Eastern Conference Quarterfinals . The Senators lost the series four games to none , the third time they were swept in a first @-@ round series . The result , after going to the Finals the previous season , led to speculation by the media that the team would make a large change in personnel before next season , including the buy @-@ out of Ray Emery and the Senators not re @-@ signing their free agents .
= = = 2008 – 09 : Season of turnover = = =
After a disappointing 2007 – 08 season , Senators ' management promised change , and in the off @-@ season fulfilled that promise with changes both in coaching and on @-@ ice personnel . On June 13 , 2008 , the Senators named Craig Hartsburg , who had been head coach of the OHL 's Sault Ste . Marie Greyhounds , as the new head coach , signing him to a three @-@ year contract . The Senators also named Curtis Hunt , formerly of the Regina Pats , as assistant coach . On the player side , the first change was the buy @-@ out of troubled goaltender Ray Emery 's contract following a difficult season . Long @-@ time Senator Wade Redden left via free @-@ agency , and 2007 – 08 trade acquisitions Mike Commodore , Cory Stillman and Martin Lapointe were not re @-@ signed . Brian McGrattan and Andrej Meszaros were traded , Meszaros following a contract dispute . From the free agent market , the Senators signed goaltender Alex Auld , defenceman Jason Smith , and agitating forward Jarkko Ruutu . In exchange for Meszaros , defencemen Filip Kuba , Alexandre Picard and a 2009 first @-@ round draft pick ( later dealt for defenceman Chris Campoli ) were acquired from the Tampa Bay Lightning .
To start the 2008 – 09 season , the Senators played their first @-@ ever games in Europe , starting in Gothenburg , Sweden , playing Daniel Alfredsson 's former team , Frölunda HC . The Senators then began the regular season with two games in Stockholm against the Pittsburgh Penguins , splitting the results in a 4 – 3 overtime loss and a 3 – 1 win . The Senators struggled throughout the first half of the season , having the lowest number of goals scored in the League . Following a disappointing 17 – 24 – 7 start , the Senators fired Hartsburg on February 1 , 2009 , after a 7 – 4 loss to the Washington Capitals . He was replaced by Cory Clouston , the head coach of their farm team in Binghamton . The team showed almost immediate improvement under Clouston , playing above .500 for the remainder of the season . Though much improved , the team was unable to make up for its poor start , and was officially eliminated from playoff contention on March 31 . The team continued to play well , winning nine games in a row at home . On April 8 , Clouston was rewarded with a two @-@ year deal to continue coaching the Senators .
= = = 2009 – 10 : Return to the playoffs = = =
After the season had concluded , word was leaked that star forward Heatley had demanded a trade , placing GM Murray in a precarious position . On June 30 , a deal to Edmonton was finalized , but Heatley rejected it by refusing to waive his no @-@ trade clause . On September 12 , 2009 , Heatley was traded , along with a fifth @-@ round pick in 2010 NHL Entry Draft , to the San Jose Sharks in exchange for forwards Milan Michalek and Jonathan Cheechoo , as well as a second @-@ round pick in the 2010 NHL Draft . Michalek would play well for the Senators , but Cheechoo struggled and was demoted to the Binghamton Senators before having his contract bought out in the off @-@ season .
On January 13 , 2010 , Bryan Murray relieved Goaltending Coach Eli Wilson of his duties . Immediately afterward , the team went on a team @-@ record 11 @-@ game winning streak . The streak propelled the team to the top of the Northeast Division standings and a top @-@ three placing for the playoffs . The team was unable to hold off the Sabres for the division lead , but qualified for the playoffs in the fifth position . For the third season in four , the Senators played off against the Penguins in the first round . A highlight for the Senators was winning a triple @-@ overtime fifth game in Pittsburgh , but the team was unable to win a playoff game on home ice , losing the series in six games .
= = = 2010 – 11 : Rebuilding = = =
The Senators had a much poorer than expected 2010 – 11 campaign , resulting in constant rumours of a shakeup right through until December . The rumours were heightened in January after the team went on a lengthy losing streak . January was a dismal month for the Senators , winning only one game all month . Media speculated on the imminent firing of Clouston , Murray or both . Owner Melynk cleared the air in an article in the January 22 , 2011 edition of the Ottawa Sun . Melnyk stated that he would not fire either Clouston or Murray , but that he had given up on this season and was in the process of developing a plan for the future . On Monday , January 24 , the Toronto Globe and Mail reported that the plan included hiring a new general manager before the June entry draft and that Murray would be retained as an advisor to the team . A decision on whether to retain Clouston would be made by the new general manager . The article by Roy MacGregor , a long @-@ time reporter of the Ottawa Senators , stated that former Assistant Coach Pierre McGuire had already been interviewed . Murray , in a press conference that day stated that he wished to stay on as the team 's general manager . He also stated that Melnyk was allowing him to continue as general manager without restraint . Murray said that the players were now to be judged by their play until the February 28 trade deadline . Murray would attempt to move " a couple , at least " of the players for draft picks or prospects at that time if the Senators remained out of playoff contention . At the time of Murray 's comments the team was eight games under .500 and 14 points out of a playoff position after 49 games .
Murray started with the trading of Mike Fisher to the Nashville Predators in exchange for a first @-@ round pick in the 2011 draft . Fisher already had a home in Nashville with new wife Carrie Underwood . The trading of Fisher , a fan favorite in Ottawa , lead to a small anti @-@ Underwood backlash in the city with the banning of her songs from the play lists of some local radio stations . Murray next traded Chris Kelly , another veteran , to the Boston Bruins for a second @-@ round pick in the 2011 draft . A few days later , pending unrestricted free agent Jarkko Ruutu was sent to the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for a sixth @-@ round pick in 2011 . A swap of goaltenders was made with the Colorado Avalanche which brought Craig Anderson to Ottawa in exchange for Brian Elliott . Both goalies were having sub @-@ par seasons prior to the trade . Under @-@ achieving forward Alex Kovalev was traded to the Pittsburgh Penguins for a seventh @-@ round draft pick . On trade deadline day , Ottawa picked up goaltender Curtis McElhinney on waivers , and traded Chris Campoli with a seventh @-@ round pick to the Chicago Blackhawks for a second @-@ round pick and Ryan Potulny . Goaltender Anderson played very well down the stretch for Ottawa , and the team quickly signed the soon @-@ to @-@ be unrestricted free agent to a four @-@ year contract . After media speculation on the future of Murray within the organization , Murray was re @-@ signed as general manager on April 8 , to a three @-@ year extension . On April 9 , Head Coach Cory Clouston and assistants Greg Carvel and Brad Lauer were dismissed from their positions . Murray said that the decision was made based on the fact that the team entered the season believing it was a contender , but finished with a 32 – 40 – 10 record . Former Detroit Red Wings Assistant Coach Paul MacLean was hired as Clouston 's replacement on June 14 , 2011 .
= = = 2011 – 12 : Surprise trip to the playoffs = = =
As the 2011 – 12 season began , many hockey writers and commentators were convinced that the Senators would finish at or near the bottom of the NHL standings . In the midst of rebuilding , the Ottawa lineup contained many rookies and inexperienced players . The team struggled out of the gate , losing five of their first six games before a reversal of fortunes saw them win six games in a row . In December 2011 , the team acquired forward Kyle Turris from the Phoenix Coyotes in exchange for David Rundblad and a draft pick . The team improved its play afterwards and moved into a playoff position before the All @-@ Star Game . For the first time in Senators ' history , the All @-@ Star Game was held in Ottawa , and it was considered a great success . Five Senators were voted in or named to the event , including Daniel Alfredsson , who was named captain of one team . The team continued its playoff push after the break . After starting goalie Craig Anderson injured his hand in a kitchen accident at home , the Senators called up Robin Lehner from Binghamton and acquired highly regarded goaltender Ben Bishop from the St. Louis Blues . While Anderson recovered , the team continued its solid play . On April 1 , 2012 , the Senators defeated the New York Islanders 5 – 1 , officially ensuring a playoff position . The team finished as the eighth seed in the Eastern Conference , drawing a first round playoff matchup against the Conference champion New York Rangers . Ultimately , Ottawa lost the series in seven games .
= = = 2012 – 13 : Renewing success = = =
The next season , Ottawa would be challenged to repeat the success they had in 2011 – 12 , due to long @-@ term injuries to key players such as Erik Karlsson , Jason Spezza , Milan Michalek and Craig Anderson . Despite these injuries , the Senators would finish seventh in the Eastern Conference and head coach Paul MacLean would go on to win the Jack Adams Award as the NHL 's coach of the year . Ottawa would play the second @-@ seeded Montreal Canadiens in the first round of the playoffs , eventually winning in five games , blowing out Montreal 6 – 1 in games three and five . The Senators would advance to play the top @-@ seeded Pittsburgh Penguins in the second round , this time losing in five games . During the off @-@ season , the Senators traded veteran defenceman Sergei Gonchar to the Dallas Stars in exchange for a sixth @-@ round draft pick in 2013 . July 5 , 2013 would be a day of mixed emotions for the city and fans , as long @-@ time captain Daniel Alfredsson signed a one @-@ year contract with the Detroit Red Wings , leaving Ottawa after 17 seasons with the Senators and 14 as captain . The signing shocked numerous fans across the city and many within the Senators organization . The day finished optimistically however , as Murray acquired star forward Bobby Ryan from the Anaheim Ducks in exchange for forwards Jakob Silfverberg , Stefan Noesen and a first @-@ round draft pick in 2014 . Murray would also sign free agent forward Clarke MacArthur to a two @-@ year contract that same day and would sign free agent defenceman Joe Corvo to a one @-@ year contract three days later on July 8 .
= = = 2013 – 14 : A season of change and disappointment = = =
For the 2013 – 14 season , the League re @-@ aligned and Ottawa was moved to the new Atlantic Division along with the rest of the old Northeast Division and the Columbus Blue Jackets and Detroit Red Wings from the Western Conference . The re @-@ alignment increased the competition to qualify for the playoffs , as there was now 16 teams in the East fighting for eight playoff spots . There were changes on the club as well . Ottawa entered the season with Jason Spezza as the team 's new captain as long @-@ time captain Daniel Alfredsson left to join the Detroit Red Wings after a contract dispute with the club . The same day that Alfredsson signed , the club swung a deal for Anaheim Ducks ' scorer Bobby Ryan . There were numerous other changes to the lineup as well . The club signed free agents Clarke MacArthur and Joe Corvo , while not re @-@ signing veteran defencemen Sergei Gonchar and Andre Benoit . While MacArthur had a career season , Ryan played well until he was injured , and Corvo lost his place in the lineup . The club struggled on defence , with shots and goals against increasing from the previous season . The club was a sub-.500 team much of the season , or only a few games above and never was in a playoff position all season . At the NHL trade deadline , Murray traded for flashy right winger Ales Hemsky from Edmonton and he played well , establishing chemistry on a line alongside Jason Spezza and Milan Michalek , though the club was eliminated from playoff contention in the last week of the season .
= = Logo and jersey design = =
The team colours are red , black and white , like the original era Senators , and like other Ottawa sports teams ( such as the Ottawa Renegades , Rough Riders and 67s ) , with added trim of gold . The colours are attributed to the colours of the defunct Ottawa Amateur Athletic Association , the Ottawa Hockey Club being a member club .
The club logo is officially the head of a Roman general , a member of the Senate of the Roman Empire , projecting from a gold circle . There have been several versions of the team logo . The original , unveiled on May 23 , 1991 , described the general as a " centurion figure , strong and prominent " according to its designer , Tony Milchard . Milchard intended the logo to be similar to that of the Chicago Blackhawks head logo . Leaked before its unveiling , the logo design was unpopular with fans , being compared unfavourably to the American Express card , the USC Trojans and the Trojan condom . The original had the words " Ottawa Senators " within the circle . This logo was slightly revised in 1996 to remove the team name from the gold circle and replace it with laurels .
The original home jersey was white with black and red stripes . The original ' away ' jersey was black , with white and red trim . Shoulder patches used a winged ' S ' ' established MDCCCXCIV ' ( 1894 ) logo . The League changed its policies on coloured and white jerseys and the white jersey became the away jersey . The club would use the white jersey with the original logo until the end of the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals .
In 1998 , the Senators unveiled a new logo , taking the head , which had been in profile , and rotating it so that it was face @-@ first . The new logo was unveiled with a new red ' third ' jersey , prominently using ' curved ' or ' swoosh ' stripes . On the shoulder , the original logo was used as a shoulder patch . The original dark jersey , ( then the ' away ' jersey ) which was mostly black , was retired after the season . The red jersey became the home jersey and it remained in use until the end of the 2007 Stanley Cup Finals .
Starting in July 2000 , the Senators reused the alternate logo on another third jersey , designed by Ottawa firm Hoselton Brunet , this one black with red and gold sleeves and a gold stripe with laurel leaves along the bottom of the jersey . On the shoulders , was a modified version of the original Peace Tower logo of the expansion campaign , which the management liked . Like the original logo , this design was leaked onto the Internet . This jersey was in use until the end of the 2006 – 07 season .
= = = 2007 update = = =
On August 22 , 2007 , the Senators unveiled a set of new jerseys , which have a more refined , streamlined look to them , . The team retired all three previous jerseys and did not have a third jersey for the 2007 – 08 season . The updated look came in conjunction with the launch of the new Rbk EDGE jerseys by Reebok , adopted League @-@ wide for the 2007 – 08 season .
At the same time , the team updated its logos , designed by local firm Acart Communications . The new primary logo is an update of the old secondary logo , which according to team owner Eugene Melnyk , " represents strength and determination . " The logo was modified in several ways , updating the facial features , removing facial colouring , reducing size of the gold semicircle and updating the cape of the warrior . The new secondary logo is an update of the old primary logo . Only the primary logo will appear on the jerseys , as the secondary logo will be on Sens ' merchandise . The new shoulder patch ' O ' logo replaces the winged ' S ' shoulder patch with the jersey logo of the original Ottawa Senators club .
= = = 2008 and 2011 third jerseys = = =
On November 22 , 2008 , the Senators unveiled a new third jersey in a game versus the New York Rangers . Marketed with the slogan ' Back in Black ' in reference to the black " away " jerseys the team wore during its first several seasons , the jersey is primarily black , while the team 's other traditional colors of white and red are also integrated . The Senators ' primary " centurion figure " logo moves to the shoulders . The front features the word ' SENS ' in white with red and gold trim , as a new primary logo . The ' SENS ' third jersey was retired in 2011 .
On January 20 , 2011 , the Ottawa Sun reported that the Senators organization was studying designs for a new third jersey to commemorate the 20th anniversary of the current franchise . The Senators announced to season ticket holders on March 2 , 2011 , that the new third jersey will be a ' heritage design ' based on the early @-@ era Senators jersey . The new third jersey was to be unveiled officially on October 1 , 2011 , however was mistakenly leaked after being discovered in a souvenir store at First Niagara Center . The jersey will be a ' barber @-@ pole ' design with a large ' O ' on the front , and shield @-@ shaped badges on each shoulder . One shoulder badge has the words " Ottawa Senators " , the other has the words " Sénateurs d 'Ottawa " .
Mostly black , the third jersey incorporates horizontal striping intended to be reminiscent of the original Senators ' ' barber @-@ pole ' designs , and the large
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letter O used in Ottawa jersey designs going back to the 1890s . The new jersey , while an entirely new creation , most resembles the look of the 1926 – 27 Senators , when the franchise won its last Stanley Cup . Shield @-@ type patches were added to the shoulders . The design of the shield @-@ type patches was intended to be similar to the shield patches that the original Senators added to their jerseys after each Stanley Cup championship win . The patches spell the team name , one in English , and one in French . Jacob Barrette , a local Gatineau , Quebec fan had posted a similar design on the internet since 2009 . The Senators worked with Barrette to develop the jersey design in time for the 20th anniversary season .
= = = 2014 Heritage Classic jersey = = =
A special edition jersey was used for the 2014 Heritage Classic against the Vancouver Canucks on March 2 , 2014 . The jersey shares virtually the same characteristics as their current third jersey , albeit reversed so that cream is the primary color .
= Eutharic =
Eutharic Cilliga ( Latin : Flavius Eutharicus Cillica ) was an Ostrogothic prince from Iberia ( modern @-@ day Spain ) who , during the early 6th century , served as Roman Consul and " son in arms " ( filius per arma ) alongside the Byzantine emperor Justin I. He was the son @-@ in @-@ law and presumptive heir of the Ostrogoth king Theoderic the Great but died in AD 522 at the age of 42 before he could inherit Theoderic 's title . Theoderic claimed that Eutharic was a descendant of the Gothic royal house of Amali and it was intended that his marriage to Theoderic 's daughter Amalasuintha would unite the Gothic kingdoms , establish Theoderic 's dynasty and further strengthen the Gothic hold over Italy .
During his year of consulship in 519 relations with the East Roman Empire flourished and the Acacian schism between the Eastern and Western Christian churches was ended . Whilst Eutharic was nominally a statesman , politician and soldier of the Roman Empire , he was also an Arian , whose views clashed with the Catholic majority ; as consul enforcing Theoderic 's tolerant policy towards the Jewish people , he incurred resentment from the local Catholics , whose traditions were less than tolerant . Following disturbances in Ravenna , where Catholics burnt down a number of synagogues , Eutharic 's siding with the Jewish people of Ravenna was reported with resentment in a fragmentary contemporary chronicle .
Some time after the death of Eutharic , his son Athalaric briefly held the Ostrogothic throne but died at the age of 18 . After Athalaric 's death , Eutharic 's widow moved to Constantinople where further attempts at establishing a dynasty failed .
= = Early life = =
Eutharic was born around AD 480 to a noble ostrogoth family of the Amali line . Eutharic 's ancestry has been traced back through his father Veteric , son of Berismund , son of Thorismund , son of Hunimund , son of Hermanaric , son of Achiulf . Eutharic grew up in Iberia ( modern @-@ day Spain ) where he had a reputation for being " a young man strong in wisdom and valor and health of body " . He was later to become the " son in arms " ( filius per arma ) to the Byzantine emperor Justin I , a role which indicated a part of his early life may have been spent as a soldier .
Eutharic 's status in both the Gothic and Roman world was elevated by the attentions of Theoderic the Great who he was related to distantly through their mutual connection with Hermanric . Hermanric was an Ostrogoth chief who ruled much of the territory north of the Black Sea . Eutharic was descended through five generations from Hermanric , whilst Theoderic was a descendant of Hermanric 's older brother Vultwulf .
By the late 5th century Theoderic was king of the Ostrogoths , ruling from Ravenna in Italy and a close ally of the Roman Emperor Zeno . Following the death of a rival , Theodoric Strabo , Theoderic the Great received the titles of patricius and magister militum from Zeno and in 484 he was appointed consul . Though there was tension between Theoderic and Zeno 's successor Anastasius I , the emperor who followed Anastasius , Justin I , sought reconciliation with Theoderic whose influence in the Gothic world would make him a powerful ally . Having worked throughout his life to establish a kingdom and strengthen relations with both the church and Rome , Theoderic was keen to establish a dynasty . His marriage to Audofleda however had produced only a daughter , Amalasuintha . Therefore , to achieve his ambitions Theoderic would have to ensure he chose a son @-@ in @-@ law with an ancestry equal in strength to his own . His investigations into the Gothic royal lines , which were by this time widely distributed across Europe , led him to Iberia . Here he discovered Eutharic , the last heir of a related branch of the Amali , who had recently assumed the regency of Spain .
More recent studies however suggest that Eutharic 's Amali ancestry may have been a deliberate invention on the part of Theoderic to aid his ambitions of establishing dynastic credibility . According to Gesta Theoderici Eutharic belonged to the Gothic house of Alan rather than the house of Amal . Whilst Jordanes , in his history of the Goths , does make reference to Eutharic 's prudentia et virtus , or pride and valour , this too may have been a fabrication on the part of Theoderic . Those qualities were recognised as requirements of Gothic ethnographic ideology , expressed in their code of civilitas . It would have been highly beneficial for Theoderic 's chosen son @-@ in @-@ law to possess them .
= = At the court of Theoderic = =
In AD 515 Eutharic answered a summons by Theoderic the Great and moved to the Ostrogothic court at Ravenna in Italy . Here he was given in marriage Amalasuintha , the daughter of the king . It was Theoderic 's intention that this union would create a long @-@ lasting dynastic connection between the previously sundered Ostrogoths and Visigoths . Theoderic also named Eutharic his presumptive heir .
Whilst in Italy , Eutharic played an important political role within Theoderic 's kingdom . With a court background he had the ability to serve in government and he was respected by the Romans , who admired his liberality and magnificence . Catholic writers of the time however indicate that , whilst his father @-@ in @-@ law was renowned for policies of toleration , Eutharic acted more like a " bigoted Arian " .
= = Consulship = =
In 498 , as the Empire 's nominal vice @-@ regent in Italy , Theoderic had been granted the right to nominate the Western candidate for each year 's consular pair . He was however bounded by a restriction : to select only a Roman citizen for the position . To advance Eutharic 's standing in the world Theoderic wished him to be made consul for the year 519 . To get around the restriction imposed on his nominations , and as a favour to Theoderic , Justin himself nominated Eutharic .
The nomination was successful , and in January 519 Eutharic took up the position of Western Consul . By granting him Roman citizenship , accepting him as co @-@ consul and calling him a " son in arms " , Emperor Justin I sought to restore ties with Theoderic , strained during the reign of Anastasius I Dicorus . He showed further favour to Eutharic by conceding the senior consulship to him . It is reported that at the celebrations to mark the assumption there were , " magnificent shows of wild beasts procured from Africa " and that a visiting diplomat , the patricius Symmachus , sent by the eastern Imperial court to Italy was , " amazed at the riches given to the Goths and the Romans " .
During this period Eutharic was eulogised by Cassiodorus in the Senate . In it he compared Eutharic to great consuls of the past . The short Chronicle , which Cassiodorus wrote to congratulate Eutharic on his consulship , is noted for focusing on Eutharic 's accession to a position of high civilian honour , rather than any military victories , as had been more common for past Gothic nobility . Eutharic 's time as consul is portrayed largely as a time of prosperity for the western Roman empire with the code of civilitas being promoted . In March 519 , the Acacian schism which had separated the Eastern and Western Christian churches for the previous 35 years was ended and the churches reconciled . In addition to the prosperity felt by the peoples of the Roman empire , Eutharic 's year of consulship has also been described as seeming like " [ a year ] of bright promise for the Ostrogothic kingdom " .
The contemporary Catholic chronicle of the Anonymus Valesianus portrays Eutharic in a negative light , connecting him with taking the Jews ' side in anti @-@ Jewish disturbances in Ravenna over the Jewish congregation 's rights to their synagogue ; the disagreement prompted a conflict between the Arians and Catholics as the Arian Eutharic chose to side with the Jewish people . It is thought that the outrage expressed by the Catholics at this action was in proportion to Eutharic 's being a symbol of the recent reconciliation between the Eastern and Western Churches brought about under the direction of Theoderic .
= = Death and legacy = =
Eutharic died in 522 at the age of 42 , less than three years after his consulship . His death caused problems for Theoderic who never succeeded in his desire to establish a strong Gothic dynasty . Though Eutharic and Amalasuintha had a son , Athalaric born in 516 , and a daughter , Matasuntha , the dynasty was never established convincingly . Theoderic named Athalaric as his heir in 526 , and Athalaric 's mother Amalasuintha acted as regent for her son following Theoderic 's death that year . Athalaric died in October 534 at the age of 18 . To maintain her power , Amalasuintha brought her cousin , and a nephew of Theoderic , named Theodahad to the throne . Though he was made to swear fealty to Amalasuintha , Theodahad felt insecure and in December 534 had her imprisoned on an island in Lake Bolsena where she was eventually murdered on 30 April 535 .
= Lisa Simpson =
Lisa Marie Simpson is a fictional character in the animated television series The Simpsons . She is the middle child and most intelligent of the Simpson family . Voiced by Yeardley Smith , Lisa first appeared on television in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " on April 19 , 1987 . Cartoonist Matt Groening created and designed her while waiting to meet James L. Brooks . Groening had been invited to pitch a series of shorts based on his comic Life in Hell , but instead decided to create a new set of characters . He named the elder Simpson daughter after his younger sister Lisa Groening . After appearing on The Tracey Ullman Show for three years , the Simpson family were moved to their own series on Fox , which debuted on December 17 , 1989 .
Intelligent , passionate , and the moral centre of the family , Lisa Simpson , at eight years old , is the second child of Homer and Marge , younger sister of Bart , and older sister of Maggie . Lisa 's high intellect and liberal political stance creates a barrier between her and other children her age , therefore she is a bit of a loner and social outcast . Lisa is a vegetarian , a strong environmentalist , a feminist , and a Buddhist . Lisa enjoys many hobbies , including reading and playing the baritone saxophone . Lisa 's character develops many times over the course of the show , she becomes a vegetarian in season 7 and converts to Buddhism in season 13 . Lisa advocates for a variety of political causes and is a strong liberal and stands with the Tibetan independence movement . She has appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons – including video games , The Simpsons Movie , The Simpsons Ride , commercials and comic books – and inspired a line of merchandise .
Yeardley Smith originally tried out for the role of Bart , while Nancy Cartwright ( who was later cast as the voice for Bart ) tried out for Lisa . Producers considered Smith 's voice too high for a boy , so she was given the role of Lisa . In the Tracey Ullman Show shorts , Lisa was something of a " female Bart " who mirrored her brother 's mischief , but as the series progressed she became a more sophisticated and intellectual character . Because of her unusual pointed hair style , many animators consider Lisa the most difficult Simpsons character to draw .
Lisa is one of the most enduring characters on the series . TV Guide ranked her 11th ( tied with Bart ) on their list of the " Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time " . Her environmentalism has been especially well received ; several episodes featuring her have won Genesis and Environmental Media Awards , including a special " Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award " in 2001 . People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals included Lisa on their list of the " Most Animal @-@ Friendly TV Characters of All Time " . Yeardley Smith won a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 , and in 2000 , Lisa and her family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame .
= = Role in The Simpsons = =
The Simpsons uses a floating timeline in which the characters do not physically age ; as such , Lisa is always depicted as 7 – 8 years old . The show itself is perpetually set in the year of broadcast ( except for occasional flashbacks and flashforwards ) . In several episodes , events have been linked to specific time periods , although this timeline has been contradicted in subsequent episodes . Lisa 's year of birth is given in " Lisa 's First Word " ( season 4 , 1992 ) as 1984 , during the Summer Olympics . The episode " That ' 90s Show " ( season 19 , 2008 ) , however , contradicts much of the established backstory ; for example , it presents Homer and Marge as being childless in the late 1990s . Lisa is a lover of music , especially jazz . She enjoys playing the saxophone and became friends with jazz musician Bleeding Gums Murphy , whom she regards as an idol . Murphy helps pull Lisa out of her depression in " Moaning Lisa " ( season 1 , 1990 ) . She is later deeply saddened by Murphy 's death in " ' Round Springfield " ( season 6 , 1995 ) .
Lisa has been friendly with several boys , including Ralph Wiggum in " I Love Lisa " ( season 4 , 1993 ) , Nelson Muntz in " Lisa 's Date with Density " ( season 8 , 1996 ) and Colin in The Simpsons Movie ( 2007 ) . Bart 's best friend Milhouse Van Houten has a crush on her , but despite dropping unsubtle hints about his feelings , he has been unsuccessful in winning her affection .
Lisa is the second most intellectual member of the Simpson family ( IQ 156 ) , and many episodes of the series focus on her fighting for various causes . Lisa is often the focus of episodes with " a real moral or philosophical point " , which according to former writer David S. Cohen is because " you really buy her as caring about it . " Lisa 's political convictions are generally liberal and she often contests other 's views . She is a vegetarian , feminist , environmentalist and a supporter of gay rights , and the Free Tibet movement . In a special Christmas message for the UK in 2004 Lisa showed her support for Cornish nationalism , even speaking the Cornish language to get her message across . While supportive of the general ideals of the Christian church in which she was raised , Lisa became a practicing Buddhist in the episode " She of Little Faith " ( season 13 , 2001 ) after she learned about the Noble Eightfold Path .
= = Character = =
= = = Creation = = =
Matt Groening first conceived Lisa and the rest of the Simpson family in 1986 in the lobby of producer James L. Brooks 's office . Groening had been called in to pitch a series of animated shorts for The Tracey Ullman Show and had intended to present an adaptation of his Life in Hell comic strip . When he realized that animating Life in Hell would require him to rescind publication rights , Groening went in another direction , hurriedly sketching his version of a dysfunctional family , named after members of his own family . Lisa was named after Groening 's younger sister , but little else was based on her . In The Tracey Ullman Show shorts , Lisa displayed little of the intelligence for which she later became known . She was more of a " female Bart " and was originally described as simply the " middle child " , without much personality .
Lisa made her debut with the rest of the Simpson family on April 19 , 1987 in The Tracey Ullman Show short " Good Night " . In 1989 , the shorts were adapted into The Simpsons , a half @-@ hour series on the Fox Broadcasting Company . Lisa and the Simpson family remained the main characters on this new show .
= = = Design = = =
The entire Simpson family was designed to be easily recognized in silhouette . The family was crudely drawn , because Groening had submitted basic sketches to the animators , assuming they would clean them up ; instead , they just traced over his drawings . Lisa 's physical features are generally unique . In some early episodes , minor background characters occasionally had a similar hairline . However , in the later seasons , no character other than Maggie shares her hairline . While designing Lisa , Groening " couldn 't be bothered to even think about girls ' hair styles " . At the time , Groening was primarily drawing in black and white ; when designing Lisa and Maggie , he " just gave them this kind of spiky starfish hair style , not thinking that they would eventually be drawn in color " .
To draw Lisa 's head and hair , most of the show 's animators use what they call the " three @-@ three @-@ two arrangement " . It begins with a circle , with two curving lines ( one vertical , one horizontal ) intersecting in the middle to indicate her eyeline . The vertical line continues outside of the circle to create one hair point , with two more added towards the back of her head . Three more points are then added in front ( in the direction Lisa is facing ) , with two more behind it . Several Simpsons animators , including Pete Michels and David Silverman , consider Lisa the most difficult Simpsons character to draw . Silverman explains that " her head is so abstract " due to her hairstyle .
= = = Voice = = =
While the roles of Homer and Marge were given to Dan Castellaneta and Julie Kavner because they were already a part of the Tracey Ullman Show cast , the producers decided to hold casting for the roles of Bart and Lisa . Nancy Cartwright intended to audition for the role of Lisa , but disliked the character 's bland description — Lisa was described simply as the " middle child " — and read for the role of Bart instead . Casting director Bonita Pietila brought Yeardley Smith in for an audition after seeing her performing in the play Living on Salvation Street . Smith was hesitant to audition for an animated series , but her agent had persuaded her to give it a try . Smith originally auditioned for the role of Bart but Pietila believed her voice was too high . Smith later recalled : " I always sounded too much like a girl , I read two lines as Bart and they said , ' Thanks for coming ! ' " Pietila offered Smith the role of Lisa instead .
Smith and the show 's writers worked to give Lisa a more defined personality , and she has developed greatly during the series . In her 2000 memoir My Life as a 10 @-@ Year @-@ Old Boy , Cartwright wrote : " with the brilliant wit of the writers and the wry , in @-@ your @-@ eye , honest @-@ to @-@ a @-@ fault interpretation , Yeardley Smith has made Lisa a bright light of leadership , full of compassion and competence beyond her years . Lisa Simpson is the kind of child we not only want our children to be , but also the kind of child we want all children to be . But , at the time , on The Tracey Ullman Show , she was just an animated eight @-@ year @-@ old kid who had no personality . "
Lisa is the only regular character voiced by Smith , who raises the pitch of her voice slightly for the role . In some earlier episodes she provided some of Maggie 's squeaks and occasional speaking parts , and has voiced other characters on very rare occasions . Usually they are derivative of Lisa , such as Lisa Bella in " Last Tap Dance in Springfield " ( season 11 , 2000 ) and Lisa , Jr. in " Missionary : Impossible " . ( season 11 , 2000 )
Despite the fame of Lisa Simpson , Smith is rarely recognized in public , as it is Lisa who appears on screen . However , Smith does not mind . She said , " it 's wonderful to be in the midst of all this hype about the show , and people enjoying the show so much , and to be totally a fly on the wall ; people never recognise me solely from my voice . " In a 2009 interview with The Guardian she commented that " It 's the best job ever . I have nothing but gratitude for the amount of freedom The Simpsons has bought me in my life . " Although Smith received a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance in 1992 , she considers it unimportant , saying " there 's part of me that feels it wasn 't even a real Emmy . " The award is a Creative Arts prize not awarded during the primetime telecast and , at the time , a juried award without nominations . Still , Smith considers her work on the show a success . " If I had to be associated with one character in fiction , " she said , " I will always be thrilled that it was Lisa Simpson . " Matt Groening has described Smith as being very similar to Lisa : " Yeardley has strong moral views about her character . There are lines that are written for Lisa that Yeardley reads and says , ' No , I wouldn 't say that . ' " Former Simpsons writer Jay Kogen praised her performance on the show , particularly in the episode " Lisa 's Substitute " , as able " to move past comedy to something really strong and serious and dramatic . "
Until 1998 , Smith was paid $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . A pay dispute erupted in 1998 , during which Fox threatened to replace the six main voice actors with new actors , going as far as preparing for casting of new voices . The dispute was soon resolved , and Smith received $ 125 @,@ 000 per episode until 2004 when the voice actors sought an increase to $ 360 @,@ 000 per episode . The issue was resolved a month later , and Smith earned $ 250 @,@ 000 per episode . New salary negotiations took place in 2008 , and the voice actors currently receive approximately $ 400 @,@ 000 per episode . Three years later , with Fox threatening to cancel the series unless production costs were cut , Smith and the other cast members accepted a 30 percent pay cut , down to just over $ 300 @,@ 000 per episode .
= = = Development = = =
In The Tracey Ullman Show shorts , Lisa was something of a " female Bart " : equally mischievous but lacking unique traits . As the series progressed , Lisa began to develop into a more intelligent and more emotional character . She demonstrates her intellect in the 1990 episode " Krusty Gets Busted " ( season one ) , by helping Bart reveal Sideshow Bob 's plot to frame Krusty the Clown for armed robbery . Many episodes focusing on Lisa have an emotional nature , such as " Moaning Lisa " ( season one , 1990 ) . The idea for the episode was pitched by James L. Brooks , who wanted to do an emotional episode involving Lisa 's sadness , to complement the many " jokey episodes " in the first season .
In the seventh @-@ season episode " Lisa the Vegetarian " ( 1995 ) , Lisa permanently becomes a vegetarian , distinguishing her as one of the first primetime television characters to make such a choice . The episode was written by David S. Cohen ( in his first solo writing credit ) who jotted down the idea one day while eating lunch . Then @-@ executive producer David Mirkin , who had recently become a vegetarian , quickly approved the idea . Several of Lisa 's experiences in the episode are based on Mirkin 's own experiences . The episode guest stars musician Paul McCartney , a committed vegetarian and animal rights activist . McCartney 's condition for appearing was that Lisa would remain a vegetarian for the rest of the series and would not revert the next week ( as is common on situation comedies ) . The trait stayed and is one of the few permanent character changes made in the show . In the season 13 episode " She of Little Faith " ( 2001 ) , Lisa underwent another permanent character change when she converted to Buddhism .
Lisa plays the baritone saxophone , and some episodes use that as a plot device . According to Matt Groening , the baritone saxophone was chosen because he found the thought of an eight @-@ year @-@ old girl playing it amusing . He added , " But she doesn 't always play a baritone sax because the animators don 't know what it looks like , so it changes shape and color from show to show . " One of the hallmarks of the show 's opening sequence is a brief solo Lisa plays on her saxophone after being thrown out of music class . The Simpsons composer Alf Clausen said that the session musicians who perform her solos do not try to play at the second grade level and instead " think of Lisa as a really good player . "
= = = Personality = = =
Lisa is extremely intelligent and sees herself as a misfit within the Simpson family and other children due to her knowledge . She shows characteristics rarely seen in Springfield , including spirituality and commitment to peaceful ways . Lisa 's knowledge covers a wide range of subjects , including physics , history , algebra , calculus , art , linguistics , geography , political science , economics and even sports . She is notably more concerned with world affairs than her life in Springfield , with her rebellion against social norms usually depicted as constructive and heroic , yet Lisa can be self @-@ righteous at times . In " Lisa the Vegetarian " , an increasing sense of moral righteousness leads her to disrupt her father 's roast @-@ pig barbecue , an act for which she later apologizes . Episodes often take shots at Lisa 's idealism . In " Bart Star " , ( season nine , 1997 ) Lisa , departs from her typically more genuine nature and apparently looking for a new cause to crusade over , defiantly declares that she , a girl , would like to join the football team . In the 1990s , it was considered unthinkable to allow a girl to play football . However , when coach Ned Flanders reveals that several girls already play for the team , she hesitates and claims football is " not really [ her ] thing " . She then expresses distaste about a ball made of pig 's skin , but one of the girls informs her that their footballs are synthetic and that proceeds are donated to Amnesty International . Visibly upset , Lisa runs off .
Lisa is said to have an IQ of 159 , and in " They Saved Lisa 's Brain " ( season ten , 1999 ) she becomes a member of the Springfield chapter of Mensa . When unable to attend school due to a teachers ' strike in " The PTA Disbands " , ( season six , 1995 ) she suffers withdrawal symptoms because of the sudden lack of praise . She even demands that her mother grade her for no obvious reason . In Planet Simpson , Chris Turner writes that these traits make Lisa more realistic because " No character can aspire to realism without a few all @-@ too @-@ human flaws . "
Although she is gifted , Lisa experiences typical childhood issues , sometimes requiring adult intervention . For example , in " Lost Our Lisa " ( season nine , 1998 ) , she tricks Homer into allowing her to ride the bus alone , only to become hopelessly lost and in need of aid from her father . Chris Turner writes in Planet Simpson that incidents like this illustrate that " Even when Lisa 's lecturing like a college professor or mounting yet another protest , she never becomes a full @-@ grown adult trapped in a kid 's body . " In The Simpsons and Philosophy : The D 'oh ! of Homer , Aeon J. Skoble states that although Lisa is an intellectual , she is still portrayed as a character who enjoys normal childhood and girl activities , plays with Malibu Stacy dolls , loves ponies , obsesses over teenage heartthrobs such as Corey , and watches The Itchy and Scratchy Show along with Bart. He writes , " One might argue that this is typical childhood behavior , but since in so many cases Lisa is presented not simply as a prodigy but as preternaturally wise , the fondness for Itchy and Scratchy and Corey seem to be highlighted , taking on greater significance . Lisa is portrayed as the avatar of logic and wisdom , but then she also worships Corey so she 's ' no better [ than the rest of us ] ' . "
Lisa occasionally worries that her family 's dull habits will rub off on her , such as in " Lisa the Simpson " ( season nine , 1998 ) she worries that the " Simpson gene " will make her a dimwit later finding out the gene only goes through the male side . She is often embarrassed and disapproving of her eccentric family : of her father 's poor parenting skills and buffoonish personality ; her mother 's stereotypical image and social ineptitude ; and her brother 's delinquent and low @-@ brow nature . She is also concerned that Maggie may grow up to be like the rest of the family and tries to teach her complex ideas . Chris Turner writes in Planet Simpson that " Lisa embarks on quests to find solace for her yearning spirit [ ... ] but the most reliable source of truth she finds is the one she always believed in : her family . It is from the other Simpsons that Lisa draws stability , meaning , contentment . " Her loyalty to her family is most clearly seen in the flashforward " Lisa 's Wedding " ( season six , 1995 ) , in which she must reconcile her love for them with the distaste of her cultured fiancé . In the episode " Mother Simpson " ( season seven , 1995 ) she meets her paternal grandmother Mona Simpson for the first time . Mona is also well @-@ read and articulate , and the writers used the character as a way to explain the origins of Lisa 's intelligence .
Lisa has been romantically linked to a number of other characters on the show , including Nelson Muntz , which voice actor Yeardley Smith says would make a good match for Lisa .
= = Reception = =
= = = Commendations = = =
Lisa has been a popular character since the show 's inception . She was listed at number 11 ( tied with Bart ) in TV Guide 's " Top 50 Greatest Cartoon Characters of All Time . " She appeared in Comcast 's list of TV 's Most Intriguing Characters and was also included in AfterEllen.com 's Top 50 Favorite Female TV Characters . On a less positive note , she was ranked third in AskMen 's top 10 of the most irritating ' 90s cartoon characters . Yeardley Smith has won several awards for voicing Lisa , including a Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Voice @-@ Over Performance " in 1992 for " Lisa the Greek " . Various episodes in which Lisa stars have won Emmy Awards for Outstanding Animated Program , including " Homer vs. Lisa and the 8th Commandment " in 1991 , " Lisa 's Wedding " in 1995 and " HOMR " in 2001 . In 2000 , Lisa and the rest of the Simpson family were awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard .
Lisa 's environmentalism has been especially well received . In 2001 , Lisa received a special " Board of Directors Ongoing Commitment Award " at the Environmental Media Awards . " Lisa the Vegetarian " won both an Environmental Media Award for " Best Television Episodic Comedy " and a Genesis Award for " Best Television Comedy Series , Ongoing Commitment " . Several other episodes that feature Lisa speaking out in favor of animal rights have won Genesis Awards , including " Whacking Day " in 1994 , " Bart Gets an Elephant " in 1995 , " Million Dollar Abie " in 2007 and " Apocalypse Cow " in 2009 .
= = = Cultural influence = = =
Jonathan Gray , author of the book Watching The Simpsons , feels that Lisa " is probably the best and certainly longest @-@ running feminist character that television has had . She 's the heart of the show and she quite often questions the gender politics . " Christopher Borrelli of The Toledo Blade wrote , " Has there ever been a female TV character as complex , intelligent , and , ahem , as emotionally well @-@ drawn as Lisa Simpson ? Meet her once and she comes off priggish and one @-@ note – a know @-@ it @-@ all . Get to know her and Lisa is as well @-@ rounded as anyone you may ever meet in the real world . "
According to PETA , Lisa was one of the first vegetarian characters on primetime television . In 2004 the organization included Lisa on its list of the " Most Animal @-@ Friendly TV Characters of All Time " . In 2008 , environmentalist website The Daily Green honored Lisa 's role in The Simpsons Movie with one of its inaugural " Heart of Green " awards , which " recognize those who have helped green go mainstream . " They wrote " young Lisa Simpson has inspired a generation to wear their hearts on their sleeves and get educated , and involved , about global issues , from justice to feminism and the environment . " Japanese broadcasters reversed viewer dislike of the series by focusing marketing of the show on Lisa . Lisa 's well @-@ intended but ill @-@ fated struggles to be a voice of reason and a force of good in her family and community struck a chord with Japanese audiences . Mario D 'Amato , a specialist in Buddhist studies at Rollins College in Florida , described Lisa as " open @-@ minded , reflective , ethical , and interested in improving herself in various ways , while still preserving a childlike sense of innocence . These are all excellent qualities , ones which are espoused by many Buddhist traditions . "
Lisa and the rest of the Simpsons have had a significant influence on English @-@ language idioms . The dismissive term " Meh " , used by Lisa and popularized by the show , entered the Collins English Dictionary in 2008 . In 1996 , The New York Times published an article saying that Lisa was inspiring children , especially young girls , to learn to play the saxophone .
= = = Merchandising = = =
Lisa has been included in many The Simpsons publications , toys , and other merchandise . The Lisa Book , describing Lisa 's personality and attributes , was released in 2006 . Other merchandise includes dolls , posters , figurines , bobblehead dolls , mugs , and clothing such as slippers , T @-@ shirts , baseball caps , and boxer shorts . Lisa has appeared in commercials for Burger King , C.C. Lemon , Church 's Chicken , Domino 's Pizza , Kentucky Fried Chicken , Ramada Inn , Ritz Crackers , Subway and Butterfinger .
On April 9 , 2009 , the United States Postal Service unveiled a series of five 44 cent stamps featuring Lisa and the four other members of the nuclear Simpson family . They are the first characters from a television series to receive this recognition while still in production . The stamps , designed by Matt Groening , went on sale in May 2009 .
Lisa has also appeared in other media relating to The Simpsons . She has appeared in each Simpsons video game , including The Simpsons Game , released in 2007 . In addition to the television series , Lisa regularly appears in issues of Simpsons Comics , first published on November 29 , 1993 and published monthly . The comics focus on the sweeter , more naive incarnation from the early seasons . Lisa also plays a role in The Simpsons Ride , launched in 2008 at Universal Studios Florida and Hollywood .
= Almost There ( album ) =
Almost There is the first major @-@ label studio album by American Christian rock band MercyMe . Produced by Pete Kipley , the album was released on August 14 , 2001 by INO Records . After releasing six independent records , the band decided to pursue a record contract due to the difficulty of selling , booking , and managing for themselves . The band signed with the newly formed INO Records , and were assigned to work with Kipley , who had not produced a major project before . Four of the songs on the album had previously appeared on the band 's independent records ; the rest were newly recorded songs . The album is a worship and pop rock album , and adopts a more radio @-@ friendly sound than the band 's independent albums .
Almost There received critical acclaim from music critics , who praised the album 's songwriting ; " I Can Only Imagine " received particular complements . Critics were more divided on the album 's sound . Some felt the album was " innovative " or " fresh " , while others felt it was middle – of – the – road or derivative . " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " was released as the album 's lead single ; however , it underperformed on the charts . The album 's second single , " I Can Only Imagine " , proved to be successful , peaking at number one on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart in 2002 . Its success contributed to the album reaching the top of the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart . After the song crossed over to mainstream radio in 2003 , the album peaked at number 39 on the Billboard 200 and number one on the Billboard Christian Albums chart . Almost There has been certified double platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and has sold over 2 @.@ 2 million copies in the United States . Billboard ranked it as the fourth best @-@ selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States , and it was listed by CCM Magazine in its 25th anniversary edition as one of ' 100 Albums You Need to Own ' .
= = Background and recording = =
MercyMe was formed in 1994 by vocalist Bart Millard , guitarist Mike Scheuchzer , and keyboardist Jim Bryson . The band later brought on drummer Robby Shaffer and bassist Nathan Cochran . In October 1999 , the band released their fifth independent album , The Worship Project . The album proved successful , selling over 60 @,@ 000 copies within a year , but the difficulty of selling albums directly , in addition to having to book and manage for themselves , led the band to pursue a contract with a record label . Millard was directed by a friend to contact Jeff Moseley , who had connections in the Christian music industry , for advice . After being contacted by Millard , Moseley expressed interest in the band , and within a week MercyMe was officially signed to INO Records , a new record label Moseley was helming . Moseley introduced the band to Pete Kipley , who would produce the album . Although Kipley had been involved on some minor projects , Almost There was his first major project .
Four of the songs on Almost There ( " Call to Worship " , " Cannot Say Enough " , " I Can Only Imagine " , and " In You " ) had previously appeared on the band 's independent records . All of the other songs on the album were new songs which had not been recorded before . All of the songs of the album were written by Millard or the band except " I Worship You " , which was written by Kipley and Reggie Hamm . The band included the song after Kipley brought it to them ; although the band wanted to write their own material , they liked the song so much that they put it as the first song on the album . " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " was written at the request of the label , who wanted to capitalize off of the success of the popular Bruce Wilkinson book The Prayer of Jabez . The band did not want to record the song , but eventually acquiesced . MercyMe pushed the label to include " House of God " , an upbeat rock song , since they felt that they had been pushed a little too far towards the adult contemporary genre .
Almost There was recorded at Ivy Park , The Indigo Room , Paradise Sound , and IBC Studios . Kipley produced and programmed the record , while Skye McCaskey and Julian Kindred engineered the album . Salvo mixed all the songs on the album at Cool Springs Studio with the exception of " In You " , which was mixed by Shane Wilson . Strings were recorded by the Paltrow Performance Group .
= = Composition = =
Almost There has been described by critics as being a worship and pop rock album . The album was noted as being stylistically similar to contemporary Christian bands like FFH . In contrast to the band 's independent records , which had an " organic " feel , Almost There adopts a more radio @-@ friendly musical style , although the rock style of the band 's independent albums does occasionally resurface . Similarities were noted between the " guitar nuances " of Scheuchzer and U2 's guitarist The Edge .
The album 's first song , " I Worship You " was described as " falling somewhere between adult contemporary and rock " , and utilizes acoustic guitars and synthesizers . " Here Am I " relates the story of people who are not being reached by Christians , and " challenges the listener to go out into the world and stand up for their King " . " On My Way to You " is a worship song , requesting " wisdom , purity , and humility in our pursuit of holiness " . " How Great is Your Love " incorporates both string and electronic instruments ; Millard 's vocals in the song utilize " effect – laden delays " . " I Can Only Imagine " is a ballad , opening with just piano before building to include drums and guitar . Lyrically , it asks what it will be like in Heaven , standing before God .
" Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " is one of the fastest songs on the album . Lyrically , the song parallels the prayer of the Biblical character Jabez in 1 Chronicles 4 : 10 , asking God for blessing and protection from evil . " Cannot Say Enough " was described as " ambient " and compared to Third Day 's " Your Love Oh Lord " . " House of God " was noted as being one of the album 's more rock – oriented songs . The song utilizes " driving " guitars and a " nasty " guitar riff , and invites the listener to enter the house of god . " Call to Worship " is a mid – tempo song led by guitar ; the song was compared to the work of The Cure . The final two songs on the album , " All Fall Down " and " In You " , are slower – paced songs , with the latter being led by piano and strings .
= = Release and promotion = =
Almost There was released in the United States on August 14 , 2001 . " Bless Me Indeed ( Jabez 's Song ) " was released as the album 's lead single . The label aimed to give the band a wider appeal by capitalizing on the success of the popular book The Prayer of Jabez . The song debuted on the Radio & Records Christian AC chart on August 31 , 2001 at number 29 , and spent four weeks on the chart , peaking at number 27 . The poor chart performance of the song led to album sales that were lower than anticipated . The album debuted at number 12 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart on September 1 , 2001 , and a week later entered the Billboard Heatseekers Albums chart , which ranks the top albums from artists who have not had an album enter the top 100 on the Billboard 200 chart , at number 39 .
" I Can Only Imagine " was released as the album 's second single . The song debuted on the Christian AC chart on November 2 , 2001 ; it reached the number one position on February 22 , 2002 and spent two weeks at the top spot . It also peaked at number 15 on the Radio & Records Christian CHR chart . As a result of the single 's radio airplay , Almost There experienced a " surge " in sales . The album debuted on the Billboard 200 at number 184 on December 22 , 2001 , and entered the top ten on the Christian Albums chart on January 19 , 2002 , charting at number eight . The album reached the peak of the Heatseekers Albums chart on February 2 , 2002 , and the following week entered the top 100 on the Billboard 200 chart , charting at number 98 . " How Great Is Your Love " was announced as the album 's third single in an interview with Billboard magazine on February 12 , 2002 . Millard had heavily pushed INO Records to release it as a single . However , " I Can Only Imagine " stayed on the Christian charts so long that by the time it fell off , the band had to begin work on their next record , and the song ultimately wasn 't released to radio . Almost There was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) on June 13 , 2002 , signifying shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . The band released their second album , Spoken For , on October 1 , 2002 . More than a year after the album 's delivery and after the release of the band 's second studio album , Spoken For ( 2002 ) , Almost There remained near the top of the Christian charts . Almost There ranked as the 6th best – selling Christian album and the 128th best – selling album of 2002 in the United States .
In 2003 , the album again received increased sales as " I Can Only Imagine " received airplay on mainstream radio formats . The song peaked at number five on the Billboard Adult Contemporary chart and number 71 on the Hot 100 , also crossing over to top 40 and country radio . The album was certified Platinum on July 14 , 2003 by the RIAA ; a month later , Almost There reached the top spot of the Christian Albums chart after 107 weeks on the chart . It reached its peak of number 37 on the Billboard 200 on September 20 , 2003 . It ranked as the 2nd – best selling Christian album and 128th best – selling album of 2004 . By May 2004 , Almost There had sold over 1 @.@ 5 million copies , and of April 2006 it has sold over 2 @.@ 2 million copies . Almost There was certified double platinum on January 20 , 2005 by the RIAA ; as of 2012 , it is one of only eight Christian albums to have reached that milestone ; others include P.O.D. ' s Satellite , Switchfoot 's The Beautiful Letdown , and Casting Crowns ' self – titled debut album . In its 2000s decade – end charts , Billboard ranked Almost There as the fourth best – selling Christian album of the 2000s in the United States , behind only Satellite , The Beautiful Letdown , and Alan Jackson 's Precious Memories .
= = Critical reception and accolades = =
Almost There received critical acclaim from music critics . Critics praised the album 's lyrical content , with particular complaint being given to " I Can Only Imagine " . Steve Losey of Allmusic gave the album 4 out of 5 stars , praising it as " a disc that holds power " and being an " exception " rather than a " norm " in comparison to most other praise and worship releases . Losey also noted the " guitar nuances " of Scheuchzer as being similar to U2 's The Edge , and praised Bryson as " [ placing ] intense but subtle keyboard traces within the context of each tune " . Adam Woodroof of CCM Magazine gave it 3 @.@ 5 out of 5 stars . While Woodroof felt the album did not deliver an innovative sound , he complemented it as offering " a breath of fresh air — and a sincerity sure to hold other artists wishing to dive into the genre accountable In a review for Charisma , Margaret Feinburg praised the album for incorporating songs from their previous independent records . Feinburg said that " MercyMe was stripped of much of its wonderful , organic , out – of – the box sound but given new life for radio airplay " , and that " Overall , MercyMe is a band that deserves to be heard " . Kevin McNeese of New Release Today gave the album five out of five stars , calling it " another defining album " in praise and worship music . McNeese particularly praised " I Can Only Imagine " , calling it the album 's highlight , but noted the other songs on the album were " penned with the same passion " .
The J Man of Crosswalk.com gave Almost There a B , and said that " In the ever – growing genre of modern worship , MercyMe steps up to the plate and drives a home run over the fence " . He praised the album as having a " fresh sound " , but described much of the album was " somewhat low – key " . Kevin Chamberlain of Jesus Freak Hideout gave the album 4 out of 5 stars . Chamberlain praised the album as being " lyrically one of the best albums out there " and said that " Every song is based on some sort of Scripture or Spiritual truth seldom found in some Christian music " . However , Chamberlain felt the album 's sound was average , saying it sounds like " FFH or any typical Contemporary Christian artist " .
Other critics gave the album a more mixed response . Megumi Nakamura of Cross Rhythms gave the album 7 out of 10 stars . Nakamura praised " I Can Only Imagine " , but said that " little else on the album that matches the huge impact of that one song " . In a later review for the album 's " Platinum Edition " re – release , Allan Clare gave it an 8 out of 10 , saying the rest of the album aside from " I Can Only Imagine " was " bland " . Russ Breimeier of Christianity Today felt the album was " something of a mixed bag " and described the band 's sound was " a little too mellow to be rock , and a little too heavy to be pop ... their particular style doesn 't stray from a middle of the road sound " . Breimier described the album was not particularly good or bad , and offered a weak recommendation to fans of worship bands like By the Tree and Delirious ? .
In its 25th anniversary edition , CCM Magazine listed Almost There as one of ' 100 Albums You Need to Own ' . In the following year , the previous magazine , ranked " I Can Only Imagine " as the fourth @-@ greatest song in Christian music . At the 33rd GMA Dove Awards , " I Can Only Imagine " won the awards for Song of the Year and Pop / Contemporary Recorded Song of the Year .
= = Track listing = =
( Credits and tracklist from the album liner notes )
= = Personnel = =
( Credits from the album liner notes )
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications and sales = =
= Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long =
" Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " is a song by English musician George Harrison , released on his 1973 album Living in the Material World . It was scheduled to be issued as a single in September that year , as the follow @-@ up to " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " , but the release never took place . Music critics have traditionally viewed " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as a highlight of the bestselling Material World album , praising its pop qualities and production , with some considering the song worthy of hit status .
Harrison wrote and recorded " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " during a period marked by his heightened devotion to Hindu spirituality , which coincided with marital problems with his first wife , Pattie Boyd , and the financial complications affecting his Bangladesh aid project . An upbeat love song in the tradition of early 1960s Brill Building songwriters , the composition has invited debate among commentators as to whether the lyrics are addressed to a lover such as Boyd or , like the majority of Harrison 's lyrics on Material World , to God .
Although produced by Harrison alone , the recording employs aspects of the Wall of Sound production synonymous with his former collaborator Phil Spector – through the use of reverb , two drummers and multiple acoustic rhythm guitar parts . Aside from Harrison , the musicians on the track are Gary Wright , Nicky Hopkins , Ringo Starr , Klaus Voormann and Jim Keltner . In November 1976 , during filming for their joint appearance on Saturday Night Live , Harrison performed " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " with singer Paul Simon , but the song did not appear in the broadcast .
= = Background = =
As with all the new songs on his Living in the Material World album ( 1973 ) , George Harrison wrote " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " in 1971 – 72 , a period of heightened devotion to Hindu spirituality on his part . " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " is a love song , and in light of problems in Harrison 's marriage to Pattie Boyd at the time , Harrison biographer Elliot Huntley remarks : " it 's interesting to speculate as to who it was written about ... " Author Jeff Walker suggests that the song 's apparently non @-@ devotional subject matter may have resulted from Harrison and Boyd 's marital difficulties .
Against Harrison 's wishes , Boyd had resumed her modelling career in May 1971 , having long felt isolated by her husband 's association with the Hare Krishna movement . His Concert for Bangladesh aid project had then united the couple , according to their friend Chris O 'Dell , who recalls Harrison as " attentive and affectionate " towards Boyd while planning the concerts that summer . The project 's subsequent business and legal issues became a source of frustration for Harrison , as he spent much of 1972 negotiating with government departments for the release of the funds raised for the refugees . In February 1972 , Harrison and Boyd were injured in an automobile accident in England , after which , author Alan Clayson writes , " her recovery was impaired by George 's pounding on a drum @-@ kit that he 'd set up in the next room . "
In August that year , Harrison set off for a driving holiday around Europe without Boyd , a trip that Huntley describes as " the first publicly visible signs " of problems in the Harrisons ' marriage . While in Portugal , Harrison stayed with his musician friend Gary Wright , who , Huntley suggests , " play [ ed ] the diplomat " by telling the press : " He 's writing lots of new things and he seems to be having a good time ... Sometimes he takes Pattie with him , but I feel he just felt like a holiday and wanted to get away . "
= = Composition = =
In his book The Words and Music of George Harrison , Ian Inglis writes that " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " incorporates many of the elements of pop composition pioneered during the early 1960s at New York 's Brill Building , where songwriters such as Barry Mann , Carole King and Gerry Goffin began their careers . Inglis lists these " stock motifs " as " a repetitive and attractive melody " , " a stereotypical choice of language " , " the familiar topic of lost , or unrequited , love " and " the conventional form of address from a man to a woman , in the persistent use of ' baby ' " . These elements appear in the song 's chorus , where Harrison sings : " How I love you / Baby , so don 't let me wait too long . "
Harrison biographer Simon Leng views " pop @-@ soul music " as " the obvious root " of " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " and cites musical tension as one facet of the pop @-@ soul style that Harrison adopts . This tension is evident in the " implie [ d ] dissonance " during the verses , Leng adds , when Harrison moves from an F major chord to D @-@ flat major . In reference to a lyric in the verses , Clayson suggests : " Although ' Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long ' betrayed that George 's sublimation of lust [ in favour of an ascetic path ] was by no means total , its consummation was , nonetheless , ' like it came from above ' . "
Inglis writes that the message of " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " is " in the title " . The theme of waiting is also central to a track that Harrison wrote in 1967 while in the Beatles , " Blue Jay Way " , and a similar sentiment appears in his 1970 – 71 solo hit " My Sweet Lord " , through the line " I really want to see you , Lord , but it takes so long " . In the latter lyric , Harrison expresses his impatience to see and know God , and Harrison biographer Geoffrey Giuliano interprets " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as a further reflection of the singer 's spiritual concerns .
Whereas Huntley , Inglis and Walker consider that Harrison is addressing a lover in " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " , other commentators , like Giuliano , view the lyrics as being consistent with the predominant theme of Living in the Material World – namely , Harrison 's spiritual search amid the temptations of the physical world . Of these commentators , Nicholas Schaffner and Bob Woffinden highlight " Sue Me , Sue You Blues " as the album 's only song with a non @-@ religious subject matter .
A Christian theologian , Dale Allison has identified a number of Harrison compositions where he finds it " impossible " to discern whether Harrison is proffering love for a woman or his deity , yet he views " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as a secular love song . Author Chris Ingham similarly writes that , along with the Material World tracks " Who Can See It " and " That Is All " , Harrison 's expression of love in this song " seems directed as much to an earthly relationship as to any God " .
= = Recording = =
The sessions for most of the basic tracks for Living in the Material World took place over October and November 1972 , with engineer Phil McDonald , but without Harrison 's intended co @-@ producer from All Things Must Pass ( 1970 ) and The Concert for Bangladesh ( 1971 ) , Phil Spector . According to the album credits , the location for the recording was the Beatles ' Apple Studio in London , although bassist Klaus Voormann has stated that the true venue was Harrison 's new home studio , FPSHOT , in Oxfordshire .
Aside from Harrison on acoustic guitars , the musicians on the basic track for " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " were Nicky Hopkins ( piano ) , Wright ( keyboards ) , Voormann ( bass ) , and Ringo Starr and Jim Keltner ( both on drums ) . The Starr – Keltner combination followed their pairing at the Concert for Bangladesh shows ; this song was one of three tracks on Material World to which Starr contributed , in between his film work on That 'll Be the Day ( 1973 ) and Son of Dracula ( 1974 ) . In addition , Pete Ham and Tom Evans of Apple group Badfinger attended some of the sessions in October , playing acoustic rhythm guitar as they had on much of All Things Must Pass . As with Ham 's playing on the 1971 @-@ recorded " Try Some , Buy Some " , however , any contribution they might have made to " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " went uncredited on the official release .
Following the completion of the main recording sessions , Harrison carried out overdubbing on the basic tracks through to the end of February 1973 . On " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " , the overdubs included his vocals and slide guitar part . Of the last of these , Walker comments that Harrison 's playing prior to the refrain further develops the melodic tension evident in the composition .
= = = Phil Spector 's influence = = =
Despite Spector 's absence , the song 's production incorporates aspects of his signature Wall of Sound , through the use of reverberation , multiple drummers and layers of rhythm instruments such as acoustic guitars and keyboards . Part of a sound commonly associated with Harrison during the early 1970s , these characteristics were also elements of his 1971 production of Badfinger 's " Day After Day " and Lon & Derrek Van Eaton 's " Sweet Music " .
Author Robert Rodriguez describes the recording as " Spector @-@ esque ( in a girl group sense ) " , Harrison having long been an admirer of Spector 's work with the Ronettes and the Crystals during the 1960s . Leng writes of " over @-@ the @-@ top tympani " as another Spector influence on " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " ' s " Motown ' orchestration ' " , while labelling the musical arrangement " English pop " . Among other later examples , Harrison would revive his version of Spector 's Wall of Sound for his 1974 single " Ding Dong , Ding Dong " and the song " If You Believe " , from his 1979 album George Harrison .
= = Release = =
Apple Records released Living in the Material World on 30 May 1973 in America , with " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " appearing on side one of the LP , between the ballads " The Light That Has Lighted the World " and " Who Can See It " . The album continued Harrison 's run of commercial success following the Beatles ' break @-@ up in 1970 , topping Billboard 's albums chart in the US and peaking at number 2 in Britain , behind the soundtrack to That 'll Be the Day . Amid this success , Rodriguez writes , Harrison and Boyd 's relationship " finally reached breaking point " in summer 1973 , the start of a period through to 1975 that Harrison would describe as his " naughty " years .
= = = Planned single release = = =
" Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " was scheduled to be the A @-@ side of a second single from the album , as a follow @-@ up to Harrison 's US number 1 hit " Give Me Love ( Give Me Peace on Earth ) " . The intended release date was 24 September 1973 ; an acetate of the single was created , and a US catalogue number assigned ( Apple 1866 ) . The release was cancelled at the last minute , however , for undisclosed reasons .
Noting the song 's " hit potential " , Leng views the cancellation as " [ o ] ne of the more anomalous features " of Harrison 's musical career . Leng has speculated that the single was withdrawn because of the similarity between " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " and " Give Me Love " . Author Andrew Grant Jackson suggests that the reason for the cancellation was due to " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " having a similar sound to " When I 'm Dead and Gone " , a 1970 hit song by McGuinness Flint . Although Harrison would not enjoy success with " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as a single , Leng and Inglis observe that the song anticipated a number of radio @-@ friendly singles by ELO during the 1970s , particularly their 1976 hit " Livin ' Thing " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews = = =
An upbeat Harrison song in the mould of " What Is Life " and " You " , " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " has regularly been singled out as one of the highlights of Living in the Material World . In his album review for Rolling Stone , Stephen Holden called the track " a gorgeous , rollicking love song " , while Billboard magazine listed it second among the album 's " best cuts " , after the title track . In Melody Maker , Michael Watts wrote of the song 's " Spector touches " , including " a crashing two @-@ beat on piano and a great surge of drums , straight from [ the Ronettes ' ] ' Be My Baby ' " .
NME critic Bob Woffinden remarked on the " exceptionally fine " music on Material World , of which " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " " could rank with his best compositions " . In his 1977 book The Beatles Forever , Nicholas Schaffner wrote that Harrison and former bandmates John Lennon and Paul McCartney had " evolved into surprisingly tasteful and meticulous producers " after their long association with Beatles producer George Martin , and added of Harrison : " Surely Phil Spector never had a more attentive pupil . "
= = = Retrospective assessment = = =
Among commentators in the 21st century , authors Chip Madinger and Mark Easter describe " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as " a marvelous track " and " a prime piece of pop songwriting " , and AllMusic 's Bruce Eder praises its " delectable acoustic rhythm guitar " and " great beat " . John Metzger of The Music Box writes of the track 's " brightly colored radiance " being a " prime example " of how Harrison successfully mixed elements of Spector and Martin 's individual styles on Material World . While considering the album 's production an improvement on All Things Must Pass , Blogcritics writer Chaz Lipp views the " soaring ' Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long ' " as a song that " rank [ s ] right alongside Harrison 's best work " . Bruce Spizer describes it as " a great rocker " , a " hook @-@ laden love song [ that ] moves at a brisk pace " , and concludes : " Had Apple issued the track as planned , it surely would have been a hit . " Dale Allison and Elliot Huntley also write of the song deserving hit @-@ single status .
In his review of the 2006 remaster album , for Mojo magazine , Mat Snow said that " this long overdue reissue is worth it alone for four wonderful songs " , of which " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " " reveals the lusty lad within the orange robes " associated with Hare Krishna devotees . More recently , Snow has described Material World as " a treat for the ears " and Harrison as " an old @-@ school pop tunesmith to his marrow , [ who ] worked hard to ensure the choruses of ' Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long , ' ' The Day the World Gets ' Round , ' and ' Who Can See It ' caught the ear with their deep and delicious emotion " .
Reviewing the 2014 reissue of Harrison 's Apple catalogue , for Classic Rock , Paul Trynka writes that Living in the Material Word " sparkles with many gems " , and adds : " but it 's the more restrained tracks – Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long , Who Can See It – that entrance : gorgeous pop songs , all the more forceful for their restraint . " Writing for PopMatters , Scot Elingburg pairs the song with " Be Here Now " as " would @-@ be hits " from Material World that " offer much more than just Harrison 's Hindu @-@ inspired teachings ; they also offer up the chance for larger dialogue within music . " Nick DeRiso , co @-@ founder of the music website Something Else ! , includes " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " among the highlights of Harrison 's solo career on Apple Records , and terms it " [ a ] masterpiece of coiled anticipation " .
Simon Leng refers to " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " as " one of George Harrison 's most perfect pop confections " , while praising its guitar fills and musical arrangement . Describing it as a " single @-@ that @-@ never @-@ was " , Leng suggests that the song would have been a " certain number 1 " . To Huntley , " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " is " a superlative slice of almost McCartney @-@ esque pop " , with Harrison 's " exquisite slide guitar " a particular highlight .
= = Other versions = =
In November 1976 , Harrison performed " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " with Paul Simon during the pre @-@ show taping of their joint appearance on NBC Television 's Saturday Night Live . The song was omitted from the broadcast , but the performance is available on the bootleg album Living in the Underground , along with other songs that Harrison and Simon played before the studio audience .
In 1977 , " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " was considered for inclusion on Two Man Band , the last of three albums by Splinter on Harrison 's Dark Horse record label . Harrison had suggested they cover the track as a compromise between Splinter 's vision and the commercial requirements initiated by Dark Horse distributor Warner Bros. Records . As much as singer Bob Purvis admired the song , it did not appear on the official release .
Following Harrison 's death in November 2001 at the age of 58 , the Late B.P. Helium – formerly Elf Power guitarist Bryan Poole – covered " Don 't Let Me Wait Too Long " on his 2003 EP Kumquat Mae . Splendid Media 's reviewer wrote that Poole " does the Krishna master proud " with his " soulfully earnest rendition " of Harrison 's song .
= = Personnel = =
George Harrison – vocals , acoustic guitars , slide guitar , backing vocals
Nicky Hopkins – piano
Gary Wright – electric piano , harpsichord
Klaus Voormann – bass
Ringo Starr – drums
Jim Keltner – drums , castanets
= Manitoba =
Manitoba ( / ˌmænᵻˈtoʊbə / ) is a province at the longitudinal centre of Canada . It is one of the three prairie provinces ( with Alberta and Saskatchewan ) and Canada 's fifth @-@ most populous province with its estimated about 1 @.@ 3 million people . Manitoba covers 649 @,@ 950 square kilometres ( 250 @,@ 900 sq mi ) with a widely varied landscape . The province is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west , the territories of Nunavut to the north , and Northwest Territories to the northwest , and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south .
Aboriginal peoples have inhabited what is now Manitoba for thousands of years . In the late 17th century , fur traders arrived in the area when it was part of Rupert 's Land and owned by the Hudson 's Bay Company . In 1867 , negotiations for the creation of the province of Manitoba led to an armed uprising of the Métis people against the Government of Canada , a conflict known as the Red River Rebellion . The resolution of the rebellion led to the Parliament of Canada passing the Manitoba Act in 1870 , officially creating the province of Manitoba .
Manitoba 's capital and largest city , Winnipeg , is Canada 's eighth @-@ largest Census Metropolitan Area . Winnipeg is the seat of government , home to the Legislative Assembly of Manitoba and the Provincial Court . Four of the province 's five universities and all four of its professional sports teams are in Winnipeg . Other cities in the province are Brandon , Portage la Prairie , Steinbach , Thompson , Winkler , Selkirk , Dauphin , Morden , and Flin Flon .
= = Etymology = =
The name Manitoba is believed to be derived from the Cree , Ojibwe or Assiniboine languages . The name derives from Cree manitou @-@ wapow or Ojibwa manidoobaa , both meaning " straits of Manitou , the Great Spirit " , a place referring to what are now called The Narrows in the centre of Lake Manitoba . It may also be from the Assiniboine for " Lake of the Prairie " .
The lake was known to French explorers as Lac des Prairies . Thomas Spence chose the name to refer to a new republic he proposed for the area south of the lake . Métis leader Louis Riel also chose the name , and it was accepted in Ottawa under the Manitoba Act of 1870 .
= = Geography = =
Manitoba is bordered by the provinces of Ontario to the east and Saskatchewan to the west , the territories of Nunavut to the north , and Northwest Territories to the northwest , and the US states of North Dakota and Minnesota to the south . It adjoins Hudson Bay to the northeast , and is the only prairie province to have a saltwater coastline . The Port of Churchill is the only arctic deep @-@ water port in Canada and the shortest shipping route between North America and Asia . Lake Winnipeg is the tenth @-@ largest freshwater lake in the world . Hudson Bay is the second @-@ largest bay in the world . Manitoba is at the heart of the giant Hudson Bay watershed , once known as Rupert 's Land . It was a vital area of the Hudson 's Bay Company , with many rivers and lakes that provided excellent opportunities for the lucrative fur trade .
= = = Hydrography and terrain = = =
The province has a saltwater coastline bordering Hudson Bay and contains over 110 @,@ 000 lakes , covering approximately 15 @.@ 6 percent or 101 @,@ 593 square kilometres ( 39 @,@ 225 sq mi ) of its surface area . Manitoba 's major lakes are Lake Manitoba , Lake Winnipegosis , and Lake Winnipeg , the tenth @-@ largest freshwater lake in the world . Some traditional Native lands and boreal forest on the east side of Lake Winnipeg are a proposed UNESCO World Heritage Site .
Manitoba is at the centre of the Hudson Bay drainage basin , with a high volume of the water draining into Lake Winnipeg and then north down the Nelson River into Hudson Bay . This basin 's rivers reach far west to the mountains , far south into the United States , and east into Ontario . Major watercourses include the Red , Assiniboine , Nelson , Winnipeg , Hayes , Whiteshell and Churchill rivers . Most of Manitoba 's inhabited south has developed in the prehistoric bed of Glacial Lake Agassiz . This region , particularly the Red River Valley , is flat and fertile ; there are hilly and rocky areas throughout the province left by receding glaciers .
Baldy Mountain is the province 's highest point at 832 metres ( 2 @,@ 730 ft ) above sea level , and the Hudson Bay coast is the lowest at sea level . Riding Mountain , the Pembina Hills , Sandilands Provincial Forest , and the Canadian Shield are also upland regions . Much of the province 's sparsely inhabited north and east lie on the irregular granite Canadian Shield , including Whiteshell , Atikaki , and Nopiming Provincial Parks .
Extensive agriculture is found only in the province 's southern areas , although there is grain farming in the Carrot Valley Region ( near The Pas ) . The most common agricultural activity is cattle husbandry ( 34 @.@ 6 % ) , followed by assorted grains ( 19 @.@ 0 % ) and oilseed ( 7 @.@ 9 % ) . Around 12 percent of Canada 's farmland is in Manitoba .
= = = Climate = = =
Manitoba has an extreme continental climate . Temperatures and precipitation generally decrease from south to north and increase from east to west . Manitoba is far from the moderating influences of mountain ranges or large bodies of water . Because of the generally flat landscape , it is exposed to cold Arctic high @-@ pressure air masses from the northwest during January and February . In the summer , air masses sometimes come out of the Southern United States , as warm humid air is drawn northward from the Gulf of Mexico . Temperatures exceed 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) numerous times each summer , and the combination of heat and humidity can bring the humidex value to the mid @-@ 40s . Carman , Manitoba recorded the second @-@ highest humidex ever in Canada in 2007 , with 53 @.@ 0 . According to Environment Canada , Manitoba ranked first for clearest skies year round , and ranked second for clearest skies in the summer and for the sunniest province in the winter and spring .
Southern Manitoba ( including the city of Winnipeg ) , falls into the humid continental climate zone ( Köppen Dfb ) . This area is cold and windy in the winter and has frequent blizzards because of the open landscape . Summers are warm with a moderate length . This region is the most humid area in the prairie provinces , with moderate precipitation . Southwestern Manitoba , though under the same climate classification as the rest of Southern Manitoba , is closer to the semi @-@ arid interior of Palliser 's Triangle . The area is drier and more prone to droughts than other parts of southern Manitoba . This area is cold and windy in the winter and has frequent blizzards due to the openness of the prairie landscape . Summers are generally warm to hot , with low to moderate humidity .
Southern parts of the province just north of Tornado Alley , experience tornadoes , with 15 confirmed touchdowns in 2006 . In 2007 , on 22 and 23 June , numerous tornadoes touched down , the largest an F5 tornado that devastated parts of Elie ( the strongest recorded tornado in Canada ) .
The province 's northern sections ( including the city of Thompson ) fall in the subarctic climate zone ( Köppen climate classification Dfc ) . This region features long and extremely cold winters and brief , warm summers with little precipitation . Overnight temperatures as low as − 40 ° C ( − 40 ° F ) occur on several days each winter .
= = = Flora and fauna = = =
The province 's eastern , southeastern , and northern reaches range through boreal coniferous forests , muskeg , Canadian Shield and a small section of tundra bordering Hudson Bay . Forests make up about 263 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 102 @,@ 000 sq mi ) , or 48 percent , of the province 's land area . The forests consist of pines ( mostly jack pine , some red pine ) , spruces ( white , black ) , larch , poplars ( trembling aspen , balsam poplar ) , birch ( white , swamp ) and small pockets of eastern white cedar . The tallgrass prairie dominates the southern and particularly the province 's southeastern parts around the Red River Valley , and is notable for its endangered western prairie fringed orchid , whereas the rest of the south and southwest is predominantly mixed grass prairie . There is a broad zone of aspen parkland ecotone .
Manitoba is home to a diverse species of animals . The province is especially noted for its polar bear population ; Churchill is commonly referred to as the " Polar Bear Capital " . Other large animals , such as moose , deer , cougars , lynx , and wolves , are common throughout the province , especially in the provincial and national parks . There is a large population of red sided garter snakes near Narcisse ; the dens there are home to the world 's largest concentration of snakes . Manitoba has over 145 species of birds , including the great grey owl , the province 's official bird , and the endangered peregrine falcon . Manitoba 's lakes host 18 species of game fish , particularly species of trout , pike , and goldeye , as well as many smaller fish .
= = History = =
= = = First Nations and European settlement = = =
Modern @-@ day Manitoba was inhabited by the First Nations people shortly after the last ice age glaciers retreated in the southwest about 10 @,@ 000 years ago ; the first exposed land was the Turtle Mountain area . The Ojibwe , Cree , Dene , Sioux , Mandan , and Assiniboine peoples founded settlements , and other tribes entered the area to trade . In Northern Manitoba , quartz was mined to make arrowheads . The first farming in Manitoba was along the Red River , where corn and other seed crops were planted before contact with Europeans .
In 1611 , Henry Hudson was one of the first Europeans to sail into what is now known as Hudson Bay , where he was abandoned by his crew . The first European to reach present @-@ day central and southern Manitoba was Sir Thomas Button , who travelled upstream along the Nelson River to Lake Winnipeg in 1612 in an unsuccessful attempt to find and rescue Hudson . When the British ship Nonsuch sailed into Hudson Bay in 1668 – 1669 , she became the first trading vessel to reach the area ; that voyage led to the formation of the Hudson 's Bay Company , to which the British government gave absolute control of the entire Hudson Bay watershed . This watershed was named Rupert 's Land , after Prince Rupert , who helped to subsidize the Hudson 's Bay Company . York Factory was founded in 1684 after the original fort of the Hudson 's Bay Company , Fort Nelson ( built in 1682 ) , was destroyed by rival French traders .
Pierre Gaultier de Varennes , sieur de La Vérendrye , visited the Red River Valley in the 1730s to help open the area for French exploration and trade . As French explorers entered the area , a Montreal @-@ based company , the North West Company , began trading with the Métis . Both the North West Company and the Hudson 's Bay Company built fur @-@ trading forts ; the two companies competed in southern Manitoba , occasionally resulting in violence , until they merged in 1821 ( the Hudson 's Bay Company Archives in Winnipeg preserve the history of this era ) .
Great Britain secured the territory in 1763 after their victory over France in the North American theatre of the Seven Years ' War , better known as the French and Indian War in North America ; lasting from 1754 to 1763 . The founding of the first agricultural community and settlements in 1812 by Lord Selkirk , north of the area which is now downtown Winnipeg , led to conflict between British colonists and the Métis . Twenty colonists , including the governor , and one Métis were killed in the Battle of Seven Oaks in 1816 . Thomas Spence attempted to be President of the Republic of Manitobah in 1867 , that he and his council named .
= = = Confederation = = =
Rupert 's Land was ceded to Canada by the Hudson 's Bay Company in 1869 and incorporated into the Northwest Territories ; a lack of attention to Métis concerns caused Métis leader Louis Riel to establish a local provisional government as part of the Red River Rebellion . In response , Prime Minister John A. Macdonald introduced the Manitoba Act in the Canadian House of Commons , the bill was given Royal Assent and Manitoba was brought into Canada as a province in 1870 . Louis Riel was pursued by British army officer Garnet Wolseley because of the rebellion , and Riel fled into exile . The Canadian government blocked the Métis ' attempts to obtain land promised to them as part of Manitoba 's entry into confederation . Facing racism from the new flood of white settlers from Ontario , large numbers of Métis moved to what would become Saskatchewan and Alberta .
Numbered Treaties were signed in the late 19th century with the chiefs of various First Nations that lived in the area . These treaties made specific promises of land for every family . As a result , a reserve system was established under the jurisdiction of the Federal Government . The prescribed amount of land promised to the native peoples was not always given ; this led aboriginal groups to assert rights to the land through aboriginal land claims , many of which are still ongoing .
The original province of Manitoba was a square one @-@ eighteenth of its current size , and was known colloquially as the " postage stamp province " . Its borders were expanded in 1881 , taking land from the Northwest Territories and the District of Keewatin , but Ontario claimed a large portion of the land ; the disputed portion was awarded to Ontario in 1889 . Manitoba grew to its current size in 1912 , absorbing land from the Northwest Territories to reach 60 ° N , uniform with the northern reach of its western neighbours Saskatchewan , Alberta and British Columbia .
The Manitoba Schools Question showed the deep divergence of cultural values in the territory . The Catholic Franco @-@ Manitobans had been guaranteed a state @-@ supported separate school system in the original constitution of Manitoba , but a grassroots political movement among English Protestants from 1888 to 1890 demanded the end of French schools . In 1890 , the Manitoba legislature passed a law removing funding for French Catholic schools . The French Catholic minority asked the federal government for support ; however , the Orange Order and other anti @-@ Catholic forces mobilized nationwide to oppose them .
The federal Conservatives proposed remedial legislation to override Manitoba , but they were blocked by the Liberals , led by Wilfrid Laurier , who opposed the remedial legislation because of his belief in provincial rights . Once elected Prime Minister in 1896 , Laurier implemented a compromise stating Catholics in Manitoba could have their own religious instruction for 30 minutes at the end of the day if there were enough students to warrant it , implemented on a school @-@ by @-@ school basis .
= = = Modern era = = =
By 1911 , Winnipeg was the third largest city in Canada , and remained so until overtaken by Vancouver in the 1920s . A boomtown , it grew quickly around the start of the 20th century , with outside investors and immigrants contributing to its success . The drop in growth in the second half of the decade was a result of the opening of the Panama Canal in 1914 , which reduced reliance on transcontinental railways for trade , as well as a decrease in immigration due to the outbreak of the First World War . Over 18 @,@ 000 Manitoba residents enlisted in the first year of the war ; by the end of the war , 14 Manitobans had received the Victoria Cross .
After the First World War ended , severe discontent among farmers ( over wheat prices ) and union members ( over wage rates ) resulted in an upsurge of radicalism , coupled with a polarization over the rise of Bolshevism in Russia . The most dramatic result was the Winnipeg general strike of 1919 . It began on 15 May and collapsed on 25 June 1919 ; as the workers gradually returned to their jobs , the Central Strike Committee decided to end the movement .
Government efforts to violently crush the strike , including a Royal Northwest Mounted Police charge into a crowd of protesters that resulted in multiple casualties and one death , had led to the arrest of the movement 's leaders . In the aftermath , eight leaders went on trial , and most were convicted on charges of seditious conspiracy , illegal combinations , and seditious libel ; four were aliens who were deported under the Canadian Immigration Act .
The Great Depression ( 1929 – c . 1939 ) hit especially hard in Western Canada , including Manitoba . The collapse of the world market combined with a steep drop in agricultural production due to drought led to economic diversification , moving away from a reliance on wheat production . The Manitoba Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation , forerunner to the New Democratic Party of Manitoba ( NDP ) , was founded in 1932 .
Canada entered the Second World War in 1939 . Winnipeg was one of the major commands for the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan to train fighter pilots , and there were air training schools throughout Manitoba . Several Manitoba @-@ based regiments were deployed overseas , including Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry . In an effort to raise money for the war effort , the Victory Loan campaign organized " If Day " in 1942 . The event featured a simulated Nazi invasion and occupation of Manitoba , and eventually raised over C $ 65 million .
Winnipeg was inundated during the 1950 Red River Flood and had to be partially evacuated . In that year , the Red River reached its highest level since 1861 and flooded most of the Red River Valley . The damage caused by the flood led then @-@ Premier Duff Roblin to advocate for the construction of the Red River Floodway ; it was completed in 1968 after six years of excavation . Permanent dikes were erected in eight towns south of Winnipeg , and clay dikes and diversion dams were built in the Winnipeg area . In 1997 , the " Flood of the Century " caused over C $ 400 million in damages in Manitoba , but the floodway prevented Winnipeg from flooding .
In 1990 , Prime Minister Brian Mulroney attempted to pass the Meech Lake Accord , a series of constitutional amendments to persuade Quebec to endorse the Canada Act 1982 . Unanimous support in the legislature was needed to bypass public consultation . Manitoba politician Elijah Harper , a Cree , opposed because he did not believe First Nations had been adequately involved in the Accord 's process , and thus the Accord failed .
In 2013 , Manitoba was the second province to make accessibility legislation law , protecting the rights of persons with disabilities .
= = Demography = =
At the 2011 census , Manitoba had a population of 1 @,@ 208 @,@ 268 , more than half of which is in the Winnipeg Capital Region ; Winnipeg is Canada 's eighth @-@ largest Census Metropolitan Area , with a population of 730 @,@ 018 ( 2011 Census ) . Although initial colonization of the province revolved mostly around homesteading , the last century has seen a shift towards urbanization ; Manitoba is the only Canadian province with over fifty @-@ five percent of its population located in a single city .
According to the 2006 Canadian census , the largest ethnic group in Manitoba is English ( 22 @.@ 9 % ) , followed by German ( 19 @.@ 1 % ) , Scottish ( 18 @.@ 5 % ) , Ukrainian ( 14 @.@ 7 % ) , Irish ( 13 @.@ 4 % ) , North American Indian ( 10 @.@ 6 % ) , Polish ( 7 @.@ 3 % ) , Métis ( 6 @.@ 4 % ) , French ( 5 @.@ 6 % ) , Dutch ( 4 @.@ 9 % ) , and Russian ( 4 @.@ 0 % ) . Almost one @-@ fifth of respondents also identified their ethnicity as " Canadian " . There is a significant indigenous community : aboriginals ( including Métis ) are Manitoba 's fastest @-@ growing ethnic group , representing 13 @.@ 6 percent of Manitoba 's population as of 2001 ( some reserves refused to allow census @-@ takers to enumerate their populations ) . There is a significant Franco @-@ Manitoban minority ( 148 @,@ 370 ) and a growing aboriginal population ( 192 @,@ 865 , including the Métis ) . Gimli , Manitoba is home to the largest Icelandic community outside of Iceland .
Most Manitobans belong to a Christian denomination : on the 2001 census , 758 @,@ 760 Manitobans ( 68 @.@ 7 % ) reported being Christian , followed by 13 @,@ 040 ( 1 @.@ 2 % ) Jewish , 5 @,@ 745 ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) Buddhist , 5 @,@ 485 ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) Sikh , 5 @,@ 095 ( 0 @.@ 5 % ) Muslim , 3 @,@ 840 ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) Hindu , 3 @,@ 415 ( 0 @.@ 3 % ) Aboriginal spirituality and 995 ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) pagan . 201 @,@ 825 Manitobans ( 18 @.@ 3 % ) reported no religious affiliation . The largest Christian denominations by number of adherents were the Roman Catholic Church with 292 @,@ 970 ( 27 % ) ; the United Church of Canada with 176 @,@ 820 ( 16 % ) ; and the Anglican Church of Canada with 85 @,@ 890 ( 8 % ) .
= = Economy = =
Manitoba has a moderately strong economy based largely on natural resources . Its Gross Domestic Product was C $ 50 @.@ 834 billion in 2008 . The province 's economy grew 2 @.@ 4 percent in 2008 , the third consecutive year of growth ; in 2009 , it neither increased nor decreased . The average individual income in Manitoba in 2006 was C $ 25 @,@ 100 ( compared to a national average of C $ 26 @,@ 500 ) , ranking fifth @-@ highest among the provinces . As of October 2009 , Manitoba 's unemployment rate was 5 @.@ 8 percent .
Manitoba 's economy relies heavily on agriculture , tourism , energy , oil , mining , and forestry . Agriculture is vital and is found mostly in the southern half of the province , although grain farming occurs as far north as The Pas . Around 12 percent of Canadian farmland is in Manitoba . The most common type of farm found in rural areas is cattle farming ( 34 @.@ 6 % ) , followed by assorted grains ( 19 @.@ 0 % ) and oilseed ( 7 @.@ 9 % ) .
Manitoba is the nation 's largest producer of sunflower seed and dry beans , and one of the leading sources of potatoes . Portage la Prairie is a major potato processing centre , and is home to the McCain Foods and Simplot plants , which provide French fries for McDonald 's , Wendy 's , and other commercial chains . Can @-@ Oat Milling , one of the largest oat mills in the world , also has a plant in the municipality .
Manitoba 's largest employers are government and government @-@ funded institutions , including crown corporations and services like hospitals and universities . Major private @-@ sector employers are The Great @-@ West Life Assurance Company , Cargill Ltd . , and James Richardson and Sons Ltd . Manitoba also has large manufacturing and tourism sectors . Churchill 's Arctic wildlife is a major tourist attraction ; the town is a world capital for polar bear and beluga whale watchers . Manitoba is the only province with an Arctic deep @-@ water seaport , which links to the shortest shipping route between North America , Europe and Asia .
= = = Economic history = = =
Manitoba 's early economy depended on mobility and living off the land . Aboriginal Nations ( Cree , Ojibwa , Dene , Sioux and Assiniboine ) followed herds of bison and congregated to trade among themselves at key meeting places throughout the province . After the arrival of the first European traders in the 17th century , the economy centred on the trade of beaver pelts and other furs . Diversification of the economy came when Lord Selkirk brought the first agricultural settlers in 1811 , though the triumph of the Hudson 's Bay Company ( HBC ) over its competitors ensured the primacy of the fur trade over widespread agricultural colonization .
HBC control of Rupert 's Land ended in 1868 ; when Manitoba became a province in 1870 , all land became the property of the federal government , with homesteads granted to settlers for farming . Transcontinental railways were constructed to simplify trade . Manitoba 's economy depended mainly on farming , which persisted until drought and the Great Depression led to further diversification .
= = Military bases = =
CFB Winnipeg is a Canadian Forces Base at the Winnipeg International Airport . The base is home to flight operations support divisions and several training schools , as well as the 1 Canadian Air Division and Canadian NORAD Region Headquarters . 17 Wing of the Canadian Forces is based at CFB Winnipeg ; the Wing has three squadrons and six schools . It supports 113 units from Thunder Bay to the Saskatchewan / Alberta border , and from the 49th parallel north to the high Arctic . 17 Wing acts as a deployed operating base for CF @-@ 18 Hornet fighter – bombers assigned to the Canadian NORAD Region .
The two 17 Wing squadrons based in the city are : the 402 ( " City of Winnipeg " Squadron ) , which flies the Canadian designed and produced de Havilland Canada CT @-@ 142 Dash 8 navigation trainer in support of the 1 Canadian Forces Flight Training School 's Air Combat Systems Officer and Airborne Electronic Sensor Operator training programs ( which trains all Canadian Air Combat Systems Officer ) ; and the 435 ( " Chinthe " Transport and Rescue Squadron ) , which flies the Lockheed C @-@ 130 Hercules tanker / transport in airlift search and rescue roles , and is the only Air Force squadron equipped and trained to conduct air @-@ to @-@ air refuelling of fighter aircraft .
Canadian Forces Base Shilo ( CFB Shilo ) is an Operations and Training base of the Canadian Forces located 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) east of Brandon . During the 1990s , Canadian Forces Base Shilo was designated as an Area Support Unit , acting as a local base of operations for Southwest Manitoba in times of military and civil emergency . CFB Shilo is the home of the 1st Regiment , Royal Canadian Horse Artillery , both battalions of the 1 Canadian Mechanized Brigade Group , and the Royal Canadian Artillery . The Second Battalion of Princess Patricia 's Canadian Light Infantry ( 2 PPCLI ) , which was originally stationed in Winnipeg ( first at Fort Osborne , then in Kapyong Barracks ) , has operated out of CFB Shilo since 2004 . CFB Shilo hosts a training unit , 3rd Canadian Division Training Centre . It serves as a base for support units of 3rd Canadian Division , also including 3 CDSG Signals Squadron , Shared Services Unit ( West ) , 11 CF Health Services Centre , 1 Dental Unit , 1 Military Police Regiment , and an Integrated Personnel Support Centre . The base currently houses 1 @,@ 700 soldiers .
= = Government and politics = =
After the control of Rupert 's Land was passed from Great Britain to the Government of Canada in 1869 , Manitoba attained full @-@ fledged rights and responsibilities of self @-@ government as the first Canadian province carved out of the Northwest Territories . The Legislative Assembly of Manitoba was established on 14 July 1870 . Political parties first emerged between 1878 and 1883 , with a two @-@ party system ( Liberals and Conservatives ) . The United Farmers of Manitoba appeared in 1922 , and later merged with the Liberals in 1932 . Other parties , including the Co @-@ operative Commonwealth Federation ( CCF ) , appeared during the Great Depression ; in the 1950s , Manitoban politics became a three @-@ party system , and the Liberals gradually declined in power . The CCF became the New Democratic Party of Manitoba ( NDP ) , which came to power in 1969 . Since then , the Conservatives and the NDP have been the dominant parties .
Like all Canadian provinces , Manitoba is governed by a unicameral legislative assembly . The executive branch is formed by the governing party ; the party leader is the premier of Manitoba , the head of the executive branch . The head of state , Queen Elizabeth II , is represented by the Lieutenant Governor of Manitoba , who is appointed by the Governor General of Canada on advice of the Prime Minister . The head of state is primarily a ceremonial role , although the Lieutenant Governor has the official responsibility of ensuring that Manitoba has a duly constituted government .
The Legislative Assembly consists of the 57 Members elected to represent the people of Manitoba . The premier of Manitoba is Brian Pallister of the PC Party . The PCs were elected with a majority government of 40 seats . The NDP holds 14 seats , and the Liberal Party have three seats but does not have official party status in the Manitoba Legislature . The last provincial general election was held on 19 April 2016 . The province is represented in federal politics by 14 Members of Parliament and six Senators .
Manitoba 's judiciary consists of the Court of Appeal , the Court of Queen 's Bench , and the Provincial Court . The Provincial Court is primarily for criminal law ; 95 percent of criminal cases in Manitoba are heard here . The Court of Queen 's Bench is the highest trial court in the province . It has four jurisdictions : family law ( child and family services cases ) , civil law , criminal law ( for indictable offences ) , and appeals . The Court of Appeal hears appeals from both benches ; its decisions can only be appealed to the Supreme Court of Canada .
= = = Official languages = = =
English and French are the official languages of the legislature and courts of Manitoba , according to § 23 of the Manitoba Act , 1870 ( part of the Constitution of Canada ) . In April 1890 , the Manitoba legislature attempted to abolish the official status of French , and ceased to publish bilingual legislation . However , in 1985 the Supreme Court of Canada ruled in the Reference re Manitoba Language Rights that § 23 still applied , and that legislation published only in English was invalid ( unilingual legislation was declared valid for a temporary period to allow time for translation ) .
Although French is an official language for the purposes of the legislature , legislation , and the courts , the Manitoba Act does not require it to be an official language for the purpose of the executive branch ( except when performing legislative or judicial functions ) . Hence , Manitoba 's government is not completely bilingual . The Manitoba French Language Services Policy of 1999 is intended to provide a comparable level of provincial government services in both official languages . According to the 2006 Census , 82 @.@ 8 percent of Manitoba 's population spoke only English , 3 @.@ 2 percent spoke only French , 15 @.@ 1 percent spoke both , and 0 @.@ 9 percent spoke neither .
In 2010 , the provincial government of Manitoba passed the Aboriginal Languages Recognition Act , which gives official recognition to seven indigenous languages : Cree , Dakota , Dene , Inuktitut , Michif , Ojibway and Oji @-@ Cree .
= = Transportation = =
Transportation and warehousing contribute approximately C $ 2 @.@ 2 billion to Manitoba 's GDP . Total employment in the industry is estimated at 34 @,@ 500 , or around 5 percent of Manitoba 's population . Trucks haul 95 percent of land freight in Manitoba , and trucking companies account for 80 percent of Manitoba 's merchandise trade to the United States . Five of Canada 's twenty @-@ five largest employers in for @-@ hire trucking are headquartered in Manitoba . C $ 1 @.@ 18 billion of Manitoba 's GDP comes directly or indirectly from trucking .
Greyhound Canada and Grey Goose Bus Lines offer domestic bus service from the Winnipeg Bus Terminal . The terminal was relocated from downtown Winnipeg to the airport in 2009 , and is a Greyhound hub . Municipalities also operate localized transit bus systems .
Manitoba has two Class I railways : Canadian National Railway ( CN ) and Canadian Pacific Railway ( CPR ) . Winnipeg is centrally located on the main lines of both carriers , and both maintain large inter @-@ modal terminals in the city . CN and CPR operate a combined 2 @,@ 439 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 516 mi ) of track in Manitoba . Via Rail offers transcontinental and Northern Manitoba passenger service from Winnipeg 's Union Station . Numerous small regional and short @-@ line railways also run trains within Manitoba : the Hudson Bay Railway , the Southern Manitoba Railway , Burlington Northern Santa Fe Manitoba , Greater Winnipeg Water District Railway , and Central Manitoba Railway . Together , these smaller lines operate approximately 1 @,@ 775 kilometres ( 1 @,@ 103 mi ) of track in the province .
Winnipeg James Armstrong Richardson International Airport , Manitoba 's largest airport , is one of only a few 24 @-@ hour unrestricted airports in Canada and is part of the National Airports System . A new , larger terminal opened in October 2011 . The airport handles approximately 195 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 430 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 lb ) of cargo annually , making it the third largest cargo airport in the country .
Eleven regional passenger airlines and nine smaller and charter carriers operate out of the airport , as well as eleven air cargo carriers and seven freight forwarders . Winnipeg is a major sorting facility for both FedEx and Purolator , and receives daily trans @-@ border service from UPS . Air Canada Cargo and Cargojet Airways use the airport as a major hub for national traffic .
The Port of Churchill , owned by OmniTRAX , is the only Arctic deep @-@ water port in Canada . It is nautically closer to ports in Northern Europe and Russia than any other port in Canada . It has four deep @-@ sea berths for the loading and unloading of grain , general cargo and tanker vessels . The port is served by the Hudson Bay Railway ( also owned by OmniTRAX ) . Grain represented 90 percent of the port 's traffic in the 2004 shipping season . In that year , over 600 @,@ 000 tonnes ( 1 @.@ 3 × 109 lb ) of agricultural products were shipped through the port .
= = Education = =
The first school in Manitoba was founded in 1818 by Roman Catholic missionaries in present @-@ day Winnipeg ; the first Protestant school was established in 1820 . A provincial board of education was established in 1871 ; it was responsible for public schools and curriculum , and represented both Catholics and Protestants . The Manitoba Schools Question led to funding for French Catholic schools largely being withdrawn in favour of the English Protestant majority . Legislation making education compulsory for children between seven and fourteen was first enacted in 1916 , and the leaving age was raised to sixteen in 1962 .
Public schools in Manitoba fall under the regulation of one of thirty @-@ seven school divisions within the provincial education system ( except for the Manitoba Band Operated Schools , which are administered by the federal government ) . Public schools follow a provincially mandated curriculum in either French or English . There are sixty @-@ five funded independent schools in Manitoba , including three boarding schools . These schools must follow the Manitoban curriculum and meet other provincial requirements . There are forty @-@ four non @-@ funded independent schools , which are not required to meet those standards .
There are five universities in Manitoba , regulated by the Ministry of Advanced Education and Literacy . Four of these universities are in Winnipeg : the University of Manitoba , the largest and most comprehensive ; the University of Winnipeg , a liberal arts school primarily focused on undergrad studies located downtown ; Université de Saint @-@ Boniface , the province 's only French @-@ language university ; and the Canadian Mennonite University , a religious @-@ based institution . The Université de Saint @-@ Boniface , established in 1818 and now affiliated with the University of Manitoba , is the oldest university in Western Canada . Brandon University , formed in 1899 and located in Brandon , is the province 's only university not in Winnipeg .
Manitoba has thirty @-@ eight public libraries ; of these , twelve have French @-@ language collections and eight have significant collections in other languages . Twenty @-@ one of these are part of the Winnipeg Public Library system . The first lending library in Manitoba was founded in 1848 .
= = Culture = =
= = = Arts = = =
Manitoba 's culture has been influenced by traditional ( Aboriginal and Métis ) and modern Canadian artistic values , as well as by the cultures of its immigrant populations and American neighbours . The Minister of Culture , Heritage , Tourism and Sport is responsible for promoting and , to some extent , financing Manitoban culture . Manitoba is the birthplace of the Red River Jig , a combination of aboriginal pow @-@ wows and European reels popular among early settlers . Manitoba 's traditional music has strong roots in Métis and Aboriginal culture , in particular the old @-@ time fiddling of the Métis . Manitoba 's cultural scene also incorporates classical European traditions . The Winnipeg @-@ based Royal Winnipeg Ballet ( RWB ) , is Canada 's oldest ballet and North America 's longest continuously operating ballet company ; it was granted its royal title in 1953 under Queen Elizabeth II . The Winnipeg Symphony Orchestra ( WSO ) performs classical music and new compositions at the Centennial Concert Hall . Manitoba Opera , founded in 1969 , also performs out of the Centennial Concert Hall .
Le Cercle Molière ( founded 1925 ) is the oldest French @-@ language theatre in Canada , and Manitoba Theatre Centre ( founded 1958 ) is Canada 's oldest English @-@ language regional theatre . Manitoba Theatre for Young People was the first English @-@ language theatre to win the Canadian Institute of the Arts for Young Audiences Award , and offers plays for children and teenagers as well as a theatre school . The Winnipeg Art Gallery ( WAG ) , Manitoba 's largest art gallery and the sixth largest in the country , hosts an art school for children ; the WAG 's permanent collection comprises over twenty thousand works , with a particular emphasis on Manitoban and Canadian art .
The 1960s pop group The Guess Who was formed in Manitoba , and later became the first Canadian band to have a No. 1 hit in the United States ; Guess Who guitarist Randy Bachman later created Bachman – Turner Overdrive ( BTO ) with fellow Winnipeg @-@ based musician Fred Turner . Fellow rocker Neil Young , lived for a time in Manitoba , played with Stephen Stills in Buffalo Springfield , and again in supergroup Crosby , Stills , Nash & Young . Soft @-@ rock band Crash Test Dummies formed in the late 1980s in Winnipeg and were the 1992 Juno Awards Group of the Year .
Several prominent Canadian films were produced in Manitoba , such as The Stone Angel , based on the Margaret Laurence book of the same title , The Saddest Music in the World , Foodland , For Angela , and My Winnipeg . Major films shot in Manitoba include The Assassination of Jesse James by the Coward Robert Ford and Capote , both of which received Academy Award nominations . Falcon Beach , an internationally broadcast television drama , was filmed at Winnipeg Beach , Manitoba .
Manitoba has a strong literary tradition . Manitoban writer Bertram Brooker won the first @-@ ever Governor General 's Award for Fiction in 1936 . Cartoonist Lynn Johnston , author of the comic strip For Better or For Worse , was nominated for a Pulitzer Prize and inducted into the Canadian Cartoonist Hall of Fame . Margaret Laurence 's The Stone Angel and A Jest of God were set in Manawaka , a fictional town representing Neepawa ; the latter title won the Governor General 's Award in 1966 . Carol Shields won both the Governor General 's Award and the Pulitzer Prize for The Stone Diaries . Gabrielle Roy , a Franco @-@ Manitoban writer , won the Governor General 's Award three times . A quote from her writings is featured on the Canadian $ 20 bill .
= = = Festivals and museums = = =
Festivals take place throughout the province , with the largest centred in Winnipeg . The inaugural Winnipeg Folk Festival was held in 1974 as a one @-@ time celebration to mark Winnipeg 's 100th anniversary . Today , the five @-@ day festival is one of the largest folk festivals in North America with over 70 acts from around the world and an annual attendance that exceeds 80 @,@ 000 . The Winnipeg Folk Festival 's home – Birds Hill Provincial Park – is located 34 kilometres outside of Winnipeg and for the five days of the festival , it becomes Manitoba 's third largest " city . " The Festival du Voyageur is an annual ten @-@ day event held in Winnipeg 's French Quarter , and is Western Canada 's largest winter festival . It celebrates Canada 's fur @-@ trading past and French @-@ Canadian heritage and culture . Folklorama , a multicultural festival run by the Folk Arts Council , receives around 400 @,@ 000 pavilion visits each year , of which about thirty percent are from non @-@ Winnipeg residents . The Winnipeg Fringe Theatre Festival is an annual alternative theatre festival , the second @-@ largest festival of its kind in North America ( after the Edmonton International Fringe Festival ) .
Manitoban museums document different aspects of the province 's heritage . The Manitoba Museum is the largest museum in Manitoba and focuses on Manitoban history from prehistory to the 1920s . The full @-@ size replica of the Nonsuch is the museum 's showcase piece . The Manitoba Children 's Museum at The Forks presents exhibits for children . There are two museums dedicated to the native flora and fauna of Manitoba : the Living Prairie Museum , a tall grass prairie preserve featuring 160 species of grasses and wildflowers , and FortWhyte Alive , a park encompassing prairie , lake , forest and wetland habitats , home to a large herd of bison . The Canadian Fossil Discovery Centre houses the largest collection of marine reptile fossils in Canada . Other museums feature the history of aviation , marine transport , and railways in the area . The Canadian Museum for Human Rights will on completion be the first Canadian national museum outside of the National Capital Region .
= = = Media = = =
Winnipeg has three daily newspapers : the Winnipeg Free Press , a broadsheet with the highest circulation numbers in Manitoba , as well as the Winnipeg Sun and Metro , both smaller tabloid @-@ style papers . There are several ethnic weekly newspapers , including the weekly French @-@ language La Liberté , and regional and national magazines based in the city . Brandon has two newspapers : the daily Brandon Sun and the weekly Wheat City Journal . Many small towns have local newspapers .
There are five English @-@ language television stations and one French @-@ language station based in Winnipeg . The Global Television Network ( owned by Canwest ) is headquartered in the city . Winnipeg is home to twenty @-@ one AM and FM radio stations , two of which are French @-@ language stations . Brandon 's five local radio stations are provided by Astral Media and Westman Communications Group . In addition to the Brandon and Winnipeg stations , radio service is provided in rural areas and smaller towns by Golden West Broadcasting , Corus Entertainment , and local broadcasters . CBC Radio broadcasts local and national programming throughout the province . Native Communications is devoted to Aboriginal programming and broadcasts to many of the isolated native communities as well as to larger cities .
= = = Sports = = =
Manitoba has four professional sports teams : the Winnipeg Blue Bombers ( Canadian Football League ) , the Winnipeg Jets ( National Hockey League ) , the Manitoba Moose ( American Hockey League ) , and the Winnipeg Goldeyes ( American Association ) . The province was previously home to another team called the Winnipeg Jets , which played in the World Hockey Association and National Hockey League from 1972 until 1996 , when financial troubles prompted a sale and move of the team , renamed the Phoenix Coyotes . A second incarnation of the Winnipeg Jets returned , after True North Sports & Entertainment bought the Atlanta Thrashers and moved the team to Winnipeg in time for the 2011 hockey season . Manitoba has one major junior @-@ level hockey team , the Western Hockey League 's Brandon Wheat Kings , and one junior football team , the Winnipeg Rifles of the Canadian Junior Football League .
The province is represented in university athletics by the University of Manitoba Bisons , the University of Winnipeg Wesmen , and the Brandon University Bobcats . All three teams compete in the Canada West Universities Athletic Association ( the regional division of Canadian Interuniversity Sport ) .
Curling is an important winter sport in the province with Manitoba producing more men 's national champions than any other province , while additionally in the top 3 women 's national champions , as well as multiple world champions in the sport . The province also hosts the world 's largest curling tournament in the MCA Bonspiel . The province is regular host to Grand Slam events which feature as the largest cash events in the sport such as the annual Manitoba Lotteries Women 's Curling Classic as well as other rotating events .
Though not as prominent as hockey and curling , long track speed skating also features as a notable and top winter sport in Manitoba . The province has produced some of the world 's best female speed skaters including Susan Auch and the country 's top Olympic medal earners Cindy Klassen and Clara Hughes .
= French battleship République =
République was a pre @-@ dreadnought battleship of the French Navy built in the early 1900s . The lead ship of her class , she had only one sister ship : Patrie . The ship was built by the Arsenal de Brest , laid down in December 1901 , launched in September 1902 , and commissioned into the fleet in December 1906 , the same time as the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought . Armed with a main battery of four 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) guns , she was outclassed by Dreadnought by the time she entered service .
République served in the Mediterranean Fleet for the duration of her career . In 1910 she was accidentally torpedoed by Patrie . She was moored near the battleship Liberté when the latter exploded accidentally in 1911 , and was damaged by flying debris . After the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , she covered troop convoys from Algeria to France , and participated in the sinking of the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta later that month . She spent the majority of the war in Corfu at the mouth of the Adriatic Sea , to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet bottled up in the Adriatic . She was eventually stricken in 1921 and broken up for scrap thereafter .
= = Design = =
République was laid down at the Arsenal de Brest in December 1901 , launched on 4 September 1902 , and completed in December 1906 , at the same time as the revolutionary British battleship HMS Dreadnought , which rendered the pre @-@ dreadnoughts like République outdated . The ship was 133 @.@ 81 meters ( 439 ft 0 in ) long between perpendiculars and had a beam of 24 @.@ 26 m ( 79 ft 7 in ) and a full @-@ load draft of 8 @.@ 41 m ( 27 ft 7 in ) . She displaced 14 @,@ 605 metric tons ( 14 @,@ 374 long tons ; 16 @,@ 099 short tons ) at full load and had a crew of between 766 and 825 officers and enlisted men . She was powered by three vertical triple expansion engines with twenty @-@ four Niclausse boilers . They were rated at 18 @,@ 000 indicated horsepower ( 13 @,@ 420 kW ) and provided a top speed of 19 knots ( 35 km / h ; 22 mph ) . Coal storage amounted to 1 @,@ 800 t ( 1 @,@ 770 long tons ; 1 @,@ 980 short tons ) .
République 's main battery consisted of four Canon de 305 mm Modèle 1893 / 96 guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one forward and one aft . The secondary battery consisted of eighteen Canon de 164 mm Modèle 1893 guns ; twelve were mounted in twin turrets , and six in casemates in the hull . She also carried twenty @-@ five 3 @-@ pounder guns . The ship was also armed with two 450 mm ( 17 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes submerged in the hull . The ship 's main belt was 280 mm ( 11 @.@ 0 in ) thick and the main battery was protected by up to 350 mm ( 13 @.@ 8 in ) of armor . The conning tower had 305 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) thick sides .
= = Service history = =
After commissioning in December 1906 , République conducted her sea trials . During the speed trials , she reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 15 knots ( 35 @.@ 47 km / h ; 22 @.@ 04 mph ) , more than a knot faster than her contract speed of 18 knots ( 33 km / h ; 21 mph ) . In 1907 , after joining the fleet , République took first place in the annual gunnery competition . She was assigned to the 1st Division of the Mediterranean Fleet , along with her sister Patrie and Suffren , the divisional flagship .
On 16 February 1910 , during exercises in the Gulf of Jouan , a torpedo was accidentally launched from her sister ship Patrie . The torpedo struck République , damaging her hull . On 25 September 1911 , the battleship Liberté was moored near Republique in Toulon . An accidental explosion , the result of the spontaneous combustion of nitrocellulose gel , occurred aboard Liberté ; she was destroyed and debris was hurled into the air . République was hit by a 37 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 36 @-@ long @-@ ton ; 41 @-@ short @-@ ton ) piece of armor plate from Liberté , on the starboard quarter directly behind the main battery turret .
At the outbreak of World War I in August 1914 , République was assigned to the 1st Division of the 2nd Squadron in the Mediterranean , along with Patrie and the flagship , Vérité ; this was the main battle fleet of the French Navy . The French fleet was initially used to cover the movement of French troops — the XIX Corps — from Algeria to metropolitan France . As a result , the fleet was far out of position to catch the German battlecruiser SMS Goeben . For the majority of the war , the French used their main fleet to keep the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet bottled up in the Adriatic Sea . In 1914 she participated in the Battle of Antivari , where the battle line caught the Austro @-@ Hungarian cruiser SMS Zenta by surprise and sank her . The French battleships then bombarded Austrian fortifications at Cattaro in an attempt to draw out the Austro @-@ Hungarian fleet , which refused to take the bait .
The French operations in the area were hampered by a lack of a suitable base close to the mouth of the Adriatic ; the British had given the French free access to Malta , but it was hundreds of miles away . The Austrians also possessed several submarines , one of which torpedoed the dreadnought Jean Bart in December 1914 . The threat from underwater weapons greatly limited French naval activities in the Adriatic . As the war progressed , the French eventually settled on Corfu as their primary naval base in the area . Together with the pre @-@ dreadnought Gaulois , the ship covered the Allied evacuation from Gallipoli in January 1916 .
Later in 1916 , République , Patrie , and the surviving Liberté @-@ class battleships supported Allied operations in Salonica and also detached landing parties to support the Allied attempt to force Greek acquiescence for those operations in Athens on 1 December . They spent the rest of the war at Salonica and Athens . During the war , four of République 's 3 @-@ pounder guns were converted into anti @-@ aircraft guns with new high @-@ angle mounts . After the end of the war , République was placed in reserve in 1919 , along with Patrie . She was disarmed the following year and subsequently stricken from the naval register in 1921 and broken up for scrap .
= Mutiny of the Matoika =
Mutiny of the Matoika is the common name for the events in July 1920 involving a large portion of the Olympic team of the United States while on board the U.S. Army transport ship Princess Matoika , headed to Antwerp for the 1920 Summer Olympics . Princess Matoika was a last @-@ minute substitute for another ship and , according to the athletes , did not have adequate accommodations or training facilities on board . Near the end of the voyage , the athletes published a list of grievances and demands and distributed copies of the document to the United States Secretary of War , the American Olympic Committee ( AOC ) members , and the press . The incident received wide coverage in American newspapers at the time and was still being discussed in the popular press years later . The event was not a mutiny in the traditional sense , but has been called that since the mid @-@ 1930s .
= = Background = =
In 1920 , the number of ocean liners carrying passengers on the North Atlantic gradually increased , but was still far below the pre @-@ war years ; arrivals at Atlantic ports in the United States were still down some 60 % from pre @-@ war numbers . With the fewer ships and sailings available , the AOC made arrangements with both the U.S. Army and the U.S. Navy to transport the United States Olympic team to Antwerp . The Navy agreed to carry team members who were affiliated with their branch of the service , and the Army , to carry civilian and Army @-@ affiliated competitors . The Olympic trip got off to a bad start when the Army 's scheduled ship , Northern Pacific , was declared unseaworthy , requiring a last @-@ minute substitution . The last @-@ minute selection of the Matoika meant the original planned departure date , July 20 , had to be pushed back by six days to ready the liner to sail .
The Matoika had been in the service of the U.S. Army as a transport ship since September 1919 , and , until the time of her selection , had been returning American soldiers from Europe and repatriating the remains of Americans killed during the war . Before World War I , the Matoika had been a passenger liner for North German Lloyd by the name of Princess Alice . After the United States joined the conflict in 1917 , the liner had been pressed into service for the U.S. Navy carrying American troops to Europe ; she was renamed Princess Matoika , after one of the given names for Pocahontas , as part of an order to replace Germanic names of seized ships with American names .
= = Voyage = =
On the afternoon of July 26 , the athletes attended a farewell reception at the Manhattan Opera House presided over by Gustavus T. Kirby , chairman of the American Olympic Committee ( AOC ) , who read congratulatory telegrams to the team from the governors of eleven states . At the end of the reception , the 230 civilian and U.S. Army @-@ affiliated team members marched from the Opera House to the Hudson Pier and ferried to Hoboken , New Jersey , and the waiting Matoika . ( The 101 U.S. Navy @-@ affiliated athletes and coaches were carried on cruiser USS Frederick , a frequent convoy escort of Princess Matoika during World War I. )
When female team members , AOC members , and U.S. Army athletes and officials accompanying the team were assigned first @-@ class cabins and the balance of the male athletes were relegated to troop quarters on lower decks , grumbling from team members quartered belowdecks began almost immediately . Before the Matoika even sailed , runner Joie Ray , a competitor in the 1500 meters in 1920 , complained about the conditions declaring that " if those in charge had deliberately tried to create a psychology of depression and resentment among the members of the team , they couldn 't have done anything more effective " . Two days after sailing , some of the first @-@ place winners at the Olympic tryouts were moved to the sick bay to escape the sweltering heat on the lower decks , but the majority remained below . Fencer Joseph B. B. Parker — who , as an Army athlete , was bunked in a cabin — commented that the troop accommodations were all right for troops but " not conducive to bringing men to the games in the pink of condition . "
Training conditions aboard the ship were less than ideal throughout the voyage . Rough seas for parts of the journey hampered training and contributed to widespread seasickness . Although the long distance runners were able to practice by making multiple circuits of the ship , the sprinters and hurdlers were provided only a 70 @-@ yard ( 64 m ) cork track — two @-@ thirds the length of the shortest track event at the games — on which to practice . Javelins were tethered by rope and aimed by their throwers at the sea , and , when thrown , would often come down in unexpected locations . The only facility for swimmers was a canvas saltwater tank set up on the lower deck ; the tank split when filled for the first time . Even after it was repaired , the best the swimmers could do was to practice strokes while tied to the corner of the tank with a rope , and divers , with no other facilities available , were allocated just a few minutes a day in the tank . Conditions on the ship contributed to several injuries to athletes . During foggy weather , American decathlete Everett Ellis fell on the slippery deck , suffering a bad sprain , and shot putter Pat McDonald sprained his thumb while tossing a medicine ball on the pitching deck .
Despite the problems encountered by some of the team , others were able to work out adequately . Fencers , wrestlers , and boxers were all able to work out in close @-@ to @-@ usual routines . But perhaps the most impressive training feat was a high jump by Richmond W. Landon who cleared a 5 @-@ foot @-@ 10 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 78 m ) high jump on the rolling deck , a jump not far off of his eventual gold @-@ medal @-@ winning ( and Olympic record ) jump of 6 feet 4 @.@ 2 inches ( 1 @.@ 935 m ) .
= = The " mutiny " = =
By the time the ship neared Antwerp , the team members had had enough of the " rusty old troop carrier " . The team initially threatened to boycott the games if the conditions in the host city were not better than those aboard the Matoika , but quickly rescinded that . The group , with McDonald and Norman Ross serving as ringleaders , drafted a resolution in which they condemned the AOC and outlined their grievances and demands :
the quarters aboard the ship were unlivable
the food on board was terrible .
they requested better accommodation in Antwerp
they requested cabin passage on the way home
and they requested train fare to their homes from New York after returning .
They were careful to give credit to the crew of Princess Matoika who , in the athletes ' assessment , did " everything possible to improve conditions " . The document was signed by 150 of the athletes ; some of the U.S. Army athletes agreed with the resolution but could not sign it . They had 200 copies of the resolution printed and addressed copies to Secretary of War Newton Diehl Baker , the members of the AOC , and members of the press .
= = Aftermath = =
After the Olympics were over , fencer Parker summarized the situation by saying that all who made the trip would want to compete for the United States in future Olympics , but " never again … under the management of the Executive Committee of the Olympic team of 1920 " . In 1922 , author Newton Fuessle brought up the specter of the 1920 Olympic passage on the Matoika when discussing the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) and his hopes that the NCAA would take over the functions of the Amateur Athletic Union in controlling American Olympic teams in the future .
By the mid @-@ 1930s , the events on board were known as the " Mutiny of the Matoika " . Sportswriter John Kieran , in his 1936 book The Story of the Olympic Games : 776 B.C. to 1960 A.D. , related the story of the mutiny by that name .
= Star Film ( Dutch East Indies company ) =
Star Film was a film production company in the Dutch East Indies . Established by Chinese @-@ Indonesian businessman Jo Eng Sek and Chinese cameraman Cho ' Chin Hsin in 1940 , it produced five black @-@ and @-@ white films in 1940 and 1941 ; two of these were directed by Jo , and the remainder were directed by Wu Tsun . Another film was under production when the studio was closed following the Japanese occupation of the Dutch East Indies . Star helped establish the careers of actors such as S Waldy and Elly Joenara , and produced screenplays written by Rd Ariffien and Saeroen ; its output , however , is probably lost .
= = History = =
Star Film was established by Jo Eng Sek , who had previous film experience as co @-@ producer of Si Tjonat ( 1929 ) , and Shanghai @-@ based cameraman Cho ' Chin Hsin ; for much of the life of the company , Jo would take the role of producer while Cho ' would be on camera . The company 's headquarters were located at Prinsenlaan , Batavia ( now Mangga Besar , Jakarta ) . The company released its first film , Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman , in April 1941 . For this detective film , Star signed L. V. Wijnhamer Jr . , an Indo social worker popular with the ethnic Chinese community . The film was a commercial success , allowing the company to expand .
Later Jo signed Rd Ariffien as a screenwriter ; the studio touted this as a victory , owing to Ariffien 's wide network as a journalist . He wrote a single work for the company , Tjioeng Wanara , based on the Sundanese legend as retold by M. A. Salmoen in a 1938 Balai Pustaka @-@ published edition ; this was directed and produced by Jo . Several actors cast for the film continued with Star for the remainder of its existence , including comedian S Waldy and future film producer Elly Joenara . However , Ariffien left Star owing to dissatisfaction over Tjioeng Wanara .
Star continued expanding , and Jo brought aboard Chinese director Wu Tsun , whose first film for the company was Lintah Darat . It had begun production before the release of Tjioeng Wanara and dealt with a family torn apart by dealings with a loan shark . This production received positive reviews . Star then produced a sequel to Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman , again with Wu at the helm , and drew the journalist Saeroen as writer . In this film , titled Pah Wongso Tersangka , Star emphasised comedy , relying on the interactions between Waldy , Pah Wongso , and the comedian Sarip .
Saeroen wrote one more film for Star in 1941 , Ajah Berdosa , before leaving the company . This film , which follows a villager named Mardiman over a period of several years in which he loses everything owing to his infatuation with a " modern " woman , was advertised as " an extremely simple and touching story " and received positive reviews . By late 1941 , Star was producing an adaptation of the One Thousand and One Nights , titled 1001 Malam . At the time several contemporary works were being adapted from Nights , including Tan 's Film 's Aladin and Koeda Sembrani , Populair 's Film 's Moestika dari Djemar , and Java Industrial Film 's Ratna Moetoe Manikam .
By early 1942 , the colonial government of the Dutch East Indies had become concerned with the possibility of an invasion by the Empire of Japan . This fear reached the general populace , and the February 1942 edition of film magazine Pertjatoeran Doenia dan Film reported that several studios would move away from the colonial capital of Batavia or go on a production hiatus . Star , though production of 1001 Malam was incomplete , was reported to be preparing to move . When the Japanese occupied the Indies in March 1942 , Star was closed , never to reopen .
= = Filmography = =
Star Film produced six films in two years . All were feature length , black @-@ and @-@ white works , receiving wide releases in the Dutch East Indies . Some , such as Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman , were reportedly screened as far away as and British Malaya , China , and Singapore . Though its films were screened at least into the late 1940s , the company 's output is likely lost .
Pah Wongso Pendekar Boediman ( 1940 )
Tjioeng Wanara ( 1941 )
Lintah Darat ( 1941 )
Pah Wongso Tersangka ( 1941 )
Ajah Berdosa ( 1941 )
1001 Malam ( unfinished )
= = Explanatory notes = =
= Edward VIII abdication crisis =
In 1936 , a constitutional crisis in the British Empire arose when King @-@ Emperor Edward VIII proposed to marry Wallis Simpson , an American socialite who was divorced from her first husband and was pursuing a divorce of her second .
The marriage was opposed by the governments of the United Kingdom and the Dominions of the British Commonwealth . Religious , legal , political and moral objections were raised . As British monarch , Edward was the nominal head of the Church of England , which did not then allow divorced people to remarry if their ex @-@ spouses were still alive , so it was widely believed that Edward could not marry Simpson and remain on the throne . Simpson was perceived to be politically and socially unsuitable as a consort because of her two failed marriages . It was widely assumed by the Establishment that she was driven by love of money or position rather than love for the King . Despite the opposition , Edward declared that he loved Simpson and intended to marry her whether his governments approved or not .
The widespread unwillingness to accept Simpson as the King 's consort , and Edward 's refusal to give her up , led to his abdication in December 1936 . He remains the only British monarch to have voluntarily renounced the throne since the Anglo @-@ Saxon period . He was succeeded by his brother Albert , who took the regnal name of George VI . Edward was given the title His Royal Highness the Duke of Windsor following his abdication , and he married Simpson the following year . They remained married until his death 35 years later .
= = Prelude = =
Edward had been introduced to Wallis Simpson , an American citizen and wife of British shipping executive Ernest Aldrich Simpson , by Lady Furness on 10 January 1931 . Ernest Simpson was Wallis 's second husband ; her first marriage , to U.S. Navy pilot Win Spencer , had ended in divorce in 1927 . It is generally accepted that Wallis Simpson and the Prince of Wales became lovers in 1934 , while Lady Furness ( who was also in a relationship with the prince ) was visiting relatives in America . However , Edward adamantly insisted to his father that he was not physically intimate with Simpson and that it was inappropriate to describe her as his mistress . Edward 's relationship with Simpson further weakened his poor relationship with his parents . Although King George V and Queen Mary met Simpson at Buckingham Palace in 1935 , they later refused to receive her . Edward and Simpson were secretly followed by members of the Metropolitan Police Special Branch , who produced reports on the nature of their relationship and their investigations into Wallis Simpson 's private life that included the " pursuit of vicious gossip " and the identification of a " secret lover " . " The prospect of having an American divorcee with a questionable past having such sway over the heir apparent led to anxiety among government and establishment figures .
Edward VIII succeeded his father on 20 January 1936 , after which Simpson attended more official functions as the King 's guest . Despite her name appearing regularly in the Court Circular , the name of her husband was conspicuously absent . In the summer of that year , the King eschewed the traditional prolonged stay at Balmoral in favour of a holiday with Simpson in the eastern Mediterranean that was widely covered in the American and continental European press , but not by the British press , which maintained a self @-@ imposed silence . Nevertheless , Canadians and expatriate Britons , who had access to the foreign reports , were largely scandalised by the coverage .
By October , it was rumoured in high society and abroad that Edward intended to marry Simpson as soon as she was free to do so . At the end of that month , the crisis came to a head when she filed for divorce and the American press announced that marriage between her and the King was imminent . The King 's private secretary , Alec Hardinge , wrote to him on 13 November , warning : " The silence in the British Press on the subject of Your Majesty 's friendship with Mrs Simpson is not going to be maintained ... Judging by the letters from British subjects living in foreign countries where the Press has been outspoken , the effect will be calamitous . " Senior British ministers knew that Hardinge had written to the King and may have helped him draft the letter .
The King invited Prime Minister Baldwin to Buckingham Palace the following Monday ( 16 November ) and informed him that he intended to marry Simpson . Baldwin replied that such a marriage would not be acceptable to the people , stating : " ... the Queen becomes the Queen of the country . Therefore in the choice of a Queen the voice of the people must be heard . " Baldwin 's view was shared by the Australian High Commissioner in London , Stanley Bruce , who was a former Australian prime minister . On the same day that Hardinge wrote to the King , Bruce met Hardinge and then wrote to Baldwin , expressing horror at the idea of a marriage between the King and Simpson .
Nevertheless , the British press remained quiet on the subject until Alfred Blunt , Bishop of Bradford , gave a speech to his diocesan conference on 1 December , which alluded to the King 's need of divine grace : " We hope that he is aware of his need . Some of us wish that he gave more positive signs of his awareness . " The press took this for the first public comment by a notable person on the crisis and it became front page news the following day . When asked about it later , however , the bishop claimed he had not heard of Simpson at the time he wrote the speech . Acting on the advice of Edward 's staff , Simpson left Britain for the south of France two days later in an attempt to escape intense press attention . Both she and the King were devastated by the separation . At a tearful departure , the King told her , " I shall never give you up . "
= = Opposition = =
Opposition to the King and his marriage came from several directions . Edward 's desire to modernise the monarchy and make it more accessible , though appreciated by many of the public , was distrusted by the British Establishment . Edward upset the aristocracy by treating their traditions and ceremonies with disdain , and many were offended by his abandonment of accepted social norms and mores .
= = = Social and moral = = =
The King 's ministers and family found Wallis Simpson 's background and behaviour unacceptable for a queen . Rumours and inn
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uendo about her circulated in society . The King 's mother , the dowager Queen Mary , was even told that Simpson might have held some sort of sexual control over Edward , as she had released him from an undefined sexual dysfunction through practices learnt in a Chinese brothel . This view was partially shared by Dr. Alan Campbell Don , Chaplain to the Archbishop of Canterbury , who wrote that he suspected the King " is sexually abnormal which may account for the hold Mrs. S. has over him " . Even Edward VIII 's official biographer , Philip Ziegler , noted that : " There must have been some sort of sadomasochistic relationship ... [ Edward ] relished the contempt and bullying she bestowed on him . "
Police detectives following Simpson reported back that , while involved with Edward , she was also involved with a married car mechanic and salesman named Guy Trundle . This may well have been passed on to senior figures in the establishment , including members of the royal family . Joseph Kennedy , the American ambassador , described her as a " tart " , and his wife , Rose , refused to dine with her .
Wallis was perceived to be pursuing Edward for his money ; his equerry wrote that she would eventually leave him , " having secured the cash " . The future prime minister Neville Chamberlain ( then Chancellor of the Exchequer ) wrote in his diary that she was " an entirely unscrupulous woman who is not in love with the King but is exploiting him for her own purposes . She has already ruined him in money and jewels ... "
Relations between the United Kingdom and the United States were strained during the inter @-@ war years and the majority of Britons were reluctant to accept an American as queen consort . At the time , some members of the British upper class looked down on Americans with disdain and considered them socially inferior . In contrast , the American public was clearly in favour of the marriage , as was most of the American press .
= = = Religious and legal = = =
In Edward 's lifetime , the Church of England did not allow divorced people to remarry in church while a former spouse was still living . The monarch was required to be in communion with the Church of England , and was its nominal head . If Edward married Wallis Simpson , a divorcee who would soon have two living ex @-@ husbands , in a civil ceremony it would conflict with his ex officio role as Supreme Governor of the Church of England .
Wallis 's first divorce ( in the United States on the grounds of " emotional incompatibility " ) was not recognised by the Church of England and , if challenged in the English courts , might not have been recognised under English law . At that time , the church and English law considered adultery to be the only grounds for divorce . Consequently , under this argument , her second ( and third ) marriages would have been bigamous and invalid .
= = = Political = = =
When Edward visited depressed mining villages in Wales , his comment that " something must be done " led to concerns among elected politicians that he would interfere in political matters , traditionally avoided by constitutional monarchs . Ramsay MacDonald , Lord President of the Council , wrote of the King 's comments : " These escapades should be limited . They are an invasion into the field of politics & should be watched constitutionally . " Although Edward 's comments had made him popular in Wales , he became extremely unpopular with the public in Scotland following his refusal to open a new wing of Aberdeen Royal Infirmary , saying he could not do so because he was in mourning for his father . The day after the opening he was pictured in newspapers on holiday : he had turned down the public event in favour of meeting Simpson .
As Prince of Wales , Edward had publicly referred to Labour county councillors as " cranks " and made speeches counter to government policy . During his reign as king , his refusal to accept the advice of ministers continued : he opposed the imposition of sanctions on Italy after its invasion of Ethiopia , refused to receive the deposed Emperor of Ethiopia , and would not support a strengthening of the League of Nations .
Members of the British government became further dismayed by the proposed marriage after being told that Wallis Simpson was an agent of Nazi Germany . The Foreign Office obtained leaked dispatches from the German Reich 's Ambassador to the United Kingdom , Joachim von Ribbentrop , which revealed his strong view that opposition to the marriage was motivated by the wish " to defeat those Germanophile forces which had been working through Mrs. Simpson " . It was rumoured that Simpson had access to confidential government papers sent to Edward , which he left unguarded at his Fort Belvedere residence . While Edward was abdicating , the personal protection officers guarding Simpson in exile in France sent reports to Downing Street suggesting that she might " flit to Germany " .
= = Options considered = =
As a result of these rumours and arguments , the belief strengthened among the British establishment that Simpson could not become a royal consort . British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin explicitly advised Edward that the majority of people would be opposed to his marrying Simpson , indicating that if he did , in direct contravention of his ministers ' advice , the government would resign en masse . The King responded , according to his own account later : " I intend to marry Mrs. Simpson as soon as she is free to marry ... if the Government opposed the marriage , as the Prime Minister had given me reason to believe it would , then I was prepared to go . " Under pressure from the King , and " startled " at the suggested abdication , Baldwin agreed to take further soundings on three options :
Edward and Simpson marry and she become queen ( a royal marriage ) ;
Edward and Simpson marry , but she not become queen , instead receiving some courtesy title ( a morganatic marriage ) ; or
Abdication for Edward and any potential heirs he might father , allowing him to make any marital decisions without further constitutional implications .
The second option had European precedents , including Edward 's own great @-@ grandfather , Duke Alexander of Württemberg , but it had no parallel in British constitutional history . The prime ministers of the five Dominions ( Australia , Canada , New Zealand , South Africa , and the Irish Free State ) were consulted , and the majority agreed that there was " no alternative to course ( 3 ) " . William Lyon Mackenzie King ( Prime Minister of Canada ) , Joseph Lyons ( Prime Minister of Australia ) , and J. B. M. Hertzog ( Prime Minister of South Africa ) opposed options 1 and 2 . Mackenzie King told Edward to do " what he believed in his own heart was right " and the Canadian government appealed to the King to put his duty before his feelings for Simpson . Governor General of Canada Lord Tweedsmuir told Buckingham Palace and Baldwin that Canadians held deep affection for the King , but also that Canadian public opinion would be outraged if Edward married a divorcee . Michael Joseph Savage ( Prime Minister of New Zealand ) rejected option 1 and thought that option 2 " might be possible ... if some solution along these lines were found to be practicable " , but " would be guided by the decision of the Home government " . In communications with the British government , Éamon de Valera , ( President of the Executive Council of the Irish Free State ) , remarked that as a Roman Catholic country , the Irish Free State did not recognise divorce . He supposed that if the British people would not accept Wallis Simpson then abdication was the only possible solution . On 24 November , Baldwin consulted the three leading opposition politicians in Britain : Leader of the Opposition Clement Attlee , Liberal leader Sir Archibald Sinclair , and Winston Churchill . Sinclair and Attlee agreed that options 1 and 2 were unacceptable , and Churchill pledged to support the government .
Churchill did not support the government , however . In July , he had advised the King 's legal counsel , Walter Monckton , against the divorce , but his advice was ignored . As soon as the affair became public knowledge , Churchill started to pressure Baldwin and the King to delay any decisions until parliament and the people had been consulted . In a private letter to Geoffrey Dawson , the editor of The Times newspaper , Churchill suggested that a delay would be beneficial because , given time , the King might fall out of love with Simpson . Baldwin rejected the request for delay , presumably because he preferred to resolve the crisis quickly . Supporters of the King alleged a conspiracy between Baldwin , Geoffrey Dawson , and Cosmo Gordon Lang , the Archbishop of Canterbury . The royal physician Bertrand Dawson was possibly involved in a plan to force the prime minister to retire on the grounds of heart disease , but he eventually accepted , on the evidence of an early electrocardiograph , that Baldwin 's heart was sound .
Political support for the King was scattered and comprised politicians outside of the mainstream parties such as Churchill , Oswald Mosley , and the Communists . David Lloyd George also supported the King despite disliking Simpson . He was , however , unable to take any active role in the crisis because he was on holiday in Jamaica with his mistress . In early December , rumours circulated that the King 's supporters would join together in a " King 's Party " , led by Churchill . However , there was no concerted effort to form an organised movement and Churchill had no intention of leading one . Nevertheless , the rumours damaged the King and Churchill severely , as members of parliament were horrified at the idea of the King interfering in politics .
The letters and diaries of working @-@ class people and ex @-@ servicemen generally demonstrate support for the King , while those from the middle and upper classes tend to express indignation and distaste . The Times , The Morning Post , Daily Herald , and newspapers owned by Lord Kemsley , such as The Daily Telegraph , opposed the marriage . On the other hand , the Express and Mail newspapers , owned by Lord Beaverbrook and Lord Rothermere , respectively , appeared to support a morganatic marriage . The King estimated that the newspapers in favour had a circulation of 12 @.@ 5 million , and those against had 8 @.@ 5 million .
On 3 December , Edward had a " tense " meeting with Baldwin . Backed by Churchill and Beaverbrook , Edward proposed to broadcast a speech via the BBC . The proposed text invoked the " ancient custom " for a King to " address his public utterances to his people " . Edward proposed to remind his listeners : " I am still the same man whose motto was ' Ich Dien ' , I serve . " In the proposed speech , Edward indicated his desire to remain on the throne or to be recalled to it if forced to abdicate , while marrying Simpson morganatically . In one section , Edward proposed to say :
Neither Mrs. Simpson nor I have ever sought to insist that she should be queen . All we desired was that our married happiness should carry with it a proper title and dignity for her , befitting my wife . Now that I have at last been able to take you into my confidence , I feel it is best to go away for a while , so that you may reflect calmly and quietly , but without undue delay , on what I have said .
Baldwin blocked the speech , saying that it would shock many people and would be a grave breach of constitutional principles . By modern convention , the sovereign could only act with the advice and counsel of ministers . In seeking the people 's support against the government , Edward was opting to oppose binding ministerial advice and instead act as a private individual . Edward 's British ministers felt that , in proposing the speech , Edward had revealed his disdainful attitude towards constitutional conventions and threatened the political neutrality of the Crown .
Cabinet Office files released in 2013 show that on or before 5 December 1936 , the Home Secretary , Sir John Simon , had ordered the General Post Office ( which controlled British telephone services ) to intercept " telephone communications between Fort Belvedere and Buckingham Palace on the one hand and the continent of Europe on the other . "
On 5 December , having in effect been told that he could not keep the throne and marry Simpson , and having had his request to broadcast to the Empire to explain " his side of the story " blocked on constitutional grounds , Edward chose the third option .
= = Legal manoeuvres = =
Following Simpson 's divorce hearing on 27 October 1936 , her solicitor , John Theodore Goddard , became concerned that there would be a " patriotic " citizen 's intervention ( a legal device to block the divorce ) , and that such an intervention would be successful . The courts could not grant a collaborative divorce ( a dissolution of marriage consented to by both parties ) , and so the case was being handled as if it were an undefended at @-@ fault divorce brought against Ernest Simpson , with Wallis Simpson as the innocent , injured party . The divorce action would fail if the citizen 's intervention showed that the Simpsons had colluded by , for example , conniving in or staging the appearance of his adultery so that she could marry someone else . On Monday 7 December 1936 , the King heard that Goddard planned to fly to the south of France to see Wallis Simpson . The King summoned him and expressly forbade him to make the journey , fearing that the visit might put doubts in Simpson 's mind . Goddard went straight to Downing Street to see Baldwin , as a result of which he was provided with an aeroplane to take him directly to Cannes .
Upon his arrival , Goddard warned his client that a citizen 's intervention , should it arise , was likely to succeed . It was , according to Goddard , his duty to advise her to withdraw her divorce petition . Simpson refused , but they both telephoned the King to inform him that she was willing to give him up so that he could remain king . It was , however , too late ; the King had already made up his mind to go , even if he could not marry Simpson . Indeed , as the belief that the abdication was inevitable gathered strength , Goddard stated that : " [ his ] client was ready to do anything to ease the situation but the other end of the wicket [ Edward VIII ] was determined " .
Goddard had a weak heart and had never flown before , so he asked his doctor , William Kirkwood , to accompany him on the trip . As Kirkwood was a resident at a maternity hospital , his presence led to false speculation that Simpson was pregnant , and even that she was having an abortion . The press excitedly reported that the solicitor had flown to Simpson accompanied by a gynaecologist and an anaesthetist ( who was actually the lawyer 's clerk ) .
= = Abdication = =
At Fort Belvedere , on 10 December , Edward signed his written abdication notices , witnessed by his three younger brothers : Prince Albert , Duke of York ( who succeeded Edward as George VI ) ; Prince Henry , Duke of Gloucester ; and Prince George , Duke of Kent . The following day , it was given legislative form by special Act of Parliament : His Majesty 's Declaration of Abdication Act 1936 . Under changes introduced in 1931 by the Statute of Westminster , a single Crown for the entire empire had been replaced by multiple crowns , one for each Dominion , worn by a single monarch in an organisation then known as the British Commonwealth . Though the British government , hoping for expediency and to avoid embarrassment , wished the Dominions to accept the actions of the home government , the Dominions held that Edward 's abdication required the consent of each Commonwealth state . This was duly given ; by the Parliament of Australia , which was at the time in session , and by the governments of the other Dominions , whose parliaments were in recess . The government of the Irish Free State , taking the opportunity presented by the crisis and in a major step towards its eventual transition to a republic , passed an amendment to its constitution on 11 December to remove references to the Crown . The King 's abdication was recognised a day later in the External Relations Act of the Irish Free State and legislation eventually passed in South Africa declared that the abdication took effect there on 10 December . As Edward VIII had not been crowned , his planned coronation date became that of George VI instead .
Edward 's supporters felt that he had " been hounded from the throne by that arch humbug Baldwin " , but many members of the establishment were relieved by Edward 's departure . Mackenzie King wrote in his diary on 8 December 1936 that Edward 's " sense of right or wrong has been largely obliterated by the jazz of life he has led for years " and , upon receiving news of Edward 's final decision to abdicate , " if that is the kind of man he is it is better he should not be longer on the Throne . " Edward 's own Assistant Private Secretary , Alan Lascelles , had told Baldwin as early as 1927 : " I can 't help thinking that the best thing that could happen to him , and to the country , would be for him to break his neck . "
On 11 December 1936 , Edward made a BBC radio broadcast from Windsor Castle ; having abdicated , he was introduced by Sir John Reith as " His Royal Highness Prince Edward " . The official address had been polished by Churchill and was moderate in tone , speaking about Edward 's inability to do his job " as I would have wished " without the support of " the woman I love " . Edward 's reign had lasted 327 days , the shortest of any British monarch since the disputed reign of Lady Jane Grey over 380 years earlier . The day following the broadcast he left Britain for Austria .
= = Post @-@ abdication = =
George VI gave his elder brother the title of Duke of Windsor with the style His Royal Highness on 12 December 1936 . On 3 May the following year , the Simpsons ' divorce was made final . The case was handled quietly and it barely featured in some newspapers . The Times printed a single sentence below a separate , and seemingly unconnected , report announcing the Duke 's departure from Austria .
Edward married Wallis in France on 3 June 1937 . She became the Duchess of Windsor , but , much to Edward 's disgust , King George issued letters patent that denied her the style of Her Royal Highness . The couple settled in France , and the Duke received a tax @-@ free allowance from his brother , which Edward supplemented by writing his memoirs and by illegal currency trading . He also profited from the sale of Balmoral Castle and Sandringham House to George VI . Both estates are private property and not part of the Royal Estate , and were therefore inherited and owned by Edward , regardless of the abdication .
In October 1937 , the Duke and Duchess visited Germany , against the advice of the British government , and met Hitler at his Obersalzberg retreat . The visit was much publicised by the German media . During the visit the Duke gave full Nazi salutes . In an article for the New York Daily News and Chicago Tribune of 13 December 1966 the Duke wrote that in 1937 Hitler persuaded him " it was in Britain 's interest and in Europe 's too , that Germany be encouraged to strike east and smash Communism forever ... I thought the rest of us could be fence @-@ sitters while the Nazis and the Reds slogged it out . "
After the outbreak of World War II in September 1939 , Edward was assigned to the British Military Mission in France . In February 1940 , the German ambassador in The Hague , Count Julius von Zech @-@ Burkersroda , claimed that Edward had leaked the Allied war plans for the defence of Belgium . When Germany invaded the north of France in May 1940 , the Duke and Duchess fled to Lisbon .
Under the code name Operation Willi , Nazi agents , principally Walter Schellenberg , plotted unsuccessfully to persuade the Duke to leave Portugal , and contemplated kidnapping him . Lord Caldecote warned Churchill that the Duke " is well @-@ known to be pro @-@ Nazi and he may become a centre of intrigue " . Churchill threatened the Duke with a court @-@ martial if he did not return to British soil .
In July 1940 , Edward was appointed Governor of the Bahamas . Edward reportedly told an acquaintance , " After the war is over and Hitler will crush the Americans ... we 'll take over ... They [ the British ] don 't want me as their king , but I 'll be back as their leader . " He was reported as saying that " it would be a tragic thing for the world if Hitler was overthrown " . Comments like these reinforced the belief that the Duke and Duchess held Nazi sympathies and the effect of the abdication crisis of 1936 was to force off the throne a man with extreme political opinions . Claims that Edward would have been a threat or that he was removed by a political conspiracy to dethrone him remain speculative and " persist largely because since 1936 the contemporary public considerations have lost most of their force and so seem , wrongly , to provide insufficient explanation for the King 's departure " .
= Rogers Morton =
Rogers Clark Ballard Morton ( September 19 , 1914 – April 19 , 1979 ) was an American politician who served as the U.S. Secretary of the Interior and Secretary of Commerce during the administrations of Presidents Richard M. Nixon and Gerald R. Ford , Jr . , respectively . He also served as a member of the U.S. House of Representatives from Maryland .
Though he was born in Louisville , Kentucky , Morton moved to a farm on the Eastern Shore of Maryland in the early 1950s . In 1962 , he was elected to the House of Representatives , in which capacity he established an environmental record . Morton would joke that his two middle initials stood for " Chesapeake Bay . " In 1968 , Morton played a major role in Richard Nixon 's campaign for president , and was chosen by Nixon in 1969 to serve as chairman of the Republican National Committee .
In the elections of 1970 , Morton was considered a strong candidate to challenge Joseph Tydings for his U.S. Senate seat from Maryland , but he chose instead to remain as chairman of the RNC . In 1971 , President Nixon tapped Morton to serve as Secretary of the Interior , during which time he oversaw the construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System and the 1973 oil crisis . Morton was the only person from the East Coast to serve as head of the Interior Department in the 20th century .
Following Nixon 's resignation due to the Watergate Scandal , Morton continued in his post in the Gerald Ford administration until 1975 , when he was nominated to serve as Secretary of Commerce . From April to August 1976 , Morton served as Ford 's campaign manager in his bid for election . Morton retired from politics following Ford 's election defeat . Three years later , he died of cancer at his home in Easton on the Eastern Shore of Maryland .
= = Early life and career = =
Morton was born in Louisville , the son of David Clark Morton , a physician , and his wife , Mary Harris Ballard Morton , an heiress to a flour milling business . He was related to George Rogers Clark , a military officer who served during the American Revolutionary War . Morton was one of three children ; his brother Thruston B. Morton also had a career in politics , serving as chairman of the Republican National Committee and representing Kentucky in both the United States House of Representatives and then the United States Senate .
Morton received his early education from the Woodberry Forest School near Orange , Virginia , and in 1937 graduated from Yale University , where he was a brother of the Delta Kappa Epsilon fraternity ( Phi chapter ) . Like his father , Morton worked to become a physician and entered the Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons . However , he dropped out after only one year . In 1939 , Morton married the former Anne Jones . They had two children , David Clark and Anne Morton .
In 1938 , Morton was commissioned in the United States Navy but only served for a short time due to problems with his back . Afterwards , he entered his family 's flour business , Ballard & Ballard . In 1941 , at the outset of World War II , Morton enlisted in the Armored Field Artillery of the United States Army as a private and served in the European Theater . He received a commission during the war and left the army as a captain in 1945 .
After the war , Morton returned to the family business , where he served as president from 1947 to 1951 . In 1952 , the business was merged into the Pillsbury Flour Company , where Morton went on to serve as a director and a member of the executive committee for several more years .
= = Congressional career = =
In 1947 , Morton spent a great deal of time helping his brother Thruston in his ultimately successful campaign for election to the House of Representatives in Kentucky . After this initial exposure to politics , Morton moved to the Eastern Shore of Maryland in the early 1950s , where he set up a 1 @,@ 400 acres ( 5 @.@ 7 km2 ) cattle farm along the Wye River in Talbot County . In 1962 , Morton decided to challenge Democratic incumbent Thomas Francis Johnson of Maryland 's 1st congressional district . Johnson , who was reeling from a political scandal , lost to Morton in the general election . Morton was lauded for not making Johnson 's legal troubles his primary campaign issue .
Morton was re @-@ elected to Congress four more times , and served from 1963 until 1971 . In Congress , Morton worked to enact legislation that would preserve the Chesapeake Bay , including laws reducing pollution into the Bay , working for the creation of a national park on Assateague Island , and providing funds to the Army Corps of Engineers to model how the Bay functions as an estuary . Concerning civil rights , Morton voted for the Civil Rights Act of 1964 , but not the Act of 1968 .
During the 1968 Republican National Convention , Morton served as the floor manager for eventual presidential nominee Richard Nixon . Morton also delivered the speech nominating Spiro Agnew , then @-@ Governor of Maryland , as the vice presidential candidate .
Due to his role in Nixon 's election campaign and his environmental advocacy , Morton expected to be appointed as Secretary of the Interior in 1969 . However , he was passed over for the position in favor of a westerner . He had also been considered for Nixon 's vice presidential running mate , but lost out to Agnew . In January 1969 , to recognize his efforts , Nixon appointed Morton as chairman of the Republican National Committee .
= = 1970 United States Senate election = =
In 1969 , leading up to the 1970 elections , Morton was considered one of the strongest potential candidates to challenge incumbent Democratic senator Joseph Tydings . Morton had sought the Republican nomination for Maryland 's other U.S. Senate seat in the 1968 elections , but bowed out in favor of Charles Mathias , Jr. to prevent a primary battle .
Speculation that Morton would seek election to Tydings ' seat increased after an editorial in the Baltimore Sun encouraged him to challenge Tydings . Sources within the administration of Vice President Spiro Agnew , who was formerly governor of Maryland , were also commenting that Morton would make a strong candidate and would likely run . When Morton stated he would be making an important announcement with President Nixon in December 1969 , it seemed all but certain at the time that it would be to declare his candidacy .
However , Republicans around the country were concerned that Morton , who had just been appointed chairman of the RNC in January 1969 , would resign during the election season to better handle the battle with Tydings . President Nixon shared their concerns , and encouraged Morton to remain as chairman . On December 16 , 1969 , with Nixon by his side , Morton announced that his priorities were with the national committee , and that he would not seek Tydings ' seat . Morton also threw his full support for the nomination behind J. Glenn Beall , Jr . , a freshman member of the Maryland Senate .
Morton 's decision not to challenge Tydings initially worried Maryland Republicans , who saw Morton as one of their best candidates . National Republican strategists had also begun to write off Tydings ' seat as unwinnable for the 1970 election because of Tydings 's wealth and popularity in the dense urban areas of Montgomery County and Baltimore . However , despite initial misgivings by state republicans , Beall defeated Tydings on November 3 , 1970 , by a margin of more than 30 @,@ 000 votes .
= = Secretary of the Interior = =
Morton continued to serve in the House and as chairman of the RNC until 1971 , when he was nominated to be Secretary of the Interior by President Nixon . He was unanimously confirmed by the United States Senate Subcommittee on the Interior , though some concerns regarding Morton 's record of environmental protection were raised by Phillip Berry , then @-@ President of the Sierra Club . Morton 's predecessor , Walter Joseph Hickel , had been chosen over Morton to fill the job in 1969 , but was fired by Nixon in late 1970 for criticizing White House policy . Morton was the only person from the east coast to serve as Interior Secretary in the 20th century .
Upon assuming the office of Secretary of the Interior , Morton promised he would seek to " purify the environment " . However , as his tenure progressed , he was gradually isolated from the proceedings of the White House and lost several major divisions to other departments . During the 1973 oil crisis , for example , the oil and natural gas divisions of the department were transferred to the Office of Emergency Preparedness . Furthermore , though Morton was the one who announced the construction of the Trans @-@ Alaska Pipeline System , speculation was put forward that he did not play a major role in determining its route . On August 1 , 1974 , Morton approved Anza @-@ Borrego State Park for inclusion in the national registry of natural landmarks .
As he was leaving his post in 1975 , further criticism was directed at Morton for his overseeing the partial dismantling of the Interior Department . He was also criticized for lacking the vigor necessary to serve as head of a cabinet department , and for failing to see through the proposed creation of a new , stronger cabinet department that would have replaced the Interior .
= = Later years and the Ford Administration = =
Following the resignation of President Nixon in the Watergate scandal , Morton continued in his position as Secretary of the Interior in the administration of President Gerald Ford . In March 1975 , while still serving as the head of the Interior Department , Morton was nominated by Ford to serve as the next Secretary of Commerce . Ford cited Morton 's extensive business experience as the primary factor for selecting him and expressed the hope that Morton would be able to " encourage American business to expand energy development and conservation efforts " .
In January 1976 , Ford announced Morton would be resigning as Commerce Secretary , and would serve as " special counsellor to the President " , with cabinet @-@ rank . Morton 's new position was to advise the president on domestic and economic policy . In addition , Morton was to serve as the special liaison to the political committee to elect President Ford . Morton 's duties blurred the line between his public and political duties , and caused controversy concerning how Morton would divide his time between the White House and Ford 's election campaign , and how much of his salary would be supplied by taxpayers versus the Ford election committee . In rebuttal , Morton stated " you can 't separate government from politics " , and that Presidential aides should be allowed to offer political advice .
In April 1976 , Morton was named campaign manager for President Ford leading up to the 1976 presidential election . He replaced former U.S. Representative Howard Callaway of Georgia , who was forced to resign following allegations of improper use of authority while he was Secretary of the Army . Morton directed Ford 's campaign until August 25 , 1976 , when he was reassigned as chairman of a steering committee and was replaced by James Baker of Houston , Texas . Morton 's demotion was at his own request ; he said that he no longer wished to bear " the responsibility and accountability of the chairmanship " . However , former Nixon aide Harry S. Dent , Sr. , of South Carolina claimed that Ford had relieved Morton as campaign manager because of a remark that Morton had made about the need for the GOP to " write off the Cotton South " in formulating the general election strategy against Democratic nominee Jimmy Carter , the former governor of Georgia who unseated President Ford .
After the 1976 campaign , Morton retired from politics to his farm , " Presqu 'isle " , near Easton , Maryland , where he operated a boat construction business .
Morton had been diagnosed with prostate cancer in 1973 , but he said that the disease was in its early phase and was still treatable . In 1979 , however , Morton died of the cancer at his home in Easton . He is interred in Old Wye Cemetery in Wye Mills , Maryland .
= Steph Cunningham =
Stephanie " Steph " Roach ( née Dean ; previously Cunningham ) is a fictional character from the British Channel 4 soap opera Hollyoaks , played by Carley Stenson . She debuted on @-@ screen during the episode airing on 8 March 2000 . Steph was introduced into the serial by executive producer Jo Hallows . In 2009 Stenson decided to quit , but the then producer Lucy Allan convinced her to stay to play out a dramatic storyline . The announcement of her departure was made public in June 2010 . Stenson 's fellow cast members have described her as a " Hollyoaks legend " because of her lengthy duration .
Steph has been described as having a highly confident persona , a trait Stenson enjoyed portraying throughout . Steph is also played as " fame hungry " . She is noted for a number of high @-@ profile storylines such as the portrayal of bullying in a school environment , the portrayal of epilepsy , which Stenson felt had been a ' taboo subject ' for too long . Other stories include becoming a widow and her involvement in Niall 's revenge plot and her constant desire for fame . One of Steph 's final storylines was the portrayal of cervical cancer , which Stenson conducted extensive research into . The character was subsequently killed off in a special block of episodes branded by the media as " fire week " . Some critics described her final storylines as " upsetting " and " surprising " . Steph 's relationship with Gilly Roach was viewed unfavourable by most . Stenson has been nominated for several different awards for her portrayal of Steph .
= = Storylines = =
= = = Backstory = = =
Steph is the daughter of Frankie and Johnno Dean ( Colin Wells ) . She has two brothers , Craig ( Guy Burnett ) and Jake ( Kevin Sacre ) , and a sister , Debbie ( Jodi Albert ) . She is not close to her siblings , and has a strained relationship with her mother , who prefers to involve herself in Craig and Jake 's lives and boast about Debbie 's professional singing prowess . In contrast , Steph has a very close relationship with her father , Johnno .
= = = 2000 – 11 = = =
Steph is introduced as a new student at Hollyoaks High , with early storylines focussing on her school life and best friend Zara Morgan . She frequently bullies fellow pupil Lisa Hunter ( Gemma Atkinson ) , driving her to attempt suicide . When Steph 's friends react disapprovingly , she apologises and promises to change . She cultivates a promiscuous reputation , having brief relationships with Brian and footballer Scott . Steph eventually becomes friends with Lisa , but accidentally ruins her hair while attempting to dye it . Believing that she did so on purpose , her other friends shun her . Distracted by the quarrel , Steph does not notice that she is being stalked by serial killer Toby Mills ( Henry Luxemburg ) . He attacks her , hitting her in the head with a spanner and leaving her to die . Steph is comatose for a week , and is diagnosed with epilepsy when she regains consciousness . Upon learning that Toby is Lisa 's brother @-@ in @-@ law , Steph resumes her bullying . Her father eventually catches her physically attacking Lisa , and orders her to leave her alone . The two go on to attend university together , where Steph apologises for her cruelty and they are able to reconcile .
In the aftermath of her epilepsy diagnosis , Steph is initially unable to deal with her condition . Her father supports her , but ends up abandoning his family following the revelation that he has a secret son . Steph 's mother remarries , and she comes to see her new stepfather , Jack Osborne ( James McKenna ) , as a father figure . Steph largely reforms following her diagnosis , becoming more sensitive to the needs of others . She comes to terms with how dangerous her condition could be uncontrolled , and in time her epileptic episodes become less frequent . Steph fails her college exams and is forced to retake them . Fuelled by jealousy of her sister 's West End success , she attempts to embark on a celebrity career . She appears in the fictional television show Bid Crazy TV , and auditions for a girl band , X @-@ Pose , which transpires to be a money @-@ making scam . She then sells a kiss and tell story on celebrity Joe Jones , who she meets after a failed audition to become one of his backing singers . When Steph 's notoriety peters out , her stepbrother and agent Darren arranges for her to have sex with a footballer . After their liaison , Steph discovers that he is actually just the team 's mascot . Humiliated , she abandons her pursuit of fame .
In a comedy storyline , Steph 's great @-@ aunt Reenie leaves her an inheritance , said to be a " small fortune " , on the condition that Steph performs a charitable act . She fulfils the requirement by saving Leo Valentine ( Brian Bovell ) from choking , however discovers that Small Fortune is , in fact , a donkey . Steph sends it to live at a donkey sanctuary .
Steph becomes a babysitter to Tom , and later begins a relationship with his older brother , Max . They get engaged , but have an on @-@ off relationship fraught with frequent arguments . Steph 's friend Niall falls in love with her and attempts to come between them . She and Max eventually marry , but on their wedding day , Niall accidentally runs Max over , killing him . After a period of intense grief , Steph has sex with Niall . He is revealed to be a villain , holding his family hostage and killing his sister , Tina McQueen ( Leah Hackett ) . A frightened Steph goes to stay with her brother Craig in Scotland . Niall follows her , and takes Steph , Tom and Craig hostage . After a stand @-@ off in which Craig makes Niall acknowledge the hurt he has caused , Niall throws himself off a cliff to his death .
After a long holiday with Tom , Steph returns and begins to put her life back together . She falls for dance teacher Fernando Fernandez ( Jeronimo Best ) , inspiring jealousy in Gilly , who has feelings for Steph . She and Fernando become engaged , as do Gilly and Cheryl Brady ( Bronagh Waugh ) , Steph 's employee . Realising that she loves Gilly , Steph breaks up with Fernando , but due to loyalty to Cheryl , refuses to date Gilly when he breaks up with her . Gilly briefly becomes engaged to Jem Costello ( Helen Russell @-@ Clarke ) , but ultimately leaves her to be with Steph .
Steph discovers she has cervical cancer , and has a hysterectomy . In the aftermath , she decides to pursue a singing career and applies for The X Factor . Despite using her cancer as a sob story , she is rejected at her audition . Her cancer spreads , and though Steph has chemotherapy , she is later told that her condition is terminal . Gilly struggles to cope with her diagnosis , almost causing Steph to cancel their wedding . It goes ahead , however , and after their honeymoon , Steph begins to make plans for her impending death . When Il Gnosh , a local Italian restaurant catches fire , Steph saves Amy Barnes and her children , but chooses to remain inside and die . After Steph 's funeral , her family and friends watch video messages she recorded for them prior to her death . On 11 March 2011 , Cindy returns and Darren tells her about Steph and plays her the goodbye message . On 26 December , Steph made a one @-@ off appearance as a ghost to Doug Carter .
= = Development = =
= = = Casting and characterisation = = =
Stenson originally auditioned to play a friend of the established character Zara Morgan ( Kelly Greenwood ) . Although unsuccessful , the Hollyoaks casting team later asked her to apply for the new role of Steph Cunningham , and placed her straight into the final stage of auditions . She was delighted to subsequently be given the part , which was her first major television role . Stenson joined the cast straight after leaving high school , aged seventeen . She made her first appearance in March 2000 , and by 2007 had become the longest @-@ serving female cast member remaining .
Steph was introduced as a friend of Zara 's , who was initially " quite naive " and easily led . Within two years , her personality had altered greatly . Steph became a bully , and " a bit of a bitch " . Stenson enjoyed this transformation into a villain , as she believed it made Steph a more memorable character . She also felt she could " really go somewhere " with Steph 's bitchiness in her acting , but in contrast struggled to portray her more genuine moments . She commented that Steph is the type of character only to cry over things she " really cares about " . Stenson found this difficult to relate to , and struggled to " find a balance between pushing it too far and far enough " . She ultimately preferred to play her as a bitch , though one " more comical rather than just out @-@ and @-@ out nasty . "
Stenson assessed that Steph " really isn 't all bad , more of a lovable rogue who just likes making mischief for attention . " She deemed her character " very unpredictable " , with a great deal of confidence . The LINC Online called her a " beautiful blonde wild child with a penchant for arrogance and displays of egotism " . Sarah Moolla of The People branded her " superficial " , the Daily Record 's Merle Brown referred to her as " a true red @-@ blooded female , and Emma Johnson of the Liverpool Echo assessed that she had a " couldn 't @-@ care @-@ less " attitude . BBC America described Steph as a two @-@ sided character . They observed that as well as a bitch , she could be " dishonest , vain , jealous and small @-@ minded " , and wrote " She causes trouble when she wants to and will happily lie and gossip to get her own way . " Conversely , they noted that for those on her good side , " She can be your best friend , a confidante and sweet natured girl " .
As Steph developed , she was revealed to have a " softer side " . Beneath her tough façade was a " deeply insecure little girl who crave [ d ] love and affection . " An " artistic and creative " streak lead her to attend performing arts college , and attain a degree in drama . This inspired a rivalry with fellow actor Summer Shaw ( Summer Strallen ) , which saw Steph " determined to keep the limelight on her . " Nadia Mendoza of The Sun described Steph as Hollyoaks 's " resident drama queen " , explaining that Steph 's dislike of Summer stemmed from the fact she had previously been the only actress in the village . Stenson downplayed her vocal ability , and opined that Steph is " hardly the world 's best singer " .
= = = Family and relationships = = =
In late @-@ 2002 , more than two years after Steph 's arrival , her family were introduced to the series . The dynamics of the Dean family evolved with time . They were initially a dysfunctional unit , but in a different way to other Hollyoaks families , as they tended to disrupt the lives of others whilst being happy amongst themselves . Upon their arrival , actress Helen Pearson , who plays mother Frankie Dean , assessed that they were " really supportive of each other " , and " quite solid , like an old @-@ fashioned family unit " , despite their lack of finances which required them to undertake " various scams to keep body and soul together . " As time went on , the Deans were affected by affairs and parental separation , more typical of the soap 's other families .
Steph had several romances throughout her time in the series . In her early years , Stenson played her as a flirt , who acted out for the attention of boys . Her first lovers included Christian virgin Brian Drake ( Jonathan Le Billon ) and football playing " lothario " Scott Anderson ( Daniel Hyde ) . Her later relationship with Cameron Clark ( Ben Gerrard ) had " ups and downs " due to his obsessive @-@ compulsive disorder . To boost his confidence she forced him to join a rock band . Her actions were successful , and Stenson said Steph was " proud " of this . She sacrificed their relationship so Cameron could leave and tour Europe . Sarah Ellis of Inside Soap praised Steph for being so supportive , despite Cameron 's " erratic behaviour " .
Steph appeared to " finally [ find ] happiness " when she fell in love with Max Cunningham ( Matt Littler ) . Although attracted to her , Max initially resisted Steph as he believed her to be a " ditzy , air @-@ headed blonde " , only interested in " bad boys . " When his younger brother Tom ( Ellis Hollins ) developed a crush on her , the " kind , sensitive way " Steph handled it altered his impression . Littler explained , " Max begins to realise there 's more to her than her looks . He begins to think she 's actually really nice and they become friends . " Littler quit the series in 2008 , and producers planned his exit around Max 's wedding to Steph . He was killed off on their wedding day , as he pulled Tom out of the path of a car . Before she filmed the aftermath of Max 's death , Stenson listened to depressing music to reach her character 's bereaved mindset . Stenson believed it was a mistake to kill Max off , and " such an awful thing to happen to Steph " , until she received " amazing feedback " about the storyline . In the aftermath , Tom asked Steph to be his mother , in a scene that then @-@ executive producer Bryan Kirkwood deemed his favourite of the year . The interaction between the two was intended to represent " what Hollyoaks is all about - lots of heart , relationships , friendships , love and loss . " Kirkwood praised Stenson 's performance throughout the storyline , particularly during in that scene .
Steph has a brief fling with Niall Rafferty ( Barry Sloane ) . The actors were required to film " steamy scenes " . Stenson felt it a " hard challenge " to portray , she had to convince the audience that Steph would genuinely get together with her husband 's killer . Some viewers , including all the staff of Inside Soap believed their chemistry to be greater . Stenson ultimately decided Steph was " better suited " to Max . She hoped that Steph would have even " more drama around the corner " along with " a bit of comic relief " .
= = = Illnesses = = =
= = = = Epilepsy = = = =
In a storyline which Stenson found challenging to portray , Steph was diagnosed with epilepsy . Feeling a responsibility to members of the viewing public who have the disorder , the actress researched it extensively , assisted by Mersey Television . As well as reading about it , she visited several organisations , and spent a day on set with a teenage girl — close in age to Steph — who has the condition , and who shared insights on the experiences she had been through . The actress felt trepidation about acting out seizures , but for her first one was assisted by the episode 's director , who had witnessed seizures first @-@ hand , having once worked in a hospital . Stenson felt privileged to be chosen for the storyline , particularly as epilepsy is typically a taboo subject which had not featured prominently in a soap opera before .
Barbara Pinder of Epilepsy Action praised the serial for taking on the subject matter . Hollyoaks researchers contacted the charity when developing the storyline , and Pinder felt that the show succeeded in communicating the impact of Steph 's diagnosis . She stated , " It is great to see a soap opera , specially one that is watched mainly by young people , look at the issue of epilepsy as it often gets ignored . " Stenson was pleased the storyline was " reaching out to people " , and stated that she had received many letters from fans thanking her for highlighting an under @-@ exposed subject , as well as positive feedback on the Hollyoaks website .
Steph initially reacted angrily towards her diagnosis , which Pinder confirmed was not uncommon , explaining : " The character is going through stages that someone with epilepsy is likely to go through . Teenagers can have terrible trouble coming to terms with epilepsy at a time when they have a lot of other difficult things to deal with . It can also be quite a blow to their independence . " Writing for the Sunday Mail , Steve Hendry assessed that the plot would serve to " bring the arrogant and often spiteful Steph down a peg or two " , humbling her . Stenson agreed that Steph 's epilepsy would make her " more understanding " , inspiring thoughtfulness towards others , as opposed to her former rejection of those different to her . However , she observed that the condition may also serve to worsen her behaviour towards " a chosen few . " The character 's epilepsy was further explored in the Hollyoaks spin @-@ off In Too Deep , in which Steph has a seizure and believes she is possessed by a spirit , almost causing her to drown .
= = = = Cervical cancer = = = =
In 2010 , Steph was diagnosed with cervical cancer and underwent a hysterectomy . The plot was said to echo the true story of former Big Brother contestant Jade Goody , who died of cervical cancer in 2009 . It was devised prior to the appointment of Paul Marquess as executive producer . He chose to continue with it , deciding that it would be interesting to give Steph another serious storyline , and have a character that viewers " know and love going through a really hard time . " In preparation for the storyline , Stenson studied the illness to give her a time @-@ line of the experiences Steph would undergo . She chose not to speak with any cancer patients about coping with cancer , believing that everyone handles it in their own personal way . Additionally , she aimed to make Steph 's realisation of her cancer as believable as possible , explaining that : " Steph wouldn 't have any prior knowledge about what to expect , and I wanted to see it fresh through her eyes " . She was flattered to be trusted with the storyline , and found it particularly important to get her portrayal right as , during the previous year , she had fronted the Arm Against Cervical Cancer campaign .
The producers aimed to send a message of early detection to the series ' young audience , and had Steph initially ignore her symptoms . Stenson hoped to raise awareness of cervical cancer , and educate women about the importance of regular smear tests . She stated that Steph was confident about beating her illness , as " the alternative [ wa ] sn 't worth thinking about . " The character was originally reluctant to tell her family about the cancer for fear of hurting them , and was embarrassed to tell her love interest Gilly Roach ( Anthony Quinlan ) , not wanting him to have to look after her . As the storyline developed , Steph cancelled her wedding to Gilly due to his refusal to accept that her condition was terminal . Quinlan explained that his character impeded her ability to deal with the situation , with his disbelief contrasting Steph 's attempt to " take this in her stride and [ ... ] spend quality time with the people she loves before she goes . "
Marquess deemed the storyline as a whole one which could only be depicted the way it was in Hollyoaks , aiming to tell a " tragic story " with a " sweet and humorous tone " . " A comedy element of the storyline had Steph use her cancer as a sob story to enter a talent show , recruiting orphan Tom to take to the stage with her , giving her story further emotional impact . Stenson commented , " Deep down she knows she 's not a fantastic singer , but she thought the judges would feel sorry for her and put her through . " According to Quinlan , viewer feedback on the storyline was " brilliant " . He stated that viewers were upset by Steph 's illness , and that it had even brought his own mother to tears .
= = = Departure = = =
In 2010 , it was announced that Stenson had decided to quit the serial to pursue a career in musical theatre . She deemed it " one of the most difficult decisions [ she had ] ever made " , stating that Hollyoaks had been her " dream job " and that she would miss her friends in the cast and crew . She made the decision to resign around June 2009 , but was convinced by then @-@ producer Lucy Allan to play out a long exit storyline , which concluded filming in September 2010 . Before filming her final scenes , Stenson secured her first West End role . Though she had previously felt ready to leave the series , when the time came , she was upset because she felt the reality of it . She called her final scenes " really sad and emotional " , and stated that while she had not had any input in Steph 's exit , she was happy with it .
Hollyoaks devised an arson plot to begin on Guy Fawkes Night 2010 , as a result of which some characters would die . The production team intended to keep details of who would die secret until transmission . Prior to broadcast , Stenson revealed that Steph would risk her own life to save Amy Barnes ( Ashley Slanina @-@ Davies ) , Leah Barnes ( Jessica Croft @-@ Lane ) and Lucas Hay . The actress explained that " She stares death in the face every day because of her cancer , so thinks she really has nothing to lose now . " Stenson performed one of her own stunts during filming , with the rest undertaken by a stunt double . A promotional trailer for the episodes aired across the Channel 4 network , featuring Steph on fire . In the event , Steph rescued Amy and her children from a burning building but refused to leave herself , saying she was ready to die . Her exit received a positive reaction from fans on the social networking website Twitter , with Stenson stating that she was " honoured " by the response . Steph 's legacy continued following her death , with her husband , family and friends left to come to terms with their grief . On 29 November 2011 it was confirmed Stenson was to reprise the role for a one off guest appearance as Steph in which she appears as an angel to Doug Carter who had attempted suicide and she convinces him that his life matters . Steph tells Doug something and he shows Frankie a special song that Steph had recorded for her . Frankie , overjoyed that her daughter had not forgotten her , wept whilst Angel Steph looked on happily and placed a hand on her shoulder before winking to Tom and returning to heaven , stating she was " ready for her solo . "
= = Reception = =
Stenson received several award nominations for her portrayal of Steph . She was nominated in the " Best Comedy Performance " category at the 2005 and 2006 British Soap Awards , and for " Best Dramatic Performance " in 2009 . She received a long @-@ list nomination for the " Best Actress " accolade at the 2005 National Television Awards . In 2008 , Stenson was nominated for the " Sexiest Female " Inside Soap Award , which she found flattering . A further nomination in the same category followed in 2010 , accompanied by nominations for " Best Actress " , and " Best Dramatic Performance " for Steph learning she had cancer . The character was selected as one of the " top 100 British soap characters " by industry experts for a poll to be run by What 's on TV , with readers able to vote for their favourite character to discover " Who is Soap 's greatest Legend ? "
Following her departure , her co @-@ stars commented favourably on the actress and character , with Jorgie Porter deeming her an " ultimate original " , Gemma Merna stating that she " was Hollyoaks " , and Ricky Whittle admitting that he cried during the airing of her final scenes . Television and entertainment website Holy Soap did not see Steph 's fire death coming , calling her actions brave and her ten @-@ year duration " mammoth " . They described her most memorable moment as telling Niall she did not love him and then watching him commit suicide . Inside Soap said if there was an award for " the unluckiest character in soap " , Steph would certainly win . In his column for The Guardian , television critic Jim Shelley stated that it was time for Steph to go , having " suffered enough " during her tenure . Humorously recapping her ten years in Hollyoaks , Shelley wrote :
Sarah Welsh of the South Wales Echo gave the stalking storyline a negative review . She called both plot and acting " ridiculous " and commented that while she often felt sorry for the serial being snubbed at the National Soap Awards , " This is not the way to raise the game . "
Steph 's relationships were a focal point of many reviews . The Daily Mirror 's Nicola Methven and Polly Hudson found a 2004 love triangle between Steph , her sister Debbie and love interest Dan Hunter ( Andrew McNair ) " surprising compelling " . Grace Dent of The Guardian observed of her failed engagement to Fernando : " With the best will in the world , I don 't feel that marriage was ever going to last " . Dent had previously named Steph singing the Sugababes ' " About You Now " at Max 's funeral one of her four favourite soap moments of 2008 . Roz Laws of the Sunday Mercury felt there was " plenty of chemistry " between Steph and Gilly . Their relationship was frequently commented on by the Daily Mail 's Jaci Stephen in her weekly soap column . She expressed disinterest in Steph and Cheryl 's rivalry over Gilly , and found it implausible that she and Jem would quarrel over him . When the two finally admitted their feelings for one another in May 2010 , Stephen accurately predicted that their happiness would be short @-@ lived . She highlighted a lack of subtlety in the scripting of the lead @-@ up to their wedding , observing : " Of course , you know that the moment she says that nothing is going to stop her marrying Gilly , the Grim Reaper will be pulling up in his hearse , shortly behind the wedding car . "
Stephen derided Steph 's singing ambition during her X Factor plot line , deeming her voice " average " and writing that she did not need to use her cancer for the sympathy vote , as her singing alone would be enough for that . She later questioned when Steph would accept that she was not intended to be a singer , commenting that her " ambition could not be made of sterner stuff " , but that Simon Cowell and the remainder of the population would breathe " a major sigh of relief " at the abandonment of her showbiz dreams . More positively , Stephen wrote that she loved the bravery in " both the humour and pathos that Steph 's manipulation of her cancer brings . "
Reviewing the Steph @-@ centric spin @-@ off In Too Deep for The Times , Tim Teeman commented that while late @-@ night Hollyoaks episodes had previously been amusing , " sexed @-@ up " versions of the main show , with In Too Deep it became " less shagathon , more What Lies Beneath " . The episode was selected as recommended viewing by Laws of the Sunday Mercury . The launch of Hollyoaks Later series one , in which Niall returns to target Steph , was named a " Satellite Pick of the Day " by the Daily Record . Christopher Howse , writing " Tatworld " for The Daily Telegraph — a column chronicling tabloid culture — named Steph and her family joint tenth in a list of Top Ten Deans , which included entrants such as Dean Koontz , Dean Gaffney and Richard Dean Anderson .
= Battle of Tabsor =
The Battle of Tabsor was fought on 19 – 20 September 1918 beginning the Battle of Sharon , which along with the Battle of Nablus formed the set piece Battle of Megiddo fought between 19 and 25 September in the last months of the Sinai and Palestine Campaign of the First World War . During the infantry phase of the Battle of Sharon the British Empire 60th Division , XXI Corps attacked and captured the section of the front line nearest the Mediterranean coast under cover of an intense artillery barrage including a creeping barrage and naval gunfire . This Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) victory over the entrenched Ottoman Eighth Army , composed of German and Ottoman soldiers , began the Final Offensive , ultimately resulting in the destruction of the equivalent of one Ottoman army , the retreat of what remained of two others , and the capture of many thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory from the Judean Hills to the border of modern @-@ day Turkey . After the end of the battle of Megiddo , the Desert Mounted Corps pursued the retreating soldiers to Damascus , six days later . By the time the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire five weeks later , Aleppo had been captured .
During the Battle of Tabsor the 3rd ( Lahore ) , 7th ( Meerut ) and 75th Divisions attacked the entrenched Ottoman Empire Eighth Army defending the Tabsor defences . These defences were located in the middle section of the front line , assigned to the XXI Corps . On their left the Battle of Tulkarm was being fought with the Battle of Arara fought on their right . Together with the cavalry phase , these battles make up the Battle of Sharon , which , with the Battle of Nablus , fought by the XX Corps and Chaytor 's Force , have become known as the Battle of Megiddo . Megiddo developed into a major set piece offensive , when large formations of the Allied EEF , attacked and responded to the reactions of three Ottoman armies , each time following a predetermined plan . The offensive resulted in defeat for Ottoman forces in Palestine , Syria and the Transjordan .
These operations began the Final Offensive , ultimately resulting in the destruction of the equivalent of an Ottoman army and the retreat in disarray of what remained of two armies . The defeat of the Yildirim Army Group , commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders , resulted in the capture of many thousands of prisoners and many miles of territory stretching from the Judean Hills . After the battle of Megiddo , Desert Mounted Corps pursued the retreating German and Ottoman soldiers to Damascus , which was captured six days later , when the pursuit continued on to close to the border of modern @-@ day Turkey . Five weeks after the Final Offensive began and with Aleppo captured , the Armistice of Mudros was signed between the Allies and the Ottoman Empire ending the fighting in this theatre .
The Battle of Tabsor began with an intense creeping bombardment , during which three infantry divisions of the XXI Corps attacked the Tabsor defences ; the only continuous trench @-@ and @-@ redoubt system on the Ottoman front line . As they advanced , their left flank was protected by the 60th Division , which advanced up the coast to the Nahr el Faliq , before capturing Tulkarm , the headquarters of the Eighth Army . Their right flank was secured by the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division , with the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie pivoting on the Rafat salient . Defending the Ottoman front line against the attacks by the 3rd ( Lahore ) , 7th ( Meerut ) and 75th Divisions were four divisions of the Ottoman Eighth Army : the 7th , 20th and 46th Infantry Divisions of the Ottoman XXII Corps and the 19th Division of the German Asia Corps . By the end of the first day of battle , the Ottoman 7th Division had ceased to exist and the Ottoman front line ( which had previously stretched east @-@ west from the coast ) had been pushed and bent back to run north @-@ south . The Seventh Army , further inland , was forced to withdraw when the Eighth Army was outflanked , to conform with the new Ottoman front line .
= = Background = =
By July , it was clear that the German Spring Offensive in France , which had forced the postponement of offensive plans in Palestine , had failed , resulting in a return to trench warfare on the Western Front . This coincided with the approach of the campaign season in Palestine and the Middle East . General Edmund Allenby , commander of the Egyptian Expeditionary Force ( EEF ) , was " very anxious to make a move in September " , when he expected to capture the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Army headquarters at Tulkarm and Nablus , the road to Jisr ed Damieh and Es Salt in the hills east of the Jordan River . " Another reason for moving to this line is that it will encourage both my own new Indian troops and my Arab Allies . "
= = = Reorganisation of EEF infantry = = =
After the 52nd ( Lowland ) , the 74th ( Yeomanry ) Divisions and nine British infantry battalions from each of the 10th , 53rd , 60th and 75th Divisions were sent to France between May and August 1918 , the remaining British infantry battalions were reinforced by British Indian Army battalions . Infantry brigades were now reorganised with one British battalion and three British Indian Army battalions , with the exception of one brigade in the 53rd Division which had one South African and three Indian battalions . The British Indian Army 's 7th ( Meerut ) Division arrived from the campaign in Mesopotamia in January 1918 , followed by the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division in April 1918 . Only the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division remained , as previously , an all British division .
By April 1918 , 35 infantry and two pioneer battalions were being prepared to move to Palestine . Those battalions with identification numbers from 150 upwards were formed by removing complete companies from experienced regiments then serving in Mesopotamia and forming new battalions . The 2 / 151st Indian Infantry was one such battalion formed from one company each from the 56th Punjabi Rifles and the 51st , 52nd and 53rd Sikhs . One regiment , the 101st Grenadiers , formed a second battalion by dividing itself into two with two experienced and two new companies in each battalion . The parent battalions also supplied first line transport and experienced officers with war time service . The 3 / 151st Indian Infantry had the commanding officer , two other British and four Indian officers included in the 198 men transferred from the 38th Dogras . The sepoys transferred were also very experienced . In September 1918 the 2 / 151st Indian Infantry had to provide an honour guard for Allenby ; among the men on parade were some who had served on five different fronts since 1914 , and on eight pre @-@ war campaigns .
Of the 54 Indian battalions deployed to Palestine , 22 had recent experience of combat , but had each lost an experienced company , which had been replaced by recruits . Ten battalions were formed from experienced troops who had never fought or trained together . The other 22 had not seen any prior service in the war ; in total , almost a third of the troops were recruits . Within 44 Indian battalions , the " junior British officers were green , and most could not speak Hindustani . In one battalion only one Indian officer spoke English and only two British officers could communicate with their men . " Not all of the Indian battalions served in the infantry divisions , some were employed in defence of the lines of communication .
= = = Front line = = =
By September 1918 the front line held by the EEF began virtually at sea level at a point on the Mediterranean coast about 12 miles ( 19 km ) north of Jaffa , just north of Arsuf , ran about 15 miles ( 24 km ) south @-@ east across the Plain of Sharon , then east over the Judean Hills for about 15 miles ( 24 km ) , rising to a height of 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 feet ( 460 – 610 m ) above sea level . From the Judean Hills the front line fell steeply to 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) below sea level in the Jordan Valley , where it continued for about 18 miles ( 29 km ) to the Dead Sea and the foothills of the Mountains of Gilead / Moab .
= = Prelude = =
= = = British plans and preparations = = =
On the first quarter of the front line , which stretched 15 miles ( 24 km ) across the Plain of Sharon from the Mediterranean Sea , the XXI Corps deployed 35 @,@ 000 infantry , the Desert Mounted Corps 9 @,@ 000 cavalry and the artillery 's 383 guns for their attacks on the Eighth Army . On the remaining three quarters of front line , ending at the Dead Sea , 22 @,@ 000 infantry , 3 @,@ 000 cavalry and 157 guns of the XX Corps and Chaytor 's Force were deployed facing the Ottoman Seventh and Fourth Armies .
The Battle of Sharon was to begin with an attack on an 8 @-@ mile ( 13 km ) -long stretch of front line between the Jaffa @-@ Jerusalem railway running north from Lydda towards Tulkarm ( cut at the front line ) and the Mediterranean , where Allenby massed three mounted divisions behind three of the XXI Corps ' infantry divisions supported by 18 densely deployed heavy and siege batteries . Together the five infantry divisions of the XXI Corps , commanded by the British Lieutenant General Sir Edward Bulfin , had an advantage of 4 @.@ 4 – to – 1 in total numbers , and three times the defenders ' heavy artillery . " Concentration , surprise and speed were key elements in the blitzkrieg warfare planned by Allenby . "
The four infantry divisions of the XXI Corps were to begin the Battle of Sharon by attacking in overwhelming strength , supported by the greatest possible weight of artillery . The first objective of breaking the German and Ottoman front line was assigned to the 60th Division . They were to create a gap sufficiently large to enable the cavalry to safely advance to the rear of the German and Ottoman forces in the Judean Hills . The second objective of assaulting the Tabsor defences was assigned to the 3rd ( Lahore ) , 7th ( Meerut ) and 75th Divisions . After their successful initial attack they were to attack the Jiljulieh- Kalkilieh @-@ Et Tire line .
After the cavalry breakthrough on the coast , the XXI Corps would advance to capture the headquarters of the Ottoman Eighth Army at Tulkarm and cut the railway lines . Sections of the lateral rail line in the Judean Hills between Tulkarm and Nablus and a branch of the Jezreel Valley railway , were to be denied to the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies . These lines , including the important railway junction at Messudieh , transported their supplies into the Judean Hills . The British infantry divisions were to continue their attack by swinging north – east , pivoting on their right to push the defenders back out of their trenches away from the coast and back into the Judean Hills towards Messudieh .
While the brigades of the XXI Corps ' 3rd ( Lahore ) , the 7th ( Meerut ) and the 75th Divisions attacked the Tabsor defences , the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division and the Détachement Français de Palestine et de Syrie defended and pivoted on the Rafat salient covering the right flank . Further to the right , the XX Corps would begin the Battle of Nablus in the Judean Hills in support of the main attack by the XXI Corps , by advancing to capture the Seventh Army headquarters at Nablus and blocking the main escape route from the Judean Hills to the Jisr ed Damieh .
Together , these attacks would force the Central Powers to retreat back along their main line of communication on the roads and branch lines to the Jezreel Valley railway . These ran alongside each other out of the Judean Hills , through the Dothan Pass to Jenin , and across the Esdrealon Plain ( also known as the Jezreel Valley and the ancient Plain of Armageddon ) , 40 miles ( 64 km ) away , and on to Damascus . The plain was also the site of the important communication hubs at Afulah and Beisan and here thousands would be captured by the cavalry as they successfully exploited the infantry victories . The objectives of Desert Mounted Corps were the swift capture of Afulah by the 4th Cavalry Division , the swift capture the Yildirim Army Group 's headquarters at Nazareth by the 5th Cavalry Division and the swift capture of Jenin by the Australian Mounted Division 's 3rd Light Horse Brigade . Together , the occupation of the lowlands of the Plain of Sharon , the Esdrealon Plain and the southern Jordan Valley would form a semicircle round the positions of the Ottoman Seventh and Eighth Armies in the Judean Hills .
= = = British Empire deployments = = =
The actual frontage which would be directly attacked by the British Empire infantry was about 10 miles ( 16 km ) long , but it was not continuous . There were about 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) of gaps in their deployment , where the terrain was unfavourable for a frontal attack . During the advance , a planned right @-@ flanking movement by all the infantry divisions aimed to bring them in touch with one another . At this point in their advance , Ottoman units in those areas unfavourable for frontal attack would be forced to withdraw by the threatening encirclement , be outflanked or be captured from the rear .
The final deployment , which was made during 35 minutes of darkness between moon @-@ set and dawn , placed the divisions at right angles to the direction of their advance . The XXI Corps ' 60th Division was deployed closest to the coast with the 7th ( Meerut ) Division on their right and then the 75th Division with the longest frontage , followed by the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division , the 54th ( East Anglian ) Division and finally the Détachment Français de Palestine et de Syrie at Rafat , at the eastern end of the XXI Corps front line in the foothills of the Judean Hills . There was no corps reserve .
= = = German and Ottoman forces and preparations = = =
In August 1918 , the Central Powers ' Yildirim Army Group commanded by Otto Liman von Sanders consisted of 40 @,@ 598 front @-@ line infantrymen organised into twelve divisions defending a 56 miles ( 90 km ) long front . They were armed with 19 @,@ 819 rifles , 273 light and 696 heavy machine guns . The high number of machine guns reflects the Ottoman Army 's new tables of organization .
Cevat Pasha 's Eighth Army of 10 @,@ 000 soldiers , was supported by 157 guns . With its headquarters at Tulkarm , this army held a line from the Mediterranean coast just north of Arsuf to Furkhah in the Judean Hills . The Eighth Army was organised into the XXII Corps ' 7th , 20th and 46th Divisions and the Asia Corps ' 16th and 19th Divisions , three German battalion groups of the German " Pasha II " detachment , and the 2nd Caucasian Cavalry Division in reserve . The German Asia Corps , also known as the " Left Wing Group " , with a high component of machine guns , was commanded by the German Colonel Gustav von Oppen . The Asia Corps linked the Eighth Army 's XXII Corps on the coast with the Seventh Army 's III Corps further inland , facing units of the British XX Corps .
The 7th , 19th and 20th Divisions held the shortest frontage in the entire Yildirim Army Group . The 7th and 20th Divisions together held a total of 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) of trenches . The 7th Division held 4 @.@ 3 miles ( 6 @.@ 9 km ) nearest the coast while the 20th Division held 3 @.@ 1 miles ( 5 @.@ 0 km ) and the Asia Corps ' 19th Division held 6 @.@ 2 miles ( 10 @.@ 0 km ) of trenches further inland . The 46th Division formed the reserve 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) from the front line , near the Eighth Army 's headquarters at Tulkarm .
These divisions were some of the most highly regarded fighting formations in the Ottoman Army ; in 1915 the 7th and 19th Divisions had fought as part of Esat Pasa 's III Corps at Gallipoli . The 20th Division had also fought towards the end of the Gallipoli campaign and served for a year in Galicia fighting against Russians on the Eastern Front . This regular army division , which had been raised and stationed in Palestine , was sometimes referred to as the Arab Division .
The XXII Corps was supported by the majority of the Yildirim Army 's heavy artillery for counter battery operations . Here , three of the five Ottoman Army heavy artillery batteries in Palestine ( the 72nd , 73rd and 75th Batteries ) were deployed . Further , the Ottoman front line regiments had been alerted that a major attack was imminent .
= = = = Other views of this force = = = =
The Ottoman armies were understrength , overstretched , suffering greatly from a strained supply system , overwhelmingly outnumbered by the EEF by about two to one , and " haemorrhaging " deserters . The effective strengths of the nine infantry battalions of the 16th Infantry Division were each equal to a British infantry company of between 100 and 250 men while 150 to 200 men were assigned to the 19th Infantry Division without taking into account the large number of machine guns in these Asia Corps divisions . Problems with the supply system in February 1918 resulted in the normal daily ration in Palestine being 125 grains ( 0 @.@ 29 oz ) of bread and boiled beans in the morning , at noon , and at night , without oil or any other condiment .
= = = Tabsor defences = = =
The Tabsor defences consisted of the only continuous trench and redoubt system on the front line . Here the Ottomans had dug two or three lines of trenches and redoubts , varying in depth from 1 – 3 miles ( 1 @.@ 6 – 4 @.@ 8 km ) . These defences centred on the village of Tabsor , and stretched from Jaljulye to the coast . Another less developed system of defences was 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) behind , and the beginnings of a third system ran from Tulkarm across the Plain of Sharon to the Nahr Iskanderun . The Ottoman armies defences were inflexible defence relying on a line of trenches which required " every inch of ground ... to be fought for when a more flexible system would have better suited the situation " .
On 17 September 1918 , Ottoman Army intelligence accurately placed five infantry divisions and a detachment opposite their Eighth Army . As a consequence , the 46th Infantry Division was moved up 8 @.@ 1 miles ( 13 @.@ 0 km ) to the south – west to a new reserve position at Et Tire , directly behind the Ottoman XXII Corps 's front line divisions .
= = Battle = =
= = = 19 September = = =
= = = = Bombardment = = = =
At 04 : 30 a bombardment by artillery , trench mortars and machine guns began firing at the German and Ottoman front and second lines of trenches in front of XXI Corps . This intense bombardment , which closely resembled a Western @-@ Front @-@ style bombardment , continued for a half @-@ hour , with guns deployed one to every 50 yards ( 46 m ) of front on the coastal sector . Under cover of this bombardment , the leading infantry advanced to the front line . Just before their arrival , the barrage lifted and began firing behind the Ottoman front line . There was no attempt at systematic attempt by the artillery to cut the wire ; the leading units were to cut it by hand or carry some way of crossing or bridging it .
The artillery was organised by weight and targets : heavy artillery was employed in counter @-@ battery fire , with guns and 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzers shelling objectives beyond the range of the field artillery 's barrage and where the infantry advance was delayed . Field artillery bombarded the Ottoman front line until the infantry advance arrived ; then , the 18 @-@ pounders and Royal Horse Artillery batteries lifted to form a creeping barrage in front of the infantry up to their range . This barrage began firing at a range of 4 @,@ 000 yards ( 3 @,@ 700 m ) but by 08 : 00 it had been extended to 15 @,@ 000 yards ( 14 @,@ 000 m ) as the guns lifted and moved forward at a rate of 50 yards ( 46 m ) per minute , 75 yards ( 69 m ) per minute or 100 yards ( 91 m ) per minute in front of the three divisions ' separate and uniquely timed advances .
= = = = 7th ( Meerut ) Division attack western sector = = = =
The 7th ( Meerut ) Division , consisting of the 19th , 21st and 28th Brigades , commanded by Major General V. B. Fane , advanced under cover of the bombardment ; their creeping barrage moving forward at a rate of 100 yards ( 91 m ) per minute . They were to assault the western end of the Tabsor defences , between a wadi west of Tabsor and the Wadi Hurab el Miske , on the right of the 60th Division 's advance . Once these objectives had been captured , they were to advance and capture a second system of trenches defending Et Tire without artillery support , as the guns would be out of range and in the process of being moved forward .
The 7th ( Meerut ) Division 's 19th Brigade consisting of the 1st Battalion , Seaforth Highlanders , 28th Punjabis , 92nd Punjabis and 125th Napier 's Rifles , with the 1st Guides and 20th Punjabis ( 21st Brigade ) and the 134th Machine Gun Company attached , were formed into two columns in front of the British wire , each column on a frontage one battalion wide . The initial attack by the 28th and the 92nd Punjabis , under cover of the creeping barrage , was completely successful , and included the capture of a 150mm howitzer battery by five men of the 92nd Punjabis and the 1st Guides . The second attack on the Et Tire defensive line , by the 1st Battalion , Seaforth Highlanders and the 125th Napier 's Rifles , met with more opposition but was eventually successful . Subsequently , 40 men from the 125th Napier 's Rifles captured 200 soldiers and six machine guns defending the only crossing of the Zerquiye marshes . A second battery of 105mm howitzers behind the captured position and the trenches at Ayun el Basse , from which the German or Ottoman force had covered the Zerquiye crossing , was seized by the 1st Battalion , Seaforth Highlanders .
The remaining two battalions of the 21st Brigade , the 2nd Battalion , The Black Watch ( Royal Highlanders ) and the 1 / 8th Gurkha Rifles , captured the front @-@ line system of defences under cover of the creeping barrage , and then advanced to capture the Wadi Hurab el Miske and 350 prisoners . At 08 : 40 , the 7th ( Meerut ) Division had advanced to a position to allow the 4th Cavalry Division to advance to capture Afulah and Beisan . By 09 : 00 the 21st Brigade was in the process of reforming at ' Ayun el Basse , with the return of the 1st Guides and 20th Punjabis from the 19th Brigade . The 1st Guides had still not arrived back to the 21st Brigade when , at 13 : 00 , the brigade marched to Et Tire , which the 75th Division had captured at 11 : 00 . Here they concentrated east of the village , while the 19th Brigade also moved towards Et Tire . At 16 : 30 the 21st Brigade continued their advance eastwards across the Tulkarm road , where their 20th Punjabis were heavily machine @-@ gunned by a German battalion in the foothills of the Judean Hills . Their objective had been Felamiye , but they were stopped 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from that village . Meanwhile , the 2nd Battalion , Royal Highlanders came up to assist the 92nd Punjabis attack ; together succeeding in the capture of El Majdal .
The third brigade of the 7th ( Meerut ) Division ( the 28th Brigade ) , consisting of the 2nd Battalion , Leicestershire Regiment , the 51st Sikhs , the 53rd Sikhs and the 56th Punjabi Rifles , were supported by the recently returned 264th Brigade Royal Field Artillery ( RFA ) on completion of the creeping barrage . By 12 : 30 , this brigade had reached a point north @-@ east of the Zerqiye marsh and had turned east to advance with its battalions in a diamond formation towards Et Taiyibe on the eastern side of the Tulkarm road . Their advance guard , the 56th Punjabi Rifles , drove in a rearguard position 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) north west of Et Tire about 15 : 30 . The survivors of this rearguard position re @-@ established themselves 1 @,@ 500 yards ( 1 @,@ 400 m ) further east on a lower ridge . This second rearguard position was captured soon after , and Taiyibe was occupied at 18 : 00 when the brigade bivouacked north @-@ east and south of the village .
= = = = 75th Division attack the centre = = = =
Comprising the 232nd , 233rd and 234th Brigades , the 75th Division advanced ( with the 233rd Brigade in reserve ) under cover of the creeping barrage which lifted at a rate of 50 yards ( 46 m ) per minute . The bombardment in front of their line was so accurate that the leading infantry units were able to keep within 40 yards ( 37 m ) of the advancing line of shells , suffering only one casualty from their own fire .
The 234th Brigade advanced with the leading companies of the 1 / 152nd Indian Infantry and the 58th Vaughan 's Rifles on the left . In the centre , two companies of the 1 / 5th Battalion , Somerset Light Infantry ( 233rd Brigade ) had been attached to the 234th Brigade . They formed an advance guard , to attack an isolated defensive line 600 yards ( 550 m ) in front of the main defences . The 4th Battalion , Wiltshire Regiment and the 2 / 3rd Gurkha Rifles of the 232nd Brigade advanced on the right . These units attacked under the creeping barrage and successfully captured all objectives , including the isolated Ottoman front @-@ line trenches , the main trenches and the Ottoman batteries beyond .
While the advance guard consolidated its capture of the isolated trench line , the two main columns , formed by the 232nd and 234th Brigades , moved on to the main defensive works in front of Et Tire . This position was defended by the Ottoman Eighth Army 's reserve division , the 46th Division commanded by Major Tiller . Here Tiller held an extensive fortified trench system surrounded by a network of cactus hedges , making a " formidable obstacle " .
As the 234th Brigade continued their advance with the 1 / 4th Battalion , Duke of Cornwall 's Light Infantry and the 123rd Outram 's Rifles in artillery formation , two or three Ottoman batteries in the wadi south west of Miske fired on the 1 / 152nd Indian Infantry to within 60 yards ( 55 m ) . Shortly after 08 : 00 an Indian bayonet attack captured three 150mm howitzers , seven 77mm guns and their detachments , along with the trenches defending Et Tire .
The 232nd Brigade ( composed of the 4th Battalion , Wiltshire Regiment , the 72nd Punjabis , the 2 / 3rd Gurkhas Rifles and the 3rd Kashmir Imperial Service Infantry ) advanced with their leading companies in line , the remainder in artillery formation : the 4th Battalion Wiltshire Regiment on the right and the 2 / 3rd Gurkha Rifles on the left . They had quickly captured the main front @-@ line trenches under the creeping barrage before advancing to capture Miske at 07 : 00 , supported by the South African Field Artillery Brigade , which had moved forward after completing its part of the creeping barrage . A firing line was established at the edge of Et Tire , after an advance of 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) by the 4th Battalion , Wiltshire Regiment , the 2 / 3rd Gurkha Rifles and the 72nd Punjabis , which had been brigade reserve . Here they were targeted by the defenders ; every exposed infantryman was shot . This stymied attack was eventually reinforced by the 232nd Brigade 's fourth battalion , the 3rd Kashmir Imperial Service Infantry , some armoured cars and a cavalry squadron , which compelled the Ottoman defenders to evacuate Et Tire by 11 : 00 when Refet Bey 's XXII Corps headquarters were captured .
The retiring Ottoman force was pursued by armoured cars , while the reserve 233rd Brigade , comprising the remainder of the 5th Battalion , Somerset Light Infantry , the 3 / 3rd Gurkha Rifles , the 29th Punjabis and the 2 / 154th Indian Infantry , moved forward to Miske . The 75th Division suffered 518 casualties , 352 of whom were from the 232nd Brigade .
= = = = 3rd ( Lahore ) Division attack eastern sector = = = =
The objectives of the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division , consisting of the 7th , 8th and 9th Brigades , were to break through the Tabsor defences at Sabiye and advance east , capturing Jaljulye and the Railway Redoubt , before advancing towards Qalqilye , Kh . Kefir Thilth , ' Azzun and Jiyus in the foothills of the Judean Hills .
The 9th Brigade , consisting of the 2nd Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment , the 1 / 1st Gurkha Rifles , the 93rd Burma Infantry and the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry , began their advance at 04 : 27 , supported by a creeping barrage which lifted and moved forward at a rate of 100 yards ( 91 m ) per minute . The brigade moved via taped stretches into no man 's land , where a heavy Ottoman barrage of high explosive shells fell on them , with little rifle or machine @-@ gun fire until they approached the trenches . West of Sabiye , the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry and 2nd Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment attacked German and Ottoman infantry , which attempted to stop their advance . Between 05 : 00 and 05 : 30 , the 93rd Burma Infantry and the 1 / 1st Gurkha Rifles had advanced to cut the second trench line , running from Tabsor to Qalqilye . A threatened counter @-@ attack from the north was stopped by a detachment from the 1 / 1st Gurkha Rifles , which captured 136 prisoners and two machine guns . Due to constant cutting of the telephone lines and bombardment haze making visual signalling impossible , the commander of the 9th Brigade rode forward to assess the situation and ordered the advance to continue towards Jiyus .
The 9th Brigade moved eastwards , crossing the railway 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north @-@ west of Qalqilye at 09 : 00 with the 93rd Burma Infantry in the centre , the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry on their right , the 1 / 1st Gurkha Rifles on their left and the 2nd Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment in reserve . Although the Ottoman 20th Division had been " completely overrun " , progress on the left was slowed by reserves from the Asia Corps west of ' Azzun . Jiyus was eventually captured by the 105th Mahratta Light Infantry and two companies from the 93rd Burma Infantry about nightfall , when two German officers and 18 other prisoners were captured .
The attack by the 8th Brigade , consisting of the 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment , the 47th Sikhs , the 59th Scinde Rifles and the 2 / 124th Duchess of Connaught 's Own Baluchistan Infantry , began at 04 : 45 towards the Wadi Ishkar , west of Jaljulye . The 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment at Ras el ' Ain and the 2 / 124th Baluchistan Infantry at Tell el Murkhmar , advanced rapidly capturing the first line of defence , between Bir Adas and the Hadrah road . A company from the Manchester Regiment advanced on both sides of the railway , eventually reaching a bridge over the Wadi Ishkar west of Jaljulye . Here , they fired on the village and railway redoubt with two machine guns , while the Baluchistan Infantry advanced to occupy Byar Adas at 07 : 15 . At 09 : 10 the 47th Sikhs reinforced the attack on the Railway Redoubt , supported by an intense five @-@ minute bombardment . Shortly afterwards , the redoubt , along with a pack gun and two machine guns , was captured by the Baluchistan Infantry . At 10 : 45 a bombardment covered the 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment 's attack on Jaljulye , which was easily captured after the Ottoman defenders had quickly withdrawn , in consequence of the advance by the 7th Brigade , 3rd ( Lahore ) Division , which was threatening to cut them off . At 12 : 30 artillery fire from the IV Brigade RFA was directed on Hable , which was captured 30 minutes later ; the 8th Brigade 's advance was resumed at 13 : 30 towards Kh . Ras et Tire and Tell Manasif . Both objectives were reached about 18 : 00 , the brigade bivouacking for the night behind strong outposts .
Meanwhile , the 7th Brigade advanced with the 2 / 7th Gurkha Rifles on the right , the 27th Punjabis on the left , the 1st Battalion Connaught Rangers in the left rear and the 91st Punjabis in support , under cover of the creeping barrage of heavy artillery and machine @-@ gun fire . They attacked the Ottoman front @-@ line defences , which at first were supported by high @-@ explosive Ottoman artillery fire ; the 27th Punjabis suffered more than 100 casualties in dense clouds of dust , smoke and shrapnel . Nevertheless , the brigade advanced to capture Kufr Saba at 07 : 12 and Qalqilye at 09 : 00 . By 14 : 00 the brigade was ordered to support the 8th Brigade attack on ' Azzun , but the order was not received until 15 : 30 so most of their advance was made during the night , eventually halting at 24 : 00 , 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) west of Azzun .
= = = = Ottoman defenders ' reports = = = =
By 05 : 45 telephone communication to the Ottoman front had been cut and five minutes later all German and Ottoman reserves had been ordered forward .
At 08 : 50 , Cevat 's Eighth Army reported to Liman von Sanders , commander of the Yildirim Army Group at Nazareth , that its 7th Division ( not to be confused with the 7th ( Meerut ) Division ) was " out of the fight " and the 19th Division was under attack .
Small groups of survivors from the 7th and 20th Divisions managed to continue fighting while retiring . They formed a rear guard of 100 soldiers with 2 machine guns and 17 artillery guns from the 7th Division and 300 soldiers , while four machine guns and seven guns from the 20th Division also made a desperate attempt to hold the British Empire attack . Liman von Sanders ordered the 110th Infantry Regiment to advance from Nablus in support of the Eighth Army . These forces were to stop the EEF advance to the Tulkarm to Nablus road at the easily defended narrow , steep @-@ sided pass near ' Anebta .
The 19th Division was forced to retreat towards Kefri Kasim and the XXII Corps ( Eighth Army ) , threatened with encirclement , was in retreat towards Et Tire having lost most of its artillery . By 16 : 30 Cevat had been informed that Et Tire was captured and cut off from reports from his XXII Corps , he began to move his headquarters north at dusk . Cevat said , " The enemy has broken through our lines in spite of our counter – attacks ... Without assistance operations are impossible " . A remnant from the 7th Division managed to establish a temporary divisional headquarters at Mesudiye that night .
Liman von Sanders had no combat formations available to stop the cavalry advance up the coast , while in the Judean Hills the British Empire infantry attacks forced the Yildirim Army Group 's two armies to retire .
= = = 20 September = = =
General Bulfin , commanding the XXI Corps , issued orders for the continuation of the battle on 20 September . The 7th ( Meerut ) Division 's objectives were to attack and capture Deir Sheraf , Sebustiye and Burqa , while the 3rd ( Lahore ) Division 's objective was to establish a position through Beit Udhen and Qusein commanding the Nablus @-@ to @-@ Deir Sheraf road . The 7th and 3rd Divisions advanced to the northeast , through the hills towards ancient Samaria , while the 60th Division moved east from Tulkarm along the Tulkarm to Nablus road with the 5th Light Horse Brigade , still attached to the 60th Division , advancing north of Tulkarm to cut the railway line between Messudieh and Jenin . The 75th Division continued in reserve at Et Tire , where they may have been assigned the management of thousands of prisoners .
= = = = 7th ( Meerut ) Division = = = =
The 7th ( Meerut ) Division advanced in two columns . The 21st Brigade , on the right , supported by a mixed field @-@ artillery brigade of two 4 @.@ 5 @-@ inch howitzer and one 18 @-@ pounder batteries and a machine @-@ gun company , advanced through Felamiye and Kufr Zibad . The 19th Brigade , on the left , with the VIII Mountain Artillery Brigade and two machine @-@ gun companies followed by the 28th Brigade , moved through El Majdal and Kufr Sur .
The 21st Brigade advanced along a track beyond Kufr Zibad that proved impassable for the artillery , which was sent back to Et Tire , where it came under orders of the 75th Division . Meanwhile , the 19th Brigade captured a small rearguard position at Kufr Sur before advancing under fire at 11 : 00 to a point 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) from the village of Beit Lid . The brigade 's Lewis guns forced the Ottoman or German battery supporting the rearguard to withdraw , but heavy machine @-@ gun fire stopped the 125th Napier 's Rifles from crossing the gully between Sefarin and Beit Lid . Without artillery support , an attack by the 1st Battalion , Seaforth Highlanders , which began at 14 : 00 , was held up by a strong rearguard position strengthened by cactus hedges 200 yards ( 180 m ) from the village ; they suffered 200 casualties during their attacks . After reinforcements from the 1st Guides ( 21st Brigade ) arrived , the attack was renewed at 16 : 20 . By 17 : 30 , a battery of the VIII Mountain Artillery Brigade was able to get into position to cover an advance by the 28th Punjabis ( 19th Brigade ) armed with grenades , which entered and cleared Beit Lid at 18 : 15 . At 21 : 30 the 28th Brigade began their advance towards Masudiye Station and Sebustiye .
= = = = 3rd ( Lahore ) Division = = = =
The 3rd ( Lahore ) Division 's 7th and 8th Brigades began their advance at 05 : 00 . The 7th Brigade 's 91st Punjabis ( Light Infantry ) began their advance towards ' Azzun , while the 8th Brigade moved along the Wadi ' Azzun . As the 1st Battalion Manchester Regiment moved along the south bank , and the 47th Sikhs moved along on the north bank , with the 59th Scinde Rifles in the rear ; they quickly found themselves in a critical position . The leading battalions encountered about 200 German soldiers and 12 machine guns in a well @-@ sited rearguard position south of the wadi . Without any artillery support , an extended battle followed . The 59th Scinde Rifles were ordered to join the fight and a howitzer was rushed forward from the 428th Battery , coming into effective action at 12 : 30 , when resistance almost immediately ceased .
The 7th Brigade 's 27th Punjabis followed the 91st Punjabis ( Light Infantry ) along the Wadi ' Azzun and the 91st Punjabis ( Light Infantry ) entered the village of ' Azzun at 08 : 10 where large quantities of stores were captured . The capture of ' Azzun , which had been the headquarters of the Asia Corps and the location of von Oppen 's reserves , was claimed by the 47th Sikhs ( 8th Brigade ) and the 91st Punjabis ( Light Infantry ) ( 7th Brigade ) .
The 8th Brigade continued their advance without interruption to Jinsafut , which was occupied in the evening . The 1st Battalion , Connaught Rangers ( 7th Brigade ) were ordered to pass through the 8th Brigade and capture the road junction northeast of El Funduq . Here they captured an artillery column of five field guns , horses , wagons and prisoners which had been held up by fire from the 9th Brigade .
The 9th Brigade made their way along the rocky Wadi Sir to Baqa , where they saw German soldiers retiring along the road to Deir Sheraf . The brigade artillery came into action against this target , initially one section and then the whole of the IX Mountain Artillery Brigade and some machine guns , completely blocking the road with smashed vehicles . The 93rd Burma Infantry reached the road 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) northeast of El Funduq at 15 : 10 , where they captured about 250 prisoners , many of them German . A company of the 2nd Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment on the extreme left captured 151 prisoners north of Qaryat Hajja .
= = = = German and Ottoman retreat = = = =
After being forced out of his headquarters at Nazareth on the morning of 20 September , Liman von Sanders drove via Tiberias and Samakh late in the afternoon , arriving at Deraa during the morning of 21 September on his way to Damascus . Here he received a report from the Fourth Army ( east of the Jordan holding Jisr ed Damieh , Shunet Nimrin , Es Salt and Amman ) , which he ordered to withdraw to the Deraa to Irbid line without waiting for their southern Hedjaz troops .
= = = = Position of XXI Corps = = = =
By the end of 20 September , the Eighth Ottoman Army had been pushed back out of the coastal Plain of Sharon and the Desert Mounted Corps was blocking the Seventh and what remained of the Eighth Armies ' main lines of retreat northwards . The 60th Division held Tulkarm and Anebta , the 7th ( Meerut ) Division held the village of Beit Lid and controlled the crossroads at Deir Sheraf , while the 5th Light Horse Brigade had cut the Jenin railway south of Arrabe . Both the 3rd ( Lahore ) and 7th ( Meerut ) Divisions had continued to force the Seventh and Eighth Ottoman Armies ' retreat .
During 19 and 20 September , the XXI Corps had destroyed the right wing of the Ottoman front line , capturing 7 @,@ 000 prisoners and 100 guns . Remnants of the Eighth Army which had escaped were captured the next day by Desert Mounted Corps at Jenin , in the Esdrealon Plain to the north of the Judean Hills . During two days of fighting the XXI Corps ' total casualties were 3 @,@ 378 , of whom 446 were killed . They captured 12 @,@ 000 prisoners , 149 guns and large quantities of ammunition and transport . With the exception of the Asia Corps
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also met other members of Noreen 's family , including her children and sister , and had known Shahbaz Bhatti before his assassination .
= The Shooting Star =
The Shooting Star ( French : L 'Étoile mystérieuse ) is the tenth volume of The Adventures of Tintin , the comics series by Belgian cartoonist Hergé . The story was serialised daily in Le Soir , Belgium 's leading francophone newspaper , from October 1941 to May 1942 amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II . The story tells of young Belgian reporter Tintin , who travels with his dog Snowy and friend Captain Haddock aboard a scientific expedition to the Arctic Ocean on an international race to find a meteorite that has fallen to the Earth .
The Shooting Star was a commercial success and was published in book form by Casterman shortly after its conclusion ; the first Tintin volume to be originally published in the 62 @-@ page full @-@ colour format . Hergé continued The Adventures of Tintin with The Secret of the Unicorn , while the series itself became a defining part of the Franco @-@ Belgian comics tradition . The Shooting Star has received a mixed critical reception and has been one of the most controversial instalments in the series due to the anti @-@ Semitic portrayal of its villain . The story was adapted for both the 1957 Belvision animated series , Hergé 's Adventures of Tintin , and for the 1991 animated series The Adventures of Tintin by Ellipse and Nelvana .
= = Synopsis = =
A giant meteoroid approaches the earth , spotted from an observatory by Professor Decimus Phostle , while a self @-@ proclaimed prophet , Philippulus , predicts the end of the world . The meteoroid misses the earth , but a fragment of it plunges into the Arctic Ocean . Phostle determines that the object is made of a new material which he names phostlite , and sets off to find it with a crew of European scientists . Accompanied by Tintin and Snowy , their ship , the Aurora , is helmed by Tintin 's friend Captain Haddock . Meanwhile , another team has set out aboard the polar expedition ship Peary , backed by the financier Mr. Bohlwinkel ; wherefore , the expedition becomes a race to land on the meteorite . On the day of departure , Bohlwinkel has a henchman plant a stick of dynamite on the Aurora , but it is found and thrown overboard . In the North Sea , the Aurora is almost rammed by another of Bohlwinkel 's ships , but Haddock steers out of the way . Further setbacks occur at the Icelandic port of Akureyri , when Haddock is informed that there is no fuel available . He and Tintin then come across an old friend of his , Captain Chester , who reveals that there is plenty of fuel and that the Golden Oil Company ( which has a fuel monopoly ) is owned by Bohlwinkel . The three then secretly run a hose from Chester 's ship , Sirius , to the Aurora , and thus trick Golden Oil into providing the fuel they need .
Close to the Peary , the Aurora receives an indistinct distress call from another ship and alters its course to help ; but inquiries by Tintin expose that the distress signal is a decoy to delay them . Resuming the journey , they intercept a cable announcing that the Peary expedition has reached the meteorite but not yet claimed it . While the Peary crew rows to the meteorite , Tintin uses the Aurora 's seaplane to parachute onto the meteorite and plant the expedition 's flag . Tintin makes camp while the Aurora 's engines are repaired . The next day he discovers that Phostlite accelerates growth , and makes things much larger : his apple core grows into a large tree while a maggot grows into a huge butterfly , and Tintin is menaced by a giant spider and immense , explosive mushrooms before rescue arrives . A sudden seaquake shakes the meteorite to its core and it sinks into the sea , just as Tintin and Snowy escape to the Aurora with a piece of phostlite . Thereafter Bohlwinkel learns that he is expected to be tried for his crimes . As the Aurora returns home , Captain Haddock steers the ship toward land to refuel not with oil , but with whiskey .
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Amidst the German occupation of Belgium during World War II , Hergé had found employment at Le Soir , Belgium 's leading newspaper , then under the administrative control of the occupying military government . His latest serial , The Shooting Star , initially featured the United States as the primary antagonists ; explaining this , Hergé asserted that the story revolved around the theme of " the rivalry for progress between Europe and the United States " . Although not disliking Americans themselves , he had a strong disdain for American big business , and had exhibited anti @-@ American themes in earlier works , in particular in Tintin in America . During serialisation of The Shooting Star , in December 1941 , the U.S. entered the war on the side of the Allies , thus coming into direct conflict with Germany . All of the scientists featured were from Axis or neutral countries , which might be a reflection of the strip 's anti @-@ Allies political slant . Entertainment producer and author Harry Thompson stated this should not be interpreted as a strong anti @-@ Ally bias , for the only two nation @-@ states in Europe that were part of the Allies at that point were the Soviet Union and United Kingdom , and that the characters of Haddock and Chester were British .
As he had done for other Adventures of Tintin which featured sea travel , Hergé was careful to obtain as much data about ships as possible in order to make his portrayals more realistic . The design of the Aurora was based on the RRS William Scoresby , while that of the Peary was most likely based upon another Antarctic ship , the RRS Discovery . The seaplane on which the expedition travels was based on the German Arado 196 @-@ A. Hergé nevertheless later criticised his own efforts in this area , saying that if Aurora had been a real ship , it would probably be unseaworthy .
The Shooting Star shared plot similarities with The Chase of the Golden Meteor , a 1908 novel by pioneering French science @-@ fiction writer Jules Verne . As in Hergé 's story , Verne 's novel features an expedition to the North Atlantic to find a meteorite fragment containing a new element . In both stories , the competing expedition teams were led by an eccentric professor and a Jewish banker , and Verne 's novel had a Doktor Schultze to Hergé 's Professor Schulze — both from the University of Jena . Hergé denied deliberately copying Verne 's story , saying that he had only read one of the French novelist 's works ; it is possible that the influence from Verne came via Jacques Van Melkebeke , Hergé 's friend and assistant , who was a fan of the genre . The Swedish expedition member Eric Björgenskjöld physically resembles a real person : Auguste Piccard , who later became Hergé 's inspiration for Professor Calculus .
= = = Anti @-@ Semitism = = =
Under Nazi control , Le Soir was publishing a variety of anti @-@ Semitic articles , calling for the Jews to be further excluded from public life and describing them as racial enemies of the Belgian people . Hergé biographer Pierre Assouline noted that there was a " remarkable correlation " between the anti @-@ Semitic nature of Le Soir 's editorials and The Shooting Star 's depiction of Jews . Within months of the story 's publication , legislation was passed to collect and deport Jews from Belgium to Nazi concentration camps . Thus , The Shooting Star reflected trends in the Belgian political situation at the time . However , the story was not the first time that Hergé had adopted such a perspective in his work ; he had recently provided illustrations for Robert de Vroyland 's Fables , a number of which contained anti @-@ Semitic stereotypes , reflecting the racism in much of de Vroyland 's book . Similarly , his depiction of the character of Rastapopoulos , who was introduced in Tintin in America , has been cited as being based upon anti @-@ Semitic stereotypes .
When The Shooting Star appeared in Le Soir , Hergé featured a gag in which two Jews hear the prophetic news that the end of the world is near . They rub their hands together in eagerness , and one comments : " Did you hear , Isaac ? The end of the world ! What if it 's true ? " The other responds : " Hey , hey , it vould be a gut ding , Solomon ! I owe my suppliers 50 @,@ 000 francs , and zis way I von 't haf to pay vem ! " Hergé omitted this scene from the collected edition .
The character of Blumenstein displays anti @-@ Semitic stereotypes , such as having a bulbous nose and being an avaricious , manipulative businessman . Hergé later dismissed concerns over this Jewish caricature , saying , " That was the style then . " In his assessment of Franco @-@ Belgian comics , Matthew Screech expressed the opinion that Blumenstein was an anti @-@ American stereotype rather than an anti @-@ Jewish one . Similarly , reporter and Tintin expert Michael Farr asserted that Blumenstein was " more parodied as a financier than Jew " . Conversely , Lofficier and Lofficier asserted that both anti @-@ Americanism and anti @-@ Semitism were present , and that it is the United States and International Jewry who were the " ruthless opponents " of Tintin . Nazi apologists and revisionists such as French Holocaust denier Olivier Mathieu used The Shooting Star as evidence that Hergé was an anti @-@ Semite with Nazi sympathies .
To graphic novel specialist Hugo Frey , the competing expeditions are presented as a simplistic race between good and evil , wherein Blumestein displays the stereotypes of Jews held by advocates of the Jewish World Conspiracy presented in works such as the anti @-@ Semitic Protocols of the Elders of Zion . Frey writes that Blumenstein 's " large and bulbous nose ... rounded forehead , receding black hair , and small beady eyes " were stock anti @-@ Semitic imagery in the 1930s and 1940s , as promoted by those such as journalist Édouard Drumont , whose anti @-@ Semitic Paris @-@ based newspaper La Libre Parole was influential in Brussels . According to Frey , Blumenstein 's depiction as an overweight cigar @-@ smoker reflected the anti @-@ Semitic stereotype of Jews as being financially powerful , while he suggested that the scene in which Blumenstein learned that he was to be tracked down for his crimes recalled the contemporary roundup of Jews in Nazi Europe . Frey contrasts Hergé 's complicity with the anti @-@ Semites to the actions of others Belgians , such as those who struck against the Nazis at the Université libre de Bruxelles and those who risked their lives to hide Jews .
= = = Publication = = =
The Shooting Star was serialised daily in Le Soir from 20 October 1941 to 21 May 1942 in French under the title L 'Étoile mystérieuse ( The Mysterious Star ) . Tintin 's previous adventure , The Crab with the Golden Claws , had been serialised weekly until the demise of Le Soir 's children 's supplement , Le Soir Jeunesse , before continuing daily in the main newspaper itself ; the earlier serial had ended the day before The Shooting Star began . The Shooting Star was the first Tintin adventure to be serialised daily in its entirety . As with earlier Adventures of Tintin , the story was later serialised in France in the Catholic newspaper Cœurs Vaillants , where it first appeared on 6 June 1943 .
On page 20 of the published book , Hergé included a cameo of the characters Thomson and Thompson and Quick & Flupke . The story also introduced Captain Chester , who is mentioned in later adventures , and Professor Cantonneau , who returns in The Seven Crystal Balls .
On 21 May 1942 , The Shooting Star concluded serialisation . Less than a week later , the occupied government proclaimed that all Jews in Belgium would have to wear a yellow badge on their clothing , and in July the Gestapo began raids on Jewish premises , followed by deportations of Jews to Nazi concentration camps and extermination camps , resulting in around 32 @,@ 000 Belgian Jews being killed . Hergé later recalled : " I saw very few Jews wearing the yellow star , but finally I did see some . They told me that some Jews were gone ; that people had come for them and sent them away . I didn 't want to believe it . "
The earlier Tintin albums reproduced the newspaper strips , which had come to appear weekly in Thursday supplements , two @-@ page allotments of three tiers to a page . War shortages reduced the space for the strip by a third , and later the supplements disappeared completely ; the comic appeared daily in the main newspaper as a four @-@ panel strip . For publication in book form , Casterman insisted that Hergé must adhere to a new album format of four sixteen @-@ page signatures , which gave sixty @-@ two pages of story plus a cover page . Though the format reduced the page count , it maintained the same amount of story by reducing the size of the panels reproduced . As The Shooting Star progressed , Hergé cut up and laid out clippings of the strip in an exercise book in preparation for the new layouts . It was the first volume of The Adventures of Tintin to be originally published in the 62 @-@ page full @-@ colour format that thereafter was the series standard ( as opposed to first being published in a black and white newspaper strip reproduction format that all prior books had done ) . Casterman published the album in September 1942 . Unlike the previous books in the series , because it was printed immediately in colour , it did not need to be totally redrawn . The 176 daily strips from the original serialisation were not enough to fill the 62 pages Casterman had allotted , so Hergé added large panels , such as a half @-@ page panel of a giant telescope on page three . Hergé wanted to include a small gold star inside the " o " of " Étoile " on the cover page , but Casterman refused , deeming it too expensive .
In 1954 , Hergé began making various changes to the story for its re @-@ publication . Aware of the controversy surrounding the anti @-@ Semitic depiction of Blumenstein , he renamed the character " Bohlwinkel " , adopting this name from bollewinkel , a Brussels dialect term for a confectionery store . He later discovered that , by coincidence , Bohlwinkel was also a Jewish name . Trying to tone down the book 's anti @-@ American sentiment , he also changed the United States to a fictional South American nation called São Rico , replacing the U.S. flag flown by the Peary 's crew with that of the fictional state . In 1959 , Hergé made a new list of changes to be made to the artwork in The Shooting Star , which included altering Bohlwinkel 's nose , but the changes were postponed and have never been made .
= = Critical analysis = =
Pierre Assouline remarked that Hergé 's attention to accuracy lapsed in The Shooting Star . For instance , the meteorite 's approach toward Earth caused a heat wave , while the meteorite itself proceeded to float on the surface of the ocean . In reality , no such heat wave would have been caused , while the meteorite would have plunged to the sea floor , causing a tsunami . He noted that the concept of madness was a recurring theme throughout the story , and that there was " an unreality in the whole adventure " . Fellow biographer Benoît Peeters asserted that The Shooting Star was " of great power and brilliant construction " . Elsewhere , Peeters wrote that the book was " notable for the entry of the fantastic into Hergé 's work " .
Jean @-@ Marc and Randy Lofficier deemed the anti @-@ Semitism a " sad moment " in the series , awarding the story one out of five stars . Nevertheless , they felt that the " pre @-@ apocalyptic ambiance is stark and believable " , and that the giant mushrooms on the meteorite were a " strange anticipation " of the mushroom @-@ clouds produced by the atomic bombings in 1945 . Focusing on the characters of Professor Phostle and Philippulus , they asserted that both resembled Sophocles Sarcophagus from Cigars of the Pharaoh and that the former was " in the Jules Verne tradition " of eccentric professors . According to philosopher Pascal Bruckner , Tintin experts find Philippulus a caricature of Marshal of France Philippe Pétain , who demanded the French repent imaginary sins when he took power . Philippe Goddin stated that the strips for this story " kept the reader daily on tenterhooks in a story replete with new twists and humour " .
Harry Thompson described The Shooting Star as " the most important of all Hergé 's wartime stories " , having " an air of bizarre fantasy " that was unlike his prior work . He observed that the character of Professor Phostle was a prototype for Professor Calculus , introduced later in the series . Michael Farr asserted that the apocalyptic setting of the story reflected the wartime mood in Europe . He characterises the opening pages of the story as being " unique in [ Hergé 's ] work for the feeling of foreboding they convey " , adding that " Hergé daringly eschews the strip cartoonist 's recognised means of denoting a dream , deliberately confusing the reader " . He felt that the " flow of the narrative is less accomplished " than in other stories , with " spurts and rushes followed by slower passages , upsetting the rhythm and pace " .
Literary critic Jean @-@ Marie Apostolidès psychoanalysed The Shooting Star , describing it as " the final attempt of the foundling [ i.e. Tintin ] to rid himself of the bastard [ i.e. Haddock ] and to preserve the integrity of his former values " , pointing out that the first thirteen pages are devoted purely to the boy reporter . He also argued that Phostle and Philippus represent two @-@ halves of " an ambivalent father figure " within the story , with the former prefiguring Calculus " more than any other previous character " . He suggests that when hiding on the Aurora , Philippus can be compared to The Phantom of the Opera , as he steals a stick of dynamite and climbs up the ship 's mast before threatening to detonate the weapon . Apostolidès believed that the shooting star itself is " more a religious mystery than a scientific one " and that Tintin is therefore " the perfect one to figure it out in some religious way — that is , unrealistically " . Apostolidès analysed the political component of the story in terms of " the incarnation of unregulated capitalism against the spirit of European values " , arguing that Hergé was adhering to " a utopian vision that , in 1942 , smacks of pro @-@ German propaganda " .
Literary critic Tom McCarthy believed that The Shooting Star represents the apex of the " right @-@ wing strain " in Hergé 's work . He highlighted the instance in which Tintin impersonates God in order to give commands to Philippus as representing one of various occasions in The Adventures of Tintin where " sacred authority manifests itself largely as a voice , and commanding — or commandeering — that voice is what guarantees power " . McCarthy further observes that the image of a giant spider in a ball of fire , which appears near the start of the story , reflects the theme of madness that is again present throughout the series . Discussing the political elements of Hergé 's series , McCarthy also noted that in the original publication of the story , the spider which climbed in front of the observatory telescope and was thus magnified greatly was initially termed Aranea Fasciata ; he saw this as an intentional satire of the threat to Europe posed by fascism .
= = Adaptations = =
In 1957 , the animation company Belvision Studios produced a string of colour adaptations based on Hergé 's original comics , adapting eight of the Adventures into a series of daily five @-@ minute episodes . The Shooting Star was the sixth to be adapted in the second animated series ; it was directed by Ray Goossens and written by Greg , a well @-@ known cartoonist who was to become editor @-@ in @-@ chief of Tintin magazine .
In 1991 , a second animated series based upon The Adventures of Tintin was produced , this time as a collaboration between the French studio Ellipse and the Canadian animation company Nelvana . The Shooting Star was the eighth story to be adapted and was divided into two twenty @-@ minute episodes . Directed by Stéphane Bernasconi , the series has been praised for being " generally faithful " to the original comics , to the extent that the animation was directly adopted from Hergé 's original panels .
In 2010 , American cartoonist Charles Burns authored X 'ed Out , a graphic novel with a variety of allusions to The Adventures of Tintin . In one scene , the protagonist Nitnit discovers a warehouse containing white eggs with red spots , akin to the mushrooms in The Shooting Star , with the cover of Burns ' book paying homage to Hergé . In 2015 , the original front cover sketch of the book was sold for € 2 @.@ 5 million to a European investor , Marina David of Petits Papiers @-@ Huberty @-@ Breyne , at the Brussels Antiques and Fine Art Fair .
= Lake Burley Griffin =
Lake Burley Griffin is an artificial lake in the centre of Canberra , the capital of Australia . It was completed in 1963 after the Molonglo River — which ran between the city centre and Parliamentary Triangle — was dammed . It is named after Walter Burley Griffin , the American architect who won the competition to design the city of Canberra .
Griffin designed the lake with many geometric motifs , so that the axes of his design lined up with natural geographical landmarks in the area . However , government authorities changed his original plans and no substantial work was completed before he left Australia in 1920 . His scheme remained unfulfilled as the Great Depression and World War II intervened , and it was not until the 1950s that planning resumed . After much political dispute over several proposed variations , excavation work began in 1960 with the energetic backing of Prime Minister Robert Menzies . After the completion of the bridges and dams , the dams were locked in September 1963 . However , a drought meant that the target water level was not reached until April 1964 . It was formally inaugurated on 17 October 1964 .
The lake is located in the approximate geographic centre of the city , and is the centrepiece of the capital in accordance with Griffin 's original designs . Numerous important institutions , such as the National Gallery , National Museum , National Library , Australian National University and the High Court were built on its shores , and Parliament House is a short distance away . Its surrounds , consisting mainly of parklands , are popular with recreational users , particularly in the warmer months . Though swimming in the lake is uncommon , it is used for a wide variety of other activities , such as rowing , fishing , and sailing .
The lake is an ornamental body with a length of 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) ; at its widest , it measures 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) . It has an average depth of 4 metres ( 13 ft ) and a maximum depth of about 18 metres ( 59 ft ) near the Scrivener Dam . Its flow is regulated by the 33 @-@ metre @-@ tall ( 108 ft ) Scrivener Dam , designed to handle floods that occur once in 5 @,@ 000 years . In times of drought , water levels can be maintained through the release of water from Googong Dam , located on an upstream tributary of the Molonglo River .
= = Design history = =
Charles Robert Scrivener ( 1855 – 1923 ) recommended the site for Canberra in 1909 , which was to be a planned capital city for the country . One of the reasons for the location 's selection was its ability to store water " for ornamental purposes at reasonable cost " ; Scrivener 's work had demonstrated that the topography could be used to create a lake through flooding .
In 1911 , a competition for the design of Canberra was launched , and Scrivener 's detailed survey of the area was supplied to the competing architects . The Molonglo River flowed through the site , which was a flood plain and Scrivener 's survey showed in grey an area clearly representing an artificial lake — similar to the lake later created — and four possible locations for a dam to create it . Most of the proposals took the hint and included artificial bodies of water .
= = = Walter Burley Griffin 's design = = =
The American architect Walter Burley Griffin won the contest and was invited to Australia to oversee the construction of the nation 's new capital after the judges ' decision was ratified by King O 'Malley , the Minister for Home Affairs . Griffin 's proposal , which had an abundance of geometric patterns , incorporated concentric hexagonal and octagonal streets emanating from several radii .
His lake design was at the heart of the city and consisted of a Central Basin in the shape of circular segment , a West and East Basin , which were both approximately circular , and a West and East Lake , which were much larger and irregularly shaped , at either side of the system . The East Lake was supposed to be 6 metres ( 20 ft ) higher than the remaining components . Griffin 's proposal was " the grandest scheme submitted , yet it had an appealing simplicity and clarity .
The lakes were deliberately designed so that their orientation was related to various topographical landmarks in Canberra . The lakes stretched from east to west and divided the city in two ; a land axis perpendicular to the central basin stretched from Capital Hill — the future location of the new Parliament House on a mound on the southern side — north northeast across the central basin to the northern banks along Anzac Parade to the Australian War Memorial ( although a casino was originally planned in its place ) . This was designed so that looking from Capital Hill , the War Memorial stood directly at the foot of Mount Ainslie . At the southwestern end of the land axis was Bimberi Peak .
The straight edge of the circular segment that formed the central basin was designated the water axis , and it extended northwest towards Black Mountain , the highest point in Canberra . A line parallel to the water axis , on the northern side of the city , was designated the municipal axis . The municipal axis became the location of Constitution Avenue , which linked City Hill in Civic Centre and Market Centre . Commonwealth Avenue and Kings Avenue were to run from the southern side from Capital Hill to City Hill and Market Centre on the north respectively , and they formed the western and eastern edges of the central basin . The area enclosed by the three avenues was known as the Parliamentary Triangle , and was to form the centrepiece of Griffin 's work .
Later , Scrivener , as part of a government design committee , was responsible for modifying Griffin 's winning design . He recommended changing the shape of the lake from Griffin 's very geometric shapes to a much more organic one using a single dam , unlike Griffin 's series of weirs . Griffin lobbied for the retention of the pure geometry , saying that they were " one of the reasons d 'etre of the ornamental waters " , but he was overruled . The new design included elements from several of the best design submissions and was widely criticised as being ugly . The new plan for the lake retained Griffin 's three formal basins : east , central , and west , though in a more relaxed form .
Griffin entered into correspondence with the government over the plan and its alternatives , and he was invited to Canberra to discuss the matter . Griffin arrived in August 1913 and was appointed Federal Capital Director of Design and Construction for three years .
The plans were varied again in the following years , but the design of Lake Burley Griffin remained based largely on the original committee 's plan . It was later gazetted and legally protected by the federal parliament in 1926 , based on a 1918 plan . However , Griffin had a strained working relationship with the Australian authorities and a lack of federal government funding meant that by the time he left in 1920 , little significant work had been done on the city . A 1920s proposal to reduce West Lake into a ribbon of water was made on the basis of flood safety . However , the Owen and Peake report of 1929 ruled that the original design was hydrologically sound .
= = = Political disputes and modifications = = =
With the onset of the Great Depression , followed by World War II , development of the new capital was slow , and in the decade after the end of the war , Canberra was criticised for resembling a village , and its disorganised collection of buildings was deemed ugly . Canberra was often derisively described as " several suburbs in search of a city " .
During this time , the Molonglo River flowed through the flood basin , with only a small fraction of the water envisaged in Griffin 's plan . The centre of his capital city consisted of mostly farmland , with small settlements — mostly wooden , temporary and ad hoc — on either side . There was little evidence that Canberra was planned , and the lake and Parliamentary Triangle at the heart of Griffin 's plan was but a paddock . Royal Canberra Golf Course , and Acton Racecourse and a sports ground were located on the pastoral land that was to become the West Lake , and people had to disperse the livestock before playing sport . A rubbish dump stood on the northern banks of the location of central basin , and no earth had been moved since Griffin 's departure three decades earlier .
In 1950 , the East Lake — the largest component — was eliminated upon the advice of the National Capital Planning and Development Committee ( NCPDC ) . Today , what would have been the East Lake corresponds to the suburb of Fyshwick . The rationale given was that around 1 @,@ 700 acres ( 690 ha ) of farmland would be submerged and that the Molonglo would have insufficient water to keep the lake filled .
In 1953 , the NCPDC excised the West Lake from its plans and replaced it with a winding stream , which was 110 metres ( 360 ft ) wide and covered around a fifth of the original area . As the NCPDC had only advisory powers , this change was attributed to the influence of senior officials in the Department of the Interior who felt that Griffin 's plan was too grandiose . Advocates of watered @-@ down scheme thought it was more economical and saved 350 hectares ( 860 acres ) of land for development . However , according to engineering reports that were ignored , the smaller plan would actually cost more money and require a more complicated structure of dams that would in any case be less able to prevent flooding .
Initially , there was little opposition during the consultation period before the alterations were made . However , opposition to the reduction of the water area grew . The process that resulted in the alteration was criticised for being non @-@ transparent and sneaky . Some organisations complained that they were not given an opportunity to express their opinion before the change was gazetted , and many politicians and the chief town planner were not informed . Critics bitterly insinuated that politically influential members of the Royal Canberra Golf Club , whose course was situated on the location of the proposed West Lake , were responsible for the change in policy .
The Parliamentary Public Works Committee advised the Parliament to restore the West Lake . After an inquiry in late 1954 , it concluded that :
The West Lake is desirable and practicable . It was eliminated from the Canberra plan by the Department of the Interior without adequate investigation by the National Capital Planning and Development Committee and replaced by a ribbon of water scheme involving a capitalised cost or nearly 3 million more . The lake should be restored to the plan , and the necessary Ministerial action is recommended as soon as possible .
The Prime Minister , Robert Menzies , regarded the state of the national capital as an embarrassment . Over time his attitude changed from one of contempt to that of championing its development . He fired two ministers charged with the development of the city , feeling that their performance lacked intensity .
In 1958 , the newly created National Capital Development Commission ( NCDC ) , which had been created and given more power by Menzies following a 1955 Senate inquiry , restored the West Lake to its plans , and it was formally gazetted in October 1959 . The NCDC also blocked a plan by the Department of Works to build a bridge across the lake along the land axis between Parliament House and the War Memorial contrary to Griffin 's plans .
A powerful Senate Select Committee oversaw the NCDC and renowned British architect Sir William Holford was brought in to fine @-@ tune Griffin 's original plans . He changed the central basin 's geometry so that it was no longer a segment of circle ; he converted the southern straight edge into a polygonal shape with three edges and inserted a gulf on the northern shore . The result was closer to Scrivener 's modified design some decades earlier .
= = Final layout = =
The lake contains 33 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 27 @,@ 000 acre · ft ) of water with a surface area of 6 @.@ 64 square kilometres ( 2 @.@ 56 sq mi ) . It is 11 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 8 mi ) long , 1 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 75 mi ) wide at its widest point , has a shoreline of 40 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 25 @.@ 2 mi ) and a water level of 555 @.@ 93 metres ( 1 @,@ 823 @.@ 9 ft ) above sea level .
The lake is relatively shallow ; the maximum depth is 17 @.@ 6 metres ( 58 ft ) near the Scrivener Dam , and the average depth is 4 @.@ 0 metres ( 13 ft ) . The shallowest part of the complex in the East Basin , which has an average depth of 1 @.@ 9 metres ( 6 @.@ 2 ft ) . The minimum depth of the water at the walls is around 0 @.@ 5 metres ( 1 @.@ 6 ft ) and rock is placed at the toe of the wall to inhibit aquatic plant growth .
Lake Burley Griffin contains six islands , three unnamed small islands and three larger named islands . Of the larger islands , Aspen Island is located in Central Basin while Springbank and Spinnaker Island are located in the West Lake . Aspen Island is connected to dry land by a footbridge , and is the site of the Australian National Carillon .
= = Construction = =
In 1958 , engineers conducted studies into the hydrology and structural requirements needed for the building of the dam . Further studies were done to model water quality , siltation , climate effects and change in land quality . Modelling based on the data collection suggested that the water level could be kept within a metre of the intended level of 556 metres ( 1 @,@ 824 ft ) above sea level in the case of a flood .
In February 1959 , formal authority for beginning construction was granted . However , while Menzies was on holiday , some officials from the Department of Treasury convinced ministers to withhold money needed for the lake , so the start of the construction was delayed . Once it started , progress was fast . At its peak , the number of people physically working on the construction in the lakes was between 400 and 500 . John Overall , the Commissioner of the NCDC , promised Menzies that the work would be finished within four years , and he succeeded , despite the Prime Minister 's scepticism . Equipment was quickly requisitioned .
After the lengthy political wrangling over the design had passed , the criticism of the scheme died down . Menzies strongly denounced the " moaning " by opponents of the lake . Most critics decried the project as a waste of money that should have been spent on essential services across Australia . Less strident concerns centred on the potentially negative effects of the lake , such as mosquitoes , ecological degeneration , siltation and the possibility that the lake would create fog . The latter of these concerns has proven to be unfounded .
= = = Lakes , islands and foreshore = = =
The excavation of Lake Burley Griffin began in 1960 with the clearing of vegetation from the floodplain of the Molonglo River . The trees on the golf course and along the river were pulled up , along with the various sports grounds and houses .
During major earthworks , at least 382 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 500 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of topsoil was excavated . It was collected for use at several public parks and gardens , including the future Commonwealth Park on the northern shore . It was also used to create the six artificial islands including Springbank Island . The island was named after the former Springbank Farm that was situated there . Land excavated to create a sailing course at Yarralumla was used for the thematically named Spinnaker Island to its north , while excavated stone was moved beside the Kings Avenue Bridge at the eastern edge of the central basin from Aspen Island .
Care was taken to excavate the entire lake floor to a depth of at least 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) to provide sufficient clearance for boat keels . Another reason given for this was that mosquitoes would not breed nor would weeds grow at such a depth . A soil conservation program was launched in the catchment and bed load traps were installed to minimise loss of earth . The traps have been used as a source of sand and gravel for building sites . Drainage blankets were used to prevent the loss of groundwater beneath the lake .
During the following phase of work , four types of lake margin were constructed . On the southern side of the Central Basin , low reinforced concrete retaining walls were used , while on the eastern side , grouted rock wall can be seen near Commonwealth Park , as well as much of the East Basin . Sand and gravel beaches were built to cater for lakeside recreational pursuits . These are mostly prevalent on the western half of the lake complex . Rocky outcrops , steeply sloping stable shores with water vegetation such as bullrushes were also used . This treatment is evident in the West Lake in Yarralumla . William Holford and Partners were responsible for the foreshore landscaping , and over 55 @,@ 000 trees were planted in accordance with a detailed scheme . Eucalypts were preferred so as to maintain the natural colour of the city landscape .
= = = Bridges = = =
Lake Burley Griffin is crossed by Commonwealth Avenue Bridge ( 310 metres or 1 @,@ 020 feet ) , Kings Avenue Bridge ( 270 metres or 890 feet ) and a roadway over Scrivener Dam . The two bridges were constructed before the lake was filled , and replaced wooden structures .
Site testing for both the Commonwealth Avenue and Kings Avenue bridges took place during late 1959 to early 1960 . The construction of the Kings Avenue Bridge began in 1960 , followed by Commonwealth Avenue Bridge the year after . Fortunately for the builders , Canberra was in a drought and the ground remained dry during construction . Both bridges use post @-@ tensioned concrete , reinforced with rustproof steel cables .
Both bridges are made of concrete and steel and are dual @-@ carriageway ; Commonwealth Avenue has three lanes in each direction while Kings Avenue has two . Instead of traditional lamp post lighting , Kings Avenue Bridge was illuminated by a series of fluorescent tubes on the handrails , a concept known as " integral lighting " . The design was deemed a success , so it was introduced to the Commonwealth Avenue Bridge also . Both structures won awards from the Illumination Engineering Society .
Kings Avenue Bridge opened on 10 March 1962 . Prime Minister Menzies unlocked a ceremonial chain before the motorcade and pageant crossed the lake in front of a large crowd . Commonwealth Avenue Bridge opened in 1963 without an official ceremony . Menzies called it " the finest building in the national capital " .
= = = Dam = = =
The dam that holds back the waters of Lake Burley Griffin was named Scrivener Dam after Charles Robert Scrivener . The dam was designed and built by Rheinstahl Union Bruckenbau in West Germany , and utilised state @-@ of @-@ the @-@ art post @-@ tensioning techniques to cope with any problems or movements in the riverbed . This was required because of the quartz porphyry and geological faulting upon which the dam sits . About 55 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 72 @,@ 000 cu yd ) of concrete was used in its construction . The dam is 33 metres ( 108 ft ) high and 319 metres ( 1 @,@ 047 ft ) long with a maximum wall thickness of 19 @.@ 7 metres ( 65 ft ) . The dam is designed to handle a once in 5 @,@ 000 year flood event . Construction began in September 1960 and the dam was locked in September 1963 .
The dam has five bay spillway controlled by 30 @.@ 5 metres ( 100 ft ) wide , hydraulically operated fish @-@ belly flap gates . The fish @-@ belly gates allow for a precise control of water level , reducing the dead area on the banks between high and low water levels . The five gates have only been opened simultaneously once in the dam 's history , during heavy flooding in 1976 . The gates hold two thirds of the lake 's volume . They were designed to allow easy flow of debris out of the lake .
The dam has the capacity to allow a flow of 5 @,@ 600 cubic metres per second ( 200 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) but can withstand up to 8 @,@ 600 cubic metres per second ( 300 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) before " catastrophic damage " results ; A flow of 2 @,@ 830 m3 / s ( 100 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) can be dealt with without any substantial change in the water level . The highest recorded flow in the Molonglo was 3 @,@ 400 cubic metres per second ( 120 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ) during an earlier flood .
Lady Denman Drive , a roadway atop the dam wall , provides a third road crossing for the lake . It consists of a roadway and a bicycle path , and allows residents in western Canberra to cross the lake . This was possible because the dam gates are closed by pushing up from below , unlike most previous designs that wherein the gates were lifted from above .
= = = Lake filling = = =
A prolonged drought coincided with and eased work on the lake 's construction . The valves on the Scrivener Dam were closed on 20 September 1963 by Minister for the Interior , Gordon Freeth ; Menzies was absent due to ill health . Several months on , with no rain in sight , mosquito @-@ infested pools of water were the only visible sign of the lake filling . With the eventual breaking of the drought , the lake reached the planned level on 29 April 1964 . On 17 October 1964 , Menzies ( by now Sir Robert ) commemorated the filling of the lake and the completion of stage one with an opening ceremony amid the backdrop of sailing craft . The ceremony was accompanied by fireworks display , and Griffin 's lake had finally come to fruition after five decades , at the cost of AUD5,039,050 . Freeth suggested that Menzies had " been in a material sense the father of the lake " and that the lake should be named after him . Menzies insisted that the lake should be named after Griffin .
In times of severe drought , Lake Burley Griffin 's water level can fall unacceptably low . When this happens , a release of water from Googong Dam located upstream can be scheduled to top up and restore the lake water level . The Googong Dam is located on the Queanbeyan River which is a tributary of the Molonglo River . The dam whose construction was finished in 1979 is one of three dams — the Cotter and Corin Dams are the others — that meet the water supply needs of the Canberra and Queanbeyan region . The Googong Dam 's water carrying capacity is 124 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 cubic metres ( 100 @,@ 900 acre · ft ) .
= = Later history and development = =
Griffin 's design made the lake a focal point of the city . In the four decades since the initial construction of the lake , various buildings of national importance were added . According to the policy plan of the government , " The lake is not only one of the centrepieces of Canberra 's plan in its own right , but forms the immediate foreground of the National Parliamentary Area . "
The creation of the lake also gave a water frontage to many prominent institutions that were previously landlocked . The Royal Canberra Hospital was located on the Acton Peninsula between the West Lake and the West Basin on the north shore until its demolition . Government House , the historic Blundell 's Cottage — which was built over 50 years before construction of Canberra began — and the newly built Australian National University , on the southern and northern shores of the West Lake , both gained a waterfront .
In 1970 , two tourist attractions were added to the middle of Central Basin . The Captain James Cook Memorial was built by the government to commemorate the Bicentenary of ( then Lieutenant ) James Cook 's first sighting of the east coast of Australia . It includes a water jet fountain located in the central basin ( based on the Jet d 'eau in Geneva ) and a skeleton globe sculpture at Regatta Point showing the paths of Cook 's expeditions . On 25 April 1970 , Queen Elizabeth II officially inaugurated the memorial . As part of the same ceremony , Queen Elizabeth also opened the National Carillon on Aspen Island , a set of 53 bronze bells donated by the British Government to commemorate the city 's 50th anniversary .
The completion of the central basin placed a waterway between Parliament House and the War Memorial and a landscaped boulevard was built along the land axis . Later , various buildings of national importance were built along the land axis in the late @-@ 1960s through to the early 1980s . The National Library was opened on the western side of the axis in April 1968 . Building of the High Court and National Gallery occurred in the late @-@ 1970s and the buildings were opened in May 1980 and October 1982 respectively . The latter two buildings lie on the eastern side of the axis and are connected by an aerial bridge . In 1988 , the new Parliament House was built on Capital Hill , thereby completing the most important structure in the Parliamentary Triangle .
The current home of the National Museum was built on the former site of the Royal Canberra Hospital in 2001 . This occurred after the public were encouraged to watch the controlled demolition of the hospital in 1997 , but a girl was killed by flying debris , leading to criticism of the ACT Government .
At the start of the 21st century , the layout of the lake was significantly altered for the first time since its construction , through the Kingston Foreshores Redevelopment on southern shore of the East Basin , which was planned in 1997 . A bidding process was enacted , multimillion @-@ dollar luxury apartment complexes were built in the suburb of Kingston , driving property values to record @-@ breaking levels . After a dispute over the environmental impact of the development , building works commenced on the previously industrial lakeside area of the suburb . In 2007 , work started to reclaim land from the lakebed to form a harbour .
The Kingston Powerhouse , which used to provide the city 's power supply , was converted into the Canberra Glassworks in 2007 , 50 years after the electricity generators stopped . A 25 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 82 ft ) tower of glass and light named Touching Lightly was unveiled on 21 May 2010 by Chief Minister and Minister for the Arts and Heritage Jon Stanhope . It was built by Australian artist Warren Langley .
In 2007 , the government unveiled a proposal to redevelop the area surrounding the historic Albert Hall into a tourist and dining precinct . This included the building of an eight @-@ storey building and the rezoning of some waterfront land currently designated as cultural to commercial . It was met with widespread hostility from heritage activists and the general community , which submitted more than 3 @,@ 300 signatories in a petition against the scheme . One of the criticisms was that the project was tilted too heavily towards business , and neglected the arts and community events . The proposal was scrapped in 2009 .
It has been proposed that a footbridge , to be named Immigration Bridge , be built between the National Museum of Australia and Lennox Gardens on the south shore , in recognition of the contributions that immigrants have made to Australia . The proposal has mostly received negative feedback . An inquiry recommended that the bridge be redesigned or moved to accommodate the needs of other lake users .
= = Lakeside recreation = =
The surrounds of Lake Burley Griffin are very popular recreational areas , and is known locally as LBG . Public parks exist along most of the shore line , with free electric barbecue facilities , fenced @-@ in swimming areas , picnic tables and toilets . These parklands form a large part of the area around the lake , and occupy 3 @.@ 139 km2 ( 776 acres ) in total . Some of the parks reserved for public recreation include Commonwealth , Weston , Kings and Grevillea Parks , Lennox Gardens and Commonwealth Place . Commonwealth and Kings Park on the northern shore of the Central Basin are among the two most popular . The former is an urban horticultural park and is the location of the Canberra Festival . Commonwealth Park is the location of Floriade , an annual flower festival that is held for around a month in spring and attracts upwards of 300 @,@ 000 visitors , a number comparable to the city population . The largest flower festival in Australia , the event is a major tourist attraction for the city , and legal action was threatened after another festival in Australia wanted to use the same name . An expansion is being planned to coincide with the centenary of the national capital . The Weston Park to the west is known for its woodland and conifers , while Black Mountain Peninsula is known as a picnicking site with eucalypts . Grevillea and Bowen Parks on the East Basin tend to be little used .
Owing to the proliferation of beaches , boat ramps and jetties , the West Lake is the area most used by swimmers and vessels . A bike path also surrounds the lake , and riding , walking or jogging around the lake are a popular activity on the weekends . Fireworks are often held over the lake on New Year 's Eve , and a large show called Skyfire has been held at the lake since 1989 .
= = = Water sports = = =
Lake Burley Griffin , apart from being ornamental , is used for many recreational activities . Canoeing , sailing , paddleboating , windsurfing and dragon boating are popular . A rowing course is set up at the western end of the lake . The National Championships were held in the lake in 1964 , but high winds have deterred organisers . On one occasion , winds swept a boat into a bridge pylon . While not particularly popular , opportunities for swimming have been limited recently because of increasingly frequent lake closures due to concerns about water quality ; another deterrent against swimming is the generally cold water temperature . During summer , the lake is used for the swim leg of numerous triathlon and aquathlon events including the Sri Chinmoy Triathlon Festival .
Generally , powerboat use on the lake is not permitted . Permits are available for the use of powered boats on the lake for use in rescue , training , commercial purposes or special interest ( such as historic steam powered boats ) . Molonglo Reach , an area of the Molonglo River just before it enters the east basin is set aside for water skiing . Ten powerboats may be used in this limited area .
= = = Safety = = =
The lake is patrolled by the Australian Federal Police water police . The water police give assistance to lake users , helping to right boats and towing crippled craft to shore .
At most swimming locations around Lake Burley Griffin there are fenced @-@ in swimming areas for safety . In the more popular areas , there are also safety lockers with life belts and emergency phones for requesting help . Between 1962 and 1991 , seven people died from drowning .
For safety and water quality reasons , the lake has different zones for different activities . The eastern extremity is zoned for primary contact water activities such as swimming and water skiing . The East and Central Basins , closer to populated areas , are zoned for secondary contact water sports such as sailing or rowing . West Lake and Tarcoola Reach , which covers the area between Commonwealth Avenue and Kurrajong Point , is the primary recreational area of the lake , and both primary and secondary contact water sports are permitted . Yarramundi Reach near Scrivener Dam has a marked rowing course , and is zoned as secondary , although primary contact activities are also allowed .
= = Environmental issues = =
= = = Water quality = = =
Toxic blue @-@ green algae blooms are a reasonably common occurrence in the lake . Warnings about coming into contact with the water are released when an algal bloom is detected . Attempts are being made to limit the amount of phosphates entering the lake in the hope of improving its water quality . Blue @-@ green algae ( more correctly cyanobacteria ) produce toxins , which can be harmful for humans and any other animals that come in contact with the contaminated water . There have been several cases of dogs being affected after playing in and drinking the lake water .
The water also appears murky due to a high level of turbidity ; however , this is not usually a health risk . However , the turbidity , which is caused by wind , prevents photosynthetic stabilisation . Siltation is not considered a major problem and is only a factor in the East Basin , but dredging is not required . The problem has eased with the construction of the Googong Dam , and the spectre of heavy metal pollution has receded , partly due to the closure of some lead mines upstream . However , leaching and groundwater leakage still causes some pollution . Rubbish , oil and sediment traps have been set up at the incoming openings to the lake to minimise pollution .
= = = Aquatic life and fishing = = =
Fishing and duck hunting is quite popular in the lake . The most common species caught is the illegally introduced carp . Annual monitoring is carried out to determine fish populations . However , a number of less common species also inhabit the lake , including native Murray cod , western carp gudgeon and silver perch , as well as introduced goldfish , Gambusia , rainbow trout and brown trout .
The lake has been stocked annually with a variety of introduced and native species and over half a million fish have been released since 1981 . There have been many changes to the fish populations in the lake as well as stocking practices since it was first filled .
Regular stocking since the start of the 1980s have re @-@ established reasonable populations of golden perch and Murray cod ; native fish that were indigenous to the Molonglo River before the lake was built , but had been lost to mining pollution of the Molonglo River in the first half of the 20th century . The main reason for stocking is to boost fish stocks along the Molonglo , which have been depleted by overfishing , introduced species and habitat destruction . One of the motives for raising the level of Murray cod and golden perch is to balance the ecosystem by having them act as native predators of other fish .
Silver perch and brown trout were released in 1981 – 83 and 1987 – 89 respectively , but have not been stocked since . Rainbow trout have been released sporadically , approximately once a decade , but have not been released since 2002 – 04 , due to unacceptably low survival rates . According to a government report , the reason for the low survival rate is unknown , but the dominance of carp in the competition for food is one prominent theory . Golden perch and Murray cod have accounted for around four fifths of the released fish in the last three decades and have been the only fish stocked in the last five years . The government plans to stock only these two species for the five years leading up to 2014 .
= Hugh de Neville =
Hugh de Neville ( died 1234 ; sometimes Hugh Neville ) was the Chief Forester under the kings Richard I , John , and Henry III of England . He was also the sheriff for a number of counties over his lifetime . Related to a number of other royal officials as well as a bishop , Neville was a member of Prince Richard 's household . After Richard became king in 1189 , Neville continued in his service and he accompanied him on the Third Crusade . Neville remained in the royal service following Richard 's death in 1199 and the accession of King John to the throne , becoming one of the new king 's favourites and often gambling with him . He was named in Magna Carta as one of John 's principal advisors , considered by a medieval chronicler to be one of King John 's " evil councillors " . He deserted John after the French invasion of England in 1216 , but returned to pledge his loyalty to John 's son Henry III after the latter 's accession to the throne later that year . Neville 's royal service continued until his death in 1234 , though by then he was a less significant figure than he had been at the height of his powers .
= = Early life and career = =
Neville was the son of Ralph de Neville , a son of Alan de Neville , who was also Chief Forester . Hugh had a brother , Roger de Neville , who was part of Hugh 's household from 1202 to 1213 , when Roger was given custody of Rockingham Castle by King John . Another brother was William , who was given some of Hugh 's lands in 1217 . Hugh , Roger , and William were related to a number of other royal officials and churchmen , most notable among them Geoffrey de Neville , who was a royal chamberlain , and Ralph Neville , who became Bishop of Chichester . Hugh de Neville employed Ralph de Neville at the start of Ralph 's career , and the two appear to have remained on good terms throughout the rest of Hugh 's life .
Hugh de Neville was a member of the household of Prince Richard , later Richard I , and also served Richard 's father , King Henry II at the end of Henry 's reign , administering two baronies for the king . Neville accompanied Richard on the Third Crusade ; he was one of the few knights who fought with the king on 5 August 1192 outside the walls of Jaffa , when the king and a small force of knights and crossbowmen fought off a surprise attack by Saladin 's forces . It was famously reported that during the engagement Saladin sent Richard two remounts in the thick of battle , so that Richard would not be forced to fight on foot . Neville 's account of events was a source for the chronicler Ralph of Coggeshall 's entries on Richard 's activities in the Third Crusade .
In 1194 Neville acquired the wardship of Joan de Cornhill , daughter of Henry de Cornhill , and married her four years later . Also in 1194 he was given custody of the town of Marlborough in Wiltshire , and in 1196 was appointed as Sheriff of Oxfordshire . He was also named in 1197 as Sheriff of Essex and Sheriff of Hertfordshire , offices he held until some time in 1200 .
= = Chief Forester = =
Neville was appointed as Chief Forester under King Richard I in 1198 . As the official in charge of the royal forests , he was one of the four great officers of the state : the others were the justiciar , the chancellor , and the treasurer . The forester was responsible for enforcing the forest law – the special law that applied to the royal forests – and presided over the forest justices , who held forest eyres . There was also a special forest exchequer , or forest treasury . In 1198 Neville presided over an Assize of the Forest that was described by the chronicler Roger of Howden as greatly oppressive . The revenues could be considerable ; in 1198 the forest eyre brought in £ 1 @,@ 980 . Neville stated in 1208 that over the previous six and a half years the amount raised by the various revenues of the forests had been £ 15 @,@ 000 ; in 1212 it had been £ 4 @,@ 486 . Forest law was resented by the king 's subjects , not just for its severity but also because of the large extent of the kingdom that it encompassed . It covered not just woodlands , but by the end of the 12th century it covered between a quarter and a third of the whole kingdom . This extent enabled the Norman and Angevin kings to use the harsh punishments of forest law to extract large sums of money for their government .
Neville continued to hold the office of Chief Forester under King John and he was often the king 's gambling partner . He was a frequent witness to John 's royal charters . Under John , Neville was named to the offices of Sheriff of Hampshire in 1210 , and Sheriff of Cumberland , offices of which he was deprived in 1212 . He was also reappointed to the shrievalties of Essex and Hertfordshire in 1202 , holding them until 1203 .
In 1210 King John fined Neville 1 @,@ 000 marks because he had allowed Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester , to enclose some hunting grounds without royal permission ; although Roches was close to the king , his action was an infringement of the royal forests . Neville 's large fine was probably a warning that the king was serious about enforcing the forest law , but it was eventually rescinded . In 1213 Neville was placed in charge of the seaports along the English coast from Cornwall to Hampshire , but some time in 1213 it appears that he fell from royal favour , although the circumstances are unknown . A fine of 6 @,@ 000 marks was assessed on him for allowing two prisoners to escape , as well as other unrecorded offences , although the king did subsequently remit 1 @,@ 000 marks of the fine . In 1215 Neville lost his office of chief forester . Neville was present at Runnymede for the signing of Magna Carta and was mentioned in the preamble as one of King John 's councillors , as well as serving as a witness to the document . Roger of Wendover , a chronicler writing in 1211 , listed Neville as one of King John 's " evil councillors " .
= = John 's later reign and service under King Henry III = =
John 's style of ruling , and his defeats in continental Europe in 1214 , had alienated many of his nobles . Initially , a faction of the barons forced John to agree to Magna Carta to secure less capricious government from the king . John , however , after agreeing to their demands , secured the annulment of the charter from the papacy in late 1215 . The opposition magnates then invited Prince Louis of France to take the English throne , and Louis arrived in England with an army in May 1216 .
Neville joined the rebel barons in 1216 , shortly after Prince Louis invaded England . Neville surrendered Marlborough Castle , a royal castle in his custody , to Prince Louis in mid @-@ 1216 . Louis had not besieged the castle , and it appears that Neville took the initiative in making overtures to the prince . When John heard of the change of sides , he confiscated all of Neville 's lands held directly from the king on 8 July 1216 . On 4 September 1216 the king further confiscated lands belonging to other rebels that had been granted to Neville before the surrender of Marlborough ; some were re @-@ granted to Neville 's brother William . Hugh de Neville 's son , Herbert , also joined the rebels .
After King John 's death in October 1216 , Neville and his son made their peace with the new king , Henry III , John 's son . Both men had their lands restored in 1217 , but the offices that the elder Neville had held were not returned quickly . Custody of some royal forests was returned by 1220 , but the office of Chief Forester was not returned until some time later . In 1218 Neville was supposed to have had the forest of Rockingham returned to his custody , but William de Forz , the Count of Aumale , refused to return it . It was not until 1220 that de Neville managed to recover his custody of Rockingham forest . By 1224 Neville was once more Chief Forester , but he never regained the power and influence that he had held under John . When he lost the office for the second time is unclear . The historian C. R. Young states that he held the office until his death in 1234 when it passed to his son John , but Daniel Crook , writing in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography , claims that Neville lost the forester office in 1229 , to be replaced by John of Monmouth and Brian de Lisle . He also served as Sheriff of Lincolnshire .
= = Records and lands = =
Neville 's household records for 1207 survive , detailing his itinerary for the year ; in one eight @-@ week period his household visited 11 different towns . In 1204 his wife offered the king 200 chickens for the right to sleep one night with her husband , an obligation recorded in the royal records . The historian Daniel Crook suggests that this shows that Joan Neville was one of the barons ' wives who attracted King John 's sexual attentions .
Neville inherited lands in Lincolnshire worth one half of a knight 's fee . These were augmented with gifts from Richard and John , much of which were in Essex . He also acquired lands in Surrey and in Somerset , and his marriage to Joan brought him estates in Essex . Joan 's lands also brought him into conflict with Falkes de Breauté , the husband of Joan 's younger sister and co @-@ heiress , and the two brothers @-@ in @-@ law were involved in lawsuits over their wives ' lands for more than five years . Joan and her sister were also co @-@ heiresses to the barony of Courcy , in right of their mother Alice de Courcy .
= = Death and legacy = =
Neville 's first wife , Joan de Cornhill , died after December 1224 . Some time before April 1230 he married secondly Beatrice , the widow of Ralph de Fay and one of the five daughters of Stephen of Turnham . Joan and Neville had at least three sons – John , Henry , and Herbert . Neville also had a daughter named Joan .
Neville died in 1234 , although his death was incorrectly recorded by Matthew Paris as occurring in 1222 . Neville was buried at Waltham Abbey , of which he had been a patron . Besides Waltham , he also made gifts to Christ Church Priory in Canterbury , Bullington Priory in Lincolnshire , and St Mary 's Nunnery , Clerkenwell . The historian Sidney Painter said of Neville 's career during John 's reign that " a strong argument could be advanced for the thesis that the royal official who wielded the most actual power during John 's reign was the chief forester , Hugh de Neville " . Another historian , J. R. Maddicott , states that Neville was head of " one of the most detested branches of royal administration " .
= Glenn Knight =
Glenn Jeyasingam Knight ( born in 1945 ) is a Singaporean lawyer . He was the first Director of the Commercial Affairs Department ( CAD ) when it was founded in 1984 . He lost his post in 1991 after being convicted of corruption in a much @-@ publicised trial . In 1998 , he was again tried and convicted for misappropriating money while in office .
= = Background = =
Knight was a student of Anglo @-@ Chinese School . In the 1990s , he was the vice @-@ chairman of its Old Boys ' Association and a member of its board of governors . He obtained his bachelor of laws degree from the National University of Singapore in the 1960s , and played the guitar in a jazz band to raise money for his tuition fees .
He joined the Singapore Legal Service in 1970 and rose through the ranks " with the speed and power of an Exocet missile , " as Queen 's Counsel Roy Allaway later described it . Soon he acquired a reputation for being a law enforcer who prosecuted criminals without fear or favour . News of his ability and integrity impressed the late David Marshall , so much that when he retired he offered to give Knight a full partnership in his law firm ; however , Knight was content to remain in the Legal Service and declined the offer .
Knight is married to Pathmavali Rengayah . The couple have no children .
= = Notable cases = =
In 1978 , Knight was the deputy public prosecutor in the trial of former magistrate Khoo Hin Hiong . In 1983 , he acted for the Prosecution again in the trial of Adrian Lim , who had murdered two children . In 1985 , he was the senior state counsel and deputy public prosecutor who filed an affidavit on behalf of the Attorney @-@ General requesting that the High Court cite five defendants for contempt of court over an editorial published in the Asian Wall Street Journal ( AWSJ ) on 17 October 1985 . Titled " Jeyaretnam 's Challenge " , the editorial had questioned the " integrity and impartiality " of Singapore 's judicial system . The affidavit led to an apology from the editor of the AWSJ . In 1986 , he was the public prosecutor for the Commercial Affairs Investigation Department who filed charges against key people in Pan Electric Industries ( " Pan @-@ El " ) , such as Tan Kok Liang , Tan Koon Swan , and Peter Tham , in the aftermath of the company 's collapse . For his role in the Pan @-@ El investigations , Knight was commended by then @-@ Finance Minister Richard Hu in 1989 . Knight also led the prosecution team in Singapore 's first case of insider trading , that of former United Overseas Bank banker Allan Ng . On National Day 1990 ( 9 August 1990 ) , he was awarded the Public Administration Medal , Gold , for his work as Director of the Commercial Affairs Department .
= = First investigation and trial = =
On 23 March 1991 , Knight was suddenly replaced as CAD director by Senior State Counsel Lawrence Ang in a decision that shocked the local legal community . It turned out that Knight was under investigation by the Corrupt Practices Investigation Bureau ( CPIB ) . After an investigation lasting more than two months — one of the longest probes into the conduct of a public servant in Singapore — Knight was arrested on 27 May 1991 and charged with corruption the next day . He was the first Singapore legal officer to face such charges . Specifically , he was accused of cheating three businessmen into investing S $ 3 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 each into the former Batam Island Country Club on the Indonesian island of Batam , as well as giving false information to the CPIB regarding vehicle purchases , an application for a car loan , and his corporate investments . The judge originally set Knight 's trial to commence in October 1992 , but changed his mind and brought it forward to September 1991 after the prosecution complained that its witnesses had been subject to intimidation , and investigating officers had received mysterious phone calls warning them to " watch out " . In July that year , his wife and two others were also arrested and charged over the Batam resort investments .
In a district court on 29 September 1991 , Knight pleaded guilty to cheating then managing director of Trans @-@ Island Bus Services Ng Ser Miang to try to make him invest in the Batam resort project , which had been planned by Knight and his wife . In October , he was sentenced to three months in prison .
Knight appealed against the sentence , and in March 1992 he managed to get his sentence reduced to a $ 17 @,@ 000 fine and a day in prison . He served the jail sentence and paid the fine on the day it was announced . In deciding to reduce the sentence , High Court Judge L.P. Thean said that a " nominal custodial sentence " was sufficient given the mitigating circumstances in Knight 's case . In April , all charges against his wife in relation to his case were also dropped .
= = Aftermath of first conviction = =
Although the sentence meted to him was eventually reduced , the corruption case had left permanent damage on Knight 's career as a civil servant . After investigations on him began in March 1991 , he faced disciplinary hearings and his services were terminated on 26 March 1992 . The President also revoked the prestigious Public Administration Medal , Gold , that had been awarded to Knight . In August 1994 , the High Court struck Knight off the roll of advocates and solicitors , meaning that he could no longer practise law . After being disbarred , Knight worked as a consultant in a public @-@ listed company .
= = Second investigation and trial = =
In 1998 , Knight was again charged in court — this time with criminal breach of trust by misappropriating money totalling $ 4 @,@ 200 when still the CAD 's Director on two occasions , in 1989 and 1990 . This second charge caused Knight to resign from his job .
During the trial , the defence argued that the proceedings were invalid as Knight had been granted immunity by the Attorney @-@ General 's Chambers in 1991 from further charges arising from his corruption investigations , in exchange for him to plead guilty in the earlier trial . They argued that the latest set of charges stemmed from that investigation and thus were subject to the immunity clause . The CPIB revealed that it had been tipped off about the misappropriation of money only in 1997 by an unnamed informant . The court ruled that the proceedings could continue because the 1991 probe into Knight 's dealings did not investigate his misappropriation of money . Eventually the court found him guilty of two charges of misappropriation and sentenced him to a $ 10 @,@ 000 fine and another day in jail .
= = Aftermath of second conviction = =
The second conviction left Knight even worse off than before . The company he was working for before his second trial refused to re @-@ employ him . Jobless , he engaged himself in community work in his church , Covenant Community Methodist Church , and often visited a pub in Boat Quay of which his wife was a partner . He faded quietly from public life .
On 25 April 2007 , he re @-@ appeared in the news when he filed an application seeking court approval to be reinstated as a lawyer . His application was granted on 22 May 2007 , making him only the sixth lawyer to be reinstated in the Law Society of Singapore 's 35 @-@ year history . He will be joining the law firm Bernard & Rada Law Corporation .
= Action of 24 October 1798 =
The Action of 24 October 1798 was a minor naval engagement of the French Revolutionary Wars , fought between a British Royal Navy frigate and two ships of the Batavian Republic . The Dutch ships were intercepted in the North Sea within hours of leaving port , 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ) northwest of the Texel , by the British ship HMS Sirius . Both Dutch vessels were carrying large quantities of military supplies and French soldiers , reinforcements for the French and Irish forces participating in the Irish Rebellion of 1798 . Although the rebellion had been defeated a month earlier , word of the British victory had not yet reached the European continent , and the Dutch force was intended to supplement a larger French squadron sent earlier in October . The French had already been defeated at the Battle of Tory Island and the Dutch suffered a similar outcome , both ships defeated in turn by the larger and better armed British vessel .
Captain Richard King on Sirius discovered the Dutch ships early on 24 October , when they were separated by 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) and thus unable to mutually support one another . Targeting the smaller ship , Waakzaamheid , King was able to outrun her in an hour and force her to surrender without a fight . Turning his attention on the larger vessel , Furie , King rapidly overhauled her as well and opened a heavy fire , to which Furie was only able to ineffectively reply . Within half an hour she too had surrendered . Both ships were taken to Britain , repaired and commissioned in the Royal Navy . The defeat ended the last effort by the continental nations to land soldiers in Ireland , and signified the last action of the Irish Rebellion .
= = Background = =
Following the French Revolution in 1789 , a political organisation was formed in Ireland named the Society of United Irishmen . Crossing social and religious boundaries , this organisation embraced republican principles with the stated goal of removing British government control from Ireland . When Britain went to war with the French Republic in 1793 , the organisation was declared illegal and driven under cover , many of its senior members going into exile in Europe or America . These men continued to call for armed resistance to the British government , and in 1796 persuaded the French Directory to launch the Expédition d 'Irlande , a large scale invasion of Ireland . The expedition was a disaster , with thousands of French soldiers drowned without a single man successfully landed . Subsequently the French @-@ controlled government of the Batavian Republic , formerly the Dutch Republic , was persuaded to make an attempt on Ireland in October 1797 , but their fleet was intercepted and defeated by Admiral Adam Duncan at the Battle of Camperdown .
In May 1798 , the arrest of a number of the leaders of the United Irishmen provoked the Irish Rebellion of 1798 , a widespread uprising across Ireland . The Rebellion took the British authorities by surprise , but the introduction of regular British Army troops rapidly defeated the Irish armies and the last resistance was brought to an end in September with the surrender of a small French force at the Battle of Ballinamuck . The French authorities had also been taken by surprise by the uprising , and were consequently unprepared : the forces they deployed were inadequate to face the much larger British armies operating in Ireland at the time . News of this defeat had still not reach the continent by October , when a second French invasion force set out . Closely watched by the Royal Navy as soon as it left Brest , the squadron was defeated on 12 October 1798 at the Battle of Tory Island : fewer than a third of the French ships returned to France .
The Dutch had also been persuaded to send reinforcements to the United Irishmen during the rebellion , but like the French they were unprepared for the sudden uprising and their contributions were not ready until 24 October . Two Dutch ships had been ordered to take on troops and supplies : the 36 @-@ gun frigate Furie under Captain Bartholomeus Pletz and the 24 @-@ gun corvette Waakzaamheid under Captain Meindert van Neirop , who assumed command of the expedition . Although both ships were small and poorly armed , each carried a number of French soldiers for service in Ireland , Furie embarking 165 and Waakzaamheid 122 . In addition , the ships carried over 6 @,@ 000 stands of arms and large quantities of other military stores with which to arm the Irish irregular forces that they expected to meet .
= = Battle = =
Departing on the night of 23 / 24 October , the Dutch ships made rapid progress and at 08 : 00 were 30 nautical miles ( 56 km ) northwest of the Texel , sailing westwards towards the English Channel . Within sight of the Dutch ships however was the British frigate HMS Sirius , a new ship of 1 @,@ 049 long tons ( 1 @,@ 066 t ) , rated as 38 @-@ guns but actually carrying 44 . She was commanded by Captain Richard King , who had participated in the campaign against the Expédition d 'Irlande two years earlier . Sirius had been stationed off the Texel to watch for Dutch movements and intercept any ships of smaller or equal size entering or leaving the waterway . Although van Neirop 's squadron outnumbered King 's ship , the British vessel was much larger and faster , and the Dutch were also hampered by their position : the two ships were more than 2 nautical miles ( 3 @.@ 7 km ) apart , too far to offer mutual support against their opponent .
King 's first target was the smaller and slower Waakzaamheid , which was windward of Furie and thus would have to sail into the wind to link with Pletz 's ship . King rapidly closed with the corvette , avoiding contact with the larger Furie as he did so . At 09 : 00 Sirius came alongside Waakzaamheid and fired a gun at her , prompting van Neirop to immediately surrender . Furie had not attempted to come to the flagship 's aid and resistance against the much larger Sirius would have been futile . King despatched boats containing a prize crew and removed most of the prisoners from Waakzaamheid , placing them below decks on Sirius . Once the prize was secure , King immediately set off in pursuit of Furie , which was attempting to flee to the west and had nearly disappeared over the horizon . For the rest of the day the pursuit continued , Furie unable to escape the faster British ship , which steadily gained during the afternoon until at 17 : 00 was within range of the Dutch frigate .
King 's fire was heavy , but Pletz resisted , responding with his own cannon and continuing his attempts to escape . For half an hour the engagement continued , the distance between the ships varying as Pletz attempted to manoeuvre out of King 's range . The British crew were better gunners than the Dutch , and the musketry of the French soldiers aboard had little effect on Sirius as the range between the ships was too great for muskets to be effective . As a result , damage and casualties mounted aboard Furie although Sirius was barely touched , only one shot striking the bowsprit and one man wounded . At approximately 17 : 30 , Pletz surrendered , having lost eight dead and 14 wounded and with his ship badly damaged . King transferred the prisoners and placed a prize crew on Furie before returning to his base at the Nore with his prizes .
= = Aftermath = =
The capture of the Dutch ships was the end of the final attempt by a continental nation to land troops in Ireland during the French Revolutionary Wars and the Napoleonic Wars that followed them . Furie and Waakzaamheid were both purchased for the Royal Navy , Furie returned to her pre @-@ war name of Wilhelmina and Waakzaamheid under the same name . The corvette was regraded and the number of guns aboard were reduced to 20 as her frame was not deemed strong enough to carry 24 . Richard King remained in Sirius until 1802 , and subsequently commanded the ship of the line HMS Achille , participating at the Battle of Trafalgar in 1805 .
= Menace ( video game ) =
Menace is a side @-@ scrolling shooter video game developed by DMA Design and published by Psygnosis . It was originally released for the Amiga in 1988 , and was ported for the Atari ST , Commodore 64 and DOS in 1989 . The game is set on the planet of Draconia , where players are tasked with destroying the planet 's defence mechanisms in order to kill the harmful creatures .
The game was designed by David Jones , and was the first game developed by his company DMA Design . First developed in his bedroom at his parents ' house , Jones began seeking an official development studio and publisher when the game was nearing completion . He eventually settled upon a publishing deal with Psygnosis , who first published the game in 1988 to positive reviews ; praise was given to the game 's graphics , sound and gameplay , while criticism was directed at its ports to inferior hardware . The game was also commercially successful , selling over 20 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Gameplay = =
Menace is a horizontal side @-@ scrolling shooter that uses 2D computer graphics . Players control a powerful alien space fighter , moving through six stages on the planet of Draconia to advance through the game . Players use the ship 's weaponry — lasers and cannons — to attack all advancing enemies , and defeat the level 's boss : a guardian of Draconia . The six bosses act as Draconia 's living defence mechanisms — the planet was created to habituate gruesome and harmful creatures , of which there are over sixty , participating in unlawful tasks . In the game 's levels , players discover space debris , which can be converted into upgrades for the ship . The debris appears as tokens , and grants players additional weapons and upgrades , such as lasers , cannons , and improved ship and weapon power . The ship also has a shield , which provides temporary protection from enemies ; contact with enemies and walls depletes the shields , increasing players ' vulnerability to death .
= = Development and release = =
DMA Design was founded in 1987 by David Jones , Russell Kay , Steve Hammond and Mike Dailly , in Dundee , Scotland . Originally working under the name Acme Software , they began developing games for the Commodore 64 and Amiga . Jones began developing Menace under the working title CopperCon1 , in his bedroom at his parents ' house . He was attending the Dundee Institute of Technology at the time . To publish the game in 1988 , Jones first approached Hewson Consultants , where Andrew Braybrook played the game and recommended it to Hewson . When Jones was informed that Hewson wanted the game to be the " Amiga version of Zynaps " , he realised that sales would be limited , and refused to sign the contract ; despite this , Hewson had already promoted the game in Popular Computing Weekly , before the deal was officially dropped . After signing a publishing deal with Psygnosis , Acme Software was renamed DMA Design .
Tony Smith worked on some of the game 's backgrounds and graphics , while Jones designed the levels . Jones decided for Menace to be a side @-@ scrolling game after playing arcade games such as Nemesis ( 1985 ) and R @-@ Type ( 1987 ) . Psygnosis could not decide a preference for the design of the player ship ; as a result , Smith often re @-@ designed the ship with many variations . The team found difficulty porting the game to the Atari ST , due to the hardware 's limitations with smooth scrolling . Brian " Biscuit " Watson , who the team met at a computer club in 1984 , discovered a technique to overcome this difficulty . Other limitations included the fewer colours available with the hardware ; Smith adapted his designs accordingly . After completing his own game , Kay was assigned to port Menace to PC . During development , the sound effects were temporarily replaced with those from Salamander ( 1986 ) ; Jones recorded the sound effects from the game , as Hammond and Dailly played . Prior to this , the temporary sound effects consisted of noises by Jones . The game 's final sound effects were designed by musician David Whittaker . The cover art was designed by Ian Craig .
At the end of development , the game was known as Draconia , before being renamed to Menace shortly before release , upon discovering that another game had the same title . It was published in 1988 for the Amiga , and in 1989 for the Atari ST , Commodore 64 and DOS . The game generated a considerable amount of money for DMA Design , allowing the company to develop more games . The game sold 20 @,@ 000 copies , reportedly generating around £ 20 @,@ 000 .
= = Reception = =
The game received mostly positive reviews from critics upon release , particularly for its gameplay , graphical design , and sound . Criticism was also directed at the game 's ports , and the limitations met with the inferior hardware . Jason Holborn of ST / Amiga Format wrote that the game " provides some of the best arcade action " in an Amiga game .
Holborn of ST / Amiga Format called the gameplay " exceptional " and " addictive " , stating that players will be " hooked for hours on end " . Ciaran Brennan of Computer and Video Games praised its replayability , writing that it has " enough depth built in to make it last " . Conversely , Zzap ! 64 's Kati Hamza wrote that the gameplay is " rather poor " , disliking the pace and level design , and Maff Evans in the same review called it " dull and unrewarding " , pointing out the lack of excitement and reward . The Games Machine condemned the " jerky scrolling " of the PC version , while Rod Lawton of ACE called the gameplay of the Amiga version " stubbornly 8 @-@ bit " .
The game 's graphics received positive reactions . Lawton of ACE called them " attractive " , and Holborn of ST / Amiga Format named them " beautifully stomach churning " , calling Menace " one of the best presented games available " . While Zzap ! 64 's Hamza felt that the Amiga version was " blessed with nice graphics " , she wrote that the Commodore 64 version has " surprisingly weak presentation " ; Evans similarly called the graphics " half @-@ baked " . The Games Machine was disappointed by the graphics , particularly identifying the limited colour capabilities of the Atari ST version .
Reviewers praised the game 's use of sound . ST / Amiga Format 's Holborn lauded the soundtrack 's appropriation to gameplay , calling it " brilliant " , and writing that the game 's speech and sound effects enhance the feel of the game . The Games Machine favourably compared the soundtrack to Xenon ( 1988 ) , however noted that the sounds in the Atari ST version are " less clear " , and the PC sound effects are " pathetic " . Zzap ! 64 called the soundtrack " average " , and wrote that the " pathetic [ sound ] effects add little atmosphere " .
= Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? =
Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? is the second studio album by American thrash metal band Megadeth , released on September 19 , 1986 . The project was originally handled by Combat Records , resulting in the first mix of the album being co @-@ produced by Randy Burns . Capitol Records then bought the rights to the album and hired another producer , Paul Lani , to mix it himself . The album 's front cover , featuring the band 's mascot Vic Rattlehead , was created by Ed Repka . The recording of the album was difficult for the band because of the ongoing drug issues the members had at the time . This was the last Megadeth album to feature drummer Gar Samuelson and guitarist Chris Poland , who were fired shortly after the album 's promotional tour for drug abuse . The title track , noted for its politically conscious lyrics , was released as the album 's lead single .
Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? is regarded as a thrash metal classic and as an album that gave prominence to extreme metal . It has been featured in several publications ' best album lists , including Robert Dimery 's 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die and Martin Popoff 's Top 500 Heavy Metal Albums of All Time . The album has been reissued several times over the years . In 2004 , the album was remixed and remastered by Megadeth frontman Dave Mustaine , with extensive liner notes detailing the album 's background . In 2011 , the three different versions were reissued as part of the album 's 25th anniversary celebration . All of them , with the exception of the 2004 mixes , feature new remastering .
= = Background and recording = =
In an interview for Metal Forces in December 1985 , frontman Dave Mustaine revealed that the band had already started writing new material for the second album . He said that two songs ( " Black Friday " and " Bad Omen " ) were finished and described them as a " total blur " , being much faster than " Rattlehead " . Speaking about the lyrical content of the album , Mustaine and bassist David Ellefson stated that they wanted to change the public perception of heavy metal by writing songs that contained socially aware lyrics . Mustaine further noted that the band was not unaware of the political situation at the time and that some of his political beliefs were reflected in the songs . Professional rock critic Steve Huey noted the album 's combination of " punkish political awareness with a dark , threatening , typically heavy metal worldview " .
During the first two months of 1986 , Megadeth commenced a brief tour at the East Coast of the United States . At the shows , which were practically a continuation of the Killing for a Living tour , the band performed a number of songs from its upcoming album . Following the conclusion of the tour , the band intended to start making the record at the Music Grinder studio on Melrose Avenue in Hollywood . Mustaine lifted the title from an article in Reader 's Digest , which was titled " Peace Would Sell But No One Would Buy It " . Their current label , Combat Records , provided a recording budget of $ 25 @,@ 000 , which allowed the band to hire a freelance producer , Randy Burns . The recording of the album was very difficult for the band , because Mustaine and Ellefson were homeless at the time . Furthermore , guitarist Chris Poland and drummer Gar Samuelson would not show up for hours because of their heroin addiction . Shortly after the band finished the final recordings of the album for Combat , they were approached by Tim Carr , an A & R representative of Capitol Records . After securing a contract with the group , Capitol hired producer Paul Lani to remix the original mixes done by Randy Burns , the previous producer .
= = Release and promotion = =
Peace Sells ... but Who 's Buying ? was released on September 19 , 1986 . The album 's artwork was designed by Ed Repka , who would go on to do several other pieces of artwork for the band over the years . The cover art depicts the band 's mascot , Vic Rattlehead , in front of the United Nations building . He is portrayed as a real estate agent , who is selling the devastated remains of the organization 's headquarters . The title track was released as a single , for which the band filmed its first video . In 1987 , a video was made for the second single , " Wake Up Dead " , which exposed the band performing in a steel cage . Soon after the album 's release , Megadeth began a tour as a supporting band for Motörhead . The tour took place in California and the southwestern parts of the United States . However , due to disagreements between the managements of the two bands , Megadeth were pulled from the last three shows . Following the short stint with Motörhead , Megadeth were added as the opening act on Alice Cooper 's Constrictor tour , which took place at the beginning of 1987 . Later in 1987 , after the conclusion of the album 's promotional tour , Mustaine fired Poland and Samuelson due to their substance abuse issues .
= = Songs = =
= = = Tracks 1 – 4 = = =
" Wake Up Dead " features lyrics which describe a man who has been cheating on his wife or girlfriend and is sneaking into his house , knowing that if his wife finds out about his other lover , she will kill him . Mustaine said that " Wake up Dead " was written about him cheating on a girl he was living with . He stayed with her because he was homeless at the time and needed a place to stay . Unfortunately , he was in love with another girl and thought the one he lived with would be mad because he was cheating her . He had to leave her because he thought she had intentions to kill him . " The Conjuring " , according to author Bob Larson , simulates a Satanic ceremony , and makes references about being the devil 's advocate and his salesman . Mustaine explained the song is about black magic and contains instructions for hexes . However , because the subject matter appears incompatible to his conversion to Christianity , the song has not been played live since 2001 .
" Peace Sells " reflects Mustaine 's political and social beliefs . The lyrics are disapproval of the American way and convey Mustaine 's wish for a new social structure . Ellefson has stated that during the tour prior to recording the album , the band could tell then that the song was going to be a hit . The video for the title track became an MTV mainstay and the opening bass line was used as introduction to MTV News . However , Mustaine proclaimed that they received no royalties because the song was excluded shortly before MTV would have to pay them for its use . " Devils Island " is a reference to a former French penal colony off the coast of French Guiana . The lyrics detail the thoughts of a condemned prisoner awaiting execution . He is spared by God , but must spend the rest of his life on the island .
= = = Tracks 5 – 8 = = =
" Good Mourning / Black Friday " is a two @-@ piece song , which begins with an instrumental part called " Good Mourning " . Lyrically , Mustaine has described " Black Friday " as being about " a homicidal madman who goes on a killing spree " . With an excessive use of gory language and violent imagery , the song chronicles the acts of a serial killer . It was inspired by Dijon Carruthers , who was briefly the band 's drummer prior to the hiring of Gar Samuelson . According to Mustaine , Carruthers was hanging out with people who were practicing occultism , and they inspired him to write songs based on spiritual themes .
" Bad Omen " explores the theme of occultism . Mustaine described " Bad Omen " like " two happy campers who have stumbled onto a Satanic orgy in the middle of the woods " and then " they see these fools waiting around for Satan 's blessing " . Asked whether the band members really believe in the subject matters they write , Mustaine responded : " We 're aware of the subjects we write about — witchcraft , Satanic sacrifices and the like — but we 're not condoning them . " " I Ain 't Superstitious " was written by Willie Dixon and originally recorded by Howlin ' Wolf in 1961 . However , Megadeth 's version is vastly different from the original . " My Last Words " is about a game of Russian roulette and the fear one goes through when playing the game . Despite being one of the lesser known tracks on the record , music journalist Martin Popoff said that the song was an example of the band 's " fast thrashers " and an evidence why Megadeth were dubbed as the " fearless speed progenitors " .
= = Critical reception = =
= = = Contemporary reviews
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magazine , Loyd Grossman declared Dark Side " a fine album with a textural and conceptual richness that not only invites , but demands involvement " . In his 1981 review of the album , Robert Christgau found its lyrical ideas clichéd and its music pretentious , but called it a " kitsch masterpiece " that can be charming with highlights such as taped speech fragments , Parry 's saxophone , and studio effects which enhance Gilmour 's guitar solos .
The Dark Side of the Moon was released first in the US on 1 March 1973 , and then in the UK on 16 March . It became an instant chart success in Britain and throughout Western Europe ; by the following month , it had gained a gold certification in the US . Throughout March 1973 the band played the album as part of their US tour , including a midnight performance at Radio City Music Hall in New York City on 17 March before an audience of 6 @,@ 000 . The album reached the Billboard Top LP 's & Tape chart 's number one spot on 28 April 1973 , and was so successful that the band returned two months later for another tour .
= = = Label = = =
Much of the album 's early American success is attributed to the efforts of Pink Floyd 's US record company , Capitol Records . Newly appointed chairman Bhaskar Menon set about trying to reverse the relatively poor sales of the band 's 1971 studio album Meddle . Meanwhile , disenchanted with Capitol , the band and manager O 'Rourke had been quietly negotiating a new contract with CBS president Clive Davis , on Columbia Records . The Dark Side of the Moon was the last album that Pink Floyd were obliged to release before formally signing a new contract . Menon 's enthusiasm for the new album was such that he began a huge promotional advertising campaign , which included radio @-@ friendly truncated versions of " Us and Them " and " Time " . In some countries – notably the UK – Pink Floyd had not released a single since 1968 's " Point Me at the Sky " , and unusually " Money " was released as a single on 7 May , with " Any Colour You Like " on the B @-@ side . It reached number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 in July 1973 . A two @-@ sided white label promotional version of the single , with mono and stereo mixes , was sent to radio stations . The mono side had the word " bullshit " removed from the song – leaving " bull " in its place – however , the stereo side retained the uncensored version . This was subsequently withdrawn ; the replacement was sent to radio stations with a note advising disc jockeys to dispose of the first uncensored copy . On 4 February 1974 , a double A @-@ side single was released with " Time " on one side , and " Us and Them " on the opposite side . Menon 's efforts to secure a contract renewal with Pink Floyd were in vain however ; at the beginning of 1974 , the band signed for Columbia with a reported advance fee of $ 1M ( in Britain and Europe they continued to be represented by Harvest Records ) .
= = = Sales = = =
The Dark Side of the Moon became one of the best @-@ selling albums of all time and is in the top 25 of a list of best @-@ selling albums in the United States . Although it held the number one spot in the US for only a week , it remained in the Billboard album chart for 741 weeks . The album re @-@ appeared on the Billboard charts with the introduction of the Top Pop Catalog Albums chart in May 1991 , and has been a perennial feature since then . In the UK it is the eighth @-@ best @-@ selling album of all time .
In the US the LP was released before the introduction of platinum awards on 1 January 1976 . It therefore held only a gold disc until 16 February 1990 , when it was certified 11 × platinum . On 4 June 1998 the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album 15 × platinum , denoting sales of fifteen million in the United States – making it their biggest @-@ selling work there ( The Wall is 23 × platinum , but as a double album this signifies sales of 11 @.@ 5 million ) . " Money " has sold well as a single , and as with " Time " , remains a radio favourite ; in the US , for the year ending 20 April 2005 , " Time " was played on 13 @,@ 723 occasions , and " Money " on 13 @,@ 731 occasions . Industry sources suggest that worldwide sales of the album total about 45 million . " On a slow week " between 8 @,@ 000 and 9 @,@ 000 copies are sold , and a total of 400 @,@ 000 were sold in 2002 , making it the 200th @-@ best @-@ selling album of that year – nearly three decades after its initial release . The album has sold 9 @,@ 502 @,@ 000 copies in the US since 1991 when Nielsen SoundScan began tracking sales for Billboard . To this day , it occupies a prominent spot on Billboard 's Pop Catalog Chart . It reached number one when the 2003 hybrid CD / SACD edition was released and sold 800 @,@ 000 copies in the US . On the week of 5 May 2006 The Dark Side of the Moon achieved a combined total of 1 @,@ 500 weeks on the Billboard 200 and Pop Catalog charts . One in every fourteen people in the US under the age of 50 is estimated to own , or to have owned , a copy . Upon a chart rule change in 2009 allowing catalog titles to re @-@ enter the Billboard 200 , The Dark Side of the Moon returned to the chart at number 189 on 12 December of that year for its 742nd charting week . It has continued to sporadically appear on the Billboard 200 since then , reaching 900 weeks on the chart in April 2015 .
= = = Re @-@ issues and remastering = = =
In 1979 , The Dark Side of the Moon was released as a remastered LP by Mobile Fidelity Sound Lab , and in April 1988 on their " Ultradisc " gold CD format . The album was released by EMI on the then @-@ new compact disc format in 1984 , and in 1992 it was re @-@ released as a remastered CD in the box set Shine On . This version was re @-@ released as a 20th anniversary box set edition with postcards the following year . The cover design was again by Storm Thorgerson , the designer of the original 1973 cover . A suggestion that on CD pressings a faintly audible orchestral version of the Beatles ' " Ticket to Ride " can be heard after " Eclipse " over the album 's closing heartbeats may be due to a remastering error .
The original quadraphonic mix , created by Parsons , was commissioned by EMI but never endorsed by Pink Floyd , as Parsons was disappointed with his mix . To celebrate the album 's 30th anniversary , an updated surround version was released in 2003 . The band elected not to use Parsons ' quadraphonic mix ( done shortly after the original release ) , and instead had engineer James Guthrie create a new 5 @.@ 1 channel surround sound mix on the SACD format . Guthrie had worked with Pink Floyd since co @-@ producing and engineering their eleventh album , The Wall , and had previously worked on surround versions of The Wall for DVD @-@ Video and Waters ' In the Flesh for SACD . Speaking in 2003 , Alan Parsons expressed some disappointment with Guthrie 's SACD mix , suggesting that Guthrie was " possibly a little too true to the original mix " , but was generally complimentary . The 30th @-@ anniversary edition won four Surround Music Awards in 2003 , and has since sold more than 800 @,@ 000 copies . The cover image was created by a team of designers including Storm Thorgerson . The image is a photograph of a custom @-@ made stained glass window , built to match the exact dimensions and proportions of the original prism design . Transparent glass , held in place by strips of lead , was used in place of the opaque colours of the original . The idea is derived from the " sense of purity in the sound quality , being 5 @.@ 1 surround sound ... " The image was created out of a desire to be " the same but different , such that the design was clearly DSotM , still the recognisable prism design , but was different and hence new " .
The Dark Side of the Moon was also re @-@ released in 2003 on 180 @-@ gram virgin vinyl ( mastered by Kevin Gray at AcousTech Mastering ) and included slightly different versions of the original posters and stickers that came with the original vinyl release , along with a new 30th anniversary poster . In 2007 the album was included in Oh , by the Way , a box set celebrating the 40th anniversary of Pink Floyd , and a DRM @-@ free version was released on the iTunes Store . In 2011 the album was re @-@ released as part of the Why Pink Floyd ... ? campaign , featuring a remastered version of the album along with various other material .
= = Legacy = =
The success of the album brought wealth to all four members of the band ; Richard Wright and Roger Waters bought large country houses , and Nick Mason became a collector of upmarket cars . Some of the profits were invested in the production of Monty Python and the Holy Grail . Engineer Alan Parsons received a Grammy Award nomination for Best Engineered Recording , Non @-@ Classical for The Dark Side of the Moon , and he went on to have a successful career as a recording artist with the Alan Parsons Project . Although Waters and Gilmour have on occasion downplayed his contribution to the success of the album , Mason has praised his role . In 2003 , Parsons reflected : " I think they all felt that I managed to hang the rest of my career on Dark Side of the Moon , which has an element of truth to it . But I still wake up occasionally , frustrated about the fact that they made untold millions and a lot of the people involved in the record didn 't . "
Part of the legacy of The Dark Side of the Moon is in its influence on modern music , the musicians who have performed cover versions of its songs , and even in modern urban myths . Its release is often seen as a pivotal point in the history of rock music , and comparisons are sometimes drawn between Pink Floyd and Radiohead – specifically their 1997 album OK Computer – which has been called The Dark Side of the Moon of the 1990s , owing to the fact that both albums share themes relating to the loss of a creative individual 's ability to function in the modern world .
= = = Rankings = = =
The Dark Side of the Moon has appeared on rankings of the greatest albums of all @-@ time . In 1987 , Rolling Stone listed the record 35th on its " Top 100 Albums of the Last 20 Years " , and sixteen years later , in 2003 the album polled in 43rd position on the magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . In 2012 , The Dark Side of the Moon was voted 43rd on Rolling Stone magazine 's list of the " 500 Greatest Albums of All Time " . In 2006 , it was voted " My Favourite Album " by the Australian Broadcasting Corporation 's audience . NME readers voted the album eighth in their 2006 " Best Album of All Time " online poll , and in 2009 , Planet Rock listeners voted the album the " greatest of all time " . The album is also number two on the " Definitive 200 " list of albums , made by the National Association of Recording Merchandisers " in celebration of the art form of the record album " . It came 29th in The Observer 's 2006 list of " The 50 Albums That Changed Music " , and 37th in The Guardian 's 1997 list of the " 100 Best Albums Ever " , as voted for by a panel of artists and music critics . The album 's cover has been lauded by critics and listeners alike , VH1 proclaiming it the fourth greatest in history , and Planet Rock listeners the greatest of all time . In 2013 , The Dark Side of the Moon was selected for preservation in the United States National Recording Registry by the Library of Congress for being deemed " culturally , historically , or aesthetically significant " . In 2014 , readers of Rhythm voted it the seventh most influential progressive drumming album .
= = = Covers , tributes and samples = = =
One of the more notable covers of The Dark Side of the Moon is Return to the Dark Side of the Moon : A Tribute to Pink Floyd . Released in 2006 , the album is a progressive rock tribute featuring artists such as Adrian Belew , Tommy Shaw , Dweezil Zappa , and Rick Wakeman . In 2000 , The Squirrels released The Not So Bright Side of the Moon , which features a cover of the entire album . The New York dub collective Easy Star All @-@ Stars released Dub Side of the Moon in 2003 and Dubber Side of the Moon in 2010 . The group Voices on the Dark Side released the album Dark Side of the Moon a Cappella , a complete a cappella version of the album . The bluegrass band Poor Man 's Whiskey frequently play the album in bluegrass style , calling the suite Dark Side of the Moonshine . A string quartet version of the album was released in 2004 . In 2009 , The Flaming Lips released a track @-@ by @-@ track remake of the album in collaboration with Stardeath and White Dwarfs , and featuring Henry Rollins and Peaches as guest musicians .
Several notable acts have covered the album live in its entirety , and a range of performers have used samples from The Dark Side of the Moon in their own material . Jam @-@ rock band Phish performed a semi @-@ improvised version of the entire album as part their show on 2 November 1998 in West Valley City , Utah . Progressive metal band Dream Theater have twice covered the album in their live shows , and in May 2011 Mary Fahl released From the Dark Side of the Moon , a song @-@ by @-@ song " re @-@ imagining " of the album . Milli Vanilli used the tape loops from Pink Floyd 's " Money " to open their track " Money " , followed by Marky Mark and the Funky Bunch on Music for the People .
= = = Dark Side of the Rainbow = = =
Dark Side of the Rainbow and Dark Side of Oz are two names commonly used in reference to rumours ( circulated on the Internet since at least 1994 ) that The Dark Side of the Moon was written as a soundtrack for the 1939 film The Wizard of Oz . Observers playing the film and the album simultaneously have reported apparent synchronicities , such as Dorothy beginning to jog at the lyric " no one told you when to run " during " Time " , and Dorothy balancing on a tightrope fence during the line " balanced on the biggest wave " in " Breathe " . David Gilmour and Nick Mason have both denied a connection between the two works , and Roger Waters has described the rumours as " amusing " . Alan Parsons has stated that the film was not mentioned during production of the album .
= = Track listing = =
All lyrics written by Roger Waters .
= = Personnel = =
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Cyclone Onil =
Severe Cyclonic Storm Onil ( India Meteorological Department designation : ARB 03 ; Joint Typhoon Warning Center designation : 03A ) was the first tropical cyclone to be named in the northern Indian Ocean . Forming out of an area of convection several hundred kilometres southwest of India on October 1 , 2004 , Cyclone Onil quickly attained its peak intensity on October 2 with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) . However , dry air quickly entered the system , causing it to rapidly weaken to a depression just off the coast of Gujarat , India . Over the following several days , the system took a slow , erratic track towards the south @-@ southeast . After turning northeastward , the system made landfall near Porbandar on October 10 and dissipated shortly thereafter .
Throughout southeastern Pakistan and northwestern India , thousands of residents were evacuated prior to the cyclone 's arrival . In these areas , the storm produced moderate to heavy rainfall , peaking at 145 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) in Thatta , Sindh , Pakistan . These rains led to flash flooding in several areas . Nine people died in several incidents related to the storm in Karachi . The drainage system of Hyderabad sustained significant damage , leading to several protests and demonstrations by city residents . Offshore , 300 fishermen are believed to have gone missing during the storm ; no reports have confirmed their whereabouts since they disappeared .
= = Meteorological history = =
Severe Cyclonic Storm Onil was first identified as an area of convection early on September 30 , 2004 situated roughly 465 km ( 290 mi ) southwest of Mumbai , India . Satellite imagery depicted a poorly organized system with deep convection partially surrounding a low @-@ level circulation . Situated over warm water and within an area of moderate wind shear , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) assessed the system 's chances of developing into a tropical cyclone as " fair " . Within several hours of being identified , the Indian Meteorological Department ( IMD ) began monitoring the system as Depression ARB 03 . Despite a decrease in convection later on September 30 , the IMD upgraded the cyclone to a deep depression , stating that three @-@ minute sustained winds had reached 55 km / h ( 35 mph ) . Early the next day , organization substantially improved , prompting the JTWC to issue a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert . Around 0900 UTC on October 1 , the IMD upgraded the deep depression to Cyclonic Storm Onil . Upon being named , the storm became the first tropical cyclone on record to be named in the northern Indian Ocean . The WMO / ESCAP Panel agreed in May 2004 that in September , tropical cyclones in the Northern Indian Ocean attaining gale @-@ force winds would be given names .
Later on October 1 , the JTWC issued their first advisory on the storm , classifying it as Tropical Cyclone 03A . Tracking towards the northeast , Onil intensified as convection consolidated around the center of circulation . Roughly 24 hours after being named , the system attained its peak intensity as a severe cyclonic storm with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) and a barometric pressure of 990 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 23 inHg ) according to the IMD with . Upon reaching this strength , the system featured a pinhole eye surrounded by deep convection . Additionally , Dvorak technique intensity estimates reached 3 @.@ 5 , indicating a high @-@ end tropical storm . However , the JTWC stated maximum winds to be 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) , a low @-@ end tropical storm . As the storm neared the Indian coastline , dry air quickly entered the circulation , causing most of the convection associated with Onil to dissipate . Located within 100 km ( 65 mi ) of land , the JTWC downgraded the system to a tropical depression and the IMD downgraded Onil to a deep depression .
On October 3 , the center of Onil skimmed the coastline of northwestern India ; however , the center did not cross land . Around this time , the upper @-@ level circulation detached from the low @-@ level circulation , further weakening the storm . Early on October 4 , the JTWC stated that the system had degenerated into a non @-@ convective remnant low pressure system . After executing a counter @-@ clockwise loop , the depression slowly tracked south @-@ southeastward , away from land . By October 7 , the system was reclassified as a tropical depression by the JTWC as it stalled several hundred kilometres southwest of Gujarat , India . The system maintained a relatively low intensity for the following several days before making landfall near Porbandar with winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph ) . Within hours of moving inland , Onil dissipated early on October 10 .
= = Impact and aftermath = =
In northwestern India , thousands of residents were evacuated in fears of Onil striking the region . According to one of the evacuated residents , this was the seventh evacuation due to a cyclone in the area since 1999 . On October 10 , the storm 's remnants brought light to moderate rainfall in India ; there was no known rainfall amount exceeding 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) throughout the region .
In southeastern Pakistan , an estimated 6 @,@ 000 people were evacuated from coastal regions prior to Cyclone Onil 's arrival . Port officials warned fishermen not to venture out during the storm due to rough seas . Cyclone Onil brought moderate to heavy rainfall and gusty winds . A maximum of 145 mm ( 5 @.@ 7 in ) of rain fell in Thatta , Sindh between October 2 and 3 . In Hyderabad , heavy rains amounting to 98 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) caused a 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) section of a drainage system to collapse , prompting the evacuation of several hundred residents . Throughout Sindh , an estimated 607 square kilometres ( 234 sq mi ) of land was inundated by flood waters , destroying roughly 70 % of the cotton crop . In the city of Karachi , nine people were killed in various incidents related to the storm at least 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) winds were reported . Two people were killed after being electrocuted by a downed power line outside their home . Many streets in the city were flooded and power lines were downed . Another one of these people died while trying to clear a drain near her house when a wall collapsed on her . Offshore , 163 fishermen were reported to be missing after being caught in the storm . However , reports from Pakistani officials stated that at least 300 fishermen were missing . In other areas , power was lost for more than 48 hours after Onil moved through the region . Around Karo Gongro , 100 people were stranded along a major roadway after flash flooding struck the area .
In the wake of the storm , Pakistani officials set up 26 relief camps where residents were offered food and shelter . Roughly 3 @,@ 000 people sought refuge in these shelters . Mobile units were also set up by the District Health Department to minimize the impacts of any post @-@ storm diseases . On October 3 , Imtiaz Ahmed Shaikh expressed his grief over the damage caused by Cyclonic Storm Onil and stated that he would be touring the affected region within the following days . At least 40 million Pakistani rupee ( $ 469 @,@ 000 USD ) was allocated in relief funds by Sindh Minister Syed Papoo Shah . On October 4 , port officials stated that it was safe for fishermen to resume their activities in the Arabian Sea . Later that day , a rain emergency was declared for Hyderabad and emergency shelters were set up in the city . All officers in the Hyderabad Development Authority who were initially put on leave ahead of the cyclone were told to resume work to assist in clearing drainage systems . Several days after the storm , reports indicated that there were more than 300 instances where the city 's drainage system collapsed across the area , resulting in standing water in many structures . Residents in these areas , frustrated by the lack of quick action by the government , began holding protests about the flooding . In response to these protests , Shaukat Hayat Bhutto suspended Assistant Engineer Sewage manager , Qamar Memon , for his negligence on draining flood waters .
= Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen , BWV 51 =
Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen ( " Exult in God in every land " or " Shout for joy to God in all lands " ) BWV 51 , is a church cantata by Johann Sebastian Bach . The work is Bach 's only church cantata scored for a solo soprano and trumpet . He composed it for general use ( ogni tempo ) , in other words not for a particular date in the church calendar , although he used it for the 15th Sunday after Trinity : the first known performance was on 17 September 1730 in Leipzig . The work may have been composed earlier , possibly for an occasion at the court of Christian , Duke of Saxe @-@ Weissenfels , for whom Bach had composed the Hunting Cantata and the Shepherd Cantata .
The text was written by an unknown poet who took inspiration from various biblical books , especially from psalms , and included as a closing chorale a stanza from the hymn " Nun lob , mein Seel , den Herren " . Bach structured the work in five movements , with the solo voice accompanied by a Baroque orchestra of a virtuoso trumpet , strings and continuo . While the outer movements with the trumpet express extrovert jubilation of God 's goodness and his wonders , the central introspective aria , accompanied only by the continuo , conveys a " profound expression of commitment to God " . He set the closing chorale as a chorale fantasia , the soprano sings the unadorned melody to a trio of two violins and continuo , leading to an unusual festive fugal Alleluja , in which the trumpet joins .
The Bach scholar Klaus Hofmann notes that the work , unusually popular among Bach 's church cantatas , is unique in the demanded virtuosity of the soprano and trumpet soloist , and evidences " overflowing jubilation and radiant beauty " .
= = History and words = =
Bach used the cantata in Leipzig for the 15th Sunday after Trinity on 17 September 1730 . The prescribed readings for the Sunday came from the Epistle to the Galatians , Paul 's admonition to " walk in the Spirit " ( Galatians 5 : 25 – 6 : 10 ) , and from the Sermon on the Mount in the Gospel of Matthew , which exhorts the faithful not to worry about material needs , but to seek God 's kingdom first ( Matthew 6 : 23 – 34 ) . The author is unknown . Without any reference to the prescribed readings , he incorporates in the first movement ideas from Matthew 6 : 30 , Psalms 138 : 2 and Psalms 26 : 8 , and in the central aria thoughts from Matthew 6 : 34 and Lamentations 3 : 22 – 23 . The closing chorale is the fifth stanza of " Nun lob , mein Seel , den Herren " , added to Johann Gramann 's hymn in Königsberg in 1549 . Bach used the same stanza in a different setting to close his cantata Wir danken dir , Gott , wir danken dir , BWV 29 . Bach led the performance on 17 September 1730 .
Bach 's manuscript indicates the 15th Sunday after Trinity " et in ogni tempo " ( " and at any time " ) . The latter phrase indicates the possible general use of the work , with a cantata text that has no direct relevance to the scriptural readings . The dedication for the 15th Sunday was added later , indicating that the cantata was not intended for the specific occasion .
Bach composed BWV 51 during a period when he composed church cantatas only irregularly , some of them to complete his earlier cycles . According to the Bach scholar Christoph Wolff , Bach may have written the cantata shortly before 1730 for an unknown occasion . The performance material survived but does not reveal further detail , other than indicating one later performance . Hofmann sees a connection to the court of Weißenfels where a scoring of solo soprano and trumpet was popular , and assumes that the work may have been originally intended for a performance at court by a professional female singer . Bach had written two birthday cantatas for Christian , Duke of Saxe @-@ Weissenfels . He was invited to the birthday celebration of 1729 and returned with the title of Hofkapellmeister of Sachsen @-@ WeiBenfels ( " court director of music of Saxe @-@ Weissenfels " ) , and Hofmann thinks a connection between the title and cantata " highly probable " .
Both the soprano part , which covers two octaves and requires a high C , and the solo trumpet part , which at times trades melodic lines with the soprano on an equal basis , are extremely virtuosic . The Bach scholar Alfred Dürr assumes that Bach had an unusually gifted singer , adding that a female voice was unlikely in conservative Leipzig . According to Joshua Rifkin Christoph Nichelmann is a possible candidate because Bach being aware of his capabilities accepted him willingly to the Thomasschule and Nichelmann matriculated into the school three weeks before the first performance . The trumpet part was probably written for Gottfried Reiche , Bach 's principal trumpeter at the time . The scoring is unique in Bach 's cantatas , but was frequently used by Italian composers such as Alessandro Scarlatti . Bach 's son Friedemann Bach arranged the work by adding a second trumpet and timpani .
The cantata is one of only four sacred cantatas that Bach wrote for a solo soprano ( if one excludes his arrangement of the cantata for solo bass and oboe Ich habe genug , BWV 82 , for flute and soprano BWV 82a ) and no other vocal soloists ( the others being Falsche Welt , dir trau ich nicht , BWV 52 , Ich bin vergnügt mit meinem Glücke , BWV 84 , and Mein Herze schwimmt im Blut , BWV 199 ) , while he wrote several secular cantatas for solo soprano : Weichet nur , betrübte Schatten , BWV 202 , Ich bin in mir vergnügt , BWV 204 , Non sa che sia dolore , BWV 209 , and O holder Tag , erwünschte Zeit , BWV 210 .
= = Scoring and structure = =
Bach structured the cantata in five movements and scored it for a soprano soloist and a Baroque orchestra of trumpets ( Tr ) , two violins ( Vl ) , viola ( Va ) , and basso continuo ( Bc ) . The title of the autograph score reads : " Dominica 15 post Trinitatis / et / In ogni Tempo . / Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen . / à / Soprano solo / 1 Tromba * / 2 Violino / Viola / e / Continuo / di / Joh : Seb : Bach " . It is the only church cantata by Bach scored for solo soprano and trumpet . The duration is given as 20 minutes .
In the following table of the movements , the scoring follows the Neue Bach @-@ Ausgabe . The keys and time signatures are taken from Dürr , using the symbol for common time ( 4 / 4 ) . The instruments are shown separately for wind instrument and strings . The continuo , playing throughout , is not shown .
= = Music = =
The music is concertante and virtuoso for both the trumpet and the soloist . The first aria and the concluding Alleluja are in the style of an Italian concerto . Dürr observes that the five movements are in five different musical forms : concerto , monody , variation , chorale fantasia and fugue . The scoring is richest in the outer movements ( with the trumpet ) , and reduced to just continuo in the central aria .
= = = 1 = = =
The first aria , " Jauchzet Gott in allen Landen " ( Exult in God in every land ) , is in da capo form , with extended coloraturas . The theme , with a beginning in a triad fanfare , is well suited to the trumpet . It is first developed in a ritornello of the orchestra and then " constantly worked " in the soprano part .
= = = 2 = = =
The only recitative , " Wir beten zu dem Tempel an " ( We pray at your temple ) , is first accompanied by the strings , a second part is secco but arioso . The second part develops the idea of " von seinen Wundern lallen " ( chatter about His wonders ) in coloraturas of rhythmical complexity .
= = = 3 = = =
The second aria , " Höchster , mache deine Güte " ( Highest , renew Your goodness ) , is accompanied only by the continuo " quasi ostinato " which supports expressive coloraturas of the voice . The lines in the continuo , in constant movement in 12 / 8 time seem to constantly rise , towards the addressed " Höchster " ( Highest ) which appears as an octave jump down . Two extended melismas express gratefulness for being a child of God . The musicologist Julian Minchem notes that Bach is able to convey with modest means a " profound expression of commitment to God " .
= = = 4 = = =
The chorale , " Sei Lob und Preis mit Ehren " ( Glory , and praise with honor ) , is a chorale fantasia , with the soprano singing the unadorned melody to a three @-@ part accompaniment of two violins and continuo .
= = = 5 = = =
The chorale leads without a break to a concluding fugal " Alleluja " with the trumpet , bringing the cantata to a particularly festive close . The movement begins with the soprano and the responding trumpet , before the other instruments come in to build a " fine display piece " . Mincham summarizes : " The long flowing melismas leave one literally breathless with the sheer pleasure in , and energy generated through , the relationship with God . "
= = Selected recordings = =
The listing is taken from the selection provided by Aryeh Oron on the Bach @-@ Cantatas website .
The piece was recorded by sopranos such as Elisabeth Schwarzkopf ( from 1948 ) , Maria Stader ( 1959 ) , Elly Ameling ( 1970 ) , Edith Mathis ( 1972 ) , Edita Gruberova ( 1979 ) , Lucia Popp ( 1980 ) , Helen Donath ( 1983 ) , Elizabeth Parcells ( 1983 ) , Monika Frimmer ( 1984 ) , Barbara Hendricks ( 1989 ) , Christine Schäfer ( 1999 ) , Siri Thornhill ( 2007 ) .
In the following table , the second soloist is the trumpeter . Ensembles playing on period instruments in historically informed performance are marked by a green background under the header Instr ..
= Hospice care in the United States =
Hospice care in the United States is a type and philosophy of end @-@ of @-@ life care which focuses on the palliation of a terminally ill patient 's symptoms . These symptoms can be physical , emotional , spiritual or social in nature . The concept of hospice as a place to treat the incurably ill has been evolving since the 11th century and came into the United States in the 1970s in response to the work of Cicely Saunders in the United Kingdom . Since its first establishment , the industry has rapidly expanded . In the United States , it is distinguished by more extensive volunteerism and a greater emphasis on the patient 's psychological needs in coming to terms with dying .
With practices largely defined by the Medicare system , a social insurance program in the United States , and other health insurance providers , hospice care is made available in the United States to patients of any age with any terminal prognosis who are medically certified to have less than six months to live . In 2007 , hospice treatment was utilized by 1 @.@ 4 million people in the United States . More than one @-@ third of dying Americans utilize the service . However , common misperceptions regarding the length of time a patient may receive hospice care and the kinds of illnesses covered may result in hospice being underutilized . Although most hospice patients are in treatment for less than thirty days , care may extend beyond six months so long as a patient 's condition continues to merit such medical outlook . Medical and social services are supplied to patients and their families by an interdisciplinary team of professional providers and volunteers who take a patient @-@ directed approach to managing illness . Generally , treatment is not diagnostic or curative , although the patient may choose some treatment options intended to prolong life , such as CPR . Most hospice services are covered by Medicare or other providers , and many hospices can provide access to charitable resources for patients lacking such coverage .
Care may be provided in a patient 's home or in a designated facility , such as a nursing home , hospital unit or freestanding hospice , with level of care and sometimes location based upon frequent evaluation of the patient 's needs . The four primary levels of care provided by hospice are routine home care , continuous care , general inpatient and respite care . Patients undergoing hospice treatment may be discharged for a number of reasons , including improvement of their condition and refusal to cooperate with providers , but may return to hospice care as their circumstances change . Providers are required by Medicare to provide to patients notice of pending discharge , which they may appeal .
Outside the United States there may not be the same distinctions made between care of those with terminal illnesses as against palliative care in a more general setting . In such countries , the term hospice is more likely to refer to a particular type of institution , rather than specifically to care in the final months or weeks of life ; and specific end @-@ of @-@ life care is more likely to be included in the general term " palliative care " .
= = History and statistics = =
The first hospices are believed to have originated in the 11th century when for the first time the incurably ill were permitted into places dedicated to treatment by Crusaders . In the early 14th century , the order of the Knights Hospitaller of St. John of Jerusalem opened the first hospice in Rhodes , meant to provide refuge for travelers and care for the ill and dying . But the hospice practice languished until revived in the 17th century in France by the Daughters of Charity of Saint Vincent de Paul and , later , by the Irish Sisters of Charity , who opened St Joseph 's Hospice in London , England in 1902 . It was there in the 1950s that Cicely Saunders , who later founded St Christopher 's Hospice in London , developed many of the foundational principles of modern hospice care .
In 1971 , Hospice , Inc. was founded in the United States , first bringing the principles of modern hospice care to that country . Throughout the 1970s , the philosophies of hospice were being implemented throughout the United States . The hospice movement in the United States soon distinguished itself from that in Britain , according to Stephen Connor 's Hospice : Practice , Pitfalls and Promise , by " a greater emphasis on use of volunteers and more focus on psychological preparation for death " . Medicare , a social insurance program in the United States , added hospice services to its coverage in 1982 . On September 13 , 1982 , by request of the senate , US President Ronald Reagan proclaimed the week of November 7 through November 14 , 1982 , as National Hospice Week .
Since then , the hospice industry has rapidly expanded . By 1995 , hospices were a $ 2 @.@ 8 billion industry , with $ 1 @.@ 9 billion from Medicare alone funding patients in 1 @,@ 857 hospice programs with Medicare certification . In that year , 72 % of hospice providers were non @-@ profit . By 1998 , there were 3 @,@ 200 hospices either in operation or under development throughout the United States and Puerto Rico , according to the National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization ( NHPCO ) . According to 2007 's Last Rights : Rescuing the End of Life from the Medical System , hospice sites are expanding at a national rate of about 3 @.@ 5 % per year . In 2007 , 1 @.@ 4 million people in the United States utilized hospice , with more than one @-@ third of dying Americans utilizing the service , approximately 39 % . In 2008 , Medicare alone , which pays for 80 % of hospice treatment , paid $ 10 billion to the 4 @,@ 000 Medicare @-@ certified providers in the United States .
As the hospice industry has expanded , so , too , has the concept of hospice care . 2003 saw the opening of the first US children 's hospice facility , the George Mark Children 's House Hospice in San Francisco . In February , 2009 , Buffalo News reported that the balance of non @-@ profit and for @-@ profit hospices was shifting , with the latter as " the fastest @-@ growing slice of the industry . "
= = Philosophy and practices = =
The goal of all hospice agencies in the United States is to provide comfort to the patient . How comfort is defined is up to the patient or , if the patient is incapacitated , the patient 's family . This can mean freedom from physical , emotional , spiritual and / or social pain . Hospices typically do not perform treatments that are meant to diagnose or cure an illness , and they do not seek to hasten death or , primarily or unduly , to extend life . While it is not required that patients sign " Do not resuscitate " orders to be on hospice , some hospices do require them as a condition of acceptance . Many hospice patients , though not all , have made decisions not to receive CPR should their heart or breathing stop . If a patient does decide to request CPR , that service may not be provided by the hospice ; the family may need to contact Emergency Medical Services to provide CPR . The decision not to extend life as well as the pulling back of diagnostic or curative treatments is often the greatest barrier for patients in accepting hospice care ; it can also create conflicts in medical professionals attempting to provide it .
Some confusion exists as to what treatments a patient may receive and still qualify for hospice care . Hospices may provide treatments that have been traditionally regarded as curative , including radiation therapy or antibiotics , if these are administered to improve quality of life . Determination of appropriate treatment is made on a case @-@ by @-@ case basis .
Another aspect of the hospice philosophy is the patient @-@ centered care they provide . As the focus throughout the United States has shifted from provider @-@ centered care , many healthcare agencies market themselves as patient @-@ centered ; for hospice , this patient @-@ directed care is integral and interwoven throughout the care which is provided , and Medicare regulations reflect this philosophy .
= = Hospice demographic = =
In order to qualify for hospice care , a patient must have certification from two physicians that he or she has less than six months to live if his or her disease runs its natural course ; usually the patient 's primary physician and the Hospice Medical Director will provide this certification . Patients can and do stay on hospice longer than six months , and as long as the hospice team continues to certify with supporting evidence that the patient is terminal , insurance companies will usually continue to pay for hospice care .
Many physicians are slow to refer to hospice care , waiting until they are absolutely certain of a terminal prognosis . Some physicians believe that the patient must have a six @-@ month prognosis or less to receive hospice care , while others are overly optimistic in their assessment of prognosis , presuming treatment will be more effective than it is . As a result , the majority of patients are referred to hospice in the very end @-@ stages of their diseases . The average length of stay in hospice before a patient dies was 26 days in 1994 , but only 19 days in 1998 . Although these numbers have since increased , the term of care continues to be underutilized , with an average length of stay in 2004 of 57 days and a median length of 22 days . 33 % of hospice patients admitted in 2004 died within seven days of admission . Such late admission is inconsistent with the process of hospice , which requires time for patients and family members to develop relationships with the hospice team .
A misperception regarding hospice is that only individuals suffering from cancer or AIDS can receive hospice care . Hospice in the United States did evolve around the model of cancer care , with its predictable pattern of deterioration , and according to 2002 's The Case Against Assisted Suicide : For the Right to End @-@ of @-@ life Care , " 60 % of hospice patients have cancer and many of the rest have AIDS " . However , patients can be on hospice for cancer , end @-@ stage heart and lung diseases , stroke , renal failure , Alzheimers or many other conditions . Any diagnosis that would be an acceptable cause of death on a death certificate is , if expected to be terminal , an acceptable diagnosis for hospice care .
= = = Re @-@ certification = = =
In order to qualify for hospice , a patient has to be certified as having a prognosis of less than six months to live , but sometimes patients live longer . Medicare patients who receive the hospice benefit must waive other Medicare benefits that could prolong life . Under the Medicare provisions , the hospice benefit through the first six months is broken up into two 90 day benefit periods . At the end of these two benefit periods , the hospice team will evaluate whether or not the patient continues to have a prognosis of less than six months to live . Following these two 90 day benefit periods , the hospice is then required to evaluate more closely and will review every 60 days . Commercial insurers , managed care program providers and Medicaid often have their own individual regulations regarding re @-@ certification . When the hospice re @-@ certifies a six @-@ month or less prognosis , it does not judge based upon the start of hospice , but rather the patient 's current condition .
= = = Pediatric hospice care = = =
Patients in hospice are primarily elderly ; according to the 2006 Handbook of Social Work in Health and Aging , over 80 % of hospice patients in the United States are over 65 . However , while the elderly are the primary hospice population , hospice care is available to all age groups , including those under 21 . Not all hospices are able to serve every population . In 1983 , less than 1 % of hospice providers offered pediatric care ; by 2001 , that number had grown to 15 % . The first pediatric hospice facility in the United States , the George Mark Children 's House Hospice of San Francisco , opened in 2003 . While pediatric hospice options are expanding , as of 2006 many adult @-@ oriented hospice programs remained ill @-@ prepared to handle younger populations .
The primary diagnosis for children in hospice treatment is cancer , but , like the adult population , children may enter hospice for a variety of conditions , including AIDS , prematurity , congenital disorder , cerebral palsy , cystic fibrosis or " death @-@ inducing trauma " , such as automobile accidents . Hospice care , which is intended to treat the whole family , may also be made available to families expecting a child who is not anticipated to survive long after delivery .
The recommended model of hospice for children differs from that of adults . In 2000 , the committees on Bioethics and Hospital Care for the American Academy of Pediatrics jointly released a recommendation that palliative care for children should be provided for any life @-@ threatening condition from the point of diagnosis , whether death is the prognosis or not , as the benefits of palliative care can be offered concurrently with curative treatment . The Virginia @-@ based Children 's Hospice International also recommends hospice services for all children with life @-@ threatening conditions , even if seeking " hopeful " treatment , " to enhance the quality of life for the child and family " . However , the federal standards set by Medicaid require the six @-@ months terminal prognosis , and insurance providers may restrict access to hospice care to pediatric patients undergoing life @-@ extending treatment .
= = Expense = =
The cost of hospice care may be met by health insurance providers , including Medicare or Medicaid for eligible Americans . Hospice is covered 100 % with no co @-@ pay or deductible by Medicare Part A except that patients are responsible for a copay for outpatient drugs and respite care , if needed . ( Respite care may be necessary , for instance , if a family member who is providing home hospice care is briefly unable to perform his or her duties and an alternative care provider becomes necessary . ) As of 2008 , Medicare was responsible for around 80 % of hospice payments , reimbursing providers differently from county to county with a higher rate for inpatient hospice care . A lower rate is paid for home care with a higher rate paid for round the clock nursing care in order to get a patient 's symptoms under control .
Most commercial health insurances and Medicaid have a hospice benefit as well , and these typically mirror the Medicare benefit . There may be a co @-@ pay required by commercial health insurance providers depending on individual plans . According to a 2008 article by Lauren Tara LaCapra on TheStreet.com , Medicare and Medicaid paid 78 % of home @-@ based hospice charges in 2008 , with 12 % being supplied by private insurance providers and 10 % " out of pocket " , paid by the patient . Most non @-@ profit hospice agencies have contingencies for patients who lack insurance coverage and will provide care to the patient free of charge or at reduced rates . LaCapra said that out @-@ of @-@ pocket expenses for home @-@ based hospice services were $ 758 a year in 2008 for the average hospice patient .
Once a patient is enrolled in hospice , the hospice becomes the insurance payor for that patient for any hospice @-@ related illnesses . In other words , if a patient is on hospice for end @-@ stage congestive heart failure , the hospice is responsible for all care related to the heart failure . However , if the patient were to see a podiatrist , this would be billed through their regular insurance .
= = Providers = =
Hospice is a competitive business . In any given service area , there may be hundreds of different non @-@ profit and commercial providers . Hospices can be small community @-@ based operations , part of regional and national corporations , or part of a hospital or other health system . Data from the National Hospice and Palliative Care Organization indicated that in 2008 58 @.@ 3 % of hospice agencies were independent , with 20 @.@ 8 % based in hospitals , 19 @.@ 7 % geared for home health care and 1 @.@ 3 % in conjunction with nursing homes . In 2007 , the mean number of patients being treated in hospice facilities on any given day was 90 @.@ 2 . 79 @.@ 4 % of hospice providers admitted fewer than 500 patients per year . The number of for @-@ profit and non @-@ profit providers has become more balanced as the for @-@ profit sector has grown . In 2007 , 47 @.@ 1 % of agencies were for @-@ profit , with 48 @.@ 6 % non @-@ profit . The remaining 4 @.@ 3 % were government @-@ owned providers .
In order to receive payments for hospice patients under Medicare or Medicaid , a hospice must be certified by the Centers for Medicare and Medicaid Services , and in 2007 93 @.@ 1 % were . Among those that were not certified , some were in the process of seeking certification . However , some agencies do not seek certification or voluntarily relinquish it . For one example , an agency that is entirely supported through donations or relies on volunteer staff might not choose to seek certification . The NHPCO estimated in 2008 that at least 200 " all @-@ volunteer " programs were in operation in the United States .
= = Levels of care = =
There are four primary levels of care ; routine home care , continuous care , general inpatient and respite / respite inpatient . All hospices in the United States certified by Medicare are required to offer each of these levels of care .
= = = Routine home care = = =
Routine home care is the most common level of care provided . In spite of its title , routine home care does not indicate a location of care , but a level ( or intensity ) of care provided . Routine care may be provided at a nursing home or assisted living facility , although the majority of hospice patients are treated at home . Interdisciplinary team members supply a variety of services during routine home care , including offering necessary supplies , such as durable medical equipment , medications related to the hospice diagnosis and incidentals like diapers , bed pads , gloves , and skin protectants . Twenty @-@ four @-@ hour on @-@ call services must be available as needed . Typically this is provided after normal business hours by a registered nurse prepared to address urgent patient concerns .
= = = Continuous care = = =
Continuous Care is a service provided in the patient 's home . It is for patients who are experiencing severe symptoms and need temporary extra support . Once a patient is on continuous care , the hospice provides services in the home a minimum of eight hours a day . Because the criteria for continuous care is similar to general inpatient care , and due to the challenges a hospice can face with staffing extended day care in the home , continuous care is intended to be used for short periods of time .
= = = General inpatient care = = =
General inpatient care is an intensive level of care which may be provided in a nursing home , a specially contracted hospice bed or unit in a hospital , or in a free @-@ standing hospice unit . General inpatient criteria is for patients who are experiencing severe symptoms which require daily interventions from the hospice team to manage . Often , patients on this level of care have begun the " active phase " of dying , when their prognosis is measured in days as opposed to weeks or months . Although there is a limit to how long Medicare will cover this level of care , it is usually provided for brief periods of time , with five to seven days being the average .
= = = Respite = = =
Respite Care ( sometimes referred to as respite inpatient ) is a brief and periodic level of care a patient may receive . Respite is a unique benefit in that the care is provided for the needs of the family , not the patient . Should a family member need a " break " from caregiving , or if a vacation is planned , then this level of care may be provided . During respite , the patient is transferred from the home to an instituitional setting ; this can be a nursing home , assisted living , hospital or an inpatient hospice unit . Should a patient be transferred to an assisted living facility , nursing home , or hospital , the hospice would continue to provide care to the patient which is on par with the services provided under the routine home care benefit . In this way , the only difference between respite and routine care is that the hospice pays the room and board charges of the facility . Should a patient receive respite in an inpatient hospice unit the care would be similar to what other patients of the hospice unit receive . Respite is provided for a maximum of five days every benefit period .
= = Hospice interdisciplinary team = =
The hospice interdisciplinary team is the core service which every hospice provides to patients and families . Hospice differs from other forms of care in that the core members of the hospice team function as an interdisciplinary , rather than a multidisciplinary , team . Multidisciplinary teams involve several professionals who independently treat various issues a patient may have . The problems that are being treated may or may not relate to other issues being addressed by individual team members . Interdisciplinary team approach involves all members of the team working together towards the same goal , which in this case is to afford patients a comfortable dying experience and families the support they need in coping with this . In an interdisciplinary team approach , there can often be role blending by members of the core team , who may take on tasks usually filled by other team members .
The hospice team is required by Medicare to meet every 14 days . During this team meeting , patient needs are discussed and planned for the next two weeks . Additionally , the team reviews the patient 's medical condition to ensure that the patient still meets criteria for hospice care .
= = = Team members = = =
Team members include hospice medical directors , physicians , pharmacists , registered nurses , social workers , counselors , home health aides , and volunteers .
Hospice Medical Director : The hospice medical director , a physician , often provides the most support to the clinical staff providing care to the patient and family . The medical director may also provide medical care if the primary physician is unavailable or if the patient does not have a primary care provider . The hospice medical director is also required under Medicare to recertify patients .
Physician : Physicians involved in patient care may include the primary physician , who can provide valuable information about patient medical history , and physicians connected to the hospice team . These primarily provide support to other hospice team members , but may also treat the patient directly . The physician subspecialty of Hospice and Palliative Medicine was established in 2006 , to provide expertise in the care of patients with life @-@ limiting , advanced disease and catastrophic injury ; the relief of distressing symptoms ; the coordination of interdisciplinary patient and family @-@ centered care in diverse settings ; the use of specialized care systems including hospice ; the management of the imminently dying patient ; and legal and ethical decision making in end @-@ of @-@ life care .
Registered Nurses : Registered nurses are responsible for coordinating all aspects of the patient 's care and insuring symptoms ( physical or otherwise ) are being addressed and managed . The primary care nurse visits a minimum of twice weekly , and the content of the visit can vary greatly . When patients are experiencing few symptoms and / or are early in their diseases , the RN visit may just be a short check up . If a patient 's symptoms worsen , the nurse will visit more often , make recommendations for increasing or changing the medication intervention and provide support and education regarding the disease / dying process . Many patients on hospice may require complex treatments : respiratory care , wound care or even IV therapy at home . In most cases , the hospice nurse is trained to handle these unique needs as well .
Social Worker : Every patient is assigned a social worker who visits at the time of admission to hospice . The social worker function can vary from providing superficial support to patients and families to intensive crisis @-@ oriented counseling . Additionally , with a terminal illness often comes more complicated financial stressors ; the social worker can be instrumental in connecting the patient and family with community resources including services such as Meals on Wheels . Lastly , if a patient is unable to be cared for at home , the social worker will work to find a safer place for the patient to receive hospice care .
Counselor : Counselors are required as part of the core team by Medicare regulations . Typically , the role is filled by a Chaplain or Spiritual Counselor , but social workers or other persons , sometimes specially trained , may also serve . While not every patient will see a Chaplain on hospice , all hospices have to be able to provide regular and consistent Chaplain services . The Chaplain is available to provide spiritually supportive counseling , life review and may connect a patient with clergy they are comfortable with . At times the hospice Chaplain will officiate at a patient 's funeral .
Home Health Aide : The home health , or hospice , aide is not a core service for a hospice patient ; this means it is not required that every patient on hospice receive an aide . However , most patients do receive this service , and it is often the one most depended on by the patient and family . The hospice aide typically visits anywhere from 3 – 7 days a week for approximately 1 – 2 hours at each visit . His or her functions include providing respite to the primary caregiver and physical support to the patient , including bathing , dressing , or feeding . Many times it is the hospice aide who develops the closest relationship with the patient , due to the frequency of visits . The hospice aide is not a licensed nurse and therefore can not administer medications , treat wounds , handle IV 's or similar treatments .
Pharmacist : Pharmacists oversee the patient 's drug therapy , which includes filling prescriptions , monitoring for drug interactions and adverse effects , anticipating problems , and assessing the appropriateness of drug therapies in the context of patient @-@ oriented goals .
Volunteers : Volunteers form a major part of hospice care in the United States and may provide a variety of physical or emotional comforts to patients and family , including providing housework , health care , spiritual counseling and companionship . Hospice volunteers also provide administrative assistance to hospices .
= = Discharge from hospice = =
The majority of discharges from hospice are due to the death of the patient , although hospice treatment may not end then as care also provides for a period of bereavement counseling for the family afterward . However , there are several other scenarios when a patient may be discharged from hospice .
De @-@ certification
If it is determined at the time of review that a patient 's prognosis may be greater than six months , the patient is de @-@ certified ( discharged ) from hospice . The hospice is required by law to give advance notification to the patient , and the patient can appeal the hospice 's decision to Medicare . Usually the hospice plans these discharges weeks in advance to make the transition off hospice , which can be traumatic for patients who have been preparing to die , as smooth as possible . Should the patient 's condition worsen once discharged from hospice they can be readmitted to hospice .
Revocation
A patient may be discharged by revocation if he or she chooses to relinquish the hospice benefit . Revocation could be due to hospitalization , if the patient chooses to pursue some type of curative treatment or experiences dissatisfaction with hospice care . However , not all hospitalizations of patients require revocation ; should the admitting diagnosis to the hospital be unrelated to the condition for which they are in hospice , the patient may remain on hospice while undergoing treatment for it .
Transfer of hospice
Transfer of hospice does not involve a discharge from hospice in general , but a discharge from the current hospice provider to another one .
Discharge for cause
Occasionally a hospice will be unable to provide care to a patient , either due to philosophical differences with the patient or due to a safety issue . Such causes could include disruptive or abusive behavior from the patient or other persons in the patient 's home or refusal to cooperate with the hospice program . Patients may , after being discharged from hospice for any reason , re @-@ enroll in hospice at a later date as necessary .
= = Barriers to Access = =
As indicated , hospice is frequently under @-@ utilized and often not taken advantage of until very late in a patient 's illness . The reasons for this have as much to do with financial considerations as with the psycho @-@ social difficulty in choosing hospice . A 2009 study found that with proper case management hospice access could be liberalized without additional costs to insurers .
= = = Reimbursement = = =
Physicians : There are multiple aspects as to why , financially , hospice care may be difficult to access . The first would relate to physician reluctance . As stated previously , when enrolled in hospice , the patient transitions from their primary insurance to having most of their care managed directly by the hospice . As hospices typically have a limited budget , expensive care may not be permitted by the hospice . Additionally , reimbursement for physician visits can be complicated and result in non @-@ payment to physicians . Therefore , difficulty in authorizing expensive treatments and lack of payment for visits can be reasons for non @-@ referral from a physician .
Nursing Homes : A second aspect to reimbursement pertains to the nursing home . In many cases , patients who are transferred to a nursing home from a hospital will have a portion of their nursing home stay reimbursed by Medicare . In these cases , Medicare is paying for some kind of rehabilitative care . Medicare will not reimburse any room and board coverage in the nursing home for patients on hospice . Occasionally , patients who would be better served receiving hospice care will be " rehabilitated " in the nursing home so as to defray the costs of the room and board .
Hospices : While late referral to hospice is a much more prevalent problem than early referral , some hospice providers will hesitate to admit patients to hospice ( or they may de @-@ certify them from hospice too early ) due to scrutiny from Medicare for patients deemed to be on hospice too long . After a patient has been on hospice for six months , Medicare is more aggressive in auditing the hospice for inappropriate payment of services . For some hospices this is simply not worth the trouble , and patients are screened very carefully prior to admission .
= = = Stigma = = =
Physicians : Medical care is traditionally focused on a cure and healing the patient . For many , hospice care is not seen as the true practice of medicine . Physicians face a persistent social stigma in that hospice is mistaken as giving up on a patient , rather than committing to palliation . Additionally , and although this perception has been changing , when thinking of hospice the doctor is often focused on patients with cancer and not many of the other terminal diseases which qualify for hospice care .
Patients : Many patients and families simply do not want to receive hospice care . The most common reason is an unwillingness to recognize when comfort rather than cure is a more realistic goal . When hospice is framed as care for when " there is nothing left to do " instead of a different kind of treatment , patients may believe that choosing hospice is the equivalent of doing nothing .
= Phil Ochs =
Philip David " Phil " Ochs ( / ˈoʊks / ; December 19 , 1940 – April 9 , 1976 ) was an American protest singer ( or , as he preferred , a topical singer ) and songwriter who was known for his sharp wit , sardonic humor , earnest humanism , political activism , insightful and alliterative lyrics , and distinctive voice . He wrote hundreds of songs in the 1960s and 1970s and released eight albums .
Ochs performed at many political events during the 1960s counterculture era , including anti @-@ Vietnam War and civil rights rallies , student events , and organized labor events over the course of his career , in addition to many concert appearances at such venues as New York City 's Town Hall and Carnegie Hall . Politically , Ochs described himself as a " left social democrat " who became an " early revolutionary " after the protests at the 1968 Democratic National Convention in Chicago led to a police riot , which had a profound effect on his state of mind .
After years of prolific writing in the 1960s , Ochs 's mental stability declined in the 1970s . He eventually succumbed to a number of problems including bipolar disorder and alcoholism , and took his own life in 1976 .
Some of Ochs 's major musical influences were Woody Guthrie , Pete Seeger , Buddy Holly , Elvis Presley , Bob Gibson , Faron Young , and Merle Haggard . His best @-@ known songs include " I Ain 't Marching Anymore " , " Changes " , " Crucifixion " , " Draft Dodger Rag " , " Love Me , I 'm a Liberal " , " Outside of a Small Circle of Friends " , " Power and the Glory " , " There but for Fortune " , and " The War Is Over " .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early years = = =
Phil Ochs was born in El Paso , Texas , to Jacob ( " Jack " ) Ochs , a physician who was born in New York on August 11 , 1910 , and Gertrude Phin Ochs , who was born on February 26 , 1912 in Scotland . His parents met and married in Edinburgh where Jack was attending medical school . After their marriage , they moved to the United States . Jack , drafted into the army , was sent overseas near the end of World War II , where he treated soldiers at the Battle of the Bulge . His war experiences affected his mental health and he received an honorable medical discharge in November 1945 . Suffering from bipolar disorder and depression on his return home , Jack was unable to establish a successful medical practice and instead worked at a series of hospitals around the country . As a result , the Ochs family moved frequently : to Far Rockaway , New York , when Ochs was a teenager ; then to Perrysburg in upstate New York , where he first studied music ; and then to Columbus , Ohio . Ochs grew up with an older sister , Sonia ( known as Sonny , born 1937 ) , and a younger brother , Michael ( born 1943 ) . The Ochs family was middle class and Jewish , but not religious . His father was distant from his wife and children , and was hospitalized for depression ; he died on April 30 , 1963 , from a cerebral hemorrhage ; His mother died on March 9 , 1994 .
As a teenager , Ochs was recognized as a talented clarinet player ; in an evaluation , one music instructor wrote : " You have exceptional musical feeling and the ability to transfer it on your instrument is abundant . " His musical skills allowed him to play clarinet with the orchestra at the Capital University Conservatory of Music in Ohio , where he rose to the status of principal soloist before he was 16 . Although Ochs played classical music , he soon became interested in other sounds he heard on the radio , such as early rock icons Buddy Holly and Elvis Presley and country music artists including Faron Young , Ernest Tubb , Hank Williams , Sr. , and Johnny Cash . Ochs also spent a lot of time at the movies . He especially liked big screen heroes such as John Wayne and Audie Murphy . Later on , he developed an interest in movie rebels , including Marlon Brando and James Dean .
From 1956 to 1958 , Ochs was a student at the Staunton Military Academy in rural Virginia , and when he graduated he returned to Columbus and enrolled in the Ohio State University . Unhappy after his first quarter , he took a leave of absence and went to Florida . While in Miami , the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Ochs was jailed for two weeks for sleeping on a park bench , an incident he would later recall :
" Somewhere during the course of those fifteen days I decided to become a writer . My primary thought was journalism ... so in a flash I decided — I 'll be a writer and a major in journalism . "
Ochs returned to Ohio State to study journalism and developed an interest in politics , with a particular interest in the Cuban Revolution of 1959 . At Ohio State he met Jim Glover , a fellow student who was a devotee of folk music . Glover introduced Ochs to the music of Pete Seeger , Woody Guthrie , and The Weavers . Glover taught Ochs how to play guitar , and they debated politics . Ochs began writing newspaper articles , often on radical themes . When the student paper refused to publish some of his more radical articles , he started his own underground newspaper called The Word . His two main interests , politics and music , soon merged , and Ochs began writing topical political songs . Ochs and Glover formed a duet called " The Singing Socialists " , later renamed " The Sundowners " , but the duo broke up before their first professional performance and Glover went to New York City to become a folksinger .
Ochs 's parents and brother had moved from Columbus to Cleveland , and Ochs started to spend more time there , performing professionally at a local folk club called Farragher 's Back Room . He was the opening act for a number of musicians in the summer of 1961 , including the Smothers Brothers . Ochs met folksinger Bob Gibson that summer as well , and according to Dave Van Ronk , Gibson became " the seminal influence " on Ochs 's writing . Ochs continued at Ohio State into his senior year , but was bitterly disappointed at not being appointed editor @-@ in @-@ chief of the college newspaper , and dropped out in his last quarter without graduating . He left for New York , as Glover had , to become a folksinger .
= = = 1962 – 1966 = = =
Ochs arrived in New York City in 1962 and began performing in numerous small folk nightclubs , eventually becoming an integral part of the Greenwich Village folk music scene . He emerged as an unpolished but passionate vocalist who wrote pointed songs about current events : war , civil rights , labor struggles and other topics . While others described his music as " protest songs " , Ochs preferred the term " topical songs " .
Ochs described himself as a " singing journalist " , saying he built his songs from stories he read in Newsweek . By the summer of 1963 he was sufficiently well known in folk circles to be invited to sing at the Newport Folk Festival , where he performed " Too Many Martyrs " ( co @-@ written with Bob Gibson ) , " Talking Birmingham Jam " , and " Power and the Glory " — his patriotic Guthrie @-@ esque anthem that brought the audience to its feet . Other performers at the 1963 folk festival included Peter , Paul and Mary , Joan Baez , Bob Dylan , and Tom Paxton . Ochs 's return appearance at Newport in 1964 , when he performed " Draft Dodger Rag " and other songs , was widely praised . But he was not invited to appear in 1965 , the festival when Dylan infamously performed " Maggie 's Farm " with an electric guitar . Although many in the folk world decried Dylan 's choice , Ochs was amused , and admired Dylan 's courage in defying the folk establishment .
During 1963 , Ochs performed at New York 's Carnegie Hall and Town Hall in hootenannies . He made his first solo appearance at Carnegie Hall in 1966 . Throughout his career , Ochs would perform at a wide range of venues , including civil rights rallies , anti @-@ war demonstrations , and concert halls .
Ochs contributed many songs and articles to the influential Broadside Magazine . He recorded his first three albums for Elektra Records : All the News That 's Fit to Sing ( 1964 ) , I Ain 't Marching Anymore ( 1965 ) , and Phil Ochs in Concert ( 1966 ) . Critics wrote that each album was better than its predecessors , and fans seemed to agree ; record sales increased with each new release .
On these records , Ochs was accompanied only by an acoustic guitar . The albums contain many of Ochs 's topical songs , such as " Too Many Martyrs " , " I Ain 't Marching Anymore " , and " Draft Dodger Rag " ; and some musical reinterpretation of older poetry , such as " The Highwayman " ( poem by Alfred Noyes ) and " The Bells " ( poem by Edgar Allan Poe ) . Phil Ochs in Concert includes some more introspective songs , such as " Changes " and " When I 'm Gone " .
During the early period of his career , Ochs and Bob Dylan had a friendly rivalry . Dylan said of Ochs , " I just can 't keep up with Phil . And he just keeps getting better and better and better " . On another occasion , when Ochs criticized Can You Please Crawl Out Your Window ? Dylan threw him out of his limousine , saying , " You 're not a folksinger . You 're a journalist " .
In 1962 ,
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Ochs married Alice Skinner , who was pregnant with their daughter Meegan , in a City Hall ceremony with Jim Glover as best man and Jean Ray as bridesmaid , and witnessed by Dylan 's sometime girlfriend , Suze Rotolo . Phil and Alice separated in 1965 , but they never divorced .
Like many people of his generation , Ochs deeply admired President John F. Kennedy , even though he disagreed with the president on issues such as the Bay of Pigs Invasion , the Cuban Missile Crisis , and the growing involvement of the United States in the Vietnamese civil war . When Kennedy was assassinated on November 22 , 1963 , Ochs wept . He told his wife that he thought he was going to die that night . It was the only time she ever saw Ochs cry .
Ochs 's managers during this part of his career were Albert Grossman ( who also managed Dylan and Peter , Paul , and Mary ) followed by Arthur Gorson . Gorson had close ties with such groups as Americans For Democratic Action , the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee , and Students for a Democratic Society .
Ochs was writing songs at an amazing pace . Some of the songs he wrote during this period were held back and recorded on his later albums .
= = = 1967 – 1969 = = =
In 1967 , Ochs — now managed by his brother Michael — left Elektra for A & M Records and moved to Los Angeles , California . He recorded four studio albums for A & M : Pleasures of the Harbor ( 1967 ) , Tape from California ( 1968 ) , Rehearsals for Retirement ( 1969 ) , and the ironically titled Greatest Hits ( 1970 ) ( which actually consisted of all new material ) . For his A & M albums , Ochs moved away from simply produced solo acoustic guitar performances and experimented with ensemble and even orchestral instrumentation , " baroque @-@ folk " , in the hopes of producing a pop @-@ folk hybrid that would be a hit .
Critic Robert Christgau , writing in Esquire of Pleasures of the Harbor in May 1968 , did not consider this new direction a good turn . While describing Ochs as " unquestionably a nice guy " , he went on to say , " too bad his voice shows an effective range of about half an octave [ and ] his guitar playing would not suffer much if his right hand were webbed . " " Pleasures of the Harbor " , Christgau continued , " epitomizes the decadence that has infected pop since Sgt. Pepper . [ The ] gaudy musical settings ... inspire nostalgia for the three @-@ chord strum . " With an ironic sense of humor , Ochs included Christgau 's " webbed hand " comment in his 1968 songbook The War is Over on a page titled " The Critics Raved " , opposite a full @-@ page picture of Ochs standing in a large metal garbage can . Despite his sense of humor , Ochs was unhappy that his work was not receiving the critical acclaim and popular success he had hoped for . Still , Ochs would joke on the back cover of Greatest Hits that there were 50 Phil Ochs fans ( " 50 fans can 't be wrong ! " ) , a sarcastic reference to an Elvis Presley album that bragged of 50 million Elvis fans .
None of Ochs 's songs became hits , although " Outside of a Small Circle of Friends " received a good deal of airplay . It reached # 119 on Billboard 's national " Hot Prospect " listing before being pulled from some radio stations because of its lyrics , which sarcastically suggested that " smoking marijuana is more fun than drinking beer " . It was the closest Ochs ever came to the Top 40 . Joan Baez , however , did have a Top Ten hit in the U.K. in August 1965 , reaching # 8 with her cover of Ochs 's song " There but for Fortune " , which was also nominated for a Grammy Award for " Best Folk Recording " . In the U.S. it peaked at # 50 on the Billboard charts — a good showing , but not a hit .
Although he was trying new things musically , Ochs did not abandon his protest roots . He was profoundly concerned with the escalation of the Vietnam War , performing tirelessly at anti @-@ war rallies across the country . In 1967 he organized two rallies to declare that " The War Is Over " — " Is everybody sick of this stinking war ? In that case , friends , do what I and thousands of other Americans have done — declare the war over . " — one in Los Angeles in June , the other in New York in November . He continued to write and record anti @-@ war songs , such as " The War Is Over " and " White Boots Marching in a Yellow Land " . Other topical songs of this period include " Outside of a Small Circle of Friends " , inspired by the murder of Kitty Genovese , who was stabbed to death outside of her New York City apartment building while dozens of her neighbors reportedly ignored her cries for help , and " William Butler Yeats Visits Lincoln Park and Escapes Unscathed " , about the despair he felt in the aftermath of the Chicago 1968 Democratic National Convention police riot .
Ochs was writing more personal songs as well , such as " Crucifixion " , in which he compared the deaths of Jesus Christ and assassinated President John F. Kennedy as part of a " cycle of sacrifice " in which people build up heroes and then celebrate their destruction ; " Chords of Fame " , a warning against the dangers and corruption of fame ; " Pleasures of the Harbor " , a lyrical portrait of a lonely sailor seeking human connection far from home ; and " Boy in Ohio " , a plaintive look back at Ochs 's childhood in Columbus .
A lifelong movie fan , Ochs worked the narratives of justice and rebellion that he had seen in films into his music , describing some of his songs as " cinematic " . He was disappointed and bitter when his onetime hero John Wayne embraced the Vietnam War with what Ochs saw as the blind patriotism of Wayne 's 1968 film , The Green Berets :
[ H ] ere we have John Wayne , who was a major artistic and psychological figure on the American scene , ... who at one point used to make movies of soldiers who had a certain validity , ... a certain sense of honor [ about ] what the soldier was doing .... Even if it was a cavalry movie doing a historically dishonorable thing to the Indians , even as there was a feeling of what it meant to be a man , what it meant to have some sense of duty .... Now today we have the same actor making his new war movie in a war so hopelessly corrupt that , without seeing the movie , I 'm sure it is perfectly safe to say that it will be an almost technically @-@ robot @-@ view of soldiery , just by definition of how the whole country has deteriorated . And I think it would make a very interesting double feature to show a good old Wayne movie like , say , She Wore a Yellow Ribbon with The Green Berets . Because that would make a very striking comment on what has happened to America in general .
Ochs was involved in the creation of the Youth International Party , known as the Yippies , along with Jerry Rubin , Abbie Hoffman , Stew Albert , and Paul Krassner . At the same time , Ochs actively supported Eugene McCarthy 's more mainstream bid for the 1968 Democratic nomination for President , a position at odds with the more radical Yippie point of view . Still , Ochs helped plan the Yippies ' " Festival of Life " which was to take place at the 1968 Democratic National Convention along with demonstrations by other anti @-@ war groups including the National Mobilization Committee to End the War in Vietnam . Despite warnings that there might be trouble , Ochs went to Chicago both as a guest of the McCarthy campaign and to participate in the demonstrations . He performed in Lincoln Park , Grant Park , and at the Chicago Coliseum , witnessed the violence perpetrated by the Chicago police against the protesters , and was himself arrested at one point .
The events of 1968 — the assassinations of Martin Luther King , Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy , the police riot in Chicago , and the election of Richard Nixon — left Ochs feeling disillusioned and depressed . The cover of his 1969 album Rehearsals for Retirement eerily portrays a tombstone with the words :
At the trial of the Chicago Seven in December 1969 , Ochs testified for the defense . His testimony included his recitation of the lyrics to his song " I Ain 't Marching Anymore " . On his way out of the courthouse , Ochs sang the song for the press corps ; to Ochs 's amusement , his singing was broadcast that evening by Walter Cronkite on the CBS Evening News .
= = = 1970 = = =
After the riot in Chicago and the subsequent trial , Ochs changed direction again . The events of 1968 convinced him that the average American was not listening to topical songs or responding to Yippie tactics . Ochs thought that by playing the sort of music that had moved him as a teenager he could speak more directly to the American public .
Ochs turned to his musical roots in country music and early rock and roll . He decided he needed to be " part Elvis Presley and part Che Guevara " , so he commissioned a gold lamé suit from Elvis Presley 's costumer Nudie Cohn . Ochs wore the gold suit on the cover of his 1970 album , Greatest Hits , which consisted of new songs largely in rock and country styles .
Ochs went on tour wearing the gold suit , backed by a rock band , singing his own material along with medleys of songs by Buddy Holly , Elvis , and Merle Haggard . His fans did not know how to respond . This new Phil Ochs drew a hostile reaction from his audience . Ochs 's March 27 , 1970 , concerts at Carnegie Hall were the most successful , and by the end of that night 's second show Ochs had won over many in the crowd . The show was recorded and released as Gunfight at Carnegie Hall .
During this period , Ochs was taking drugs to get through performances . He had been taking Valium for years to help control his nerves , and he was also drinking heavily . Pianist Lincoln Mayorga said of that period , " He was physically abusing himself very badly on that tour . He was drinking a lot of wine and taking uppers . The wine was pulling him one way and the uppers were pulling him another way , and he was kind of a mess . There were so many pharmaceuticals around — so many pills . I 'd never seen anything like that . " Ochs tried to cut back on the pills , but alcohol remained his drug of choice for the rest of his life .
Depressed by his lack of widespread appreciation and suffering from writer 's block , Ochs did not record any further albums . He slipped deeper into depression and alcoholism . His personal problems notwithstanding , Ochs performed at the inaugural benefit for Greenpeace on October 16 , 1970 , at the Pacific Coliseum in Vancouver , BC . A recording of his performance , along with performances by Joni Mitchell and James Taylor , was released by Greenpeace in 2009 .
= = = 1971 – 1975 = = =
In August 1971 , Ochs went to Chile , where Salvador Allende , a Marxist , had been democratically elected in the 1970 election . There he met Chilean folksinger Víctor Jara , an Allende supporter , and the two became friends . In October , Ochs left Chile to visit Argentina . Later that month , after singing at a political rally in Uruguay , he and his American traveling companion David Ifshin were arrested and detained overnight . When the two returned to Argentina , they were arrested as they got off the airplane . After a brief stay in an Argentinian prison , Ochs and Ifshin were sent to Bolivia via a commercial airliner where authorities were to detain them . Ifshin had previously been warned by Argentinian leftist friends that when the authorities sent dissidents to Bolivia , they would disappear forever . When the airliner arrived in Bolivia , the American captain of the Braniff International Airways aircraft allowed Ochs and Ifshin to stay on the aircraft , and barred Bolivian authorities from entering . The aircraft then flew to Peru where the two disembarked and they were not detained . Fearful that Peruvian authorities might arrest him , Ochs returned to the United States a few days later .
Ochs was having difficulties writing new songs during this period , but he had occasional breakthroughs . He updated his sarcastic song " Here 's to the State of Mississippi " as " Here 's to the State of Richard Nixon " , with cutting lines such as " the speeches of the Spiro are the ravings of a clown " , a reference to Nixon 's vitriolic vice president , Spiro Agnew — sung as " the speeches of the President are the ravings of a clown " after Agnew 's resignation .
Ochs was personally invited by John Lennon to sing at a large benefit at the University of Michigan in December 1971 on behalf of John Sinclair , an activist poet who had been arrested on minor drug charges and given a severe sentence . Ochs performed at the John Sinclair Freedom Rally along with Stevie Wonder , Allen Ginsberg , David Peel , Abbie Hoffman and many others . The rally culminated with Lennon and Yoko Ono , who were making their first public performance in the United States since the breakup of The Beatles .
Although the 1968 election had left him deeply disillusioned , Ochs continued to work for the election campaigns of anti @-@ war candidates , such as George McGovern 's unsuccessful Presidential bid in 1972 .
In 1972 , Ochs was asked to write the theme song for the film Kansas City Bomber . The task proved difficult , as Ochs struggled to overcome his writer 's block . Although his song was not used in the soundtrack , it was released as a single .
Ochs decided to travel . In mid @-@ 1972 , he went to Australia and New Zealand . He traveled to Africa in 1973 , where he visited Ethiopia , Kenya , Tanzania , Malawi , and South Africa . One night , Ochs was attacked and strangled by robbers in Dar es Salaam , Tanzania , which damaged his vocal cords , causing a loss of the top three notes in his vocal range . The attack also exacerbated his growing mental problems , and he became increasingly paranoid . Ochs believed the attack may have been arranged by government agents — perhaps the CIA . Still , he continued his trip , even recording a single in Kenya , " Bwatue " .
On September 11 , 1973 , the Allende government of Chile was overthrown in a coup d 'état . Allende died during the bombing of the presidential palace , and singer Victor Jara was publicly tortured and killed . When Ochs heard about the manner in which his friend had been killed , he was outraged and decided to organize a benefit concert to bring to public attention the situation in Chile , and raise funds for the people of Chile . The concert , " An Evening with Salvador Allende " , included films of Allende ; singers such as Pete Seeger , Arlo Guthrie , and Bob Dylan ; and political activists such as former U.S. Attorney General Ramsey Clark . Dylan had agreed to perform at the last minute when he heard that the concert had sold so few tickets that it was in danger of being canceled . Once his participation was announced , the event quickly sold out .
After the Chile benefit , Ochs and Dylan discussed the possibility of a joint concert tour , playing small nightclubs . Nothing came of the Dylan @-@ Ochs plans , but the idea eventually evolved into Dylan 's Rolling Thunder Revue .
The Vietnam War ended on April 30 , 1975 . Ochs planned a final " War Is Over " rally , which was held in New York 's Central Park on May 11 . More than 100 @,@ 000 people came to hear Ochs , joined by Harry Belafonte , Odetta , Pete Seeger and others . Ochs and Joan Baez sang a duet of " There but for Fortune " and he closed with his song " The War Is Over " — finally a true declaration that the war was over .
= = = Decline and death = = =
Ochs 's drinking became more and more of a problem , and his behavior became increasingly erratic . He frightened his friends both with his drunken rants about the FBI and CIA , and about his claiming to want to have Elvis 's manager Colonel Tom Parker or Kentucky Fried Chicken 's Colonel Sanders manage his career .
In mid @-@ 1975 , Ochs took on the identity of John Butler Train . He told people that Train had murdered Ochs , and that he , John Butler Train , had replaced him . Train was convinced that someone was trying to kill him , so he carried a weapon at all times : a hammer , a knife , or a lead pipe .
Ochs 's friends tried to help him . His brother Michael attempted to have him committed to a psychiatric hospital . Friends pleaded with him to get help voluntarily . They feared for his safety , because he was getting into fights with bar patrons . Unable to pay his rent , he began living on the streets .
After several months , the Train persona faded and Ochs returned , but his talk of suicide disturbed his friends and family . They hoped it was a passing phase , but Ochs was determined . One of his biographers explains Ochs 's motivation :
By Phil 's thinking , he had died a long time ago : he had died politically in Chicago in 1968 in the violence of the Democratic National Convention ; he had died professionally in Africa a few years later , when he had been strangled and felt that he could no longer sing ; he had died spiritually when Chile had been overthrown and his friend Victor Jara had been brutally murdered ; and , finally , he had died psychologically at the hands of John Train .
In January 1976 , Ochs moved to Far Rockaway , New York , to live with his sister Sonny . He was lethargic ; his only activities were watching television and playing cards with his nephews . Ochs saw a psychiatrist , who diagnosed his bipolar disorder . He was prescribed medication , and he told his sister he was taking it . On April 9 , 1976 , Ochs committed suicide by hanging himself in Sonny 's home .
Years after his death , it was revealed that the FBI had a file of nearly 500 pages on Ochs . Much of the information in those files relates to his association with counterculture figures , protest organizers , musicians , and other people described by the FBI as " subversive " . The FBI was often sloppy in collecting information on Ochs : his name was frequently misspelled " Oakes " in their files , and they continued to consider him " potentially dangerous " after his death .
Congresswoman Bella Abzug ( Democrat from New York ) , an outspoken anti @-@ war activist herself who had appeared at the 1975 " War is Over " rally , entered this statement into the Congressional Record on April 29 , 1976 :
Mr. Speaker , a few weeks ago , a young folksinger whose music personified the protest mood of the 1960s took his own life . Phil Ochs — whose original compositions were compelling moral statements against war in Southeast Asia — apparently felt that he had run out of words .
While his tragic action was undoubtedly motivated by terrible personal despair , his death is a political as well as an artistic tragedy . I believe it is indicative of the despair many of the activists of the 1960s are experiencing as they perceive a government which continues the distortion of national priorities that is exemplified in the military budget we have before us .
Phil Ochs ' poetic pronouncements were part of a larger effort to galvanize his generation into taking action to prevent war , racism , and poverty . He left us a legacy of important songs that continue to be relevant in 1976 — even though " the war is over " .
Just one year ago — during this week of the anniversary of the end of the Vietnam War — Phil recruited entertainers to appear at the " War is Over " celebration in Central Park , at which I spoke .
It seems particularly appropriate that this week we should commemorate the contributions of this extraordinary young man .
Robert Christgau , who had been so critical of Pleasures of the Harbor and Ochs 's guitar skills eight years earlier , wrote warmly of Ochs in his obituary in the Village Voice . " I came around to liking Phil Ochs ' music , guitar included , " Christgau wrote . " My affection [ for Ochs ] no doubt prejudiced me , so it is worth [ noting ] that many observers who care more for folk music than I do remember both his compositions and his vibrato tenor as close to the peak of the genre . "
= = Legacy = =
Almost forty years after his death , Ochs 's songs remain relevant . Ochs continues to influence singers and fans worldwide , most of whom never saw him perform live . There are mailing lists and online discussion groups dedicated to Ochs and his music ; websites that have music samples , photographs , and other links ; and articles and books continue to be written and published about him .
His sister Sonny Ochs ( Tanzman ) runs a series of " Phil Ochs Song Nights " with a rotating group of performers who keep Ochs 's music and legacy alive by singing his songs in cities across the U.S. Michael Ochs is a photographic archivist of 20th @-@ century music and entertainment personalities . Meegan Lee Ochs worked with Michael to produce a box set of Ochs 's music titled Farewells & Fantasies , the title of which was taken from Ochs 's sign @-@ off on the " postcard " on the back of Tape from California : " Farewells & Fantasies , Folks , P. Ochs " . Meegan has a son named Caidan , Ochs 's only grandchild . Alice Skinner Ochs was a photographer ; she died in November 2010 .
In February 2009 , the North American Folk Music and Dance Alliance gave the 2009 Elaine Weissman Lifetime Achievement Award to Phil Ochs .
In September 2014 , Meegan Ochs announced that she was donating her father 's archives to the Woody Guthrie Center in Tulsa , Oklahoma . Included are many of his notebooks , journals , videotapes of his performances , the gold lamé suit , photographs , and other documents and memorabilia that Meegan had preserved since his death .
= = = Covers and updates = = =
Ochs 's songs have been covered by scores of performers , including Joan Baez , Bastro , Cher , Judy Collins , John Denver , Ani DiFranco , Ronnie Gilbert , John Wesley Harding , Jason & the Scorchers , Jim and Jean , Jeannie Lewis , Gordon Lightfoot , Christy Moore , Ray Naylor , Pete Seeger , They Might Be Giants , Eddie Vedder , and The Weakerthans . Wyclef Jean performed " Here 's to the State of Mississippi " in the 2009 documentary Soundtrack for a Revolution .
In 1998 , Sliced Bread Records released What 's That I Hear ? : The Songs of Phil Ochs , a two @-@ CD set of 28 covers by artists that includes Eric Andersen , Billy Bragg , John Gorka , Nanci Griffith , Arlo Guthrie , Pat Humphries , Magpie , Tom Paxton , Dave Van Ronk , Sammy Walker , Peter Yarrow , and others . The liner notes indicate that all record company profits from the sale of the set were to be divided between the American Civil Liberties Union Foundation of Southern California and Sing Out ! magazine .
Wood Records released an indie rock / experimental rock tribute album titled Poison Ochs : A Tribute to Phil Ochs in 2003 .
In 2005 , Kind Of Like Spitting released an album , Learn : The Songs of Phil Ochs , consisting of covers of nine songs written by Ochs , to pay tribute to his music and raise awareness of the artist , whom they felt had been overlooked .
Jello Biafra and Mojo Nixon , on their album Prairie Home Invasion , recorded a version of " Love Me , I 'm a Liberal " with lyrics updated to the Clinton era . Evan Greer , part of the Riot @-@ Folk collective , later updated the song for the George W. Bush era . Ryan Harvey , also part of Riot @-@ Folk , remade " Cops Of The World " with updated lyrics . The Clash used some of the lyrics to " United Fruit " in their song " Up in Heaven ( Not Only Here ) " , which appeared on their 1980 album Sandinista ! . During their performance on VH1 Storytellers , Pearl Jam covered " Here 's to the State of Mississippi " with updated lyrics to include Jerry Falwell , Dick Cheney , John Roberts , Alberto Gonzales , and George W. Bush . In 2002 , with the agreement of Ochs 's sister Sonny , Richard Thompson added an extra verse to " I Ain 't Marching Anymore " to reflect recent American foreign policy . Jefferson Starship recorded " I Ain 't Marching Anymore " with additional lyrics by band member Cathy Richardson for their 2008 release Jefferson 's Tree of Liberty .
In 2013 Neil Young performed " Changes " at Farm Aid and included it in his 2014 tour set ; it also is the lead track on A Letter Home , his 2014 vinyl album of covers .
= = = Tributes = = =
On learning of Ochs 's death , Tom Paxton wrote a touching song titled " Phil " , which he recorded for his 1978 album Heroes . Ochs is also the subject of " I Dreamed I Saw Phil Ochs Last Night " , by Billy Bragg , from his 1990 album The Internationale , which was based on the Alfred Hayes / Earl Robinson song " Joe Hill " which Ochs helped popularize ; Ochs also had his own , different song ( " Joe Hill " ) about the early 20th @-@ century union activist / songwriter . " Thin Wild Mercury , " by Peter Cooper and Todd Snider , is about Ochs 's infamous clash with Dylan and getting thrown out of Dylan 's limo . Ochs is mentioned in the Dar Williams song " All My Heroes Are Dead " , the Will Oldham song " Gezundheit " , the Chumbawamba song " Love Me " , and the They Might Be Giants song " The Day " . The Josh Joplin Group recorded a tribute to Ochs on their album Useful Music . Schooner Fare recorded " Don 't Stop To Rest ( Song for Phil Ochs ) " on their 1981 album Closer to the Wind . Latin Quarter memorialized him in the song " Phil Ochs " on their album Long Pig ( 1993 ) .
John Wesley Harding recorded a song titled " Phil Ochs , Bob Dylan , Steve Goodman , David Blue and Me " , the title a reference to the Ochs song " Bach , Beethoven , Mozart and Me " . Singer @-@ songwriter Nanci Griffith wrote a song about Phil entitled " Radio Fragile " . English folk / punk songwriter Al Baker recorded a song about Ochs entitled " All The News That 's Fit To Sing " , a reference to the title of Ochs 's first album . Cajun musician Vic Sadot wrote a song about Ochs entitled " Broadside Balladeer " . Singer @-@ songwriter Jen Cass 's " Standing In Your Memory " , and Harry Chapin 's " The Parade 's Still Passing By " are tributes to Ochs . Leslie Fish recorded " Chickasaw Mountain " , which is dedicated to Ochs , on her 1986 album of that name . The punk band Squirrel Bait cited Ochs as a major creative influence in the liner notes of their 1986 album Skag Heaven , and cover his " Tape From California " . Ochs has also influenced Greek folk @-@ rock songwriters ; Dimitris Panagopoulos ' Astathis Isoropia ( Unstable Equilibrium ) ( 1987 ) was dedicated to his memory . On the 2005 Kind Of Like Spitting album In the Red , songwriter Ben Barnett included his song " Sheriff Ochs " , which was inspired by reading a biography of Ochs . On April 9 , 2009 , Jim Glover performed a tribute to Ochs at Mother 's Musical Bakery in Sarasota , Florida .
= = = Popular culture = = =
Among Ochs 's many admirers were the short story writer Breece D 'J Pancake and actor Sean Penn . Meegan Lee Ochs , who worked as Sean Penn 's personal assistant from 1983 to 1985 , wrote in her Foreword to Farewells & Fantasies that she and Penn discussed " over many years " the possibility of making a movie about her father ; the plan has not yet come to fruition , although Penn expressed an interest in the project as recently as February 2009 . Author Jim Carroll 's autobiography , The Basketball Diaries ( 1978 ) , was dedicated in memory of Phil Ochs . On the cover of The Go @-@ Betweens ' The Lost Album , Grant McLennan wore a shirt with the words " Get outta the car , Ochs " , a reference to the limousine incident involving Ochs and Dylan . The 1994 film Spanking the Monkey makes reference to Ochs and his suicide . Ochs is mentioned in the Stephen King novels The Tommyknockers and Hearts in Atlantis .
= = = Films = = =
Michael Korolenko directed the 1984 biopic Chords of Fame , which featured Bill Burnett as Ochs . The film included interviews with people who had known Ochs , including Yippies Abbie Hoffman and Jerry Rubin , manager Harold Leventhal , and Mike Porco , the owner of Gerde 's Folk City . Chords of Fame also included performances of Ochs songs by folk musicians who knew him , including Bob Gibson , Pete Seeger , Tom Paxton , Dave Van Ronk , and Eric Andersen .
Filmmaker Ken Bowser directed the documentary film Phil Ochs : There but for Fortune , which premiered at the 2010 Woodstock Film Festival in Woodstock , New York . Its theatrical run began on January 5 , 2011 , at the IFC Theater in Greenwich Village , New York City , opening in cities around the US and Canada thereafter . The film features extensive archival footage of Ochs and many pivotal events from the 1960s civil rights and peace movements , as well as interviews with friends , family and colleagues who knew Ochs through music and politics . The PBS American Masters series opened its 2012 season with an edited version of the film .
In the 2011 film Chicago 8 , Ochs is played by actor Steven Schub , lead singer of ska bands The Fenwicks & HaSkaLA .
= = Professional affiliations = =
Ochs was a member of the American Federation of Television and Radio Artists , which is affiliated with the AFL @-@ CIO .
The music publishing company Ochs formed with Arthur Gorson , Barricade Music , was an ASCAP company .
= = Discography = =
= = = Studio albums and live recordings = = =
= = = Compilations and other albums = = =
= Jainism =
Jainism ( / ˈdʒeɪnɪzəm / or / ˈdʒaɪnɪzəm / ) , traditionally known as Jain dharma , is an ancient Indian religion belonging to the śramaṇa tradition . It prescribes ahimsa ( non @-@ violence ) towards all living beings to the most possible extent . The three main principles of Jainism are ahimsa , anekantavada ( non @-@ absolutism ) , aparigraha ( non @-@ possessiveness ) . Followers of Jainism take five main vows : ahimsa , satya ( not lying ) , asteya ( non stealing ) , brahmacharya ( chastity ) , and aparigraha . Monks follow them completely whereas śrāvakas ( householders ) observe them partially . Self @-@ discipline and asceticism are thus major focuses of Jainism . Parasparopagraho Jivanam ( The function of souls is to help one another ) is the motto of Jainism .
The word " Jain " derives from the Sanskrit word jina ( conqueror ) . A human being who has conquered all inner passions like attachment , desire , anger , pride , greed , etc. is called Jina . Followers of the path practiced and preached by the jinas are known as Jains .
Jains trace their history through a succession of twenty @-@ four teachers and revivers of the Jain path known as tirthankaras . In the current era , this started with Rishabhanatha and concluded with Mahavira . Jains believe that Jainism is eternal ; it has been and will be forgotten and revived from time to time . Jain philosophy is the oldest Indian philosophy that separates body ( matter ) from the soul ( consciousness ) completely . Jains maintain that all living beings are really soul , intrinsically perfect and immortal . Souls in transmigration ( that is , liability to repeated births and deaths ) are said to be imprisoned in the body . Practitioners believe non @-@ violence and self @-@ control are the means to liberation . Jain texts reject the idea of a creator deity and postulates an eternal universe . Jainism has a very elaborate framework on types of life and includes life @-@ forms that may be invisible .
Mahatma Gandhi was greatly influenced by Jainism and adopted many Jain principles in his life .
The majority of Jains reside in India . With 4 – 6 million followers , Jainism is smaller than many major world religions . Outside of India , some of the largest Jain communities are found in the United States , Europe , Kenya , and Canada . Contemporary Jainism is divided into two major sects , Digambara and Śvētāmbara .
Namokar Mantra is the basic and most common prayer in Jainism . Major Jain festivals include Paryushana ( aka Daslakshana ) , Mahavir Jayanti and Diwali .
= = Main Teachings = =
= = = Non @-@ violence ( ahiṃsā ) = = =
The principle of ahimsa ( non @-@ violence or non @-@ injury ) is the most fundamental and well @-@ known aspect of Jainism . The everyday implementation of the principle of non @-@ violence is more comprehensive than in other religions and is the hallmark for Jain identity . Jains believe in avoiding harm to others through thoughts ( mana ) , speech ( vāchana ) , and actions ( kāya ) . According to the Jain text , Purushartha Siddhyupaya , " killing any living being out of passions is hiṃsā ( injury ) and abstaining from such act is ahimsa ( non @-@ injury ) " .
Jains extend the practice of nonviolence not only towards other humans but towards all living beings . For this reason , vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jain identity , with the majority of Jains practicing lacto vegetarianism . If there is violence against animals during the production of dairy products , veganism is encouraged .
After humans and animals , insects are the next living being offered protection in Jain practice , with avoidance of intentional harm to insects emphasized . For example , insects in the home are often escorted out instead of killed . Jainism teaches that intentional harm and the absence of compassion make an action more violent .
After nonviolence towards humans , animals and insects , Jains make efforts not to injure plants any more than necessary . Although they admit that plants must be destroyed for the sake of food , they accept such violence only as much as it is indispensable for human survival . Strict Jains , including monastics , do not eat root vegetables such as potatoes , onions and garlic because tiny organisms are injured when the plant is pulled up and because a bulb or tuber 's ability to sprout is seen as characteristic of a living being .
Jains believe that the intent and emotions behind an act of violence are more important than the action itself . For example , if a person kills another living being out of carelessness and then later regrets the act , the bondage ( bandha ) of karma is less compared to when a person kills the same kind of living being with anger , revenge , etc . A soldier acting in self @-@ defense is a different type of violence from someone killing another person out of hatred or revenge . Violence or war in self @-@ defense may be justified , but this must only be used as a last resort after peaceful measures have been thoroughly exhausted .
According to the Jain text , Sarvārthasiddhi , " He who has passions causes injury to himself by himself . Whether injury is then caused to other living beings or not , it is immaterial . "
= = = Non @-@ absolutism = = =
The second main principle of Jainism is anekāntavāda ( non @-@ absolutism ) . For Jains , non @-@ absolutism means maintaining open @-@ mindedness . This includes the recognition of all perspectives and a humble respect for differences in beliefs . Jainism encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties . The principle of anekāntavāda influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance and ahiṃsā . Anekāntavāda is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence , so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception . Only Kevalins ( omniscient beings ) can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations ; others are only capable of partial knowledge . Accordingly , no single , specific human view can claim to represent absolute truth .
Jains illustrate this theory through the parable of the blind men and an elephant . In this story , each blind man feels a different part of an elephant : its trunk , leg , ear , and so on . All of them claim to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant , but due to their limited perspectives , can only partly succeed . The concept of anekāntavāda ( non @-@ absolutism ) is further explained by Syādvāda and Nayavāda .
Syādvāda and Nayavāda
Syādvāda and Nayavāda expand on the concept of anekāntavāda ( non @-@ absolutism ) . Syādvāda recommends the expression of anekānta by prefixing the epithet syād to every phrase or expression . Syād here means " in some ways " or " from some perspective " . As reality is complex , no single proposition can express its full nature . The term syāt- should therefore be prefixed to each proposition , giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing dogmatism from the statement . There are seven conditioned propositions ( saptibhaṅgī ) in syādvāda . Nayavāda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints . Nayavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words : naya ( " partial viewpoint " ) and vāda ( " school of thought or debate " ) . It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view . Every object has infinite aspects , but when we describe one in practice , we speak only of relevant aspects and ignore the irrelevant . Nayavāda holds that philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints , and the standpoints we adopt are " the outcome of purposes that we may pursue " – although we may not realize it . Naya , being a partial expression of truth , enables us to comprehend reality part by part .
= = = Non @-@ attachment = = =
The third main principle in Jainism is aparigraha ( non @-@ attachment ) or non @-@ grasping and includes non @-@ materialism . Jainism emphasizes taking no more of something than is necessary . While ownership of objects is allowed , non @-@ attachment to possessions is taught . Followers should minimize the tendency to hoard unnecessary material possessions and limit attachment to current possessions . Further , wealth and possessions should be shared and donated whenever possible . Unchecked attachment to possessions is said to result in direct harm to oneself and others .
Jain texts mention that " attachment to possessions ( parigraha ) is of two kinds : attachment to internal possessions ( ābhyantara parigraha ) , and attachment to external possessions ( bāhya parigraha ) . The fourteen internal possessions are :
wrong belief ;
the three sex @-@ passions ( male sex @-@ passion , female sex @-@ passion , neuter sex @-@ passion ) ;
the six defects ( laughter , like , dislike , sorrow , fear , disgust ) ; and
the four passions ( anger , pride , deceitfulness , greed ) .
External possessions are divided into two sub @-@ classes , the non @-@ living and the living . According to Jain texts , both internal and external possessions are proved to be hiṃsā ( injury ) .
In Jainism , the non @-@ manifestation of a passion such as attachment is termed ahiṃsā ( non @-@ violence ) , and the manifestation of such a passion is considered hiṃsā ( injury ) . This is said to be the essence of the Jaina scripture .
According to the Tattvartha Sutra ( a sacred Jain text ) , " Infatuation is attachment to possessions . " Additionally , Jainism identifies four kashaya passions of the mind : Anger , pride ( ego ) , deceitfulness , greed . It recommends conquering anger by forgiveness , pride by humility , deceitfulness by straight @-@ forwardness and greed by contentment .
= = Practices = =
= = = Vegetarianism and Fasting = = =
Vegetarianism is a hallmark of Jainism , in accordance with the principle of non @-@ violence towards all beings . Strict followers will also limit dairy products , avoid root vegetables and avoid eating after sunset .
Jains fast throughout the year , particularly during festivals . This takes on various forms and may be practiced based on one 's ability . Some examples include : eating only one or two meals per day , drinking only water all day , not eating after sunset , not eating processed foods , eating food without sugar / oil / salt .
= = = Prayers = = =
In Jainism , the purpose of prayer is to break the barriers of worldly attachments and desires and to assist in the liberation of the soul . Jains do not pray for any favors , material goods or rewards .
The Namokar Mantra is the fundamental prayer of Jainism and may be recited at any time . In this mantra , Jains worship the qualities ( gunas ) of the spiritually supreme , including those who have already attained salvation , in order to adopt similar behavior .
= = = Meditation = = =
Jains have developed a type of meditation called sāmāyika , a term derived from the word samaya . The goal of sāmāyika is to achieve a feeling of perfect calmness and to understand the unchanging truth of the self . The preposition sam means one state of being . To become one is samaya . Sāmāyika is aimed at developing equanimity and to refrain from injury . Sāmāyika is particularly important during the Paryushana religious festival . It is believed that meditation will assist in managing and balancing one 's passions . Great emphasis is placed on the internal control of thoughts , as they influence behavior , actions and goals .
Jains follow six duties known as avashyakas : samayika ( practising serenity ) , chaturvimshati ( praising the tirthankara ) , vandan ( respecting teachers and monks ) , pratikramana ( introspection ) , kayotsarga ( stillness ) , and pratyakhyana ( renunciation ) .
Jain texts prescribe meditation on twelve forms of contemplation ( bhāvanā ) for those who wish to stop the influx of karmas that extend transmigration . These twelve reflections as mentioned in ancient Jain texts , like Tattvārthsūtra , Sarvārthasiddhi , Puruşārthasiddhyupāya are :
anitya bhāvanā – the transitoriness of the world ;
aśaraņa bhāvanā – the helplessness of the soul ;
saṃsāra – the pain and suffering implied in transmigration ;
aikatva bhāvanā – the inability of another to share one 's suffering and sorrow ;
anyatva bhāvanā – the distinctiveness between the body and the soul ;
aśuci bhāvanā – the filthiness of the body ;
āsrava bhāvanā – influx of karmic matter ;
saṃvara bhāvanā – stoppage of karmic matter ;
nirjarā bhāvanā – gradual shedding of karmic matter ;
loka bhāvanā – the form and divisions of the universe and the nature of the conditions prevailing in the different regions – heavens , hells , and the like ;
bodhidurlabha bhāvanā – the extreme difficulty in obtaining human birth and , subsequently , in attaining true faith ; and
dharma bhāvanā – the truth promulgated by Tirthankaras .
= = = Festivals = = =
Paryushana or Daslakshana is the most important annual event for Jains , and is usually celebrated in August or September . It lasts 8 – 10 days and is a time when lay people increase their level of spiritual intensity often using fasting and prayer / meditation to help . The five main vows are emphasized during this time . There are no set rules , and followers are encouraged to practice according to their ability and desires . The last day involves a focused prayer / meditation session known as Samvatsari Pratikramana . At the conclusion of the festival , followers request forgiveness from others for any offenses committed during the last year . Forgiveness is asked by saying Micchami Dukkadam to others , which means , " If I have offended you in any way , knowingly or unknowingly , in thought , word or action , then I seek your forgiveness . " The literal meaning of Paryushana is " abiding " or " coming together " .
Mahavir Jayanti , the birth of Mahāvīra , the last tirthankara of this era , is usually celebrated in late March or early April based on the lunar calendar . Diwali is a festival that marks the anniversary of Mahāvīra 's attainment of moksha . The Hindu festival of Diwali is also celebrated on the same date ( kartika amavasya ) . Diwali is celebrated in an atmosphere of austerity , simplicity , serenity , equity , calmness , charity , philanthropy , and environmental consciousness . Jain temples , homes , offices , and shops are decorated with lights and diyas ( small oil lamps ) . The lights are symbolic of knowledge or removal of ignorance . Sweets are often distributed . On Diwali morning , Nirvan Ladoo is offered after praying to Mahāvīra in all Jain temples all across the world . The new Jain year starts right after Diwali . Some other festivals celebrated by Jains are Akshaya Tritiya and Raksha Bandhan .
= = = Rituals = = =
There are many Jain rituals in the various sects of Jainism . The basic worship ritual practised by Jains is " seeing " ( darsana ) of pure self in Jina idols . One example related to the five life events of the tirthankaras called the Panch Kalyanaka are rituals such as the Panch Kalyanaka Pratishtha Mahotsava , panch kalyanaka puja , and snatra puja . Jains practices include performing abhisheka ( ceremonial bath ) of the images .
= = = Pilgrimages = = =
Jain pilgrim ( Tirtha ) sites include :
Siddhakshetra – Site of the moksha of an arihant ( kevalin ) or Tirthankara , such as Mount Kailash , Shikharji , Girnar , Pawapuri and Champapuri ( capital of Anga ) .
Atishayakshetra – Locations where divine events have occurred , such as Mahavirji , Rishabhdeo , Kundalpur , Tijara Jain Temple , Aharji .
Puranakshetra – Places associated with lives of great men , such as Ayodhya , Vidisha , Hastinapur , and Rajgir .
Gyanakshetra – Places associated with famous acharyas , or centers of learning , such as Shravanabelagola .
= = = Monasticism = = =
In Jainism , monasticism is encouraged and respected . Monks and nuns live extremely austere and ascetic lifestyles . They follow the five main vows strictly and observe complete abstinence . Jain monks and nuns have neither a permanent home nor any possessions . They do not use vehicles and always travel barefoot from one place to another , irrespective of the distance . They wander from place to place except during the months of Chaturmas . They do not prepare food and live only on what people offer them . Digambara monks and nuns carry a broom @-@ like object , called a picchi ( made from fallen peacock feathers ) to sweep the ground ahead of them or before sitting down to avoid inadvertently crushing small insects . Svetambara monks carry a rayoharan ( a broom @-@ like object made from dense , thick thread strands ) . Jain monks have to follow six duties known as avashyakas : sāmāyika ( practising serenity ) , chaturvimshati ( praising the tirthankara ) , vandan ( respecting teachers and monks ) , pratikramana ( introspection ) , kayotsarga ( stillness ) , and pratyakhyana ( renunciation ) .
The monks of Jainism , whose presence is not needed for most Jain rituals , should not be confused with priests . However , some sects of Jainism often employ a pujari , who need not be a Jain , to perform special daily rituals and other priestly duties at the temple .
= = Ethics = =
The Jain ethical code prescribes seven supplementary vows and a last sallekhana vow . The supplementary vows include three guņa vratas ( merit vows ) and four śikşā vratas .
Jainism encourages spiritual development through cultivation of personal wisdom and self @-@ control through five main vows :
1 . Ahimsa : Ahimsa means nonviolence or non @-@ injury . The first major vow taken by Jains is to cause no harm to living beings . It involves minimizing intentional and unintentional harm to other living creatures by actions , speech or thoughts . The vow of ahiṃsā is considered the foremost among the ' five vows of Jainism ' .
2 . Satya : Satya means truth . This vow is to always speak the truth . Given that nonviolence has priority , other principles yield to it whenever they conflict : in a situation where speaking truth could lead to violence , silence may be observed .
3 . Asteya : Asteya means not stealing . Jains should not take anything that is not willingly offered . Attempting to extort material wealth from others or to exploit the weak is considered theft . Fair value should be given for all goods and services purchased .
4 . Brahmacharya : Brahmacharya means chastity for laymen and celibacy for Jain monks and nuns . This requires the exercise of control over the senses to control indulgence in sexual activity .
5 . Aparigraha : Aparigraha means non @-@ possessiveness . This includes non @-@ materialism and non @-@ attachment to objects , places and people . Jain monks and nuns completely renounce property and social relations .
Monks and nuns are obligated to practice the five cardinal principles of nonviolence , truthfulness , not stealing , celibacy , and non @-@ possessiveness very strictly , while laymen are encouraged to observe them within their current practical limitations .
The sallekhana ( or Santhara ) vow is observed by Jains at the end of their life . In this vow , there is voluntary and gradual reduction of food and liquid intake under some conditions . These condition are :
Severe famine
Incurable disease
Great disability
Old age or when a person is nearing his end .
Sallekhana is seen as spiritual detachment requiring a great deal of spiritual accomplishment and maturity and a declaration that a person is finished with this world and has chosen to leave . Jains believe this allows one to achieve death with dignity and dispassion along with a great reduction of negative karma .
= = Philosophy = =
= = = Dravya ( Substance ) = = =
According to Jainism , there are six simple substances in existence , namely , Soul , Matter , Time , Space , Dharma and Adharma . Jain philosophers distinguish a substance from a body ( or thing ) by declaring the former to be a simple element or reality and the latter a compound of one or more substances or atoms . They claim that there can be a partial or total destruction of a body or thing , but no substance can ever be destroyed . According to Champat Rai Jain :
Substance is the sub @-@ strate of qualities which cannot exist apart from it , for instance , the quality of fluidity , moisture , and the like only exist in water and cannot be conceived separately from it . It is neither possible to create nor to destroy a substance , which means that there never was a time when the existing substances were not , nor shall they ever cease to be .
= = = = Jīva ( soul ) = = = =
The soul @-@ substance , called Jīva in Jainism , is distinguished from the remaining five substances ( Matter , Time , Space , Dharma and Adharma ) , collectively called ajīva , by the intelligence with which the soul @-@ substance is endowed , and which is not found in the other substances . The nature of the soul @-@ substance is said to be freedom . In its modifications , it is said to be the subject of knowledge and enjoyment , or suffering , in varying degrees , according to its circumstances . Jain texts expound that all living beings are really soul , intrinsically perfect and immortal . Souls in transmigration are said to be embodied in the body as if in a prison .
= = = = Ajīva ( Non @-@ Soul ) = = = =
Matter ( Pudgala ) is considered a non @-@ intelligent substance consisting of an infinity of particles or atoms which are eternal . These atoms are said to possess sensible qualities , namely , taste , smell , color and , in certain forms , touch and sound .
Time is said to be the cause of continuity and succession . It is of two kinds : nishchaya and vyavhāra
Space ( akāśa ) - Space is divided by the Jainas into two parts , namely , the lokākāśa , that is the space occupied by the universe , and the alokākāśa , the portion beyond the universe . The lokākāśa is the portion in which are to be found the remaining five substances , i.e. , souls , Matter , Time , Dharma and Adharma ; but the alokākāśa is the region of pure space containing no other substance and lying stretched on all sides beyond bounds of the three worlds ( the entire universe ) .
Dharma and Adharma are substances said to be helpful in the motion and stationary states of things , respectively , the former enabling them to move from place to place and the latter to come to rest from the condition of motion .
= = = Tattva ( Reality ) = = =
Jain philosophy is based on seven fundamentals which are known as tattva , which attempt to explain the nature of karmas and provide solutions for the ultimate goal of liberation of the soul ( moksha ) : These are :
Jīva – the soul , which is characterized by consciousness
Ajīva – non @-@ living entities that consist of matter , space and time
Āsrava ( influx ) – the inflow of auspicious and evil karmic matter into the soul
Bandha ( bondage ) – mutual intermingling of the soul and karmas . The karma masks the jiva and restricts it from reaching its true potential of perfect knowledge and perception .
Saṃvara ( stoppage ) – obstruction of the inflow of karmic matter into the soul
Nirjarā ( gradual dissociation ) – the separation or falling off of part of karmic matter from the soul
Moksha ( liberation ) – complete annihilation of all karmic matter ( bound with any particular soul )
= = = Soul and Karma = = =
According to Jain belief , souls , intrinsically pure , possess the qualities of infinite knowledge , infinite perception , infinite bliss , and infinite energy in their ideal state . In reality , however , these qualities are found to be obstructed due to the soul 's association with karmic matter . The ultimate goal in Jainism is the realization of reality .
The relationship between the soul and karma is explained by the analogy of gold . Gold is always found mixed with impurities in its natural state . Similarly , the ideal pure state of the soul is always mixed with the impurities of karma . Just like gold , purification of the soul may be achieved if the proper methods of refining are applied . The Jain karmic theory is used to attach responsibility to individual action and is cited to explain inequalities , suffering and pain . Tirthankara @-@ nama @-@ karma is a special type of karma , bondage of which raises a soul to the supreme status of a tirthankara .
= = = Vitalism = = =
Jain texts state that there are ten vitalities or life @-@ principles : the five senses , energy , respiration , life @-@ duration , the organ of speech , and the mind . The table below summarizes the vitalities that living beings possess in accordance with their senses .
= = = Cosmology = = =
Jain texts propound that the universe was never created , nor will it ever cease to exist . It is independent and self @-@ sufficient , and does not require any superior power to govern it . Elaborate descriptions of the shape and function of the physical and metaphysical universe , and its constituents , are provided in the canonical Jain texts , in commentaries and in the writings of the Jain philosopher @-@ monks .
According to the Jain texts , the universe is divided into three parts , the upper , middle , and lower worlds , called respectively urdhva loka , madhya loka , and adho loka . It is made up of six constituents : Jīva , the living entity ; Pudgala , matter ; Dharma tattva , the substance responsible for motion ; Adharma tattva , the substance responsible for rest ; Akāśa , space ; and Kāla , time .
Kāla ( time ) is without beginning and eternal ; the cosmic wheel of time , called kālachakra , rotates ceaselessly . According to Jain texts , in this part of the universe , there is rise and fall during the six periods of the two aeons of regeneration and degeneration . Thus , the worldly cycle of time is divided into two parts or half @-@ cycles , ascending ( utsarpiṇī ) and descending ( avasarpiṇī ) . Utsarpiṇī is a period of progressive prosperity , where happiness increases , while avasarpiṇī is a period of increasing sorrow and immorality . According to Jain cosmology , currently we are in the 5th ara of avasarpiṇī ( half time cycle of degeneration ) . As of 2016 , exactly 2 @,@ 538 years have elapsed , and 18 @,@ 460 years are still left . The present age is one of sorrow and misery . In this ara , though religion is practiced in lax and diluted form , no liberation is possible . At the end of this ara , even the Jain religion will disappear , only to appear again with the advent of the first Tīrthankara after the 42 @,@ 000 years of next utsarpiṇī are over .
The following table depicts the six aras of avasarpiṇī
This trend will start reversing at the onset of utsarpinī kāl with the Dukhama @-@ dukhamā ara being the first ara of utsarpinī ( half @-@ time cycle of regeneration ) .
According to Jain texts , sixty @-@ three illustrious beings , called śalākāpuruṣas , are born on this earth in every Dukhama @-@ sukhamā ara . The Jain universal history is a compilation of the deeds of these illustrious persons . They comprise twenty @-@ four tīrthaṅkaras , twelve chakravartins , nine balabhadra , nine narayana , and nine pratinarayana .
A chakravartī is an emperor of the world and lord of the material realm . Though he possesses worldly power , he often finds his ambitions dwarfed by the vastness of the cosmos . Jain puranas give a list of twelve chakravartins ( universal monarchs ) . They are golden in complexion . One of the greatest chakravartins mentioned in Jain scriptures is Bharata Chakravartin . Jain texts like Harivamsa Purana and Hindu Texts like Vishnu Purana mention that India came to be known as Bharatavarsha in his memory .
There are nine sets of balabhadra , narayana , and pratinarayana . The balabhadra and narayana are brothers . Balabhadra are nonviolent heroes , narayana are violent heroes , and pratinarayana can be described as villains . According to the legends , the narayana ultimately kill the pratinarayana . Of the nine balabhadra , eight attain liberation and the last goes to heaven . On death , the narayana go to hell on account of their violent exploits , even if these were intended to uphold righteousness .
= = = Epistemology = = =
According to the Jain text Tattvartha sutra , jnāna ( knowledge ) is of five kinds :
Kevala Jnana ( Omniscience )
Śrutu Jñāna ( Scriptural Knowledge )
Mati Jñāna ( Sensory Knowledge )
Avadhi Jñāna ( Clairvoyance )
Manah prayāya Jñāna ( Telepathy )
The first two are regarded as indirect knowledge and the remaining three as direct knowledge .
= = = Agamas = = =
After the attainment of Kevala Jnāna ( omniscience ) , the tirthankara discourses in a divine preaching hall called samavasarana . The discourse delivered is called Śhrut Jnāna and comprises eleven angas and fourteen purvas . The discourse is recorded by Ganadharas ( chief disciples ) , and is composed of twelve angas ( departments ) . It is generally represented by a tree with twelve branches .
Historically , the Jain Agamas were based on the teachings of Mahāvīra , the last Tīrthankara of the present half cycle . The Agamas were memorised and passed on through the ages . They were lost because of famine that caused the death of several saints within a thousand years of Mahāvīra 's death . These comprise thirty @-@ two works : eleven angās , twelve upanga āgamas , four chedasūtras , four mūlasūtras , and the last , a pratikraman , or Avashyak sūtra .
= = Liberation and Godhood = =
= = = The Path to Liberation = = =
Jainism is also called Moksha Marga ( the Path to Liberation ) . The very first aphorism of the Jain text Tattvartha sutra is : " Right faith , right knowledge , and right conduct ( together ) constitute the path to liberation . "
Prof. S. A. Jain in his book Reality writes :
Perfect release from all karmas is liberation . The path to liberation is the method by which it can be attained . The singular ' path ' is used in order to indicate that all the three together constitute the path to liberation . This controverts the views that each of these singly constitutes a path . Hence it must be understood that these three — right faith , right knowledge and right conduct — together constitute the direct path to liberation .
The following three jewels of Jainism constitute the threefold path to liberation :
Right View ( samyak darśana ) – Belief in substances like soul ( Ātman ) and non @-@ soul without delusions .
Right Knowledge ( samyak jnana ) – Knowledge of the substances ( tattvas ) without any doubt or misapprehension .
Right Conduct ( samyak charitra ) – Being free from attachment , a right believer does not commit hiṃsā ( injury ) .
= = = Stages on the Path = = =
In Jain philosophy , the fourteen stages through which a soul must pass in order to attain liberation ( moksha ) are called Gunasthāna . These are :
At the second @-@ to @-@ last stage , a soul destroys all inimical karmas , including the knowledge @-@ obscuring karma which results in the manifestation of infinite knowledge ( Kevala Jnana ) , which is said to be the true nature of every soul .
Those who pass the last stage are called siddha and become fully established in Right Faith , Right Knowledge and Right Conduct . According to Jain texts , after the total destruction of karmas the released pure soul ( Siddha ) goes up to the summit of universe ( Siddhashila ) and dwells there in eternal bliss .
The soul removes its ignorance ( mithyatva ) at the 4th stage , vowlessness ( avirati ) at the 6th stage , passions ( kashaya ) at the 12th stage , and yoga ( activities of body , mind and speech ) at the 14th stage , and thus attains liberation .
= = = God = = =
Jain texts reject the idea of a creator or destroyer God and postulate an eternal universe . Jain cosmology divides the worldly cycle of time into two parts ( avasarpiṇī and utsarpiṇī ) . According to Jain belief , in every half @-@ cycle of time , twenty @-@ four Tīrthankaras grace this part of the Universe to teach the unchanging doctrine of right faith , right knowledge and right conduct . The word Tīrthankara signifies the founder of a tirtha , which means a fordable passage across a sea . The Tīrthankaras show the ' fordable path ' across the sea of interminable births and deaths . Rishabhanatha is said to be the first Tīrthankara of the present half @-@ cycle ( avasarpiṇī ) . Mahāvīra ( 6th century BC ) is revered as the last Tīrthankara of avasarpiṇī . Though Jain texts explain that Jainism has always existed and will always exist , modern historians place the earliest evidence of Jainism in the 9th century BC .
In Jainism , perfect souls with the body are called Arihant ( victors ) and perfect souls without the body are called Siddhas ( liberated souls ) . Tirthankara is an Arihant who helps others to achieve liberation . Tirthankaras become role models for those seeking liberation . They are also called human spiritual guides . They reorganise the four @-@ fold order that consists of male ascetics ( muni ) , female ascetics ( aryika ) , laymen ( śrāvaka ) and laywomen ( śrāvikā ) . Jainism has been described as a transtheistic religion , as it does not teach the dependency on any supreme being for enlightenment . The tirthankara is a guide and teacher who points the way to enlightenment , but the struggle for enlightenment is one 's own . The following two verses of the Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra expound the definition of God according to Jainism :
In the nature of things the true God should be free from the faults and weaknesses of the lower nature ; [ he should be ] the knower of all things and the revealer of dharma ; in no other way can divinity be constituted . ( 1 – 5 )
He alone is free from hunger , thirst , senility , disease , birth , death , fear , pride , attachment , aversion , infatuation , worry , conceit , hatred , uneasiness , sweat , sleep and surprise is called a God . ( 1 – 6 )
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The origins of Jainism are obscure . Jainism is a philosophy of eternity , and Jains believe their religion to be eternal . Ṛṣabhanātha is said to be the founder of Jainism in the present half cycle . Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan , the first Vice President of India wrote :
There is evidence to show that so far back as the first century B.C. there were people who were worshipping Ṛṣabhadeva , the first tīrthaṅkara . There is no doubt that Jainism prevailed even before Vardhamāna or Pārśvanātha . The Yajurveda mentions the name of three Tīrthaṅkaras @-@ Ṛṣabha , Ajitnātha and Ariṣṭanemi . The Bhāgavata Purāṇa endorses the view that Ṛṣabha was the founder of Jainism .
Further , he believed that Jainism was much older than Hinduism :
There is nothing wonderful in my saying that Jainism was in existence long before the Vedas were composed .
And in the first volume of The Cultural Heritage of India :
The Jains claim a great antiquity for their religion . Their earliest prophet was Rishabhdeva , who is mentioned even in the Vishnu and Bhagawat Puranas as belonging to a very remote past . In the earliest Brahmanic literature are found traces of the existence of a religious Order .
Jains revere Vardhamana Mahāvīra ( 6th century BCE ) as the twenty @-@ fourth tirthankara of this era . He appears in the tradition as one who , from the beginning , had followed a religion established long ago .
Parshvanatha , predecessor of Mahāvīra and the twenty @-@ third tirthankara was a historical figure . He lived in the 9th century BCE .
On antiquity of Jainism , Dr. Heinrich Zimmer was of the view that :
There is truth in the Jaina idea that their religion goes back to a remote antiquity , the antiquity in question being that of the pre @-@ Aryan so called Dravidian period , which has recently been dramatically illuminated by the discovery of a series of great Late stone Age cities in the Indus Valley , dating from the third and perhaps even fourth millennium B.C.
There is inscriptional evidence for the presence of Jain monks in south India by the second or first centuries BC , and archaeological evidence of Jain monks in Saurashtra in Gujarat by the second century CE .
= = = Royal patronage = = =
The ancient city Pithunda , capital of Kalinga ( modern Odisha ) , is described in the Jain text Uttaradhyana Sutra as an important centre at the time of Mahāvīra , and was frequented by merchants from Champa . Rishabhanatha , the first tirthankara , was revered and worshiped in Pithunda and was known as the Kalinga Jina . Mahapadma Nanda ( c . 450 – 362 BCE ) conquered Kalinga and took a statue of Rishabha from Pithunda to his capital in Magadha . Jainism is said to have flourished under the Nanda Empire .
The Maurya Empire came to power after the downfall of the Nanda . The first Mauryan emperor , Chandragupta Maurya ( c . 322 – 298 BCE ) , became a Jain in the latter part of his life . He was a disciple of Bhadrabahu , the last srut @-@ kevali ( knower of all " Jain Agamas " ) , who migrated to South India . Samprati ( c . 224 – 215 BCE ) ( grandson of the Maurya emperor Ashoka ) is said to have been converted to Jainism by a Jain monk named Suhastin . After his conversion he was credited with actively spreading Jainism to many parts of India and beyond , both by making it possible for monks to travel to barbarian lands , and by building and renovating thousands of temples and establishing millions of icons . He ruled a place called Ujjain .
In the 1st century BCE , Emperor Kharavela , of the Mahameghavahana dynasty of Kalinga , invaded Magadha . He retrieved Rishabha 's statue and installed it in Udaygiri , near his capital Shishupalgadh . According to Michael Tobias , he was a Jain ruler , who was also a military victor . However , according to Helmuth von Glasenapp , this cannot be said with certainty : Kharavela was probably a free @-@ thinker who patronized all his subjects , including Jains .
Xuanzang ( 629 – 645 CE ) , a Chinese traveller , notes that there were numerous Jains present in Kalinga during his time . The Udayagiri and Khandagiri Caves near Bhubaneswar , Odisha , are the only surviving stone Jain monuments in Orissa .
King Vanaraja ( c . 720 – 780 CE ) of the Chawda dynasty in northern Gujarat , raised by a Jain monk named Silunga Suri , supported Jainism during his rule . The king of Kannauj Ama ( c . 8th century CE ) was converted to Jainism by Bappabhatti , a disciple of the famous Jain monk Siddhasena Divakara . Bappabhatti also converted Vakpati , the friend of Ama who authored a famous Prakrit epic titled Gaudavaho .
= = = Decline = = =
Once a major religion , Jainism declined due to a number of factors , including proselytising by other religious groups , persecution , withdrawal of royal patronage , sectarian fragmentation and the absence of central leadership . Since the time of Mahāvīra , Jainism faced rivalry with Buddhism and the various Hindu sects . The Jains suffered isolated violent persecutions by these groups , but the main factor responsible for the decline of their religion was the success of Hindu reformist movements . Around the 7th century , Shaivism saw considerable growth at the expense of Jainism due to the efforts of the Shaivite saints like Sambandar and Appar .
Royal patronage has been a key factor in the growth as well as decline of Jainism . The Pallava king Mahendravarman I ( 600 – 630 CE ) converted from Jainism to Shaivism under the influence of Appar . His work Mattavilasa Prahasana ridicules certain Shaiva sects and the Buddhists and also expresses contempt towards Jain ascetics . Sambandar converted the contemporary Pandya king to Shaivism . During the 11th century , Basava , a minister to the Jain king Bijjala , succeeded in converting numerous Jains to the Lingayat Shaivite sect . The Lingayats destroyed various temples belonging to Jains and adapted them to their use . The Hoysala king Vishnuvardhana ( c . 1108 – 1152 CE ) became a follower of the Vaishnava sect under the influence of Ramanuja , after which Vaishnavism grew rapidly in what is now Karnataka . As the Hindu sects grew , the Jains compromised by following Hindu rituals and customs and invoking Hindu deities in Jain literature .
There are several legends about the massacre of Jains in ancient times . The Buddhist king Ashoka ( 304 – 232 BCE ) is said to have ordered killings of 18 @,@ 000 Jains or Ajivikas after someone drew a picture of Buddha bowing at the feet of Mahāvīra . The Shaivite king Koon Pandiyan , who briefly converted to Jainism , is said to have ordered a massacre of 8 @,@ 000 Jains after his re @-@ conversion to Shaivism . However , these legends are not found in the Jain texts , and appear to be fabricated propaganda by Buddhists and Shaivites . Such stories of destruction of one sect by another sect were common at the time , and were used as a way to prove the superiority of one sect over the other . Another such legend about Vishnuvardhana ordering the Jains to be crushed in an oil mill does not appear to be historically true .
The decline of Jainism continued after the Muslim conquests on the Indian subcontinent . The Muslims rulers , such as Mahmud Ghazni ( 1001 ) , Mohammad Ghori ( 1175 ) and Ala @-@ ud @-@ din Muhammed Shah Khilji ( 1298 ) further oppressed the Jain community . They vandalised idols and destroyed temples or converted them into mosques . They also burned the Jain books and killed Jains . Some conversions were peaceful , however ; Pir Mahabir Khamdayat ( c . 13th century CE ) is well known for his peaceful propagation of Islam . The Jains also enjoyed amicable relations with the rulers of the tributary Vedic Hindu kingdoms during this period ; however , their number and influence had diminished significantly due to their rivalry with the Shaivite and Vaisnavite sects .
= = Community = =
The majority of Jains currently reside in India . With 4 – 6 million followers ( 0 @.@ 1 % ) , Jainism is relatively small compared to major world religions . Jains form 0 @.@ 37 % of India 's population . Most of the Jains are concentrated in the states of Maharashtra ( 31 @.@ 46 % of Indian Jains ) , Rajasthan ( 13 @.@ 97 % ) , Gujarat ( 13 @.@ 02 % ) and Madhya Pradesh ( 12 @.@ 74 % ) . Karnataka ( 9 @.@ 89 % ) , Uttar Pradesh ( 4 @.@ 79 % ) , Delhi ( 3 @.@ 73 % ) and Tamil Nadu ( 2 @.@ 01 % ) also have significant Jain populations . Outside of India , large Jain communities can be found in the United States and Europe . Several Jain temples have been built in both of these places . Smaller Jain communities also exist in Kenya and Canada . Jains developed a system of philosophy and ethics that had a great impact on Indian culture . They have contributed to the culture and language in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu , Karnataka , and Maharashtra .
Jains encourage their monastics to do research and obtain higher education . Monks and nuns , particularly in Rajasthan , have published numerous research monographs . According to the 2001 Indian census , Jains have the highest degree of literacy of any religious community in India ( 94 @.@ 1 percent ) , and their manuscript libraries are the oldest in the country . Jain libraries , including those at Patan and Jaisalmer , have a large number of well @-@ preserved manuscripts .
= = Schools and branches = =
The Jain community is divided into two major denominations , Digambara and Śvētāmbara . Monks of the Digambara ( " sky @-@ clad " ) tradition do not wear clothes . Female monastics of the Digambara sect wear unstitched plain white sarees and are referred to as Aryikas . Śvētāmbara ( " white @-@ clad " ) monastics on the other hand , wear white seamless clothes .
During Chandragupta Maurya 's reign , Acharya Bhadrabahu , the last śrut @-@ kevali ( all knowing by hearsay , that is indirectly ) predicted a twelve @-@ year @-@ long famine and moved to Karnataka with his disciples . Sthulabhadra , a pupil of Acharya Bhadrabahu , stayed in Magadha . After the famine , when followers of Acharya Bhadrabahu returned , they found that those who stayed at Magadha had started wearing white clothes , which was unacceptable to the others who remained naked . This is how the Digambara and Śvētāmbara schism began , with the Digambara being naked while the Svetambara were white clothed . Digambara saw this as being opposed to the Jain tenets which , according to them , required complete nudity . Evidence of gymnosophists ( " naked philosophers " ) in Greek records as early as the fourth century BCE supports the claim of the Digambaras that they have preserved the ancient Śramaṇa practice .
The earliest record of Digambara beliefs is contained in the Prakrit Suttapahuda of the Digambara Acharya , Kundakunda ( c . 2nd century CE ) . Digambaras believe that Mahāvīra remained unmarried , whereas Śvētāmbara believe that Mahāvīra married a woman who bore him a daughter . The Śvētāmbaras believe women may attain liberation and that the tirthankara Māllīnātha was female .
Excavations at Mathura revealed Jain statues from the time of the Kushan Empire ( c . 1st century CE ) . Tirthankara represented without clothes , and monks with cloth wrapped around the left arm , are identified as the Ardhaphalaka ( " half @-@ clothed " ) mentioned in texts . The Yapaniyas , believed to have originated from the Ardhaphalaka , followed Digambara nudity along with several Śvētāmbara beliefs .
= = Jain literature = =
The Digambara sect of Jainism maintains that the Agamas were lost during the same famine in which the purvas were lost . According to the Digambaras , Āchārya Bhutabali was the last ascetic who had partial knowledge of the original canon . Later on , some learned Āchāryas started to restore , compile , and put into written words the teachings of Mahāvīra , that were the subject matter of Aagamas . Āchārya Dharasen , in the first century CE , guided two Āchāryas , Āchārya Pushpadant and Āchārya Bhutabali , to put these teachings in written form . The two Āchāryas wrote , on palm leaves , Ṣaṭkhaṅḍāgama – among the oldest @-@ known Digambara Jaina texts . Digambara texts include two main texts , four Pratham @-@ Anuyog , three charn @-@ anuyoga , four karan @-@ anuyoga and twelve dravya @-@ anuyoga .
Some of the most famous Jain texts include Samayasara , Ratnakaranda śrāvakācāra , and Niyamasara .
Some scholars believe that the author of the oldest extant work of literature in Tamil ( 3rd century BCE ) , the Tolkāppiyam , was a Jain . The Tirukkuṛaḷ by Thiruvalluvar is considered to be the work of a Jain by scholars such as Ka . Naa . Subramanyam , V. Kalyanasundarnar , Vaiyapuri Pillai , and P. S. Sundaram . It emphatically supports vegetarianism in chapter 26 and states that giving up animal sacrifice is worth more than a thousand offerings in fire in verse 259 .
The Nālaṭiyār ( a famous Tamil poetic work ) was composed by Jain monks from South India in 100 – 500 .
The Silappatikaram , the earliest surviving epic in Tamil literature , was written by a Jain , Ilango Adigal . This epic is a major work in Tamil literature , describing the historical events of its time and also of the then @-@ prevailing religions , Jainism , Buddhism and Shaivism .
According to George L. Hart , who holds the endowed Chair in Tamil Studies at the University of California , Berkeley , has written that the legend of the Tamil Sangams or " literary assemblies " , was based on the Jain sangham at Madurai : " There was a permanent Jaina assembly called a Sangha established about 604 A.D. in Madurai . It seems likely that this assembly was the model upon which tradition fabricated the Sangam legend . "
Jain scholars and poets authored Tamil classics of the Sangam period , such as the Cīvaka Cintāmaṇi and Nālaṭiyār . In the beginning of the mediaeval period , between the 9th and 13th centuries , Kannada authors were predominantly Jains and Lingayatis . Jains were the earliest known cultivators of Kannada literature , which they dominated until the 12th century . Jains wrote about the tirthankaras and other aspects of the faith . Adikavi Pampa is one of the greatest Kannada poets . Court poet to the Chalukya king Arikesari , a Rashtrakuta feudatory , he is best known for his Vikramarjuna Vijaya .
= = Art and architecture = =
Jainism has contributed significantly to Indian art and architecture . Jains mainly depict tirthankara or other important people in a seated or standing meditative posture . Yakshas and yakshinis , attendant spirits who guard the tirthankara , are usually shown
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nuclear tests . Some resourceful investigative journalists emerged , whistle @-@ blowers such as Avon Hudson spoke out and political scrutiny became more intense . The investigative journalist Brian Toohey ran a series of stories in the Australian Financial Review in October 1978 , based in part on a leaked Cabinet submission .
In June 1993 , New Scientist journalist Ian Anderson wrote an article entitled " Britain 's dirty deeds at Maralinga " and several related articles . They are a detailed analysis of the legacy of Vixen B and the Australian government 's prolonged negotiations with the United Kingdom on cleaning up Maralinga and sharing the cost of " safe @-@ sealing " waste plutonium . Previously , much of this highly toxic nuclear waste had simply been lightly bulldozed into the soil rather than buried in deep , secure , purpose @-@ built , concrete bunkers . In 1993 , Anderson won two Michael Daley Awards for his Maralinga articles .
Maralinga : Australia ’ s Nuclear Waste Cover @-@ up is a book by Alan Parkinson about the clean @-@ up following the British nuclear tests at Maralinga , published in 2007 . Parkinson , a nuclear engineer , explains that the clean @-@ up of Maralinga in the late 1990s was compromised by cost @-@ cutting and simply involved dumping hazardous radioactive debris in shallow holes in the ground . Parkinson states that " What was done at Maralinga was a cheap and nasty solution that wouldn 't be adopted on white @-@ fellas land . "
= = In popular culture = =
Ground Zero is a fictional political conspiracy thriller about what happened during the Maralinga tests .
The 1991 folk song " Plains of Maralinga " by Alistair Hulett describes the tests and their deadly side @-@ effects on the Pitjantjatjara people .
The Career Highlights of the Mamu is an Australian play by Trevor Jamieson and Scott Rankin , performed by the Adelaide Festival in February – March 2002 . The play tells the story of the Tjuntjuntjara Aboriginal people , who lived in the desert country between South Australia and Western Australia , and their experience with British nuclear testing at Maralinga and Emu Field . Tribal elders describe being moved out of the area , and the death and illness of their people when they attempted to return to their contaminated homelands .
Maralinga : The Anangu Story , by the Yalata & Oak Communities with Christobel Mattingley ( Allen & Unwin , 2009 ) , is an information book about the history and culture of the region , the controversy and its original owners . Aimed at young people , the book was awarded a silver Honour medal in 2010 by the Children 's Book Council of Australia .
The Stranglers referenced the nuclear tests in Australia in their song " Nuclear Device ( The Wizard of Aus ) " .
The tests were the subject of the song " Birthright " by progressive rock group Anderson Bruford Wakeman Howe . The Australian band Midnight Oil wrote a song about the tests called " Maralinga " .
The Australian writer Judy Nunn published a novel titled Maralinga in 2011 .
The novel The Last Albatross by Ian Irvine referenced this location as the source of weapons grade plutonium used in a terror plot against Australia .
Web comic author Aaron Diaz wrote a one @-@ page comic re @-@ imagining the Maralinga tests .
The fictional story of a man with leukemia who was present during the tests featured in the 1982 A Country Practice episode " Field of Thunder . "
= Signal 30 ( Mad Men ) =
" Signal 30 " is the fifth episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 57th episode of the series overall . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Frank Pierson , and directed by main cast member John Slattery . It originally aired on the AMC channel in the United States on April 15 , 2012 .
The episode takes place between July 1966 and August 1966 , with references to the 1966 World Cup Final , the Charles Whitman shooting rampage , and the crash of Braniff Flight 250 . Business and pleasure converge on each other at both a dinner party thrown by the Campbells and a misguided whorehouse visit intended to woo a client . Pete discovers that Ken is writing science fiction under a pseudonym , which angers Roger Sterling . Pete 's emasculation continues after a routine office meeting ends in fisticuffs .
The episode 's title is derived from the infamous 1959 driving safety film of the same name , which Pete Campbell is required to watch as part of his driver 's education class . The film , shown widely to high school students across the country during the 1960s , was produced by the Ohio State Highway Patrol and takes its name from the radio code used by that agency for a fatal traffic accident .
" Signal 30 " received 2 @.@ 69 million viewers and a 1 @.@ 0 in the coveted 18 @-@ 49 demographic . It was met with rave reviews , with many commentators calling it the best episode of the season so far . Critics commended John Slattery for his directing work . Matthew Weiner and his Academy Award @-@ winning co @-@ writer Frank Pierson were also praised for the symbolism of the leaking faucet and the character study of Pete Campbell .
= = Plot = =
Pete is being kept awake by a leaking faucet in the kitchen . He eventually goes to fix it , doing so effectively and with self @-@ satisfaction . He is later shown attending a driver 's education class , where he flirts with a teenage girl about to go off to college .
Ken Cosgrove has continued his writing and runs into Peggy while meeting with a publisher over lunch . He is secretive about his work and attempts to politely get rid of her . Peggy is unsettled by this , until Ken later explains his actions in the office . Following a drunken celebration at a bar with other expatriates over England 's 1966 World Cup victory , Lane excitedly tells the other SCDP partners that he has arranged a lunch meeting with a fellow Englishman he met at the bar , Edwin Baker , over possible representation for Jaguar Cars in America .
The Campbells throw a dinner party for the Cosgroves and the Drapers at their home . As the night progresses , Ken 's writing career is accidentally brought up in conversation by his wife , leading to a retelling of one of his stories . The guests are unsure of how to react to the science fiction plot , apart from Don , who asks questions about the character . When Don learns of Ken 's writing success he is supportive of it ; in contrast , Pete denigrates it . Afterwards , the wives retreat to the kitchen , where the faucet Pete previously " fixed " bursts , spraying water everywhere . Pete rushes away to get his toolbox , but by the time he returns , Don has already fixed it , explaining that Pete 's previous fix was merely a coincidence .
Pete returns to his driver 's ed class to find that a new student , Hanson ( nicknamed " handsome " ) , has the attention of the girl Pete previously flirted with .
Roger advises Lane about how to ensnare a client at dinner . Roger informs Lane to find the man 's source of regret , and make it relatable to himself , forming a " conspiracy " of feeling between the pair . Pryce 's dinner does not go smoothly ; the Jaguar representative appears to have no regrets in his life , and Lane is forced to plan another lunch to try again at confirming the new business . Upon hearing of this failure , Pete tactfully tells Lane to maintain a friendly relationship with the target , and to let Accounts take the business from there . Roger compliments Pete 's letting Lane down softly and taking the task off his hands , forming a renewed alliance with Pete . At the dinner meeting , Edwin , the Jaguar representative , assures Don , Roger , and Pete they have his business , but he wants to have some fun . The executives quickly learn what kind of fun Edwin has in mind and they visit a local brothel , where Edwin , Roger , and Pete all cheat on their wives , leaving Don at the bar . Don later shares a cab with Pete on the way home in which the latter , drunk , criticizes Don as hypocritical for judging Pete 's adulterous actions . Don explains he is not judging ; he merely didn 't know Pete was miserable . Pete replies sarcastically that he has everything , and Don warns him not to throw it away .
The next day , Roger calls Ken into his office and bluntly tells Ken to stop writing in his spare time , as he should not be diverting any attention from his job . Roger attempts to create a bond between them , stating they are both " unappreciated authors " ( referencing the autobiography Roger was dictating in Season 4 ) , but Ken has none of it .
Later that day , Lane storms into a partners ' meeting , shouting at Pete about how Edwin 's wife has found out about Edwin 's adultery and is devastated ; Edwin has withdrawn his business as a result . Lane blames Pete 's methods for losing the account , and Pete responds by citing Lane 's redundant role at the firm and challenging his sexuality . To the surprise and shock of the other partners , Lane responds by challenging Pete to a fistfight . Pete and Lane exchange blows until Lane wins , leaving a bloodied Pete on the office floor . Bruised , shaken , and humiliated , Pete retreats to his office . Joan goes to comfort Lane , only Lane misinterprets her affection as romantic and kisses her . Joan , startled , stands and opens the door , but does not leave . She instead stays with Lane and forgives his blunder , claiming that he 'd done to Pete what everyone in the office had wanted to do for some time .
Peggy , excitedly , tells Ken about Lane 's beating up Pete . Ken takes pleasure in this , and then tells Peggy about his conversation with Roger . Ken suspects Pete informed Roger , after learning about his publishing deal during the dinner party .
Later , Pete talks about his despair at the day 's events with Don in the elevator , wondering how the fight occurred , when he thought they were all friends . Close to tears , he blurts out that he has nothing . Don doesn 't respond .
The episode ends with Ken writing in bed under a new pen name . Pete is shown back in his driver 's ed class , watching helplessly as Hanson sits with the girl Pete had his eyes on , and the dripping sound of the leaky faucet replaying in his mind .
= = Production = =
Creator Matthew Weiner co @-@ wrote the episode with 86 @-@ year @-@ old veteran screenwriter and Academy Award winner ( for Dog Day Afternoon ) Frank Pierson . Pierson offered Weiner his writing services back in 2009 , leading him to serve as a consulting producer on the third season . About Pierson , Weiner said , " He 's now in the writer 's room . Arguably one of the greatest living writers . It means you 're doing something right . " Cast member John Slattery , who portrays Roger Sterling on the series , directed the episode , the third time he has directed for the series .
Weiner stated that the episode was about the question -- " What do you want ? " and " Do you ever get a chance to have it ? " , as well as the " tentative nature of business friendships " . He used Lane 's friendship with the Jaguar executive and the dinner at Pete Campbell 's house as examples . Vincent Kartheiser reasoned that Pete invited them over to show off his wife , home , and success . Jon Hamm elaborated on Don 's reluctance to go as his desire to keep his relationship separate from the poisonous influence of Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce .
Jon Hamm pointed to Don 's bad history with whorehouses as to his reluctance to take part in the festivities , while noting that " Pete has no such problem . " Of Pete 's scene with the prostitute , Weiner said , " You see what his fantasy is . You see his powerlessness " and that Pete is " trying to keep his life exciting " . Due to the desperation and unhappiness inherent in Pete Campbell 's character as demonstrated in this episode , Weiner called it " probably the saddest episode we 've ever had . "
The fight scene , according to Jared Harris , was Lane discovering what Pete really thought of him . Harris saw the boxing match as " a mix of so many different styles " with Lane carrying an " old school and traditional " stance . Harris saw it as Lane getting a chance to " fight for his dignity " .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Signal 30 " was watched by 2 @.@ 69 million viewers and obtained a 1 @.@ 0 adults 18 @-@ 49 rating , a slight drop from the previous episode .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode opened to laudatory reviews from the television critic community , with much praise reserved for John Slattery 's direction and the acting work of Vincent Kartheiser . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club gave the episode an A , his highest grade for the season so far , calling it " transfixing and incredible " and " season five 's first instant classic " . He praised the symbol of the dripping faucet as well as the editing choices that suggested " the way that time passes , so that it almost seems as if you ’ ve lost yourself in the mists of your own life " . Alan Sepinwall , writing for HitFix , exalted Slattery 's " strong command of the comedic moments " , and recognized that " most of the carnage " of the episode " comes out of failed attempts by Pete , Lane and Ken to be more than they are by building bridges from one world to another . "
Meredith Blake , reviewer for the Los Angeles Times , said that the episode was a sort of masculine companion piece to the fourth season episode " The Beautiful Girls " , as " Signal 30 " focuses on " collective identity crisis of the agency 's male population " . Paste magazine writer Bonnie Stiernberg called Pete Campbell " one of the most complex , underrated characters on TV today " and called the dripping sink " more like a fucking geyser in reality , and if he doesn ’ t do something to plug it up soon , he ’ s going to drown . " Jordan Bartel of the Chicago Tribune called the episode " a classic " and saw a possible Emmy nomination for Vincent Kartheiser , but felt the kitchen sink symbolism and ending voiceover was a little heavyhanded . Maureen Ryan of The Huffington Post praised Lane 's character and Slattery 's direction during the fight sequence , singling out Don , Bert , and Roger 's reactions as " absolute comedy gold " . She also compared the Pete character to former U.S. President Richard Nixon because : " there 's a sense with Pete that there 's always a chip on his shoulder and he 'll eternally feel misunderstood and undervalued . He 'll always inspire a mixture of pity and exasperation , because he 's smart and insightful , but he can be a piece of work . "
= Girly Edition =
" Girly Edition " is the twenty @-@ first episode in the ninth season of the American animated television series The Simpsons . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 19 , 1998 . In the episode , Lisa and Bart Simpson must co @-@ anchor a new news program , though when Bart is seen as a more successful news anchor , Lisa becomes jealous and seeks revenge . Meanwhile , in the subplot , Homer Simpson gets a monkey helper because of his laziness . " Girly Edition " was the first episode written by Larry Doyle and was directed by Mark Kirkland . Much of the subplot was inspired by the film Monkey Shines . Critics gave the episode positive reviews and it was well received by Lisa 's voice actress Yeardley Smith .
= = Plot = =
After Groundskeeper Willie takes away Bart 's skateboard for destroying his leaf pile , Bart fills up Willie 's shack with creamed corn as he is sleeping , causing the shack to explode . As Willie is being taken away for medical attention , he swears revenge on Bart. Meanwhile , Krusty the Clown 's show comes under criticism by the FCC for not being educational enough for children . The Channel 6 executive proposes that Krusty cut ten minutes from his three @-@ hour show to make room for a kids ' news program , Kidz News , where children deliver and report news items . Lisa is recruited as a news anchor along with other Springfield Elementary School children . Bart is not chosen at first , but is made sportscaster after he complains to Marge .
Lisa is deemed to be boring by the channel 's staff , though they are impressed by Bart 's performance . Bart is then promoted to be the co @-@ anchor , which leads to jealousy from Lisa . After Bart hears Lisa talking behind his back , he tries to improve at being an anchor . He goes to Kent Brockman for advice , who teaches him about the power of human interest stories . Bart becomes successful after creating a segment called " Bart 's People " , which Lisa immediately disapproves of due to its sappy , emotionally manipulative content . Out of jealousy , Lisa attempts to copy it , but her filming is twice hampered by the Crazy Cat Lady . She eventually sends a letter acting as an immigrant who lives in a landfill who pleads to be on Bart 's People , causing Bart to rush to the landfill for a live broadcast . However , he learns that the immigrant is Groundskeeper Willie , wanting revenge on Bart. Lisa saves Bart by changing Willie 's mind about killing him , using similar techniques Bart used in his stories to stir up emotions . The two decide from then on to make a good educational news program , resulting in Kidz News being cancelled and replaced by The Mattel and Mars Bar Quick Energy Chocobot Hour , an action cartoon which advertises toys and chocolate .
In the subplot , Homer obtains a monkey helper named Mojo after learning Apu has gotten one . Eventually , Mojo becomes tired , weak , and overfed from eating junk food and drinking beer with Homer . Marge forces homer to return the monkey .
= = Production = =
" Girly Edition " was the first episode Larry Doyle wrote for the show . He conceived both the main plot and the subplot . The subplot about Mojo was inspired by the film Monkey Shines ; show runner Mike Scully asked the staff to consult the film for reference when they were making the episode . The animators also studied the behavior of monkeys from other resources , looking at their movements and how they interact with humans . Eric Stefani , a former animator for the show who had left and now was part of the band No Doubt , was called back by episode director Mark Kirkland to animate the scenes with Homer and Mojo . This was the final work Stefani did for The Simpsons . At the end of the episode , an incapacitated Mojo is only able to type " Pray for Mojo " into a computer ; this line was written by George Meyer , who cited it as his favorite personal contribution to The Simpsons . Recurring character the Crazy Cat Lady was introduced in this episode .
= = Analysis = =
In his book Watching with The Simpsons : Television , Parody , and Intertextuality , Jonathan Gray analyses a scene from the episode in which it is announced that Kidz News has been replaced by the children 's cartoon The Mattel and Mars Bar Quick Energy Chocobot Hour ( a reference to the Mattel toys and the Mars chocolate bar ) . He says this mocks " how many children 's programs have become little more than the ad to the merchandise " . Gray also writes that The Simpsons " illustrates how the ad as genre has itself already invaded many , if not all , genres . Ads and marketing do not limit themselves to the space between programs ; rather , they are themselves textual invaders , and part of The Simpsons ' parodic attack on ads involves revealing their hiding places in other texts . "
A real @-@ life journalist named Reid , who Gray interviewed for his book , states that " Girly Edition " mirrors well how some journalists actually work . She said the episode shows " the ludicrous nature of , you know , what we do in a lot of things . The kids news with Bart and Lisa : I mean , you see them do really stupid stories about the news , and ' news you can use , ' and ' how to get rid of your sheets when you wet them . ' I mean , people really do stories like that . " Steven Keslowitz writes in his book The World According to the Simpsons that the episode showcases the fact that " the viewing of attractive newscasters and the use of persuasive tones of voice often do have an impact on the minds of many intelligent members of American society . "
= = Reception = =
The episode originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on April 19 , 1998 . It finished 26th in the ratings for the week of April 13 – 19 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 8 @.@ 7 , translating to around 8 @.@ 5 million viewing households . The episode was the third highest rated show on Fox that week , following The X @-@ Files and King of the Hill . The Fox network 's ratings average for the week was 6 @.@ 6 .
" Girly Edition " was well received by critics . It was named the fifth best episode with a sports theme of the series by Jerry Greene of the Orlando Sentinel . The authors of the book I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood , thought well of the episode , calling it " a great episode , full of more than the normal quota of good jokes " , adding , " best of all is Lisa 's revenge on Bart , and the mad cat @-@ lady who goes around chucking her cats at people . " Ryan Keefer of DVD Verdict gave the episode a B rating and stated that he enjoyed the subplot with Mojo more than the main plot . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide commented that " Girly Edition " takes " a clever concept and turns into something more than expected as it digs into the usual Bart / Lisa rivalry . I ’ m not quite sure why Bart reacts so sadly to Lisa ’ s comments about his stupidity when ' Lisa the Simpson ' just delved into the dumbness of the male Simpsons . There ’ s enough to like here to make the episode fun , though . "
This episode is one of Yeardley Smith 's favorite episodes . She says , " I don 't actually remember a lot of the episodes because they all blend in together for me , and I don 't have a really good memory anyway , but I do remember this one and thinking that it was terrific . "
= Neal Ball =
Cornelius " Neal " Ball ( April 22 , 1881 – October 15 , 1957 ) was an American baseball shortstop who played seven seasons in Major League Baseball ( MLB ) . He played for the New York Highlanders , Cleveland Naps and Boston Red Sox from 1907 to 1913 . Although his primary position was shortstop , Ball played at second base , third base and in the outfield as well . He is most famous for being the first player to turn an unassisted triple play in Major League Baseball history on July 19 , 1909 .
Ball played minor league baseball for the Montgomery Senators of the Southern League until 1907 , when he signed for the New York Highlanders . After spending less than three seasons with the organization , Ball was sold to the Cleveland Naps , where he spent the next two seasons . In the middle of the 1912 season , his contract was then purchased by the Boston Red Sox , with whom he played his last game on June 30 , 1913 . He died on October 15 , 1957 in Bridgeport , Connecticut .
= = Personal life = =
Ball was born on April 22 , 1881 in Grand Haven , Michigan . After his Major League career ended , he went on to coach the Baltimore Orioles ( who were a minor league team at the time ) . It was there that he was assigned to train Babe Ruth , who had just come out of St. Mary 's Industrial School for Boys . Ball described Ruth as " the dumbest and yet the strongest player " he had ever coached . The two remained good friends after Ruth broke into the Majors and even played a friendly game of bowling against one another in 1923 ( with Ball edging out Ruth , winning four out of the seven games played ) . Ruth held Ball in great respect , and because of their close friendship in baseball , he eventually became a fan of the New York Yankees . In the 1950s , an annual bowling tournament held at the Newfield Alleys near Bridgeport , Connecticut was named after Ball in order to honor the city 's famous inhabitant . On February 12 , 1952 , at the age of 71 , his health severely deteriorated due to a heart ailment and he was rushed to Bridgeport Hospital , where he was placed on the danger list and visitors were prohibited from seeing him . Five years later , he died on October 15 , 1957 and was interred at Mountain Grove Cemetery , Bridgeport .
= = Professional career = =
= = = Minor leagues = = =
Ball first started playing organized baseball on the semi @-@ pro team in Three Rivers , Michigan , where he played in a game against Hall of Fame Negro League star Rube Foster of the Otsego Independents during the 1902 season . He then proceeded to play for Montgomery Senators , a minor league baseball team that competed in the Southern League . He played for the team until 1907 , when he signed for the New York Highlanders . He made his major league debut for the Highlanders on September 12 , 1907 , at the age of 26 , in a 2 – 0 loss against the Washington Senators .
= = = New York Highlanders ( 1907 – 09 ) = = =
During his 1908 rookie season , Ball posted a batting average of .247 and led the Majors in strikeouts with 91 . Defensively , he committed the most errors among all fielders in the American League with 81 and most errors by a shortstop with 80 , both of which are Yankee rookie records that still stand today . However , he also set the team record for most assists by a rookie with 438 ( this record has since been broken by Derek Jeter , who had 444 assists in 1996 ) . On May 18 , 1909 , in the middle of the season , Ball was bought by the Cleveland Naps for approximately $ 5000 .
= = = Cleveland Naps ( 1909 – 12 ) = = =
Ball was brought in to serve as the temporary replacement for Cleveland 's injured starting shortstop Terry Turner , who suffered from a recurring arm injury that needed treatment . In his first season with the Indians , Ball batted .256 with one home run and 25 runs batted in . Although he was never famous for his defensive skills , he achieved baseball history when he executed the first unassisted triple play in the MLB on July 19 , 1909 , doing so against the Boston Red Sox at League Park . In the second inning of the game , Ball , playing shortstop , caught Amby McConnell 's line drive , stepped on second base to retire Heinie Wagner , and then tagged outfielder Jake Stahl as he was advancing towards second . Because the play was unprecedented and turned so swiftly , the ballplayers on the field did not know the inning was over and the crowd of 11 @,@ 000 were unsure of how to react . Cy Young , the game 's starting pitcher , was puzzled and asked Ball why he was leaving the field . Once the fans in attendance realized what had happened , they gave him an ovation , while his teammates applauded him as he returned to the dugout . In the following inning , with the crowd still cheering , he hit an inside @-@ the @-@ park home run into center field ( the only home run he hit that season ) . After the game , he was questioned in a post @-@ game interview , a rare occurrence at the time . He remained humble about the feat and reminded the reporters that " anyone could have made the play " . The glove that he used to make the unassisted triple play is on exhibit at the Baseball Hall of Fame .
At the end of the 1910 season , after playing just 54 games with the team , Ball was sent down and released to the Portland Beavers . He refused to play for the minor league team and this , coupled with the underperformance of the infielders brought in to replace him , resulted in the Naps repurchasing his contract .
The 1911 season turned out to be Ball 's best statistical year , resulting in several career high numbers being set . He batted .296 and amassed 122 hits , 9 triples , 45 RBI and hit 3 home runs , though he also recorded the third highest number of strikeouts in the AL with 93 . Although his defense was never stellar , he executed two noted plays that season . He made a one @-@ handed stop against the Chicago White Sox that was described as " marvelous " by the New York Times and held the Yankees ( his former team ) to a 3 – 3 draw when Ball , serving as the cut @-@ off man , successfully relayed the ball thrown from right fielder Shoeless Joe Jackson to catcher Gus Fisher . In doing so , he nailed Birdie Cree ( who represented the Yankees ' winning run ) at home plate and the game was immediately suspended due to darkness . However , in a rematch against the White Sox on May 5 , 1912 , Ball suffered a momentary defensive lapse that ultimately cost his team the game . In the sixth inning , he was unable to catch Shano Collins stealing second base and then inexplicably held onto the ball . This allowed Ping Bodie to advance to home plate and score the winning run . On June 25 , the Boston Red Sox purchased Ball 's contract from the Naps for $ 2500 .
= = = Boston Red Sox ( 1912 – 13 ) = = =
Ball 's final major league team was ironically the one he turned his unassisted triple play against . The player who was final out of that play , Jake Stahl , became his manager and teammate . The Red Sox signed Ball with the intention of using him only as a utility player who would be a competent substitute to any injured players on the team . As a result , he rarely started a game for the Red Sox . The team advanced to the World Series at the end of that season , where they defeated the New York Giants 4 – 3 . Although he struck out in his only plate appearance of the series , he still received the prize money of $ 4025 rewarded to players on the winning team . This prompted the Ottawa Citizen to label him " the luckiest man in baseball . "
= = Post @-@ playing career = =
After playing his final major league season in 1913 , Ball returned to minor league baseball and played for several teams until 1924 . Most notably , in May 1916 , he was traded by the Toronto Maple Leafs to his hometown team , the Bridgeport Hustlers of the Eastern League , and became both their manager and second baseman . The Hustlers were struggling at the time and the addition of Ball did nothing to change the team 's fortunes . By July , the Hustlers were still languishing in last place and , as a result , he was dismissed from the team .
= John Henry Turpin =
John Henry " Dick " Turpin ( 20 August 1876 – 10 March 1962 ) was a sailor in the United States Navy in the late 19th and early 20th centuries . Turpin was one of the first African American Chief Petty Officers in the U.S. Navy . He is also notable for surviving the catastrophic explosions of two U.S. Navy ships : USS Maine in 1898 , and USS Bennington in 1905 .
= = Early life and career = =
Turpin was born on 20 August 1876 and enlisted in the U.S. Navy in New York City on 4 November 1896 .
= = USS Maine = =
He was a Mess Attendant on Maine when it exploded in Havana under mysterious circumstances on the night of 15 February 1898 . Turpin was in the pantry of the wardroom when the explosion occurred , and felt the ship " heave and lift " before all went dark . He worked his way aft and climbed out of the wardroom on the captain 's ladder and up onto the deck . He dove overboard and was rescued by a motor launch . Turpin was one of 90 out of the 350 officers and men aboard Maine that night to survive the explosion .
According to an obituary that appeared in the Los Angeles Times , Turpin ( whose next ship assignment was not reported ) saw action in China during the 1900 Boxer Rebellion .
= = Bennington explosion = =
By mid @-@ 1905 , Turpin had been assigned to the gunboat Bennington . When that ship was raising steam for a departure from San Diego , California , on 21 July 1905 , she suffered a boiler explosion that sent men and machinery into the air and killed 66 of the 102 men aboard . Turpin reportedly saved three officers and twelve men by swimming them to shore one at a time . Eleven men were awarded the Medal of Honor for " extraordinary heroism displayed at the time of the explosion " , but Turpin was not among them .
= = Later career = =
In 1915 Turpin worked as a diver in efforts to raise the sunken submarine USS F @-@ 4 in Honolulu , Hawaii . He became qualified as a " Master Diver " - most probably the first African @-@ American sailor to do so . Turpin was also credited with being involved with the development of the underwater cutting torch .
Turpin served on several other ships before leaving active duty service in 1916 .
After the United States entered World War I in April 1917 , Turpin was recalled to service . On 1 June 1917 , he became a Chief Gunner 's Mate on the cruiser Marblehead , which made him among the first African American Chief Petty Officers in the U.S. Navy . Turpin served at that rank until he was transferred to the Fleet Reserve in March 1919 . In October 1925 , Turpin retired at the rank of Chief Gunner 's Mate .
During his time in the Navy , he was the Navy boxing champion in several different weight classifications throughout is Navy career and was a boxing instructor at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis , Maryland .
= = Later life = =
After his retirement from the Navy , Turpin was employed as a Master Rigger at the Puget Sound Navy Yard in Bremerton , Washington ; he was also qualified as a Master Diver in his civilian duties .
During World War II , Turpin tried to return to active service but was denied an account of his age . He volunteered to tour Navy training facilities and defense plants to make " inspirational visits " to African @-@ American sailors .
= = Death = =
Turpin died in Bremerton , Washington on 10 March 1962 . He was survived by his wife Faye Alice . At his funeral , his pall bearers were six Navy chief stewards .
= = Awards = =
Good Conduct Medal
Navy Expeditionary Medal
Spanish Campaign Medal
China Relief Expedition Medal
Nicaraguan Campaign Medal
Mexican Service Medal
Victory Medal
= Licario =
Licario , called Ikarios ( Greek : Ἰκάριος ) by the Greek chroniclers , was a Byzantine admiral of Italian origin in the 13th century . At odds with the Latin barons of his native Euboea , he entered the service of the Byzantine emperor Michael VIII Palaiologos ( r . 1259 – 1282 ) , and reconquered many of the Aegean islands for him in the 1270s . For his exploits , he was rewarded with Euboea as a fief and rose to the rank of megas konostaulos and megas doux , the first foreigner to do so .
= = Biography = =
= = = Origins and early life = = =
Licario was born in Karystos in Latin @-@ held Euboea ( Negroponte ) , from a Vicentian father and a local woman . He was of humble origin , but able and ambitious . Serving as a knight under the Latin triarch Giberto II da Verona , he managed to win the heart of Felisa , sister of Giberto and widow of another triarch , Narzotto dalle Carceri . The match was met with disapproval by Felisa 's family . They secretly married , but the marriage was cancelled by her relatives . Fleeing from their wrath , Licario sought refuge in the fort of Anemopylae near Cavo D 'Oro . He repaired the strong fortress , assembled a small group of followers , and began raiding the surrounding estates , belonging to the island 's nobles .
= = = Entry into Byzantine service = = =
At that time , the newly restored Byzantine Empire , under the leadership of Michael VIII Palaiologos , sought to recover Euboea , which was the major Latin insular possession in the Aegean Sea and a base for piratical activity directed against his lands . Furthermore , along with the Principality of Achaea it presented the major obstacle to his complete recovery of Greece . Already in 1269 / 1270 , a Byzantine fleet under Alexios Doukas Philanthropenos had attacked and captured one of the island 's major Latin strongholds , the town of Oreos .
Facing the persistent refusal of the island 's barons to treat with him , desiring vengeance and eager for glory and wealth , Licario presented himself to Philanthropenos , offering his services . He , in turn , took him to the Emperor , who was eager to use the services of talented Westerners whenever he could , and had already bankrolled several Latin corsairs in his service . Licario became the Emperor 's vassal according to Western feudal rules , and in turn was strengthened with imperial troops . Under the leadership of Licario , the Byzantines could now mount a serious attempt to conquer the island , while their forces were further augmented by many defections from the Greek population .
The Byzantine forces , under Licario 's command , now ( in 1272 / 1273 ) launched a campaign that took the fortresses of Larmena , La Cuppa , Clisura and Manducho . The Lombard triarchs then appealed to their liege @-@ lord , Prince William II of Achaea , and to Dreux de Beaumont , marshal of the Angevin Kingdom of Sicily . William was able to recover La Cuppa , but de Beaumont was defeated in a pitched battle and was subsequently recalled by Charles of Anjou . Between then and 1275 , according to the Venetian chronicler Marino Sanudo , Licario himself served in the Byzantine army in Asia Minor , where he scored a victory against the Turks .
= = = Conquest of Euboea and campaigns in the Aegean = = =
In 1276 , following their great victory over the Lombard triarchs of Negroponte at the Battle of Demetrias , the Byzantines renewed their offensive in Euboea . Licario attacked his native Karystos , seat of the southern triarchy , and took it , after a long siege , in the same year . For this success , he was rewarded by Michael VIII with the whole island as a fief , and a noble Greek wife with a rich dowry . In turn , Licario pledged to provide 200 knights to the Emperor . Gradually , Licario reduced the Latin strongholds on the island , until , by 1278 , he had seized almost all of it except for the capital , the city of Negroponte ( Chalkis ) .
For his successes , Licario was rewarded with the post of megas konostaulos , head of the Latin mercenaries , and eventually appointed as megas doux after Philanthropenos 's death in ca . 1296 ; the first foreigner to be thus honoured . He commanded the Byzantine navy in a series of expeditions against the Latin @-@ held Aegean islands . The first to fall was Skopelos , whose fortress was believed to be impregnable . Licario , however , knew that it lacked water supplies . Thus , he attacked it during the hot and dry summer of 1277 and forced its surrender . Its lord , Filippo Ghisi , was captured and sent to Constantinople ; his other possessions , the islands of Skyros , Skiathos and Amorgos , were also taken soon after . After that , Licario went on to capture the islands of Kythera and Antikythera off the southern coast of the Morea , and later Kea , Astypalaia , and Santorini in the Cyclades . The great island of Lemnos was also captured , although its lord , Paolo Navigajoso , withstood a three @-@ year siege before surrendering .
Finally , in late 1279 or early 1280 , he returned to Euboea , landing in the norther town of Oreos and moving south towards Negroponte . His forces by now included many Spanish and Catalan mercenaries ( the first time the latter are mentioned in Greece ) and even former adherents of Manfred of Sicily , who had fled to Greece after Manfred 's defeat and death at the hands of Charles of Anjou . As he reached Negroponte , the triarch Giberto II da Verona , Felisa 's brother , and John I de la Roche , the Duke of Athens , who were present at the city , rode out with their forces to meet him . The two armies met at the village of Vatondas , northeast of Negroponte . The battle resulted in a major victory for Licario : John de la Roche was unhorsed and captured , while Giberto was either killed ( according to Sanudo ) or captured and taken along with de la Roche as a prisoner to Constantinople , where , according to Nikephoros Gregoras , the sight of the hated renegade , moving triumphantly among the assembled Byzantine court , caused him to drop dead .
After Vatondas , Negroponte seemed about to fall into Licario 's hands too . The city , however , was quickly reinforced by Jacques de la Roche , lord of Argos and Nauplia , who , along with the energetic Venetian bailo , Niccolo Morosini Rosso , led its defence . Facing determined resistance and possibly fearing an intervention of John I Doukas , ruler of Thessaly , Licario was forced to raise the siege . Licario then turned to reducing the remaining Latin strongholds on the island , becoming its total master except for the city of Negroponte itself , and ruling it from the fortress of Fillia . His fleet carried out further naval expeditions : the islands of Sifnos and Serifos were taken , and Licario 's ships raided the Peloponnese .
Licario himself sailed to Constantinople , presenting Emperor Michael VIII with his captives . Then , at the height of his fame and success in ca . 1280 , Licario disappears from the sources , and his subsequent fate is unknown . Most likely he lived in Constantinople and died there .
= = Assessment = =
His conquests proved temporary only , as the Byzantines were gradually evicted by the Venetians and the other Latin lords . Even in Euboea , Licario 's major gain and personal fief , the Lombard barons managed to complete their reconquest of the entire island by 1296 . Nevertheless , Licario proved one of the most successful military leaders in Michael VIII 's employ , and his victories greatly enhanced the emperor 's own standing and prestige amongst the Latins . The historian Deno John Geanakoplos ranks him , along with Michael 's brother John Palaiologos , as the two men who caused the most damage to the Latin rulers of Greece .
= Cephalic Carnage =
Cephalic Carnage is an American grindcore band formed in 1992 in Denver , Colorado . The band comprises vocalist Lenzig Leal , guitarists Steve Goldberg and Brian Hopp , drummer John Merryman and bassist Nick Schendzielos . Cephalic Carnage has released six studio albums and toured in North America , Europe and Japan .
Cephalic Carnage play a technically proficient deathgrind style , progressively experiment with other genres , and incorporate songs of joke nature into their albums , such as parodies of black metal or metalcore . They refer themselves as " rocky mountain hydro grind " .
= = History = =
= = = Conforming to Abnormality , Exploiting Dysfunction ( 1992 – 2001 ) = = =
Cephalic Carnage formed in Denver , Colorado , in 1992 by vocalist Lenzig Leal and guitarist Zac Joe . The duo recorded a demo EP titled Scrape My Lungs in 1993 , but then took a break until 1996 , when they recruited drummer John Merryman , guitarist Steve Goldberg and bassist Doug Williams . Merryman also collaborated with Secret Chiefs 3 . Soon after the reformation , their second demo EP Fortuitous Oddity was released . During 1997 , Cephalic Carnage financed its own tour across the United States .
In 1998 , the band caught the attention of Italian record label Headfucker Records , which released the band 's debut album Conforming to Abnormality that year . Williams left in 1999 and joined Origin . He was replaced by Jawsh Mullen , and the band toured at the Milwaukee Metalfest in 1998 , the Dallas Grindfest , the Ohio Deathfest and the Denver Hatefest in 1999 .
In 2000 , Cephalic Carnage signed to the American heavy metal record label Relapse Records and released its second album Exploiting Dysfunction , which included a tour with Napalm Death and The Dillinger Escape Plan .
= = = Lucid Interval and Anomalies ( 2002 – 2006 ) = = =
Lucid Interval , the band 's third album , was recorded in early 2002 and released in August that year . The band toured a month later in Canada and subsequently in the U.S. with German thrash metal veterans Kreator and Destruction . In May 2003 , the band undertook the " North American Contamination " tour alongside Mastodon and others . That September , Cephalic Carnage and Madball supported Hatebreed on the North American " Rise of Brutality " tour .
In September 2004 , the band recorded its next album , Anomalies , with producer Dave Otero . Darren Doane directed a promotional music video for " Dying Will Be the Death of Me " , which premiered at MTV 's Headbanger 's Ball . The song parodies American metalcore with its music , lyrics and vocals . In March 2005 , Anomalies was released , and the band toured in North America once again .
Mullen exited in January 2006 to prioritize his education and other acts , and the band soon found replacement Nick Schendzielos . In March , the band 's recording studio was robbed . They played several shows in the United States in April , and an extensive European tour followed in June with Darkest Hour .
= = = Xenosapien ( 2007 – 2009 ) = = =
The band recorded its next studio album between November and December 2006 , and its release was set for May 2007 under the title Xenosapien . In March 2007 , the band supported Brujeria on U.S. dates and subsequently embarked on " Xenosapien World Tour " , which started in continental Europe on May 4 , continued in United Kingdom and Ireland in May and resumed in the " Summer Slaughter " trek ( dubbed the " Summer ’ s Laughter " by band members ) across the U.S. throughout June and July along with Decapitated among others . The band also filmed a music video for the song " Endless Cycle of Violence " . On November 20 , 2007 , the band 's van was robbed . Their " recent earnings from the tour ( close to $ 4 @,@ 000 ) , a laptop with more than $ 2 @,@ 000 in music @-@ software programs loaded , an iPod and various personal items " were stolen .
Cephalic Carnage reissued Conforming to Abnormality under Relapse Records on April 29 , 2008 . Cephalic Carnage participated in a " mini @-@ tour " of Japan in May 2009 , performing in Osaka , Nagoya and Tokyo . In June 2009 , Cephalic Carnage , along with Cattle Decapitation and Withered , pulled out of the Blackenedfest tour due to organization problems and said they were " getting on with writing the next full length , ( ... ) as well as finishing construction of our late night poutine stand , where we will serve country @-@ fried giraffe eggs and your favorite French @-@ Canadian specialty . " In October 2009 , the band released a music video for the song " Vaporized " while writing a new album and announced a planned concert DVD entitled Live At Your Mom 's House .
= = = Misled by Certainty ( 2010 – present ) = = =
Cephalic Carnage began recording their new album , Misled by Certainty , in May 2010 . It was released August 31 , 2010 by Relapse Records . They also reissued Lucid Interval on September 13 , 2011 .
= = Musical style = =
Allmusic describes the style of Cephalic Carnage as " crazy concoction of truly experimental grindcore , death metal , and jazz " . Their music varies from death @-@ grind , technical death metal , occasional surf rock , instrumental , to flamenco interludes or violin @-@ and @-@ sax ambient jams . Their early style is typically progressive and technically proficient , with some comedic songs . Their later work developed into a more experimental , complex direction .
Cephalic Carnage is also known for its humorous songs . Popmatters points out some examples : " On past albums , the band has taken satirical swipes at the overtly image @-@ oriented black metal ( " Black Metal Sabbath " ) and the oversaturated , angst @-@ ridden metalcore sound ( " Dying Will Be the Death of Me " ) , and even in live settings , they ’ re not above taking the odd spontaneous piss @-@ take to bring some levity to a situation . One notorious YouTube clip has a fight starting in the pit at a Cephalic show in Toronto , and in an inspired moment , the band launches into a rousing excerpt from " Eye of the Tiger " , to a raucous ovation from the kids . "
= = Members = =
= = Timeline = =
= = Discography = =
= Assassination of Ali =
Ali ibn Abi Talib , the fourth ( last ) Sunni Rashidun caliph and first Shia Imam , was assassinated by a Kharijite called Ibn Muljam on 26 January 661 at the Great Mosque of Kufa , in present @-@ day Iraq . Ali , who was then 62 or 63 years of age , died due to his injuries two days after Ibn Muljam struck him on his head by a poison @-@ coated sword , on the 21 ( or 19 ) Ramadan 40 AH ( 28 January 661 CE ) . He was the third successive caliph , after Umar and Uthman , to be assassinated .
Ali became the caliph after the assassination of Uthman in 656 . However he faced opposition from various factions including the Levant governor , Muawiyah I. A civil war , called the First Fitna , took place within the early Islamic state which resulted in the overthrow of the Rashidun caliphs and the establishment of the Umayyad dynasty . It began when the caliph Uthman ibn Affan was assassinated in 656 and continued through the four @-@ year reign of Ali . After Ali agreed to arbitration with Muawiyah I following the Battle of Siffin ( 657 ) , a revolt happened against him by some members of his army , later known as Kharijites ( " those who leave " ) . They killed some of Ali 's supporters , but they were crushed by Ali 's forces at the Battle of Nahrawan in July 658 .
Ibn Muljam met up with two other Kharijites namely al @-@ Burak ibn Abd Allah and Amr ibn Bakr al @-@ Tamimi at Mecca , and concluded that the situation of the Muslims at the time was due to the errors of Ali , Muawiah and Amr ibn As , governor of Egypt . They decided to kill the three in order to resolve the " deplorable situation " of their time and also avenge their companions killed at Nahrawan . Aiming to kill Ali , Ibn Muljam headed toward Kufa where he fell in love with a woman whose brother and father had died at Nahrawan . She agreed to marry him if only he could kill Ali . Consequently , Ali was stabbed by Ibn Muljam at the Great Mosque of Kufa . After Ali 's death , Ibn Muljam was executed in retaliation by Hasan ibn Ali .
= = Background = =
Events leading to Ali 's assassination can be traced back to the death of Muhammad , prophet of Islam , where the community of Muslims disputed over his succession as the leader of Ummah . The assembly at the Saqifat Bani Saida gave allegiance to Abu Bakr as the caliph . While Sunni muslims believed that Muhammad had not selected a successor , Shia Muslims believed that Ali was appointed as Mohmmad 's successor by God referring to the event of Ghadir Khumm . Abu Bakr was succeeded by Umar , who was murdered in 644 . After Umar 's death , Ali , the cousin and son @-@ in @-@ law of Muhammed , and Uthman were contenders for the post . Uthman was elected as caliph by an election council . Ali became the caliph after the assassination of Uthman in 656 .
Ali 's caliphate was coincident with First Fitna . Though Ali was elected as the fourth Rashidun ( the " rightly guided " ) caliph five days after Uthman 's death , he faced opposition during his rule . On one hand , A 'isha , Talhah and Al @-@ Zubayr revolted against him in Mecca and on the other hand Muawiyah I , the Umayyad governor of Levant , refused to pledge allegiance to him as the new caliph . Therefor , civil war took place which was about succession to the office of caliphate . Ali 's opponents asked the killers of Uthman should be punished . Ali , first emerged victorious at the Battle of Camel in 656 , against an army primarily led by Muhammad 's wife Aisha and other sahaba . Then , Ali also fought the Battle of Siffin in 657 against Muawiyah . The battle ended in a stalemate with Ali entering into arbitration with Muawiyah .
A group of Ali 's army , later known as Kharijites or Khawarij ( " those who leave " ) , opposed against arbitration after the battle of Siffin , when he accepted arbitration with Mu 'awiya . They opposed to human judgement in the matter of religion and used " Judgment belongs to God alone , " as their slogan . In 658 they violated their oath of allegiance , revolted and openly threatened to kill any Muslim who would not join them . Ali defeated them at the Battle of Nahrawan . The killing of the Kharijites was " the most problematic event " during Ali 's caliphate , because they had been among his most vigorous allies in the war against Muawiah .
Ibn Muljam along with two other men , namely al @-@ Burak ibn Abd Allah and Amr ibn Bakr al @-@ Tamimi , all considered as belonging to Kinda , met at Mecca and had a long discussion after the pilgrimage ceremony . They concluded that the situation of Muslims at the time was due to Ali , Muʿawiya and Amr ibn al @-@ As , " whom they regarded as being in error " , and swore to kill them to also " avenge their companion 's massacred at al @-@ Nahrawan . " They arranged the date of assassination and each of them chose his victim .
= = Death = =
= = = Assassination = = =
Ali was assassinated by Ibn Muljam , a Kharijite from Egypt , at the Great Mosque of Kufa , located in Kufa , Iraq , on 26 January 661 . Ibn Muljam was of Himyar by male descent but counted among Murad due to his maternal kinship , and allied with the Banii Jabala of Kindah . He had entered Kufa with the aim of killing Ali to avenge the Kharijite leaders at al @-@ Nahrawan .
In Kufa , he encountered a group of people from Taym al @-@ Ribab tribe who were mourning ten of their tribemates killed at Nahrawan by Ali 's army . Among them was a woman named Quttaam . According to cleric Ali al @-@ Sallabi , on seeing Quttaam , he " lost his senses " and " forgot the assignment " for which he was roaming , and proposed to her . Quttaam said that she would marry him if he could " heal " her by giving her three thousand dinars , a chanteuse , a male slave and the death of Ali . Quttaam wanted revenge too as her father and brother had been killed by Ali 's forces at Al @-@ Nahrawan . Ibn Muljam persuaded a man called Shubayb to assist him in killing Ali . Besides Shablb ibn Bujra , Wardan ibn al @-@ Mujalid also were Ibn Muljam 's accomplice . The conspirators stationed themselves opposite the door from which Ali would enter the Mosque .
On Friday , 19 ( or 17 ) Ramadan , Ali entered Kufa mosque to perform the morning prayer . Ibn Muljam wounded Ali on the " crown of his head " by a poisoned sword after Ali had recited verses from the Sura al @-@ Anbiya as part of the worship , or when he was entering the mosque . Shablb 's sword did not hit Ali and instead " hit the wooden frame of the door or the arch . " He fled and was caught near the gates of Kinda by ' Uwaymir ' , but could finally escape through the crowd . Wardan ran away to his home and was killed there by a relative , " ' Abd Allah b . Najaba b . Ubayd , after confessing his involvement . " Ibn Muljam was caught by the Hashimite al @-@ Mughlra ibn Nawfal ibn al @-@ Harith .
= = = The role of Al @-@ Ash 'ath ibn Qays = = =
al @-@ Ash 'ath ibn Qays was the chief of Kindah tribe in Kufa . According to Wilferd Madelung , in the final years of Ali 's reign he had tendency towards Muawiah and received letter including offers of money from him to show reluctance about Ali 's campaign against Muawiah . Some sources have accused al @-@ Ash 'ath of being informed of the plot of the assassination of Ali . According to al @-@ Yaqubi , Ibn Muljam was hosted by al @-@ Ash 'ath for a month when Ibn Muljam had been preparing his sword . Another report by Ibn Sa 'd says that al @-@ Ash 'ath stayed the night of the killing at mosque counseling Ibn Muljam and that al @-@ Ash 'ath signaled the time of attempting the assassination by saying " the morning has smiled . " The majority of the sources narrates an ambiguous phrase from Al @-@ Ash 'ath : " the dawn has risen for thee " and those who has Shia tendency give it as a clear encouragement to Ibn Muljam : " Deliverance , deliverance ! The dawn has risen for thee . " After assassination , Hujr ibn ' Adi accused him for Ali 's murder . There is even a report which says he warned Ali about Ibn Muljam . According to Laura Veccia Vaglieri , the sources narrate different reports which vary from outright accusation to a suspicion of complicity and even to an act of loyalty .
However al @-@ Sallabi believes that these accusations against al @-@ Ash 'ath seem baseless as he was a loyalist and was against Kharijites from the time they first appeared and fought them at Nahrawan . He was also the first one to fight against the people of Syria in the battle for the water . Moreover , he believes there exists no narration from the family of Ali ibn Abi Talib supporting these accusations against al @-@ Ash 'ath , neither his family did not discuss it with any member of al @-@ Ash 'ath 's family . After Ali was injured by Ibn Muljam , al @-@ Ashʿath sent his son to determine Ali 's condition , his words suggesting that he knew Ali would not survive .
= = = Death and burial = = =
Ali ordered that if he died from the wound , Ibn Muljam had to be executed in retaliation . Otherwise , if he survived , he would decide on how to treat him . Ali died two days later on 21 Ramadan 40 / 30 January 661 ( or 19 Ramadan 40 / 28 January 661 ) at the age of 62 or 63 , and Ibn Muljam was killed in retaliation ( Qisas ) by Hasan ibn Ali , in accordance to Ali 's instruction .
Ali 's body was washed by his sons , Hasan , Husayn , Muhammad ibn al @-@ Hanafiyyah and one of his nephew , Abdullah ibn Ja 'far . Then secretly buried by those men and ' Ubaydullah ibn al @-@ Abbas , since it was feared that his body would be " exhumed and profaned " . Some sources claim Ali was buried at the Imam Ali Mosque at Najaf in present @-@ day Iraq , while others , usually Afghans , say he was buried at the Rawze @-@ e @-@ Sharif in the Afghan city of Mazar @-@ e @-@ Sharif . Ali 's death is commemorated by Shia Muslims every year .
= = = Ali 's prediction of his fate = = =
Two types of traditions exist regrading Ali 's awareness of his fate long before the assassination . This foreknowledge was through his own " premonition of it " or by Muhammad . Based on numerous traditions , Ali 's beard staining with " blood flowing from his head " had been revealed by Muhammad or Ali . Another set of traditions by Muhammad says that " the most evil man among the ancients was he who had killed the camel of the prophet Salih and among his contemporaries , he who would kill Ali . " The night of the assassination , Ali said that his fate was about to come true , and when he left home in the morning , " geese followed him , cackling " weeping for his funeral , as he said later .
= = Aftermath = =
According to Wilferd Madelung , a small minority of people were convinced that " he was the best of Muslims after the Prophet and the only one entitled to rule them , " and after Ali 's death people were divided regarding their view toward him . " Distrust of , and opposition to , Mu 'awiya and his Syrian cohorts " was what united the majority . Ali 's admirers then turned into majority due to " highhandedness , misrule and repression " of Umayyad .
After Ali 's death , the Shias of Iraq declared Ali 's eldest son Hasan the successor to Ali , thus proclaiming him as their new caliph . However , Hasan was not interested in becoming caliph , and to prevent further bloodshed , he signed the Hasan – Muawiya treaty and abdicated in favor of Muawiyah , who became the first caliph of the Umayyad caliphate . Muawiyah died in Medina at the age of forty @-@ five in 669 , and was succeeded by Yazid I in 61 AH ( 680 CE ) but Hasan 's brother Husayn ibn Ali refused to accept Yazid 's leadership . After being invited by the Shiites of Iraq in the same year , Husayn started his march to Iraq . However , during their stay at Karbala , his army was massacred by Yazid at the Battle of Karbala on 10 Muharram ( 10 October ) and his death is commemorated by Shia every year during Muharram .
= Tea processing =
Tea processing is the method in which the leaves from the tea plant Camellia sinensis are transformed into the dried leaves for brewing tea .
The categories of tea are distinguished by the processing they undergo . In its most general form , tea processing involves different manners and degree of oxidation of the leaves , stopping the oxidation , forming the tea and drying it .
The innate flavour of the dried tea leaves is determined by the type of cultivar of the tea bush , the quality of the plucked tea leaves , and the manner and quality of the production processing they undergo . After processing , a tea may be blended with other teas or mixed with flavourants to alter the flavour of the final tea .
= = History = =
The history of the tea processing corresponds intimately with the role that tea played in Chinese society and the preferred methods of its consumption in Ancient Chinese society .
= = = Green = = =
The ancient Chinese society first encountered the tea plant in what is now southern China and processed it as another medicinal herb for use in Chinese herbology . The processing technique used to process fresh tea leaves was to immediately steam the fresh tea leaves and dry them for preservation , which is likely the most ancient Chinese form of tea leaf processing . This processing method was perfected near the end of the Han Dynasty ( 206 BCE @-@ 220 CE ) and produced a dried tea that would be classified today as " green tea " and quite similar to modern Japanese sencha . For consumption , dried tea leaves were either decocted with water around with other herbs , or ground into a powder to be taken straight or in a liquid .
With the increase of tea 's use in Chinese herbology , production methods changed , where the processed green tea leaves were not immediately dried after steaming . Rather the steamed tea leaves were first pulverized into a paste form , with the paste then formed in moulds and slowly dried into brick tea , a technique well described by Lu Yu in his work The Classic of Tea . Tender leaves and leaf buds were generally not used , as older mature tea leaves were preferred for tea production . Some tea bricks were also produced from mature whole leaves , which typically required the use of a cooked rice slurry ( 米湯 ) to bind the tea brick together . The preference of producing tea in brick form possibly stems from the fact that it can be more easily transported and stored .
= = = Yellow and fermented = = =
This use of steam in fixation ( 殺青 ) for tea leaf enzymes is an important step in processing tea , with the leaves to be quickly cooled down and undergo further processing . The less tightly controlled methods of it in the past resulted in the creation of " yellow tea " when the tea leaves were over @-@ steamed for fixation or were not quickly spread out , doused with water and cooled . Although green tea was the most popular in Lu Yu 's time , he personally considered yellow tea to be superior to green .
Even when the leaves were quickly cooled , if they are left in piles ( 渥堆 ) for too long before processing , the leaves will begin to undergo microbial fermentation to produce " post @-@ fermented tea " . This technique is somewhat similar to composting , albeit tightly controlled , and still used in the production of Liu 'an tea ( 安徽六安籃茶 ) and was more recently introduced for the production of the " ripe " type pu @-@ erh tea . The production of tea in brick forms and their storage also resulted in another type of post @-@ fermented tea , which was produced by aging . The long transport and storage times of the day unwittingly allowed the tea bricks to undergo prolonged exposure to the elements and to various microflora , which resulted in the aging , oxidation , and fermentation of green brick teas . A brick of green tea that had been stored and aged into post @-@ fermented tea was charred over charcoal to rid it of the layer of detritus , dust , and shiny multicoloured growths before being broken down into a powder , cooked , and then consumed . By the end of Tang Dynasty ( 618 @-@ 907CE ) green , yellow , and post @-@ fermented tea was commonly used in China and moved from purely being used in herbology to becoming a beverage drunk for pleasure .
= = = Oolong and white = = =
The Qing Dynasty was also the period when oolong tea was first developed in the Fujian province . It was originally produced in thin brick form , known then under then name " Beiyuan " tea ( 北苑茶 ) . The importance of the withering process for producing oolong tea was described by poet Huang Furen ( 皇甫冉 ) in his poem " 送陸鴻漸棲霞寺采茶 " , which indicated that the processing of tea leaves is not a simple task , requiring the scaling of steep cliffs to pick the choicest leaves and the withering of the leaves under the sun and warm winds ( " 采茶非采菉 ， 遠遠上層崖 。 布葉春風暖 ， 盈筐白日斜 ... " ) .
White tea ( 白茶 ) was also developed in the Fujian province with its first mentions in the Song Dynasty document Treatise on Tea , where the delicate buds used for producing white tea , the difficulty in producing it , its taste , and its rarity were lauded . The production method of white tea was described by Ming Dynasty author Tian Yiheng ( 田艺蘅 ) in " Zhuquan Xiaopin " ( 煮泉小品 ) ( produced in the 33rd year of the Jiajing Emperor ) regarding Fuding white tea ( 福鼎白茶 ) . In this work , he stated that tea buds that have undergone fixation by panning over flames ( as with green tea ) is second to a white tea that was simply allowed to dry under the sun , since it is more natural in taste and lacks flavours imparted by the smoke and flames ( " 芽茶以火作者为次 ， 生晒者为上 , 亦更近自然 ， 且断烟火气耳 " )
= = = Black = = =
The technique for producing black tea was first developed during the late Ming Dynasty Wuyishan , Fujian either resulting from the over @-@ oxidation of tea @-@ leaves during the manufacture of oolong tea or indirectly from the methods of manufacturing green and white teas . In the early 1600s , tea producers in the Wuyi Mountains began kneading the sun @-@ withered tea leaves to macerate them , then allowed them to dry under the sun , thus reaching full oxidation and producing " Gongfu " black tea ( 工夫紅茶 ) . When there was insufficient sun and temperatures were low , the withered leaves would be processed indoors in warmed rooms and allowed to fully oxidize , then smoked dry over pine fires thus producing lapsang souchong . According to oral traditions of the region , the discovery of lapsang souchong processing was due to military troops passing through a Wuyi 's tea factory during the last years of the Ming Dynasty , causing delays to tea leaf processing thus resulting in a completely oxidized leaf that the producer salvaged by drying over a fire built from pine branches . By the Qing Dynasty , both lapsang souchong and gongfu black tea were well recognized in China and noted in " Records on Yiwu mountain " ( 武夷山志 ) by the scholar Dong Tiangong ( 董天工 ) .
= = Procedure = =
= = = General = = =
Although each type of tea has different taste , smell , and visual appearance , tea processing for all tea types consists of a very similar set of methods with only minor variations . Without careful moisture and temperature control during its manufacture and life thereafter , fungi will grow on tea . This form of fungus causes real fermentation that will contaminate the tea and may render the tea unfit for consumption .
Plucking : Tea leaves and flushes , which includes a terminal bud and two young leaves , are picked from Camellia sinensis bushes typically twice a year during early spring and early summer or late spring . Autumn or winter pickings of tea flushes are much less common , though they occur when climate permits . Picking is done by hand when a higher quality tea is needed , or where labour costs are not prohibitive . Depending on the skill of the picker , hand @-@ picking is performed by pulling the flush with a snap of the forearm , arm , or even the shoulders , with the picker grasping the tea shoot using the thumb and forefinger , with the middle finger sometimes used in combination . Tea flushes and leaves can also be picked by machine , though there will be more broken leaves and partial flushes reducing the quality of the tea . However , it has also been shown that machine plucking in correctly timed harvesting periods can produce good leaves for the production of high quality teas .
Withering / Wilting : The tea leaves will begin to wilt soon after picking , with a gradual onset of enzymatic oxidation . Withering is used to remove excess water from the leaves and allows a very slight amount of oxidation . The leaves can be either put under the sun or left in a cool breezy room to pull moisture out from the leaves . The leaves sometimes lose more than a quarter of their weight in water during withering . The process is also important in promoting the breakdown of leaf proteins into free amino acids and increases the availability of freed caffeine , both of which change the taste of the tea .
Disruption : Known in the Western tea industry as " disruption " or " leaf maceration " , the teas are bruised or torn in order to promote and quicken oxidation . The leaves may be lightly bruised on their edges by shaking and tossing in a bamboo tray or tumbling in baskets . More extensive leaf disruption can be done by kneading , rolling , tearing , and crushing , usually by machinery . The bruising breaks down the structures inside and outside of the leaf cells and allows from the co @-@ mingling of oxidative enzymes with various substrates , which allows for the beginning of oxidation . This also releases some of the leaf juices , which may aid in oxidation and change the taste profile of the tea .
Oxidation / Fermentation : For teas that require oxidation , the leaves are left on their own in a climate @-@ controlled room where they turn progressively darker . This is accompanied by agitation in some cases . In this process the chlorophyll in the leaves is enzymatically broken down , and its tannins are released or transformed . This process is sometimes referred to as " fermentation " in the tea industry . The tea producer may choose when the oxidation should be stopped , which depends on the desired qualities in the final tea as well as the weather conditions ( heat and humidity ) . For light oolong teas this may be anywhere from 5 @-@ 40 % oxidation , in darker oolong teas 60 @-@ 70 % , and in black teas 100 % oxidation . Oxidation is highly important in the formation of many taste and aroma compounds , which give a tea its liquor colour , strength , and briskness . Depending on the type of tea desired , under or over @-@ oxidation / fermentation can result in grassy flavours , or overly thick winey flavours .
Fixation / Kill @-@ green : Kill @-@ green or shāqīng ( 殺青 ) is done to stop the tea leaf oxidation at a desired level . This process is accomplished by moderately heating tea leaves , thus deactivating their oxidative enzymes and removing unwanted scents in the leaves , without damaging the flavour of the tea . Traditionally , the tea leaves are panned in a wok or steamed , but with advancements in technology , kill @-@ green is sometimes done by baking or " panning " in a rolling drum . In some white teas and some black teas such as CTC blacks , kill @-@ green is done simultaneously with drying .
Sweltering / Yellowing : Unique to yellow teas , warm and damp tea leaves from after kill @-@ green are allowed to be lightly heated in a closed container , which causes the previously green leaves to turn yellow . The resulting leaves produce a beverage that has a distinctive yellowish @-@ green hue due to transformations of the leaf chlorophyll . Through being sweltered for 6 – 8 hours at close to human body temperatures , the amino acids and polyphenols in the processed tea leaves undergo chemical changes to give this tea its distinct briskness and mellow taste .
Rolling / Shaping : The damp tea leaves are then rolled to be formed into wrinkled strips , by hand or using a rolling machine which causes the tea to wrap around itself . This rolling action also causes some of the sap , essential oils , and juices inside the leaves to ooze out , which further enhances the taste of the tea . The strips of tea can then be formed into other shapes , such as being rolled into spirals , kneaded and rolled into pellets , or tied into balls , cones and other elaborate shapes . In many types of oolong , the rolled strips of tea leaf are then rolled to spheres or half spheres and is typically done by placing the damp leaves in large cloth bags , which are then kneaded by hand or machine in a specific manner .
Drying : Drying is done to " finish " the tea for sale . This can be done in a myriad of ways including panning , sunning , air drying , or baking . Baking is usually the most common . Great care must be taken to not over @-@ cook the leaves . The drying of the produced tea is responsible for many new flavour compounds particularly important in green teas .
Aging / Curing : While not always required , some teas required additional aging , secondary fermentation , or baking to reach their drinking potential . For instance , a green tea puerh , prior to curing into a post @-@ fermented tea , is often bitter and harsh in taste , but becomes sweet and mellow through fermentation by age or dampness . Additionally , oolong can benefit from aging if fired over charcoal . Flavoured teas are manufactured in this stage by spraying the tea with aromas and flavours or by storing them with their flavorants .
= = = Type @-@ specific = = =
Tea is traditionally classified based on the degree or period of " fermentation " the leaves have undergone :
White tea
Young leaves or new growth buds that have undergone minimal oxidation through a slight amount of withering before halting the oxidative processes by being baked dry , with the optimal withering conditions at 30 degrees Celsius ( 65 % relative humidity ) for 26 hours . Withering of the leaves can last from around one to three days depending on the season and temperature of the processing environment . The buds may be shielded from sunlight to prevent the formation of chlorophyll . White tea is produced in lesser quantities than most other styles , and can be correspondingly more expensive than tea from the same plant processed by other methods . It is less well known in countries outside of China , though this is changing with increased western interest in the tea . There is an international disagreement on definition of white tea between China and other producing countries . In China , White tea is fully oxidized by letting the tea naturally dry out in sunlight . It is different from traditional black teas because it does not undergo any manmade processing such as rolling or curling .
Green tea
This tea has undergone the least amount of oxidation . The oxidation process is halted by the quick application of heat after tea picking , either with steam , the Japanese method , or by dry cooking in hot pans , the traditional Chinese method . Tea leaves may be left to dry as separate leaves or they may be rolled into small pellets to make gunpowder tea . This process is time consuming and is typically done with pekoes of higher quality . The tea is processed within one to two days of harvesting , and if done correctly retains most of the chemical composition of the fresh leaves from which it was produced . Variation in steaming time for fixation or processing from additional stages of rolling and drying are sometimes used to improve or altering the flavour for types of green tea .
Yellow tea
This tea is processed in a similar manner to green tea , but instead of immediate drying after fixation , it is stacked , covered , and gently heated in a humid environment . This initiates oxidation in the chlorophyll of the leaves through non @-@ enzymatic and non @-@ microbial means , which results in a yellowish or greenish @-@ yellow colour .
Oolong tea
This tea 's oxidation is stopped somewhere between the standards for green tea and black tea . The processing typically takes two to three days from withering to drying with a relatively short oxidation period of several hours . In Chinese , semi @-@ oxidized teas are collectively grouped as blue tea ( 青茶 , literally : blue @-@ green tea / " celadon tea " ) , while the term " oolong " is used specifically as a name for certain semi @-@ oxidized teas . Common wisdom about lightly oxidized teas in Taiwan ( a large producer of Oolong ) is that too little oxidation upsets the stomach of some consumers . Even so , some producers attempt to minimize oxidation in order to produce a specific taste or allow the tea leaves to be easily rolled into the spherical or half @-@ sphere form demanded by buyers in the market .
Black tea
The tea leaves are allowed to completely oxidize . Black tea is first withered to induce protein breakdown and reduce water content ( 68 @-@ 77 % of original ) . The leaves then undergo a process known in the industry as " disruption " or " leaf maceration " , which through bruising or cutting disrupts leaf cell structures , releasing the leaf juices and enzymes that activate oxidation . The oxidation process takes between 45 – 90 minutes to 3 hours and is done at high humidity between 20 @-@ 30 degrees Celsius , transforming much of the catechins of the leaves into complex tannin . Orthodox processed black teas are further graded according to the post @-@ production leaf quality by the Orange Pekoe system , while crush , tear , curl ( CTC ) teas use a different grading system . Orthodox tea leaves are heavily rolled either by hand or mechanically on a cylindrical rolling table or a rotorvane . The rolling table consists of a ridged table @-@ top moving in an eccentric manner to a large hopper of tea leaves , of which the leaves are pressed down onto the table @-@ top . The process produces a mixture of whole and broken leaves , and particles which are then sorted , oxidized , and dried . The rotovane consisted of an auger pushing withered tea leaves through a vane cylinder which crushes and evenly cuts the leaves . Crush , tear , curl is a production method developed by William McKercher in 1930 which uses machines with contra @-@ rotating rotors with surfaces patterning that cut and tear the leaves producing a product popular for use in tea bags . The rotovane to often use to precut the withered tea prior to the CTC and to create broken orthodox processed black tea .
Post @-@ fermented tea
Teas that are allowed to undergo a second oxidation after the fixation of the tea leaves , such as Pu @-@ erh , Liu 'an , and Liubao , are collectively referred to as secondary or post @-@ fermentation teas in English . In Chinese they are categorized as Dark tea or black tea . This is not to be confused with the English term Black tea , known in Chinese as red tea . Pu @-@ erh , also known as Póu léi ( Polee ) in Cantonese is the most common type of post @-@ fermetation tea in the market .
= Fear Her =
" Fear Her " is the eleventh episode of the second series of the British science @-@ fiction series Doctor Who , first broadcast on BBC One on 24 June 2006 . It was written by Matthew Graham and directed by Euros Lyn .
The episode takes place on the day of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics in London , almost exclusively on a fictitious cul @-@ de @-@ sac named after the British athlete Kelly Holmes . While originally only intending to visit the ceremony , alien time traveller the Doctor ( David Tennant ) and his companion Rose Tyler ( Billie Piper ) investigate Chloe Webber ( Abisola Agbaje ) , who has the ability to make people disappear by drawing them .
The episode was brought in to be a low @-@ budget replacement for a script by Stephen Fry that had been pushed back , and was filmed mainly in the Tremorfa area of Cardiff at a housing estate . Graham was asked to write an episode primarily for children which would soften the much darker finale that would be broadcast after . The episode was watched by 7 @.@ 14 million viewers in the UK , and was given an Appreciation Index of 83 . Though Graham received letters from children who enjoyed the episode , it did not generate a positive response from adult fans and critics .
= = Plot = =
The TARDIS materialises on the day of the opening ceremony of the 2012 Olympic Games . The neighbourhood is preparing for the passing of the Olympic torch bearer , but the mood has been dampened by the disappearances of several children in the prior week . A council worker named Kel also mentions that cars have been breaking down momentarily for the same period . The Doctor and Rose investigate and realise that the source of the problems is a solitary 12 @-@ year @-@ old girl named Chloe Webber . She has the unique ability to cause people to disappear by drawing them . The Doctor hypnotises Chloe and finds out that she is possessed by an immature Isolus , an alien life @-@ form that travels through space with a family of billions . This particular Isolus crashed its pod to Earth due to a solar flare . The Isolus relates to and befriends Chloe , who had a troubled childhood . The Isolus has also caused Chloe to draw a life @-@ sized , exaggerated figure of her late father , who is strongly implied to have abused Chloe when he was alive .
The Doctor explains that if they can find the Isolus pod and provide it power , the alien will leave Chloe . A frantic Chloe draws the TARDIS and the Doctor , trapping them both in one of her sketches and forcing Rose to try to find the pod herself . She rationalises that the pod is located on the hottest spot on the street , a patch of freshly laid tar , and is able to dig it up . Meanwhile , Chloe has caused the entire crowd at the Olympic stadium to disappear and now is set on making everyone in the world disappear . Rose tries to find out how to power the pod , and uses visual indications from the Doctor 's picture to understand that the pod needs heat mixed with emotion . Rose throws the pod towards the Olympic Torch - a symbol of hope , courage , and love - as it passes down the street . The missing children and the crowd at the Olympics reappear , and Rose realises that the drawing Chloe had made of her father will similarly come to life . Rose and Chloe 's mother are able to calm Chloe by singing the Kookaburra song , causing the unseen monster - having fed off of Chloe 's emotions and fears - to disappear .
As the torch bearer approaches the Olympic Stadium he collapses , and the Doctor promptly and suddenly appears , picks up the torch , and completes the run to light the Olympic Flame . The heat of the flame and the emotion of the crowd power the pod , allowing the Isolus to leave Chloe and return home . The Doctor and Rose walk off to watch the games , and Rose remarks that nothing will ever split the two of them up . The Doctor becomes uneasy and muses that a storm is approaching .
= = = Continuity = = =
Torchwood is again mentioned , by commentator Huw Edwards after the Olympic crowd disappears . The Doctor again invokes the Shadow Proclamation , the intergalactic police force first mentioned in " Rose " . The Doctor mentions that his dislike of cats stems from being " threatened by one in a nun 's wimple " , a reference to the events of " New Earth " . In a bit of non @-@ series continuity , The Doctor asks Chloe to identify a Vulcan salute , then uses a Vulcan mind meld to put Chloe into a trance that allows communication with the Isolus within her .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Fear Her " was an overcommissioned episode , which replaced a planned but unproduced script by Stephen Fry . Writer Matthew Graham was told by showrunner Russell T Davies that it was going to be an inexpensive episode and had to take place on a housing estate , but Graham was nevertheless thrilled to be asked to write an episode . Graham stated in 2011 that they " set out to do right from the start " making the episode more aimed at children , rather than adults and older Doctor Who fans , as the much darker finale would be broadcast following it . Davies specifically asked Graham to write for his seven @-@ year @-@ old son .
Graham originally suggested a story about a man who had the ability to drain Earth of its beauty , but Davies preferred his own idea about the eerie nature of paintings or illustration . The Isolus was inspired by the villains in the 1978 film Invasion of the Body Snatchers . Early drafts of this episode were titled " Chloe Webber Destroys the Earth " , and later , " You 're a Bad Girl , Chloe Webber " , with one such draft having the episode take place on another planet . Both of these titles were rejected by Davies as they were too long .
= = = Casting and filming = = =
Dame Kelly Holmes , who was mentioned in the episode , was considered for the part of the torchbearer , but was committed to Dancing On Ice at the time . Nina Sosanya and Abdul Salis had both appeared in the 2003 film Love Actually . Abisola Agbaje , who portrayed Chloe , was discovered at an after @-@ school drama club , where casting director Andy Pryor had held auditions for the part . Agbaje had to play both Chloe 's normal character and her character while being possessed by the Isolus , which Agbaje felt was " weird " . When performing as the Isolus she had to whisper , and an echo was added in post @-@ production . Agbaje found it " a bit hard to whisper " because she had a husky voice . A hand double for Agbaje drew the pictures , while the series ' storyboarder Shaun Williams drew the father in the cupboard .
Due to Fry 's script being dropped , production of some episodes of the second series had to be rescheduled , with " Fear Her " being produced alongside " The Idiot 's Lantern " . The episode was filmed during late January and early February 2006 , with the cold temperatures experienced during filming being explained in the plot as part of the Isolus ' endothermic nature . The majority of the episode , including exterior shots and Chloe 's home , was filmed in the Tremorfa area of Cardiff , with a majority of the remainder filmed in the Doctor Who studios in Newport . A storage yard by the Rhymney River off Newport Road in Cardiff was used for the location the TARDIS lands in . The Millennium Stadium in Cardiff was used for the Olympic Stadium .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" Fear Her " was broadcast in the United Kingdom on BBC One on 24 June 2006 . Overnight UK figures for the first broadcast of " Fear Her " was 6 @.@ 6 million viewers , with a 39 @.@ 7 % audience share . Final consolidated ratings rose to 7 @.@ 14 million , making it the twelfth most @-@ watched programme on the channel for the week . The episode received an Appreciation Index of 83 .
Graham was happy with the episode himself and received letters from " loads of kids " who enjoyed it . When discovering that older fans had reacted negatively , he thought , " Well , it 's a shame that they have , but it wasn 't meant for them " . IGN 's Ahsan Haque gave the episode a 5 out of 10 rating , calling it " flat and formulaic " and everything about it was " slightly underwhelming " , though he thought what did work was the mother @-@ daughter teamwork at the end . He also noted " annoying self @-@ aggrandizing moments that made no sense and served only to make the episode feel unnecessarily campy " , such as the audience disappearing from the stadium and the Doctor carrying the torch . Comparing the episode to " The Idiot 's Lantern " in terms of plot , he felt that the latter was " far more entertaining " and that " Fear Her " lacked originality and humour . Dave Bradley of SFX awarded " Fear Her " three out of five stars , describing the plot as " ordinary " but thought it was " a decent breather before grander adventures to come " . He particularly praised the dialogue and thought " the claustrophobic effect of limiting the action to one household works " . Arnold T Blumburg , writing for Now Playing , gave the episode a grade of B + . He felt that the guest cast were " only just adequate " and that the story " plods along in places " , but the story worked because of the " delightful " interactions between the Doctor and Rose and the feel @-@ good ending .
In 2011 , SFX published an article stating arguments for and against the episode . The " Defence " stated that , while some minor roles were played " broadly " , Nina Sosanya and Abisola Agbaje were " extremely good " , and opined that the unusual things happening in a typical housing estate and the lack of appearance from a monster were effective . The " Prosecution " , on the other hand , described it as a " cheap filler " with a " cheesy " finale and called the lack of a monster a " severe disappointment " . Topless Robot named it the third worst Tenth Doctor episode . In a poll conducted by Doctor Who Magazine in 2009 which asked readers to rank all 200 stories that had been released , " Fear Her " fell at 192 out of 200 , making it the lowest ranked story of the revived series . In another poll conducted by Doctor Who Magazine in 2014 asking readers to rank every story that has been broadcast in the first 50 years of the show , " Fear Her " fell to 240 out of 241 making it not only the lowest ranked story of the revived series , but the second lowest ranked story of all time , just coming above The Twin Dilemma .
= = = Reviews = = =
" Fear Her " reviews at The Doctor Who Ratings Guide
= Copper =
Copper is a chemical element with symbol Cu ( from Latin : cuprum ) and atomic number 29 . It is a soft , malleable and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity . A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a reddish @-@ orange color . It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity , as a building material and as a constituent of various metal alloys , such as Sterling silver used in jewelry , cupronickel used to make marine hardware and coins and constantan used in strain gauges and thermocouples for temperature measurement .
Copper is found as a pure metal in nature , and this was the first source of the metal to be used by humans , ca . 8 @,@ 000 BC . It was the first metal to be smelted from its ore , ca . 5 @,@ 000 BC , the first metal to be cast into a shape in a mold , ca . 4 @,@ 000 BC and the first metal to be purposefully alloyed with another metal , tin , to create bronze , ca . 3 @,@ 500 BC .
In the Roman era , copper was principally mined on Cyprus , the origin of the name of the metal , from aes сyprium ( metal of Cyprus ) , later corrupted to сuprum , from which the words copper ( English ) , cuivre ( French ) , Koper ( Dutch ) and Kupfer ( German ) are all derived . The commonly encountered compounds are copper ( II ) salts , which often impart blue or green colors to such minerals as azurite , malachite , and turquoise , and have been used widely and historically as pigments . Architectural structures built with copper ( usually roofing elements ) corrode to give green verdigris ( or patina ) . Decorative art prominently features copper , both in the elemental metal and in compounds as pigments . Copper compounds are also used as bacteriostatic agents , fungicides , and wood preservatives .
Copper is essential to all living organisms as a trace dietary mineral because it is a key constituent of the respiratory enzyme complex cytochrome c oxidase . In molluscs and crustacea copper is a constituent of the blood pigment hemocyanin , replaced by the iron @-@ complexed hemoglobin in fish and other vertebrates . In humans , copper is found mainly in the liver , muscle , and bone . The adult body contains between 1 @.@ 4 and 2 @.@ 1 mg of copper per kilogram of body weight . Hence a healthy human weighing 60 kilogram contains approximately 0 @.@ 1 g of copper . However , this small amount is essential to the overall human well @-@ being .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical = = =
Copper , silver and gold are in group 11 of the periodic table , and they share certain attributes : they have one s @-@ orbital electron on top of a filled d @-@ electron shell and are characterized by high ductility and electrical and thermal conductivity . The filled d @-@ shells in these elements contribute little to interatomic interactions , which are dominated by the s @-@ electrons through metallic bonds . Unlike metals with incomplete d @-@ shells , metallic bonds in copper are lacking a covalent character and are relatively weak . This observation explains the low hardness and high ductility of single crystals of copper . At the macroscopic scale , introduction of extended defects to the crystal lattice , such as grain boundaries , hinders flow of the material under applied stress , thereby increasing its hardness . For this reason , copper is usually supplied in a fine @-@ grained polycrystalline form , which has greater strength than monocrystalline forms .
The softness of copper partly explains its high electrical conductivity ( 59 @.@ 6 × 106 S / m ) and high thermal conductivity , the second highest ( second only to silver ) among pure metals at room temperature . This is because the resistivity to electron transport in metals at room temperature originates primarily from scattering of electrons on thermal vibrations of the lattice , which are relatively weak in a soft metal . The maximum permissible current density of copper in open air is approximately 3 @.@ 1 × 106 A / m2 of cross @-@ sectional area , above which it begins to heat excessively .
Copper is one of four metallic elements with a natural color other than gray or silver , the others being caesium ( yellow ) , gold ( yellow ) , and osmium ( bluish ) . Pure copper is orange @-@ red and acquires a reddish tarnish when exposed to air . The characteristic color of copper results from the electronic transitions between the filled 3d and half @-@ empty 4s atomic shells – the energy difference between these shells corresponds to orange light . The same mechanism causes the yellow color of gold and caesium .
As with other metals , if copper is put in contact with another metal , galvanic corrosion will occur .
= = = Chemical = = =
Copper does not react with water but it does slowly react with atmospheric oxygen to form a layer of brown @-@ black copper oxide which , unlike the rust that forms on iron in moist air , protects the underlying metal from further corrosion ( passivation ) . A green layer of verdigris ( copper carbonate ) can often be seen on old copper structures , such as the roofing of many older buildings and the Statue of Liberty . Copper tarnishes when exposed to some sulfur compounds , with which it reacts to form various copper sulfides .
= = = Isotopes = = =
There are 29 isotopes of copper . 63Cu and 65Cu are stable , with 63Cu comprising approximately 69 % of naturally occurring copper ; both have a spin of 3 ⁄ 2 . The other isotopes are radioactive , with the most stable being 67Cu with a half @-@ life of 61 @.@ 83 hours . Seven metastable isotopes have been characterized ; 68mCu is the longest @-@ lived with a half @-@ life of 3 @.@ 8 minutes . Isotopes with a mass number above 64 decay by β − , whereas those with a mass number below 64 decay by β + . 64Cu , which has a half @-@ life of 12 @.@ 7 hours , decays both ways .
62Cu and 64Cu have significant applications . 62Cu is used in 62Cu @-@ PTSM as a radioactive tracer for positron emission tomography .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Copper is produced in massive stars and is present in the Earth 's crust in a proportion of about 50 parts per million ( ppm ) . It occurs as native copper , in the copper sulfides chalcopyrite and chalcocite , in the copper carbonates azurite and malachite , and in the copper ( I ) oxide mineral cuprite . The largest mass of elemental copper discovered weighed 420 tonnes and was found in 1857 on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan , US . Native copper is a polycrystal , with the largest single crystal ever described measuring 4 @.@ 4 × 3 @.@ 2 × 3 @.@ 2 cm .
= = Production = =
Most copper is mined or extracted as copper sulfides from large open pit mines in porphyry copper deposits that contain 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 % copper . Sites include Chuquicamata in Chile , Bingham Canyon Mine in Utah , United States and El Chino Mine in New Mexico , United States . According to the British Geological Survey in 2005 , Chile was the top producer of copper with at least one @-@ third world share followed by the United States , Indonesia and Peru . Copper can also be recovered through the in @-@ situ leach process . Several sites in the state of Arizona are considered prime candidates for this method . The amount of copper in use is increasing and the quantity available is barely sufficient to allow all countries to reach developed world levels of usage .
= = = Reserves = = =
Copper has been in use at least 10 @,@ 000 years , but more than 95 % of all copper ever mined and smelted has been extracted since 1900 , and more than half was extracted the last 24 years . As with many natural resources , the total amount of copper on Earth is vast , with around 1014 tons in the top kilometer of Earth 's crust , which is about 5 million years ' worth at the current rate of extraction . However , only a tiny fraction of these reserves is economically viable with present @-@ day prices and technologies . Estimates of copper reserves available for mining vary from 25 years to 60 years , depending on core assumptions such as the growth rate . Recycling is a major source of copper in the modern world . Because of these and other factors , the future of copper production and supply is the subject of much debate , including the concept of peak copper , analogous to peak oil .
The price of copper has historically been unstable , and it sextupled from the 60 @-@ year low of US $ 0 @.@ 60 / lb ( US $ 1 @.@ 32 / kg ) in June 1999 to US $ 3 @.@ 75 per pound ( US $ 8 @.@ 27 / kg ) in May 2006 . It dropped to US $ 2 @.@ 40 / lb ( US $ 5 @.@ 29 / kg ) in February 2007 , then rebounded to US $ 3 @.@ 50 / lb ( US $ 7 @.@ 71 / kg ) in April 2007 . In February 2009 , weakening global demand and a steep fall in commodity prices since the previous year 's highs left copper prices at US $ 1 @.@ 51 / lb ( US $ 3 @.@ 32 / kg ) .
= = = Methods = = =
The concentration of copper in ores averages only 0 @.@ 6 % , and most commercial ores are sulfides , especially chalcopyrite ( CuFeS2 ) and to a lesser extent chalcocite ( Cu2S ) . These minerals are concentrated from crushed ores to the level of 10 – 15 % copper by froth flotation or bioleaching . Heating this material with silica in flash smelting removes much of the iron as slag . The process exploits the greater ease of converting iron sulfides into oxides , which in turn react with the silica to form the silicate slag that floats on top of the heated mass . The resulting copper matte , consisting of Cu2S , is roasted to convert all sulfides into oxides :
2 Cu2S + 3 O2 → 2 Cu2O + 2 SO2
The cuprous oxide is converted to blister copper upon heating :
2 Cu2O → 4 Cu + O2
The Sudbury matte process converted only half the sulfide to oxide and then used this oxide to remove the rest of the sulfur as oxide . It was then electrolytically refined and the anode mud exploited for the platinum and gold it contained . This step exploits the relatively easy reduction of copper oxides to copper metal . Natural gas is blown across the blister to remove most of the remaining oxygen and electrorefining is performed on the resulting material to produce pure copper :
Cu2 + + 2 e − → Cu
= = = Recycling = = =
Like aluminium , copper is 100 % recyclable without any loss of quality , both from raw state and from manufactured products . In volume , copper is the third most recycled metal after iron and aluminium . An estimated 80 % of all copper ever mined is still in use today . According to the International Resource Panel 's Metal Stocks in Society report , the global per capita stock of copper in use in society is 35 – 55 kg . Much of this is in more @-@ developed countries ( 140 – 300 kg per capita ) rather than less @-@ developed countries ( 30 – 40 kg per capita ) .
The process of recycling copper is roughly the same as is used to extract copper but requires fewer steps . High @-@ purity scrap copper is melted in a furnace and then reduced and cast into billets and ingots ; lower @-@ purity scrap is refined by electroplating in a bath of sulfuric acid .
= = Alloys = =
Numerous copper alloys have been formulated , many with important uses . Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc . Bronze usually refers to copper @-@ tin alloys , but can refer to any alloy of copper such as aluminium bronze . Copper is one of the most important constituents of silver and carat gold and carat solders used in the jewelry industry , modifying the color , hardness and melting point of the resulting alloys . Some lead @-@ free solders consist of tin alloyed with a small proportion of copper and other metals .
The alloy of copper and nickel , called cupronickel , is used in low @-@ denomination coins , often for the outer cladding . The US 5 @-@ cent coin ( currently called a nickel ) consists of 75 % copper and 25 % nickel in homogeneous composition . The alloy of 90 % copper and 10 % nickel , remarkable for its resistance to corrosion , is used for various objects exposed to seawater , though it is vulnerable to the sulfides sometimes found in polluted harbors and estuaries . Alloys of copper with aluminium ( about 7 % ) have a pleasant golden color and are used in decorations . Shakudō is a Japanese decorative alloy of copper containing a low percentage of gold , typically 4 @-@ 10 % , that can be patinated to a dark blue or black colour .
= = Compounds = =
Copper forms a rich variety of compounds , usually with oxidation states + 1 and + 2 , which are often called cuprous and cupric , respectively .
= = = Binary compounds = = =
As with other elements , the simplest compounds of copper are binary compounds , i.e. those containing only two elements , the principal examples being oxides , sulfides , and halides . Both cuprous and cupric oxides are known . Among the numerous copper sulfides , important examples include copper ( I ) sulfide and copper ( II ) sulfide .
Cuprous halides ( with chlorine , bromine , and iodine ) are known , as are cupric halides with fluorine , chlorine , and bromine . Attempts to prepare copper ( II ) iodide yield only cuprous iodide and iodine .
2 Cu2 + + 4 I − → 2 CuI + I2
= = = Coordination chemistry = = =
Copper forms coordination complexes with ligands . In aqueous solution , copper ( II ) exists as [ Cu ( H2O ) 6 ] 2 + . This complex exhibits the fastest water exchange rate ( speed of water ligands attaching and detaching ) for any transition metal aquo complex . Adding aqueous sodium hydroxide causes the precipitation of light blue solid copper ( II ) hydroxide . A simplified equation is :
Cu2 + + 2 OH − → Cu ( OH ) 2
Aqueous ammonia results in the same precipitate . Upon adding excess ammonia , the precipitate dissolves , forming tetraamminecopper ( II ) :
Cu ( H2O ) 4 ( OH ) 2 + 4 NH3 → [ Cu ( H2O ) 2 ( NH3 ) 4 ] 2 + + 2 H2O + 2 OH −
Many other oxyanions form complexes ; these include copper ( II ) acetate , copper ( II ) nitrate , and copper ( II ) carbonate . Copper ( II ) sulfate forms a blue crystalline pentahydrate , the most familiar copper compound in the laboratory . It is used in a fungicide called the Bordeaux mixture .
Polyols , compounds containing more than one alcohol functional group , generally interact with cupric salts . For example , copper salts are used to test for reducing sugars . Specifically , using Benedict 's reagent and Fehling 's solution the presence of the sugar is signaled by a color change from blue Cu ( II ) to reddish copper ( I ) oxide . Schweizer 's reagent and related complexes with ethylenediamine and other amines dissolve cellulose . Amino acids form very stable chelate complexes with copper ( II ) . Many wet @-@ chemical tests for copper ions exist , one involving potassium ferrocyanide , which gives a brown precipitate with copper ( II ) salts .
= = = Organocopper chemistry = = =
Compounds that contain a carbon @-@ copper bond are known as organocopper compounds . They are very reactive towards oxygen to form copper ( I ) oxide and have many uses in chemistry . They are synthesized by treating copper ( I ) compounds with Grignard reagents , terminal alkynes or organolithium reagents ; in particular , the last reaction described produces a Gilman reagent . These can undergo substitution with alkyl halides to form coupling products ; as such , they are important in the field of organic synthesis . Copper ( I ) acetylide is highly shock @-@ sensitive but is an intermediate in reactions such as the Cadiot @-@ Chodkiewicz coupling and the Sonogashira coupling . Conjugate addition to enones and carbocupration of alkynes can also be achieved with organocopper compounds . Copper ( I ) forms a variety of weak complexes with alkenes and carbon monoxide , especially in the presence of amine ligands .
= = = Copper ( III ) and copper ( IV ) = = =
Copper ( III ) is most often found in oxides . A simple example is potassium cuprate , KCuO2 , a blue @-@ black solid . The most extensively studied copper ( III ) compounds are the cuprate superconductors . Yttrium barium copper oxide ( YBa2Cu3O7 ) consists of both Cu ( II ) and Cu ( III ) centres . Like oxide , fluoride is a highly basic anion and is known to stabilize metal ions in high oxidation states . Both copper ( III ) and even copper ( IV ) fluorides are known , K3CuF6 and Cs2CuF6 , respectively .
Some copper proteins form oxo complexes , which also feature copper ( III ) . With tetrapeptides , purple @-@ colored copper ( III ) complexes are stabilized by the deprotonated amide ligands .
Complexes of copper ( III ) are also found as intermediates in reactions of organocopper compounds .
= = History = =
= = = Copper Age = = =
Copper occurs naturally as native metallic copper and was known to some of the oldest civilizations on record . The history of copper use is at least 11 @,@ 000 years old , estimated to have begun in 9000 BC in the Middle East ; a copper pendant was found in northern Iraq that dates to 8700 BC . Evidence suggests that gold and meteoric iron ( but not iron smelting ) were the only metals used by humans before copper . The history of copper metallurgy is thought to follow this sequence : 1 ) cold working of native copper , 2 ) annealing , 3 ) smelting , and 4 ) the lost wax casting . In southeastern Anatolia , all four of these techniques appear more or less simultaneously at the beginning of the Neolithic c . 7500 BC .
Just as agriculture was independently invented in several parts of the world , copper smelting was independently invented in different places . It was probably discovered in China before 2800 BC , in Central America perhaps around 600 AD , and in West Africa about the 9th or 10th century AD . Investment casting was invented in 4500 – 4000 BC in Southeast Asia and carbon dating has established mining at Alderley Edge in Cheshire , UK at 2280 to 1890 BC . Ötzi the Iceman , a male dated from 3300 – 3200 BC , was found with an axe with a copper head 99 @.@ 7 % pure ; high levels of arsenic in his hair suggest his involvement in copper smelting . Experience with copper has assisted the development of other metals ; in particular , copper smelting led to the discovery of iron smelting . Production in the Old Copper Complex in Michigan and Wisconsin is dated between 6000 and 3000 BC . Natural bronze , a type of copper made from ores rich in silicon , arsenic , and ( rarely ) tin , came into general use in the Balkans around 5500 BC .
= = = Bronze Age = = =
Alloying copper with tin to make bronze was first practiced about 4000 years after the discovery of copper smelting , and about 2000 years after " natural bronze " had come into general use . Bronze artifacts from the Vinča culture date to 4500 BC . Sumerian and Egyptian artifacts of copper and bronze alloys date to 3000 BC . The Bronze Age began in Southeastern Europe around 3700 – 3300 BC , in Northwestern Europe about 2500 BC . It ended with the beginning of the Iron Age , 2000 – 1000 BC in the Near East , and 600 BC in Northern Europe . The transition between the Neolithic period and the Bronze Age was formerly termed the Chalcolithic period ( copper @-@ stone ) , when copper tools were used with stone tools . The term has gradually fallen out of favor because in some parts of the world , the Chalcolithic and Neolithic are coterminous at both ends . Brass , an alloy of copper and zinc , is of much more recent origin . It was known to the Greeks , but became a significant supplement to bronze during the Roman Empire .
= = = Antiquity and Middle Ages = = =
In Greece , copper was known by the name chalkos ( χαλκός ) . It was an important resource for the Romans , Greeks and other ancient peoples . In Roman times , it was known as aes Cyprium , aes being the generic Latin term for copper alloys and Cyprium from Cyprus , where much copper was mined . The phrase was simplified to cuprum , hence the English copper . Aphrodite ( Venus in Rome ) represented copper in mythology and alchemy because of its lustrous beauty and its ancient use in producing mirrors ; Cyprus was sacred to the goddess . The seven heavenly bodies known to the ancients were associated with the seven metals known in antiquity , and Venus was assigned to copper .
Britain first used brass in about the 3rd or 2nd Century BC . In North America , copper mining began with marginal workings by Native Americans . Native copper is known to have been extracted from sites on Isle Royale with primitive stone tools between 800 and 1600 . Copper metallurgy was flourishing in South America , particularly in Peru around 1000 AD . Copper burial ornamentals from the 15th century have been uncovered , but the metal 's commercial production did not start until the early 20th century .
The cultural role of copper has been important , particularly in currency . Romans in the 6th through 3rd centuries BC used copper lumps as money . At first , the copper itself was valued , but gradually the shape and look of the copper became more important . Julius Caesar had his own coins made from brass , while Octavianus Augustus Caesar 's coins were made from Cu @-@ Pb @-@ Sn alloys . With an estimated annual output of around 15 @,@ 000 t , Roman copper mining and smelting activities reached a scale unsurpassed until the time of the Industrial Revolution ; the provinces most intensely mined were those of Hispania , Cyprus and in Central Europe .
The gates of the Temple of Jerusalem used Corinthian bronze treated with depletion gilding . The process was most prevalent in Alexandria , where alchemy is thought to have begun . In ancient India , copper was used in the holistic medical science Ayurveda for surgical instruments and other medical equipment . Ancient Egyptians ( ~ 2400 BC ) used copper for sterilizing wounds and drinking water , and later to treat headaches , burns , and itching .
= = = Modern period = = =
The Great Copper Mountain was a mine in Falun , Sweden , that operated from the 10th century to 1992 . It satisfied two thirds of Europe 's copper consumption in the 17th century and helped fund many of Sweden 's wars during that time . It was referred to as the nation 's treasury ; Sweden had a copper backed currency .
Copper was used in roofing , currency , Renaissance sculpture , photographic technology known as the daguerreotype , the Statue of Liberty , and other structures . Copper plating and copper sheathing was widely used in the hulls of ships , of which the ships of Christopher Columbus were among the earliest . The Norddeutsche Affinerie in Hamburg was the first modern electroplating plant starting its production in 1876 . The German scientist Gottfried Osann invented powder metallurgy in 1830 while determining the metal 's atomic mass ; around then it was discovered that the amount and type of alloying element ( e.g. , tin ) to copper would affect bell tones . Flash smelting was developed by Outokumpu in Finland and first applied at Harjavalta in 1949 ; the energy @-@ efficient process accounts for 50 % of the world 's primary copper production .
The Intergovernmental Council of Copper Exporting Countries , formed in 1967 by Chile , Peru , Zaire and Zambia , operated in the copper market as OPEC does in oil , though it never achieved the same influence , particularly because the second @-@ largest producer , the United States , was never a member ; it was dissolved in 1988 .
= = Applications = =
The major applications of copper are electrical wire ( 60 % ) , roofing and plumbing ( 20 % ) , and industrial machinery ( 15 % ) . Copper is used mostly as a pure metal , but when greater hardness is required , it is put into such alloys as brass and bronze ( 5 % of total use ) . For more than two centuries , copper paint has been used on boat hulls to control the growth of plants and shellfish . A small part of the copper supply is used for nutritional supplements and fungicides in agriculture . Machining of copper is possible , although alloys are preferred for good machinability in creating intricate parts .
= = = Wire and cable = = =
Despite competition from other materials , copper remains the preferred electrical conductor in nearly all categories of electrical wiring except overhead electric power transmission where aluminium is often preferred . Copper wire is used in power generation , power transmission , power distribution , telecommunications , electronics circuitry , and countless types of electrical equipment . Electrical wiring is the most important market for the copper industry . This includes structural power wiring , power distribution cable , appliance wire , communications cable , automotive wire and cable , and magnet wire . Roughly half of all copper mined is used for electrical wire and cable conductors . Many electrical devices rely on copper wiring because of its multitude of inherent beneficial properties , such as its high electrical conductivity , tensile strength , ductility , creep ( deformation ) resistance , corrosion resistance , low thermal expansion , high thermal conductivity , ease of soldering , malleability , and ease of installation .
For a short period from the late 1960s to the late 1970s , copper wiring was replaced by aluminum in many housing construction projects in America ( see Aluminum wire for main article ) . The new wiring was implicated in a number of house fires and the industry returned to copper .
= = = Electronics and related devices = = =
Integrated circuits and printed circuit boards increasingly feature copper in place of aluminium because of its superior electrical conductivity ( see Copper interconnect for main article ) ; heat sinks and heat exchangers use copper because of its superior heat dissipation properties . Electromagnets , vacuum tubes , cathode ray tubes , and magnetrons in microwave ovens use copper , as do wave guides for microwave radiation .
= = = Electric motors = = =
Copper 's superior conductivity enhances the efficiency of electrical motors . This is important because motors and motor @-@ driven systems account for 43 % -46 % of all global electricity consumption and 69 % of all electricity used by industry . Increasing the mass and cross section of copper in a coil increases the efficiency of the motor . Copper motor rotors , a new technology designed for motor applications where energy savings are prime design objectives , are enabling general @-@ purpose induction motors to meet and exceed National Electrical Manufacturers Association ( NEMA ) premium efficiency standards .
= = = Architecture = = =
Copper has been used since ancient times as a durable , corrosion resistant , and weatherproof architectural material . Roofs , flashings , rain gutters , downspouts , domes , spires , vaults , and doors have been made from copper for hundreds or thousands of years . Copper 's architectural use has been expanded in modern times to include interior and exterior wall cladding , building expansion joints , radio frequency shielding , and antimicrobial and decorative indoor products such as attractive handrails , bathroom fixtures , and counter tops . Some of copper 's other important benefits as an architectural material include low thermal movement , light weight , lightning protection , and recyclability .
The metal 's distinctive natural green patina has long been coveted by architects and designers . The final patina is a particularly durable layer that is highly resistant to atmospheric corrosion , thereby protecting the underlying metal against further weathering . It can be a mixture of carbonate and sulfate compounds in various amounts , depending upon environmental conditions such as sulfur @-@ containing acid rain . Architectural copper and its alloys can also be ' finished ' to embark a particular look , feel , and / or color . Finishes include mechanical surface treatments , chemical coloring , and coatings .
Copper has excellent brazing and soldering properties and can be welded ; the best results are obtained with gas metal arc welding .
= = = Antibiofouling applications = = =
Copper is biostatic , meaning bacteria and many other forms of life will not grow on it . For this reason it has long been used to line parts of ships to protect against barnacles and mussels . It was originally used pure , but has since been superseded by Muntz metal and copper @-@ based paint . Similarly , as discussed in copper alloys in aquaculture , copper alloys have become important netting materials in the aquaculture industry because they are antimicrobial and prevent biofouling , even in extreme conditions and have strong structural and corrosion @-@ resistant properties in marine environments .
= = = Antimicrobial applications = = =
Copper @-@ alloy touch surfaces have natural properties that destroy a wide range of microorganisms ( e.g. , E. coli O157 : H7 , methicillin @-@ resistant Staphylococcus aureus ( MRSA ) , Staphylococcus , Clostridium difficile , influenza A virus , adenovirus , and fungi ) . Some 355 copper alloys were proven to kill more than 99 @.@ 9 % of disease @-@ causing bacteria within just two hours when cleaned regularly . The United States Environmental Protection Agency ( EPA ) has approved the registrations of these copper alloys as " antimicrobial materials with public health benefits " ; that approval allows manufacturers to make legal claims to the public health benefits of products made of registered alloys . In addition , the EPA has approved a long list of antimicrobial copper products made from these alloys , such as bedrails , handrails , over @-@ bed tables , sinks , faucets , door knobs , toilet hardware , computer keyboards , health club equipment , and shopping cart handles ( for a comprehensive list , see : Antimicrobial copper @-@ alloy touch surfaces # Approved products ) . Copper doorknobs are used by hospitals to reduce the transfer of disease , and Legionnaires ' disease is suppressed by copper tubing in plumbing systems . Antimicrobial copper alloy products are now being installed in healthcare facilities in the U.K. , Ireland , Japan , Korea , France , Denmark , and Brazil and in the subway transit system in Santiago , Chile , where copper @-@ zinc alloy handrails will be installed in some 30 stations between 2011 – 2014 .
= = = Folk medicine = = =
Copper is commonly used in jewelry , and according to some folklore , copper bracelets relieve arthritis symptoms . In various studies , though , no difference is found between arthritis treated with a copper bracelet , magnetic bracelet , or placebo bracelet . Medical science has not demonstrated any benefits in copper jewelry for any medical condition . A human being can have a dietary copper deficiency , but the condition is very rare because copper is present in many common foods , including legumes ( beans ) , grains , and nuts .
No evidence shows that copper can be absorbed through the skin . If it were , it might lead to copper poisoning .
= = = = Compression clothing = = = =
Recently , some compression clothing with inter @-@ woven copper has been marketed with the same folk medicine claims . Because compression clothing is a valid treatment for some ailments , the clothing may appear to work , but the added copper may have no benefit beyond a placebo effect .
= = = Other uses = = =
Solutions of copper compounds are used as a wood preservative , particularly in treating the original portion of structures during restoration of dry rot damage . Together with zinc , copper wires may be installed over non @-@ conductive roofing materials to discourage the growth of moss . Textile fibers are blended with copper to create antimicrobial protective fabrics . Copper alloys are used in musical instruments , particularly : the body of brass instruments ; circuitry for all those that are electronically amplified ; the bodies of brass percussion such as gongs , bells , and kettle drums ; the metallic reeds of harmonicas , reed organs , and accordions ; tuning heads on guitars and other string instruments ; string windings on harps , pianos , harpsichords , and string instruments ; and the frame elements of pianos and harps . Copper is commonly used as a base on which other metals such as nickel are electroplated .
Copper is one of three metals , along with lead and silver , used in the museum materials testing procedure called the Oddy test to detect chlorides , oxides , and sulfur compounds .
Copper is used as the printing plate in etching , engraving and other forms of intaglio printmaking .
Copper oxide and carbonate are used add color in stain glass works , in glassmaking , and in ceramic glazes to impart turquoise blue , green , and brown colors .
= = Degradation = =
Chromobacterium violaceum and Pseudomonas fluorescens can both mobilize solid copper as a cyanide compound . The ericoid mycorrhizal fungi associated with Calluna , Erica and Vaccinium can grow in metalliferous soils containing copper . The ectomycorrhizal fungus Suillus luteus protects young pine trees from copper toxicity . A sample of the fungus Aspergillus niger was found growing from gold mining solution and was found to contain cyano complexes of such metals as gold , silver , copper , iron , and zinc . The fungus also plays a role in the solubilization of heavy metal sulfides .
= = Biological role = =
Copper proteins have diverse roles in biological electron transport and oxygen transportation , processes that exploit the easy interconversion of Cu ( I ) and Cu ( II ) . The biological role for copper commenced with the appearance of oxygen in earth 's atmosphere .
Copper is essential in the aerobic respiration of all eukaryotes . In mitochondria it is found in cytochrome c oxidase , which is the last protein in oxidative phosphorylation . Cytochrome c oxidase is the protein that binds the O2 between a copper and an iron ; the protein transfers 8 electrons to the O2 molecule to reduce it to two molecules of water .
Copper is also found in many superoxide dismutases , proteins that catalyze the decomposition of superoxides by converting it ( by disproportionation ) to oxygen and hydrogen peroxide :
2 HO2 → H2O2 + O2
The protein hemocyanin is the oxygen carrier in most mollusks and some arthropods such as the horseshoe crab ( Limulus polyphemus ) . Because hemocyanin is blue , these organisms have blue blood rather than the red blood of iron @-@ based hemoglobin . Structurally related to hemocyanin are the laccases and tyrosinases . Instead of reversibly binding oxygen , these proteins hydroxylate substrates , illustrated by their role in the formation of lacquers .
Several copper proteins , such as the " blue copper proteins " , do not interact directly with substrates , hence they are not enzymes . These proteins relay electrons by the process called electron transfer .
A unique tetranuclear copper center has been found in nitrous @-@ oxide reductase .
= = = Dietary needs = = =
Copper is an essential trace element in plants and animals , but not all microorganisms . The human body contains copper at a level of about 1 @.@ 4 to 2 @.@ 1 mg per kg of body mass . Copper is absorbed in the gut , then transported to the liver bound to albumin . After processing in the liver , copper is distributed to other tissues in a second phase , which involves the protein ceruloplasmin , carrying the majority of copper in blood . Ceruloplasmin also carries the copper that is excreted in milk , and is particularly well @-@ absorbed as a copper source . Copper in the body normally undergoes enterohepatic circulation ( about 5 mg a day , vs. about 1 mg per day absorbed in the diet and excreted from the body ) , and the body is able to excrete some excess copper , if needed , via bile , which carries some copper out of the liver that is not then reabsorbed by the intestine .
= = = Dietary reference intake = = =
The Food and Nutrition Board of the U.S. Institute of Medicine updated Estimated Average Requirements ( EARs ) and Recommended Dietary Allowances ( RDAs ) for copper in 2001 . The current EAR for copper for people ages 14 and up is 0 @.@ 7 mg / day . The RDA is 0 @.@ 9 mg / day . RDAs are higher than EARs so as
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right looks similar to Pyramid Head .
= = = In other media = = =
Pyramid Head makes an appearance in the 2006 film adaptation of Silent Hill as " Red Pyramid " , and is portrayed by Roberto Campanella . In the film , the psyche of the female characters shaped the character 's physical appearance . Gans claimed that replicating the character 's head exactly and having the actor move while wearing it proved to be impractical ; he noted that , despite the name , Pyramid Head actually wore " a basin " instead of a triangle @-@ shaped head . Red Pyramid 's sword and head were constructed out of lightweight material painted to appear heavy . For the role , Campanella wore a " five @-@ part prosthetic " ; it took two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half to three hours to get him into costume and make @-@ up . His boots had a hidden 15 @-@ inch ( 38 cm ) sole which made him just under 7 feet ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) tall . Patrick Tatopoulos , who worked on the make @-@ up effects and monsters , enjoyed the project of designing the character . According to him , Red Pyramid serves as a symbol of the town 's darkness and harbinger of its changed character . Gans considered the monsters of the film " a mockery of human beings " , and commented : " The real monsters are the people , the cultists who tortured Alessa . When I approached the film , I knew that it was impossible to represent the monsters as simply beasts that jump on you . "
In the 2012 film Silent Hill : Revelation 3D , the Pyramid Head , once more portrayed by Roberto Campanella , is both a monster and a guardian . More than once , it saves Sharon from the forces of Silent Hill . This is explained by its loyalty to Alessa : since Heather is the good half of Alessa 's soul , it sees them as the same being and is thus bound to protect both from harm . Pyramid Head is also seen controlling the carousel where Heather and Alessa face off against each other , then it kills the cult leader Claudia Wolf after the amulet shows her inner , monstrous nature .
He also makes a cameo appearance in the 2008 Silent Hill comic book Sinner 's Reward , published by IDW Publishing . The writer , Tom Waltz , later said he regretted the cameo , which only functioned as fan service . To him , Pyramid Head is a psychological construct created for James ; however , he stated that : " At the same time , I don 't think that ruined the comic . Some people really liked it . To some people , Pyramid Head should be in all the stories because they do like him . " Additionally , the character was portrayed from October 2 to 31 , 2009 , in the haunted attraction Sinister Pointe , based on Silent Hill , in Orange County , California , United States .
= = Analysis = =
The Silent Hill series uses symbolism and psychology ; the town of Silent Hill draws upon the psyche of its visitors , ultimately creating an " otherworld , " a twisting of reality that manifests delusions and elements of their subconscious minds , varying from character to character . Specifically , in the case of Silent Hill 2 's primary player character James Sunderland , the version of the town he explores is influenced by him . Many of the monsters that roam the town symbolize his guilt , wish for punishment , or sexual repression during his wife 's three @-@ year @-@ long illness , and cease to exist after James comes to terms with the fact that he killed his wife Mary , partially to end her suffering and partially out of resentment and frustration . James knew she had a terminal illness , which has been speculated to be cancer , and he often read medical textbooks , searching for something to help her . During her last days alive , she became physically repulsive as a result of the illness and treated James abusively , ordering him to leave one moment and begging him to comfort her the next . The knowledge of her terminal illness caused her to become angry and to hurt her loved ones , particularly James , and it pained him to visit her in the hospital . Pyramid Head functions as an executioner of Maria , a delusion of James ' who strongly resembles Mary . Through Maria 's repeated deaths , Pyramid Head reminds James of Mary 's death and causes him to experience guilt and suffering . His appearance as an executioner stems from a picture that James saw while visiting the town three years ago with Mary .
Reviewers have suggested various interpretations . According to Christina González of The Escapist , Pyramid Head acts as " judgement personified , a sexually dark butcher , " and " James ' masochistic delusion " which punishes him for Mary 's death . Ken Gagne of Computerworld suggested that the monster " represents James ' anger and guilt . " A critic for IGN , Jesse Schedeen , considered Pyramid Head 's role throughout the Silent Hill series to be " a manifestation of a person 's guilt " , commenting : " Pyramid Head is just there to help you serve your penance in the most painful and grotesque way possible . "
= = Reception = =
Critical reaction to Pyramid Head has been favorable because of his distinctive appearance and role as an element of James ' psyche . Critics cite him as an iconic villain of the Silent Hill series , a favorite among fans , and part of the appeal of Silent Hill 2 . GameSpot compared Pyramid Head 's appearance to Leatherface , the main antagonist of The Texas Chainsaw Massacre series of slasher films , and found him the most terrifying monster in Silent Hill 2 . Computerworld named Pyramid Head as one of the most terrifying villains in computer and video games . GamesRadar felt that the scene in which he rapes the two other monsters was unsettling , since the subject of rape is not often tackled in video games , and disliked the final battle with him because of how anti @-@ climactic it was , in comparison with his role throughout the rest of the game .
GameDaily ranked Pyramid Head first on their 2008 list of the scariest video game monsters . GamesRadar listed him as one of the 25 best new characters of the decade and ranked him second on its 2009 list of the scariest video game villains , calling him the " most horrifying character ever to have a cult following " . In a 2009 retrospective on the survival horror genre , IGN noted that Silent Hill 2 incorporated " a ' stalker ' element similar to Clock Tower and Resident Evil 3 , " and wrote : " To this day , Pyramid Head is remembered as one of gaming 's most frightening villains . " PlayStation Universe ranked him as the first on their 2009 list of the scariest monster " to infest a Sony platform " , also noting his " prolific reputation as one of video game ’ s most fearsome monsters . " In 2010 , Pyramid Head as named as the scariest character in video game history by Joystick Division , who added that " being chased by him in Silent Hill 2 ranks with all of the scariest moments in video gaming history . " UGO.com ranked him as number one on their 2011 list of the scariest characters in video games , commenting he is " too mainstream to be all that scary , except he 's still really super scary . " In 2012 , PlayStation Official Magazine included him on their lists of the biggest freaks and scariest characters in the PlayStation games , commenting : " Ol ’ Metal Top is easily the best thing about Silent Hill – and maybe even survival horror in general – completely encapsulating that intoxicating dread of knowing that it ’ s not if you ’ ll fight him , but when . " That same year , FHM included him on their list of ten scariest game characters ever ; on the list of the " coolest " video game villains by Complex , Pyramid Head placed as 15th . GamesRadar too praised Pyramid Head 's role as an antagonist , putting him in their 2013 list of the best villains in video game history at number 18 .
His appearances outside Silent Hill 2 have received mixed critical reaction . Critics generally agreed that Pyramid Head 's appearance in Homecoming struck them as fan service , though Chris Hudak of Game Revolution called it " damned effectively @-@ employed . " Film critics commented on his role in the film adaption , with several finding him disturbing . DVD Reviews praised Campanella 's portrayal of Pyramid Head and another monster , writing : " These are without a doubt some of the most striking bogeymen that I have seen on screen in a long time . " His appearance in New International Track & Field received mixed critical reaction . GameDaily disliked it , finding it awkward that a character like Pyramid Head was competing in sporting events with characters like Frogger and Sparkster , while The Escapist called it enjoyable and " hilarious " .
= Player One =
For the band , see Space Invaders ( Player One song ) .
Player One : What Is to Become of Us is a novel written by Douglas Coupland for the 2010 Massey Lectures . Each of the book 's five chapters was delivered as a one @-@ hour lecture in a different Canadian city : Vancouver on October 12 , Regina on October 14 , Charlottetown on October 19 , Ottawa on October 25 and ending in Toronto on October 29 . The lectures were broadcast on CBC Radio One 's Ideas , November 8 – 12 . The book was published by House of Anansi Press .
The plot follows four characters , Karen , Rick , Luke , and Rachel , as they arrive in the lounge of an airport bar , as they interact with one another , and as they cope with chaos that erupts as cataclysmic events occur . The story addresses their motivations and perceptions , as well as their thoughts on certain themes . There are several minor characters and a fifth main character , Player One , who retells the events that the four main characters experience but from the perspective of an outside observer , like someone exploring a video game environment .
= = Background = =
In 2009 a panel of representatives , including Sarah MacLachlan of House of Anansi Press , John Fraser of Massey College and Ideas executive producer Bernie Lucht , selected Douglas Coupland to deliver the 2010 Massey Lectures . Coupland , a West Vancouver resident who would be 48 years old during the lectures , was best known for his previous novels Generation X ( 1991 ) , jPod ( 2006 ) , and Generation A ( 2009 ) , but also had written non @-@ fiction works and screenplays . Coupland did not immediately agree but after some thought , accepted the panel 's offer . He was given the creative freedom to select how the lecture would be delivered , and chose to write a novel . While previous novelists , such as Margaret Atwood and Thomas King , had delivered traditional academic lectures , Coupland felt that " a narrative seemed like the most efficient and accessible way of putting forth a large number of propositions about life in the year 2010 . "
= = Synopsis = =
The book is divided into five chapters . Each chapter is divided into five parts , each describing events from the perspective of one of the five main characters : Karen , Rick , Luke , Rachel , and Player One . The first chapter , " Hour One : Cue the Flaming Zeppelin " , has Karen arriving at the Toronto airport on a flight from Winnipeg to meet a man she met online . She sits on a stool at the airport hotel bar in which Rick is the bartender , Rachel is at a computer terminal , and Luke is sitting at a table drinking scotch . Rachel is there with the expectation to meet a man who can father her child and approaches Luke . Karen 's date goes badly as she finds the man too assertive physically and too distant intellectually . A self @-@ help guru , Leslie Freemont , enters with his assistant Tara to welcome Rick into his empowerment program ; Leslie gives a speech to the group , takes Rick 's money , and leaves . Meanwhile , oil prices rapidly increase and explosions start to occur outside . With the power unreliable , Karen , Rick , Luke , and Rachel run to Rick 's vehicle to listen to the radio . Karen 's date , Warren , is killed by a sniper as he runs to the group , who quickly return to the bar lounge where they barricade themselves in .
In " Hour Three : God 's little Dumpsters " Karen 's daughter tells them , over the phone , of rioting and general chaos that is occurring . Rick and Luke crawl through the ventilation shafts to the roof to overpower the sniper but fail and retreat to the lounge . As chemical fall @-@ out starts to land on the airport , the sniper seeks shelter in the lounge and is taken prisoner by the other characters . In " Hour Four : Hello , My Name Is : Monster " Rick and Rachel have sex , the sniper explains his motivations , and a teenager suffering from chemical burns seeks their help . In the final chapter " Hour Five : The View From Inside Daffy Duck 's Hole " Karen and Luke tend to the teenager 's wounds . Rachel discovers that the sniper is actually Leslie Freemont 's son , and upon stating this , the sniper panics , manages to get his gun back and shoots Rachel . The final part of the final chapter is told from the combined point @-@ of @-@ view of Rachel and Player One , who exist in what is labeled as Eternity , and provide an epilogue revealing the fates of the characters .
= = = Characters = = =
Karen — A divorced mother of one daughter , and a receptionist at a psychiatrist office , who travels from Winnipeg to Toronto to meet Warren , whom she met in an online forum .
Rick — A divorced father of one son , and a recovering alcoholic , who works as a bartender at the Toronto Airport Camelot Hotel . He has been saving money to enroll in an empowerment program operated by Leslie Freemont .
Luke — A pastor of a church in Nipissing , Ontario who lost his faith in religion , stole $ 20 @,@ 000 from the church and fled to Toronto .
Rachel — A young woman who operates a business that breeds lab mice and lives with psychological conditions on the Autism spectrum . Among her psychological conditions is prosopagnosia , as well as an inability to understand humour , metaphors , irony , or social cues . She wants to become pregnant to prove to her parents that she can lead what they consider a normal life .
Player One — A disembodied voice who watches the events and comments on the character 's past , present , and future actions and circumstances .
Warren — The man who Karen is scheduled to meet at the hotel bar .
Leslie Freemont — A self @-@ help guru who operates the Power Dynamics Seminar System . He arrives with his assistant Tara to accept Rick into the program .
Bertis — A religious fanatic , the son of Leslie Freemont , and the sniper on the bar 's roof .
Max — A teenager who tries to covertly take photos of Karen during their flight . He stumbles upon the group as he flees the chemical fall @-@ out .
= = Style and themes = =
Player One is the first Massey Lecture to be delivered as a work of fiction : a 50 @,@ 000 @-@ word novel . The story is told as a first @-@ person narrative with the perspective rotated between the five main characters : Karen , Luke , Rick , Rachel , and Player One . The narrative voice was described as being the typical " Coupland @-@ esque coolness " with the " same apocalyptic feel " as his previous novel , Generation A. Rachel , though , speaks with a unique tone , devoid of emotion and unable to detect emotion in the voice of others , similar to how people communicate online without seeing one another , like via email .
The story 's themes reflect many of the themes Coupland has addressed in his other works , including themes on time , religion , an afterlife , and communication . One reviewer mentioned that the book has " quintessential Coupland themes , chiefly , how the speed of change , both technologically and socially driven , is altering the world , our own sense of self and our souls " . In relation to the Future Legend glossary at the end of the book Coupland said " The future is happening so fast and furious right now , there 's no language to describe all these new sensations , so we have to begin inventing one " .
= = Publication and reception = =
The book was published by House of Anansi Press and released in October 2010 as Coupland began the Massey lecture series in Vancouver on October 12 . Each lecture consisted of Coupland reading aloud one chapter , followed by questions from the audience and a book signing . The second lecture took place in Regina on October 14 , followed by Charlottetown on October 19 , Ottawa on October 25 , and ending on October 29 in Toronto . The series was recorded then aired on CBC Radio One 's Ideas between November 8 and 12 . The book was long @-@ listed for the Scotiabank Giller Prize .
The review in the Library Journal wrote that the book is " eminently readable , humorous , and philosophical if at times slightly lightweight " and that it " is a worthwhile novel that may also appeal to younger readers " . By selecting Coupland , the Massey Lecture selection committee did intend to appeal to " a slightly younger demographic than previous Massey Lectures " . In the Booklist review , Jonathan Fullmer writes , " A taut and scintillating exploration of time , Coupland 's tale is both smart and suspenseful while simultaneously questioning the meaning of narration . "
= Tom Simpson =
Thomas Simpson ( 30 November 1937 – 13 July 1967 ) was one of Britain 's most successful professional cyclists . He was born in Haswell , County Durham and later moved to Harworth , Nottinghamshire . Simpson began road cycling as a teenager before taking up track cycling , specialising in pursuit races . He won a bronze medal for track cycling at the 1956 Summer Olympics and a silver at the 1958 British Empire and Commonwealth Games .
In 1959 , at age 21 , Simpson was signed by the French professional road @-@ racing team St. Raphaël @-@ Géminiani @-@ Dunlop . He advanced to their first team ( Rapha @-@ Gitane @-@ Dunlop ) the following year , and won the 1961 Tour of Flanders . Simpson then joined Gitane @-@ Leroux @-@ Dunlop ; in the 1962 Tour de France he became the first British rider to wear the yellow jersey , finishing sixth overall .
In 1963 Simpson moved to Peugeot @-@ BP @-@ Englebert , winning Bordeaux – Paris that year and the 1964 Milan – San Remo . In 1965 he became Britain 's first world road race champion and won the Giro di Lombardia ; this made him the BBC Sports Personality of the Year , the first cyclist to win the award . Injuries hampered much of Simpson 's 1966 season . He won two stages of the 1967 Vuelta a España before he won the general classification of Paris – Nice that year .
In the thirteenth stage of the 1967 Tour de France , Simpson collapsed and died during the ascent of Mont Ventoux . He was 29 years old . The post @-@ mortem examination found that he had mixed amphetamines and alcohol ; this diuretic combination proved fatal when combined with the heat , the hard climb of the Ventoux and a stomach complaint . A memorial near where he died has become a place of pilgrimage for many cyclists . Simpson was known to have taken performance @-@ enhancing drugs during his career , when no doping controls existed . He is held in high esteem by many cyclists for his character and will to win .
= = Early life and amateur career = =
= = = Childhood and club racing = = =
Simpson was born on 30 November 1937 in Haswell , County Durham , the youngest of six children of coal miner Tom Simpson and his wife Alice ( née Cheetham ) . His father had been a semi @-@ professional sprinter in athletics . The family lived modestly in a small terraced house until 1943 , when his parents took charge of the village 's working men 's club and lived above it . In 1950 the Simpsons moved to Harworth on the Nottinghamshire – Yorkshire border , where young Simpson 's maternal aunt lived ; new coalfields were opening , with employment opportunities for him and older brother Harry , by now , the only children left at home . Simpson rode his first bike , his brother @-@ in @-@ law 's , at age 12 , sharing it with Harry and two cousins for time trials around Harworth . Following Harry , Tom joined Harworth and District Cycling Club aged 13 . He delivered groceries in the Bassetlaw district by bicycle and traded with a customer for a better road bike . He was often left behind in club races ; members of his cycling club nicknamed him " four @-@ stone Coppi " , after Italian rider Fausto Coppi , due to his slim physique .
Simpson began winning club time trials , but sensed resentment of his boasting from senior members . He left Harworth and District and joined Rotherham 's Scala Wheelers at the end of 1954 . Simpson 's first road race was as a junior at the Forest Recreation Ground in Nottingham . After leaving school he was an apprentice draughtsman at an engineering company in Retford , using the 10 mi ( 16 @.@ 1 km ) commute by bike as training . He placed well in half mile races on grass and cement , but decided to concentrate on road racing . In May 1955 Simpson won the National Cyclists ' Union South Yorkshire individual pursuit track event as a junior ; the same year , he won the British League of Racing Cyclists ( BLRC ) junior hill climb championship and placed third in the senior event .
Simpson immersed himself in the world of cycling , writing letters asking for advice . Naturalised Austrian rider George Berger responded , travelling from London to Harworth to help him with his riding position . In late 1955 , Simpson ran a red light in a race and was suspended from racing for six months by the BLRC . During his suspension he dabbled in motorcycle trials , nearly quitting cycling but unable to afford a new motorcycle necessary for progress in the sport .
= = = Track years = = =
Berger told Simpson that if he wanted to be a successful road cyclist , he needed experience in track cycling , particularly in the pursuit discipline . Simpson competed regularly at Fallowfield Stadium in Manchester , where in early 1956 he met amateur world pursuit silver medallist Cyril Cartwright , who helped him develop his technique . At the national championships at Fallowfield the 18 @-@ year @-@ old Simpson won a silver medal in the individual pursuit , defeating amateur world champion Norman Sheil before losing to Mike Gambrill .
Simpson began working with his father as a draughtsman at the glass factory in Harworth . He was riding well ; although not selected by Great Britain for the amateur world championships , he made the 4 @,@ 000 @-@ metre team pursuit squad for the 1956 Olympics . In mid @-@ September , Simpson competed for two weeks in Eastern Europe against Russian and Italian teams to prepare for the Olympics . The seven @-@ rider contingent began with races in Leningrad , continuing to Moscow before finishing in Sofia . He was nicknamed " the Sparrow " by the Soviet press because of his slender build . The following month he was in Melbourne for the Olympics , where the team qualified for the team @-@ pursuit semi @-@ finals against Italy ; they were confident of defeating South Africa and France but lost to Italy , taking the bronze medal . Simpson blamed himself for the loss for pushing too hard on a turn and being unable to recover for the next .
After the Olympics , Simpson trained throughout his winter break into 1957 . In May , he rode in the national 25 @-@ mile championships ; although he was the favourite , he lost to Sheil in the final . In a points race at an international event at Fallowfield a week later Simpson crashed badly , almost breaking his leg ; he stopped working for a month and struggled to regain his form . At the national pursuit championships , he was beaten in the quarter @-@ finals . After this defeat Simpson returned to road racing , winning the BLRC national hill climb championship in October before taking a short break from racing . In spring 1958 he traveled to Sofia with Sheil for two weeks ' racing . On his return he won the national individual pursuit championship at Herne Hill Velodrome . In July Simpson won a silver medal for England in the individual pursuit at the British Empire and Commonwealth Games in Cardiff , losing to Sheil by one @-@ hundredth of a second in the final . A medical exam taken with the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) revealed Simpson to be colour blind .
In September 1958 , Simpson competed at the amateur world championships in Paris . Against reigning champion Carlo Simonigh of Italy in the opening round of the individual pursuit , he crashed on the concrete track at the end of the race . Simpson was briefly knocked unconscious and sustained a dislocated jaw ; however , he won the race since he crashed after the finish line . Although he was in pain , team manager Benny Foster forced Simpson to race in the quarter @-@ final against New Zealand 's Warwick Dalton , hoping to unsettle Dalton ahead of a possible meeting with Simpson 's teammeate Sheil . Simpson wanted to turn professional , but needed to prove himself first , setting his sights on the world amateur indoor hour record . Reg Harris arranged for an attempt at Zürich 's Hallenstadion velodrome on Simpson 's birthday in November . He failed by 320 metres , covering a distance of 43 @.@ 995 km ( 27 @.@ 337 mi ) and blaming his failure on the low temperature generated by an ice rink in the centre of the velodrome . The following week he travelled to Ghent , in the Flanders region of Belgium , to ride amateur track races . He stayed at the Café Den Engel , run by Albert Beurick , who organised for him to ride at Ghent 's Kuipke velodrome in the Sportpalis ( English : Sport Palace ) .
Simpson decided to move to the continent for a better chance at success , and contacted French brothers Robert and Yvon Murphy , whom he met while racing . They agreed that he could stay with them in the Breton fishing port of Saint @-@ Brieuc . His final event in Britain was at Herne Hill , riding motor @-@ paced races . Simpson won the event and was invited to Germany to train for the 1959 motor @-@ paced world championships , but declined the opportunity in favour of a career on the road . Bicycle manufacturer Elswick Hopper invited him to join their British @-@ based team , but Benny Foster advised him to continue with his plans to move to France .
= = = Move to Brittany = = =
In April 1959 , Simpson left for France with £ 100 savings and two Carlton bikes , one road and one track , given in appreciation of his help promoting the company . His last words to his mother before the move were , " I don 't want to be sitting here in twenty years ' time , wondering what would have happened if I hadn 't gone to France " . The next day , his National Service papers were delivered ; although willing to serve before his move , he feared the call @-@ up would put his potential career at risk . His mother returned them , with the hope they would understand this .
He applied to local cycling clubs , and joined Club Olympique Briochin , racing with an independent ( semi @-@ professional ) licence from the British Cycling Federation . When settled with the Murphy family , 21 @-@ year @-@ old Simpson met 19 @-@ year @-@ old Helen Sherburn , an au pair from Sutton , Yorkshire . Simpson began attracting attention , winning races and criteriums . He was invited to race in the eight @-@ day stage race Route de France by the St. Raphaël VC 12e , the amateur club below the professional team St. Raphaël @-@ Géminiani @-@ Dunlop . Simpson won the final stage , breaking away from the peloton and holding on for victory . After this win , he declined an offer to ride in the Tour de France for the professional team . Simpson had contract offers from two professional teams , Mercier – BP – Hutchinson and St. Raphaël @-@ Géminiani @-@ Dunlop , which had a British cyclist , Brian Robinson ; opting for the latter team , on 29 June he signed a contract for 80 @,@ 000 francs ( £ 80 a month ) .
On Simpson 's return to Harworth for Christmas , the RAF were notified and the press ran stories on his apparent draft avoidance . He passed a medical in Sheffield , but history repeated itself and the papers arrived the day after his departure for his team 's training camp in Narbonne in southern France . The French press , unlike the British , found the situation amusing .
= = Professional career = =
= = = 1959 : Foundations = = =
In July , four months after leaving England , Simpson rode his first race as a professional , the Tour de l 'Ouest in west France . He won the fourth stage and took the overall race leader 's jersey . He won the next stage 's individual time trial , increasing his lead . On the next stage he lost the lead with a punctured tyre , finishing the race in fourteenth place overall .
In August Simpson competed at the world championships in the 5000 m individual pursuit at Amsterdam 's large , open @-@ air velodrome and the road race on the nearby Circuit Park Zandvoort motor @-@ racing track . He placed fourth in the individual pursuit , losing by 0 @.@ 3 seconds in the quarter @-@ finals . He prepared for the 180 mi ( 290 km ) road race , eight laps of the track . After 45 mi ( 72 km ) a ten @-@ rider breakaway formed ; Simpson bridged the gap . As the peloton began to close in , he tried to attack . Although he was brought back each time , Simpson placed fourth in a sprint for the best finish to date by a British rider . He was praised by the winner , André Darrigade of France , who thought that without Simpson 's work on the front , the breakaway would have been caught . Darrigade helped him enter criteriums for extra money . His fourth placed earned Simpson his nickname , " Major Simpson " , from French sports newspaper L 'Équipe . They ran the headline : " Les carnets du Major Simpson " ( " The notes of Major Simpson " ) , referencing the 1950s series of books , Les carnets du Major Thompson by Pierre Daninos .
Simpson moved up to St. Raphaël @-@ Géminiani @-@ Dunlop 's first team , Rapha @-@ Gitane @-@ Dunlop , for the end @-@ of @-@ season one @-@ day classic races . In his first appearance in the Giro di Lombardia , one of the five " monuments " of cycling , he retired with a tyre puncture while in the lead group of riders . In Simpson 's last race of the season , he finished fourth in the Trofeo Baracchi , a two @-@ man team time trial with Gérard Saint , racing against his boyhood idol , Fausto Coppi ; it was Coppi 's final race before his death . Simpson finished the season with twenty @-@ eight wins .
= = = 1960 : Tour de France debut = = =
His first major race of the 1960 season was the one @-@ day " monument " Milan – San Remo in March , in which the organisers introduced the Poggio climb ( the final climb ) to keep the race from finishing with a bunch sprint . Simpson broke clear from a breakaway group over the first climb , the Turchino , leading the race for 45 km ( 28 mi ) before being caught . He lost contact over the Poggio , finishing in 38th place . In April he moved to the Porte de Clichy district of Paris , sharing a small apartment with his teammate Robinson .
Days after his move , Simpson rode in Paris – Roubaix , known as " The Hell of the North " , the first cycling race to be shown live on Eurovision . He launched an attack as an early breakaway , riding alone at the front for 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) , but was caught around a mile from the finish at Roubaix Velodrome , coming in ninth . Simpson rode a lap of honour after the race at the request of the emotional crowd . His televised effort gained him attention throughout Europe . He then won the Mont Faron hill climb and the overall general classification of the Tour du Sud @-@ Est , his first overall win in a professional stage race . He planned to ride in the Isle of Man International road race , excited to see to his home fans . There were rumours , which proved correct , that the Royal Military Police were waiting for him at the airport , so he decided not to travel . This was the last he heard from the authorities regarding his call @-@ up . The British Cycling Federation fined him £ 25 for his absence .
In June , Simpson made his Grand Tour debut in the Tour de France aged 22 . Rapha directeur sportif ( team manager ) Raymond Louviot opposed his participation , but since the race was contested by national teams Simpson accepted the invitation from the British squad . During the first stage , he was part of a thirteen @-@ rider breakaway which finished over two minutes in front of the field ; he crashed on the cinder track at Heysel Stadium in Brussels , finishing thirteenth , but received the same time as the winner . Later that day he finished ninth in the time trial , moving up to fifth place overall . During the third stage Simpson was part of a breakaway with two French riders who repeatedly attacked him , forcing him to chase and use energy needed for the finish ; he finished third , missing the thirty @-@ second bonus for a first @-@ place finish , which would have put him in the overall race leader 's yellow jersey . He dropped to ninth overall by the end of the first week . During stage ten , Simpson crashed descending the Col d 'Aubisque in the Pyrenees but finished the stage in fourteenth place . In the following stage he was dropped , exhausted , from a chasing group ; failing to recover . He finished the Tour in twenty @-@ ninth place overall , losing 2 st ( 13 kg ; 28 lb ) in weight over the three weeks .
After the Tour , Simpson rode criteriums around Europe until crashing in central France ; he returned home to Paris and checked himself into a hospital . Following a week 's bed @-@ rest , he rode in the road world championships at the Sachsenring in East Germany . During the race Simpson stopped to adjust his shoes on the right side of the road and was hit from behind by a car , sustaining a cut to his head which required five stitches . In the last of the classics , the Giro di Lombardia , he struggled , finishing eighty @-@ fourth . Simpson had been in constant contact with Helen , who was now working in Stuttgart , Germany , meeting with her between races . They became engaged on Christmas Day , and originally planned to marry at the end of 1961 , but in fact wed on 3 January 1961 in Doncaster , Yorkshire .
= = = 1961 : Tour of Flanders and injury = = =
Simpson 's first major event of the 1961 season was the Paris – Nice stage race in March . In stage three he helped his team win the team time trial and took the general classification lead by three seconds ; however , he lost it in the next stage . In the final stages of the race Simpson 's attacks were thwarted , and he finished fifth overall .
On 26 March , Simpson rode in the one @-@ day Tour of Flanders . With Carpano 's Nino Defilippis , he chased down an early breakaway . Simpson worked with the group ; with about 8 km ( 5 mi ) to go he attacked , followed by Defilippis . The finish , three circuits around the town of Wetteren , was flat ; Defilippis , unlike Simpson , was a sprinter and was expected to win . One kilometre from the finish , Simpson launched a sprint ; he eased off with 300 m to go , tricking Defilippis into thinking he was exhausted . As Defilippis passed , Simpson jumped again to take victory , becoming the first Briton to win a " monument " classic . Defilippis protested that the finishing banner had been blown down , and he did not know where the finish was ; however , the judges noted that the finish line was clearly marked on the road itself . Defilippis ' team asked Simpson to agree to a tie , saying no Italian had won a classic since 1953 . He replied : " An Englishman had not won one since 1896 ! "
A week later , Simpson rode in Paris – Roubaix in the hope of bettering his previous year 's ninth place . As the race reached the paved section he went on a solo attack , at which point he was told him that Mercier – BP – Hutchinson rider Raymond Poulidor was chasing him down . Simpson increased his speed , catching the publicity and press vehicles ahead ( known as the caravane ) . A press car swerved to avoid a pothole ; this forced him into a roadside ditch . Simpson fell , damaging his front wheel and injuring his knee . He found his team car and collected a replacement wheel , but by then the front of the race had passed . Back in the race he crashed twice more , finishing 88th .
At Simpson 's next race , the four @-@ day Grand Prix d 'Eibar , his first in Spain , his knee injury still bothered him . He won the second stage , but was forced to quit during the following stage . His injury had not healed , even after treatment by various specialists , but for financial reasons he was forced to enter the Tour de France with the British team . He abandoned on stage three , which started in Roubaix , struggling to pedal on the cobbles . Three months after his fall at Paris – Roubaix he saw a doctor at St. Michael 's Hospital in Paris . He gave Simpson injections in his knee , which reduced the inflammation . Once healed , he competed in the road world championships in Berne , Switzerland . On the track he qualified for the individual pursuit with the fourth @-@ fastest time , losing in the quarter @-@ finals to Peter Post of the Netherlands . In the road race , Simpson was part of a seventeen @-@ rider breakaway that finished together in a sprint ; he crossed the line in ninth place .
Helen became pregnant ; Simpson 's apartment in Paris was now unsuitable and a larger home in France was not in their means . In October , with help from his friend , Albert Beurick , they moved into a small cottage in Ghent . Low on funds , Simpson earned money in one @-@ day track races in Belgium .
= = = 1962 : Yellow jersey = = =
Simpson 's contract with Rapha @-@ Gitane @-@ Dunlop had ended with the 1961 season . Tour de France winner Jacques Anquetil signed with them for 1962 , but Simpson wanted to lead a team , and signed with Gitane @-@ Leroux @-@ Dunlop for the 1962 season . After training camp at Lodève in southern France , he rode in Paris – Nice . He helped his team win the stage @-@ 3a team time trial and finished second overall , behind Flandria – Faema – Clément 's Jef Planckaert . He was unable to ride in Milan – San Remo when its organisers limited the race to Italian @-@ based teams ; instead he rode in Gent – Wevelgem , finishing sixth , then defended his Tour of Flanders title . At the end of the latter , Simpson was in a select group of riders at the head of the race . Although he led over each of the final climbs , at the finish he finished fifth and won the King of the Mountains prize . A week later Simpson finished thirty @-@ seventh in Paris – Roubaix , delayed by a crash .
Coming into the Tour de France , Simpson was leader of his team ; it was the first time since 1929 that company teams were allowed to compete . He finished ninth in the first stage , in a group of twenty @-@ two riders who finished over eight minutes ahead of the rest . Simpson 's team finished second to Flandria – Faema – Clément in the stage @-@ 2b team time trial ; he was in seventh place in the general classification , remaining in the top ten the rest of the first week . During stage 8a he was in a thirty @-@ rider group which gained about six minutes , moving him to second overall behind teammate André Darrigade . At the end of the eleventh stage Simpson was third in the overall , over a minute behind race leader Willy Schroeders ( Flandria – Faema – Clément ) and fifty @-@ one seconds behind Darrigade . Stage twelve from Pau to Saint @-@ Gaudens , the hardest stage of the 1962 Tour ( known as the " Circle of Death " ) , was the Tour 's first mountain stage . Simpson saw an opportunity to lead the race . The team now solely concentrated on his interests , since Darrigade was a sprinter and would no longer be involved in the general classification . As the peloton reached the Col du Tourmalet , Simpson attacked with a small group of select riders , finishing eighteenth place in a bunch sprint . As he finished ahead of all the other leaders in the general classification , he became the overall new leader of race , and the first British rider to wear the leader 's yellow jersey . Simpson lost the lead on the following stage , a short time trial ending with a steep uphill finish at Superbagnères . He finished thirty @-@ first and dropped to sixth overall . On stage nineteen he advanced recklessly descending the Col de Porte in the Alps , crashing on a bend and only saved from falling over the edge by a tree , leaving him with a broken left middle finger . He lost almost eleven minutes in the next stage 's time trial , finishing the Tour at Paris ' Parc des Princes stadium 17 minutes and 9 seconds behind in 6th place .
After the Tour Simpson rode criteriums before the road world championships in Salò , Italy , where he retired after missing a large breakaway . He began riding six @-@ day track races into his winter break . In December he made an appearance at the Champions ' Concert cycling awards held at Royal Albert Hall in London . Separately , he won the British Cycling Federation 's Personality of the Year . Simpson and Helen were expecting their second child and upgraded to a larger house in Sint @-@ Amandsberg , a sub @-@ municipality of Ghent .
= = = 1963 : Bordeaux – Paris = = =
Leroux withdrew its sponsorship of the Gitane team for the 1963 season . Simpson was contracted to their manager , Raymond Louviot ; Louviot was rejoining St. Raphaël @-@ Gitane @-@ Geminiani and Simpson could follow , but he saw that as a step backwards . Peugeot @-@ BP @-@ Englebert bought the contract from Louviot , which ran until the end of the season . Simpson 's season opened with Paris – Nice ; he fell out of contention after a series of tyre punctures in the opening stages , using the rest of the race as training . He withdrew from the race on the final stage to rest for his next race , Milan – San Remo ; after breaking away by himself he stopped beside the road , which annoyed his fellow riders . At Milan – San Remo , Simpson was in a four @-@ rider breakaway ; his tyre punctured , and although he got back to the front , he finished nineteenth . He placed third in the Tour of Flanders in a three @-@ rider sprint . In Paris – Roubaix Simpson worked for teammate , and winner , Emile Daems , finishing ninth . In the one @-@ day Paris – Brussels he was in a breakaway near the Belgian border ; with 50 km ( 31 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining he was left with world road race champion Jean Stablinski of St. Raphaël @-@ Gitane @-@ Geminiani , who attacked on a cobbled climb in Alsemberg outside Brussels . Simpson 's bike slipped a gear , and Stablinski stayed away for the victory . After his second @-@ place finish , Simpson led the Super Prestige Pernod International season @-@ long competition for world 's best cyclist . The following week he raced in the Ardennes classics , placing thirty @-@ third in Liège – Bastogne – Liège , after he rode alone for about 100 km ( 62 mi ) before being caught in the closing kilometres .
On 26 May , Simpson rode in the one @-@ day , 557 km ( 346 mi ) Bordeaux – Paris . Also known as the " Derby of the Road " , it was the longest he had ever ridden . The race began at 1 : 58 am ; the initial 161 km ( 100 mi ) were unpaced until the town of Châtellerault , where dernys ( motorised bicycles ) paced each rider to the finish . Simpson broke away in a group of three riders . Simpson 's pacer , Fernand Wambst , increased his speed , and Simpson dropped the other two . He caught the lead group , thirteen minutes ahead , over a distance of 161 km ( 100 mi ) . Simpson attacked , and with 36 km ( 22 @.@ 4 mi ) remaining , opening a margin of two minutes . His lead steadily increased , and he finished in the Parc des Princes over five minutes ahead of teammate Piet Rentmeester .
Simpson announced that he would not ride the Tour de France , concentrating on the world road championships instead . Before , he won the Isle of Man International in treacherous conditions where only sixteen out of seventy riders finished . At the road world championships in Ronse , Belgium , the Belgians controlled the race until Simpson broke free , catching two riders ahead : Henry Anglade ( France ) and Seamus Elliott ( Ireland ) . Anglade was dropped , and Elliott refused to work with Simpson . They were caught ; the race finished in a bunch sprint , with Simpson crossing the line in 29th . Simpson 's season ended with six @-@ day races across Europe and an invitation only race on the Pacific island of New Caledonia , along with other European riders . He skipped his usual winter training schedule for his first skiing holiday at Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains in the Alps , taking Helen and his two young daughters , Jane and Joanne .
= = = 1964 : Milan – San Remo = = =
After a training camp near Nice in southern France Simpson rode in the one @-@ day Kuurne – Brussels – Kuurne in Belgium , finishing second to Solo @-@ Superia 's Arthur Decabooter . The conditions were so cold , he only completed the race to keep warm . Albert Beurick started Simpson 's supporters club at the Café Den Engel , raising £ 250 for him in the first nine months . In Paris – Nice , his tyre punctured during stage four , losing five minutes and used the rest of the race for training .
On 19 March , two days later , Simpson rode in Milan – San Remo . Before the race , French journalist René de Latour advised Simpson not to attack early : " If you feel good then keep it for the last hour of the race . " In the final 32 km ( 19 @.@ 9 mi ) , Simpson escaped in group of four riders , which including the 1961 winner , Poulidor of Mercier – BP – Hutchinson . On final climb , the Poggio , Poulidor launched a series of attacks on the group ; only Simpson managed to stay with him and they crossed the summit and descended into Milan . With 500 m to go , Simpson began his sprint ; Poulidor could not respond , leaving Simpson to take the victory with a record average speed of 27 @.@ 1 mph ( 43 @.@ 6 km / h ) .
Simpson spent the next two months training for the Tour de France at the end of June . After the first week of the Tour , Simpson was in tenth place overall . On the ninth stage , he was part of 22 @-@ rider breakaway which finished together at Monaco 's Stade Louis II ; he placed second to Anquetil , moving up to eighth overall . The next day , he finished 20th in the 20 @.@ 8 km ( 12 @.@ 9 mi ) time trial . During the 16th stage , which crossed four cols , Simpson finished 33rd , 25 minutes and 10 seconds behind the stage winner , and dropped to 17th overall . He finished the Tour in 14th place overall . Simpson later discovered that he rode the Tour suffering from tapeworms .
After the race , Simpson prepared for the world road championships with distance training and criteriums . At the world championships on 3 September , the 290 km ( 180 mi ) road race consisted of twenty @-@ four laps of a varying circuit at Sallanches in the French Alps . Simpson crashed on the third lap while descending in wet conditions , damaging a pedal . He got back to the peloton , launching a solo attack on a descent ; he then chased down the group of four leaders with two laps to go . On the last lap he was dropped by three riders , finishing six seconds behind . On 17 October , Simpson rode in the Giro di Lombardia . Halfway through the race he was given the wrong musette ( bag ) by his team in the feed zone , and threw it away . With the head of the race reduced to five riders , Molteni 's Gianni Motta attacked . Simpson was the only one who could follow , but he began to feel the effects of not eating . Motta gave him part of his food , which sustained him for a while . On the final climb Simpson led Motta , but was exhausted . Over the remaining 10 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) of flat terrain , Motta dropped him ; Simpson cracked , and was repeatedly overtaken , finishing twenty @-@ first . He closed the year riding track races .
= = = 1965 : World championship and Lombardia = = =
The Simpson family spent Christmas in England , before a trip to Saint @-@ Gervais @-@ les @-@ Bains , where Simpson injured himself skiing , suffering a broken foot and a sprained ankle . He recovered , riding six @-@ day races . At the Antwerp six @-@ day , he dropped out on the fourth day with a cold . His cold worsened and he missed most of March . He abandoned Milan – San Remo at the foot of the Poggio . On 11 April , he finished seventh in Paris – Roubaix after crashing in the lead group . The crash forced him to miss the Tour of Flanders as he struggled to walk on his injured foot . In Liège – Bastogne – Liège he attacked with Salvarani 's Felice Gimondi , catching an early break . They worked together for 25 km ( 15 @.@ 5 mi ) , until Gimondi gave up . Simpson rode alone before slipping on oil mixed with water ; he stayed with the front group , finishing tenth .
On 29 May , Simpson rode in the London – Holyhead race , the longest unpaced one @-@ day race , with a distance of 265 mi ( 426 km ) ; he won in a bunch sprint , setting a record of ten hours and twenty @-@ nine minutes . He followed with an appearance at Bordeaux – Paris . François Mahé ( Pelforth @-@ Sauvage @-@ Lejeune ) went on a lone break , Simpson attacked in pursuit , followed by Jean Stablinski . Simpson 's derny broke down , and he was delayed changing motorbikes . He caught Stablinski , and was joined by Anquetil . Outside Paris Mahé was caught and dropped , after 200 km ( 124 mi ) on his own . Anquetil won the race by fifty @-@ seven seconds ahead of Stablinski , who beat Simpson in a sprint . Peugeot manager Gaston Plaud ordered Simpson to ride the Midi Libre stage race to earn a place in the Tour de France , and he finished third overall . The 1965 Tour was considered open due to Anquetil 's absence , and Simpson was among the riders favoured by L 'Équipe . During stage nine he injured his hand crashing on the descent of the Col d 'Aubisque in the Pyrenees , finishing tenth in the stage and seventh in general classification . Simpson developed bronchitis after stage fifteen and cracked on the next stage , losing nearly nineteen minutes . His hand became infected , but he rode the next three stages before the Tour doctor stopped him from racing . He was taken to hospital , where they operated on his hand and treated him for blood poisoning , bronchitis and a kidney infection .
After ten days off his bike , Simpson was only contracted to three post @-@ Tour criteriums . His training for the road world championships included kermesse circuit races in Flanders . Simpson 's last race before the world championships was the Paris – Luxembourg stage race , riding as a super @-@ domestique ( lieutenant ) . On 5 September , Simpson rode in the road race at the world championships in San Sebastián , Spain . The race was a 267 @.@ 4 km ( 166 mi ) hilly circuit of fourteen laps . The British team had no support ; Simpson and his friend Albert Beurick obtained food and drink by stealing from other teams . During the first lap , a strong break was begun by British rider Barry Hoban . As his lead stretched to one minute , Simpson and teammates Vin Denson and Alan Ramsbottom bridged the gap , followed by Germany 's Rudi Altig . Hoban kept the pace high enough to prevent any of the favourites from joining . Simpson and Altig broke clear with two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half laps remaining , staying together until the final kilometre , when Simpson launched his sprint ; he held off Altig for victory by three bike lengths , becoming the first British world road race champion .
On 16 October , Simpson rode in the Giro di Lombardia , which featured five mountain passes . He escaped with Motta , and dropped him before the finish in Como to win his third " monument " classic over three minutes ahead of the rest . Simpson was the second world champion to win in Italy ; the first was Alfredo Binda in 1927 . Simpson was offered lucrative contracts by teams , including Flandria – Faema – Clément who were prepared to pay him the year 's salary in advance . He could not escape his contract with Peugeot , which ran until the end of the 1967 season . For the next three weeks he rode contract races , riding an estimated 12 @,@ 000 mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km ) . He rode 18 races , with each earning him £ 300 – £ 350 .
Simpson ended the year second to Anquetil in the Super Prestige Pernod International , and won the Daily Express Sportsman of the Year , the Sports Journalists ' Association Sportsman of the Year , presented by the Prime Minister Harold Wilson , and the BBC Sports Personality of the Year . In British cycling Simpson won the British Cycling Federation Personality of the Year and the Bidlake Memorial Prize . He was given the freedom of Sint @-@ Amandsberg ; his family , including his parents , were driven in an open @-@ top car along the crowd @-@ lined route from the Café Den Engel to the Town Hall .
= = = 1966 : An injury @-@ ridden season = = =
As in the previous winter , Simpson went on a skiing holiday . On 25 January he fell , breaking his right tibia , and his leg was in a plaster cast until the end of February . He missed contract races , crucial training and most of the spring classics . Simpson began riding again in March , and in late April started , but did not finish , Liège – Bastogne – Liège .
Simpson 's injury did not stop the press from naming him a favourite for the Tour de France . He was subdued in the race until stage twelve , when he forced a breakaway with Altig ( Molteni ) , finishing second . Simpson again finished second in the next stage , jumping clear of the peloton in a three @-@ rider group in the final kilometres . After the stage he was eighteenth overall , over seven minutes down . Simpson moved up to 16th after finishing 5th in stage 14b – a short time trial . As the race reached the Alps , he decided to make his move . During stage sixteen he attacked on the descent of the first of three cols , the Croix de Fer . He crashed but continued , attacking again . Simpson was joined by Ford France @-@ Hutchinson 's Julio Jiménez on the climb of the Télégraphe to the Galibier . Simpson was caught by a chase group descending the Galibier before he crashed again , knocked off his bike by a press motorcycle . The crash required five stitches in his arm . The next day he struggled to hold the handlebars and could not use the brake lever with his injured arm , forcing him to abandon . His answer to journalists asking about his future was , " I don 't know . I 'm heartbroken . My season is ruined . "
After recovering from his injury Simpson rode 40 criteriums in 40 days , capitalising on his world championship and his attacks in the Tour . He retired from the road world championships at the Nürburgring with cramp . His road season ended with retirements from autumn classics Paris – Tours and the Giro di Lombardia . He rode six @-@ day races , finishing fourteenth in the winter rankings . The misfortune he endured during the season made him the first rider named as a victim of the " curse of the rainbow jersey " . For the winter Simpson took his family to the island of Corsica , planning the build of his retirement home .
= = = 1967 : Paris – Nice and Vuelta stages = = =
Simpson 's primary objective for 1967 was overall victory in the Tour de France ; in preparation , he planned to ride stage races instead of one @-@ day classics . Simpson felt his chances were good because this Tour was contested by national , rather than professional teams . He would lead the British team , which – although one of the weakest – would support him totally , unlike Peugeot . During Simpson 's previous three years with Peugeot , he was only guaranteed a place on their Tour team if he signed with them for the following year . Free to join a new team for the 1968 season , he was offered at least ten contracts ; Simpson had a verbal agreement with Italian team Salvarani , and would share its leadership with Felice Gimondi . In an interview with Cycling ( now Cycling Weekly ) journalist , Ken Evans , in April , Simpson revealed his intention to attempt the hour record in the 1967 season . He also said he wanted retire from road racing aged 33 , to ride on the track and spend more time with his family .
In March he rode in the Paris – Nice . After stage two his teammate , Eddy Merckx , took the overall lead . Simpson moved into the lead the next day as part of a breakaway , missed by Merckx , which finished nearly twenty minutes ahead . Merckx thought Simpson double @-@ crossed him , but Simpson was a passive member of the break . At the start of stage six , Simpson was in second place behind Bic 's Rolf Wolfshohl . Merckx drew clear as the race approached Mont Faron , with Simpson following . They stayed together until the finish in Hyères , with Simpson allowing Merckx to take first place . Simpson finished over a minute ahead of Wolfshohl , putting him in the race leader 's white jersey . He held the lead in the next two stages to win the race . Three days later Simpson and Merckx both raced in Milan – San Remo . Simpson escaped early in a five @-@ rider breakaway lasting about 220 km ( 137 mi ) , before Merckx won in a bunch sprint with assistance from Simpson , who finished in seventieth placed . After 110 mi ( 177 km ) of Paris – Roubaix , Simpson 's bike was unridable and he retired from the race .
In late April Simpson rode in his first Vuelta a España , using the eighteen @-@ stage race to prepare for the Tour . During stage two a breakaway group gained over thirteen minutes , dashing his hopes for a high placing . Simpson nearly quit the race before the fifth stage , from Salamanca to Madrid , but rode it because it was easier to get home by air from Madrid . He won the stage , attacking from a breakaway , and finished second in stage seven . On the eleventh stage , concluding in Andorra , Simpson rode away from the peloton on his own . With 30 km ( 18 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining , he began to lose control of his bike and was halted by Peugeot manager Gaston Plaud until he had recovered , by which time the race had passed . In an interview with L 'Équipe 's Philippe Brunel in February 2000 , Tour de France physician Pierre Dumas revealed that Simpson told him that he was taken to hospital during the Vuelta . Simpson won stage sixteen , which ended in San Sebastián , and finished the Vuelta thirty @-@ third overall .
Simpson was determined to make an impact in the Tour de France ; in his eighth year as a professional cyclist , he hoped for larger appearance fees in post @-@ Tour criteriums to help secure his financial future after retirement . His plan was to finish in the top three , or to wear the yellow jersey at some point in the race . He targeted three key stages , one of which was the thirteenth , over Mont Ventoux , and planned to ride conservatively until the race reached the mountains . In the prologue , Simpson finished thirteenth . After the first week he was in sixth place overall , leading the favourites . As the race crossed the Alps , Simpson fell ill , across the Col du Galibier , with diarrhoea and stomach pains . Unable to eat , he finished stage ten in 16th place and dropped to seventh overall as his rivals passed him . Teammate Vin Denson advised Simpson to limit his losses and accept what he had . He placed in 39th position on stage 11 and 7th on 12 . In Marseille , on the evening before stage thirteen , Simpson 's manager , Daniel Dousset , pressured him for good results . Plaud begged Simpson to quit the race .
= = Death = =
The thirteenth stage ( 13 July ) of the 1967 Tour de France measured 211 @.@ 5 km ( 131 @.@ 4 mi ) ; it started in Marseille , crossing Mont Ventoux ( the " Giant of Provence " ) before finishing in Carpentras . At dawn Tour doctor , Pierre Dumas , met journalist , Pierre Chany , near his hotel . Dumas noted the warm temperature , " If the boys stick their nose in a ' topette ' [ bag of drugs ] today , we could have a death on our hands " . At the start line , a journalist noticed Simpson looked tired and asked him if the heat was the problem . Simpson replied , " No , it 's not the heat , it 's the Tour . " The temperature reportedly reached as high as 54 ° C ( 129 ° F ) during the stage .
As the race reached the lower slopes of Ventoux , Simpson 's team mechanic Harry Hall , witnessed Simpson , still ill , putting the lid back on his water bottle as he exited a building . Race commissaire ( official ) , Jacques Lohmuller , later confirmed to Hall that he also saw the incident and that Simpson was putting brandy in his bottle . Near the summit of Ventoux , the peloton began to fracture . Simpson was in the front group before slipping back to a group of chasers about a minute behind . He then began losing control of his bike , zig @-@ zagging across the road . A kilometre from the summit , Simpson fell off his bike . Team manager Alec Taylor and Hall arrived in the team car to help him . Hall tried to persuade Simpson to stop , saying : " Come on Tom , that 's it , that 's your Tour finished " , but Simpson said he wanted to continue . Taylor said , " If Tom wants to go on , he goes " . Noticing his toe straps were still undone , Simpson said , " Me straps , Harry , me straps ! " They got him on his bike and pushed him off . Simpson 's last words , as remembered by Hall , were " On , on , on . " Hall estimated Simpson rode a further 500 yd ( 457 m ) before he began to wobble , and was held upright by spectators ; he was unconscious , with his hands locked on the handlebars . Hall and a nurse from the Tour 's medical team took turns giving Simpson mouth @-@ to @-@ mouth resuscitation , before Dumas arrived with an oxygen mask . Approximately forty minutes after his collapse , a police helicopter took Simpson to nearby Avignon hospital , where he was pronounced dead at 5 : 40 p.m. Two empty tubes and a half @-@ full one of amphetamines , one of which was labelled " Tonedron " , were found in the rear pocket of his jersey . The official cause of death was " heart failure caused by exhaustion . "
On the next racing day , the other riders were reluctant to continue racing and asked the organisers for a postponement . France 's Stablinski suggested that the race continue , with a British rider , whose team would wear black armbands , allowed to win the stage . Hoban won the stage , although many thought the stage winner should have been Denson , Simpson 's close friend . Media reports suggested that his death was caused by heat exhaustion , until , on 31 July 1967 British journalist J. L. Manning of the Daily Mail broke the news about a formal connection between drugs and Simpson 's death . French authorities confirmed that Simpson had traces of amphetamine in his body , impairing his judgement and allowing him to push himself beyond his limits . His death contributed to the introduction of mandatory testing for performance @-@ enhancing drugs in cycling , leading to tests in 1968 at the Giro d 'Italia , Tour de France and Summer Olympics . Simpson was buried in Harworth Cemetery , after a service at the 12th @-@ century village church attended by an estimated 5 @,@ 000 mourners , including Peugeot teammate Eddy Merckx , the only continental rider in attendance . The epitaph on Simpson 's gravestone in Harworth cemetery reads , " His body ached , his legs grew tired , but still he would not give in " , taken from a card left by his brother , Harry , following his death .
= = Doping = =
Unlike the majority of his contemporaries , Simpson was open about the use of drugs in professional cycling . In 1960 , interviewed by Chris Brasher for The Observer newspaper , Simpson spoke about his understanding of how riders could beat him , saying : " I know from the way they ride the next day they are taking dope . I don 't want to have to take it – I have too much respect for my body . " Two years before his death , Simpson hinted in the newspaper , The People , at drug @-@ taking in races , although he implied that he himself was not involved . Asked about drugs by Eamonn Andrews on the BBC Home Service radio network , Simpson did not deny taking them ; however , he said that a rider who frequently took drugs might get to the top but would not stay there .
In his biography of Simpson , Put Me Back on My Bike , William Fotheringham quoted Alan Ramsbottom as saying , " Tom went on the [ 1967 ] Tour de France with one suitcase for his kit and another with his stuff , drugs and recovery things " , which Fotheringham said was confirmed by Simpson 's roommate Colin Lewis . Ramsbottom added , " Tom took a lot of chances . He took a lot of it [ drugs ] . I remember him taking a course of strychnine to build up to some big event . He showed me the box , and had to take one every few days . " although he implied that other competitors were involved . Lewis recalled Simpson acquiring a small box at their hotel . Simpson explained to him : " That 's my year 's supply of Micky Finns ' . That lot cost me £ 800 . "
Commentator and Simpson 's close friend David Saunders stated in his 1971 book , Cycling in the Sixties , that although he did not condone Simpson 's use of drugs , he thought it was not the reason for his death . He said : " I am quite convinced that Simpson killed himself because he just did not know when to stop . All his racing life he had punished his frail body , pushing it to the limits of endurance with his tremendous will @-@ power and single @-@ mindedness and , on Mont Ventoux , he pushed it too far , perhaps the drug easing the pain of it all . " Saunders went on to say that Simpson was not alone in the taking of drugs in professional cycling and that the authorities ignored their use . His opinion was that Simpson did not take drugs to gain an unfair advantage , but because " he was not going to be beaten by a pill " .
= = Riding style and legacy = =
Simpson in his adolescence was described as fearsome in descent by fellow Scala Wheelers club member George Shaw , who explained that if Simpson dropped behind on a climb , he would come back on the descent . Simpson 's risk @-@ taking on descents was evident throughout his career , crashing in four out of the seven Tour de Frances he competed in . Track rider Norman Sheil recalled : " When racing on a banked velodrome , Simpson would sometimes ride up the advertising boards at the top of the bankings , Wall of Death @-@ style , to please the crowds . " Simpson 's death was attributed to his unwillingness to admit defeat ascending Mont Ventoux . He described a near @-@ death experience during a race in 1964 , the Trofeo Baracchi two @-@ man time trial , to Vin Denson , who recalled : " He said he felt peace of mind and wasn 't afraid to die . He said he would have been happy dying . "
Simpson looked for any advantage over his opponents . He made his own saddle , a design which is now standard . During his time with Peugeot , he rode bikes made by Italian manufacturer Masi that resembled Peugeots . Simpson was obsessed with dieting since 1956 , when he was mentored by Cyril Cartwright . Simpson understood the value of fruit and vegetables after reading Les Cures de jus by nutritionist Raymond Dextreit ; during the winter , he would consume 10 lb ( 4 @.@ 5 kg ) of carrots a day . Other unusual food preferences included pigeons , duck and trout skin , raspberry leaves and garlic in large quantities .
A granite memorial to Simpson , with the words " Olympic medallist , world champion , British sporting ambassador " , stands on the spot where he collapsed and died on Ventoux , one kilometre east of the summit . Cycling began a fund for a monument a week after Simpson 's death , raising about £ 1 @,@ 500 . The memorial was unveiled in 1968 . It has become a site of pilgrimage for cyclists , who frequently leave cycling @-@ related objects , such as water bottles and caps , in tribute . In nearby Bédoin , a plaque was installed in the town square by journalists following the 1967 Tour . The Harworth and Bircotes Sports and Social Club has a small museum dedicated to Simpson , opened by Belgian cyclist Lucien Van Impe in August 2001 . In 1997 , to commemorate the 30th anniversary of his death , a small plaque was added to the Mont Ventoux memorial , with the words " There is no mountain too high . Your daughters Jane and Joanne , July 13 , 1997 " , and a replica of the memorial was erected outside the museum . In his adopted hometown of Ghent , there is a bust of Simpson at the entrance to the Kuipke velodrome . Every year since his death , the Tom Simpson Memorial Race has taken place in Harworth .
Ray Pascoe , a fan , made the 1995 film Something To Aim At , a project he began in the years following Simpson 's death ; the film includes interviews with those closest to Simpson . The 2005 documentary Wheels Within Wheels follows actor Simon Dutton as he searches for people and places in Simpson 's life . Dutton 's four @-@ year project chronicles the midlife crisis that sparked his quest to rediscover Simpson . British rider David Millar won stage twelve of the 2012 Tour de France on the 45th anniversary of Simpson 's death ; previously banned from cycling for using performance @-@ enhancing drugs , he paid tribute to Simpson and reinforced the importance of learning from his – and Simpson 's – mistakes . Millar wrote the introduction for a reissue of Simpson 's autobiography , Cycling is My Life , published in 2009 . In 2010 Simpson was inducted into the British Cycling Hall of Fame . He inspired Simpson Magazine , which began in March 2013 . According to the magazine 's creators , “ It was Simpson 's spirit and style , his legendary tenacity and his ability to suffer that endeared him to cycling fans everywhere as much as the trophies he won ” .
= = Family and interests = =
Soon after moving to France in 1959 Simpson met Helen Sherburn . They married in 1961 , before moving to Ghent , Belgium , the following year . They had two daughters , Jane ( born April 1962 ) and Joanne ( born May 1963 ) , who were brought up , and live , in Belgium . After his death , Helen Simpson married Barry Hoban in December 1969 . Simpson is the maternal uncle of retired Belgian @-@ Australian cyclist Matthew Gilmore , whose father , Graeme , was also a cyclist . The 2000 book Mr. Tom : The True Story of Tom Simpson , written by Simpson 's nephew , Chris Sidwells , focuses on his career and family life .
Simpson spoke fluent French , also competent Flemish and Italian . He was interested in vintage cars , and his driving and riding styles were similar ; Helen remembered , " Driving through the West End of London at 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) , was nothing . " In January 1966 , Simpson was a guest " castaway " on BBC Radio 4 's Desert Island Discs ; his favourite musical piece was " Ari 's Theme " from Exodus by the London Festival Orchestra , his book choice was The Pickwick Papers and his luxury item was golf equipment . Helen said that she chose his records for the show , since he was not interested in music . Simpson 's autobiography , Cycling Is My Life , was first published in 1966 .
= = Career achievements = =
= = = Major results = = =
Source :
= = = Grand Tour general classification results timeline = = =
Source :
= = = Monuments results timeline = = =
Source :
= = = Awards and honours = = =
British Cycling Federation Personality of the Year : 1962 , 1965
BBC Sports Personality of the Year : 1965
Bidlake Memorial Prize : 1965
Daily Express Sportsman of the Year : 1965
Freedom of Sint @-@ Amandsberg : 1965
Sports Journalists ' Association Sportsman of the Year : 1965
British Cycling Hall of Fame : 2010
= Controversies surrounding Grand Theft Auto IV =
Grand Theft Auto IV is an open world , action @-@ adventure video game developed by Rockstar North and published by Rockstar Games . Upon its release on 29 April 2008 for the PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 , Grand Theft Auto IV generated controversy . The game 's depiction of violence received mass commentary from journalists and government officials , occasionally being referred to as a " murder simulator " . The ability to drive under the influence of alcohol in the game also received criticism , resulting in a request for the ESRB to change the game 's rating . Similarly , some gameplay features were censored for the Australian and New Zealand versions of the game , though these censors were subsequently removed . Several crimes that were committed following the game 's release , such as murder and sexual violence , were attributed to the perpetrators ' experience with the game , generating further controversy . Former attorney Jack Thompson , known for his campaigns against the series , heavily criticised Grand Theft Auto IV prior to its release , filing lawsuits against parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive , and threatening to ban distribution of the game if some gameplay features were not removed . The game also generated further controversy and lawsuits from city officials and organisations .
= = Gameplay features = =
= = = Depiction of violence = = =
Grand Theft Auto IV has been widely criticised for its depiction of violence and murder . On his program , conservative American talk @-@ radio host Glenn Beck used Grand Theft Auto IV as an example to make wider claims about the use of violent video games by the US military , repeating claims made by Lt. Col. Dave Grossman that the military uses shooting games to desensitise soldiers to killing . Beck also spoke to Jack Thompson , who labelled the game as a " murder simulator " . Gavin McKiernan , national grass roots director for the Parents Television Council , added that the game is an " adult product " , claiming that research displays the potential effect violent media has on children . Thompson reiterated that the game should be re @-@ rated in the United States , referring to the Australian release as an example .
There have been a number of reported crimes in which the perpetrators cited Grand Theft Auto IV as their primary influence . On 27 June 2008 , six teenagers were arrested after participating in a crime spree in New Hyde Park , New York . The teenagers mugged a man , knocking his teeth out , attempted to hijack a car , and smashed a passing van with a bat . According to the Nassau County Police , the teenagers claimed that they were inspired by Grand Theft Auto IV . On 4 August 2008 , BBC Newsbeat reported that an 18 @-@ year @-@ old student had been arrested in Bangkok , Thailand for the murder of a taxi driver after attempting to hijack the vehicle . Bangkok police captain Veerarit Pipatanasak stated that the student " wanted to find out if it was as easy in real life to rob a taxi as it was in the game " . Grand Theft Auto IV was subsequently banned in Thailand as a result . On 24 August 2013 , Sky News reported that a 90 @-@ year @-@ old woman was killed in Slaughter , Louisiana when an eight @-@ year @-@ old boy grabbed a handgun and shot her in the head after playing Grand Theft Auto IV .
= = = Drunk driving option = = =
Grand Theft Auto IV lets players become intoxicated , resulting in a shaky and blurry gameplay vision . Players also have the option to enter cars while intoxicated , and to drive under the influence of alcohol . This gameplay feature received criticism , particularly from the nonprofit organisation Mothers Against Drunk Driving ( MADD ) . MADD referred to the action as a " choice , a violent crime " , and that it is " 100 percent preventable " . As a result , MADD requested for the Entertainment Software Rating Board to change the rating of the game from Mature ( 17 + ) to Adults Only ( 18 + ) , effectively removing the game from retail stock . They also asked Take @-@ Two Interactive and Rockstar Games to consider halting the game 's distribution out of a sense of social responsibility , or out of respect for victims of driving under the influence . Rockstar later issued a statement to the Associated Press :
We have a great deal of respect for MADD 's mission , but we believe the mature audience for Grand Theft Auto IV is more than sophisticated enough to understand the game 's content .
= = = Sexual and nudity allegations = = =
On 16 June 2008 , British newspaper The Sun reported the presence of an in @-@ game Internet resource titled Little Lacy Surprise Pageant — a reference to the fake commercials featured in Grand Theft Auto : Vice City Stories ( 2006 ) . The in @-@ game resource warns that anyone caught viewing the website will be investigated , followed by a statement similar to the quote found at Grokster.com which results in the player being pursued by the in @-@ game FIB and SWAT ( NOOSE ) teams . In November 2008 , 19 @-@ year @-@ old Ryan Chinnery was jailed for performing two sex attacks on women at night . During the court hearings , it was told that Chinnery had spent considerable hours playing Grand Theft Auto IV . The judge said that Chinnery 's experience with the game " cannot have helped him in all the circumstances of this case " .
Grand Theft Auto : The Lost and Damned , the first episodic expansion to Grand Theft Auto IV , features a cutscene displaying full @-@ frontal male nudity . As a result , parents group Common Sense Media condemned the expansion , issuing a public warning against the nudity . The organisation claimed that the inclusion of nudity resulted in the game 's status as " more controversial than its predecessors " . Rockstar vice president Dan Houser stated that the game 's depiction of sexual content is intended as humorous , hoping that " the fans " recognise the humour .
= = = Censored release = = =
Despite confirmation in February 2008 that the Australian version of Grand Theft Auto IV would not be edited , Rockstar later revealed that some features would be censored . The game was assigned an MA15 + rating on 11 December 2007 . Rockstar stated that a special version of the game was produced to comply with the Australian classification system . Features censored in the Australian versions include : the inability to select a " service " when hiring a prostitute , and the restriction of animation and camera angles ; the lack of blood pools and bloody footprints ; the replacement of bullet wounds and blood patches with " slight discolouration " . For the game 's PC release , the uncensored version of the game was awarded MA15 + in Australia . Following the release of The Lost and Damned , Rockstar distributed a patch which uncensored the Australian release for consoles .
On 15 April 2008 , it was announced that the New Zealand release of the game would be identical to the censored Australian release , with Take @-@ Two Interactive attributing " time scales and logistical reasons " . Bill Hastings , Chief Censor for the New Zealand Office of Film and Literature Classification ( OFLC ) , stated that Rockstar " did not tell [ the OFLC ] which version of the game they submitted " , and that " the version [ Rockstar ] submitted for classification was the version they intended to market in New Zealand " . However , the game was resubmitted to the OFLC by Stan Calif , a 21 @-@ year @-@ old student who was unhappy that New Zealand received an edited version of the game as a result of Australian censorship laws . The unedited version was subsequently given an R18 rating and cleared for sale in New Zealand .
= = Political response = =
In 2007 , then Florida lawyer Jack Thompson , who had previously campaigned against other games from Rockstar , stated that he would take measures to prevent the sale of Grand Theft Auto IV to minors . On 14 March 2007 , Rockstar 's parent company Take @-@ Two Interactive filed a lawsuit against Thompson in an attempt to preemptively restrict him from his attempts to declare Rockstar 's games as a nuisance . Games declared to be a nuisance are effectively banned for sale , which Take @-@ Two believed would be a violation of First Amendment rights . Thompson responded by filing a countersuit , accusing Take @-@ Two of violating federal RICO statues , committing perjury , obstruction of justice , and conspiring against him with third parties to deprive him of his civil rights .
Both parties reached a settlement on 20 April 2007 , agreeing to drop their respective lawsuits . Under the terms of the settlement , Thompson has been barred from suing to ban the sale or distribution of games by Take @-@ Two or its subsidiaries . He is restricted to communicating through Take @-@ Two 's attorneys on any future matter , but is able to maintain his outspoken stance against their titles and may act as counsel in lawsuits against Take @-@ Two by other parties . For their part , Take @-@ Two agreed to drop the contempt of court lawsuit against Thompson regarding alleged improper conduct during the court hearings for Rockstar 's game Bully in 2006 .
Thompson filed a document with a federal court in Florida on 18 September 2007 , claiming that the assassination target of a mission in Grand Theft Auto IV is a lawyer character based upon himself . When the player enters his office and brandishes a weapon , the lawyer yells " Guns don 't kill people , video games do ! " , a phrase often attributed to Thompson . Thompson threatened that he will " take necessary and proper means to stop release of the game " if the similarities were not removed ; the similarities were not removed , and Thompson did not follow through . On 25 April 2008 , Metro reported that Thompson had written a letter to the mother of Strauss Zelnick , director of Take @-@ Two Interactive . In the letter , which strongly criticised both the game and Zelnick 's upbringing , Thompson labelled Grand Theft Auto as a " murder simulator " . He follows :
The pornography and violence that your son trafficks [ sic ] in is the kind of stuff that most mother would be ashamed to see their son putting into the hands of other mothers ' children ... Maybe you , Mrs. Zelnick , were so taken by your handsome son that you spared the rod and spoiled the child . That would explain why he has brought you , by the way he presently acts , " to shame . " ... Happy Mother 's day , Mrs. Zelnick , which this year is ... two weeks after your son unleashes porn and violence upon other mothers ' boys . I 'm sure you 're very proud .
Thompson subsequently claimed that he sent the letter to Zelnick 's lawyer , as opposed to his mother , formulated as a parody intended to induce feelings of " shame " in Zelnick .
Following the release of the game 's first trailer , New York City officials were appalled with the choice of their city as the inspiration for the setting of the game , stating that a game like Grand Theft Auto does not represent the city 's crime levels accurately . A spokesperson for Mayor Michael Bloomberg said that Bloomberg " does not support any video game where you earn points for injuring or kill police officers " . Although points are not awarded in the game and the murder of police officers is discouraged to the player , the game often suggests to players that police officers must be killed in order to advance in the game 's main story without difficulty . As a response , Jason Della Rocca , executive director of the International Game Developers Association , accused New York City officials of double standards , for criticising video games of using the city , but avoiding the argument in terms of other forms of entertainment , such as books , films and television shows .
= = Legal action = =
Take @-@ Two Interactive filed a lawsuit in response to the Chicago Transit Authority ( CTA ) removing advertisements promoting the game from their property , which violates a contract that requires the advertisements to remain until June 2008 . In response , a representative from the CTA attributed the removal of the advertisements to the controversy surrounding the advertisement campaign for Grand Theft Auto : San Andreas in 2004 .
= Evansville Tornado of November 2005 =
The Evansville Tornado of November 2005 was an F3 tornado that formed early in the morning of November 6 , 2005 , outside of Evansville , Indiana , USA . It was the first of several tornado events that November . The tornado resulted in 25 confirmed fatalities across the region , making it the deadliest and most destructive November tornado in Indiana 's history . The Evansville tornado was part of a small outbreak that produced 8 tornadoes .
= = Meteorological analysis = =
The system formed on a cold front that tracked across the Midwest and stretched from the northern Great Lakes to Tennessee . The front was enhanced by a strong jet stream and warm , humid air ahead of it , allowing thunderstorms to develop . A severe thunderstorm watch was issued for the region just west of Evansville as the main threat appeared to be straight @-@ line winds . The system had formed into a squall line but at about 1 : 30 am CST ( 0730 UTC ) , the squall line broke up in the Ohio Valley area , as the low level jet intensified , allowing embedded tornadoes to form rapidly out of newly formed supercells . They were fairly isolated ( only seven were confirmed across the entire region over a 24 @-@ hour period ) but three significant tornadoes formed from two simultaneous supercells in southern Indiana and western Kentucky — one of them was the deadly Evansville tornado .
= = Confirmed tornadoes = =
= = = November 5 event = = =
= = = November 6 event = = =
= = Evansville area tornado = =
On Sunday , November 6 , 2005 at around 1 : 50 am CST ( 0750 UTC ) , an F3 tornado touched down 2 miles ( 3 km ) north @-@ northwest of Smith Mills in Henderson County , Kentucky . The tornado moved northeast , snapping numerous trees , destroying a farmhouse , and throwing a pickup truck into a field . The tornado then crossed the Ohio River and moved across a rural peninsula of Vanderburgh County , Indiana . Few structures were impacted in this rural area , though a two @-@ story house built in 1875 sustained major roof damage , and tree branches were embedded into the walls of the house . One farm equipment shed was demolished , and another sustained major damage . A 10 @,@ 000 @-@ pound truck was flipped over , and heavy farm equipment was moved several feet . Aerial surveys revealed distinct spiral @-@ shaped scour marks in farm fields in this area . The tornado crossed the river again back into Kentucky , causing extensive tree damage on both sides of the river . Almost immediately after crossing the river , the tornado slammed into the Ellis Park horse racing facility . There was extensive damage to grandstands and housing facilities for jockeys . A few race horses were killed there .
The tornado crossed the Ohio River a third time back into Indiana and across the southern fringes of Evansville . Here , the tornado ripped directly through the Eastbrook Mobile Home Park , obliterating numerous mobile homes and killing 20 people . Of about 350 mobile homes in the park , 100 were destroyed and another 125 were damaged . The coroner reported that most of the victims were probably killed instantly , many by spine and skull fractures . Several bodies were carried almost two hundred yards . The tornado then crossed into Warrick County , Indiana at the Angel Mounds State Historic Site . Several permanent homes were destroyed in this area , along with many others on the north side of Newburgh . Past Newburgh , the tornado reached its peak intensity ( high @-@ end F3 ) as it tore through an industrial park near Paradise . Further northeast , the tornado passed just south of Boonville and caused a fatality in a mobile home . The tornado then tore directly through the small community of DeGonia Springs , tossing vehicles and destroying homes . Some of the homes in the community were leveled , and three people were killed in a mobile home in this area . The tornado began to rapidly weaken as it passed just south of Tennyson , and then dissipated as it crossed into Spencer County , Indiana . Overall , the tornado damaged or destroyed 500 buildings , killed 25 people , and injured 230 others .
Tornado warnings were in effect at the time and issued on average about 30 minutes before the tornado hit , but few people were alerted as many were asleep as the tornado hit in the overnight hours . The local NOAA Weather Radio transmitter was experiencing technical difficulties at the time , causing some weather radios to not sound an alarm . Damages were estimated at around $ 85 million .
= = Aftermath = =
The community 's response to the tornado garnered national praise . Brad Gair , a coordinating officer for the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) noted , " I don 't think I 've ever seen a community of people come out so quickly to help each other . All communities come together after a disaster , but this one is exceptional . " A local telethon helped raise the funds . " Just having a telethon that quickly was amazing , " said Gair , " Then to raise that kind of money ... That 's unusual . "
On August 12 , 2006 a granite monument memorial was built at Eastbrook Mobile Home Park , along with a new playground dedicated to the children lost in the tornado . It was part of a campaign launched by two parents that lost children in the tornado . In addition , Rep. Phil Hoy introduced a bill called " CJ 's law " which mandates that manufacturers of mobile homes install an operating weather radio with a separate power outlet in order to alert residents . It was named after victim C.J. Martin , who was two years old . Vanderburgh County also passed legislation toughening safety standards for their 3 @,@ 100 mobile homes , requiring them to be more securely anchored with additional straps and braces , to try to prevent another tornado disaster .
Ellis Park was rebuilt and reopened on June 1 , 2006 , for training . The first races at the rebuilt facility were held on July 19 , 2006 .
Local television station WEHT began a campaign after the tornado to provide weather radios to tornado victims for free , and to all for a discounted price . Even WEHT 's competitors have now posted how to program a weather radio on their websites . This program has since spread to many different areas of the country .
" Habitat for Humanity " Evansville Chapter launched construction of " Operation Home Again , " the New Haven Subdivision , which are new homes dedicated to the survivors of the tornado at Green River Road and Fickas Road . The subdivision has 55 homes and playground / park . There are four streets in the subdivision – Inspiration Street , Healing Street , Promise Street , and Belief Street .
= = Fatalities = =
= Battle of Yongdong =
The Battle of Yongdong was an engagement between United States and North Korean forces early in the Korean War . It occurred on July 22 – 25 , 1950 , in the village of Yongdong in southern South Korea . The newly arrived US Army 's 1st Cavalry Division was ordered there to cover the retreat of the US 24th Infantry Division after the Battle of Taejon . The 1st Cavalry Division soldiers , however , were untried in combat , and the North Korean People 's Army 's 3rd Division ( NK 3rd Division ) was able to outmaneuver them and force them back .
Though the Americans lost the town , their artillery inflicted substantial casualties on the North Koreans and delayed them for several crucial days , allowing the United Nations Command time to set up the Pusan Perimeter .
= = Background = =
= = = Outbreak of war = = =
Following the invasion of the Republic of Korea ( South Korea ) by its neighbor , the Democratic People 's Republic of Korea ( North Korea ) , the United Nations committed troops to the conflict in support of South Korea . The United States sent ground forces to the Korean peninsula with the goal of fighting back the North Korean invasion and preventing South Korea from collapsing . However , US forces in the Far East had been steadily decreasing since the end of World War II in 1945 , and at the time the closest forces were the 24th Infantry Division of the Eighth United States Army , which was headquartered in Japan . The division was understrength , and most of its equipment was antiquated due to reductions in military spending . Regardless , the 24th Infantry Division was ordered into South Korea .
The 24th Infantry Division was the first US unit sent into Korea with the mission to take the initial " shock " of North Korean advances , delaying much larger North Korean units to buy time to allow follow @-@ on forces to arrive . The division 's delaying actions allowed the 7th Infantry Division , 25th Infantry Division , 1st Cavalry Division , and other Eighth Army supporting units to move into position . South Korean forces in the meantime were systematically defeated and forced south along Korea 's east coast , with entire divisions being overrun by the North Koreans ' superior firepower and equipment . Advance elements of the 24th Infantry Division were badly defeated in the Battle of Osan on July 5 , during the first battle between American and North Korean forces . For the first month after the defeat at Osan , 24th Infantry Division soldiers were repeatedly defeated and forced south by the North Korean force 's superior numbers and equipment . The division 's regiments were systematically pushed south in battles around Chochiwon , Chonan , and Pyongtaek . The division made a final stand in the Battle of Taejon and was almost completely destroyed , but delayed North Korean forces from advancing until July 20 . By that time , the Eighth Army 's combat troops were roughly equal to North Korean forces attacking the region at around 70 @,@ 000 for each side , with new UN units arriving every day .
= = = US 1st Cavalry Division arrival = = =
On July 6 , Major General Hobart R. Gay , Commanding General of the 1st Cavalry Division , was ordered by General of the Army Douglas MacArthur to prepare the 1st Cavalry Division to move into Korea . Between July 12 and 14 the division was moved from its garrisons in central Honshu , Japan and loaded onto ships in the Yokohama area . It was then ordered to land on the east coast of Korea at P 'ohang @-@ dong , a fishing town 60 miles ( 97 km ) northeast of Pusan , in order to immediately reinforce the faltering 24th Infantry Division . From P 'ohang @-@ dong the division could moved promptly toward the Taejon area . The command ship USS Mount McKinley and first elements of the division sailed for Korea on July 15 . The 1st Cavalry Division 's transportation was provided by Task Force 90 , commanded by Rear Admiral James H. Doyle . Lead elements of the division 's first regiment , the 8th Cavalry Regiment were ashore by 06 : 10 on July 18 , and the first troops of the division 's US 5th Cavalry Regiment came in at 06 : 30 . Typhoon Helene ( 1950 ) swept over the Korean coast and prevented landing of the third regiment , the 7th Cavalry Regiment and the 82nd Field Artillery Battalion until July 22 . For three days ships could not be unloaded at Pusan and Eighth Army rations dropped to one day 's supply . However , the landings were entirely unopposed by North Korean forces .
The transfer of 750 noncommissioned officers ( NCOs ) from the 1st Cavalry Division to the 24th and 25th Infantry Divisions , a move aimed at strengthening the infantry divisions combat missions in Korea , had weakened the 1st Cavalry Division . It had been stripped of practically every NCO except the first sergeants of companies and batteries in the division . Even though it had received 1 @,@ 450 replacements before it left Japan , 100 of them from the Eighth Army stockade , the division was understrength when it landed in Korea and , like the preceding divisions , it had only two battalions in its three regiments , two firing batteries in the artillery battalions , and one tank company with M24 light tanks .
On July 19 , the 5th Cavalry Regiment started toward Taejon . The next day the 8th Cavalry Regiment followed by railroad and in trucks , and reformed in an assembly area east of Yongdong that evening . Brigadier General Charles D. Palmer , the division artillery commander , took charge of these two forward regiments . On July 22 the 8th Cavalry Regiment relieved the US 21st Infantry Regiment , US 24th Infantry Division from its positions at Yongdong . At that point , the 1st Cavalry Division assumed responsibility for blocking the North Koreans along the main Taejon – Taegu corridor to Pusan . The 24th Division 's troops retreated through the 1st Cavalry Division 's lines as the newly arrived soldiers advanced to their new defensive positions that day .
Protect Yongdong . Remember there are no friendly troops behind you . You must keep your own back door open . You can live without food but you cannot last long without ammunition , and unless the Yongdong – Taegu road is kept open you will soon be without ammunition .
-Lieutenant General Walton Walker 's orders to Gay
Once it was fully assembled in the city , the 1st Cavalry Division was ordered to move north of Yongdong and set up defensive positions . The division moved one battalion of the 8th Cavalry 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) northwest of Yongdong on the south side of the Kum River , and another battalion 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) southwest of Yongdong . The first would cover the approach along the main Taejon – Taegu highway , the second the approach on the Chosan @-@ ni – Muju – Kumsan road . Gay placed the 5th Cavalry Regiment on the high ground east of the town in a blocking position . By July 19 , the division numbered 10 @,@ 027 men in Korea . This move coincided with a reorganization of the ROK Army consolidating their lines and making room for the new division . On July 22 , the 1st Cavalry Division had finished preparing its defensive positions north of Yongdong , as the battered 24th Infantry Division was moved to the Naktong Bulge area along the Naktong River . At the same time , the US 25th Infantry Division moved to Sangju where it was caught in a battle with North Korean forces in that town .
= = Battle = =
= = = Opening moves = = =
The North Koreans quickly advanced after the Battle of Taejon , with four of their divisions attacking south from the city along four different roads . The NK 3rd Division departed the city on July 22 , advancing down the main highway toward Taegu and Yongdong , to where the 1st Cavalry Division was emplaced . The next morning , July 23 , the 1st Battalion , 8th Cavalry Regiment , in front of Yongdong , reported it had destroyed three North Korean T @-@ 34 tanks with 3 @.@ 5 @-@ inch rocket launchers in its first use of that weapon .
On July 23 the 7th and 9th Regiments of the NK 3rd Division began their attack on the Yongdong defensive positions held by the 1st Cavalry Division . They made their first penetration southwest of Yongdong , establishing a roadblock behind the 2nd Battalion , 8th Cavalry , and at the same time other North Korean units heavily engaged the 1st Battalion northwest of Yongdong in frontal attack .
The next day , American M24 tanks attacked the roadblock behind the 2nd Battalion four times in an attempt to break it , but all were unsuccessful , and Lieutenant Colonel Eugene J. Field , the 2nd Battalion commander , was wounded at the roadblock . Palmer sent the 1st Battalion , 5th Cavalry Regiment , and the 16th Reconnaissance Company toward the cut @-@ off battalion . By 12 : 00 , North Korean troops were attacking the 99th and 61st Field Artillery Battalions which were supporting the 2nd Battalion , 8th Cavalry Regiment , indicating that the North Korean infiltration had been extensive by that point .
= = = Fighting on the roads = = =
On the other main approach to Yongdong , a road northwest of the city , heavy machine gun fire and 37 @-@ mm fire from A Battery of the 92nd Antiaircraft Artillery Battalion , and artillery fire from the 77th Field Artillery Battalion helped the 1st Battalion there to repel North Korean attacks . However , the large numbers of civilian refugees crowding the Yongdong area trying to move south helped the North Koreans infiltrate the 1st Cavalry Division positions . Eighth Army tried to control the refugee movement through the Korean National Police , permitting it only during daylight hours and along predetermined routes . The North Koreans continued to move into the city in civilian clothing with concealed weapons , and US troops started shooting any Koreans moving through their lines at night . The chain of command which issued these orders is not clear as they were generally not put on paper . However , these orders are thought to have contributed to war crimes committed against civilians by the 1st Cavalry Division , namely the No Gun Ri massacre which took place around the time of the fighting at Yongdong . In the No Gun Ri inciden , US soldiers are alleged to have killed a number of Korean civilians , thinking them military infiltrators .
By the morning of July 25 North Korean forces had infiltrated the positions of the 1st Cavalry Division so thoroughly that they were disrupting its lines of supply , and Gay ordered the division to withdrawal and re @-@ form its lines further south . Northwest of Yongdong , 1st Battalion executed an orderly withdrawal , covered by the fire of the Heavy Mortar Company and the two batteries of the 77th Field Artillery Battalion . The mortar operators fought as infantry in the withdrawal . During these retreats North Korean troops disguised themselves as refugees and would form roadblocks in the UN troops ' rear areas , or used hidden communications equipment to inform higher commands of UN concentrations so those concentrations could be attacked when they were most vulnerable .
Meanwhile , the North Koreans intensified their attack on the 2nd Battalion on the road southwest of Yongdong . Concentrated artillery support , with the shells falling so close to the 2nd Battalion positions that they wounded four US troops , together with an attack by the 2nd Battalion , briefly opened the North Korean roadblock at 04 : 30 July 25 , and the bulk of the battalion escaped to Yongdong . However , F Company of the 8th Cavalry , the 16th Reconnaissance Company , and the 1st Platoon of A Company , 71st Tank Battalion , at the rear of the column were cut off . Only four of 11 light tanks broke through the North Korean positions . Crews abandoned the other seven tanks and walked over the hills in a two days ' journey as part of a group of 219 men , most of them from F Company . All equipment except individual arms was abandoned by this group . Others groups of US troops escaped in the same manner . The North Koreans had flanked the 1st Cavalry Division in a double envelopment and forced them to withdraw . In the process , the division lost much of its equipment in its quick withdrawal actions .
On this same road , closer to Yongdong , the 2nd Battalion , 5th Cavalry , which was trying to help the cutoff units of the 8th Cavalry , was itself attacked by strong North Korean units . Through some error , the US battalion 's F Company advanced to the wrong hill and stumbled into a concentration of North Korean soldiers . Only 26 men from F Company returned , the rest were killed or captured in the subsequent ambush . Altogether , the 5th Cavalry Regiment suffered 275 casualties on July 25 .
= = = American withdrawal = = =
The NK 3rd Division used essentially the same tactics it employed against the 24th Infantry Division at Taejon that it did against the 1st Cavalry Division at Yongdong . In both fights , the North Koreans opened with a direct frontal attack to hold the US division 's elements in combat , and then the bulk of the North Korean force enveloped the American left flank and established strongly held roadblocks behind the front positions and forced the Americans in them to retreat from the untenable positions . The NK 3rd Division entered Yongdong the night of July 25 . At least one North Korean unit was in the town by 20 : 00 . The North Koreans expected a counterattack and immediately took up defensive positions at the eastern edge of the town . However , the US troops had withdrawn . The 1st Cavalry Division troops set up another delaying action around Hwanggan and hit the North Korean advance a second time in the Battle of Hwanggan several days later .
= = Aftermath = =
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However , many Cumans decided to leave Hungary instead of obeying the legate 's demands . Ladislaus followed the moving Cumans as far as Szalánkemén ( now Stari Slankamen in Serbia ) , but could not hinder them from crossing the frontier .
Ladislaus launched a campaign against Finta Aba and seized his castles in the summer of 1281 . According to the Austrian Rhymed Chronicle , Bishop Philip of Fermo left Hungary around the same time , stating that he would never come back , " not for the sake of the Holy Father " . A Cuman army invaded the southern parts of Hungary in 1282 . The Illuminated Chronicle writes that Ladislaus , " like the brave Joshua , went out against " the Cumans " to fight for his people and his realm . " He vanquished the invaders 's army at Lake Hód , near Hódmezővásárhely .
At the end of 1282 , Ladislaus laid siege to Borostyánkő ( now Bernstein im Burgenland in Austria ) , which was held by the Kőszegis . The Kőszegis resisted , forcing the king to lift the siege in early 1283 . Ladislaus even reconciled with Ivan Kőszegi and appointed him palatine before 6 July . Ladislaus abandoned his wife , Isabella , and settled among the Cumans by the end of the year .
= = = Last years ( 1285 – 1290 ) = = =
The Mongols of the Golden Horde invaded Hungary under the command of Khans Talabuga and Nogai in January 1285 . According to the Illuminated Chronicle , they " spread a terrible devastation of fire throughout the whole country " to the east of the Danube . Local forces resisted the invaders at many places , including , for example , at Regéc . The invasion lasted for two months before the Mongols withdrew .
Ladislaus 's favoritism towards the Cumans made him so unpopular that many of his subjects accused him of inciting the Mongols to invade Hungary . In fact , Ladislaus employed Mongol prisoners of war , known as nyögérs , when he subjugated a rebellion in the Szepesség in September 1285 . The king preferred the Cumans ' way of life , including their costumes and hairstyle , and took Cuman girls as his mistresses . According to Lodomer , Archbishop of Esztergom , Ladislaus copulated with his favorite concubine , Aydua — whom the Archbishop described as a " poisonous viper " — in public .
In September 1286 , Ladislaus imprisoned his wife and granted all her revenues to his mistress . Archbishop Lodomer liberated Queen Isabella the following September . The Archbishop summoned the prelates , the barons , and the noblemen to an assembly in Buda and excommunicated Ladislaus . In response , the infuriated king stated that " beginning with the Archbishop of Esztergom and his suffragans , I shall exterminate the whole lot right up to Rome with the aid of Tartar swords " , according to Archbishop Lodomer .
The barons captured Ladislaus in the Szepesség in January 1288 . Although his partisans soon liberated him , he acquiesced in concluding an agreement with Archbishop Lodomer . The Archbishop absolved Ladislaus on condition that the king would live in accordance with Christian morals . However , Ladislaus broke his promise . He abducted his sister , Elizabeth , Prioress of the Dominican Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island and gave her in marriage to a Czech aristocrat , Zavis of Falkenstein . According to Archbishop Lodomer , Ladislaus even stated , " If I had fifteen or more sisters in as many cloistered communities as you like , I would snatch them from there to marry them off licitly or illicitly ; in order to procure through them a kin @-@ group who will support me by all their power in the fulfillment of my will " .
Ladislaus spent the last years of his life wandering from place to place . Hungary 's central government lost power , since the prelates and the barons ruled the kingdom independently of the monarch . For example , Ivan Kőszegi and his brothers waged wars against Albert I , Duke of Austria , but Ladislaus did not intervene , although the Austrians captured at least 30 fortresses along the western borders .
The Kőszegis offered the crown to Andrew the Venetian , who arrived in Hungary in early 1290 . One of their opponents captured the pretender , however , and surrendered him to Duke Albert . Ladislaus appointed Mizse , who had recently converted from Islam to Christianity , palatine . Pope Nicholas IV was even planning to proclaim a crusade against Ladislaus . However , Ladislaus , who had always been partial towards his Cuman subjects , was assassinated by three Cumans , named Árbóc , Törtel , and Kemence , at the castle of Körösszeg ( now Cheresig in Romania ) on 10 July 1290 . Mizse and the Cuman Nicholas , who was the brother of Ladislaus 's Cuman lover , took vengeance for Ladislaus 's death , slaughtering the murderers .
Upon Pope Nicholas IV 's orders , an enquiry was carried out to find out " whether the king died as a Catholic Christian " . The results of the investigation are unknown , but the Chronicon Budense writes that Ladislaus was buried in the cathedral of Csanád ( now Cenad in Romania ) . His successor , Andrew the Venetian , and Pope Benedict VIII recalled Ladislaus as " of renowned memory " .
= = Ancestors = =
= Day of Defeat : Source =
Day of Defeat : Source is a team @-@ based online first @-@ person shooter multiplayer video game developed by Valve Corporation . Set in World War II , the game is a complete remake of Day of Defeat it was updated from the GoldSrc engine used by its predecessor to the Source engine , and a remake of the game models . The game was released for Microsoft Windows on September 26 , 2005 , distributed through Valve 's online content delivery service Steam . Retail distribution of the game was handled by Electronic Arts .
The game was officially announced in February 2005 . During the course of its development , Day of Defeat : Source progressed from being a straight conversion of Day of Defeat , to the alteration of certain aspects of the game 's design and introduction of several new features . In addition , Day of Defeat : Source has been used by Valve to present new design features on the Source engine , such as high dynamic range rendering and cinematic effects . The game itself revolves around two teams , the US Army and the German Wehrmacht , each with access to six player classes , fighting in a variety of scenarios inspired by World War II engagements in the European Theatre of 1944 .
Upon release , the game received a generally favorable reception , praised for its atmospheric and strategic gameplay and its graphics , audio work and overall presentation . However , the game was criticized for the lack of content in it at the time of release , although subsequent updates to the game have added new game modes and levels .
= = Gameplay = =
Day of Defeat : Source is set in World War II , specifically the European Theatre in the year 1944 . Players choose to join the forces of either the United States Army or the German Wehrmacht and compete against each other in a variety of game modes . Players select from one of six classes to play as , each with its own role within the team . Player characters cannot take much damage , and in some circumstances can be killed by a single bullet , forcing players to make use of cover to stay alive . When a player character dies , that player starts a short countdown for reinforcements . When the timer runs out , the player and any friendly players killed in that time respawn into the game at their insertion point as the next wave of troops . All weapons in the game have realistic limits to their use : machine guns must be deployed to maintain accurate fire or to be reloaded , rocket launchers must be shouldered to be aimed and fired , sniper rifles are most accurate when used with the scope and grenades not " cooked off " before release may be easily fled or even thrown back by the opposition .
The game was initially released with four maps , although later updates have introduced five new official levels and eight community produced maps supported by Valve . The game 's levels are based after real battles in the Allied campaigns in Italy , Sicily and France , such as the Falaise pocket or the beach landings of Operation Shingle at Anzio , as well as entirely fictional battles . Combat can take place in several environments , such as city streets , buildings and sewers . Each online game can sustain a maximum of 32 players .
Day of Defeat : Source , like other titles developed by Valve , tracks detailed statistics for individual players . They include the time spent playing as each class , accuracy and performance for each weapon used , flag captures , and various other details . Day of Defeat : Source also features numerous " achievements " for carrying out certain tasks , such as scoring a certain number of kills with a particular weapon or completing a round within a certain time . Many of the achievements are class @-@ specific , providing incentive for a player to improve his or her abilities with each class evenly . Achievements unlocked and statistics from previously played games are displayed on the player 's Steam profile page .
= = = Game modes = = =
There are two main game modes in Day of Defeat : Source : territorial control and detonation . In territorial control maps , players must fight for control of all strategic points on the map . The strategic points take various forms , such as a destroyed tank in a street or fields and buildings , and are designated by a flag in its vicinity , which displays the army colors of the team who controls the point . Points are captured by a certain number of team members surrounding the point , with it either capturing instantly or after a couple of seconds . Players on the other side can disrupt a capture by placing themselves within the capture area during the process or by killing the enemy players at the point . The first side to hold all the points simultaneously wins the round .
The objective in a detonation level is to plant and detonate explosive devices on a number of enemy positions , which can consist of AA guns , tanks and armored cars . Some positions must be hit twice for them to be completely destroyed . Players can protect their positions by defusing the explosives before they detonate . In one variation of this game mode , one side has to defend their positions for a set amount of time , with the destruction of each piece of equipment giving the enemy team more time . The defenders win if they can hold their positions long enough for the time to run out , while the attackers win when all objectives have been destroyed . In the alternate version , both teams must attack the other 's objectives while defending their own . The first team to destroy all of the enemy 's equipment wins .
= = = Classes = = =
Both factions in Day of Defeat : Source have access to six classes . Each class is designed with specific combat circumstances in mind , so that teams must use teamwork to succeed . The weapons and equipment carried by the classes are based on the weapons used by both the US Army and Wehrmacht during World War II . Some of classes are armed with pistols — the American M1911 or the German Walther P38 — while others are equipped with trench knives or entrenching tools for melee combat . Grenades are carried by a number of classes , depending on their role in the game — riflemen are equipped with rifle grenades , the assault classes are armed with a single fragmentation grenade and a smoke grenade for providing concealment , while support classes have access to two standard fragmentation grenades . Riflemen are armed with their respective army 's standard infantry rifle , and are designed for medium to long range combat , while the assault classes carry submachine guns which are only effective in close quarters . The support classes are designed for medium range combat , equipped with either the M1918 Browning Automatic Rifle or the StG44 . Snipers are used for attacking enemy targets from long range , and are consequently armed with their army 's standard bolt @-@ action sniper rifle . Machine gunners carry machine guns to defend key locations on a level or to provide a base of fire for their team 's advance . Machine gunners are required to deploy their weapons on bipods before firing in order to compensate for the machine gun 's extreme recoil . The final class is armed with an anti @-@ armor weapon , used in the game to displace enemy machine gun or sniper positions . This class is armed with either an M1 carbine or Mauser M712 to defend themselves with when moving .
= = Development = =
= = = Production = = =
Day of Defeat : Source was first announced for Microsoft Windows during the development of Half @-@ Life 2 , the flagship game of the Source engine , as one of several of the Valve Corporation 's GoldSrc powered games to be remade on the new game engine . In the aftermath of the release of Half @-@ Life 2 and Counter @-@ Strike : Source , very little information was released regarding the development of Day of Defeat : Source until 2005 . In February 2005 , Valve officially announced Day of Defeat : Source , stating that the game was nearing its beta development phase and would be available later in the first quarter of the year . The game was opened to an internal beta test soon after , which certain members of the Day of Defeat community were invited to join . The beta version of the game was shown as a straight conversion of the most recent version of Day of Defeat , at the time even including the same player and weapon models as the game 's GoldSrc counterpart . Due to the response of the beta testers , significant changes were made to the gameplay , taking it away from being a straight conversion : the behaviour of weapons was altered and several classes from Day of Defeat were dropped entirely . Later media releases showed the revamped version of the game , including its new player and weapon models , as well as new additions to the game , such as rifle grenades and smoke grenades . On September 2 , 2005 , Valve announced that they were " confident " that the game would be released that month , and seven days later announced an official release date of September 26 , 2005 . The game was made available for preload via Valve 's Steam content delivery system on September 14 , 2005 , and was officially released on time on September 26 .
Since its release , Day of Defeat : Source has undergone several updates . These updates have consisted of gameplay tweaks , new maps and graphical effects . The first new level was released on November 30 , 2005 , and was followed on January 25 , 2005 by another new map , used as a demonstration for the Source engine 's abilities in rendering snow and ice . A major update was announced on June 22 , 2006 , adding the detonation game mode , various gameplay tweaks and two further maps to accommodate the new game mode . The update was released on June 28 , 2006 . On April 26 , 2007 , a group of maps produced by the game 's community , entitled the Community Assembled Map Pack ( CAMP1 ) , was released . Consisting of three maps , the pack was created with the assistance and support of Valve . This was followed by CAMP2 on July 26 , 2007 , a pack which consisted of a further five maps . On May 23 , 2008 , Valve announced another major update to Day of Defeat : Source , this time giving the game support for the company 's new Steamworks programmer . The update is open to any owners of Day of Defeat : Source . Along with various gameplay tweaks , the update moves the game to the Source engine version used with The Orange Box , allowing the game to utilize particle effects , as well as adding a new official map based on a long @-@ standing custom map for Day of Defeat and 54 achievement awards for players completing certain tasks .
= = = Technology = = =
Day of Defeat : Source has been used by Valve as a platform for demonstrating several technologies in the Source engine . Day of Defeat : Source introduced a dynamic audio system that was limited to non @-@ player characters in Half @-@ Life 2 . The sound of each weapon firing in @-@ game is attributed with distance and occlusion variables , which are processed and then fed back to the player . Sounds far from the player lack higher frequencies and thus sound more like they naturally would , allowing for the actions of other players on a map to make up the ambient sounds for the level . The game was the first to incorporate Valve 's high dynamic range rendering , predating the official demonstration , Half @-@ Life 2 : Lost Coast . Other effects were added post @-@ release to make the game appear as if it were a World War II era film . The effects include motion blur , depth of field , film grain and color correction . Phong shading on the Source engine was added to Day of Defeat : Source with the major update in the second quarter of 2006 .
= = = Marketing = = =
To promote the game , Valve has produced three machinima trailers depicting the game in play . The trailers are themed around wartime propaganda news reports for both Germany and the United States . To convey this effect , the trailers make extensive usage of the Source engine 's capabilities for film grain , color correction , motion blur and depth of field , as well as sepia toning . The first trailer was released as part of the game 's post @-@ release marketing on December 20 , 2005 . Entitled Prelude to Victory , the trailer depicted a large firefight in the game as a report from the German perspective , complete with a commentator speaking in the German language . Two further trailers were released to promote the major update to Day of Defeat : Source in the second quarter of 2006 . The trailers , both from the American viewpoint , displayed how the new detonation gameplay worked , emphasising teamwork as the key to success , as well as introducing the viewer to the two new maps added by the update . To further create interest in the game , Valve has opened Day of Defeat : Source to three free weekends , the first taking place on February 10 , 2006 , the second on July 8 , 2006 and the third on July 4 , 2008 , where anyone with a Steam account could download and play the game for a maximum of 48 hours free of charge .
= = Reception = =
Day of Defeat : Source was given a positive reception upon release , receiving ratings of 80 / 100 and 81 @.@ 25 % from the review aggregation sites Metacritic and GameRankings . The game 's graphics received near universal praise , with GameSpot stating that " presentation is Day of Defeat : Source 's most obvious strength " , and PC Zone citing this for creating a " tense and atmospheric " game . The ragdoll physics in the game noted by reviewers as being " amusing " , and the game 's audio work was also praised . The core gameplay , described as " lightning war meets capture the flag " by 1UP.com , was equally praised by reviewers , many appreciating the interdependence of the classes and strategic gameplay . Several reviews closed remarking that the game 's content was of a very high quality .
Criticism of the game principally revolved around the lack of content . While praise was bestowed upon the quality of the content already available , a number of reviewers were concerned about the small number of maps included in the initial release , even though new content was promised by Valve for later . IGN commented that the existing content had a good chance of going " stale " , while GameSpy stated that the game 's " lack of breadth " was a " serious shortcoming " . In addition , PC Zone commented that " by still clinging to the small @-@ scale skirmish atmosphere of the original , Day of Defeat : Source doesn 't make much of departure from Counter @-@ Strike " , stating that this made the game seem like a " facelift " to a " much @-@ loved mod [ ... ] before making us pay for it again " . PC Zone summed its review up by commenting that " this is an old game — an excellent old game and a beautiful old game — but an old game nonetheless " .
= Heterodontosauridae =
Heterodontosauridae is a family of early ornithischian dinosaurs that were likely among the most basal ( primitive ) members of the group . Although their fossils are relatively rare and their group small in numbers , they lived across all continents except Australia and Antarctica for approximately 100 million years , from the Late Triassic to the Early Cretaceous .
Heterodontosaurids were fox @-@ sized dinosaurs less than 2 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 feet ) in length , including a long tail . They are known mainly for their characteristic teeth , including enlarged canine @-@ like tusks and cheek teeth adapted for chewing , analogous to those of Cretaceous hadrosaurids . Their diet was herbivorous or possibly omnivorous .
= = Description = =
Among heterodontosaurids , only Heterodontosaurus itself is known from a complete skeleton . Fragmentary skeletal remains of Abrictosaurus are known but have not been fully described , while most other heterodontosaurids are known only from jaw fragments and teeth . Consequently , most heterodontosaurid synapomorphies ( defining features ) have been described from the teeth and jaw bones . Heterodontosaurus measured just over 1 meter ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) in length , while the fragmentary remains of Lycorhinus may indicate a larger individual .
= = = Skull and teeth = = =
Both Abrictosaurus and Heterodontosaurus had very large eyes . Underneath the eyes , the jugal bone projected sideways , a feature also present in ceratopsians . As in the jaws of most ornithischians , the anterior edge of the premaxilla ( a bone at the tip of the upper jaw ) was toothless and probably supported a keratinous beak ( rhamphotheca ) , although heterodontosaurids did have teeth in the posterior section of the premaxilla . A large gap , called a diastema , separated these premaxillary teeth from the those of the maxilla ( the main upper jaw bone ) in many ornithischians , but this diastema was characteristically arched in heterodontosaurids . The mandible ( lower jaw ) was tipped by the predentary , a bone unique to ornithischians . This bone also supported a beak similar to the one found on the premaxilla . All the teeth in the lower jaw were found on the dentary bone .
Heterodontosaurids are named for their strongly heterodont dentition . There were three premaxillary teeth . In the Early Jurassic Abrictosaurus , Heterodontosaurus , and Lycorhinus , the first two premaxillary teeth were small and conical , while the much larger third tooth resembled the canines of carnivoran mammals and is often called the caniniform or ' tusk ' . A lower caniniform , larger than the upper , took the first position in the dentary and was accommodated by the arched diastema of the upper jaw when the mouth was closed . These caniniforms were serrated on both the anterior and posterior edges in Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus , while those of Abrictosaurus bore serrations only on the anterior edge . In the Early Cretaceous Echinodon , there may have been two upper caniniforms , which were on the maxilla rather than the premaxilla , and Fruitadens from the Late Jurassic may have had two lower caniniforms on each dentary .
Like the characteristic tusks , the cheek teeth of derived heterodontosaurids were also unique among early ornithischians . Small ridges , or denticles , lined the edges of ornithischian cheek teeth in order to crop vegetation . These denticles extend only a third of the way down the tooth crown from the tip in all heterodontosaurids ; in other ornithischians , the denticles extend further down towards the root . Basal forms like Abrictosaurus had cheek teeth in both maxilla and dentary that were generally similar to other ornithischians : widely spaced , each having a low crown and a strongly @-@ developed ridge ( cingulum ) separating the crown from the root . In more derived forms like Lycorhinus and Heterodontosaurus , the teeth were chisel @-@ shaped , with much higher crowns and no cingula , so that there was no difference in width between the crowns and the roots .
These derived cheek teeth were overlapping , so that their crowns formed a continuous surface on which food could be chewed . The tooth rows were slightly inset from the side of the mouth , leaving a space outside the teeth that may have been bounded by a muscular cheek , which would have been necessary for chewing . The hadrosaurs and ceratopsians of the Cretaceous Period , as well as many herbivorous mammals , would convergently evolve somewhat analogous dental batteries . As opposed to hadrosaurs , which had thousands of teeth constantly being replaced , tooth replacement in heterodontosaurids occurred far more slowly and several specimens have been found without a single replacement tooth in waiting . Characteristically , heterodontosaurids lacked the small openings ( foramina ) on the inside of the jaw bones which are thought to have aided in tooth development in most other ornithischians . Heterodontosaurids also boasted a unique spheroidal joint between the dentaries and the predentary , allowing the lower jaws to rotate outwards as the mouth was closed , grinding the cheek teeth against each other . Because of the slow replacement rate , this grinding produced extreme tooth wear that commonly obliterated most of the denticles in older teeth , although the increased height of the crowns gave each tooth a long life .
= = = Skeleton = = =
The postcranial anatomy of Heterodontosaurus tucki has been well @-@ described , although H. tucki is generally considered the most derived of the Early Jurassic heterodontosaurids , so it is impossible to know how many of its features were shared with other species . The forelimbs were long for a dinosaur , over 70 % of the length of the hindlimbs . The well @-@ developed deltopectoral crest ( a ridge for the attachment of chest and shoulder muscles ) of the humerus and prominent olecranon process ( where muscles that extend the forearm were attached ) of the ulna indicate that the forelimb was powerful as well . There were five digits on the manus ( ' hand ' ) . The first was large , tipped with a sharply curved claw , and would rotate inwards when flexed ; Robert Bakker called it the ' twist @-@ thumb ' . The second digit was the longest , slightly longer than the third . Both of these digits bore claws , while the clawless fourth and fifth digits were very small and simple in comparison . In the hindlimb , the tibia was 30 % longer than the femur , which is generally considered an adaptation for speed . The tibia and fibula of the lower leg were fused to the astragalus and calcaneum of the ankle , forming a ' tibiofibiotarsus ' convergently with modern birds . Also similarly to birds , the lower tarsal ( ankle ) bones and metatarsals were fused to form a ' tarsometatarsus . ' There are four digits in the pes ( hindfoot ) , with only the second , third , and fourth contacting the ground . The tail , unlike many other ornithischians , did not have ossified tendons to maintain a rigid posture and was probably flexible . The fragmentary skeleton known for Abrictosaurus has never been fully described , although the forelimb and manus were smaller than in Heterodontosaurus . Also , the fourth and fifth digits of the forelimb each bear one fewer phalanx bone .
= = = Proto @-@ feathers = = =
Tianyulong from China appears to preserve filamentous integument which has been interpreted to be a variant of the proto @-@ feathers found in some theropods . These filaments include a crest along its tail . The presence of this filamentous integument has been used to suggest that both ornithischians and saurischians were endothermic .
= = Classification = =
South African paleontologist Robert Broom created the name Geranosaurus in 1911 for dinosaur jaw bones missing all of the teeth . In 1924 , Lycorhinus was named , and classified as a cynodont , by Sidney Haughton . Heterodontosaurus was named in 1962 and it , Lycorhinus and Geranosaurus were recognized as closely related ornithischian dinosaurs . Alfred Romer named Heterodontosauridae in 1966 as a family of ornithischian dinosaurs including Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus . It was defined as a clade in 1998 by Paul Sereno and redefined by him in 2005 as the stem clade consisting of Heterodontosaurus tucki and all species more closely related to Heterodontosaurus than to Parasaurolophus walkeri , Pachycephalosaurus wyomingensis , Triceratops horridus , or Ankylosaurus magniventris .
Heterodontosauridae includes the genera Abrictosaurus , Lycorhinus , and Heterodontosaurus , all from South Africa . While Richard Thulborn once reassigned all three to Lycorhinus , all other authors consider the three genera distinct . Within the family , Heterodontosaurus and Lycorhinus are considered sister taxa , with Abrictosaurus as a basal member . Geranosaurus is also a heterodontosaurid , but is usually considered a nomen dubium because the type specimen is missing all its teeth , making it indistinguishable from any other genus in the family . More recently , the genus Echinodon has been considered a heterodontosaurid in several studies . Lanasaurus was named for an upper jaw in 1975 , but more recent discoveries have shown that it belongs to Lycorhinus instead , making Lanasaurus a junior synonym of that genus . Dianchungosaurus was once considered a heterodontosaurid from Asia , but it has since been shown that the remains were a chimera of prosauropod and mesoeucrocodylian remains . José Bonaparte also classified the South American Pisanosaurus as a heterodontosaurid at one time , but this animal is now known to be a more basal ornithischian .
The membership of Heterodontosauridae is well @-@ established in comparison to its uncertain phylogenetic position . Several early studies suggested that heterodontosaurids were very primitive ornithischians . Due to supposed similarities in the morphology of the forelimbs , Robert Bakker proposed a relationship between heterodontosaurids and early sauropodomorphs like Anchisaurus , bridging the orders Saurischia and Ornithischia . The dominant hypothesis over the last several decades has placed heterodontosaurids as basal ornithopods . However , others have suggested that heterodontosaurids instead share a common ancestor with Marginocephalia ( ceratopsians and pachycephalosaurs ) , a hypothesis that has found support in some early 21st century studies . The clade containing heterodontosaurids and marginocephalians has been named Heterodontosauriformes . Heterodontosaurids have also been seen as basal to both ornithopods and marginocephalians . In 2007 , a cladistic analysis suggested that heterodontosaurids are basal to all known ornithischians except Pisanosaurus , a result that echoes some of the very earliest work on the family . Butler et al . ( 2010 ) found the Heterodontosauridae to be the most basal known significant ornithischian radiation .
The cladogram below shows the interrelationships within Heterodontosauridae , and follows the analysis by Sereno , 2012 :
= = Distribution = =
While originally known only from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa , heterodontosaurid remains are now known from four continents . Early in heterodontosaurid history , the supercontinent Pangaea was still largely intact , allowing the family to achieve a near @-@ worldwide distribution . The oldest known remains are a jaw fragment and isolated teeth from the Laguna Colorada Formation of Argentina , which dates back to the Late Triassic . These remains have a derived morphology similar to Heterodontosaurus , including a caniniform with serrations on both anterior and posterior edges , as well as high @-@ crowned maxillary teeth lacking a cingulum . The most diverse heterodontosaurid fauna comes from the Early Jurassic of southern Africa , where fossils of Heterodontosaurus , Abrictosaurus , Lycorhinus , and the dubious Geranosaurus are found .
Undescribed Early Jurassic heterodontosaurids are also known from the United States and Mexico , respectively . In addition , beginning in the 1970s , a great deal of fossil material was discovered from the Late Jurassic Morrison Formation near Fruita , Colorado in the United States . Described in print in 2009 , this material was placed in the genus Fruitadens . Heterodontosaurid teeth lacking a cingulum have also been described from Late Jurassic and Early Cretaceous formations in Spain and Portugal . The remains of Echinodon were redescribed in 2002 , showing that it may represent a late @-@ surviving heterodontosaurid from the Berriasian stage of the Early Cretaceous in southern England . Dianchungosaurus from the Early Jurassic of China is no longer considered a heterodontosaurid ; though one late surviving Asian form is known ( Tianyulong ) .
= = Paleobiology = =
Most heterodontosaurid fossils are found in geologic formations that represent arid to semi @-@ arid environments , including the Upper Elliot Formation of South Africa and the Purbeck Beds of southern England . It has been suggested that heterodontosaurids underwent seasonal aestivation or hibernation during the driest times of year . Due to the lack of replacement teeth in most heterodontosaurids , it was proposed that the entire set of teeth was replaced during this dormant period , as it seemed that continual and sporadic replacement of teeth would interrupt the function of the tooth row as a single chewing surface . However , this was based on a misunderstanding of heterodontosaurid jaw mechanics . It was thought that heterodontosaurids actually did replace their teeth continually , though more slowly than in other reptiles , but CT scanning of skulls from juvenile and mature Heterodontosaurus shows no replacement teeth . There is currently no evidence that supports the hypothesis of aestivation in heterodontosaurids , but it cannot be rejected , based on the skull scans .
While the cheek teeth of heterodontosaurids are clearly adapted for grinding tough plant material , their diet may have been omnivorous . The pointed premaxillary teeth and sharp , curved claws on the forelimbs suggest some degree of predatory behavior . It has been suggested that the long , powerful forelimbs of Heterodontosaurus may have been useful for tearing into insect nests , similarly to modern anteaters . These forelimbs may have also functioned as digging tools , perhaps for roots and tubers .
The length of the forelimb compared to the hindlimb suggests that Heterodontosaurus might have been partially quadrupedal , and the prominent olecranon process and hyperextendable digits of the forelimb are found in many quadrupeds . However , the manus is clearly designed for grasping , not weight support . Many features of the hindlimb , including the long tibia and foot , as well as the fusion of the tibiofibiotarsus and tarsometatarsus , indicate that heterodontosaurids were adapted to run quickly on the hindlegs , so it is unlikely that Heterodontosaurus moved on all four limbs except perhaps when feeding .
The short tusks found in all known heterodontosaurids strongly resemble tusks found in modern musk deer , peccaries and pigs . In many of these animals ( as well as the longer @-@ tusked walrus and Asian elephants ) , this is a sexually dimorphic trait , with tusks only found in males . The type specimen of Abrictosaurus lacks tusks and was originally described as a female . While this remains possible , the unfused sacral vertebrae and short face indicate that this specimen represents a juvenile animal , while a second , larger specimen of Abrictosaurus clearly possesses tusks . Therefore , it is possible that tusks are found only in adults , rather than being a secondary sexual characteristic of males . These tusks could have been used for combat or display with members of the same species or with other species . The absence of tusks in juvenile Abrictosaurus could also be another characteristic separating it from other heterodontosaurids as well , as tusks are known in juvenile Heterodontosaurus . Other proposed functions for the tusks include defense and use in an occasionally omnivorous diet .
= 75 ( album ) =
75 is a live album by Austrian @-@ American jazz musician Joe Zawinul and his band the Zawinul Syndicate . It was recorded in 2007 at two performances in Switzerland and Hungary , among bandleader Joe Zawinul 's final performances . The album was produced by Joachim Becker and originally released in 2008 by JVC Compact Discs , with the Zawinul Estate and Becker serving as executive producers . It was later released by BHM Productions and Heads Up International , the BHM release with the alternate title 75th . It peaked at number eighteen on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart and won the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Jazz Album . The album received a generally positive critical reception .
= = Overview = =
With the exception of one track , 75 was recorded during the Zawinul Syndicate 's 7 July 2007 appearance at a festival in Lugano , Switzerland , which happened to be bandleader Joe Zawinul 's seventy @-@ fifth birthday . The concert was a part of the Zawinul Syndicate 's twentieth anniversary world tour . The remaining track , " In a Silent Way " , was recorded from their 2 August 2007 show in Veszprém , Hungary . Zawinul was joined on stage by Wayne Shorter on soprano saxophone for this track . This marked a reunion for Zawinul and Shorter , two original members of Weather Report , both of whom played on the original version of this song from Miles Davis 's 1969 album of the same name . Shortly after these performances , on 11 September 2007 , Zawinul died of Merkel cell carcinoma . The Veszprém concert was Zawinul 's penultimate performance .
= = Composition = =
75 opens with " Orient Express " from Zawinul 's 1992 solo album My People . Zawinul plays the vocoder on this track . The second track , " Madagascar " , also features Zawinul on vocoder and is one of two tracks that originally appeared on Weather Report 's album Night Passage . Another Weather Report piece , " Scarlet Woman " , follows and features a bass solo by Linley Marthe . " Zansa II " is a duet with Paco Sery on kalimba and Zawinul on synthesizer and vocoder . The first disc concludes with " Cafe Andalusia " . Sabine Kabongo provides scat vocals on this track .
A combination of two Weather Report pieces " Fast City " and " Two Lines " opens disc two and features more scat singing by Kabongo . Next , " Clario " features vocals by Alegre Corrêa . Another melding of Weather Report tunes , " Badia " and " Boogie Woogie Waltz " , follows and features Corrêa on Berimbau and Kabongo on vocals . The next track is a recording of Kabungo leading the audience in a chorus of " Happy Birthday " directed at Zawinul . " In a Silent Way " , a duet between Shorter and Zawinul originally from Miles Davis 's album of the same name , follows . The album closed with " Hymn " , which seemed to one reviewer " as though [ Zawinul ] knew the end was near " .
= = Critical reception = =
75 received a generally positive critical reception . Michael G. Nastos of Allmusic wrote that the album exemplified Zawinul 's " personalized direction " before he died and that it " exudes all of the energy the group produced in concert " . JazzTimes 's Bill Milkowski described Zawinul 's keyboard playing as creating " dazzling , free @-@ flowing lines with the right hand while deftly orchestrating dense chords and Ellingtonian shout choruses with the left hand " . All About Jazz 's Woodrow Wilkins called the album a " musical adventure " and Zawinul 's performance " a testament to his talent and dedication in sharing his gift " . John Kelman , managing editor for All About Jazz , wrote that based on his performance Zawinul gave " no indicators that he was ill , let alone approaching death " . He closed his review by calling 75 a " fitting finale to the career of an artist whose creativity , forward thinking and extensive discography mean that he may be gone , but he 'll never be forgotten . " In the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review , Bob Karlovitis called the release " a great statement about [ Zawinul 's ] creativity " . He described the album 's opening piece , " Orient Express " as " almost tiring in its energy " .
The BBC 's Jon Lusk did not share the high opinions of other critics . He was " not mad about " vocalists Aziz Sahmaoui and Sabine Kabongo but found Alegre Corrêa " agreeable enough " . He liked " In a Silent Way " , calling it " beautifully serene " but wished there were other performances with similar " reflective moments " . The review in The Times by John Bungey was more positive . He noted that it was not a " generally sad affair , hard @-@ to @-@ take document " as are most final recordings of great artists , but instead " a compelling last testament of a mighty group and a fine human being " . Nick Coleman 's review in The Independent was mixed ; he wrote that the " tempos border on the frantic , phrases are spat , the will to trade licks is never less than testosteronal " but quipped that for " every sublime passage there 's a butch one " . John Fordham of The Guardian contrasted the release to Zawinul 's 2005 live album Vienna Nights . One difference he emphasized was " the typhoon drumming of Paco Sery and a battalion of percussionists [ that ] gives Zawinul the option of letting long stretches of the music simply groove " . He also noted that there was no comparable track with the duet with Shorter on Vienna Nights .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits = =
Performance
Joe Zawinul – keyboards , vocoder
Jorge Bezerra – percussion , vocals
Alegre Corrêa – berimbau , guitar , vocals
Sabine Kabongo – percussion , vocals
Linley Marthe – bass
Abdelaziz Sahmaoui – percussion , vocals
Paco Sery – drums , kalimba , vocals
Wayne Shorter – soprano sax on " In a Silent Way "
Production
Joachim Becker – executive producer , mixing , producer
Klaus Genuit – mixing
Holger Keifel – portraits
Knut Schotteldreier – cover design
Matjaz Vrecko – photos
Credits adapted from Allmusic and album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
75 reached a peak position of number eighteen on Billboard 's Top Jazz Albums chart .
= = Awards = =
The album won the 2010 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Jazz Album . The other nominees for the award were Urbanus by Stefon Harris , Sounding Point by Julian Lage , At World 's Edge by Philippe Saisse , and Big Neighborhood by Mike Stern .
= = Release history = =
= Tropical Storm Faxai ( 2007 ) =
Severe Tropical Storm Faxai , known in the Philippines as Tropical Storm Juaning , was a short @-@ lived tropical storm that had minor effects on land . The twentieth named storm of the 2007 Pacific typhoon season , Faxai originated from a tropical depression over the open waters of the western Pacific Ocean in late October . The storm quickly strengthened , becoming a severe tropical storm on October 26 as it rapidly traveled towards the northeast . The storm became extratropical the following day as it brushed Japan . The remnants dissipated on October 28 .
Although Faxai never made landfall , outer bands associated with the storm produced torrential rains , amounting to 458 mm ( 18 in ) on Miyakejima . A Japan Airlines flight to Narita Airport encountered severe turbulence during the afternoon of October 27 . One person sustained serious injures , and five others received minor injuries ; the plane was damaged during the event . One person was killed near Tokyo as the storm passed by , and three others were injured . Damages from the storm amounted to ¥ 150 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Storm Faxai began as an area of convection that persisted about 805 kilometers ( 500 mi ) west of Guam on October 24 . Satellite imagery indicated broad cyclonic turning in the lower levels of the atmosphere , and a trough was located near the surface . Convection consolidated around the center of the low @-@ level circulation , and the upper @-@ level environment — low wind shear and good divergence — favored development . The following day , the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) classified the system as a tropical depression . Shortly after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) issued a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert as convection deepened around a partially exposed low . The storm traveled northwest under the influences of a subtropical ridge to the north . At 0000 UTC on October 26 , the Philippine Atmospheric , Geophysical and Astronomical Services Administration ( PAGASA ) designated the system as a tropical depression and gave it the local name Juaning . Around the same time , the JMA upgraded the depression to a tropical storm and gave it the name Faxai .
The JTWC issued advisories on Faxai , designating it as 20W ; however , they classified it as a tropical depression . Several hours later , the storm began to undergo an extratropical transition , with convection persisting mainly in the northwestern portion of the storm and cold , dry air entering into the southwestern portion . At 1200 UTC , PAGASA issued their final advisory on Tropical Storm Juaning as it moved out of their area of responsibility . The JTWC reported that Tropical Depression 20W ( Faxai ) had become extratropical around this time as it merged with a baroclinic zone . A cold front developed along the southern portion of Faxai , a feature of extratropical cyclones . Around that time , the JMA upgraded Faxai to a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) .
The JTWC subsequently upgraded the depression to a tropical storm based on the development of a well @-@ defined central dense overcast . A shortwave trough located over the Korean peninsula provided a favorable upper @-@ level environment for Faxai to intensify . Early the next day , Faxai began accelerating rapidly towards the northeast in the mid @-@ latitude westerlies . An anticyclone located over Japan created a strong pressure gradient between it and the tropical storm , causing the wind field of Faxai to expand significantly to the northeast . As the JTWC issued their final advisory , they assessed the storm to have reached its peak intensity , with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph one @-@ minute sustained ) . The JMA also assessed Faxai to have reached its peak intensity at that time , with winds of 100 km / h ( 65 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a minimum pressure of 975 hPa ( mbar ) ; however , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration ( NOAA ) reported that Faxai had attained hurricane @-@ force winds by this time , peaking at 130 km / h ( 80 mph ) . The storm continued towards the northeast at a rapid pace and became extratropical off the eastern coast of Honshu around 1200 UTC on October 27 . The extratropical remnants persisted for more than a day before dissipating over open waters late on October 28 . NOAA , on the other hand , continued to monitor the remnants of Faxai , with the system reaching the Aleutian Islands on October 29 . The following day , the storm rapidly intensified , with the central pressure dropping to 957 hPa ( mbar ) by 1800 UTC . On October 31 , the system tracked into Alaska and weakened .
The Japan Meteorological Agency uses 10 @-@ minute sustained winds , while the Joint Typhoon Warning Center uses one @-@ minute sustained winds . The conversion factor between the two is 1 @.@ 14 . JMA 's peak intensity for Faxai was 100 km / h ( 65 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained , or 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained . The JTWC 's peak intensity for Faxai was 75 km / h ( 45 mph ) one @-@ minute sustained , or 65 km / h ( 40 mph ) 10 @-@ minute sustained .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As Faxai approached Japan , All Nippon Airways canceled day flights between Tokyo and the Izu Islands . Tokai Kisen , which operates ferries between Tokyo , the Izu Islands , and Shizuoka Prefecture , canceled some services due to the storm . Areas around Tokyo were notified of the expected heavy rains , waves up to 6 m ( 19 @.@ 6 ft ) , and high winds . Residents were advised to stay indoors during the storm , especially after sunset , and to avoid possible flying debris .
Although Faxai did not make landfall , the outer bands produced heavy rains , which caused minor damage along the eastern coast of Japan . The highest total rainfall was recorded on Miyakejima at 458 mm ( 18 in ) and in the Ōshima Subprefecture of Tokyo , 192 mm ( 7 @.@ 5 in ) was recorded . The rainfall in Miyakejima nearly surpassed the record daily rainfall for October 27 . Rainfall rates peaked at 95 mm / h ( 3 @.@ 7 in / h ) on Miyaketsubota , which triggered seven mudslides throughout the country . One woman was killed near Tokyo , and three people were injured . One home , two hectares of farmland , 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) of roads , and one ship were damaged by the storm . At the height of the storm , 9 @,@ 605 residences were without power throughout Japan . Damages from cyclone totaled ¥ 150 million ( US $ 1 @.@ 5 million ) .
At 5 : 31 pm Japan Standard Time ( 0831 UTC ) on October 27 , a Japan Airlines Boeing 767 @-@ 300 heading to Narita International Airport , encountered severe turbulence from Faxai about 74 km ( 46 mi ) southeast of Narita . The turbulence caused seven injuries on the flight , as well as some damage to the plane .
= Voices of the Lifestream =
Voices of the Lifestream is an unofficial tribute album released by OverClocked ReMix in honor of Nobuo Uematsu 's score for the popular video game , Final Fantasy VII . The album was released on September 14 , 2007 , to coincide with the 10th anniversary of Final Fantasy VII . Since its release , the collection has received praise from numerous video game sites and professional composers .
= = Development = =
Production of Voices of the Lifestream began in January 2006 as a personal endeavor by OverClocked ReMix Judge and ReMixer Andrew " zircon " Aversa to recreate the soundtrack of Final Fantasy VII . In a director ’ s note , Aversa credits his nostalgic experiences with the game as his motivation towards the project . A private forum was created to house development on the project and many community members were contacted to aid in developing a track list . Development of the project lasted over 20 months encompassing over 40 remixers credited with creating 45 tracks . The compilation was released on September 14 , 2007 , in correlation with Final Fantasy VII 's 10th anniversary . Few physical copies of the compilation were made . The tracks were instead made available through digital distribution in lossless WAV and MP3 formats . Voices of the Lifestream is OC ReMix 's ninth project to be released .
= = Music video competition = =
On October 4 , 2007 , OverClocked ReMix announced a competition , in conjunction with Piano Squall and eStarland , regarding the creation of a music video set to a track from Voices of the Lifestream . There were three different categories to enter including Final Fantasy VII , anime , and original . The winners were awarded a signed limited edition of Voices of the Lifestream among other prizes , as well as having their video presented at anime and gaming conventions that OC ReMix attends . The contest ended on December 14 , 2007 . The winners were announced on the OverClocked ReMix forums two months later :
Final Fantasy VII Category
Winner : " Compiled Memories " by sayde ( David Lee )
Runner @-@ up : " Black @-@ Winged Angel " by slkdragon ( Chris Cook )
Honorable Mention : " Wheels of Lifestream " by Big Paul ( Paulo Augusto )
Anime Category
Winner : " Final Moments of Clarity " by Mindeffects ( Saša Tarbuk )
Runner @-@ up : " Sweetest Embrace " by Phantasmagoriat ( Chris Studer )
Original Category
Winner : " Stone Eyes " by Zethzen ( Ian Cofino )
Runner @-@ up : " Lunatic Hero " by backseatstuff ( Matt Furbush )
= = Reception = =
Public reception has been generally positive , with Voices of the Lifestream being the most downloaded project created by OverClocked ReMix to date according to a BitTorrent tracker on OC ReMix ’ s website .
Editors of video game music websites , and video game websites in general , have been typically positive in their reviews . Kotaku has referred to the project as being “ a massive labor of love … truly amazing . ” Game Tabs has called the compilation a “ masterpiece , ” expressing surprise at the quality of the compilation , but criticizing the vocals in some of the tracks . SquareSound gave the project a 90 % , praising the musicianship exhibited by the OC ReMix community and recommending immediate download . SquareSound also criticized some of the tracks , feeling that they got “ lost ” attempting to reinterpret the source material . In an advance review , Jayson Napolitano of Music4Games called Voices of the Lifestream “ one of the most impressive and encompassing listening experiences in the world of video game music . ”
News of the album is not limited to the U.S. Finnish video game magazine Pelit gave the album a score of 5 out of 5 stars , lauding its diverse content but also pointing out a few unnecessary tracks which should have been excluded from the album while it was still in development . Voices of the Lifestream was nonetheless described as “ the most interesting event on the Internet music scene in a long time . ”
Two professional video game composers have also given their approval of the compilation . Tommy Tallarico , video game composer and co @-@ creator of Video Games Live , praised the album , stating “ OC ReMix has done it again ! I 'm always impressed with the amazing talent that comes from the OCR community . ” Michael Gluck , better known as Piano Squall , has also voiced approval of the compilation , stating “ … this is without a doubt the most fantastic project to ever hit the videogame music scene . "
= = Track listing = =
The project is spread out over four discs although few physical copies of the album are available . Most of the content was distributed via download links and torrents . The names of the discs coincide with the titles of releases made for the Compilation of Final Fantasy VII : Crisis Core ; Dirge of Cerberus ; Advent Children ; and Last Order .
All music composed by Nobuo Uematsu .
= Bobby Eaton =
Robert Lee " Bobby " Eaton ( born August 14 , 1958 ) is an American retired professional wrestler , who made his debut in 1976 . Eaton is most famous for his work in tag teams , especially his days as one @-@ half of the team the Midnight Express . Under the management of Jim Cornette , Eaton originally teamed with Dennis Condrey and , later on , with Stan Lane . He has also worked with a number of other tag team partners , including Koko B. Ware , Steve Keirn , and " Lord " Steven Regal .
In his career , Eaton wrestled for extended periods of time for various wrestling promotions : Mid @-@ America Wrestling , Continental Wrestling Association , Mid @-@ South Wrestling , World Class Championship Wrestling , Jim Crockett Promotions , World Championship Wrestling , and Smoky Mountain Wrestling . He has also made brief guest appearances for Extreme Championship Wrestling and Total Nonstop Action Wrestling , in addition to appearances for a considerable number of independent wrestling promotions over the years . He retired in 2015 after nearly 40 years in the ring .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
Growing up in Huntsville , Alabama , Eaton was a fan of professional wrestling , especially the NWA Mid @-@ America professional wrestling promotion . This promotion was operated by Nick Gulas , who staged wrestling shows in the Alabama and Tennessee region . Eaton 's first involvement in the sport came at the age of 13 , while attending Chapman Middle School , when he helped set up wrestling rings in his hometown . He later trained under Tojo Yamamoto to become a professional wrestler .
= = = Early career = = =
In May 1976 , at the age of 17 , Eaton made his debut in NWA Mid @-@ America . He entered his first match , a loss to Bearcat Wright , as a last @-@ minute substitute for Wright 's absent opponent . He quickly became a regular in Mid @-@ America and continued to train with the more experienced wrestlers . Before long , fans , as well as promoter Nick Gulas , noticed Eaton 's athleticism and showmanship . Gulas decided to " promote " Eaton up the ranks of NWA Mid @-@ America , giving him matches later in the show , closer to the main event . The angle that really helped elevate Eaton 's name up the card in the promotion took place after the introduction of the tag team The Hollywood Blonds ( Jerry Brown and Buddy Roberts ) . Eaton fought the Blonds with a variety of partners , including his old trainer Yamamoto and " Pistol " Pez Whatley . When the Blonds decided to move to a different wrestling promotion , the storyline maintained that Eaton was responsible for driving them out of NWA Mid @-@ America .
In 1978 , Eaton teamed with Leapin ' Lanny Poffo ( brother of the more well @-@ known " Macho Man " Randy Savage ) , and together they won the NWA Mid @-@ America Tag Team Championship from Gypsy Joe and Leroy Rochester . It was Eaton 's first title win , and he and Poffo held it for a little over a month . Eaton went on to form a team , known as The Jet Set , with George Gulas , Nick Gulas 's son . Together , Eaton and Gulas held the tag team title three times . During their time as a team , the two were involved in a storyline feud with Terry Gordy and Michael Hayes before Gordy and Hayes became famous under the name The Fabulous Freebirds .
= = = Singles competition = = =
In the spring of 1979 , Eaton started a feud with Chris Colt , designed to establish Eaton as more than just a good tag team competitor . The feud between the two was so heated that it saw Colt suspended for piledriving Eaton on the concrete floor , making it appear Eaton had been seriously injured . Eaton suffered no injuries , however . At that time , the piledriver was banned in most federations and treated as a move that could potentially paralyze a wrestler . This was done to give the move more " shock value " . Eaton conclusively defeated Colt , earning a place as one of the top faces ( good guys ) in NWA Mid @-@ America . During 1979 and 1980 , Eaton worked a series of singles matches against Dennis Condrey , a man he would later team up with to gain worldwide fame .
At the end of 1979 , Eaton turned heel ( bad guy ) for the first time in his career by joining Tojo Yamamoto 's group of wrestlers , whom the fans hated . Although Eaton is now thought of mainly as a heel , his fans were surprised at the time . Eaton 's heel run did not last long before he rescued his former Jet Set partner , George Gulas , from a two @-@ on @-@ one attack by The Blond Bombers ( Larry Latham and Wayne Ferris ) to return to the fan @-@ favorite side once more . After reuniting the team , Eaton and Gulas had one final run with tag team champions and worked an intense feud with Latham and Ferris .
When Nick Gulas ' wrestling promotion closed due to dwindling ticket sales , Eaton briefly wrestled for a promotion in Georgia . Before long Eaton returned closer to home , working for promoter Jerry Jarrett 's Continental Wrestling Association ( CWA ) , which was centered in Memphis , Tennessee . During his early days in the promotion , Eaton faced Stan Lane several times in tag team competition . Eaton 's most successful partnership in the CWA , in terms of title wins , was with Sweet Brown Sugar ( later known as Koko B. Ware ) , nicknamed " the New Wave " . The two wrestlers blended their athleticism and high flying abilities to form a very successful team . The New Wave held the AWA Southern Tag Team Championship three times ( twice with manager Jimmy Hart in their corner ) . After achieving success as a tag team , it was decided that Eaton and Sugar should split up and feud with each other . This storyline resulted in Eaton " forcing " Sugar out of the promotion after he won a " Losers Leaves Town " match against Sugar .
Sugar 's disappearance was soon followed by the appearance of a masked man called Stagger Lee , who looked and wrestled like Sugar . The storyline of Sugar returning under the mask to fight the heels helped make the masked man instantly popular with the crowd . Eaton , along with the rest of Jimmy Hart 's stable " the First Family " , tried in vain to unmask Stagger Lee .
Eaton turned face and re @-@ teamed with Sugar , although they maintained the storyline that Eaton 's partner was actually " Stagger Lee " and not Sugar . The team regained the tag team title before losing it to The Fabulous Ones ( Stan Lane and Steve Keirn ) . Afterward , Eaton teamed up with The Moondogs ( Rex and Spot ) to face Jerry Lawler and the Fabulous Ones . During the match , one of the Moondogs accidentally hit Eaton with their trademark bone , costing their side the match . After the match ended , the Moondogs , as well as Jimmy Hart , turned on Eaton , beating him down until he was saved by Stagger Lee .
= = = The Midnight Express = = =
Soon after Eaton joined Mid @-@ South Wrestling under promoter Bill Watts , he became part of the Midnight Express . Eaton teamed with former rival Dennis Condrey under the management of Jim Cornette to form a new version of the tag team . The Express had previously been a group of wrestlers consisting of Condrey , Randy Rose and Norvell Austin , but with Eaton 's arrival , the Midnight Express worked exclusively as a two @-@ man team . To complement the nickname " Lover Boy " Dennis , Eaton was nicknamed " Beautiful " Bobby , a nickname he still uses when wrestling . At first , The Express was booked in an angle with the Mid @-@ South Tag Team Champions Magnum T.A. and Mr. Wrestling II . The highlight of the angle saw Eaton and Condrey tarring and feathering Magnum T.A. in the middle of the ring . The Express first won the tag team title when Mr. Wrestling II turned on Magnum T.A. , attacking him during the title match and allowing Eaton and Condrey to win the title without much opposition .
With Mr. Wrestling II and Magnum T.A. splitting up , the Midnight Express needed a new team to defend their newly won title against . They began a long series of matches against The Rock ' n ' Roll Express ( Ricky Morton and Robert Gibson ) which ran well into the 1990s and spanned several wrestling promotions . The two teams feuded throughout 1984 in Mid @-@ South Wrestling before the Midnight Express left the promotion . The Midnight Express versus Rock ' n ' Roll Express series of matches were so well received by the fans that independent promoters all over the United States still book those two teams against each other today , 20 years after the rivalry started .
The Midnight Express had a short stay in World Class Championship Wrestling in Texas , where they feuded mainly with The Fantastics ( Bobby Fulton and Tommy Rogers ) .
= = = National spotlight = = =
In 1985 Eaton , Condrey and Cornette signed with Jim Crockett Promotions ( JCP ) and were given national exposure on JCP 's televised programs on SuperStation TBS . Shortly after joining JCP , the Midnight Express reignited their feud with the Rock ' n ' Roll Express and won the NWA World Tag team title from them in February 1986 . During the course of their heated angle , Eaton and Condrey re @-@ lost the title to the Rock ' n ' Roll Express six months later . Eaton and Condrey also had long running feuds with The New Breed ( Chris Champion and Sean Royal ) as well as The Road Warriors ( Animal and Hawk ) . The feud with the Road Warriors included a high profile Scaffold match at Starrcade 1986 , which the Midnight Express lost .
In early 1987 , Condrey left JCP for undisclosed reasons , and " Sweet " Stan Lane took his place as part of the Midnight Express . In May 1987 , after teaming for only a few months , Eaton and Lane became champions when they won the NWA United States Tag team title for the first time , a title they would win three times during their time together . A year later the team was cheered on despite being heels , as the Midnight Express won the NWA World Tag Team Title from Arn Anderson and Tully Blanchard on September 10 , 1988 . This feud was cut short when Anderson & Blanchard signed with the WWF over money issues . The Midnight Express ' run with the title lasted a little over a month @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half before the Road Warriors took the gold from them in a brutal match up , which saw the heel Road Warriors brutalize the now @-@ popular Midnight Express .
Now the fan favorites , the Midnight Express had to contend with a team thought to be disbanded forever : the Original Midnight Express , which consisted of Condrey and Randy Rose , who joined JCP after a brief run in the AWA . The duo was led by long @-@ time Jim Cornette nemesis Paul E. Dangerously , in a storyline that saw them trying to prove the originals were better than the new version . The surprise appearance of the Original Midnight Express gave Dangerously 's team the initial momentum in the feud , but soon after , Condrey left the promotion once more . This forced the bookers to bring in Jack Victory as a replacement as Condrey 's disappearance cut the promising feud short .
The Midnight Express then turned their attention to Paul E. ' s new team , The Samoan S.W.A.T. Team as well as a new version of The Fabulous Freebirds . Eaton and Lane were defeated by the Freebirds in the finals of a tournament for the vacated World Tag Team Titles . Following this loss , the Midnight Express teamed with their former enemies The Road Warriors and " Dr. Death " Steve Williams to defeat the SST and the Freebirds in a WarGames match at The Great American Bash . Following this feud , Lane and Eaton began having issues with a young new team in the NWA known as " the Dynamic Dudes " ( Shane Douglas and Johnny Ace ) . The Dudes admitted that the Midnight Express was one of their favorite teams and asked if Cornette would be their manager as well . Cornette agreed to manage the young team , to the displeasure of the Midnight Express . After arguing with the Express , Jim Cornette stopped accompanying Eaton and Lane to the ring , choosing to only actively manage the Dudes . At the Clash of Champions IX , the two teams met with Jim Cornette appearing in a neutral corner , forced to choose between the teams . The Express started out very aggressively , especially for a team that was supposed to be fan favorites , and when the night was over , the Midnight Express had once again established themselves as heels with Jim Cornette in their corner ; Cornette had never stopped siding with the Express .
After returning to their cheating ways , the Midnight Express started a storyline with the up @-@ and @-@ coming team of Flyin ' Brian and " Z @-@ Man " Tom Zenk over the United States Tag team title . The Express won the title from the young team in early 1990 , but lost the belts to The Steiner Brothers ( Rick and Scott ) three months later . After a loss at the WCW pay @-@ per @-@ view Halloween Havoc 1990 , the Midnight Express split up , as Jim Cornette and Stan Lane left the federation , while Eaton chose to remain in WCW . For the first time in almost a decade , there was no Midnight Express .
= = = Dangerous Alliance = = =
For the first time since 1979 , Eaton was a singles competitor , and he faced an uphill struggle to establish himself . He wrestled his former opponents in tag team competition such as Brad Armstrong ( whom he defeated at Wrestle War ' 91 ) , Ricky Morton and " Z @-@ Man " Tom Zenk ( whom he defeated at Starrcade ' 90 , but lost to at the Clash of the Champions XIV ) , but it was not until he turned face during the early parts of 1991 that he started to move up the rankings . At SuperBrawl I , Eaton defeated Arn Anderson to win the WCW World Television Championship . Eaton 's highest profile match as a singles wrestler came when he faced off against WCW World Champion " Nature Boy " Ric Flair at Clash of the Champions XV in a two @-@ out @-@ of @-@ three falls match . Eaton pinned Flair in the first fall , but ultimately lost to Flair two falls to one . His TV Title reign was short @-@ lived , as he came face to face with newcomer " Stunning " Steve Austin , who cheated his way to win the title from Eaton . After dropping out of the Television Title picture , Eaton went on to feud with The York Foundation until Paul E. Dangerously reappeared in WCW .
Late in 1991 , Paul E. Dangerously formed the faction The Dangerous Alliance . Eaton joined the group when he assisted Rick Rude , whom Dangerously had ( kayfabe ) brought into WCW , in defeating Sting for the United States Championship . In joining the group , Eaton became allies with Rude , Larry Zbyszko , and his two former rivals for the World Television Championship in Arn Anderson and Steve Austin . Shortly after the group was formed , Anderson and Eaton became its tag team specialists . This seemed to make sense , as both men had been successful tag team wrestlers in their careers ; Anderson himself had been a two @-@ time world champion teaming with Tully Blanchard in the Four Horsemen and had also won the belts with Zbyszko earlier in the year . Eaton and Anderson quickly won the WCW World Tag Team Championship by defeating Ricky Steamboat and Dustin Rhodes , the team to whom Anderson and Zbyszko lost the belts , for the championship and held on to the belts for five months before they lost them to the Steiner Brothers .
The Dangerous Alliance was a dominant force in WCW . At one point during 1992 , they held every title except the WCW World Title , which was held by their main opponent and arch enemy Sting . The war between the Dangerous Alliance and Sting and friends escalated until it was decided to settle it in a double ring War Games Match at WrestleWar 1992 . Sting 's team won when Sting forced Eaton to give up after Larry Zbyszko accidentally struck Eaton in the arm with a metal rod . This match would be given a 5 @-@ star rating from Dave Meltzer of the Wrestling Observer Newsletter .
In the aftermath of the War Games match , Zbyszko was kicked out of the Alliance for causing the Alliance loss . Soon after the Alliance disintegrated , Paul E. Dangerously left WCW . Eaton and Anderson continued to team after the Alliance fell apart , now managed by Michael Hayes . Eaton and Anderson worked in the tag team division until new WCW booker Bill Watts fired Eaton along with a number of other WCW regulars in a cost @-@ cutting measure .
= = = Departure and return = = =
When Eaton found himself without a job , he reached out to former manager Jim Cornette . Cornette had started his own wrestling federation , Smoky Mountain Wrestling ( SMW ) and welcomed Eaton with open arms . Eaton joined up with " The Heavenly Bodies " ( Stan Lane and Tom Prichard ) , and the three were booked as the top heels of the federation for a while . Eaton also won the federation 's version of the TV title , known as the SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship .
When Bill Watts was ousted from his position in WCW in favor of Eric Bischoff , Eaton was rehired . Once back on the roster , Eaton teamed up with a young Chris Benoit in Benoit 's first stint with WCW . Together they were mainly used to help establish rising teams or give established teams opposition . Benoit and Eaton , while gelling in the ring , never showed any signs of being presented as a permanent team ; they did not have matching ring outfits or a team name .
After Benoit left to return to Japan , in Eaton 's next venture in tag teaming , under the name " Bad Attitude " , he teamed up with Steve Keirn , formerly of the Fabulous Ones . Bad Attitude 's single noteworthy moment together came when they were present as Arn Anderson turned on tag team partner Dustin Rhodes . Otherwise , the team did not get much exposure .
During this time , Eaton also made a couple of appearances in ECW due to a talent trade arrangement between WCW and ECW . His most well known appearance was at the " When Worlds Collide " show on May 14 , 1994 , where he teamed with Sabu to beat Arn Anderson and Terry Funk .
= = = The Blue Bloods = = =
After Bad Attitude quietly ended , Eaton was placed with British snob " Lord " Steven Regal . A series of vignettes followed , in which Regal educated Eaton on how to be a man of class and sophistication . Eaton was then shown being knighted as " Earl Robert Eaton " by the ( supposed ) Queen of England on WCW Main Event , April 2 , 1995 . The team made their ring debut , dubbed The Blue Bloods , on WCW Saturday Night , April 8 , 1995 . The duo was later joined by " Squire " David Taylor , with all three alternating in the ring under the name of the Blue Bloods . Originally , The Blue Bloods was supposed to be a tag team consisting of Regal and Jean @-@ Paul Levesque , with Sherri Martel as their valet , but Martel had since been placed as the manager of Harlem Heat while Levesque had left for the WWF , where he would first gain fame as Hunter Hearst Helmsley .
The Blue Bloods initially feuded with the Nasty Boys ( Brian Knobs and Jerry Sags ) , their complete opposites in terms of " sophistication " and presentation . They also feuded with Harlem Heat ( Booker T and Stevie Ray ) over the WCW World Tag Team Championship , but never took the belts , and engaged in a short " Snobs versus Rednecks " program with the Stud Stable ( Bunkhouse Buck and Dick Slater ) . In all of 1996 the team members made only one pay @-@ per @-@ view ( PPV ) appearance , as individuals in the " Lethal Lottery " during May 's Slamboree . The next year , Regal became WCW World Television Champion , but the team only appeared on PPV once together , when Regal and Taylor lost to the Steiner Brothers at World War 3 in November . Not long after , Eaton was moved out of the group , turning on and feuding with his partners after finally rejecting the snob nature of the gimmick .
The Blue Bloods storyline represented the last serious push that Eaton was given by the WCW booking team . After the run with Regal and Taylor ended , Eaton wrestled mainly on WCW 's weekend show , WCW Saturday Night , occasionally winning against wrestlers low in the rankings and losing to wrestlers above him . He also became a trainer at the WCW Power Plant and worked backstage for WCW as a road agent until he was released in early 2000 , before the Eric Bischoff / Vince Russo reboot . In July 2000 , Eaton made a surprise appearance in ECW , some time before Heat Wave .
= = = Independent circuit = = =
In 2003 , Eaton worked for NWA Mid @-@ Atlantic , forming a new version of the Midnight Express with Ricky Nelson . This Midnight Express version was very short lived , and Eaton instead began touring with Dennis Condrey ( and sometimes Stan Lane ) as the Midnight Express . This version of the Midnight Express still performs together on select independent wrestling cards in the United States .
Eaton made a one night only appearance for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling on August 13 , 2003 , as a part of a Kid Kash storyline where Kash faced off against a series of 1980s wrestling stars such as Larry Zbyszko and Ricky Morton . Eaton lost to Kid Kash in his only TNA appearance to date . On October 23 , 2015 , Eaton wrestled his last match of his nearly 40 @-@ year career , losing to Ricky Morton , also ending the 30 @-@ plus year feud between The Rock ' n ' Roll Express and The Midnight Express .
= = Personal life = =
= = = Reputation = = =
Eaton is often regarded as one of the nicest guys in the wrestling business , even though he wrestled as a heel for a majority of his career . In his 1999 book Have a Nice Day , Mick Foley praised Eaton as being one of the most underrated superstars in the business , and its nicest , commenting that " it was damn near impossible to pay for anything with Bobby around , though I will confess to not trying that hard " . This opinion was supported in The Stone Cold Truth by Steve Austin .
In addition to his personality , he is also popular with other wrestlers due to his wrestling style . Wrestling Eaton is known as " a night off " , because Eaton is so skilled that the action looks very convincing but does not hurt the opponent .
= = = Family = = =
Eaton is married to Bill Dundee 's daughter , Donna . When they first started dating , they had to keep the relationship secret from her father , as her father had forbidden her from dating the wrestlers he was booking . When Dundee found out she was dating Eaton , he relented because Eaton was such a nice guy . Eaton and Donna have three children : Dustin , Dylan , and Taryn . Dylan is a professional wrestler .
= = = Health = = =
On September 6 , 2006 Dave Meltzer reported that Eaton was hospitalized after suffering a heart attack . Two days later , after being released from the hospital , Eaton released a statement through the Wrestling Observer website saying that he did not have a heart attack but was diagnosed with high blood pressure with a hint of diabetes . Since then , he has suffered with several health issues , especially cardiac problems which have seen him hospitalized on several occasions . In June 2013 , Eaton underwent successful surgery to have a pacemaker inserted .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Alabama Jam / Tower of London ( Diving leg drop )
Signature moves
Diving knee drop
Figure four leglock
Missile dropkick
Slingshot backbreaker
Swinging neckbreaker
Vertical suplex
Managers
Jim Cornette
Paul E. Dangerously
Jimmy Hart
Jeeves
Nicknames
" Beautiful "
" Earl "
" The Sultan of Swing "
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Georgia Championship Wrestling
NWA Georgia Television Championship ( 1 time )
International Wrestling Cartel
IWC Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
Jim Crockett Promotions / World Championship Wrestling
NWA United States Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Stan Lane
NWA ( Mid @-@ Atlantic version ) / WCW World Tag Team Championship ( 3 times ) – with Dennis Condrey ( 1 ) , Stan Lane ( 1 ) and Arn Anderson ( 1 )
WCW World Television Championship ( 1 time )
Mid @-@ Atlantic Championship WrestlingNWA Mid @-@ Atlantic Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Rikki Nelson
NWA Mid @-@ America / Continental Wrestling Association
AWA Southern Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with Sweet Brown Sugar ( 2 ) and Duke Myers ( 2 )
CWA World Heavyweight Championship ( 1 time )
NWA Mid @-@ America Heavyweight Championship ( 11 times )
NWA Mid @-@ America Tag Team Championship ( 6 times ) – with Lanny Poffo ( 1 ) , George Gulas ( 3 ) , Mexican Angel ( 1 ) and Great Togo ( 1 )
NWA Mid @-@ America Television Championship ( 1 time )
NWA World Six @-@ Man Tag Team Championship ( 4 times ) – with George Gulas and Jerry Barber ( 1 ) , George Gulas and Arvil Hutto ( 1 ) , George Gulos and The Mexican Angel ( 1 ) , and Secret Weapon and Tojo Yamamoto ( 1 )
Mid @-@ South Wrestling Association
Mid @-@ South Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Dennis Condrey
NWA Bluegrass
NWA Bluegrass Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
NWA Rocky Top
NWA Rocky Top Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
PWI ranked him # 27 of the top 500 singles wrestlers in the PWI 500 in 1992
PWI ranked him # 91 of the top 500 singles wrestlers of the " PWI Years " in 2003
PWI Tag Team of the Year ( 1987 ) with Stan Lane
Smoky Mountain Wrestling
SMW Beat the Champ Television Championship ( 1 time )
World Class Championship Wrestling
NWA American Tag Team Championship ( 1 time ) – with Dennis Condrey
Wrestling Observer Newsletter awards
Hall of Fame ( Class of 2009 ) with Dennis Condrey and Stan Lane as the Midnight Express
Most Underrated Wrestler ( 1985 , 1986 , 1990 , 1993 )
Tag Team of the Year ( 1986 ) with Dennis Condrey
Tag Team of the Year ( 1987 , 1988 ) with Stan Lane
Worst Worked Match of the Year ( 1991 ) with P.N. News vs. Terrance Taylor and Steve Austin in a Scaffold match at The Great American Bash
5 Star Match ( 1992 ) War Games
= Dr. No ( film ) =
Dr. No is a 1962 British spy film , starring Sean Connery , with Ursula Andress and Joseph Wiseman , filmed in Jamaica and England : it is the first James Bond film . Based on the 1958 novel of the same name by Ian Fleming , it was adapted by Richard Maibaum , Johanna Harwood , and Berkely Mather and was directed by Terence Young . The film was produced by Harry Saltzman and Albert R. Broccoli , a partnership that would continue until 1975 .
In the film , James Bond is sent to Jamaica to investigate the disappearance of a fellow British agent . The trail leads him to the underground base of Dr. No , who is plotting to disrupt an early American space launch with a radio beam weapon . Although the first of the Bond books to be made into a film , Dr. No was not the first of Fleming 's novels , Casino Royale being the debut for the character ; the film makes a few references to threads from earlier books . This film also introduced the criminal organisation SPECTRE , which would also appear in six subsequent films .
Dr. No was produced on a low budget and was a financial success . While critical reaction was mixed upon release , over time the film has gained a reputation as one of the series ' best instalments . The film was the first of a successful series of 24 Bond films . Dr. No also launched a genre of " secret agent " films that flourished in the 1960s . The film also spawned a spin @-@ off comic book and soundtrack album as part of its promotion and marketing .
Many of the iconic aspects of a typical James Bond film were established in Dr. No : the film begins with an introduction to the character through the view of a gun barrel and a highly stylised main title sequence , both created by Maurice Binder . Production designer Ken Adam established an elaborate visual style that is one of the hallmarks of the film series .
= = Plot = =
Strangways , the British Intelligence ( SIS ) Station Chief in Jamaica , is ambushed and killed , and his body is taken by a trio of assassins known as the " Three Blind Mice " . In response , MI6 agent James Bond is summoned to the office of his superior , M. Bond is briefed to investigate Strangways ' disappearance and to determine whether it is related to his co @-@ operation with the American Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) on a case involving the disruption of rocket launches from Cape Canaveral by radio jamming .
Upon his arrival at Kingston Airport , a female photographer tries to take Bond 's picture and he is shadowed from the airport by two men . He is picked up by a chauffeur , whom Bond determines to be an enemy agent . Bond instructs him to leave the main road and , after a brief fight , Bond starts to interrogate the driver , who then kills himself with a cyanide @-@ laced cigarette .
During his investigation in Strangways ' house , Bond sees a photograph of a boatman with Strangways . Bond locates the boatman , named Quarrel , but finds him to be uncooperative . Bond also recognises Quarrel to have been the driver of the car that followed him from the airport . Bond follows Quarrel and manages to overpower both him and a friend when the fight is interrupted by the second man who followed Bond from the airport : he reveals himself to be CIA agent Felix Leiter and explains that not only are the two agents on the same mission but also that Quarrel is helping Leiter . The CIA has traced the mysterious radio jamming of American rockets to the vicinity of Jamaica , but aerial photography cannot determine the exact location of its origin . Quarrel reveals that he has been guiding Strangways around the nearby islands to collect mineral samples . He also talks about the reclusive Dr. No , who owns the island of Crab Key , on which there is a bauxite mine : the island and mine are rigorously protected against trespassers by an armed security force and radar .
During a search of Strangways ' house , Bond finds a receipt , signed by Professor R.J. Dent , concerning rock samples . Bond meets with Dent who says he assayed the samples for Strangways and determined them to be ordinary rocks . This visit makes Dent wary and he takes a boat to Crab Key where Dr. No expresses displeasure at Dent 's visiting Crab Key in daylight and his failure to kill Bond , ordering him to try again , this time with a tarantula . Bond survives and after a final attempt on his life , sets a trap for Dent , whom he captures , interrogates and then kills .
Having detected radioactive traces in Quarrel 's boat , where Strangways ' mineral samples had been , Bond convinces a reluctant Quarrel to take him to Crab Key . There Bond meets the beautiful Honey Ryder , dressed only in a white bikini , who is collecting shells . At first she is suspicious of Bond but soon decides to help him , leading them all inland to an open swamp . After nightfall they are attacked by the legendary " dragon " of Crab Key , which turns out to be an armoured tractor equipped with a flamethrower . In the resulting gun battle , Quarrel is incinerated by the flame @-@ thrower whilst Bond and Ryder are taken prisoner . They are decontaminated , quartered in Dr. No 's lair , and given drugged food to render them unconscious .
Upon waking they are escorted to dine with Dr. No . He reveals that he is a member of SPECTRE ( SPecial Executive for Counter @-@ intelligence , Terrorism , Revenge , and Extortion ) and plans to disrupt the Project Mercury space launch from Cape Canaveral with his atomic @-@ powered radio beam . After dinner , Ryder is taken away and Bond is beaten by the guards .
Bond is imprisoned in a holding cell but escapes by crawling through an obstacle @-@ filled air vent . Disguising himself as a worker , he finds his way to Dr. No 's control centre , which contains a nuclear reactor submerged in a pool of water . As the American rocket lifts off , Bond overloads the reactor and fights Dr. No , knocking him into the pool so that he boils to death . Bond finds and frees Ryder , and the two escape the island in a boat as the entire lair explodes .
= = Cast = =
Sean Connery as James Bond : A British MI6 agent , codename 007 .
Ursula Andress as Honey Ryder ( spoken voice by Nikki van der Zyl and singing voice by Diana Coupland ) : A local shell diver , making a living by selling Jamaican seashells to dealers in Miami .
Joseph Wiseman as Dr. No : The antagonist , a reclusive member of SPECTRE
Jack Lord as Felix Leiter : A CIA operative sent to liaise with James Bond while he is in Kingston .
Bernard Lee as M : The head of the British Secret Service .
Anthony Dawson as Professor R.J. Dent : A geologist with a practice in Kingston , who also secretly works for Doctor No .
John Kitzmiller as Quarrel : A Cayman Islander who was employed by John Strangways to secretly go to Crab Key to collect rock samples ; he also worked with Felix Leiter before Bond 's arrival .
Zena Marshall as Miss Taro : The secretary to Mr. Pleydell @-@ Smith at Government House in Kingston . She is actually a double agent working for Dr. No .
Eunice Gayson as Sylvia Trench ( spoken voice by Nikki van der Zyl ) : Trench first meets Bond during a game of Baccarat at the London club Le Cercle .
Lois Maxwell as Miss Moneypenny : The secretary to M.
Peter Burton as Major Boothroyd : The head of Q @-@ Branch , Boothroyd is brought in by M to replace Bond 's Beretta M 1934 with a Walther PPK . This was Burton 's only appearance as Q.
Timothy Moxon as Strangways ( voiced by Robert Rietty ) : Strangways is the head of the Kingston station for the British Secret Service , murdered by Dr. No 's henchmen , the ' Three Blind Mice ' . ( uncredited )
Reginald Carter as Mr. Jones : A henchman of Dr. No who was sent to pick up 007 at the Palisadoes Airport .
Yvonne Shima as Sister Lily : A Prison Warden working at Dr. No 's lair .
Michel Mok as Sister Rose : Also working at Dr. No 's lair .
Marguerite LeWars as The Photographer : One of Dr. No 's operatives who trails Bond .
Dolores Keator as Mary : Strangways ' P.A. , also murdered by the ' Three Blind Mice ' .
Bettina Le Beau as Dent 's Secretary . ( uncredited )
= = Production = =
When Harry Saltzman gained the rights for the novel , he initially did not go through with the project . Instead , Albert R. " Cubby " Broccoli wanted the rights to the novels and attempted to buy them from Saltzman . Saltzman did not want to sell the rights to Broccoli and instead they formed a partnership to make the films . A number of Hollywood film studios did not want to fund the films , finding them " too British " or " too blatantly sexual " . Eventually the two received authorisation from United Artists to produce Dr. No , to be released in 1962 . Saltzman and Broccoli created two companies : Danjaq , which was to hold the rights to the films , and Eon Productions , which was to produce them . The partnership between Broccoli and Saltzman lasted until 1975 , when tensions during the filming of The Man with the Golden Gun led to an acrimonious split and Saltzman sold his shares of Danjaq to United Artists .
Initially Broccoli and Saltzman had wanted to produce the eighth Bond novel , 1961 's Thunderball , as the first film , but there was an ongoing legal dispute between the screenplay 's co @-@ author , Kevin McClory and Ian Fleming . As a result , Broccoli and Saltzman chose Dr. No : the timing was apposite , with claims that American rocket testing at Cape Canaveral had problems with rockets going astray .
The producers offered Dr. No to Guy Green , Guy Hamilton , Val Guest and Ken Hughes to direct , but all of them turned it down . They finally signed Terence Young who had a long background with Broccoli 's Warwick Films as the director . Broccoli and Saltzman felt that Young would be able to make a real impression of James Bond and transfer the essence of the character from book to film . Young imposed many stylistic choices for the character which continued throughout the film series . Young also decided to inject much humour , as he considered that " a lot of things in this film , the sex and violence and so on , if played straight , a ) would be objectionable , and b ) we 're never gonna go past the censors ; but the moment you take the mickey out , put the tongue out in the cheek , it seems to disarm . "
The producers asked United Artists for financing , but the studio would only put up $ 1 million . Later , the UK arm of United Artists provided an extra $ 100 @,@ 000 to create the climax where Dr. No 's base explodes . As a result of the low budget , only one sound editor was hired ( normally there are two , for sound effects and dialogue ) , and many pieces of scenery were made in cheaper ways , with M 's office featuring cardboard paintings and a door covered in a leather @-@ like plastic , the room where Dent meets Dr. No costing only £ 745 to build , and the aquarium in Dr. No 's base being magnified stock footage of goldfish . Furthermore , when art director Syd Cain found out his name was not in the credits , Broccoli gave him a golden pen to compensate , saying that he did not want to spend money making the credits again . Production designer Ken Adam later told UK daily newspaper The Guardian in 2005 :
" The budget for Dr No was under $ 1m for the whole picture . My budget was £ 14 @,@ 500 . I filled three stages at Pinewood full of sets while they were filming in Jamaica . It wasn 't a real aquarium in Dr No 's apartment . It was a disaster to tell you the truth because we had so little money . We decided to use a rear projection screen and get some stock footage of fish . What we didn 't realise was because we didn 't have much money the only stock footage they could buy was of goldfish @-@ sized fish , so we had to blow up the size and put a line in the dialogue with Bond talking about the magnification . I didn 't see any reason why Dr No shouldn 't have good taste so we mixed contemporary furniture and antiques . We thought it would be fun for him to have some stolen art so we used Goya 's Portrait of the Duke of Wellington , which was still missing at the time . I got hold of a slide from the National Gallery - this was on the Friday , shooting began on the Monday - and I painted a Goya over the weekend . It was pretty good so they used it for publicity purposes but , just like the real one , it got stolen while it was on display . "
= = = Writing = = =
Broccoli had originally hired Richard Maibaum and his friend Wolf Mankowitz to write Dr. No 's screenplay , partly because of Mankowitz 's help in brokering the deal between Broccoli and Saltzman . An initial draft of the screenplay was rejected because the scriptwriters had made the villain , Dr. No , a monkey . Mankowitz left the movie , and Maibaum then undertook a second version , more closely in line with the novel . Mankowitz eventually had his name removed from the credits after viewing early rushes , as he feared it would be a disaster . Johanna Harwood and thriller writer Berkely Mather then worked on Maibaum 's script , . Terence Young described Harwood as a script doctor who helped put elements more in tune with a British character . Harwood stated in an interview in a Cinema Retro special on the making of the film that she had been a screenwriter of several of Harry Saltzman 's projects ; and claimed both her screenplays for Dr. No and her screenplay for From Russia with Love had followed Fleming 's novels closely .
During the series ' fifty @-@ year history only a few of the films have remained substantially true to their source material ; Dr. No has many similarities to the novel and follows its basic plot , but there are a few notable omissions . Major elements from the novel that are missing from the film include Bond 's fight with a giant squid , and the escape from Dr. No 's complex using the dragon @-@ disguised swamp buggy . Elements of the novel that were significantly changed for the film include the use of a ( non @-@ venomous ) tarantula spider instead of a centipede ; Dr. No 's secret complex being disguised as a bauxite mine instead of a guano quarry ; Dr. No 's plot to disrupt NASA space launches from Cape Canaveral using a radio beam instead of disrupting US missile testing on Turks Island ; the method of Dr. No 's death by boiling in overheating reactor coolant rather than a burial under a chute of guano , and the introduction of SPECTRE , an organisation absent from the book . Components absent from the novel but added to the film include the introduction of the Bond character in a gambling casino , the introduction of Bond 's semi @-@ regular girlfriend Sylvia Trench , a fight scene with an enemy chauffeur , a fight scene to introduce Quarrel , the seduction of Miss Taro , Bond 's recurring CIA ally Felix Leiter , Dr. No 's partner in crime Professor Dent and Bond 's controversial cold @-@ blooded killing of this character .
Sometimes episodes in the novel retained in the film 's altered narrative introduce elements of absurdity into the plot . Bond 's " escape " from his cell via the air shaft , for instance , originally conceived as a ruse of Dr. No 's to test Bond 's skill and endurance , becomes an authentic break @-@ out in the film . Features carried over from the novel 's obstacle course , however , such as the torrent of water and scalding surface , have no logical justification in the script . Such incongruities would recur in subsequent Bond films .
= = = Casting = = =
= = = = James Bond = = = =
While producers Broccoli and Saltzman originally sought Cary Grant for the role , they discarded the idea as Grant would be committed to only one feature film , and the producers decided to go after someone who could be part of a series . Richard Johnson has claimed to have been the first choice of the director , but he turned it down because he already had a contract with MGM and was intending to leave . Another actor purported to have been considered for the role was Patrick McGoohan on the strength of his portrayal of spy John Drake in the television series Danger Man : McGoohan turned down the role . Another potential Bond included David Niven , who would later play the character in the 1967 parody Casino Royale .
There are several apocryphal stories as to whom Ian Fleming personally wanted . Reportedly , Fleming favoured actor Richard Todd . In his autobiography When the Snow Melts , Cubby Broccoli said Roger Moore had been considered , but had been thought " too young , perhaps a shade too pretty . " In his autobiography , My Word Is My Bond , Moore says he was never approached to play the role of Bond until 1973 , for Live and Let Die . Moore appeared as Simon Templar on the television series The Saint , airing in the United Kingdom for the first time on 4 October 1962 , only one day before the premiere of Dr. No .
Ultimately , the producers turned to 30 @-@ year @-@ old Sean Connery for five films . It is often reported that Connery won the role through a contest set up to " find James Bond " . While this is untrue , the contest itself did exist , and six finalists were chosen and screen tested by Broccoli , Saltzman , and Fleming . The winner of the contest was a 28 @-@ year @-@ old model named Peter Anthony , who , according to Broccoli , had a Gregory Peck quality , but proved unable to cope with the role . When Connery was invited to meet Broccoli and Saltzman he appeared scruffy and in unpressed clothes , but Connery " put on an act and it paid off " as he acted in the meeting with a macho , devil @-@ may @-@ care attitude . When he left both Saltzman and Broccoli watched him through the window as he went to his car , both agreeing that he was the right man for Bond . After Connery was chosen , Terence Young took the actor to his tailor and hairdresser , and introduced him to the high life , restaurants , casinos and women of London . In the words of Bond writer Raymond Benson , Young educated the actor " in the ways of being dapper , witty , and above all , cool " .
= = = = Secondary cast = = = =
For the first Bond girl Honey Ryder , Julie Christie was considered , but discarded as the producers felt she was not voluptuous enough . Just two weeks before filming began , Ursula Andress was chosen to play Honey after the producers saw a picture of her taken by Andress ' then @-@ husband John Derek . To appear more convincing as a Jamaican , Andress had a tan painted on her and ultimately had her lines redubbed by voice actress Nikki van der Zyl due to Andress ' heavy Swiss German accent . For Bond 's antagonist Dr. No , Ian Fleming wanted his friend Noël Coward , and Coward answered the invitation with " No ! No ! No ! " Fleming considered that his step @-@ cousin , Christopher Lee , would be good for the role of Dr. No , although by the time Fleming told the producers , they had already chosen Joseph Wiseman for the part . Harry Saltzman picked Wiseman because of his performance in the 1951 film Detective Story , and the actor had special make @-@ up applied to evoke No 's Chinese heritage .
The role as the first Felix Leiter was given to Jack Lord . This is Bond and Leiter 's first time meeting each other on film and Leiter does not appear in the novel . Leiter returns for many of Bond 's future adventures and in the 2006 reboot of the film series , Casino Royale , Leiter and Bond are seen meeting one another again for the first time . This was Lord 's only appearance as Leiter , as he asked for more money and a better billing to return as Leiter in Goldfinger and was subsequently replaced .
The cast also included a number of actors who were to become stalwarts of the future films , including Bernard Lee , who played Bond 's superior M for another ten films , and Lois Maxwell , who played M 's secretary Moneypenny in fourteen instalments of the series . Lee was chosen because of being a " prototypical father figure " , and Maxwell after Fleming thought she was the perfect fit for his description of the character . Maxwell was initially offered a choice between the roles of Moneypenny or Sylvia Trench and opted for Moneypenny as she thought the Trench role , which included appearing in immodest dress , was too sexual . Eunice Gayson was cast as Sylvia Trench and it was planned that she would be a recurring girlfriend for Bond throughout six films , although she appeared only in Dr. No and From Russia with Love . She had been given the part by director Terence Young , who had worked with her in Zarak and invited Gayson saying " You always bring me luck in my films " , although she was also cast due to her voluptuous figure . One role which was not given to a future regular was that of Major Boothroyd , the head of Q @-@ Branch , which was given to Peter Burton . Burton was unavailable for the subsequent film , From Russia with Love , and the role was taken by Desmond Llewelyn .
Anthony Dawson , who played Professor Dent , met director Terence Young when he was working as a stage actor in London , but by the time of the film 's shooting Dawson was working as a pilot and crop duster in Jamaica . Dawson also portrayed Ernst Stavro Blofeld , head of SPECTRE , in From Russia with Love and Thunderball , although his face was never seen and his voice was redubbed by Austrian actor Eric Pohlmann . Zena Marshall , who played Miss Taro , was mostly attracted by the humorous elements of the script , and described her role as " this attractive little siren , and at the same time I was the spy , a bad woman " , who Young asked to play " not as Chinese , but a Mid @-@ Atlantic woman who men dream about but is not real " . The role of Taro was previously rejected by Marguerite LeWars , the Miss Jamaica 1961 who worked at the Kingston airport , as it required being " wrapped in a towel , lying in a bed , kissing a strange man " . LeWars appeared as a photographer hired by Dr. No instead .
= = = Filming = = =
Dr. No is set in London , England , Kingston , Jamaica and Crab Key , a fictional island off Jamaica . Filming began on location in Jamaica on 16 January 1962 . The primary scenes there were the exterior shots of Crab Key and Kingston , where an uncredited Syd Cain acted as art director and also designed the Dragon Tank . They shot a few yards from Fleming 's Goldeneye estate , and the author would regularly visit the filming with friends . Location filming was largely in Oracabessa , with additional scenes on the Palisadoes strip and Port Royal in St Andrew . On 21 February , production left Jamaica with footage still unfilmed due to a change of weather . Five days later , filming began at Pinewood Studios , Buckinghamshire , England with sets designed by Ken Adam , which included Dr. No 's base , the ventilation duct and the interior of the British Secret Service headquarters . The studio would later be used on the majority of later Bond films . Adam 's initial budget for the entire film was just £ 14 @,@ 500 ( £ 278 @,@ 974 in 2016 ) , but the producers were convinced to give him an extra £ 6 @,@ 000 out of their own finances . After 58 days of filming , principal photography wrapped on 30 March 1962 .
The scene where a tarantula walks over Bond was initially shot by pinning a bed to the wall and placing Sean Connery over it , with a protective glass between him and the spider . Director Young did not like the final results , so the scenes were interlaced with new footage featuring the tarantula over stuntman Bob Simmons . Simmons , who was uncredited for the film , described the scene as the most frightening stunt he had ever performed . The book features a scene where Honey is tortured by being tied to the ground along with crabs , but since the crabs were sent frozen from the Caribbean , they did not move much during filming , so the scene was altered to have Honey slowly drowning . Simmons also served as the film 's fight choreographer , employing a rough fighting style . The noted violence of Dr. No , which also included Bond shooting Dent in cold blood , caused producers to make adaptations to get an " A " rating – allowing minors to enter accompanied by an adult – from the British Board of Film Classification .
When he is about to have dinner with Dr. No , Bond is amazed to see Goya 's Portrait of the Duke of Wellington . The painting had been stolen from the National Gallery by a 60 @-@ year @-@ old amateur thief in London just before filming began . Ken Adam had contacted the National Gallery in London to obtain a slide of the picture , painting the copy over the course of the weekend , prior to filming commencing on the Monday .
Editor Peter R. Hunt used an innovative editing technique , with extensive use of quick cuts , and employing fast motion and exaggerated sound effects on the action scenes . Hunt said his intention was to " move fast and push it along the whole time , while giving it a certain style " , and added that the fast pacing would help audiences not notice any writing problems . As title artist Maurice Binder was creating the credits , he had an idea for the introduction that would appear in all subsequent Bond films , the James Bond gun barrel sequence . It was filmed in sepia by putting a pinhole camera inside an actual .38 calibre gun barrel , with Bob Simmons playing Bond . Binder also designed a highly stylised main title sequence , a theme that has been repeated in the subsequent Eon @-@ produced Bond films . Binder 's budget for the title sequence was £ 2 @,@ 000 ( £ 38 @,@ 479 in 2016 ) .
= = = The introduction of James Bond = = =
The character James Bond was introduced towards , but not at , the beginning of the film in a " now @-@ famous nightclub sequence featuring Sylvia Trench " , to whom he makes his " immortal introduction " . The introduction to the character in Le Cercle at Les Ambassadeurs , an upmarket gambling club , is derived from Bond 's introduction in the first novel , Casino Royale , which Fleming had used because " skill at gambling and knowledge of how to behave in a casino were seen ... as attributes of a gentleman " . After losing a hand of Chemin de Fer to Bond , Trench asks his name . There is the " most important gesture [ in ] ... the way he lights his cigarette before giving her the satisfaction of an answer . ' Bond , James Bond ' . " Once Connery says his line , Monty Norman 's Bond theme plays " and creates an indelible link between music and character . " In the short scene introducing Bond , there are portrayed " qualities of strength , action , reaction , violence – and this elegant , slightly brutal gambler with the quizzical sneer we see before us who answers a woman when he 's good and ready . " Raymond Benson , author of the continuation Bond novels , has stated that as the music fades up on the scene , " we have ourselves a piece of classic
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the storm moved ashore , the Weather Bureau transferred official forecasting duties to regional offices , and local newspapers also issued their own forecasts . The Springfield Daily News in Massachusetts noted that " moderate rains [ were ] possible " in its daily weather forecast ahead of the storm . Still , flood warnings were issued , with stream flooding forecasts of over 12 hours in advance . Along smaller rivers , including the Lehigh , Schuylkill , and Farmington , forecasts were issued every few hours .
In the summer of 1955 , the eastern United States experienced generally hot and dry weather , leading to drought conditions and decreased water levels . When Hurricane Connie struck , its rainfall moistened the soil and heightened creeks throughout the Mid @-@ Atlantic and New England . Hurricane Diane struck North Carolina just five days later and affected the same general area . After floods in 1936 , the United States federal government enacted plans to prevent future devastating floods , although they made no progress by the time Connie and Diane struck in 1955 . Along the Delaware River in the 1930s , state legislatures in New Jersey and Pennsylvania had established a commission that worked to clean up polluted water , but the legislators and commission blocked federal help , comparing it to European socialism ; this was in contrast to the federally funded Tennessee Valley Authority , which mitigated flooding along the Tennessee River .
= = Impact = =
Hurricane Diane 's path over the eastern United States brought heavy rainfall , fueled by unusually moist air resulting from abnormally high sea surface temperatures . The worst flooding was in eastern Pennsylvania , northern New Jersey , southeastern New York , and southern New England . Of the 287 stream gauges in the region , 129 reported record levels during the course of the event . Many streams reported discharge rates of more than double the previous records . Most of the flooding occurred along small rivers that rose to flood stage within hours , largely impacting populated areas ; there were around 30 million people in the region affected by the floods . Overall , 813 houses were destroyed , with 14 @,@ 000 heavily damaged . The floods severed infrastructure and affected several summer camps . Damage to public utilities was estimated at $ 79 million . Flooding in rural areas resulted in landslides in the mountains , while destroyed crops cost an estimated $ 7 million . Hundreds of miles of roads and bridges were also destroyed , accounting for $ 82 million in damage . Damage from Diane 's winds were generally minor . The hurricane caused $ 754 @,@ 706 @,@ 000 in damage ( 1955 USD ) , of which $ 600 million was in New England , making it the costliest hurricane in American history at the time . Taking into account indirect losses , such as loss of wages and business earnings , Diane was described as " the first billion dollar hurricane . " This contributed to 1955 being the costliest Atlantic hurricane season on record at the time . Overall , there were at least 184 deaths , potentially as many as 200 .
= = = Carolinas = = =
The strongest sustained winds associated with Diane 's landfall in North Carolina reached 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) in Hatteras , with gusts to 74 mph ( 119 km / h ) in Wilmington . Any hurricane @-@ force gusts were likely very sporadic and isolated in nature . Tides ran 6 to 8 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 4 m ) above normal near Wilmington , and waves 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) in height struck the coast . The resultant storm surge damaged beach houses , flooded coastal roads , and destroyed seawalls damaged by Hurricane Connie a few days prior . The center of the hurricane passed over Wilmington without much of a decrease in winds , suggesting the eye was disorganized or even nonexistent . Little precipitation fell in and around the city , though precipitation was more substantial elsewhere in the state , peaking at 7 @.@ 04 in ( 179 mm ) in New Bern . At Oakway in neighboring South Carolina , rainfall amounted to 2 @.@ 39 in ( 61 mm ) .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
After Diane crossed into Virginia , it dropped heavy rainfall of over 10 in ( 250 mm ) in 24 hours in the Blue Ridge Mountains , peaking at 11 @.@ 72 in ( 298 mm ) in Big Meadows . There , the rains were enhanced by moist air rising over the mountain peaks and condensing , a process known as orographic lift . Rainfall of over 3 in ( 76 mm ) occurred throughout Virginia , as well as into the Eastern Panhandle of West Virginia , where 5 @.@ 71 in ( 145 mm ) was reported at Stony River Reservoir . Similar precipitation amounts fell through Delaware , including 3 @.@ 27 in ( 83 mm ) at the National Arboretum in Washington , D.C. Rivers across the region rose above flood stage , including the James River which crested at 30 @.@ 4 ft ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) in Columbia , Virginia , which was 14 @.@ 6 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage . High amounts of rainfall accrued in eastern Pennsylvania , peaking at 11 @.@ 11 in ( 282 mm ) in Pecks Pond in the northeast portion of the state . As with Virginia , the heaviest rainfall occurred due to orographic lift near a mountain . In neighboring New Jersey , the highest precipitation was 8 @.@ 10 in ( 206 mm ) near Sussex . Rainfall in New York peaked at 9 @.@ 05 in ( 230 mm ) in Lake Mohonk .
In Virginia , severe flooding occurred near Richmond and along the Blue Ridge Mountains . Near the coast , Diane damaged large areas of farmlands due to slow @-@ moving floods . In the state , 21 gauges reported their highest levels on record . High levels along the Potomac River flooded low @-@ lying portions of Virginia and Washington , D.C. Wind gusts reached 62 mph ( 100 km / h ) in Roanoke . In the state , flooding covered several roads , prompting closures . Due to the flat terrain , flooding in Delaware was described by the United States Geological Survey as " comparably mild " . Flooding along the Brandywine Creek was at least the fifth highest in 45 years . Flooding was worst in the northernmost portion of the state .
Flooding began in many streams in eastern Pennsylvania on August 18 . The Delaware River crested at over 40 ft ( 12 m ) in Easton , which was 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above the previous record set in 1903 . In Allentown , the Lehigh River crested at 23 @.@ 4 ft ( 7 @.@ 1 m ) , surpassing the previous record of 21 @.@ 7 ft ( 6 @.@ 6 m ) set in 1942 . The floods were the worst in record across eastern portions of the state , notably in the Poconos and along all tributaries of the Delaware River from Honesdale to Philadelphia . Lake Wallenpaupack and other reservoirs mitigated flooding . Floods destroyed 17 bridges and 55 mi ( 89 km ) of track along the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad , which is the primary rail line in northeastern Pennsylvania . Damage to the line totaled several million dollars , and overall railroad damage in the state totaled $ 16 million . Hundreds of cars were damaged in the region . Damage extended into Philadelphia due to flooding along the Schuylkill River , but the damage was minor . In the small village of Upper Black Eddy , hundreds of people became homeless , and the post office was washed away . Statewide , the floods destroyed or breached 30 dams , and destroyed about 150 road of rail bridges . Flooding left home and factory damage in the Allentown area . In the Poconos in Pennsylvania , the Brodhead Creek nearly destroyed a camp , killing 37 people , mostly children . Many people at the camp fled to a lodge that was ultimately destroyed . The Brodhead Creek also washed out a bridge along U.S. Route 209 between Stroudsburg and East Stroudsburg , flooding both cities . There were about 75 deaths in the area , and another 10 deaths occurred in Greentown due to flooding along the Lackawaxen River . Overall , there were 101 deaths in the state , and damage totaled at least $ 70 million .
In New Jersey , flooding largely occurred north of Trenton and west of Perth Amboy ; rainfall in the southern two – thirds of the state was less than 3 in ( 76 mm ) . The three major rivers in the area - the Delaware , Passaic , and Raritan - had severe flooding , and damage was widespread . When the Millstone River flooded , two teenagers drowned while canoeing , and a police officer drowned while attempting to rescue them . About 200 families were evacuated in Oakland along the Ramapo River . Damage in the state was heaviest along the Delaware from Port Jervis , New York to Trenton , where flooding inundated adjacent towns . Between the two towns , all but two bridges were damaged , including four that were destroyed . About 500 children had to be rescued from camps on three islands in the Delaware River ; they were airlifted to a high school in Frenchtown . In that city , about 200 people were forced to evacuate their houses along the water . In Trenton , workers used sandbags to prevent flooding from affecting government buildings . Flooding destroyed the Portland – Columbia Pedestrian Bridge , first constructed in 1831 , after most of it was submerged . The center of the Northampton Street Bridge between Easton , Pennsylvania and Phillipsburg , New Jersey collapsed . A dam near Branchville collapsed , flooding the town and causing heavy damage . About 200 homes were damaged or destroyed in Lambertville . Statewide , 93 homes were destroyed . Damage was estimated at $ 27 @.@ 5 million .
Flash floods occurred in mountainous regions of southeastern New York , including Port Jervis along the Delaware River . Wappinger Creek flooded to cause heavy damage . Most streams in the Rondout Creek basin left damage due to fast @-@ moving waters , including heavy damage near Ellenville . Damage in New York was largely limited to an area between Port Jervis and Poughkeepsie . Several bridges were destroyed along the Bash Bish Brook , and portions of U.S. Route 209 were flooded . Damage totaled $ 16 @.@ 2 million , and there was one death in the state .
= = = New England = = =
Diane produced heavy rainfall after recurving inland , setting rainfall records in several areas . Windsor Locks , Connecticut reported 12 @.@ 05 in ( 306 mm ) in a 23 ‑ hour period ; the station 's total , located near Hartford , was 5 @.@ 32 in ( 135 mm ) higher than the 24 ‑ hour rainfall record in Hartford . Some locations along the Housatonic River experienced 0 @.@ 75 in ( 19 mm ) per hour over 24 hours . The highest total in the state was 16 @.@ 86 in ( 428 mm ) at a station near Torrington . This is the highest rainfall on record in the state . The highest rainfall in the United States related to the storm was 19 @.@ 75 in ( 502 mm ) in Westfield , Massachusetts , which was also the wettest known storm in the state 's history as well as throughout New England . Other statewide rainfall maxima in New England included 8 @.@ 45 in ( 215 mm ) in Greenville , Rhode Island , 4 @.@ 34 in ( 110 mm ) in Essex Junction , Vermont , 3 @.@ 31 in ( 84 mm ) in Fitzwilliam , New Hampshire , and 0 @.@ 62 in ( 16 mm ) at Long Falls Dam in Maine . Throughout New England , 206 dams were damaged or destroyed , mostly in the region south of Worcester , Massachusetts . About 7 @,@ 000 people were injured throughout New England , most of whom in Connecticut .
Damage was greatest in Connecticut , where floods affected about two @-@ thirds of the state . It was the largest flood on record in the state 's history . All major streams and valleys were flooded during the storm , including hundreds of tributaries , and 30 gauges in the state reported the highest level on record . The Connecticut River at Hartford reached the third @-@ highest level on record at the time , cresting at 30 @.@ 6 ft ( 9 @.@ 3 m ) , or 14 @.@ 6 ft ( 4 @.@ 5 m ) above flood stage . Although there was rural damage , the city of Hartford was spared from flooding due to previously constructed dykes . The Naugatuck River had significant flooding that damaged or destroyed every bridge across it and did extensive damage in Ansonia . In Waterbury , the river washed buildings and railroad girders into a bridge . In the city , 30 people were killed , including 26 in 13 houses that were washed away in one block . The Quinebaug River flooded the city of Putnam at the same time that a major fire originated at a magnesium plant . Much of the commercial district of Winsted was destroyed by the Mad River , which reached 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) deep ; the floods destroyed most buildings on the south side of the town 's Main Street , and carried away several cars from a car dealership . The local newspaper reported that 95 % of businesses were destroyed or severely damaged in Winsted . High rivers destroyed historical sites and buildings , and statewide Diane destroyed 563 houses . There were 77 deaths in the state and $ 350 million in damage . Most of the damage in the state was industrial or commercial damage .
In Rhode Island , flooding was worst in the northern portion of the state , mostly along the Blackstone River , which expanded to a width of about 1 mi ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . The Horseshoe Dam was washed out , causing heavy damage in Woonsocket . There , about 6 @,@ 000 of its 50 @,@ 000 residents were left unemployed . Record high tides were also reported . In Rhode Island , damage was estimated at $ 21 million , mostly in Woonsocket , and there were three deaths .
Much of southern Massachusetts , from its border with New York toward Worcester and to the ocean , experienced flooding . Most streams in western Massachusetts overflowed their banks , and in southeastern Massachusetts , which is largely flat terrain , streams flooded large areas along their channels ; these streams moved slowly , while other areas in New England sustained damage due to the fast @-@ moving nature of the floods . Record flooding was reported along 24 stream gauges in the state , including ones that surpassed the peak set by the 1938 New England hurricane . Both the Charles and Neponset rivers were among those that flooded . About 40 % of the city of Worcester was flooded during Diane , and in Russell , the state police forced many residents to evacuate . In Weymouth , the floods were considered at least a 1 in 50 year event . The Little River in Buffumville , Massachusetts had a peak discharge of 8 @,@ 340 ft ³ / s ( 236 m ³ / s ) , which was 6 @.@ 2 times greater than the previous peak and 28 @.@ 5 times the average annual flooding . Flooded rivers breached run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams and covered nearby roadways , although dams with reservoirs resulted in less flooding . Nearly all dams along the French River were severely damaged or destroyed . One failed dam in West Auburn washed out a portion of U.S. Route 20 , and the same route was washed out near Charlton . An overflown brook also damaged the Massachusetts Turnpike . A train on the Boston and Albany Railroad line plunged into a washed out portion along the Westfield River . Along the same river , floods destroyed roads and tobacco farms . In the state , 97 houses were destroyed . Damage in Massachusetts was second worst of the affected states , totaling $ 110 million ; the damage was largely due to flooded basements . There were 12 deaths in the state .
= = Aftermath = =
In Diane 's immediate aftermath , one of the first priorities in response was to distribute adequate inoculations for typhoid amongst the widespread areas left without clean drinking water . The United States Army assisted in search and rescue operations using helicopters . After the floods of Hurricane Diane , more than 100 @,@ 000 people fled to shelter or away from their houses . The American Red Cross quickly provided aid to the affected residents , using churches and public buildings to house homeless people . In the two weeks after the storm , Americans donated about $ 10 million to the Red Cross . The countries of Great Britain , Netherlands , Australia , Canada , France , Austria , and Venezuela offered aid to help the flood victims , sending emergency supplies . Additional flooding affected New England in September and October 1955 , although neither was as major as those caused by Hurricane Diane . Following Diane , hundreds of companies affected by the flooding installed waterproof doors and windows to preempt similar disasters in the future .
President Dwight Eisenhower declared eight states as disaster areas , making them eligible for federal aid . The Small Business Administration opened 18 temporary offices in the eastern United States for people to take out disaster loan applications . In the months after the storm , both the United States federal government and the American Red Cross had difficulty raising enough funds for the storm victims ; collectively , the Red Cross , the Small Business Administration , and Farmers Home Administration raised $ 37 million , which was less than 8 % of Diane 's damage total . Throughout 1955 , the Red Cross assisted about 10 @,@ 000 families in New England and the Mid @-@ Atlantic states ; some of the families received aid to move to a new house not in a flood zone . The Small Business Administration provided about 1 @,@ 600 loans , totaling $ 25 million , for small businesses . Senator Herbert H. Lehman proposed a $ 12 billion federal flood insurance program . In 1956 , the United States Congress passed the Federal Flood Insurance Act , but the program was not enacted due to lack of funding . A nationwide flood program was not enacted until the passage of the National Flood Insurance Act of 1968 . After the floods from Diane , the American federal government provided funding for the Army Corps of Engineers to construct dams and reservoirs throughout New England to mitigate future flooding . In about 14 years , the Corps built 29 dams in Connecticut alone at the cost of $ 70 million , including three along the Connecticut River . The federal government restored plans from the 1930s to build dams along the Delaware River , one of which along Tocks Island . A controversy arose there due to the 40 mi ( 64 km ) long reservoir the dam would have created , causing 600 families to be displaced . The project was canceled in 1975 , and the acquired lands became the Delaware Water Gap National Recreation Area .
In Pennsylvania , washed @-@ out rail lines prevented operation along the Delaware , Lackawanna and Western Railroad for several weeks , and lines reopened after about two months . The expense of reopening , and the loss of being closed , led to the railroad merging with the Erie Railroad to become the Erie Lackawanna Railway in 1960 . One stranded train along the line prompted a helicopter to rescue 235 people . Flooding along the Lehigh River destroyed 15 industrial plants , which left more than 15 @,@ 000 people near Allentown , Pennsylvania without work temporarily . The mayor of Scranton declared a state of emergency due to the floods , ordering all businesses to close . United States Army soldiers provided water to residents after the town lost its water supply . Elsewhere , the Pennsylvania National Guard was on duty on streets in damaged towns , including 50 to prevent looting in Upper Black Eddy , which was one of the hardest hit towns . Helicopters assisted in discovering bodies at Camp David , where many deaths occurred during the storm . Statewide , thousands of people were left homeless . In Stroudsburg , there was a food shortage , and officials enacted a curfew , after reports of looting . In the same city , water was shipped in milk cartons to the flood victims , which later inspired a Federal Civil Defense Administration proposal to use water packaged in milk containers in the event of a nuclear attack . The state government implemented a tax on cigarettes to help pay for storm damage , which lasted for about two years ; this was partially due to a lack of significant funding from the federal government . Pennsylvania also enacted an increase in the gasoline tax that was later made permanent to pay for the Interstate Highway System . The two taxes , each an increase of 1 penny , totaled $ 71 million , a part of which was set aside for future disasters . The experience of the storm 's aftermath provided the basis for the aftermath for Hurricane Agnes in 1972 . In New Jersey , Governor Robert B. Meyner declared the floods as the state 's worst natural disaster .
After the Naugatuck River flood in Connecticut cut off communications and bridges , the state was effectively cut in two . The state 's National Guard used helicopters to rescue people . Governor Abraham A. Ribicoff visited areas affected by the flooding , due to the damage , Connecticut was declared a federal disaster area on August 20 . The declaration allocated $ 25 million in assistance to the state . Governor Ribicoff requested $ 34 million in funds to rebuild and produce future flood mitigation projects ; the state 's funding was paid by a combination of bonds and tax increases . Including subsequent storms , the 1955 floods cumulatively killed 91 people and left 1 @,@ 100 families homeless . Flooding occurred in 67 towns , resulting in damage to 20 @,@ 000 families . About 86 @,@ 000 people were left unemployed after the floods . In Winsted , the buildings that were washed away along the south side of Main Street were never rebuilt .
Massachusetts Governor Christian Herter also issued a state of emergency , due to the widespread flooding damage . As a result , the state 's National Guard and the Army Corps assisted in cleanup , and most roads took three weeks to clear . Residents in areas affected by Diane 's flooding were advised to boil water and not to use gas cooking equipment . Diane 's historic rainfall resulted in the wettest month on record in Boston with a total of 17 in ( 430 mm ) , a record that stands as of 2010 ; Boston 's 24 ‑ hour total of 8 @.@ 4 in ( 210 mm ) remained the highest daily total as of 1996 . Following Diane 's floods , cities in Massachusetts enlarged culverts and improved draining systems , as well as constructing weirs ; these systems helped mitigate against future flooding .
The name Diane was retired from the Atlantic hurricane naming list . Due to the damage from hurricanes in 1954 and 1955 , including Diane , public outcry over storm damage led to the creation of the National Hurricane Center in 1956 . Using a monetary deflator in 2010 United States dollars , the damage from Diane would be about $ 7 @.@ 4 billion , which would have been the 17th highest in the United States . Accounting for inflation , changes in personal wealth , and population changes , it is estimated Diane would have caused $ 18 billion in damage in 2010 , or the 15th highest for a United States hurricane .
= David Carradine =
David Carradine ( born John Arthur Carradine ; December 8 , 1936 – June 3 , 2009 ) was an American actor and martial artist , best known for his leading role as a peace @-@ loving Shaolin monk , Kwai Chang Caine , in the 1970s television series Kung Fu . He was a member of a productive acting family that began with his father , John Carradine . Carradine 's acting career , which included major and minor roles on stage and television , and in cinema , spanned over four decades . A prolific " B " movie actor , he appeared in more than 100 feature films and was nominated four times for a Golden Globe Award . The last nomination was for his title role in Quentin Tarantino 's Kill Bill : Volume 2 ( 2004 ) .
Films that featured Carradine continued to be released after his death . These posthumous credits were from a variety of genres including action , documentaries , drama , horror , martial arts , science fiction , and westerns . In addition to his acting career , Carradine was a director and musician . Moreover , influenced by his most popular acting role , he studied martial arts .
He had been frequently arrested and prosecuted for a variety of offenses , which often involved substance abuse . He died on June 3 , 2009 , from asphyxiation , in a hotel room in Bangkok , Thailand ; the main report states it was an auto @-@ erotic asphyxiation ; though some have said he may have been murdered .
= = Early life = =
Carradine was born on December 8 , 1936 as John Arthur Carradine , in Hollywood , California , the oldest child of actor John Carradine and his wife Ardanelle ( McCool ) . He was a half @-@ brother of Bruce , Keith , Christopher , and Robert Carradine , and an uncle of Ever Carradine and Martha Plimpton . Primarily of Irish descent , he was a great @-@ grandson of Methodist evangelical author Beverly Carradine and a grandnephew of artist Will Foster .
Called Jack by his family , Carradine 's childhood was turbulent . For example , his parents divorced and repeatedly remarried ; he was born to his mother 's second marriage of three , and his father 's first of four . At the time of Carradine 's parents ' marriage , his mother already had a son by her first husband , whom John adopted . John Carradine planned a large family , but after his wife had a series of miscarriages , he discovered she had had numerous illegal abortions without his knowledge . This rendered her unable to carry a baby to full term . Against this backdrop of marital discord , Jack almost succeeded in committing suicide by hanging at the age of five . He said the incident followed his discovery that he and his older half @-@ brother Bruce , who had been adopted by John , had different biological fathers . Carradine added , " My father saved me , and then confiscated my comic book collection and burned it – which was scarcely the point " .
After three years of marriage , Ardenelle filed for divorce from John , but the couple remained married for another five years . Divorce finally came in 1944 , when Jack was seven years old . His father left California to avoid court action in the alimony settlement . After the couple engaged in a series of court battles over child custody and alimony , which at one point landed John in jail , Jack joined his father in New York City . By this time , his father had remarried . For the next few years Jack was shuffled between boarding schools , foster homes , and reform school . He also would often accompany his father while the elder Carradine performed summer theater throughout the Northeast . The boy spent time in Massachusetts and even one miserable winter milking cows on a farm in Vermont .
Eventually , Jack Carradine returned to California , where he graduated from Oakland High School . He attended Oakland Junior College ( currently Laney College ) for a year before transferring to San Francisco State College , where he studied drama and music theory , and wrote music for the drama department 's annual revues while juggling work at menial jobs , a fledgling stage acting career , and his studies . After he dropped out of college , Carradine spent some time with the " beatniks " of San Francisco 's North Beach and southern California 's Venice . During this time he collected unemployment insurance and sold baby pictures . He was also prosecuted for disturbing the peace .
Despite an attempt to dodge the draft , in 1960 Carradine was inducted into the United States Army , where he drew pictures for training aids . That Christmas he married his high school sweetheart , Donna Lee Becht . While stationed at Fort Eustis , Virginia he helped to establish a theater company which became known as the " entertainment unit " . He met fellow inductee , Larry Cohen , who later cast him in Q , The Winged Serpent . He also faced court @-@ martial for shoplifting . In 1962 , Donna gave birth to their daughter , Calista . Carradine was honorably discharged after a two @-@ year tour .
= = Film and television career = =
= = = Early successes = = =
Upon leaving the Army , Carradine became serious about his acting pursuits . It was at that time that he was advised to change his name to avoid confusion with his famous father . In 1963 , he made his television debut on an episode of Armstrong Circle Theatre . Several other television roles were to follow including appearances on Bob Hope Presents the Chrysler Theatre , and The Alfred Hitchcock Hour . He made his feature film debut in 1964 in Taggart , a western based on a novel by Louis L 'Amour .
His first " big break " , however , came with his second Broadway part in The Royal Hunt of the Sun , a play by Peter Shaffer about the destruction of the Inca empire by conquistador Francisco Pizarro . He said of this performance , " Many of the important roles that I got later on were because the guy who was going to hire me was in that audience and had his mind blown . " For that part , Carradine won a Theatre World Award for Best Debut Performance in 1965 .
With the closing of The Royal Hunt of the Sun , and the failing of his marriage , Carradine left New York and headed back to California . He returned to TV to star in the short @-@ lived series Shane , a 1966 western based upon a 1949 novel of the same name and previously filmed in 1953 .
Carradine guest @-@ starred opposite David McCallum in a 1971 episode of Night Gallery entitled " The Phantom Farmhouse . "
In 1972 , he co @-@ starred as ' Big ' Bill Shelly in one of Martin Scorsese 's earliest films , Boxcar Bertha , which starred Barbara Hershey , his domestic partner at the time ( see Personal life ) . This was one of several Roger Corman productions in which he was to appear . It was also one of a handful of acting collaborations he made with his father , John .
= = = Kung Fu = = =
For three seasons , David Carradine starred as a half @-@ Chinese , half @-@ white Shaolin monk , Kwai Chang Caine , on the ABC hit TV series Kung Fu ( 1972 – 1975 ) and was nominated for an Emmy and a Golden Globe Award for the role . The show , which took place in the Old West , helped to popularize the martial arts and Eastern philosophy in the west , and immortalized the character of Kwai Chang Caine , also referred to as " Grasshopper " , in popular culture .
Although the choice of a white man to play the role of Kwai Chang Caine stirred controversy , the show served as steady employment for several Asian @-@ American actors in the U.S. In addition to Keye Luke and Philip Ahn , who held leading roles in the cast as Caine 's Shaolin masters , Robert Ito , James Hong , Benson Fong , Richard Loo , and Victor Sen Yung frequently appeared in the series . Kung Fu ended when Carradine quit to pursue a movie career , but he reprised the role of Kwai Chang Caine in 1986 in Kung Fu : The Movie . Brandon Lee , son of Bruce Lee , in his acting debut , portrayed his son .
In 1991 , he reprised the role of Caine in a cameo appearance in the TV movie The Gambler Returns : The Luck of the Draw , in which Caine uses his Chinese friends to help the title character in 1903 San Francisco .
Early in the 1990s , Carradine once again reprised the role of Kwai Chang Caine in Kung Fu : The Legend Continues ( 1993 – 97 ) playing the grandson of the original character of the same name . Carradine starred in the program and served as executive producer and director . The program offered him the opportunity to recreate the character for which he was most widely recognized . The show was canceled in 1997 , after four seasons and 88 episodes .
= = = Movie career = = =
Immediately following the Kung Fu series , Carradine accepted the role as the race car driver Frankenstein in Death Race 2000 ( 1975 ) , he said , to " kill the image of Caine and launch a movie career " . The Roger Corman exploitation film became a cult classic . It was based on Ib Melchior 's first science fiction work , a short story called The Racer .
In 1976 , Carradine earned critical praise for his portrayal of folksinger Woody Guthrie in Hal Ashby 's Bound for Glory ( 1976 ) for which he won a National Board of Review Award for Best Actor . He was also nominated for a Golden Globe Award and New York Film Critics Circle Award for his role as Guthrie . Carradine worked very closely with his friend , singer @-@ songwriter @-@ guitarist Guthrie Thomas , on the Bound for Glory film . Thomas assisted Carradine in the guitar style of the period and the songs that had been chosen to be in the film itself .
Next came the role of the alcoholic , unemployed trapeze artist , Abel Rosenberg in The Serpent 's Egg ( 1977 ) . Set in post @-@ World War I Berlin , The Serpent 's Egg , which also starred Liv Ullmann , is together with The Touch one of the two only English @-@ language films made by legendary Swedish director Ingmar Bergman . Bergman said of his leading man , " I don 't believe in God , but Heaven must have sent him . " Carradine said that he and Bergman had plans for further collaboration , but the director 's affection for the actor waned when the latter passionately protested a scene which included the butchering of a horse . The altercation caused Carradine to question the fate of Bergman 's soul while the director declared , " Little Brother , I am an old whore . I have shot two other horses , burned one and strangled a dog . "
In 2000 he had a small part in the movie " By Dawn 's Early Light " .
When Bruce Lee died in 1973 , he left an unreleased movie script that he had developed with James Coburn and Stirling Silliphant called The Silent Flute . The script became Circle of Iron ( 1978 ) , and in the film , Carradine played the four roles that were originally intended for Lee . Carradine considered this to be among his best work .
In 1980 Carradine appeared in The Long Riders ( 1980 ) , with his half @-@ brothers Keith and Robert Carradine . The ensemble cast included three other brother / actor groupings : Stacy and James Keach ; Dennis and Randy Quaid , and Christopher and Nicholas Guest . The movie , which was about the Jesse James gang , gave Carradine , who played Cole Younger , one of his most memorable roles .
Throughout most of the 1980s and 1990s , David Carradine 's acting career suffered a decline . Although he continued to amass movie and television credits , few of his roles garnered much attention . Most of his work was released straight to video . However , a few of his movies , such as The Warrior and the Sorceress ( 1984 ) , Sundown : The Vampire in Retreat ( 1990 ) and Sonny Boy ( 1989 ) , developed cult followings . In 1989 , he starred in the low budget direct @-@ to @-@ video Swedish action movie The Mad Bunch directed by Mats Helge Olsson , making him one of three actors ( including Heinz Hopf and Tor Isedal ) who have starred in both an Ingmar Bergman movie and an Olsson movie . In 1997 , Carradine was awarded a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame . The presenters played an " April Fool 's Day " prank on him by first unveiling a star bearing the name of his brother , Robert .
Carradine enjoyed a revival of his fame when he was cast in Quentin Tarantino 's sequential Kill Bill movies , in 2003 and 2004 . Among those who thought his portrayal of Bill , the assassin extraordinaire , would earn him an Academy Award nomination was Scott Mantz , of The Mediadrome , who said , " Carradine practically steals every scene he 's in with confident gusto , and he gives a soulful performance that should all but ensure a spot on next year 's Oscar ballot . " Roger Ebert and Richard Roeper each had Kill Bill Vol . 2 on their top ten list for of Academy Awards predictions . Although the films received no notice from the Academy , Carradine did receive a Golden Globe nomination and a Saturn Award , for Best Supporting Actor for his portrayal of Bill .
Carradine also appeared as a mysterious martial artist , The Master , in the 2009 DVD premier Big Stan .
= = = Television appearances = = =
Carradine attracted notice in 1985 when he appeared in a major supporting role in North and South , a miniseries about the American Civil War , as the evil and abusive Justin LaMotte . He was nominated for a Golden Globe for Best Supporting Actor for his performance . He also appeared in North and South , Book II , telecast in May 1986 .
In addition , he was featured in a Lipton Tea commercial , which first aired during the broadcast of Super Bowl XXVIII . The advertisement paid tribute to The Three Stooges while satirizing his role in Kung Fu . In 2001 , he appeared in the episode The Serpent of the syndicated TV series Queen of Swords as the sword @-@ wielding bandit El Serpiente filmed at Texas Hollywood studios in Almeria , Spain , home of many spaghetti westerns . David also did a guest appearance in episode 11 of Lizzie McGuire as himself . David Carradine took over hosting duties from his brother Keith on Wild West Tech on the History Channel , in 2005 . The same year he also played both himself and the ghost of a dead man for an episode of the NBC TV show Medium . By 2006 , he had become the spokesperson for Yellowbook , a publisher of independent telephone directories in the United States . He also appeared as the ghost of time , Clockwork , in two episodes of the animated series , Danny Phantom . He also starred in the 2008 TV movie , Kung Fu Killer , in which he played a Chinese martial arts master very similar to his Kung Fu series " Caine " persona — his character in this movie named " White Crane " , and mostly referred to or addressed as " Crane " , frequently spoken with a sort of accent that minimized the R sound .
= = = Posthumous releases = = =
The actor , who once received an award for being the hardest working member of his profession in Hollywood , still had approximately a dozen films in " post @-@ production " at the time of his death in 2009 . Most of these roles were cameos or small parts in independent , direct to DVD productions . Among them , a horror film , Dark Fields ( 2009 ) ; an action film , Bad Cop ( 2009 ) ; and a western , All Hell Broke Loose ( 2009 ) .
Carradine also appeared in a minor role in Yuen Woo @-@ ping 's Chinese kung fu epic True Legend . Carradine and Yuen first met while filming Kill Bill . Yuen eulogized Carradine on the True Legend website , describing him as a " good friend " . Yuen said of Carradine , " ' He is among the first Hollywood actors to perform Chinese martial arts on the big screen . In real life he is also a genuine kung fu fan , and knows tai chi , qi gong and Chinese medicine . Same as I , people shall always remember his role as Caine , the grasshopper , in Kung Fu , in the ' 70s , which was a really unforgettable performance . I feel both great honour and regret that True Legend is one of David Carradine 's last works . ' "
One of Carradine 's last leading roles was in the period drama Golden Boys , set in 1905 . It had only a limited theater run , and received little critical attention . It was released on DVD shortly after his death .
His final released movie was the Cult Indy Film , Night of the Templar , directed by his friend Paul Sampson , in which David wielded a sword ( katana ) for the final time on screen . Almost like a foreshadowing , there are several peculiar and eerie references in the film that are coincidental to Mr. Carradine 's untimely passing which include cross dressing and auto erotic asphyxiation . His last scene on screen ended in the following dialog : " Well , old friend , see you in the next life time ... " Yeah , Old Friends , Old Soul Mates " ... " Yes , we are .
Carradine co @-@ produced a full @-@ length documentary about luthier Stuart Mossman , which has been identified as the actor 's last film appearance . The Legend of Stuart Mossman : A Modern Stradivari , directed by Barry Brown , premiered at the Santa Barbara International Film Festival , in February 2010 . It featured David , Keith and Robert Carradine performing their music on Mossman guitars . Mossman had appeared with Carradine in Cloud Dancer ( 1980 ) , which Brown also directed , and in The Long Riders .
On the small screen , Carradine appeared in a guest spot on the television series Mental that was broadcast just days after his death . On October 3 , 2009 , Celebrity Ghost Stories premiered on the Biography Channel with an interview of David Carradine discussing his belief that his closet was haunted by his wife 's deceased previous husband . The segment , which was described as " eerie " , was filmed four months before his own death . In his last of many collaborations with producer Roger Corman , Carradine appeared in the Syfy Channel 's science fiction monster movie Dinocroc Vs . Supergator , over a year after he died . Ken Tucker , writing for Entertainment Weekly , said the film was " impeccable " and " goofy fun all the way " . At the time of this release , there were still four more unreleased films that credited David Carradine , including Stretch , which he was filming at the time of his death .
= = Directing career = =
Carradine made his directorial debut on three episodes of Kung Fu . While still performing on Kung Fu , he tried his hand at directing some independent films of his own . Americana ( 1983 ) , took ten years to complete due to difficulty in financing . It featured Carradine in the starring role and several of his friends and family members in supporting roles . The film won the People 's Choice Award at the Director 's Fortnight at Cannes , but failed to achieve critical support or adequate distribution . Other directorial attempts included You and Me ( 1975 ) , and two unreleased productions : Mata Hari , an epic that starred his daughter , Calista ; and a short musical called A Country Mile .
= = Martial artist = =
Carradine knew nothing of the practice of kung fu at the time he was cast in the role of Kwai Chang Caine , instead he relied on his experience as a dancer for the part . He also had experience in sword fighting , boxing , and street fighting on which to draw . For the first half of the original series , David Chow provided technical assistance with kung fu . He never considered himself a master of the art , but rather an " evangelist " of kung fu . By 2003 he had acquired enough expertise in martial arts to produce and star in several instructional videos on T 'ai chi and Qigong . In 2005 , Carradine visited the Shaolin Monastery in Henan , China as part of the extra features for the third season of the Kung Fu DVDs . During his visit , the abbot , Shi Yǒngxìn , said that he recognized Carradine 's important contribution to the promotion of the Shaolin Monastery and kung fu culture , to which Carradine replied , " I am happy to serve . "
= = Music career = =
In addition to his acting career , David Carradine was a musician . He sang and played the piano , the guitar and the flute among other instruments . In 1970 , Carradine played one half of a flower power beatnik duo in the season 4 Ironside episode ' The Quincunx ' , performing the songs ' I Stepped on a Flower ' , ' Lonesome Stranger ' and ' Sorrow of the Singing Tree ' . He recorded an album titled Grasshopper , which was released on Jet Records in 1975 . His musical talents were often integrated into his screen performances . He performed several of Woody Guthrie 's songs for the movie Bound for Glory . For the Kung Fu series he made flutes out of bamboo that he had planted on the Warner Brothers lot which he played on the program . He later made several flutes for the movie Circle of Iron , one of which he later played in Kill Bill . Carradine wrote and performed the theme songs for at least two movies that he starred in , Americana and Sonny Boy . The first line from the Sonny Boy theme , " Paint " , which he wrote while filming Americana in Drury , Kansas , in 1973 , is engraved on his headstone . He wrote and performed several songs for American Reel ( 2003 ) and wrote the score for You and Me . He and his brother , Robert , also performed with a band , the Cosmic Rescue Team ( also known as Soul Dogs ) . The band performed primarily in small venues and benefits .
= = Reports of arrests and prosecutions = =
By his own account , in the late 1950s , while living in San Francisco , young John A. Carradine was arrested for assaulting a police officer ; he pleaded to a lesser charge of disturbing the peace . While in the Army ( 1960 – 62 ) he faced court @-@ martial , on more than one occasion , for shoplifting . After he became an established actor and had changed his name to David , he was arrested , in 1967 , for possession of marijuana .
At the height of his popularity in Kung Fu , in 1974 , Carradine was arrested again , this time for attempted burglary and malicious mischief . While under the influence of peyote , Carradine , nude , began wandering around his Laurel Canyon neighborhood . He broke into a neighbor 's home , breaking a window and cutting his arm . He then bled all over the homeowner 's piano . At some time during this episode he accosted two young women , allegedly assaulting one while asking , or demanding of her , if she was a witch . The police literally followed a trail of blood to his home . The burglary charges were dropped , as nothing was found to be missing , while Carradine pleaded " no contest " to the mischief charge and was given probation . He was never charged with assault , but the young woman sued him for $ 1 @.@ 1 million and was awarded $ 20 @,@ 000 .
In 1980 , while in South Africa filming Safari 3000 ( also known as Rally ) , which co @-@ starred Stockard Channing , Carradine was arrested for possession of marijuana . He was convicted and given a suspended sentence . He claimed that he was framed , in this case , by the apartheid government as he had been seen dancing with Tina Turner .
During the 1980s , Carradine was arrested at least twice for driving under the influence of alcohol , once in 1984 and again in 1989 . In the second case , Carradine pleaded " no contest " . Of this incident , the Los Angeles Times reported : " legal experts say Carradine was handed a harsher @-@ than @-@ average sentence , even for a second @-@ time offender : three years ' summary probation , 48 hours in jail , 100 hours of community service , 30 days ' work picking up trash for the California Department of Transportation , attendance at a drunk driving awareness meeting and completion of an alcohol rehabilitation program . "
In 1994 , while in Toronto filming Kung Fu : The Legend Continues , Carradine was arrested for kicking in a door at SkyDome while attending a Rolling Stones concert . When asked his reasoning , Carradine claimed he was " worried about getting swarmed by people who recognized him so he wanted to get into the building . "
= = Personal life = =
Shortly after being drafted into the Army in 1960 , Carradine proposed marriage to Donna Lee Becht ( born September 26 , 1937 ) , whom he had met while they were students at Oakland High School . They were married on Christmas Day that year . She lived with him off @-@ base in Virginia while he was stationed at Fort Eustis . In April 1962 , she gave birth to their daughter Calista . After Carradine 's discharge , the family lived in New York while Carradine established his acting career , appearing on Broadway in The Deputy and Royal Hunt of the Sun . The marriage dissolved in 1968 , whereupon Carradine left New York and headed back to California to continue his television and film careers .
In 1969 , Carradine met actress Barbara Hershey while the two of them were working on Heaven with a Gun . The pair lived together until 1975 . They appeared in other films together , including Martin Scorsese 's Boxcar Bertha . In 1972 , they appeared together in a nude Playboy spread , recreating some sex scenes from Boxcar Bertha . That year , Hershey gave birth to their son , Free ( who at age nine changed his name to Tom , much to his father 's chagrin ) . The couple 's relationship fell apart around the time of Carradine 's 1974 burglary arrest , when Carradine began an affair with Season Hubley , who had guest @-@ starred on Kung Fu . Carradine was engaged to Hubley for a time , but they never married .
In February 1977 , Carradine married , in a civil ceremony in Munich , Germany , his second wife , Linda ( née Linda Anne Gilbert , born March 16 , 1950 ) , immediately following the filming of The Serpent 's Egg . Linda is the former wife of The Byrds lead guitarist , Roger McGuinn , Her and Carradine 's daughter Kansas was born April 19 , 1978 .
Carradine 's second marriage ended in divorce , as did the two that followed . He was married to Gail Jensen , from 1986 – 1997 . She died in April 2010 , at the age of 60 , of an alcohol @-@ related illness . He was married to Marina Anderson from 1998 to 2001 . By this time , Carradine had proclaimed himself to be a " serial monogamist . "
On December 26 , 2004 , Carradine married the widowed Annie Bierman ( née Anne Kirstie Fraser , born December 21 , 1960 ) at the seaside Malibu home of his friend , Michael Madsen . Vicki Roberts , his attorney and a longtime friend of his wife 's , performed the ceremony . With this marriage he acquired three stepdaughters , Amanda Eckelberry ( born 1989 ) , Madeleine Rose ( born 1995 ) , and Olivia Juliette ( born 1998 ) as well as a stepson , actor Max Richard Carradine ( born 1998 ) .
In one of his final interviews , Carradine stated that at 71 , he was still " in excellent shape , " attributing it to a good diet and having a youthful circle of friends . " Everybody that I know is at least 10 or 20 years younger than I am . My wife Annie is 24 years younger than I am . My daughter asks why I don 't hang with women my age and I say ' Most of the women my age are a lot older than me ! ' "
= = Death = =
On June 3 , 2009 , at the age of 72 , David Carradine was found dead in his room at the Swissôtel Nai Lert Park Hotel on Wireless Road , near Sukhumvit Road , in central Bangkok , Thailand . He was in Bangkok to shoot his latest film , titled Stretch . A police official said that Carradine was found naked , hanging by a rope in the room 's closet , causing immediate speculation that his death was suicide . However , reported evidence suggested that his death was accidental , the result of autoerotic asphyxiation . Two autopsies were conducted , one involving the celebrity pathologist Pornthip Rojanasunan , and both concluded that the death was not a suicide . The cause of death became widely accepted as " accidental asphyxiation " .
Immediately following his death , two of Carradine 's former wives , Gail Jensen and Marina Anderson , stated publicly that his sexual interests included the practice of self @-@ bondage . Anderson , who had plans to publish a tell @-@ all book about her marriage to Carradine , said in an interview with Access Hollywood , " There was a dark side to David , there was a very intense side to David . People around him know that . " Previously , in her divorce filing , she had claimed that " it was the continuation of abhorrent and deviant sexual behavior which was potentially deadly . "
Photographs of Carradine at the death scene , as well as photographs of his autopsied body , were circulated in newspapers and on the Internet . His family , represented by his brothers , Keith and Robert , pleaded with the public and the press to let them mourn their loved one in peace .
Carradine 's funeral was held on June 13 , 2009 , in Los Angeles . His bamboo casket was buried at Forest Lawn Memorial Park . Among the many stars and family members who attended his private memorial were Tom Selleck , Lucy Liu , Frances Fisher , James Cromwell , Steve Railsback , and Chris Potter . His grave was marked on December 3 , 2009 . The monument proclaimed him to be " The Barefoot Legend " and included a quote from " Paint " , a song he wrote and performed as the theme to Sonny Boy , as an epitaph .
= = = Wrongful death suit and murder accusations = = =
On the first anniversary of his death , Carradine 's widow , Annie , announced that she had filed a lawsuit for wrongful death against the company that produced the film Carradine was working on at the time of his death . The lawsuit claimed that the company failed to provide assistance to the actor that had been agreed upon in his contract . " The suit alleges , the assistant left him behind for dinner on the night before the actor was found dead . The assistant and other film staffers apparently could not reach Carradine and decided to leave without him . Carradine called the assistant an hour later but was told the group was across town , and he would have to make his own arrangements that evening . " Annie Carradine reached a settlement with MK2 Productions in August 2011 . She was reported to be receiving about US $ 400 @,@ 000 from the company for Carradine 's death .
Also , in June 2010 , Marina Anderson , Carradine 's fourth ex @-@ wife , published David Carradine : The Eye of My Tornado , a memoir that discusses intimate details of their marriage . She also claimed publicly that she had conducted her own investigation of his death and concluded that he was murdered . Close friend Guthrie Thomas stated , upon hearing that suicide was the cause of Carradine 's death , " No one ties both of their hands behind their back previous to taking one 's own life . There had to be a second individual on the scene . " Thomas also is convinced that this tragedy appeared to be murder .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Video games = = =
Saints Row ( 2006 ) - William Sharp ( voice )
= = Awards and honors = =
1966 Theatre World Award , Royal Hunt of the Sun
1974 TP de Oro , Spain . Best Foreign Actor , Kung Fu
1997 Gold Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , Television
1998 : Honoree — The 16th Annual Golden Boot Awards ( along with brothers Keith and Robert )
2005 : Action on Film International Film Festival Lifetime Achievement Award — First annual recipient
2005 : Academy of Science Fiction , Fantasy & Horror Films , Saturn Award , Best Supporting Actor , Kill Bill : Volume 2
2008 Honoree — Walk of Western Stars
= Lathrop House ( Vassar College ) =
Lathrop House ( known officially as Edward Lathrop House ) was the third quadrangle dormitory built on Vassar College 's campus in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . Constructed in 1901 and designed by Boston @-@ based Allen & Vance , the brick dorm stands five stories tall . Lathrop houses 180 students who may be any grade or gender .
= = History = =
Lathrop House was the third residential quadrangle ( quad ) dormitory built on the campus of Vassar College in the town of Poughkeepsie , New York . The college built Lathrop during a period of rapid dorm construction spanning 1893 – 1902 during which the older seminary @-@ style model of housing — a single large hall in which all a college 's residents lived , in Vassar 's case Main Building — was quickly waning in popularity in favor of smaller individual houses . The project began with the opening of Strong House in 1893 and continued with Raymond House in 1897 ; Lathrop followed in 1901 , and Davison House 's erection completed the quad in 1902 . Construction of the dorm was paid for with Vassar 's funds , unlike Strong House which had been paid for by a gift from John D. Rockefeller .
The dormitory is named after Dr. Edward Lathrop , one of Vassar 's charter trustees , and carries the full name Edward Lathrop House . Lathrop 's daughter , Julia , was a graduate of the Vassar class of 1880 .
In 1979 , the Intercultural Center , a multicultural student space , moved into Lathrop in spite of initial disagreement by members of the house two years earlier when the idea was first proposed . The Intercultural Center later moved out of Lathrop 's basement and into its own dedicated space in the early 1990s , at which point it was replaced by a Jewish co @-@ op and kitchen . In 1995 , the Kosher Co @-@ Op moved out of Lathrop and into a newly acquired Jewish house across the street from the college .
= = Architecture and features = =
Lathrop was designed by the Boston architectural firm of Francis Richmond Allen and J. McArthur Vance who were also responsible for the design of its neighbor , Davison House , in 1902 . Formulating a design for these two buildings was not difficult as a template had already been set by way of the preexisting Strong and Raymond Houses . Frederick Law Olmsted , a consultant of design for the college , recommended that any new dorms in the area be built in an " echelon formation " in order to provide for a greater sense of openness . Allen disregarded this advice , instead opting to place the dorm , along with Davison , in " two long unbroken rows of buildings on the bias " . Lathrop was ultimately placed north of Strong , across the quad to the east of Davison , and diagonally across from Raymond .
Lathrop stands five stories tall with an additional basement level . The dormitory , Elizabethan in style , is a brick building with elements of brownstone trim . The roof is a Vermont slate and from it rise five chimneys , each built with two wythes of brick and capped with bluestone . There are also multiple cupolas that are framed with wood , include painted louvered slats , and have topped with a coat of terne . The building also has parapets , unlike neighboring Strong .
The house is co @-@ ed and currently has a capacity of 180 students . Students in Lathrop , which houses students of all grades , may live in either single rooms , one @-@ room doubles , or three @-@ room triples . Bathrooms are shared by all members of a hall .
= Leeds Country Way =
The Leeds Country Way is a circular long @-@ distance footpath of 62 miles ( 99 km ) around Leeds , West Yorkshire , England . It is never more than 7 miles ( 11 km ) from Leeds City Square , but is mainly rural with extensive views in the outlying areas of the Leeds metropolitan district . It follows public Rights of Way including footpaths , bridleways and minor lanes , with a few short sections along roads .
= = History = =
A route was first devised by Fred Andrews of the Ramblers Association , and then developed by West Yorkshire County Council in the early 1980s . This council was abolished in 1986 , and the path is now under the care of the Countryside section of Leeds City Council . The Leeds Country Way was realigned in 2006 , using a route devised by Bob Brewster , to bring it entirely within the boundary of the Leeds metropolitan district ( previously it crossed the boundary into Wakefield ) , and the path was officially relaunched on 26 September 2006 with a revised set of map leaflets ( see external links ) and improved waymarking .
= = Route = =
The path is waymarked in both directions and can be started at any point , but is described here clockwise from the A660 road at Golden Acre Park ( grid reference SE267417 ) , divided into parts and sections which correspond with the official map leaflets .
= = = Part 1 : Golden Acre to Barwick @-@ in @-@ Elmet = = =
Section 1 : The path crosses Golden Acre Park and passes the Yorkshire Wildlife Trust 's Adel Dam Nature Reserve , following the route of the Meanwood Valley Trail . It coincides briefly with the Leeds link to the Dales Way north of Eccup Reservoir , before crossing the Ebor Way and entering the Harewood Estate . Here there is a glimpse of what looks like a small village , not marked on any map , but which is actually the set for the TV series Emmerdale . Walkers may also see red kites which have been successfully reintroduced in this area .
Section 2 : After crossing the A61 , the way passes north of Wike and reaches the village of Bardsey with its Anglo @-@ Saxon church tower and the Bingley Arms public house , which claims to be the oldest in England . The way turns south , crossing the A58 , to Scarcroft .
Section 3 : The path continues through Thorner , crossing the A64 before entering Barwick @-@ in @-@ Elmet ( SE398376 ) with England 's tallest maypole , a Norman motte and an Iron Age fort .
= = = Part 2 : Barwick @-@ in @-@ Elmet to Carlton = = =
Section 1 : From Barwick the way passes the southern corner of Scholes , then crosses the M1 motorway and enters Garforth .
Section 2 : It leaves Garforth along the disused Garforth @-@ Kippax railway line ( part of the North Eastern Railway and earlier the Leeds , Castleford and Pontefract Junction Railway ) , then approaches Swillington and passes Little Preston Old Hall . It skirts St Aidan 's Country Park , and crosses the River Aire at Swillington Bridge . The path follows the river downstream , past the marina at Fleet Bridge .
Section 3 : The path continues along the river , here forming the Aire and Calder Navigation , to Mickletown , and then turns south to Methley . It swings eastward , crosses the A642 and continues to Carlton ( SE337272 ) , heart of the West Yorkshire Rhubarb Triangle .
= = = Part 3 : Carlton to Cockersdale = = =
Section 1 : From Carlton the path crosses fields before briefly joining the A61 and recrossing the M1 south of Robin Hood . It turns south across the M62 , follows the valley of Dolphin Beck , and reaches East Ardsley on the A650 .
Section 2 : From here the path skirts south of West Ardsley , and reaches Woodkirk with its historic church , on the A653 . It passes the ruins of Howley Hall ( built 1590 for Sir John Savile ) before dropping down to reach Scotchman Lane .
Section 3 : A track through Birkby Brow Wood , just inside the Leeds @-@ Kirklees boundary , leads to the A643 , which is followed to recross the M62 . The path 's longest section of road walking follows the A650 through Gildersome , then a series of field paths leads to Cockersdale ( SE233297 ) , on the A58 near Tong .
= = = Part 4 : Cockersdale to Golden Acre = = =
Section 1 : The path follows the valley of Cockersdale , and then goes along Tong Beck , below Fulneck Moravian Settlement , skirting the south of Pudsey . At this point Tong Beck forms the Leeds @-@ Bradford boundary . The path crosses the Leeds to Bradford railway and meets the busy A647 at Thornbury .
Section 2 : Passing playing fields and old quarries , the path crosses the Woodhall Hills and follows Fagley Beck to cross the Leeds and Liverpool Canal and the River Aire at Apperley Bridge , then follows the river past Woodhouse Grove School before climbing up to meet the A65 south of Rawdon .
Section 3 : From here the path skirts Horsforth , follows for a time the southern boundary of Leeds Bradford International Airport , and goes round the northern edge of Cookridge , before crossing Breary Marsh Local Nature Reserve to return to Golden Acre Park ( SE267417 ) .
= = Practical aspects = =
As the route is circular it can be started at any point , but the description in the official leaflets starts and finishes at Golden Acre Park , going clockwise . These divide it into four parts each split into three sections , but walkers can choose to divide it in various ways as there are many bus routes and several railway stations ( Woodlesford , Garforth , New Pudsey and Horsforth ) on or near the path . West Yorkshire Metro provides information about bus routes serving the path and train services in the area .
The Ordnance Survey maps covering the route are :
Landranger 1 : 50 @,@ 000 sheet 104 ( Leeds : covers almost the whole route ) and 105 ( York : needed for a short distance near Garforth )
Explorer 1 : 25 @,@ 000 sheets 289 ( Leeds : Golden Acre Park clockwise to Scotchman Lane ) and 288 ( Bradford : Scotchman Lane clockwise to Golden Acre Park ) .
The route is waymarked with an owl symbol , taken from the Leeds coat of arms .
The original route of the path is used for an annual trail running relay race organised by Kippax Harriers . Teams of twelve , with two runners taking each of six sections , complete the route in about seven hours .
= Tropical Storm Danielle ( 1980 ) =
Tropical Storm Danielle caused considerable flooding in the state of Texas during September 1980 . The eighth tropical cyclone and fourth named storm of the 1980 Atlantic hurricane season , Danielle developed from a tropical wave that emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 22 . Three days later , the tropical wave developed into a tropical depression . Four days later , the depression degenerated into a tropical wave . After tracking westward and entering the Gulf of Mexico , the system gradually developed , and became a tropical depression on September 4 . The depression gradually strengthened and became Tropical Storm Danielle only hours before landfall in eastern Texas on September 5 . Danielle steadily weakened inland and dissipated two days later .
Danielle produced widespread rainfall in Louisiana , though few areas reported more than 5 inches ( 130 mm ) of precipitation . Rainfall was heavier in Texas , peaking at 18 @.@ 29 inches ( 465 mm ) in Nederland . Much of the damage caused by the storm was as a resulting of flooding . In Port Arthur , twelve homes were damaged , while Interstate 10 was inundated by flood waters . Danielle also spawned several tornadoes in Texas , though none effects from them are unknown . Outside of Texas and Louisiana , the storm also dropped light rainfall in Oklahoma and Mississippi . Overall , Danielle caused three fatalities and at least $ 25 million ( 1980 USD ) in damage .
= = Meteorological history = =
A tropical wave emerged off the west coast of Africa on August 22 and tracked westward across the Atlantic Ocean . On August 25 , the system developed into Tropical Depression Six . After four days , the depression degenerated back into a tropical wave , which continued westward across the Atlantic . By September 2 , the remnants of the depression then interacted with a mid @-@ level low pressure system over southern Florida . As a result , a low @-@ level circulation developed in the Gulf of Mexico as the system as a whole moved off Florida later that day . Organization continued and it is estimated that Tropical Depression Eight at 1800 UTC on September 4 , while located about 120 miles ( 190 km ) south of New Orleans , Louisiana . The National Hurricane Center began issuing advisories a few hours later . Furthermore , the National Hurricane Center later noted that strengthening was more likely if the depression remained offshore for a longer period of time .
Between 0600 and 1100 UTC , a barge known as the Glomar Tender II recorded sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . However , this measurement was deemed to be " small scale [ d ] " and not representative of the storm 's actual intensity . At 1700 UTC on September 5 , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Danielle , based on observations from reconnaissance aircraft and an oil rig . The oil rig , which was location near the coast of Louisiana , reported winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1 @,@ 004 mbar ( 29 @.@ 6 inHg ) ; this would later be considered the peak intensity of Danielle . A few hours later , Danielle made landfall near Galveston , Texas at the same intensity . The storm steadily weakened after moving inland and was downgraded to tropical depression by 1200 UTC on September 6 . About four hours later , the National Hurricane Center discontinued advisories on Danielle . However , the storm did not dissipate until 1200 UTC on September 7 , while located near Del Rio , Texas . The remnants of the storm continued westward for the next two days .
= = Preparations and impact = =
= = = Texas = = =
As the storm was approaching , the National Weather Service issued flash flood watches from Freeport to Sabine Pass , Texas . Rainfall from the storm peaked at 18 @.@ 29 inches ( 465 mm ) in the town of Nederland . A 24 @-@ hour precipitation record of 17 @.@ 16 inches ( 436 mm ) was reported at the Southeast Texas Regional Airport in Beaumont . Due to heavy rainfall , an automobile accident in Beaumont resulted in one fatality . A police officer in Beaumont noted that almost every street in the city was flooded . The heavy rainfall resulted in considerable flash flooding in eastern Texas , causing residents to evacuate their homes . Flood waters also forced the shutdown of Interstate 10 . According to a police spokesman , at least 60 % of streets in Port Arthur were inundated by water . In Orange County , two people were injured in automobile accidents . Along Highway 124 , a bayou overflowed its bank . Because there were numerous inundated streets , police barricaded roads in Beaumont , Bridge City , Orange , Vidor , and Port Arthur . A sewer system in Roscoe was also damaged by flood waters , leaving 1 @,@ 500 residents without running water . In Port Arthur , twelve homes were reported flooded ; one house in the Lakeview neighborhood had 1 foot ( 0 @.@ 30 m ) of water inside . Flood waters entered an oil pit at Port Neches , which sent at least 200 barrels of oil into the Neches River .
Danielle also produced tides 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , causing minor beach erosion along the Texas coast . Several boats and docks on Lake Buchanan were damaged . A third fatality from the storm occurred when a fisherman 's boat on Sabine Lake capsized , causing the man to die of a heart attack during rescue . Danielle spawned several tornadoes in the state of Texas , one of which caused an estimated $ 1 @,@ 500 ( 1980 USD ) in damage to a storage barn in Galveston County on the Bolivar Peninsula . Another touched down twice in Beaumont and overturned a mobile home at a mobile home park . After the storm , the American Red Cross opened storm shelters for residents forced out of their homes because of the flooding . Due to adverse conditions , " hundreds " were left without electricity in Beaumont , Silsbee , Kountze , Hamshire , and Fannett . In addition , then President of the United States Jimmy Carter declared Jefferson and Nolan counties as disaster area , allowing those areas to receive federal aid . Damage in Jefferson County alone totaled to $ 2 @.@ 7 million ( 1980 USD ) . Overall , Danielle caused two fatalities and between $ 25 million and $ 50 million ( 1980 USD ) in damage within the state of Texas .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
In the Gulf of Mexico , rough seas from Danielle caused a maintenance barge to capsize , washing all 11 crewmen overboard . A fatality occurred when one of the crewmen drowned , though the other ten were rescued by the United States Coast Guard . Additionally , the storm also caused a United States Coast Guard helicopter to crash into the sea due to high winds and lack of fuel , though all twelve crewmen survived . Offshore , a barge encountered winds of 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) with gusts up to 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) and light rainfall .
Danielle ’ s effects on southern and eastern Louisiana was minimal . The state received moderate to heavy rainfall ; there , the highest rainfall total there was 2 @.@ 23 inches ( 57 mm ) in Houma . Light rainfall was also reported in Oklahoma and Mississippi , with no areas reporting at least 3 inches ( 76 mm ) of precipitation .
= Tom Derrick =
Thomas Currie " Diver " Derrick , VC , DCM ( 20 March 1914 – 24 May 1945 ) was an Australian recipient of the Victoria Cross , the highest decoration for gallantry " in the face of the enemy " awarded to members of the British and Commonwealth armed forces . In November 1943 , during the Second World War , Derrick was awarded the Victoria Cross for his assault on a heavily defended Japanese position at Sattelberg , New Guinea . During the engagement , he scaled a cliff face while under heavy fire and silenced seven machine gun posts , before leading his platoon in a charge that destroyed a further three .
Born in the Adelaide suburb of Medindie , South Australia , Derrick left school at the age of fourteen and found work in a bakery . As the Great Depression grew worse he lost his job and moved to Berri , working on a fruit farm before marrying in 1939 . In July 1941 , Derrick enlisted in the Second Australian Imperial Force , joining the 2 / 48th Battalion . He was posted to the Middle East , where he took part in the Siege of Tobruk , was recommended for the Military Medal and promoted to corporal . Later , at El Alamein , Derrick was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for knocking out three German machine gun posts , destroying two tanks , and capturing one hundred prisoners .
Derrick returned to Australia with his battalion in February 1943 , before transferring to the South West Pacific Theatre where he fought in the battle to capture Lae . Back in Australia the following February he was posted to an officer cadet training unit , being commissioned lieutenant in November 1944 . In April 1945 his battalion was sent to the Pacific island of Morotai , an assembly point for the Allied invasion of the Philippines . Engaged in action the following month on the heavily defended hill Freda on Tarakan Island , Derrick was hit by five bullets from a Japanese machine gun . He died from his wounds on 24 May 1945 .
= = Early life = =
Derrick was born in the Adelaide suburb of Medindie , South Australia , on 20 March 1914 to David Derrick , a labourer from Ireland , and his Australian wife , Ada ( née Whitcombe ) . The Derricks were poor , and Tom often walked barefoot to attend Sturt Street Public School and later Le Fevre Peninsula School . In 1928 , aged fourteen , Derrick left school and found work in a bakery . By this time , he had developed a keen interest in sports , particularly cricket , Australian Rules Football , boxing and swimming ; his diving in the Port River earned him the nickname of " Diver " .
With the advent of the Great Depression , Derrick scraped a living from odd jobs — such as fixing bicycles and selling newspapers — to supplement his job as a baker . When in 1931 , the Depression worsened , Derrick lost his bakery job and , with friends , headed by bicycle for the regional town of Berri , approximately 225 kilometres ( 140 mi ) away , in search of work . Jobs in Berri were hard to come by and Derrick and two friends spent the next few months living in a tent on the banks of the Murray River . When the annual Royal Adelaide Show opened that year , Derrick went to the boxing pavilion to accept a challenge of staying upright for three rounds with the ex @-@ lightweight champion of Australia . Although he was knocked down in the second round , he immediately got back to his feet and won the bet ; albeit at the cost of a black eye , and a few bruised ribs .
Eventually , towards the end of 1931 , Derrick found work picking fruit at a vineyard in Winkie , a short distance outside Berri . He later moved on to a full @-@ time job at a nearby fruit farm , remaining there for the next nine years . On 24 June 1939 , Derrick married Clarance Violet " Beryl " Leslie — his " one true love " whom he had met at a dance in Adelaide seven years earlier — at St Laurence 's Catholic Church , North Adelaide .
= = Second World War = =
Derrick did not join up when war broke out in September 1939 but , like many Australians , enlisted after the fall of France in June 1940 . He joined the Second Australian Imperial Force on 5 July 1940 , and was posted to the 2 / 48th Battalion , 26th Brigade , as a private . Derrick first joined his unit at the Wayville Showgrounds , before basic training at Woodside . Derrick thrived on military life , but found discipline difficult to accept .
In October , the 2 / 48th Battalion paraded through the streets of Adelaide to Mitcham railway station prior to its embarkation for the Middle East . The battalion 's voyage overseas was postponed until 17 November , when the unit boarded the SS Stratheden . The ship made a stop at Perth , where Derrick was confined on board for going absent without leave to sightsee . He was soon in more trouble , and was charged and fined for punching another soldier who taunted him over this incident .
= = = North Africa = = =
On arrival in Palestine , the 2 / 48th Battalion encamped at El Kantara and began training in desert warfare . For relaxation , the battalion set up athletic events , and Derrick became well known for often winning cross @-@ country races — and for organising a book on the outcomes . In March 1941 , the unit went by train and truck to Alexandria , Egypt , then along the North African coast to Cyrenaica , in Libya , to join the 9th Australian Division .
After the 2 / 48th Battalion completed its training with the 9th Division at Cyrenaica , they were moved further along the coast to Gazala . Then , just as they began to dig in , the battalion was abruptly withdrawn to Tobruk in response to the German Afrika Korps ' advance . They entered Tobruk on 9 April 1941 , and spent the following eight months besieged by Axis forces . While there , Derrick acquired an Italian Breda machine gun and regularly led fighting patrols against both German and Italian troops . Although Derrick 's bravery was noted during the siege , he wrote in his diary about his constant fear of dying .
On the night of 30 April , the Axis forces assaulted Tobruk 's outer defences and managed to capture substantial ground . In response , the 2 / 48th Battalion was ordered to counter @-@ attack the following evening . During the ensuing engagement , Derrick fought as a section member in the far left flank of the attack . After suffering heavy casualties in what Derrick described as " a bobby dazzler of a fire fight " , the battalion was forced to withdraw . Praised for his leadership and bravery during the assault , Derrick was immediately promoted to corporal , and recommended for the Military Medal . The award , however , was never made .
In late May , Derrick discovered a German posing as a British tank officer and reported him to company headquarters ; the man was immediately arrested as a spy . Following a period of heavy fighting in June , the 2 / 48th Battalion was placed in reserve for a few days the following month . Promoted to platoon sergeant in September , Derrick — along with the rest of his battalion — was withdrawn from Tobruk and returned to Palestine aboard HMS Kingston on 22 October . Disembarking at Tel Aviv , they were given three days ' leave in the city , before returning for training .
Following a period of rest and light garrison duties in Syria , the 2 / 48th Battalion was rushed to El Alamein , Egypt , to reinforce the British Eighth Army . During the First Battle of El Alamein on 10 July 1942 , Derrick took part in the 26th Australian Brigade 's attack on Tel el Eisa . In the initial assault , Derrick , against a barrage of German grenades , led an attack against three machine gun posts and succeeded in destroying the positions before capturing over one hundred prisoners . During the Axis counter @-@ attack that evening , the Australian line was overrun by tanks . As the German infantry following the tanks advanced , Derrick 's company led a charge against the men . During the engagement , Derrick managed to destroy two German tanks using sticky bombs . Commended for his " outstanding leadership and courage " , Derrick was awarded the Distinguished Conduct Medal for his part in the fighting at Tel el Eisa . The award was announced in a supplement to the London Gazette on 18 February 1943 .
Promoted to sergeant on 28 July , Derrick led a six @-@ man reconnaissance on 3 October , successfully pinpointing several German machine gun positions and strongholds ; this information was to be vital for the upcoming Second Battle of El Alamein . The El Alamein offensive was launched on 23 October , with the 9th Australian Division taking part . At one point during the engagement , Derrick jumped up onto an Allied gun carrier heading towards the Germans . Armed with a Thompson submachine gun and under intense heavy fire , Derrick attacked and knocked out three machine gun posts while standing in the carrier . He then had the driver reverse up to each post so he could ensure each position was silenced . By the following morning , Derrick 's platoon occupied all three posts . The members of the 2 / 48th Battalion who witnessed Derrick 's action were sure he would be awarded the Victoria Cross , though no recommendation was made .
For part of 31 October , Derrick assumed command of his company after all of the unit 's officers had been killed or wounded in fierce fighting . On 21 November 1942 , Derrick was briefly admitted to the 2 / 3rd Australian Field Ambulance with slight shrapnel wounds to his right hand and buttock . Twelve days later , the 2 / 48th Battalion left El Alamein and returned to Gaza in Palestine , where , later that month , Derrick attended a corps patrolling course . In January 1943 , the 2 / 48th Battalion sailed home to Australia , aboard the S.S. Nieuw Amsterdam , along with the rest of the 9th Division .
= = = South West Pacific = = =
Disembarking at Port Melbourne in late February 1943 , Derrick was granted a period of leave and travelled by train to Adelaide where he spent time with Beryl . He rejoined his battalion — now encamped in the outskirts of Adelaide — before they went by train to the Atherton Tableland for training in jungle warfare . Brought up to full strength by the end of April , the 2 / 48th Battalion completed its training following landing @-@ craft exercises near Cairns . On 23 July , Derrick was attached to the 21st Brigade Headquarters but admitted to hospital for old injuries to his right eye later the same day . After hospital , Derrick returned briefly to Brigade before rejoining the 2 / 48th Battalion on 27 August .
For much of August , the 2 / 48th Battalion had been in training for the Allied attack on Lae , in Papua New Guinea . The unit 's objective was to land on a strip of land designated as " Red Beach " , and then fight their way approximately 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west towards Lae . Following a bombardment by American destroyers , Derrick 's wave landed on the beach with minimal casualties on 4 September . Ten days later , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's C Company — led by Derrick 's platoon — captured Malahang airstrip , before Lae fell to the Allies on 16 September . Derrick was scornful of the Japanese defence of Lae , and wrote in his diary that " our greatest problem was trying to catch up " with the retreating Japanese force .
= = = = Victoria Cross = = = =
Following Lae , the 9th Division was tasked to seize Finschhafen , clear the Huon Peninsula and gain control of the Vitiaz Strait . By 2 October , one of the division 's brigades had gained a foothold on Finschhafen , but soon encountered fierce Japanese resistance . In response to a Japanese counter @-@ attack , the 26th Brigade was transferred to reinforce the Australian position on 20 October and , when the division switched to the offensive in November , the brigade was ordered to capture Sattelberg . Sattelberg was a densely wooded hill rising 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) and dominating the Finschhafen region ; it was in an assault on this position that Derrick was to earn the Victoria Cross .
The Australian attack on Sattelberg began in mid @-@ November , with the Japanese slowly giving ground and withdrawing back up the precipitous slopes . Each side suffered heavy casualties , and on 20 November , Derrick — who had been acting as company sergeant major for the previous month — was given command of B Company 's 11 platoon after the unit had " lost all but one of their leaders " . By 22 November , the 2 / 23rd and 2 / 48th Battalions had reached the southern slopes of Sattelberg , holding a position approximately 600 metres ( 660 yd ) from the summit . A landslide had blocked the only road , so the final assault was made by infantry alone , without supporting tanks .
On 24 November , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's B Company was ordered to outflank a strong Japanese position sited on a cliff face , prior to attacking a feature 140 metres ( 150 yd ) from the Sattelberg township . The nature of the terrain meant that the only possible route was up a slope covered with kunai grass directly beneath the cliffs . Over a period of two hours , the Australians made several attempts to clamber up the slopes to reach their objective , but each time they were repulsed by intense machine gun fire and grenade attacks . As dusk fell , it appeared impossible to reach the objective or even hold the ground already gained , and the company was ordered to withdraw . In response , Derrick replied to his company commander : " Bugger the CO . Just give me twenty more minutes and we 'll have this place . Tell him I 'm pinned down and can 't get out . "
Moving forward with his platoon , Derrick attacked a Japanese post that had been holding up the advance . He destroyed the position with grenades and ordered his second section around to the right flank . The section soon came under heavy machine gun and grenade fire from six Japanese posts . Clambering up the cliff face under heavy fire , Derrick held on with one hand while lobbing grenades into the weapon pits with the other , like " a man ... shooting for [ a ] goal at basketball " . Climbing further up the cliff and in full view of the Japanese , Derrick continued to attack the posts with grenades before following up with accurate rifle fire . Within twenty minutes , he had reached the peak and cleared seven posts , while the demoralised Japanese defenders fled from their positions to the buildings of Sattelberg .
Derrick then returned to his platoon , where he gathered his first and third sections in preparation for an assault on the three remaining machine gun posts in the area . Attacking the posts , Derrick personally rushed forward on four separate occasions and threw his grenades at a range of about 7 metres ( 7 @.@ 7 yd ) , before all three were silenced . Derrick 's platoon held their position that night , before the 2 / 48th Battalion moved in to take Sattelberg unopposed the following morning . The battalion commander insisted that Derrick personally hoist the Australian flag over the town ; it was raised at 10 : 00 on 25 November 1943 .
The final assault on Sattelberg became known within the 2 / 48th Battalion as ' Derrick 's Show ' . Although he was already a celebrity within the 9th Division , the action brought him to wide public attention . On 23 March 1944 , the announcement and accompanying citation for Derrick 's Victoria Cross appeared in a supplement to the London Gazette . It read :
Government House , Canberra . 23rd March 1944 .
The KING has been graciously pleased to approve the award of the VICTORIA CROSS to : -
Sergeant Thomas Currie Derrick , D.C.M. , Australian Military Forces .
For most conspicuous courage , outstanding leadership and devotion to duty during the final assault on Sattelberg in November , 1943 .
On 24th November , 1943 , a company of an Australian Infantry Battalion was ordered to outflank a strong enemy position sited on a precipitous cliff @-@ face and then to attack a feature 150 yards from the township of Sattelberg . Sergeant Derrick was in command of his platoon of the company . Due to the nature of the country , the only possible approach to the town lay through an open kunai patch situated directly beneath the top of the cliffs . Over a period of two hours many attempts were made by our troops to clamber up the slopes to their objective , but on each occasion the enemy prevented success with intense machine @-@ gun fire and grenades .
Shortly before last light it appeared that it would be impossible to reach the objective or even to hold the ground already occupied and the company was ordered to retire . On receipt of this order , Sergeant Derrick , displaying dogged tenacity , requested one last attempt to reach the objective . His request was granted .
Moving ahead of his forward section he personally destroyed , with grenades , an enemy post which had been holding up this section . He then ordered his second section around on the right flank . This section came under heavy fire from light machine @-@ guns and grenades from , six enemy posts . Without regard for personal safety he clambered forward well ahead of the leading men of the section and hurled grenade after grenade , so completely demoralising the enemy that they fled leaving weapons and grenades . By this action alone the company was able to gain its first foothold on the precipitous ground .
Not content with the work already done , he returned to the first section , and together with the third section of his platoon advanced to deal with the three remaining posts in the area . On four separate occasions he dashed forward and threw grenades at a range of six to eight yards until these positions were finally silenced .
In all , Sergeant Derrick had reduced ten enemy posts . From the vital ground he had captured the remainder of the Battalion moved on to capture Sattelberg the following morning .
Undoubtedly Sergeant Derrick 's fine leadership and refusal to admit defeat , in the face of a seemingly impossible situation , resulted in the capture of Sattelberg . His outstanding gallantry , thoroughness and devotion to duty were an inspiration not only to his platoon and company but to the whole Battalion .
= = = = Later war service = = = =
The 2 / 48th Battalion remained at Sattelberg until late December 1943 , when it returned to the coast in order to regroup . On Christmas Eve , Derrick noted in his diary that the next day would be his " 4th Xmas overseas " and " I don 't care where I spend the next one I only hope I 'm still on deck [ alive ] " . On 7 February 1944 , the battalion sailed from Finschhafen for Australia , disembarking at Brisbane . Granted home leave , Derrick made his way to South Australia for a short period with Beryl . In April , he was admitted to hospital suffering from malaria before returning to his battalion the following month . During this time , he was charged with being absent without leave and subsequently forfeited a day 's pay .
On 20 August 1944 , Derrick was posted to an officer cadet training unit in Victoria . He requested that he be allowed to rejoin the 2 / 48th Battalion at the end of the course ; contrary to normal Army policy that prevented officers commissioned from the ranks from returning to their previous units . An exemption was granted to Derrick only after much lobbying . While at this unit , Derrick shared a tent with Reg Saunders , who later became the Army 's first Indigenous Australian officer .
Commissioned as a lieutenant on 26 November 1944 , Derrick was granted twenty @-@ four days leave . Returning to the 2 / 48th Battalion as a reinforcement officer , his appointment as a platoon commander in his old company was met by " great jubilation " . During this period , the battalion had been posted to Ravenshoe on the Atherton Tablelands for " an extensive training period " , before being transported from Cairns to Morotai during April 1945 . It was around this time that Derrick converted from his Church of England religious denomination and Salvationist beliefs to Catholicism — his wife 's religion — though he was not overtly religious .
On 1 May 1945 , Derrick took part in the landing at Tarakan ; an island off the coast of Borneo . Under the cover of a naval and aerial bombardment , he led his men ashore in the initial waves of the landing , where they were initially posted at the boundary of the 2 / 48th Battalion and 2 / 24th Battalion 's area of responsibility . The Japanese force on the island mounted a determined resistance , and Derrick was later quoted in the Sunday Sun as saying he had " never struck anything so tough as the Japanese on Tarakan " .
Slowly pushing inland , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's main task from 19 May was to capture a heavily defended hill code @-@ named Freda . Derrick 's platoon unsuccessfully probed Japanese positions on that day and the next , at a loss of two men killed with others wounded . He later recorded in his diary that these setbacks were a " bad show " . On 21 May , Derrick and Lieutenant Colonel Bob Ainslie , the 2 / 48th Battalion 's commander , debated the optimum size of the unit which should be used to capture the Freda position . Derrick successfully argued that a company was best , given the restrictions posed by the terrain . He was in high spirits that night , possibly in an attempt to lift his platoon 's morale . On 22 May , Derrick 's was one of two platoons that attacked a well @-@ defended knoll and captured the position . Derrick played a key role in this action , and coordinated both platoons during the final assault that afternoon .
After capturing the knoll , the two platoons — reinforced by two sections of the 2 / 4th Commando Squadron — dug in to await an expected Japanese counter @-@ attack . At about 03 : 30 on 23 May , a Japanese light machine gun fired into the Australian position . Derrick sat upright to see if his men were all right , and was hit by five bullets from the gun 's second burst ; striking him from his left hip to the right of his chest . His runner , " Curly " Colby , dragged him behind cover , but Derrick could not be immediately evacuated as Japanese troops attacked at about 04 : 00 . Derrick was in great pain , and told Colby that he had " had it " . Despite his wounds , he continued to issue orders for several hours . When day broke , it was discovered that Derrick 's platoon were directly overlooked by a Japanese bunker — though this would not have been visible during the assault late the previous evening .
When stretcher bearers reached the position at dawn , Derrick insisted that the other wounded be attended to first . Derrick was carried off Freda later that morning , where he was met by the 26th Brigade 's commander , Brigadier David Whitehead . The two men briefly conversed before Derrick excused himself , fearing that he had not much time left and wishing to see the padre . Stepping back , Whitehead saluted and sent for Father Arch Bryson . At the hospital , surgeons found that bullets had torn away much of Derrick 's liver ; he died on 24 May 1945 during a second operation on his wounds . He was buried in the 2 / 48th Battalion 's cemetery on Tarakan that afternoon , and later re @-@ interred at the Labuan War Cemetery , plot 24 , row A , grave 9 .
= = Legacy = =
Tom Derrick was widely mourned . His widow , Beryl , became prostrate with grief on hearing of his death ; many members of the Army were affected , with one soldier lamenting it felt as if " the whole war stopped " . By the time Derrick 's death was officially announced on 30 May , most Australians on Tarakan had heard the news and rumours had spread claiming that he had been speared or shot at short range by a sub @-@ machine gun .
The Japanese force on Tarakan learned of Derrick 's death and tried to exploit it for propaganda purposes . They printed a leaflet which began " We lament over the death of Lieutenant General Terick CinC of Allied Force in Tarakan " and later included the question " what do you think of the death in action of your Commander in Chief ... ? " This leaflet reached few Australian soldiers , and had little impact on them . " Tokyo Rose " also broadcast taunts over " Terick 's " death .
Derrick 's reputation continued to grow after his death , and many Australian soldiers recalled any association , however slight , they had with him . To many Australians , he embodied the ' ANZAC spirit ' , and he remains perhaps the best @-@ known Australian soldier of the Second World War . Historian Michael McKernan later remarked that , for his war service , Derrick had arguably deserved " a VC and two bars ... at El Alamein , at Sattelberg and now at Tarakan " . In a 2004 television interview , then Chief of the Australian Defence Force , General Peter Cosgrove , was asked " Who was the best soldier of all time ? " After a short pause , he replied : " Diver Derrick " . This sentiment was endorsed by General Sir Francis Hassett . Hassett — who , as a lieutenant colonel , had served at Finschhafen with II Corps headquarters — stated :
From what I learnt ; not only was Derrick a magnificent soldier , but also a splendid leader who , immediately he saw a tactical problem , fixed it with either personal bravery or leadership imbued with determination and common sense .
Derrick is also remembered for his personal qualities . He was sensitive and reflective . Despite a limited education , he was a " forceful and logical debater , with a thirst for knowledge " . Derrick kept a diary , composed poetry , collected butterflies and frequently wrote to his wife , while on active service . Historian Peter Stanley has compared Derrick 's leadership abilities with those of Edward ' Weary ' Dunlop , Ralph Honner and Roden Cutler .
On 7 May 1947 , Beryl Derrick attended an investiture ceremony at the Government House , Adelaide , where she was presented with her late husband 's Victoria Cross and Distinguished Conduct Medal by the Governor of South Australia , Lieutenant General Sir Charles Norrie . Derrick 's Victoria Cross and other medals are now displayed at the Australian War Memorial , Canberra , along with a portrait by Sir Ivor Hele . A street in the neighbouring suburb of Campbell and a rest stop in the Remembrance Driveway between Sydney and Canberra were also named in his honour . In 1995 , a public park was named the Derrick Memorial Reserve on Carlisle St , Glanville in his honour , and his VC citation is displayed on a plaque there . In June 2008 , a newly built bridge over the Port River on the Port River Expressway was named the Tom ' Diver ' Derrick Bridge following a public campaign .
= Köllnischer Park =
Köllnischer Park is a public park located near the River Spree in Mitte , Berlin . It is named after Cölln , one of the two cities which came together to form Berlin ; the park location was originally just outside it . Approximately 1 hectare ( 2 @.@ 5 acres ) in area , the park came into existence in the 18th and 19th centuries on the site of fortifications . It was redesigned as a public park in 1869 – 73 and was further modified in the 20th century with the addition of first a bear enclosure , the Bärenzwinger , and later a permanent exhibition of sculpture , the Lapidary . The park is a registered Berlin landmark .
The park contains five buildings , the first of them being the Märkisches Museum , a complex of buildings . The complex was built between 1907 and 1907 , and was designed by Ludwig Hoffmann . The second was the Bärenzwinger , next to the south entrance to the park . This was built between 1938 and 1939 on the site of a former sanitation depot , and was designed by Ludwig Hoffmann . The Bärenzwinger has contained up to five bears at once , and currently contains three bears . At the east end of the park there is the Landesversicherungsanstalt building , a large office building designed by Alfred Messel , to be the headquarters of the Landesversicherungsanstalt , an insurance company . The fourth building is the AOK building , a six @-@ storey steel @-@ framed office building built from purplish brick , on the south side of the park , opposite the Bärenzwinger . The final building is the Volksbadeanstalt , on the western side of the park . It was built in 1888 as a public bath .
= = Location and name = =
The park lies between Wallstraße on the north side , the Straße am Köllnischen Park on the east side , Rungestraße on the south side and Inselstraße on the west side . Its boundaries are not clearly delimited ; on the west side there are some buildings between the park and the street , including the former building of the Köllnisches Gymnasium , built in 1865 – 68 and now used as a music school , and on the north side , facing the river , is the Märkisches Museum . The western edge is dominated by a large office building built in 1903 / 04 as the headquarters of the Landsversicherungsanstalt , which has been used for the past few years by the Department of Urban Development of the Senate of Berlin , and the southern by the 1931 / 32 building of the German health insurance group Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse , which under the German Democratic Republic was the Parteihochschule Karl Marx .
The park is accessible via the Märkisches Museum U @-@ Bahn station on line U2 and bus number 147 . It is also close to the promenade which has been created along the bank of the Spree south of the Jannowitzbrücke .
= = History = =
The site of Köllnischer Park was just outside Cölln in the Middle Ages . Until the mid @-@ 17th century , it was undeveloped low @-@ lying , swampy land prone to flooding by the Spree . Following the decision by Frederick William , the ' Great Elector ' to encircle Berlin with fortifications , this became the location of Bastion VII , which was known at the time as " the bulwerk in the morass ' . The work required the creation of large embankments and lasted until 1683 ; the swampland around the bastion was not fully drained until 1687 . After such lengthy construction , the works were already out of date militarily , and after 1700 served only to control the comings and goings of visitors and residents , prevent desertion , and enable the collection of tolls on those entering the city . By 1700 , Mulberry trees had been planted on the walls , but only ' persons of rank ' were permitted to promenade along them . After Berlin had grown considerably and the Customs Wall had been built around it , King Frederick William I ( 1688 – 1740 ) ordered the defensive walls to be demolished . Civilian buildings had already grown up on the bastions ; a windmill and a house for the miller were built on Bastion VII , and these caused the eastern portion to be left standing longer than other parts of the fortifications . Some of the rubble from the demolished fortifications was used to build up Wilhelmstraße ; the rest was thrown into the defensive ditch outside the walls .
In 1736 , Frederick William I gave the site of the park and the Märkisches Museum to one of his generals , Friedrich Sebastian Winnibald Truchseß , Count of Waldburg , who built a house there and laid out an extensive garden . After his death in the Battle of Hohenfriedberg , David Splitgerber , a merchant and banker , bought the land and was also given the remaining eastern bastion section ; from 1750 onwards , he operated Berlin 's first sugar processing plant on the site , and also enlarged and improved the garden . In 1779 , the baroque garden was mentioned by the bookseller and author Friedrich Nicolai : " It has very charming areas , in particular it includes an open pavilion on a rise , which is small , but has tall trees growing upon it " . The sugar plant was forced to close in 1788 . The buildings on the site were then used in succession as tobacco storage , a hospital , a workhouse , and a men 's lunatic asylum . The Märkisches Museum was later built there . Splitgerber 's heirs sold the garden and in 1799 it was acquired by a Freemason lodge , the Große National @-@ Mutterloge zu den drei Weltkugeln ( Grand National Mother Lodge of the Three Globes ) . The Freemasons built a lodge building which opened in December 1800 , and developed the remainder into a landscape garden , one of the most attractive gardens in Berlin .
In 1858 / 59 Inselstraße was extended through the garden to connect Köpenicker Straße to the city centre , and the Lodge was forced to sell the larger , eastern portion of the site to the city . The Köllnisches Gymnasium was then built there . How to use the remainder of the site was discussed for years ; a desire to preserve the trees led to the rejection of several commercial proposals . On 15 April 1869 , the Assembly of City Deputies ( Stadtverordnetenversammlung ) decided to establish a public playground ( probably one of the first in the city ) and ' promenade location ' there on plans drawn up by the first city director of gardens , Gustav Meyer , dedicated the necessary funds , and urged rapid execution of the plan . The plan involved some new plantings , fencing , and benches . This renovation was completed in 1873 . The park reached its current dimensions in 1883 after the ditch was filled in . Ludwig Hoffmann , the architect of the Märkisches Museum ( completed in 1907 ) , then made some changes including creating views across the park to the new museum . The last major modification of the park took place in 1969 – 71 to designs by Eberhard Jaenisch , Stefan Rauner and Roswitha Schulz : a mound which remained on the site of the bastion was levelled , a children 's playground was added , a terrace was built behind the museum , and the Lapidary was created .
= = Attractions = =
= = = Lapidary = = =
The Lapidary is an open @-@ air museum of primarily stone artworks , both originals and copies , which formerly decorated buildings that no longer exist . Some are set into the walls around a 1969 terrace , while others are freestanding at various locations in the park . For example , in the walls of the terrace there are fragments of five carved heads from the keystones over windows , supposed to be from the Old City Hall of Berlin in Spandauer Straße and attributed to Georg Gottfried Weiyhenmeyer ; two allegorical reliefs ; 17th- and 18th @-@ century building signs ; a late Gothic vault keystone ; and a 16th @-@ century sandstone relief from the Stadtschloß .
The freestanding sculptures include amongst others :
a larger @-@ than @-@ life sandstone sculpture of Hercules fighting the Nemean Lion , at the eastern entrance to the park , was modelled in 1787 by Gottfried Schadow and executed in 1791 by Conrad Nicolas Boy . The work originally decorated a bridge over the Königsgraben , was moved in 1891 to the Herkulesbrücke ( Hercules Bridge ) over the Landwehr Canal , was placed in storage in 1934 and was installed in the park in 1971 .
two groups of putti , also in sandstone , from the balustrade of the New Palace in Potsdam .
a mid @-@ 19th @-@ century terracotta fountain in Italian Renaissance style from the garden of a villa in the Hirschgarten section of Friedrichshagen
an oversize sandstone vase with bulls ' head handles created after a classical model by an artist in the school of Friedrich Christian Glume ( 1714 – 1752 ) for the attic course of the colonnades at Sanssouci .
= = = Zille Memorial and Neo @-@ Renaissance Fountain = = =
Modern and thus atypical of the sculptures in the park is the bronze statue of the artist Heinrich Zille , which was created in 1964 – 65 by Heinrich Drake for an exhibition in the Treptower Park and afterwards moved to Köllnischer Park . It is listed as a landmark by the City of Berlin .
At the Rungestraße corner of the park there is a historic fountain from a private garden in Hirschgarten . Moved to the park in 1971 , it was made in about 1860 and is known as the Neo @-@ Renaissance Fountain . It is currently enclosed for repairs .
= = = Wusterhausener Bär = = =
The Wusterhausener Bär ( or Wusterhausischer Bär ) is a small round tower , with tiled walls and a helmet @-@ shaped sandstone cupola topped with a carved trophy display of weaponry , which was formerly part of a weir regulating the water level in the ditch that formed part of the wall defences . Bär in this case derives from the Latin berum , meaning " weir " , and it was apparently named for Wusterhausen because the road to that town passed by its original location at Bastion VII . It was moved to the park in 1893 and is now incorporated into the Lapidary . It is listed as a Berlin landmark .
= = Buildings = =
= = = Märkisches Museum = = =
The Märkisches Museum was built between 1901 and 1907 . It was designed by Ludwig Hoffmann as a complex of buildings representing architecture of the Mark Brandenburg and North Germany in general in the Romanesque , Gothic , and Renaissance periods .
= = = Bärenzwinger = = =
Next to the south entrance to the park is the Bärenzwinger ( bear pit ) . This was built in 1938 – 39 on the site of a former sanitation depot , also designed by Ludwig Hoffmann and already decorated with more than 50 plaques by Otto Lessing depicting bears , and a public lavatory , and opened on 17 August 1939 . It consists of indoor sleeping quarters and outdoor exercise areas which have held as many as five bears ( the armorial animal of Berlin ) who are the official bears or mascots of the city . The impetus for building the Bärenzwinger was a letter to the newspaper Berliner Zeitung am Mittag ( now B.Z. ) from Wilfried Bade which appeared the day after the end of the celebration of the city 's 700 @-@ year anniversary , and the Lord Mayor , Julius Lippert , had it completed despite objections from some Nazi functionaries that there were more important things to be done in what proved to be the run @-@ up to World War II . Two of the original bears were gifts from Bern , which also has a bear on its arms . It remains largely unchanged , although it had to be reconstructed after the war ; it reopened in 1949 with two new bears , again from Bern ; one of these , Jente , produced 33 cubs ( including 4 sets of triplets and 9 pairs of twins ) before being retired to the zoo . There is currently only one bear , Schnute , who is also the official city bear ; until her death in August 2013 , her daughter Maxi also lived there . The Bärenzwinger is a listed Berlin landmark . It was threatened with closure in 1990 due to lack of funds for needed modernisation , but after public protest , the Berlin Senate undertook to pay for the project . Underfloor heating in the cages and a skylight dome were added , and the electricity supply was overhauled . The facility reopened in 1993 and celebrated its 70th anniversary in 2009 . Some animal protection advocates , including the city 's own animal protection officer , have called for it to be closed as oldfashioned and inhumane .
= = = Landesversicherungsanstalt building = = =
East of the park at Am Köllnischen Park 3 is a large office building which was designed by Alfred Messel as the headquarters of the Landesversicherungsanstalt Berlin , the social insurance for Berlin within Bismarck 's old age and disability insurance system . Built in 1903 / 04 , the building echoes the Märkisches Museum , which was built at the same time , in the use of red brick on its façade and is in Expressionist @-@ Baroque style , with giant pilasters which rise uninterrupted from the street to the roofline , between which are limestone decorative elements in the form of similated balustrades , allegorical figures , and cartouches with craft symbols , such as an iron between pairs of scissors . Over the southern entrance is a sculpture of a group of men in classical style with the motto " Einer für alle — alle für einen " ( One for all — all for one ) . The building originally had a tower , which was destroyed in World War II . After the war it was the headquarters of the East German Social Security Administration . It now houses offices of the Berlin Senate Department of Urban Development , and one of the courtyards has been roofed over and houses a permanent exhibition of plans for the redevelopment of the city . It forms part of an ensemble of buildings to either side of the Märkisches Museum which are registered as a city landmark .
= = = AOK building = = =
The 6 @-@ storey steel @-@ framed office building in purplish brick on the south side of the park at Rungestraße 3 – 6 and 7 , opposite the Bärenzwinger , was designed by Albert Gottheiner ( his last work before he was forced to leave Berlin ) and built in 1931 – 32 as the headquarters of the Berlin affiliate of the Allgemeine Ortskrankenkasse ( AOK ) insurance group . The façade is " an outstanding example of late Expressionist architecture " , featuring decorative brickwork and pillars , of which the six on the flanking staircase sections are emphasised by terracotta statues . Under the German Democratic Republic , the building housed the Party Academy of the governing Socialist Unity Party from 1955 onwards ; a modern extension was built in the mid @-@ 1970s , designed by an architectural team led by Friedrich Kalusche . During this period the building was renamed the Haus am Köllnischen Park . In summer 1990 , after German reunification , the institution closed and the building reverted to the possession of the AOK . As of 2007 , it houses their legal division . It is a registered city landmark .
= = = Volksbadeanstalt = = =
On the western side of the park is the Volksbadeanstalt , which was designed by Ende und Böckmann and built in 1888 as a public bath . The Berliner Verein für Volksbäder erected it and another in the Gartenstraße with assistance from the city , for the purpose of " enabling the less prosperous inhabitants of Berlin to receive the benefit of a warm bath in every season of the year , at the most economical price conceivable " . The buildings had an " English @-@ industrial " appearance and were horizontally organised with a taller central section giving an impression of " importance , balance and pragmatism " and ornamented with round arches over doors and windows and an acorn motif .
= = Historical views in and around the park = =
= Plas Mawr =
Plas Mawr ( English : Great Hall ) is an Elizabethan townhouse in Conwy , North Wales , dating from the 16th century . The property was built by Robert Wynn , a member of the local gentry , following his marriage to his first wife , Dorothy Griffith . Plas Mawr occupied a plot of land off Conwy 's High Street and was constructed in three phases between 1576 and 1585 at a total cost of around £ 800 . Wynn was known for his hospitality , and the household was supported by Wynn 's local dairy herds , orchards and gardens . On his death he laid out complex instructions for dividing his estate ; the resulting law @-@ case took years to resolve , effectively preventing the redevelopment of the house and preserving it in its original condition .
After 1683 Plas Mawr passed into the hands of the Mostyn family and ceased to be used as a family home . It was rented out for various purposes during the 18th and 19th centuries , including for use as a school , cheap lodgings and finally as the headquarters of the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art . In the 20th century the house became increasingly well known for its preserved Elizabethan architecture , but the costs of maintenance grew considerably and its condition deteriorated . The Welsh heritage agency Cadw took over the management of the property in 1993 and carried out an extensive , 42 @-@ month @-@ long restoration project at a total cost of £ 3 @.@ 3 million . With many of its rooms redecorated to resemble their condition in 1665 , and replanted Renaissance gardens , it is now run as a tourist attraction .
Architecturally , Plas Mawr is almost unchanged from the 16th century , and the historian Rick Turner considers the house to be " the finest surviving town house of the Elizabethan era " . Plas Mawr shows a blend of continental Renaissance and local North Wales influences , with an innovative floor @-@ plan and architectural detailing . The house still retains much of its original plasterwork , which incorporates symbols , badges and heraldry , which the historian Peter Smith has described as " the most perfect and the most complete memorial to Elizabethan Wales . " The architecture of the house influenced other contemporary projects in North Wales , and was later copied during the 19th and 20th centuries in buildings around the town of Conwy , including the local police station and nearby hotel .
= = History = =
= = = 16th – 17th centuries = = =
Plas Mawr was built in the town of Conwy between 1576 and 1585 by Robert Wynn . Robert came from a prosperous local family and entered the service of first Sir Walter Stonor and then Sir Philip Hoby , both administrators and senior officials to King Henry VIII . Robert fought and was injured at the Siege of Boulogne in 1544 , took part in military campaigns in Scotland and traveled extensively across Europe . He invested in land across North Wales and married his first wife , Dorothy Griffith , a member of the local gentry , in 1570 . Once married , Robert needed a suitable house and chose to settle in Conwy , a prosperous town that was known in the 16th century for its genteel society .
In 1570 , Robert paid Hugh Mershe £ 200 for an existing " mansion house " in Conwy , positioned in the middle of a burgage plot on what is now Crown Lane . More land to the north of this was purchased from a Richard Peake in 1576 for £ 40 , and work then began on the north wing of Plas Mawr , which was completed by the following year . Mershe 's former house was pulled down to allow the preparation of the foundations of the rest of the building , including the digging of fresh drains . Robert lived in the completed north wing until 1580 , when the central and south ranges were built , finishing the main part of Plas Mawr .
Robert went on to rent further land around the north of Plas Mawr . The land at the south end of the burgage , however , facing onto the High Street , belonged to a Robert Laythwood , who had a house there . Wynne purchased this in 1585 , probably for the relatively high price of £ 40 , and demolished it to enable the final phase of development , using the space to build a gatehouse that formed the new entrance to Plas Mawr . Further small pieces of land were bought on the north @-@ west side of the house and converted into an ornamental garden , bringing the total cost of the land to around £ 300 . The result was the grandest Elizabethan town house in Wales at the time .
These three phases of house construction – 1576 – 77 , 1580 and 1585 – were probably overseen by several different senior craftsmen , possibly working to an original plan determined by a surveyor or mason working at the English royal court . Judging by the details of the roof design , a single master carpenter may have been used for all three parts of the build ; he probably worked elsewhere across the region during these years , including on 15 other houses and two churches . Both of the first two phases of work were probably conducted by the same team of plasterers , possibly from London , and they used as much as 100 @,@ 000 @-@ kilogram ( 220 @,@ 000 lb ) of lime plaster on the rendering . Timber and slates were brought down the Conwy valley for the house , with grey Silurian grit rubble quarried from the hills near the town , and finer sandstone brought from nearby Deganwy . The total of the building work was probably around £ 500 .
Entertainment and hospitality were important to a gentleman 's 16th @-@ century social status and , according to his nephew , the antiquarian John Wynn , Robert Wynn kept a " worthy plentiful house " . The household was supported by milk from Wynn 's own dairy herds , and by food from the orchards , gardens and a fish trap that he owned around the town . The house had its own brewing , baking and dairy facilities , and further supplies were bought in from regional merchants .
Dorothy died in 1586 and Robert married Dorothy Dymock , with whom he had seven children at Plas Mawr . When Robert died in 1598 he left a complex will that led to legal disputes between the family and the executor , Sir Roger Mostyn . The legal case effectively halted any further development of the house , by now the most prominent in Conwy , until its resolution in 1630 . The property passed to Robert 's grandson , another Robert Wynn , in 1637 , and onto his daughter , Elin in 1683 . By 1665 , the house was equipped to a quality and style that would have put it only just behind the houses of the major gentry families in Caernarfonshire . Elin then married into the Wynne family , and made little use of the house , and it ultimately passed by marriage into the Mostyn family .
= = = 18th – 19th centuries = = =
The Mostyns ' principal residence was Mostyn Hall in Flintshire and so the family rented out Plas Mawr to various tenants during the 18th and 19th centuries . In the 18th century the gatehouse was used as a courthouse and the main house as cheap housing . In the 19th century , parts of the house were converted into a school and space for other small businesses , as well as still being used for domestic accommodation : in 1881 , the house had 25 residents . Minor changes were made to Plas Mawr in the process , such as the installation of partition walls to subdivide the larger rooms , but it remained largely intact . The Mostyns offered the house for sale in 1870 , as part of a package of land including Bodysgallen Hall , but there were no offers .
By the 1880s , the Royal Cambrian Academy of Art became concerned about the condition of Plas Mawr , and in 1887 Lord Mostyn agreed to lease the building to the Academy for use as their headquarters . The architects Arthur and Herbert Baker were commissioned to survey the building , conduct repairs and remove some of the post @-@ 17th century alterations , and J. R. Furness then carried out conservation work on much of the plasterwork . The Victoria Gallery was built onto the north @-@ west side of the house to hold artistic exhibitions , and a weather vane was added to the top of the building to celebrate Queen Victoria 's Diamond Jubilee .
= = = 20th – 21st centuries = = =
By the early 20th century , Plas Mawr 's historical significance was increasingly well understood , but the costs of maintaining the house grew considerably . By the middle of the century , the finer sandstone had corroded and the timber beams were deteriorating ; a 1956 survey described them as " much decayed " . The plaster ceilings were bowing and coming away from their timbers . The Academy of Art sought government and private assistance to undertake temporary and partial repairs , but these were insufficient and in 1993 it moved into new accommodation and the property was passed into the control of the state , under the management of the Welsh heritage agency Cadw .
Cadw carried out a major restoration project on the house over the next 42 months , combining large scale conservation with detailed surveying and archaeological analysis . The 19th @-@ century Victoria Galley was demolished in 1995 , and the bare , external stonework was re @-@ rendered and lime washed . Large parts of the property were restored as they might have appeared in 1665 , assisted by the record of Robert Wynn the younger 's will , with the exception of the attic , which was restored to its probable 19th @-@ century appearance . The intention of this was to emphasize the colour and comfort of the original building , to prevent it appearing inauthentically bleak and austere . Other sections of the house were redeveloped to hold exhibition displays and other visitor facilities .
The restoration included installing original and replica interior furnishings , using wall hangings woven from Kidderminster stuff and Dornix . In what historical consultant Charles Kightly has praised as a " brave and successful " decision , much of the plasterwork was repainted , using reversible techniques , to resemble its 17th @-@ century condition . In total the project cost £ 3 @.@ 3 million , and won the Royal Institution of Chartered Surveyors Building Conservation Award . Further work followed in 2006 to restore the gardens , again attempting to replicate the style prevalent in 1665 .
In the 21st century the house is operated as a tourist attraction by Cadw . The historian Rick Turner considers Plas Mawr to be " the finest surviving town house of the Elizabethan era " and it is protected under UK law as a Grade I listed building and as a scheduled monument .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Influences = = =
Architecturally , Plas Mawr is almost unchanged from the 16th century , making it a very rare survival from this period . The architectural style
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is a product of the broader Renaissance influences prevalent across Europe at the time . Robert Wynn spent time in Germany , and the style of Plas Mawr makes use of North German Gothic themes , particularly in its use of symmetry , the pedimented windows at the front of the house , faceted finials and crow @-@ stepped gables . These features were already popular in England when the house was built , and indeed Plas Mawr is very similar in design to Eastbury Manor House , the two possibly being based off the same architectural plan . Some of these features had already begun to spread into Wales – crow @-@ stepped gables , for example , were already being used in Flintshire by the 1580s – but others were ground breaking in Wales , such as the use of ovolo @-@ moulded and dormer windows . Nonetheless , Robert Wynn was only an emerging member of the gentry , and his house was not as large or as sophisticated as contemporary grander Renaissance properties built in larger rural settings .
Some of the house 's architecture also reflects the influences from contemporary buildings across North Wales , in particular Gwydir Castle , built by Robert Wynn 's father John . Plas Mawr lacks a fashionable long gallery , for example , which was popular in England at the time , and was already beginning to appear in Welsh houses . Instead , it has a rear turret , or belvedere , which is raised prominently above the height of the rest of the house , overlooking the town : this was a slightly antiquated feature , but was widely used in other Wynn family properties , including Bodysgallen Hall . The design of Plas Mawr influenced other buildings in North Wales at the time , including the redecoration of Gwydir Castle , Maenan Hall further up the Conwy valley , Plas Mawr in Caernarfon and Hen Blas in Beaumaris . It also later shaped the architecture of 19th- and 20th @-@ century buildings in Conwy itself , surviving examples of which include the town 's police station and the Castlebank Hotel .
= = = Layout = = =
Modern visitors typically enter the house from the High Street to the south , passing through the gatehouse , across the lower courtyard into the hall of the main building . Plas Mawr 's gatehouse was only the third such entrance building to be built in North Wales , despite gatehouses being an important part of English Elizabethan architecture , designed to show off the house and provide a suitably dignified entry for visitors . Few houses in towns had the physical space for a gatehouse like Plas Mawr 's . Originally , the gatehouse would have contained a suite of rooms for the steward of the house , Richard Wynn .
The main house forms an " H " -shape , with a north and a south wing joined in the middle , all facing onto an upper courtyard . The upper courtyard was key to the way that the main house functioned : it linked almost all the ground floor rooms in the house , as well as providing access to the cellars , and gave an impressive view of the turret towers . In the south wing was the hall and the buttery , with the red and white chambers above them . Probably when Plas Mawr was first built , and certainly by 1665 , the hall would have been used to meet ordinary visitors and for servants ' meals , rather than forming the main room of the house ; the wooden benches and table on display are original to the property . Traditionally , the service rooms in houses had been placed at the far end of the main hall , but Plas Mawr departed from this design . The service area , including the kitchen and pantry , was instead placed in the centre of the building , between the parlour and the hall ; this radical redesign was copied at nearby Hafod Lwyfog . The restored kitchen is equipped with a batterie de cuisine , with a combination of original and replica equipment .
Above these rooms was the great chamber , the main room which formed the ceremonial centre of the house . In the north wing was the brewhouse and the parlour , with two chambers above them , the latter possibly used by Dorothy Wynn as her bedroom . The private bedrooms for the family and guests were each equipped with a fireplace , an important status symbol in the period . The roof attics of the house contained a great deal of space for accommodating the household servants . The attic above the great chamber has a grand timber roof with arch @-@ braced collar trusses , joined using an unusual system called " double pegging " , which is only used in the Conwy valley during the late 16th century . It appears that the great chamber 's ceiling was originally supposed to be open , looking up to the timbers with the trusses visible , but a mistake in the construction of the walls meant that one side of the chamber no longer fitted smoothly with the timbers , creating an ugly appearance ; a plaster ceiling was then added to hide the error .
The gardens behind the house may originally have resembled the gardens at Bodysgallen Hall , which were laid out in the Renaissance style popular across Europe . The slope of the land results in Plas Mawr 's gardens forming the upper and lower terraces , and these have been replanted and restored in an attempt to show them as they might have appeared in 1665 . The summerhouse is based on a version shown in a contemporary painting of Llanerch 's gardens , and the flowerpots are modeled on those found in excavations at Tredegar House .
= = = Plasterwork = = =
Seven rooms still possess elements of their original plasterwork , which the historian Peter Smith has described as " the most perfect and the most complete memorial to Elizabethan Wales " , and their original wooden carved panels that line the walls . The plasterwork includes extensive heraldry , badges and symbols : in the upper north range alone , 22 different heraldic emblems are molded into the ceilings and walls . The gatehouse shows the royal arms , as do the great chamber and the parlour , probably because they were intended to host senior guests . The badges of numerous monarchs are included throughout the house , including those of Richard II , Richard III , Henry IV and Henry VII . The badges of other prominent nobles , such as Robert Dudley , are also featured in the house .
The plasterwork in the parlour displays the arms of Robert Wynn himself , and Robert Wynn 's bedchamber above the brewhouse shows the combined arms of the Wynn and Griffith families , which are generally given equal prominence throughout the house . Robert Wynn 's arms are most prominent in the hall and the bedchambers , where the royal arms are smaller and less prominent . In the 16th century , Wynn 's heraldry would probably have been echoed in the furnishings of the house , including the fabrics , cups and silverware . The plasterwork also incorporates a number of classical themes , but these are not as well executed as the badges and other emblems : the historian Rick Turner describes them as " rather token additions " , and Smith considers this part of the decoration to be " naive " .
= 1898 Georgia hurricane =
The 1898 Georgia hurricane was the most recent major hurricane to hit the U.S. state of Georgia , as well as the strongest on record in the state . It was first known to exist on September 29 , although modern researchers estimated that it developed four days earlier to the east of the Lesser Antilles . The hurricane maintained a general northwest track throughout its duration , and it reached peak winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) on October 2 . That day , it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County , Georgia , causing record storm surge flooding . The hurricane caused heavy damage throughout the region , and killed at least 179 people . Impact was most severe in Brunswick , where a 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) storm surge was recorded . Overall damage was estimated at $ 1 @.@ 5 million ( 1898 USD ) , most of which occurred in Georgia . In extreme northeastern Florida , strong winds nearly destroyed the city of Fernandina , while light crop damage was reported in southern South Carolina . After moving ashore , the hurricane quickly weakened and traversed much of North America ; it continued northwestward until reaching the Ohio Valley and turning northeastward , and it was last observed on October 6 near Newfoundland .
= = Meteorological history = =
On September 28 , 1898 , island stations in the Lesser Antilles indicated the presence of a tropical cyclone , which was confirmed by the next day . Modern researchers determined that the system developed on September 25 about 220 miles ( 350 km ) east of Guadeloupe . For most of its duration , the system maintained a northwest track , reaching hurricane status on September 27 . Later that day , a barometric pressure of 977 mbar , suggesting winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Its intensification rate slowed on September 28 , before strengthening continued on October 1 . The winds reached 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) , which is the equivalent of a major hurricane , or Category 3 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . Around that time , the hurricane turned toward more to the west @-@ northwest , due to a large ridge across the western Atlantic .
On October 2 , the hurricane continued toward the west @-@ northwest , approaching the southeastern United States . That day , it made landfall on Cumberland Island in Camden County , Georgia , and initially was thought to have done so as a Category 2 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . A storm surge of 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) was observed in Brunswick , Georgia , suggesting a central pressure of 938 mbar based on the SLOSH model . Such intensity ranked the hurricane tied for the 16th strongest United States landfall , as well as the strongest in the state of Georgia . It is also the most recent major hurricane to hit the state as of 2011 . Additionally , its radius of maximum wind was estimated at 20 miles ( 33 km ) . Almost a century after the hurricane , researchers estimated the hurricane made landfall with winds of 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) , a Category 4 on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . After making landfall , the hurricane quickly weakened , deteriorating to tropical storm status within 12 hours . After moving across Georgia , the storm weakened further to tropical depression status over northeastern Alabama on October 3 . It continued northwestward through the Ohio Valley before recurving northeastward , accelerating through southeastern Canada and later dissipating over Newfoundland on October 6 .
= = Impact = =
On October 1 , a day before the hurricane moved ashore , the U.S. Weather Bureau issued northeast storm signals from Key West , Florida to Norfolk , Virginia . Similar warnings were issued in the hours preceding the hurricane moving ashore . The advisories were credited with saving dozens of lives and millions of dollars in shipping cargo , due to advance warning for boats to remain ashore .
Before the hurricane made landfall in Georgia , it produced strong winds in northeastern Florida , reaching Category 2 strength on the Saffir @-@ Simpson scale . The worst effects from the storm were confined to a very small portion of extreme northeastern Florida . At Fernandina Beach , the storm surge was estimated at 12 ft ( 3 @.@ 7 m ) , causing extensive flooding in the city . The October 1898 Monthly Weather Review described Fernandina as " nearly destroyed " , and most anchored boats were sunk or washed inland into the marshes . Damage along the coastline reached as far south as Mayport . The hurricane was small , and despite passing 50 miles ( 80 km ) northeast of Jacksonville , produced only 60 mph ( 97 km / h ) winds in the city . However , for the first time in the history of the city , all communications were cut between Jacksonville and cities further north , such as New York . Damage throughout the state was estimated at $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1898 USD ) .
The hurricane made landfall on Cumberland Island with winds estimated at 135 mph ( 215 km / h ) . It produced record storm surges across the coastline , including a 16 ft ( 4 @.@ 9 m ) report in Brunswick . There , damage was heaviest , and most buildings were flooded . Similar impact was reported in Darien , where 32 people were killed . One coastal location reported the hurricane as causing the worst flooding since 1812 . Further north , all of Hutchinson Island in the Savannah River was covered with up to 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of water . The storm surge flooding entered warehouses and storage areas all along the coast , leaving many small ships wrecked or sunk . Heavy damage also occurred to coastal wharves and houses . According to the Savannah Weather Bureau office , about 5 @,@ 000 barrels of rosin were dispersed , and 60 @,@ 000 bushels of rice were wrecked . Winds in the city reached 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) , and the flooding severely damaged the railway to nearby Tybee Island . Along the Blackbeard Island National Wildlife Refuge , the hurricane destroyed a hospital that helped people afflicted with yellow fever . A total of 179 people were killed along the Georgia coast , and damage totaled around $ 1 million ( 1898 USD ) . In South Carolina , the hurricane produced gusty winds and storm surge flooding . Some slight damage occurred at Port Royal , and in the southern portion of the state , the high tides left damage to rice and cotton crops . The Charleston Weather Bureau reported that " a number of persons were drowned along the South Carolina coast " . Heavy rainfall was reported across northeast Florida , Georgia , and the western Carolinas . The highest amount recorded was 12 @.@ 5 inches ( 320 mm ) at Highlands , North Carolina .
= Effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas =
The effects of Tropical Storm Allison in Texas included 23 deaths caused by extreme flooding . The first storm of the 2001 Atlantic hurricane season , Tropical Storm Allison lasted unusually long for a June storm , remaining tropical or subtropical for 15 days . The storm developed from a tropical wave in the northern Gulf of Mexico on June 4 , 2001 , and struck the northern Texas coast shortly thereafter . It drifted northward through the state , turned back to the south , and re @-@ entered the Gulf of Mexico . The storm continued to the east @-@ northeast , made landfall on Louisiana , then moved across the southeast United States and Mid @-@ Atlantic . Allison was the first storm since Tropical Storm Frances in 1998 to strike the northern Texas coastline .
Tropical Storm Allison was a major flood disaster throughout its path from Texas to the Mid @-@ Atlantic . The worst of the flooding occurred in Houston , Texas , where over 35 inches ( 890 mm ) of rain fell . Allison killed 41 people , of whom 27 drowned . The storm also caused over $ 5 billion in damage ( 2001 USD , $ 6 @.@ 4 billion 2007 USD ) , making Allison the costliest and second @-@ deadliest tropical storm on record in the United States .
= = Preparations = =
After the storm made landfall , flash flood watches and warnings were issued for numerous areas in eastern Texas . Travel was discouraged due to the threat of flash flood . During the flood event , the National Weather Service in Houston issued 99 flash flood warnings with an average lead time of 40 minutes ; only nine warnings were false alarms .
Shortly after the storm formed , officials in Galveston County , Texas issued a voluntary evacuation for the western end of Galveston Island , as the area was not protected by the Galveston Seawall . The ferry from the island to the Bolivar Peninsula was closed , while voluntary evacuations were issued in Surfside in Brazoria County . Voluntary evacuations were also suggested near Sabine Pass in Jefferson County , Texas , though few left . Also , when the National Hurricane Center issued the first advisory on Allison , officials issued Tropical Storm Warnings from Sargent , Texas to Morgan City , Louisiana , just three hours before tropical storm winds were observed .
= = Impact = =
Allison made landfall with a storm surge of two to three feet . Combined with waves on top , areas of Galveston Island experienced a wall of water 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) in height , creating overwash along the coastline . The storm caused winds of up to 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) at the Galveston Pier . While Allison was stalling over Texas , it dropped heavy rainfall across the state , including 9 @.@ 77 inches ( 248 mm ) in Galveston , 12 @.@ 13 inches ( 308 mm ) in Jamaica Beach , Texas , and other similar totals along the coast . Minimal beach erosion was reported , and impact was minimal near the coast . While moving northward through Texas as a minimal tropical depression , Allison produced minor wind gusts . Shortly after making landfall , the storm spawned a tornado in Manvel of Brazoria County , causing damage to one home . Within hours of making landfall , rainfall totals of 8 to 12 inches ( 200 to 300 mm ) were common in Galveston and Harris County . Flash flooding continued for days , with rainfall amounts across the state peaking at just over 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 033 mm ) in northwestern Jefferson County . In the Port of Houston , a total of 36 @.@ 99 inches ( 940 mm ) was reported .
Houston experienced torrential rainfall in a short amount of time . At one site , 6 @.@ 3 inches ( 160 mm ) fell in just one hour , while 28 @.@ 5 inches ( 724 mm ) fell in only 12 hours . The six @-@ day rainfall in Houston amounted to 38 @.@ 6 inches ( 980 mm ) . Two @-@ thirds of the bayous and creeks in Harris County experienced 500 @-@ year flood events . Houston Intercontinental Airport , which typically receives 46 @.@ 07 inches ( 1170 mm ) of rain in a year , experienced 35 @.@ 7 % of its expected total in the first nine days of June .
The deluge flooded 95 @,@ 000 automobiles and 73 @,@ 000 houses throughout Harris County . Tropical Storm Allison destroyed 2 @,@ 744 homes , leaving 30 @,@ 000 homeless with residential damages totaling to $ 1 @.@ 76 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 2 @.@ 05 billion 2007 USD ) . Residential neighborhoods inside and to the north of Interstate 610 were hardest hit . Additionally , five of the six bayou systems in downtown Houston were severely flooded . Four of them broke 100 @-@ year high @-@ water records , causing excessive surface run @-@ off .
Several hospitals in the Texas Medical Center , the largest medical complex in the world , experienced severe damage from the storm , which hit quickly and with unexpected fury on a Friday evening . Hospital personnel were forced to evacuate thousands of patients in a major effort that included Coast Guard and Army helicopters . Many of the hospitals had lost all power , including back @-@ up generators , meaning that patients had to be carried down dark stairwells by the staff in temperatures over 100 ° F ( 38 ° C ) . Patients who could not breathe on their own had to be continuously manually ventilated during the evacuation , which lasted hours . Most hospitals lost power and backup power when basements , the area where power and research data were kept , flooded . The Baylor College of Medicine experienced major damage , totaling $ 495 million ( 2001 USD , $ 577 million 2007 USD ) . The medical school lost 90 @,@ 000 research animals , 60 @,@ 000 tumor samples , and 25 years of research data . The University of Texas Health Science Center at Houston , across the street , lost thousands of laboratory animals , including expensive genetic @-@ specific mice . Decades of research was lost , including , for many scientists , their life 's work . The UT @-@ Houston gross anatomy lab , cyclotron , and other important facilities were completely destroyed . Throughout the Medical Center , damage totaled to over $ 2 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 2 @.@ 3 billion 2007 USD ) . Most were reopened after a month , though it took much longer to become fully operational .
The storm flooded the lower level of the massive law library at the University of Houston Law Center with eight feet of water . An estimated 174 @,@ 000 books and the microfiche collection were destroyed . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) gave $ 21 @.@ 4 million to rebuild the law library collection .
The underground tunnel system , which connects most large office buildings in downtown Houston , was submerged , as were many streets and parking garages adjacent to Buffalo Bayou . In the Houston Theater District , also near Buffalo Bayou in the northern part of downtown , the Houston Ballet , Houston Symphony , Houston Grand Opera , and Alley Theater lost millions of dollars ' worth of costumes , musical instruments , sheet music , archives , props , and other artifacts .
Local television stations ran all @-@ night coverage of the deluge from June 8 through the next day , including KHOU @-@ TV 11 , which was forced to transmit its broadcast to a satellite truck when floodwaters entered its production studio on the Allen Parkway near Studemont / Montrose , near downtown along the banks of Buffalo Bayou . By midnight on June 9 nearly every freeway and major road in the city was under several feet of water , forcing hundreds of motorists to abandon their vehicles for higher ground . Eighteen @-@ wheeled trucks were filmed floating down major freeways and highways , swept along by floodwaters .
Despite massive flooding and damage to entire neighborhoods , there were no drowning deaths in flooded homes . In the area , there were 12 deaths from driving , 6 from walking , 3 from electrocution , and 1 in an elevator . Elsewhere in Texas , a man drowned when swimming in a ditch in Mauriceville . Damage totaled to $ 5 @.@ 2 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 6 billion 2007 USD ) throughout Texas .
Though Allison 's flooding was extreme , it was not unprecedented . Tropical Storm Amelia in 1978 dropped over 46 inches ( 1170 mm ) of rainfall in Bluff , Texas , which remains the record highest rainfall for a single storm in the state of Texas . In addition , Tropical Storm Claudette in 1979 and a hurricane in 1921 produced rainfall totals of over 40 inches ( 1015 mm ) .
= = Aftermath = =
Within weeks of the disaster , President George W. Bush declared 28 counties in Texas as disaster areas . The declarations allowed affected citizens to receive aid for temporary housing , emergency home repairs , and other serious disaster @-@ related expenses . The Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) also provided 75 % for the cost of debris removal , emergency services related to the disaster , and repairing or replacing damaged public facilities , such as roads , bridges and utilities .
A few weeks after Allison , FEMA opened six disaster recovery centers across southeast Texas , which provided recovery information to those who applied for disaster assistance . The American Red Cross and the Salvation Army opened 48 shelters at the peak of need for people driven from their homes , which served nearly 300 @,@ 000 meals . After the extensive damage to Houston hospitals , the U. S. Public Health Service team set up a temporary hospital at the Houston Police Academy . The team of 87 medical personnel served over 1 @,@ 000 patients within two weeks of Allison 's passage . Similarly , the National Disaster Medical System deployed a temporary hospital to Houston with 88 professionals , aiding nearly 500 people . Debris removal , which was initially slow , was aided by FEMA to expedite the removal process . FEMA provided 75 % of the federal cost of the removal . Thirty @-@ five volunteer services provided aid for the flood victims in Texas , including food , clothing , and volunteers to help repair the houses .
After nearly 50 @,@ 000 cars were flooded and ruined , many people attempted to sell the cars across the country without telling of the car 's history . Following the extreme flooding , a mosquito outbreak occurred , though FEMA provided aid to control the problem . Health officials also recommended disinfecting private wells with bleach , due to possible contamination from the severe flooding . Many people took advantage of the flood victims , including fraudulent contractors and suppliers raising the price of goods more than is actually justified .
By six months after the storm , around 120 @,@ 000 Texas citizens applied for federal disaster aid , totaling to $ 1 @.@ 05 billion ( 2001 USD , $ 1 @.@ 22 billion 2007 USD ) . Of that amount , 17 % of that was spent for temporary housing . In addition , Disaster Unemployment Assistance totaled to just under $ 1 million , while business loans totaled to $ 389 million ( 2001 USD , $ 454 million 2007 USD ) .
= Trade dollar ( United States coin ) =
The United States trade dollar was a dollar coin minted by the United States Mint to compete with other large silver trade coins that were already popular in East Asia . The idea first came about in the 1860s , when the price of silver began to decline due to increased mining efforts in the western United States . A bill providing in part for the issuance of the trade dollar was eventually put before Congress , where it was approved and later signed into law as the Coinage Act of 1873 . The act made trade dollars legal tender up to five dollars . A number of designs were considered for the trade dollar , and an obverse and reverse created by William Barber were selected .
The coins were first struck in 1873 , and most of the production was sent to China . Eventually , bullion producers began converting large amounts of silver into trade dollars , causing the coins to make their way into American commercial channels . This caused frustration among those to whom they were given in payment , as the coins were largely maligned and traded for less than one dollar each . In response to their wide distribution in American commerce , the coins were officially demonetized in 1876 , but continued to circulate . Production of business strikes ended in 1878 , though the mintage of proof coins officially continued until 1883 . The trade dollar was re @-@ monetized when the Coinage Act of 1965 was signed into law .
= = Background = =
Following the California gold rush that began in 1849 and the Australian gold rush that began in 1851 , a larger amount of gold was put into commerce than could be easily absorbed by the normal channels . This resulted in a decrease in the value of gold and an increase in the relative value of silver . As a result , silver coins rapidly disappeared from circulation due either to hoarding or melting . In response , Congress authorized the Mint to reduce the quantity of silver in all denominations except the three @-@ cent piece and silver dollar . Beginning in the 1860s , silver production rose and the price decreased . During this time , silver coins largely disappeared from circulation and were replaced by paper and copper currency .
In China , the Mexican peso ( successor to the Spanish dollar ) was greatly valued in commerce . However , the Chinese were sensitive to any changes in the coin 's design , and were reluctant to accept newer coins due to a minor design change . The American silver dollar , 7 @.@ 5 grains ( 0 @.@ 49 g ) lighter than its Spanish counterpart , was unpopular in the Orient due to its light weight , forcing American merchants to purchase the Spanish or Mexican pieces to use in trade . Beginning in 1866 , during the reign of Emperor Maximilian , the design was changed to show the Emperor 's portrait ; this caused widespread nonacceptance of the coins in China .
While conducting an investigation of the Mint at San Francisco , deputy comptroller of the currency John Jay Knox began discussing the monetary situation with Louis A. Garnett , a man who had worked as both the treasurer and assayer of the San Francisco Mint . Garnett recommended that the United States mint a commercial dollar that would be exported to the Orient to compete with other large silver trade coins that were already popular in that region . Garnett 's rationale was that the coins would be hoarded or melted in Asia and would never be presented for redemption , allowing the government to make a profit from the seigniorage . During his time in San Francisco , Knox also discussed the proposed commercial dollar with Henry Linderman , who was working as a special agent for the Treasury Department at that time . In 1870 , Knox wrote a report to the Treasury and wrote the draft for a bill on coinage . Knox 's bill was approved by George Boutwell , Secretary of the Treasury . After modification and review from current and former government officials , the bill was put before Congress .
On November 19 , 1872 , while the coinage bill was still before Congress , Linderman made a report to the Secretary of the Treasury . In the report , Linderman argued that the coin need not hold legal tender status , and that it could simply be a piece of silver imprinted with its weight and fineness . Linderman also notes that such a product could supersede the Mexican dollar and eventually command a six to eight percent premium ; at that time , American silver exported to the Orient was being sold at a two percent discount . Linderman proposed that the coin be named the " silver union " in order to distinguish it from the standard coins then in production .
In February 1872 , the bill was amended by a House of Representatives committee to include authorization for a commercial dollar weighing 420 grains ( 27 g ) ; but this proposal was replaced three months later when the House voted to include provisions for the production of a standard silver dollar weighing 384 grains ( 24 @.@ 9 g ) . While in the Senate , a provision was added to the bill requiring the Treasury to coin a trade dollar of 420 grains ( 27 g ) , as had been done earlier in the House . The revised bill , which came to be known as the Coinage Act of 1873 , was approved in the House and Senate and was signed by President Ulysses S. Grant on February 12 , 1873 .
The bill provided , in part , for the striking of trade dollars which held legal tender status up to five dollars . The legal tender provision was added by a last @-@ minute rider at the behest of silver interests . At the insistence of Ohio Senator John Sherman , the weight and fineness of the piece was indicated on the reverse , an attribution which numismatic historian Don Taxay found incomprehensible as " Chinese merchants would never understand them " .
Prior to the passage of the Coinage Act , the director of the Philadelphia Mint oversaw all branch mints . After the Act , the office of director was transferred to Washington , D.C. , and responsibility for each mint was handed over to a superintendent .
= = = Design selection = = =
Throughout the year of 1872 , the Mint struck a series of commercial dollar patterns in anticipation of the passage of the coinage bill . Production of patterns continued into 1873 , but the denomination of the pattern coins was changed from " commercial dollar " to " trade dollar " before the bill was signed into law . After passage of the Coinage Act , Linderman met with Director of the Mint James Pollock to discuss the design of the newly authorized trade dollar . The two men agreed to request a jewelry and engraving firm , Bailey Banks & Biddle of Philadelphia , to create designs that would be compared to those already created by Chief Engraver William Barber .
After examining the designs of both parties , Linderman ordered that the design would depict a seated figure representing Liberty facing to the viewer 's left , representing the direction of the Orient . Linderman apparently selected the designs from two different patterns . In June 1873 , Linderman reviewed the various patterns created by Barber ; he chose an obverse which one contemporary reporter described as " a female figure seated on bales of merchandise , holding in her left hand a scroll bearing the word ' Liberty ' . At her back is a sheaf of wheat , expressing , with the bales of goods , the commercial character of the coin : the right hand extended holds the olive branch . " The selected reverse depicts the bald eagle as required by law . The eagle has three arrows in the right claw and an olive branch in the left , a reversal to most other U.S. silver coins of the era . A set of six patterns , four with variations on the adopted obverse , and two showing portraits of Liberty , was sold by the Mint to the public in limited quantities .
= = Production = =
Linderman assumed the position of Director of the Mint and Pollock became Superintendent of the Philadelphia Mint . In July 1873 , production began on the dies needed to strike the coins . During this time , in a telegram to Pollock , Linderman asked that production of trade dollars be hastened because Mexico was preparing to issue another series of dollars with the older design popular in Asia , a design that was discontinued in 1866 . The first trade dollars were struck during a ceremony held on July 11 , 1873 . Forty thousand pieces were issued in the first release , on July 14 . The Carson City Mint received its first dies for the new coins on July 22 , and those intended for the San Francisco Mint arrived shortly after . In total , 396 @,@ 635 business strikes and 865 proof coins were struck at the Philadelphia Mint during the first year of production . The Carson City and San Francisco mints struck 124 @,@ 500 and 703 @,@ 000 coins respectively .
There were complaints that year from officials at all three of the mints concerning the quality of the coins produced . In the summer of 1874 , coiner A. Loudon Snowden issued a formal complaint to Pollock about the quality of the strikings , most notably on the high points of the design ; Barber began modifying the design later that year , reducing the relief . The modified dies began service in 1875 . In the fall of that year , Linderman suggested that the reverse of the trade dollar should be altered in 1876 to commemorate the centennial of American independence ; Pollock opposed the idea , noting that such a change would be difficult to carry out because Congressional approval would be necessary and that it might cause the coin to lose favor in the Orient . In May 1876 , former assistant engraver Anthony C. Paquet created a reverse die after being hired by Linderman to improve the striking quality of the coins . Linderman approved of the new design , but it was ultimately rejected by Mint officials due to fears of Chinese disapproval .
Though production of business strikes ended in 1878 , the striking of proof coins continued in limited numbers until 1883 , when the final mintage of 979 coins was struck at the Philadelphia Mint . In 1908 , it was discovered that ten proofs dated 1884 and five dated 1885 were produced , but these pieces are not listed in official records and it is unknown when they were created .
= = Reception = =
Most of the 1873 production was exported to China , and in October of that year , the Tongzhi Emperor had an assay test conducted on the coins . In a proclamation translated by Chinese consul and interpreter Walter Hillier , the Emperor stated :
This Proclamation , therefore , is for the information of you merchants , traders , soldiers and people of every district . You must know that the ' Eagle Trade Dollar ' that has lately come to Hong Kong has been jointly assayed by officers specially appointed for the purpose , and it can be taken in payment of duties , and come into general circulation . You must not look upon it with suspicion . At the same time rogues , sharpers , and the like , are hereby strictly forbidden to fabricate spurious imitations of this new Eagle Dollar , with a view to their own profit .
And should they dare to set this prohibition at defiance , and fabricate false coin , they shall , upon discovery , most assuredly be arrested and punished . Let every one obey with trembling ! Let there be no disobedience !
In 1874 , trade dollars began appearing in American commerce . In early 1875 , Congress passed the Specie Redemption Act , allowing the Treasury to pay out silver coins in exchange for paper currency . That act , combined with a drop in the price of silver , caused hoarded or exported silver coins to reappear in commerce within the United States . Many trade dollars were reimported , especially to California . After the value of silver began to decline and the intrinsic value of the coins fell below one dollar , bullion depositors began having their silver struck as trade dollars and selling them wholesale to be distributed throughout the country . Bullion producers opted to coin their silver into trade dollars because the Coinage Act of 1873 specified that silver brought to the Mint could only be struck as such or cast into bars .
Congress considered raising the five @-@ dollar legal tender limit on trade dollars , but instead passed a bill that officially demonetized the trade dollar on July 22 , 1876 ; the Secretary of the Treasury was directed by the act to strike no more of the coins than necessary for use in trade . Despite the demonetization of the trade dollar , bullion producers continued to place the coins into the American market , resulting in an estimated seven million coins circulating within the United States , of which more than four million were placed in circulation in 1877 . Despite the 1876 act , it was not until October 15 , 1877 that Sherman ( now Secretary of the Treasury ) finally ordered that the mints not accept orders for trade dollars . On November 5 , apparently believing a false report that additional supplies were needed for the Chinese New Year , he rescinded his order , finally ending orders for trade dollars on February 22 , 1878 .
Linderman ordered a review of the success of the trade dollar in China . It was discovered that the coins circulated reasonably well in southern China , but usage in the north was limited . As the price of silver decreased , employers in the United States began paying workers in trade dollars purchased at a discount . The situation frustrated the public , as the coins were widely disliked and many banks and businesses refused to accept the coins . In response , many towns set a fixed value on trade dollars . Businesses which did accept trade dollars to avoid offending customers could not deposit them in banks or use them to pay taxes , and sold them to brokers . The brokers in turn recirculated the coins by selling them at a discount from face value to employers who included them in workers ' pay packets . In 1883 , members of the New York Mercantile Exchange petitioned Congress to allow redemption of the coins by the government .
Bullion prices continued to drop through the 1880s , increasing the loss by anyone forced to sell at melt value after accepting a trade dollar at face value . Despite the support of Secretary of the Treasury Charles J. Folger , the question of the redemption of the trade dollar became caught up in controversy over the heavy coinage of the new Morgan dollar under the inflationary Bland – Allison Act . Silver interests objected to the silver from redeemed trade dollars being counted towards the Mint 's monthly quota under the act , preferring to sell newly mined silver instead , and opposed acts which so provided . It was not until 1887 that Congress , ostensibly to relieve the poor ( though most trade dollars were by then in the hands of speculators ) , provided for the redemption of unmutilated trade dollars . The act , which did not count the redeemed silver towards the Bland – Allison Act quota , passed into law on February 14 , 1887 , when the ten @-@ day period which President Grover Cleveland had to either sign or veto it expired with no action by the President . Many coins were not redeemable due to chop marks applied by Chinese businessmen , which was done to affirm the coin 's silver content . The dollars were only redeemable for six months , and the recovered silver was struck into dimes , quarters , and half dollars .
Numismatic historian Walter Breen criticized both the legal tender provision and the coin in general , stating that the coin 's issuance was " an expensive mistake – its motivation mere greed , its design a triumph of dullness , its domestic circulation and legal tender status a disastrous provision of law leading only to ghastly abuses . " During the 1870s an attempt by Japan to introduce its own trade dollar to China fared no better .
Trade dollars were again made legal tender by the Coinage Act of 1965 , which stated in part " All coins and currencies of the United States ( including Federal Reserve notes and circulating notes of Federal Reserve banks and national banking associations ) , regardless of when coined or issued , shall be legal tender for all debts , public and private , public charges , taxes , duties and dues . " However , the numismatic and bullion value of any trade dollar far exceeds its face value of one dollar . Because of its demand by collectors a large number of counterfeits exist made with base metal , and buyers should exercise caution when purchasing specimens .
= New Brunswick Theological Seminary =
New Brunswick Theological Seminary , which has its main campus in New Brunswick , New Jersey , was founded in 1784 , and is the oldest independent Protestant seminary extant in the United States . It is one of two operated by the Reformed Church in America ( RCA ) , a mainline Reformed Protestant denomination in Canada and the United States that follows the theological tradition and Christian practice of John Calvin . First established in New York City under the leadership of the Rev. John Henry Livingston , who instructed aspiring ministers in his home , the seminary established its presence in New Brunswick in 1810 . Although a separate institution , the seminary 's early development in New Brunswick was closely connected with that of Rutgers University ( formerly Queen 's College and Rutgers College ) before establishing its own campus in the city in 1856 . Since 1986 , the seminary has offered classes at a satellite campus on the grounds of St. John 's University in the Jamaica neighborhood of Queens , New York .
New Brunswick Theological Seminary offers professional and graduate degree programs for candidates for ministry , and to those pursuing careers in academia or non @-@ theological fields . It also offers certificates and training programs to lay church leaders seeking advanced courses in Theology , Bible studies , Church History , and Servant Leadership . While rooted in the Reformed faith , New Brunswick Theological Seminary is dedicated to providing a comprehensive Christian education as " an inter @-@ cultural , ecumenical school of Christian faith , learning , and scholarship committed to its metro @-@ urban and global contexts . " As of the fall semester of 2012 , the seminary enrolled 197 students .
= = Administration and organization = =
The Reformed Church in America ( RCA ) operates two seminaries in the United States — New Brunswick Theological Seminary and the Western Theological Seminary founded in 1866 in Holland , Michigan . New Brunswick Theological Seminary , was established in 1784 , and offers classes on two campuses . The seminary 's campus in New Brunswick , built in 1856 , is at the corner of College Avenue and Seminary Place . Since 1986 , courses have been offered on the campus of St. John 's University in the Jamaica neighborhood of Queens , New York .
According to the seminary 's by @-@ laws , the RCA 's General Synod entrusts the management of the seminary to a Board of Trustees empowered to exercise control of institution 's finances , securities , and property for the purpose of participating " in God ’ s own laboring to fulfill God ’ s reign on earth . " The board consists of twelve to twenty @-@ four trustees , serving for three @-@ year terms , who are required to be " confessing Christians who acknowledge a commitment to the authority of the Bible over all matters of faith and practice , the sovereignty of God , and the Lordship of Jesus Christ over all of life . " A majority of the board 's members must be RCA members , and each of the church 's regional synods are represented by one member . The president and the General Secretary of the RCA 's General Synod serve as ex officio members of the board without a vote . The by @-@ laws further empower the seminary 's trustees to provide it " with such property and buildings ; faculty , administration , and staff ; library and information resources ; equipment and supplies as are necessary for the effective accomplishment of the Seminary 's purpose . " The board of trustees selects the seminary 's president , who is elected for a five @-@ year term and can be reelected to successive terms by the board . The president can be removed by a two @-@ thirds vote of the trustees .
The current president of the New Brunswick Theological Seminary is the Rev. Gregg A. Mast , a clergyman who has served congregations in New Jersey , New York , and Johannesburg , South Africa , and held leadership positions within the Reformed Church of America . Mast is an alumnus of the seminary , having received a Master of Divinity ( M.Div. ) degree in 1976 . He was appointed by the trustees as the seminary 's 14th president in 2006 as a replacement for Norman J. Kansfield , who was suspended from the ministry and dismissed as the seminary president in 2005 after officiating at his daughter Ann 's same @-@ sex marriage .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment and early history ( 1784 – 1810 ) = = =
The Dutch Reformed Synod of New York recognized that there was a shortage of adequately trained ministers to supply the church ’ s congregations in the British American colonies . Young men had to journey to the Netherlands to pursue several years of theological studies at a Dutch university . Church leaders sought to obtain the right to examine and ordain ministers in the colonies ( later in the United States ) , and to operate a school to train them . In 1766 , several clergymen secured a charter from New Jersey 's Royal Governor William Franklin for the creation of Queen 's College , now Rutgers University , in New Brunswick , New Jersey " for the education of youth in the learned languages , liberal and useful arts and sciences , and especially in divinity ; preparing them for the ministry and other good offices . "
However , in these early years , the trustees of Queen 's College and the Synod of New York disagreed on the purpose of the new institution . With uncertainty about the college 's financial stability , the Synod desired to directly oversee the theological training of their ministerial candidates . However , the question of whether to open a seminary was delayed because of the ongoing hostilities of the American Revolution . After the war concluded , the Synod decided in 1784 that it was necessary to support the study of theology and recommenced the effort to establish a seminary . The Rev. John Henry Livingston , a graduate of both Yale College ( 1762 ) in Connecticut and the University of Utrecht ( 1770 ) in the Netherlands , was appointed to be the Synod ’ s Professor of Sacred Theology and to organize theological education at Queen 's College . However , Queen 's College did not provide Livingston a salary , compelling him to lecture on fees paid by the students directly . Livingston remained in New York overseeing a parish and instructing theology students through lectures given in his home .
In 1792 , the Synod became aware that many students were prevented from pursuing their studies in the " commercial emporium of New York " because of the high cost of living and a lack of sufficient funds . To address this difficulty , the Synod decided to locate the seminary outside of the city . However , as Queen 's College had severe financial difficulties and was forced to close by 1795 , New Brunswick was not considered a viable option . In 1796 , Livingston was directed by the Synod to relocate his theological classes to a small school in Flatbush ( now in Queens , New York ) where it remained for the next 14 years .
= = = A seminary in New Brunswick ( 1810 – 1856 ) = = =
After being closed for twelve years , the Rev. Ira Condict ( 1764 – 1811 ) and other church leaders began an effort in 1807 to revive Queen 's College . Condict , the college 's third president , and the college 's trustees agreed to coordinate with the Synod on theological education , to hire professors , and establish a library . In 1810 , Condict declined the post of president of Queen 's College in a full capacity ( he had been serving in a pro tempore capacity since 1795 ) , and the trustees of the college offered the post to Livingston who accepted . The seminary was relocated to New Brunswick . The college closed again in 1816 , but the trustees permitted the theological seminary to remain on the Queen 's College campus and expressed hope that the college would be revived . At this time , the Rev. Elias van Bunschooten , a Princeton @-@ trained minister residing in Sussex County , New Jersey , established funded a trust for assisting indigent young men in pursuing their studies preparing for ministry .
In 1823 , the Synod paid a significant portion of Queen 's College 's debts in order to place the institution on a secure financial footing and enable it to reopen . With the second reopening , the Synod provided clergymen to serve at the college as theology professors . Livingston had dedicated several years to raising money for the effort but died shortly before Queen 's College reopened in 1825 . The Rev. Philip Milledoler , a Reformed clergyman from New York City , was appointed to fill the vacancy created by Livingston 's death . Milledoler persuaded one of his parishioners , Colonel Henry Rutgers ( 1745 – 1830 ) , to support the college . The trustees subsequently renamed it Rutgers College in his honour . At first , the Synod exercised oversight over the operations of the college , but by 1840 directed its attentions solely to the operation of the seminary . During this period Rutgers College , the college 's grammar school ( now Rutgers Preparatory School ) , and the seminary shared one building , known as Old Queens ( built 1809 @-@ 1823 ) until the two schools separated operations entirely in 1856 .
According to Bruggink and Baker , in 1792 ( seven years after Livingston began to teach in his home ) , there were 116 Reformed churches served by 40 ministers . In 1830 , twenty years after starting instruction in New Brunswick and organizing the seminary , there were 159 ministers serving 194 churches .
= = = Campus on " Holy Hill " ( 1856 – 2012 ) = = =
In the 1850s , the student bodies of Rutgers College and the Seminary began to expand , overcrowding the space provided at the Queens Campus . The seminary professors realized that students renting rooms at boarding houses in the city were paying more for their housing than students at other seminaries — over double the costs of housing at New York City 's Union Theological Seminary or at nearby Princeton Theological Seminary . The professors surmised that it would be cheaper to build a seminary building that provided both student housing and instruction space .
When the seminary 's leaders proposed the idea , the Synod of New York removed financial support from both Rutgers and the seminary . Colonel James Nielson , David Bishop , and Charles Dayton — prominent citizens in New Brunswick — donated plots of land totaling almost 8 acres ( 32 @,@ 000 m ² ) consisting of part of a hill extending from George Street to College Avenue . At the same time , Ann Hertzog of Philadelphia donated $ 30 @,@ 000 for the construction of a building to be named " Peter Hertzog Theological Hall " in memory of her husband . Hertzog Hall ( built 1855 – 1856 ) became a dominant feature on the hill , which became known locally as " Holy Hill " . In November 1776 , during the American Revolution , the hill was the site of a British artillery redoubt during the occupation of New Brunswick .
Throughout the nineteenth century , the institution became known because of the efforts of missionaries serving throughout the world . In the 1870s , the campus was expanded with the construction of two buildings — one housing a gymnasium and additional lecture space ; the second , a library . The seminary desired to build a library first , citing the need to house its expanding collection of books . However , local businessman and seminary benefactor James Suydam donated funds to build the gynasium , to be named Suydam Hall , because he was extremely concerned with student health . Suydam Hall was built in 1873 and was designed by architect Henry Janeway Hardenbergh . Hardenbergh had finished completing the design for Kirkpatrick Chapel and Geology Hall on the Rutgers campus and later would become known for buildings in New York City , including the Plaza Hotel and Dakota Apartments . After receiving a donation from Gardner A. Sage earmarked for the construction of a library , the trustees commissioned Hardenbergh 's former teacher , German @-@ American architect Detlef Lienau , to design it . The Sage Library was completed in 1875 . Lienau designed the library to complement Hardenbergh 's ( style ) design for Suydam Hall . In the 1960s , Suydam Hall and Hertzog Hall were deemed to be inadequate for the administrative and instructional needs of the seminary . The trustees voted in 1966 to demolish both buildings and replace it with a modern one @-@ story all @-@ purpose building , Zwemer Hall , containing the seminary 's chapel , faculty offices , and classroom facilities .
In the late 1970s , during the tenure of seminary president Howard Hageman , the seminary revised its academic programs to focus on serving the needs of second career and bi @-@ vocational students . This was intended to make theological education more accessible as the seminary transitioned from the 1980s to 2010s from " a predominantly residential school to one that is more than 90 percent commuter based . " This transition meant that the seminary would serve an increasing number of second @-@ career pastors who would study part @-@ time . Another result of this transition was that the seminary 's student body became the " most richly diverse " seminary in North America . Today , the New Brunswick Theological Seminary offers classes through two campuses , the first in New Brunswick , New Jersey and since 1986 on the campus of St. John 's University in Jamaica , New York .
Today , the seminary focuses on providing a comprehensive Christian education as " an inter @-@ cultural , ecumenical school of Christian faith , learning , and scholarship committed to its metro @-@ urban and global contexts " and preparing its graduates to " inspire missions in a post @-@ colonial world where the gospel is taking deep root , especially in urban areas of Africa , Asia , and Central and South America . " The seminary seeks to achieve this mission by expanding through distance @-@ learning technology and online classes to reach new constituencies . As of the fall semester of 2012 , the seminary enrolled 197 students .
= = = College Avenue redevelopment ( 2012 – 2014 ) = = =
New Brunswick Theological Seminary has partnered with Rutgers University , and the New Brunswick Development Corporation ( DEVCO ) on a $ 300 million project to redevelop the seminary 's campus and a portion of the Rutgers campus in New Brunswick . Citing declining enrollment and financial constraints , and recognizing the maintenance needs of an aging campus including empty and unused on @-@ campus student housing ( as their student body transitioned to commuter students ) , the seminary sold a five @-@ acre ( 20 @,@ 000 m ² ) portion of their eight @-@ acre ( 32 @,@ 000 m ² ) campus to Rutgers . On 20 June 2012 , the outgoing president of Rutgers University , Richard L. McCormick announced that Rutgers will " integrate five acres ( 20 @,@ 000 m ² ) along George Street between Seminary Place and Bishop Place into the College Avenue Campus " to build a 500 @-@ student Honors College , a dining facility , and a major academic building featuring lecture halls and departmental offices . The seminary 's Board of Trustees approved this plan and the sale on 20 May 2013 .
The seminary reconstructed its New Brunswick campus on three acres ( 12 @,@ 000 m ² ) at the corner of Seminary Place and College Avenue , with a 30 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 800 m ² ) central building featuring " a chapel , classrooms , offices , conference facilities and space for commuting students as well as a 100 @-@ car parking lot " while preserving the Gardner A. Sage Library . The seminary 's planned new campus is described as being " technologically smart and environmentally green . " The seminary relocated to its new faciities in July 2014 .
= = Degrees and programs = =
New Brunswick Theological Seminary is accredited by the Commission on Accrediting of the Association of Theological Schools in the United States and Canada . The seminary offers admission to students after the review of a submitted application accompanied by college transcripts and letters of recommendation . It offers courses and programs leading to three degrees : the Master of Divinity ( M.Div. ) , Master of Arts ( M.A. ) and Doctor of Ministry ( D.Min. ) degree ; as well as certificates and training programs to lay church leaders seeking advanced courses in Theology , Bible studies , Church History , and Servant Leadership . Students are able to take advantage of opportunities to register in classes or complete joint degree programs with Rutgers University , St. John 's University , Princeton Theological Seminary ( Presbyterian ) , Western Theological Seminary ( Reformed ) , and the Wesley Theological Seminary ( Methodist ) .
The Master of Divinity ( M.Div. ) is a degree required by many Christian denominations for ordination , and spans a three @-@ year full @-@ time program . The core of the academic studies falls into three fields : Biblical Studies ; Historical , Theological and Ethical Studies ; and Ministry Studies . This is combined with obtaining practical experience in the field learning the practice of " varieties of ministry . " A student 's studies toward the Master of Divinity degree can be directed toward a concentration in Urban Ministry with coursework that is focused specifically on preparing candidates " for the opportunities and challenges of urban ministry . "
The Master of Arts ( M.A. ) program requires eighteen months to two years of full @-@ time coursework and offers degree concentrations in Biblical Studies , Pastoral Care , Historical and Constructive Theology , Church and Society . The program is intended for ministry candidates who do not require an M.Div. , those who desire to enrich their studies , and for those looking to supplement a professional degree or prepare for a theological Ph.D. program .
The Doctor of Ministry ( D.Min. ) is a three @-@ year program with a specialized focus toward Metro @-@ Urban Ministry . It is a research degree that combines academic research and a focus on ministry or mission work through " a theological understanding of the life and work of the church in urban communities . " A D.Min. degree candidate has the option of two courses of study : one concerning the challenges of ministry in an ethnically @-@ diverse urban environment ; or the challenges of a " Prisons , Public Policy , and Transformative Justice " ministry . Students in both programs engage in coursework and research augmented by a collaboration between the seminary and Rutgers University ’ s Edward J. Bloustein School of Planning and Public Policy .
= = Gardner A. Sage Library = =
The Gardner A. Sage Library was built in 1873 – 75 and was designed by nineteenth @-@ century German @-@ American architect Detlef Lienau . Lienau combined the elements of a Romanesque fourth @-@ century basilica and a " Victorian bookhall " to create a space conducive to " the contemplation of God . " According to the seminary , the Sage Library 's collection contains more than 150 @,@ 000 books and 10 @,@ 000 bound periodicals , spanning the topics of biblical studies , theology , Reformed Church studies , general church history and denominational history . The collection includes many rare manuscripts and printed books dating as early as the fifteenth century . The library maintains subscriptions for more than 300 periodicals . It is expanding its collection with the acquisition of books and materials on urban ministry and the religious experience of African @-@ American and Asian immigrant communities . The library presently houses the official archives of the Reformed Church in America and contains comprehensive resources regarding Dutch history , culture , and Dutch Colonial Studies . The seminary 's collection is augmented by reciprocal borrowing rights with the Rutgers University library system ( over 10 @.@ 5 million holdings ) , the libraries at St. John 's University , access to libraries nationwide , and direct affiliations with the libraries at thirty other theological schools .
= = Notable people = =
The New Brunswick Theological Seminary 's bylaws establish its mission " to educate persons and strengthen communities for transformational , public ministries in church and society . " In its 230 @-@ year history , the seminary 's faculty and alumni have taken leading roles in the ministry and missions of the Reformed Church and other Christian denominations , in academia , and in the professional world .
Because of the work and reputation of alumni who became prominent missionaries , the seminary became well known in the nineteenth century . David Abeel ( B.D. 1826 ) , served as a missionary throughout the world , including in Indonesia , Southeast Asia and China . Several members of the Scudder family , including Jared Waterbury Scudder ( B.D. 1855 ) , received their theological training at the seminary before serving as missionaries in India . Alumnus John Van Nest Talmage ( B.D. 1845 ) served for over forty years in China for the American Reformed Mission . His younger brother , the Rev. Dr. Thomas DeWitt Talmage ( B.D. 1856 ) became known for his pulpit oratory , drawing large crowds to hear his sermons . Talmage 's sermons were later published in 3 @,@ 000 journals and said to reach 25 million readers worldwide . One of the main buildings on the seminary 's campus , Zwemer Hall ( built 1966 , razed 2013 ) was named for Samuel Marinus Zwemer ( M.A. 1890 ) , a missionary in the Middle East who was nicknamed the " Apostle to Islam . " Zwemer served in Basra , Bahrain , the Arabian peninsula , later in Egypt from 1891 to 1929 , and believed that distributing literature was effective in spreading God 's word . Horace Grant Underwood ( B.D. 1884 ) , served as a missionary in Korea , and was influential in establishing several educational institutions with the financial support of his brother , John T. Underwood , a typewriter entrepreneur and manufacturer . A financial gift in Spring 2011 to the seminary from the Luce Foundation and Korean Christians established an endowed professorship , the Underwood Chair for Global Christianity .
Many of the seminary 's graduates have served as faculty and administrators at Rutgers , Western Theological Seminary , Hope College and several other institutions . Hope , an RCA @-@ affiliated liberal arts college in Michigan founded in 1851 , was founded upon a vision of becoming " a point of life for the whole Western Church , a Western New Brunswick . " Two seminary graduates served as president of Rutgers — the Rev. William Henry Steel Demarest , a clergyman and ecclesiastical history scholar , and Philip Milledoler Brett , a prominent New York City attorney ( both also alumni of Rutgers College ) . Demarest served as the seminary 's president for ten years from 1925 to 1935 . Several other seminary alumni have served on the seminary 's faculty and as its leaders — including its first dean and faculty president , Samuel Merrill Woodbridge ( A.M. 1841 ) , and its current president , Gregg A. Mast ( M.Div. 1976 ) .
= Hilary Putnam =
Hilary Whitehall Putnam ( July 31 , 1926 – March 13 , 2016 ) was an American philosopher , mathematician , and computer scientist who was a central figure in analytic philosophy from the 1960s , especially in philosophy of mind , philosophy of language , philosophy of mathematics , and philosophy of science . He was known for his willingness to apply an equal degree of scrutiny to his own philosophical positions as to those of others , subjecting each position to rigorous analysis until he exposed its flaws . As a result , he acquired a reputation for frequently changing his own position . At the time of his death , Putnam was Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University .
In philosophy of mind , Putnam is known for his argument against the type @-@ identity of mental and physical states based on his hypothesis of the multiple realizability of the mental , and for the concept of functionalism , an influential theory regarding the mind – body problem . In philosophy of language , along with Saul Kripke and others , he developed the causal theory of reference , and formulated an original theory of meaning , introducing the notion of semantic externalism based on a famous thought experiment called Twin Earth .
In philosophy of mathematics , he and his mentor W. V. Quine developed the " Quine – Putnam indispensability thesis " , an argument for the reality of mathematical entities , later espousing the view that mathematics is not purely logical , but " quasi @-@ empirical " . In the field of epistemology , he is known for his critique of the well known " brain in a vat " thought experiment . This thought experiment appears to provide a powerful argument for epistemological skepticism , but Putnam challenges its coherence .
In metaphysics , he originally espoused a position called metaphysical realism , but eventually became one of its most outspoken critics , first adopting a view he called " internal realism " , which he later abandoned . Despite these changes of view , throughout his career he remained committed to scientific realism , roughly the view that mature scientific theories are approximately true descriptions of ways things are .
In the philosophy of perception Putnam came to endorse direct realism , according to which perceptual experiences directly present one with the external world . In the past , he further held that there are no mental representations , sense data , or other intermediaries that stand between the mind and the world . By 2012 , however , he rejected this further commitment , in favor of " transactionalism " , a view that accepts both that perceptual experiences are world @-@ involving transactions , and that these transactions are functionally describable ( provided that worldly items and intentional states may be referred to in the specification of the function ) . Such transactions can further involve qualia .
In his later work , Putnam became increasingly interested in American pragmatism , Jewish philosophy , and ethics , thus engaging with a wider array of philosophical traditions . He also displayed an interest in metaphilosophy , seeking to " renew philosophy " from what he identifies as narrow and inflated concerns .
Outside philosophy , Putnam contributed to mathematics and computer science . Together with Martin Davis he developed the Davis – Putnam algorithm for the Boolean satisfiability problem and he helped demonstrate the unsolvability of Hilbert 's tenth problem . He was at times a politically controversial figure , especially for his involvement with the Progressive Labor Party in the late 1960s and early 1970s .
= = Life = =
Putnam was born in Chicago , Illinois , in 1926 . His father , Samuel Putnam , was a scholar of Romance languages , columnist , and translator who wrote for the Daily Worker , a publication of the American Communist Party , from 1936 to 1946 ( when he became disillusioned with communism ) . As a result of his father 's commitment to communism , Putnam had a secular upbringing , although his mother , Riva , was Jewish . The family lived in France until 1934 , when they returned to the United States , settling in Philadelphia . Putnam attended Central High School ; there he met Noam Chomsky , who was a year behind him . The two had been friends — and often intellectual opponents — ever since . Putnam studied mathematics and philosophy at the University of Pennsylvania , receiving his BA ( undergraduate degree ) and becoming a member of the Philomathean Society , one of the oldest collegiate literary societies in the U.S. He went on to do graduate work in philosophy at Harvard University , and later at UCLA 's Philosophy Department , where he received his Ph.D. in 1951 for a dissertation entitled " The Meaning of the Concept of Probability in Application to Finite Sequences " . Putnam 's teacher Hans Reichenbach ( his dissertation supervisor ) was a leading figure in logical positivism , the dominant school of philosophy of the day ; one of Putnam 's most consistent positions has been his rejection of logical positivism as self @-@ defeating .
After teaching at Northwestern ( 1951 – 52 ) , Princeton ( 1953 – 61 ) , and MIT ( 1961 – 65 ) , he moved to Harvard in 1965 . His wife , Ruth Anna Jacobs took a teaching position in philosophy at Wellesley College . Hilary and Ruth Anna were married in 1962 . Ruth Anna Jacobs , descendant of a family with a long scholarly tradition in Gotha ( her ancestor was the German classical scholar Christian Friedrich Wilhelm Jacobs ) , was born in Berlin , Germany , in 1927 to anti @-@ Nazi political @-@ activist parents and , like Putnam himself , she was raised an atheist ( her mother was Jewish and her father had been from a Christian background ) . Putnam was also an atheist . The Putnams , rebelling against the antisemitism that they had experienced during their youth , decided to establish a traditional Jewish home for their children . Since they had no experience with the rituals of Judaism , they sought out invitations to other Jews ' homes for Seder . They had " no idea how to do it [ themselves ] " , in the words of Ruth Anna . They therefore began to study Jewish ritual and Hebrew , and became more Jewishly interested , identified , and active . In 1994 , Hilary Putnam celebrated a belated Bar Mitzvah service . His wife had a Bat Mitzvah service four years later .
Hilary was a popular teacher at Harvard . In keeping with the family tradition , he was politically active . In the 1960s and early 1970s , he was an active supporter of the American Civil Rights Movement and an opponent of American military intervention in Vietnam . In 1963 , he organized one of the first faculty and student committees at MIT against the war . Putnam was disturbed when he learned from reading the reports of David Halberstam that the U.S. was " defending " South Vietnamese peasants from the Vietcong by poisoning their rice crops . After moving to Harvard in 1965 , he organized campus protests and began teaching courses on Marxism . Hilary became an official faculty advisor to the Students for a Democratic Society and , in 1968 , became a member of the Progressive Labor Party ( PLP ) .
He was elected a Fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences in 1965 . After 1968 , his political activities were centered on the PLP . The Harvard administration considered these activities disruptive and attempted to censure Putnam , but two other faculty members criticized the procedures . Putnam permanently severed his ties with the PLP in 1972 . In 1997 , at a meeting of former draft resistance activists at Arlington Street Church in Boston , Putnam described his involvement with the PLP as a mistake . He said that he had been impressed at first with the PLP 's commitment to alliance @-@ building and its willingness to attempt to organize from within the armed forces .
In 1976 , he was elected President of the American Philosophical Association . The following year , he was selected as Walter Beverly Pearson Professor of Mathematical Logic , in recognition of his contributions to the philosophy of logic and mathematics . While breaking with his radical past , Putnam never abandoned his belief that academics have a particular social and ethical responsibility toward society . He continued to be forthright and progressive in his political views , as expressed in the articles " How Not to Solve Ethical Problems " ( 1983 ) and " Education for Democracy " ( 1993 ) .
Putnam was a Corresponding Fellow of the British Academy . He retired from teaching in June 2000 , but , as of 2009 , he continued to give a seminar almost yearly at Tel Aviv University . He also held the Spinoza Chair of Philosophy at the University of Amsterdam in 2001 . He was the Cogan University Professor Emeritus at Harvard University and a founding patron of the small liberal arts college Ralston College . His corpus includes five volumes of collected works , seven books , and more than 200 articles . Putnam 's renewed interest in Judaism inspired him to publish several books and essays on the topic . With his wife , he has co @-@ authored several books and essays on the late @-@ 19th @-@ century American pragmatist movement . He began a blog in May 2014 .
For his contributions in philosophy and logic , he was awarded the Rolf Schock prize in 2011 and the Nicholas Rescher Prize for Systematic Philosophy in 2015 .
He delivered his last Skype talk , entitled " Thought and Language " , at an international conference on " The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam " held at the Indian Institute of Technology , Bombay , on October 3 , 2015 and organized by his student Sanjit Chakraborty .
= = Philosophy of mind = =
= = = Multiple realizability = = =
Putnam 's best @-@ known work concerns philosophy of mind . His most noted original contributions to that field came in several key papers published in the late 1960s that set out the hypothesis of multiple realizability . In these papers , Putnam argues that , contrary to the famous claim of the type @-@ identity theory , it is not necessarily true that " Pain is identical to C @-@ fibre firing . " Pain , according to Putnam 's papers , may correspond to utterly different physical states of the nervous system in different organisms , and yet they all experience the same mental state of " being in pain " .
Putnam cited examples from the animal kingdom to illustrate his thesis . He asked whether it was likely that the brain structures of diverse types of animals realize pain , or other mental states , the same way . If they do not share the same brain structures , they cannot share the same mental states and properties . The answer to this puzzle had to be that mental states were realized by different physical states in different species . Putnam then took his argument a step further , asking about such things as the nervous systems of alien beings , artificially intelligent robots and other silicon @-@ based life forms . These hypothetical entities , he contended , should not be considered incapable of experiencing pain just because they lack the same neurochemistry as humans . Putnam concluded that type @-@ identity theorists had been making an " ambitious " and " highly implausible " conjecture which could be disproven with one example of multiple realizability . This argument is sometimes referred to as the " likelihood argument " .
Putnam formulated a complementary argument based on what he called " functional isomorphism " . He defined the concept in these terms : " Two systems are functionally isomorphic if ' there is a correspondence between the states of one and the states of the other that preserves functional relations ' . " In the case of computers , two machines are functionally isomorphic if and only if the sequential relations among states in the first are exactly mirrored by the sequential relations among states in the other . Therefore , a computer made out of silicon chips and a computer made out of cogs and wheels can be functionally isomorphic but constitutionally diverse . Functional isomorphism implies multiple realizability . This argument is sometimes referred to as an " a priori argument " .
Jerry Fodor , Putnam , and others noted that , along with being an effective argument against type @-@ identity theories , multiple realizability implies that any low @-@ level explanation of higher @-@ level mental phenomena is insufficiently abstract and general . Functionalism , which identifies mental kinds with functional kinds that are characterized exclusively in terms of causes and effects , abstracts from the level of microphysics , and therefore seemed to be a better explanation of the relation between mind and body . In fact , there are many functional kinds , such as mousetraps , software and bookshelves , which are multiply realized at the physical level .
= = = Machine state functionalism = = =
The first formulation of such a functionalist theory was put forth by Putnam himself . This formulation , which is now called " machine @-@ state functionalism " , was inspired by analogies noted by Putnam and others between the mind and Turing machines . The point , for functionalism is the nature of the states of the Turing machine . Each state can be defined in terms of its relations to the other states and to the inputs and outputs , and the details of how it accomplishes what it accomplishes and of its material constitution are completely irrelevant . According to machine @-@ state functionalism , the nature of a mental state is just like the nature of a Turing machine state . Just as " state one " simply is the state in which , given a particular input , such @-@ and @-@ such happens , so being in pain is the state which disposes one to cry " ouch " , become distracted , wonder what the cause is , and so forth .
= = = Rejection of functionalism = = =
In the late 1980s , Putnam abandoned his adherence to functionalism and other computational theories of mind . His change of mind was primarily due to the difficulties that computational theories have in explaining certain intuitions with respect to the externalism of mental content . This is illustrated by Putnam 's own Twin Earth thought experiment ( see Philosophy of language ) . He also developed a separate argument against functionalism in 1988 , based on Fodor 's generalized version of multiple realizability . Asserting that functionalism is really a watered @-@ down identity theory in which mental kinds are identified with functional kinds , Putnam argued that mental kinds may be multiply realizable over functional kinds . The argument for functionalism is that the same mental state could be implemented by the different states of a universal Turing machine .
Despite Putnam 's rejection of functionalism , it has continued to flourish and has been developed into numerous versions by thinkers as diverse as David Marr , Daniel Dennett , Jerry Fodor , and David Lewis . Functionalism helped lay the foundations for modern cognitive science and is the dominant theory of mind in philosophy today .
By 2012 Putnam accepted a modification of functionalism called " liberal functionalism " . The view holds that " what matters for consciousness and for mental properties generally is the right sort of functional capacities and not the particular matter that subserves those capacities " . The specification of these capacities ( 1 ) may refer to what goes on outside the organism 's " brain " , ( 2 ) may include intentional idioms , and ( 3 ) need not describe a capacity to compute something or other .
= = Philosophy of language = =
= = = Semantic externalism = = =
One of Putnam 's contributions to philosophy of language is his claim that " meaning just ain 't in the head " . He illustrated this using his " Twin Earth " thought experiment to argue that environmental factors play a substantial role in determining meaning . Twin Earth shows this , according to Putnam , since on Twin Earth everything is identical to Earth , except that its lakes , rivers and oceans are filled with XYZ whereas those of earth are filled with H2O . Consequently , when an earthling , Fredrick , uses the Earth @-@ English word " water " , it has a different meaning from the Twin Earth @-@ English word " water " when used by his physically identical twin , Frodrick , on Twin Earth . Since Fredrick and Frodrick are physically indistinguishable when they utter their respective words , and since their words have different meanings , meaning cannot be determined solely by what is in their heads . This led Putnam to adopt a version of semantic externalism with regard to meaning and mental content . The late philosopher of mind and language Donald Davidson , despite his many differences of opinion with Putnam , wrote that semantic externalism constituted an " anti @-@ subjectivist revolution " in philosophers ' way of seeing the world . Since the time of Descartes , philosophers had been concerned with proving knowledge from the basis of subjective experience . Thanks to Putnam , Tyler Burge and others , Davidson said , philosophy could now take the objective realm for granted and start questioning the alleged " truths " of subjective experience .
= = = Theory of meaning = = =
Putnam , along with Saul Kripke , Keith Donnellan , and others , contributed to what is known as the causal theory of reference . In particular , Putnam maintained in The Meaning of " Meaning " that the objects referred to by natural kind terms — such as tiger , water , and tree — are the principal elements of the meaning of such terms . There is a linguistic division of labor , analogous to Adam Smith 's economic division of labor , according to which such terms have their references fixed by the " experts " in the particular field of science to which the terms belong . So , for example , the reference of the term " lion " is fixed by the community of zoologists , the reference of the term " elm tree " is fixed by the community of botanists , and the reference of the term " table salt " is fixed as " NaCl " by chemists . These referents are considered rigid designators in the Kripkean sense and are disseminated outward to the linguistic community .
Putnam specifies a finite sequence of elements ( a vector ) for the description of the meaning of every term in the language . Such a vector consists of four components :
the object to which the term refers , e.g. , the object individuated by the chemical formula H2O ;
a set of typical descriptions of the term , referred to as " the stereotype " , e.g. , " transparent " , " colorless " , and " hydrating " ;
the semantic indicators that place the object into a general category , e.g. , " natural kind " and " liquid " ;
the syntactic indicators , e.g. , " concrete noun " and " mass noun " .
Such a " meaning @-@ vector " provides a description of the reference and use of an expression within a particular linguistic community . It provides the conditions for its correct usage and makes it possible to judge whether a single speaker attributes the appropriate meaning to that expression or whether its use has changed enough to cause a difference in its meaning . According to Putnam , it is legitimate to speak of a change in the meaning of an expression only if the reference of the term , and not its stereotype , has changed . However , since there is no possible algorithm that can determine which aspect — the stereotype or the reference — has changed in a particular case , it is necessary to consider the usage of other expressions of the language . Since there is no limit to the number of such expressions which must be considered , Putnam embraced a form of semantic holism .
= = Philosophy of mathematics = =
Putnam made a significant contribution to philosophy of mathematics in the Quine – Putnam " indispensability argument " for mathematical realism . This argument is considered by Stephen Yablo to be one of the most challenging arguments in favor of the acceptance of the existence of abstract mathematical entities , such as numbers and sets . The form of the argument is as follows .
One must have ontological commitments to all entities that are indispensable to the best scientific theories , and to those entities only ( commonly referred to as " all and only " ) .
Mathematical entities are indispensable to the best scientific theories . Therefore ,
One must have ontological commitments to mathematical entities .
The justification for the first premise is the most controversial . Both Putnam and Quine invoke naturalism to justify the exclusion of all non @-@ scientific entities , and hence to defend the " only " part of " all and only " . The assertion that " all " entities postulated in scientific theories , including numbers , should be accepted as real is justified by confirmation holism . Since theories are not confirmed in a piecemeal fashion , but as a whole , there is no justification for excluding any of the entities referred to in well @-@ confirmed theories . This puts the nominalist who wishes to exclude the existence of sets and non @-@ Euclidean geometry , but to include the existence of quarks and other undetectable entities of physics , for example , in a difficult position .
Putnam holds the view that mathematics , like physics and other empirical sciences , uses both strict logical proofs and " quasi @-@ empirical " methods . For example , Fermat 's last theorem states that for no integer <formula> are there positive integer values of x , y , and z such that <formula> . Before this was proven for all <formula> in 1995 by Andrew Wiles , it had been proven for many values of n . These proofs inspired further research in the area , and formed a quasi @-@ empirical consensus for the theorem . Even though such knowledge is more conjectural than a strictly proven theorem , it was still used in developing other mathematical ideas .
= = Mathematics and computer science = =
Putnam has contributed to scientific fields not directly related to his work in philosophy . As a mathematician , Putnam contributed to the resolution of Hilbert 's tenth problem in mathematics . This problem was settled by Yuri Matiyasevich in 1970 , with a proof that relied heavily on previous research by Putnam , Julia Robinson and Martin Davis .
In computability theory , Putnam investigated the structure of the ramified analytical hierarchy , its connection with the constructible hierarchy and its Turing degrees . He showed that there exist many levels of the constructible hierarchy which do not add any subsets of the integers and later , with his student George Boolos , that the first such " non @-@ index " is the ordinal <formula> of ramified analysis ( this is the smallest <formula> such that <formula> is a model of full second @-@ order comprehension ) , and also , together with a separate paper with Richard Boyd ( another of Putnam 's students ) and Gustav Hensel , how the Davis – Mostowski – Kleene hyperarithmetical hierarchy of arithmetical degrees can be naturally extended up to <formula> .
In computer science , Putnam is known for the Davis – Putnam algorithm for the Boolean satisfiability problem ( SAT ) , developed with Martin Davis in 1960 . The algorithm finds if there is a set of true or false values that satisfies a given Boolean expression so that the entire expression becomes true . In 1962 , they further refined the algorithm with the help of George Logemann and Donald W. Loveland . It became known as the DPLL algorithm . This algorithm is efficient and still forms the basis of most complete SAT solvers .
= = Epistemology = =
In the field of epistemology , Putnam is known for his " brain in a vat " thought experiment ( a modernized version of Descartes ' evil demon hypothesis ) . The argument is that one cannot coherently state that one is a disembodied " brain in a vat " placed there by some " mad scientist " .
This follows from the causal theory of reference . Words always refer to the kinds of things they were coined to refer to , thus the kinds of things their user , or the user 's ancestors , experienced . So , if some person , Mary , were a " brain in a vat " , whose every experience is received through wiring and other gadgetry created by the " mad scientist " , then Mary 's idea of a " brain " would not refer to a " real " brain , since she and her linguistic community have never seen such a thing . Rather , she saw something that looked like a brain , but was actually an image fed to her through the wiring . Similarly , her idea of a " vat " would not refer to a " real " vat . So , if , as a brain in a vat , she were to say " I 'm a brain in a vat " , she would actually be saying " I 'm a brain @-@ image in a vat @-@ image " , which is incoherent . On the other hand , if she is not a brain in a vat , then saying that she is a brain in a vat is still incoherent , but now because she actually means the opposite . This is a form of epistemological externalism : knowledge or justification depends on factors outside the mind and is not solely determined internally .
Putnam has clarified that his real target in this argument was never skepticism , but metaphysical realism . Since realism of this kind assumes the existence of a gap between how man conceives the world and the way the world really is , skeptical scenarios such as this one ( or Descartes ' Evil demon ) present a formidable challenge . Putnam , by arguing that such a scenario is impossible , attempts to show that this notion of a gap between man 's concept of the world and the way it is , is in itself absurd . Man cannot have a " God 's eye " view of reality . He is limited to his conceptual schemes . Metaphysical realism is therefore false , according to Putnam .
= = Metaphilosophy and ontology = =
In the late 1970s and the 1980s , stimulated by results from mathematical logic and by some ideas of Quine , Putnam abandoned his long @-@ standing defence of metaphysical realism — the view that the categories and structures of the external world are both causally and ontologically independent of the conceptualizations of the human mind . He adopted a rather different view , which he called " internal realism " .
Internal realism was the view that , although the world may be causally independent of the human mind , the structure of the world — its division into kinds , individuals and categories — is a function of the human mind , and hence the world is not ontologically independent . The general idea is influenced by Kant 's idea of the dependence of our knowledge of the world on the categories of thought .
The problem with metaphysical realism , according to Putnam , was that it fails to explain the possibility of reference and truth . According to the metaphysical realist , our concepts and categories refer because they match up in some mysterious manner with the pre @-@ structured categories , kinds and individuals that are inherent in the external world . But how is it possible that the world " carves up " into certain structures and categories , the mind carves up the world into its own categories and structures , and the two " carvings " perfectly coincide ? The answer must be that the world does not come pre @-@ structured but that structure must be imposed on it by the human mind and its conceptual schemes . In Reason , Truth , and History , Putnam identified truth with what he termed " idealized rational acceptability . " The theory , which owes something to C. S. Peirce , is that a belief is true if it would be accepted by anyone under ideal epistemic conditions .
Nelson Goodman had formulated a similar notion in Fact , Fiction and Forecast in 1956 . In that work , Goodman went as far as to suggest that there is " no one world , but many worlds , each created by the human mind . " Putnam rejected this form of social constructivism , but retained the idea that there can be many correct descriptions of reality . No one of these descriptions can be scientifically proven to be the " one , true " description of the world . This does not imply relativism , for Putnam , because not all descriptions are equally correct and the ones that are correct are not determined subjectively .
Putnam renounced internal realism in his reply to Simon Blackburn in the volume Reading Putnam . The reasons he gave up his " antirealism " are stated in the first three of his replies in " The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam " , an issue of the journal Philosophical Topics , where he gives a history of his use ( s ) of the term " internal realism " , and , at more length , in his The Threefold Cord : Mind , Body and World ( 1999 ) .
Although he abandoned internal realism , Putnam still resists the idea that any given thing or system of things can only be described in exactly one complete and correct way . He thus accepts " conceptual relativity " – the view that it may be a matter of choice or convention , e.g. , whether mereological sums exist , or whether space @-@ time points are individuals or mere limits . In other words , having abandoned internal realism Putnam came to accept metaphysical realism in simply the broad sense of rejecting all forms of verificationism and all talk of our ' making ' the world .
Under the influence of C. S. Peirce and William James , Putnam also became convinced that there is no fact – value dichotomy ; that is , normative ( e.g. , ethical and aesthetic ) judgments often have a factual basis , while scientific judgments have a normative element .
= = Neopragmatism and Wittgenstein = =
At the end of the 1980s , Putnam became increasingly disillusioned with what he perceived as the " scientism " and the rejection of history that characterize modern analytic philosophy . He rejected internal realism because it assumed a " cognitive interface " model of the relation between the mind and the world . Putnam claimed that the very notion of truth would have to be abandoned by a consistent eliminative materialist . Under the increasing influence of James and the pragmatists , he adopted a direct realist view of this relation . For a time , under the influence of Ludwig Wittgenstein , he adopted a pluralist view of philosophy itself and came to view most philosophical problems as nothing more than conceptual or linguistic confusions created by philosophers by using ordinary language out of its original context .
Many of Putnam 's most recent works have addressed the concerns of ordinary people , particularly their concerns about social problems . For example , he has written about the nature of democracy , social justice and religion . He has discussed the ideas of the continental philosopher , Jürgen Habermas , and has written articles influenced by " continental " ideas .
= = Death = =
Putnam died of mesothelioma , a rare form of lung cancer , at his home in Arlington , Massachusetts during the early hours of March 13 , 2016 .
= = Criticism = =
Putnam himself may be his own most formidable philosophical adversary . His frequent changes of mind have led him to attack his previous positions . However , many significant criticisms of his views have come from other philosophers and scientists . For example , multiple realizability has been criticized on the grounds that , if it were true , research and experimentation in the neurosciences would be impossible . According to Bechtel and Mundale , to be able to conduct such research in the neurosciences , universal consistencies must either exist or be assumed to exist in brain structures . It is the similarity ( or homology ) of brain structures that allows us to generalize across species . If multiple realizability were an empirical fact , results from experiments conducted on one species of animal ( or one organism ) would not be meaningful when generalized to explain the behavior of another species ( or organism of the same species ) . Other criticisms of metaphysical realism have been proposed by Jaegwon Kim , David Lewis , Robert Richardson and Patricia Churchland .
One of the main arguments against functionalism was formulated by Putnam himself : the Twin Earth thought experiment . However , there have been other criticisms . The Chinese room argument by John Searle ( 1980 ) is a direct attack on the claim that thought can be represented as a set of functions . The thought experiment is designed to show that it is possible to mimic intelligent action , without any interpretation or understanding , through the use of a purely functional system . In short , Searle describes a situation in which a person who speaks only English is locked in a room with Chinese symbols in baskets and a rule book in English for moving the symbols around . The person is instructed , by people outside the room , to follow the rule book for sending certain symbols out of the room when given certain symbols . Further , suppose that the people outside the room are Chinese speakers and are communicating with the person inside via the Chinese symbols . According to Searle , it would be absurd to claim that the English speaker inside " knows " Chinese based on these syntactic processes alone . This thought experiment attempts to show that systems that operate merely on syntactic processes cannot realize any semantics ( meaning ) or intentionality ( aboutness ) . Thus , Searle attacks the idea that thought can be equated with the following of a set of syntactic rules . Thus , functionalism is an inadequate theory of the mind . Several other arguments against functionalism have been advanced by Ned Block .
Putnam has consistently adhered to the idea of semantic holism , in spite of the many changes in his other positions . The problems with this position have been described by Michael Dummett , Jerry Fodor , Ernest Lepore , and others . In the first place , they suggest that , if semantic holism is true , it is impossible to understand how a speaker of a language can learn the meaning of an expression , for any expression of the language . Given the limits of our cognitive abilities , we will never be able to master the whole of the English ( or any other ) language , even based on the ( false ) assumption that languages are static and immutable entities . Thus , if one must understand all of a natural language to understand a single word or expression , language learning is simply impossible . Semantic holism also fails to explain how two speakers can mean the same thing when using the same linguistic expression , and therefore how any communication at all is possible between them . Given a sentence P , since Fred and Mary have each mastered different parts of the English language and P is related in different ways to the sentences in each part , the result is that P means one thing for Fred and something else for Mary . Moreover , if a sentence P derives its meaning from its relations with all of the sentences of a language , as soon as the vocabulary of an individual changes by the addition or elimination of a sentence , the totality of relations changes , and therefore also the meaning of P. As this is a common phenomenon , the result is that P has two different meanings in two different moments in the life of the same person . Consequently , if I accept the truth of a sentence and then reject it later on , the meaning of that which I rejected and that which I accepted are completely different and therefore I cannot change my opinions with regard to the same sentences .
The brain in a vat argument has also been subject to criticism . Crispin Wright argues that Putnam 's formulation of the brain @-@ in @-@ a @-@ vat scenario is too narrow to refute global skepticism . The possibility that one is a recently disembodied brain in a vat is not undermined by semantic externalism . If a person has lived her entire life outside the vat — speaking the English language and interacting normally with the outside world — prior to her " envatment " by a mad scientist , when she wakes up inside the vat , her words and thoughts ( e.g. , " tree " and " grass " ) will still refer to the objects or events in the external world that they referred to before her envatment . In another scenario , a brain in a vat may be hooked up to a supercomputer that randomly generates perceptual experiences . In this case , one 's words and thoughts would not refer to anything , and would therefore be devoid of content . Semantics would no longer exist and the argument would be meaningless .
In philosophy of mathematics , Stephen Yablo has argued that the Quine – Putnam indispensability thesis does not demonstrate that mathematical entities are truly indispensable . The argumentation is sophisticated , but the upshot is that one can achieve the same logical results by simply adding to any statement about an abstract object the assumption " so @-@ and @-@ so is assumed ( or hypothesized ) to exist " . For example , one can take the argument for indispensability described above and adjust it as follows :
1 * . One must have ontological commitments to all and only the [ abstract ] entities for which , under the assumption that they exist , their existence is indispensable to the best scientific theories .
2 * . Under the assumption that they exist , the existence of mathematical entities is indispensable to the best scientific theories . Therefore ,
3 * . Under the assumption that mathematical entities exist , one must have ontological commitments to the existence of mathematical entities .
Finally , Putnam 's internal realism has been accused by Curtis Brown of being a disguised form of subjective idealism . If this is the case , it is subject to the traditional arguments against that position . In particular , it falls into the trap of solipsism . That is , if existence depends on experience , as subjective idealism maintains , and if one 's consciousness were to stop existing , then the rest of the universe would stop existing as well .
= = Major works and bibliography = =
There is a detailed bibliography of Hilary Putnam 's writings ( with 16 books and 198 articles ) compiled by Vincent C. Müller and published in 1993 . Online in PhilPapers . A later version of this is on Harvard 's Servers .
The " Innateness Hypothesis " and Explanatory Models in Linguistics , Synthese , Vol . 17 , No. 1 , March 1967 , pp. 12 – 22 .
Philosophy of Mathematics : Selected Readings . Edited with Paul Benacerraf . Englewood Cliffs , N.J. : Prentice @-@ Hall , 1964 . 2nd ed . , Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1983 . ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29648 @-@ X
Philosophy of Logic . New York : Harper and Row , 1971 . London : George Allen and Unwin , 1972 . ISBN 0 @-@ 04 @-@ 160009 @-@ 6
Mathematics , Matter and Method . Philosophical Papers , vol . 1 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1975 . 2nd. ed . , 1985 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29550 @-@ 5
Mind , Language and Reality . Philosophical Papers , vol . 2 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1975 . 2003 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29551 @-@ 3
Meaning and the Moral Sciences . London : Routledge and Kegan Paul , 1978 .
Reason , Truth , and History . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1981 . 2004 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 29776 @-@ 1
Realism and Reason . Philosophical Papers , vol . 3 . Cambridge : Cambridge University Press , 1983 . 2002 paperback : ISBN 0 @-@ 521 @-@ 31394 @-@ 5
Methodology , Epistemology , and Philosophy of Science : Essays in Honour of Wolfgang Stegmüller. edited with Wilhelm K. Essler and Carl G. Hempel . Dordrecht : D. Reidel , 1983 .
Epistemology , Methodology , and Philosophy of Science : Essays in Honour of Carl G. Hempel. edited with Wilhelm K. Essler and Wolfgang Stegmüller . Dordrecht : D. Reidel , 1985 .
The Many Faces of Realism . La Salle , Ill . : Open Court , 1987 . ISBN 0 @-@ 8126 @-@ 9043 @-@ 5
Representation and Reality . Cambridge , Mass . : MIT Press , 1988 . ISBN 0 @-@ 262 @-@ 66074 @-@ 1
Realism with a Human Face. edited by James F. Conant . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 1990 . 9780674749450 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 74945 @-@ 6
Renewing Philosophy . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 1992 . 9780674760943 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 76094 @-@ 8
Pursuits of Reason : Essays in Honor of Stanley Cavell. edited with Ted Cohen and Paul Guyer . Lubbock : Texas Tech University Press , 1993 . ISBN 0 @-@ 89672 @-@ 266 @-@ X
Words and Life. edited by James F. Conant . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 1994 . 9780674956070 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 95607 @-@ 9
Pragmatism : An Open Question . Oxford : Blackwell , 1995 . ISBN 0 @-@ 631 @-@ 19343 @-@ X
The Threefold Cord : Mind , Body , and World . New York : Columbia University Press , 1999 . ISBN 0 @-@ 231 @-@ 10287 @-@ 9
Enlightenment and Pragmatism . Assen : Koninklijke Van Gorcum , 2001 . 48pp .
The Collapse of the Fact / Value Dichotomy and Other Essays . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 2002 . Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 01380 @-@ 8
Ethics Without Ontology . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 2002 . 9780674018518 Description . ISBN 0 @-@ 674 @-@ 01851 @-@ 6
Jewish Philosophy as a Guide to Life : Rosenzweig , Buber , Levinas , Wittgenstein . Bloomington : Indiana University Press , 2008 .
Philosophy in an Age of Science , edited by Mario De Caro and David Macarthur . Cambridge , Mass . : Harvard University Press , 2012 . 9780674050136 Description .
Naturalism , Realism , and Normativity , edited by Mario De Caro , Cam , Mass : Harvard University Press , 2016 , ISBN 9780674659698 .
= = Works about Putnam = =
Y. Ben @-@ Menahem ( ed . ) , Hilary Putnam , Contemporary Philosophy in Focus , Cambridge University Press , Cambridge , 2005 .
P. Clark @-@ B. Hale ( eds . ) , Reading Putnam , Blackwell , Cambridge ( Massachusetts ) -Oxford 1995 .
C. S. Hill ( ed . ) , The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam , Fayetteville , Arkansas 1992 .
M. Rüdel , Erkenntnistheorie und Pragmatik : Untersuchungen zu Richard Rorty und Hilary Putnam , ( Dissertation ) Hamburg 1987 .
Maximilian de Gaynesford , Hilary Putnam , McGill @-@ Queens University Press / Acumen , 2006 .
Randall E. Auxier , Anderson , & Hahn ( eds . ) , The Philosophy of Hilary Putnam , The Library of Living Philosophers , Open Court , Chicago , Illinois , 2015 .
Sanjit Chakraborty , Understanding Meaning and World : A Relook on Semantic Externalism , Cambridge Scholars Publishing , London , 2016 .
= Desert =
A desert is a barren area of land where little precipitation occurs and consequently living conditions are hostile for plant and animal life . The lack of vegetation exposes the unprotected surface of the ground to the processes of denudation . About one third of the land surface of the world is arid or semi @-@ arid . This includes much of the polar regions where little precipitation occurs and which are sometimes called polar deserts or " cold deserts " . Deserts can be classified by the amount of precipitation that falls , by the temperature that prevails , by the causes of desertification or by their geographical location .
Deserts are formed by weathering processes as large variations in temperature between day and night put strains on the rocks which consequently break in pieces . Although rain seldom occurs in deserts , there are occasional downpours that can result in flash floods . Rain falling on hot rocks can cause them to shatter and the resulting fragments and rubble strewn over the desert floor is further eroded by the wind . This picks up particles of sand and dust and wafts them aloft in sand or dust storms . Wind @-@ blown sand grains striking any solid object in their path can abrade the surface . Rocks are smoothed down , and the wind sorts sand into uniform deposits . The grains end up as level sheets of sand or are piled high in billowing sand dunes . Other deserts are flat , stony plains where all the fine material has been blown away and the surface consists of a mosaic of smooth stones . These areas are known as desert pavements and little further erosion takes place . Other desert features include rock outcrops , exposed bedrock and clays once deposited by flowing water . Temporary lakes may form and salt pans may be left when waters evaporate . There may be underground sources of water in the form of springs and seepages from aquifers . Where these are found , oases can occur .
Plants and animals living in the desert need special adaptations to survive in the harsh environment . Plants tend to be tough and wiry with small or no leaves , water @-@ resistant cuticles and often spines to deter herbivory . Some annual plants germinate , bloom and die in the course of a few weeks after rainfall while other long @-@ lived plants survive for years and have deep root systems able to tap underground moisture . Animals need to keep cool and find enough food and water to survive . Many are nocturnal and stay in the shade or underground during the heat of the day . They tend to be efficient at conserving water , extracting most of their needs from their food and concentrating their urine . Some animals remain in a state of dormancy for long periods , ready to become active again when the rare rains fall . They then reproduce rapidly while conditions are favorable before returning to dormancy .
People have struggled to live in deserts and the surrounding semi @-@ arid lands for millennia . Nomads have moved their flocks and herds to wherever grazing is available and oases have provided opportunities for a more settled way of life . The cultivation of semi @-@ arid regions encourages erosion of soil and is one of the causes of increased desertification . Desert farming is possible with the aid of irrigation and the Imperial Valley in California provides an example of how previously barren land can be made productive by the import of water from an outside source . Many trade routes have been forged across deserts , especially across the Sahara Desert , and traditionally were used by caravans of camels carrying salt , gold , ivory and other goods . Large numbers of slaves were also taken northwards across the Sahara . Some mineral extraction also takes place in deserts and the uninterrupted sunlight gives potential for the capture of large quantities of solar energy .
= = Etymology = =
English desert and its Romance cognates ( including Italian and Portuguese deserto , French désert and Spanish desierto ) all come from the ecclesiastical Latin dēsertum ( originally " an abandoned place " ) , a participle of dēserere , " to abandon " . The correlation between aridity and sparse population is complex and dynamic , varying by culture , era , and technologies ; thus the use of the word desert can cause confusion . In English before the 20th century , desert was often used in the sense of " unpopulated area " , without specific reference to aridity ; but today the word is most often used in its climate @-@ science sense ( an area of low precipitation ) . Phrases such as " desert island " and " Great American Desert " in previous centuries did not necessarily imply sand or aridity ; their focus was the sparse population .
= = Physical geography = =
A desert is a region of land that is very dry because it receives low amounts of precipitation ( usually in the form of rain but may be snow , mist or fog ) , often has little coverage by plants , and in which streams dry up unless they are supplied by water from outside the area . Deserts can also be described as areas where more water is lost by evapotranspiration than falls as precipitation . Deserts generally receive less than 250 mm ( 10 in ) of precipitation each year . Semideserts are regions which receive between 250 and 500 mm ( 10 and 20 in ) and when clad in grass , these are known as steppes .
= = = Classification = = =
Deserts have been defined and classified in a number of ways , generally combining total precipitation , number of days on which this falls , temperature , and humidity , and sometimes additional factors . For example , Phoenix , Arizona , receives less than 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of precipitation per year , and is immediately recognized as being located in a desert because of its aridity @-@ adapted plants . The North Slope of Alaska 's Brooks Range also receives less than 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) of precipitation per year and is often classified as a cold desert . Other regions of the world have cold deserts , including areas of the Himalayas and other high @-@ altitude areas in other parts of the world . Polar deserts cover much of the ice @-@ free areas of the Arctic and Antarctic . A non @-@ technical definition is that deserts are those parts of the Earth 's surface that have insufficient vegetation cover to support a human population .
Potential evapotranspiration supplements the measurement of precipitation in providing a scientific measurement @-@ based definition of a desert . The water budget of an area can be calculated using the formula P − PE ± S , wherein P is precipitation , PE is potential evapotranspiration rates and S is amount of surface storage of water . Evapotranspiration is the combination of water loss through atmospheric evaporation and through the life processes of plants . Potential evapotranspiration , then , is the amount of water that could evaporate in any given region . As an example , Tucson , Arizona receives about 300 mm ( 12 in ) of rain per year , however about 2 @,@ 500 mm ( 98 in ) of water could evaporate over the course of a year . In other words , about eight times more water could evaporate from the region than actually falls as rain . Rates of evapotranspiration in cold regions such as Alaska are much lower because of the lack of heat to aid in the evaporation process .
Deserts are sometimes classified as " hot " or " cold " , " semiarid " or " coastal " . The characteristics of hot deserts include high temperatures in summer ; greater evaporation than precipitation usually exacerbated by high temperatures , strong winds and lack of cloud cover ; considerable variation in the occurrence of precipitation , its intensity and distribution ; and low humidity . Winter temperatures vary considerably between different deserts and are often related to the location of the desert on the continental landmass and the latitude . Daily variations in temperature can be as great as 22 ° C ( 40 ° F ) or more , with heat loss by radiation at night being increased by the clear skies .
Cold deserts , sometimes known as temperate deserts , occur at higher latitudes than hot deserts , and the aridity is caused by the dryness of the air . Some cold deserts are far from the ocean and others are separated by mountain ranges from the sea and in both cases there is insufficient moisture in the air to cause much precipitation . The largest of these deserts are found in Central Asia . Others occur on the eastern side of the Rocky Mountains , the eastern side of the southern Andes and in southern Australia . Polar deserts are a particular class of cold desert . The air is very cold and carries little moisture so little precipitation occurs and what does fall , usually as snow , is carried along in the often strong wind and may form blizzards , drifts and dunes similar to those caused by dust and sand in other desert regions . In Antarctica , for example , the annual precipitation is about 50 mm ( 2 in ) on the central plateau and some ten times that amount on some major peninsulas .
Based on precipitation alone , hyperarid deserts receive less than 25 mm ( 1 in ) of rainfall a year ; they have no annual seasonal cycle of precipitation and experience twelve @-@ month periods with no rainfall at all . Arid deserts receive between 25 and 200 mm ( 1 and 8 in ) in a year and semiarid deserts between 200 and 500 mm ( 8 and 20 in ) . However , such factors as the temperature , humidity , rate of evaporation and evapotranspiration , and the moisture storage capacity of the ground have a marked effect on the degree of aridity and the plant and animal life that can be sustained . Rain falling in the cold season may be more effective at promoting plant growth , and defining the boundaries of deserts and the semiarid regions that surround them on the grounds of precipitation alone is problematic .
Coastal deserts are mostly found on the western edges of continental land masses in regions where cold currents approach the land or cold water upwellings rise from the ocean depths . The cool winds crossing this water pick up little moisture and the coastal regions have low temperatures and very low rainfall , the main precipitation being in the form of fog and dew . The range of temperatures on a daily and annual scale is relatively low , being 11 ° C ( 20 ° F ) and 5 ° C ( 9 ° F ) respectively in the Atacama Desert . Deserts of this type are often long and narrow and bounded to the east by mountain ranges . They occur in south @-@ west Africa , Chile , southern California and Baja California . Other coastal deserts influenced by cold currents are found in Western Australia , the Arabian Peninsula and Horn of Africa , and the western fringes of the Sahara .
In 1961 , Peveril Meigs divided desert regions on Earth into three categories according to the amount of precipitation they received . In this now widely accepted system , extremely arid lands have at least twelve consecutive months without precipitation , arid lands have less than 250 mm ( 10 in ) of annual precipitation , and semiarid lands have a mean annual precipitation of between 250 and 500 mm ( 10 – 20 in ) . Both extremely arid and arid lands are considered to be deserts while semiarid lands are generally referred to as steppes when they are grasslands .
Deserts are also classified , according to their geographical location and dominant weather pattern , as trade wind , mid @-@ latitude , rain shadow , coastal , monsoon , or polar deserts . Trade wind deserts occur either side of the horse latitudes at 30 ° to 35 ° North and South . These belts are associated with the subtropical anticyclone and the large @-@ scale descent of dry air moving from high @-@ altitudes toward the poles . The Sahara Desert is of this type . Mid @-@ latitude deserts occur between 30 ° and 50 ° North and South . They are mostly in areas remote from the sea where most of the moisture has already precipitated from the prevailing winds . They include the Tengger and Sonoran Deserts . Monsoon deserts are similar . They occur in regions where large temperature differences occur between sea and land . Moist warm air rises over the land , deposits its water content and circulates back to sea . Further inland , areas receive very little precipitation . The Thar Desert near the India / Pakistan border is of this type .
In some parts of the world , deserts are created by a rain shadow effect . Orographic lift occurs as air masses rise to pass over high ground . In the process they cool and lose much of their moisture by precipitation on the windward slope of the mountain range . When they descend on the leeward side , they warm and their capacity to hold moisture increases so an area with relatively little precipitation occurs . The Taklamakan Desert is an example , lying in the rain shadow of the Himalayas and receiving less than 38 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) precipitation annually . Other areas are arid by virtue of being a very long way from the nearest available sources of moisture .
Montane deserts are arid places with a very high altitude ; the most prominent example is found north of the Himalayas , in the Kunlun Mountains and the Tibetan Plateau . Many locations within this category have elevations exceeding 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) and the thermal regime can be hemiboreal . These places owe their profound aridity ( the average annual precipitation is often less than 40 mm or 1 @.@ 5 in ) to being very far from the nearest available sources of moisture and are often in the lee of mountain ranges . Montane deserts are normally cold , or may be scorchingly hot by day and very cold by night as is true of the northeastern slopes of Mount Kilimanjaro .
Polar deserts such as McMurdo Dry Valleys remain ice @-@ free because of the dry katabatic winds that flow downhill from the surrounding mountains . Former desert areas presently in non @-@ arid environments , such as the Sandhills in Nebraska , are known as paleodeserts . In the Köppen climate classification system , deserts are classed as BWh ( hot desert ) or BWk ( temperate desert ) . In the Thornthwaite climate classification system , deserts would be classified as arid megathermal climates .
= = = Weathering processes = = =
Deserts usually have a large diurnal and seasonal temperature range , with high daytime temperatures falling sharply at night . The diurnal range may be as much as 20 to 30 ° C ( 36 to 54 ° F ) and the rock surface experiences even greater temperature differentials . During the day the sky is usually clear and most of the sun 's radiation reaches the ground , but as soon as the sun sets , the desert cools quickly by radiating heat into space . In hot deserts , the temperature during daytime can exceed 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) in summer and plunge below freezing point at night during winter .
Such large temperature variations have a destructive effect on the exposed rocky surfaces . The repeated fluctuations put a strain on exposed rock and the flanks of mountains crack and shatter . Fragmented strata slide down into the valleys where they continue to break into pieces due to the relentless sun by day and chill by night . Successive strata are exposed to further weathering . The relief of the internal pressure that has built up in rocks that have been underground for aeons can cause them to shatter . Exfoliation also occurs when the outer surfaces of rocks split off in flat flakes . This is believed to be caused by the stresses put on the rock by repeated expansions and contractions which induces fracturing parallel to the original surface . Chemical weathering processes probably play a more important role in deserts than was previously thought . The necessary moisture may be present in the form of dew or mist . Ground water may be drawn to the surface by evaporation and the formation of salt crystals may dislodge rock particles as sand or disintegrate rocks by exfoliation . Shallow caves are sometimes formed at the base of cliffs by this means .
As the desert mountains decay , large areas of shattered rock and rubble occur . The process continues and the end products are either dust or sand . Dust is formed from solidified clay or volcanic deposits whereas sand results from the fragmentation of harder granites , limestone and sandstone . There is a certain critical size ( about 0 @.@ 5 mm ) below which further temperature @-@ induced weathering of rocks does not occur and this provides a minimum size for sand grains .
As the mountains are eroded , more and more sand is created . At high wind speeds , sand grains are picked up off the surface and blown along , a process known as saltation . The whirling airborne grains act as a sand blasting mechanism which grinds away solid objects in its path as the kinetic energy of the wind is transferred to the ground . The sand eventually ends up deposited in level areas known as sand @-@ fields or sand @-@ seas , or piled up in dunes .
= = = Dust storms and sandstorms = = =
Sand and dust storms are natural events that occur in arid regions where the land is not protected by a covering of vegetation . Dust storms usually start in desert margins rather than the deserts themselves where the finer materials have already been blown away . As a steady wind begins to blow , fine particles lying on the exposed ground begin to vibrate . At greater wind speeds , some particles are lifted into the air stream . When they land , they strike other particles which may be jerked into the air in their turn , starting a chain reaction . Once ejected , these particles move in one of three possible ways , depending on their size , shape and density ; suspension , saltation or creep . Suspension is only possible for particles less than 0 @.@ 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 004 in ) in diameter . In a dust storm , these fine particles are lifted up and wafted aloft to heights of up to 6 km ( 3 @.@ 7 mi ) . They reduce visibility and can remain in the atmosphere for days on end , conveyed by the trade winds for distances of up to 6 @,@ 000 km ( 3 @,@ 700 mi ) . Denser clouds of dust can be formed in stronger winds , moving across the land with a billowing leading edge . The sunlight can be obliterated and it may become as dark as night at ground level . In a study of a dust storm in China in 2001 , it was estimated that 6 @.@ 5 million tons of dust were involved , covering an area of 134 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km2 ( 52 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . The mean particle size was 1 @.@ 44 μm . A much smaller scale , short @-@ lived phenomenon can occur in calm conditions when hot air near the ground rises quickly through a small pocket of cooler , low @-@ pressure air above forming a whirling column of particles , a dust devil .
Sandstorms occur with much less frequency than dust storms . They are often preceded by severe dust storms and occur when the wind velocity increases to a point where it can lift heavier particles . These grains of sand , up to about 0 @.@ 5 mm ( 0 @.@ 020 in ) in diameter are jerked into the air but soon fall back to earth , ejecting other particles in the process . Their weight prevents them from being airborne for long and most only travel a distance of a few meters ( yards ) . The sand streams along above the surface of the ground like a fluid , often rising to heights of about 30 cm ( 12 in ) . In a really severe steady blow , 2 m ( 6 ft 7 in ) is about as high as the sand stream can rise as the largest sand grains do not become airborne at all . They are transported by creep , being rolled along the desert floor or performing short jumps .
During a sandstorm , the wind @-@ blown sand particles become electrically charged . Such electric fields , which range in size up to 80 kV / m , can produce sparks and cause interference with telecommunications equipment . They are also unpleasant for humans and can cause headaches and nausea . The electric fields are caused by collision between airborne particles and by the impacts of saltating sand grains landing on the ground . The mechanism is little understood but the particles usually have a negative charge when their diameter is under 250 μm and a positive one when they are over 500 μm .
= = = Major deserts = = =
Deserts take up about one third of the Earth 's land surface . Bottomlands may be salt @-@ covered flats . Eolian processes are major factors in shaping desert landscapes . Polar deserts ( also seen as " cold deserts " ) have similar features , except the main form of precipitation is snow rather than rain . Antarctica is the world 's largest cold desert ( composed of about 98 % thick continental ice sheet and 2 % barren rock ) . Some of the barren rock is to be found in the so @-@ called Dry Valleys of Antarctica that almost never get snow , which can have ice @-@ encrusted saline lakes that suggest evaporation far greater than the rare snowfall due to the strong katabatic winds that even evaporate ice .
Deserts , both hot and cold , play a part in moderating the Earth 's temperature . This is because they reflect more of the incoming light and their albedo is higher than that of forests or the sea .
= = = Features = = =
Many people think of deserts as consisting of extensive areas of billowing sand dunes because that is the way they are often depicted on TV and in films , but deserts do not always look like this . Across the world , around 20 % of desert is sand , varying from only 2 % in North America to 30 % in Australia and over 45 % in Central Asia . Where sand does occur , it is usually in large quantities in the form of sand sheets or extensive areas of dunes .
A sand sheet is a near @-@ level , firm expanse of partially consolidated particles in a layer that varies from a few centimeters to a few meters thick . The structure of the sheet consists of thin horizontal layers of coarse silt and very fine to medium grain sand , separated by layers of coarse sand and pea @-@ gravel which are a single grain thick . These larger particles anchor the other particles in place and may also be packed together on the surface so as to form a miniature desert pavement . Small ripples form on the sand sheet when the wind exceeds 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) . They form perpendicular to the wind direction and gradually move across the surface as the wind continues to blow . The distance between their crests corresponds to the average length of jumps made by particles during saltation . The ripples are ephemeral and a change in wind direction causes them to reorganise .
Sand dunes are accumulations of windblown sand piled up in mounds or ridges . They form downwind of copious sources of dry , loose sand and occur when topographic and climatic conditions cause airborne particles to settle . As the wind blows , saltation and creep take place on the windward side of the dune and individual grains of sand move uphill . When they reach the crest , they cascade down the far side . The upwind slope typically has a gradient of 10 ° to 20 ° while the lee slope is around 32 ° , the angle at which loose dry sand will slip . As this wind @-@ induced movement of sand grains takes place , the dune moves slowly across the surface of the ground . Dunes are sometimes solitary , but they are more often grouped together in dune fields . When these are extensive , they are known as sand seas or ergs .
The shape of the dune depends on the characteristics of the prevailing wind . Barchan dunes are produced by strong winds blowing across a level surface , and are crescent @-@ shaped with the concave side away from the wind . When there are two directions from which winds regularly blow , a series of long , linear dunes known as seif dunes may form . These also occur parallel to a strong wind that blows in one general direction . Transverse dunes run at a right angle to the prevailing wind direction . Star dunes are formed by variable winds , and have several ridges and slip faces radiating from a central point . They tend to grow vertically ; they can reach a height of 500 m ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) , making them the tallest type of dune . Rounded mounds of sand without a slip face are the rare dome dunes , found on the upwind edges of sand seas .
A large part of the surface area of the world 's deserts consists of flat , stone @-@ covered plains dominated by wind erosion . In " eolian deflation " , the wind continually removes fine @-@ grained material , which becomes wind @-@ blown sand . This exposes coarser @-@ grained material , mainly pebbles with some larger stones or cobbles , leaving a desert pavement , an area of land overlaid by closely packed smooth stones forming a tessellated mosaic . Different theories exist as to how exactly the pavement is formed . It may be that after the sand and dust is blown away by the wind the stones jiggle themselves into place ; alternatively , stones previously below ground may in some way work themselves to the surface . Very little further erosion takes place after the formation of a pavement , and the ground becomes stable . Evaporation brings moisture to the surface by capillary action and calcium salts may be precipitated , binding particles together to form a desert conglomerate . In time , bacteria that live on the surface of the stones accumulate a film of minerals and clay particles , forming a shiny brown coating known as desert varnish .
Other non @-@ sandy deserts consist of exposed outcrops of bedrock , dry soils or aridisols , and a variety of landforms affected by flowing water , such as alluvial fans , sinks or playas , temporary or permanent lakes , and oases . A hamada is a type of desert landscape consisting of a high rocky plateau where the sand has been removed by aeolian processes . Other landforms include plains largely covered by gravels and angular boulders , from which the finer particles have been stripped by the wind . These are called " reg " in the western Sahara , " serir " in the eastern Sahara , " gibber plains " in Australia and " saï " in central Asia . The Tassili Plateau in Algeria is an impressive jumble of eroded sandstone outcrops , canyons , blocks , pinnacles , fissures , slabs and ravines . In some places the wind has carved holes or arches and in others it has created mushroom @-@ like pillars narrower at the base than the top . In the Colorado Plateau it is water that has been the eroding force . Here the Colorado River has cut its way over the millennia through the high desert floor creating a canyon that is over a mile ( 6 @,@ 000 feet or 1 @,@ 800 meters ) deep in places , exposing strata that are over two billion year old .
= = = Water = = =
One of the driest places on Earth is the Atacama Desert . It is virtually devoid of life because it is blocked from receiving precipitation by the Andes mountains to the east and the Chilean Coast Range to the west . The cold Humboldt Current and the anticyclone of the Pacific are essential to keep the dry climate of the Atacama . The average precipitation in the Chilean region of Antofagasta is just 1 mm ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) per year . Some weather stations in the Atacama have never received rain . Evidence suggests that the Atacama may not have had any significant rainfall from 1570 to 1971 . It is so arid that mountains that reach as high as 6 @,@ 885 m ( 22 @,@ 589 ft ) are completely free of glaciers and , in the southern part from 25 ° S to 27 ° S , may have been glacier @-@ free throughout the Quaternary , though permafrost extends down to an altitude of 4 @,@ 400 m ( 14 @,@ 400 ft ) and is continuous above 5 @,@ 600 m ( 18 @,@ 400 ft ) . Nevertheless , there is some plant life in the Atacama , in the form of specialist plants that obtain moisture from dew and the fogs that blow in from the Pacific .
When rain falls in deserts , as it occasionally does , it is often with great violence . The desert surface is evidence of this with dry stream channels known as arroyos or wadis meandering across its surface . These can experience flash floods , becoming raging torrents with surprising rapidity after a storm that may be many kilometers away . Most deserts are in basins with no drainage to the sea but some are crossed by exotic rivers sourced in mountain ranges or other high rainfall areas beyond their borders . The River Nile , the Colorado River and the Yellow River do this , losing much of their water through evaporation as they pass through the desert and raising groundwater levels nearby . There may also be underground sources of water in deserts in the form of springs , aquifers , underground rivers or lakes . Where these lie close to the surface , wells can be dug and oases may form where plant and animal life can flourish . The Nubian Sandstone Aquifer System under the Sahara Desert is the largest known accumulation of fossil water . The Great Man @-@ Made River is a scheme launched by Libya 's Colonel Gadaffi to tap this aquifer and supply water to coastal cities . Kharga Oasis in Egypt is 150 km ( 93 mi ) long and is the largest oasis in the Libyan Desert . A lake occupied this depression in ancient times and thick deposits of sandy @-@ clay resulted . Wells are dug to extract water from the porous sandstone that lies underneath . Seepages may occur in the walls of canyons and pools may survive in deep shade near the dried up watercourse below .
Lakes may form in basins where there is sufficient precipitation or meltwater from glaciers above . They are usually shallow and saline , and wind blowing over their surface can cause stress , moving the water over nearby low @-@ lying areas . When the lakes dry up , they leave a crust or hardpan behind . This area of deposited clay , silt or sand is known as a playa . The deserts of North America have more than one hundred playas , many of them relics of Lake Bonneville which covered parts of Utah , Nevada and Idaho during the last ice age when the climate was colder and wetter . These include the Great Salt Lake , Utah Lake , Sevier Lake and many dry lake beds . The smooth flat surfaces of playas have been used for attempted vehicle speed records at Black Rock Desert and Bonneville Speedway and the United States Air Force uses Rogers Dry Lake in the Mojave Desert as runways for aircraft and the space shuttle .
= = Biogeography = =
= = = Flora = = =
Plants face severe challenges in arid environments . Problems they need to solve include how to obtain enough water , how to avoid being eaten and how to reproduce . Photosynthesis is the key to plant growth . It can only take place during the day as energy from the sun is required , but during the day , many deserts become very hot . Opening stomata to allow in the carbon dioxide necessary for the process causes evapotranspiration , and conservation of water is a top priority for desert vegetation . Some plants have resolved this problem by adopting crassulacean acid metabolism , allowing them to open their stomata during the night to allow CO2 to enter , and close them during the day , or by using C4 carbon fixation .
Many desert plants have reduced the size of their leaves or abandoned them altogether . Cacti are desert specialists and in most species the leaves have been dispensed with and the chlorophyll displaced into the trunks , the cellular structure of which has been modified to allow them to store water . When rain falls , the water is rapidly absorbed by the shallow roots and retained to allow them to survive until the next downpour , which may be months or years away . The giant saguaro cacti of the Sonoran Desert form " forests " , providing shade for other plants and nesting places for desert birds . Saguaro grow slowly but may live for up to two hundred years . The surface of the trunk is folded like a concertina , allowing it to expand , and a large specimen can hold eight tons of water after a good downpour .
Cacti are restricted to North America but other xerophytic plants have developed similar strategies by a process known as convergent evolution . They limit water loss by reducing the size and number of stomata , by having waxy coatings and hairy or tiny leaves . Some are deciduous , shedding their leaves in the driest season , and others curl their leaves up to reduce transpiration . Others store water in succulent leaves or stems or in fleshy tubers . Desert plants maximize water uptake by having shallow roots that spread widely , or by developing long taproots that reach down to deep rock strata for ground water . The saltbush in Australia has succulent leaves and secretes salt crystals , enabling it to live in saline areas . In common with cacti , many have developed spines to ward off browsing animals .
Some desert plants produce seed which lies dormant in the soil until sparked into growth by rainfall . When annuals , such plants grow with great rapidity and may flower and set seed within weeks , aiming to complete their development before the last vestige of water dries up . For perennial plants , reproduction is more likely to be successful if the seed germinates in a shaded position , but not so close to the parent plant as to be in competition with it . Some seed will not germinate until it has been blown about on the desert floor to scarify the seed coat . The seed of the mesquite tree , which grows in deserts in the Americas , is hard and fails to sprout even when planted carefully . When it has passed through the gut of a pronghorn it germinates readily , and the little pile of moist dung provides an excellent start to life well away from the parent tree . The stems and leaves of some plants lower the surface velocity of sand @-@ carrying winds and protect the ground from erosion . Even small fungi and microscopic plant organisms found on the soil surface ( so @-@ called cryptobiotic soil ) can be a
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vital link in preventing erosion and providing support for other living organisms . Some plants , including the Plantago Lanceolata , have to reproduce via wind pollination due to living in the environment . Cold deserts often have high concentrations of salt in the soil . Grasses and low shrubs are the dominant vegetation here and the ground may be covered with lichens . Most shrubs have spiny leaves and shed them in the coldest part of the year .
= = = Fauna = = =
Animals adapted to live in deserts are called xerocoles . There is no evidence that body temperature of mammals and birds is adaptive to the different climates , either of great heat or cold . In fact , with a very few exceptions , their basal metabolic rate is determined by body size , irrespective of the climate in which they live . Many desert animals ( and plants ) show especially clear evolutionary adaptations for water conservation or heat tolerance and so are often studied in comparative physiology , ecophysiology , and evolutionary physiology . One well @-@ studied example is the specializations of mammalian kidneys shown by desert @-@ inhabiting species . Many examples of convergent evolution have been identified in desert organisms , including between cacti and Euphorbia , kangaroo rats and jerboas , Phrynosoma and Moloch lizards .
Deserts present a very challenging environment for animals . Not only do they require food and water but they also need to keep their body temperature at a tolerable level . In many ways birds are the most able to do this of the higher animals . They can move to areas of greater food availability as the desert blooms after local rainfall and can fly to faraway waterholes . In hot deserts , gliding birds can remove themselves from the over @-@ heated desert floor by using thermals to soar in the cooler air at great heights . In order to conserve energy , other desert birds run rather than fly . The cream @-@ colored courser flits gracefully across the ground on its long legs , stopping periodically to snatch up insects . Like other desert birds it is well @-@ camouflaged by its coloring and can merge into the landscape when stationary . The sandgrouse is an expert at this and nests on the open desert floor dozens of kilometers ( miles ) away from the waterhole it needs to visit daily . Some small diurnal birds are found in very restricted localities where their plumage matches the color of the underlying surface . The desert lark takes frequent dust baths which ensures that it matches its environment .
Water and carbon dioxide are metabolic end products of oxidation of fats , proteins , and carbohydrates . Oxidising a gram of carbohydrate produces 0 @.@ 60 grams of water ; a gram of protein produces 0 @.@ 41 grams of water ; and a gram of fat produces 1 @.@ 07 grams of water , making it possible for xerocoles to live with little or no access to drinking water . The kangaroo rat for example makes use of this water of metabolism and conserves water both by having a low basal metabolic rate and by remaining underground during the heat of the day , reducing loss of water through its skin and respiratory system when at rest . Herbivorous mammals obtain moisture from the plants they eat . Species such as the addax antelope , dik @-@ dik , Grant 's gazelle and oryx are so efficient at doing this that they apparently never need to drink . The camel is a superb example of a mammal adapted to desert life . It minimizes its water loss by producing concentrated urine and dry dung , and is able to lose 40 % of its body weight through water loss without dying of dehydration . Carnivores can obtain much of their water needs from the body fluids of their prey . Many other hot desert animals are nocturnal , seeking out shade during the day or dwelling underground in burrows . At depths of more than 50 cm ( 20 in ) , these remain at between 30 to 32 ° C ( 86 to 90 ° F ) regardless of the external temperature . Jerboas , desert rats , kangaroo rats and other small rodents emerge from their burrows at night and so do the foxes , coyotes , jackals and snakes that prey on them . Kangaroos keep cool by increasing their respiration rate , panting , sweating and moistening the skin of their forelegs with saliva . Mammals living in cold deserts have developed greater insulation through warmer body fur and insulating layers of fat beneath the skin . The arctic weasel has a metabolic rate that is two or three times as high as would be expected for an animal of its size . Birds have avoided the problem of losing heat through their feet by not attempting to maintain them at the same temperature as the rest of their bodies , a form of adaptive insulation . The emperor penguin has dense plumage , a downy under layer , an air insulation layer next the skin and various thermoregulatory strategies to maintain its body temperature in one of the harshest environments on Earth .
Being ectotherms , reptiles are unable to live in cold deserts but are well @-@ suited to hot ones . In the heat of the day in the Sahara , the temperature can rise to 50 ° C ( 122 ° F ) . Reptiles cannot survive at this temperature and lizards will be prostrated by heat at 45 ° C ( 113 ° F ) . They have few adaptations to desert life and are unable to cool themselves by sweating so they shelter during the heat of the day . In the first part of the night , as the ground radiates the heat absorbed during the day , they emerge and search for prey . Lizards and snakes are the most numerous in arid regions and certain snakes have developed a novel method of locomotion that enables them to move sidewards and navigate high sand @-@ dunes . These include the horned viper of Africa and the sidewinder of North America , evolutionarily distinct but with similar behavioural patterns because of convergent evolution . Many desert reptiles are ambush predators and often bury themselves in the sand , waiting for prey to come within range .
Amphibians might seem unlikely desert @-@ dwellers , because of their need to keep their skins moist and their dependence on water for reproductive purposes . In fact , the few species that are found in this habitat have made some remarkable adaptations . Most of them are fossorial , spending the hot dry months aestivating in deep burrows . While there they shed their skins a number of times and retain the remnants around them as a waterproof cocoon to retain moisture . In the Sonoran Desert , Couch 's spadefoot toad spends most of the year dormant in its burrow . Heavy rain is the trigger for emergence and the first male to find a suitable pool calls to attract others . Eggs are laid and the tadpoles grow rapidly as they must reach metamorphosis before the water evaporates . As the desert dries out , the adult toads rebury themselves . The juveniles stay on the surface for a while , feeding and growing , but soon dig themselves burrows . Few make it to adulthood . The water holding frog in Australia has a similar life cycle and may aestivate for as long as five years if no rain falls . The Desert rain frog of Namibia is nocturnal and survives because of the damp sea fogs that roll in from the Atlantic .
Invertebrates , particularly arthropods , have successfully made their homes in the desert . Flies , beetles , ants , termites , locusts , millipedes , scorpions and spiders have hard cuticles which are impervious to water and many of them lay their eggs underground and their young develop away from the temperature extremes at the surface . The Saharan silver ant ( Cataglyphis bombycina ) uses a heat shock protein in a novel way and forages in the open during brief forays in the heat of the day . The long @-@ legged darkling beetle in Namibia stands on its front legs and raises its carapace to catch the morning mist as condensate , funnelling the water into its mouth . Some arthropods make use of the ephemeral pools that form after rain and complete their life cycle in a matter of days . The desert shrimp does this , appearing " miraculously " in new @-@ formed puddles as the dormant eggs hatch . Others , such as brine shrimps , fairy shrimps and tadpole shrimps , are cryptobiotic and can lose up to 92 % of their bodyweight , rehydrating as soon as it rains and their temporary pools reappear .
= = Human relations = =
Humans have long made use of deserts as places to live , and more recently have started to exploit them for minerals and energy capture . Deserts play a significant role in human culture with an extensive literature .
= = = History = = =
People have been living in deserts for millennia . Many , such as the Bushmen in the Kalahari , the Aborigines in Australia and various tribes of North American Indians , were originally hunter @-@ gatherers . They developed skills in the manufacture and use of weapons , animal tracking , finding water , foraging for edible plants and using the things they found in their natural environment to supply their everyday needs . Their self @-@ sufficient skills and knowledge were passed down through the generations by word of mouth . Other cultures developed a nomadic way of life as herders of sheep , goats , cattle , camels , yaks , llamas or reindeer . They travelled over large areas with their herds , moving to new pastures as seasonal and erratic rainfall encouraged new plant growth . They took with them their tents made of cloth or skins draped over poles and their diet included milk , blood and sometimes meat .
The desert nomads were also traders . The Sahara is a very large expanse of land stretching from the Atlantic rim to Egypt . Trade routes were developed linking the Sahel in the south with the fertile Mediterranean region to the north and large numbers of camels were used to carry valuable goods across the desert interior . The Tuareg were traders and the goods transported traditionally included slaves , ivory and gold going northwards and salt going southwards . Berbers with knowledge of the region were employed to guide the caravans between the various oases and wells . Several million slaves may have been taken northwards across the Sahara between the 8th and 18th centuries . Traditional means of overland transport declined with the advent of motor vehicles , shipping and air freight , but caravans still travel along routes between Agadez and Bilma and between Timbuktu and Taoudenni carrying salt from the interior to desert @-@ edge communities .
Round the rims of deserts , where more precipitation occurred and conditions were more suitable , some groups took to cultivating crops . This may have happened when drought caused the death of herd animals , forcing herdsmen to turn to cultivation . With few inputs , they were at the mercy of the weather and may have lived at bare subsistence level . The land they cultivated reduced the area available to nomadic herders , causing disputes over land . The semi @-@ arid fringes of the desert have fragile soils which are at risk of erosion when exposed , as happened in the American Dust Bowl in the 1930s . The grasses that held the soil in place were ploughed under , and a series of dry years caused crop failures , while enormous dust storms blew the topsoil away . Half a million Americans were forced to leave their land in this catastrophe .
Similar damage is being done today to the semi @-@ arid areas that rim deserts and about twelve million hectares of land are being turned to desert each year . Desertification is caused by such factors as drought , climatic shifts , tillage for agriculture , overgrazing and deforestation . Vegetation plays a major role in determining the composition of the soil . In many environments , the rate of erosion and run off increases dramatically with reduced vegetation cover . Unprotected dry surfaces tend to be blown away by the wind or be washed away by flash floods , leaving infertile soil layers that bake in the sun and become unproductive hardpan . Although overgrazing has historically been considered to be a cause of desertification , there is some evidence that wild and domesticated animals actually improve fertility and vegetation cover , and that their removal encourages erosive processes .
= = = Natural resource extraction = = =
Deserts contain substantial mineral resources , sometimes over their entire surface , giving them their characteristic colors . For example , the red of many sand deserts comes from laterite minerals . Geological processes in a desert climate can concentrate minerals into valuable deposits . Leaching by ground water can extract ore minerals and redeposit them , according to the water table , in concentrated form . Similarly , evaporation tends to concentrate minerals in desert lakes , creating dry lake beds or playas rich in minerals . Evaporation can concentrate minerals as a variety of evaporite deposits , including gypsum , sodium nitrate , sodium chloride and borates . Evaporites are found in the USA 's Great Basin Desert , historically exploited by the " 20 @-@ mule teams " pulling carts of borax from Death Valley to the nearest railway . A desert especially rich in mineral salts is the Atacama Desert , Chile , where sodium nitrate has been mined for explosives and fertilizer since around 1850 . Other desert minerals are copper from Chile , Peru , and Iran , and iron and uranium in Australia . Many other metals , salts and commercially valuable types of rock such as pumice are extracted from deserts around the world .
Oil and gas form on the bottom of shallow seas when micro @-@ organisms decompose under anoxic conditions and later become covered with sediment . Many deserts were at one time the sites of shallow seas and others have had underlying hydrocarbon deposits transported to them by the movement of tectonic plates . Some major oilfields such as Ghawar are found under the sands of Saudi Arabia . Geologists believe that other oil deposits were formed by aeolian processes in ancient deserts as may be the case with some of the major American oil fields .
= = = Farming = = =
Traditional desert farming systems have long been established in North Africa , irrigation being the key to success in an area where water stress is a limiting factor to growth . Techniques that can be used include drip irrigation , the use of organic residues or animal manures as fertilisers and other traditional agricultural management practises . Once fertility has been built up , further crop production preserves the soil from destruction by wind and other forms of erosion . It has been found that plant growth @-@ promoting bacteria play a role in increasing the resistance of plants to stress conditions and these rhizobacterial suspensions could be inoculated into the soil in the vicinity of the plants . A study of these microbes found that desert farming hampers desertification by establishing islands of fertility allowing farmers to achieve increased yields despite the adverse environmental conditions . A field trial in the Sonoran Desert which exposed the roots of different species of tree to rhizobacteria and the nitrogen fixing bacterium Azospirillum brasilense with the aim of restoring degraded lands was only partially successful .
The Judean Desert was farmed in the 7th century BC during the Iron Age to supply food for desert forts . Native Americans in the south western United States became agriculturalists around 600 AD when seeds and technologies became available from Mexico . They used terracing techniques and grew gardens beside seeps , in moist areas at the foot of dunes , near streams providing flood irrigation and in areas irrigated by extensive specially built canals . The Hohokam tribe constructed over 500 miles ( 800 km ) of large canals and maintained them for centuries , an impressive feat of engineering . They grew maize , beans , squash and peppers .
A modern example of desert farming is the Imperial Valley in California , which has high temperatures and average rainfall of just 3 in ( 76 mm ) per year . The economy is heavily based on agriculture and the land is irrigated through a network of canals and pipelines sourced entirely from the Colorado River via the All @-@ American Canal . The soil is deep and fertile , being part of the river 's flood plains , and what would otherwise have been desert has been transformed into one of the most productive farming regions in California . Other water from the river is piped to urban communities but all this has been at the expense of the river , which below the extraction sites no longer has any above @-@ ground flow during most of the year . Another problem of growing crops in this way is the build @-@ up of salinity in the soil caused by evaporation of river water . The greening of the desert remains an aspiration and was at one time viewed as a future means for increasing food production for the world 's growing population . This prospect has proved false as it disregarded the environmental damage caused elsewhere by the diversion of water for desert project irrigation .
= = = Solar energy capture = = =
Deserts are increasingly seen as sources for solar energy , partly due to low amounts of cloud cover . Many successful solar power plants have been built in the Mojave Desert . These plants have a combined capacity of 354 megawatts ( MW ) making them the largest solar power installation in the world . Large swaths of this desert are covered in mirrors , including nine fields of solar collectors . The Mojave Solar Park is currently under construction and will produce 280MW when completed .
The potential for generating solar energy from the Sahara Desert is huge , the highest found on the globe . Professor David Faiman of Ben @-@ Gurion University has stated that the technology now exists to supply all of the world 's electricity needs from 10 % of the Sahara Desert . Desertec Industrial Initiative is a consortium seeking $ 560 billion to invest in North African solar and wind installations over the next forty years to supply electricity to Europe via cable lines running under the Mediterranean Sea . European interest in the Sahara Desert stems from its two aspects : the almost continual daytime sunshine and plenty of unused land . The Sahara receives more sunshine per acre than any part of Europe . The Sahara Desert also has the empty space totalling hundreds of square miles required to house fields of mirrors for solar plants .
The Negev Desert , Israel , and the surrounding area , including the Arava Valley , receive plenty of sunshine and are generally not arable . This has resulted in the construction of many solar plants . David Faiman has proposed that " giant " solar plants in the Negev could supply all of Israel 's needs for electricity .
= = = Warfare = = =
The Arabs were probably the first organized force to conduct successful battles in the desert . By knowing back routes and the locations of oases and by utilizing camels , Muslim Arab forces were able to successfully overcome both Roman and Persian forces in the period 600 to 700 AD during the expansion of the Islamic caliphate .
Many centuries later , both world wars saw fighting in the desert . In the First World War , the Ottoman Turks were engaged with the British regular army in a campaign that spanned the Arabian peninsula . The Turks were defeated by the British , who had the backing of irregular Arab forces that were seeking to revolt against the Turks in the Hejaz , made famous in T. E. Lawrence 's book Seven Pillars of Wisdom .
In the Second World War , the Western Desert Campaign began in Italian Libya . Warfare in the desert offered great scope for tacticians to use the large open spaces without the distractions of casualties among civilian populations . Tanks and armoured vehicles were able to travel large distances unimpeded and land mines were laid in large numbers . However the size and harshness of the terrain meant that all supplies needed to be brought in from great distances . The victors in a battle would advance and their supply chain would necessarily become longer , while the defeated army could retreat , regroup and resupply . For these reasons , the front line moved back and forth through hundreds of kilometers as each side lost and regained momentum . Its most easterly point was at El Alamein in Egypt , where the Allies decisively defeated the Axis forces in 1942 .
= = = In culture = = =
The desert is generally thought of as a barren and empty landscape . It has been portrayed by writers , film @-@ makers , philosophers , artists and critics as a place of extremes , a metaphor for anything from death , war or religion to the primitive past or the desolate future .
There is an extensive literature on the subject of deserts . An early historical account is that of Marco Polo ( c . 1254 – 1324 ) , who travelled through Central Asia to China , crossing a number of deserts in his twenty four year trek . Some accounts give vivid descriptions of desert conditions , though often accounts of journeys across deserts are interwoven with reflection , as is the case in Charles Montagu Doughty 's major work , Travels in Arabia Deserta ( 1888 ) . Antoine de Saint @-@ Exupéry described both his flying and the desert in Wind , Sand and Stars and Gertrude Bell travelled extensively in the Arabian desert in the early part of the 20th century , becoming an expert on the subject , writing books and advising the British government on dealing with the Arabs . Another woman explorer was Freya Stark who travelled alone in the Middle East , visiting Turkey , Arabia , Yemen , Syria , Persia and Afghanistan , writing over twenty books on her experiences . The German naturalist Uwe George spent several years living in deserts , recording his experiences and research in his book , In the Deserts of this Earth .
The American poet Robert Frost expressed his bleak thoughts in his poem , Desert Places , which ends with the stanza " They cannot scare me with their empty spaces / Between stars - on stars where no human race is . / I have it in me so much nearer home / To scare myself with my own desert places . "
= = Deserts on other planets = =
Mars is the only planet in the Solar System on which deserts have been identified . Despite its low surface atmospheric pressure ( only 1 / 100 of that of the Earth ) , the patterns of atmospheric circulation on Mars have formed a sea of circumpolar sand more than 5 million km ² ( 1 @.@ 9 million sq mi ) in area , much larger than deserts on Earth . The Martian deserts principally consist of dunes in the form of half @-@ moons in flat areas near the permanent polar ice caps in the north of the planet . The smaller dune fields occupy the bottom of many of the craters situated in the Martian polar regions . Examination of the surface of rocks by laser beamed from the Mars Exploration Rover have shown a surface film that resembles the desert varnish found on Earth although it might just be surface dust . The surface of Titan , a moon of Saturn , also has a desert @-@ like surface with dune seas .
= Portage Glacier Highway =
The Portage Glacier Highway , or Portage Glacier Road , is a highway located in the U.S. state of Alaska . The highway is made up of a series of roads , bridges , and tunnels that connect the Portage Glacier area of the Chugach National Forest and the city of Whittier to the Seward Highway . Most of the highway travels through mainly rural areas just north of the Kenai Peninsula , with the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel passing under Maynard Mountain , part of the Chugach Mountain Range . Parts of the route were first constructed in the early 1900s , and the entire highway was completed on June 7 , 2000 , as part of the Whittier Access Project . As of 2012 , the highway has not been extended or rerouted . The main portion of the highway traveling from the western terminus to the Begich , Boggs visitors center is designated as National Forest Highway 35 by the U.S. Forest Service .
= = Route description = =
The portion of the Portage Glacier Highway traveling from the Seward Highway to the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center is designated as part of Forest Highway 35 , a Federal Forest Highway ( FFH ) . Forest Highways are funded and administered by the US Forest Service and the Federal Highway Administration ; the system was created by the Federal Aid Highway Act of 1921 . FFH @-@ 35 is one of the 33 Forest Highways that are currently designated in Alaska .
= = = Chugach National Forest = = =
The Portage Glacier Highway begins at an at @-@ grade intersection with the Seward Highway , in the former town of Portage . At this point , the highway is a two @-@ lane , asphalt road . Almost immediately after the Seward Highway intersection , the road crosses over the Coastal Classic line of the Alaska Railroad . The highway continues in a southeasterly direction along the Portage Valley , with Portage Creek to the north and pine forests to the south . After about 1 @.@ 2 miles ( 1 @.@ 9 km ) , the roadway intersects a small gravel road that leads to the Moose Flats Day Use area , which has access to several scenic hiking trails . Peaks of the Chugach Mountains , along with several hanging glaciers can be seen from the road ; Portage Glacier itself is out of view . The highway passes through a low @-@ lying wetland before reentering forest and providing access to the Alder Pond Day Use area and the Portage Valley RV park .
Portage Glacier Highway continues southeastward , providing access to the Black Bear Campgrounds , maintained by the USFS . The roadway bends eastward , passing the USFS Williwaw Campgrounds , as well as several small gravel roads . The road continues for a short distance before passing the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center and associated buildings , comprising the headquarters of Portage Glacier unit of the Chugach National Forest . The highway continues onto the Portage Creek Bridge , which is 114 feet ( 35 m ) long . It allows the highway to cross over the small Portage Creek , which is fed by the Portage Glacier and Portage Lake . The bridge ends at the start of the Portage Lake Tunnel . The tunnel is 445 feet ( 136 m ) long and constructed of concrete . The route proceeds on to a 0 @.@ 5 mi ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) portion of road known as the " Rock Cut at Portage Lake " by the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities ( DOT & PF ) . This road passes along the coast of Portage Lake , and borders a large , man @-@ made cliff to the north ( hence the name " Rock Cut " ) . This portion of the route terminates at the Placer Creek Bridge . The bridge , which is just 83 feet ( 25 m ) long , spans over Placer Creek , the smaller of the two creeks fed by Portage Lake . The highway continues to the six @-@ lane Bear Valley Staging area , and the toll booth for the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel . The road continues into the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel .
= = = Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel = = =
The Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel ( often referred to simply as the Whittier Tunnel ) is a multi @-@ use highway and railroad tunnel that passes under Maynard Mountain . At 13 @,@ 300 ft ( 4 @,@ 100 m ) , it is the second @-@ longest highway tunnel and longest combined rail and highway tunnel in North America . The tunnel was upgraded to mixed use by the Kiewit Construction Company .
The tunnel is designed with a single highway lane . The floor of the tunnel is constructed of 1 @,@ 800 texturized concrete panels ( each 7 @.@ 5 feet ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) by 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) ) with the railroad tracks sunken slightly below the road surface . The interior is exposed rock , and contains several " safe @-@ houses " , which are small buildings that are used in case of severe earthquakes , vehicle fires , or other emergencies . The tunnel also contains several pull @-@ outs , which are reserved for disabled vehicles . The tunnel uses a combination of portal fans and reversible jet engines to ensure proper air flow and air quality throughout the tunnel . There are two backup generators to ensure that the computerized traffic controls and safe @-@ house ventilation systems in the tunnel continue to function in the event of a power failure . Because eastbound traffic , westbound traffic , and the Alaska Railroad must share the tunnel , rail and road traffic are coordinated by two sophisticated computer @-@ based systems : the Tunnel Control System and the Train Signal System . These systems control the timing of vehicles entering the tunnel , spacing them for safety , and lower railroad gates when a train is approaching . The tunnel 's entrance portals are designed in an A @-@ shape , with a large , train @-@ sized " garage door " , which allows traffic in and out of the tunnel . The entrance portals are designed to withstand the force of an avalanche . The tunnel 's eastern terminus is in Whittier . The staging areas on either side of the tunnel can accommodate as many as 450 vehicles waiting to pass through .
Track circuits in the tunnel had problems because of wetness ; in 2015 these were replaced with axle counters .
= = = Whittier = = =
After exiting the tunnel , the highway enters the nine @-@ lane Whittier staging area , where it passes several of the tunnel 's automated control systems . Before traveling past the single @-@ runway Whittier Airport , the route intersects two small roads , one of which is the Portage Pass Trail access route . Running parallel to the Alaska Railroad line , the route continues between the Passage Canal and several mountains for approximately 0 @.@ 5 miles ( 0 @.@ 80 km ) . Passing by the Cliffside Marina , the route crosses over Whittier Creek before immediately turning off of Camp Road and onto Whittier Street . The road crosses over the Alaska Railroad , before bending southeastward and traveling past a large parking lot , the Whittier Parking and Camping headquarters . Traveling past several businesses making up central Whittier , the highway turns east and intersects Glacier Avenue , as well as a short pedestrian pathway . The roadway continues through central Whittier before reaching a four @-@ way intersection with Blackstone Road , Eastern Avenue , and Depot Road , after which the route transfers to the latter . The road continues along Passage Canal for a short distance , while traveling towards the Alaska Marine Highway ( AMHS ) pier . Depot Road splits away from the highway , which continues for a short distance along Dock Access Road before reaching its eastern terminus , the AMHS pier .
= = = Traffic = = =
The highway is maintained by the Alaska Department of Transportation & Public Facilities ( AkDOT & PF ) . Part of the job of the AkDOT & PF is to measure traffic along the highway . These counts are taken using a metric called annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) . This is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles that travel along a portion of the highway . The estimated AADT for the Portage Glacier Highway is 1 @,@ 030 vehicles . In addition to taking AADT , the AkDOT & PF also takes monthly and yearly counts for the highway . The road 's yearly traffic count for 2010 was 234 @,@ 738 vehicles . The roadway 's highest monthly traffic is in mid @-@ summer , when an average of nearly 50 @,@ 000 vehicles use the tunnel each month . The highway 's lowest monthly traffic is in late winter , when the average monthly traffic is only about 6 @,@ 000 . The monthly and yearly counts are taken at the entrance to the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel . The entire length of the highway is designated as an Intermodal Connector Route , part of the National Highway System ( NHS ) , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = Scenic and recreational opportunities = =
The Portage Glacier Highway offers numerous scenic and recreational opportunities , mostly located along the section designated as FFH @-@ 35 . A short , 0 @.@ 25 miles ( 0 @.@ 40 km ) long boardwalk trail and the 4 @.@ 6 miles ( 7 @.@ 4 km ) long Trail of Blue Ice are accessible through the Moose Flats Day @-@ Use area . A viewing area for the Explorer Glacier is located near milepost 2 , and a turnout for the Portage River is located near milepost 3 . Near milepost 4 is the Williwaw fish viewing observation deck , which allows travelers to view spanning salmon in July through September . The 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) long loop Williwaw Nature Trail is accessible through the Williwaw Campground . The trail provides views of the Middle Glacier . At the turnout for the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center is the Byron Glacier Trail as well as several others . The Portage Glacier can be seen on a short cruise on the M / V Ptarmigan ; The glacier is no longer visible from the road . Past milepost 6 is a turnout for the Byron Glacier and Portage Lake .
Many large hoofed animals such as moose , and caribou can be seen along the highway , as well as black and brown bear species . Bald Eagles can occasionally be seen from the highway . If using binoculars , mountain goats can be seen on the sides of the mountains . During spring and autumn , migrating species of ducks , geese , swans , and cranes can be seen throughout the region . Spawning salmon species of sockeye , chum , and coho can be seen in Portage Creek . Several unique species of wildflowers are found along several of the trails in the area . Whittier annually holds the Walk to Whittier , which is an event where pedestrians walk through the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel to Whittier , the only time pedestrians may use the tunnel . The event has been held since 2002 , except it was not held in 2010 . The walk traditionally takes place in June .
= = Tolls = =
A toll is charged for access through the Anton Anderson Tunnel . The fees are collected from vehicles traveling eastbound . The fee for a regular vehicle is $ 13 , as is the price for motorcycles . Vehicles pulling trailers must pay a higher toll , set at $ 20 . Small buses and regular RVs are charged $ 35 , while large buses must pay $ 125 . Oversize and unusually sized vehicles , those 10 to 11 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 to 3 @.@ 4 m ) wide and 14 to 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 to 4 @.@ 6 m ) high must pay $ 300 per use . Vehicles that are exempt from paying tolls are those owned by the Alaska Railroad , the DOT & PF , or any emergency or law enforcement vehicle . Any vehicles owned or operated by any state government agency or school district must pay just $ 10 .
Seasonal passes are also available for normal @-@ sized cars , trucks and motorcycles , and are priced at over $ 500 . The average passenger vehicle toll cost per mile is $ 39 @.@ 42 , while the average per @-@ mile vehicle price for trucks is $ 39 @.@ 52 . The tunnel is operated on a strict time schedule , with vehicles being allowed in for 15 minutes from each a single direction before alternating to the other . The tunnel is open from 5 : 30 A.M. to 11 : 15 P.M. during summer months , and from 7 : 00 A.M. to 10 : 45 P.M. during winter months .
= = History = =
= = = Native trail = = =
The earliest evidence of the Portage Valley being used for transportation dates back to early A.D , when the Inuit people used the flat , low @-@ lying valley as a pass through the Chugach Mountains . The Dena 'ina people continued use of the valley as a passage between Cochrane Bay and the Turnagain Arm . They used Portage Creek for fishing purposes , and established a series of trails along the creek . Russian fur traders and early settlers continued to use the valley , establishing a trail along the creek and the Portage and Burns glaciers . It was possible for boats to travel through the valley by using the Passage Canal and the creek up until 1913 . The trail was usable until 1939 , due to the continuous recession of the Portage Glacier . The final party to attempt to use the trail that year was forced to climb 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) up the Portage Shoulder to avoid the drop @-@ offs and crevasses that had formed along the trail .
= = = Railroad development = = =
In 1940 , the U.S. Government realized that it needed to reevaluate its territories , including Alaska . Alaska was declared a vulnerable attack target , as was the existing railroad connecting Anchorage and Seward . The U.S. Armed Forces began planning for new roads and railroads , and on October 15 , 1940 , General Simon Bolivar Buckner , Jr. announced those plans . The plan called for the existing railroad to be transferred to Whittier , and for the construction of a road to Seward ( the Seward Highway ) , a road to the Richardson Highway ( the Glenn Highway and the Tok Cut @-@ Off ) , and a road to the Portage Valley ( the Portage Glacier Highway ) . Less than a week after the announcement of the plan , surveying of the area around Whittier was taking place in order to make sure of the safety of building the railroad terminal . The project was strongly opposed by the city of Seward , but after the survey was complete , the project was definite .
In early 1941 , large groups of people from the Kenai Peninsula traveled to Washington , D.C. to protest the moving of the railroad . The protests were useless , and on April 3 , 1941 , U.S. Congress passed a bill providing the project with $ 5 @.@ 3 million ( equivalent to $ 85 @,@ 267 @,@ 600 respectively in 2016 ) . In late April , the U.S. Army 's 177th Engineering group began work on clearing and grading the former native trail . The U.S. Army hired the West Construction Company of Boston , MA. to assist in the construction of the future railroad 's two tunnels . West Construction and the Army began working on the tunnel under Mount Maynard in late August 1941 . The first boring of the tunnel began on the east side of the mountain , and shortly afterwards , construction on the west side began . Winter hindered the construction of the tunnel until mid November , when a small " snowshed " building was constructed . The U.S. entered World War II on December 8 , 1941 , after the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor . This sparked the need for the completion of the tunnel earlier than expected . By the end of 1941 , workers had tunneled more than 170 feet ( 52 m ) into Maynard Mountain .
Work on the tunnel rapidly increased into the summer of 1942 . Large areas of the rock were blasted away with controlled explosions , using dynamite . The material removed from the tunnel was used as grading material for other parts of the railway . Supplies were received behind schedule , mainly due to the war . This hindered progress on the tunnel . In June 1942 , Japanese forces attacked and invaded the Alaskan islands of Attu and Kiska , again provoking the need to complete the tunnels sooner . The winter conditions of 1942 and 1943 slowed the progress of the tunnels . Work on the railroad continued until April 23 , 1943 , when the project was completed . Anton Anderson , the lead engineer for the tunnels and namesake for the tunnel to Whittier , was not present when the railroad was used for the first time , fearing the Whittier Tunnel was not ready .
= = = Early roads = = =
The U.S. army established a series of simple earthen roads while constructing the railroad spur . This was the first road to exist in the Portage Valley . Whittier began to grow after the completion of the railroad spur . The port boomed in the mid @-@ 1940s , with the population reaching over 1 @,@ 000 . The city , including roads , began to form . By 1953 , the earthen road in Portage Valley had generally been relocated near the location of the present highway . Also around that time , a road in Whittier in the location of the present highway existed as a graded , dirt road . The highway was probably paved sometime between 1965 and 1967 , and three small bridges along the route were constructed , all of which are still used today .
= = = Highway studies and proposals = = =
Between the late 1950s and the early 1960s , the U.S. Military pulled out of Whittier , allowing the town to grow as a commercial port . Whittier 's location made it a large tourist location , and after the military pullout , travel to Whittier grew massively . In addition to the state 's paving of the highway , the Alaska Railroad began offering shuttle services between Portage and Whittier in the mid @-@ 1960s . The Alaska Railroad would allow vehicles to drive onto flatcars , which would then be transported by train through the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel to Whittier . The number of people visiting Whittier grew progressively , bringing with it a larger number of requests for a more convenient and affordable way of transportation to Whittier . During the late 1970s , a proposal was put forward for a road to Whittier . In preparation for the highway , Anchorage businessman Pete Zamarello purchased the Buckner Building , and planned to convert it into a resort . However , the highway proposal fell through . In 1981 , the AkDOT & PF began to study possible alternatives to the railroad , which would have cost anywhere between $ 10 million and $ 68 million .
In 1993 , the AkDOT & PF finally initiated the study for the alternative transportation system to Whittier . The project would be named the " Whittier Access Project " . The AkDOT & PF authorized HDR Alaska to conduct the study . The study presented five solutions : increasing the existing flatcar service , installing a high @-@ speed electric rail service , constructing a series of highways over the mountain range , building a highway and tunnels through the mountain range , and constructing a highway to the existing railroad tunnel and expanding the tunnel to withstand motor vehicles . After consulting with members of the Alaska Railroad , the general public , and highway and tunnel engineers , the AkDOT & PF decided to move forward with the last option , involving the expansion of the Anton Anderson Memorial Tunnel and the construction of a highway . In November 1995 , an environmental impact statement , created by HDR Alaska , was approved by the FHWA , allowing the project to move forward .
= = = Whittier Access Project = = =
In March 1996 , the state of Alaska announced its final plans for the construction of the Whittier Access Project . The project was predicted to cost around $ 50 million , and the project was planned to begin later that year . However , the project was met with much controversy , and by December 1996 , the project still had not begun . The cost of construction was reevaluated to be around $ 60 million , and the project was planned to begin in March 1997 . Construction of the Whittier Access Project finally began on May 6 , 1997 . Then @-@ governor of Alaska Tony Knowles began the construction when he detonated six pounds of explosives located on Begich Peak , although this was unrelated to the project itself . On May 22 , 1997 , construction of the project was halted . Carl S. Armbrister , the Director of the Office of Planning and Program Development for the FHWA 's 10th Region and head of the project was sued by several environmental agencies and tourism groups , headed by the Alaska Center for the Environment ( ACE ) . The ACE brought the suit against Armbrister on the grounds that the project violated section 4 ( f ) of the Department of Transportation Act of 1966 , which requires that all environmental impacts of a project be assessed and that a project " [ has ] no feasible and prudent alternative " . The ACE held that a new highway was not needed and improving the existing rail service was a prudent and feasible option . However , one day after construction was stopped , a judicial ruling was issued permitting work to continue . Construction continued for a week , until May 31 , but was then halted again due to the lawsuit . Work on the project was ruled off until at least mid @-@ July of that year .
James Keith Singleton , Jr . , the district judge overseeing the case , ruled in favor of Armbrister and the FHWA and stated that the agency was correct in its decision against improved rail service . The suit was compared to the landmark 1971 case Citizens to Preserve Overton Park , Inc. v. Volpe , where the supreme court ruled in favor of Memphis , Tennessee citizens attempting to protect Overton Park from a plan to route Interstate 40 through 26 acres ( 11 ha ) of its forest . However , unlike in that case , the Whittier Access project was found to be the only feasible solution for a link to Whittier . The ACE appealed the decision and the case went to the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals . The court upheld Singleton 's decision , finding that the project only affected a very small amount of parkland and that the road was necessary to meet the requirements for a link to the city . These rulings were legally significant as they appeared to overturn the precedent established in the Overton Park case , which was interpreted as saying that " it must be shown that the implications of not building [ a ] highway pose an `unusual situation ' " .
Work on the project was finally approved following the Ninth Circuit 's decision . The lawsuit had put the project , which had been planned to be completed by the end of 1998 , far behind schedule . The first phase of construction consisted of building the Portage Creek Bridge and the construction of a new tunnel through Begich Peak . The contract for the phase had been awarded prior to the lawsuit , but work on the components was not completed until very late in 1998 . A temporary bridge was built over Portage Creek so that the tunnel could be constructed . The final part of the phase was replacing the temporary bridge over Portage Creek . The structure was designed so that it would appear to fit with the environment but could also withstand the regular seismic activity of the region and have a minimal impact on the surrounding fish and plant populations . CH2M Hill was selected to design the approximately 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of highway that would connect the existing road to the Anton Anderson Tunnel . Construction of the highway , done by Herndon and Thompson Inc . , was finished before tunnel work began .
The Kiewit Construction Company , based in Omaha , Nebraska , was awarded the contract for phase two , redesigning the Anton Anderson Tunnel . Kiewit began planning the tunnel design in June 1998 , and began work on the project sometime around September . The first part of the tunnel construction involved vertically and horizontally expanding the existing rock walls . Beginning from the western entrance , Kiewit drilled away several feet of the rock face from the top of the tunnel and installed a net to prevent any potential rockfalls . They then drilled sideways , clearing space for the nine vehicle turnaround areas . However , work on the tunnel was hindered by several different events . While crews were working on the tunnel , a drunken Whittier resident drove his or her truck into the tunnel and got it stuck on the rails . On October 23 , a thirteen @-@ car train derailed at the western entrance . Although no workers were injured , a substantial amount of the equipment was destroyed . In addition to the accidents , crews had to work in extreme weather . Kiewit claims that workers had to deal with " winds of more than 120 mph , minus 40 degree temperatures and snow up to 43 feet deep " and wind chills that would drop to around − 80 ° F ( − 62 ° C ) . An avalanche also at one point halted construction for four days .
Despite the conditions , the crews were forced to do much of the work during the winter , since the project had to adjust to the train schedule . Trains ran daily during the summer , so work was restricted to about nine @-@ hour shifts during the night . During winter months , trains were only operating during four days each week . When a train was scheduled to come through the tunnel , crews reported they had to " spent up to two hours breaking down equipment , getting it all outside and waiting for the train to pass before heading back into the mountain " . Following the expanding of the tunnel , one of the first steps the crews took was to demolish the existing entrance portals . Once they were destroyed , the existing rail was removed in sections . Pre @-@ cast panels were laid where the tracks had been , before the old rail was put back and welded to the panels . While that was being completed , some crews installed a series of anti @-@ icing insulation panels and drainage pipes to keep the tunnel clear during winter months .
Construction work was completed on schedule , in early 2000 . The town of Whittier began a number of improvements to help adjust for the road 's opening . Among these were more parking facilities and increasing public restrooms . The town government also approved of several long @-@ term changes to the city that would begin after the road was opened , including a second harbor , a bike trail , a new sidewalk system , and shopping center . The official opening ceremony was held on June 7 and was marked by protests from environmentalists . A group of three of them chained themselves together in the middle of the road in an attempt to block traffic , while another group of about twenty hung banners and waved signs . The ceremony itself was attended by around 300 people . Then @-@ governor Knowles performed a ribbon @-@ cutting and rode through the tunnel in a 1954 @-@ model Cadillac .
= = Major junctions = =
= = Related route = =
Forest Highway 35 ( FFH @-@ 35 ) is a Federal Forest Highway located entirely within Chugach National Forest . The highway is approximately 6 @.@ 6 miles ( 10 @.@ 6 km ) long , and is mostly designated along the Portage Glacier Highway . The road serves the Portage Glacier branch of the park . FFH @-@ 35 begins at an intersection with the Seward Highway ( AK @-@ 1 ) in Portage . The route follows the Portage Glacier Highway for approximately 5 miles ( 8 @.@ 0 km ) , passing several park campgrounds and scenic turnouts . FFH 35 turns off the Portage Glacier Highway onto Portage Lake Loop Road , passing west of the Begich , Boggs Visitor Center Complex . The designation then shifts from Portage Lake Loop Road to Byron Glacier Road , which proceeds southward past low @-@ lying marshland along Portage Lake . It continues past a small turnout area and travels over a small creek before proceeding eastward to its eastern terminus , a building and parking lot that make up part of the visitor center .
Major intersections
The entire highway is located within the Municipality of Anchorage , Alaska .
= Fez ( video game ) =
Fez ( stylized as FEZ ) is a 2012 indie puzzle platform game developed by Polytron Corporation and published by Polytron , Trapdoor , and Microsoft Studios . The player @-@ character Gomez receives a fez that reveals his two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) world to be one of four sides of a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) world . The player rotates between these four 2D views to realign platforms and solve the game 's puzzles . The object of the game is to collect cubes and cube fragments to restore order to the universe .
The game was called an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " during its high @-@ profile and protracted five @-@ year development cycle . Fez designer and Polytron founder Phil Fish gained celebrity status for his outspoken public persona and his prominence in the 2012 documentary Indie Game : The Movie , which detailed Fez 's final stages of development and Polytron 's related legal issues . Fez met critical acclaim upon its April 2012 release for Xbox Live Arcade . The game was ported to other platforms following the expiration of a yearlong exclusivity agreement .
Reviewers commended the game 's emphasis on discovery and freedom , but criticized its technical issues , in @-@ game navigation , and endgame backtracking . They likened the game 's rotation mechanic to the 2D – 3D shifts of Echochrome , Super Paper Mario , and Crush . Fez won awards including the Seumas McNally Grand Prize and Eurogamer 's 2012 Game of the Year . It had sold one million copies by the end of 2013 , and it influenced games such as Monument Valley , Crossy Road , and Secrets of Rætikon . A planned sequel was canceled when Fish abruptly left the industry .
= = Gameplay = =
Fez is a two @-@ dimensional ( 2D ) puzzle platform game set in a three @-@ dimensional ( 3D ) world . The player @-@ character Gomez lives peacefully on a 2D plane until he receives a red fez and witnesses the breakup of a giant , golden hexahedron that tears the fabric of spacetime and reveals a third dimension . After the game appears to glitch , reset , and reboot , the player can rotate between four 2D views of the 3D world , as four sides around a cube @-@ like space . This rotation mechanic reveals new paths through the levels by connecting otherwise inaccessible platforms , and is the basis of Fez 's puzzles . For example , floating platforms become a solid road , discontinuous ladders become whole , and platforms that move along a track stay on course . The object of the game is to collect cubes and cube fragments , which accrete to restore order to the universe . In search of these cubes , Gomez traverses the game environment by jumping between ledges . Other platforming elements change with the level themes , including crates that activate switches , bombs that reveal passages , and pistons that launch Gomez airborne .
The exploratory parts of the game feature a series of arcane codes and glyphs , treasure maps and chests , and secret rooms . Players are left without guidance to determine whether game elements are decipherable subpuzzles or simply false signals . These sorts of puzzles include hidden warp gates , enigmatic obelisks , invisible platforms , sequences of tetrominos , a ciphered alphabet , and QR codes . One of the game 's recurring themes is an ancient civilization that attempted to make sense of their dimensionality , as told through artifacts .
Fez has no enemies , bosses , or punishments for failure — the player @-@ character quickly respawns upon falling to his death . The game 's designer described Fez as a " ' stop and smell the flowers ' kind of game " . It prioritizes puzzle @-@ solving and patience over the platforming genre 's traditional interest in dexterity . Fez features a pixelated art style and a limited color palette reminiscent of the 8 @-@ bit era . Its homage includes Tetris tetrominos inscribed on the walls and in the sky , The Legend of Zelda treasure chest animations , Super Mario Bros. mushroom levels , travel by pipe , and floating platforms . The game 's settings include forests , factories , a coastal lighthouse , an urban city , and a library . Fez 's New Game Plus mode adds a first @-@ person perspective feature and lets the player revisit areas to collect " anti @-@ cubes " from harder puzzles . This second half of the game is more challenging and focuses on code cracking .
= = Development = =
Fez 's five @-@ year development cycle is known for its protracted length and amount of public exposure . Nathan Grayson of VG247 likened its rocky history to " an indie Duke Nukem Forever " , and Polygon reviewer Arthur Gies noted its standing reputation as an " underdog darling of the indie game scene " . Its designer , Phil Fish , became renowned in a way unusual for game developers due to his prominence in the 2012 Indie Game : The Movie . Apart from Fez , which was released to wide acclaim , Fish himself became known for his outspoken and acerbic public persona .
Fez began as a collaboration between Canadian indie developers Fish and Shawn McGrath . They worked on McGrath 's idea for a puzzle game in which a 3D space was viewed from four 2D angles . Though their partnership broke down due to creative differences , the entirety of Fez 's design , story , and art descends from this game mechanic . Fish continued to work on the project in his spare time and solicited for a programmer on DeviantArt , where he found Renaud Bédard . Fez was first announced in July 2007 on The Independent Gaming Source . It was nominated for two awards at the 2008 Game Developers Conference Independent Games Festival ( GDC IGF ) . When Fish 's employer did not permit him time off to attend the awards , he quit . He later recalled this moment as " when [ he ] became indie " . The game won " Excellence in Visual Art " , and its presence created a surge of public interest in Fez that rode a concurrent swell of interest in indie game development as a whole . Fish received a Canadian government loan to open Polytron Corporation as a startup company and began full @-@ time work on Fez . In July 2009 , Polytron announced that Fez would launch in early 2010 as an Xbox Live Arcade exclusive . Development continued with an experimental spirit until the company ran out of money . Fish borrowed from friends and family to keep the company open and considered canceling the project before the nearby Québécois developer @-@ publisher Trapdoor offered to help . Fish felt that the Trapdoor partnership rescued the game .
Fez won multiple awards in 2011 and was a " PAX 10 " selection at the 2011 Penny Arcade Expo . Fish is shown preparing for Fez 's booth at PAX East 2011 , an earlier show , in the 2012 documentary film Indie Game : The Movie . The film chronicles the game development stories of several indie developers . As a subplot , the film presents Fish amidst a legal dispute with a former business partner that jeopardizes Fez 's future . Game Informer called Fish the film 's " most memorable developer " , and Rock , Paper , Shotgun wrote that Fish is portrayed as theatrical in a way that exacerbates his already outspoken reputation . Eurogamer said that the part when Fish resolves to kill himself if he does not release his game is " the film 's most startling moment " . Near the end of Fez 's development , Fish told a Gamasutra reporter that he had received positive feedback from IGF Chairman Brandon Boyer and Braid designer Jonathan Blow , but that he felt " burnt out " . The final game included almost none of the original work from the first two years of development . After several delays , Fez was submitted for certification in February 2012 .
Fez was released on April 13 , 2012 , and it sold 200 @,@ 000 copies during its yearlong exclusivity to the Xbox Live Arcade platform . Fish rebuked Polytron 's co @-@ publisher , Microsoft Studios , for botching the game 's release by way of lackluster publicity . Several months later , Polytron entered a high @-@ profile dispute with Microsoft over the cost of patching Fez . Nearly a year after Fez 's launch , Fish announced a Windows PC port for release on May 1 , 2013 . OS X and Linux ports debuted on September 11 , 2013 , and PlayStation 3 , PlayStation 4 , and PlayStation Vita ports by BlitWorks debuted on March 25 , 2014 . Ouya and iOS ports were also announced . Bédard stayed to port the Windows release before joining Toronto 's Capybara Games . He credited Polytron 's long development cycle to his own inexperience in game development ( compounded by the team 's small size and difficulty in setting reasonable milestones ) , the game 's scope , and Fish 's perfectionism . Fish had hoped that players would discuss Fez 's nuances online after its release . Players collaborated online for a week to solve the final " monolith " puzzle by using a cryptanalytic attack known as brute force . Ars Technica described the apparent end to Fez 's harder puzzles as " anticlimactic " , but Fish told Eurogamer in March 2013 that hidden in @-@ game secrets remain to be found .
More than three years after its digital launch , Fez received a physical release designed by Fish and limited to a signed edition of 500 in December 2015 . The deluxe package included the soundtrack and a stylized red notebook with gold foil inlay .
= = = Design = = =
Bédard wrote Fez in Microsoft Visual C # Express and XNA Game Studio Express . He coded the level editor and the game engine , Trixel , which converts 2D tiles ( " triles " ) into four @-@ sided 3D voxels ( " trixels " ) . Fish made 2D pixel art in Photoshop for each side of the trixel , which Bédard 's custom software compiled into 3D game assets . Fish would then design levels in the level editor by extruding surfaces , a process he found " overwhelming " but akin to playing with Lego blocks . In their workflow , Fish first proposed ideas that Bédard would implement . The two would then discuss and fine @-@ tune the addition — they worked well together .
The game came to adopt Metroidvania mechanics , with " secret passages , warp gates , and cheat codes " . Fish cited Myst as an inspiration and compared its open world , nonlinear narrative , and " obtuse metapuzzles " to Fez 's own alphabet , numeric system , and an " almost unfairly hard to get ... second set of collectibles " . He was also inspired by the Nintendo Entertainment System games of his youth ( particularly those of the Super Mario and The Legend of Zelda series ) , Hayao Miyazaki 's signature " open blue sky " , " feel @-@ good " atmosphere , and Fumito Ueda 's Ico . Fish sought to emulate Ico 's feeling of nostalgic and isolated loneliness , and Ueda 's development philosophy wherein all nonessential game elements are removed ( " design by subtraction " ) . Fish made a personal challenge of designing a game without relying on " established mechanics " . As such , Fez was always a peaceful game that never contained an antagonist .
= = Music = =
Rich Vreeland , also known as Disasterpeace , composed the game 's chiptune @-@ esque electronic soundtrack . Despite his background in chiptune , Vreeland limited his use of that genre 's mannerisms in the score . He worked with soft synth pads and reverb to push the score closer to an 1980s synthesizer sound . He also reduced reliance on percussion and incorporated distortion techniques like bitcrushing and wow . Vreeland opted for slower passages with varying tempos that could " ebb , flow , and breathe with the player " . He left some portions of Fez without music . Vreeland worked on its soundtrack at night for about 14 months while scoring Shoot Many Robots , and Brandon McCartin of Aquaria contributed the game 's sound effects .
Vreeland 's first composition for the game ( " Adventure " ) became the soundtrack 's first track . He wrote it after meeting Bédard but before discussing the soundtrack with Fish , and based the composition on Fez audio created prior to his arrival . Vreeland wanted to use tape recorders for their distinctive sound , but potential audio synching issues with this method led him to employ digital recording . Portions of the soundtrack dynamically change between several dozen constituent elements and react to the game environment . For example , the " Puzzle " track 's elements change musical key based on the in @-@ game time of day . Certain tracks were intended to imitate real @-@ world sounds , such as those of bats , thunderstorms , taiko , and water falling from stalactites . Other tracks expanded from improvisations . Vreeland was also inspired by the Lord of the Rings Shire theme , 1980s horror media , the soundtrack of demoscene game Jasper 's Journeys , the Legend of Zelda dungeon music , the Mass Effect soundtrack , Tangerine Dream , and Steve Reich . " Continuum " is a synthesized rendition of Frédéric Chopin 's Prelude , Op. 28 , No. 4 . Instruments used in recording include the Sonic Charge Synplant , minimoog , " synthetic flute " , and Boomwhacker .
The soundtrack was released in a digital format on April 20 , 2012 . Pre @-@ orders for the soundtrack topped the Bandcamp charts . Kirk Hamilton of Kotaku wrote that Fez 's sound effects evoked Jim Guthrie 's Superbrothers : Sword & Sworcery EP audio . Joshua Kopstein of The Verge called the work " fantastic " and described it as a cross between a " 1980s Vangelis synth odyssey " and a submerged vinyl record from an arcade . Game Informer 's Matt Miller wrote that the soundtrack contributed to Fez 's " 80s nostalgia vibe " . Eurogamer described the music as " lush , spooky , and electrifying " , and Edge compared it to " Holst put through a Mega Drive " . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer wrote that the music matched the game 's themes of " hidden depth " . Welsh heard influences of 1960s English psychedelia ( Pink Floyd , Soft Machine ) , 1970s Krautrock ( Tangerine Dream and Kraftwerk ) , 1980s synth ( Jean Michel Jarre , Vangelis ) , and Erik Satie . He added that the soundtrack 's contribution to Fez was " incalculable " . Damian Kastbauer of Game Developer used Vreeland 's soundtrack to show that a retrogaming aesthetic in sound and visuals could be both " futuristic and nostalgic " and provide the " right ' voice ' to support the game 's design intentions " .
Game Developer listed Vreeland in their 2012 Power 50 for his work on the soundtrack , which they described as " atmospheric , pensive , and maybe even a little bit melancholy " . In keeping with Fez 's theme of secrets , images visible only through spectrogram were embedded into the soundtrack audio . Vreeland released a remix album , FZ : Side F , a year later on April 20 , 2013 . It features tracks from other artists , including Jim Guthrie . Vreeland later released another remix album , FZ : Side Z , and all three albums were included in the August 2013 Game Music Bundle 5 .
= = Reception = =
Reviews upon Fez 's original release were " generally favorable " , according to review aggregator Metacritic . Later releases received " universal acclaim " . Each release was consistently among the top @-@ rated releases for each platform 's year . GameRankings ranks Fez within its top 100 highest @-@ rated Xbox 360 games , top 20 PC games , and top 20 PlayStation 4 games . While in development , Fez had won the 2012 GDC Independent Games Festival 's Seumas McNally Grand Prize , the 2011 Indiecade Best in Show and Best Story / World Design , the 2011 Fantastic Arcade Audience Choice Award , and the 2008 GDC Independent Games Festival 's Excellence in Visual Art . Eurogamer gave Fez their highest rating and named the " perfect , wordless sci @-@ fi parable " their 2012 Game of the Year . Digital Spy listed Fez eighth in its Best Games of 2012 , ahead of high @-@ budget games like Call of Duty : Black Ops 2 and Halo 4 . Fez was chosen as the 2012 game of the year by Diamond Trust of London developer Jason Rohrer and Halo 4 lead game designer Scott Warner . The Windows PC port was Metacritic 's tenth best @-@ reviewed video game of 2013 .
The New York Times called Fez Fish 's " tribute to 1980s gaming ... lovingly , almost excessively , devoted to the golden age of Nintendo " . Arthur Gies of Polygon described its aesthetics as " so retro it hurts " , citing its pixelated look , chiptune soundtrack , and ways of clueing the player without explicit guidance . Gies felt that though " 8 @-@ bit nostalgia " was outmoded , Fez showed an understanding of its influences and was the " most authentic " of the style . Jeremy Parish of 1UP.com called the game 's minimalism " admirable " and likened its art style to that of Cave Story . Kotaku described Fez 's nostalgic manner as " the video game aesthetic " . Oli Welsh of Eurogamer lamented how " retro pixel art " became an indie game cliché during the game 's development , but felt that Fez transcended such stereotypes through its dedication to the wonderment of early Nintendo titles . " Fish clearly worships the Nintendo of his boyhood " , he wrote . Welsh likened Fez to a 1970s , peace @-@ loving , surrealist version of 2001 : A Space Odyssey as imagined by Shigeru Miyamoto , and foresaw its social status as " the darling of a certain indie clique " with " studied hipster cool " . Edge described the game as " a place built from gaming 's history " , whose playfulness makes it " an unexpected heir to Super Mario Bros. " with levels like well @-@ crafted toys , and IGN 's video review said the game " drags the 8 @-@ bit era into the future " .
Journalists likened Fez 's rotation mechanic to the 2D – 3D shifts of games like Echochrome , Super Paper Mario , and Crush . Early in development , Fish himself said that the idea is " nothing mind @-@ blowing " and that the game could have been made " at any point in the last 15 years " . Polygon 's Gies preferred how Echochrome used the perspective mechanic , and Tom McShea of GameSpot considered Fez 's mechanic a gimmick . Matt Miller of Game Informer thought that Fez realized the mechanic 's potential better than other perspective @-@ shifting games , and further commended Fez 's puzzle design and pacing up until the endgame . Miller also compared its story to that of the novella Flatland , whose protagonist similarly discovers the complexities of another dimension . 1UP.com 's Parish said that Fez 's rotation mechanic was deeper than that of Super Paper Mario and not as dependent on M. C. Escher themes as Echochrome . Edge felt that the mechanic was " far less self @-@ conscious " and " more harmonious " than in Endochrome and Crush . The magazine wrote that Fez 's indoor puzzles were its best . Eurogamer 's Welsh compared the game 's " wraparound platforming " to the 1980s game Nebulus and described the rotation mechanic as among the console generation 's " most unusual technical challenges " .
Reviewers commended the game 's emphasis on discovery and freedom , but found its reliance on backtracking , particularly in the endgame , tedious . Parish of 1UP.com wrote that open @-@ world action games like Metroid Prime all have these issues . Edge compared Fez 's esoteric tricks to an older age of game development that packed games with Easter eggs , secrets , and codes , citing titles such as Exile and Jet Set Willy . The magazine also came to appreciate the 3D map . IGN 's Mitch Dyer contrasted the game 's riddles to the Metal Gear Solid codec frequency puzzle . Jeffrey Matulef of Eurogamer related his experience to the feeling of first playing the 1994 Myst , and The New York Times called Fez " a Finnegans Wake of video games " for its codebreaking that " makes the player feel like John Nash as portrayed by Russell Crowe in A Beautiful Mind " . Game Informer recommended Fez for completionists who seek challenges . Polygon 's Gies was uncertain as to whether the game 's technical frame rate issues were intentional , and described this dilemma as having a " certain genius " . Other reviewers noted its technical faults : Game Informer as minor , and 1UP.com as " easily the glitchiest game I 've played on my 360 " .
Fez sold 20 @,@ 000 copies in its first day , 100 @,@ 000 in less than two months , 200 @,@ 000 within a year , and , after the Humble Bundle , one million by the end of 2013 . It was Xbox Live 's 13th best @-@ selling Arcade title of 2012 . Fez was cited as an inspiration for 2014 indie games Monument Valley , Crossy Road , and Secrets of Rætikon .
= = Sequel = =
Fez 2 was announced as " one more thing " at end of the Horizon indie game press conference during the June 2013 Electronic Entertainment Expo . The project was cancelled a month later following a Twitter argument between Fish and a video game journalist . In an episode of Marcus Beer 's GameTrailers show Invisible Walls , the journalist criticized Fish 's response to questions about Microsoft 's Xbox One self @-@ publishing policy change . Fish replied on Twitter with condemnation for the industry 's negativity , and announced Fez 2 's cancellation and his exit from the industry in a final tweet . The news came as a surprise to the rest of his company , which has not commented on upcoming projects other than ports since the sequel 's cancellation . Polygon listed Fish in their top 50 newsmakers of 2013 for the social power of his " caustic use of Twitter " .
= Motte v Faulkner =
Motte v Faulkner ( decided 28 November 1735 ) was a copyright lawsuit between Benjamin Motte and George Faulkner over who had the legal rights to publish the works of Jonathan Swift in London . This trial was one of the first to test the Statute of Anne copyright law in regards to Irish publishing independence . Although neither held the copyright to all of Swift 's works , the suit became a legal struggle over Irish rights , which were eventually denied by the English courts . Faulkner , in 1735 , published the Works of Jonathan Swift in Dublin . However , a few of the works were under Motte 's copyright within the Kingdom of Great Britain , and when Faulkner sought to sell his book in London , Motte issued a formal complaint to Jonathan Swift and then proceeded to sue Faulkner . An injunction was issued in Motte 's favor , and the book was prohibited from being sold on British soil . The basis of the law protected the rights of the author , and not the publisher , of the works , and Swift was unwilling to support a lawsuit against Faulkner . With Swift 's reaction used as a basis , the lawsuit was later seen as a struggle between the rights of Irishmen to print material that were denied under English law .
= = Background = =
= = = Benjamin Motte = = =
Motte was a London publisher who took over Benjamin Tooke 's publishing business , which printed many of Swift 's earlier works . In 1726 , Swift sent Motte a copy of Gulliver 's Travels to be printed anonymously . Motte took great care to protect the identity of the author , and employed five publishing houses to speed production of the book and avoid unlicensed copying . In 1727 , Motte formed his first direct contract with Swift in order to publish Swift 's Miscellanies . As part of the contract , Motte paid Tooke for the original copyright to the work .
= = = George Faulkner = = =
Faulkner 's Dublin Journal , a newspaper established in 1725 , featured many articles written by Swift or inspired by writings of Swift . Between 1727 and 1730 , Faulkner published many works attributed to Swift , but many were actually written by others . After 1730 , only one of those works printed by Faulkner under Swift 's name turned out to be written by someone besides Swift , which suggests to some critics that Swift was working with Faulkner to ensure that only authentic works were printed under Swift 's name . He was the first to publish The Answer to the Craftsman , Swift 's final defense of the Irish economy from England 's policies . Faulkner was also the first to publish the collected Drapier 's Letters as Fraud Detected on 2 October 1725 . Faulkner also helped edit An Epistle upon an Epistle around December 1729 .
= = The case = =
On 14 August 1725 , Swift wrote to Charles Ford that his work , Gulliver 's Travels , was finished , however , he soon added a scene referring to the Drapier 's Letters . Swift wrote , in a letter to Pope , " a printer shall be found brave enough to venture his ears " . The printer Swift found was Benjamin Motte , and Swift did not control the publication in order to , as some critics say , preserve his anonymity .
Although Swift found Motte willing to print the work , he was not willing to print Swift 's additional scene . Swift 's lack of control over the publication lead to Swift complaining of " mangled and murdered Pages " . This was one of many reasons that Swift turned from Motte as his printer and sought a printer willing to produce his complete works without content removal . On 9 October 1733 , Swift wrote : " Now , you may please to remember how much I complained of Motts suffering some friend of his ( I suppose it was Mr Took a Clergy @-@ man now dead ) not onely to blot out some things that he thought might give offence , but to insert a good deal of trash contrary to the Author 's manner and Style , and Intention . "
Three editions of Gulliver 's Travels were produced in London during 1726 and a " corrected " edition of Motte 's works were printed by John Hyde in Dublin . Although Herbert Davis thought that the Hyde edition would not please Swift , some critics argue that Swift involved himself in helping Hyde make some corrections to the edition that was based on Motte 's London edition . The next year , Risk , Ewing , and Smith printed in Dublin a simple reprint of Motte 's original print with minor corrections . Motte then produced his " second edition " ( his fourth version ) of Gulliver 's Travels in 1727 with many corrections . Many of the corrections of Motte 's later editions were based on Swift 's corrections sent to the printer via letters .
The edition published by Faulkner includes over 500 corrections to the original text , surpassing any other editions . Faulkner 's version also contains over 50 passages that either not present in the original or expanded on from the original text . This has suggested to some critics that the Faulkner edition was a later rework of Gulliver 's Travels and not just a correction to printing related mistakes . The inclusion of these many additions was later seen by critics as part of Swift 's disapproval of Motte 's versions , but others see Motte 's version as being more true to the anti @-@ government spirit of Swift 's work , which confuses Swift 's motivation in allowing Faulkner to reprint the work .
Swift 's other works were previous collected in a four @-@ volume set edited by Alexander Pope called Miscellanies , but Swift wanted to have a " proper " edition of his works . Some critics speculate that Swift turned to having his work printed without public sponsorship because he was afraid of breaking his commitments to Pope and his publisher Motte . Regardless of what Swift may or may not be planning , he wrote to Motte in December 1732 and said : " I have cause to believe that some of our printers will collected all they think to be mine , and print them by subscription , which I will never encourage nor oppose . "
On 9 February 1733 , Faulkner advertised his future publication of Swift 's collected works in four volumes in the Dublin Journal . However , this edition led to controversy , since the London bookseller Benjamin Motte had publication rights , under English copyright law , to many of the works included in Faulkner 's edition . The English , in 1735 , attempted to pass a law that would allow a copyright holder to prohibit works that may violate their copyright , but this law failed to pass through Parliament .
= = The decision = =
Motte , without power to halt the introduction of Faulkner 's work on his own ,
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asked Swift to intervene , but Swift passively refused . Even without the backing of Swift , Motte turned to the English legal system to halt the introduction of Faulkner 's edition . Motte issued a Bill of Complaint and sued under the Statute of Anne , claiming that Faulkner 's publishing of the 1735 Works infringed on his right to publish works like Gulliver 's Travels . The case was heard by the Court of Chancery , and they agreed with Motte in a ruling by Lord Talbot , the Lord Chancellor of Great Britain . In the 28 November 1735 , it was determined Motte could put forth an injunction to the whole of Swift 's works . Although works like the Drapier 's Letters were not under Motte 's copyright and some works were printed before 1709 , Faulkner 's complete work was legally brought to a halt from being published in England .
= = Critical response = =
It is uncertain if Swift allowed Faulkner to publish the works in order to allow an Irish publisher to compete against an English publisher or if Swift had no say in the matter and Faulkner published the works against Swift 's will . In a letter to Motte in May 1736 , Swift did not defend Faulkner 's legal right to publish the works but made sure to admonish the attitude and action of Motte as a publisher for prosecuting Faulkner instead of coming to an agreement that Faulkner would be allowed to reprint the copyrighted material .
However , some critics believe that Swift used the incident to " enlarge the affair into another example of English oppression of the Irish . " Swift wrote in a letter to Motte on 25 May 1736 :
the cruel oppressions of this kingdom by England are not to be borne . You send what books you please hither , and the booksellers here can send nothing to you that is written here . As this is absolute oppression , if I were a bookseller in this town , I would use all the safe means to reprint London books , and run them to any town in England , that I could , because whoever offends not the laws of God , or the country he lives in , commits no sin .... But I am so incensed against the oppresions from England , and have so little regard to the laws they make , that I do , as a clergyman , encourage the merchants both to export wool and woollen manufactures to any country in Europe , or anywhere else , and conceal it from the Custom @-@ house officers , as I would hide my purse from a highwayman , if he came to rob me on the road , although England hath made a law to the contrary ; and so I would encourage our booksellers here to sell your author 's books printed here , and send them to all the towns in England , if I could do it with safety and profit ; because I repeat , it is no offence against God , or the laws of the country I live in .
There is much debate in the academic community on which printer produced the " authoritative " edition of Swift 's works , especially Gulliver 's Travels . Harold Williams was one of the major proponents of the Faulkner edition being " correct " . However , some critics argue that the Faulkner edition was instead a " corrected " edition that added new revisions , and that neither text can truly be called authoritative .
= = Influence = =
In legal terms , the report of Motte v Faulkner of 28 November 1735 is no longer in existence , but was cited in a later legal decisions on copyright issues , such as Miller v Taylor of 1769 which read : " In the case of Motte vs Falkner , 28 November , 1735 an injunction was granted for printing Pope 's and Swift 's Miscellanies . Many of these pieces were published in 1701 , 1702 , 1708 ; and the counsel strongly pressed the objection , as to these pieces . Lord Talbot continued the injunction , as to the whole : and it was acquiesced under . Yet Falknor , the Irish bookseller , was a man of substance ; and the general point was of consequence to him : but he was not advised to litigate further . "
The case Pope v Curll [ 1741 ] refers to the Irish / English aspects of publishing that came up in Motte v Faulkner . Curll claimed his reprinting of a work from a Dublin edition originally made by George Faulkner would , under the Statute of Anne , be lawfully reprinted in England . Lord Hardwicke ruled on the matter , 17 June 1741 , that works first published in Ireland do not allow the publication of works in London if they invalidate the copyright .
= Battle of Onjong =
The Battle of Onjong ( Korean : 온정리 전투 ) , also known as the Battle of Wenjing ( Chinese : 温井战斗 ; pinyin : Wēn Jǐng Zhàn Dòu ) , was one of the first engagements between Chinese and United Nations forces during the Korean War . It took place around Onjong in present @-@ day North Korea from October 25 to October 29 , 1950 . As the main focus of the Chinese First Phase Campaign , the Chinese 40th Corps conducted a series of ambushes against the Republic of Korea II Corps , effectively destroying the right flank of the United States Eighth Army while stopping the UN advances north toward the Yalu River .
= = Background = =
The Korean War began in June 1950 with the Korean People 's Army ( KPA ) of the north attacking the Republic of Korea in the south . The invasion was almost successful in conquering all of the Republic of Korea until the United Nations ( UN ) intervened , sending ground forces into the country under the command of the United States . The UN forces initially experienced early defeats until the Battle of the Pusan Perimeter , where the UN forces reversed North Korea 's momentum . By October 1950 , the KPA was effectively destroyed by the UN forces after the landing at Inchon . Despite the strong objections from the People 's Republic of China on North Korea 's northern border , the US Eighth Army crossed the 38th parallel and advanced towards the Sino @-@ Korean border at the Yalu River . As part of the Thanksgiving Offensive to end the war , the Republic of Korea ( ROK ) II Corps , which was composed of the ROK 6th , 7th and 8th Infantry Division , was ordered to attack north towards the Yalu River through the village of Onjong on October 23 , 1950 .
In response to the UN advances , China 's Chairman , Mao Zedong , ordered the People 's Liberation Army 's North East Frontier Force to enter North Korea and engage UN forces under the name People 's Volunteer Army ( PVA ) . In order to stabilize the rapidly collapsing Korean front and to push back the advancing UN forces , Mao authorized the First Phase Campaign , a bridgehead @-@ building operation with the aim of destroying the ROK II Corps , the vanguard and the right flank of the US Eighth Army , advancing up the along the Taebaek Mountains in the middle of the peninsula . After the Chinese leadership finally settled the issue of armed intervention on October 18 , Mao ordered the PVA to enter Korea on October 19 under strict secrecy .
= = Prelude = =
= = = Locations and terrain = = =
Onjong is a crossroad village located at the lower Ch 'ongch 'on River Valley , 10 mi ( 16 km ) northeast of Unsan . At the east of Onjong stands the town of Huich 'on , the staging area of the ROK II Corps for the Thanksgiving Offensive . To the north , Onjong is linked to the town of Kojang , which is located at 50 mi ( 80 km ) away from the Yalu River . Because of the hilly terrain at the Sino @-@ Korean Border , Onjong is one of the few access points into the Yalu River area . The terrain also limits troop movements while providing ideal grounds for ambushes .
= = = Forces and strategy = = =
On October 24 , the ROK 6th Infantry Division of the ROK II Corps advanced westward from Huich 'on , and Onjong was captured on the same day . From Onjong , the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 6th Infantry Division turned north and advanced towards Kojang , while the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment of the ROK 6th Infantry Division planned to advance northwest from Onjong towards Pukchin . Because the UN Command expected no opposition from the destroyed KPA , the advances were not coordinated between the UN units . As a result , the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment managed to wander into Chinese territory without much opposition , completely oblivious to the new threats surrounding them .
While the Koreans were advancing towards the Yalu River , the Chinese were also trying to deploy their units for the upcoming First Phase Campaign . As the PVA Commander Peng Dehuai scrambled to set up his new command post at Taeyudong , the planned advance by the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment threatened to overrun his position . Without any KPA units nearby to hide the presence of the Chinese , Peng was forced to start the First Phase Campaign early by moving the PVA 40th Corps to intercept the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment near Onjong . On the night of October 24 , the 118th Division of the 40th Corps arrived at its designated blocking position . Meanwhile , the Chinese had set up numerous ambush positions on the ridges overlooking the Onjong @-@ Pukchin road .
= = Battle = =
= = = Initial contacts = = =
On the morning of October 25 and with its 3rd Battalion on point , the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment started to advance northwest towards Pukchin . The Koreans soon came under fire 8 mi ( 13 km ) to the west of Onjong . The 3rd Battalion dismounted from their vehicles to disperse what they thought would be a small force of KPA , but the two Chinese regiments on the high ground immediately began pouring heavy fire onto the Korean left , front and right flanks . The 3rd Battalion broke instantly , abandoning most of its vehicles and artillery along the way . About 400 survivors managed to escape the trap and fall back into Onjong .
When the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment learned that the 3rd Battalion was under heavy attack , its 2nd Battalion was moved forward to support the 3rd Battalion while its 1st Battalion was sent back to Onjong . Although the 2nd Battalion was turned back after encountering strong resistances , the South Koreans managed to capture several Chinese prisoners who revealed that there were nearly 10 @,@ 000 Chinese soldiers waiting down the road . At the same time , the PVA High Command ordered the PVA 120th Division of the 40th Corps to join the battle while the rest of the 40th Corps was busy setting up roadblocks around Onjong . With all the roadblocks in place by midnight , the PVA 118th Division and one regiment from the PVA 120th Division attacked Onjong on October 26 at 0330 , and the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment was dispersed within 30 minutes . Although Colonel Ham Byung Sun , commander of the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment , managed to rally his troops 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east of Onjong , the Chinese were still able to penetrate the new position within an hour . At this point not a single company of the regiment was left intact , and the ROK 2nd Infantry Regiment ceased to be an organized unit . Approximately 2 @,@ 700 men of the 3 @,@ 100 in the regiment eventually escaped to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . The 3rd Battalion 's Korean Military Advisory Group ( KMAG ) adviser , Lieutenant Glen C. Jones , was among those captured , and he eventually died in a North Korean prison camp . Captain Paul V. S. Liles of the KMAG also fell captive to the Chinese .
= = = Second ambush = = =
The loss of surprise due to the early start of the First Phase Campaign greatly disappointed Mao . Nevertheless , Mao still urged Peng to destroy the South Koreans by baiting them with trapped ROK units . At the same time , Major General Yu Jai Hung , commander of the ROK II Corps , sent the ROK 19th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 6th Infantry Division ( under Colonel Park Kwang Hyuk ) and the ROK 10th Infantry Regiment of the ROK 8th Infantry Division ( under Colonel Go Geun Hong ) to recapture Onjong and to salvage the lost equipment from the battle . The ROK 7th Infantry Regiment , under the command of Colonel Im Pu Taek , was also ordered to retreat south with the ROK 6th Infantry Division . Hoping to draw the rest of the ROK II Corps into the open , Peng ordered the PVA 118th Division to swing north and to trap the retreating ROK 7th Infantry Regiment , while the PVA 119th and the 120th Division of the 40th Corps would wait to ambush any rescue forces passing through Onjong . On October 27 , the PVA 118th Division isolated the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment by cutting the road between Kojang and Onjong , but the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment did not reach the roadblock due to the lack of fuel . Upon realizing that the ROK II Corps had not fallen for the deception , Peng ordered the 119th and the 120th Divisions to destroy the ROK 10th and 19th Infantry Regiment . On the night of October 28 , the ambush by the two Chinese divisions quickly decimated the advancing ROK regiments at the east of Onjong , and the Chinese roadblocks in the rear areas forced the South Korean soldiers to abandon all vehicles and artillery in order to escape .
The ROK 7th Infantry Regiment had now become the only surviving formation of the ROK 6th Infantry Division , but it too was ambushed by the PVA 118th Division on October 29 20 mi ( 32 km ) south of Kojang . The PVA 118th Division was ordered to wait for reinforcements from the 50th Corps , but the 118th Division attacked alone on the night of October 29 to prevent the Koreans from escaping . After a two @-@ hour battle , the ROK 7th Infantry Regiment was forced to disperse with its survivors scattered into the hills . About 875 officers and 3 @,@ 552 other soldiers managed to escape , while Major Harry Fleming of the KMAG was wounded in 15 places and was later captured by the Chinese .
= = Aftermath = =
With the loss of the ROK 6th Infantry Division and the ROK 10th Infantry Regiment from the ROK 8th Infantry Division , the ROK II Corps was decimated , and effectively ceased to be an organized fighting force . This meant the right flank of the US Eighth Army was completely open to the Chinese forces , which were now advancing south to overwhelm the UN forces . Exploiting the situation , the Chinese launched another attack on the now exposed Eighth Army center , resulting in the loss of the ROK 15th Infantry Regiment and the US 8th Cavalry Regiment at the Battle of Unsan . With the Chinese forces pouring into the rear of the UN lines , the Eighth Army was forced to retreat to the Ch 'ongch 'on River . Only the stubborn defense of Kunu @-@ ri by the US 5th Regimental Combat Team and the ROK 7th Infantry Division on November 4 managed to stop the Chinese advance and prevented a disastrous defeat for the Eighth Army . By November 5 , logistics difficulties forced the Chinese to end the First Phase Campaign .
Although the Chinese were unable to exploit the breakthrough in the UN lines , the weakness of the ROK II Corps on the Eighth Army 's right flank was exposed to the Chinese commanders . During the planning of the Chinese Second Phase Campaign , Peng would again focus his attention towards the ROK II Corps at the Eighth Army 's right flank , resulting in a disastrous defeat for the UN forces at the Battle of the Ch 'ongch 'on River . To commemorate this battle as China 's official entry into the Korean War , October 25 is currently the War to Resist America and Aid Korea Memorial Day in China .
= S / O Satyamurthy =
S / O Satyamurthy ( read as Son of Satyamurthy ) is a 2015 Indian Telugu @-@ language drama film directed by Trivikram Srinivas and produced by S. Radha Krishna for Haarika & Haasine Creations . It features an ensemble cast of Allu Arjun , Upendra , Samantha Ruth Prabhu , Sneha , Adah Sharma , Nithya Menen , Rajendra Prasad , Brahmanandam and Ali . Prakash Raj makes a cameo appearance as Satyamurthy .
The film revolves around three characters ; the first follows his heart , the second uses his brain and the third uses his brawn . The first is Viraj Anand , the son of a billionaire named Satyamurthy , who gives his money to creditors after his father 's death . A creditor still owed money is Paida Sambasiva Rao ( the second of the three ) , whose daughter Sameera falls in love with Anand . Sambasiva Rao informs Anand that he has to produce documentation of land sold by Satyamurthy to a landlord , Devaraj Naidu ( the third of the three ) to marry Sameera . The rest of the film focuses on the consequences faced by Anand and Sambasiva Rao 's change in viewpoint toward Satyamurthy .
In addition to directing the film , Srinivas wrote its screenplay . Initially planned as a multilingual film shot in Tamil , Malayalam and Telugu , the producers filmed in Telugu and dubbed it into Malayalam with the same title . Devi Sri Prasad composed the score and Prasad Murella was its cinematographer . Production began on 10 April 2014 at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad . Principal photography began on 22 September 2014 in Hyderabad , lasting until mid @-@ March 2015 . Except for three songs filmed in Europe , the rest of the film was shot in and around Hyderabad .
The Telugu version was released worldwide on 1375 screens on 9 April 2015 to a lukewarm response , and the Malayalam version was released on 24 April 2015 . On a ₹ 400 – 500 @-@ million budget , S / O Satyamurthy earned a distributor share of ₹ 519 million and grossed ₹ 905 million . The film was an above average grosser based on the return on the distributors ' investment of ₹ 540 million . It is in seventh place on the all @-@ time list of highest @-@ grossing Telugu films at the global box office . With this film , Allu Arjun became the first Telugu actor with two consecutive films earning more than ₹ 500 million worldwide .
= = Plot = =
Narrator Viraj Anand is the younger son of Satyamurthy , a billionaire businessman who dies in an accident . Although Anand has ₹ 3 billion worth of property and stock which is worthless , he owes an equal amount . Paida Sambasiva Rao , one of Satyamurthy 's creditors , suggests that Anand file for bankruptcy to protect his wealth but Anand wants to preserve his father ’ s image . Anand 's older brother becomes mentally unstable and , at Sambasiva Rao 's advice , the father of Anand 's fiancée Pallavi cancels their upcoming wedding . Anand and his family move to a simpler home in Hyderabad , and he becomes the family 's sole breadwinner . He joins his friend 's event @-@ management company as a wedding planner , and his assistant Parandhamaiah goes with him .
Anand is assigned to plan a destination wedding at Ooty , which turns out to be Pallavi 's . There he meets Sameera ( also known as Subbalakshmi ) , a diabetic , with whom he eventually falls in love . While planning Pallavi 's marriage Anand faces many difficulties , including an attempt by Pallavi 's uncle and his son to stop the marriage because of her father 's mistreatment . Pallavi 's father and uncle reconcile , and Anand is paid more than the agreed amount in gratitude . Sameera turns out to be Sambasiva Rao 's daughter and objects to their marriage , saying that Satyamurthy cheated him when he sold an 8 @,@ 000 @-@ square @-@ foot ( 740 m2 ) property illegally acquired by landlord Devaraj Naidu . The current market value of the land is half billion rupees . Sambasiva Rao tells Anand that he will agree to the marriage if Anand can deliver the land documents from Devaraj in four weeks .
Anand and Parandhamaiah set out for house number 6 in Reddiarpatti to exchange the original documents for fake ones . Instead they end up in house number 9 and reveal their intentions to Devaraj , who traps them without harm ; Devaraj cannot hurt anyone in front of his wife , Lakshmi , from whom he has hidden his true self for twenty years . Sambasiva Rao 's family is kidnapped and brought to Devaraj 's house ; the next day Anand saves Devaraj from the brother ( Kumarasamy Naidu , Devaraj 's henchman since five years ) of his rival , Veerasamy Naidu . Impressed , Devaraj agrees to return the land documents if Anand becomes engaged to his sister Valli . However , Valli wants to marry Lakshmi 's brother and threatens to kill Anand if he does not break their engagement .
Valli teases Sameera , acting as if she is in love with Anand ( which makes Devaraj happy ) . Devaraj 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Koda Rambabu goes to Reddiarpatti , mistakenly believing that Parandhamaiah is Sameera 's lover and Valli 's potential lover . He wants to stop the marriage , and at Anand 's suggestion Rambabu and Sambasiva Rao ask Veerasamy to have his henchmen kill the bridegroom ; this would stop the marriage on the last day of the four @-@ week deadline imposed by Sambasiva Rao . Although Anand plans to help Valli elope with her cousin , Veerasamy 's henchmen mistake him for Anand and try to kill him . Devaraj and Anand save her cousin ; when Devaraj tries to kill Rambabu , Anand says that he was the mastermind behind the plan and wants the real land documents .
Nine minutes are left before Sambasiva Rao 's deadline ; as Anand and Devaraj duel , Anand 's mother enters . Devaraj and his family are shocked , remembering that Satyamurthy was fatally injured when he saved Valli from an accident planned by Veerasamy . Before he died , Satyamurthy told Valli that he made a mistake selling illegally @-@ acquired land to his friend and wants to rectify it with the landlord . Devaraj and Sambasiva Rao are full of remorse , and Devaraj returns the land documents to Anand in accordance with Satyamurthy 's last wish . Anand gives the papers to Sambasiva Rao , who apologises for his behaviour . Veerasamy dies in an accident , and Koda Rambabu is spared .
Anand and Sambasiva Rao are on their way home with their families when Pallavi 's father meets them with news that the market value of Anand 's stock is now worth hundred million rupees . An emotional Anand thanks his father at the spot where Satyamurthy saved Valli 's life .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Trivikram Srinivas planned to direct Allu Arjun in a film produced by S. Radha Krishna for Haarika & Haasine Creations ( who produced their 2012 collaboration Julai ) , since Srinivas had committed to another film with them . Allu Aravind was later rumoured to co @-@ produce of the film as Geetha Arts . The film 's pooja ceremony was held at Radha Krishna 's office in early December 2013 , and filming was expected to begin in February 2014 . Rumors that the film was shelved were denied by a film @-@ unit source , who said that Srinivas ' screenplay was nearly complete . Devi Sri Prasad was chosen to compose the score and Prawin Pudi was signed as the film editor , marking Pudi 's fifth collaboration with Srinivas .
The film was officially launched at Ramanaidu Studios in Hyderabad on 10 April 2014 . In June , the film 's title was rumoured to be Kavacham . After considerable discussion , the producers reportedly tentatively planned to name the film Trisulam ( also the title of a 1982 Telugu film starring Krishnam Raju and Sridevi ) . Agreements between the principals of both films were reportedly signed in early November 2014 . Radhakrishna denied the reports , saying that the film 's title would be announced in early December 2014 with its preview . Trivikram reportedly considered the title Hushaaru in mid @-@ January 2015 . Another title under consideration was Jaadugar , earlier used for a 1989 Hindi film starring Amitabh Bachchan and Jaya Prada .
The producers reportedly dropped the first two titles after poor feedback , and Jaadugar was expected to be chosen ; S / O Krishnamurthy was also considered . S / O Satyamurthy ( read as Son of Satyamurthy ) was confirmed as the film 's title on 6 March 2015 in a press release from the producers . The film was initially planned for simultaneous release in Telugu , Tamil and Malayalam . A dubbed Kannada version , along with Tamil and Malayalam , later was planned because of Upendra and Allu Arjun 's popularity in Karnataka .
Although the dubbed Malayalam version was also entitled S / O Satyamurthy , the dubbed Tamil and Kannada versions were scrapped for fiscal reasons and it was released in Tamil Nadu and Karnataka with English subtitles . Arjun began dubbing his role in early January , and post @-@ production was scheduled to resume in late February . The actor resumed dubbing on 7 March , after returning from Spain .
= = = Casting = = =
Allu Arjun was part of the project since its initial stages in early November 2013 . Samantha Ruth Prabhu was cast as one of the film 's heroines , her first collaboration with Arjun . S / O Satyamurthy has three female leads ; although Arjun initially denied this , Srinivas confirmed that the film has three heroines . Kriti Sanon was rumoured to be one of the three female leads , although she later denied it . Adah Sharma and Pranitha Subhash were cast as the other two female leads , after Regina Cassandra , Nayantara and Rashi Khanna were considered for Subhash 's role . Subhash was later replaced by Nithya Menen because of conceptual differences with Srinivas , although she later said that she never signed for the film and reports that she had walked out were rumours .
Rao Ramesh was cast in a crucial role . Although Arjun Sarja was reported to be the film 's antagonist in mid @-@ August 2014 , Sarja later confirmed that he was not part of the project due to other commitments . Sneha confirmed in mid @-@ September 2014 that she had an important role in the film . Upendra and Rajendra Prasad were said to play important roles in the film , and Upendra later confirmed his inclusion . Vennela Kishore and Surekha Vani were selected to play supporting roles . Kota Srinivasa Rao was cast at the end of November 2014 , and Mamilla Shailaja Priya was cast in a supporting role .
Supporting character actor M. S. Narayana died after most of his portions in the film was completed . Although Srinivas decided not to delete any of his scenes , he faced a dilemma : whether to use a double or make do with what they had . After evaluating many mimics , Srinivas and Arjun reportedly decided to use Siva Reddy to flesh out Narayana 's role . Sampath Raj was cast in early February 2015 .
= = = Characters = = =
S / O Satyamurthy was considered an image makeover for Arjun . Although his character 's name ( Viraj Anand ) was intended for another role in the film , he requested Srinivas to use the name for the titular character 's son . Arjun learned flips , somersaults and other gymnastic skills to perform his stunts . He , his brother Allu Sirish and stylist Ashwin bought his costumes in Dubai , and he lost 10 kilograms ( 22 lb ) with a special diet and gym workouts . Sneha was rumoured to play Arjun 's sister @-@ in @-@ law .
Upendra was confirmed in a role paralleling Arjun 's in the film , and Sharma reportedly wore a traditional attire to suit her role . Sharma 's character was revealed to be unstable , while Arjun 's character was nuanced ; he was confirmed as an event manager in late October 2014 . Nithya Menen would reportedly play a negative role as Upendra 's sister in the film . About Arjun 's look , stylist Ashwin said it would reflect the current fashion trends in Milan , Paris and London ( incorporating pieces from the autumn @-@ winter 2014 and spring @-@ summer 2015 collections ) .
Ashwin said that they shopped in Dubai because Arjun wanted to select his costumes , and the European capitals at that time had only winter collections . Arjun would have several hairstyles in the film . Upendra 's role was reported to be a Tamil living in Madurai , and he was confirmed as the landlord at the end of January 2015 . He was not included in the film 's promotional activities since Srinivas did not want to reveal what he considered a crucial character . The way Kamal Haasan and Wasim Akram handled diabetes in real life inspired Srinivas to make Samantha 's character diabetic in the film . Samantha was comfortable in the role , since she too had been diagnosed with the disease two years earlier .
Prakash Raj had a limited role , since Srinivas wanted to tell the story of a father by not showing him but instead showing his son 's love and his influence on his life . The death of Sampath Raj was an accident because Srinivas did not believe in killing his antagonists directly , but to have them die as a result of their mistakes . Srinivas added that his death was planned so the film would have a good ending .
= = = Filming = = =
In early December 2013 it was announced that filming would begin the following February , after Arjun finished Race Gurram . At the end of March 2014 , shooting was postponed to the following month and it was later announced that filming would start during the third week of April . In June , filming was again postponed to the following month , when Arjun was scheduled to finish Rudramadevi ; he completed the film on 30 July .
Principal photography began on 22 September at a Hyderabad @-@ based shopping mall . Samantha arrived at the set on 1 October 2014 , after completing Kaththi , and Sharma joined the production unit five days later . A week @-@ long shooting schedule planned at Ooty for scenes with Arjun , Upendra , Samantha and Sneha was disrupted because of unrest in Tamil Nadu due to Jayalalithaa 's conviction , and the scenes were filmed near Shamshabad in Hyderabad . Art director Ravinder built a large outdoor set for the destination @-@ wedding scene , with flowers flown in from Bangkok .
A fight scene with Arjun was shot at Ramoji Film City under the supervision of Peter Hein . A residential set was built at a cost of ₹ 30 million by Ravinder in Kokapet , where scenes with Brahmanandam and Srinivasa Rao were filmed in late November 2014 . The Kokapet set , of a Tamil house in Madurai , required three truckloads of trees from a farmhouse in Kadiam ( near Rajahmundry ) and materials from Delhi and Chennai . For the set , Srinivas and Ravinder travelled to a small city near Madurai and researched houses . By then , filming was nearly complete and the producers confirmed that the dialogue would be finished by the end of November and the songs shot the following month .
Filming was suspended because of a strike by Film Federation employees and the Memu Saitham Cyclone Hudhud relief fundraiser at Visakhapatnam . The strike was called off , and shooting resumed on 6 December . When Upendra finished his first shooting schedule for the film , he returned to the set of Uppi 2 on 10 December . In addition to Arjun 's action sequences , Some more scenes were filmed at Ramoji Film City . Comedy sequences featuring Arjun and Samantha were shot at Hyderabad in late December .
Arjun spent the New Year with his wife and son in South Africa , and was scheduled to return to the set during the second week of January 2015 . The final shooting schedule began on 6 January in Hyderabad . Additional filming of action and romantic scenes began on 20 January . S / O Satyamurthy 's climactic scenes were filmed on the Kokapet house set in late January .
Shooting was scheduled to continue there until the first week of February , when the dialogue would be completed . A fight scene with Arjun and hundreds of other fighters was filmed in early February , and Upendra returned to the Hyderabad set for his scenes . A song , choreographed by Shekhar and featuring Arjun , Samantha and Menen , was filmed on the Kokapet house set in late February . The film unit then went to Spain to film three songs also featuring Arjun , Samantha and Menen , returning on 6 March . S / O Satyamurthy 's principal photography completed when the last song ( choreographed by Jani and featuring Arjun , Samantha and Sharma ) was filmed on 11 March 2015 in a specially erected set at Annapurna Studios .
= = Themes and influences = =
Although S / O Satyamurthy was reportedly about a conflict between two families , according to Upendra it revolves around three characters : one who follows his heart , a second who uses his brain and a third who uses his brawn . The characters are a wedding planner ( Arjun ) , a wealthy businessman ( Prasad ) and a boss ( Upendra ) . Srinivas told the Indo @-@ Asian News Service that his film would highlight a father 's role in a person 's life , because more films dramatise relationships with mothers . S / O Satyamurthy has urban and rural settings similar to the director 's previous film , Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) .
The film refers to situations in the Ramayana and the Mahabharata in the lives of Rama , Sita , Ravana , Yudhishthira and Karna and to the dowry system . Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu wrote in her review that the film " attempts to break away from staid portrayal of women and notions of machismo in Telugu cinema " . Upendra 's character wants his wife to be happy , and hides his dark side from her ; Samantha 's character is diabetic , and the wall full of post @-@ it notes in Rajendra Prasad 's house illustrate marriages where communication has broken down . Dundoo notes lines of dialogue which " scoff " at people who call a girl unlucky if her engagement is broken .
For the scenes between M. S. Narayana and Rao Ramesh , Srinivas was inspired by his mother 's maternal uncles in the village of Vegeswarapuram in West Godavari district . In an interview , the director said that the screenplay was based on situations faced by people close to him and how they handled them .
= = Soundtrack = =
Devi Sri Prasad composed the soundtrack album and background score for S / O Satyamurthy . Folk singer Raghu Dixit made his Telugu cinema debut as a playback singer , saying on 4 February 2015 that he had recorded a song for the film . The soundtrack was scheduled to be released on 14 March , with Pawan Kalyan and Mahesh Babu the expected guests of honour at the release party . In late February 2015 , Prasad wrote and recorded a song . Aditya Music acquired the soundtrack 's marketing rights , and the seven @-@ track list was released on 14 March 2015 . The soundtrack was released the following day at the Hotel Novotel in Hyderabad . The soundtrack 's success was celebrated on 6 April 2015 at at Haailand , Vijayawada .
= = Release = =
S / O Satyamurthy 's release date was originally scheduled for 5 February 2015 in late November 2014 , and was later postponed to 2 April ( after the 2015 Cricket World Cup ) due to post @-@ production delays . After the film 's review by the censors on 30 March 2015 , its release date was rescheduled for 9 April .
S / O Satyamurthy was one of the rare Telugu films to be released in Tamil Nadu with English subtitles . The film was confirmed for release on 100 screens across Karnataka , at the same time as Dheera Rana Vikrama . Its global screen count was 1375 , the largest Telugu film release of the year ; however , it did not break the record 1450 screens set by 2014 's Aagadu . S / O Satyamurthy 's dubbed Malayalam version was released on 24 April .
= = = Distribution = = =
S / O Satyamurthy 's overseas theatrical rights were sold to Classics Entertainment for an undisclosed sum in late October 2014 , and days later its Karnataka rights were also sold for an undisclosed price . Dil Raju acquired the Nizam regional rights for ₹ 140 million , one of the highest prices paid for Nizam rights to a film . Bhopal Reddy acquired the Karnataka regional distribution rights for ₹ 60 million . The film 's theatrical rights were sold for a total of ₹ 540 million .
= = = Promotion = = =
Sai Gopal , who had assisted Srinivas since Swayamvaram ( 1999 ) , orchestrated S / O Satyamurthy 's promotion . Although the film was expected to preview in December 2014 , its preliminary preview was released on 6 March 2015 ( the night before Holi ) . The preview featured sixteen actors , including the leads ( whose faces were blurred ) , and the film 's logo was muted . In a press release , the producers announced that the film 's promotion would be in full swing at the soundtrack release party , with party passes awarded to those predicting the sixteen actors on the preview poster .
Its 45 @-@ second advance @-@ preview video was released on 7 March , receiving a good response on YouTube ( where it was viewed by more than 300 @,@ 000 people within 12 hours of its release ) . The film 's logo was disclosed the following day . Thirty @-@ one @-@ second 2D and 3D motion posters featuring Arjun , created by Prawin Pudi and designed by Siva Kiran of Working Title , were released on 9 March and two preview posters of Arjun were distributed the following day .
S / O Satyamurthy 's 27 @-@ second trailer was released on 11 March ; two posters featuring Arjun , Samantha and Menen in Spain were distributed the following day , and a poster of Arjun was released on 14 March . The theatrical trailer had more than one million views on one YouTube channel in three and a half days , a record . The trailer for a promotional song with Arjun and Prasad was released on 28 March , and the song itself was released on 1 April at 11 : 00 pm IST . Arjun promoted the film 's dubbed Malayalam version at the Lulu Mall in Cochin on 21 April .
= = = Home media = = =
MAA TV acquired the film 's broadcast @-@ television rights for ₹ 95 million . S / O Satyamurthy had its global television premiere on 15 July 2015 at 6 p.m. IST .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
S / O Satyamurthy had a lukewarm reception from critics , with the International Business Times calling the film a " mass entertainer " and criticising its predictability and length . According to Sangeetha Devi Dundoo of The Hindu , " We ’ ve seen enough films with characters placed in the villain ’ s den . Thankfully , the drama is lively and fun moments come through Ali and Brahmanandam . Allu Arjun shoulders the film with his remarkable performance and seems to be getting better with each film . The film ’ s biggest undoing is its length . A trimmer version would be far more engaging " . Pranitha Jonnalagedda of The Hans India wrote , " No denying that there are moments of crazy laughter , witty remarks and some thought provoking words , but Trivikram ’ s benchmark is set so high that the writing of this film doesn ’ t excite us enough . All said and done , if you are a lover of a Telugu cinema who enjoys watching the hero being the Good Samaritan and fancy a few tear @-@ jerking moments , this film is definitely for you ! " IndiaGlitz gave S / O Satyamurthy 3 @.@ 25 out of five stars , calling the film a " family entertainer sans memorable heroism " and adding that its second half " will work with a good many number of audience " . Madhavi Tata of Outlook India gave the film three out of five stars , writing that Trivikram 's screenplay " has too many sub @-@ plots , but the dialogues sparkle , especially when mouthed by veteran actors " . Tata called the film 's humour a " big draw " , with the best saved for Brahmanandam . Hemanth Kumar of The Times of India gave S / O Satyamurthy three out of five stars , writing that the film " works well as an idea , and leaves you with enough questions and thoughts to reflect upon your own life , but as a cinematic experience , it leaves a lot to be desired " . Pravallika Anjuri of Oneindia also gave the film three out of five stars , calling it a " perfect entertainer " despite being the " weakest work of Trivikram till date " : " Nevertheless it is shall be a great fun to watch Son Of Satyamurthy along with your family . Cut down the expectations and you will definitely love the movie " . Behindwoods gave it 2 @.@ 75 out of five stars : " Without a concrete villain , [ the film ] still manages to tell us the painful journey of the hero . Thanks to the powerful and meaningful dialogues in the voice @-@ over , [ the film ] becomes a charming drama " , calling it a " family drama that also entertains " and " another winner for the Trivikram @-@ Allu Arjun combo " .
Suresh Kavirayani of Deccan Chronicle gave S / O Satyamurthy 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars : " Trivikram has continued the Attarintiki Daredi trend of rich @-@ kid @-@ giving @-@ up @-@ luxuries in this film too . But , the hallmark of the director is missing from this movie . The punch dialogues associated with his films are missing and the screenplay is so @-@ so " . Karthik Keramalu of CNN @-@ IBN also gave the film 2 @.@ 5 out of five stars , calling it an " inconsistent drama with over @-@ the @-@ top action and a grand message " and adding : " If only the screenplay had matched the quality of Allu Arjun 's style , which is impeccably taken care of , Trivikram would have won the S / O Satyamurthy lottery " . IANS gave S / O Satyamurthy two out of five stars : " While all the quintessential Trivikram trademark moments can be found in S / O Satyamurthy , what you miss is the magic he created in his career 's best film Athadu " , adding that the film is a " predictable and sloppy family drama with a few high and mostly low moments " .
= = = Box office = = =
S / O Satyamurthy grossed ₹ 205 million on its first day at the global box office , the third @-@ highest opening @-@ day gross in the history of Telugu cinema . The film also had the best opening @-@ day gross of Arjun 's film career , breaking records set by 2014 's Race Gurram ( his previous film ) , Temper and Gopala Gopala . Trade analyst Trinath told IANS that the film grossed ₹ 335 million in two days at the global box office , the biggest opening of the year to date . S / O Satyamurthy earned ₹ 269 @.@ 2 million in three days at the global box office . By the end of its first weekend , the film earned ₹ 303 @.@ 1 million and was the highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of the year to date .
Gross earnings for the film 's first weekend were ₹ 483 million . S / O Satyamurthy netted about ₹ 35 million and grossed ₹ 50 million on its fifth day at the global box office , bringing its five @-@ day global gross and net to ₹ 492 @.@ 4 million and ₹ 357 @.@ 4 million . By then , the film had recovered 60 percent of its cost and was third on the list of Telugu films with all @-@ time top first @-@ week worldwide openings , behind Attarintiki Daredi ( 2013 ) and Yevadu ( 2014 ) . S / O Satyamurthy 's earnings dropped sharply on its seventh day , and its seven @-@ day global earnings stood at ₹ 579 million gross and ₹ 369 @.@ 4 million net .
The film crossed the ₹ 40 @-@ crore ( 400 @-@ million ) mark on its eighth day , netting ₹ 432 @.@ 4 million and grossing more than ₹ 600 million in eight days ( recouping over 80 percent of its cost ) . In eleven days , it netted a total of ₹ 425 @.@ 5 million and grossed ₹ 668 @.@ 5 million at the global box office . With consistent weekday performance , the film 's fifteen @-@ day global total gross and net figures were ₹ 713 @.@ 5 million and ₹ 450 @.@ 5 million .
During its third week , S / O Satyamurthy lost a large number of screens to new releases Dohchay , Kai Raja Kai , Aloukika and Avengers : Age of Ultron . The film still performed decently , grossing ₹ 50 @.@ 5 million and netting ₹ 21 @.@ 7 million in three days for an eighteen @-@ day global total gross and net of ₹ 775 million and ₹ 469 @.@ 2 million ( surpassing the lifetime records of Naayak ( 2013 ) , Racha ( 2012 ) , Temper , Eega ( 2012 ) , Govindudu Andarivadele and Gopala Gopala ) . It was the tenth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time at the global box office . At the end of three weeks , S / O Satyamurthy grossed over ₹ 800 million . Trade analyst Trinath told IANS that the film 's three @-@ week global net was over ₹ 500 million , the seventh @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time at the global box office .
S / O Satyamurthy grossed ₹ 905 million and netted a total of ₹ 519 million at the global box office during its full run ; of this , ₹ 507 @.@ 5 million was earned by the Telugu version . Arjun was the first Telugu actor with two consecutive films crossing the ₹ 500 @-@ million mark at the global box office . Bangalore Mirror called S / O Satyamurthy a blockbuster , grossing ₹ 920 million and netting over ₹ 600 million at the global box office during its run .
= = = = India = = = =
The film grossed ₹ 118 @.@ 9 million at the Andhra Pradesh and Telangana box office , ₹ 43 @.@ 5 million in Karnataka and ₹ 6 million in the rest of India on its first day . Early trends suggested that S / O Satyamurthy would net ₹ 85 million in Andhra Pradesh , and the official tally was ₹ 93 @.@ 7 million ; it was the fourth @-@ highest opening @-@ day grossing Telugu film in the state , behind Attarintiki Daredi , Aagadu and Temper . The film earned more than ₹ 29 million at the Bangalore box office , with an 80 @-@ percent occupancy for two days ( the highest of Arjun 's films to date ) . S / O Satyamurthy earned ₹ 72 million in two days at the Karnataka box office .
It earned ₹ 51 @.@ 5 million and ₹ 40 million on its second and third days in Andhra Pradesh / Telangana , bringing its three @-@ day total to ₹ 184 @.@ 2 million . It earned approximately ₹ 25 million in Karnataka , Tamil Nadu , Maharashtra and elsewhere in North India in three days . By the end of its first weekend , S / O Satyamurthy netted ₹ 207 @.@ 1 million , ₹ 35 million and ₹ 10 million in Andhra Pradesh , Karnataka and the rest of India respectively . Its first @-@ weekend gross in Andhra Pradesh and Telangana was ₹ 315 million and ₹ 66 million , ₹ 12 million and ₹ 6 million in Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the rest of India respectively .
S / O Satyamurthy performed well on its fifth day , earning ₹ 21 @.@ 6 million in Andhra Pradesh for a five @-@ day total of ₹ 228 @.@ 7 million . The film 's sixth @-@ day Andhra Pradesh earnings were ₹ 23 @.@ 8 million , bringing its six @-@ day total in the state to ₹ 252 @.@ 5 million . S / O Satyamurthy was the sixth @-@ highest first @-@ week earning Telugu film in Andhra Pradesh , at ₹ 262 @.@ 4 million . The film earned ₹ 39 million and ₹ 12 million in Karnataka and the rest of India in its first week . Its Karnataka gross was ₹ 47 @.@ 5 million , the highest ever for a Telugu film in the state .
It was the fourth Arjun film to net ₹ 10 million in the Nizam region , after Julai , Iddarammayilatho ( 2013 ) and Race Gurram . In eighteen days , the film netted ₹ 337 @.@ 2 million , ₹ 54 @.@ 5 million , ₹ 6 @.@ 3 million and ₹ 7 @.@ 2 million in AP / Nizam , Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the rest of India respectively . During its run S / O Satyamurthy netted ₹ 376 @.@ 5 million , ₹ 58 million , ₹ 6 @.@ 3 million and ₹ 7 @.@ 2 million in AP / Nizam , Karnataka , Tamil Nadu and the rest of India respectively , ₹ 140 @.@ 5 million in the Nizam region alone .
= = = = Overseas = = = =
S / O Satyamurthy grossed ₹ 37 @.@ 5 million on its first day at the overseas box office . According to Taran Adarsh , the film earned $ 347 @,@ 267 on its Wednesday premiere in the United States and was the second @-@ highest US premiere grosser ( behind Aagadu ) . It earned $ 136 @,@ 168 on Thursday , bringing its two @-@ day US box @-@ office total to $ 483 @,@ 435 ( about ₹ 30 @.@ 1 million ) . S / O Satyamurthy earned $ 233 @,@ 870 on Friday , bringing its three @-@ day US box @-@ office total to $ 720 @,@ 984 ( about ₹ 44 @.@ 9 million ) .
The film passed the million @-@ dollar mark on Sunday , the second Telugu film of 2015 to do so ( after Temper ) . Gross overseas receipts for the first weekend were ₹ 84 @.@ 6 million , with net earnings of ₹ 51 million . The film continued a good run on the international market despite a drop in collections in India , earning ₹ 56 million in eight days .
S / O Satyamurthy lost 60 percent of its screens after the release of OK Bangaram , but ( according to Taran Adarsh ) earned $ 1 @,@ 235 @,@ 073 by 19 April 2015 . It broke the lifetime records of Temper , Gopala Gopala and Govindudu Andarivadele in 11 days , and was the ninth @-@ highest @-@ grossing Telugu film of all time at the US box office . The film earned ₹ 52 million in the US and ₹ 7 million at the remaining overseas box offices during its run .
= = = Accolades = = =
= = Legacy = =
A dialogue from the film , Maa Nanna drushtilo , Bharyante nacchi techukune badhyata , Pillalu moyyalanipinche baruvu . Kani naa drushtilo Nannante marchipoleni gnapakam ( " According to my father , a wife is a voluntary duty and kids are the burden we love to bear . But for me , my father is an unforgettable memory " ) was spoofed by the producers of the film Kobbari Matta in its promotion . Sakshi published a spoof of the film on 19 May 2015 in which Prakash Raj was replaced by Brahmanandam as the protagonist 's father , who tells his son not to follow ethics and values but to give importance only to money .
= Nicholas Mayall =
Nicholas Ulrich Mayall ( May 9 , 1906 – January 5 , 1993 ) was an American observational astronomer . After obtaining his doctorate from the University of California , Berkeley , Mayall worked at the Lick Observatory , where he remained from 1934 – 1960 , except for a brief period at MIT 's Radiation Laboratory during World War II .
During his time at Lick , Mayall contributed to astronomical knowledge of nebulae , supernovae , spiral galaxy internal motions , the redshifts of galaxies , and the origin , age , and size of the Universe . He played a significant role in the planning and construction of Lick 's 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) reflector , which represented a major improvement over its earlier 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) telescope .
From 1960 , Mayall spent 11 years as director of the Kitt Peak National Observatory until his retirement in 1971 . Under his leadership KPNO , and the Cerro Tololo Inter @-@ American Observatory , developed into two of the world 's top research observatories , equipped with premier telescopes . Mayall was responsible for the construction of the 4 @-@ meter ( 160 in ) Kitt Peak reflector , which was named after him . When Mayall died in 1993 , his ashes were spread high on an empty ridge of Kitt Peak .
= = Early life = =
Mayall 's father , Edwin L. Mayall , Sr. , was an engineer for a manufacturing company in Illinois . His mother , Olive Ulrich Mayall , despite never attending college herself , set high educational standards for Mayall and his younger brother ( Edwin , Jr . , born 1907 ) . Sometime between his brother 's birth and 1913 , the family moved to California 's Modesto area , where Mayall entered first grade . Some time before 1917 , they moved again , to Stockton where they remained until 1924 and Mayall 's graduation from Stockton High School ( except for a brief return to Peoria , Illinois during 1918 – 1919 ) . During this period , presumably during his high school years , Mayall 's parents divorced .
During his senior year , in the fall of 1923 , Mayall was secretary of the school science club and set up a club visit to the Lick Observatory . His father permitted him to use his car , a Moline Knight , to transport the club members up the dirt and gravel winding mountain road leading to the observatory . This was Mayall 's first visit to the observatory where he would spend much of his career . After visiting , he read all the astronomy books available in the local libraries , although he did not at that time imagine making astronomy his profession .
= = Education = =
Mayall began college in the fall of 1924 at the University of California , Berkeley , studying for a degree in mining . He took up residence with his mother in an apartment on Durant Avenue , and worked at the UC Berkeley library to help support them both . Mayall generally did well at university , and was eventually elected to the Sigma Xi and Phi Beta Kappa honor societies . However , at mid @-@ term examinations of his second year , he achieved poor grades in mineralogy and chemistry laboratory . At a meeting with the dean to discuss his grades the latter became aware that Mayall was color blind , which prevented him from observing small color changes in bead and flame tests , and also kept him from seeing small color changes in precipitations and titrations . Mayall 's adviser recommended that he change his major , as he would not be able to graduate as a mining engineer with such a handicap .
Mayall 's mother encouraged him to study whatever interested him the most , and to do it well , so he considered astronomy as an alternative to mining . After asking many professors in the astronomy department whether they enjoyed their work and whether they made a satisfactory wage , and being content with their answers , he transferred to the College of Letters and Science to major in astronomy . This did not set him back in his degree requirements because almost all of his first year studies had been in basic physical sciences and mathematics . Eventually Mayall discovered that he greatly enjoyed astronomy , and decided upon a course of graduate level study followed by a career as a research scientist .
After graduating in 1928 , Mayall decided to remain at Berkeley , as it had the best astronomy graduate program of the day . However , he took a hiatus from pursuing his advanced degree and went to work as a human computer at the Mount Wilson Observatory from 1929 – 1931 , where he assisted luminaries such as Edwin Hubble , Paul W. Merrill , and Milton L. Humason . This activity resulted in him co @-@ authoring papers on Pluto 's mass and orbit with Seth Barnes Nicholson and others , shortly after Pluto 's discovery
Mayall returned to Berkeley in 1931 to pursue graduate studies . His thesis topic , suggested by Hubble , was to count the number of galaxies per unit area on the sky as a function of position on direct plates taken with the Crossley reflector at Lick . This should have supplemented the counts Hubble himself was making using the 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) and 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) telescopes at Mt . Wilson . Mayall successfully completed his thesis and was awarded his PhD degree in 1934 . Hubble complimented Mayall for his work , although significant results were never achieved ( nor by Hubble either ) due to the lack of accurate magnitude standards for the faint galaxies that were measured and by the ( then unrealized ) very strong tendency of galaxies to cluster .
While working on his thesis , Mayall had an idea of designing a small , fast slitless spectrograph , optimized for nebulae and galaxies . He believed that if it were used in conjunction with the Crossley reflector it would make that facility competitive for at least some of the work that Humason and Hubble were doing with the larger Mt . Wilson telescopes . It was never expected to compete with the Mt . Wilson 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) instrument for stars or elliptical galaxies , which have condensed and relatively bright nuclei . The spectrograph was to be used instead to study extended , low @-@ surface @-@ brightness gaseous nebulae or irregular galaxies . Mayall 's thesis advisor , William Hammond Wright , and the then head of the Lick stellar spectroscopy program , Joseph Haines Moore , encouraged him to develop his spectrograph . The device was constructed by the Lick Observatory 's own workshop , and proved to be more efficient for extended , low @-@ surface @-@ brightness objects , particularly in the ultraviolet part of the spectrum , thus confirming the expectations of Mayall . With Wright 's strong encouragement , Mayall had used fused quartz to make ultraviolet transmitting optics , whereas the Mt . Wilson spectrographs used heavy glass lenses and prisms , which absorb ultraviolet radiation .
= = Lick Observatory = =
While Mayall hoped to join the Mount Wilson team upon earning his doctorate , there were no openings during the Great Depression . Instead , he began his career at Lick , which was afforded by the number two janitor resigning and Mayall being given a one @-@ year position as observing assistant with janitorial duties limited to maintaining the darkrooms and keeping instrument rooms clean . The following year , one of the senior astronomers joined the Berkeley department and his salary was split between Mayall and another young astronomer , Arthur Bambridge Wyse .
On June 30 , 1934 , Mayall married Kathleen ( Kay ) Boxall from Los Angeles , who he had met during his two years in Pasadena . They lived in a small apartment that was part of the little astronomy village on the Mount Hamilton summit , where all Lick astronomers resided at that time .
Using his newly built spectrograph , Mayall was the first to determine the radial velocities of many knots of gas in the Crab Nebula . Using these data and the previously published angular rate of expansion of the nebula , he was able to estimate its distance . Consequently , he became the first person to recognize and demonstrate that the Crab Nebula was the remnant of a supernova observed and recorded in 1054 ( SN 1054 ) , rather than a classical nova . Walter Baade was instrumental in stimulating and counseling Mayall after around 1939 , taking on the role previously filled by Hubble .
In 1941 , together with Arthur Wyse and Lawrence Aller , Mayall studied the rotation of nearby galaxies and found that there was much matter that was too faint to be observed , but which could be detected by way of its gravitational effect . He spent about three years until 1942 researching 50 Milky Way globular clusters , and found the Milky Way had about one half of the mass previously supposed .
While at the Lick Observatory , Mayall collaborated on a 20 @-@ year project with astronomers at Mount Palomar and Mount Wilson on the Big Bang theory of the beginning of the Universe . Together with Milton L. Humason and Allan R. Sandage , he wrote a 1956 paper concluding that the age of the Universe was six billion years ( three times the prior estimate , and about half the modern value ) , and its size three times larger than thought .
= = World War II = =
After the United States entered World War II , Mayall accepted a position at the MIT 's Radiation Laboratory in Cambridge , Massachusetts to work on radar development . He began his work early in 1942 in Cambridge , which was the only time during his adult life that he resided outside California or Arizona . However , the climate of Massachusetts was unlike that of California , which he and his family were accustomed to , and in the middle of 1943 he arranged a transfer to the Pasadena Mt . Wilson Observatory offices . Many wartime Office of Scientific Research and Development ( OSRD ) projects related to optics , aerial gunnery , aerial photography , and bombing tactics were already in progress there . Unhappy with the management of his project and feeling his talents were not being well used , he transferred again in February 1944 to Caltech to work on the development of large rockets . There he became an expert on high @-@ speed photography , which was used to analyze rocket trajectories . In the spring of 1945 , he was transferred to a secret atomic bomb project that also required high @-@ speed photography . He visited Los Alamos twice , including once around the time of the Trinity test . By October 1 , 1945 , the war had ended and Mayall had returned to astronomical research at Lick .
= = 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope = =
During World War II Mayall became an important influence on Lick Observatory 's future . Ever since 1931 , when he had returned to Lick and Berkley after serving two years as an assistant at Mount Wilson , he had felt strongly that Mount Hamilton required a larger telescope . The astronomers at Lick were proud of their ability to achieve important results with Lick 's small 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Crossley reflector . Its diminutive size first became apparent in 1908 , when Mount Wilson 's 60 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) telescope saw first light . This was accentuated by the opening of the 72 @-@ inch ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) Dominion Astrophysical Observatory in 1917 , and Mount Wilson 's even larger 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) Hooker telescope in 1919 . Mayall was adept at working with the small Crossley , but understood that it could never really stand up to a competing telescope that collected nine times the amount of light . This was only going to get worse when the 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) Hale Telescope was completed at Palomar Observatory . Mayall and other young faculty at Lick thought that the older faculty such as Moore and Wright were too committed to the small telescopes and should have tried harder to obtain a larger reflector .
Unknown to Mayall , Lick observatory director William H. Wright and his predecessor , Robert G. Aitken , had both tried in secret to raise money for a larger reflector to replace the 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Crossley Reflector . They tried both private sources as well as trying to get Robert Gordon Sproul , the University of California President , to provide for one in the budget . Despite multiple attempts , they continued to fail , primarily due to the Great Depression . However , in 1942 , Sproul asked Paul W. Merrill from Mt . Wilson to succeed Wright , but was turned down . Agitated by the refusal , Sproul changed his stance and told the regents that they had to find a way to raise money for a new telescope once the war ended . At about this time , Sproul promised or secretly appointed C. Donald Shane as director of Lick , to take over when the war ended .
The plan for a large telescope was leaked around September 1944 in the form of the University 's budget proposals . Wright and Joseph H. Moore , interim wartime Lick director , imagined an 85 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 2 m ) or 90 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) reflector based upon the funds proposed in the budget by Sproul . Mayall and Gerald E. Kron sent a letter to Sproul representing the younger Lick staff members , in which they requested a meeting to discuss the kind of telescope to be built . They met with Sproul in December 1944 in Sproul 's Los Angeles office . Mayall spoke of the key need for a telescope exceeding 90 inches ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) . At the Caltech optical shop in Pasadena he had seen the nearly completed 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) Pyrex glass disc that was initially planned to be used as a flat in the auto @-@ collimation test of the 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) Palomar mirror and urged Sproul to have the Lick telescope use a mirror of that size . Much to their surprise , Sproul agreed .
Shane was appointed chairman of a committee formed by Sproul in the beginning of 1945 , to plan the new reflector . Other committee members included Mayall , Moore , Walter S. Adams and Ira S. Bowen . The committee functioned primarily through correspondence . Mayall 's first letter helped to convince Shane that 120 inches ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) was feasible instead of just 90 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 3 m ) . Mayall helped to bridge the gap between the experienced team of telescope designers in Pasadena and Shane , who was more experienced as a university administrator and professor . Adams and the executive officer of the 200 @-@ inch ( 5 @.@ 1 m ) project , John August Anderson , shared their experience , drawings and plans with the Lick design committee . On March 6 , 1945 , with both Mayall and Shane present , the committee decided upon the basic parameters of what would become the 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) C. Donald Shane telescope . On March 7 , Mayall joined Shane , Wright and Moore ( not present at the March 6 meeting ) , at Mt . Hamilton to choose the location upon which to build the reflector .
= = Postwar Lick research = =
During the long period of building the 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope , Mayall continued to use Lick 's 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) Crossley Reflector and focused his efforts on utilizing his slitless spectrograph , which was optimized for extended , low @-@ surface @-@ brightness clusters , galaxies , and nebulae . In 1946 , he completed his pre @-@ war effort to get integrated spectra of globular clusters and published the work . His paper was key in demonstrating that the system of Milky Way globular clusters shares only slightly the galactic rotation found in the flattened disc of interstellar matter and young stars in our galaxy . In 1948 , Mayall serendipitously discovered a type II supernova while conducting other research .
Other research Mayall performed included the 20 year collaboration ( formulated in 1935 by Hubble ) with Milton Humason , to gather redshift values for all northern galaxies brighter than + 13 visual magnitude . Mayall handled the brighter galaxies on the Crossley , while Humason tackled the fainter ones using the Mount Wilson 100 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 5 m ) . This work resulted in the 1956 paper he co @-@ authored with Humason and Allan Sandage , on the rate of expansion of the Universe . The paper listed over 800 redshift values ( 300 determined by Mayall ) for galaxies measured from 1935 to 1955 at Lick , Wilson and Palomar .
At Lick , he also studied galactic dynamics , such as the rotational motion of the Andromeda and Triangulum galaxies . He presented this work at a symposium on the structure of the Milky Way on June 23 , 1950 , at the University of Michigan in Ann Arbor . This work demonstrated the inner solid @-@ body rotation and the outer Keplerian motion . In 1953 , together with O.J. Eggen , Mayall identified six likely globular clusters ( including Mayall II ) around the Andromeda galaxy in a Palomar 48 @-@ inch schmidt plate exposed in 1948 that was provided to them by Hubble .
Gerry Kron marveled at the sensitivity of Mayall 's eyes that could reach down to + 17 visual magnitude using the 36 @-@ inch ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) telescope . Mayall 's eyesight later deteriorated to the point that he could no longer read .
The new 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope became operational at the beginning of 1960 . Mayall immediately began using it , although he left Lick in September of that year .
= = Kitt Peak National Observatory = =
Mayall moved on from the University of California ( after more than 25 years progressing from student to astronomer ) , to become the second director of Kitt Peak National Observatory ( KPNO ) . With financial support from the National Science Foundation , several universities had formed a consortium — the Association of Universities for Research in Astronomy ( AURA ) . Its purpose was to create and run a research observatory for American astronomers . The first director was Aden B. Meinel , who chose the site near Tucson at the 7 @,@ 000 @-@ foot ( 2 @,@ 100 m ) Kitt Peak , and oversaw the building of its first telescope , the 84 @-@ inch ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) reflector which was completed in the spring of 1960 .
However , the AURA board decided that Meinel was not well suited for the job and chose Mayall to replace him on October 1 , 1960 , even though he had no previous administrative experience . Mayall had previously been appointed ( in 1958 ) as a consultant to AURA , due to his experience in planning the Lick 120 @-@ inch ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) telescope . The board 's president was Shane , who was representing the University of California , and he helped convince Mayall to accept the offer .
As director , Mayall oversaw the building of the 4 @-@ meter ( 160 in ) Kitt peak reflector . It was still being built when he retired in 1971 , and was completed in 1973 , at which point it was named the Nicholas U. Mayall Telescope in his honor . Mayall was intimately involved in the expansion of the national observatory to the Southern hemisphere in what eventually became the Cerro Tololo Interamerican Observatory ( CTIO ) . The 4 @-@ metre ( 160 in ) Victor M. Blanco Telescope at CTIO ( identical to the Mayall Telescope at Kitt Peak ) saw first light in 1974 and was completed in 1976 .
= = Retirement = =
Mayall retired in 1971 , at the age of 65 , an event that was honored by a symposium held on his birthday , May 8 . During his retirement , he continued to play an active role in many organizations , including the overview committee for Fermilab . He died on January 5 , 1993 , of complications caused by diabetes ; his ashes were spread high on an empty ridge of Kitt Peak . Mayall was survived by his wife of 58 years , Kathleen Boxall , and their two children : Bruce Ian Mayall ( 1939 ) and Pamela Ann Mayall , their two grandchildren : Shane Nicholas Oakes ( 1977 ) and Bryce Oakes Mayall ( 1979 ) .
= = Honors = =
= = Publications = =
= = Cited sources = =
= Norman conquest of England =
The Norman conquest of England was the 11th @-@ century invasion and occupation of England by an army of Norman , Breton , and French soldiers led by Duke William II of Normandy , later styled as William the Conqueror .
William 's claim to the English throne derived from his familial relationship with the childless Anglo @-@ Saxon King Edward the Confessor , who may have encouraged William 's hopes for the throne . Edward died in January 1066 and was succeeded by his brother @-@ in @-@ law Harold Godwinson . The Norwegian king Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in September 1066 and was victorious at the Battle of Fulford , but Harold defeated and killed him at the Battle of Stamford Bridge on 25 September 1066 . Within days , William landed in southern England . Harold marched south to confront him , leaving a significant portion of his army in the north . Harold 's army confronted William 's invaders on 14 October at the Battle of Hastings ; William 's force defeated Harold , who was killed in the engagement .
Although William 's main rivals were gone , he still faced rebellions over the following years and was not secure on his throne until after 1072 . The lands of the resisting English elite were confiscated ; some of the elite fled into exile . To control his new kingdom , William gave lands to his followers and built castles commanding military strongpoints throughout the land . Other effects of the conquest included the court and government , the introduction of Norman French as the language of the elites , and changes in the composition of the upper classes , as William enfeoffed lands to be held directly from the king . More gradual changes affected the agricultural classes and village life : the main change appears to have been the formal elimination of slavery , which may or may not have been linked to the invasion . There was little alteration in the structure of government , as the new Norman administrators took over many of the forms of Anglo @-@ Saxon government .
= = Origins = =
In 911 the French Carolingian ruler Charles the Simple allowed a group of Vikings under their leader Rollo to settle in Normandy as part of the Treaty of Saint @-@ Clair @-@ sur @-@ Epte . In exchange for the land , the Norsemen under Rollo were expected to provide protection along the coast against further Viking invaders . Their settlement proved successful , and the Vikings in the region became known as the " Northmen " from which " Normandy " and " Normans " are derived . The Normans quickly adopted the indigenous culture , renouncing paganism and converting to Christianity . They adopted the langue d 'oïl of their new home and added features from their own Norse language , transforming it into the Norman language . They intermarried with the local population and used the territory granted them as a base to extend the frontiers of the duchy westward , annexing territory including the Bessin , the Cotentin Peninsula and Avranches .
In 1002 King Æthelred II of England married Emma , the sister of Richard II , Duke of Normandy . Their son Edward the Confessor , who spent many years in exile in Normandy , succeeded to the English throne in 1042 . This led to the establishment of a powerful Norman interest in English politics , as Edward drew heavily on his former hosts for support , bringing in Norman courtiers , soldiers , and clerics and appointing them to positions of power , particularly in the Church . Childless and embroiled in conflict with the formidable Godwin , Earl of Wessex , and his sons , Edward may also have encouraged Duke William of Normandy 's ambitions for the English throne .
When King Edward died at the beginning of 1066 , the lack of a clear heir led to a disputed succession in which several contenders laid claim to the throne of England . Edward 's immediate successor was the Earl of Wessex , Harold Godwinson , the richest and most powerful of the English aristocrats . Harold was elected king by the Witenagemot of England and crowned by the Archbishop of York , Ealdred , although Norman propaganda claimed the ceremony was performed by Stigand , the uncanonically elected Archbishop of Canterbury . Harold was immediately challenged by two powerful neighbouring rulers . Duke William claimed that he had been promised the throne by King Edward and that Harold had sworn agreement to this ; King Harald III of Norway , commonly known as Harald Hardrada , also contested the succession . His claim to the throne was based on an agreement between his predecessor Magnus I of Norway and the earlier English king , Harthacnut , whereby if either died without heir , the other would inherit both England and Norway . William and Harald at once set about assembling troops and ships to invade England .
= = Tostig 's raids and the Norwegian invasion = =
In early 1066 , Harold 's exiled brother Tostig Godwinson raided southeastern England with a fleet he had recruited in Flanders , later joined by other ships from Orkney . Threatened by Harold 's fleet , Tostig moved north and raided in East Anglia and Lincolnshire , but he was driven back to his ships by the brothers Edwin , Earl of Mercia , and Morcar , Earl of Northumbria . Deserted by most of his followers , he withdrew to Scotland , where he spent the summer recruiting fresh forces . King Harold spent the summer on the south coast with a large army and fleet waiting for William to invade , but the bulk of his forces were militia who needed to harvest their crops , so on 8 September Harold dismissed them .
King Harald Hardrada invaded northern England in early September , leading a fleet of more than 300 ships carrying perhaps 15 @,@ 000 men . Harald 's army was further augmented by the forces of Tostig , who threw his support behind the Norwegian king 's bid for the throne . Advancing on York , the Norwegians defeated a northern English army under Edwin and Morcar on 20 September at the Battle of Fulford . The two earls had rushed to engage the Norwegian forces before King Harold could arrive from the south . Although Harold Godwinson had married Edwin and Morcar 's sister Ealdgyth , the two earls may have distrusted Harold and feared that the king would replace Morcar with Tostig . The end result was that their forces were devastated and unable to participate in the rest of the campaigns of 1066 , although the two earls survived the battle .
Hardrada moved on to York , which surrendered to him . After taking hostages from the leading men of the city , on 24 September the Norwegians moved east to the tiny village of Stamford Bridge . King Harold probably learned of the Norwegian invasion in mid @-@ September and rushed north , gathering forces as he went . The royal forces probably took nine days to cover the distance from London to York , averaging almost 25 miles ( 40 kilometres ) per day . At dawn on 25 September Harold 's forces reached York , where he learned the location of the Norwegians . The English then marched on the invaders and took them by surprise , defeating them in the Battle of Stamford Bridge . Harald of Norway and Tostig were killed , and the Norwegians suffered such horrific losses that only 24 of the original 300 ships were required to carry away the survivors . The English victory was costly , as Harold 's army was left in a battered and weakened state .
= = Norman invasion = =
= = = Norman preparations and forces = = =
William assembled a large invasion fleet and an army gathered from Normandy and all over France , including large contingents from Brittany and Flanders . He mustered his forces at Saint @-@ Valery @-@ sur @-@ Somme and was ready to cross the Channel by about 12 August . The exact numbers and composition of William 's force are unknown . A contemporary document claims that William had 726 ships , but this may be an inflated figure . Figures given by contemporary writers are highly exaggerated , varying from 14 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 men . Modern historians have offered a range of estimates for the size of William 's forces : 7000 – 8000 men , 1000 – 2000 of them cavalry ; 10 @,@ 000 – 12 @,@ 000 men ; 10 @,@ 000 men , 3000 of them cavalry ; or 7500 men . The army would have consisted of a mix of cavalry , infantry , and archers or crossbowmen , with about equal numbers of cavalry and archers and the foot soldiers equal in number to the other two types combined . Although later lists of companions of William the Conqueror are extant , most are padded with extra names ; only about 35 individuals can be reliably claimed to have been with William at Hastings .
William of Poitiers states that William obtained Pope Alexander II 's consent for the invasion , signified by a papal banner , along with diplomatic support from other European rulers . Although Alexander did give papal approval to the conquest after it succeeded , no other source claims papal support before the invasion . William 's army assembled during the summer while an invasion fleet in Normandy was constructed . Although the army and fleet were ready by early August , adverse winds kept the ships in Normandy until late September . There were probably other reasons for William 's delay , including intelligence reports from England revealing that Harold 's forces were deployed along the coast . William would have preferred to delay the invasion until he could make an unopposed landing .
= = = Landing and Harold 's march south = = =
The Normans crossed to England a few days after Harold 's victory over the Norwegians at Stamford Bridge on 25 September , following the dispersal of Harold 's naval force . They landed at Pevensey in Sussex on 28 September and erected a wooden castle at Hastings , from which they raided the surrounding area . This ensured supplies for the army , and as Harold and his family held many of the lands in the area , it weakened William 's opponent and made him more likely to attack to put an end to the raiding .
Harold , after defeating his brother Tostig and Harald Hardrada in the north , left much of his force there , including Morcar and Edwin , and marched the rest of his army south to deal with the threatened Norman invasion . It is unclear when Harold learned of William 's landing , but it was probably while he was travelling south . Harold stopped in London for about a week before reaching Hastings , so it is likely that he took a second week to march south , averaging about 27 miles ( 43 kilometres ) per day , for the nearly 200 miles ( 320 kilometres ) to London . Although Harold attempted to surprise the Normans , William 's scouts reported the English arrival to the duke . The exact events preceding the battle remain obscure , with contradictory accounts in the sources , but all agree that William led his army from his castle and advanced towards the enemy . Harold had taken up a defensive position at the top of Senlac Hill ( present @-@ day Battle , East Sussex ) , about 6 miles ( 10 kilometres ) from William 's castle at Hastings .
Contemporary sources do not give reliable data on the size and composition of Harold 's army , although two Norman sources give figures of 1 @.@ 2 million or 400 @,@ 000 men . Recent historians have suggested figures of between 5000 and 13 @,@ 000 for Harold 's army at Hastings , but most agree on a range of between 7000 and 8000 English troops . These men would have comprised a mix of the fyrd ( militia mainly composed of foot soldiers ) and the housecarls , or nobleman 's personal troops , who usually also fought on foot . The main difference between the two types was in their armour ; the housecarls used better protecting armour than that of the fyrd . The English army does not appear to have had many archers , although some were present . Few individual Englishmen are known to have been at Hastings ; the most important were Harold 's brothers Gyrth and Leofwine . About 18 other named individuals can reasonably be assumed to have fought with Harold at Hastings , including two of his other relatives .
= = = Hastings = = =
The battle began at about 9 am on 14 October 1066 and lasted all day , but while a broad outline is known , the exact events are obscured by contradictory accounts in the sources . Although the numbers on each side were probably about equal , William had both cavalry and infantry , including many archers , while Harold had only foot soldiers and few archers . The English soldiers formed up as a shield wall along the ridge , and were at first so effective that William 's army was thrown back with heavy casualties . Some of William 's Breton troops panicked and fled , and some of the English troops appear to have pursued the fleeing Bretons . Norman cavalry then attacked and killed the pursuing troops . While the Bretons were fleeing , rumours swept the Norman forces that the duke had been killed , but William rallied his troops . Twice more the Normans made feigned withdrawals , tempting the English into pursuit , and allowing the Norman cavalry to attack them repeatedly . The available sources are more confused about events in the afternoon , but it appears that the decisive event was the death of Harold , about which differing stories are told . William of Jumieges claimed that Harold was killed by the duke . The Bayeux Tapestry has been claimed to show Harold 's death by an arrow to the eye , but this may be a later reworking of the tapestry to conform to 12th @-@ century stories that Harold had died from an arrow wound to the head . Other sources stated that no one knew how Harold died because the press of battle was so tight around the king that the soldiers could not see who struck the fatal blow . William of Poitiers gives no details at all about Harold 's death .
= = = Aftermath of Hastings = = =
The day after the battle , Harold 's body was identified , either by his armour or marks on his body . The bodies of the English dead , who included some of Harold 's brothers and his housecarls , were left on the battlefield , although some were removed by relatives later . Gytha , Harold 's mother , offered the victorious duke the weight of her son 's body in gold for its custody , but her offer was refused . William ordered that Harold 's body was to be thrown into the sea , but whether that took place is unclear . Another story relates that Harold was buried at the top of a cliff . Waltham Abbey , which had been founded by Harold , later claimed that his body had been buried there secretly . Later legends claimed that Harold did not die at Hastings , but escaped and became a hermit at Chester .
After his victory at Hastings , William expected to receive the submission of the surviving English leaders , but instead Edgar the Ætheling was proclaimed king by the Witenagemot , with the support of Earls Edwin and Morcar , Stigand , the Archbishop of Canterbury , and Ealdred , the Archbishop of York . William therefore advanced , marching around the coast of Kent to London . He defeated an English force that attacked him at Southwark , but being unable to storm London Bridge he sought to reach the capital by a more circuitous route .
William moved up the Thames valley to cross the river at Wallingford , Berkshire ; while there he received the submission of Stigand . He then travelled north @-@ east along the Chilterns , before advancing towards London from the north @-@ west , fighting further engagements against forces from the city . Having failed to muster an effective military response , Edgar 's leading supporters lost their nerve , and the English leaders surrendered to William at Berkhamsted , Hertfordshire . William was acclaimed King of England and crowned by Ealdred on 25 December 1066 , in Westminster Abbey . The new king attempted to conciliate the remaining English nobility by confirming Morcar , Edwin and Waltheof , the Earl of Northumbria , in their lands as well as giving some land to Edgar the Ætheling . William remained in England until March 1067 , when he returned to Normandy with English prisoners , including Stigand , Morcar , Edwin , Edgar the Ætheling , and Waltheof .
= = English resistance = =
= = = First rebellions = = =
Despite the submission of the English nobles , resistance continued for several years . William left control of England in the hands of his half @-@ brother Odo and one of his closest supporters , William fitzOsbern . In 1067 rebels in Kent launched an unsuccessful attack on Dover Castle in combination with Eustace II of Boulogne . The Shropshire landowner Eadric the Wild , in alliance with the Welsh rulers of Gwynedd and Powys , raised a revolt in western Mercia , fighting Norman forces based in Hereford . These events forced William to return to England at the end of 1067 . In 1068 William besieged rebels in Exeter , including Harold 's mother Gytha , and after suffering heavy losses managed to negotiate the town 's surrender . In May , William 's wife Matilda was crowned queen at Westminster , an important symbol of William 's growing international stature . Later in the year Edwin and Morcar raised a revolt in Mercia with Welsh assistance , while Gospatric , the newly appointed Earl of Northumbria , led a rising in Northumbria , which had not yet been occupied by the Normans . These rebellions rapidly collapsed as William moved against them , building castles and installing garrisons as he had already done in the south . Edwin and Morcar again submitted , while Gospatric fled to Scotland , as did Edgar the Ætheling and his family , who may have been involved in these revolts . Meanwhile , Harold 's sons , who had taken refuge in Ireland , raided Somerset , Devon and Cornwall from the sea .
= = = Revolts of 1069 = = =
Early in 1069 the newly installed Norman Earl of Northumbria , Robert de Comines , and several hundred soldiers accompanying him were massacred at Durham ; the Northumbrian rebellion was joined by Edgar , Gospatric , Siward Barn and other rebels who had taken refuge in Scotland . The castellan of York , Robert fitzRichard , was defeated and killed , and the rebels besieged the Norman castle at York . William hurried north with an army , defeated the rebels outside York and pursued them into the city , massacring the inhabitants and bringing the revolt to an end . He built a second castle at York , strengthened Norman forces in Northumbria and then returned south . A subsequent local uprising was crushed by the garrison of York . Harold 's sons launched a second raid from Ireland and were defeated in Devon by Norman forces under Count Brian , a son of Eudes , Count of Penthièvre . In August or September 1069 a large fleet sent by Sweyn II of Denmark arrived off the coast of England , sparking a new wave of rebellions across the country . After abortive raids in the south , the Danes joined forces with a new Northumbrian uprising , which was also joined by Edgar , Gospatric and the other exiles from Scotland as well as Waltheof . The combined Danish and English forces defeated the Norman garrison at York , seized the castles and took control of Northumbria , although a raid into Lincolnshire led by Edgar was defeated by the Norman garrison of Lincoln .
At the same time resistance flared up again in western Mercia , where the forces of Eadric the Wild , together with his Welsh allies and further rebel forces from Cheshire and Shropshire , attacked the castle at Shrewsbury . In the south @-@ west , rebels from Devon and Cornwall attacked the Norman garrison at Exeter , but were repulsed by the defenders and scattered by a Norman relief force under Count Brian . Other rebels from Dorset , Somerset and neighbouring areas besieged Montacute Castle but were defeated by a Norman army gathered from London , Winchester and Salisbury under Geoffrey of Coutances . Meanwhile , William attacked the Danes , who had moored for the winter south of the Humber in Lincolnshire , and drove them back to the north bank . Leaving Robert of Mortain in charge of Lincolnshire , he turned west and defeated the Mercian rebels in battle at Stafford . When the Danes attempted to return to Lincolnshire , the Norman forces there again drove them back across the Humber . William advanced into Northumbria , defeating an attempt to block his crossing of the swollen River Aire at Pontefract . The Danes fled at his approach , and he occupied York . He bought off the Danes , who agreed to leave England in the spring , and during the winter of 1069 – 70 his forces systematically devastated Northumbria in the Harrying of the North , subduing all resistance . As a symbol of his renewed authority over the north , William ceremonially wore his crown at York on Christmas Day 1069 .
In early 1070 , having secured the submission of Waltheof and Gospatric , and driven Edgar and his remaining supporters back to Scotland , William returned to Mercia , where he based himself at Chester and crushed all remaining resistance in the area before returning to the south . Papal legates arrived and at Easter re @-@ crowned William , which would have symbolically reasserted his right to the kingdom . William also oversaw a purge of prelates from the Church , most notably Stigand , who was deposed from Canterbury . The papal legates also imposed penances on William and those of his supporters who had taken part in Hastings and the subsequent campaigns . As well as Canterbury , the see of York had become vacant following the death of Ealdred in September 1069 . Both sees were filled by men loyal to William : Lanfranc , abbot of William 's foundation at Caen received Canterbury while Thomas of Bayeux , one of William 's chaplains , was installed at York . Some other bishoprics and abbeys also received new bishops and abbots and William confiscated some of the wealth of the English monasteries , which had served as repositories for the assets of the native nobles .
= = = Danish troubles = = =
In 1070 Sweyn II of Denmark arrived to take personal command of his fleet and renounced the earlier agreement to withdraw , sending troops into the Fens to join forces with English rebels led by Hereward the Wake , based on the Isle of Ely . Sweyn soon accepted a further payment of Danegeld from William , and returned home . After the departure of the Danes the Fenland rebels remained at large , protected by the marshes , and early in 1071 there was a final outbreak of rebel activity in the area . Edwin and Morcar again turned against William , and although Edwin was quickly betrayed and killed , Morcar reached Ely , where he and Hereward were joined by exiled rebels who had sailed from Scotland . William arrived with an army and a fleet to finish off this last pocket of resistance . After some costly failures the Normans managed to construct a pontoon to reach the Isle of Ely , defeated the rebels at the bridgehead and stormed the island , marking the effective end of English resistance . Morcar was imprisoned for the rest of his life ; Hereward was pardoned and had his lands returned to him .
= = = Last resistance = = =
William faced difficulties in his continental possessions in 1071 , but in 1072 he returned to England and marched north to confront King Malcolm III of Scotland . This campaign , which included a land army supported by a fleet , resulted in the Treaty of Abernethy in which Malcolm expelled Edgar the Ætheling from Scotland and agreed to some degree of subordination to William . The exact status of this subordination was unclear – the treaty merely stated that Malcolm became William 's man . Whether this meant only for Cumbria and Lothian or for the whole Scottish kingdom was left ambiguous .
In 1075 , during William 's absence , Ralph de Gael , the Earl of Norfolk , and Roger de Breteuil the Earl of Hereford , conspired to overthrow him in the Revolt of the Earls . The exact reason for the rebellion is unclear , but it was launched at the wedding of Ralph to a relative of Roger 's , held at Exning . Another earl , Waltheof , despite being one of William 's favourites , was also involved , and some Breton lords were ready to offer support . Ralph also requested Danish aid . William remained in Normandy while his men in England subdued the revolt . Roger was unable to leave his stronghold in Herefordshire because of efforts by Wulfstan , the Bishop of Worcester , and Æthelwig , the Abbot of Evesham . Ralph was bottled up in Norwich Castle by the combined efforts of Odo of Bayeux , Geoffrey of Coutances , Richard fitzGilbert , and William de Warenne . Norwich was besieged and surrendered , and Ralph went into exile . Meanwhile , the Danish king 's brother , Cnut , had finally arrived in England with a fleet of 200 ships , but he was too late as Norwich had already surrendered . The Danes then raided along the coast before returning home . William did not return to England until later in 1075 , to deal with the Danish threat and the aftermath of the rebellion , celebrating Christmas at Winchester . Roger and Waltheof were kept in prison , where Waltheof was executed in May 1076 . By that time William had returned to the continent , where Ralph was continuing the rebellion from Brittany .
= = Control of England = =
Once England had been conquered , the Normans faced many challenges in maintaining control . They were few in number compared to the native English population ; including those from other parts of France , historians estimate the number of Norman landholders at around 8000 . William 's followers expected and received lands and titles in return for their service in the invasion , but William claimed ultimate possession of the land in England over which his armies had given him de facto control , and asserted the right to dispose of it as he saw fit . Henceforth , all land was " held " directly from the king in feudal tenure in return for military service . A Norman lord typically had properties located in a piecemeal fashion throughout England and Normandy , and not in a single geographic block .
To find the lands to compensate his Norman followers , William initially confiscated the estates of all the English lords who had fought and died with Harold and redistributed part of their lands . These confiscations led to revolts , which resulted in more confiscations , a cycle that continued for five years after the Battle of Hastings . To put down and prevent further rebellions the Normans constructed castles and fortifications in unprecedented numbers , initially mostly on the motte @-@ and @-@ bailey pattern . Historian Robert Liddiard remarks that " to glance at the urban landscape of Norwich , Durham or Lincoln is to be forcibly reminded of the impact of the Norman invasion " . William and his barons also exercised tighter control over inheritance of property by widows and daughters , often forcing marriages to Normans .
A measure of William 's success in taking control is that , from 1072 until the Capetian conquest of Normandy in 1204 , William and his successors were largely absentee rulers . For example , after 1072 , William spent more than 75 per cent of his time in France rather than England . While he needed to be personally present in Normandy to defend the realm from foreign invasion and put down internal revolts , he set up royal administrative structures that enabled him to rule England from a distance .
= = Consequences = =
= = = Elite replacement = = =
A direct consequence of the invasion was the almost total elimination of the old English aristocracy and the loss of English control over the Catholic Church in England . William systematically dispossessed English landowners and conferred their property on his continental followers . The Domesday Book meticulously documents the impact of this colossal programme of expropriation , revealing that by 1086 only about 5 per cent of land in England south of the Tees was left in English hands . Even this tiny residue was further diminished in the decades that followed , the elimination of native landholding being most complete in southern parts of the country .
Natives were also removed from high governmental and ecclesiastical office . After 1075 all earldoms were held by Normans , and Englishmen were only occasionally appointed as sheriffs . Likewise in the Church , senior English office @-@ holders were either expelled from their positions or kept in place for their lifetimes and replaced by foreigners when they died . By 1096 no bishopric was held by any Englishman , and English abbots became uncommon , especially in the larger monasteries .
= = = English emigration = = =
Following the conquest , many Anglo @-@ Saxons , including groups of nobles , fled the country for Scotland , Ireland , or Scandinavia . Members of King Harold Godwinson 's family sought refuge in Ireland and used their bases in that country for unsuccessful invasions of England . The largest single exodus occurred in the 1070s , when a group of Anglo @-@ Saxons in a fleet of 235 ships sailed for the Byzantine Empire . The empire became a popular destination for many English nobles and soldiers , as the Byzantines were in need of mercenaries . The English became the predominant element in the elite Varangian Guard , until then a largely Scandinavian unit , from which the emperor 's bodyguard was drawn . Some of the English migrants were settled in Byzantine frontier regions on the Black Sea coast , and established towns with names such as New London and New York .
= = = Governmental systems = = =
Before the Normans arrived , Anglo @-@ Saxon governmental systems were more sophisticated than their counterparts in Normandy . All of England was divided into administrative units called shires , with subdivisions ; the royal court was the centre of government , and a justice system based on local and regional tribunals existed to secure the rights of free men . Shires were run by officials known as shire reeves or sheriffs . Most medieval governments were always on the move , holding court wherever the weather and food or other matters were best at the moment ; England had a permanent treasury at Winchester before William 's conquest . One major reason for the strength of the English monarchy was the wealth of the kingdom , built on the English system of taxation that included a land tax , or the geld . English coinage was also superior to most of the other currency in use in northwestern Europe , and the ability to mint coins was a royal monopoly . The English kings had also developed the system of issuing writs to their officials , in addition to the normal medieval practice of issuing charters . Writs were either instructions to an official or group of officials , or notifications of royal actions such as appointments to office or a grant of some sort .
This sophisticated medieval form of government was handed over to the Normans and was the foundation of further developments . They kept the framework of government but made changes in the personnel , although at first the new king attempted to keep some natives in office . By the end of William 's reign most of the officials of government and the royal household were Normans . The language of official documents also changed , from Old English to Latin . The forest laws were introduced , leading to the setting aside of large sections of England as royal forest . The Domesday survey was an administrative catalogue of the landholdings of the kingdom , and was unique to medieval Europe . It was divided into sections based on the shires , and listed all the landholdings of each tenant @-@ in @-@ chief of the king as well as who had held the land before the conquest .
= = = Language = = =
One of the most obvious effects of the conquest was the introduction of Anglo @-@ Norman , a northern dialect of Old French , as the language of the ruling classes in England , displacing Old English . French words entered the English language , and a further sign of the shift was the usage of names common in France instead of Anglo @-@ Saxon names . Male names such as William , Robert and Richard soon became common ; female names changed more slowly . The Norman invasion had little impact on placenames , which had changed significantly after earlier Scandinavian invasions . It is not known precisely how much English the Norman invaders learned , nor how much the knowledge of French spread among the lower classes , but the demands of trade and basic communication probably meant that at least some of the Normans and native English were bilingual . Nevertheless , William the Conqueror never developed a working knowledge of English and for centuries afterwards English was not well understood by the nobility .
= = = Immigration and intermarriage = = =
An estimated 8000 Normans and other continentals settled in England as a result of the conquest , although exact figures cannot be established . Some of these new residents intermarried with the native English , but the extent of this practice in the years immediately after Hastings is unclear . Several marriages are attested between Norman men and English women during the years before 1100 , but such marriages were uncommon . Most Normans continued to contract marriages with other Normans or other continental families rather than with the English . Within a century of the invasion , intermarriage between the native English and the Norman immigrants had become common . By the early 1160s , Ailred of Rievaulx was writing that intermarriage was common in all levels of society .
= = = Society = = =
The impact of the conquest on the lower levels of English society is difficult to assess . The major change was the elimination of slavery in England , which had disappeared by the middle of the 12th century . There were about 28 @,@ 000 slaves listed in Domesday Book in 1086 , fewer than had been enumerated for 1066 . In some places , such as Essex , the decline in slaves was 20 per cent for the 20 years . The main reasons for the decline in slaveholding appear to have been the disapproval of the Church and the cost of supporting slaves , who unlike serfs , had to be maintained entirely by their owners . The practice of slavery was not outlawed , and the Leges Henrici Primi from the reign of King Henry I continue to mention slaveholding as legal .
Many of the free peasants of Anglo @-@ Saxon society appear to have lost status and become indistinguishable from the non @-@ free serfs . Whether this change was due entirely to the conquest is unclear , but the invasion and its after @-@ effects probably accelerated a process already under way . The spread of towns and increase in nucleated settlements in the countryside , rather than scattered farms , was probably accelerated by the coming of the Normans to England . The lifestyle of the peasantry probably did not greatly change in the decades after 1066 . Although earlier historians argued that women became less free and lost rights with the conquest , current scholarship has mostly rejected this view . Little is known about women other than those in the landholding class , so no conclusions can be drawn about peasant women 's status after 1066 . Noblewomen appear to have continued to influence political life mainly through their kinship relationships . Both before and after 1066 aristocratic women could own land , and some women continued to have the ability to dispose of their property as they wished .
= = Historiography = =
Debate over the conquest started almost immediately . The Anglo @-@ Saxon Chronicle , when discussing the death of William the Conqueror , denounced him and the conquest in verse , but the king 's obituary notice from William of Poitiers , a Frenchman , was laudatory and full of praise . Historians since then have argued over the facts of the matter and how to interpret them , with little agreement . The theory or myth of the " Norman Yoke " arose in the 17th century , the idea that Anglo @-@ Saxon society had been freer and more equal than the society that emerged after the conquest . This theory owes more to the period it was developed in than to historical facts , but it continues to be used in both political and popular thought to the present day .
In the 20th and 21st centuries historians have focused less on the rightness or wrongness of the conquest itself , instead concentrating on the effects of the invasion . Some , such as Richard Southern , have seen the conquest as a critical turning point in history . Southern stated that " no country in Europe , between the rise of the barbarian kingdoms and the 20th century , has undergone so radical a change in so short a time as England experienced after 1066 . " Other historians , such as H. G. Richardson and G. O. Sayles , believe that the transformation was less radical . In more general terms , one writer has called the conquest " the last echo of the national migrations that characterized the early Middle Ages " . The debate over the impact of the conquest depends on how change after 1066 is measured . If Anglo @-@ Saxon England was already evolving before the invasion , with the introduction of feudalism , castles or other changes in society , then the conquest , while important , did not represent radical reform . But the change was dramatic if measured by the elimination of the English nobility or the loss of Old English as a literary language . Nationalistic arguments have been made on both sides of the debate , with the Normans cast as either the persecutors of the English or the rescuers of the country from a decadent Anglo @-@ Saxon nobility .
= Ngoia Pollard Napaltjarri =
Ngoia Pollard Napaltjarri ( born c . 1948 ; also known as Ngnoia ) is a Walpiri @-@ speaking Indigenous artist from Australia 's Western Desert region . Ngoia Pollard married Jack Tjampitjinpa , who became an artist working with the Papunya Tula company , and they had five children .
Having commenced painting in 1997 , Ngoia Pollard won a major regional art prize in 2004 . She went on to win the painting prize in the 2006 National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards . Her works are held in major private and public collections , including the National Gallery of Australia .
= = Life = =
Daughter of Angoona Nangala and Jim Tjungurrayi , Ngoia Pollard was born circa 1948 in Haasts Bluff , Northern Territory , west of Alice Springs . The ambiguity around the year of birth is in part because Indigenous Australians operate using a different conception of time , often estimating dates through comparisons with the occurrence of other events .
'Napaljarri ' ( in Warlpiri ) or ' Napaltjarri ' ( in Western Desert dialects ) is a skin name , one of sixteen used to denote the subsections or subgroups in the kinship system of central Australian Indigenous people . These names define kinship relationships that influence preferred marriage partners and may be associated with particular totems . Although they may be used as terms of address , they are not surnames in the sense used by Europeans . Thus ' Ngoia Pollard ' is the element of the artist 's name that is specifically hers .
Ngoia Pollard attended school at Papunya , and worked at the mission kitchen there . She married Jack Tjampitjinpa and they moved to Kintore , and then on to Mount Liebig ( now Amundurrngu Outstation ) which at that time was unoccupied , about fifty kilometres west of Haasts Bluff . It was one of many outstations established by people from Papunya in the 1970s . Ngoia Pollard and Jack had five children . Jack died in 1988 ; as of 2008 Ngoia was still living at Mount Liebig .
= = Art = =
= = = Background = = =
Contemporary Indigenous art of the western desert began when Indigenous men at Papunya began painting in 1971 , assisted by teacher Geoffrey Bardon . Their work , which used acrylic paints to create designs representing body painting and ground sculptures , rapidly spread across Indigenous communities of central Australia , particularly following the commencement of a government @-@ sanctioned art program in central Australia in 1983 . By the 1980s and 1990s , such work was being exhibited internationally . The first artists , including all of the founders of the Papunya Tula artists ' company , had been men , and there was resistance amongst the Pintupi men of central Australia to women painting .
However , there was a desire among many women to participate , and in the 1990s large numbers of them began to create paintings . In the western desert communities such as Kintore , Yuendumu , Balgo , and on the outstations , people were beginning to create art works expressly for exhibition and sale .
= = = Career = = =
Ngoia Pollard began her contemporary artistic career by assisting her husband , who painted with Papunya Tula artists for several years prior to his death . In 1997 , Ngoia Pollard began painting independently , and in 2004 won the first prize in a central Australian painting competition supported by the region 's major newspaper , the Centralian Advocate . In 2006 , Ngoia Pollard won the painting prize in the National Aboriginal & Torres Strait Islander Art Awards , with her work Swamps west of Nyirripi . Another of her works painted in the same year , and carrying the same title , was acquired by the Art Gallery of South Australia . 2006 was also marked by an artist 's residency in Copenhagen , shared with fellow Indigenous artist Lilly Kelly Napangardi , whom she had known since they attended school together in the 1960s .
Collections holding her works include the National Gallery of Australia . She has had solo exhibitions with private galleries in Sydney and Perth .
Western Desert artists such as Ngoia Pollard frequently paint particular ' dreamings ' , or stories , for which they have personal responsibility or rights . Many of Ngoia 's works relate to the region of Yamunturrngu , or Mount Liebig , in the country to the west of Haasts Bluff ; this is her father 's country :
... infused with the spiritual power of the narrative of the watersnake . This snake lives in the swamps and lakes near Nyrippi ( Talarada ) , unoccupied ' dangerous territory ' north west of Mt . Liebig . The transcendental calm of her paintings , with their drifts of monochrome clouds of dots , belie the danger of the land and its creatures that they depict .
Her works are often characterised by the use of oval shapes representing swamps and lakes . Her palette is usually black and white , though red may be used to highlight oval forms . The dotted forms represent the ground cracking as water dries up . Other themes in her work include the sand hills of the desert country .
= = Collections = =
National Gallery of Australia
Corrigan Collection
= William of Wrotham =
William of Wrotham or William de Wrotham ( died c . 1217 ) was a medieval English royal administrator and clergyman . Although a late 13th @-@ century source says that William held a royal office under King Henry II of England ( reigned 1154 – 1189 ) , the first contemporary reference to William is in 1197 , when he became responsible among other things for the royal tin mines . He also held ecclesiastical office , eventually becoming Archdeacon of Taunton , and served King John of England as an administrator of ecclesiastical lands and a collector of taxes .
William 's main administrative work was naval . He was in charge of the royal fleet in the south of England in 1205 , and was one of those responsible for the development of Portsmouth as a naval dockyard . He continued to be involved in naval matters until 1214 or later , but by 1215 he had joined the First Barons ' War against John . After John 's death in 1216 , William returned to the royalist cause . He probably died in late 1217 . Known to a contemporary chronicler as one of John 's " evil advisers " , William is said by modern historians to have had a " special responsibility for ports , customs , and the navy " , and was " keeper of ports " , a forerunner of the office of First Lord of the Admiralty .
= = Early life = =
Little is known of William 's background or family , except that his father Godwin held land in Shipbourne , near Wrotham in Kent , perhaps as a vassal of the Archbishops of Canterbury . William 's brother Richard was named as William 's deputy in 1207 .
According to late 13th @-@ century documents , the Hundred Rolls , King Henry II gave William the office of steward of Exmoor , and lands at North Petherton , Somerset . William was the prebend of St Decumans in the cathedral chapter of Bath Cathedral by 9 May 1204 . He claimed to have held the office since 1194 during a later dispute with Savaric fitzGeldewin , the Bishop of Bath and another canon of the cathedral , Roger Porretanus , who claimed the prebend . By 23 December 1205 , William had secured a papal judgement against Roger .
William may have owed his advancement in royal service to Geoffrey fitzPeter , a royal judge . In 1197 he granted William a manor at Sutton @-@ at @-@ Hone , Kent , which later was supposed to become a hospital , but instead eventually became a preceptory for the Knights Hospitaller . From 1197 William was responsible for the collection of revenues from Geoffrey 's lands at Lydford , Devon , and held the office of chief forester of Somerset ; it is unclear to whom he owed that position .
= = Royal service = =
In 1197 , Hubert Walter , who was Archbishop of Canterbury and Justiciar , appointed William to the administration of the royal stannaries , or tin mines , and in 1198 William was placed in charge of tin production , an office later known as the Lord Warden of the Stannaries . Under his control the mines became much more lucrative for the king , and accounted for a total of £ 1100 in William 's first year of administration . As part of his administrative work he became the first warden of Lydford Castle after it was constructed in the 1190s . In 1199 he was involved in a dispute over the stannaries with another official , Hugh Bardulf , temporarily losing control of them – along with his office as sheriff – in 1200 . The reason for the loss of these offices is uncertain . After restoration to office , he remained as Lord Warden of the Stannaries until 1215 .
In 1198 and 1199 , William was Sheriff of Devon and Sheriff of Cornwall , along with another royal servant , and served as a royal justice . In 1200 he was recorded as a receiver of the carucage , a tax on land , in the Pipe roll ; whether this meant that he was a local or a national collector of the tax is unclear . By 12 September 1204 , William was Archdeacon of Taunton in the Diocese of Bath , and he witnessed the election of Jocelin of Wells as the new bishop of the diocese . He was jointly placed in charge of the mints of London and Canterbury in 1205 , along with Reginald de Cornhill , with whom he also shared the collection of the tax of a fifteenth on merchants , a post the two had held since 1202 . In May 1205 William , along with de Cornhill , was given custody of one of three dies for the mint at Chichester ; in July the king gave William 's custody to Simon of Wells , the Bishop of Chichester . William was one of the officials in charge of the collection of a tax of a thirteenth in 1207 .
William was also placed in charge of vacant ecclesiastical offices , collecting their revenues for the king . He performed this office for the Diocese of Worcester around 1200 , the Diocese of Winchester in 1204 , for Glastonbury Abbey in 1205 , and for Whitby Abbey in 1206 and 1209 . From his actions it can be assumed that Wrotham was a member of the royal household , probably working in the wardrobe .
= = Naval administration = =
William 's main administrative work concerned the navy . In 1204 he , de Cornhill , and William of Furnell were placed in charge of granting wool export licences . William of Wrotham was also one of the officials charged with supervising the ships dispatched to the coasts in 1204 , after the loss of Normandy exposed England to invasion by the French . In 1205 he was again one of the keepers of the royal fleet along the south coast . William was in charge of the 17 ships based in Romney , Rye , Shoreham , Southampton , Winchelsea , and Exeter , while the rest of the fleet came under Cornhill 's control . In the same year , he was also in charge of naval spending for the attempted invasion of France , which in June alone totalled over 470 pounds . William surrendered custody of Taunton Castle to Peter de Taraton in July and was in charge of purchasing the royal wine in August . No further naval duties are recorded until November , when along with Cornhill he was responsible for assessing the ports .
In 1206 William was in charge of the naval forces in the Cinque Ports and commanded the fleet that invaded Poitou . Whether he accompanied the fleet or stayed in England after it sailed is unclear ; according to two historians – F. W. Brooks and R. W. Powell – it is more likely he stayed . From 1206 until 1215 he was effectively commander of King John 's navy , and helped to develop Portsmouth as a royal dockyard . In 1208 William was put in charge of ensuring that no ships sailed without royal permission . That year he also oversaw the naval preparations made by the Cinque Ports . The purpose of these preparations is unknown ; the Annals of Dunstable ascribe to John a desire to oppress the Cinque Ports . During May 1208 a royal order was issued that William 's deputies in all the seaports should seize any ships in the ports that were from foreign countries , excluding Denmark , Norway and other countries that did not oppose John 's diplomatic efforts . A gap in the governmental records does not allow a detailed view of William 's activities for the next years , until 1212 , when William is shown performing many of the same duties as earlier . He was in charge of repair of some ships and the construction of a large new ship , named the Deulabenit , owned by the king . William was also responsible for impressing privately owned merchant ships into royal service . These ships were used in the naval action of the Battle of Damme at Zwyn in 1213 , when a fleet under William Longespee , the Earl of Salisbury , destroyed a substantial French naval force and sacked the town of Damme .
In late 1213 William was directing the efforts of the seaports of south @-@ western England and the Cinque Ports in naval affairs . He was also responsible for the setting up of a supply depot for the navy in June 1213 , for which he received supplies from the diocese of Chichester . In 1214 William had custody of some royal prisoners . The same year , the king ordered him to return a merchant ship if he had indeed seized it from its owner , Joscelin de Hampton . Also in 1214 , William co @-@ founded the hospital of Domus Dei in Portsmouth with Peter des Roches , the Bishop of Winchester . The foundation was confirmed by the king in October 1214 .
John rewarded William for his service with churches in Sheppey and East Malling , which were granted in 1207 , and the right to oversee the royal forests in Cornwall and Devon . Other grants included lands in Dartford and Sutton @-@ at @-@ Hone that had escheated to the crown , lands in Westminster and a prebend in the royal ecclesiastical foundation at Hastings .
= = Later years and legacy = =
During John 's reign , Pope Innocent III placed an interdict on England , forbidding public celebration of sacred rites in English churches . William supported John , and remained in England . The medieval chronicler Roger of Wendover named William as one of John 's " evil advisers " , or " most wicked counsellors " . Modern historians argue that Roger 's account of John 's reign , while containing some truth , was written to defame men who were prominent in the early years of King Henry III , John 's son who had succeeded his father in October 1216 . According to Nicholas Vincent , while Roger 's account of the exactions and crimes of the members of his list of evil advisers certainly had a strong basis of truth , it was also greatly exaggerated . W. L. Warren agrees and points out that many of the details of Roger 's accounts that can be checked with other records are wrong , making the other parts of his stories suspect .
In 1215 William joined the baronial rebellion against John , and lost his naval offices , the royal forester 's office for Somerset , and custody of Lydford Castle . In May 1216 the king offered William a safe conduct , which noted that William had fled overseas . The letters were witnessed by Peter des Roches . In mid @-@ 1217 , he rejoined the royalist cause , returning to the side of Henry III . This action regained him some of his lost lands .
William last appeared in documents on 25 July 1217 and was dead by 16 February 1218 , probably before 2 December 1217 , when someone else is mentioned as archdeacon . On 16 February 1218 , John Marshall became the guardian of Richard , William 's nephew and heir , who was the son of William 's brother Richard .
William has been described as having a " special responsibility for ports , customs , and the navy " by the historian Robert Bartlett . He is usually given the title of " keeper of ports " or " keeper of galleys " , which Ralph Turner equates with being First Lord of the Admiralty in later history . Sometimes this would be given as " custos portum maris " in Latin , or " keeper of the seaports " . At other times he was titled " keeper of the king 's ships " . Bartlett also called William " one of the king 's most important administrators " . Charles Young said that William 's service to King John was a " distinguished administrative career " , and J. E. A. Joliffe called William one of the " greatest of the king 's clerks " .
= Beaver Brook State Park =
Beaver Brook State Park is an undeveloped state park located in the Windham and Chaplin , Connecticut , United States . The park encompasses Bibbins Pond , also known as Beaver Brook Pond , and the acreage to its north , and the Beaver Brook runs through the park and exits in the south . The park is listed as an undeveloped walk @-@ in park with hunting as an activity , but it is better known for its trout fishing . Beaver Brook has abundant stocks of wild trout , but is restricted to catch and release only . The Air Line State Park Trail runs along the park 's northern boundary .
= = History = =
The state park was acquired using funds bequeathed by George Dudley Seymour to be used for the express purpose of purchasing public recreation areas for the people of the State of Connecticut . The donation of the park lands was announced in 1955 . Prior to the creation of the park , it was reported that the trout pools were developed for fishing before 1955 by H. Keeney Lathrop . According to Joseph Leary , " [ t ] he central feature of the park is Bibbins Pond , sometimes called Beaver Brook Pond . " The park encompasses Bibbins Pond , and the acreage to its north , but the park 's name may derive from a beaver pond that was once present . The Connecticut State Register and Manual notes a boundary increase from 165 acres in 1955 to 391 acres in the 1957 . The park achieved its present size of 401 acres by 1960 . In 2013 , the State of Connecticut opened a contract to improve and repair the Bibbins Pond Dam . Beaver Brook that runs both north and south of the pond and continues beyond the park limits .
= = Activities = =
The Connecticut Department of Energy and Environmental Protection notes that the Beaver Brook State Park is an undeveloped walk @-@ in park with hunting as an activity . The Flyfisher 's Guide to Connecticut states that the Beaver Brook is a class 1 Wild Trout Management Area and is described as having abundant wild trout with no seasonal restrictions , but is catch and release only . The book further notes that only an artificial fly or lure with a single , barb @-@ less free @-@ swinging hook can be used in this area . Only small , motor @-@ less vessels are permitted on the ponds from May 16 to October 31 . Beaver Brook State Park is connected to the Air Line State Park Trail , which runs through the park . The site also includes a geocache which can be accessed via three different routes . In 1994 , a Connecticut state record for Brook Trout was caught in Beaver Brook by Sean Wozniak . As of 2014 , the Brook Trout record was last surpassed in 1998 by David Andes in Blackwells Brook in Brooklyn , Connecticut .
The park is accessible from the junction of Connecticut Route 203 and Connecticut Route 14 in Windham Center and by following Route 14 east for 0 @.@ 7 miles and turning left onto Back Road . Proceeding down Back Road for 2 @.@ 5 miles leads to the pond on the left , and there is no parking fee at the park .
= Tropical Storm Erin ( 2007 ) =
Tropical Storm Erin was the second largest tropical cyclone to make landfall in the United States in the 2007 Atlantic hurricane season . The fifth named storm of the season , it formed in the Gulf of Mexico on August 14 from a persistent area of convection . It attained tropical storm status the next day , and on August 16 Erin made landfall near Lamar , Texas , and persisted over land across Texas before moving northward into Oklahoma . Due to the brown ocean effect Erin intensified after landfall . The storm resulted in at least 16 fatalities and worsened an already @-@ severe flooding issue in Texas .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 1 , an area of convection developed just south of Jamaica in association with a trough of low pressure . The system tracked west @-@ northwestward , and by August 10 consisted of a broad surface trough with minimal shower activity . Convection increased on August 11 , and by August 12 the interaction between a tropical wave and an upper @-@ level low in the area resulted in a large area of disorganized thunderstorms extending from the western Caribbean Sea into the central Bahamas . Upper @-@ level winds gradually became more beneficial for development , and on August 13 a broad low pressure area formed about 90 miles ( 145 km ) north @-@ northeast of Cancún , Quintana Roo . Late on August 14 , a Hurricane Hunters flight into the system reported a small circulation center , but at the time was not well @-@ defined enough to result in the initiation of tropical cyclone advisories . However , deep convection was maintained near the increasingly organizing center , and at 0300 UTC on August 15 the National Hurricane Center classified it as Tropical Depression Five about 425 miles ( 685 km ) southeast of Brownsville , Texas .
In the overnight hours after formation , the storm was disorganized with a ragged and ill @-@ defined center of circulation . Located to the south of a mid to upper @-@ level ridge over the southern United States , the system tracked to the west @-@ northwest through an environment conducive for further strengthening ; an upper @-@ level anticyclone developed over the central Gulf of Mexico , and sea surface temperatures along its track were warm . The cloud pattern became better organized , maintaining a large area of convection with curved rainbands and well @-@ established outflow . Based on reports from Hurricane Hunters , the National Hurricane Center upgraded the depression to Tropical Storm Erin at 1530 UTC on August 15 about 250 miles ( 400 km ) east of Brownsville , Texas . As it continued northwestward , Erin remained disorganized and failed to strengthen beyond minimal tropical storm status . At 1200 UTC on August 16 the cyclone made landfall near Lamar , Texas as it weakened to tropical depression status . Three hours later , the National Hurricane Center ceased issuing advisories on Erin as warning responsibility was transferred to the Hydrometeorological Prediction Center .
Drifting northwestward through Texas , Tropical Depression Erin maintained an area of convection near the center , with its widespread but scattered rainbands dropping moderate to heavy precipitation . By August 17 , the winds decreased to 20 mph ( 30 km / h ) , with higher gusts . The system turned to the north @-@ northeast on August 18 , while heavy bands of thunderstorms continued to rotate around the center of Erin . Early on August 19 after entering Oklahoma , the remnants of Erin suddenly re @-@ intensified to maximum sustained winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) a short distance west of Oklahoma City . The Norman , Oklahoma National Weather Service remarked the intensification " [ resulted ] in what amounts to an inland tropical storm ; " at 0930 UTC the system presented an eye @-@ like feature and a spiral rainband , and produced wind gusts of over 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) . However , a few hours later , the depression began weakening again , and late on August 19 Erin weakened significantly as the circulation dissipated over northeastern Oklahoma . Despite displaying tropical characteristics , the National Hurricane Center determined the system was not a tropical cyclone over Oklahoma , and classified it as a " low " . The low continued into southeastern Kansas before dissipating , feeding moisture northward toward a frontal system extending from the Midwestern United States through the Mid @-@ Atlantic States . Its remnant mid @-@ level circulation then moved eastward across Missouri , Kentucky , and Virginia before losing identity as it moved out into the Atlantic Ocean .
= = Preparations = =
Immediately upon becoming a tropical cyclone , the National Hurricane Center issued a tropical storm watch from Freeport , Texas to the United States / Mexico border ; at the same time , the government of Mexico issued a tropical storm watch southward to Rio San Fernando . Shortly before attaining tropical storm status , the watch in Texas was upgraded to a tropical storm warning . Late on August 15 , the warning was extended to San Luis Pass , while the watch in Mexico was discontinued . As Erin made landfall , the warning was canceled , and several flood watches and warnings were issued for counties across southeastern Texas . Upon moving into Oklahoma , flood and flash flood warnings were issued for several counties .
Governor Rick Perry activated the National Guard and mobilized emergency personnel to the region expected to be affected by the storm . Erin was expected to bring flooding to the region , which had already been declared a disaster area on August 7 , 2007 due to widespread flooding on the Nueces River basin ; this area remained flooded as of August 15 , 2007 . On August 15 , oil futures rose to $ 74 @.@ 01 ( USD ) , due to fears of Erin disrupting oil supplies produced on Texan coasts , combined with low oil inventories . As a result of the threat from the storm , Shell Oil Company evacuated 188 workers on oil platforms in the northwestern Gulf of Mexico .
= = Impact = =
= = = Texas = = =
By midday on August 15 , rainbands with gusty winds began affecting the Texas coastline . As it moved ashore , the storm produced heavy rainfall near and to the or northeast of its path , reaching 11 @.@ 02 inches ( 280 mm ) at a station in Lockwood . The storm caused several bayous in the Houston area to reach or exceed flood levels . Across southeastern Texas , the cyclone spawned several funnel clouds , and near IAH an EF0 tornado was reported . Wind gusts from Erin were minor across the state , peaking at 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) at Palacios with an unofficial report of 39 mph ( 63 km / h ) at Jamaica Beach . Upon moving ashore , the storm produced a minor storm surge peaking at 3 @.@ 22 feet ( 0 @.@ 98 m ) at Pleasure Pier , which caused minor beach erosion .
In Clear Lake City , heavy rainfall collapsed a portion of a grocery store roof , killing two workers . The precipitation caused moderate flooding across eastern portions of Harris County ; over 400 homes and 40 businesses were flooded . Flooding across the Greater Houston area briefly halted the METRORail and closed several state roads . One person drowned after driving into a retention pond . Several people required rescue assistance , and in Comal County a car accident caused three fatalities . The passage of the storm temporarily left about 20 @,@ 000 electrical customers without power , though most outages were quickly restored . In San Antonio , one body was recovered from a creek and another died after driving into a flooded road and was swept into a drainage ditch in which four others survived . In Sisterdale , two people were killed when they were swept away stalled over Sister Creek . In Taylor County , near Abilene , flooding killed one person and forced the evacuation of about 2 @,@ 000 people . Damage in Texas totaled over $ 45 million ( 2007 USD ) .
= = = Oklahoma = = =
After its unexpected redevelopment over Oklahoma , widespread damage was also reported there . Several communities in central Oklahoma were flooded due to the heavy rainfall . Watonga , Kingfisher and Geary were the hardest @-@ hit communities , where many houses and buildings were inundated . The weather forced the cancellation of the Hydro Fair as the carnival rides were not safe in heavy rain and high wind . Winds in Watonga gusted as high as 82 mph ( 131 km / h ) , which damaged numerous trees and power lines and heavily damaged mobile homes . The entire community lost power , as did about 15 @,@ 000 customers in total in the Oklahoma City metropolitan area . A section of Interstate 40 was also closed for a while .
One person drowned in a cellar in Fort Cobb , and another drowned in Kingfisher . Another storm @-@ related death took place in Seminole . Three others were found dead after a weather @-@ related automobile accident also near Carnegie . Another automobile accident fatality took place in Okmulgee County but it is unclear if the event was storm @-@ related . Damage amounted to over $ 2 million ( 2007 USD ) .
= = = Missouri = = =
Although its surface circulation had dissipated , its circulation aloft remained intact and led to a burst of rainfall early on August 20 . The 11 @.@ 94 inches / 303 @.@ 3 mm that fell at Miller became the wettest Missouri rainfall total associated with a tropical cyclone , or its remains , since at least 1972 . One person died in Sleeper when he drove into flood waters which had swept away a bridge he was attempting to navigate onto . Nine water rescues occurred along the I @-@ 44 corridor , mostly caused by Erin 's rainfall . Damage totaled about $ 19 @.@ 8 million ( 2007 USD ) in the state , primarily in Polk County .
= Beauty Revealed =
Beauty Revealed is an 1828 self @-@ portrait by Sarah Goodridge , painted in miniature with watercolors on a piece of ivory . Depicting the artist 's bared breasts surrounded by pale cloth , the 6 @.@ 7 @-@ by @-@ 8 @-@ centimetre ( 2 @.@ 6 by 3 @.@ 1 in ) painting – originally on a paper backing
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Matthew is missing and Gospel of Matthew begins on the first of the codex . It has an additional non @-@ biblical material : The Limits of the Five Patriarchates ( as in codices 69 and 211 ) — one page of it lost .
= = = Nomina sacra and OT quotations = = =
The nomina sacra are contracted in the usual way , but there are a number of words which the scribe failed to abbreviate . In some of the cases where nomina sacra are uncontracted , they have the heavy bar signifying contraction. υιος is contracted only once ( John 4 : 47 ) . On the other hand , it gives unusual abbreviations : for σταυρωσον ( crucify ) the manuscript has στωσον , for σταυρωθη — στρωθη , παρθηνος ( virgin ) is contracted to παρνος .
Quotations from the Old Testament are indicated in the left margin by a rubricated letter or sign .
= = = Errors = = =
Almost all the necessary corrections of misspellings have been made . Sometimes a stroke of the pen indicates an error , perhaps to be corrected later . Some corrections seem to be written by prima manu ( e.g. Matthew 4 : 10 ; 5 : 19 ) others plainly secondary manu ( Matthew 6 ; Luke 3 ; 10 : 35 ) . The apostrophe is used even when not required , especially in εξ ' , and ουκ ' .
According tο Scrivener movable nu occurs 416 times especially with words ειπεν , εστιν . In Matthew 12 : 7 ; Luke 8 : 10 ; John 5 : 46 ; 7 : 7 ; 8 : 27 there is a hiatus for lack of it . The error of iotacism occurs 358 times : ει for ι ( 16 occurrences ) , ι for ει ( 35 ) , ο for ω ( 40 ) , ω for ο ( 33 ) , αι for ε ( 13 ) , ε for αι ( 31 ) , ει for η ( 23 ) , η for ει ( 19 ) , η for ι ( 11 ) , ι for η ( 7 ) , ε for η ( 11 ) , η for ε ( 2 ) , οι for ι ( 3 ) , ω for ου ( 20 ) , η for υ ( 3 ) , υ for η ( 5 ) , υ for οι ( 1 ) , υ for ει ( 1 ) , η for οι ( 1 ) , οι for η ( 1 ) , ι for υ ( 1 ) , οι for ει ( 2 ) .
There are many errors by homoioteleuton ( Mark 2 : 18 ; 4 : 24 ; 12 : 26 ; 14 : 70 ; 15 : 14 ; Luke 12 : 22 @.@ 47 ; 13 : 28 @.@ 29 ; John 4 : 14 ) .
There are some unusual forms like : ανεπεσαν , ειπαν , εθεωρων , εμελλεν , εμπροσθε , εσπλαγχνισθη , ιδαμεν , ιδεν , σαρκαν , συνετιθεντο .
= = Text = =
The Greek text of the codex is a representative of the Caesarean text @-@ type . It belongs to the textual family f13 , known also as Ferrar Family . Also the handwriting and the menology show that is a close member of the group . According to Kurt and Barbara Aland it agrees with the Byzantine standard text 151 times , and 72 times with the Byzantine when it has the same reading as the original text . It agrees 31 times with the original text against the Byzantine . It has 57 independent or distinctive readings . Alands placed it in Category III . According to the Claremont Profile Method it represents the textual family f13 in Luke 1 , Luke 10 , and Luke 20 , as a core member .
The Pericope Adulterae follows Luke 21 : 38 , like in other manuscripts of the Ferrar Family .
Textual variants
The words after the bracket are the readings of the codex ( before the bracket are readings of Textus Receptus ) .
Matthew 1 : 18 and 1 : 23 — εν γαστρι ( pregnant , literary in womb ) ] εγγαστρι ( inwomb )
Matthew 5 : 48 — εν τοις ουρανοις ( in heavens ) ] ουνιος ( heavens )
Matthew 6 : 24 — μαμμωνα ( mammona ) ] μαμωνα ( mamona )
Matthew 7 : 2 — απο ( from ) ] εκ ( from )
Matthew 8 : 4 — Μωσης ( Moses ) ] Μωυσης ( Moses )
Matthew 8 : 8 — δεινως ( terrible ) ] δεινος ( terrible )
Matthew 8 : 8 — ικανος ( worthy ) ] αξιος ( worthy )
Matthew 8 : 26 — τοις ανεμοις ( winds ) ] τω ανεμω ( wind )
Matthew 9 : 17 — απολουνται ( ruined ) ] απολλουνται ( ΝΑ27 has απολλυνται )
Matthew 9 : 17 — αμφοτερα ] αμφοτεροι ( both )
Matthew 11 : 5 — και νεκροι εγειρονται και πτωχοι ευαγγελιζονται ( and the dead are raised up and the poor have the gospel preached to them ) ] και πτωχοι ευαγγελιζονται και νεκροι εγειρονται ( and the poor have the gospel preached to them and the dead are raised up )
Matthew 26 : 39 — ] ωφθη δε αυτω αγγελος απο του ουνου ενισχυσον αυτον και γενομενος εν αγωνια εκτενεστερον προσηυχετο εγενετο δε ο ιδρος αυτου ωσει θρομβη αθματος καταβαινοντες επι την γην
Mark 1 : 9 — Ναζαρετ ( Nazaret ) ] Ναζαρεθ
Mark 1 : 10 — απο ] εκ
Mark 1 : 10 — εκ ( from ) ] εις ( to )
Mark 2 : 4 — κραββατον ] κραβαττον ( bed )
= = History = =
J. Rendel Harris pointed out that the menology of the Ferrar group contains saints which appear to be peculiar to Calabria or Sicily . Abbe Martin had previously stated that certain palaeographical traits to be observed in these manuscripts were characteristic of Calabrian scriptoria .
Of the history of the codex 543 nothing is known until the year 1864 , when it was in the possession of a dealer at Janina in Epeiros . It was then purchased from him by a representative of Baroness Burdett @-@ Coutts ( 1814 – 1906 ) , a philanthropist , together with other Greek manuscripts ( among them codices 532 @-@ 546 ) . They were transported to England in 1870 @-@ 1871 .
The manuscript was presented by Burdett @-@ Coutts to Sir Roger Cholmely 's School , and was housed at the Highgate ( Burdett @-@ Coutts III . 5 ) , in London . In 1922 it was acquired for the University of Michigan . It is currently housed at the University of Michigan ( Ms. 15 ) in Ann Arbor .
Scrivener observed a close textual affinity to the Ferrar group and announced in 1883 in the third edition of " Plain Introduction " ( p . 236 ) as portaining to the same class . Scrivener collated its text and it was edited posthumously in 1893 . This collation was not wholly accurate and Jacob Geerlings , from the University of Utah , gave a new and more accurate collation in 1932 . The collation was made against the Textus Receptus in Stephanus edition ( Editio Regia ) .
= = Gallery = =
= Golden Sun : The Lost Age =
Golden Sun : The Lost Age ( 黄金の太陽 失われし時代 , Ōgon no Taiyō : Ushinawareshi Toki ) , released under different names in some regions , is a 2002 role @-@ playing video game for the Game Boy Advance , developed by Camelot Software Planning and published by Nintendo . The Lost Age is the second installment of the Golden Sun series , being the " second part " to the earlier Golden Sun . Players can transfer their characters and items from Golden Sun to The Lost Age by means of a password system or Game Link Cable , and players are rewarded for fully completing both games .
Picking up the story during the events of the previous game , The Lost Age puts the player into the roles of a magic @-@ attuned " adept " named Felix and his allies as they seek to restore the power of alchemy to the world of Weyard . Along the way , the player uses psynergy to defeat enemies and discover new locations , help out local populations , and find elemental djinn which augment the characters ' powers .
Upon release , The Lost Age was generally praised , although many publications found that the game was not as good as Golden Sun . Nonetheless , IGN ranked the game as the eighth @-@ best Game Boy Advance title of 2003 and the 22nd @-@ best GBA game of all time . It has sold over 680 @,@ 000 units . The long @-@ awaited followup , Golden Sun : Dark Dawn , was released in November 2010 .
= = Gameplay = =
The Lost Age is similar to its predecessor in that it is a contemporary presentation of the traditional role @-@ playing video game formula . Players guide a cast of characters as they journey through a fantasy @-@ themed world , interact with other characters , battle monsters , acquire increasingly powerful magic spells and equipment , and take part in a building , predefined narrative . While many actions the player takes are compulsory and central to the story , The Lost Age allows the player to complete many objectives in the order of their choice , visiting previous locations to advance story elements and complete gameplay objectives is given a stronger emphasis than in the previous game .
Much of the time spent outside of battle takes place either in the game 's overworld or within dungeons , caves , and other locales with puzzles integrated into their layout . Unlike the original game , in which the overworld was explored on foot except for a brief , non @-@ navigable boat ride , a large portion of The Lost Age 's gameplay involves navigating a magical ship across a large sea , visiting continents and islands . To complete puzzles , players must either push pillars to construct negotiable paths between elevated areas , climb up and rappel down cliffs , or obtain a special item to progress through the story and game world . Many of these puzzles revolve heavily around the usage of the game ’ s resident form of magic spells , Psynergy , requiring the player to find items that grant the bearer new forms of Psynergy in order to accomplish tasks .
Whereas many role @-@ playing video games limit the usage of their forms of magic to battles as offensive and defensive measures , Psynergy spells are also heavily used in puzzles and exploration . Some types of Psynergy can only be used in combat ; conversely , some spells are only used in the game 's overworld and in non @-@ battle scenarios . Still other Psynergy can be used for both situations ; for example , the “ Frost ” spell can be used to damage enemies in battle , or to transform puddles of water into elongated pillars of ice as part of a puzzle . Psynergy comes in four elements : Venus ( rocks and plants ) , Mars ( fire and heat ) , Jupiter ( wind and electricity ) , and Mercury ( water and ice ) . The player gains more and more Psynergy spells as the game progresses , either through levelling up or acquiring and equipping , or using , special items , and with each " utility " Psynergy spell the party gains access to more locations and secrets hidden within the game world . Players will be required to return to previous locations in the game to finish off puzzles which they could not solve earlier because of the lack of specific Psynergy spells .
= = = Battle = = =
The Lost Age contains both random monster encounters and compulsory battles , which advance the story . When a battle begins , a separate screen is brought up where the enemy party is on the opposing side and the player ’ s party is on the battling side . While battle is conducted , the characters and background swirl around and change positions in a pseudo @-@ 3D effect .
Gameplay in relation to The Lost Age 's battle mode is similar to traditional role @-@ playing video games . In each battle , the player is required to defeat all the enemies using direct attacks with weapons , offensive Psynergy spells , and other means of causing damage , all while keeping their own party alive through items and supportive Psynergy that restore life and supplement defense . If all the player 's characters are downed by reducing their hit points to zero , it is considered “ Game Over ” , and the party is returned to the last village that the player visited and suffers a monetary penalty . The successful completion of a battle yields experience points , coins , and occasionally rare items .
In addition to the main game itself , there is also a competitive battling mode accessible from the menu screen , where players can enter their currently @-@ developed team from their saved game files into an arena where they can battle increasingly difficult CPU @-@ controlled enemies or other players head @-@ to @-@ head to see which of their team setups are stronger . In both cases there are no experience points or coins to be earned .
= = = Djinn system = = =
One of the most important features in Golden Sun : The Lost Age is the collection and manipulation of elemental creatures called Djinn ( singular : Djinni ) , and The Lost Age features a host of new Djinn . They can be found scattered in hiding throughout the game . There are eleven Djinn for each of the four elements ( not counting the ones that can only be found in the original Golden Sun ) that may be allocated to each character . Djinn form the basis of the game ’ s statistics enhancement system , and Set djinn dictate the character ’ s Psynergy capabilities . Attaching different Djinn to different characters modifies the characters ' classes , increasing maximum hit points , Psynergy points , and other statistics , and also alters the available Psynergy that the characters can perform .
Collected Djinn can be assigned to a character of the player 's choice and can be Set , on Standby , or in Recovery . When a Djinni is set , that Djinni exerts influence on its corresponding character ’ s class , statistics and Psynergy collection depending on both the character ’ s innate element and that of the Djinni . In combat , the player can choose to have a character use a set Djinni during that character 's turn . Each Djinni has its own special effect when invoked during combat . These effects include enhanced elemental attacks , buffing or debuffing , healing , and other effects . After using a Djinni , its status is changed to Standby . While on Standby , Djinn do not contribute to a character ’ s class , but can be used for Summon Sequences , where the player summons a powerful elemental spirit . This is the game ’ s most powerful method of attack , and also the riskiest , as it requires Djinn to be on standby and therefore not available to bolster the statistics of whichever character the Djinni is equipped to . Once a Djinni on Standby has been used for a Summon Sequence , it takes a number of turns recovering before it restores itself to Set position on a character , but a subsequent increase in the affinity of the element of the attack is bolstered on the character for the duration of the battle . There are a total of 29 Summon Sequences in The Lost Age ; 16 from the previous game can be used alongside 13 new sequences , each of which must be earned individually ; they are usually acquired by completing optional dungeons .
There is a total of 72 Djinn encompassing the four elements which can be arranged in almost any evenly distributed manner to the eventual eight characters , making for a large array of possible class setups for all eight playable characters , allowing a variety of combat options .
= = Synopsis = =
= = = Setting = = =
The Lost Age takes place on the same fantasy world as its predecessor , that of the world of " Weyard " , a massive earth @-@ like environment modeled on the old Flat Earth idea of the world . It is a flat , vaguely circular plane whose oceans perpetually spill off the edge of the world 's entire perimeter into what seems to be an endless abyss , although no one knows what is over it . However at the end of the game in the very north of Weyard is a huge black void . The plot progression of The Lost Age spans many continents , islands , and oceans around the two main continents where the previous game takes place . All matter on Weyard consists of any combination of the four base elements : Venus , Mars , Jupiter , and Mercury ; magically @-@ attuned Adepts can manipulate these elements .
= = = Characters = = =
For much of the game , the player controls four characters : Felix is an eighteen @-@ year @-@ old Venus Adept from the village of Vale , who was an anti @-@ hero in Golden Sun but serves as the game 's new protagonist . He is generally not shown to speak , although he does say " ... " , " ! " and " Why ? " at points in the game . His younger sister , Jenna , a seventeen @-@ year @-@ old Mars Adept also from Vale , and a fourteen @-@ year @-@ old girl and Jupiter Adept named Sheba , as well as a sharp @-@ witted elderly scholar named Kraden , are all hostages that Felix was forced to take with his now @-@ deceased masters , the Mars Adept warriors Saturos and Menardi that served as the previous game 's antagonists . In this game the player takes the role of Felix as he strives to complete Saturos and Menardi 's original objective to restore Alchemy to the world of Weyard , and joining them early on is a Mercury Adept named Piers , a mysterious young man whose ship Felix 's party uses to explore the world throughout their journey .
Several groups of characters serve as Felix 's antagonists in The Lost Age . He is at odds with the heroes of the original Golden Sun , led by the young Venus Adept warrior Isaac , who pursue him across the World , Weyard under the belief that Alchemy would potentially destroy Weyard if unleashed . One of Saturos ' original companions , a powerful and enigmatic Mercury Adept named Alex , allies himself with a second pair of powerful and imposing Mars Adept warriors , Karst and Agatio . They keep the pressure on Felix to ensure he proceeds with his quest as he is supposed to .
= = = Plot = = =
The antagonists of the previous game , Saturos and Menardi , have been slain in battle by the game 's protagonists led by Isaac , but not before the pair succeeded in activating two of four great lighthouses situated across the world of Weyard , the Elemental Lighthouses . Saturos ' companion Felix takes the rest of Saturos ' group and sets out on a journey of his own to complete Saturos ' original objective to activate the remaining two Lighthouses , for lighting all four will achieve the restoration of the powerful force of Alchemy to Weyard . He is joined by his sister Jenna , a Jupiter Adept named Sheba who was previously kidnapped by Saturos , and the scholar Kraden . The group searches for a ship to cross to the western half of Weyard , and learns of a man named Piers who has been falsely accused of piracy and owns a ship they can use . Felix and his group clear his name , and Piers agrees to join them . During this , Isaac 's party continues to pursue them . The group also discovers that their former companion Alex has allied himself with Menardi 's younger sister Karst and her partner Agatio in order to keep Felix on track .
Eventually , Felix 's party is able to achieve entrance into Piers ' home , a legendary , secluded Atlantis @-@ like society named Lemuria far out in the ocean . When they convene with Lemuria 's ancient king , Hydros , they learn about Alchemy 's true nature ; it has always been the sustenance of Weyard 's very life force , and its absence over the past ages has caused the world 's continents to decrease in size and parts of the world to collapse into the abyss . Knowing that restoring Alchemy is what must be done to actually save the world , Felix crosses the sea in order to activate Jupiter Lighthouse . But when Isaac 's pursuing party enters the lighthouse , they are trapped and ambushed by Karst and Agatio . Felix rescues Isaac , but Karst and Agatio escape with the Mars Star formerly in Isaac 's possession .
Felix is finally able to explain to Isaac why Alchemy 's release is a necessary thing for everyone , and that Saturos and Menardi were aiming for this goal merely for the sake of the survival of their home colony of Prox to the far north , located near the Mars Lighthouse . He also reveals that his parents and Isaac 's father are alive and currently being held hostage in Prox in order to coerce Felix 's initial cooperation . Isaac and his company agree to aid Felix , and the group sets out north to activate the Mars Lighthouse . The group discovers that Karst and Agatio have been transformed into mindless dragons and are forced to defeat them - they return the Mars Star before succumbing to their wounds . When they reach the tower 's top , the Wise One , the entity responsible for originally tasking Isaac to prevent the breaking of Alchemy 's seal , confronts them . He warns them that mankind could very well destroy Weyard themselves if they had possession of such a power , and when Isaac insists on breaking the seal regardless the Wise One summons a giant , three @-@ headed dragon for the party to battle in the final struggle .
When the party of Adepts have slain the dragon , they discover that the Wise One had transformed Isaac 's father and Felix 's parents into the now @-@ dead beast . After a short period of mourning , they gather the resolve to finish their objective and activate Mars Lighthouse ; with all four towers across Weyard lit , the process that heralds the return of the force of Alchemy to Weyard ensues at the mountain sanctum Mt . Aleph . Alex is there , however ; he took advantage of everyone else 's quests so that he would gain immense power for himself from the light of the Golden Sun , a manifestation of Alchemy itself . However , he discovers that the Wise One had taken steps to prevent this and is left to die as the mountain collapses and sinks into the ground with him still on it . The Adepts , in the meantime , find that their parents have actually been revived by Alchemy 's return , just as the Wise One originally planned . They are able to recognize that the reason the Wise One appeared to play that cruel trick on them before was to test their resolve as Adepts , and therefore test their ability to handle a great new responsibility : to ensure that throughout the world the newly released force of Alchemy is not abused by Weyard 's populace like it was in the ancient past . The game ends as the Adepts and their parents return to their hometown of Vale to find that it has been destroyed by the energy let loose by the breaking of Alchemy 's seal , but that their families and the other townspeople have survived because the Wise One warned them of the impending danger in advance .
= = Development = =
The Lost Age was first revealed to Japan in early 2002 , with the magazine Famitsu being the first publication to review the game . The Lost Age was highly anticipated ; it topped IGN 's list of Game Boy Advance " Most Wanted " games for 2003 . The North American version of the game was playable at Electronic Entertainment Expo 2002 , and IGN noted that the opening of the game did away with the notoriously boring opening sequence of Golden Sun , introducing the characters in between the action . GameSpot previewed a localized copy of The Lost Age in February 2003 , and noted that the game built on its predecessor 's graphics engine , with " the environments in the game featuring rich detail with little touches — such as birds that fly off as you approach . "
= = Reception = =
The Lost Age generally received positive reviews , but critics were divided on whether or not the game was better than the original Golden Sun . On Metacritic , The Lost Age has an 86 % aggregate rating , compared to Golden Sun 's 91 % . Likewise , GameRankings gives The Lost Age an 87 % overall rating , slightly lower than Golden Sun 's 90 % . Conversely , The Lost Age was ranked 78 on IGN 's Readers Choice Top 100 games ever , higher than its predecessor . It was also rated the 69th best game made on a Nintendo System in Nintendo Power 's " Top 200 Games " list .
IGN gave the sequel high praise ; while most of the game mechanics remained unchanged , the addition of more complicated puzzles was welcomed . The Lost Age subsequently became IGN 's " Game of the Month " in April 2003 . Shane Bettenhausen of Electronic Gaming Monthly argued that though The Lost Age is " not going to win any originality contests ( this looks , sounds , and feels nearly identical to its predecessor ) , but when more of the same means more top @-@ notch roleplaying , I can 't complain " . Other publications singled out the graphics and audio as particularly strong features .
Some publications found fault with complaints which remained from the original , including the combat system . IGN and GamePro took issue with the lack of " smart " combat ; if an enemy is killed before other party members attack it , those members switch to defense instead of intelligently attacking the remaining enemies . Ethan Einhorn of GameNOW felt that the only elements that set the fighting system above " typical RPG fare " were the graphics . GameSpy felt that Camelot could have added more features , and criticized the long opening sequence which either alienated players of the previous game , or confused new players by swamping them with unfamiliar places and characters .
The Lost Age sold 96 @,@ 000 units in its first week in Japan , being the best @-@ selling game of the period . The game sold a total of 249 @,@ 000 copies in Japan and 437 @,@ 000 in North America by November 21 , 2004 .
= Sirkazhi =
Sirkazhi ( [ ˈsiːrkaːɻiː ] ) is a municipal town in Nagapattinam district in Tamil Nadu , India . It is located 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) from the coast of the Bay of Bengal , and 250 km ( 160 mi ) from the state capital Chennai . Sirkazhi was a part of Thanjavur district until 1991 and has later been part of Nagapattinam district . The town covers an area of 13 @.@ 21 km2 ( 5 @.@ 10 sq mi ) and in 2011 had a population of 34 @,@ 927 . It is administered by a second grade municipality. a Sirkazhi is part of the Cauvery delta region and agriculture is the major occupation . Roads are the main means of transportation ; the town has 51 @.@ 47 km ( 31 @.@ 98 mi ) of district roads , including a national highway .
The town is believed to be of significant antiquity and has been ruled by the Medieval Cholas , Later Cholas , Later Pandyas , the Vijayanagar Empire , the Marathas and the British . The Tamil trinity of Carnatic music ; Arunachala Kavirayar ( 1711 – 78 ) , Muthu Thandavar ( 1525 – 1600 ) and Marimutthu Pillai ( 1712 – 87 ) , originated from Sirkazhi . The Saiva saint Tirugnanasambandar , foremost of the Saiva Nayanars , was born here in the seventh century . The history of the town is centred on the Sattainathar Temple , which is dedicated to Hindu god Shiva .
= = Etymology and origin = =
In ancient times , this town had twelve different names , including Brahmapuram , Venupuram , Thonipuram , Kazhumalam , Pugali , Sirkazhiswaram and Shri Kali . According to Hindu legend , during one of the biggest deluges that submerged the planet earth , Hindu god Shiva is said to have carried the 64 arts on a raft ( called Thoni in Tamil ) . The presiding deity in the temple , Shiva , is thus called " Thoniappar " ( the one who carried the raft ) and the region is called " Thonipuram " . The Hindu god Brahma is believed to have worshiped Shiva here , giving the name " Bhramapureeswarar " ( the one worshipped by Brahma ) and so the region is also referred as " Bhramapureeswaram " . Shiva is believed to have quelled the arrogance of Hindu god Vishnu , after showing his dominance over the three worlds and hence got the name " Sattainathar " here . The town is thus called " Sattainathapuram " , which in modern times , is a suburb within Sirkazhi . The town was known as " Kalumalam " during the early Chola period . Thirugnanasambandar , the seventh century Saiva nayanar , as an infant is believed to have been fed with the milk of wisdom by the divine mother Parvati on the banks of the temple tank . The child Sambandar started singing the anthology of Tevaram hymns from then on , commencing with " Todudaiya Seviyan " . Sambandar refers the town as " Kazhi " in his verses . It was called Shiyali during British rule , and after Independence , it was renamed " Sirkazhi " .
= = History = =
The earliest mention of Sirkazhi is found in the history of the Chola king Kocengannan from the Sangam Age ( 3rd century BCE to 4th century CE ) , who is believed to have won a bloody battle here . During the 7th – 8th century , there were widespread disputes between the Hindu sects of Saivism and Vaishnavism . Tirugnanasambandar and Thirumangai Azhwar , belonging to Saivism and Vaishnavism , respectively , and both natives of Sirkazhi , had disputes over their religious compositions and theologies during the period . The Chola Kings ruled over the region for more than four centuries , from 850 to 1280 , and were temple patrons . There 41 inscriptions from the Chola kings in the temple that record various gifts like land , sheep , cow and oil to the temple .
The region fell under the control of Pandyas in 1532 and later became part of the Thanjavur Nayak kingdom . The region was conquered in 1674 by Ekoji I ( 1675 – 84 ) , the Maratha enemy of the Nawab of Bijapur and half @-@ brother of Shivaji ( 1674 – 80 ) . The town and the region became part of the British East India Company during the mid @-@ 18th century . Tanjore district was constituted in 1799 when the Thanjavur Maratha ruler Serfoji II ( 1798 – 1832 ) ceded most of his kingdom to the British East India Company in return for his restitution on the throne . After India 's independence , Sirkazhi continued to be a part of Thanjavur district until 1991 , when it became part of the newly created Nagapattinam district .
= = Geography = =
Sirkazhi is located at 11 @.@ 23 ° N 79 @.@ 73 ° E / 11 @.@ 23 ; 79 @.@ 73 , on the eastern flank of the Kumbakonam @-@ Shiyali ridge , which runs along the Kollidam River . Sirkazhi has an average elevation of 5 @.@ 18 m ( 17 @.@ 0 ft ) above sea level and is located at 13 km ( 8 @.@ 1 mi ) west of Bay of Bengal . It is located 95 km ( 59 mi ) north @-@ east of Thanjavur , 24 km ( 15 mi ) north of Mayiladuthurai and 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) south of Chidambaram .
The town experiences long summers and short winters , and receives an average yearly rainfall of 1 @,@ 250 mm ( 49 in ) , mainly from the north @-@ east monsoon between October and December . Its close proximity to the sea means that Sirkazhi receives more rainfall than neighbouring towns . Sirkazhi is part of the Cauvery delta region and has irrigation channels , called the Kollidam channels , which carry water from the rivers and provide a rich deposit of fertile silt before reaching the sea . The soil is black and contains fertile alluvial sediment . The area 's main crop is rice ; other crops grown in the area are coconut , tamarind and neem . The landscape mostly consists of plain lands with fields and small portions of scrub jungle . Antelope , spotted deer , wild hog , jackal and fox are present in the jungles and outlying areas of the town . Crow and ordinary game birds are found in large numbers in the town .
The 2004 Indian Ocean earthquake was an undersea , megathrust earthquake that occurred on 26 December 2004 , with an epicentre off the west coast of Sumatra , Indonesia , triggering a series of devastating tsunamis along coastal fringes of the Indian Ocean . Nagapattinam district was the most affected part of Tamil Nadu , accounting for 6 @,@ 064 off the 8 @,@ 009 casualties in the state . Sirkazhi remained mostly unaffected by the tsunami , but the groundwater quality deteriorated where aquifers were close to the water bodies . There was heavy salt water intrusion inland .
= = Demographics = =
According to 2011 census , Sirkali had a population of 34 @,@ 927 with a sex @-@ ratio of 1 @,@ 028 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males , much above the national average of 929 . A total of 3 @,@ 367 were under the age of six , constituting 1 @,@ 740 males and 1 @,@ 627 females . Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes accounted for 23 @.@ 21 % and .13 % of the population respectively . The average literacy of the town was 81 @.@ 5 % , compared to the national average of 72 @.@ 99 % . The town had a total of : 8756 households . There were a total of 11 @,@ 476 workers , comprising 352 cultivators , 1 @,@ 398 main agricultural labourers , 150 in house hold industries , 7 @,@ 681 other workers , 1 @,@ 895 marginal workers , 88 marginal cultivators , 809 marginal agricultural labourers , 77 marginal workers in household industries and 921 other marginal workers .
As per the religious census of 2011 , Sirkazhi had 86 @.@ 91 % Hindus , 9 @.@ 46 % Muslims , 2 @.@ 16 % Christians , 0 @.@ 02 % Sikhs , 0 @.@ 46 % Buddhists , 0 @.@ 33 % Jains , 0 @.@ 63 % following other religions and 0 @.@ 04 % following no religion or did not indicate any religious preference .
In 1981 , there were 15 notified slums accommodating 4 @,@ 499 persons , constituting 17 @.@ 64 % of the population . In 2001 , there were still 15 slums accommodating 7 @,@ 533 persons , constituting 23 @.@ 37 % of the population . The slum area has remained static at 39 @.@ 45 acres ( 0 @.@ 1596 km2 ) . The town has a residential area of 2 @.@ 79 km2 ( 1 @.@ 08 sq mi ) ( 20 @.@ 96 % ) , commercial area of 0 @.@ 4 km2 ( 0 @.@ 15 sq mi ) ( 3 @.@ 04 % ) , industrial area of 0 @.@ 58 km2 ( 0 @.@ 22 sq mi ) ( 4 @.@ 39 % ) , public & semi public area of 1 @.@ 29 km2 ( 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) ( 9 @.@ 66 % ) and undeveloped area of 8 @.@ 23 km2 ( 3 @.@ 18 sq mi ) ( 38 @.@ 05 % ) .
= = Economy and transport = =
The service sector provides most employment in the town . Limited agriculture is carried out ; the main crop is paddy rice . During the British Raj , Sirkazhi was known for mats made with a kind of cyperus . The headquarters of the taluka and panchayat union administration , and many government offices are located in the town . There are no major industries within the town , except for several rice mills . Sirkazhi has many Hindu temples , which draw in tourism activity . Sirkali Coop Urban Bank , founded on 23 April 1918 is the oldest bank in Sirkali . All major nationalised banks and private banks have branches in the town , and all have atms .
Sirkazhi municipality has 51 @.@ 5 km ( 32 @.@ 0 mi ) of roads : 18 @.@ 3 km ( 11 @.@ 4 mi ) of BT roads , 30 @.@ 4 km ( 18 @.@ 9 mi ) of cement roads , 2 @.@ 2 km ( 1 @.@ 4 mi ) of water @-@ bound macadam surface and 0 @.@ 6 km ( 0 @.@ 37 mi ) of other roads . Bullock carts are the traditional mode of transport ; as late as the 1950s , landlords and rich farmers travelled mostly by bullock carts except on rare , long journeys , which they undertook by buses or motor vehicles . Buses are the main mode of public transport from Sirkazhi . The municipality operates a B @-@ Class bus stand with 36 bays that accommodate local and intercity buses . The buses are operated by Tamil Nadu State Transport Corporation , connecting the town to Chidambaram , Mayiladuthurai , Karaikkal and other cities in Tamil Nadu .
Sirkazhi 's railway station is on the main line between Chennai and Trichy via Cuddalore and Chidambaram . Daily express trains connect major cities in Tamil Nadu like Chennai , Madurai and Trichy , and weekly express trains connect Tirupathi , Varanasi , Tiruchendur and Bhubaneswar . There are also daily passenger trains to Mayiladuthurai , Salem , Villupuram and Bangalore daily . The nearest airport is Tiruchirapalli Airport which is 160 km ( 99 mi ) from Sirkazhi .
= = Education and utility services = =
The first English school in the town was the Leipzig Evangelical Lutheran Mission School , which was opened by the Lutheran Mission in 1896 . The Lutheran mission was the earliest Protestant mission founded in Tanjore ( present @-@ day Thajavur ) by Rev. C.V. Schwartz in 1778 to promote Christian knowledge in the region . Of the 32 schools in Sirkazhi , there are nine municipal schools . There are three higher secondary schools , three middle schools , fourteen primary schools and three matriculation schools in the town . There are two arts and science colleges , BEST College of Arts and Science and Vivekananda College of Arts and Science . Srinivasa Subbaraya Polytechnic College ( locally called Puttur Polytechnic ) is located in Puttur , 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) from Sirkali .
Electricity supply to the town is regulated and distributed by the Sirkazhi Circle of Tamil Nadu Electricity Board ( TNEB ) . Water supply is provided by the Sirkazhi municipality from the Kollidam river ; it is distributed through five water tanks which supply 2 million ( two million ) litres a day . Push carts and tricycles are used to collect solid waste , which is deposited in marsh lands located outside the town . Sirkazhi municipality is implementing underground drainage and the current sewerage system is through septic tanks and public conveniences . Roadside drains carry away untreated sewage , which is released into the sea or accumulates in low @-@ lying areas .
Sirkazhi comes under the Sirkazhi Telecom Circle of the Bharat Sanchar Nigam Limited ( BSNL ) , India 's state @-@ owned telephone and internet services provider . BSNL also provides a broadband internet service The town has a government hospital , 12 private hospitals , clinics and medical shops .
= = Municipal administration and politics = =
During the British Raj , Shiyali ( present @-@ day Sirkazhi ) was the headquarters of a separate administrative division , or taluka . In 1972 the town was declared a third grade municipality , and was upgraded to a second grade municipality in 1980 . The municipality has 24 wards , each of which has an elected councillor . The functions of the municipality are devolved into six departments : general administration / personnel , engineering , revenue , public health , town planning and IT , which are controlled by a Municipal Commissioner , who is the supreme executive head . Legislative powers are vested in a body of 24 members , one for each of the 24 wards . The legislative body is headed by an elected chairperson , who is assisted by a deputy . On the revenue administration side , Sirkazhi is a taluka headquarters having three revenue villages : Kavilancheri , Sirkazhi and Thadalan .
For the purposes of state government , Sirkazhi is part of the Sirkazhi assembly constituency , which elects a member to the Tamil Nadu Legislative Assembly once every five years . The constituency is reserved for Scheduled Caste ( SC ) candidates . The assembly seat has been won by Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) in 1977 , 1989 , 1996 and 2006 elections and Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( ADMK ) in 1980 , 1984 , 1991 , 2001 and 2011 . As of 2011 , the MLA of the constituency is M. Sakthi from the ADMK .
In the national parliament , Sirkazhi is a part of the Mayiladuthurai ( Lok Sabha constituency ) , which has six assembly constituencies – Mayiladuthurai , Sirkazhi , Poompuhar , Thiruvidaimarudur ( SC ) , Kumbakonam and Papanasam . The constituency was constituted during the third Lok Sabha ( lower house ) as Mayuram until the 1980 elections , when it was renamed Mayiladuthurai . During the first elections in 1957 , Sirkazhi was part of Chidambaram constituency and was held by the Indian National Congress party . The current Member of Parliament from the constituency is R.K. Bharathi Mohan of the ADMK party . From 1962 , the Mayiladuthurai parliament seat was held by the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam ( DMK ) twice between 1967 and 1971 , and from 1971 to 1977 , Tamil Maanila Congress for two terms between 1998 and 1999 and 1996 to 1998 , Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam twice during 2009 and 2014 , Indian National Congress for eight terms during 1962 – 67 , 1977 – 80 , 1980 – 84 , 1984 – 89 , 1989 – 91 , 1991 – 96 , 1999 – 2004 and 2004 – 09
Law and order in Sirkazhi is maintained by the Mayiladuthurai sub @-@ division of the Tamil Nadu Police , headed by a Deputy Superintendent of Police . There is a police station in the town . There are special units like prohibition enforcement , district crime , social justice and human rights , district crime records and special branch that operate at the district level police division , headed by a Superintendent of Police .
= = Culture = =
The Bhramapureeswarar temple , also called Sattainathar temple , is an ancient temple complex dedicated to Shiva , and has three Shiva shrines . The temple is mentioned in the Saiva canonical work , Tevaram , by Thirugnana Sambanthar , Tirunavukkarasar and Sundarar , the foremost Saivite saints of 7th – eighth century CE and is classified as Paadal Petra Sthalam . There is a separate shrine for Sambandar celebrating the miracle of Parvathi suckling the child Sambandar when he was crying for milk . Shiva is worshipped in three different forms ; the Shivalingam ( Bhrammapureeswarar ) , Uma Maheswarar ( Toniappar ) at the middle level , and Bhairavar ( Sattanathar ) at the upper level . The original temple was enlarged during the period of Kulothunga Chola I , Vikrama Chola , Kulothunga Chola II and Kulothunga Chola III ( as in Chidambaram – 11th through the 13th centuries ) . Every year in the Tamil month of Chithirai ( April – May ) , a 10 @-@ day festival is celebrated .
Kazheesirama Vinnagaram temple , also called Thadalan Koil , is dedicated to Vishnu in the form of Trivikrama . Sirkazhi is base to the outlying places like Poompuhar , and the temples Thirusaikkadu , Thiruppallavaneeswaram , Melapperumpallam , Keezhaperumpallam , Thiruvengadu and Thirunangur . Thirukkavalampadi , Thiruvanpurushothamam , Thiruarimeya Vinnagaram , Thiruchsemponsey , Thirumanimadam , Thiruvaikunda vinnagaram , Thiruthevanartthogai , Thiruthetriyambalam , Thirumanikkoodam , Annan Koil and Thiruppaarththanpalli are eleven Vishnu temples , called Nangur Divya Desams revered in Nalayira Divya Prabandham , located in the outskirts of Sirkazhi . The annual Garudasevai festival held during January attracts thousands of pilgrims .
Tamil Isai Moovar ( meaning Tamil trinity of Carnatic music ) namely , Arunachala Kavirayar ( 1711 – 1778 ) , Muthu Thandavar ( 1525 – 1600 ) and Marimutthu Pillai ( 1712 – 1787 ) originated from Sirkazhi . Arunachala composed devotional songs , including Sirkazhi Sthalapuranam and Sirkazhi Kovai , eulogising the town . S. R. Ranganathan , considered to be the father of library science in India , is from Sirkazhi .
= NTA Film Network =
The NTA Film Network was an early American television network founded by Ely Landau in 1956 . The network was not a full @-@ time television network like CBS , NBC , or ABC . Rather , it operated on a part @-@ time basis , broadcasting films and several first @-@ run television programs from major Hollywood studios . Despite attracting over 100 affiliate stations and the financial support of Twentieth Century @-@ Fox ( which purchased a 50 % share of NTA in November 1956 ) the network proved unprofitable , and was discontinued by 1961 . The NTA Film Network 's flagship station , WNTA @-@ TV , is now WNET , one of the flagship stations of the Public Broadcasting Service ( PBS ) .
= = Origins = =
Parent company National Telefilm Associates was founded by producers Ely Landau and Oliver A. Unger in 1954 when Landau 's film and television production company , Ely Landau , Inc . , was reorganized in partnership with Unger and screenwriter and producer Harold Goldman . NTA was the successor company to U.M. & M. TV Corporation , having purchased U.M. & M. in 1956 .
In October 1956 , NTA launched the NTA Film Network , a syndication service which distributed both films and television programs to independent television stations and stations affiliated with NBC , CBS , or ABC ( DuMont had recently gone out of the network business ) . The ad @-@ hoc network 's flagship station was WNTA @-@ TV , channel 13 in New York . The NTA Network was launched as a " fourth TV network " , and trade papers of the time referred to it as a new television network .
Unlike the Big Three television networks , the local stations in the NTA Film Network were not connected via coaxial cable or microwave relay . Instead , NTA Film Network programs were filmed and then mailed to each station in the network , a method used by television syndicators in the 1950s and 1960s . However , many local stations agreed to broadcast NTA Film Network programs in pattern ( simultaneously ) . Landau 's claim to network status was based on the simultaneous airing of the programs .
The NTA Film Network launched on October 15 , 1956 , with over 100 affiliate stations . In November 1956 , it was announced that 50 % of the network had been purchased by Twentieth Century @-@ Fox , which would also produce original content for the network . The film network grew to 128 stations . In September 1957 , the network purchased KMGM @-@ TV ( now Fox O & O KMSP @-@ TV ) in Minneapolis .
= = Affiliates = =
The following is a list of NTA Film Network affiliate stations in November 1956 .
Later affiliates included KOOK @-@ TV in Billings , Montana ( c . 1958 @-@ 1959 ) , KONO @-@ TV in San Antonio ( c . 1958 – 1959 ) , WISH @-@ TV in Indianapolis ( c . 1958 – 1959 ) , and KTVU in San Francisco ( c . 1959 – 1960 ) . The network purchased KMGM @-@ TV in Minneapolis , in September 1957 .
= = Programs = =
The NTA Film Network aired both films and television series . Among its 1956 – 1957 offerings were 52 Twentieth Century @-@ Fox films . Premiere Performance , a prime time block of Twentieth Century @-@ Fox films , aired from 1957 – 1959 . Other film blocks included TV Hour of Stars and The Big Night ( both 1958 – 1959 ) .
The network 's television programs included :
How to Marry a Millionaire , which aired from 1957 to 1959 , was based on the popular 1953 film of the same name . The series starred Barbara Eden , Merry Anders , Lori Nelson ( 1957 – 1958 ) , and Lisa Gaye ( 1958 – 1959 ) . The final episode aired in August 1959 .
Man Without a Gun , a western series starring Rex Reason and Mort Mills , aired from 1957 to 1959 . The series portrayed Reason as a newspaper editor who brought criminals to justice without the use of guns .
This is Alice , which aired from 1958 to 1959 , starred nine @-@ year @-@ old Patty Ann Gerrity as Alice Holliday , a girl who lived in the fictional town of River Glen , Georgia . The series was directed and produced by Sidney Salkow for NTA and Desilu Productions .
The Play of the Week , which aired from 1959 to 1961 , was a series of 67 televised plays . The program was well received by critics , and received a Peabody Award . The series ended its run on May 1 , 1961 .
Other , lesser @-@ known NTA series included The Bill Corum Sports Show , Man 's Heritage , and The Passerby ( all c . 1957 ) , Official Detective ( 1957 – 1958 ) , Open End ( 1958 – 1961 ) , William Tell ( 1958 – 1959 ) , Assignment : Underwater ( 1959 – 1960 ) , Q. T. Hush ( 1960 – 1961 ) , Sheriff of Cochise / U.S. Marshall ( 1956 – 1958 ) , Alex in Wonderland ( 1959 ) , Newsbeat ( 1959 – 1961 ) Juke Box Jury ( 1958 – 1959 ) , The Best of Bishop Sheen ( 1958 – 1963 ) , Danger Is My Business ( 1958 ) , Divorce Court ( 1958 – 1961 ) , Glencannon ( 1959 ) , Grand Jury ( 1959 ) , Mantovani ( 1959 ) , Henry Morgan and Company ( 1959 ) , George Jessel 's Show Business ( 1959 ) , The Mike Wallace Interview ( 1959 – 1961 ) , The Third Man ( 1960 – 1961 ) , The Oscar Levant Show ( 1960 ) , Confidential Portrait , Crime Reporter , and Probe ( 1962 ) .
In October 1956 , the NTA Film Network also announced provisional plans to telecast live sporting and special events ( using network relays ) by the 1959 – 1960 television season .
= = = Timeline of programs = = =
Below is a timeline showing the airdates of the NTA Film Network 's programs and later NTA offerings . The number of episodes that each series aired is given in parentheses . Some dates are tentative , as accurate records for filmed television series were not always kept .
= = = Schedule = = =
Friday 1958 – 1959
Note : This schedule was announced in May 1958 ; according to the announcement , 17 television stations would follow this schedule for the 1958 – 1959 television season ; other NTA Film Network affiliates aired the programs out of pattern .
= = End of network = =
In January 1959 , Ely Landau was succeeded by Charles C. Barry , who took over as president of network operations . Landau continued to chair National Telefilm Associates . Despite the 50 % ownership of Twentieth Century @-@ Fox , the film network never developed into a major commercial television network on a par with the " Big Three " television networks ; several modern TV historians regard the NTA Film Network as a syndication service rather than a major television network .
By 1961 , WNTA @-@ TV was losing money , and the network 's flagship station was sold to the Educational Broadcasting Corporation that November . WNTA @-@ TV became WNDT ( later WNET ) , flagship station of the National Educational Television network , a forerunner of PBS . NTA network operations did not continue without a flagship station , although parent company National Telefilm Associates continued syndication services ; four television series ( Probe , Tintin , The Fair Adventure , and A Day With Doodles ) were syndicated by NTA between 1962 and 1966 .
The Los Angeles NTA Film Network station , KTTV , went on to become a founding owned and operated station of the Fox television network , which is co @-@ owned with Twentieth Century @-@ Fox and a part of 21st Century Fox .
= We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again =
" We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " is a song by Jeffrey Comanor from the album A Rumor in His Own Time , which debuted in September 1976 . Written by Comanor , the song describes a couple who spend a night together , one which the narrator wishes would " never end " . Both the song , which Epic Records released as a single , and album failed to chart . Discovered four months later by Arista Records President Clive Davis , " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " was covered by soft rock duo Deardorff & Joseph for their eponymous debut album , released on Arista . After Deardorff & Joseph disbanded , Marcia Day , who managed Maureen McGovern , became the manager of Deardorff , while Susan Joseph , who managed England Dan & John Ford Coley , became the manager of Joseph . Both McGovern and England Dan & John Ford Coley released covers of " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " in February 1978 ; while McGovern 's failed to chart , Dan & Coley 's spent six weeks at number one on the Billboard US Easy Listening chart , reached number two on the RPM Canada Adult Contemporary chart , and went to numbers nine and eleven on the magazines ' respective overall charts .
= = Original release = =
Lyricist and composer Jeffrey Comanor recorded " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " for the album A Rumor in His Own Time , which debuted in September 1976 . Produced by John Boylan and released on Epic Records , both the album and the single failed to chart . " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " describes a couple that spends a night together , one which the narrator wishes " would never end " . Comanor , who wrote the song , stated that his lyrical inspiration originated from a girl he dated who owned a wooden KLH radio that continued to play music quietly when he attempted to turn it off . When Comanor 's next girlfriend , Molly , left the city where he lived , he remembered their last night together and how he " hated that night to end " : a combination of the two memories formed the introductory lyrics of the song .
= = Covers = =
After its release , Arista Records President Clive Davis found the song and wanted Melissa Manchester to record a cover ; instead , he gave it to Deardorff & Joseph , a group that previously opened for Seals and Crofts , and they recorded it for their eponymous debut album . Released as a single in January 1977 , the song peaked at number twenty @-@ two on the US Easy Listening chart for two weeks in April 1977 .
Nineteen months after its initial debut , England Dan & John Ford Coley covered the song for the album Some Things Don 't Come Easy . Produced by Kyle Lehning and engineered by Lehning and Marshall Morgan help from Tom Knox , Big Tree Records issued it as a single on February 17 , 1978 ; the song 's debut preceded its album 's . A Billboard magazine writer described England Dan & John Ford Coley 's cover of " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " as a soft ballad with a " catchy chorus " and " excellent vocal harmonizing " . In a review of Some Things Don 't Come Easy for AllMusic , Joe Viglione called it " far and away the best song on the album " and wrote that its " hook and instrumentation are so radio @-@ friendly that the 45 could be put on repeat and after the 30th spin not bore like many of the tracks [ on Some Things Don 't Come Easy ] " . Another Billboard writer listed " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " as a " hot cut " from the album , along with " You Can 't Dance " , " Calling for You Again " , and " Lovin ' Someone on a Rainy Night " . " Calling for You Again " , written by Coley and Bob Grundy , was the B @-@ side to the single .
In February , Maureen McGovern also recorded a cover that Epic Records released as a single . After Deardorff & Joseph separated , Marcia Day , who managed McGovern , became the manager of Danny Deardorff , while Susan Joseph , who managed Dan & Coley , became the manager of Marcus Joseph . According to Day , Susan told her that " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " would " absolutely not " be Dan & Coley 's next single , and that McGovern could release a cover ; Susan , however , states that she did not know of its plans for future release . On March 17 , 1978 , McGovern promoted her song on season four of the variety talk show Dinah ! , which aired on NBC . Described by Epic as the " title song " to McGovern 's newest album , the cover did not appear on her next album and the single failed to chart .
= = Chart performance = =
On March 25 , 1978 , in their " Top Album Pick " section , Billboard predicted that the first single from Some Things Don 't Come Easy would reach the top @-@ ten ; afterwards , it went to number nine on the magazine 's Hot 100 chart and spent six weeks at number one on their Easy Listening chart . Cashbox placed the song at number fourteen on their US Top 100 Singles chart for the week that ended on April 29 , 1978 . In Canada , " We 'll Never Have to Say Goodbye Again " peaked on the RPM Top Singles chart at number eleven , while on the Adult Contemporary Tracks chart , the song peaked at number two behind " Dust in the Wind " by the progressive rock band Kansas .
= = = Weekly singles charts = = =
= = = Year @-@ end charts = = =
= Military career of Keith Miller =
The military career of Keith Miller , an Australian Test cricketer and Australian rules footballer , lasted from August 1940 until June 1946 , when World War II interrupted his sporting career . Miller enlisted in the Militia , before switching to the Royal Australian Air Force , where he served from November 1941 until 1946 when he was discharged with the rank of flying officer . Miller trained as a fighter pilot , and in the last month of the European theatre of war , he flew combat missions over German installations . However , Miller was more notable for his efforts as a cricketer , representing the Royal Australian Air Force cricket team and after VE Day , the Australian Services in the Victory Tests of 1945 , followed by a tour of the Indian subcontinent and Australia before being demobilised .
While serving in the Militia , Miller continued playing football for St Kilda Saints and interstate cricket for Victoria when he was off duty . Miller struggled to conform to military norms and was soon fined for " using insulting language towards a superior officer " . In late 1941 , he left the Militia and was accepted into the Royal Australian Navy , but tore up his form because his friend was rejected , before enlisting in the RAAF . After his initial training in 1942 , he earned his wings and was deployed to the United Kingdom in early 1943 where he continued his training with the No. 169 Squadron RAF . Miller survived a few disciplinary incidents while training to eventually take part in combat operations in the closing stages of the European theatre of the war , and had several narrow escapes from death throughout his combat and training period . He received several campaign medals for his service .
Away from battle , from 1943 onwards , Miller was selected to represent the RAAF in a series of matches against the Royal Air Force and other English teams . The objective of the matches was to show that the British Commonwealth would not be cowed by German attacks , and the team was officially designated as a military unit . In 1945 , following the Nazi surrender , the RAAF team merged with members of the Australian Imperial Force team to become the Australian Services , involving army and air force personnel , and competed against England in the five Victory Tests . Following the end @-@ of @-@ war tour of England , the Services team toured the Indian subcontinent before returning to Australia and playing in the 1945 – 46 season against the Australian states before being demobilised . Miller was the vice @-@ captain of the team on the return leg of the tour to Australia .
Miller was Australia 's top @-@ scorer during the Victory Tests and came to the fore with his fast bowling . Miller was acclaimed for his free @-@ spirited and adventurous batting , which he attributed to the triviality of sport in comparison to war . This was particularly exhibited in his 185 from 165 minutes for Dominions against England . It was through his involvement in wartime cricket that Miller met many of his future international colleagues , such as England 's Denis Compton , Bill Edrich and Len Hutton .
= = In Australia = =
As was the case with many of his contemporaries , Miller 's sporting career was interrupted by World War II . On 20 August 1940 , towards the end of the football season , almost a year after war broke out , Miller joined the Militia ( army reserve ) , and was assigned to the 4th Reserve Motor Transport Company . In late September , with St Kilda already eliminated from the football season , Miller began his first army training camp at Caulfield Racecourse in Melbourne . This meant that he would be able to continue his sporting career when he was not in training . A non @-@ conformist , he had the first of his many clashes with authority on 4 November , when he was charged with " using insulting language to a superior officer " and fined 10 shillings . Miller 's knockabout persona soon saw him earn the nickname Dusty , referring to his tendency to be involved in a " dust @-@ up " , meaning a physical fight .
During the summer of 1940 – 41 , Miller was granted leave so that he could play interstate cricket . In a season shortened due to war , Miller played in three matches and scored 140 runs at 28 @.@ 00 . In the second match , which was against South Australia , Miller scored 63 , his only fifty of the summer , and bowled for the first time at first @-@ class level , conceding three runs from a solitary over . In the third match he took his maiden first @-@ class wicket , in a war fundraising match for Stan McCabe 's XI against Don Bradman 's XI , that of Ken Ridings , caught behind with wicket @-@ keeper Don Tallon . His pace was noticed by Bradman .
The 1941 VFL season went ahead despite the loss of many players to military service . Miller alternated between playing in the backline and in attack depending on match conditions . When St Kilda were kicking downwind , Miller would play in attack , and when they kicked against the wind , he would return to a defensive position . In the forward line , he alternated with Sam Loxton , a future Invincibles teammate . He booted 28 goals in 16 games , including eight in one match against North Melbourne . Miller also gained a reputation among opponents for kicking them in the ankles . He again showed his disrespect for authority and reputation . In one match against Melbourne , for whom his boss and state cricket team @-@ mate Percy Beames played , Miller charged towards Beames with a raised elbow at the start of the match , forcing his boss to be taken from the field . Miller came second in St Kilda 's best and fairest for 1941 as his team again came second to last .
Miller 's season ended early after he was called back for army service and he was stationed in the northern suburb of Broadmeadows . However , he had disciplinary problems and disliked taking orders from his officers , whom he often felt were inferior to him . He left the Militia on 8 November 1941 . Miller and a friend then attempted to join the Royal Australian Navy ( RAN ) as stokers . When the navy would not take his friend , Miller tore up his paperwork in protest , left the recruiting office , and walked around the corner to the Royal Australian Air Force ( RAAF ) recruiting office . He was acutely aware of the risks , as many of his playing colleagues had been killed , injured or captured . The threat of combat increased when the Pacific Theatre of World War II opened on 7 December 1941 with the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor . The 1941 – 42 cricket season was cancelled and many cricket and football grounds were converted into army bases .
On 30 January 1942 he was called to active service by the RAAF . He was sent to No. 4 Initial Training School at Victor Harbor in South Australia , around 100 km south of Adelaide . Miller quickly showed his anti @-@ authoritarian streak in a training drill in which Miller 's instructor asked the recruits to disarm him . The recruits feared that their weekend leave would be cancelled if they succeeded in confiscating their sergeant 's rifle , but the sergeant assured that that this was not the case . Miller volunteered to combat the instructor , and succeeded by tripping him and removing his firearm . The sergeant angrily protested that Miller had tripped him and told Miller to repeat his feat . Miller again tripped the sergeant and disarmed him , this time contemptuously wiping his boot on his NCO 's shirt and soiling it . The irate instructor cancelled Miller 's leave and put him on guard duty , further threatening the other recruits with the same fate for protesting Miller 's treatment . However , the recruits protested the ruling with the camp adjutant , who overruled the sergeant , putting him on guard duty instead of Miller .
Soon after , on 19 February 1942 , the Japanese launched air raids on Australian soil , targeting the northern city of Darwin . Miller trained at flying schools at Cunderdin , Western Australia and Mallala , South Australia , just north of Adelaide and gained his wings in late 1942 . He played only one match during the football season , playing in a combined West Adelaide and Glenelg Football Club team while posted in South Australia . His team lost . On 17 December he returned to Melbourne and was promoted to the rank of flight sergeant . On 15 January 1943 , he embarked on the USS West Point at Port Melbourne , which was to take him to Europe in readiness for war combat . The journey included a stopover in February at a training camp in Boston in the United States . It was there that Miller met Peg Wagner , his future wife . They were engaged before Miller left for the United Kingdom . He arrived in Scotland on 18 March 1943 and was deployed to the southern English coastal town of Bournemouth . The once @-@ popular tourist resort had been turned into a military centre and was the target of frequent German air raids .
= = Britain = =
Miller continued his training at Bournemouth , spending his spare time pursuing his love of classical music and cricket . Miller had the first of many brushes with death in April , when he was invited to play weekend cricket for a RAAF team in London . While he was away for his first weekend match , the local Bournemouth pub where he ate lunch on Sunday was struck by a German air strike . Miller 's weekly lunchmates were all killed . His selection for the RAAF cricket team had saved him . Miller quickly gained a reputation among the servicemen for his carefree batting and bowling . He often bowled without a proper run @-@ up but managed to trouble batsmen with pace and bounce regardless . The RAAF team was officially formed in preparation for the 1943 season and Miller was selected . The captain was flying officer Keith Carmody . Miller played his first match at Lord 's , the home of cricket , against Warner 's XI , a team that included former England captains Bob Wyatt and Gubby Allen and future Test players Alec and Eric Bedser and Trevor Bailey . Oblivious to authority , Miller pushed a person in the dressing room out of his way before the match started , unaware that it was Warner , the secretary of the Marylebone Cricket Club himself . Warner 's XI batted first , and Miller dismissed Wyatt and Allen in taking 2 / 20 from ten overs as the hosts made 201 . Miller came to the crease at the fall of the first wicket and hit consecutive fours off the bowling of Dick Pollard from the Royal Air Force ( RAF ) . The RAAF were bowled out for 100 , with Miller top @-@ scoring with 45 . In the second innings , he made 21 not out with two sixes as time ran out and the match ended in a draw . In a match for the United Services against Sussex , Miller top @-@ scored with 134 not out in 120 minutes , striking 12 fours and three sixes . He then tore through Sussex with 7 / 36 , breaking through the defences of six players who were bowled or leg before wicket , as his team won by 225 runs . He also played one match for Sussex against the RAF , scoring 11 and taking 3 / 41 .
The RAAF played eight matches for the season , winning four and losing the rest . Miller 's top score was 141 in faster @-@ than @-@ even time against Public School Wanderers at Hove . He went on to play for Dominions , a composite team from the British Commonwealth , in a two @-@ day match against England in August , scoring 32 and two and bowling a total of eight overs for 46 runs without taking a wicket . England fielded a team of almost Test standard , with six capped Test players and four others who made their debut immediately after the resumption of international cricket following the war . The match marked the first meeting between Miller and his good friend , England batsman Denis Compton . In their first battle at the crease , Miller aimed a short ball that took off past Compton 's shoulder and went for four byes . By the end of his season , Miller 's bowling began to attract media attention . He ended the season in a match at Lord 's between the airmen : the RAAF against the RAF . Miller took 3 / 23 and scored 91 in the RAAF 's total of 8 / 164 . None of the matches during the 1943 season were accorded first @-@ class status .
By late 1943 , Miller has been based at RAF South Cerny in Gloucestershire . One night , he was pulled over by his commanding officer , whom he detested , for not wearing his uniform cap . An altercation resulted , and Miller posed as though he were about to punch his officer . The result was that Miller was charged with insubordination and sentenced to a three @-@ week disciplinary course with hard labour , from 18 October to 9 November . In mid @-@ November he was posted to Ouston near Newcastle upon Tyne where he was trained in the use of radar using Anson and Oxford aircraft . During his stay there , Miller was thrown on his back during a wrestling match , sustaining an injury that caused him recurring problems in later years , diminishing his ability to bowl .
In 1944 , Miller was again selected for the RAAF team . Near @-@ death experiences and the knowledge that he could be the next to die , changed Miller 's outlook to life . An RAAF teammate was killed on a mission soon after hitting a century . In a match against the British Civil Defence Services at Lord 's in July , Miller had reached 96 when an air raid siren signalled the arrival of a German flying bomb . It landed south of the ground and then Miller struck a four to register his ton before another flying bomb crashed close to the ground as he saluted the crowd . In a match against England , which boasted five capped and four future England Test players , Miller scored 85 in 100 minutes . While Miller was at the crease , the RAAF was on track to reach its target but his partners were dismissed around him and the RAAF fell 33 runs short after losing its last seven wickets for 51 runs . He took match figures of 6 / 28 against the West of England at Bristol , and top @-@ scored in the second innings of a low @-@ scoring match with 14 . Miller was also selected for the Dominions match against England , scoring 30 in a drawn encounter . The success of the season , especially Miller and Keith Carmody 's attractive batting , prompted Warner to begin planning for a " Test " series between the respective armed services of England and Australia .
After ten months of training , Miller was offered a commission as a pilot officer . His best friend missed out , so he arranged for Flight Lieutenant Keith Johnson an Australian cricket official , to pull some strings , ensuring his friend 's promotion . The pair were posted to 12 Advanced Flying Unit in Grantham , Lincolnshire in on 15 August 1944 , which was an Operations Training Unit for the purpose of familiarising officers with flying aircraft . However , on a trip back to Ouston to visit their colleagues , a night of drunken revelry led to property damage and injury to another airman . Miller and his friend were charged with eight offences and faced possible expulsion . Luckily for Miller , the Commanding Officer ( CO ) at his new posting at Cranfield , Buckinghamshire was his old CO at Ouston . Miller was given another three @-@ week disciplinary course , but his pleas convinced the CO to reduce the sentence to a fine for the property damage . Miller was allowed to resume his training in Beauforts , Beaufighters and Mosquitos . Again he had a near miss , when some instruments on his plane failed and he was forced to land his Beaufighter for repairs . After the repairs , another pilot used the plane and the problem recurred . The second pilot crash @-@ landed and was killed . Later , Miller was returning from a training mission over France and misjudged the runway , bouncing his plane on the tarmac . Trying to lift off again , only one engine responded and the unequal power supply caused the plane to swerve , missing the hangar by centimetres . He then escaped death by skipping a social appointment that he had agreed to attend . A V1 rocket hit the venue and killed many of the patrons inside . In October , he went AWOL to watch violinist Yehudi Menuhin perform in London and was dismissed , but the CO revoked his decision on the condition that Miller play for his cricket team .
= = Officer = =
At the end of his officer training , Miller was sent aboard a Royal Navy destroyer as part of an exchange programme between the forces . Miller and a friend reported to the harbour late after a night of socialising and were punished by having to wait for their turn on the second vessel . During a voyage to escort 30 merchant ships to Belgium , the vessel was involved in a battle with a German U @-@ boat , which was sunk . Upon his return to England , Miller was promoted to flying officer on 4 November 1944 . Miller was a nervy pilot , with his navigator saying that every landing was " a close shave " .
In March 1945 , Miller was deployed to the RAF station at Great Massingham in Norfolk , East Anglia . He was assigned to No. 169 Squadron RAF , flying Mosquito fighter @-@ bombers . Miller 's squadron took part in missions against Nazi Germany in April and May 1945 . They attacked V1 and V2 production sites on the island of Peenemünde in the North Sea with the objective of depleting the Germans ' offensive capability . On 19 April , Miller took part in an attack on a German installation at Flensburg in Germany . The Mosquitoes flew below 300 m in a four @-@ hour trip . In May , his squadron was deployed in Operation Fire Bash , to attack Westerland Airfield on the island of Sylt off the coast of Denmark . The Nazis had 5 @,@ 000 soldiers , 15 @,@ 000 sailors and 800 artillery pieces defending it . Over 300 British and American airmen had died in an attempt to capture it . Miller and his colleagues had tanks loaded with napalm , which were to be dropped on the Germans . One of Miller 's loads remained dangling from a wing , refusing to drop . He flew back to base with the explosives , and it fell off on landing at the air base . Luckily for Miller , it failed to detonate . However , five of the 24 planes that were involved in the raid were not so lucky , and were shot down . Miller avoided further European missions as bad weather forced the cancellation of additional raids over the next few days , by which time Germany had surrendered . His CO , Neville Reeves , organised for him to fly air force personnel over Germany to view the results of Allied bombing , called " Reeves ' Ruhr Tours " . On one flight , Reeves was leading a formation of aircraft when Miller broke away from the group and returned to base late . When asked why he had gone separately , Miller said that he wanted to fly over Bonn , the birthplace of Beethoven . He was not disciplined for the incident .
= = Victory Tests = =
The end of the war marked the start of the 1945 cricket season . Miller returned to Lord 's and top @-@ scored with 50 for the RAAF against a British Empire XI , as his team opened the season with a six @-@ wicket win . Warner had organised a series of matches between England and Australian servicemen , known as the Victory Tests , to celebrate the end of hostilities . However , Australian cricket administrators would not accredit the three @-@ day matches as official Test matches , arguing that there were not enough Test @-@ level players in the armed services . England were close to full strength , so the AIF and the RAAF teams merged to strengthen their quality . As a result , the Australian Services cricket team was formed under the leadership of Warrant Officer Lindsay Hassett to compete in the Victory Tests . Hassett was the only capped Test player , but six others had first @-@ class experience in Australia . The First Victory Test was at Lord 's and was expected to usher in a new post @-@ war era , which it hoped would be more aggressive and attractive . The last Anglo @-@ Australian Test series before the war had featured a large number of draws due to defensive play . England batted first and Miller came on as the fifth bowler . He bowled his Great Massingham pilot colleague Bill Edrich for 45 to end with 1 / 11 , precipitating an English collapse from 4 / 200 to 267 . In reply to England 's 267 , Miller came to the crease at 3 / 136 and joined Hassett . Miller gradually progressed , and once Australia had taken the lead , he cut loose . After spending 40 minutes in the 90s , he finished with 105 in 210 minutes , with a straight six . The Times opined that his innings was " as good a century as has been seen at Lord 's in many a long day " . Wisden said that he " was always getting runs with the soundness characteristic of most Australians " . Harry Altham declared that " a brilliant new star had joined the cluster of the Southern Cross " . Australia took a 188 @-@ run lead , and reached their second innings target with two balls to spare to win by six wickets despite Miller being run out for only one . He then took 2 / 2 and made a duck as the RAAF lost to the RAF by 16 runs in a one @-@ day match .
Miller went on to play a two @-@ day match for the RAAF against Lancashire , where his 52 was the only fifty in a low @-@ scoring game . He also took match figures of 2 / 28 . After scoring 30 in an innings victory over Learie Constantine 's XI , Miller represented the RAAF against the RAF at Lord 's where he top @-@ scored with 63 in 90 minutes . The Second Victory Test was played at Bramall Lane in Sheffield , where the grandstands were damaged by German air raids . Hassett sent the Englishmen into bat . Miller went wicketless . He was run out in the first innings for 17 . In the second innings , Miller bowled a fast and hostile spell , hitting Test world record holder Len Hutton in the arm before hitting Cyril Washbrook in the head , provoking an angry crowd reaction , comparing Miller to the Bodyline spearhead Harold Larwood . He later removed Washbrook and ended with 2 / 28 . His efforts led to calls for him to start taking his bowling seriously , instead of simply jogging in releasing the ball , especially from former South African representative Bob Crisp . Despite this , Miller fell for eight in the second innings and Australia fell 41 runs short of the target and series was squared .
During June , there was speculation that Miller 's squadron would be deployed to Burma to fight against Japan . In the meantime , the airmen continued to practice their flying , Miller earning Reeves ' ire by making unauthorised leisure flights . Later , he was ordered to fly tour flights over Germany . Not wanting to do so , Miller lodged bogus reports saying that the Mosquitoes were malfunctioning , causing unnecessary maintenance work . Thus , Reeves ordered Miller to take his plane instead , which caught fire in mid @-@ flight . With one functional engine and no navigator to assist him , Miller came back to the air base and bellylanded . The fuselage and one of the wings was broken off and the plane became engulfed in flames . Miller escaped physical injury , but was shaken by the accident . Again Miller escaped disciplinary action , and was playing sport an hour later .
The next day , Miller headed to Lord 's to play for the RAAF against the South of England . Chasing 208 , Miller scored an unbeaten 78 in 95 minutes . The Australians were 3 / 184 , well placed to reach the target of 208 when rain washed out the match . He then scored 30 and took 1 / 14 as the RAAF defeated the Army . In the Third Victory Test at Lord 's , despite his efforts in the previous Victory Test , Miller was only Hassett 's sixth @-@ choice bowler , coming on when England were 2 / 100 . This time he measured out a run up . Miller struck John Dewes before uprooting his off stump . He then bowled Donald Carr for four and then removed Hutton 's off stump . He ended with 3 / 44 from 18 overs . Miller was bowled for seven in the first innings but was rewarded with the new ball in the second innings . He bowled Dewes for a duck with an outswinger , before bowling Edrich and Pollard to end with 3 / 42 . This left Australia a target of 225 in five hours . Miller came into bat at 3 / 104 and saw Australia to the target unbeaten on 71 . C B Fry opined that Miller 's innings was " superbly stroked and directed cover driving of the pace bowling formed the most telling and majestic feature " .
In a two @-@ day match against Yorkshire , Miller struck 111 including three sixes when none of the team @-@ mates passed 30 . His innings featured strokes from both the front and back foot . The next day , he scored 75 in 83 minutes against Durham and took 2 / 1 in another win for the RAAF . That was the first of four back @-@ to @-@ back one @-@ dayers for the RAAF ; Miller scored two , 23 and nine against Scottish Services , Greenock and Scotland .
In the Fourth Victory Test , again at Lord 's , Miller came in at 3 / 108 and after a slow start , scored another century , taking 170 minutes to reach the mark before being removed for 118 . He struck ten fours , all off which were driven . In the second innings , he came to the crease with four wickets down with Australia still in arrears . He scored an unbeaten 35 to ensure that Australia would not collapse further and lose the match . The public reception towards the Victory Tests resulted in an additional fifth match being added to the schedule . To warm up for that match , Miller took 3 / 95 against the North of England .
In the meantime Japan had surrendered , and No. 169 Squadron was disbanded . Miller had spent around 550 hours in the air with the RAF , to whom his RAAF unit had been seconded . For his active service he received the 1939 – 45 Star , France and Germany Star , Defence Medal , War Medal 1939 – 45 and the Australia Service Medal 1939 – 45 .
In the final Fifth Victory Test at Old Trafford , Australia batted first and had collapsed to 4 / 66 under overcast conditions on a green pitch when Miller came to the crease . Against a swinging and seaming ball , Miller struck 14 from the first over that he faced and went on to finish 77 not out in a display that featured strong cutting and driving as Australia could manage only 173 . He took one wicket with the ball but managed only four in the second innings as England won by four wickets to square the series 2 – 2 . Hassett wrote at the end of the series that " This is cricket as it should be ... These games have shown that international cricket can be played as between real friends — so let 's have no more talk of " war " in cricket " . Miller topped the batting averages for the series , with 443 runs at 63 @.@ 28 . His aggregate exceeded that of Hammond and Hutton , who made 369 and 380 respectively . Miller also took 10 wickets at 27 @.@ 70 . Of Miller 's batting , Hassett said that " as a strokeplayer he is second to none " . his exploits in military teams led some to compare him to Jack Gregory , who had broken into top @-@ flight cricket with his exploits with an AIF team immediately after the First World War .
The last big match of the season was a one @-@ off at Lord 's between England and Dominions , a combined team of players from the British Commonwealth . Miller managed 26 in the Dominions ' first innings of 307 , before coming to the crease at 2 / 60 in the second innings with England still leading by 80 runs . Miller settled in quickly , hitting his second ball through the covers for four and moved to 49 in 49 minutes . He brought up his half @-@ century by lifting Hollies straight back into the crowd . Three balls later , he hit another ball to the same point . At stumps , he was 61 not out with Dominions at 3 / 145 . The next morning , his partner Martin Donnelly was dismissed and replaced by Dominions captain Learie Constantine . Miller then began his attack , hitting the dual leg spin pairing of Hollies and Wright to all parts of the ground . At one point , all the fielders except for the wicketkeeper and the bowler were on the fence .
He registered his century in 115 minutes , clouting another five balls over the boundary in the morning session . One of Miller 's sixes travelled over 170 m in the air to Block Q next to the pavilion . He then aimed a lofted shot over long on from the bowling of Hollies , directly at the pavilion . It was still rising when it narrowly went over the press box and clipped the top of the roof . Test spinner James Langridge was brought on and Miller deposited two drives over the fence in his first over .
In one 35 @-@ minute passage of play , he and Constantine added 91 runs , before he departed for 185 from 165 minutes . He had scored a total of 124 runs in 115 minutes of batting in the morning session . Miller had struck a total of 13 fours and seven sixes , prompting Warner to say that in his 60 years of involvement in first @-@ class cricket that he had " never seen such hitting " .
The Dominions went on to win by 45 runs in a match described by Wisden as " one of the finest ever seen " . Commenting of Miller ' innings , Robertson @-@ Glasgow said " From the moment he takes guard he plays each ball just that much below its supposed merits that scratches a bowler 's pride " . The former England player C. B. Fry said that Miller was " a batsman already great ... who is likely , later on , to challenge the feats of Australia 's champions of the past ... Miller has something of the dash and generous abandon that were part of Victor Trumper 's charm . " Miller had enjoyed his visit to the home of cricket . In eight innings at Lord 's for the season , he had scored 568 runs at 94 @.@ 68 with three centuries . Wisden concluded
Miller outshone even Hammond and for the latter part of his innings played faultless cricket . The shot experts said was longer than Trott 's landed high on the broadcasting box ... Miller 's other six sixers bounced into seats in front of the Long Room , forcing elderly members to seek safety in the bar .
Miller 's carefree attitude on the playing field enchanted spectators and he was a favourite of the English public . Miller attributed this to the fact that sport was trivial in comparison to war . When asked many years later by Michael Parkinson , about pressure on the cricket field , Miller responded with the famous quote : " pressure is a Messerschmitt up your arse , playing cricket is not " .
The season ended with a few more matches against various English counties . Miller struck 81 not out in a low @-@ scoring win against Nottinghamshire . In a match against Leveson @-@ Gower 's XI , which comprised Test @-@ level England players , Miller struck 71 in just over an hour as the Australians finished at 506 and took an innings victory . Miller 's time in England ended on a losing note when he scored a duck and eight and took 2 / 10 and 2 / 17 as the Australian Services lost to Surrey by three wickets . In matches that were given first @-@ class status , Miller had score 725 runs at 72 @.@ 50 for the season , finishing second in the averages and the aggregates . The success of the Australian Services team prompted the Foreign Minister of Australia Doc Evatt to ask the team to stop in India and Ceylon on their return to Australia to play in a fundraising tour for the Red Cross .
= = Services tour of India = =
Miller , the vice @-@ captain of the team , almost missed the trip to India after turning up late for the voyage . The servicemen arrived in Bombay and took a two @-@ day train journey to Lahore to play North Zone . Miller scored 46 in a drawn match . The Australians headed to Delhi , but Miller missed the tour match due to food poisoning . He then led the Australians in a match against West Zone in Bombay with Hassett being rested . Miller top @-@ scored with 106 in a high @-@ scoring draw . In the first match against India at Bombay 's Brabourne Stadium , regarded as unofficial Tests , Miller took two wickets : Rusi Modi in the first innings and Abdul Hafeez Kardar in the second . The match ended in a high @-@ scoring draw with Miller unbeaten on 15 as Australia were 1 / 31 in pursuit of 112 for victory . At this point , with most of the team suffering from dysentery , some of the Australians became disenchanted with the long train journeys across the subcontinent , and tried to ask Hassett and manager Keith Johnson for air travel . When this was rejected , some of the RAAF personnel felt that Hassett should be removed , with Miller as one of the candidates to replace him . With Bradman likely to miss the upcoming tour of New Zealand , the Services captain would be one of the leading candidates to lead Australia . Miller refused to plot against Hassett and the dispute ended when Squadron Leader Stan Sismey arranged for a RAAF plane already in India to transport the team . On the first flight to Calcutta , the squad survived an electrical storm that caused the plane to drop altitude .
The team was scheduled to play East Zone , but the city was gripped in deadly riots as independence activists agitated against British rule . The match went ahead , but on the first day , thousands of protestors invaded the pitch , interrupting play for an hour . Elsewhere in the city , 23 people were killed . Miller scored only 17 and one , both times dismissed by Chandu Sarwate , and did not bowl . On the final day , Miller 's friend Compton , who was playing for East Zone while on deployment with the British Army in India , was nearing a century as his team closed in on victory . The rioters broke through the security presence and invaded the pitch again . The leader of the demonstrators ran up to Compton and said : " Mr Compton , you very good player , but you must stop " . In later years , Miller would quote this remark whenever Compton came to the crease in matches featuring both of them . Compton told the rioters to ask Hassett , saying that the Australian skipper controlled proceedings . Hassett smiled at the leader of the irate demonstrators and asked " You wouldn 't happen to have a cigarette , would you , old boy ? " The rioters calmed down and play resumed . Compton brought up his century with the winning runs . In 2005 , the ECB and Cricket Australia decided that the player adjudged the Player of the Series in the Ashes would be awarded the Compton @-@ Miller Medal , recognising their friendship and rivalry .
In the second match against India , the Australians were 2 / 250 in response to India 's 386 when Miller came in and hit Vinoo Mankad for four sixes from five balls , before falling to the said bowler for 82 . The match ended in a draw , with Miller not taking a wicket after aggravating an injury . Captaining the team , Miller took 3 / 19 and 1 / 8 in a match against South Zone in Madras , the Australians ' only win on Indian soil . However , he had a difficult time with the bat , falling twice to Ghulam Ahmed for a duck and eight . He failed with the bat in the third and final match against India , falling twice to Shute Banerjee for two and seven , but he took 2 / 60 in the first innings as India took the series 1 – 0 . Miller had a disappointing series in the international matches , with 107 runs at 26 @.@ 25 and four wickets at 40 @.@ 50 . Australia 's final match was in Colombo against an All Ceylon team . Miller scored 132 and took 2 / 37 as Australia won by an innings . Not wanting to wait a month for the next boat and a fortnight 's sea voyage , the Australians returned to Perth by hitching a ride on a B @-@ 24 Liberator . The pilot of the RAAF plane had already promised 14 friends a lift so that they would not be stuck in India for another six months , so the Australian team sat on the floor of the aircraft . They made it back to Australia despite suffering engine trouble and an overloaded plane .
= = Services matches in Australia = =
Upon returning to Australia , Hassett 's men were informed by the military and the Australian Board of Control that the Services were to play a further six first @-@ class matches against the state teams . Miller was tired but the fixtures were meant to revive cricket following the war and were also used as a lead @-@ up to the international tour to New Zealand in March 1946 .
Miler started his campaign for Test selection when the servicemen arrived in Perth and played their first match against Western Australia . Miller put in his best batting performance of the season with an 80 in a drawn match , before being rested in the match against South Australia at the Adelaide Oval , which again ended in a draw . Miller finally returned to his home town on 2 January 1946 and was reunited with family and friends before taking on Victoria . Miller top @-@ scored in both innings with 37 and 59 as the military men fell to an innings defeat , troubled by the off spin of Ian Johnson . Miller and the servicemen had another difficult time against New South Wales , as their opponents made 7 / 551 and Miller went wicketless . Miller faced his biggest challenge in Australian conditions in his quest for Test selection when he went out to bat . The Australian selectors had not been in England for the Victory Tests to witness his ability and Miller had not played to his potential on Australian soil . Local Australian opinion was that because the Services had played poorly in Australia , their achievements in England must have been against poor opposition .
He was pitted against Bill O 'Reilly , the leg spinner regarded as the best bowler in the world , and Ray Lindwall , an emerging bowler of express pace , the fastest in Australia . Miller accumulated slowly and was on 74 as Services limped to 9 / 171 . Services had no batsmen left with one man injured and retired hurt , so O 'Reilly allowed the twelfth man to bat , in order to give Miller a chance of making a century . Miller attacked and scored 31 of the last 33 runs , ending with an unbeaten 105 , with 11 fours in 172 minutes . He earned plaudits among cricket pundits on Australian soil . Former leading Test batsman Alan Kippax opined that " Australia has unearthed a new champion " , claiming that he was finer than Jack Gregory and saying that " few batsmen I have watched have had his ability to blend beauty and power " . O 'Reilly said that Miller 's century was " one of the best hundreds ever got against me " . Miller compiled 46 in the second innings before being bowled by O 'Reilly as the Servicemen fell to another innings defeat . Miller finished the season with 2 / 74 and 4 / 49 in a drawn match against Queensland and a pair of fifties in a drawn match against Tasmania . Miller ended the season with 463 runs at 57 @.@ 88 and six wickets at 31 @.@ 83 .
Miller was selected for Australia 's tour of New Zealand , and made his Test debut there . Upon returning to Australia , he was discharged from the RAAF on 26 June 1946 .
= Aldwych tube station =
Aldwych is a closed station on the London Underground , located in the City of Westminster in Central London . It was opened in 1907 with the name Strand , after the street on which it is located , and was the terminus of the short Piccadilly line branch from Holborn that was a relic of the merger of two railway schemes . The station building is close to the Strand 's junction with Surrey Street , near Aldwych . During its lifetime , the branch was the subject of a number of unrealised extension proposals that would have seen the tunnels through the station extended southwards , usually to Waterloo .
Served mostly by a shuttle train and suffering from low passenger numbers , the station and branch were considered for closure several times . Service was offered only during weekday peak hours from 1962 and finally discontinued altogether in 1994 , when the cost of replacing the lifts was considered too high for the income generated .
Disused parts of the station and the running tunnels were used during both world wars to shelter artworks from London 's public galleries and museums from bombing . The station has long been popular as a filming location and has appeared as itself and as other London Underground stations in a number of films . In recognition of its historical significance , the station is a Grade II listed building .
= = History = =
= = = Planning = = =
The Great Northern and Strand Railway ( GN & SR ) first proposed a station in the Strand area in a
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from The Boston Globe commented that " Cher 's ' Goddess of Pop ' sash remains in little danger of undue snatching ; at 67 , she sounds more convincing than J @-@ Lo or Madonna reporting from ' the club ' " . Cher premiered the lead single " Woman 's World " on the season four finale of the talent show The Voice , her first live TV performance in over a decade . She later joined the show 's season five as judge Blake Shelton 's team adviser .
On June 30 , 2013 , Cher headlined the annual Dance on the Pier benefit , celebrating Gay Pride day . It became the event 's first sellout in five years . In November 2013 , she appeared as a guest performer and judge on the seventeenth season of ABC 's Dancing with the Stars , during its eighth week , which was dedicated to her . She embarked on the Dressed to Kill Tour in March 2014 , nearly a decade after announcing her " farewell tour " . She quipped about that fact during the shows , saying this would actually be her last farewell tour while crossing fingers . The tour 's first leg , which included 49 sold @-@ out shows in North America , grossed $ 54 @.@ 9 million . In November 2014 , she cancelled all remaining dates due to an infection that affected kidney function .
On May 7 , 2014 , Cher confirmed a collaboration with American hip hop group Wu @-@ Tang Clan on their album Once Upon a Time in Shaolin . Credited as Bonnie Jo Mason , she uses an alias of hers originated in 1964 . Only one copy of the album has been produced , and it was sold by online auction in November 2015 . After appearing as Marc Jacobs ' guest at the 2015 Met Gala , Cher posed for his brand 's fall / winter advertising campaign . The fashion designer stated , " This has been a dream of mine for a very , very long time . "
Cher first announced plans for a Broadway musical based on her life and music in June 2012 . At that time , she revealed that the show would feature three actresses playing herself during different stages of her life . She expressed interest in playing a fourth iteration of herself , as a wise figure who gives advice to her younger versions . By 2015 , she was still working on the project , enlisting writer Rick Elice to help her develop the script .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Music = = =
Cher has employed various musical styles , including folk rock , pop rock , power ballads , disco , new wave music , rock music , punk rock , arena rock , and hip hop ; she said she has done this to " remain relevant and do work that strikes a chord " . Her music has mainly dealt with themes of heartbreak , independence , and self @-@ empowerment for women ; by doing so , she became " a brokenhearted symbol of a strong but decidedly single woman " , according to Out magazine 's Judy Wieder . Goldmine magazine 's Phill Marder credited Cher 's " nearly flawless " song selection as what made her a notorious rock singer ; while several of her early songs were penned by or sung with Sonny Bono , most of her solo successes , which outnumbered Sonny and Cher 's successes , were composed by independent songwriters , selected by Cher . Not.com.mercial ( 2000 ) , the singer 's first album mostly written by herself , presents a " 1970s singer @-@ songwriter feel " that proves " Cher adept in the role of storyteller " , according to AllMusic 's Jose F. Promis .
Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times writes , " There were a lot of great records by female singers in the early days of rock … None , however , reflected the authority and command that we associate with rock ' n ' roll today as much as [ Cher 's ] key early hits " . Some of Cher 's early songs discuss subjects rarely addressed in American popular music such as divorce , prostitution , unplanned and underaged pregnancy , and racism . According to AllMusic 's Joe Viglione , the 1972 single " The Way of Love " is " either about a woman expressing her love for another woman , or a woman saying au revoir to a gay male she loved " ( " What will you do / When he sets you free / Just the way that you / Said good @-@ bye to me " ) . Her ability to carry both male and female ranges allowed her to sing solo in androgynous and gender @-@ neutral @-@ themed songs .
= = = Voice = = =
Cher has a contralto singing voice , described by author Nicholas E. Tawa as " bold , deep , and with a spacious vibrato " . Ann Powers of The New York Times called it " a quintessential rock voice : impure , quirky , a fine vehicle for projecting personality . " AllMusic 's Bruce Eder wrote that the " tremendous intensity and passion " of Cher 's vocals coupled with her " ability to meld that projection with her acting skills " can provide " an incredibly powerful experience for the listener " , despite her having a limited vocal range . Paul Simpson , in his book The Rough Guide to Cult Pop ( 2003 ) , states that " Cher [ is ] the possessor of one of the huskiest , most distinctive voices in pop … which can work wonders with the right material directed by the right producer " . He further addresses the believability of her vocal performances : " she spits out the words … with such conviction you 'd think she was delivering an eternal truth about the human condition " .
Writing about Cher 's musical output during the 1960s , Robert Hilburn of Los Angeles Times stated that " Rock was subsequently blessed with the staggering blues exclamations of Janis Joplin in the late ' 60s and the raw poetic force of Patti Smith in the mid- ' 70s . Yet no one matched the pure , seductive wallop of Cher " . By contrast , her vocal performances during the 1970s were described by Eder as " dramatic , highly intense … [ and ] almost as much ' acted ' as sung " . First heard in the 1980 record Black Rose , Cher employed sharper , more aggressive vocals in her hard rock @-@ oriented albums , establishing her sexually confident image . For the 1995 album It 's a Man 's World , she restrained her vocals , singing in higher registers and without vibrato . The 1998 song " Believe " has an electronic vocal effect proposed by Cher , and was the first commercial recording to feature Auto @-@ Tune — an audio processor originally intended to disguise or correct off @-@ key inaccuracies in vocal music recordings — as a deliberate creative effect . After the success of the song , the technique became known as the " Cher effect " and has since been widely used in popular music . Cher continued to use Auto @-@ Tune on the albums Living Proof ( 2001 ) and Closer to the Truth ( 2013 ) .
= = = Films , music videos , and performances = = =
Author Yvonne Tasker , in her book Working Girls : Gender and Sexuality in Popular Cinema ( 2002 ) , notes that Cher 's film roles often mirrors her public image as a rebellious , sexually autonomous , and self @-@ made woman . In her films , she recurrently serves as a social intermediary to disenfranchised male characters , such as Eric Stoltz 's elephantiasis victim in Mask ( 1985 ) , Liam Neeson 's mute homeless veteran in Suspect ( 1987 ) , and Nicolas Cage 's socially isolated baker with a wooden hand in Moonstruck ( 1987 ) . Film critic Kathleen Rowe wrote of Moonstruck that the depiction of Cher 's character as " a ' woman on top ' [ is ] enhanced by the unruly star persona Cher brings to the part ' . Jeff Yarbrough of The Advocate noted that Cher was " one of the first superstars to ' play gay ' with compassion and without a hint of stereotyping " , as she portrays a lesbian in the 1983 film Silkwood .
Cher 's public image is also reflected in her music videos and live performances , in which she " repeatedly comments on her own construction , on her search for perfection and on the performance of the female body " , wrote Tasker . Unlike other music video and stage acts of that time who often featured female backers who would mimic the singer 's performance , Cher uses a male dancer dressed as her in the 1992 concert video Cher at the Mirage ; Author Diane Negra commented , " In authorizing her own quotation , Cher acknowledges herself as fictionalized production , and proffers to her audience a pleasurable plurality . " James Sullivan of San Francisco Chronicle wrote that " Cher is well aware that her chameleonic glitz set the stage for the current era of stadium @-@ size razzle @-@ dazzle . She 's comfortable enough to see such imitation as flattery , not theft . "
Cher was ranked 17th on VH1 's list of the " 50 Greatest Women of the Video Era " . The 1980 video for " Hell on Wheels " involves cinematic techniques and was one of the first music videos ever . Deemed " controversial " for her performance on a Navy warship , straddling a cannon , and wearing a leather thong that revealed her tattooed buttocks , the 1989 music video for " If I Could Turn Back Time " was the first ever to be banned by MTV .
= = Public image = =
Cher emerged as a fashion trendsetter in the 1960s , popularizing " hippie fashion with bell @-@ bottoms , bandanas , and Cherokee @-@ inspired tunics " . She began working as a model in 1967 for photographer Richard Avedon after then @-@ Vogue editor Diana Vreeland discovered her at a party for Jacqueline Kennedy that year . Avedon took the controversial photo of Cher in a beaded and feathered nude gown for the cover of Time magazine in 1975 . Through her 1970s television shows , she became a sex symbol with her inventive and revealing Bob Mackie @-@ designed outfits , and fought the network censors to bare her navel . Although Cher has been erroneously attributed to being the first woman to expose her navel on television , she was the most prominent to do so since the establishment of the American Code of Practices for Television Broadcasters in 1951 , which prompted network censors to ban navel exposure on U.S. television . People dubbed Cher the " pioneer of the belly beautiful " . In 1972 , after she was featured on the annual " Best Dressed Women " lists , Mackie stated : " There hasn 't been a girl like Cher since [ Marlene ] Dietrich and [ Greta ] Garbo . She 's a high @-@ fashion star who appeals to people of all ages . "
In May 1999 , after the Council of Fashion Designers of America recognized Cher with an award for her influence in fashion , Robin Givhan of Los Angeles Times called her a " fashion visionary " for " striking just the right note of contemporary wretched excess " . Givhan referenced Tom Ford , Anna Sui and Dolce & Gabbana as " [ i ] nfluential designers [ who ] have evoked her name as a source of inspiration and guidance . " She concluded that " Cher 's Native American showgirl sexpot persona now seems to epitomize the fashion industry 's rush to celebrate ethnicity , adornment and sex appeal . " Alexander Fury of The Independent lauded Cher as " the ultimate fashion icon " and traced her influence among female celebrities such as Beyoncé , Jennifer Lopez , and Kim Kardashian , stating that " [ t ] hey all graduated from the Cher school of never sharing the stage , with anyone , or anything … They 're trying to share the spotlight , to have Cher 's success . "
Cher has attracted media attention for her physical appearance — particularly her youthful looks and her tattoos . Journalists have often called her the " poster girl " of plastic surgery . Author Grant McCracken , in his book Transformations : Identity Construction in Contemporary Culture ( 2008 ) , draws a parallel between Cher 's plastic surgeries and the transformations in her career : " Her plastic surgery is not merely cosmetic . It is hyperbolic , extreme , over the top ... Cher has engaged in a transformational technology that is dramatic and irreversible . " Caroline Ramazanoglu , author of Up Against Foucault : Explorations of Some Tensions Between Foucault and Feminism ( 1993 ) , wrote that " Cher 's operations have gradually replaced a strong , decidedly ' ethnic ' look with a more symmetrical , delicate , ' conventional ' ... and ever @-@ youthful version of female beauty ... Her normalised image ... now acts as a standard against which other women will measure , judge , discipline and ' correct ' themselves . "
Cher has six tattoos . The Baltimore Sun called her the " Ms. Original Rose Tattoo " . She got her first tattoo in 1972 . According to Sonny Bono , " Calling her butterfly tattoos nothing was like ignoring a sandstorm in the Mojave . That was exactly the effect Cher wanted to create . She liked to do things for the shock they created . She still does . She 'll create some controversy and then tell her critics to stick it . " In the late 1990s , she began having laser treatments to remove her tattoos . The process was still underway in the 2000s . She stated , " When I got tattooed , only bad girls did it : me and Janis Joplin and biker chicks . Now it doesn 't mean anything . No one 's surprised . " In 1992 , Madame Tussauds wax museum honored Cher as one of the five " most beautiful women of history " by creating a life @-@ size statue . She was ranked 26th on VH1 's list of the " 100 Sexiest Artists " published in 2002 .
Cher 's presence on social media has drawn analysis from journalists . The New York Times writer Jenna Wortham commended Cher on her social media usage , saying " Most celebrities ' social @-@ media feeds feel painfully self @-@ aware and thirsty … In her own way , Cher is an outlier , perhaps the last unreconstructed high @-@ profile Twitter user to stand at her digital pulpit and yell ( somewhat ) incomprehensibly , and be rewarded for it . Online , authenticity and originality are often carefully curated myths . Cher thrives on a version of nakedness and honesty that is rarely celebrated in the public eye . " Monica Heisey of The Guardian called Cher 's Twitter profile " a jewel in the bizarro crown of the internet " , and stated , " While many celebrities use Twitter for carefully crafted self @-@ promotion , Cher just lets it all hang out . "
= = Other interests = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Cher 's primary philanthropic endeavors have included support of health research and patients ' quality of life , anti @-@ poverty initiatives , veterans rights , and vulnerable children . She is the namesake of the Cher Charitable Foundation , which supports international projects such as the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund , Operation Helmet , and the Children 's Craniofacial Association .
Beginning in 1990 , Cher served as a donor and as the National Chairperson and Honorary Spokesperson for the Children 's Craniofacial Association , whose mission is to " empower and give hope to facially disfigured children and their families " . The annual Cher 's Family Retreat is held each June to provide craniofacial patients , their siblings and parents an opportunity to interact with others who have endured similar experiences . She supports and promotes Get A @-@ Head Charitable Trust , which aims to improve the quality of life for people with head and neck diseases .
Cher is a donor , fundraiser , and international spokesperson for Keep a Child Alive , an organization that seeks to accelerate action to combat AIDS pandemic , including the provision of antiretroviral medicine to children and their families with HIV / AIDS . In 1996 , she hosted the American Foundation for AIDS Research ( amfAR ) Benefit alongside Elizabeth Taylor at the Cannes Film Festival . In 2015 , she received the amfAR Award of Inspiration for " her willingness and ability to use her fame for the greater good " and for being " one of the great champions in the fight against AIDS " .
Cher has been a vocal supporter of American soldiers and returning veterans . She has contributed resources to Operation Helmet , an organization that provides free helmet upgrade kits to troops in Iraq and Afghanistan . She has contributed to the Intrepid Fallen Heroes Fund , which serves military personnel who have been disabled in operations in Iraq and Afghanistan , and those severely injured in other operations . In 1993 , she participated in a humanitarian effort in Armenia , taking food and medical supplies to the war @-@ torn region .
Cher has engaged in the construction of houses with Habitat for Humanity and served as the Honorary National Chair of a Habitat 's elimination of poverty housing initiative " Raise the Roof " , an effort to engage artists in the organization 's work while on tour . In 2007 , she became the primary supporter of the Peace Village School ( PVS ) in Ukunda , Kenya , which " provides nutritious food , medical care , education and extracurricular activities for more than 300 orphans and vulnerable children , ages 2 to 13 years . " Her support enabled the school to acquire land and build permanent housing and school facilities , and in partnership with Malaria No More and other organizations , she piloted an effort to eliminate malaria mortality and morbidity for the children , their caregivers and the surrounding community . In 2016 , after the discovery of lead contamination in the drinking water of Flint , Michigan , Cher donated more than 180 @,@ 000 bottles of water to the city as part of a partnership with Icelandic Glacial .
Cher 's oldest child , Chaz Bono ( born Chastity Bono ) , first came out as a lesbian at age 17 , which reportedly caused her mother to feel " guilt , fear and pain " . However , Cher soon came to accept Chaz 's sexual orientation , and came to the conclusion that LGBT people " didn 't have the same rights as everyone else , [ and she ] thought that was unfair " . She was the keynote speaker for the 1997 national Parents , Families , & Friends of Lesbians and Gays ( PFLAG ) convention , and has since become one of the LGBT community 's most vocal advocates . In May 1998 , she received the GLAAD Vanguard Award for having " made a significant difference in promoting equal rights for lesbians and gay men " . On June 11 , 2009 , Chaz came out as a transgender individual , and his transition from female to male was legally finalized on May 6 , 2010 .
= = = Politics = = =
Cher has said that she is not a registered Democrat , but has attended many Democratic conventions and events . Over the years , she has become known for her political views , having been an outspoken critic of the conservative movement . In an interview with Vanity Fair , she was critical of a variety of political topics , including Republican politicians like Sarah Palin and Jan Brewer . She has commented that she did not understand why anyone would be a Republican because eight years under the administration of George W. Bush " almost killed [ her ] " . During the 2000 United States presidential election , ABC News wrote that she was determined to do " whatever possible to keep him [ Bush ] out of office " . She told the site , " If you 're black in this country , if you 're a woman in this country , if you are any minority in this country at all , what could possibly possess you to vote Republican ? ... You won 't have one fucking right left . " She added , " I don 't like Bush . I don 't trust him . I don 't like his record . He 's stupid . He 's lazy . "
On October 27 , 2003 , Cher anonymously called a C @-@ SPAN phone @-@ in program to recount a visit she made to maimed soldiers at the Walter Reed Army Medical Center and criticized the lack of media coverage and government attention given to injured servicemen . She remarked that she watches C @-@ SPAN every day . Although she identified herself as an unnamed entertainer , she was recognized by the C @-@ SPAN host , who subsequently questioned her about her 1992 support for independent presidential candidate Ross Perot . She said , " When I heard him talk right in the beginning , I thought that he would bring some sort of common @-@ sense business approach and also less partisanship , but then ... I was completely disappointed like everyone else when he just kind of cut and run and no one knew exactly why ... Maybe he couldn 't have withstood all the investigation that goes on now " .
On Memorial Day weekend in 2006 , Cher called into C @-@ SPAN 's Washington Journal endorsing Operation Helmet , a group that provides helmets to help soldiers avoid head injuries while in the war zone . On June 14 , 2006 , she made a guest appearance on C @-@ SPAN with Dr. Bob Meaders , the founder of Operation Helmet . That year , in an interview with Stars and Stripes , she explained her " against the war in Iraq but for the troops " position : " I don 't have to be for this war to support the troops because these men and women do what they think is right . They do what they 're told to do . They do it with a really good heart . They do the best they can . They don 't ask for anything . "
Cher supported Hillary Clinton in her 2008 presidential campaign . After Obama won the Democratic nomination , she supported his candidacy on radio and TV programs . However , in a 2010 interview with Vanity Fair , she commented that she " still thinks Hillary would have done a better job " , although she " accepts the fact that Barack Obama inherited insurmountable problems " . During the 2012 United States presidential election , Cher and comedian Kathy Griffin released a public service announcement titled " Don 't Let Mitt Turn Back Time on Women 's Rights " . In the PSA , the pair criticized Republican presidential nominee Mitt Romney for his support of Richard Mourdock , the U.S. Senate candidate who suggested that pregnancies resulting from rape were " part of God 's plan " . In September 2013 , Cher declined an invitation to perform at the 2014 Winter Olympics opening ceremony in Russia due to the country 's controversial anti @-@ gay legislation that overshadowed preparations for the event . In June 2015 , after Donald Trump announced his candidacy for president , she made a series of critical comments on Twitter , stating that " Donald Trump 's punishment is being Donald Trump " .
= = Legacy and influence = =
According to Goldmine magazine 's Phill Marder , Cher " has been and remains today one of the Rock Era 's most dominant figures " . He described her as the leader of an effort in the 1960s to " advance feminine rebellion in the rock world [ and ] the prototype of the female rock star , setting the standard for appearance , from her early hippie days to her later outlandish outfits , and her attitude — the perfect female punk long before punk even was a rock term . " Cher 's unconventional outfits and dominant attitude over her partner Sonny Bono have influenced the presence of women in rock music , inspiring contemporary singers such as Marianne Faithfull and Nancy Sinatra . According to Jeff Miers from The Buffalo News , " Her music has changed with the times over the decades , rather than changing those times through groundbreaking work " ; however , he felt that subsequent female singers such as Cyndi Lauper , Christina Aguilera , Lady Gaga , and Madonna , whom he calls " her generation 's Cher " , were heavily inspired by Cher 's abilities to combine " showmanship with deep musicality … to make valid statements in a wide variety of trend @-@ driven idioms … to ease effortlessly between pop subgenres [ and ] to shock without alienating her fans " , as well as by her charismatic stage presence and the strong LGBT support among her fan base . Billboard 's Keith Caulfield wrote that " There 's divas , and then there 's Cher . " She is commonly referred to by the media as the " Goddess of Pop . "
Cher has repeatedly reinvented herself through various personas , for which Professor Richard Aquila from Ball State University called her " the ultimate pop chameleon " . The New York Times declared Cher as the " Queen of the Comeback " . According to author Lucy O 'Brien , " Cher adheres to the American Dream of reinvention of self : ' Getting old does not have to mean getting obsolete . ' " Author Craig Crawford , in his book The Politics of Life : 25 Rules for Survival in a Brutal and Manipulative World ( 2007 ) , describes Cher as " a model of flexible career management " , and relates her career successes to a constant reshaping of her image according to the evolving trends of popular culture . He further explains that she billed " each dramatic turnaround of style as another example of rebellion — an image that allowed her to make calculated changes while appearing to be consistent . " Author Grant McCracken stated , " The term ' reinvention ' is now often used to talk about the careers of American celebrities . But in Cher 's case , it is particularly apt [ because she ] is inclined to lock on to each new fashion wave [ and ] is swept violently down the diffusion stream and out of fashion . Only substantial re @-@ creation permits her to return to stardom . " Her " integrity " and " perseverance " are highlighted in the Reaching Your Goals book series of illustrated inspirational stories for children , in which her life is detailed emphasizing the importance of self @-@ actualization : " For years , Cher worked hard to become a successful singer . Then she worked hard to become an actress . Even when she needed money , she turned down movie roles that weren 't right for her . Her goal has always been to be a good actress , not just a rich and famous one . "
Cher 's " ability to forge an immensely successful and lengthy career as a woman in a male @-@ dominated entertainment world " has drawn attention from feminist critics . According to author Diane Negra , Cher was presented in the beginning of her career as a product of male creativity ; Cher remembers , " It was a time when girl singers were patted on the head for being good and told not to think " . However , her image eventually changed due to her " refusal of dependence on a man and the determination not only to forge a career ( as an actor ) on her own terms but to refuse the conventional role assigned to women over forty years old in an industry that fetishises youth " , wrote author Yvonne Tasker . She was featured in the 16th @-@ anniversary edition of Ms. magazine as an " authentic feminist hero " and a 1980s role model for women : " Cher , the straightforward , tattooed , dyslexic single mother , the first Oscar winner to have entered into matrimony with a known heroin addict and to have admitted to being a fashion victim by choice , has finally landed in an era that 's not afraid to applaud real women . " Her 1988 Oscar win signaled an important change in Hollywood , according to Berman , as Cher appeared in a negligee outfit , danced onstage and was applauded for her daring . Stephanie Brush from The New York Times wrote that Cher " performs the function for women moviegoers that Jack Nicholson has always fulfilled for men . Free of the burden of ever having been America 's sweetheart , she is the one who represents us [ women ] in our revenge fantasies , telling all the fatheads ... exactly where they can go . You need to be more than beautiful to get away with this . You need to have been Cher for 40 years . "
The reverence the gay community holds for Cher has been attributed to the accomplishments in her career , her sense of style and her longevity . Alec Mapa of The Advocate elaborates : " While the rest of us were sleeping , Cher 's been out there for the last four decades living out every single one of our childhood fantasies ... Cher embodies an unapologetic freedom and fearlessness that some of us can only aspire to . " Rolling Stone 's Jancee Dunn wrote , " Cher is the coolest woman who ever stood in shoes . Why ? Because her motto is , ' I don 't give a shit what you think , I 'm going to wear this multicolored wig . ' There are folks all over America who would , in their heart of hearts , love to date people half their age , get multiple tattoos and wear feathered headdresses . Cher does it for us . " Alexander Fury of The Independent wrote that Cher " represents a seemingly immortal , omnipotent , uni @-@ monikered level of fame . " Bego stated : " No one in the history of show business has had a career of the magnitude and scope of Cher 's . She has been a teenage pop star , a television hostess , a fashion magazine model , a rock star , a pop singer , a Broadway actress , an Academy Award @-@ winning movie star , a disco sensation , and the subject of a mountain of press coverage . "
= = Achievements and recognition = =
Throughout her career , Cher has sold 100 million records worldwide . She is the only artist to date to have a number @-@ one single on a Billboard chart in each decade from the 1960s to the 2010s . She has held U.S. Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one singles over the longest period of time in history : 33 years , seven months and three weeks between " I Got You Babe " , which topped the chart for the first time in August 14 , 1965 , and " Believe " , whose last week at number one was April 3 , 1999 . With " Believe " , she became the oldest female artist to have a U.S. number @-@ one song in the rock era , at the age of 52 . Billboard ranked her at number 43 on their " Greatest Hot 100 Artists of All Time " list . In 2014 , the magazine listed her as the 23rd highest @-@ grossing touring act since 1990 , with total earned revenue of $ 351 @.@ 6 million and 4 @.@ 5 million attendance at her shows .
In 2003 , Cher appeared at number 41 on VH1 's list of " The 200 Greatest Pop Culture Icons " , which recognizes " the folks that have significantly inspired and impacted American society " . She was ranked 31st on VH1 's list of " The 100 Greatest Women in Music " , based on the period 1992 – 2012 . Esquire magazine placed her at number 44 on their list of " The 75 Greatest Women of All Time " . In a 2001 poll , Biography magazine ranked her as their third favorite leading actress of all time , behind Audrey Hepburn and Katharine Hepburn . She was featured on the " 100 Greatest Movie Stars of our Time " list compiled by People . She is one of the few artists to win three of the four major American entertainment awards ( EGOT — Emmy , Grammy , Oscar , and Tony ) , and one of five actor @-@ singers to have had a U.S. number @-@ one single and won an acting Academy Award .
= = Discography = =
= = Tours and residency shows = =
Cher World Tour ( 1979 – 82 )
Heart of Stone Tour ( 1990 )
Love Hurts Tour ( 1992 )
Do You Believe ? ( 1999 – 2000 )
Living Proof : The Farewell Tour ( 2002 – 05 )
Cher ( 2008 – 11 )
Dressed to Kill Tour ( 2014 )
= = Filmography = =
= Coal ball =
A coal ball is a type of concretion , varying in shape from an imperfect sphere to a flat @-@ lying , irregular slab . Coal balls were formed by the early permineralisation of peat by calcite in Carboniferous Period swamps and mires before the peat could become coal . As such , despite not actually being made of coal , the coal ball owes its name to its similar origins as well as its similar shape with actual coal .
Coal balls often preserve a remarkable record of the microscopic tissue structure of Carboniferous swamp and mire plants , which would otherwise have been completely destroyed . Their unique preservation of Carboniferous plants makes them valuable to scientists , who cut and peel the coal balls to research the geological past .
In 1855 , two English scientists , Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney , made the first scientific description of coal balls in England , and the initial research on coal balls was carried out in Europe . North American coal balls were discovered and identified in 1922 . Coal balls have since been found in other countries , leading to the discovery of hundreds of species and genera .
Coal balls may be found in coal seams across North America and Eurasia . North American coal balls are more widespread , both stratigraphically and geologically , than those in Europe . The oldest known coal balls date from the Namurian stage of the Carboniferous ; they were found in Germany and on the territory of former Czechoslovakia .
= = Introduction to the scientific world , and formation = =
The first scientific description of coal balls was made in 1855 by Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker and Edward William Binney , who reported on examples in the coal seams of Yorkshire and Lancashire , England . European scientists did much of the early research .
Coal balls in North America were first found in Iowa coal seams in 1894 , although the connection to European coal balls was not made until Adolf Carl Noé ( whose coal ball was found by Gilbert Cady ) drew the parallel in 1922 . Noé 's work renewed interest in coal balls , and by the 1930s had drawn paleobotanists from Europe to the Illinois Basin in search of them .
There are two theories – the autochthonous ( in situ ) theory and the allochthonous ( drift ) theory – that attempt to explain the formation of coal balls , although the subject is mostly speculation .
Supporters of the in situ theory believe that close to its present location organic matter accumulated near a peat bog and , shortly after burial , underwent permineralisation – minerals seeped into the organic matter and formed an internal cast . Water with a high dissolved mineral content was buried with the plant matter in a peat bog . As the dissolved ions crystallised , the mineral matter precipitated out . This caused concretions containing plant material to form and preserve as rounded lumps of stone . Coalification was thus prevented , and the peat was preserved and eventually became a coal ball . The majority of coal balls are found in bituminous and anthracite coal seams , in locations where the peat was not compressed sufficiently to render the material into coal .
Marie Stopes and David Watson analysed coal ball samples and decided that coal balls formed in situ . They stressed the importance of interaction with seawater , believing that it was necessary for the formation of coal balls . Some supporters of the in situ theory believe that Stopes ' and Watson 's discovery of a plant stem extending through multiple coal balls shows that coal balls formed in situ , stating that the drift theory fails to explain Stopes ' and Watson 's observation . They also cite fragile pieces of organic material projecting outside some coal balls , contending that if the drift theory was correct , the projections would have been destroyed , and some large coal balls are large enough that they could never have been able to be transported in the first place .
The drift theory holds that the organic material did not form in or near its present location . Rather , it asserts that the material that would become a coal ball was transported from another location by means of a flood or a storm .
Some supporters of the drift theory , such as Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson , believed that the presence of marine animals in coal balls proved material was transported from a marine to a non @-@ marine environment . Edward C. Jeffrey , stating that the in situ theory had " no good evidence " , believed that the formation of coal balls from transported material was likely because coal balls often included material formed by transport and sedimentation in open water .
= = = Contents = = =
Coal balls are not made of coal ; they are non @-@ flammable and useless for fuel . Coal balls are calcium @-@ rich permineralised life forms , mostly containing calcium and magnesium carbonates , pyrite , and quartz . Other minerals , including gypsum , illite , kaolinite , and lepidocrocite also appear in coal balls , albeit in lesser quantities . Although coal balls are usually about the size of a man 's fist , their sizes vary greatly , ranging from that of a walnut up to 3 feet ( 1 m ) in diameter . Coal balls have been found that were smaller than a thimble .
Coal balls commonly contain dolomites , aragonite , and masses of organic matter at various stages of decomposition . Hooker and Binney analysed a coal ball and found " a lack of coniferous wood ... and fronds of ferns " and noted that the discovered plant matter " appear [ ed ] to [ have been arranged ] just as they fell from the plants that produced them " . Coal balls usually do not preserve the leaves of plants .
In 1962 , Sergius Mamay and Ellis Yochelson analysed North American coal balls . Their discovery of marine organisms led to classification of coal balls were sorted into three types : normal ( sometimes known as floral ) , containing only plant matter ; faunal , containing animal fossils only ; and mixed , containing both plant and animal material . Mixed coal balls are further divided into heterogeneous , where the plant and animal material was distinctly separated ; and homogeneous , lacking that separation .
= = Preservation = =
The quality of preservation in coal balls varies from no preservation to the point of being able to analyse the cellular structures . Some coal balls contain preserved root hairs , pollen , and spores , and are described as being " more or less perfectly preserved " , containing " not what used to be the plant " , but rather , the plant itself . Others have been found to be " botanically worthless " , with the organic matter having deteriorated before becoming a coal ball . Coal balls with well @-@ preserved contents are useful to paleobotanists . They have been used to analyse the geographical distribution of vegetation : for example , providing evidence that Ukrainian and Oklahoman plants of the tropical belt were once the same . Research on coal balls has also led to the discovery of more than 130 genera and 350 species .
Three main factors determine the quality of preserved material in a coal ball : the mineral constituents , the speed of the burial process , and the degree of compression before undergoing permineralisation . Generally , coal balls resulting from remains that have a quick burial with little decay and pressure are better preserved , although plant remains in most coal balls almost always show differing signs of decay and collapse . Coal balls containing quantities of iron sulfide have far lower preservation than coal balls permineralised by magnesium or calcium carbonate , which has earned iron sulfide the title " chief curse of the coal ball hunter " .
= = Distribution = =
Coal balls were first found in England , and later in other parts of the world , including Australia , Belgium , the Netherlands , the former Czechoslovakia , Germany , Ukraine , China , and Spain . They were also encountered in North America , where they are geographically widespread compared to Europe ; in the United States , coal balls have been found from Kansas to the Illinois Basin to the Appalachian region .
The oldest coal balls were from the early end of the Namurian stage ( 326 to 313 mya ) and discovered in Germany and former Czechoslovakia , but their ages generally range from the Permian ( 299 to 251 mya ) to the Upper Carboniferous . Some coal balls from the US vary in age from the later end of the Westphalian ( roughly 313 to 304 mya ) to the later Stephanian ( roughly 304 to 299 mya ) . European coal balls are generally from the early end of the Westphalian Stage .
In coal seams , coal balls are completely surrounded by coal . They are often found randomly scattered throughout the seam in isolated groups , usually in the upper half of the seam . Their occurrence in coal seams can be either extremely sporadic or regular ; many coal seams have been found to contain no coal balls , while others have been found to contain so many coal balls that miners avoid the area entirely .
= = Analytical methods = =
Thin sectioning was an early procedure used to analyse fossilised material contained in coal balls . The process required cutting a coal ball with a diamond saw , then flattening and polishing the thin section with an abrasive . It would be glued to a slide and placed under a petrographic microscope for examination . Although the process could be done with a machine , the large amount of time needed and the poor quality of samples produced by thin sectioning gave way to a more convenient method .
The thin section technique was superseded by the now @-@ common liquid @-@ peel technique in 1928 . In this technique , peels are obtained by cutting the surface of a coal ball with a diamond saw , grinding the cut surface on a glass plate with silicon carbide to a smooth finish , and etching the cut and the surface with hydrochloric acid . The acid dissolves the mineral matter from the coal ball , leaving a projecting layer of plant cells . After applying acetone , a piece of cellulose acetate is placed on the coal ball . This embeds the cells preserved in the coal ball into the cellulose acetate . Upon drying , the cellulose acetate can be removed from the coal ball with a razor and the obtained peel can be stained with a low @-@ acidity stain and observed under a microscope . Up to 50 peels can be extracted from 2 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 079 in ) of coal ball with this method .
However , the peels will degrade over time if they contain any iron sulfide ( pyrite or marcasite ) . Shya Chitaley addressed this problem by revising the liquid @-@ peel technique to separate the organic material preserved by the coal ball from the inorganic minerals , including iron sulfide . This allows the peel to retain its quality for a longer time . Chitaley 's revisions begin after grinding the surface of the coal ball to a smooth finish . Her process essentially entails heating and then making multiple applications of solutions of paraffin in xylene to the coal ball . Each subsequent application has a greater concentration of paraffin in xylene to allow the wax to completely pervade the coal ball . Nitric acid , and then acetone , are applied to the coal ball . Following that , the process merges back into the liquid peel technique .
X @-@ ray powder diffraction has also been used to analyse coal balls . The X @-@ rays of a predetermined wavelength are sent through a sample to examine its structure . This reveals information about the crystallographic structure , chemical composition , and physical properties of the examined material . The scattered intensity of the X @-@ ray pattern is observed and analysed , with the measurements consisting of incident and scattered angle , polarisation , and wavelength or energy .
= M @-@ 84 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 84 is a state trunkline highway in the Lower Peninsula of the US state of Michigan . The highway starts on the west side of Saginaw at an intersection with M @-@ 58 and runs north through residential and commercial areas . There are two colleges or universities near the trunkline as it connects Saginaw with Bay City , providing an alternate to the freeway that carries Interstate 75 / US Highway 23 ( I @-@ 75 / US 23 ) . The northern terminus is at a pair of intersections with M @-@ 25 on the east side of the Saginaw River in Bay City .
There have been two other highways to bear the M @-@ 84 moniker . The first was one in the Upper Peninsula and the second was in The Thumb area . The current highway was originally part of M @-@ 47 until that road was relocated onto what was formerly US 10 in the Tri @-@ Cities area . Since the 1960s reuse of the number , M @-@ 84 has been extended in the 1970s to replace part of Business Loop I @-@ 75 ( BL I @-@ 75 , now Business Spur I @-@ 75 , BS I @-@ 75 ) in Bay City . Other projects have reconstructed and widened the roadway through the Bay City area in the early 21st century .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 84 begins at M @-@ 58 in a residential area on the west side of Saginaw heading due north on Bay Street . At this point , it is five lanes , with two lanes in each direction and a center turn lane . The highway enters Saginaw Township as Bay Road and serves as a major artery in the area , passing the Fashion Square Mall and several other shopping centers and major retail stores near Tittabawassee Road . The main entrance to Saginaw Valley State University is located on M @-@ 84 at Pierce Road just south of the Saginaw – Bay county line .
North of the line , the highway follows West Side Saginaw Road through fields in a less urbanized area . West of University Center and the campus of Delta College , M @-@ 84 crosses over I @-@ 75 / US 23 at exit 160 and proceeds through several curves into Bay City . At the intersection with Euclid Avenue on the city line , M @-@ 13 merges in from the north and the two highways run concurrently along Salzburg Avenue . Since this segment of highway is both northbound M @-@ 84 and southbound M @-@ 13 along eastbound Salzburg Avenue , the two trunklines form a wrong @-@ way concurrency .
M @-@ 13 / M @-@ 84 crosses the west channel of the Saginaw River near the Ted Putz Nature Area to Middle Ground island . The highway continues over the east channel on the Lafayette Avenue Bridge , a drawbridge , to Lafayette Avenue on the eastern bank of the river . At the intersection with Broadway Street , M @-@ 13 turns southward , and M @-@ 84 continues eastward two more blocks . Turning north on Garfield Street , the highway runs parallel to the river through a residential area . North of the 14th Street intersection , Garfield Street curves northeasterly into Washington Avenue , passing to the east of an industrial complex on the river . At the intersection with McKinley Street , a one @-@ way street , M @-@ 84 meets the eastbound direction of M @-@ 25 and BS I @-@ 75 . One block north , M @-@ 84 terminates at the intersection with 7th Street , which carries westbound M @-@ 25 and BS I @-@ 75 ; both intersections also mark BS I @-@ 75 's terminus immediately east of the Veterans Memorial Bridge .
The Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) maintains M @-@ 84 like other state highways in Michigan . As a part of these maintenance responsibilities , the department tracks the volume of traffic that uses the roadways under its jurisdiction . These volumes are expressed using a metric called annual average daily traffic , which is a statistical calculation of the average daily number of vehicles on a segment of roadway . MDOT 's surveys in 2010 showed that the highest traffic level along M @-@ 84 was 26 @,@ 408 vehicles daily in Saginaw ; the lowest count was 8 @,@ 405 vehicles per day on Washington Street in Bay City . Two sections of M @-@ 84 have been listed on the National Highway System ; the section from the southern terminus north to Tittabawassee Road in the Saginaw area , and from the I @-@ 75 / US 23 interchange north to M @-@ 25 in the Bay City area . The system is a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The first M @-@ 84 in Michigan was in the Upper Peninsula starting in 1919 ; the highway ran from Garnet to McLeods Corner , southeast of Newberry , following the current Borgstrom Road in Mackinac County and County Road 393 in Luce County . The highway was replaced by an extension of M @-@ 48 in 1926 . The M @-@ 84 designation was then immediately reused for a section of the former M @-@ 31 in The Thumb ; it ran from M @-@ 81 near Reese running through Fairgrove and Akron to M @-@ 29 at Unionville . This iteration was replaced by M @-@ 83 in 1930 .
The I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway was completed between Saginaw and Bay City in late 1960 or early 1961 ; M @-@ 47 was relocated to the former US 10 between Saginaw and Midland , and M @-@ 84 was redesignated along the former M @-@ 47 between M @-@ 81 at Saginaw and the freeway in Bay City . A new BL I @-@ 75 was created at the same time along the former M @-@ 47 in Bay City . This business loop would be split in half in 1971 resulting in a new business spur ; M @-@ 84 was extended over the southern section between M @-@ 25 and I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 .
A reconstruction project in 2004 – 05 resulted in the roadway being widened to four lanes between Pierce Road in Kochville Township of Saginaw County and Delta Road in Frankenlust Township in Bay County . The 2009 reconstruction resulted in new bridges over I @-@ 75 and widening of the road from Delta Road to 2 Mile Road . Additional construction scheduled for 2011 resulted in the widening of the road from 2 Mile to Euclid .
= = Major intersections = =
= Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb =
Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb ( Urdu : آپریشن ضربِ عضب ALA @-@ LC : Āpres ̱ ẖan Ẓarb @-@ i ʿAẓb pronounced [ ɑːpreːʃən zərb @-@ e əzb ] ) is a joint military offensive being conducted by the Pakistan Armed Forces against various militant groups , including the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan ( TTP ) , the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan , the East Turkestan Islamic Movement , Lashkar @-@ e @-@ Jhangvi , al @-@ Qaeda , Jundallah and the Haqqani network . The operation was launched on 15 June 2014 in North Waziristan along the Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan border as a renewed effort against militancy in the wake of the 8 June attack on Jinnah International Airport in Karachi , for which the TTP and the IMU claimed responsibility . Part of the ongoing war in North @-@ West Pakistan , up to 30 @,@ 000 Pakistani soldiers are involved in Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , described as a " comprehensive operation " to flush out all foreign and local militants hiding in North Waziristan . The operation has received widespread support from the Pakistani political , defence and civilian sectors . As a consequence , the overall security situation improved and terrorist attacks in Pakistan dropped to a six @-@ year low since 2008 .
= = Etymologies = =
Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb ( Urdu : ضربِ عضب ALA @-@ LC : Ẓarb @-@ i ʿAẓb pronounced [ zərb @-@ e əzb ] ) means " sharp and cutting strike " . Azb also refers to the sword owned by the Islamic prophet , which he used in the battles of Badr and Uhud .
= = Strategy = =
For the first time , the Pakistani military implemented a military strategy called " Seek , Destroy , Clear , Hold . " The Pakistani military will seek the target . Once found , it will be destroyed . When destroyed , the infrastructure , bodies and weapons will be cleared and the area will be held both during this time and after its completion to ensure post @-@ operation security and infrastructure rebuilding and / or area rehabilitation . The Seek and Destroy component is from the Vietnam War whereas the Clear and hold component is from the Iraq War . The Pakistani military combined the two doctrines as a single doctrine for the operation to be successful .
= = Background = =
= = = Peace negotiations = = =
Peace negotiations with the Taliban were announced by Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif after his election , although previous attempts to engage TTP in dialogue had failed . The first session of talks , between committees appointed by the Pakistani Government and the Taliban , was held on 26 March 2014 at Khyber Pakhtunkhwa House in Islamabad . The Taliban did not name representatives from their ranks , instead nominating pro @-@ Taliban religious figures to present their views . The terrorists called for the implementation of Sharia in Pakistan ; the Government of Pakistan demanded the cessation of hostilities , insisting that talks be held within the framework of the Pakistani constitution . A month @-@ long ceasefire was reached on 1 March 2014 .
Besides the meetings at Khyber Pakhtunkhwa House , negotiations also involved helicopter travel by government representatives to the areas under militant control near the Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan border . The government had indicated that stronger military action would be implemented if the talks failed .
= = = = Failure = = = =
Negotiations collapsed after the execution of 23 Pakistani Frontier Corps soldiers by the Taliban on 17 February 2014 . The soldiers had been held by the insurgents since 2010 , and on 17 April 2014 the TTP formally ended the ceasefire . Taliban infighting since March 2014 killed more than 90 militants . The strife , triggered by differences between the Mehsud group ( led by Sheheryar Mehsud ) and another TTP faction ( led by Khan Said Sajna ) , impeded the negotiations . The negotiations were irreversibly damaged by a terrorist attack on Karachi Airport for which the Taliban claimed responsibility and which killed 28 people ( including security personnel ) . A Pakistani military official was quoted to have said , " The army is ready for an operation . It now all depends on the government to make a decision . "
= = = Jinnah Airport attack = = =
The operation began one week after a terrorist attack on Pakistan 's busiest airport . On 8 June 2014 , 10 militants from the Islamic Movement of Uzbekistan and TTP attacked Jinnah International Airport , Karachi , killing 28 people including security personnel and wounding at least 18 .
In retaliation , the Pakistani military launched a series of air @-@ strikes targeting terrorist hideouts in the areas bordering Afghanistan . At least 25 militants were killed on 10 June . The figure also included foreign militants killed . Two drone attacks on 12 June killed Uzbek , Afghan and local militants . On 15 June the Pakistani military intensified air @-@ strikes and bombed eight foreign militant hideouts , killing as many as 140 militants ( most Uzbek , including persons linked to the airport attack and airport attack commander and mastermind Abu Abdur Rehman Almani ) in North Waziristan .
= = Preparations = =
The Pakistani military had prepared for the operation long before , and the government prepared for a three @-@ front operation : isolating targeted militant groups , obtaining support from the political parties and saving civilians from the backlash of the operation .
Defence Minister Khawaja Asif said that the nation stood by its military : " The decision was taken after the strategy of dialogue failed . The operation will continue until it reaches its logical conclusion . Any group that challenges Pakistan 's constitution , attacks civilians , soldiers , and government installations and uses Pakistani territory to plan terrorist attacks will be targeted " . Asif added that internally displaced persons would be assisted by the federal and Khyber Pakhtunkhwa governments : " We will try to ensure that the displaced do not have to stay away from their homes for too long . "
The combat troops encircled militant bases in the towns of Mirali and Miranshah . Pakistani officials said that the Afghan 's National Security Forces ( ANSF ) were requested to seal the border on their side so that militants do not escape . The operation involved the Air Force , Navy artillery , tanks and ground troops . According to a military statement , " On the directions of the government , armed forces of Pakistan have launched a comprehensive operation against foreign and local terrorists who are hiding in sanctuaries in North Waziristan . " An official with the military said that between 14 @,@ 000 and 20 @,@ 000 soldiers were normally stationed in North Waziristan before the operation , and he expected the offensive to require no more than a total of 30 @,@ 000 troops .
= = Timeline = =
= = = 2014 = = =
= = = = June = = = =
15 June 2014
The first phase of the operation began with intensified airstrikes in North Waziristan , targeting militant training facilities , hideouts , and other infrastructure . The Pakistani military destroyed eight militant hideouts in the previous night 's airstrikes . Hideouts in Degan @-@ Boya and Datta Khel were targeted by jet aircraft , since foreign and local insurgents linked to the Karachi airport attack were confirmed there ; an ammunition dump was also destroyed . As many as 140 militants ( mostly Uzbek ) were reportedly killed in the strikes , including commander and airport attack mastermind Abu Abdur Rehman Almani . North Waziristan was sealed by troops on its border with neighbouring agencies and FATA regions to block the movement of militants . In North Waziristan , troops cordoned off insurgent bases ( including those in the towns of Mir Ali and Miranshah ) . Logistical and administrative arrangements for IDPs were made by the Disaster Management Agency , with the establishment of registration points and IDP camps . Surrender points were established for militants wishing to give up their arms . Aerial surveillance of the area was conducted . Afghan security forces were requested to seal the border on their side to prevent militants from escaping across the border and initiate immediate measures to eliminate TTP militants and their hideouts in Kunar , Nuristan and elsewhere in Afghanistan .
16 June 2014
Seven fleeing militants were killed on the outskirts of Mirali overnight , with three soldiers injured in the exchange of fire . In a separate incident , seven more militants were killed when they tried to flee from the cordoned @-@ off area . Two Pakistani soldiers were reported killed in an exchange of gunfire . Six militant hideouts in Shawal , North Waziristan were destroyed by an early @-@ morning airstrike by two fighter jets , with 27 militants killed . There were no civilians in Shawal . Inter @-@ Services Public Relations ( ISPR ) reported six soldiers killed and three injured in an improvised explosive device ( IED ) explosion between the Afghan border and Ghulam Khan Tehsil in North Waziristan . According to ISPR , a convoy of security forces was targeted on Bane Dar Road in Ghulam Khan ( on the Pakistani @-@ Afghan border ) . Forces cordoned off the area , launching a search operation . Three insurgents were killed by Special Services Group sniper fire while planting IEDs near Miramshah .
17 June 2014
Airstrikes destroyed six hideouts in North Waziristan , killing 25 foreign and local militants . Airstrikes were also conducted in the Hasokhel area of Mir Ali . At least three suspected militants were killed when they attempted to flee a cordoned @-@ off area in Miramshah , with one soldier injured in the exchange of fire . No operations had begun in developed areas to ensure that no militants could escape the cordon and all verified civilians were evacuated . More than 40 percent of North Waziristan was cleared of militants in the first three days of the operation .
19 June 2014
Fifteen militants were reportedly killed overnight in the Zartatangi Heights , east of Miramshah , by army Cobra helicopter gunships . The area was one of the main communications centres of the insurgents . In a separate incident , eight Uzbek militants were killed near Miramshah while planting IEDs on the road between Miramshah and Mir Ali . The evacuation of the civilian population from Miramshah and Ghulam Khan began . Checkpoints were established in a number of locations , where IDPs received food and medicine from security forces . As many as 400 Afghan families left North Waziristan for Afghanistan via Ghulam Khan .
20 June 2014
Three militant hideouts in the Qutab Khel area , on the outskirts of Miramshah , were destroyed in the early morning by army Cobra helicopter gunships with artillery and sniper assistance . Twelve militants , including some foreigners , were killed in the strikes and a large cache of arms and ammunition destroyed . Militants inside cordoned @-@ off areas attempted to flee . Six attempts were halted overnight , and three local residents without identification were arrested trying to flee from the cordon . Another 24 suspects disguised as IDPs were arrested at security checkpoints in Mirali and Miramshah . The civilian evacuation continued from North Waziristan towards Bannu , with 200 @,@ 000 IDPs evacuated so far .
21 June 2014
A total of 30 militants were killed in early @-@ morning airstrikes in uninhabited areas of Khyber and North Waziristan Agencies . Jet aircraft destroyed two hideouts near the Pakistan @-@ Afghanistan border in Khyber Agency , killing 10 militants . These surgical strikes were in line with the security forces ' strategy to take on the militants across the FATA . Three hideouts were destroyed in Hassu Khel , North Waziristan , killing 20 militants .
23 June 2014
Eight militant hideouts near Mir Ali were destroyed by jet aircraft during the early morning , killing 15 . Tunnels were spotted in the targeted areas . Ten militants were killed attempting to flee from cordoned @-@ off bases in Spinwam and Mir Ali , with two Pakistani soldiers also reportedly killed in an exchange of fire . The curfew was lifted for two hours to evacuate the remaining civilians . At the Saidgai security checkpoint , 414 @,@ 429 IDPs were registered to date . An army medical corps field hospital was being established in Bannu for displaced persons . The civilian evacuation was almost complete . About 450 @,@ 000 IDPs arrived in Bannu , and were registered at the Saidgai checkpoint .
24 June 2014
Twenty militants were killed and 12 hideouts destroyed in early @-@ morning air strikes in Khyber Agency . Twenty @-@ seven militants were killed in afternoon jet strikes in Mir Ali and the surrounding area , with 11 hideouts and a large weapons cache destroyed . An afternoon suicide car @-@ bomb attempt was foiled in the Spinwam area of North Waziristan . When an explosive @-@ laden vehicle approached a checkpoint outside a civilian hospital , soldiers fired at the vehicle ( which exploded 100 meters from the checkpoint . Two soldiers and one civilian were reportedly killed when the roof of a nearby building collapsed from the explosion .
25 June 2014
Pakistan Air Force ( PAF ) jets destroyed five hideouts in Mir Ali , killing 13 militants . Twelve militants surrendered to Pakistani forces .
26 June 2014
The evacuation of 450 @,@ 000 civilians was completed , and the operation 's second phase began with a ground offensive by the Pakistani military . Seven militants surrendered at the North Waziristan surrender center , bringing the total to 19 .
27 June 2014
PAF aircraft destroyed six confirmed hideouts on the outskirts of Mir Ali in an evening raid , killing 11 militants . TTP Miranshah Commander Umer was killed on the outskirts of the town by security forces that night .
28 June 2014
Militant groups were targeted during the early morning by integrated Pakistani artillery , tank and heavy @-@ weapons fire outside Miranshah , killing seven . An al @-@ Qaeda commander , revealed by initial interrogation as an explosives , IED and suicide @-@ belt expert , was arrested trying to flee from a surrounded base . Three militants were arrested by security forces while trying to cross the Indus River near Mianwali . All river crossings were fortified to seal escape routes .
29 June 2014
Sixteen militants were killed when PAF fighter jets targeted their hideouts in Mir Ali , North Waziristan . According to military sources , seven militant hideouts , explosives and ammunition dumps were also destroyed in the airstrikes .
30 June 2014
Early @-@ morning ground operations began in and around Miramshah . Search operations were conducted by infantry and the Special Services Group , killing 15 militants . Troops discovered underground tunnels and IED @-@ preparation factories in the cleared areas , with three soldiers reportedly injured in an exchange of fire . The civilian population had been evacuated . Since the beginning of the operation 376 militants were killed and 19 surrendered , with 61 hideouts destroyed in the operation 's first phase . Seventeen soldiers were reportedly killed .
= = = = July = = = =
1 July 2014
According to the ISPR , during ground operations in Miranshah a landmine factory was discovered and 225 cylinders , 700 pipes filled with explosive materials and 150 unfinished land mines were recovered . Two Pakistani soldiers were killed and a third reportedly injured when militants ambushed a military vehicle in Mir Ali , North Waziristan .
2 July 2014
Ten militants were killed when Pakistani helicopters shelled hideouts in the Khar Warsak region , 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) north of Miramshah , with three hideouts destroyed in the airstrikes .
3 July 2014
The bodies of seven militants were recovered in the Darpa Khel area of Mir Ali . A security official reportedly said , " Bodies were of suspected militants who were gunned down by security forces in Mir Ali tehsil of the agency " , adding that the forces had advanced from Mir Ali and Miramshah Bazaar towards the outskirts of the agency after destroying three hideouts in Mir Ali ( one of which held foreign militants ) .
4 July 2014
Pakistani soldier Niak Fiaz Mohammad was killed by an IED explosion , during a house @-@ to @-@ house search operation in North Waziristan . Mohammed 's funeral was held in Bannu before the soldier 's body was transported to his hometown , Mansehra . ISPR director @-@ general Major General Asim Saleem Bajwa said , " We salute the courage and bravery of Niak Fiaz Shaheed . " A Pakistani soldier from Azad Kashmir was killed in the Jord region of North Waziristan . The soldier , Sadheer Ismail from Malsi Ghari Dupatta , was buried in his family cemetery . Pakistan Army personnel attended Ismail 's funeral , where friends praised his determination and resolve .
5 July 2014
Airstrikes targeted Miramshah and the village of Boya , destroying five militant hideouts , caves , and an ammunition cache . The early @-@ morning strikes killed 20 militants , most of whom were reportedly Uzbeks . A Pakistani soldier was killed during the ground offensive that morning when an IED exploded .
6 July 2014
Hundreds of Taliban fighters reportedly cut their hair and beards to flee the operation . According to IDPs , the Taliban disguised themselves in the weeks before the Pakistan Army operation . Although the militants advocated sharia in Pakistan and were contemptuous of Western culture , refugees said that in North Waziristan the militants enjoyed imported products .
7 July 2014
Pakistani Chief of Army Staff General Raheel Sharif visited North Waziristan . Sharif was received by Lieutenant General Khalid Rabbani , the Peshawar corps commander , and briefed by the general officer commanding for the operation . He commended the troops for their determination , commitment and resolve , praising the progress achieved since the beginning of the operation .
8 July 2014
Pakistani Defence Minister Khawaja Asif said in an interview with Radio Pakistan that 400 militants and 20 Pakistani soldiers had been killed so far in the operation . Although he declined to provide a time frame for the operation 's end , he expressed a resolve to finish as early as possible . Airstrikes by the PAF killed 13 militants ( including foreigners ) in the Digaan area of North Waziristan , according to an ISPR press release . Seven militant hideouts were also destroyed .
9 July 2014
Pakistani airstrikes targeted three hideouts , killing 11 militants in Shawal . Ground operations continued in Miramshah , which was 80 @-@ percent cleared .
10 July 2014
The Pakistani army invited local and international media to Miramshah to observe the militant facilities . Flags , weapons and explosive materials were shown . ISPR Director Major General Asim Bajwa and Operation Commander Major General Zafar Khan briefed the media on the operation 's progress . They said that as many as 400 terrorists were killed and another 130 injured to date . Eleven IED factories were uncovered , and over 2 @,@ 000 IEDs confiscated . Bajwa said that underground tunnels built by the militants ( one a kilometer long ) had also been discovered : " This ( Miranshah ) was one of their major base , we have dislodged them from here and now they are on the run , We have also discovered their command and control centre , which would definitely affect their capabilities . "
11 July 2014
Injured Taliban commander Adnan Rashid , al @-@ Qaeda commander Mufti Zubair Marwat and Marwat 's two guards were captured by Pakistani security forces in the Shakai Valley of South Waziristan when they tried to escape from cordoned @-@ off North Waziristan , and were moved to an undisclosed location by army helicopter . Marwat was reportedly the brother of Mufti Sajjad Marwat , an al @-@ Qaeda spokesman for Afghanistan and Pakistan . Rashid was planning to flee to Afghanistan . The arrest was confirmed by the TTP .
12 July 2014
Thirteen militants , primarily foreign , were killed in an early @-@ morning PAF airstrike after firing rockets at a security checkpoint in Mir Ali ; seven hideouts and an ammunition cache were also destroyed . The connection of the cleared area in Miramshah and the Miramshah @-@ Dattakhel road continued . In Khar Warsak and Zartangi , security forces discovered six motorcycle IEDs , two vehicle IEDs , two 12 @.@ 7 mm guns , one 14 @.@ 5 mm gun , three vehicles and eleven explosive belts during the previous 24 hours . Two explosive @-@ laden vehicles were also destroyed in airstrikes at Degan . Three militants , including one Uzbek , were arrested in Boya . Two suicide bombers were identified and chased , but they blew themselves up when encircled by security forces near the town . Eighteen militants were killed in PAF airstrikes in the Mosaki area , 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) east of Miramshah , and artillery shelling in the Kharkamar area , 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) west of Miramshah . " Six terrorist hideouts and a huge ammunition cache were destroyed and at least 13 militants , mostly Uzbek , were killed in the Saturday morning strikes , five militants were killed and two militant hideouts were destroyed by artillery fire in the Kharkamar area on Saturday night " , a security official said .
13 July 2014
According to the ISPR , five hideouts in Mir Ali were targeted by the military and several militants were killed .
14 July 2014
After Miramshah was under control , a ground offensive was launched in Mirali ( second @-@ largest town in North Waziristan ) and the nearby Boya area . Pakistani troops killed six militants ( two of them suicide bombers ) , including Taliban commander Matiullah .
15 July 2014
In a media briefing , ISPR director general Major General Asim Bajwa said that 451 militants were dead and 88 hideouts destroyed . According to Bajwa , 26 soldiers were killed in the operation to date . According to ISPR , five Pakistani soldiers were killed in exchanges of fire in and around Mirali ( including an officer , Captain Akash Rabbani ) . Two soldiers were injured , and 11 insurgents were killed .
16 July 2014
Thirty @-@ five militants were killed in airstrikes in the Shawal area . According to an ISPR press release , " Today , early morning at least 35 fleeing terrorists were killed through aerial strikes in Shawal valley " . The Mir Ali ground offensive following the clearance of Miranshah continued , with airstrikes expected .
18 July 2014
House @-@ to @-@ house searches were conducted in areas of Mir Ali . Four militants were killed in an exchange of fire and 12 IEDs , an IED factory and caches of ammunition and foreign currency were seized .
19 July 2014
" The command and control system of terrorists was destroyed in North Waziristan , " said Pakistani Defence Minister Khawaja Asif . " There is no place for terrorism in a democratic country . " The villages of Boya and Degan were cleared by Pakistani military , and the ground offensive continued in areas of Mirali . Corps Commander Lieutenant General Khalid Rabbani visited Mirali , Boya and Degan , meeting with the troops , and relief for IDPs was underway .
20 July
Twenty @-@ eight militants were killed in airstrikes targeting six hideouts in the Shawal area of North Waziristan .
23 July 2014
Twenty militants , including foreigners , were killed by Pakistani airstrikes which destroying four hideouts in the Shawal tehsil of North Waziristan . The ground operation in Mir Ali continued , with an ammunition factory and foreign currency seized from Mir Ali Bazaar . According to ISPR , a disposal operation of mines and explosive materials was underway in Miramshah with six IED factories cleared by army engineers to date .
24 July 2014
Two Pakistani soldiers were killed in an evening IED explosion near Ghulam Khan , in North Waziristan ( near the Pakistani @-@ Afghan border ) .
26 July 2014
During the Mir Ali ground offensive , eight militants were killed and five hideouts were destroyed .
27 July 2014
Pakistani security forces cleared 70 percent of Mir Ali and adjacent areas .
29 July 2014
The Pakistani Chief of Army Staff , General Raheel Sharif celebrated the Eid al @-@ Fitr with army soldiers and IDPs in Baka Khel and Bannu .
30 July 2014
According to the official sources , a Pakistan Army check post was attacked by Afghan militants in Lower Dir . The cross @-@ border attack involved 70 @-@ 80 militants . In retaliation , at least seven militants were killed and nine others were injured .
= = = = August = = = =
2 August 2014
During the ground operation in Mirali , three militats were killed in fire @-@ exchange . An ammunition dump was also seized .
4 August 2014
During ground offensive in Datta Khel area , Seven Uzbek militants were killed in fire @-@ exchange , two soldiers identified as Subedar Mashkoor and Lans Naik Zaheer were also killed . Data Khel was cleared and the ground operation continued in Mirali and other areas .
5 August 2014
Airstrikes on 6 militant hideouts were conducted by the Pakistani military , killing at least 30 militants . According to ISPR , the raids were carried out in the Datta khel , Marshikhel and Kamsham areas . Mirali was also cleared and the ground operation in Mirali came to an end .
9 August 2014
The Pakistani Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif during National Security Conference in Islamabad said : " We pay tribute to the sacrifices of our armed forces in the war against terrorism and express solidarity with their families . " Sharif added that the " intensity of the blowback of the military operation would be low . "
14 August 2014
A Pakistani security forces camp in Miramshah was targeted with rockets by unknown militants . No loss of life occurred .
19 August 2014
48 militants were killed in airstrikes and shelling by gunship helicopters of the Pakistani military , destroying seven militant hideouts and several vehicles in North Waziristan and Khyber Agency .
30 August 2014
32 militants were killed and three hideouts destroyed by army gunship helicopters in the remote areas of North Waziristan . According to ISPR , 23 explosive laden vehicles and four ammunition dumps were also destroyed .
= = = = September = = = =
3 September 2014
According to the ISPR , 910 militants had been killed so far in the operation . The ISPR statement added that eighty @-@ two soldiers had also been killed ( 42 were killed in North Waziristan Agency ) , while 269 others have been injured . The Pakistan Armed Forces had cleared Miramshah , Mirali , Datta Khel , Degan , Boya areas of North Waziristan which were considered strongholds of terrorists .
8 September 2014
Ten militants were killed and five vehicles were destroyed by Pakistani gunship helicopters in Boya Degan , according to ISPR .
9 September 2014
A Pakistani soldier and six militants were killed in a counterattack during a clearing operation near Datta Khel . A civilian logistic staff member was also killed while providing supplies to the Pakistani forces .
10 September 2014
35 militants were killed when Pakistan bombed three militant hideouts in Datta Khel . Another 30 militants were killed when Pakistani fighter planes bombed two militant hideouts in Shawal .
12 September 2014
DG ISPR Asim Bajwa stated that the Pakistani Army was ready to go into remote areas to take down militants , if required . He added that the 10 militants behind the attack on Malala Yousafzai that took place on 12 October 2012 had been arrested , and those behind attack on Ziarat residency had also been arrested . He revealed that over 1 @,@ 000 militants had been killed in North Waziristan including 45 hardcore militants , while 134 hardcore militants had also been arrested .
14 September 2014
Three Frontier Corps personnel were killed when a group of militants launched a rocket attack on a mountain fort in Spinwam area of North Waziristan near Afghan border .
15 September 2014
Fifteen militants were killed in fresh air strikes in North Waziristan . " Army Aviation Combat helicopters in precise strikes in Tabai area of North Waziristan Agency destroyed 10 explosive laden vehicles and 5 terrorists hideouts , 15 terrorists were killed , " an ISPR statement said .
16 September 2014
Twenty militants were killed in Pakistani airstrikes in Khyber Agency 's Tor Darra area targeting three militant hideouts and destroying two ammunition dumps . Another 11 militants were killed as a militant attack from across the border targeted Pakistani security forces in Dandi Kuch in the Spinwam area of North Waziristan . Pakistani troops also arrested one terrorist . Three Pakistani paramilitary soldiers were also killed in the gun @-@ battle .
17 September 2014
At least 11 militants and three soldiers were killed on Tuesday when Afghan terrorists attacked a Pakistani border post in North Waziristan Agency from Afghanistan . Another 40 militants were killed in air raids on militant hideouts in North Waziristan . " Precision air strikes destroyed five terrorists ' hideouts as well as ammunition dumps in village Nawe Kili and Zaram Asar in an area north of Dattakhel " , ISPR said . " Many foreigners were among those killed in the air strikes " , it added .
18 September 2014
23 militants were killed in airstrikes on militant hideouts . " Today in precise aerial strikes carried out on terrorists hideouts in Zerom , Ismail Khel , and Datta Khel in North Waziristan , 23 terrorists were killed , " said ISPR .
20 September 2014
TTP spokesperson Shahidullah Shahid confirmed that a senior Commander Gul Hasan Afghani was killed in clashes with the Pakistan Army in the Boya area of the agency two days ago . At least three militants were killed in an exchange of fire with the security forces in Boya area of the North Waziristan , the ISPR said . A Pakistan Army 's naib subedar Muzzamil was also killed during the fire exchange .
23 September 2014
A suicide attack targeted the convoy of Frontier Corps Deputy Inspector General killed at least five people in Peshawar Cantonment including a Soldier and wounded 18 others . FC soldier NK Zareen Afridi was among those who embraced martyrdom .The banned Tehreek @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan claimed responsibility for the attack .
Twenty @-@ three militants were killed in airstrikes in the Bangidar area of Ghulam Khanx in North Waziristan Agency , according to an ISPR press release . According to ISPR reports , nineteen militants were killed in air strikes on militant hideouts in Dandi Kachkol near Ghulam Khan , Gurbaz and Mana near Pasht Ziarat in North Waziristan .
28 September 2014
At least 15 militants were killed when Pakistan air force jets struck militant hideouts in North Waziristan . Foreign militants were also among the dead . Five militant hideouts were also destroyed .
= = = = October = = = =
3 October 2014
Fifteen militants were killed by airstrikes in the Jamrud and Bara areas of Khyber Agency , and three militant hideouts were destroyed , ISPR said in a press @-@ release . Over 1 @,@ 200 militants had been killed in the operation so far .
5 October 2014
Despite the upcoming winter , the Pakistani military decided to continue the operation , dispelling an impression that the harsh weather may force military authorities to halt Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , which has been ongoing since mid @-@ June 2014 . " Conducting operation in winters is certainly a challenge for the security forces but it is also a challenge for militants , " a military official told the media .
12 October 2014
At least 11 militants were killed in military airstrikes targeting two militant hideouts in North Waziristan . In separate airstrikes in the Khyber Agency 's Kuki Khel area , at least 10 militants were killed . Three militant hideouts were also destroyed , said an ISPR statement .
15 October 2014
Five people were killed and seven were injured in a suicide attack targeting members of a peace committee , in the Peer Mela area of Tirah valley .
16 October 2014
In an apparent response to the previous day 's suicide bombing , 21 suspected terrorists were killed in airstrikes in the Khyber Agency 's Tirah Valley , the Pakistani military said . Five terrorist hideouts were also destroyed .
17 October 2014
Eight militants were killed in the Aka Khel area of Khyber Agency , in clashes with Pakistani security forces . A militant hideout was also destroyed during the clashes .
21 October 2014
28 militants , including foreign militants , were killed in Pakistani airstrikes in the Datta Khel area of North Waziristan .
22 October 2014
DG ISPR Asim Bajwa , addressing the media after a friendly cricket match was played between the IDPs , accompanied by star cricketer Shahid Afridi and the Pakistani Army , said that Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb is going well , and that 1 @,@ 100 militants have been killed so far . He refused to give a specific timeline of the operation 's completion , and said that the army is working towards making a " comprehensive plan " to rehabilitate them .
25 October 2014
18 militants were killed in Pakistani airstrikes in Khyber Agency 's Khyber district near the Afghan border .
27 October 2014
Pakistani officials claimed to have found evidence of " new sanctuaries " set up by the TTP and its affiliates in the Afghan territory , near the border with North Waziristan Agency . In two separate incidents of aerial strikes , 33 militants were killed and nine militant hideouts were destroyed , according to the ISPR . " In early morning aerial strikes ahead of Dattakhel , 18 militants were killed . Later , in Gharlamai area another 15 militants were killed by gunship helicopters , " the ISPR statement added .
29 October 2014
Twenty militants were killed , and eight others were injured in airstrikes conducted by the Pakistan Air Force in the Akka Khel area of the Khyber Agency .
= = = = November = = = =
6 November 2014
" Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb has helped disrupt Haqqani network 's ability to launch attacks on Afghan territory " , a senior commander for US and NATO forces in Afghanistan , Lieutenant General Joseph Anderson said in a Pentagon @-@ hosted video briefing from Afghanistan . He added that the Haqqani network was now fractured too .
14 November 2014
Thirty militants including foreigners were killed in air strikes on militant hideouts in Datta Khel .
16 November 2014
27 militants including foreigners and commanders were killed in air strikes in Datta Khel militant hideouts . Last night , seven suspected terrorists were also killed during a search operation in Datta Khel . In the exchange of fire , three Pakistani soldiers were also killed while four were injured . " The Haqqani network and East Turkistan Movement have been eliminated from the area " , commander of Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb Major General Zafarullah Khan said . He added that 1 @,@ 198 terrorists were killed and another 356 were injured so far .
25 November 2014
Twenty terrorists , including members of the Haqqani network were killed in aerial strikes in North Waziristan .
= = = = December = = = =
2 December 2014
32 militants , including foreigners , were killed in airstrikes in Datta Khel and Orakzai regions . In another incident , Pakistani military repulsed a pre @-@ dawn militant attack on a military check post in the Sherin Dara area of Orakzai Agency .
3 December 2014
Fifteen militants were killed in aerial strikes targeting militant hideouts in North Waziristan .
6 December 2014
Pakistani special forces killed al Qaeda commander Adnan Gulshair el Shukrijumah . Several other militants were also killed during a targeted operation in the Wana subdivision of South Waziristan Agency . During the fore exchange , a Pakistani soldier Havildar Masood was also killed while another was critically injured .
8 December 2014
Airstrikes killed 30 militants , including important commanders in the Datta Khel area of North Waziristan . The killed were local commanders of Hafiz Gul Bahadur and his ally Sadiq Noor .
9 December 2014
It was rumoured that Hafiz Gul Bahadur , a militant commander , was killed in air strikes in Datta Khel district of North Waziristan Agency . A compound where 30 to 40 top commanders of Gul Bahadur 's Shura Mujahideen were having a consultative meeting , was targeted killing all of them .
26 December 2014
Aerial strikes in Datta Khel killed 23 terrorists . An underground ammunition dump and tunnel system was also destroyed .
31 December 2014
Pakistani air @-@ strikes in the Shawal area of North Waziristan killed 23 terrorists .
= = = 2015 = = =
= = = = January = = = =
7 January 2015
Twelve militants were killed as gunship helicopters targeted militant hideouts in Datta Khel . In the air @-@ strikes , four militant hideouts and seven vehicles were also destroyed .
16 January 2015
Director General Inter Services Public Relations ( ISPR ) Major General Asim Saleem Bajwa said security forces have killed 2 @,@ 000 militants in North Waziristan so far . Bajwa added that 200 soldiers had been killed during the Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb and 800 others were injured .
25 January 2015
35 militants , including foreigners , were killed in air strikes targeting militant hideouts in Datta Khel .
27 January 2015
76 militants including foreigners were killed in the Pakistani air @-@ strikes targeting militant hideouts in Datta Khel area of North Waziristan . 53 militants were killed in the first round and 23 militants were killed in the second round of the air @-@ strikes . Six militant hideouts and an ammunition dump was destroyed .
= = = = February = = = =
20 February 2015
A Pakistan Army Major Zahid Shaheed was killed in Datta Khel with a sniper rifle . In Pakistani retaliation , 5 terrorists were killed .
= = = = April = = = =
22 April 2015
At least 35 militants were killed in aerial strikes in South Waziristan and Datta Khel area of North Waziristan , according to ISPR .
= = = = May = = = =
23 May 2015
Four Pakistani soldiers were killed and two others were injured in Dattakhel area of North Waziristan Agency at night after their vehicle was targeted by an improvised explosive device . In Pakistani counter @-@ retaliation , the military launched a search @-@ operation killing seven militants in the pursuing fire @-@ exchange .
= = = = June = = = =
28 June 2015
23 militants were killed in the Pakistani military air @-@ strikes in the North Waziristan and Khyber agencies . Foreign militants were also among those killed in strikes which also targeted ammunition dumps .
= = = = July = = = =
5 July 2015
Seven Pakistani soldiers were killed in the Taliban attaks in North and South Waziristan. in Pir Ghr , Taliban attacked a Pakistani military convoy and killed two soldiers and wounded another three . Another two remote @-@ controlled bomb attacks targeting military vehicles in North Waziristan and South Waziristan killed five soldiers and injured six . According to the Pakistani intelligence officials , the Pakistani military was facing fierce resistance in the final push towards Shawal valley . In the pursuing fire @-@ exchange and military 's retaliation , 12 militants were killed in Datta Khel in the North Waziristan agency .
7 July 2015
A Pakistani soldier was killed in Taliban attack on an army bunker in the South Waziristan agency .
= = = = August = = = =
= = = = September = = = =
= = = = October = = = =
= = = = November = = = =
= = = = December = = = =
= = = 2016 = = =
= = = = January = = = =
= = = = February = = = =
= = = = March = = = =
= = = = April = = = =
On the 3rd of April , the Pakistani government declared victory and the end of the operation after clearing 640 square kilometers in Shawal , killing some 250 terrorists .
= = = = May = = = =
Pakistan clears last militant stronghold North Waziristan Agency
= = = = June = = = =
= = American drone strikes = =
Drone strikes , which were halted for six months at the request of the Pakistani government , resumed for the operation . The following drone strikes took place during the operation :
= = = In 2014 = = =
11 June 2014 – Two strikes in Miramshah killed 16 suspected militants and injured several others . These were the first drone strikes of 2014 ; the previous strike occurred on 25 December 2013 in the Qutab Khel area of Miramshah , killing four suspected militants .
18 June 2014 – At least six militants were killed in Miramshah .
10 July 2014 – A strike in the Datta Khel area killed seven militants and injured three others .
16 July 2014 - Four missiles were fired in a strike in the tehsil of Datta Khel , two on a house and two on a vehicle , killing twenty militants and injuring five .
19 July 2014 - Eleven militants , including two commanders , were killed in the tehsil of Madakhel , Data Khel , North Waziristan . Most of the militants belonged to the Punjabi faction of the Taliban .
6 August 2014 - A strike in Datta Khel killed six militants and injured two others .
24 Sept 2014 : At least 8 people including Uzbek Militants were reportedly killed in a US drone strike Dattakhel tehsil of North Waziristan .
5 October 2014 : At least 5 suspected militants were killed in a US drone strike in Shawal area of South Waziristan tribal region .
6 October 2014 : At least 8 suspected militant were killed and several other injured in a U.S drone strike in Shawal district of North Waziristan .
7 October 2014 : At least 3 suspected militants were killed in a U.S drone strike in North Waziristan region .
30 October 2014 : A US drone strike killed at least 4 , injuring several others in Birmal Tehsil of South Waziristan .
11 November 2014 : A US drone strike in Doa Toi area of Datakhel tehsil in North Waziristan Agency killed 4 suspected militants .
21 November 2014 : Reportedly Five suspected militants including two commander of ' Qaedat al @-@ Jihad in the sub @-@ continent ’ , a newly established branch of Al Qaeda were killed in a US Drone strike in Datakhel region of North Waziristan Agency .
6 December 2014 : A US drone strike killed a key Al Qaeda leader Umar Farooq along with four others in Datakhel region of North Waziristan Agency .
26 December 2014 : Two separate US Drone strikes in the Kund and Mangroti area of Shawal in North Waziristan Agency killed at least 7 suspected militants .
= = = In 2015 = = =
4 January 2015 : A reportedly high @-@ value unidentified Uzbek commander of Taliban 's Gul Bahadur group was killed along with 8 others by a US drone strike in Shawal area of North Waziristan Agency .
15 January 2015 : A US drone strike reportedly killed 7 suspected militants in Wacha Dara area of Liddah Tehsil of South Waziristan Agency .
19 January 2015 : A US drone strike killed 6 while injuring 4 others in the ShahiKhel area of North Waziristan 's Shawwal tehsil .
28 January 2015 : A US drone strike killed 7 while injuring another militant in the Shawal area of North Waziristan .
18 March 2015 : A US drone strike killed a TTP commander Khawrey Mehsud along with 3 others in Shabak area of Kurram Agency .
12 April 2015 : A U.S drone strike killed 4 suspected militants in North Waziristan .
16 May 2015 : A drone strike Killed 7 to 13 militants in the Mana area of North Waziristan Agency .
18 May 2015 : A U.S. drone strike killed 6 suspected militants in Zoye Narye Area of North Waziristan .
2 June 2015 : Four suspected militants were killed in a drone strike targeting a vehicle in the Shawal area of North Waziristan .
6 June 2015 : At least nine suspected militants were killed in a strike in Shawal 's Zoya Saidgai area , considered to be a hideout of the Afghan Taliban .
= = Yearly Progress = =
On 13 June 2015 , the Pakistani military reported progress in the operation in the course of a year . DG ISPR Asim Saleem Bajwa reported that 2 @,@ 763 militants had been killed so far , including 218 terrorist commanders in 9 @,@ 000 intelligence based operations ( IBOs ) . " Some 837 hideouts of terrorists have been destroyed and 253 tonnes of explosives recovered so far during the operation " , he said . The Army also recovered 18 @,@ 087 weapons , including heavy machine guns , light machine guns , sniper rifles , rocket launchers and AK @-@ 47s . Bajwa said that thousands of terrorists were also arrested , their strongholds cleared and their communication infrastructure destroyed . " 347 officers and soldiers of Pakistan Armed Forces have embraced martyrdom " , he added . The year 2015 was declared to be " a year of victory " and the operation itself a " manifestation of the resolve to root out terrorism in the country " by the Pakistani Defence Minister Khawaja Asif .
= = Final phase = =
One and a half years after the start of Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , phenomenal successes have been achieved , with the last pockets close to the Pakistan @-@ Afghan border being cleared . Terrorist backbone broken and structure dismantled . Nexus with sleeper cells largely disrupted . Intelligence based Operations ( IBOs ) continue to burst remaining sleeper cells . 3400 terrorists were killed , with 837 hideouts from where they were carrying out terrorist activities destroyed . During the last 18 months over 13 @,@ 200 IBOs carried out across the country in which 183 hardcore terrorists killed , 21193 arrested . IBOs continue . Success came at a heavy price , 488 valiant officers and men of Pakistan Army , Frontier Corps KPK , Baluchistan , Rangers Sindh sacrificed their lives and 1914 injured in Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb . Total 11 military courts . 142 cases referred to military courts . 55 cases decided , 87 cases in process . 31 hardcore terrorist convicted . Overall improvement in security / law and order owed to Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb . In July , the Pakistan Army Chief , General Raheel Sharif visited the military 's forward @-@ most positions near the Afghan border in North Waziristan He was briefed about the progress and future plans about the Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb and also met the Pakistani troops stationed there . Sharif also visited South Waziristan and Wana agencies . It was reported that the Pakistani military had just completed the preliminary prepatrations for final phase . In the area around Shawal , peaks were cleared .
= = Management of displaced civilians = =
As a result of the operation , 929 @,@ 859 displaced civilians ( from 80 @,@ 302 families ) were registered by Pakistani authorities as of 14 July . Financial support , relief goods and food packages were being distributed and 59 donation points were established across Pakistan by the army .
On 10 July , the Foreign Office of Pakistan said that the rehabilitation of internally displaced persons was an internal matter and reiterated that Pakistan had not requested international assistance . " We have very clear instructions from the prime minister [ to not seek external assistance ] , Pakistan has neither made nor intends to make a request for international assistance . It has been made very clear that all expenditure related to temporarily displaced Pakistanis will be met from our own resources " , Pakistani Foreign Office spokesperson Tasnim Aslam said . However , it was reported that the United States allocated $ 31 million for IDPs and an additional $ 9 @.@ 3 million for health , hygiene , water and sanitation for IDPs and livestock . It was also reported that the United Arab Emirates government allocated $ 20 @.@ 5 million in IDP humanitarian aid . In February 2014 , the Pakistani Finance Minister Ishaq Dar told a visiting US Senator Jack Reed that the cost of the operation so far had reached ₨ 40 billion ( US $ 390 million ) and could go as high as ₨ 130 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 billion ) .
= = = Return of the IDPs = = =
On 8 December 2014 , the military approved the phased repatriation of the IDPs . The Pakistani army chief said the early return of the IDPs was his top priority . According to senior military officials , civilian authorities were directed to plan the return of the IDPs to their homes in areas which have been cleared of terrorists . On 31 March 2015 , the repatriation started . On the first day , 219 IDPs belonging to 62 families left Bannu for Spinwam and Shahmeri in North Waziristan . In the first phase till 24 April , about 1 @,@ 200 families were to return to their homes in Sinwam , Shamiri , Mirali and Bubali areas of NWA . Each family was given ₨ 25000 ( US $ 250 ) as cash assistance and ₨ 10000 ( US $ 98 ) as transportation expenses at Mirzail . Food ration for six months and non @-@ food items would also be given to each household . For effective disease control , children under five years of age were administered anti @-@ polio vaccines and under 10 years of age were administered anti @-@ measles vaccines . As of 4 May 2015 , only 230 displaced families had returned since the launch of the repatriation programme . " The civil administration can send entire displaced population back to their homes within a month if the area is de @-@ notified as conflict zone , " said an official dealing with IDPs repatriation . According to the official sources , the cut @-@ off date for the return of IDPs was December 2016 .
= = Reaction = =
= = = Domestic = = =
= = = = Social media = = = =
The decision by the Pakistani military to launch a comprehensive operation was widely supported , with journalists , opinion @-@ makers , politicians and other social @-@ media users commending the operation .
= = = = Pakistan Tehrik @-@ e @-@ Insaf = = = =
- PTI chairman Imran Khan endorsed the military operation in North Waziristan as it became clear that the Taliban were not seriously negotiating . A week before , reiterating his party 's stance on peace talks with militants , Imran said that an offensive in North Waziristan would unite militant forces against the Pakistani state . " Conducting such a military operation when most of the groups in NWA want talks is suicidal , " Imran said in a statement , adding that most groups in North Waziristan desired peace talks with the government . The PTI position changed as it became clear that negotiations were fruitless .
= = = = Jamat @-@ e @-@ Islami = = = =
- Jamat @-@ e @-@ Islami ( JI ) , one of Pakistan 's leading religious parties , continued to oppose any operation in North Waziristan . JI leader Siraj @-@ ul @-@ Haq urged the government to keep the option of negotiations with the Taliban . He warned that a military operation in North Waziristan would trigger a massive human tragedy , saying that it was the duty of Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif to consider the views of the nation and its leadership ( inside and outside Parliament ) before making a crucial decision affecting national security .
= = = = Muttahida Qaumi Movement = = = =
- According to Muttahida Qaumi Movement senator Babar Khan Ghauri , " This is a commendable decision by the government . We have been repeatedly telling the current government that instead of engaging the terrorists in dialogue , government should act against these elements . Karachi has a number of terrorists and it might suffer from a blow back ; this should be tackled so Karachi does not have to suffer on account of this . " MQM head Altaf Hussain said , " I welcome this operation and I am glad that government is supporting the armed forces , those who have not backed the operation must realize that it is a matter of national security . I appeal to them to come on same page by setting aside their political compulsions . " he said .
= = = = Awami National Party = = = =
- Awami National Party ( ANP ) member Zahid Khan said , " We also held a dialogue previously ( during our government ) but that did not produce effective results . We wanted peace and we were okay if that came through dialogue but unfortunately that could not happen . This time , knowing from our experience , we had cautioned the government that [ the ] dialogue approach would not work . Government should have taken the parliament into confidence before launching the operation but it didn 't . "
= = = = Local tribesmen = = = =
North Waziristan tribal elders assured their support for Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb , according to a statement released by ISPR director @-@ general Major General Asim Bajwa . " Many tribal elders from around Miranshah , Mir Ali , Datta Khel assure support to army operation , " Bajwa tweeted . " The tribesmen have assured the army that they would not let the militant to return to the area . "
= = = = Sunni Ulema Board = = = =
On 22 June 2014 , more than 100 Islamic scholars issued a joint fatwa in support of the operation , calling it a jihad : " Crushing of the attempts to disrupt peaceful atmosphere in a Muslim state is jihad " .
= = = International = = =
Afghanistan – Afghan Ambassador to Pakistan Janan Mosazai stated that his government would provide " every possible assistance " to defeat the militants in the operation .
United Arab Emirates – Interior minister Saif bin Zayed Al Nahyan said that his government would co @-@ operate with Pakistan in the war against the extremists .
United Nations – In a statement , the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs ( OCHA ) estimated that as of 23 June more than 450 @,@ 000 people were internally displaced from the war @-@ torn region . Other UN agencies , such as the UNHCR , agreed to provide tents and other facilities to the camps . The World Health Organization ( WHO ) provided medicines and vaccines to the IDPs to avert a polio outbreak .
United States – The US supported military operations against Taliban militants , a spokesman from the US Embassy in Pakistan said on 16 June , and the US supported every Pakistani step taken for the establishment of peace . The United States had pressured Pakistan for a military operation in North Waziristan for years , and the US Congress linked military assistance to Pakistan for the next fiscal year with military operations in North Waziristan in June 2014 . Rear Adm. John Kirby , the Pentagon press secretary , said that the Pentagon was unaware of Pakistan 's decision to launch a new offensive in North Waziristan : " The Pakistan military and the government understand the threat , and they continue to go after that threat . " On 5 November 2014 , Lt. Gen. Joseph Anderson , a senior commander for US and Nato forces in Afghanistan , said in a Pentagon @-@ hosted video briefing from Afghanistan that the Haqqani network is now " fractured " like the Taliban . " They are fractured . They are fractured like the Taliban is . That 's based pretty much on the Pakistan 's operations in North Waziristan this entire summer @-@ fall , " he said , acknowledging the effectiveness of Pakistan 's military offensive . " That has very much disrupted their efforts in Afghanistan and has caused them to be less effective in terms of their ability to pull off an attack in Kabul , " Anderson added .
China – Chinese Foreign Minister Wang Yi said that terrorism was a problem common to China and Pakistan , since militants were the enemy of both countries , adding that China fully supported the operation .
Russia – Chairman of the State Duma Sergey Naryshkin commended the operation , while the Pakistani Army Chief , General Raheel Sharif was on an official visit to Russia . " We will stand by Pakistan in its fight against terrorism and extremism for stability in the region . Our relations are independent , more consistent and will further grow , " he added .
= = TTP retaliation = =
= = = Lahore = = =
On 2 November 2014 , a suicide bombing following the daily parade took place at Wagah border in Pakistan , more than 55 killed and over 200 injured . The attack was claimed by militant groups jamaat @-@ ul @-@ Ahrar and jundallah , sub @-@ groups of TTP .
= = = Peshawar = = =
On 16 December 2014 , seven gunmen belonging to the Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan ( TTP ) entered an Army Public School in Pakistani city of Peshawar and opened fire on school staff and children , killing 145 people consisting majority of students . The spokesperson of Tehrik @-@ i @-@ Taliban Pakistan , Mohammad Omar Khorasani , took the responsibility for the attack and said it was revenge for Operation Zarb @-@ e @-@ Azb .
= = State 's Counter @-@ retaliation = =
Responding to TTP 's retaliatory attacks , Pakistan has mounted deadliest counter @-@ retaliation on TTP ; first
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for a sale to the Swiss of 12 new Bf 109G @-@ 6 Gustav to replace combat losses . The new fighters were delivered in batches of six on 20 and 22 May . The new planes had serious manufacturing defects from the poor workmanship and production disruptions caused by Allied bombings , and after complaints the Germans refunded half of the six million Swiss franc purchase price .
= = = Attacks on Swiss cities = = =
Swiss cities and railway lines were repeatedly bombed by Allied aircraft during the war , beginning with minor attacks by the Royal Air Force on Geneva , Basel , and Zürich in 1940 . Possibly the most egregious occurred 1 April 1944 when 50 B @-@ 24 Liberators of the U.S. 14th Combat Bomb Wing bombed Schaffhausen , killing and injuring more than 100 , and damaging a large portion of the city . In reaction to comments by Swiss Foreign Minister Marcel Pilet @-@ Golaz that the incident " apparently was a deliberate attack " , American apologies were undermined by ill @-@ advised statements made by Air Force commanders in London which blamed weather and minimized the size and accuracy of the attack . Although an in @-@ depth investigation showed that weather in France , particularly winds that nearly doubled the ground speed of the U.S. bombers , did in fact cause the wing to mistake Schaffhausen for its target at Ludwigshafen am Rhein , the Swiss were not mollified . Incidents escalated , resulting in 13 separate attacks on Swiss territory on 22 February 1945 — the day President Franklin D. Roosevelt 's special assistant , Lauchlin Currie , went to Schaffhausen to lay a wreath on the graves of those killed a year earlier — and simultaneous attacks 4 March that dropped 29 tons of high explosives and 17 tons of incendiaries on Basel and Zürich .
Swiss air defenses were incapable of counteracting large formations of aircraft , but did intercept and , on occasion attack , small groups . Since these were often aircraft crippled by battle damage and seeking asylum , resentment among Allied aircrew was considerable . The causes of the misdirected bombing attacks were bad weather , faulty equipment , incompetence , or excess pilot zeal , rather than malice or purposeful planning , but the lack of intent did not allay the sufferings and suspicions of the Swiss , and the embarrassment to the United States was considerable . A pattern of violation , diplomatic apology , reparation , and new violation ensued through much of the war , and grew in scope as Allied tactical forces neared Germany . It is still a matter of debate if these bombings occurred by accident , since U.S. strategic air forces had a standing order requiring visual identification before bombing any target within 50 miles ( 80 km ) of the Swiss frontier , or if some members of the Allies wanted to punish Switzerland for their economic and industrial cooperation with Nazi Germany . In particular , Switzerland permitted train transportation through its territory carrying matériel between Germany and Italy , which was readily visible from the air by Allied pilots .
The incidents drew to a close only after a USAAF delegation appointed by U.S. Army Chief of Staff George C. Marshall met with the Swiss in Geneva on 9 March 1945 . The Swiss enumerated every violation since Schaffhausen and demanded full indemnity . The Americans advised that the area requiring positive target identification was henceforth expanded to 150 miles ( 240 km ) from Swiss borders , that no targets within 50 miles ( 80 km ) would be attacked even in clear weather except by personal authorization from American commander General Carl Spaatz , and then only by hand @-@ picked crews , and that tactical air was forbidden to attack any target within ten miles ( 16 km ) of the Swiss border . Even though these restrictions provided the Germans significant protection from air attack over a large part of southern Germany for the final two months of the war , they were effective in ending the violations and did not seriously hamper Allied prosecution of the war .
= = Cold War = =
During World War II , Switzerland struggled with buying and building modern combat aircraft . The fourteen Bf 109G Gustavs acquired from the Germans ( including two interned ) proved increasingly difficult to maintain , and were removed from service in 1947 , although the " Emil " variants purchased earlier continued on until 1949 . The Swiss also acquired nearly 200 aircraft interned after violating its sovereignty , but most were unsuitable for Swiss operations .
However , in 1948 the Swiss were able to purchase 130 surplus P @-@ 51 Mustangs from the United States . Several other aircraft types followed , including the 220 de Havilland Vampires purchased in 1949 and 1953 , 250 de Havilland Venoms acquired 1954 @-@ 56 , and 100 Hawker Hunters from 1958 . The P @-@ 51s replaced the Messerschmitt Bf 109s and remained operational for a decade . Both the Venoms and Vampires showed remarkable longevity , with the Venoms in service until 1983 and the Vampires until 1990 , more than 40 years . Remarkably the Swiss Air Force after these acquisitions was the first air force in the world to operate only jet aircraft in their front @-@ line squadrons .
= = = N @-@ 20 and P @-@ 16 = = =
The Swiss government experimented in development and production of its own jet fighters , the FFA P @-@ 16 and the N @-@ 20 Aiguillon , but was not satisfied with them , desiring relatively simple aircraft that did not require extensive training and thus could be flown by militia pilots . These aircraft were developed in accordance with the doctrine of the Swiss Air Force that close air support of ground operations was its main task . The National Defense Commission ( LVK ) , however , based on the experiences of World War II , also desired an aircraft capable of both " neutrality protection and raid @-@ type operations " , and the result was projects with inherent self @-@ contradictions .
Hoping that competition would lead to the development of effective but simple ground @-@ attack aircraft , the government asked the Flugzeugwerk Altenrhein ( FFA , or " Aircraft Factory Altenrhein " ) and the Federal Aircraft Factory Emmen to develop jet @-@ propelled fighters . Although the Federal Institute of Technology had a world @-@ renowned aerodynamics laboratory , both projects ended in fiasco , as a result of which the Hunter was purchased instead and introduced into service in 1958 .
Both models were plagued from the onset by inefficient engines , but were capable of the short @-@ distance takeoffs required by the Swiss ( 330 meters for the P – 16 , 232 meters for the N @-@ 20 ) . After wind tunnel and engine tests , but before the N – 20 could make its maiden flight , Federal Councillor Karl Kobelt cancelled the N @-@ 20 project in 1953 , leading to much resentment of the government by Emmen engineers when the FFA project was continued . Eventually , neither of the aircraft came into production , although the wings of the P @-@ 16 were later used in the development of the successful Learjet .
The Eidgenössische Flugzeugwerke Emmen N @-@ 20 was a semi @-@ tailless swept wing jet similar to the U.S. Navy 's Vought F7U Cutlass with four engines mounted internally in the wings , fold @-@ out canards to improve its aerodynamics at slow speeds , and a maximum designed airspeed of 1200 km / h , a remarkable velocity for an aircraft of the early 1950s . The FFA P @-@ 16 was a single @-@ engine straight @-@ wing aircraft for which a contract for production of 100 aircraft was awarded in 1958 , but after the second crash of a pre @-@ production model , the order was canceled . The aircraft had met all Swiss Air Force requirements for an STOL attack fighter capable of carrying heavy loads , and the crash was widely considered a pretext for the Swiss parliament to reverse itself . In addition , by the middle of 1958 , influenced by NATO concepts , the LVK had redefined the Swiss doctrine of air power from close air support to counter @-@ air operations . Further , the strategic concepts governing Swiss defense doctrine had shifted to a dynamic ( mobile ) defense that included execution of air missions beyond the Swiss border and the possibility of carrying nuclear weapons , for neither of which the P – 16 was suitable . In this time , the Swiss Air Force also tested a few from the Swiss industry @-@ developed Ground to Air Defence Systems but didn 't introduce any of them into service ( see : 35 mm anti aircraft tank B22L , RSD 58 and RSE Kriens ( Missile ) ) . Also a Mobile Ground to Air Defence System based on the Swiss wheeled APC Mowag Shark equipped with the French Crotale ( missile ) was not bought for the Swiss Air Force .
= = = Mirage affair = = =
The acquisition of the Hunter had solved part of the Swiss dilemma of needing to support both its ground forces and to deploy an air @-@ to @-@ air capability , but while the Hunter could provide some counter @-@ air defense over a battlefield and escort ground @-@ support fighters it was not supersonic nor was it capable of defending Swiss airspace . In 1961 , the Swiss Parliament voted to procure 100 French Dassault Mirage IIICs for this purpose and 67 BL @-@ 64 Bloodhound surface @-@ to @-@ air missiles from the British .
The Swiss acquired a single Mirage for testing , as a preface to production under license of 100 Dassault Mirage IIIS interceptors , with strengthened wings , airframe , and undercarriage . Avionics would differ as well , with the Thomson @-@ CSF Cyrano II radar replaced by the Hughes Electronics TARAN @-@ 18 system , to provide the Mirage IIIS compatibility with the AIM @-@ 4 Falcon air @-@ to @-@ air missile . The Mirage IIIS was intended to be operated as an interceptor , ground attack , and reconnaissance aircraft , using wing pods for the photographic mission .
Production of the Mirage IIIS developed into a scandal . Although the Air Force staff wanted to acquire the best available aircraft on the market , neither it nor the Federal Council had issued performance specifications . The concept of mobile defense had replaced static defense , such as the Réduit strategy of World War II , as the doctrine of the Swiss Armed Forces . The new doctrine required greater numbers of long @-@ range aircraft and tanks in order to combat Soviet troops before they arrived near the Swiss border . The committee on aircraft procurement , which consisted of two military officers and an engineer who was employed by the army , originally proposed " at least 100 Mirages " to be employed in a multi @-@ role capacity .
The parliament first authorized approximately 871 million Swiss francs to build 100 Mirage IIIS under license . But this procurement was soon crushed under massive budget overruns and the government asked for an additional CHF 576 million . The cost overruns were the result of fitting U.S. electronics to the French platform , installing hardpoints for moving the aircraft inside of the caverns by cranes , structural reinforcements for jet @-@ assisted takeoffs , and other extras to improve the off @-@ the @-@ shelf Mirage IIIC . The wish to procure the Mirage IIIS was also boosted by the possibility that the Swiss could acquire aircraft @-@ delivered nuclear weapons , either from France or by producing them themselves .
However , another major reason for rising costs was the need to develop a separate variant for the photo @-@ reconnaissance mission when the underwing pods caused too great a performance penalty . The differences between the IIIS and the IIIRS ( as the reconnaissance version was designated ) resulted in only 36 Mirage IIIS fighters and 18 IIIRS reconnaissance aircraft actually built by the Federal Aircraft Factory at Emmen . Twelve were allocated to a reconnaissance squadron , three to a training group and the rest to two fighter squadrons . It was found that such a small number was insufficient to provide the multi @-@ role capacity deemed essential for the new doctrine . The Mirage IIIS went into service in 1967 , and the IIIRS in 1969 .
The lack of financial oversight and the apparent ease with which Federal Councillor Paul Chaudet and Chief of the General Staff Jakob Annasohn chose the Mirage ( at the time , the world 's fastest jet fighter ) led , for the first time in Swiss history , to the formation of a parliamentary fact @-@ finding commission . As a result , parliamentary oversight on military procurements was improved and the military was given the organizational and professional structures to avoid such budget overruns . One Air Force officer had to retire , and Annasohn himself retired voluntarily in the end of 1964 , followed by Chaudet who stepped down in 1966 .
= = Later Cold War history = =
In 1972 , with the option of nuclear weapons discarded and the likelihood of operations beyond the Swiss border severely restricted , the Federal Military Department ( EMD ) decided that the next generation of aircraft acquired by the Swiss Air Force would be for close air support . While resurrection of the P @-@ 16 was discussed in the Swiss press ( FFA had continued theoretical development the aircraft at its own expense , with its final variant , the AR @-@ 7 , to be equipped with a Rolls @-@ Royce RB168 @-@ 25 engine ) , the choice narrowed to the Milan ( a joint Swiss @-@ French prototype variant of the Mirage III ) and the American A @-@ 7G Corsair II , each of which had strong advocates within the Swiss Air Force .
Still reeling from the " Mirage affair " , when the Milan project failed from lack of orders and the recommendation for purchase of the A @-@ 7 was cancelled , the Air Force instead purchased 30 additional , surplus Hawker Hunters in 1973 to improve its ground attack capability ( the small number of Mirages were reserved for reconnaissance and interceptor roles ) . At this time the Swiss aviation industry and the ETH Zurich made a last attempt for a Swiss made fighter jet , the ALR Piranha but they had no success . And it remained an unfinished project .
The end of the 1970s saw the introduction of the Northrop F @-@ 5 Tiger II.The F @-@ 5 won the competition against the F @-@ 4 Phantom II , Dassault Mirage F1 and Saab 37 Viggen , after the Hawker Siddeley Harrier , the Fiat G.91Y and the A @-@ 4N Skyhawk passed out the contest before the flight evaluation . In 1976 the Federal Council ordered 72 aircraft , all of which were delivered by 1979 . A follow @-@ up order for 38 in 1981 brought the totals to 98 single @-@ seat F @-@ 5E and 12 two @-@ seat F @-@ 5F , which were deployed in five squadrons headquartered at Dübendorf . Initially the Tigers were responsible for air sovereignty below 30 @,@ 000 feet ( 9 @,@ 100 m ) , but some also took on a ground attack mission as the Hawker Hunters were phased out .
In 1985 the Mirage IIIS fleet , nearing 20 years of operational service , began a major upgrade program to improve the capabilities of the aircraft . The interceptors were retro @-@ fitted with canards manufactured by Israeli Aircraft Industries on the air intakes to improve maneuverability and stability at landing speeds , new avionics and countermeasures , and redesignated the Mirage IIIS C.70.
Meanwhile , the lengthy nature of the Swiss aircraft procurement process , reinforced by the embarrassments of the Mirage Affair , resulted in the simultaneous acquisition of a new fighter to eventually replace the Mirage . The Swiss considered the Dassault Rafale , Dassault Mirage 2000 , the IAI Lavi , the Northrop F @-@ 20 Tigershark , and the BAE Systems / Saab JAS @-@ 39 Gripen fighters before choosing the McDonnell Douglas F / A @-@ 18 Hornet and General Dynamics F @-@ 16 Fighting Falcon for a fly @-@ off evaluation held in May 1988 . From that competition , the Federal Council chose the Hornet in October 1988 . The Hornets were to be virtually " off @-@ the @-@ shelf " models , nearly identical to those operated by the U.S. Navy but with stronger titanium alloy frames for an anticipated 30 @-@ year service life .
However the competition was reopened in 1990 to allow for a reconsideration of a European fighter , the Mirage 2000 @-@ 5 . In June 1991 the choice of the Hornet was reconfirmed , and the political struggle to have its purchase approved by referendum began . In the meantime , the Soviet Union was dissolved , and with its dissolution the Cold War ended .
= = = Overseas training = = =
A small contingent of Hawker Hunters deployed to Sweden in 1965 for training in air @-@ to @-@ ground delivery of ordnance , and intermittently thereafter , but annual training abroad for the Swiss Air Force did not begin until 1985 . The use of Swiss air space for combat training became increasingly impractical as the performance of supersonic jets increased and created environmental restrictions . The Swiss modified their traditional stance of neutrality to seek other facilities , particularly among NATO European members , to meet their training needs .
The first annual training exercise was acronymed SAKA ( SArdinien KAmpagne ) , first begun 3 January 1985 . It was conducted at the Air Weapons Training Installation ( AWTI ) at Decimomannu Air Base on Sardinia , at the time the only such facility outside of the United States . Up to 18 Swiss Mirages and Tigers per year conducted air combat maneuvering training on its instrumentation range . Following its fifth SAKA exercise in 1989 , however , demands by NATO air forces for the facility resulted in permission for Swiss Air Force usage to be withdrawn .
When its SAKA exercise set for June 1990 had to be cancelled , the Swiss Air Force began a new training program at RAF Waddington in the United Kingdom , which it called NORKA ( NORdsee KAmpagne ) . A newly built Air Combat Maneuvering Instrumentation ( ACMI ) range operated by British Aerospace provided it with a facility with which to conduct realistic combat training against other aircraft , and it began the first of twelve annual exercises on 16 November 1990 .
= = Post @-@ Cold War developments = =
= = = Changes in doctrine = = =
With the end of the Cold War , the probability of a ground invasion of Switzerland ended , substantially changing Swiss military doctrine and resulting in reduction of both the budget and the size of the Swiss Armed Forces . In Armed Forces Reform 95 , and its supporting program Defense Guidelines 95 , the Air Force retained its basic structure and organization , but became a totally independent service , now called the Swiss Air Force , on 1 January 1996 . For the first time since its inception , subordination of the counter @-@ air role to the ground support mission ended , and defense of domestic airspace was made its highest priority and primary task .
In addition , the Air Force was tasked with gathering intelligence , air reconnaissance , and air transport . Support of ground troops , both doctrinally and as a practical matter , became marginal . These missions were strongly influenced by a shrinking capability , since its combat aircraft could operate by daylight only , its anti @-@ aircraft artillery was obsolete , and the FLORIDA radar system had reached the limits of operational effectiveness . The retirement of the Hawker Hunters in 1994 ended its ground support capability , and a cut of one @-@ third from the defence budget meant that plans for a second purchase of F / A @-@ 18s and supporting air @-@ to @-@ ground weapons ( the reason the multi @-@ capable Hornet was selected ) had to be canceled , leaving both it and the F @-@ 5s in a strictly air @-@ to @-@ air role .
Almost immediately the Air Force was reduced from 290 to 190 fixed @-@ wing aircraft and had five of its twelve bases closed . In 2002 , the Armée XXI reforms continued the pattern of reduction , with bases at Mollis , Turtmann , and Interlaken closed , jets relocated out of Dübendorf ( later planned for closing ) , and the helicopter base at Alpnach placed on the closure list . These closures left Payerne , Sion , and Meiringen as the only combat bases , Emmen as the main helicopter base , and Locarno as a training base . Buochs was maintained for war @-@ time reactivation , and the theoretical plan for using highways near Payerne , Sion , and Lodrino as emergency runways was retained , although no pilots have been trained in their use since the mid @-@ 1980s .
= = = New jets and political struggles = = =
In 1993 , a popular initiative that sought to stop the procurement of the 34 F / A @-@ 18 Hornets ( chosen by the Federal Council in 1988 ) to replace the Mirages was defeated by a majority of 57 % . Two versions , a twin @-@ seat D @-@ model and a single @-@ seat C , were built in the United States and flight @-@ tested in 1996 , delivered in December 1996 and 1998 respectively . Thirty @-@ two production kits were shipped to Switzerland for assembly , with the first in service in January 1997 and the final aircraft delivered in December 1999 . One crashed during workups , leaving 28 C 's and 5 Ds assigned to three squadrons . Seven instructor pilots were trained at NAS Cecil Field , Florida , and the United States Navy also provided two instructors on exchange to train Hornet pilots .
In 1990 , the Swiss Air Force acquired 20 British Aerospace Hawk Mk.66s to provide an interim solution to its jet training requirements , but these were retired in 2003 and sold to Finland . The Mirages ended their service in the second half of the 1990s , with the last Mirage fighter retired in 1999 and the final Mirage reconnaissance jet in December 2003 .
When the Hunters were retired in 1994 , the air force made an effort to provide some F @-@ 5 Tigers with an air @-@ to @-@ ground capability but this proved prohibitively expensive , and plans to replace the fleet after 2010 with a fourth @-@ generation jet fighter were begun . A dozen F @-@ 5s were leased in 2004 to Austria for four years ( while it awaited the delivery of new Eurofighters ) , and the Swiss maintenance of its fleet was such that they were considered " low @-@ hours " by the U.S. Navy , which purchased 36 in 2006 – 2008 to replace its aging Aggressor aircraft . This effectively reduced the F @-@ 5 inventory by half , and proposals to replace the Tigers with JAS @-@ 39 Gripens , Rafales , EADS Eurofighter Typhoons , or the advanced Super Hornet variant of the FA @-@ 18 came under consideration . In the end the JAS @-@ 39 Gripen was chosen because it was the cheapest candidate . In the evaluation the JAS @-@ 39 C & JAS @-@ 30D were tested but the choice in the end was to buy 22 JAS @-@ 39E . Because SAAB don 't build the 2 Seater Gripen F of the Gripen E Switzerland will first rent a few Grippen C and 2 @-@ seater Gripen D. Due to financing struggles in the MoD and the possibility of a popular initiative it is uncertain whether the JAS @-@ 39E can be really acquired .
Overseas training continued with the annual NORKA exercises through 2001 , when NORKA was discontinued in favor of NOMAD ( North Sea Operations for Mutual Air Defence ) , a multi @-@ nation ACMI training exercise held annually at RAF Waddington , which Swiss contingents began attending in 2000 . Training in night operations , called NIGHTWAY , began in 1998 at Ørland MAS , Norway , and continued annually except for 1999 and 2005 . Training abroad with NATO nations reflected the changing realities of neutrality , also reflected in 1997 by the official discontinuation within the Swiss Air Force of the " Bambini Code " in favor of the NATO Brevity Code . The Bambini Code , invented in 1941 , was an amalgam of terms in French , German , and Italian for accurate voice communications during high @-@ stress flight operations while the NATO terms are entirely in English and largely developed by the United States Air Force .
Since 1993 the Swiss Air Force has faced continuing challenges from left @-@ wing and environmental lobbies regarding its existence , policy , and operations . On 24 February 2008 , an initiative to ban the training flights of jet aircraft over " tourist areas " of Switzerland ( virtually the entire nation ) to reduce the impact of " noise pollution " , which had been publicly debated since the delivery of the F / A @-@ 18 ( which referendum initiator Franz Weber termed " oversized , ineffective , and ruinous " ) , was defeated by a vote of 68 @.@ 1 % .
= = Aircraft formerly in service with the Swiss Air Force = =
= = Previous aircraft = =
= = Closed Air Force bases = =
Ambri ( LSPM )
Ems GR
Frutigen
Flugplatz Interlaken ( LSMI )
Flugplatz Kägiswil ( LSPG )
Littau
Mollis
Münster VS
Raron ( LSTA )
Reichenbach im Kandertal
Saanen ( LSGK )
San Vittore GR
Sankt Stephan BE ( LSTS )
Turtmann ( LSMJ )
Ulrichen
Zweisimmen ( LSTZ )
= James Innes ( North Carolina ) =
James Innes ( c.1700 – September 5 , 1759 ) was a military commander and political figure in the Province of North Carolina who led troops both at home and abroad in the service of the Kingdom of Great Britain . Innes was given command of a company of North Carolina 's provincial soldiers during the War of Jenkins ' Ear , and served as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of all colonial soldiers in the Ohio River Valley in 1754 during the French and Indian War . After resigning his commission in 1756 , Innes retired to his home on the Cape Fear River . A bequest made by Innes upon his death lead to the establishment of Innes Academy in Wilmington , North Carolina .
= = Early life and emigration = =
Innes was born around 1700 in the Scottish Highlands . In 1732 , Innes purchased 320 acres ( 130 ha ; 0 @.@ 50 sq mi ) on the Cape Fear River in what is now Bladen County , North Carolina . In or about 1733 , he received an additional grant of 640 acres ( 260 ha ; 1 @.@ 00 sq mi ) . Shortly after Innes ' arrival in North Carolina , Governor Gabriel Johnston appointed him as a justice for New Hanover County , and tried unsuccessfully to appoint Innes to his council .
= = Military and political career = =
= = = War of Jenkins ' Ear = = =
In 1739 , war broke out between Spain and Great Britain over the respective powers ' colonial possessions and spheres of influence . At the outset of that conflict , the British requested that their colonies supply troops for an expedition to South America . Innes was selected by Governor Johnston to lead a company of 100 men from the Cape Fear region to Cartagena in the Spanish Viceroyalty of New Granada , a city which is located in the modern @-@ day country of Colombia . The Cape Fear company was to be joined by three other companies raised in the Albemarle Sound region . Innes was granted a provincial commission as Captain in the British Army on June 7 , 1740 .
Upon arriving in South America , Innes and his men , as well as North Carolina 's three Albemarle companies , were placed under the direct command of Colonel William Gooch , a baronet and the Governor of Virginia . The fever- and disease @-@ ridden campaign , which culminated in the Battle of Cartagena de Indias in the Spring of 1741 , was disastrous for the British . At Cartagena , delays by the British fleet in landing troops to assault a key Spanish fortification , combined with the fact that the ladders used by British scaling parties were shorter than the walls they were intended for , caused the militia and regular soldiers to suffer a 50 percent casualty rate prior to the assault being called off . The Cartagena campaign left only 25 survivors under Innes ' command . The North Carolina contingent returned home in January of 1743 .
Innes was placed in command of the New Hanover militia after his return . In 1748 , after the war between the British and Spanish had expanded into a wider war against the French known in the colonies as King George 's War , a Spanish fleet attacked Brunswick Town , North Carolina , and Innes assisted the local militia under Captain William Dry in repulsing the raiding force .
= = = Inter @-@ war career = = =
Between the War of Jenkins ' Ear and the French and Indian War , Innes served as a commissioner for John Carteret , 2nd Earl Granville , charged with the sale of that proprietor 's lands in the Granville District . Active in the colonial government , Innes was a baron of the Court of Exchequer in Wilmington . There he was associated with Francis Corbin and the Salisbury Land Office ( as a land grant agent ) . After 1750 , Innes served on the Governor 's Council under both Gabriel Johnston and Arthur Dobbs until his death in 1759 .
= = = French and Indian War = = =
After the conclusion of King George 's War in 1748 , tension increased on the frontier between the French @-@ held North American territory and the British colonies on the coast . With the possibility of the outbreak of war in 1754 , Innes , as an experienced soldier , was nominated as the commander of North Carolina militia , which was to be sent to aid Virginia at the request of Governor Robert Dinwiddie . The government of Virginia in particular feared French incursions , as it claimed much of the territory in the Ohio River Valley . Dinwiddie , a fellow Scot , had become friends with Innes , and considered naming him as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of the provincial forces , but instead chose to name Virginian Joshua Fry . Fry 's death on May 15 , 1754 left the position vacant , and Innes was appointed on June 4 , 1754 , although George Washington had been Fry 's second @-@ in @-@ command .
Washington was given command of the Virginia Regiment upon Fry 's death , and he led that unit into the Ohio River Valley on Dinwiddie 's orders before Innes was appointed his superior . On May 28 , 1754 , Washington 's unit , along with native Mingo allies , surprised a French unit , killing Joseph Coulon de Jumonville , the unit 's commander . A large force of French soldiers then advanced to trap Washington , and on July 3 , 1754 , assaulted him at Fort Necessity near what is now Farmington , Pennsylvania , and forced the Virginian 's surrender . Dinwiddie blamed Matthew Rowan , the acting Governor of North Carolina , for the defeat , stating that had Innes ' men been assembled in a timely fashion , they could have accompanied Washington to the frontier . Nevertheless , this engagement signaled the beginning of colonial combat between the French and English , which by 1755 had erupted into open war .
Innes ' tenure as commander @-@ in @-@ chief had scarcely begun at the onset of the French and Indian War . Innes was directed to go to Wills Creek in Maryland , and to reinforce a fort there , which was to become Fort Cumberland . The North Carolina soldiers that came to Virginia were unruly and difficult to manage , eventually deserting after being informed that their pay was to be reduced , or returning home after Innes himself disbanded the unit due to its instability . To make matters worse , Virginians under Innes ' command were ill @-@ disposed towards him , particularly because he was not a Virginian himself .
Within five months of Innes ' appointment , Horatio Sharpe relieved him of his command , and Innes stayed on at Fort Cumberland as its " campmaster general " . When General Edward Braddock arrived with a force of British regulars in 1755 , Innes was named Governor of Fort Cumberland . Braddock tasked Innes with commanding a reserve force of troops at the fort during the disastrous Braddock expedition , in which Braddock led an army into the Ohio valley where it was ambushed and routed , leaving the general mortally wounded . During that operation , Fort Cumberland was used as a holding area for wounded and sick soldiers . Innes was among the first to hear of Braddock 's defeat , and one of the first to inform Dinwiddie , by way of Lord Fairfax , of the catastrophe . By the mid @-@ 1756 , Innes was permitted to resign his commission and return to North Carolina .
= = Retirement and death = =
Innes lived out the remainder of his life as a planter at " Point Pleasant " , his plantation in North Carolina . Innes left behind his wife Jean , with whom he had no children , and who later married his business associate , Francis Corbin . At her death , Jean Innes was buried between her two husbands .
= = = Legacy = = =
After his death in 1759 , Innes ' will left a bequest for an academy , to be called the Innes Academy . The Academy constructed what became the Thalian Hall in Wilmington , North Carolina , which exists today . Innes Street , the main east – west thoroughfare in Salisbury , North Carolina , is named after him .
= Eurasian crag martin =
The Eurasian crag martin or just crag martin ( Ptyonoprogne rupestris ) is a small passerine bird in the swallow family . It is about 14 cm ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) long with ash @-@ brown upperparts and paler underparts , and a short , square tail that has distinctive white patches on most of its feathers . It breeds in the mountains of southern Europe , northwestern Africa and southern Asia . It can be confused with the three other species in its genus , but is larger than both , with brighter tail spots and different plumage tone . Many European birds are resident , but some northern populations and most Asian breeders are migratory , wintering in northern Africa , the Middle East or India .
The Eurasian crag martin builds a nest adherent to the rock under a cliff overhang or increasingly onto a man @-@ made structure . It makes a neat half @-@ cup mud nest with an inner soft lining of feathers and dry grass . Nests are often solitary , although a few pairs may breed relatively close together at good locations . Two to five brown @-@ blotched white eggs are incubated mainly by the female , and both parents feed the chicks . This species does not form large breeding colonies , but is gregarious outside the breeding season . It feeds on a wide variety of insects that are caught in its beak as the martin flies near to cliff faces or over streams and alpine meadows . Adults and young may be hunted and eaten by birds of prey or corvids , and this species is a host of blood @-@ sucking mites . With its very large and expanding range and large population there are no significant conservation concerns .
This bird is closely related to the other three crag martins which share its genus , and has sometimes been considered to be the same species as one or both , although it appears that there are areas where two species ' ranges overlap without hybridisation occurring . All three Ptyonoprogne crag martins are quite similar in behaviour to other Old World swallows that build mud nests , and are sometimes subsumed into the larger genus Hirundo , but this approach leads to inconsistencies in classifying other genera , particularly the house martins .
= = Taxonomy = =
The Eurasian crag martin was formally described as Hirundo rupestris by Italian naturalist Giovanni Antonio Scopoli in 1769 and was moved to the new genus Ptyonoprogne by German ornithologist Heinrich Gustav Reichenbach in 1850 . Its nearest relatives are the three other members of the genus , the pale crag martin , P. obsoleta , the rock martin , P. fuligula , and the dusky crag martin , P. concolor . The genus name is derived from the Greek ptuon ( φτυον ) , " a fan " , referring to the shape of the opened tail , and Procne ( Πρόκνη ) , a mythological girl who was turned into a swallow . The specific rupestris means " of rocks " , from the Latin rupes " rock " . There are no generally recognised subspecies . Two races , Central Asian P. r. centralasica and P. r. theresae in the Atlas Mountains of Morocco , have been proposed , but the slight differences in size and colour show no consistent geographical pattern . Fossils of this species have been found in Late Pleistocene deposits in Bulgaria , and in central France in layers dated at 242 @,@ 000 to 301 @,@ 000 years ago .
The four Ptyonoprogne species are members of the swallow family of birds , and are placed in the Hirundininae subfamily , which comprises all swallows and martins except the very distinctive river martins . DNA studies suggest that there are three major groupings within the Hirundininae , broadly correlating with the type of nest built . The groups are the " core martins " including burrowing species like the sand martin , the " nest @-@ adopters " , which are birds like the tree swallow that utilise natural cavities , and the " mud nest builders " . The Ptyonoprogne species construct an open mud nest and therefore belong to the last group ; Hirundo species also build open nests , Delichon house martins have a closed nest , and the Cecropis and Petrochelidon swallows have retort @-@ like closed nests with an entrance tunnel .
Ptyonoprogne is closely related to the larger swallow genus Hirundo into which it is often subsumed , but a DNA analysis showed that an enlarged Hirundo genus should logically contain all the mud @-@ builder genera , including the Delichon house martins , a practice which few authorities follow . Although the nests of the Ptyonoprogne crag martins resembles those of typical Hirundo species like the barn swallow , the research showed that if Delichon , Cecropis and Petrochelidon are split from Hirundo , Ptyonoprogne should also be treated as a separate genus .
= = Description = =
The Eurasian crag martin is 13 – 15 cm ( 5 @.@ 1 – 5 @.@ 9 in ) long with a 32 – 34 @.@ 5 cm ( 12 @.@ 6 – 13 @.@ 6 in ) wingspan , and weighs an average 23 g ( 0 @.@ 81 oz ) . It has ash @-@ brown upperparts and paler underparts , and has a broader body , wings and tail than any other European swallow . The tail is short and square , with white patches near the tips of all but the central and outermost pairs of feathers . The underwing and undertail coverts are blackish , the eyes are brown , the small bill is mainly black , and the legs are brownish @-@ pink . The sexes are alike , but juveniles have buff @-@ brown tips to the plumage of the head , upperparts and wing coverts . This species can be distinguished from the sand martin by its larger size , the white patches on the tail , and its lack of a brown breast band . Where the range overlaps with that of another Ptyonoprogne species , the Eurasian crag martin is darker , browner and 15 % larger than the rock martin , and larger and paler , particularly on its underparts than the dusky crag martin . The white tail spots of the Eurasian crag martin are significantly larger than those of both its relatives .
The crag martin 's flight appears relatively slow for a swallow . Rapid wing beats are interspersed with flat @-@ winged glides , and its long flexible primaries give it the agility to manoeuvre near cliff faces . The average migration flight speed has been measured at 9 @.@ 9 m / s ( 32 @.@ 5 ft / s ) , less than the roughly 11 m / s ( 36 ft / s ) typical for hirundines , but the data is limited . The bird often flies high , and shows the white spots as it spreads its tail . The vocalisations include short high pli , and piieh and tshir calls resembling those of the linnet and the house martin respectively .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The Eurasian crag martin breeds in mountains from Iberia and northwesternmost Africa through southern Europe , the Persian Gulf and the Himalayas to southwestern and northeastern China . Northern populations are migratory , with European birds wintering in north Africa , Senegal , Ethiopia and the Nile Valley , and Asian breeders going to southern China , the Indian subcontinent and the Middle East . Some European birds stay north of the Mediterranean , and , like martins in warmer areas such as India , Turkey and Cyprus , just move to lower ground after breeding . The breeding range is bounded by the 20 ° C ( 68 ° F ) July isotherm , and wintering areas need a temperature of about 15 ° C ( 59 ° F ) for enough insect food to be available . This is a rare species any distance north of its breeding areas . For example , there are only eight records from the UK , none from Ireland , and the first record for Sweden was reported as recently as 1996 . South of its normal wintering range , it has occurred as a vagrant in The Gambia .
Crag martins breed on dry , warm and sheltered cliffs in mountainous areas with crags and gorges . The typical altitude is 2 @,@ 000 – 2 @,@ 700 m ( 6 @,@ 600 – 8 @,@ 900 ft ) but breeding occurs up to 5 @,@ 000 m ( 16 @,@ 000 ft ) in Central Asia . The Eurasian crag martin 's choice of nest sites is very similar to that of Savi 's pipistrelle , Hypsugo savii ; the bird and the bat often breed in the same locations and have almost identical ranges in Europe . In South Asia , migrant Eurasian birds sometimes join with flocks of the dusky crag martin and roost communally on ledges of cliffs or buildings .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Breeding = = =
Crag martin pairs nest alone or in small colonies , usually containing fewer than ten nests . Nests are on average 30 m ( 98 ft ) apart and each pair aggressively defends its breeding territory against other crag martin and most other bird species . Nesting takes place from May to August , and usually two broods are raised . The nest , built by both adults , is an open half cup made of mud and lined with soft material such as feathers or dry grass . It is constructed under an overhang on a rock cliff face , in a crevice or cave , or on a man @-@ made structure . It takes one to three weeks to build and is re @-@ used for the second brood and in subsequent years . The clutch is two to five eggs with an average of three . The eggs are white with brownish blotches particularly at the wide end , and average 20 @.@ 2 mm × 14 @.@ 0 mm ( 0 @.@ 80 in × 0 @.@ 55 in ) with a weight of 2 @.@ 08 g ( 0 @.@ 073 oz ) . The eggs are incubated mainly by the female for 13 – 17 days to hatching , and the chicks take another 24 – 27 days to fledge . Both parents feed the chicks bringing food every two to five minutes , and the young are fed for 14 – 21 days after fledging . With such frequent feeding rates the adults mainly forage in the best hunting zones in the immediate vicinity of the nest , since the further they fly to forage the longer it would take to bring food to the chicks in the nest . In an Italian study , the hatching rate was 80 @.@ 2 percent , and the average number of fledged young was 3 @.@ 1 .
The crag martin has over the last few decades increasingly used houses and other man @-@ made sites to nest . This greater availability of breeding sites has enabled the species to expand its range , but it is possible that this will lead to competition with other hirundines , such as the barn swallow and common house martin , which also use artificial nest sites .
An Italian study showed that , as with other aerial feeders , the start of breeding was delayed by cold or wet weather , but this had no influence on the clutch size nor on the number of fledged young . Unexpectedly , it was found that once the eggs had hatched there was a negative relationship between temperature and the number of fledged young . The authors suggested that hot weather dried up the small rivers where the parents found food . Colony size did not influence the laying date , the clutch size or the number of successfully fledged young , but this species does not form large colonies anyway .
= = = Feeding = = =
The Eurasian crag martin feeds mainly on insects caught in its beak in flight , although it will occasionally take prey items off rocks , the ground , or a water surface . When breeding , birds often fly back and forth near to a rock face hunting for insects , feeding both inside and outside the nesting territory . At other times , they may hunt flying above streams or alpine meadows . The insects taken depend on what is locally available and may include flies , ants , aerial spiders , and beetles . Aquatic species such as stoneflies , caddisflies and pond skaters appear to be important in at least Spain and Italy . Unlike other hirundines , these birds feed close to their breeding sites , and may be locally vulnerable to fluctuations in insect availability . This martin is gregarious outside the breeding season , and may form sizeable flocks where food is abundant . Cliff faces generate standing waves in the airflow which concentrate insects near vertical areas . The crag martin exploits the area close to the cliff when it hunts , relying on its high manoeuvrability and ability to perform tight turns .
= = Predators and parasites = =
This species is occasionally hunted by the peregrine falcon , which shares its mountain habitat , and during its migration over the Himalayas , it is reported to be subject to predation by crows . Common kestrels , Eurasian sparrowhawks , Eurasian jays and common ravens are also treated as predators and attacked by repeated dives if they approach nesting cliffs . Despite the general aggressiveness of the martin , it tolerates sympatric common house martins , perhaps because the large numbers of that highly colonial species provide an early warning of predators .
The crag martin is a host of blood @-@ sucking mites of the genus Dermanyssus , including D. chelidonis , and of the nasal mite Ptilonyssus ptyonoprognes . Two new species of parasites were first discovered on this martin , the fly Ornithomya rupes in Gibraltar and the flea Ceratophyllus nanshanensis from China .
= = Status = =
The European population of the Eurasian crag martin is estimated to be 360 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 110 @,@ 000 individuals , including 120 @,@ 000 – 370 @,@ 000 breeding pairs . A rough estimate of the worldwide population is 500 @,@ 000 – 5 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 individuals , with Europe hosting between one @-@ quarter and one @-@ half of the total . The population is estimated to be increasing following a northward expansion , which may be partly due to increased use of man @-@ made structures as nest sites . Expansions of the range have been reported in Austria ( where motorway bridges are used as nest sites ) , Switzerland , the former Yugoslavia , Romania , and Bulgaria . With its very large range and high numbers , the Eurasian crag martin is not considered to be threatened , and it is classed as Least Concern on the IUCN Red List .
= Indian River Inlet Bridge =
The Indian River Inlet Bridge ( officially the Charles W. Cullen Bridge ) is a cable @-@ stayed bridge located in Sussex County , Delaware in the United States . It carries four lanes of Delaware Route 1 ( DE 1 ) over the Indian River Inlet between the Indian River Bay and the Atlantic Ocean . The bridge is within Delaware Seashore State Park between Rehoboth Beach and Bethany Beach . The Indian River Inlet Bridge is maintained by the Delaware Department of Transportation ( DelDOT ) . The bridge is 2 @,@ 600 feet ( 790 m ) long and 107 @.@ 66 feet ( 32 @.@ 81 m ) wide , with a span of 950 feet ( 290 m ) and overhead clearance of 45 feet ( 14 m ) .
Prior to the current bridge , four other bridges have spanned the Indian River Inlet , opened in 1934 , 1940 , 1952 , and 1965 , the latter widened by an additional span added in 1976 . All were known informally as the Indian River Inlet Bridge , and all but the first officially were named the Charles W. Cullen Bridge . The 1965 bridge , a steel girder bridge , was subject to scouring from the inlet , leading to the need to replace it . Initial plans for a tied @-@ arch bridge over the inlet in 2004 were over budget , and 2006 plans for a 1 @,@ 400 @-@ foot ( 427 @-@ meter ) cable @-@ stayed bridge were cancelled because of early construction and legal problems . Construction of the current , 2 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 792 @-@ meter ) bridge began in 2008 as part of a design @-@ build project , with Skanska awarded the contract to build the bridge . The current Indian River Inlet Bridge opened partially in January 2012 and completely in May 2012 at a cost of $ 150 million .
= = Description = =
The Indian River Inlet Bridge crosses the Indian River Inlet connecting the Atlantic Ocean to the east and the Indian River Bay to the west . The bridge is located within Delaware Seashore State Park and carries DE 1 between Rehoboth Beach to the north and Bethany Beach to the south . It carries four 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 @-@ meter ) lanes of traffic ( two northbound and two southbound ) , a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ) interior and 10 @-@ foot ( 3 @-@ meter ) exterior shoulder in each direction , and a 12 @-@ foot ( 3 @.@ 7 @-@ meter ) -wide sidewalk on the east side of the bridge for pedestrians and bicycles .
The Indian River Inlet Bridge is a cable @-@ stayed bridge , consisting of four pylon towers with 152 stays supporting the bridge . The pylons are located on land in order to avoid erosion from the inlet . The bridge has a total length of 2 @,@ 600 feet ( 790 m ) and a total width of 107 @.@ 66 feet ( 32 @.@ 81 m ) . The span of the bridge is 950 feet ( 290 m ) with an overhead clearance of 45 feet ( 14 m ) . The height of the pylon towers is 247 @.@ 5 feet ( 75 @.@ 4 m ) above sea level . The bridge has a fiber @-@ optic system that monitors it for issues that could affect its structural integrity . The bridge is designed to last 100 years .
Officially named the Charles W. Cullen Bridge , the bridge is the fourth one at the Indian River Inlet to be named in honor of Charles W. Cullen ( July 8 , 1865 – July 10 , 1948 ) , a lawyer and judge from Georgetown . He served on the Delaware State Highway Commission from 1930 to 1940 and as its chairman from 1938 to 1939 , during which time he oversaw construction of the second bridge to span the Indian River Inlet , replacing a 1934 timber bridge . This bridge was dedicated in May 1940 as the Charles W. Cullen Bridge , but became popularly known as the Indian River Inlet Bridge . The 2012 bridge 's dedication plaque , located at the pedestrian entrance at the south end of the bridge , reads as follows :
" This bridge is named in honor and remembrance of Charles West Cullen ( 1865 – 1948 ) , a man who dedicated his life to public service and to the citizens of Delaware . Between 1930 and 1940 , he served on the State Highway Commission , eventually being elevated to Chairman of the Commission from 1938 @-@ 1939 . While he was Chairman , work was started on a new bridge to span the Indian River Inlet . In recognition for his service on the Commission , the bridge was dedicated on May 28 , 1940 , in his name for his advocacy for the proper opening of the inlet and the internal development of the Indian River . Two additional bridges bearing his name have spanned the inlet since that time . This , the fifth bridge to span the inlet waterway , is also being dedicated in his name . As this bridge serves the public , let us not forget the lifetime of service that he gave . "
= = History = =
The increase in private automobile ownership and growing popularity of Delaware 's beach resort towns during the first half of the 20th century led Delaware to construct the Ocean Highway ( present @-@ day DE 1 and now known as Coastal Highway ) between Rehoboth Beach and Bethany Beach . Completed in 1933 , the Ocean Highway lacked a link to carry it across the Indian River Inlet .
Until 1928 , the Indian River Inlet was a natural waterway that shifted up and down a two @-@ mile ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) stretch of the coast . Dredging kept the inlet open in its current location between 1928 and 1937 , and in 1938 the United States Army Corps of Engineers built jetties that hold it in place . With the inlet in a fixed place , it became possible after 1928 to build a bridge to span it , and the completion of the Ocean Highway in 1933 prompted Delaware to build a span to connect the northern and southern segments of the highway .
= = = Earlier bridges = = =
Five bridges have been constructed across the Indian River Inlet . The first was a creosote timber trestle bridge built in 1934 ; its timbers deteriorated quickly in the maritime environment prevailing at the inlet . It was replaced by a concrete @-@ and @-@ steel swing bridge , the first to be named for Cullen , construction of which began in 1938 . This swing bridge , which included a 4 @-@ foot ( 1 @.@ 2 @-@ meter ) pedestrian walkway and cost $ 165 @,@ 900 , opened with a dedication ceremony on May 28 , 1940 , but collapsed on February 10 , 1948 , succumbing to a combination of a very high tide combined with an easterly wind and ice flows deeply scouring the inlet bottom under its piers ; a pickup truck on the bridge at the time of the collapse fell into the inlet , killing three men who drowned inside the truck . Another concrete @-@ and @-@ steel swing bridge completed in 1952 , the second to be named for Cullen , also became structurally unsound due to ice flow and was closed in 1962 due to storm damage .
The next bridge to be constructed at the site was an 860 @-@ foot ( 262 @-@ meter ) steel girder bridge , the third to be named for Cullen . Its first span opened in 1965 , and it was widened by the addition in 1976 of a second span slightly to the west of the first one , the newer span carrying southbound traffic while the older span became one @-@ way northbound . When the first span opened in 1965 , the inlet was 23 feet ( 7 meters ) deep , but inlet currents led to scouring of the piers of the bridge , first noticed in the 1980s . By the late 1980s , scouring was severe enough to allow U.S. Army Corps of Engineers divers to swim beneath one of the span 's concrete footings . The Corps installed protective riprap around the bridge piers in 1989 , but this was only a temporary solution ; realizing that the bridge could be compromised by damage from just one severe storm , Delaware officials listed it as structurally deficient and requiring replacement . Scouring had increased the inlet 's depth to over 100 feet ( 30 meters ) by 1999 , leading the Corps of Engineers and Delaware officials to question the stability of the pilings and their protective riprap . By 2005 , various reports gave the bridge an expected lifespan of three to five years and estimated that it would have to be closed sometime between 2008 and 2011 and would collapse sometime between 2008 and 2013 . By 2007 , the bridge carried 14 @,@ 000 cars on an average day and an average of 28 @,@ 000 cars per day during the summer months , and the disruption to traffic if the bridge had to be closed before a replacement could open was of increasing concern .
= = = Current bridge = = =
= = = = Early plans and problems = = = =
On August 20 , 2003 , Delaware officials unveiled plans at a public workshop for a new bridge to replace the 1965 bridge and its 1976 addition . A tied @-@ arch design spanning the inlet slightly west of the 1976 addition to the 1965 bridge , the new bridge would have had the longest arched span in the world , with a length of 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 305 meters ) . With an estimated cost of $ 65 million , the new bridge would have had no piers in the water , avoiding the scouring problems that had plagued the earlier spans . Delaware officials hoped that work could begin in the autumn of 2004 and be completed two years later . However , the tied @-@ arch design deterred all but one bidder on the construction contract , and that bid came in much higher than expected and was more than DelDOT could afford at the time . By the autumn of 2005 , a $ 200 million shortfall in the state transportation budget had delayed construction projects all over Delaware and forced the state to put plans for the new bridge on hold , and in the meantime rising labor and materials costs drove the cost of the bridge up to $ 200 million , $ 50 million above the budget .
DelDOT scrapped plans for the tied @-@ arch bridge and put bids out in 2006 for a design – build project for a new bridge of a cable @-@ stayed design , 1 @,@ 400 feet ( 427 meters ) long and without piers in the water . Construction of earthen approach ramps for the new bridge began on either side of the inlet in February 2006 ; the ramp on the north side of the inlet was completed in December 2006 and that on the south side was finished in February 2007 . However , concerns over instability of these ramps arose in the autumn of 2006 , and by March 2007 it had become clear that movement of the ramps was greater than expected . Legal problems also began to affect progress , when an unsuccessful bidder on the new construction contract questioned the process by which it had been awarded to another company that had made a bid of $ 124 @.@ 9 million – $ 800 @,@ 000 more than the lowest bid – but had nonetheless won the contract based on ambiguous pricing and technical criteria . Labor union leaders also complained that the winning bidder had not promised to use Delaware union labor , unlike the lower bidder . Faced with the possibility of a lawsuit , DelDOT in October 2007 decided to cancel construction of the bridge under the existing contract , have the unstable approach ramps removed , and rebid the contract for a longer , 2 @,@ 600 @-@ foot ( 792 @-@ meter ) cable @-@ stayed bridge – again without piers in the water – of a new design that did not require the flawed approach ramps . During 2008 , the approach ramps were removed , and the Delaware legislature passéd a new bond bill making it easier for state officials to award a bid under clearer pricing and technical criteria .
= = = = Construction = = = =
In August 2008 , Skanska was awarded the $ 150 @-@ million design – build contract to build the new bridge . Skanska started driving test pilings into the ground in the later part of 2008 . In May 2009 , public voting for the aesthetic design features of the bridge decided that the cables would be blue , the pylon tops would be slanted with railings , and the lighting fixtures for the walkway would have a nautical theme . The test pilings for the bridge were completed in June 2009 . Construction of the pylons began in July 2009 with the pouring of concrete into the first pylon . By December 2009 , construction had begun on the approach foundations and the edge girders , with work continuing on the pylon towers and the side abutments . The completion of the design phase of the project and the beginning of the concrete pour for the bridge deck took place in April 2010 . In May 2010 , the bridge received $ 1 @.@ 79 million in federal funding for the pedestrian and bike paths . By this time , the new Indian River Inlet Bridge was about halfway complete .
On January 28 , 2011 , DelDOT filed a lawsuit against bridge design firm Figg Bridge Engineers and subconsultant MACTEC Engineering and Consulting for geotechnical errors . In February 2011 , DelDOT awarded George & Lynch an $ 11 @.@ 6 million contract to build the approach roads to the new Indian River Inlet Bridge as well as to demolish the old bridge . A minor fire occurred on the north side of the bridge construction site ; no damage was reported to the bridge structure . The north side of the bridge was finished in August 2011 when the form travelers were removed . Over 250 people were employed in the construction of the bridge .
The new Indian River Inlet Bridge opened to southbound traffic on January 20 , 2012 . Delaware Governor Jack Markell , U.S. Senator Tom Carper , and DelDOT Secretary Shailen Bhatt rode in the first car across the bridge . On January 30 , 2012 , one northbound lane of the new bridge opened . On May 6 , 2012 , the Indian River Inlet Bridge was officially dedicated in a public ceremony in which visitors were able to walk across the bridge . All remaining lanes of the four @-@ lane bridge as well as its pedestrian and bicycle walkway opened that day .
Demolition of the 1965 bridge and its 1976 addition began in the spring of 2012 and was completed in the spring of 2013 .
= New Zealand =
New Zealand / njuːˈziːlənd / ( Māori : Aotearoa [ aɔˈtɛaɾɔa ] ) is an island nation in the southwestern Pacific Ocean . The country geographically comprises two main landmasses – that of the North Island , or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and the South Island , or Te Waipounamu – and numerous smaller islands . New Zealand is situated some 1 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 900 mi ) east of Australia across the Tasman Sea and roughly 1 @,@ 000 kilometres ( 600 mi ) south of the Pacific island areas of New Caledonia , Fiji , and Tonga . Because of its remoteness , it was one of the last lands to be settled by humans . During its long period of isolation , New Zealand developed a distinctive biodiversity of animal , fungal and plant life . The country 's varied topography and its sharp mountain peaks , such as the Southern Alps , owe much to the tectonic uplift of land and volcanic eruptions . New Zealand 's capital city is Wellington , while its most populous city is Auckland .
Sometime between 1250 and 1300 CE , Polynesians settled in the islands that would later become New Zealand , and developed a distinctive Māori culture . In 1642 , Abel Tasman , a Dutch explorer , became the first European to sight New Zealand . In 1840 , representatives of the British Crown and Māori Chiefs signed the Treaty of Waitangi , making New Zealand a British colony . Today , the majority of New Zealand 's population of 4 @.@ 7 million is of European descent ; the indigenous Māori are the largest minority , followed by Asians and Pacific Islanders . Reflecting this , New Zealand 's culture is mainly derived from Māori and early British settlers , with recent broadening arising from increased immigration . The official languages are English , Māori and New Zealand Sign Language , with English predominant .
New Zealand is a developed country with a market economy . New Zealand is a World Bank high @-@ income economy and ranks highly in international comparisons of national performance , such as health , education , economic freedom and quality of life . Nationally , legislative authority is vested in an elected , unicameral Parliament , while executive political power is exercised by the Cabinet , led by the Prime Minister , who is currently John Key . Queen Elizabeth II is the country 's head of state and is represented by a Governor @-@ General . In addition , New Zealand is organised into 11 regional councils and 67 territorial authorities for local government purposes . The Realm of New Zealand also includes Tokelau ( a dependent territory ) ; the Cook Islands and Niue ( self @-@ governing states in free association with New Zealand ) ; and the Ross Dependency , which is New Zealand 's territorial claim in Antarctica . New Zealand is a member of the United Nations , Commonwealth of Nations , ANZUS , Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development , Pacific Islands Forum , and Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation .
= = Etymology = =
Dutch explorer Abel Tasman sighted New Zealand in 1642 and called it Staten Landt , supposing it was connected to a landmass of the same name at the southern tip of South America . In 1645 , Dutch cartographers renamed the land Nova Zeelandia after the Dutch province of Zeeland . British explorer James Cook subsequently anglicised the name to New Zealand .
Aotearoa ( often translated as " land of the long white cloud " ) is the current Māori name for New Zealand . It is unknown whether Māori had a name for the whole country before the arrival of Europeans , with Aotearoa originally referring to just the North Island . Māori had several traditional names for the two main islands , including Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui ( the fish of Māui ) for the North Island and Te Waipounamu ( the waters of greenstone ) or Te Waka o Aoraki ( the canoe of Aoraki ) for the South Island . Early European maps labelled the islands North ( North Island ) , Middle ( South Island ) and South ( Stewart Island / Rakiura ) . In 1830 , maps began to use North and South to distinguish the two largest islands and by 1907 , this was the accepted norm . The New Zealand Geographic Board discovered in 2009 that the names of the North Island and South Island had never been formalised , and names and alternative names were formalised in 2013 . This set the names as North Island or Te Ika @-@ a @-@ Māui , and South Island or Te Waipounamu . Note that for each island , either its English or Māori name can be used , or both can be used together .
= = History = =
New Zealand was one of the last major landmasses settled by humans . Radiocarbon dating , evidence of deforestation and mitochondrial DNA variability within Māori populations suggest New Zealand was first settled by Eastern Polynesians between 1250 and 1300 , concluding a long series of voyages through the southern Pacific islands . Over the centuries that followed , these settlers developed a distinct culture now known as Māori . The population was divided into iwi ( tribes ) and hapū ( subtribes ) who would sometimes cooperate , sometimes compete and sometimes fight against each other . At some point , a group of Māori migrated to the Chatham Islands ( which they named Rēkohu ) where they developed their distinct Moriori culture . The Moriori population was all but wiped out between 1835 and 1862 , largely because of Taranaki Māori invasion and enslavement in the 1830s , although European diseases also contributed . In 1862 , only 101 survived and the last known full @-@ blooded Moriori died in 1933 .
The first Europeans known to have reached New Zealand were Dutch explorer Abel Tasman and his crew in 1642 . In a hostile encounter , four crew members were killed and at least one Māori was hit by canister shot . Europeans did not revisit New Zealand until 1769 when British explorer James Cook mapped almost the entire coastline . Following Cook , New Zealand was visited by numerous European and North American whaling , sealing and trading ships . They traded European food , metal tools , weapons and other goods for timber , Māori food , artifacts and water . The introduction of the potato and the musket transformed Māori agriculture and warfare . Potatoes provided a reliable food surplus , which enabled longer and more sustained military campaigns . The resulting intertribal Musket Wars encompassed over 600 battles between 1801 and 1840 , killing 30 @,@ 000 – 40 @,@ 000 Māori . From the early 19th century , Christian missionaries began to settle New Zealand , eventually converting most of the Māori population . The Māori population declined to around 40 percent of its pre @-@ contact level during the 19th century ; introduced diseases were the major factor .
In 1788 Captain Arthur Phillip assumed the position of Governor of the new British colony of New South Wales which according to his commission included New Zealand . The British Government appointed James Busby as British Resident to New Zealand in 1832 following a petition from northern Māori . In 1835 , following an announcement of impending French settlement by Charles de Thierry , the nebulous United Tribes of New Zealand sent a Declaration of the Independence to King William IV of the United Kingdom asking for protection . Ongoing unrest , the proposed settlement of New Zealand by the New Zealand Company ( which had already sent its first ship of surveyors to buy land from Māori ) and the dubious legal standing of the Declaration of Independence prompted the Colonial Office to send Captain William Hobson to claim sovereignty for Great Britain and negotiate a treaty with the Māori . The Treaty of Waitangi was first signed in the Bay of Islands on 6 February 1840 . In response to the New Zealand Company 's attempts to establish an independent settlement in Wellington and French settlers purchasing land in Akaroa , Hobson declared British sovereignty over all of New Zealand on 21 May 1840 , even though copies of the Treaty were still circulating throughout the country for Māori to sign . With the signing of the Treaty and declaration of sovereignty the number of immigrants , particularly from the United Kingdom , began to increase .
New Zealand , still part of the colony of New South Wales , became a separate Colony of New Zealand on 1 July 1841 . The colony gained a representative government in 1852 and the first Parliament met in 1854 . In 1856 the colony effectively became self @-@ governing , gaining responsibility over all domestic matters other than native policy . ( Control over native policy was granted in the mid @-@ 1860s . ) Following concerns that the South Island might form a separate colony , premier Alfred Domett moved a resolution to transfer the capital from Auckland to a locality near the Cook Strait . Wellington was chosen for its harbour and central location , with parliament officially sitting there for the first time in 1865 . As immigrant numbers increased , conflicts over land led to the New Zealand Wars of the 1860s and 1870s , resulting in the loss and confiscation of much Māori land .
In 1891 the Liberal Party led by John Ballance came to power as the first organised political party . The Liberal Government , later led by Richard Seddon , passed many important social and economic measures . In 1893 New Zealand was the first nation in the world to grant all women the right to vote and in 1894 pioneered the adoption of compulsory arbitration between employers and unions . In 1898 Seddon 's government passed the Old @-@ age Pensions Act of 1898 , the first general pensions scheme in the British Empire .
In 1907 , at the request of the New Zealand Parliament , King Edward VII proclaimed New Zealand a dominion within the British Empire , reflecting its self @-@ governing status . Accordingly , the title " Dominion of New Zealand " dates from 1907 .
In 1947 the country adopted the Statute of Westminster , confirming that the British parliament could no longer legislate for New Zealand without the consent of New Zealand . New Zealand was involved in world affairs , fighting , as part of the British Empire , in the First and Second World Wars and suffering through the Great Depression . The depression led to the election of the first Labour government and the establishment of a comprehensive welfare state and a protectionist economy . New Zealand experienced increasing prosperity following World War II and Māori began to leave their traditional rural life and move to the cities in search of work . A Māori protest movement developed , which criticised Eurocentrism and worked for greater recognition of Māori culture and the Treaty of Waitangi . In 1975 , a Waitangi Tribunal was set up to investigate alleged breaches of the Treaty , and it was enabled to investigate historic grievances in 1985 . The government has negotiated settlements of these grievances with many iwi , although Māori claims to the foreshore and seabed have proved controversial in the 2000s .
= = Politics = =
= = = Government = = =
New Zealand is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary democracy , although its constitution is not codified . Elizabeth II is the Queen of New Zealand and the head of state . The Queen is represented by the Governor @-@ General , whom she appoints on the advice of the Prime Minister . The Governor @-@ General can exercise the Crown 's prerogative powers , such as reviewing cases of injustice and making appointments of ministers , ambassadors and other key public officials , and in rare situations , the reserve powers ( e.g. the power to dissolve Parliament or refuse the Royal Assent of a bill into law ) . The powers of the Queen and the Governor @-@ General are limited by constitutional constraints and they cannot normally be exercised without the advice of Cabinet .
The New Zealand Parliament holds legislative power and consists of the Queen and the House of Representatives . It also included an upper house , the Legislative Council , until this was abolished in 1950 . The supremacy of Parliament , over the Crown and other government institutions , was established in England by the Bill of Rights 1689 and has been ratified as law in New Zealand . The House of Representatives is democratically elected and a Government is formed from the party or coalition with the majority of seats . If no majority is formed a minority government can be formed if support from other parties during confidence and supply votes is assured . The Governor @-@ General appoints ministers under advice from the Prime Minister , who is by convention the Parliamentary leader of the governing party or coalition . Cabinet , formed by ministers and led by the Prime Minister , is the highest policy @-@ making body in government and responsible for deciding significant government actions . By convention , members of cabinet are bound by collective responsibility to decisions made by cabinet .
Almost all parliamentary general elections between 1853 and 1993 were held under the first @-@ past @-@ the @-@ post voting system . The elections since 1930 have been dominated by two political parties , National and Labour . Since the 1996 election , a form of proportional representation called Mixed Member Proportional ( MMP ) has been used . Under the MMP system each person has two votes ; one is for electoral seats ( including some reserved for Māori ) , and the other is for a party . Since the 2014 election , there have been 71 electorate seats ( which includes 7 Māori electorates ) , and the remaining 49 seats are assigned so that representation in parliament reflects the party vote , although a party has to win one electoral seat or 5 percent of the total party vote before it is eligible for these seats . Between March 2005 and August 2006 New Zealand became the only country in the world in which all the highest offices in the land ( Head of State , Governor @-@ General , Prime Minister , Speaker and Chief Justice ) were occupied simultaneously by women .
Judges and judicial officers are appointed non @-@ politically and under strict rules regarding tenure to help maintain constitutional independence from the government . This theoretically allows the judiciary to interpret the law based solely on the legislation enacted by Parliament without other influences on their decisions . The Privy Council in London was the country 's final court of appeal until 2004 , when it was replaced with the newly established Supreme Court of New Zealand . The judiciary , headed by the Chief Justice , includes the Court of Appeal , the High Court , and subordinate courts .
New Zealand is identified as one of the world 's most stable and well @-@ governed nations . As of 2011 , the country was ranked fifth in the strength of its democratic institutions and first in government transparency and lack of corruption . New Zealand has a high level of civic participation , with 79 % voter turnout during the most recent elections , compared to an OECD average of 72 % . Furthermore , 67 % of New Zealanders say they trust their political institutions , far higher than the OECD average of 56 % .
= = = Foreign relations and the military = = =
Early colonial New Zealand allowed the British Government to determine external trade and be responsible for foreign policy . The 1923 and 1926 Imperial Conferences decided that New Zealand should be allowed to negotiate their own political treaties and the first commercial treaty was ratified in 1928 with Japan . On 3 September 1939 New Zealand allied itself with Britain and declared war on Germany with Prime Minister Michael Savage proclaiming , " Where she goes , we go ; where she stands , we stand . "
In 1951 the United Kingdom became increasingly focused on its European interests , while New Zealand joined Australia and the United States in the ANZUS security treaty . The influence of the United States on New Zealand weakened following protests over the Vietnam War , the refusal of the United States to admonish France after the sinking of the Rainbow Warrior , disagreements over environmental and agricultural trade issues and New Zealand 's nuclear @-@ free policy . Despite the US 's suspension of ANZUS obligations the treaty remained in effect between New Zealand and Australia , whose foreign policy has followed a similar historical trend . Close political contact is maintained between the two countries , with free trade agreements and travel arrangements that allow citizens to visit , live and work in both countries without restrictions . In 2013 , there are about 650 @,@ 000 New Zealand citizens living in Australia , which is about 15 percent of the population of New Zealand . 65 @,@ 000 Australians live in New Zealand .
New Zealand has a strong presence among the Pacific Island countries . A large proportion of New Zealand 's aid goes to these countries and many Pacific people migrate to New Zealand for employment . Permanent migration is regulated under the 1970 Samoan Quota Scheme and the 2002 Pacific Access Category , which allow up to 1 @,@ 100 Samoan nationals and up to 750 other Pacific Islanders respectively to become permanent New Zealand residents each year . A seasonal workers scheme for temporary migration was introduced in 2007 and in 2009 about 8 @,@ 000 Pacific Islanders were employed under it . New Zealand is involved in the Pacific Islands Forum , Asia @-@ Pacific Economic Cooperation and the Association of Southeast Asian Nations Regional Forum ( including the East Asia Summit ) . New Zealand is also a member of the United Nations , the Commonwealth of Nations , the Organisation for Economic Co @-@ operation and Development and the Five Power Defence Arrangements .
The New Zealand Defence Force has three branches : the Royal New Zealand Navy , the New Zealand Army and the Royal New Zealand Air Force . New Zealand 's national defence needs are modest because of the unlikelihood of direct attack , although it does have a global presence . The country fought in both world wars , with notable campaigns in Gallipoli , Crete , El Alamein and Cassino . The Gallipoli campaign played an important part in fostering New Zealand 's national identity and strengthened the ANZAC tradition it shares with Australia . According to Mary Edmond @-@ Paul , " World War I had left scars on New Zealand society , with nearly 18 @,@ 500 in total dying as a result of the war , more than 41 @,@ 000 wounded , and others affected emotionally , out of an overseas fighting force of about 103 @,@ 000 and a population of just over a million . " New Zealand also played key parts in the naval Battle of the River Plate and the Battle of Britain air campaign . During World War II , the United States had more than 400 @,@ 000 American military personnel stationed in New Zealand .
In addition to Vietnam and the two world wars , New Zealand fought in the Korean War , the Second Boer War , the Malayan Emergency , the Gulf War and the Afghanistan War . It has contributed forces to several regional and global peacekeeping missions , such as those in Cyprus , Somalia , Bosnia and Herzegovina , the Sinai , Angola , Cambodia , the Iran – Iraq border , Bougainville , East Timor , and the Solomon Islands . New Zealand also sent a unit of army engineers to help rebuild Iraqi infrastructure for one year during the Iraq War .
New Zealand ranks 8th in the Center for Global Development 's 2012 Commitment to Development Index , which ranks the world 's most developed countries on their dedication to policies that benefit poorer nations . New Zealand is considered the fourth most peaceful country in the world according to the 2014 Global Peace Index .
= = = Local government and external territories = = =
Officially , New Zealand is divided into 16 regions .
The early European settlers divided New Zealand into provinces , which had a degree of autonomy . Because of financial pressures and the desire to consolidate railways , education , land sales and other policies , government was centralised and the provinces were abolished in 1876 . As a result , New Zealand now has no separately represented subnational entities . The provinces are remembered in regional public holidays and sporting rivalries .
Since 1876 , various councils have administered local areas under legislation determined by the central government . In 1989 , the government reorganised local government into the current two @-@ tier structure of regional councils and territorial authorities . The 249 municipalities that existed in 1975 have now been consolidated into 67 territorial authorities and 11 regional councils . The regional councils ' role is to regulate " the natural environment with particular emphasis on resource management " , while territorial authorities are responsible for sewage , water , local roads , building consents and other local matters . Five of the territorial councils are unitary authorities and also act as regional councils . The territorial authorities consist of 13 city councils , 53 district councils , and the Chatham Islands Council . While officially the Chatham Islands Council is not a unitary authority , it undertakes many functions of a regional council .
New Zealand is one of 16 realms within the Commonwealth . The Realm of New Zealand is the
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Empire of Brazil . Brazil had no practical access to its own territory of Mato Grosso except by sailing from the Atlantic Ocean up the River Paraguay ( see map ) ; fear that Paraguay might interfere with the navigation was a source of conflict . Where Paraguay ended , and where the Mato Grosso began , was a matter of opinion .
= = = Anxiety about Buenos Aires = = =
The Spanish Viceroyalty of the River Plate occupied an enormous territory roughly coterminous with the modern @-@ day territories of Bolivia , central and northern Argentina , Paraguay and Uruguay . Although it did not exist for very long ( 1776 – 1810 ) the Spanish Viceroy had his seat in the city of Buenos Aires . Upon becoming independent from Spain the city claimed and thought itself rightly to be the capital of an identical territory it called the United Provinces of South America . Other provinces – especially Bolivia , Uruguay and Paraguay – begged to differ and the Viceroyalty broke up in acrimony and warfare . In particular , Buenos Aires did not recognise the independence of Paraguay and in 1811 sent an army under General Belgrano to try to ‘ recover ’ it . The Buenos Aires governor Juan Manuel Rosas during his dictatorship ( 1835 – 52 ) tried to bring Paraguay to heel by closing the River Paraná to commercial traffic ( see Battle of Vuelta de Obligado ) . Buenos Aires province fell out with the other provinces of the Argentine Confederation and declared itself the independent State of Buenos Aires ; it did not recognise Paraguay 's independence even after the others had . It was not until quite late in the nineteenth century ( 1859 ) that a re @-@ united Argentina formally recognised an independent Paraguay . Even so , the boundaries between Argentina and Paraguay were in dispute , notably the Chaco and Misiones territories .
= = = Defensive outlook of Paraguay = = =
Upon its independence in 1811 Paraguay tried to keep out of the anarchy of adjoining Hispanic America . Its formidable dictator José Gaspar Rodríguez de Francia ( 1820 – 1840 ) imposed a strict policy of isolation . During his reign few were allowed to enter Paraguay , or to leave it . Professor Williams ' assessment : " In an attempt to coerce Paraguay economically and bring it to its knees , Buenos Aires only stiffened Paraguayan nationalism and produced a voluntary , xenophobic isolation of the breakaway province " .
After Francia 's death he was succeeded by Carlos Antonio López , ( called ‘ López I ’ by some authors , a convenient if inaccurate designation ) , the father of Francisco Solano López ( ‘ López II ’ ) . López I did open up Paraguay to foreign trade and technology , but the steamship made his country vulnerable to invasion and he understandably feared the machinations of his powerful neighbours .
During his presidency there were conflicts , not only with Brazil and Buenos Aires , but also the United States : the USS Water Witch affair of 1855 in which the fort of Itapirú fired upon an American warship , which led to a US naval expedition against Paraguay in 1858 . Although Carlos López was astute enough to know when to back down , he resolved to make Paraguay immune to foreign attack in future .
= = = Immediate cause of its construction ; initial works = = =
In 1777 , in colonial times , a modest guardia ( fortlet or lookout post ) was established at Humaitá , a place about 15 miles above the mouth of the River Paraguay . However , a more formidable version was built in stages on the orders of López I. He started the work hurriedly in 1854 during conflict with Brazil over boundaries and navigation , when Paraguay was threatened by a Brazilian flotilla ; fortunately for López , the Brazilians were delayed by the low state of the river . The Paraguayan author and diplomat Gregorio Benítes − who was in the Paraguayan army at the time − gives a slightly different account . López I , hearing the Brazilian squadron was on its way , immediately transferred 6 @,@ 000 troops from Paso de Patria to Humaitá ; working night and day , in 15 days they fortified that place , including furnaces for making red hot cannonballs . The Brazilian squadron desisted because of the strength of the fortifications ; the low state of the water is mentioned only incidentally .
To a design by the Hungarian colonel of engineers Wisner de Morgenstern , he hastily fortified the river 's left bank with a few batteries , which were continually but slowly augmented , and a trench was dug on the land side enclosing the rear of them . He felled the virgin forest , leaving only a few scattered trees , grubbed up the roots , and laid out the first batteries , to whose completion some two years were devoted . By January 1859 the installation appeared formidable . As described by an eye @-@ witness aboard USS Fulton , part of the Paraguay expedition sent by President Buchanan to demand reparations for wrongs alleged to have been done to the United States
Sixteen ominous apertures pointed their gloom , and whatever else they may contain , upon us ; and , like the eyes of the figure in the picture , seemed to follow the vessel 's motion ... These apertures are those of the casemate battery , constructed of brick , but very deep , and defended by the very formidable battery of sixteen eight inch guns .
Numerous other batteries were noticed . Fulton , having left the rest of her squadron behind , was allowed to proceed upriver .
The works , which were continually extended , were supervised by British engineers , of whom there were a considerable number on contract to the government of Paraguay .
= = Description of the finished fortress = =
= = = Location = = =
The fortress of Humaitá was situated on a level cliff about 30 feet ( 10 metres ) above the river , on a sharp horseshoe bend . The bend , called the ‘ ’ ’ Vuelta de Humaitá ’ ’ ’ was an ideal strategic pinch point . It was some 1 @,@ 500 metres ( 4 @,@ 900 ft ) long ; the navigable channel narrowed to only 200 metres ( 660 ft ) broad ; the current was 2 @.@ 8 knots ( 5 @.@ 2 km / h ; 3 @.@ 2 mph ) and in places 3 knots ( 5 @.@ 6 km / h ; 3 @.@ 5 mph ) , difficult for the ships of the day to stem ; and ( a matter that was to horrify the Brazilian navy ) ideal for the release of ‘ torpedoes ' ( nineteenth century floating naval mines ) .
An unpleasant surprise for an invading flotilla was that , owing to the peculiar conformation of the river bed , there were " treacherous backwaters which often neutralize the action of the rudder , in direct proportion to the length of vessels " .
= = = = First impression = = = =
The explorer Captain Sir Richard Burton , who visited the scene during the war – when the Brazilians were still dismantling the fortifications – described it thus :
The sweep is more than usually concave , to the benefit of gunnery and the detriment of shipping . Nothing more dangerous than this great bend , where vessels were almost sure to get confused under fire , as happened at Port Hudson to the fleet commanded by Admiral D. G. Farragut . The level bank , twenty to thirty feet above the river , and dipping in places , is bounded by swamps up @-@ stream and down @-@ stream . Earthworks , consisting of trenches , curtains and redans , disposed at intervals where wanted , and suggesting the lines of Torres Vedras , rest both their extremities upon the river , whose shape here is that of the letter U , and extend in gibbous shape inland to the south . The outline measures nearly eight miles and a half , and encloses meadow land to the extent of 8 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 square yards – a glorious battlefield .
= = = River batteries = = =
An invading force , if steaming around the bend upriver , would have to pass eight batteries , all capable of concentrating fire on the reentrant angle . Furthermore shipping was within range of the heavy guns well before arriving at the bend , and well after it .
= = = = Preliminary batteries = = = =
First it had to pass the Humaitá redoubt , armed with a single 8 inch ( 20 cm calibre ) gun .
It must then pass the Itapirú ( seven guns ) ; the Pesada [ heavy ] ( five guns ) , all partly revetted with brick ; the Octava or Madame Lynch ( three guns en barbette ) ; the Coimbra ( eight guns ) ; and the Tacuarí ( three guns ) .
= = = = The Batería Londres = = = =
Next , the invading flotilla must pass the Batería Londres ( so called because most of the técnicos in Paraguay were recruited by the Limehouse , London , firm of J. & A. Blyth ) . Its walls were 8 @.@ 2 metres ( 27 ft ) thick . It was supposed to be rendered bomb @-@ proof by layers of earth heaped upon brick arches , and there were embrasures for 16 guns . " Of these ports " said Burton " eight were walled up and converted into workshops , because the artillerymen were in hourly dread of their caving in and crumbling down . "
= = = = The Batería Cadenas = = = =
As a climax the invading force would come alongside the Bateria Cadenas ( Chain battery , for it protected the chain boom ) , backed by the Artillery Barracks . According to a survey by the Brazilian engineering corps this battery had 18 guns .
= = = The chain boom = = =
The boom across the river , intended to detain shipping under the guns , is variously described in the sources . Richard Burton and Commander Kennedy RN said it comprised 7 chains twisted together , of which ( wrote Burton ) the largest had a 1 @.@ 75 inch diameter link . It was made fast to a windlass supported by a house about 100 yards from the bank . Nearer the battery stood a still larger capstan . Other sources , notably George Thompson ( de facto chief engineer of Paraguayan army ) wrote that there were three chains side @-@ by @-@ side , of which the heaviest had 7 @.@ 5 inch links , sustained by barges and canoes .
The official staff report of Allied force that captured Humaitá , dated 29 July 1868 , by Corderiro Tôrres e Alvim , said that on both banks of the river there were seven chains which , after entering the water , were bound to three . The latter were partly sustained by large floating iron boxes .
= = = Approach = = =
Before even arriving at the Vuelta de Humaitá an invading squadron would first have to navigate the River Paraguay from its mouth , and run the gauntlet of such batteries as the Paraguayans were able to deploy on its left bank , particularly at Curuzú and Curupayty . Whether unarmoured warships could have done so without being sunk was never ascertained ; during the War the unarmoured wooden vessels of the Brazilian Navy did not attempt it .
Although heavily iron @-@ plated ships ought not be sunk by these river batteries , their very weight and size made them difficult , and at times impossible , to navigate in the shallow waters of the River Paraguay . As Commander Kennedy of the Royal Navy observed :
The river Paraguay presents no important obstacles to navigation , the principal point to observe being the [ seasonal ] rise of the water ; this varies sometimes as much as three fathoms ... The danger attendant on grounding in the Paraguay is ... [ that it ] has a sharp rocky bottom ... The entrance to the Paraguay at Tres Bocas is 500 yards wide , and at medium river there is a depth of twelve feet of water . The iron @-@ clads of the Brazilian fleet , many of which drew twelve and thirteen feet of water , were entirely dependent on these periodical rises , both for forward movements , and also for retreat , if it should have been necessary . Their guns and ammunition were not shipped until they arrived at Corrientes ; for the Paraná is equally shallow in various parts ...
It is difficult to conceive a more formidable obstacle to an advancing squadron than this small portion of the river between Tres Bocas and Humaitá . The water is shallow , and most uncertain in its depth ; the turnings in the channel are sharp and frequent , and every available point was bristling with guns of heavy calibre ...
= = = ' Torpedoes ' = = =
For an invading force of ironclads the most dangerous aspect of Humaitá was not the artillery batteries but the ' torpedoes ' that could be released in the confined , shallow and uncharted stream of the River Paraguay .
These torpedoes were improvised floating contact mines . The first was devised by " a Yankee , Mr. Krüger " . They consisted of a zinc cylinder containing a charge of gunpowder . The largest used a charge of 1 @,@ 500 lbs ( 680 kilos ) and the explosion shook the ground at the town of Corrientes , Argentina forty miles off . The fuses were designed and made by George Frederick Masterman , chief apothecary to the Paraguayan Army : they were glass capsules of sulphuric acid which , when broken by striking a heavy object , ignited a potassium chlorate / sugar mixture .
Although most of these devices failed to go off , except prematurely , one did sink the 1 @,@ 000 ton Brazilian ironclad Rio de Janeiro killing 155 men , and since they were released almost every night they had to be taken seriously . The Brazilian navy had patrol boats out rowing in three shifts , including nights , which tried to spot the floating torpedoes ; if they did , they attempted to hook their floats with grappling irons on long lines . Wrote Commander Kennedy RN , " It was a service of great danger " .
Deploying the torpedoes was not without its dangers either . After Kruger 's death – he was blown up by one of his torpedoes – the work was taken over by a Paraguayan called Ramos who had served an apprenticeship in England . He met the same fate , and the work was given to a Polish refugee named Michkoffsky . Michkoffsky used to take the torpedoes down the river in a canoe rowed by four boys . One day he was distracted and the boys absconded to the Allies with the torpedo : he was arrested , reduced to the ranks and sent to the front , where he was soon killed . An anonymous , if brave , Paraguayan diver tried to attach a torpedo to the Brazilian ironclad Brasil by hand : this was deduced when he was found entangled in her rudder @-@ chains , drowned .
The Paraguayans deliberately moored empty demijohns in the river to make the Brazilian navy suppose they marked the situations of torpedoes . It made them noticeably reluctant to navigate its waters .
= = = Landward defences : the Quadrilateral = = =
The Paraguayans had also taken precautions against Humaitá being seized from the landward side . Much of it was protected naturally by carrizal , marsh or swamp , and where not , an elaborate system of trenches was constructed , eventually extending over 13 km ( 8 mi ) with palisades and chevaux @-@ de @-@ fríse at regular intervals , known as the Quadrilateral ( Cuadrilátero , Polígono or Quadrilatero in various language sources ) . These trenches mounted batteries where appropriate . The trenches and natural barriers are shown in the map reproduced in this section of this Article , which was drawn to scale by Lt. Colonel George Thompson ( engineer ) of the Paraguayan army ; he personally made a detailed trigonometric survey of the ground . The map is corroborated by Burton 's detailed verbal description based on his own inspection on horseback and on figures supplied to him by Lt. Colonel Chodasiewicz of the Argentine Army .
Burton reported that the layout required a garrison of at least 10 @,@ 000 men ; at the time of the Siege of Humaitá the Allied Commander @-@ in @-@ chief estimated that it had 18 @,@ 000 and possibly 20 @,@ 000 men and 120 cannon not including the river batteries .
= = = = Unmapped terrain = = = =
While the Paraguayans were familiar with the ground , maps of the territory were , for the Allies , non @-@ existent . The area lay in the province of Ñeembucú , which is flat , low @-@ lying and obscured by swamp or carrizal . For example , when they established their main camp at Tuyutí in southern Paraguay the Allies did not realise they were placing it within earshot of the southeastern line of the Quadrilateral : the Sauce trench . In his 5 @-@ volume work on the Paraguayan war the Brazilian historian Tasso Fragoso insists that a Brazilian high command letter of April 1867
does not leave the slightest doubt that the allies were completely ignorant not only of the topography of the terrain [ to the south of the fortress ] , but that all of it was protected by lines of [ Paraguayan ] entrenchments .
In order to gradually map the area the Allies were obliged to resort to mangrullos ( improvised watch towers ) or ( a first in South American warfare ) captive observation balloons , but the Paraguayans obscured the terrain by lighting fires of damp grass .
= = = = Headquarters = = = =
López II established his headquarters at Paso Pucú , one of the corners of the Quadrilateral ( see map in this Section ) . Amongst orange groves stood the dwellings of López , his mistress Eliza Lynch , and military officers who enjoyed his confidence e.g. Generals Barrios , Resquín , and Bruges ; also Bishop Palacios , Lt Colonel George Thompson the chief engineer and Dr Stewart the surgeon @-@ general . The houses were simple ranchos with thatched roofs . A quadrangle of large traverses or earthworks protected from Allied artillery fire his house , that of Mrs Lynch , and those of his servants . These earthworks were made of sods and the largest was said to contain 422 @,@ 080 pieces . At the centre of the quadrangle was a mangrullo or watchtower . According to Burton the mangrullo 's ladders were surrounded by hides and matting , " an unusual precaution intended to conceal petticoated ankles " , for it was used by Mrs Lynch ; and indeed a contemporaneous drawing by the Brazilian engineering corps does show , unusually for Paraguay , a mangrullo with a covered ascent .
A large military hospital was established halfway between Humaitá and Paso Pucú and another one for field officers at Paso Pucú itself . At Paso Pucú there were two settlements for female camp @-@ followers ; they assisted in the hospitals and washed the soldiers ' clothes . They were allowed no rations , and lived on what beef the soldiers gave them . There was a cemetery , and a prisoner @-@ of war compound .
= = = = Newspapers = = = =
At headquarters were published the military newspapers Cabichuí ( mainly in Spanish ) and Cacique Lambaré ( mainly in Guaraní ) . These featured crude but effective propaganda woodcuts , often of a racially offensive nature . Paper was in short supply but an ersatz version was improvised from caraguatá ( wild pineapple ) .
= = = = Electrical telegraphy = = = =
In the final stages of the fortifications electrical telegraph lines were laid out from Humaitá and the points in the Quadrilateral to López 's headquarters at Pasó Pucú ; and he could instantly be informed — in Morse code — of an enemy attack on any point . The English military engineer George Thompson , a colonel in the Paraguayan army , recorded that the Guaraní became adept telegraphists .
= = = The Chaco side = = =
On the opposite bank of the River Paraguay begins the area known as the Gran Chaco , with a different , hot , semi @-@ arid climate . The opposite bank , now part of Argentina , but in dispute in those days , was inhabited by none except the fierce Toba Amerindians . In front of Humaitá the land was quite impracticable as far as Timbó which , when the river was high , was completely under water . ( Later , military roads were made through there at vast effort . )
= = Strategic significance and perception = =
At least before the introduction of iron @-@ plated warships , Humaitá had the reputation of being impregnable , and it became famous as the " Sebastopol of South America " . During the war the European press compared it to the Richmond and Vicksburg of the American Civil War . It was also famed in Europe and the United States as the Gibraltar of South America .
Michael Mulhall , editor of the Buenos Ayres Standard , passed the site in 1863 and reported it to the world in these terms :
A succession of formidable batteries which frowned on us as we passed under their range … [ A ] ny vessel , unless iron @-@ plated , attempting to force a passage must be sunk by the raking and concentrated fire of this fortification , which is the key to Paraguay and the upper rivers .
When López I built Humaitá all warships were made of wood , and steamships were mostly paddle @-@ driven . Wooden paddle @-@ steamers , if intending to proceed into Paraguay , would have had to steam , against the current , past the succession of batteries – where the range was 200 metres ( 660 ft ) or less – and somehow cut through the boom of twisted chains , without being sunk : this appeared to be impossible .
A modern appreciation by Professor Whigham :
As a strategic site , Humaitá was without equal in the region , for enemy ships could not ascend the Paraguay [ river ] without passing under its guns . It was also exceptionally well protected on the south and east by marshes and lagoons . The few dry areas leading to it could be reinforced with troops in such a way as to frustrate any attack .
= = Weaknesses = =
In fact , Humaitá was not invulnerable , at any rate after a sufficient supply of river @-@ navigating ironclad warships became available in South America . Indeed Burton , having inspected the captured site , thought that its potency had been greatly exaggerated – to the point that it was a bluff . The commander of the Portuguese war vessel Zarco , also there at the time , wondered how Humaitá could have humbled a powerful navy for so long .
= = = Defective weaponry = = =
Although Paraguay could and did manufacture large artillery guns , there was nevertheless a shortage — partly because guns had to be taken to reinforce the landward artillery – and not all of the guns at Humaitá were of acceptable standard . When Burton inspected them ( August 1868 ) he noted that many had been thrown into deep water but the remainder were poor :
The guns barely deserve the name ; some of them were so honeycombed that they must have been used as street posts ... Not the worst of them were made at Asunción or Ibicuy , whose furnaces and air chimneys could melt four tons per diem . Some had been converted , but it was a mere patchwork . A few rifled 12 @-@ pounders had been cast at Asunción . There were sundry old tubes bearing the arms of Spain ; two hailed from Seville , the San Gabriel ( A.D. 1671 ) and the San Juan de Dios ( 1684 ) .
However , Burton may well have been underestimating the Paraguayan artillery at its zenith : according to both Thompson and Jourdan , some guns had already been evacuated to the Chaco side by the Paraguayans when abandoning the fortress .
= = = Defective fortifications = = =
According to Burton the system of fortification lacked the latest developments , mostly using the obsolete en barbette system which failed to protect the defending artillerymen . The consequence :
Thus the works were utterly unfit to resist the developed powers of rifled artillery , the concentrated discharge from shipping , and even the accurate and searching fire of the Spencer carbine . The Londres work , besides being in a state of decay , was an exposed mass of masonry which ought to have shared the fate of forts from Sumpter to Pulaski , and when granite fails bricks cannot hope to succeed . Had the guns been mounted in Monitor towers , or even protected by sand @-@ bags , the ironclads would have suffered much more than they did in running past them .
Other observers formed similar impressions . Thompson wrote that it should have been easy for the Brazilian flotilla firing grape and canister to " sweep the Paraguayans away from their guns " " . The British gunboat HMS Doterel , which had passed the site in 1865 ( long before it was damaged in the war ) likewise thought the artillerymen were far too exposed , and that even the casemated battery ( the Londres ) had poorly constructed embrasures , so wide open as to be " veritable cannonball receptacles " , very dangerous to the garrison .
= = = Obsolescence = = =
López I fortified Humaitá in the era of the wooden paddle @-@ steamer warship . Gloire , the first ironclad warship was not launched until 1859 and that was in France , intended for a blue @-@ water navy ; and no battles between European ironclads had actually happened .
However , the evolution of the navies in the American Civil War ( 1861 – 65 ) had fulfilled a demand for heavily armoured vessels that could navigate in river waters . The Battle of Hampton Roads , in which iron @-@ armoured Union and Confederate warships were unable to sink each other , dramatically demonstrated their resistance to heavy artillery . News of this naval engagement arrived in the River Plate on 14 May 1862 and was reported in the Buenos Aires Standard in these terms :
The two steel vessels commenced a cannonade a mile apart , without doing any damage on either side . In less than an hour and a half they were alongside , and then raged so terrible an encounter that both vessels were enveloped in smoke . Two balls from the Monitor entered her adversary 's cuirass ; as soon as the wind cleared away the smoke the Monitor was seen running round Merrimac , looking for a vulnerable point , the vessels being about 35 yards apart ...
The Merrimac drove her spur against the Monitor , which received the awful shock motionless and unhurt . Now they were so close that the guns fired into each others ' mouths : at length the Confederate got a wound which made her hail the others to tow her into Norfolk . After so terrible a conflict for several hours against heavy artillery , the Monitor showed only a few dinges and scratches . The Merrimac 's spur scarcely marked her side .
The superiority so established of steel @-@ clad vessels has caused an immense sensation in America ...
The American sea @-@ fight caused great excitement in England , since it was feared that the new invention would rob that country of naval supremacy . Wooden men of war were declared , in the House of Commons , to be useless , and the Admiralty had stopped all the fortifications and arsenals , to devote all attention to the construction of a steel fleet 35 in number .
Apart from the more conventional ironclads , which the Brazilian navy could order from Britain or France , as noted the Americans had invented the monitor , an armoured , shallow draft , turreted vessel that presented little superstructure to enemy fire ; monitors could be and were built in Brazil . Thus by the time Lopez II fired the first shots against Brazil ( December 1864 ) the Humaitá defences were obsolescent to the latest naval weaponry that could be manufactured or purchased . Brazil was an enormous country and after the war broke out it could have ( and soon did have ) at least 10 ironclads .
That said , an ironclad naval force , by itself , was unlikely to pose a strategic threat to the Paraguayan nation . For assuming the latest ironclads could get past Humaitá – which they eventually did – it did not follow that unarmoured troopships could do so . Without the logistical support of an invading army , ironclads could not have operated far ahead of their lines of supply , except temporarily .
= = = Lack of tautness in the chain boom = = =
Even heavily armoured vessels might have been impeded by the chain boom , but it turned out to have an Achilles ' heel : it could not be drawn tight enough without intermediate floating supports – and these might be sunk by naval gunfire .
Burton 's description of the chain boom was :
The chain , which consisted of seven twisted together , passed diagonally through a kind of brick tunnel . On this side [ of the River Paraguay ] it was made fast to a windlass supported by a house about 100 yards from the bank . Nearer the battery stood a still larger capstan : the latter , however , wanted force to haul tight the chain .
This was so provided an enemy destroyed the chain 's intermediate floating supports ; for as explained by Thompson , the chains were
supported on a number of canoes , and on three pontoons . The [ Brazilian ] ironclads fired for three months at these pontoons and canoes , sinking all of them , when , of course , the chain went to the bottom , as the river there is about 700 yards wide , and the chain could not be drawn tight without intermediate supports . The chain was thus buried some two feet under the mud of the river , offering no obstacle whatever to the navigation .
= = = Supplying the garrison = = =
Because the marshlands were not ideal for the raising of cattle or the cultivation of manioc or maize , and because the Quadrilateral required a large garrison , food for Humaitá needed to be brought in from elsewhere . However , it was a very difficult position to supply .
Cut off by swamps , there was no easy overland communication with the nearest food @-@ producing regions . There was a coastal road , but it was poor , unfitted for oxcarts or cattle droves during the winter floods . During the War there was a shortage of steam vessels ; small river craft were difficult to land in winter . " Paraguay never resolved these transportation difficulties during the siege of Humaitá , and the army suffered the consequences " , observed Professor Cooney .
Even so , Humaitá withstood a siege of more than two years .
= = Unintended consequences = =
The Humaitá system was built to increase the security of Paraguay , but , as will now be described , its strength – real or perceived – may have had the opposite effect in the end .
= = = Provocation of Brazil = = =
For Brazil the fortifications posed a potential threat to her own security and caused her to make some preparations for war . As noted by Lt Colonel George Thompson of the Paraguayan army :
These batteries commanded the whole bend of the river , and Paraguay made all vessels anchor and ask permission before they could pass up the river . As this was the only practicable road which Brazil had to her province of Matto @-@ Grosso [ sic ] , she naturally disapproved of her stoppage of the river , and gradually accumulated large military stores in Matto @-@ Grosso , with the view , no doubt , of some day destroying Humaitá .
= = = Inducing overconfidence = = =
For Leslie Bethell , López II overestimated Paraguay 's military power , and this induced him to behave recklessly . According to Professor Bethell :
Solano López 's decision to declare war first on Brazil and then on Argentina , and to invade both their territories , proved a serious miscalculation , and one that was to have tragic consequences for the Paraguayan people . At the very least Solano López made an enormous gamble – and lost … Thus Solano López 's reckless actions brought about the very thing that most threatened the security , even the existence , of his country : a union of his two powerful neighbours …
For John Hoyt Williams , Humaitá was instrumental in generating this risk @-@ taking behaviour . According to Professor Williams :
The hundreds of heavy calibre guns mounted at Humaitá and elsewhere , the modern navy , railroad , telegraph , and munitions manufacturing establishments – all helped to bring about the horrendous War of the Triple Alliance and their own destruction by providing the hardware with which Francisco Solano López could become the Mariscal and self @-@ appointed arbiter of the Río de la Plata .
And :
Even El Mariscal would not have dared to do more than to defend his immediate borders had not his military materiel [ Williams expressly specifies Humaitá ] encouraged him to redefine those borders and play the wider and infinitely more dangerous role of fulcrum in the balance of power .
After the passage of Humaitá the Buenos Ayres Standard wrote :
None who have ever seen the place have questioned its strength . Old President López had such implicit faith in its impregnability that he believed if even a Xerxes attacked Paraguay he could not get past Humaitá . The same implicit confidence in its strength was inculcated in the minds of the Paraguayan people . Their watchword was ' Humaitá ' , and possibly to the exaggerated idea of its strength by the present López may be traced the grave political error which step by step led this unfortunate man from the cautious policy of his father to became the great champion of River Plate equilibrium .
= = = An alternative view = = =
A possible alternative view is that López was aware that developments in naval warfare were making Humaitá obsolescent , and therefore decided to take the offensive before Paraguay lost the balance of advantage altogether . Paraguay 's chief engineer the talented William Keld Whytehead cannot have failed to become aware of the advantages of ironclad vessels and it is on record that in 1863 he obtained a British patent for an iron @-@ cladded vessel . Indeed López himself only eight months after the Battle of Hampton roads was pressing the American ambassador in Asunción to procure a monitor for him ; and Paraguay placed orders for several ironclads to be built in European or Brazilian yards before the War . Further support for this view is afforded by López 's hesitation in seizing the Marques de Olinda . According to Thompson :
López was at Cerro Leon at the time [ when the Marques de Olinda arrived at Asunción ] , and hesitated for a whole day whether he should break the peace or not ... [ H ] e knew he could assemble every man in the country immediately and raise a large army ; he knew also that the Brazilians would be a long time recruiting to get a large force together , and he did not think they would wish to carry on a war for long . He said , ' If we don 't have a war now with Brazil , we shall have one at a less convenient time for ourselves . ' He therefore sent ... the ' Tacuarí ' ( the fastest steamer on the River Plate ) ... to bring her back to Asunción .
As against that , none of the sources cited in this Article establish why López declared war without waiting for his ironclads to be completed and delivered . According to Burton " it was the general opinion " that with a single ironclad at their disposal the Paraguayans " would have cleared the river " . He went further :
The war , indeed , was altogether premature : had the cuirassed ships and Whitworths ordered by the Marshal @-@ President begun the campaign , he might now have supplied the place of Mexico with a third great Latin empire .
Instead , at an early stage of the war Paraguay 's wooden vessels , only one of which had been built as a warship , were defeated by a Brazilian wooden flotilla at the Battle of the Riachuelo ; hence the River Paraguay was blockaded by the Brazilian navy ; and so the armoured ships he had ordered could neither be delivered nor paid for . The contracts were taken over by Brazil , who , eventually , used these selfsame ironclads to defeat Humaitá .
= = Upshot = =
On a traditional view , after the death of the cautious López I , his son paid not enough attention to his father 's dying words : to try to settle disputes with Brazil with the pen not the sword . He was induced by the then Uruguayan government to intervene in a conflict in the River Plate region , which he did on 13 November 1864 by firing across the bows of , then seizing , the Brazilian government ship the Marques de Olinda as she was proceeding upriver on her monthly voyage to the Mato Grosso ; he proceeded to seize the Mato Grosso itself . According to the American ambassador to Paraguay Charles A. Washburn , Lopez explained his seizure of the Brazilian ship by saying " with more candor than discretion " that only by a war could the attention and respect of the world be secured to Paraguay ; that although Paraguay was a small power in comparison with Brazil , she had " advantages of position " that gave her an equality of strength ; and that the Paraguayan troops would be already " fortified and intrenched " before the Brazilians could arrive in any considerable numbers .
Encouraged by the sluggish response of Brazil , infuriated by the mockery of the Buenos Aires press and impatient at Argentina 's refusal to permit him to invade a further Brazilian province through sovereign Argentine territory , on 13 April 1865 López fired upon and seized two small Argentine naval vessels moored in the port of Corrientes , then proceeded to take the Argentine province of that name , making Paraguayan paper currency compulsory on pain of death . The resulting War of the Triple Alliance was to destroy his country .
= = = The principal military objective of the Treaty of the Triple Alliance was Humaitá = = =
The Treaty of the Triple Alliance against Paraguay was signed 1 May 1865 and specifically stated that Humaitá must be destroyed and never rebuilt . Article 18 provided that the terms of the Treaty should be kept secret until its " principal objective " had been attained ; Consul Thomas Hutchinson thought this referred , not to the deposition of López , but to the demolition of Humaitá . Numerous political objectives are expressly mentioned in the Treaty , but no other military ones .
On the same day the Allied High Command agreed a strategic plan , the first point of which read :
The objective of the campaign operations − to which [ all ] military operations and [ invasion ] routes must be subordinated − should be the position of Humaitá .
And : -
The distance from Paso de Patria [ the invasion point ] to Humaitá is only seven leagues by land , and whatever be the difficulties of the terrain , the short distance , time and the ability to hit the enemy with the ironclads will compensate for it .
= = Effectiveness in practice = =
Despite Burton 's strictures the Fortress of Humaitá was a serious obstacle to the Allies ’ plans to proceed upriver . On it being announced in Buenos Aires that Paraguay had fired upon and seized the Argentine naval vessels , President Mitre told a furious crowd that :
In twenty @-@ four hours we shall be in the barracks , in a fortnight at Corrientes , and in three months at Asunción .
In fact , the Allies did not occupy the Paraguayan capital until 5 January 1869 , nearly four years after Mitre 's speech . The main reason was the Humaitá complex .
It may have been " only seven leagues by land " from Paso de Patria to Humaitá , but it was land that it necessary to traverse . After expelling the Paraguayans from Argentine soil the Allies landed in Paraguay and occupied Paso de Patria on 23 April 1866 . They did not capture Humaitá until 5 August 1868 . The Humaitá phase of the Paraguayan war is outside the scope of this Article . However , B.C. MacDermot thus summarised the difficulties :
[ T ] he terrain conferred a huge advantage on the defence . Below and around Humaitá was a conglomeration of lagoons , marshes and patches of jungle connected by narrow strips of terra firma which the attacking side had to squeeze through on a narrow front ... [ A ] t only two points was an advance inland possible : at Curupayty to the south and Tayí to the north of Humaitá . Behind the natural defences lay the earthworks of Humaitá , with its long outer perimeter touching on Curupaty , and a smaller fort Timbó on the Chaco side of the river . To add to their difficulties the allies found that the ironclads were not as effective as their reputation had led them to hope . They could not move far ahead of their lines of supply . The Paraguayan artillery could not sink them but it could disable them enough to put them out of action . Below the waterline they were exposed to mines and torpedoes . They could be stopped by underwater obstructions and booms . Their ability to manoeuvre depended excessively on the level of the river , which between September and March could fall as much as fourteen feet , restricting the navigable channels and increasing the perils from obstructions or sandbanks .
These difficulties are almost sufficient to account for the failure of the allies to bring about the quick decision that their overwhelming superiority in numbers and armament entitled them to hope for , but they were also handicapped by divided leadership , national jealousies and as time went on a sinking morale . For the Paraguayans these were the years in which the National Epic , as it is to @-@ day called , was forged out of countless deeds of heroism performed under leaders whose names are known in every home .
An additional cause of delay , according to Professor Williams , was the long pause after the debacle of the Battle of Curupayty when the Allies overestimated the strength both of the opposing army and of Humaitá : they allowed López almost a year to rebuild his forces , devastated at the Battle of Tuyutí .
= = = Endgame = = =
On 19 February 1868 when the river was unusually high six Brazilian ironclad vessels were ordered to dash past Humaitá , which they did with no great difficulty because by then the chain boom was anyway lying in the river bed . The Paraguayans stopped resupplying Humaitá by river and it was starved out . The fortress was finally captured in the Siege of Humaitá , an operation that culminated on 5 August 1868 . It was razed pursuant to the Treaty of the Triple Alliance . It was the decisive year of the Paraguayan War .
= Chrono Cross =
Chrono Cross ( クロノ ・ クロス ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed and published by Square ( now Square Enix ) for the PlayStation video game console . It is the successor to Chrono Trigger , which was released in 1995 for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System . Chrono Cross was developed primarily by scenarist and director Masato Kato and other designers from Chrono Trigger , including art director Yasuyuki Honne and composer Yasunori Mitsuda . Nobuteru Yūki designed the characters of the game .
The story of Chrono Cross focuses on a teenage boy named Serge and a theme of parallel worlds . Faced with an alternate reality in which he died as a child , Serge endeavors to discover the truth of the two worlds ' divergence . The flashy thief Kid and many other characters assist him in his travels around the tropical archipelago El Nido . Struggling to uncover his past and find the mysterious Frozen Flame , Serge is chiefly challenged by Lynx , a shadowy antagonist working to apprehend him .
Upon its release in Japan in 1999 and North America in 2000 , Chrono Cross received high ratings and critical acclaim , earning a perfect 10 @.@ 0 score from GameSpot . The game shipped 1 @.@ 5 million copies worldwide , leading to a Greatest Hits re @-@ release and continued life in Japan as part of the Ultimate Hits series . Chrono Cross was released on July 6 , 2011 , on the Japanese PlayStation Network and on November 8 , 2011 , in North America . Square also released a " Millennium Edition " featuring a calendar , clock , and music sampler disc .
= = Gameplay = =
Chrono Cross features standard role @-@ playing video game gameplay with some differences . Players advance the game by controlling the protagonist Serge through the game 's world , primarily by foot and boat . Navigation between areas is conducted via an overworld map , much like Chrono Trigger 's , depicting the landscape from a scaled @-@ down overhead view . Around the island world are villages , outdoor areas , and dungeons , through which the player moves in three dimensions . Locations such as cities and forests are represented by more realistically scaled field maps , in which players can converse with locals to procure items and services , solve puzzles and challenges , or encounter enemies . Like Chrono Trigger , the game features no random encounters ; enemies are openly visible on field maps or lie in wait to ambush the party . Touching the monster switches perspectives to a battle screen , in which players can physically attack , use " Elements " , defend , or run away from the enemy . Battles are turn @-@ based , allowing the player infinite time to select an action from the available menu . For both the playable characters and the computer @-@ controlled enemies , each attack reduces their number of hit points ( a numerically based life bar ) , which can be restored through some Elements . When a playable character loses all hit points , he or she faints . If all the player 's characters fall in battle , the game ends and must be restored from a previously saved chapter — except for specific storyline @-@ related battles that allow the player to lose . Chrono Cross 's developers aimed to break new ground in the genre , and the game features several innovations . For example , players can run away from all conflicts , including boss fights and the final battle .
= = = Battle and Elements = = =
The Element system of Chrono Cross handles all magic , consumable items , and character @-@ specific abilities . Elements unleash magic effects upon the enemy or party and must be equipped for use , much like the materia of 1997 's Final Fantasy VII . Elements can be purchased from shops or found in treasure chests littered throughout areas . Once acquired , they are allocated to a grid whose size and shape are unique to each character . They are ranked according to eight tiers ; certain high level Elements can only be assigned on equivalent tiers in a character 's grid . As the game progresses , the grid expands , allowing more Elements to be equipped and higher tiers to be accessed . Elements are divided into six paired oppositional types , or " colors , " each with a natural effect . Red ( fire / magma ) opposes Blue ( water / ice ) , Green ( wind / flora ) opposes Yellow ( earth / lightning ) , and White ( light / cosmos ) opposes Black ( darkness / gravity ) . Each character and enemy has an innate color , enhancing the power of using same @-@ color Elements while also making them weak against elements of the opposite color . Chrono Cross also features a " field effect " , which keeps track of Element color used in the upper corner of the battle screen . If the field is purely one color , the power of Elements of that color will be enhanced , while Elements of the opposite color will be weakened . Characters also innately learn some special techniques ( " Techs " ) that are unique to each character but otherwise act like Elements . Like Chrono Trigger , characters can combine certain Techs to make more powerful Double or Triple Techs . Consumable Elements may be used to restore hit points or heal status ailments after battle .
Another innovative aspect of Chrono Cross is its stamina bar . At the beginning of a battle , each character has seven points of stamina . When a character attacks or uses an Element , stamina is decreased proportionally to the potency of the attack . Stamina slowly recovers when the character defends or when other characters perform actions in battle . Characters with stamina below one point must wait to take action . Use of an Element reduces the user 's stamina bar by seven stamina points ; this often means that the user 's stamina gauge falls into the negative and the character must wait longer than usual to recover . With each battle , players can enhance statistics such as strength and defense . However , no system of experience points exists ; after four or five upgrades , statistics remain static until players defeat a boss . This adds a star to a running count shown on the status screen , which allows for another few rounds of statistical increases . Players can equip characters with weapons , armor , helmets , and accessories for use in battle ; for example , the " Power Seal " upgrades attack power . Items and equipment may be purchased or found on field maps , often in treasure chests . Unlike Elements , weapons and armor cannot merely be purchased with money ; instead , the player must obtain base materials — such as copper , bronze , or bone — for a blacksmith to forge for a fee . The items can later be disassembled into their original components at no cost .
= = = Parallel dimensions = = =
The existence of two major parallel dimensions , like time periods in Chrono Trigger , plays a significant role in the game . Players must go back and forth between the worlds to recruit party members , obtain items , and advance the plot . Much of the population of either world have counterparts in the other ; some party members can even visit their other versions . The player must often search for items or places found exclusively in one world . Events in one dimension sometimes have an impact in another — for instance , cooling scorched ground on an island in one world allows vegetation to grow in the other world . This system assists the presentation of certain themes , including the questioning of the importance of one 's past decisions and humanity 's role in destroying the environment . Rounding out the notable facets of Chrono Cross 's gameplay are the New Game + option and multiple endings . As in Chrono Trigger , players who have completed the game may choose to start the game over using data from the previous session . Character levels , learned techniques , equipment , and items gathered copy over , while acquired money and some story @-@ related items are discarded . On a New Game + , players can access twelve endings . Scenes viewed depend on players ' progress in the game before the final battle , which can be fought at any time in a New Game + file .
= = Plot = =
= = = Characters = = =
Chrono Cross features a diverse cast of 45 party members . Each character is outfitted with an innate Element affinity and three unique special abilities that are learned over time . If taken to the world opposite their own , characters react to their counterparts ( if available ) . Many characters tie in to crucial plot events . Since it is impossible to obtain all 45 characters in one playthrough , players must replay the game to witness everything . Through use of the New Game + feature , players can ultimately obtain all characters on one save file . Several characters speak with unique accents , including French and Australian English .
Serge , the game 's protagonist , is a 17 @-@ year @-@ old boy with blue hair who lives in the fishing village of Arni . One day , he slips into an alternate world in which he drowned ten years before . Determined to find the truth behind the incident , he follows a predestined course that leads him to save the world . He is assisted by Kid , a feisty , skilled thief who seeks the mythical Frozen Flame . Portrayed as willful and tomboyish due to her rough , thieving past , she helps Serge sneak into Viper Manor . Kid was raised by Lucca as a child , and vows to find and defeat Lynx , an anthropomorphic panther who burned down Lucca 's orphanage . A sadistic and cruel agent of the supercomputer FATE , Lynx is bent on finding Serge and succeeds in taking his body . He travels with Harle , a mysterious , playful girl dressed like a harlequin . Sent by the Dragon God to shadow Lynx and one day steal the Frozen Flame from Chronopolis , she painfully fulfills her duty though smitten with Serge . To this end , she helps Lynx manipulate the Acacia Dragoons , the powerful militia governing the islands of El Nido . As the Dragoons maintain order , they contend with Fargo , a former Dragoon turned pirate captain who holds a grudge against their leader , General Viper . Their home base , Viper Manor , is also infiltrated by Serge , Kid , and one of three characters — Nikki , a musician , Pierre , a hero @-@ in @-@ training , or Guile , a mysterious magician . Though tussling with Serge initially , the Acacia Dragoons — whose ranks include the fierce warriors Karsh , Zoah , Marcy , and Glenn — later assist him when the militaristic nation of Porre invades the archipelago . The invasion brings Norris and Grobyc to the islands , a heartful commander of an elite force and a prototype cyborg soldier , respectively . As they too seek the Frozen Flame , the plot unfolds amidst several other characters .
= = = Story = = =
Chrono Cross begins with Serge located in El Nido , a tropical archipelago inhabited by ancient natives , mainland colonists , and beings called Demi @-@ humans . Serge slips into an alternate dimension in which he drowned on the beach ten years prior , and meets the thief , " Kid " . As his adventure proceeds from here , Serge is able to recruit a multitude of allies to his cause . While assisting Kid in a heist Viper Manor to steal the Frozen Flame , he learns that that ten years before the present , the universe split into two dimensions — one in which Serge lived , and one in which he perished . Through Kid 's Astral Amulet charm , Serge travels between the dimensions . At Fort Dragonia the use of a Dragonian artifact called the Dragon Tear , Lynx switches bodies with Serge . Unaware of the switch , Kid confides in Lynx , who stabs her as the real Serge helplessly watches . Lynx boasts of his victory and banishes Serge to a strange realm called the Temporal Vortex . He takes Kid under his wing , brainwashing her to believe the real Serge ( in Lynx 's body ) is her enemy . Serge escapes with help from Harle , although his new body turns him into a stranger in his own world , with all the allies he had gained up to that point abandoning him due to his new appearance . Discovering that his new body prevents him from traveling across the dimensions , he sets out to regain his former body and learn more of the universal split that occurred ten years earlier , gaining a new band of allies along the way .. He travels to a forbidden lagoon known as the Dead Sea — a wasteland frozen in time , dotted with futuristic ruins . At the center , he locates a man named Miguel and presumably Home world 's Frozen Flame . Charged with guarding the Dead Sea by an entity named FATE , Miguel and three visions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca from Chrono Trigger explain that Serge 's existence dooms Home world 's future to destruction at the hands of Lavos . To prevent Serge from obtaining the Frozen Flame , FATE destroys the Dead Sea .
Able to return to Another world , Serge allies with the Acacia Dragoons against Porre and locates that dimension 's Dragon Tear , allowing him to return to his human form . He then enters the Sea of Eden , Another world 's physical equivalent of the Dead Sea , finding a temporal research facility from the distant future called Chronopolis . Lynx and Kid are inside ; Serge defeats Lynx and the supercomputer FATE , allowing the six Dragons of El Nido to steal the Frozen Flame and retire to Terra Tower , a massive structure raised from the sea floor . Kid falls into a coma , and Harle bids the party goodbye to fly with the Dragons . Serge regroups his party and tends to Kid , who remains comatose . Continuing his adventure , he obtains and cleanses the corrupted Masamune sword from Chrono Trigger . He then uses the Dragon relics and shards of the Dragon Tears to create the mythic Element Chrono Cross . The spiritual power of the Masamune later allows him to lift Kid from her coma . At Terra Tower , the prophet of time , revealed to be Belthasar from Chrono Trigger , visits him with visions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca . Serge learns that the time research facility Chronopolis created El Nido thousands of years ago after a catastrophic experimental failure drew it to the past . The introduction of a temporally foreign object in history caused the planet to pull in a counterbalance from a different dimension . This was Dinopolis , a city of Dragonians — parallel universe descendants of Chrono Trigger 's Reptites . The institutions warred and Chronopolis subjugated the Dragonians . Humans captured their chief creation — the Dragon God , an entity capable of controlling nature .
Chronopolis divided this entity into six pieces and created an Elements system . FATE then terraformed an archipelago , erased the memories of most Chronopolis 's staff , and sent them to inhabit and populate its new paradise . Thousands of years later , a panther demon attacked a three @-@ year @-@ old Serge . His father took him to find assistance at Marbule , but Serge 's boat blew off course due to a raging magnetic storm caused by Schala . Schala , the princess of the Kingdom of Zeal , had long ago accidentally fallen to a place known as the Darkness Beyond Time and began merging with Lavos , the chief antagonist of Chrono Trigger . Schala 's storm nullified Chronopolis 's defenses and allowed Serge to contact the Frozen Flame ; approaching it healed Serge but corrupted his father . A circuit in Chronopolis then designated Serge " Arbiter " , simultaneously preventing FATE from using the Frozen Flame by extension . The Dragons were aware of this situation , creating a seventh Dragon under the storm 's cover named Harle , who manipulated Lynx to steal the Frozen Flame for the Dragons .
After Serge returned home , FATE sent Lynx to kill Serge , hoping that it would release the Arbiter lock . Ten years after Serge drowned , the thief Kid — presumably on Belthasar 's orders — went back in time to save Serge and split the dimensions . FATE , locked out of the Frozen Flame again , knew that Serge would one day cross to Another world and prepared to apprehend him . Lynx switched bodies with Serge to dupe the biological check of Chronopolis on the Frozen Flame . Belthasar then reveals that these events were part of a plan he had orchestrated named Project Kid . Serge continues to the top of Terra Tower and defeats the Dragon God . Continuing to the beach where the split in dimensions had occurred , Serge finds apparitions of Crono , Marle , and Lucca once more . They reveal that Belthasar 's plan was to empower Serge to free Schala from melding with Lavos , lest they evolve into the " Time Devourer " , a creature capable of destroying spacetime . Lucca explains that Kid is Schala 's clone , sent to the modern age to take part in Project Kid . Serge uses a Time Egg — given to him by Belthasar — to enter the Darkness Beyond Time and vanquish the Time Devourer , separating Schala from Lavos and restores the dimensions to one . Thankful , Schala muses on evolution and the struggle of life and returns Serge to his home , noting that he will forget the entire adventure . She then seemingly records the experience in her diary , noting she will always be searching for Serge in this life and beyond , signing the entry as Schala " Kid " Zeal , implying that she and kid have merged and became whole again . A wedding photo of Kid and an obscured male sits on the diary 's desk . Scenes then depict a real @-@ life Kid searching for someone in a modern city , intending to make players entertain the possibility that their own Kid is searching for them . The ambiguous ending leaves the events of the characters ' lives following the game up to interpretation .
= = = Relation to Radical Dreamers = = =
Chrono Cross employs story arcs , characters , and themes from Radical Dreamers , a Satellaview side story to Chrono Trigger released in Japan . An illustrated text adventure , Radical Dreamers was created to wrap up an unresolved plot line of Chrono Trigger . Though it borrows from Radical Dreamers in its exposition , Chrono Cross is not a remake of Radical Dreamers , but a larger effort to fulfill that game 's purpose ; the plots of the games are irreconcilable . To resolve continuity issues and acknowledge Radical Dreamers , the developers of Chrono Cross suggested the game happened in a parallel dimension . A notable difference between the two games is that Magus — present in Radical Dreamers as Gil — is absent from Chrono Cross . Director Masato Kato originally planned for Magus to appear in disguise as Guile , but scrapped the idea due to plot difficulties . In the DS version of Chrono Trigger , Kato teases the possibility of an amnesiac Magus .
= = Development = =
Square began planning Chrono Cross immediately after the release of Xenogears in 1998 ( which itself was originally conceived as a sequel to the SNES game ) . Chrono Trigger 's scenario director Masato Kato had brainstormed ideas for a sequel as early as 1996 , following the release of Radical Dreamers . Square 's managers selected a team , appointed Hiromichi Tanaka producer , and asked Kato to direct and develop a new Chrono game in the spirit of Radical Dreamers . Kato thought Dreamers was released in a " half @-@ finished state " , and wanted to continue the story of the character Kid . Kato and Tanaka decided to produce an indirect sequel . They acknowledged that Square would soon re @-@ release Chrono Trigger as part of Final Fantasy Chronicles , which would give players a chance to catch up on the story of Trigger before playing Cross . Kato thought that using a different setting and cast for Chrono Cross would allow players unfamiliar with Chrono Trigger to play Cross without becoming confused . The Chrono Cross team decided against integrating heavy use of time travel into the game , as they thought it would be " rehashing and cranking up the volume of the last game " . Masato Kato cited the belief , " there 's no use in making something similar to before [ sic ] " , and noted , " we 're not so weak nor cheap as to try to make something exactly the same as Trigger ... Accordingly , Chrono Cross is not Chrono Trigger 2 . It doesn 't simply follow on from Trigger , but is another , different Chrono that interlaces with Trigger . " Kato and Tanaka further explained their intentions after the game 's release :
We didn 't want to directly extend Chrono Trigger into a sequel , but create a new Chrono with links to the original . Yes , the platform changed ; and yes , there were many parts that changed dramatically from the previous work . But in my view , the whole point in making Chrono Cross was to make a new Chrono with the best available skills and technologies of today . I never had any intentions of just taking the system from Trigger and moving it onto the PlayStation console . That 's why I believe that Cross is Cross , and NOT Trigger 2 .
When creating a series , one method is to carry over a basic system , improving upon it as the series progresses , but our stance has been to create a completely new and different world from the ground up , and to restructure the former style . Therefore , Chrono Cross is not a sequel to Chrono Trigger . Had it been , it would have been called Chrono Trigger 2 . Our main objective for Chrono Cross was to share a little bit of the Chrono Trigger worldview , while creating a completely different game as a means of providing new entertainment to the player . This is mainly due to the transition in platform generation from the SNES to the PS . The method I mentioned above , about improving upon a basic system , has inefficiencies , in that it 's impossible to maximize the console 's performance as the console continues to make improvements in leaps and bounds . Although essentially an RPG , at its core , it is a computer game , and I believe that games should be expressed with a close connection to the console 's performance . Therefore , in regards to game development , our goal has always been to " express the game utilizing the maximum performance of the console at that time . " I strongly believe that anything created in this way will continue to be innovative .
Full production began on Chrono Cross in mid @-@ 1998 . The Chrono Cross team reached 80 members at its peak , with additional personnel of 10 – 20 cut @-@ scene artists and 100 quality assurance testers . The team felt pressure to live up to the work of Chrono Trigger 's " Dream Team " development group , which included famous Japanese manga artist Akira Toriyama . Kato and Tanaka hired Nobuteru Yūki for character design and Yasuyuki Honne for art direction and concept art . The event team originally envisioned a short game , and planned a system by which players would befriend any person in a town for alliance in battle . Developers brainstormed traits and archetypes during the character @-@ creation process , originally planning 64 characters with unique endings that could vary in three different ways per character . Kato described the character creation process : " Take Pierre , for example : we started off by saying we wanted a wacko fake hero like Tata from Trigger . We also said things like ' we need at least one powerful mom ' , ' no way we 're gonna go without a twisted brat ' , and so on so forth . "
As production continued , the length of Cross increased , leading the event team to reduce the number of characters to 45 and scrap most of the alternate endings . Developers humorously named the character Pip " Tsumaru " in Japanese ( which means " packed " ) as a pun on their attempts to pack as much content into the game as possible . To avoid the burden of writing unique , accented dialogue for several characters , team member Kiyoshi Yoshii coded a system that produces accents by modifying basic text for certain characters . Art director Nobuteru Yuuki initially wanted the characters to appear in a more chibi format with diminutive proportions . The game world 's fusion of high technology and ethnic , tribal atmospheres proved challenging at first . He later recalled striving to harmonize the time period 's level of technology , especially as reflected in characters ' garb .
The Chrono Cross team devised an original battle system using a stamina bar and Elements . Kato planned the system around allowing players to avoid repetitive gameplay ( also known as " grinding " ) to gain combat experience . Hiromichi Tanaka likened the Elements system to card games , hoping players would feel a sense of complete control in battle . The team programmed each battle motion manually instead of performing motion capture . Developers strove to include tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek humor in the battle system 's techniques and animations to distance the game from the Final Fantasy franchise . Masato Kato planned for the game 's setting to feature a small archipelago , for fear that players would become confused traveling in large areas with respect to parallel worlds . He hoped El Nido would still impart a sense of grand scale , and the development team pushed hardware limitations in creating the game 's world . To create field maps , the team modeled locations in 3D , then chose the best angle for 2D rendering . The programmers of Chrono Cross did not use any existing Square programs or routines to code the game , instead writing new , proprietary systems . Other innovations included variable @-@ frame rate code for fast @-@ forward and slow @-@ motion gameplay ( awarded as a bonus for completing the game ) and a " CD @-@ read swap " system to allow quick data retrieval .
Masato Kato directed and wrote the main story , leaving sub @-@ plots and minor character events to other staff . The event team sometimes struggled to mesh their work on the plot due to the complexity of the parallel worlds concept . Masato Kato confirmed that Cross featured a central theme of parallel worlds , as well as the fate of Schala , which he was previously unable to expound upon in Chrono Trigger . Concerning the ending sequences showing Kid searching for someone in a modern city , he hoped to make players realize that alternate futures and possibilities may exist in their own lives , and that this realization would " not ... stop with the game " . He later added , " Paraphrasing one novelist 's favorite words , what 's important is not the message or theme , but how it is portrayed as a game . Even in Cross , it was intentionally made so that the most important question was left unanswered . " Kato described the finished story as " ole ' boy @-@ meets @-@ girl type of story " with sometimes @-@ shocking twists . Kato rode his motorcycle to relieve the stress of the game 's release schedule . He continued refining event data during the final stages of development while the rest of the team undertook debugging and quality control work . Square advertised the game by releasing a short demo of the first chapter with purchases of Legend of Mana . The North American version of Cross required three months of translation and two months of debugging before release . Richard Honeywood translated , working with Kato to rewrite certain dialogue for ease of comprehension in English . He also added instances of wordplay and alliteration to compensate for difficult Japanese jokes . To streamline translation for all 45 playable characters , Honeywood created his own version of the accent generator which needed to be more robust than the simple verbal tics of the Japanese cast . Although the trademark Chrono Cross was registered in the European Union , the game was not released in Europe .
= = = Music = = =
Chrono Cross was scored by freelance video game music composer Yasunori Mitsuda , who previously worked on Chrono Trigger . Director Masato Kato personally commissioned Mitsuda 's involvement , citing a need for the " Chrono sound " . Kato envisioned a " Southeast Asian feel , mixed with the foreign tastes and the tones of countries such as Greece " ; Mitsuda centered his work around old world cultural influences , including Mediterranean , Fado , Celtic , and percussive African music . Mitsuda cited visual inspiration for songs : " All of my subjects are taken from scenery . I love artwork . " To complement the theme of parallel worlds , he gave Another and Home respectively dark and bright moods , and hoped players would feel the emotions of " ' burning soul , ' ' lonely world , ' and ' unforgettable memories ' " . Mitsuda and Kato planned music samples and sound effects with the philosophy of " a few sounds with a lot of content " .
Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes . Noriko Mitose , as selected by Masato Kato , sang the ending song — " Radical Dreamers – The Unstolen Jewel " . Ryo Yamazaki , a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix , helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation 's sound capabilities ; Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned . Certain songs were ported from the score of Radical Dreamers , such as Gale , Frozen Flame , and Viper Mansion . Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . The melody of Far Promise ~ Dream Shore features prominently in The Dream That Time Dreams and Voyage ~ Another World . Masato Kato faced internal opposition in hiring Noriko Mitose :
Personally , for me , the biggest pressure was coming from the ending theme song . From the start of the project , I had already planned to make the ending into a Japanese song , but the problem was now " who was going to sing the song ? " There was a lot of pressure from the people in the PR division to get someone big and famous to sing it , but I was totally against the idea . And as usual , I didn 't heed to the surrounding complaints , but this time , there was a pretty tough struggle .
Production required six months of work . After wrapping , Mitsuda and Kato played Chrono Cross to record their impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes ; the ending theme brought Kato to tears . Players who preordered the game received a sampler disc of five songs , and Square released a three @-@ CD official soundtrack in Japan after the game 's debut . The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for the PlayStation Awards of 2000 . In 2005 , Square Enix reissued the soundtrack due to popular demand . Earlier that year , Mitsuda announced a new arranged Chrono Cross album , scheduled for release in July 2005 . Mitsuda 's contract with Square gave him ownership and full rights to the soundtrack of Chrono Cross . It was delayed , and at a Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006 , he revealed it would feature acoustic music and would be " out within the year " , later backtracking and alleging a 2007 release date . Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a finished track on his personal website in January 2009 , and has stated the album will be released to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the Japanese debut of Cross . Music from Chrono Cross has been featured in the September 2009 Symphonic Fantasies concerts , part of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series conducted by Arnie Roth . The track " Dimension Break " was remixed by Mitsuda for inclusion on the charity album Play For Japan in 2011 . That same year , the Chrono Cross theme " Time 's Scar " was voted first place in Hardcore Gaming 101 's " Best Video Game Music of All Time " poll . " Time 's Scar " was also featured in 2012 by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores .
= = Release and reception = =
Chrono Cross shipped 850 @,@ 000 units in Japan and 650 @,@ 000 abroad . It was re @-@ released once in the United States as a Sony Greatest Hits title and again as part of the Japanese Ultimate Hits series . Chrono Cross was also released on the PlayStation Network in Japan on July 6 , 2011 , and in North America on November 8 , 2011 , but a PAL region release has not been announced . Critics praised the game 's complex plot , innovative battle system , varied characters , moving score , vibrant graphics , and success in breaking convention with its predecessor . Electronic Gaming Monthly gave Chrono Cross a Gold Award , scoring it 10 / 10 / 9 @.@ 5 in their three reviewer format ; the first review declared the game to be " a masterpiece , plain and simple " . GameSpot awarded the game a perfect 10 , one of only nine games in the 40 @,@ 000 games listed on Gamespot to have been given the score , and its Console Game of the Year Award for 2000 . IGN gave the game a score of 9 @.@ 7 , and Cross appeared 89th in its 2008 Top 100 games list . Famitsu rated the game 36 out of 40 from four reviewers . As of December 2010 , GameRankings rates Chrono Cross at 92 % .
Reviewers thought the game 's flaws were its vague ending , confusing plot elements , and narrative pacing problems . Fan reaction was largely positive , though certain fans complained that the game was a far departure from its predecessor , Chrono Trigger ; Chrono Cross broke convention by featuring more characters , fewer double and triple techs , fewer instances of time travel , and few appearances of Trigger characters and locations . Producer Hiromichi Tanaka and director Masato Kato were aware of the changes in development , specifically intending to provide an experience different from Chrono Trigger . Kato anticipated and rebuffed this discontent before the game 's release , wondering what the Chrono title meant to these fans and whether his messages ever " really got through to them " . He continued , " Cross is undoubtedly the highest quality Chrono that we can create right now . ( I won 't say the ' best ' Chrono , but ) If you can 't accept that , then I 'm sorry to say this but I guess your Chrono and my Chrono have taken totally different paths . But I would like to say , thank you for falling in love with Trigger so much . " Tanaka added , " Of course , the fans of the original are very important , but what innovation can come about when you 're bound to the past ? I believe that gameplay should evolve with the hardware . "
= = Sequel = =
There is no planned continuation of the Chrono series . In 2001 , Hironobu Sakaguchi revealed the company 's staff wanted to develop a new game and were discussing script ideas . Although Kato was interested in a new title , the project had not been greenlighted . Square then registered a trademark for Chrono Break worldwide , causing speculation concerning a new sequel . Nothing materialized , and the trademark was dropped in the United States on November 13 , 2003 , though it still stands in Japan and the European Union . Kato later returned to Square Enix as a freelancer to work on Children of Mana and Dawn of Mana . Mitsuda also expressed interest in scoring a new Chrono series game . In 2005 , Kato and Mitsuda teamed up to do a game called Deep Labyrinth , and again in 2008 for Sands of Destruction , both for the Nintendo DS . The February 2008 issue of Game Informer ranked the Chrono series eighth among the " Top Ten Sequels in Demand " , naming the games " steadfast legacies in the Square Enix catalogue " and asking " what 's the damn holdup ? ! " In Electronic Gaming Monthly 's June 2008 " Retro Issue " , writer Jeremy Parish cited Chrono as the franchise video game fans would be most thrilled to see a sequel to . In the May 1 , 2009 , issue of Famitsu , Chrono Trigger placed 14th out of 50 in a vote of most @-@ wanted sequels by the magazine 's readers . At E3 2009 , SE Senior Vice President Shinji Hashimoto remarked , " If people want a sequel , they should buy more ! "
= Hurricane Ginger =
Hurricane Ginger was the second longest @-@ lasting Atlantic hurricane on record . The eighth tropical cyclone and fifth hurricane of the 1971 Atlantic hurricane season , Ginger spent 27 @.@ 25 days as a tropical cyclone , lasting from September 6 to October 3 . Twenty of those days ( September 11 @-@ September 30 ) , Ginger was classified as a hurricane . The storm formed northeast of the Bahamas , and for the first nine days of its duration tracked generally eastward or northeastward while gradually strengthening to peak winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . On September 14 , Ginger slowed and turned to a general westward track , passing near Bermuda on September 23 . There , the hurricane produced gusty winds and high waves , but no damage .
While over the western Atlantic Ocean , Ginger became the last target of Project Stormfury , which sought to weaken hurricanes by depositing silver iodide into tropical cyclone rainbands . Ginger ultimately struck North Carolina on September 30 as a minimal hurricane , lashing the coastline with gusty winds that caused power outages across the region . Heavy rainfall flooded towns and left severe crop damage , with 3 million bushels of corn and 1 million bushels of soybean lost . Damage in the state was estimated at $ 10 million ( 1971 US dollars , $ 58 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) . Further north , moderate precipitation and winds spread through the Mid @-@ Atlantic states , although no significant damage was reported outside North Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
Hurricane Ginger originated in a cold @-@ core upper @-@ level low that persisted for several days in early September in the Western Atlantic Ocean . The upper @-@ level low was located within a large , persistent area of convection from the Gulf of Mexico through the central Atlantic , which resembled the Intertropical Convergence Zone but at a higher latitude . The convective feature was influenced by an anticyclone located over northern South America , which was opposite of the typical flow for September . The anticyclone also led to the formation of Hurricane Fern , Tropical Storm Heidi , and two tropical depressions . By September 5 , the low had descended to the surface as its thermal structure warmed , and the next day it developed into a tropical depression about 235 mi ( 375 km ) northeast of the Bahamas .
After forming , the depression moved slowly southeastward for about 24 hours before turning to the northeast , slowly organizing in the process . On September 10 , the depression turned eastward , and later that day intensified into Tropical Storm Ginger , the seventh named storm of the year in the Atlantic , about 325 mi ( 525 km ) south of Bermuda . The storm quickly intensified , and within 24 hours reached winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , making it a hurricane . It turned to the northeast , passing well to the east of Bermuda . Late on September 13 , Ginger attained its minimum barometric pressure of 959 mbar ( 28 @.@ 32 inHg ) , and early the next day reached peak maximum sustained winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . After reaching a position about halfway between Bermuda and the Azores , the hurricane 's eastward movement halted due to a building ridge to its north and east . It turned sharply southward before turning and beginning a westerly drift , during which Ginger weakened to minimal hurricane status .
For about six days , Ginger maintained minimal hurricane status . As it meandered over the central Atlantic Ocean , it maintained an unusually large eye , reaching 80 mi ( 130 km ) in diameter . On September 18 , Ginger turned to the south and slowly executed a tight counterclockwise loop within three days . By September 21 , the hurricane was tracking south of due west , and the next day suddenly intensified to winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) . Its westward track briefly posed a threat to Bermuda , although Ginger passed 115 mi ( 185 km ) south of the island on September 23 while slowly weakening . On September 24 , Ginger decelerated before beginning a turn to the southwest . By September 26 , Ginger briefly weakened to minimal hurricane strength , although re @-@ intensification resumed as the track turned to the west and northwest . Around that time , Ginger absorbed the smaller and weaker Tropical Storm Janice to its southeast .
For three days , beginning on September 26 , the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration deployed planes into the hurricane as part of Project Stormfury , the fourth hurricane to be a part of the weather control experiment . The plane dropped silver iodide into the center of the hurricane , although there was no effect due to Ginger 's large eye and diffuse nature ; this was the last seeding done by the project . By September 28 , Ginger was moving northwestward toward North Carolina and was steadily intensifying . At around 06 : 00 UTC the next day , the hurricane reached a secondary peak intensity of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) , which it maintained for about 18 hours . Afterward , Ginger slowly weakened , and late on September 30 it made landfall near Morehead City , North Carolina , with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . It quickly deteriorated over land , weakening first to a tropical storm and then to a tropical depression by late on October 1 . Ginger turned to the north , entered southern Virginia , and later turned to the east . On October 3 , it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone while crossing Hampton Roads into the Atlantic Ocean . The remnants of Ginger continued east @-@ southeastward until being absorbed by a cold front on October 5 .
= = Preparations = =
The threat of the hurricane in Bermuda prompted the British Royal Navy to evacuate a ship , and also resulted in two cruise ships leaving early . The United States military also evacuated some planes and secured the units that remained . Officials closed all of the island 's schools during Ginger 's passage .
Before Ginger struck North Carolina , the American Red Cross set up 28 emergency shelters in six counties , where about 5 @,@ 500 people stayed during the storm . The National Hurricane Center issued a hurricane watch from Wilmington , North Carolina , to Virginia Beach , Virginia , with gale warnings extending northward to Rehoboth Beach , Delaware . United States military officials evacuated planes and ships from the Norfolk , Virginia , region , in addition to flying planes down the coast to warn boaters of the approaching storm . Ferry services around the Outer Banks were canceled during the storm 's passage , while the Coast Guard ordered the evacuation of workers in three lighthouses .
= = Impact = =
As the hurricane passed south of Bermuda on September 23 , it produced heavy waves , as well as gale force winds for 17 hours . Naval Air Station Bermuda reported peak gusts of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . There was no reported damage , and the hurricane 's passage failed to alleviate persistent drought conditions .
While Ginger was still in the vicinity of Bermuda , it produced high swells and riptides along the East Coast of the United States , prompting the issuing of small craft warnings from Florida to North Carolina . Wave heights reached 8 ft ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) in Sebastian , Florida , and one person was killed in St. Augustine from drowning . There were also initial reports of two missing people in Neptune Beach , Florida , but they were not listed as casualties in the year @-@ end hurricane summary .
As it moved ashore in North Carolina , Ginger produced a storm tide of around 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) along the Outer Banks and up to 7 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 m ) in Pamlico Sound . The storm dropped heavy rainfall peaking at 15 @.@ 58 in ( 396 mm ) in Bodie Island along the Outer Banks , making Ginger among the wettest tropical cyclones in the state . Rainfall from the storm extended southwestward into South Carolina , where precipitation reached 4 @.@ 98 in ( 126 mm ) in Cheraw . In Atlantic Beach , North Carolina , wind gusts reached 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) , the highest associated with Ginger in the United States . The hurricane had a large wind field upon moving ashore , affecting a large portion of North Carolina ; one county official considered Ginger the largest storm in the region since 1936 .
Strong winds from Ginger damaged store fronts and windows , and also downed power lines and trees . Morehead City , where the hurricane moved ashore , lost power and had debris strewn across the streets . The nearby cities of New Bern , Beaufort , and Atlantic Beach also lost power , and one company had 6 @,@ 000 customers without power . Heavy rainfall caused the Neuse and Trent rivers to exceed their banks , resulting in flooding . Several oil tanks along the rivers broke open , creating dangerous boating conditions . Up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water from the Pungo River flooded most of the city of Belhaven , and similar flooding occurred in Washington , entering dozens of buildings and houses . Across the region , the combination of high winds , tides , and flooding closed several bridges and roads , including a portion of U.S. Highway 70 . The winds also destroyed several mobile homes , although coastal damage was less than expected . During Ginger 's passage , the Salvation Army and Red Cross provided more than 3 @,@ 000 people with food assistance .
Further inland , the combination of strong winds and rains left heavy crop damage , destroying 3 million bushels of corn and another million bushels of soybeans ; losses to the corn crop were mitigated due to about half of the crop having been harvested before the storm 's arrival . Heavy damage was also reported to the peanut crop as well as to various fruits and vegetables . In some locations , up to 15 % of the cotton crop was lost , particularly in the northeastern portion of the state . In 45 counties in the eastern portion of the state , farmers affected by the hurricane were eligible for loans from the Farmers Home Administration , following federal approval from United States President Richard Nixon . Governor Robert W. Scott requested federal disaster aid for 24 counties , which was denied . Damage in North Carolina was estimated at $ 10 million ( 1971 USD , $ 58 @.@ 4 million 2016 USD ) , of which about $ 1 million ( 1971 USD , $ 5 @.@ 84 million 2016 USD ) was from coastal flooding . One death occurred in Washington when a vehicle accident was possibly caused by a wind gust ; however , it was not conclusively linked to Ginger .
As the storm crossed into Virginia , it continued to produce heavy rainfall , including a total of 7 @.@ 61 in ( 193 mm ) in Norfolk . Near the border between Virginia and North Carolina , the storm produced tides of up to 4 ft ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) above normal . Gusty winds of over 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) downed a few trees , causing scattered power outages . Above @-@ normal tides and waves caused moderate to heavy beach erosion in Virginia Beach . Further north , Ginger produced above @-@ normal tides , light winds , and scattered rainfall along the Delmarva Peninsula and northward through New York .
= = Record longevity = =
Hurricane Ginger formed on September 6 and lasted until October 3 , for a total of 27 @.@ 25 days . Its duration surpassed that of Hurricane Inga in 1969 , which was the previous record @-@ holder , by three days . In 2003 , it was discovered that the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane lasted as a tropical cyclone longer than Ginger , although its duration as a tropical cyclone was not continuous . This made Ginger the second longest @-@ lived of any Atlantic hurricane , but it remains the storm that lasted the most consecutive days as a tropical cyclone in the basin .
Ginger spent 20 days as a hurricane from September 11 to September 30 , one of the longest durations on record at that intensity . In addition , Ginger co @-@ existed with several other tropical cyclones , including on September 11 when there were four named storms at the same time , a rare occurrence ; the others were Hurricane Edith , Hurricane Fern , and Tropical Storm Heidi .
= Ontario Highway 90 =
King 's Highway 90 , commonly referred to as Highway 90 , was a provincially maintained highway in the Canadian province of Ontario . The route connected Barrie with the town of Angus and CFB Borden . The highway was designated in 1937 . During the early 1960s , the highway was realigned within Barrie in order to have it interchange with Highway 400 ; originally the route followed Tiffin Street . At the beginning of 1998 , the entire highway was transferred to the City of Barrie and Simcoe County ; it is now known as Simcoe County Road 90 .
= = Route description = =
Today , the former routing of Highway 90 is known as Dunlop Street within Barrie and Simcoe County Road 90 outside of the city . The route begins at a split between Cambrai Road , which provides access to Camp Borden , and Simcoe County Road 10 , which continues south to Alliston and Tottenham . The four lane Simcoe County Road 90 progresses north through the centre of Angus . North of the Barrie Collingwood Railway overhead , it acts as the principal commercial strip for the town . North of Angus , the highway makes a broad 90 degree turn to the east and skims the southern edge of the Minesing Wetlands , an internationally significant bog .
East of the swamp , the road enters Essa , where it intersects the Sunnidale Road ( Simcoe County Road 40 ) . From there to Barrie , the highway passes through a largely rural area . It intersects former Highway 131 , now Simcoe County Road 27 , then enters Barrie at Miller Drive , curving northeast . East of Ferndale Drive , the route crosses Highway 400 at Exit 96 . Shortly thereafter , as it approaches the waterfront of Kempenfelt Bay , the route ends at High Street in downtown Barrie .
Simcoe County Road 90 is two lanes wide between McKinnon Road , north of Angus , and Ferndale Drive in Barrie , although a passing lane is provided for eastbound traffic between Angus and Essa . The road also widens to four lanes briefly at the junction with former Highway 131 west of Barrie , as well as within the city and within Angus . The land use surrounding the route is mixed , with pastures and forests composing the majority of the setting . Residences and small businesses are also scattered throughout the length of the route .
= = History = =
Highway 90 was originally assumed by the Department of Highways ( DHO ) , the predecessor to today 's Ministry of Transportation of Ontario ( MTO ) , during the late 1930s . The primary purpose for the highway was to connect the CFB Borden military base at Angus with the main north – south routes of central Ontario . At that time , these were Highway 27 and Highway 11 . On October 6 , 1937 , the DHO designated the Barrie to Angus Road as King 's Highway 90 . The initially unimproved road was paved shortly after the outbreak of World War II ; a contract was awarded to Brennan Paving of Hamilton during the autumn of 1939 , and work completed by the end of the year .
Initially , Highway 90 followed Tiffin Street through Barrie , ending just short of the waterfront of Kempenfelt Bay at the intersection of Essa Street ( Highway 27 ) and Bradford Street ( Highway 11 / 27 ) . However , during the early 1960s the route was modified so as to provide an interchange with Highway 400 . A new interchange was constructed during the late 1950s at what was then known as Elizabeth Street in order to provide better access to downtown Barrie from the freeway . By 1960 , Highway 90 had been rerouted northwest along Ferndale Drive and northeast along Elizabeth Street . Though it still ended at Bradford Street , it intersected it 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) to the north . By 1961 , Elizabeth Street was renamed as Dunlop Street West . By 1964 , Dunlop Street was extended southwest of Ferndale Drive to merge with Tiffin Street at Miller Drive ( the present city limits ) .
The highway remained unchanged for over three decades , with the exception of a Connecting Link agreement established between the MTO and the City of Barrie . However , during the late 1990s , the MTO transferred many highways to lower levels of government as a cost @-@ cutting measure . Highway 90 was transferred to Simcoe County on January 1 , 1998 . The Connecting Link through Barrie was also discontinued . Simcoe County has since renamed its portion of the route as Simcoe County Road 10 .
= = Major intersections = =
The following table lists the major junctions along Highway 90 , as noted by the Ministry of Transportation of Ontario .
= = Current construction = =
The current construction to widen the highway to 5 lanes could last until 2020 .
= Bjarke Ingels =
Bjarke Bundgaard Ingels ( Danish pronunciation : [ ˈb ̥ jɑːg ̊ ə ˈb ̥ ɔng ̊ ɒːˀ ˈeŋˀl ̩ s ] ; born 2 October 1974 ) is a Danish architect . He is the founder and creative partner of Bjarke Ingels Group ( BIG ) since 2005 . He is known for buildings that defy traditional architectural conventions and dimensions , ranging from representations of mountains to snowflakes . His designs incorporate sustainable development ideas and sociological concepts , along with sloped lines that are shaped to their surroundings .
In Denmark , he became known for designing two housing complexes in Ørestad : VM Houses and Mountain Dwellings . In 2006 he started his own architecture firm , Bjarke Ingels Group , which grew to a staff of 400 by 2015 . Some of their best known projects are the 8 House housing complex , a zero @-@ emission resort on Zira Island in Azerbaijan described as " one of the world 's largest eco @-@ developments " , the VIA ( West 57 ) apartments in Manhattan , the Google North Bayshore headquarters ( co @-@ designed with Thomas Heatherwick ) , the Superkilen park ; and the Amager Bakke waste @-@ to @-@ energy plant .
Since 2009 , Ingels has won numerous architectural competitions . In October 2011 , the Wall Street Journal named him the Innovator of the Year for architecture . He moved to New York City in 2012 , where in addition to the VIA apartments , BIG won a design contest for improving Manhattan 's flood resistance after Hurricane Sandy , and are designing the new Two World Trade Center building .
= = Early life and background = =
Ingels was born in Copenhagen in 1974 to an engineer father and a dentist mother . Hoping to become a cartoonist , he began to study architecture in 1993 at the Royal Danish Academy of Fine Arts as he thought it would help him to improve his drawing skills . Only after he had been studying for a couple of years did he really take an interest in architecture . He continued his studies at the Escola Tècnica Superior d 'Arquitectura in Barcelona , and returned to Copenhagen to receive his diploma in 1999 . As a third @-@ year student in Barcelona , he set up his first practice and won his first competition .
Alongside his architectural practice , Ingels has been a Visiting Professor at the Rice University School of Architecture , the Harvard Graduate School of Design , the Columbia University Graduate School of Architecture , Planning and Preservation , and mostly recently , the Yale School of Architecture .
= = Career = =
= = = 1998 – 2005 = = =
From 1998 to 2001 , Ingels worked for Rem Koolhaas at the Office for Metropolitan Architecture in Rotterdam . In 2001 , he returned to Copenhagen to set up the architectural practice PLOT together with Belgian OMA colleague Julien de Smedt . The company received national and international attention for their inventive designs . They were awarded a Golden Lion at the Venice Biennale of Architecture in 2004 for a proposal for a new music house for Stavanger , Norway .
PLOT completed a 2 @,@ 500 m2 ( 27 @,@ 000 sq ft ) series of five open @-@ air swimming pools , Islands Brygge Harbour Bath , on the Copenhagen Harbour front with special facilities for children in 2003 . They also completed Maritime Youth House , a sailing club and a youth house at Sundby Harbour , Copenhagen .
The first major achievement for PLOT was the award @-@ winning VM Houses in Ørestad , Copenhagen , in 2005 . Inspired by Le Corbusier 's Unité d 'Habitation concept , they designed two residential blocks , in the shape of the letters V and M ( as seen from the sky ) ; the M House with 95 units , was completed in 2004 , and the V House , with 114 units , in 2005 . The design places strong emphasis on daylight , privacy and views . Rather than looking over the neighboring building , all of the apartments have diagonal views of the surrounding fields . Corridors are short and bright , rather like open bullet holes through the building . There are some 80 different types of apartment in the complex , adaptable to individual needs . The building garnered Ingels and Smedt the Forum AID Award for the best building in Scandinavia in 2006 . Ingels lived in the complex until 2008 when he moved into the adjacent Mountain Dwellings .
In 2005 , Ingels also completed the Helsingør Psychiatric Hospital in Helsingør , a hospital which is shaped like a snowflake . Each room of the hospital was specially designed to have a view , with two groups of rooms facing the lake , and one group facing the surrounding hills .
= = = 2006 – 2008 = = =
After PLOT was disbanded at the end of 2005 , in January 2006 Ingels made Bjarke Ingels Group ( BIG ) its own company . It grew to 400 employees by 2016 .
BIG began working on the 25 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 82 ft ) Mountain Dwellings on the VM houses site in the Ørestad district of Copenhagen , combining 10 @,@ 000 m2 ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of housing with 20 @,@ 000 m2 ( 220 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of parking and parking space , with a mountain theme throughout the building . The apartments scale the diagonally sloping roof of the parking garage , from street level to 11th floor , creating an artificial , south facing ' mountainside ' where each apartment has a terrace measuring around 93 m2 ( 1 @,@ 000 sq ft ) . The parking garage contains spots for 480 cars . The space has up to 16 @-@ metre @-@ high ( 52 ft ) ceilings , and the underside of each level of apartments is covered in aluminium painted in a distinctive colour scheme of psychedelic hues which , as a tribute to Danish 1960s and ' 70s furniture designer Verner Panton , are all exact matches of the colours he used in his designs . The colours move , symbolically , from green for the earth over yellow , orange , dark orange , hot pink , purple to bright blue for the sky . The northern and western facades of the parking garage depict a 3 @,@ 000 m2 ( 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) photorealistic mural of Himalayan peaks . The parking garage is protected from wind and rain by huge shiny aluminium plates , perforated to let in light and allow for natural ventilation . By controlling the size of the holes , the sheeting was transformed into the giant rasterized image of Mount Everest . Completed in October 2008 , it received the World Architecture Festival Housing Award ( 2008 ) , Forum AID Award ( 2009 ) and the MIPIM Residential Development Award at Cannes ( 2009 ) . Dwell magazine has stated that the Mountain Dwellings " stand as a beacon for architectural possibility and stylish multifamily living in a dense , design @-@ savvy city . "
Their third housing project , 8 House , commissioned by Store Frederikslund Holding , Høpfner A / S and Danish Oil Company A / S in 2006 and completed in October 2010 , was the largest private development ever undertaken in Denmark and in Scandinavia , combining retail with commercial row houses and apartments . It is also Ingels ' third housing development in Ørestad , following VM Houses and Mountain Dwellings . The sloping , bow @-@ shaped 10 @-@ storey building consists of 61 @,@ 000 m2 ( 660 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of three different types of residential housing and 10 @,@ 000 m2 ( 110 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of retail premises and offices , providing views over the fields and marches of Kalvebod Faelled to the south . The 476 @-@ unit apartment building forms a figure 8 around two courtyards . Noted for its green roof which won it the 2010 Scandinavian Green Roof Award , Ingels explained , " The parts of the green roof that remain were seen by the client as integral to the building as they are visible from the ground . These not only provide the environmental benefits that we all know come from green roofs , but also add to the visual drama and appeal of the sloping roofs and rooftop terrace in between . " The building also won the Best Residential Building at the 2011 World Architecture Festival , and the Huffington Post included 8 House as one of the " 10 Best Architecture Moments of 2001 – 2010 . "
In 2007 , Ingels exhibited at the Storefront for Art and Architecture in New York City and was commissioned to design the Danish Maritime Museum in Helsingør . The current museum is located on the UNESCO World Heritage Site of nearby Kronborg Castle . The concept of the building is ' invisible ' space , a subterranean museum which is still able to incorporate dramatic use of daylight . In launching the $ 40 million project , BIG had to reinforce an abandoned concrete dry dock on the site , 150 metres ( 490 ft ) long , 25 metres ( 82 ft ) wide and 9 metres ( 30 ft ) deep , building the museum on the periphery of the reinforced dry dock walls which will form the facade of the new museum . The dry dock will also host exhibitions and cultural events throughout the year . The museum 's interior is designed to simulate the ambiance of a ship 's deck , with a slightly downward slope . The 7 @,@ 600 m2 ( 82 @,@ 000 sq ft ) exhibition gallery is to house an extensive collection of paintings , model ships , and historical equipment and memorabilia from the Danish Navy . Ingels is collaborating with consulting engineer Rambøll , Alectia for project management , and E. Pihl & Søn and Kossmann.dejong for construction and interior design . Some 11 different foundations are funding the project . Construction began on the museum in September 2010 and it is scheduled for completion by the summer of 2013 . In September 2012 , the Kronborg and Zig @-@ Zag Bridge components to the building were shipped in from China .
= = = 2009 – present : international scope = = =
Ingels designed a pavilion in the shape of a loop for the Danish World Expo 2010 pavilion in Shanghai . The open @-@ air 3 @,@ 000 m2 ( 32 @,@ 000 sq ft ) steel pavilion has a spiral bicycle path , accommodating up to 300 cyclists who experience Danish culture and ideas for sustainable urban development . In the centre , amid a pool of 1 million litres ( 264 @,@ 172 gallons ) of water , is the Copenhagen statue of The Little Mermaid , paying homage to Danish author Hans Christian Andersen .
In 2009 , Ingels designed the new National Library of Kazakhstan in Astana located to the south of the State Auditorium , said to resemble a " giant metallic doughnut " . BIG and MAD designed the Tilting Building in the Huaxi district of Guiyang , China , an innovative leaning tower with six facades . Other projects included the city hall in Tallinn , Estonia , and the Faroe Islands Education Centre in Torshavn , Faroe Islands . Accommodating some 1 @,@ 200 students and 300 teachers , the facility has a central open rotunda for meetings between staff and pupils .
In 2010 , Fast Company magazine included Ingels in its list of the 100 most creative people in business , mentioning his design of the Danish pavilion . BIG projects became increasingly international , including hotels in Norway , a museum overlooking Mexico City , and converting an oil industry wasteland into a zero @-@ emission resort on Zira Island off the coast of Baku , Azerbaijan . The 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 m2 ( 11 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 sq ft ) resort started construction in 2010 , and represented the seven mountains of Azerbaijan . It was cited as " one of the world 's largest eco @-@ developments . " The " mountains " were covered with solar panels and provide for residential and commercial space . According to BIG , " The mountains are conceived not only as metaphors , but engineered as entire ecosystems , a model for future sustainable urban development " .
In 2011 , BIG won a competition to design the roof of the Amagerforbrænding industrial building , with 31 @,@ 000 m2 ( 330 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of ski slopes of varying skill levels . The roof is put forward as another example of " hedonistic sustainability " : designed from recycled synthetics , aiming to increase energy efficiency by up to 20 percent . In October 2011 , the Wall Street Journal named Ingels the Innovator of the Year for architecture , later saying he was " becoming one of the design world 's rising stars " in light of his portfolio .
In 2012 , Ingels moved to New York to supervise work on a pyramid @-@ like apartment building on West 57th Street , a collaboration with real estate developer Durst Fetner Residential . BIG opened a permanent New York office , and became committed to further work in New York . By mid @-@ 2012 that office had a staff of 50 , which they used to launch other projects in North America . In 2014 Ingels 's design for an integrated flood protection system , the DryLine , was a winner of the Rebuild By Design competition created by the Department of Housing and Urban Development in the wake of Hurricane Sandy . The DryLine will stretch Manhattan 's shoreline on the Lower East Side , with a landscaped flood barrier in East River Park , enhanced pedestrian bridges over the FDR drive , and permanent and deployable floodwalls north of East 14th Street .
BIG designed the Lego House that began construction in 2014 in Billund , Denmark . Ingels said of it , " We felt that if BIG had been created with the single purpose of building only one building , it would be to design the house for Lego . " Designed as a village of interlocking and overlapping buildings and spaces , the house is conceived with identical proportions to the toy bricks , and can be constructed one @-@ for @-@ one in miniature . They also designed the Danish Maritime Museum in Elsinore , Denmark , and a master plan for the new Smithsonian Institution south campus in Washington , D.C. This is part of a 20 @-@ year project that will begin in 2016 .
Ingels also designed two extensions for his former High School in Hellerup , Denmark — a handball court , and a larger arts and sports extension . The handball court , in homage to the architect 's former math teacher , sports a roof with curvature that traces the trajectory of a thrown handball .
In 2015 Ingels began working on a new headquarters for Google in Mountain View , California with Thomas Heatherwick , the British designer . Bloomberg Businessweek hailed the design as " The most ambitious project unveiled by Google this year ... " in a feature article on the design and its architects . Later that year , BIG was chosen to take up the design of Two World Trade Center , one of the towers replacing the Twin Towers . The work had initially been entrusted to the British firm Foster and Partners .
= = Other engagements = =
In 2009 , Ingels became a co @-@ founder of the KiBiSi design group , together with Jens Martin Skibsted and Lars Larsen . With interests in urban mobility , architectural illumination and personal electronics , KiBiSi designs bicycles , furniture , household objects and even aircraft , becoming one of Scandinavia 's most influential design groups . KiBiSi designed the furniture for Ingels ' Danish Pavilion at EXPO 2010 .
Ingels 's first book , Yes Is More : An Archicomic on Architectural Evolution , catalogued
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30 projects from his practice . It was in the form of a comic book , as he believed that 's the best way to tell stories about architecture . A sequel , Hot to Cold : An Odyssey of Architectural Adaptation , explored 60 case studies through a climatic lens , to examine where and how people live on the planet , working from the warmest regions to the coldest . The book was designed by Grammy Award winning designer Stefan Sagmeister , and accompanied by an exhibition of the same name at the National Building Museum in Washington D.C. The book featured well known projects such as VIA ( West 57th ) , Amager Bakke , 8 House , Gammel Hellerup High School , Superkilen , The Lego House and the Danish Maritime Museum , amongst others .
In 2009 , Ingels spoke at a TED event in Oxford , UK . He presented the case study “ Hedonistic sustainability ” in a workshop on managing complexityat the 3rd International Holcim Forum 2010 in Mexico City , and was a member of the Holcim Awards regional jury for Europe in 2011 .
In 2015 , a division of the Kohler Company , Kallista , released a new line of bath and kitchen products designed by Ingels . Named " taper " , the fixtures featured minimalist and mid @-@ century Danish design .
= = = Film = = =
Ingels was cast in My Playground , a documentary film by Kaspar Astrup Schröder that explores parkour and freerunning , with much of the action taking place on and around BIG projects .
He was also part of the documentary film Genre de Vie , about bicycles , cities and personal awareness . It looks at desired space and our own impact to the process of it . The film documents urban life empowered by the simplicity of the bicycle .
= = Design philosophy = =
In 2009 , The Architectural Review said that Ingels and BIG " has abandoned 20th @-@ century Danish modernism to explore the more fertile world of bigness and baroque eccentricity ... BIG 's world is also an optimistic vision of the future where art , architecture , urbanism and nature magically find a new kind of balance . Yet while the rhetoric is loud , the underlying messages are serious ones about global warming , community life , post @-@ petroleum @-@ age architecture and the youth of the city . " The Netherlands Architecture Institute described him as " a member of a new generation of architects that combine shrewd analysis , playful experimentation , social responsibility and humour . "
In an interview in 2010 , Ingels provided a number of insights on his design philosophy . He defines architecture as " the art of translating all the immaterial structures of society – social , cultural , economical and political – into physical structures . " Architecture should " arise from the world " benefiting from the growing concern for our future triggered by discussion of climate change . In connection with his BIG practice , he explains : " Buildings should respond to the local environment and climate in a sort of conversation to make it habitable for human life " drawing , in particular , on the resources of the local climate which could provide " a way of massively enriching the vocabulary of architecture . "
Luke Butcher noted that Ingels taps into metamodern sensibility , adopting a metamodern attitude ; but he " seems to oscillate between modern positions and postmodern ones , a certain out @-@ of @-@ this @-@ worldness and a definite down @-@ to @-@ earthness , naivety and knowingness , idealism and the practical . " Sustainable development and renewable energy are important to Ingels , which he refers to as " hedonistic sustainability " . He has said that " It 's not about what we give up to be sustainable , it 's about what we get . And that is a very attractive and marketable concept . " He has also been outspoken against " suburban biopsy " in Holmen , Copenhagen , caused by wealthy older people ( the grey @-@ gold generation ) living in the suburbs and wanting to move into the town to visit the Royal Theatre and the opera .
In 2014 , Ingels released a video entitled ' Worldcraft ' as part of the Future of StoryTelling summit , which introduced his concept of creating architecture that focuses on turning " surreal dreams into inhabitable space " . Citing the power of alternate reality programs and video games , like Minecraft , Ingels ' ' worldcraft ' is an extension of ' hedonistic sustainability ' and further develops ideas established in his first book , Yes Is More . In the video ( and essay by the same name in his second book , Hot to Cold : An Odyssey of Architectural Adaptation ) Ingels notes : " These fictional worlds empower people with the tools to transform their own environments . This is what architecture ought to be ... " " Architecture must become Worldcraft , the craft of making our world , where our knowledge and technology doesn 't limit us but rather enables us to turn surreal dreams into inhabitable space . To turn fiction into fact . "
= = Notable projects = =
For a full list of projects , see Bjarke Ingels Group # Completed projects
Two World Trade Center New York City , office building ( On hold , Larry Silverstein is in talks with News Corporation and 21st Century Fox to create a joint headquarters . )
= = = Exhibitions = = =
2007 BIG City , Storefront for Art and Architecture , New York
2009 Yes is More , Danish Architecture Centre , Copenhagen
2010 Yes is More , CAPC , Bordeaux and WECHSELRAUM , Stuttgart
2015 Hot to Cold : An Odyssey of Architectural Adaptation , National Building Museum
= = Awards = =
For a more detailed list of awards , see Bjarke Ingels Group # Awards
= Black American Sign Language =
Black American Sign Language ( BASL ) or Black Sign Variation ( BSV ) is a dialect of American Sign Language ( ASL ) spoken most commonly by deaf African Americans in the United States . The divergence from ASL was influenced largely by the segregation of schools in the American South . Like other schools at the time , schools for the deaf were segregated based upon race , creating two language communities among deaf signers : White deaf signers at White schools and Black deaf signers at Black schools . Today , BASL is still used by signers in the South despite schools having been legally desegregated since 1954 .
Linguistically , BASL differs from other varieties of ASL in its phonology , syntax , and lexicon . BASL tends to have a larger signing space meaning that some signs are produced further away from the body than in other dialects . Signers of BASL also tend to prefer two @-@ handed variants of signs while signers of ASL tend to prefer one @-@ handed variants . Some signs are different in BASL as well , with some borrowings from African American English .
= = History = =
Like many educational institutions for hearing children during the 1800s and early 1900s , schools for deaf children were segregated based on race . The first school for the deaf in the United States , The American School for the Deaf ( ASD ) , was founded in 1817 but did not admit any Black students until 1952 . Of the schools for the deaf that began to be created , few admitted students of color . Seeing a lack of educational opportunities for the Black deaf , Platt Skinner founded the Skinner School for the Colored Deaf , Dumb , and Blind in 1856 in Niagara Falls , New York . Skinner described his school as " the first effort of its kind in the country ... We receive and instruct those and only those who are refused admission to all other institutions and are despised on account of their color . " The school moved to Trenton , New Jersey in 1860 . After its closure in 1866 , no Northern state created an institution for the Black deaf . Even after these states outlawed segregation by 1900 , integration was sparse as some institutions allowed Black students and others did not .
After the foundation and success of the American School for the Deaf , many other institutions for the deaf were founded throughout the country . Since schools , particularly in the South , were segregated , many Southern states created separate schools or departments for the Black deaf . The first school established for the Black deaf below the Mason – Dixon line opened in the District of Columbia in 1857 and remained segregated until 1958 . The last Southern state to create an institution for the Black deaf was Louisiana in 1938 . Black Deaf children thus became a language community isolated from the White Deaf with different means of language socialization , allowing for different dialects to develop . Because the education of White children was privileged over that of Black children , Oralism — the prominent pedagogical method of the time — was not as strictly applied to the Black deaf students . Oralist methods often forbade the use of sign language , so Black deaf students had more opportunities to use ASL than their White peers . Despite the decision in Brown v. Board of Education in 1954 which declared racial segregation in schools unconstitutional , integration was slow to come , and schools for the deaf were no exception : the last desegregated in 1978 , 24 years after the decision .
As schools began to integrate , students and teachers noticed differences in the way Black students and White students signed . Carolyn McCaskill , professor of ASL and Deaf Studies at Gallaudet University , recalls the challenge of understanding the dialect of ASL spoken by her White principal and teachers after her segregated school integrated : " When I began attending the school , I did not understand the teacher and she did not understand me because we used different signs . " Carl Croneberg was the first to discuss differences between BASL and White ASL in his appendices of the 1965 version of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , and work has continued on BASL since then .
As deaf education and sign language research continued to evolve , so did the perception of ASL . With the publication of the Dictionary of American Sign Language , ASL began to be recognized as a legitimate language . The greater acceptance of ASL as a language led to standardization and the development of a prestige dialect which was based upon the signs used at Gallaudet University . Despite this standardization , there are still regional accents of ASL similar to spoken languages . Dialects that are different from the standard one , and especially those spoken by marginalized groups , are often stigmatized . As a non @-@ standard dialect , BASL is stigmatized by signers and seen as inferior to prestige dialects of ASL . This difference in prestige has led BASL speakers to code switch to a prestige dialect when speaking with different groups of people , despite BASL being mutually intelligible with other dialects of ASL .
= = Phonology = =
When asked , many signers in the South gave anecdotal accounts of differences between the signing of Black and White signers . These differences turned out to be aspects of the differing phonology of BASL . Among these accounts were claims that Black signers had a larger signing space and used more two @-@ handed signs . Investigation into these anecdotes has found correlations .
When compared , Black signers were more likely to produce signs outside of the typical signing space and to use two @-@ handed signs than were White signers . Adverbs are most likely to utilize a larger signing space . Less marked forms such as pronouns , determiners , plain verbs , and nouns tend to be less likely to be produced outside the typical signing space . The selection of two @-@ handed signs over one @-@ handed signs was found to have systematic constraints on their production . When the sign could be produced with one or two hands , Black signers often produced the variant that matched the handedness of the following sign ; if the following sign was two @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce a two @-@ handed variant , while if the following sign was one @-@ handed , they were more likely to produce the one @-@ handed variant . The use of innovative one @-@ handed forms though , even in environments which favored them , did not exceed 50 percent .
BASL signers further tend to favor lowered variants of side @-@ of @-@ forehead signs resulting in contact at the cheek . The sign KNOW is usually produced by placing the fingers of a flat hand on the temple , but when lowered the fingers make contact at the cheek . Early research showed that BASL signers used these lowered forms at a rate of 53 percent with grammatical category being the strongest constraint . Other conditioning environments for lowered signs depend on preceding location ; for instance , signs produced in front of the body lead to lowered sign variants while signs produced at the head cause signers to favor non @-@ lowered forms .
= = Syntax = =
Unlike ASL , BASL allows for the frequent use of syntactic repetition . In a study conducted by McCaskill , of 26 signers ( 13 Black and 13 White ) , there were 57 instances of repetition from Black signers compared to 19 from White signers , and of those 19 instances , 18 came from a single signer . The use of repetition by BASL signers is considered to be pragmatic rather than as a way to clarify meaning .
A study in 2004 by Melanie Metzger and Susan Mather found that Black male signers used constructed action , with or without constructed dialogue , more often than White signers , but never used constructed dialogue by itself . These results were not reproduced in a later study into constructed action and constructed dialogue by McCaskill , which found that Black signers not only used constructed dialogue , but did so more frequently than white signers .
= = Lexical variation = =
Lexical variation between BASL and other dialects of ASL was first noted in the Dictionary of American Sign Language . In a later study of 34 lexical signs , Black signers had 28 signs that White signers did not know . Older signers are more likely to use variant signs than younger signers , and most , having been developed in segregated schools for the Black Deaf , refer to everyday life . Younger signers of BASL are less likely to use these variants , but when asked about them are aware that older signers have and use these innovative signs .
= = = Borrowing from African American English = = =
A body of work has arisen looking at the similarities between Black American Sign Language and African American English ( AAE ) since both are language varieties marked by their use in African American communities . In 1998 John Lewis investigated the incorporation of aspects of AAE into BASL . He reported that , during narrative storytelling by a Black signer , there were " Ebonic shifts " marked by shifts in posture and rhythmicity and by incorporating side @-@ to @-@ side head movement . He concluded that this " ' songified ' quality was related to the style of AAE . This finding was not reproduced by McCaskill , which she attributes to the nature of the speech acts : Lewis analyzed a narrative event while McCaskill utilized natural or elicited data . Lexical borrowing has been seen in BASL signers under age 35 which is likely due to the advances in mass media — younger signers would have more contact with AAE through movies , television , and the Internet .
When asked about distinctive features of their signing , Black Deaf signers tended to identify a number of idioms borrowed from AAE . Some were literal translations like I FEEL YOU or GIRL PLEASE which are signed the standard way but have meanings different from their literal interpretation . Other loan words modified existing signs like STOP TRIPPING which took the bent @-@ v handshape of TRIP and moved it up to the head to indicate a new meaning of " stop imagining things . "
= Good Girl Gone Bad =
Good Girl Gone Bad is the third studio album by Barbadian singer Rihanna . It was released on May 31 , 2007 , by Def Jam Recordings and SRP Records . Rihanna worked with various producers on the album , including Christopher " Tricky " Stewart , Terius " Dream " Nash , Neo da Matrix , Timbaland , Carl Sturken , Evan Rogers and StarGate . Inspired by Brandy Norwood 's fourth studio album Afrodisiac ( 2004 ) , Good Girl Gone Bad is a pop , dance @-@ pop and R & B album with 1980s music influences . Described as a turning point in Rihanna 's career , it represents a departure from the Caribbean sound of her previous releases , Music of the Sun ( 2005 ) and A Girl like Me ( 2006 ) . Apart from the sound , she also endorsed a new image for the release going from an innocent girl to an edgier and more sexual look .
Critics gave generally positive reviews of the album , praising its composition and Rihanna 's new musical direction , though some criticized the record 's lyrics and inconsistency . The album received seven Grammy Award nominations and one win in the Best Rap / Sung Collaboration category for " Umbrella " at the 2008 ceremony . The album debuted at number two on the US Billboard 200 chart and sold 162 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . Certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it sold more than 2 @.@ 8 million copies in the United States . The album reached number one in Canada , Switzerland and the United Kingdom , and it has sold over 7 million copies worldwide .
Good Girl Gone Bad spawned five singles , including the international hits " Umbrella " and " Don 't Stop the Music " ; Rolling Stone placed the former at number 412 on the magazine 's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list . In support of the album , Rihanna embarked on her first worldwide concert tour , the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour . The album was reissued as Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded in June 2008 with three new songs , including the Billboard Hot 100 number @-@ one hits " Take a Bow " and " Disturbia " . It was followed by Rihanna 's first remix album , Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes , in January 2009 , which featured remixes from Moto Blanco , Tony Moran , the Soul Seekerz and the Wideboys .
= = Background and title = =
Rihanna 's second studio album , A Girl like Me , was released in April 2006 . It is a pop @-@ oriented record with dancehall and R & B influences . It had a mixed critical reception : some critics praised Rihanna 's new musical direction , while others criticized some of the album 's songs . Around its time of release , many critics felt that Rihanna 's style , sound , and musical material were too similar to those of American singer Beyoncé . The album sold over 587 @,@ 308 copies in the United Kingdom and more than 1 @,@ 330 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
In early 2007 , Rihanna began work on her third studio album . In an interview with MTV News , she announced that " the new music is going in a different direction . Not on purpose , but I just want to hear something fresh and mostly uptempo . I think that 's where I want to go on this one . You feel different every album , and [ at ] this stage I feel like I want to do a lot of uptempo [ songs ] . " The same year , Rihanna dismissed her innocent image for an edgier look with a new hairstyle , which was inspired by actress Charlize Theron 's bob cut in the 2005 science fiction thriller Æon Flux .
Rihanna explained that she wanted to keep the audience dancing and be soulful at the same time . She sought to make an album that people would listen to without skipping tracks . She cited Afrodisiac ( 2004 ) , the fourth studio album by American singer Brandy Norwood , as her main inspiration for the album . In May 2007 , Rihanna revealed that she called the album Good Girl Gone Bad because it represents her bolder and more independent image : " I 'm not the innocent Rihanna anymore . I 'm taking a lot more risks and chances . I felt when I cut my hair , it shows people I 'm not trying to look or be anybody else . The album is very edgy . "
= = Recording and production = =
Good Girl Gone Bad was recorded in Westlake Recording Studios and Conway Studios in Los Angeles , Battery Studios and Roc the Mic Studios in New York City , Chicago Recording Company and Pressure Studios in Chicago , Phase One Audio Group in Toronto , Lethal Studios in Bridgetown , Barbados , Espionage Studios in Oslo and Parr Street Studios in Liverpool . Rihanna spent the week of the 2007 Grammy Awards working with American R & B singer @-@ songwriter Ne @-@ Yo , who gave her vocal lessons . They wrote and sang " Hate That I Love You " , which was co @-@ written and produced by Norwegian duo StarGate . Ne @-@ Yo told Vibe magazine , " The best way to express an emotion like love is through storytelling . It makes it more ' I can relate to this character in this song , because I 've been through something similar . ' You hear that kind of storytelling in the song that I wrote for Rihanna called ' Hate That I Love You ' . "
American producers Tricky Stewart and Dream had written the track " Umbrella " in 2007 with pop singer Britney Spears in mind . Her label rejected the song before she could hear it , stating they had enough songs for her to record ; at the time , Spears was working on her fifth studio album Blackout . The producers then reached out to Mary J. Blige , who did not have time to consider the song for her next album . Finally , L.A. Reid , then @-@ CEO of Def Jam Recordings , bought the record and forwarded it to Rihanna . Initially , Stewart was unsure whether Rihanna was the right artist for the song , but after they had recorded the " ella , ella " catch phrase for the track , he felt optimistic . Rapper Jay Z added rap vocals . Stewart also co @-@ wrote and produced " Breakin ' Dishes " with Nash .
" Rehab " , " Sell Me Candy " , and " Lemme Get That " were composed and produced by Timbaland for the album . He was on the FutureSex / LoveShow concert tour with Justin Timberlake to promote Timberlake 's 2006 album FutureSex / LoveSounds . After a show in Chicago , they joined Rihanna in the studio , where Timberlake experimented with beats and melodies . Weeks later , the three met in New York City , where Timberlake had conceptualized a song for Rihanna . Timbaland , who penned a song for Rihanna under the title " Rehab " , was producing a beat , over which Timberlake improvised his lyrics . Hannon Lane also co @-@ wrote and co @-@ produced the song . Timberlake told Entertainment Weekly that he believed " Rehab " to be " the bridge for [ Rihanna ] to be accepted as an adult in the music industry " . Rihanna told Robert Copsey of Digital Spy that she enjoyed working with Timberlake , and learned much from the sessions .
= = Composition = =
A dance @-@ pop and pop / R & B album influenced by 1980s music , Good Girl Gone Bad is a departure from the Caribbean sound of Rihanna 's previous two records . Lyrically , the album is close to some teen pop records , " where sexual @-@ ism and consumerism supersede personal connection . "
The LP opens with the lead single " Umbrella " , an R & B song performed with drums and thundercloud synths . Dorian Lynskey of The Guardian compared the singer 's vocals to the voices of Ciara and Cassie . The second track , " Push Up On Me " , features echo electro claps and surging synths . " Don 't Stop the Music " is a dance @-@ pop and techno song that contains rhythmic devices used mainly in hip hop music . The song samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Michael Jackson 's 1983 single " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . The fourth song is " Breakin ' Dishes " ; Peter Robinson of The Observer called it a " wronged @-@ woman bonanza , packed with hooks , chants and flashes of lyrical brilliance . " " Shut Up and Drive " is a new wave and pop rock song , influenced by 1970s and 1980s musical styles , sampling New Order 's 1983 single " Blue Monday " . The collaboration with Ne @-@ Yo , " Hate That I Love You " , is a folky R & B song ; Nick Levine of Digital Spy compared it to Ne @-@ Yo 's singles " Sexy Love " and " Because of You " .
The seventh track on the album , " Say It " , samples the 1990s song " Flex " by Mad Cobra ; it consists of silky and warm groove and features island @-@ oriented music characteristics . " Sell Me Candy " features jumbled and noisy production with chaotic beats . The ninth song , " Lemme Get That " , has boom @-@ bap beats and is produced by Timbaland . " Rehab " is an old @-@ styled R & B track with a groove that is built around tambourine shakes , acoustic guitar swirls and a subtle backbeat . Doug Rule of Metro Weekly noted similarities among the structures of " Rehab " and Timberlake 's 2002 single " Cry Me a River " . " Question Existing " is an " eerie , smoky , destitute , emotional , and a sonic sidestep . " Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media described the opening lyrics of the song as inspired by " puerile psuedoporn " . The album concludes with the title track " Good Girl Gone Bad " , which is played with an acoustic guitar and click tracks .
= = Singles = =
Released as the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad , " Umbrella " was sent to contemporary hit , rhythmic and urban radio in the US on April 24 , 2007 . The song received acclaim from music critics , who praised its production , vocals and the collaboration between Rihanna and Jay Z. " Umbrella " reached number one in more than seventeen countries worldwide , including on the UK Singles Chart and the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . In the United Kingdom , the song topped the singles chart for ten consecutive weeks , while in the United States , it was at the top for seven consecutive weeks . As of June 2013 , " Umbrella " has sold 4 @,@ 236 @,@ 000 digital copies there , making it Rihanna 's fifth @-@ best selling single in the country . Director Chris Applebaum shot the accompanying music video , which features scenes of Rihanna nude and covered in silver paint . The video earned the singer nominations at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards for Best Direction , Video of the Year and Monster Single of the Year ; it won the latter two .
The second single from the album , " Shut Up and Drive " , was serviced to contemporary hit radio in the US on June 12 and rhythmic radio the following week . The song received mixed response from critics : some praised the composition , while others criticized the lyrics . It reached the top ten on more than twelve national charts , including number five on the UK Singles Chart and number 15 on the US Billboard Hot 100 . The music video for the song was shot by Anthony Mandler in Prague , the Czech Republic . The third single , " Hate That I Love You " , which features Ne @-@ Yo , was sent to contemporary hit , rhythmic and urban radio in the United States on August 21 . Critics gave the song positive reviews and praised the collaboration between the singers ; they compared it to the previous works written by Ne @-@ Yo , including the song " Irreplaceable " by Beyoncé . " Hate That I Love You " reached number seven on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number 15 on the UK Singles Chart .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was digitally released as an EP via the iTunes Store on September 7 . The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its production and the interpolation of the " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . " Don 't Stop the Music " won Best International Song at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards . The single peaked atop of the singles charts in eight countries , reaching number three on the Hot 100 and number four on the UK Singles Chart . It is the seventh @-@ best selling single by Rihanna in the United States , with 3 @,@ 521 @,@ 000 digital copies sold as of June 2013 . Mandler shot the music video in a nightclub in Prague , the Czech Republic . " Rehab " was released as the fifth and final single from Good Girl Gone Bad ; it was sent to contemporary hit radio in the United States on October 6 , 2008 . Critics were divided on the song 's production and composition , and some compared its structure to that of Timberlake 's 2007 single " What Goes Around ... Comes Around " . It reached number 16 on the UK Singles Chart and number 18 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart . Anthony Mandler directed the accompanying music video , which was shot in Vasquez Rocks Park , near Los Angeles . Timberlake also appears in the video .
= = Marketing = =
= = = Release = = =
Good Girl Gone Bad was first released by the Universal Music Group on CD in Portugal on May 31 , 2007 . It was released in the Netherlands and in Poland the following day . The album was launched in Finland and the United Kingdom on June 4 and in the United States the following day on CD and LP . Good Girl Gone Bad was released on CD in Germany on June 8 , on LP in Australia on June 12 and on CD in New Zealand on the same date . A deluxe edition of the album , featuring a bonus disc with dance remixes , was launched on June 27 in Japan .
In early 2008 , Rihanna unveiled a new song , " Take a Bow " , on the KIIS @-@ FM radio show On Air with Ryan Seacrest . MTV News reported that the track would serve as the lead single from Good Girl Gone Bad : Reloaded , a reissue of the original album to mark its first anniversary . Rihanna further announced that the expanded album would contain another two songs , " Disturbia " and the duet with American pop rock band Maroon 5 , titled " If I Never See Your Face Again " to supplement the original track listing . Among other achieved awards and nominations , " Disturbia " and " If I Never See Your Face Again " received nominations for Best Dance Recording and Pop Collaboration with Vocals respectively at the 2009 Grammy Awards .
Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes was released on January 27 , 2009 , and contains club remixes of tracks from the original album and the re @-@ issue . The songs were remixed by producers and disc jockeys such as Moto Blanco , Tony Moran , Soul Seekerz and Wideboys . Good Girl Gone Bad : The Remixes peaked at number 106 on the Billboard 200 and number four on the US Billboard Dance / Electronic Albums chart . As of July 2010 , it sold 49 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
= = = Live performances = = =
Rihanna performed " Umbrella " with " Shut Up and Drive " and " Breakin ' Dishes " at BBC Radio 1 's Big Weekend on May 21 , 2007 . She performed " Umbrella " with Jay Z at the 2007 MTV Movie Awards at the Gibson Amphitheatre , Universal City , California , on June 3 . A reviewer of Rap @-@ Up wrote , " she looked hot and the production was on point " during the performance . She performed the song at the Tonight Show with Jay Leno on June 5 and on June 16 at The View . Rihanna performed " Shut Up and Drive " at the 2007 MTV Video Music Awards at The Palms in Las Vegas , and was joined by American rock band Fall Out Boy . In early October 2007 , Rihanna was the guest star at the Late Show with David Letterman , where she gave a performance of " Shut Up and Drive " . On November 18 , Rihanna performed a medley consisting of " Umbrella " and " Hate That I Love You " at the 2007 American Music Awards at the Nokia Theater in Los Angeles , California . Ne @-@ Yo accompanied her for the performance of " Hate That I Love You " .
Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes , France , on January 26 , 2008 . She also performed the song at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10 in a medley with " Umbrella " . For the performance , she was joined by American funk band , The Time . On April 28 , 2008 , Rihanna performed at the Pepsi Center with Kanye West , N.E.R.D and Lupe Fiasco . She sang " Rehab " , " Hate That I Love You " , " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Umbrella " . On June 20 , she was a guest on NBC 's Today Concert Series in Rockefeller Center , New York City . She performed " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Umbrella " and " Take a Bow " . She also performed " Rehab " live on November 23 , 2008 , at the 2008 American Music Awards , where she won the awards for Favorite Pop / Rock Female Artist and Favorite Soul / R & B Female Artist . At the awards ceremony , she performed wearing an eye patch , which she removed after she was lowered to the main stage .
= = = Tour = = =
To further promote the album , Rihanna embarked on her first worldwide and second overall tour , the Good Girl Gone Bad Tour ( 2007 – 09 ) . She performed in Europe , North America , Oceania , Asia and Africa . During the concert shows she wore S & M @-@ inspired outfits and high boots . Mike Usinger of The Georgia Straight gave the show a mixed review ; he wrote that even though Rihanna 's vocals were improved , he felt she still struggled to keep the audience engaged . Jason MacNeil of Canadian Online Explorer gave a positive review of the concert after the show at Molson Amphitheatre , saying " the singer made a rather eye @-@ popping impression , opening with ' Pon de Replay ' and clad in a sexy , dominatrix @-@ like studded black leather ensemble . " During a show planned for February 13 in Malaysia , Malaysia 's conservative Islamic party recommended that Rihanna 's concert tour be banned from performing , citing her outfits . A video album , Good Girl Gone Bad Live , was filmed at the Manchester Arena show in Manchester , United Kingdom , on December 6 , 2007 . The Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD was released on June 9 and 13 , 2008 , in the United Kingdom and Germany through Mercury Records and the Universal Music Group respectively .
= = Critical response = =
Good Girl Gone Bad received generally favorable reviews from music critics . At Metacritic , which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics , the album received an average score of 72 based on 16 reviews . Uncut called it a " shiny , trans @-@ atlantic blend of Europop vim , R & B grit and Caribbean bounce . " Andy Kellman of AllMusic deemed it quintessential pop music and said each of its tracks was a potential hit . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters praised the album , describing it as " more raw , perhaps edgier and more risqué " than Rihanna 's previous material . Kelefa Sanneh of The New York Times wrote that the album " sounds as if it were scientifically engineered to deliver hits " . Peter Robinson of The Observer commended her collaborators for " masking her own shortcomings " and commented that , " While Rihanna lacks her peers ' charisma , she 's a great vessel for exhilarating mainstream pop . " Pitchfork Media 's Tom Breihan found the album varied and satisfying . Neil Drumming of Entertainment Weekly felt that , although it " goes bad when Rihanna tries her hand at treacly ballads and glum sentiment " , at times Good Girl Gone Bad is a " thrilling throwback to more than a decade ago , when upstart producers haphazardly mashed R & B with hip @-@ hop to create chunky jeep anthems such as Mary J. Blige 's ' Real Love ' . "
In a mixed review , Rodney Dugue of The Village Voice felt that the album " never settles on a sound " and only cited its three Timbaland @-@ produced songs as highlights . Although he found the ballads to be improvements from Rihanna 's previous albums , Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani criticized the lyrics , particularly those written by Justin Timberlake , as an " Achilles ' high heel for Rihanna " . Alex Macpherson of The Guardian found Rihanna to be " ill @-@ suited " for its dance @-@ pop songs and stated , " The gimmicky samples and pounding beats bury her personality , and the summery reggae of her first two albums is sorely missed . " Robert Christgau of MSN Music cited " Umbrella " as a " choice cut " , indicating " a good song on an album that isn 't worth your time or money " .
= = Commercial performance = =
In the United States , Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number two on the Billboard 200 chart , selling 162 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . It became Rihanna 's then @-@ best start album entry . The next week , it fell to number seven with 81 @,@ 000 copies sold . The re @-@ issue sold 63 @,@ 000 copies in the first week and helped Good Girl Gone Bad jump from number 124 to number seven on the US Billboard 200 in its 55th week . It was certified quintuple platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) ; by November 2013 , both Good Girl Gone Bad and the reissue had sold 2 @,@ 800 @,@ 000 copies in the United States alone . To date , it is her best @-@ selling album in the former country . The album debuted atop of the Canadian Albums Chart and became Rihanna 's second number @-@ one album in the country . It was certified quintuple platinum by Music Canada , denoting shipments of more than 500 @,@ 000 copies .
Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart . It became her first album to top the chart , and stayed on the chart for 177 weeks . In 2011 , the album peaked at number 16 on the UK R & B Albums Chart . It was certified sextuple platinum by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) and sold over 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 copies in the country . It ended at number 10 on the UK 2007 year @-@ end list and number six on the 2008 year @-@ end list . As of March 2015 , Good Girl Gone Bad is the 46th best @-@ selling album of the millennium in the United Kingdom . In Ireland , Good Girl Gone Bad debuted at number three on the Irish Singles Chart on June 7 , 2007 . After four weeks on the chart , it reached the top . The album peaked at number one on the Swiss Hitparade chart and stayed on the chart for 91 weeks . In Australia , it peaked at number two and was certified triple platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 210 @,@ 000 copies . By November 2011 , Good Girl Gone Bad had sold over 11 million copies worldwide .
= = Impact = =
According to Biography.com , Good Girl Gone Bad inspired Rihanna to transform her image from a " teen pop princess " persona into a " fully fledged superstar and sex symbol " . People magazine noted that Rihanna follows the likes of recording artists Janet Jackson and Christina Aguilera " when she sheds her innocent image for an edgier look and sound " . Jay @-@ Z also spoke about " Umbrella " and stated that the song represents an artistic grow for Rihanna , " If you listen to the lyrics to that song , you know the depth and how far she 's come . " Regarding the commercial impact of the album , Entertainment Weekly 's Margeaux Watson wrote , " For a pop star who was once dismissed as being incapable of yielding more than one hit song per album , Rihanna 's newfound staying power is nothing short of remarkable – and proof that there 's room for more than one diva in this game . " Jason Birchmeier of AllMusic concluded that it was Good Girl Gone Bad that made Rihanna a " full @-@ fledged international pop star with a regular presence atop the charts " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy described the album , as the closest thing to a Thriller that 2007 / 08 is likely to produce .
At the 2008 Grammy Awards ceremony , Good Girl Gone Bad received seven Grammy Awards nominations , including Record of the Year and Song of the Year for " Umbrella " , Best Dance Recording for " Don 't Stop the Music " , Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals and Best R & B Song for " Hate That I Love You " . It won the accolade for Best Rap / Sung Collaboration for " Umbrella " . Additionally , magazine Rolling Stone placed " Umbrella " at number 412 on their 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list . The album also won the International Album of the Year award at the 2008 Juno Awards .
Before its physical release , " Umbrella " achieved the biggest debut in the six @-@ year history of the iTunes Store in the United States , breaking a record previously held by the 2006 single " Hips Don 't Lie " . Following its digital release , the song debuted atop the Hot Digital Songs chart , with first @-@ week sales of more than 277 @,@ 000 units . The single became the highest digital debut in the United States since Nielsen SoundScan began tracking downloads in 2003 , surpassing Timberlake 's " SexyBack " 250 @,@ 000 sales record in 2006 .
= = Track listings = =
Notes
^ a denotes a vocal producer
^ b denotes a co @-@ producer
^ c denotes a remixer and additional producer
" Push Up on Me " samples " Running with the Night " , as written by Lionel Richie and Cynthia Weil , and performed by Richie .
" Don 't Stop the Music " samples " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " , as written and performed by Michael Jackson , which itself samples " Soul Makossa " , as performed by Manu Dibango .
" Shut Up and Drive " samples " Blue Monday " , as written and performed by New Order ( Stephen Morris , Peter Hook , Bernard Sumner and Gillian Gilbert ) .
" Say It " samples " Flex " , as written by Ewart Brown , Clifton Dillon , Sly Dunbar and Brian Thompson , and performed by Mad Cobra .
= = Personnel = =
Credits for Good Girl Gone Bad adapted from AllMusic .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Herrerasaurus =
Herrerasaurus was one of the earliest dinosaurs . Its name means " Herrera 's lizard " , after the rancher who discovered the first specimen . All known fossils of this carnivore have been discovered in rocks of Carnian age ( late Triassic according to the ICS , dated to 231 @.@ 4 million years ago ) in northwestern Argentina . The type species , Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis , was described by Osvaldo Reig in 1963 and is the only species assigned to the genus . Ischisaurus and Frenguellisaurus are synonyms .
For many years , the classification of Herrerasaurus was unclear because it was known from very fragmentary remains . It was hypothesized to be a basal theropod , a basal sauropodomorph , a basal saurischian , or not a dinosaur at all but another type of archosaur . However , with the discovery of an almost complete skeleton and skull in 1988 , Herrerasaurus has been classified as either an early theropod or an early saurischian in at least five recent reviews of theropod evolution , with many researchers treating it at least tentatively as the most primitive member of Theropoda .
It is a member of the Herrerasauridae , a family of similar genera that were among the earliest of the dinosaurian evolutionary radiation .
= = Description = =
Herrerasaurus was a lightly built bipedal carnivore with a long tail and a relatively small head . Adults had skulls up to 56 cm ( 22 in ) long and were up to 6 metres ( 20 ft ) in total length and 350 kg ( 770 lb ) in weight . Smaller specimens were half the size , with skulls only about 30 cm ( 12 in ) long .
Herrerasaurus was fully bipedal . It had strong hind limbs with short thighs and rather long feet , indicating that it was likely a swift runner . The foot had five toes , but only the middle three ( digits II , III , and IV ) bore weight . The outer toes ( I and V ) were small ; the first toe had a small claw . The tail , partially stiffened by overlapping vertebral projections , balanced the body and was also an adaptation for speed . The forelimbs of Herrerasaurus were less than half the length of its hind limbs . The upper arm and forearm were rather short , while the manus ( hand ) was elongated . The first two fingers and the thumb ended in curved , sharp claws for grasping prey . The fourth and fifth digits were small stubs without claws .
Herrerasaurus displays traits that are found in different groups of dinosaurs , and several traits found in non @-@ dinosaurian archosaurs . Although it shares most of the characteristics of dinosaurs , there are a few differences , particularly in the shape of its hip and leg bones . Its pelvis is like that of saurischian dinosaurs , but it has a bony acetabulum ( where the femur meets the pelvis ) that was only partially open . The ilium , the main hip bone , is supported by only two sacrals , a basal trait . However , the pubis points backwards , a derived trait as seen in dromaeosaurids and birds . Additionally , the end of the pubis has a booted shape , like those in avetheropods ; and the vertebral centra has an hourglass shape as found in Allosaurus .
Herrerasaurus had a long , narrow skull that lacked nearly all the specializations that characterized later dinosaurs , and more closely resembled those of more primitive archosaurs such as Euparkeria . It had five pairs of fenestrae ( skull openings ) in its skull , two pairs of which were for the eyes and nostrils . Between the eyes and the nostrils were two antorbital fenestrae and a pair of tiny , 1 @-@ centimeter @-@ long ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) slit @-@ like holes called promaxillary fenestrae .
Herrerasaurus had a flexible joint in the lower jaw that could slide back and forth to deliver a grasping bite . This cranial specialization is unusual among dinosaurs but has evolved independently in some lizards . The rear of the lower jaw also had fenestrae . The jaws were equipped with large serrated teeth for biting and eating flesh , and the neck was slender and flexible .
According to Novas ( 1993 ) , Herrerasaurus can be distinguished based on the following features : the presence of a premaxilla @-@ maxilla fenestra , and the dorsal part of laterotemporal fenestra is less than a third as wide as the ventral part ; the presence of a ridge on the lateral surface of the jugal bone , and a deeply incised supratemporal fossa that extends across the medial postorbital process ; the subquadrate ventral squamosal process has a lateral depression , and the quadratojugal bone overlaps the posterodorsal quadrate face ; the pterygoid process of the quadrate has an inturned , trough @-@ shaped ventral margin , and the presence of a slender ribbed posterodorsal dentary process ; the surangular bone has a forked anterior process for articulation with the posterodorsal dentary process ; the humerus ' internal tuberosity is proximally projected and separated from the humeral head by a deep groove ( also present in coelophysoids ) ; possesses enlarged hands , which are 60 % of the size of the humerus + radius , and the humeral entepicondyle is ridge @-@ like with anterior and posterior depressions ; and the posterior border of the ilial peduncle forms a right angle with the dorsal border of the shaft on the ischium
According to Sereno ( 1993 ) , Herrerasaurus can be distinguished based on the following features , all of which are unknown in other herrerasaurids : a circular pit is present on the humeral ectepicondyle , a feature also present in Saturnalia ; a saddle @-@ shaped ulnar condyle of the humerus , and the articular surface for the ulnare on the ulna is convex ; the articular surface of the ulnare is smaller than that of the ulna , a feature unknown in Staurikosaurus and Sanjuansaurus ; the centrale is placed distal to the radiale ; a broad subnarial process of the premaxilla , and a broad supratemporal depression ( noted by Sereno and Novas , 1993 ) ; the basal tuber and the occipital condyle are subequal in width ( noted by Sereno and Novas , 1993 )
= = History = =
Herrerasaurus was named by paleontologist Osvaldo Reig after Victorino Herrera , an Andean goatherd who first noticed its fossils in outcrops near the city of San Juan in 1959 . These rocks , which later yielded Eoraptor , are part of the Ischigualasto Formation and date from the late Ladinian to early Carnian stages of the Late Triassic period . Reig named a second dinosaur from these rocks in the same publication as Herrerasaurus ; this dinosaur , Ischisaurus cattoi , is now considered a junior synonym and a juvenile of Herrerasaurus .
Reig believed Herrerasaurus was an early example of a carnosaur , but this was the subject of much debate over the next 30 years , and the genus was variously classified during that time . In 1970 , Steel classified Herrerasaurus as a prosauropod . In 1972 , Peter Galton classified the genus as not diagnosable beyond Saurischia . Later , using cladistic analysis , some researchers put Herrerasaurus and Staurikosaurus at the base of the dinosaur tree before the separation between ornithischians and saurischians . Several researchers classified the remains as non @-@ dinosaurian .
Two other partial skeletons , with skull material , were named Frenguellisaurus ischigualastensis by Fernando Novas in 1986 , but this species too is now thought to be a synonym . Frenguellisaurus ischigualastensis was discovered in 1975 , and was described by Novas ( 1986 ) who considered it a primitive saurischian , and possibly a theropod . Novas ( 1992 ) and Sereno and Novas ( 1992 ) examined the Frenguellisaurus remains and found them referable to Herrerasaurus . Ischisaurus cattoi was discovered in 1960 and described by Reig in 1963 . Novas ( 1992 ) and Sereno and Novas ( 1992 ) reviewed its remains and found them to be referable to Herrerasaurus .
A complete Herrerasaurus skull was found in 1988 , by a team of paleontologists led by Paul Sereno . Based on the new fossils , authors such as Thomas Holtz and José Bonaparte classified Herrerasaurus at the base of the saurischian tree before the divergence between prosauropods and theropods . However , Sereno favored classifying Herrerasaurus ( and the Herrerasauridae ) as primitive theropods . These two classifications have become the most persistent , with Rauhut ( 2003 ) and Bittencourt and Kellner ( 2004 ) favoring the early theropod hypothesis , and Max Langer ( 2004 ) , Langer and Benton ( 2006 ) , and Randall Irmis and his coauthors ( 2007 ) favoring the basal saurischian hypothesis . If Herrerasaurus were indeed a theropod , it would indicate that theropods , sauropodomorphs , and ornithischians diverged even earlier than herrerasaurids , before the middle Carnian , and that " all three lineages independently evolved several dinosaurian features , such as a more advanced ankle joint or an open acetabulum " . This view is further supported by ichnological records showing large tridactyl ( three @-@ toed ) footprints that can be attributed only to a theropod dinosaur . These footprints date from the Ladinian ( Middle Triassic ) of the Los Rastros Formation in Argentina and predate Herrerasaurus by 3 to 5 million years .
The study of early dinosaurs such as Herrerasaurus and Eoraptor therefore has important implications for the concept of dinosaurs as a monophyletic group ( a group descended from a common ancestor ) . The monophyly of dinosaurs was explicitly proposed in the 1970s by Galton and Robert T. Bakker , who compiled a list of cranial and postcranial synapomorphies ( common anatomical traits derived from the common ancestor ) . Later authors proposed additional synapomorphies . An extensive study of Herrerasaurus by Sereno in 1992 suggested that of these proposed synapomorphies , only one cranial and seven postcranial features were actually derived from a common ancestor , and that the others were attributable to convergent evolution . Sereno 's analysis of Herrerasaurus also led him to propose several new dinosaurian synapomorphies .
= = Classification = =
Herrerasaurus was originally considered to be a genus within Carnosauria , which then included forms similar to Megalosaurus and Antrodemus ( the latter is equivalent to Allosaurus ) , even though Herrerasaurus lived many millions of years before them and retained multiple primitive features . This carnosaurian classification was amended upon by Rozhdestvensky and Tatarinov in 1964 , who classified Herrerasaurus within the family Gryponichidae inside Carnosauria . The same year , Walker published a differing opinion that Herrerasaurus instead was allied with Plateosauridae , although it differed in possessing a pubic boot . Walker also proposed that Herrerasaurus may instead be close to Poposaurus ( now considered a pseudosuchian ) and the unnamed theropod from the Dockum Group of Texas ( now assigned to the rauisuchian Postosuchus ) . In 1985 , Charig noted that Herrerasaurus was of uncertain classification , showing similarities to both " prosauropods " and " carnosaurians " . Romer ( 1966 ) , simply noted that Herrerasaurus was a prosauropod possibly within Plateosauridae . In the description of Staurikosaurus , Colbert noted that there were many similarities between his taxon and Herrerasaurus , but classified them in separate families , with Herrerasaurus in Teratosauridae . In 1970 , Bonaparte also proposed similarities between Herrerasaurus and Staurikosaurus , and while classifying them both clearly as in Saurischia , he stated that they appeared as though they could not be placed in a current family . This was further supported by Benedetto in 1973 , who named for the taxa the new family Herrerasauridae , which he classified as saurischians , possibly within Theropoda but not in Sauropodomorpha . However , in 1977 Galton proposed that Herrerasauridae only included Herrerasaurus , and found it to be Saurischian incertae sedis .
Proposed in 1987 by Brinkman and Sues , Herrerasaurus has at times been considered basal to Ornithischia and Saurischia , although Brinkmann and Sues still considered it to be inside Dinosauria . They supported this on the basis that Herrerasaurus has a large pedal digit V , and has a well developed medial wall on the acetabulum . Brinkmann and Sues considered Staurikosaurus and Herrerasaurus to not form a true group called Herrerasauridae , and that instead they were successively more primitive forms . Also , they considered the characters used by Benedetto to be invalid , instead representing only the plesiomorphic state that was found in both taxa . This was disagreed with in 1992 by Novas , who stated many derived synapomorphies of Herrerasauridae , such as a distinct pubic boot , but still classified them as basal to Ornithischia and Saurischia . Novas defined the family as the least common ancestor of Herrerasaurus and Staurikosaurus and all its descendants . A differing definition of Herrerasaurus but not Passer domesticus first suggested by Sereno ( 1998 ) , and more closely follows the original inclusion proposed by Benedetto . Another group , Herrerasauria was named by Galton in 1985 , and defined as Herrerasaurus but not Liliensternus or Plateosaurus by Langer ( 2004 ) , who used the node @-@ based definition for Herrerasauridae .
In a revision of basal Dinosauria , Padian and May ( 1993 ) discussed the definition of the clade , and redefined it as the latest common ancestor of Triceratops and birds . They also discussed what this definition would do to the most basal taxa , such as Herrerasauridae , and Eoraptor . Padian and May considered that since both Herrerasauridae and Eoraptor lack many diagnostic features of Saurischia or Ornithischia , that they could not be considered inside Dinosauria .
A later 1994 study by Novas instead classified Herrerasaurus within Dinosauria , and strongly supported its position within Saurischia , as well a provided synapomorphies shared with Theropoda . Novas found that the primitive features of lacking a brevis fossa and having only two sacral vertebrae were simply reversals found in the genus . In 1996 , Novas went further by supporting a theropod position for Herrerasaurus with a phylogenetic analysis , which placed it closer to Neotheropoda than Eoraptor or Sauropodomorpha . Langer ( 2004 ) mentioned that this hypothesis was widely accepted , but that more later authors instead preferred to place Herrerasaurus as well as Eoraptor basal to Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha , a clade called Eusaurischia . Langer ( 2004 ) conducted a phylogenetic analysis , and found that it was much more likely that Herrerasaurus was a basal saurischian , than either a theropod or a non @-@ dinosaurian . Langer 's proposal was supported by multiple studies until the discovery of Tawa , when Nesbitt et al. conducted a more inclusive analysis , and the resulting cladogram placed Herrerasauridae basal to Eoraptor , but closer to Dilophosaurus than Sauropodomorpha . Unlike Nesbitt , Ezcurra ( 2010 ) conducted a phylogenetic analysis to place his new taxon Chromogisaurus , and found that Herrerasauridae was basal to Eusaurischia .
In 2010 , Alcocer and Martinez described a new taxon of herrerasaurid , Sanjuansaurus . It could be distinguished from Herrerasaurus based on multiple features . In the phylogenetic analysis , Herrerasaurus , Sanjuansaurus and Staurikosaurus all were in a polytomy , and Herrerasauridae was the most primitive group of saurischian , outside Eusaurischia , Eoraptor and Guaibasaurus . In 2011 , Martinez et al. described Eodromaeus , a basal theropod from the same formation as Herrerasaurus . In a phylogenetic analysis , Eoraptor was placed within Sauropodomorpha , Herrerasauridae was placed as the most basal theropods , and Eodromaeus was placed as the next most basal . A more recent analysis , by Bittencourt et al . ( 2014 ) , placed Herrerasauridae in a polytomy with Theropoda and Sauropodomorpha , with Eoraptor also being in an unresolved position . This cladogram is shown below .
Other members of the clade may include Eoraptor from the same Ischigualasto Formation of Argentina as Herrerasaurus , Chindesaurus from the Upper Petrified Forest ( Chinle Formation ) of Arizona , and possibly Caseosaurus from the Tecovas Formation of the Dockum Group in Texas , although the relationships of these animals are not fully understood , and not all paleontologists agree . Other possible basal theropods , Alwalkeria from the Late Triassic Maleri Formation of India , and Teyuwasu , known from very fragmentary remains from the Late Triassic of Brazil , might be related . Paul ( 1988 ) noted that it had been incorrectly suggested that Staurikosaurus pricei was a juvenile Herrerasaurus . This claim was refuted when pelvic bones from a juvenile Herrerasaurus were discovered , which upon examination did not resemble the pelvic bones of Staurikosaurus .
= = Paleobiology = =
The teeth of Herrerasaurus indicate that it was a carnivore ; its size indicates it would have preyed upon small and medium @-@ sized plant eaters . These might have included other dinosaurs , such as Pisanosaurus , as well as the more plentiful rhynchosaurs and synapsids . Herrerasaurus itself may have been preyed upon by giant rauisuchids like Saurosuchus ; puncture wounds were found in one skull .
Coprolites ( fossilized dung ) containing small bones but no trace of plant fragments , discovered in the Ischigualasto Formation , have been assigned to Herrerasaurus based on fossil abundance . Mineralogical and chemical analysis of these coprolites indicates that if the referral to Herrerasaurus was correct , this carnivore could digest bone .
Comparisons between the scleral rings of Herrerasaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals .
In a 2001 study conducted by Bruce Rothschild and other paleontologists , 12 hand bones and 20 foot bones referred to Herrerasaurus were examined for signs of stress fracture , but none were found .
PVSJ 407 , a Herrerasaurus ischigualastensis , had a pit in a skull bone attributed by Paul Sereno and Novas to a bite . Two additional pits occurred on the splenial . The areas around these pits are swollen and porous , suggesting the wounds were afflicted by a short @-@ lived non @-@ lethal infection . Because of the size and angles of the wound , it is likely that they were obtained in a fight with another Herrerasaurus .
= = Paleoecology = =
The holotype of Herrerasaurus ( PVL 2566 ) was discovered in the Cancha de Bochas Member of the Ischigualasto Formation in San Juan , Argentina . It was collected in 1961 by Victorino Herrera , in sediments that were deposited in the Carnian stage of the Triassic period , approximately 235 to 221 million years ago . Over the years , the Ischigualasto Formation produced other fossils ultimately referred to Herrerasaurus . In 1958 , A.S. Romer discovered specimen MCZ 7063 , originally referred to Staurikosaurus in Carnian sediments . Herrerasaurus specimens PVL 2045 and MLP ( 4 ) 61 , were collected in 1959 and 1960 , respectively , in sediments that were deposited in the Norian stage of the Triassic period , approximately 228 to 208 million years ago . In 1960 , Scaglia collected specimen MACN 18 @.@ 060 , originally the holotype of Ischisaurus cattoi , in sediments deposited in the Carnian stage . In 1961 , Scaglia collected Herrerasaurus specimen PVL 2558 , in the Carnian beds of this formation . In 1990 , the Cancha de Bochas Member produced more Herrerasaurus specimens , also from its Carnian beds . Specimen PVSJ 53 , originally the holotype of Frenguellisaurus , was collected by Gargiulo & Oñate in 1975 in sediments that were deposited in the Carnian stage .
Although Herrerasaurus shared the body shape of the large carnivorous dinosaurs , it lived during a time when dinosaurs were small and insignificant . It was the time of non @-@ dinosaurian reptiles , not dinosaurs , and a major turning point in the Earth 's ecology . The vertebrate fauna of the Ischigualasto Formation and the slightly later Los Colorados Formation consisted mainly of a variety of crurotarsal archosaurs and synapsids . In the Ischigualasto Formation , dinosaurs constituted only about 6 % of the total number of fossils , but by the end of the Triassic Period , dinosaurs were becoming the dominant large land animals , and the other archosaurs and synapsids declined in variety and number .
Studies suggest that the paleoenvironment of the Ischigualasto Formation was a volcanically active floodplain covered by forests and subject to strong seasonal rainfalls . The climate was moist and warm , though subject to seasonal variations . Vegetation consisted of ferns ( Cladophlebis ) , horsetails , and giant conifers ( Protojuniperoxylon ) . These plants formed lowland forests along the banks of rivers . Herrerasaurus remains appear to have been the most common among the carnivores of the Ischigualasto Formation . It lived in the jungles of Late Triassic South America alongside another early dinosaur , the one @-@ meter @-@ long Eoraptor , as well as Saurosuchus , a giant land @-@ living rauisuchian ( a quadrupedal meat eater with a theropod @-@ like skull ) ; the broadly similar but smaller Venaticosuchus , an ornithosuchid ; and the predatory therapsid chiniquodontids . Herbivores were much more abundant than carnivores and were represented by rhynchosaurs such as Hyperodapedon ( a beaked reptile ) ; aetosaurs ( spiny armored reptiles ) ; and therapsids , including kannemeyeriid dicynodonts ( stocky , front @-@ heavy beaked quadrupedal animals ) such as Ischigualastia and traversodontid cynodonts ( somewhat similar in overall form to dicynodonts , but lacking beaks ) such as Exaeretodon . These non @-@ dinosaurian herbivores were much more abundant than early ornithischian dinosaurs like Pisanosaurus .
= Fridtjof Nansen =
Fridtjof Nansen ( / ˈfrɪd.tjɒf ˈnænsən / FRID @-@ choff NAN @-@ sən ; 10 October 1861 – 13 May 1930 ) was a Norwegian explorer , scientist , diplomat , humanitarian and Nobel Peace Prize laureate . In his youth he was a champion skier and ice skater . He led the team that made the first crossing of the Greenland interior in 1888 , traversing the island on cross @-@ country skis . He won international fame after reaching a record northern latitude of 86 ° 14 ′ during his North Pole expedition of 1893 – 96 . Although he retired from exploration after his return to Norway , his techniques of polar travel and his innovations in equipment and clothing influenced a generation of subsequent Arctic and Antarctic expeditions .
Nansen studied zoology at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania ( renamed Oslo in 1925 ) , and later worked as a curator at the Bergen Museum where his research on the central nervous system of lower marine creatures earned him a doctorate and helped establish modern theories of neurology . After 1896 his main scientific interest switched to oceanography ; in the course of his research he made many scientific cruises , mainly in the North Atlantic , and contributed to the development of modern oceanographic equipment . As one of his country 's leading citizens , in 1905 Nansen spoke out for the ending of Norway 's union with Sweden , and was instrumental in persuading Prince Carl of Denmark to accept the throne of the newly independent Norway . Between 1906 and 1908 he served as the Norwegian representative in London , where he helped negotiate the Integrity Treaty that guaranteed Norway 's independent status .
In the final decade of his life , Nansen devoted himself primarily to the League of Nations , following his appointment in 1921 as the League 's High Commissioner for Refugees . In 1922 he was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for his work on behalf of the displaced victims of the First World War and related conflicts . Among the initiatives he introduced was the " Nansen passport " for stateless persons , a certificate recognised by more than 50 countries . He worked on behalf of refugees until his sudden death in 1930 , after which the League established the Nansen International Office for Refugees to ensure that his work continued . This office received the Nobel Peace Prize for 1938 . Nansen was honoured by many nations , and his name is commemorated in numerous geographical features , particularly in the polar regions .
= = Family background and childhood = =
The Nansen family originated in Denmark . Hans Nansen ( 1598 – 1667 ) , a trader , was an early explorer of the White Sea region of the Arctic Ocean . In later life he settled in Copenhagen , becoming the city 's borgmester in 1654 . Later generations of the family lived in Copenhagen until the mid @-@ 18th century , when Ancher Antoni Nansen moved to Norway ( then ruled by Denmark ) . His son , Hans Leierdahl Nansen ( 1764 – 1821 ) , was a magistrate first in the Trondheim district , later in Jæren . After Norway 's separation from Denmark in 1814 , he entered national political life as the representative for Stavanger in the first Storting , and became a strong advocate of union with Sweden . After suffering a paralytic stroke in 1821 Hans Leierdahl Nansen died , leaving a four @-@ year @-@ old son , Baldur Fridtjof Nansen , the explorer 's father .
Baldur was a lawyer without ambitions for public life , who became Reporter to the Supreme Court of Norway . He married twice , the second time to Adelaide Johanne Thekla Isidore Bølling Wedel @-@ Jarlsberg from Bærum , a niece of Herman Wedel @-@ Jarlsberg who had helped frame the Norwegian constitution of 1814 and was later the Swedish king 's Norwegian Viceroy . Baldur and Adelaide settled at Store Frøen , an estate at Aker , a few kilometres north of Norway 's capital city , Christiania ( since renamed Oslo ) . The couple had three children ; the first died in infancy , the second , born 10 October 1861 , was Fridtjof Nansen .
Store Frøen 's rural surroundings shaped the nature of Nansen 's childhood . In the short summers the main activities were swimming and fishing , while in the autumn the chief pastime was hunting for game in the forests . The long winter months were devoted mainly to skiing , which Nansen began to practice at the age of two , on improvised skis . At the age of 10 he defied his parents and attempted the ski jump at the nearby Huseby installation . This exploit had near @-@ disastrous consequences , as on landing the skis dug deep into the snow , pitching the boy forward : " I , head first , described a fine arc in the air ... [ W ] hen I came down again I bored into the snow up to my waist . The boys thought I had broken my neck , but as soon as they saw there was life in me ... a shout of mocking laughter went up . " Nansen 's enthusiasm for skiing was undiminished , though as he records , his efforts were overshadowed by those of the skiers from the mountainous region of Telemark , where a new style of skiing was being developed . " I saw this was the only way " , wrote Nansen later .
At school , Nansen worked adequately without showing any particular aptitude . Studies took second place to sports , or to expeditions into the forests where he would live " like Robinson Crusoe " for weeks at a time . Through such experiences Nansen developed a marked degree of self @-@ reliance . He became an accomplished skier and a highly proficient skater . Life was disrupted when , in the summer of 1877 , Adelaide Nansen died suddenly . Distressed , Baldur Nansen sold the Store Frøen property and moved with his two sons to Christiania . Nansen 's sporting prowess continued to develop ; at 18 he broke the world one @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) skating record , and in the following year won the national cross @-@ country skiing championship , a feat he would repeat on 11 subsequent occasions .
= = Student and adventurer = =
In 1880 Nansen passed his university entrance examination , the examen artium . He decided to study zoology , claiming later that he chose the subject because he thought it offered the chance of a life in the open air . He began his studies at the Royal Frederick University in Christiania ( renamed Oslo in 1925 ) early in 1881 .
Early in 1882 Nansen took " ... the first fatal step that led me astray from the quiet life of science . " Professor Robert Collett of the university 's zoology department proposed that Nansen take a sea voyage , to study Arctic zoology at first hand . Nansen was enthusiastic , and made arrangements through a recent acquaintance , Captain Axel Krefting , commander of the sealer Viking . The voyage began on 11 March 1882 and extended over the following five months . In the weeks before sealing started , Nansen was able to concentrate on scientific studies . From water samples he showed that , contrary to previous assumption , sea ice forms on the surface of the water rather than below . His readings also demonstrated that the Gulf Stream flows beneath a cold layer of surface water . Through the spring and early summer Viking roamed between Greenland and Spitsbergen in search of seal herds . Nansen became an expert marksman , and on one day proudly recorded that his team had shot 200 seal . In July , Viking became trapped in the ice close to an unexplored section of the Greenland coast ; Nansen longed to go ashore , but this was impossible . However , he began to develop the idea that the Greenland icecap might be explored , or even crossed . On 17 July the ship broke free from the ice , and early in August was back in Norwegian waters .
Nansen did not resume formal studies at the university . Instead , on Collett 's recommendation , he accepted a post as curator in the zoological department of the Bergen Museum . He was to spend the next six years of his life there — apart from a six @-@ month sabbatical tour of Europe — working and studying with leading figures such as Gerhard Armauer Hansen , the discoverer of the leprosy bacillus , and Daniel Cornelius Danielssen , the museum 's director who had turned it from a backwater collection into a centre of scientific research and education . Nansen 's chosen area of study was the then relatively unexplored field of neuroanatomy , specifically the central nervous system of lower marine creatures . Before leaving for his sabbatical in February 1886 he published a paper summarising his research to date , in which he stated that " anastomoses or unions between the different ganglion cells " could not be demonstrated with certainty . This unorthodox view , confirmed by the simultaneous researches of the embryologist Wilhelm His and the psychiatrist August Forel . Nansen is considered the first Norwegian defender of the neuron theory , originally proposed by Santiago Ramon y Cajal . His subsequent paper , The Structure and Combination of Histological Elements of the Central Nervous System , published in 1887 , became his doctoral thesis .
= = Crossing of Greenland = =
= = = Planning = = =
The idea of an expedition across the Greenland icecap grew in Nansen 's mind throughout his Bergen years . In 1887 , after the submission of his doctoral thesis , he finally began organising this project . Before then , the two most significant penetrations of the Greenland interior had been those of Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld in 1883 , and Robert Peary in 1886 . Both had set out from Disko Bay on the western coast , and had travelled about 160 kilometres ( 100 mi ) eastward before turning back . By contrast , Nansen proposed to travel from east to west , ending rather than beginning his trek at Disko Bay . A party setting out from the inhabited west coast would , he reasoned , have to make a return trip , as no ship could be certain of reaching the dangerous east coast and picking them up . By starting from the east — assuming that a landing could be made there — Nansen 's would be a one @-@ way journey towards a populated area . The party would have no line of retreat to a safe base ; the only way to go would be forward , a situation that fitted Nansen 's philosophy completely .
Nansen rejected the complex organisation and heavy manpower of other Arctic ventures , and instead planned his expedition for a small party of six . Supplies would be manhauled on specially designed lightweight sledges . Much of the equipment , including sleeping bags , clothing and cooking stoves , also needed to be designed from scratch . These plans received a generally poor reception in the press ; one critic had no doubt that " if [ the ] scheme be attempted in its present form ... the chances are ten to one that he will ... uselessly throw his own and perhaps others ' lives away " . The Norwegian parliament refused to provide financial support , believing that such a potentially risky undertaking should not be encouraged . The project was eventually launched with a donation from a Danish businessman , Augustin Gamél ; the rest came mainly from small contributions from Nansen 's countrymen , through a fundraising effort organised by students at the university .
Despite the adverse publicity , Nansen received numerous applications from would @-@ be adventurers . He wanted expert skiers , and attempted to recruit from the skiers of Telemark , but his approaches were rebuffed . Nordenskiöld had advised Nansen that Sami people , from Finland in the far north of Norway , were expert snow travellers , so Nansen recruited a pair , Samuel Balto and Ole Nielsen Ravna . The remaining places went to Otto Sverdrup , a former sea @-@ captain who had more recently worked as a forester ; Oluf Christian Dietrichson , an army officer , and Kristian Kristiansen , an acquaintance of Sverdrup 's . All had experience of outdoor life in extreme conditions , and were experienced skiers . Just before the party 's departure , Nansen attended a formal examination at the university , which had agreed to receive his doctoral thesis . In accordance with custom he was required to defend his work before appointed examiners acting as " devil 's advocates " . He left before knowing the outcome of this process .
= = = Expedition = = =
On 3 June 1888 Nansen 's party was picked up from the north @-@ western Icelandic port of Ísafjörður by the sealer Jason . A week later the Greenland coast was sighted , but progress was hindered by thick pack ice . On 17 July , with the coast still 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) away , Nansen decided to launch the small boats ; they were within sight of the Sermilik Fjord , which Nansen believed would offer a route up on to the icecap .
The expedition left Jason " in good spirits and with the highest hopes of a fortunate result " , according to Jason 's captain . There followed days of extreme frustration for the party as , prevented by weather and sea conditions from reaching the shore , they drifted southwards with the ice . Most of this time was spent camping on the ice itself — it was too dangerous to launch the boats . By 29 July they were 380 kilometres ( 240 mi ) south of the point where they had left the ship . On that day they finally reached land , but were too far south to begin the crossing . After a brief rest , Nansen ordered the team back into the boats and to begin rowing north .
During the next 12 days the party battled northward along the coast through the ice floes . On the first day they encountered a large Eskimo encampment near Cape Steen Bille , and there were further occasional contacts with the nomadic native population as the journey continued . On 11 August , when they had covered about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) and had reached Umivik Bay , Nansen decided that although they were still far south of his intended starting place , they needed to begin the crossing before the season became too advanced for travel . After landing at Umivik , they spent the next four days preparing for their journey , and on the evening of 15 August they set out . They were heading north @-@ west , towards Christianhaab ( now Qasigiannguit ) on the west Greenland shores of Disko Bay , 600 kilometres ( 370 mi ) away .
Over the next few days the party struggled to ascend the inland ice over a treacherous surface with many hidden crevasses . The weather was generally bad ; on one occasion all progress was halted for three days by violent storms and continuous rain . On 26 August Nansen concluded that there was now no chance of reaching Christianhaab by mid @-@ September , when the last ship was due to leave . He therefore ordered a change of course , almost due west towards Godthaab ( now Nuuk ) , a shorter journey by at least 150 kilometres ( 93 mi ) . The rest of the party , according to Nansen , " hailed the change of plan with acclamation " . They continued climbing , until on 11 September they had reached a height of 8 @,@ 922 feet ( 2 @,@ 719 m ) above sea level , the summit of the icecap with temperatures dropping to − 50 ° F ( − 46 ° C ) at night . From then on the downward slope made travelling easier , although the terrain was difficult and the weather remained hostile . Progress was slow because of fresh snowfalls which made dragging the sledges as hard as pulling them through sand . By 26 September they had battled their way down to the edge of a fjord that ran westward towards Godthaab . From their tent , some local willows and parts of the sledges Sverdrup constructed a makeshift boat , and on 29 September Nansen and Sverdrup began the last stage of the journey , rowing down the fjord . Four days later , on 3 October 1888 , they reached Godthaab , where they were greeted by the town 's Danish representative . His first words were to inform Nansen that he had been awarded his doctorate , a matter that " could not have been more remote from my thoughts at that moment " . The crossing had been accomplished in 49 days , making 78 days in total since they had left the Jason ; throughout the journey the team had maintained careful meteorological , geographical and other records relating to the previously unexplored interior . The rest of the team arrived in Godthaab on 12 October .
Nansen soon learned that no ship was likely to call at Godthaab until the following spring , though they were able to send letters back to Norway via a boat leaving Ivigtut at the end of October . He and his party therefore spent the next seven months in Greenland , hunting , fishing and studying the life of the local inhabitants . On 15 April 1889 the Danish ship Hvidbjørnen finally entered the harbour , and Nansen and his comrades prepared to depart . " It was not without sorrow that we left this place and these people , among whom we had enjoyed ourselves so well " , Nansen recorded .
= = Interlude and marriage = =
Hvidbjørnen reached Copenhagen on 21 May 1889 . News of the crossing had preceded its arrival , and Nansen and his companions were feted as heroes . This welcome , however , was dwarfed by the reception in Christiania a week later , when crowds of between thirty and forty thousand — a third of the city 's population — thronged the streets as the party made its way to the first of a series of receptions . The interest and enthusiasm generated by the expedition 's achievement led directly to the formation that year of the Norwegian Geographical Society .
Nansen accepted the position of curator of the Royal Frederick University 's zoology collection , a post which carried a salary but involved no duties ; the university was satisfied by the association with the explorer 's name . Nansen 's main task in the following weeks was writing his account of the expedition , but he found time late in June to visit London , where he met the Prince of Wales ( the future King Edward VII ) , and addressed a meeting of the Royal Geographical Society ( RGS ) .
The RGS president , Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant Duff , said that Nansen has claimed " the foremost place amongst northern travellers " , and later awarded him the Society 's prestigious Founder 's Medal . This was one of many honours Nansen received from institutions all over Europe . He was invited by a group of Australians to lead an expedition to Antarctica , but declined , believing that Norway 's interests would be better served by a North Pole conquest .
On 11 August 1889 Nansen announced his engagement to Eva Sars , the daughter of Michael Sars , a zoology professor who had died when Eva was 11 years old . The couple had met some years previously , at the skiing resort of Frognerseteren , where Nansen recalled seeing " two feet sticking out of the snow " . Eva was three years older than Nansen , and despite the evidence of this first meeting , was an accomplished skier . She was also a celebrated classical singer who had been coached in Berlin by Désirée Artôt , one @-@ time paramour of Tchaikovsky . The engagement surprised many , since Nansen had previously expressed himself forcefully against the institution of marriage ; Otto Sverdrup assumed he had read the message wrongly . The wedding took place on 6 September 1889 , less than a month after the engagement .
= = Fram expedition = =
= = = Theories and plans = = =
Nansen first began to consider the possibility of reaching the North Pole by using the natural drift of the polar ice when , in 1884 , he read the theories of Henrik Mohn , the distinguished Norwegian meteorologist . Artifacts found on the Greenland coast had been identified as coming from the lost US Arctic exploration vessel Jeannette , which had been crushed and sunk in June 1881 on the opposite side of the Arctic Ocean , off the Siberian coast . Mohn surmised that the location of the artefacts indicated the existence of an ocean current , flowing from east to west all the way across the polar sea , possibly over the pole itself . A strong enough ship might therefore enter the frozen Siberian sea , and drift to the Greenland coast via the pole .
This idea remained with Nansen during following years . After his triumphant return from Greenland he began to develop a detailed plan for a polar venture , which he made public in February 1890 at a meeting of the recently formed Norwegian Geographical Society . Previous expeditions , he argued , had approached the North Pole from the west , and had failed because they were working against the prevailing east @-@ west current . The secret of success was to work with this current . A workable plan , Nansen said , would require a small , strong and manoeuvrable ship capable of carrying fuel and provisions for twelve men for five years . The ship would sail to the approximate location of Jeannette 's sinking , and would enter the ice . It would then drift west with the current towards the pole and beyond it , eventually reaching the sea between Greenland and Spitsbergen .
Many experienced polar hands were dismissive of Nansen 's plans . The retired American explorer Adolphus Greely called the idea " an illogical scheme of self @-@ destruction " . Sir Allen Young , a veteran of the searches for Sir John Franklin 's lost expedition , and Sir Joseph Hooker , who had sailed south with James Clark Ross in 1839 – 43 , were equally dismissive . However , after an impassioned speech Nansen secured the support of the Norwegian parliament , which voted him a grant . The balance of funding was met by private donations and from a national appeal .
= = = Preparations = = =
Nansen chose Colin Archer , Norway 's leading shipbuilder and naval architect , to design and build a suitable ship for the planned expedition . Using the toughest oak timbers available , and an intricate system of crossbeams and braces throughout its length , Archer built a vessel of extraordinary strength . Its rounded hull was designed so that it would slip upwards out of the grip of packing ice . Speed and sailing performance were secondary to the requirement of making the ship a safe and warm shelter during a predicted lengthy confinement . With an overall length of 128 feet ( 39 m ) and a beam of 36 feet ( 11 m ) , the length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of just over three gave the ship its stubby appearance , justified by Archer thus : " A ship that is built with exclusive regard to its suitability for [ Nansen 's ] object must differ essentially from any known vessel . " The ship was launched by Eva Nansen at Archer 's yard at Larvik , on 6 October 1892 , and was named Fram , in English " Forward " .
From thousands of applicants , Nansen selected a party of twelve . Otto Sverdrup from the Greenland expedition was appointed captain of Fram and second @-@ in @-@ command of the expedition . Competition for places on the voyage was such that reserve Army lieutenant and dog @-@ driving expert Hjalmar Johansen signed on as ship 's stoker , the only position available .
= = = Into the ice = = =
Fram left Christiania on 24 June 1893 , cheered on by thousands of well @-@ wishers . After a slow journey around the coast , the final port of call was Vardø , in the far north @-@ east of Norway . Fram left Vardø on 21 July , following the North @-@ East Passage route pioneered by Nordenskiöld in 1878 – 79 , along the northern coast of Siberia . Progress was impeded by fog and ice conditions in the mainly uncharted seas . The crew also experienced the dead water phenomenon , where a ship 's forward progress is impeded by friction caused by a layer of fresh water lying on top of heavier salt water . Nevertheless , Cape Chelyuskin , the most northerly point of the Eurasian continental mass , was passed on 10 September . Ten days later , as Fram approached the area in which Jeannette had been crushed , heavy pack ice was sighted at around latitude 78 ° N. Nansen followed the line of the pack northwards to a position recorded as 78 ° 49 ′ N , 132 ° 53 ′ E , before ordering engines stopped and the rudder raised . From this point Fram 's drift began .
The first weeks in the ice were frustrating , as the drift moved unpredictably , sometimes north , sometimes south ; by 19 November Fram 's latitude was south of that at which she had entered the ice . Only after the turn of the year , in January 1894 , did the northerly direction become generally settled ; the 80 ° mark was finally passed on 22 March . Nansen calculated that , at this rate , it might take the ship five years to reach the pole . As the ship 's northerly progress continued at a rate rarely above a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) a day , Nansen began privately to consider a new plan — a dog sledge journey towards the pole . With this in mind he began to practice dog @-@ driving , making many experimental journeys over the ice . In November Nansen announced his plan : when the ship passed latitude 83 ° he and Hjalmar Johansen would leave the ship with the dogs and make for the pole while Fram , under Sverdrup , continued its drift until it emerged from the ice in the North Atlantic . After reaching the pole , Nansen and Johansen would make for the nearest known land , the recently discovered and sketchily mapped Franz Josef Land . They would then cross to Spitzbergen where they would find a ship to take them home .
The crew spent the rest of the 1894 – 95 winter preparing clothing and equipment for the forthcoming sledge journey . Kayaks were built , to be carried on the sledges until needed for the crossing of open water . Preparations were interrupted early in January when violent tremors shook the ship . The crew disembarked , fearing that the vessel would be crushed , but Fram proved herself equal to the danger . On 8 January 1895 the ship 's position was 83 ° 34 ′ N , above Greely 's previous Farthest North record of 83 ° 24 .
= = = Dash for the pole = = =
On 14 March 1895 , after two false starts and with the ship 's position at 84 ° 4 ′ N , Nansen and Johansen began their journey . Nansen had allowed 50 days to cover the 356 nautical miles ( 660 km ; 410 mi ) to the pole , an average daily journey of seven nautical miles ( 13 km ; 8 @.@ 1 mi ) . After a week of travel a sextant observation indicated that they were averaging nine nautical miles a day , ( 17 km ; 10 mi ) , putting them ahead of schedule . However , uneven surfaces made skiing more difficult , and their speeds slowed . They also realised that they were marching against a southerly drift , and that distances travelled did not necessarily equate to northerly progression . On 3 April Nansen began to wonder whether the pole was , indeed , attainable . Unless their speed improved , their food would not last them to the pole and then on to Franz Josef Land . He confided in his diary : " I have become more and more convinced we ought to turn before time . " On 7 April , after making camp and observing that the way ahead was " a veritable chaos of iceblocks stretching as far as the horizon " , Nansen decided to turn south . He recorded the latitude of the final northerly camp as 86 ° 13 @.@ 6 ′ N , almost three degrees beyond the previous Farthest North mark .
= = = Retreat = = =
At first Nansen and Johansen made good progress south , but on 13 April suffered a serious setback when both of their chronometers stopped . Without knowing the correct time , it was impossible for them to calculate their longitude and thus navigate their way accurately to Franz Josef Land . They restarted the watches on the basis of Nansen 's guess that they were at longitude 86 ° E , but from then on were uncertain of their true position .
Towards the end of April they observed the tracks of an Arctic fox , the first trace they had seen of a living creature other than their dogs since leaving Fram . Soon they began to see bear tracks , and by the end of May seals , gulls and whales were in evidence . On 31 May , by Nansen 's calculations , they were only 50 nautical miles ( 93 km ; 58 mi ) from Cape Fligely , the northernmost known point of Franz Josef Land . However , travel conditions worsened as the warmer weather caused the ice to break up . On 22 June the pair decided to rest on a stable ice floe while they repaired their equipment and gathered their strength for the next stage of their journey . They remained on the floe for a month . The day after leaving this camp Nansen recorded : " At last the marvel has come to pass — land , land , and after we had almost given up our belief in it ! " Whether this still @-@ distant land was Franz Josef Land or a new discovery they did not know — they had only a rough sketch map to guide them . On 6 August they reached the edge of the ice , where they shot the last of their dogs — they had been killing the weakest regularly since 24 April , to feed the others . They then lashed their two kayaks together , raised a sail and made for the land .
It was soon clear that this land was part of a group of islands . As they moved slowly southwards , Nansen tentatively identified a headland as Cape Felder , on the western edge of Franz Josef Land . Towards the end of August , as the weather grew colder and travel became increasingly difficult , Nansen decided to camp for the winter . In a sheltered cove , with stones and moss for building materials , the pair erected a hut which was to be their home for the next eight months . With ready supplies of bear , walrus and seal to keep their larder stocked , their principal enemy was not hunger but inactivity . After muted Christmas and New Year celebrations , in slowly improving weather they began to prepare to leave their refuge , but it was 19 May 1896 before they were able to resume their journey .
= = = Rescue and return = = =
On 17 June , during a stop for repairs after the kayaks had been attacked by a walrus , Nansen thought he heard sounds of a dog barking , and of voices . He went to investigate , and a few minutes later saw the figure of a man approaching . It was the British explorer Frederick Jackson , who was leading an expedition to Franz Josef Land and was camped at Cape Flora on the nearby Northbrook Island . The two were equally astonished by their encounter ; after some awkward hesitation Jackson asked : " You are Nansen , aren 't you ? " , and received the reply " Yes , I am Nansen . " Johansen was soon picked up , and the pair were taken to Cape Flora where , during the following weeks , they recuperated from their ordeal . Nansen later wrote that he could " still scarcely grasp " the sudden change of fortune ; had it not been for the walrus attack that caused the delay , the two parties might have been unaware of each other 's existence .
On 7 August Nansen and Johansen boarded Jackson 's supply ship Windward , and sailed for Vardø where they arrived on the 13th . They were greeted by Hans Mohn , the originator of the polar drift theory , who was in the town by chance . The world was quickly informed by telegram of Nansen 's safe return , but as yet there was no news of Fram . Taking the weekly mail steamer south , Nansen and Johansen reached Hammerfest on 18 August , where they learned that Fram had been sighted . She had emerged from the ice north and west of Spitsbergen , as Nansen had predicted , and was now on her way to Tromsø . She had not passed over the pole , nor exceeded Nansen 's northern mark . Without delay Nansen and Johansen sailed for Tromsø , where they were reunited with their comrades .
The homeward voyage to Christiania was a series of triumphant receptions at every port . On 9 September Fram was escorted into Christiania 's harbour and welcomed by the largest crowds the city had ever seen . The crew were received by King Oscar , and Nansen , reunited with family , remained at the palace for several days as a special guest . Tributes arrived from all over the world ; typical was that from the British mountaineer Edward Whymper , who wrote that Nansen had made " almost as great an advance as has been accomplished by all other voyages in the nineteenth century put together " .
= = National figure = =
= = = Scientist and polar oracle = = =
Nansen 's first task on his return was to write his account of the voyage . This he did remarkably quickly , producing 300 @,@ 000 words of Norwegian text by November 1896 ; the English translation , titled Farthest North , was ready in January 1897 . The book was an instant success , and secured Nansen 's long @-@ term financial future . Nansen included without comment the one significant adverse criticism of his conduct , that of Greely , who had written in Harper 's Weekly on Nansen 's decision to leave Fram and strike for the pole : " It passes comprehension how Nansen could have thus deviated from the most sacred duty devolving on the commander of a naval expedition . "
During the 20 years following his return from the Arctic , Nansen devoted most of his energies to scientific work . In 1897 he accepted a professorship in zoology at the Royal Frederick University , which gave him a base from which he could tackle the major task of editing the reports of the scientific results of the Fram expedition . This was a much more arduous task than writing the expedition narrative . The results were eventually published in six volumes , and according to a later polar scientist , Robert Rudmose @-@ Brown , " were to Arctic oceanography what the Challenger expedition results had been to the oceanography of other oceans . "
In 1900 Nansen became director of the Christiania @-@ based International Laboratory for North Sea Research , and helped found the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea . Through his connection with the latter body , in the summer of 1900 Nansen embarked on his first visit to Arctic waters since the Fram expedition , a cruise to Iceland and Jan Mayen Land on the oceanographic research vessel Michael Sars , named after Eva 's father . Shortly after his return he learned that his Farthest North record had been passed , by members of the Duke of the Abruzzi 's Italian expedition . They had reached 86 ° 34N on 24 April 1900 , in an attempt to reach the North Pole from Franz Josef Land . Nansen received the news philosophically : " What is the value of having goals for their own sake ? They all vanish ... it is merely a question of time . "
Nansen was now considered an oracle by all would @-@ be explorers of the north and south polar regions . Abruzzi had consulted him , as had the Belgian Adrien de Gerlache , each of whom took expeditions to the Antarctic . Although Nansen refused to meet his own countryman and fellow @-@ explorer Carsten Borchgrevink ( whom he considered a fraud ) , he gave advice to Robert Falcon Scott on polar equipment and transport , prior to the 1901 – 04 Discovery Expedition . At one point Nansen seriously considered leading a South Pole expedition himself , and asked Colin Archer to design two ships . However , these plans remained on the drawing board .
By 1901 Nansen 's family had expanded considerably . A daughter , Liv , had been born just before Fram set out ; a son , Kåre was born in 1897 followed by a daughter , Irmelin , in 1900 and a second son Odd in 1901 . The family home , which Nansen had built in 1891 from the profits of his Greenland expedition book , was now too small . Nansen acquired a plot of land in the Lysaker district and built , substantially to his own design , a large and imposing house which combined some of the characteristics of an English manor house with features from the Italian renaissance . The house was ready for occupation by April 1902 ; Nansen called it Polhøgda ( in English " polar heights " ) , and it remained his home for the rest of his life . A fifth and final child , son Asmund , was born at Polhøgda in 1903 .
= = = Politician and diplomat = = =
The union between Norway and Sweden , imposed by the Great Powers in 1814 , had been under considerable strain through the 1890s , the chief issue in question being Norway 's rights to its own consular service . Nansen , although not by inclination a politician , had spoken out on the issue on several occasions in defence of Norway 's interests . It seemed , early in the 20th century that agreement between the two countries might be possible , but hopes were dashed when negotiations broke down in February 1905 . The Norwegian government fell , and was replaced by one led by Christian Michelsen , whose programme was one of separation from Sweden .
In February and March Nansen published a series of newspaper articles which placed him firmly in the separatist camp . The new prime minister wanted Nansen in the cabinet , but Nansen had no political ambitions . However , at Michelsen 's request he went to Berlin and then to London where , in a letter to The Times , he presented Norway 's legal case for a separate consular service to the English @-@ speaking world . On 17 May 1905 , Norway 's Constitution Day , Nansen addressed a large crowd in Christiania , saying : " Now have all ways of retreat been closed . Now remains only one path , the way forward , perhaps through difficulties and hardships , but forward for our country , to a free Norway " . He also wrote a book , Norway and the Union with Sweden , specifically to promote Norway 's case abroad .
On 23 May the Storting passed the Consulate Act establishing a separate consular service . King Oscar , refused his assent ; on 27 May the Norwegian cabinet resigned , but the king would not recognise this step . On 7 June the Storting unilaterally announced that the union with Sweden was dissolved . In a tense situation the Swedish government agreed to Norway 's request that the dissolution should be put to a referendum of the Norwegian people . This was held on 13 August 1905 and resulted in an overwhelming vote for separation , at which point King Oscar relinquished the crown of Norway while retaining the Swedish throne . A second referendum , held in November , determined that the new independent state should be a monarchy rather than a republic . In anticipation of this , Michelsen 's government had been considering the suitability of various princes as candidates for the Norwegian throne . Faced with King Oscar 's refusal to allow anyone from his own House of Bernadotte to accept the crown , the favoured choice was Prince Charles of Denmark . In July 1905 Michelsen sent Nansen to Copenhagen on a secret mission to persuade Charles to accept the Norwegian throne . Nansen was successful ; shortly after the second referendum Charles was proclaimed king , taking the name Haakon VII . He and his wife , the British princess Maud , were crowned in the Nidaros Cathedral in Trondheim on 22 June 1906 .
In April 1906 Nansen was appointed Norway 's first Minister in London . His main task was to work with representatives of the major European powers on an Integrity Treaty which would guarantee Norway 's position . Nansen was popular in England , and got on well with King Edward , though he found court functions and diplomatic duties disagreeable ; " frivolous and boring " was his description . However , he was able to pursue his geographical and scientific interests through contacts with the Royal Geographical Society and other learned bodies . The Treaty was signed on 2 November 1907 , and Nansen considered his task complete . Resisting the pleas of , among others , King Edward that he should remain in London , on 15 November Nansen resigned his post . A few weeks later , still in England as the king 's guest at Sandringham , Nansen received word that Eva was seriously ill with pneumonia . On 8 December he set out for home , but before he reached Polhøgda he learned , from a telegram , that Eva had died .
= = = Oceanographer and traveller = = =
After a period of mourning , Nansen returned to London . He had been persuaded by his government to rescind his resignation until after King Edward 's state visit to Norway in April 1908 . His formal retirement from the diplomatic service was dated 1 May 1908 , the same day on which his university professorship was changed from zoology to oceanography . This new designation reflected the general character of Nansen 's more recent scientific interests . In 1905 he had supplied the Swedish physicist Walfrid Ekman with the data which established the principle in oceanography known as the Ekman spiral . Based on Nansen 's observations of ocean currents recorded during the Fram expedition , Ekman concluded that the effect of wind on the sea 's surface produced currents which " formed something like a spiral staircase , down towards the depths " . In 1909 Nansen combined with Bjørn Helland @-@ Hansen to publish an academic paper , The Norwegian Sea : its Physical Oceanography , based on the Michael Sars voyage of 1900 .
Nansen had by now retired from polar exploration , the decisive step being his release of Fram to his fellow @-@ Norwegian Roald Amundsen , who was planning a North Pole expedition . When Amundsen made his controversial change of plan and set out for the South Pole , Nansen stood by him . Between 1910 and 1914 , Nansen participated in a several oceanographic voyages . In 1910 , aboard the Norwegian naval vessel Fridtjof , he carried out researches in the northern Atlantic , and in 1912 he took his own yacht , Veslemøy , to Bear Island and Spitsbergen . The main objective of the Veslemøy cruise was the investigation of salinity in the North Polar Basin . One of Nansen 's lasting contributions to oceanography was his work designing instruments and equipment ; the " Nansen bottle " for taking deep water samples remained in use into the 21st century , in a version updated by Shale Niskin .
At the request of the Royal Geographical Society , Nansen began work on a study of Arctic discoveries , which developed into a two @-@ volume history of the exploration of the northern regions up to the beginning of the 16th century . This was published in 1911 as Nord i Tåkeheimen ( " In Northern Mists " ) . That year he renewed an acquaintance with Kathleen Scott , wife of Robert Falcon Scott whose Terra Nova Expedition had sailed for Antarctica in 1910 . Biographer Roland Huntford has asserted that Nansen and Kathleen Scott enjoyed a brief love affair . Many women were attracted to Nansen , and he had a reputation as a womaniser . His personal life was troubled around this time ; in January 1913 he received news of the suicide of Hjalmar Johansen , who had returned in disgrace from Amundsen 's successful South Pole expedition . In March 1913 , Nansen 's youngest son Asmund died after a long illness .
In the summer of 1913 Nansen travelled to the Kara Sea , by the invitation of Jonas Lied , as part of a delegation investigating a possible trade route between Western Europe and the Siberian interior . The party then took a steamer up the Yenisei River to Krasnoyarsk , and travelled on the Trans @-@ Siberian Railway to Vladivostok before turning for home . Nansen published a report from the trip in Through Siberia . The life and culture of the Russian peoples aroused in Nansen an interest and sympathy he would carry through to his later life . Immediately before the First World War , Nansen joined Helland @-@ Hansen in an oceanographical cruise in eastern Atlantic waters .
= = = Statesman and humanitarian = = =
On the outbreak of war in 1914 Norway declared its neutrality , alongside Sweden and Denmark . Nansen was appointed president of the Norwegian Union of Defence , but had few official duties , and continued with his professional work as far as circumstances permitted . As the war progressed , the loss of Norway 's overseas trade led to acute shortages of food in the country , which became critical in April 1917 when the United States entered the war and placed extra restrictions on international trade . Nansen was dispatched to Washington by the Norwegian government ; after months of discussion he secured food and other supplies in return for the introduction of a rationing system . When his government hesitated over the deal , he signed the agreement on his own initiative .
Within a few months of the war 's end in November 1918 a draft agreement had been accepted by the Paris Peace Conference to create a League of Nations , as a means of resolving disputes between nations by peaceful means . The foundation of the League at this time was providential as far as Nansen was concerned , giving him a new outlet for his restless energy .
He became president of the Norwegian League of Nations Society , and although the Scandinavian nations with their traditions of neutrality initially held themselves aloof , his advocacy helped to ensure that Norway became a full member of the League in 1920 , and he became one of its three delegates to the League 's General Assembly .
In April 1920 , at the League 's request , Nansen began organising the repatriation of around half a million prisoners of war , stranded in various parts of the world . Of these , 300 @,@ 000 were in Russia which , gripped by revolution and civil war , had little interest in their fate . Nansen was able to report to the Assembly in November 1920 that around 200 @,@ 000 men had been returned to their homes . " Never in my life " , he said , " have I been brought into touch with so formidable an amount of suffering . " Nansen continued this work for a further two years until , in his final report to the Assembly in 1922 , he was able to state that 427 @,@ 886 prisoners had been repatriated to around 30 different countries . In paying tribute to his work , the responsible committee recorded that the story of his efforts " would contain tales of heroic endeavour worthy of those in the accounts of the crossing of Greenland and the great Arctic voyage . "
Even before this work was complete , Nansen was involved in a further humanitarian effort . On 1 September 1921 , prompted by the British delegate Philip Noel @-@ Baker , he accepted the post of the League 's High Commissioner for Refugees . His main brief was the resettlement of around two million Russian refugees displaced by the upheavals of the Russian Revolution . At the same time he tried to tackle the urgent problem of famine in Russia ; following a widespread failure of crops around 30 million people were threatened with starvation and death . Despite Nansen 's pleas on behalf of the starving , Russia 's revolutionary government was feared and distrusted internationally , and the League was reluctant to come to its peoples ' aid . Nansen had to rely largely on fundraising from private organisations , and his efforts met with limited success . Later he was to express himself bitterly on the matter :
There was in various transatlantic countries such an abundance of maize , that the farmers had to burn it as fuel in their railway engines . At the same time the ships in Europe were idle , for there were no cargoes . Simultaneously there were thousands , nay millions of unemployed . All this , while thirty million people in the Volga region — not far away and easily reached by our ships — were allowed to starve and die .
A major problem impeding Nansen 's work on behalf of refugees was that most of them lacked documentary proof of identity or nationality . Without legal status in their country of refuge , their lack of papers meant they were unable to go anywhere else . To overcome this , Nansen devised a document that became known as the " Nansen passport " , a form of identity for stateless persons that was in time recognised by more than 50 governments , and which allowed refugees to cross borders legally . Among the more distinguished holders of Nansen passports were the artist Marc Chagall , the composer Igor Stravinsky , and the dancer Anna Pavlova . Although the passport was created initially for refugees from Russia , it was extended to cover other groups . After the Greco @-@ Turkish wars of 1919 – 1922 Nansen travelled to Constantinople to negotiate the resettlement of hundreds of thousands of refugees , mainly ethnic Greeks who had fled from Turkey after the defeat of the Greek Army . The impoverished Greek state was unable to take them in , and so Nansen devised a scheme for a population exchange whereby half a million Turks in Greece were returned to Turkey , with full financial compensation , while further loans facilitated the absorption of the refugee Greeks into their homeland . Despite some controversy over the principle of a population exchange , the plan was implemented successfully over a period of several years . In November 1922 , while attending the Conference of Lausanne , Nansen learned that he had been awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for 1922 . The citation referred to " his work for the repatriation of the prisoners of war , his work for the Russian refugees , his work to bring succour to the millions of Russians afflicted by famine , and finally his present work for the refugees in Asia Minor and Thrace " . Nansen donated the prize money to international relief efforts .
From 1925 onwards he spent much time trying to help Armenian refugees , victims of Armenian Genocide at the hands of the Ottoman Empire during the First World War and further ill @-@ treatment thereafter . His goal was the establishment of a national home for these refugees , within the borders of Soviet Armenia . His main assistant in this endeavour was Vidkun Quisling , the future Nazi collaborator and head of a Norwegian puppet government during the Second World War . After visiting the region , Nansen presented the Assembly with a modest plan for the irrigation of 36 @,@ 000 hectares ( 360 km2 or 139 square miles ) on which 15 @,@ 000 refugees could be settled . The plan ultimately failed , because even with Nansen 's unremitting advocacy the money to finance the scheme was not forthcoming . Despite this failure , his reputation among the Armenian people remains high . Nansen wrote the book , Armenia and the Near East in 1923 which describes his sympathies to the plight of the Armenians in the wake of losing its independence to the Soviet Union . The book was translated in many languages including Norwegian , English , French , German , Russian and Armenian . After his visit to Armenia , Nansen wrote two additional books called " Gjennem Armenia " ( " Across Armenia " ) , published in 1927 and " Gjennem Kaukasus til Volga " ( " Through Caucasus to Volga " ) .
Within the League 's Assembly , Nansen spoke out on many issues besides those related to refugees . He believed that the Assembly gave the smaller countries such as Norway a " unique opportunity for speaking in the councils of the world . " He believed that the extent of the League 's success in reducing armaments would be the greatest test of its credibility . He was a signatory to the Slavery Convention of 25 September 1926 , which sought to outlaw the use of forced labour . He supported a settlement of the post @-@ war reparations issue , and championed Germany 's membership of the League , which was granted in September 1926 after intensive preparatory work by Nansen .
= = Later life = =
On 17 January 1919 Nansen married Sigrun Munthe , a long @-@ time friend with whom he had had a love affair in 1905 , while Eva was still alive . The marriage was resented by the Nansen children , and proved unhappy ; an acquaintance writing of them in the 1920s said Nansen appeared unbearably miserable and Sigrun steeped in hate .
Nansen 's League of Nations commitments through the 1920s meant that he was mostly absent from Norway , and was able to devote little time to scientific work . Nevertheless , he continued to publish occasional papers . He entertained the hope that he might travel to the North Pole by airship , but could not raise sufficient funding . In any event he was forestalled in this ambition by Amundsen , who flew over the pole in Umberto Nobile 's airship Norge in May 1926 . Two years later Nansen broadcast a memorial oration to Amundsen , who had disappeared in the Arctic while organising a rescue party for Nobile whose airship had crashed during a second polar voyage . Nansen said of Amundsen : " He found an unknown grave under the clear sky of the icy world , with the whirring of the wings of eternity through space . "
In 1926 Nansen was elected Rector of the University of St Andrews in Scotland , the first foreigner to hold this largely honorary position . He used the occasion of his inaugural address to review his life and philosophy , and to deliver a call to the youth of the next generation . He ended :
We all have a Land of Beyond to seek in our life — what more can we ask ? Our part is to find the trail that leads to it . A long trail , a hard trail , maybe ; but the call comes to us , and we have to go . Rooted deep in the nature of every one of us is the spirit of adventure , the call of the wild — vibrating under all our actions , making life deeper and higher and nobler .
Nansen largely avoided involvement in domestic Norwegian politics , but in 1924 he was persuaded by the long @-@ retired former Prime Minister Christian Michelsen to take part in a new anti @-@ communist political grouping , the Fatherland League . There were fears in Norway that should the Marxist @-@ oriented Labour Party gain power it would introduce a revolutionary programme . At the inaugural rally of the League in Oslo ( as Christiania had now been renamed ) , Nansen declared : " To talk of the right of revolution in a society with full civil liberty , universal suffrage , equal treatment for everyone ... [ is ] idiotic nonsense . "
Following continued turmoil between the centre @-@ right parties , there was even an independent petition in 1926 gaining some momentum that proposed for Nansen to head a centre @-@ right national unity government on a balanced budget program , an idea he did not reject . He was the headline speaker at the single largest Fatherland League rally with 15 @,@ 000 attendees in Tønsberg in 1928 . In 1929 he went on his final tour for the League on the ship Stella Polaris , holding speeches from Bergen to Hammerfest .
In between his various duties and responsibilities , Nansen had continued to take skiing holidays when he could . In February 1930 , aged 68 , he took a short break in the mountains with two old friends , who noted that Nansen was slower than usual and appeared to tire easily . On his return to Oslo he was laid up for several months , with influenza and later phlebitis , and was visited on his sickbed by H.M.K. , Haakon VII of Norway .
= = Death and legacy = =
Nansen died of a heart attack , at home , on 13 May 1930 . He was given a non @-@ religious state funeral before cremation , after which his ashes were laid under a tree at Polhøgda . Nansen 's daughter Liv recorded that there were no speeches , just music : Schubert 's Death and the Maiden , which Eva used to sing . Among the many tributes paid to him subsequently was that of Lord Robert Cecil , a fellow League of Nations delegate , who spoke of the range of Nansen 's work , done with no regard for his own interests or health : " Every good cause had his support . He was a fearless peacemaker , a friend of justice , an advocate always for the weak and suffering . "
Nansen had been a pioneer and innovator in many fields . As a young man he embraced the revolution in skiing methods that transformed it from a means of winter travel to a universal sport , and quickly became one of Norway 's leading skiers . He was later able to apply this expertise to the problems of polar travel , in both his Greenland and his Fram expeditions . He invented the " Nansen sledge " with broad , ski @-@ like runners , the " Nansen cooker " to improve the heat efficiency of the standard spirit stoves then in use , and the layer principle in polar clothing , whereby the traditionally heavy , awkward garments were replaced by layers of lightweight material . In science , Nansen is recognised both as one of the founders of modern neurology , and as a significant contributor to early oceanographical science , in particular for his work in establishing the Central Oceanographic Laboratory in Christiania .
Through his work on behalf of the League of Nations , Nansen helped to establish the principle of international responsibility for refugees . Immediately after his death the League set up the Nansen International Office for Refugees , a semi @-@ autonomous body under the League 's authority , to continue his work . The Nansen Office faced great difficulties , in part arising from the large numbers of refugees from the European dictatorships during the 1930s . Nevertheless , it secured the agreement of 14 countries ( including a reluctant Great Britain ) to the Refugee Convention of 1933 . It also helped to repatriate 10 @,@ 000 Armenians to Yerevan in Soviet Armenia , and to find homes for a further 40 @,@ 000 in Syria and Lebanon . In 1938 , the year in which it was superseded by a wider @-@ ranging body , the Nansen Office was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize .
In 1954 the League 's successor body , the United Nations , established the Nansen Medal , later named the Nansen Refugee Award , given annually by the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees to an individual , group or organisation " for outstanding work on behalf of the forcibly displaced " . A central street in Sofia Bulgaria is named after Fridtiof Nansen , and a memorial plate is mounted on a nearby building .
In his lifetime and thereafter , Nansen received honours and recognition from many countries . Nansen Ski Club , the oldest continually operated ski club in the United States , located in Berlin , New Hampshire , is named in his honour . Numerous geographical features are named after him : the Nansen Basin and the Nansen @-@ Gakkel Ridge in the Arctic Ocean ; Mount Nansen in the Yukon region of Canada ; Mount Nansen , Mount Fridtjof Nansen and Nansen Island , all in Antarctica . Polhøgda is now home to the Fridtjof Nansen Institute , an independent foundation which engages in research on environmental , energy and resource management politics . In 1968 a film of Nansen 's life , Bare et liv – Historien om Fridtjof Nansen was released , directed by Sergei Mikaelyen , with Knut Wigert as Nansen . In 2004 the Royal Norwegian Navy launched the first of a series of five Fridtjof Nansen @-@ class frigates . The lead ship of the group is HNoMS Fridtjof Nansen ; two others are named after Roald Amundsen and Otto Sverdrup . In the ocean , Nansen is commemorated by Nansenia , small mesopelagic fishes of family Microstomatidae . In space , he is commemorated by asteroid 853 Nansenia . In 1964 , the IAU adopted the name Nansen for an impact crater at the Lunar north pole , after the Norwegian explorer .
= = Works = =
Paa ski over Grønland . En skildring af Den norske Grønlands @-@ ekspedition 1888 – 89 . Aschehoug , Kristiania 1890 . Tr. as The First Crossing of Greenland , 1892 .
Eskimoliv . Aschehoug , Kristiania 1891 . Tr. as Eskimo Life , 1893 .
Fram over Polhavet . Den norske polarfærd 1893 – 1896 .. Aschehoug , Kristiania 1897 . Tr. as Farthest North , 1897 .
The Norwegian North Polar Expedition , 1893 – 1896 ; Scientific Results ( 6 volumes , 1901 ) .
Norge og foreningen med Sverige . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania 1905 . Tr. as Norway and the Union With Sweden , 1905 .
Northern Waters : Captain Roald Amundsen 's Oceanographic Observations in the Arctic Seas in 1901 . J. Dybwad , 1906 .
Nord i tåkeheimen . Utforskningen av jordens nordlige strøk i tidlige tider . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania 1911 . Tr. as In Northern Mists : Arctic Exploration in Early Times , 1911 .
Gjennem Sibirien . Jacob Dybwads forlag , Kristiania , 1914 . Tr. as Through Siberia the Land of the Future , 1914 .
Frilufts @-@ liv . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1916 .
En ferd til Spitsbergen . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1920 .
Rusland og freden . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1923 .
Blant sel og bjørn . Min første Ishavs @-@ ferd . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Kristiania , 1924 .
Gjennem Armenia . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Oslo , 1927 .
Gjennem Kaukasus til Volga . Jacob Dybwads Forlag , Oslo , 1929 . Tr. as Through The Caucasus To The Volga , 1931 .
English translations
Armenia and the Near East . Publisher : J.C. & A.L. Fawcett , Inc . , New York , 1928 . ( excerpts ) .
= Planet of the Ood =
" Planet of the Ood " is the third episode of the fourth series of British science fiction television series Doctor Who . It was broadcast on BBC One on 19 April 2008 . It features the return of the Ood , who appeared in the second series episodes " The Impossible Planet " and " The Satan Pit " .
The episode takes place in the year 4126 on the Ood @-@ Sphere , the titular planet of the episode . The Doctor ( David Tennant ) and his companion Donna Noble ( Catherine Tate ) investigate Ood Operations , a company that is selling the Ood as a servant race , to discover the reason the Ood are happy to serve . When they find a group of unprocessed Ood , they become horrified at the alterations performed and resolve to free the Ood . The episode was well @-@ received for its central theme of slavery .
= = Plot = =
The Doctor sets the TARDIS controls to random and materialises on a snowy alien planet . Outside , he and Donna find an injured Ood lying in the snow . Just before he dies , the Ood 's eyes turn red and it makes a lunge for the Doctor and startles him with his ferocity . The Doctor surmises that the Ood was being influenced by a being near them . They find a nearby industrial complex called Ood Operations , a company that has been harvesting and selling the Ood as servants . The Doctor discovers that they are on the Ood @-@ Sphere in the year 4126 , close to the Sense @-@ Sphere of the Sensorites . The " Red Eye " phenomenon begins affecting other Ood on the planet and several people are killed in the weeks before the Doctor arrived . The possessed Ood keep stating that " the circle must be broken " . Ood Operations consider the phenomenon to be a disease similar to foot @-@ and @-@ mouth disease . The CEO of Ood Operations , Klineman Halpen , tells the Doctor the method of killing each time is identical : the victims are electrocuted by the Ood 's translation spheres .
Throughout the episode , Donna becomes sympathetic to the Ood and is horrified by their enslavement . The Doctor also takes an interest in the Ood , noting that no species could naturally evolve to be servants . He and Donna travel through the complex and find a batch of uncultivated Ood singing together . Instead of a translation sphere , they hold a " hindbrain " that gives them individuality . This hindbrain is being removed and replaced with the translation sphere by the humans to make them subservient , and the Doctor rebukes Halpen for lobotomising the Ood . The Doctor and Donna are captured by Ood Operations ' security force . Shortly after , the Ood begin a mass revolution and the complex is evacuated . The Doctor follows Halpen to a locked warehouse that contains a large brain , which is revealed to be the Ood 's collective consciousness . The brain 's control of the Ood is limited by a circle of pylons emitting a forcefield . Halpen plans to kill the brain and by extension all of the Ood , but is stopped by the Doctor , Donna , and Dr. Ryder . Dr. Ryder reveals that he is secretly an activist for " Friends of the Ood " , and had slowly infiltrated the company to gain access to the pylons and lower their force field to cause the revolution . Halpen is outraged at his betrayal , so he throws Dr. Ryder into the brain , killing him . Halpen 's personal Ood servant , Ood Sigma , has been using Halpen 's hair loss medication to slowly convert Halpen into an Ood . Ood Sigma tells the Doctor and Donna that he will take care of Halpen .
The Doctor shuts down the pylons , freeing the Ood and allowing them all to sing in a telepathic collective . As the Doctor and Donna prepare to leave , Ood Sigma promises to include the " Doctor @-@ Donna " in the Ood 's song . He also tells the Doctor that his song will soon be ending .
= = = Continuity = = =
The red eye phenomenon in the Ood is a symptom of them being possessed . In " The Impossible Planet " and " The Satan Pit " they were under the Beast 's control . In " Death is the Only Answer " , Albert Einstein is transformed into a red @-@ eyed Ood . In " The Doctor 's Wife " , an Ood named Nephew is possessed but displays bright green eyes instead of red .
The Ood @-@ Sphere is in the same solar system as the Sense @-@ Sphere , the location for the 1964 serial The Sensorites ; the Sensorites and Ood are visually and mentally similar .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by Keith Temple and directed by Graeme Harper . Executive producer Russell T Davies had envisioned the Ood 's return because their previous appearance , the 2006 two @-@ part story " The Impossible Planet " and " The Satan Pit " , had been overshadowed by the appearance of the Devil . Davies subsequently provided Temple with a brief for the episode which included the term " ice planet " and the storyline of a business selling the Ood as a commodity . Temple 's drafts of the episode were described as " too dark " and " too old Doctor Who " ; Temple stated on the episode 's commentary that his early draft was " a six @-@ part [ serial ] in 45 minutes " .
Temple and Davies thought that the episode was not a " fun reappearance " of an old monster ; instead , they felt that there was " an actual story to tell " . Temple emphasised in his script that the Doctor overlooked the Ood under the shadow of the Devil , and the character had to see his shortcomings . Temple 's script also emphasised the Ood 's slavery ; both Temple and lead actor David Tennant commented that the existence of a species born to serve was complicated , the latter stating complications with Richard Dawkins ' " selfish gene " theory . Donna 's role in the episode was to further humanise the Doctor , and her opinion of the Ood changing from her initial disgust at their appearance to empathy for them was important to the episode and her character development . Susie Liggat cited the writing as part of Doctor Who 's importance — she thought the story about " liberating oppressed people " could be applied domestically or globally .
The episode 's antagonist , Klineman Halpen , is portrayed by Tim McInnerny . Davies considered his character — " a middle manager who 's out of his depth " — a perfect villain . Temple described him as " narcissistic " , " preening " and " ruthless ... without sentiment " . McInnerny said " It 's always nice to play a bastard ... I 'm glad Halpen 's a three @-@ dimensional bastard ! That makes him interesting ! " . Temple epitomised Halpen in a scene where he kills an operative for the activist group " Friends of the Ood " ; Davies and Tennant felt that his " disgusting " and " gothic ... Edgar Allan Poe " fate would be undeserved otherwise .
Filming for the episode took place in August 2007 . The opening and closing outdoor scenes were filmed in Trefil Quarry in the Brecon Beacons , the external scenes of the complex at Aberthaw Cement Works , and scenes in the " battery farm " were filmed in a hangar at RAF Saint Athan . CGI was used sparingly in production ; the snow was paper snow adhered by water , and the Ood heads contained complex animatronics . McInnerny wore a prosthetic mask with two layers for his transformation scene though the production team 's best boy provided motion capture for the computer @-@ generated profile of the appendages coming out of his mouth when this needed to be refilmed and McInnerny was unavailable .
= = Reception = =
" Planet of the Ood " was the most watched
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éla and one @-@ year @-@ old László enough protein . As extremely little food was available in the camps , in early 1947 his wife 's twin sister came from Hungary to take their older two sons back to live with the older sister . The Pallendal family , Bánáthy 's in @-@ laws , was well @-@ educated and relatively wealthy , so they had access to more food than what was available in the camps . They intended to return the Banathy boys to their parents within a year . Beginning in early 1948 , when the Cold War ensued , it became virtually impossible for refugees or displaced persons to cross from the border of one country into another , or even from one Occupation Zone to another . The Pallendal family could not return the two boys from behind the Iron Curtain .
In 1948 , shortly after their third son Tibor was born , the Banathy family was moved to another camp , near a Marshall Plan warehouse . Bánáthy was assigned to unload sacks of wheat from railroad cars . He contacted the World Scouting Movement for assistance and began to organize scouting in the DP camps . During 1947 , Bánáthy was named the Hungarian Scout Commissioner for Austria ; he led training for Hungarian Scout leaders along with his former commanding officer Farkas . He was ordained by the World Council of Churches and became minister for youth among Hungarian refugees . Banathy served as director of religious education of the Protestant Refugee Service of Austria , was editor of a religious youth service and of a Scout publication .
In 1948 Bánáthy 's fourth son Robert was born . Bánáthy soon found work as a technical draftsman in the statistical office of a U.S. Army warehouse . In 1949 , with help from a Swiss foundation , Bánáthy assisted in establishing and was selected as the President of the Collegium Hungaricum , a boarding school for refugees , at Zell am See near Saalfelden , Austria . In the same year , the Communist government in Hungary seized the businesses belonging to the Pallendal family . Because they were members of the social elite , the Communist government considered them to be a political threat .
In 1951 , in what was a common practice during this time , the Hungarian Police arrived at dawn to seize the Pallendal family home and arrest and deport the family from Budapest . Seven @-@ year @-@ old Béla and six @-@ year @-@ old László Banathy , along with their Pallendal grandmother and two aunts , were put aboard a freight train and sent toward Russia . The train stopped occasionally and a few hundred people were forced off at rural towns . The Pallendal family was ejected in eastern Hungary . There an uncle located them and hid them from authorities in a small village .
= = = Emigrates to the United States = = =
In January , 1951 , the student body of the Presbyterian McCormick Theological Seminary in Chicago sponsored Béla , Eva , Tibor and Robert Banathy as refugees to the United States . Bánáthy lived with his family at the Seminary , where he worked nights 60 hours a week shoveling coal to fire the Seminary furnace . At the same time , he was studying English from a book . He occasionally preached at nearby Hungarian churches . His wife found work in a paper factory and Tibor , their third son , entered American public school .
= = = Begins teaching Hungarian language = = =
When World War II ended , General Farkas was designated as the U.S. Army 's liaison to former Hungarian prisoners of war . In 1951 he recommended Bánáthy as a Hungarian language instructor , and the younger man was invited to teach at the U.S. government 's Army Language School in Monterey , California . Bánáthy moved to Monterey in June 1951 , a pivotal change in his life . At the Army Language School , he met Joseph Szentkiralyi ( Americanized as St. Clair ) , the founder of the Hungarian Department . He learned they had met when Banathy was 14 at the 4th World Scout Jamboree in 1933 . The wives of the two men met and realized they had been girlhood friends in grammar school in Budapest . From having managed a Pendall family restaurant in Budapest before World War II , Eva took work as a waitress in a restaurant on the Monterey Peninsula . Bánáthy served as President of his local Parent @-@ Teacher Association and on the board of the local Red Cross . In the same year , Paul Ferenc Sujan , another former scout , joined the language school faculty .
On February 28 , 1956 , Bánáthy was naturalized as a United States citizen . After nine years of separation , and repeated failures to get his sons repatriated from behind the Iron Curtain , Bánáthy obtained help from Dr. Eugene Blake , President of the National Council of Churches ; Representative Charles M. Teague ; Ernest Nagy , Vice Consul in the U.S. Legation in Budapest ; Hulda Neiburh of the McCormick Theological Seminary ; and Howard Pyle , deputy assistant to President Dwight D. Eisenhower . He was finally able to arrange for 13 @-@ year @-@ old Béla and 11 @-@ year @-@ old László to emigrate to the United States A photograph of the two boys greeting their mother was featured in Life Magazine .
Carrying pictures of their parents , two Hungarian brothers arrived at New York International Airport , Idlewild , Queens , yesterday ... The pictures are necessary because the boys ... have not seen their mother and father for nine years .
The boys were greeted by their parents at San Francisco International Airport at 1 : 10 a.m. The boys ' release marked the first time since the Cold War that anyone under 65 years old had been allowed to leave Hungary to be reunited with family .
= = Professional life = =
Bánáthy was an educator , a systems and design scientist , and an author . At the Army Language School , he taught in the Hungarian language department , later becoming its chairman .
= = = White Stag Leadership Development Program = = =
In 1957 Bánáthy began enlarging a concept for a leadership development program . As Council Training Chairman in the Monterey Bay Area Council of the Boy Scouts of America , he received strong support from the Council Executive and Council Executive Board for his proposal to train boys in leadership skills . He was assisted by fellow Hungarians Joe Szentkiralyi ( aka St. Clair , Chair of the Hungarian Language Department at the Army Language school ) and Paul Sujan ( Hungarian Language Instructor at the Army Language school ) ; Fran Peterson ( a member of the National Council and a Scoutmaster from Chular , California ) ; and Maury Tripp ( a Scouter from Saratoga , California , a member of the National Council , and a research scientist ) . " Lord Baden @-@ Powell was my personal idol and I long felt a commitment to give back to Scouting what I had received " , Bánáthy said .
As part of his master 's degree program in counseling psychology at San José State University , he wrote a thesis titled " A Design for Leadership Development in Scouting " . This book described the founding principles of the White Stag program , which was later adapted by the National Council of the Boy Scouts of America . Prior to Bánáthy 's work , the adult Wood Badge and the junior leader training programs had focused on teaching Scoutcraft skills and some aspects of the Patrol Method . His research and findings on teaching principles and competencies of leadership had a huge impact on these two programs , shifting their focus to leadership skills .
Some individuals on the national staff and many volunteers across the nation resisted the idea of changing the focus of Wood Badge from training leaders in Scoutcraft to leadership skills . Among them was William " Green Bar Bill " Hillcourt , who had been the first United States Wood Badge Course Director in 1948 . Although officially retired , he had many loyal followers . He was adamant that Wood Badge should continue to teach Scoutcraft skills and tried to persuade the national council to stick to that tradition , but his objections were ignored .
The leadership competencies Banathy articulated became the de facto method for Scout adult and junior leader training . ( In 2008 , the White Stag program celebrated its 50th anniversary . ) In 1960 , the Monterey Bay Area Council recognized Béla for his exceptional service to youth and awarded him the Silver Beaver .
In the 1970s , due to the success of the White Stag program , Bánáthy was appointed to the Interamerican Scout Committee and participated in three interamerican " Train the Trainer " events in Mexico , Costa Rica , and Venezuela . He guided their national training teams in designing leadership development by design programs . Béla also taught in Sunday School and was on the Board of the United Methodist Church of the Wayfarer in Carmel , California .
= = = Systems science = = =
In the 1960s Bánáthy began teaching courses in applied linguistics and systems science at San José State University . In 1962 he was named Dean and Chairman of the East Europe and Middle East Division at the Army Language School , overseeing ten language departments . In 1963 he completed his master 's degree in psychology at San Jose State University , and in 1966 he received a doctorate in education for a transdisciplinary program in education , systems theory , and linguistics from the University of California in Berkeley . During the mid @-@ 1960s Bánáthy was named Chair of Western Division of the Society for General Systems Research . He published his first book , Instructional Systems , in 1968 .
= = = Large complex systems = = =
During the 1960s and 1970s , Bánáthy was a visiting professor at the University of California , Berkeley and continued teaching at San Jose State University . In 1969 , he left the renamed Defense Language Institute and became a Program Director , and later Senior Research Director and Associate Laboratory Director , at the Far West Laboratory for Research and Development ( now WestEd ) in Berkeley ( later moved to San Francisco ) . He " directed over fifty research and development programs , designed many curriculum projects and several large scale complex systems , including the design and implementation of a Ph.D. program in educational research and development for UC Berkeley " .
In the 1970s and 1980s , he focused his research on the application of systems and design theories and methodologies in social , social service , educational , and human development systems . In the 1980s he developed and guided a Ph.D. curriculum in humanistic systems inquiry and social systems design for the Saybrook Graduate School .
= = = International Systems Institute = = =
In 1981 , he founded the International Systems Institute ( ISI ) , a non @-@ profit , public benefit scientific and educational corporation in Carmel , California , USA . He organized its first meeting at Fuschl am See , Austria in 1982 .
What was truly revolutionary about the International Systems Institute was Banathy 's method for organizing conferences . Banathy observed that in traditional conferences , a few usually well @-@ respected or prestigious individuals would apply to present " pre @-@ packaged new ideas " to others . In typical conferences , presenting almost always carries more prestige than listening ; the few presenters share their wisdom with the many . This one @-@ to @-@ many or " hierarchical knowledge distribution system " slowed the sharing and spreading of ideas about which many people cared deeply if not passionately , as there was always limited opportunity for interchange among participants . This interaction was usually wedged into the interstices of the formal schedule in the form of informal , spontaneous gatherings for which no record existed .
The notion that presenting is more important than listening aroused lifelong antipathy in Bánáthy . When he formulated the leadership competencies of the White Stag Leadership Development Program in the 1960s , he described the passing of knowledge from one to another as " Manager of Learning " . He wrote extensively about how the focus should be on the learner , not the teacher .
Bánáthy advanced a different vision for conferences , one that would allow everyone to fully engage . He proposed that everyone be given the opportunity to prepare and distribute papers to all participants in advance of the conference . And instead of listening to speeches , conference attendees took part in extended , non @-@ hierarchical conversations about the conference papers . The conference proceedings were the result of these conversations . Bánáthy felt strongly that systems scholars from all over the world should be given ongoing opportunities to engage in extended conversations so they might put their expertise " actively into the service of humanity worldwide " .
Bánáthy wrote : " We aspire to reap the ' reflecting and creating power ' of groups that emerge in the course of disciplined and focused conversations on issues that are important to us and to our society " . Participants at International Systems Institute gatherings have , since the original meeting organized by Bánáthy in 1982 , organized them around this principle and referred to them as " conversations " .
= = = General Evolutionary Research Group = = =
In 1984 , he was co @-@ founder with general evolution theorist Ervin László and others of the initially secret General Evolutionary Research Group . A member of the Society of General Systems Research since the 1960s , he was Managing Director of the Society in the early 1980s , and in 1985 he became its president . He then served on its Board of Trustees . During the 1980s , he served on the Executive Committee of the International Federation of Systems Research . In 1989 , he retired from Far West Labs and returned to live on the Monterey Peninsula . He continued to serve as Professor Emeritus for the Saybrook Graduate School , counseling Ph.D. students . He also continued his work with the annual ISI international systems design conversations , and authored a number of articles and books about systems , design , and evolutionary research . He served two terms as president of the International Federation of Systems Research during 1994 @-@ 98 .
He coordinated over twenty international systems research conferences held in eight countries , including the 1994 Conversation on Systems Design conversation held at Fuschl Am See , Austria , sponsored by the International Federation of Systems Research . He was also honorary editor of three international systems journals : Systems Research and Behavioral Science , the Journal of Applied Systems Studies , and Systems . He was on the Board of Editors of World Futures , and served as a contributing editor of Educational Technology .
= = Final years = =
In 1992 , Bánáthy , a long @-@ standing member of the Hungarian Scout Association Abroad ( Külföldi Magyar Cserkészszövetség ) , traveled from his Monterey , California home in the United States to Hungary following its renewed freedom . There , he helped restart the Hungarian Scout Association within his native country .
Bánáthy spent considerable time during the last few years of his life caring for his wife Eva in their home in Carmel , California . She had been in poor health for a number of years after a stroke . In the summer of 2003 Bánáthy and his wife moved to live with their son Tibor in Chico , California . After a brief and unexpected illness , Bánáthy died on September 4 , 2003 . He and Eva had been married 64 years at the time of his death .
= = Publications = =
Bánáthy wrote and published several books and hundreds of articles . A selection :
1963 , A Design for Leadership Development in Scouting , Monterey Bay Area Council , Monterey , California .
1964 , Report on a Leadership Development Experiment , Monterey Bay Area Council , Monterey , California .
1968 , Instructional Systems , Fearon Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8224 @-@ 3930 @-@ 1
1969 , Leadership Development — World Scouting Reference Papers , No. 1 , Boy Scouts World Bureau , Geneva , Switzerland .
1972 , A Design for Foreign Language Curriculum , D.C. Heath . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 669 @-@ 82073 @-@ 7
1973 , Developing a Systems View of Education : The Systems Models Approach , Lear Siegler Fearon Publishers . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8224 @-@ 6700 @-@ 7
1985 , with Kenneth D. Bailey et al . ( ed . ) , Systems Inquiring : Applications , Volume II of the Proceedings of the Society for General Systems Research International Conference . Seaside , CA : Intersystems Publications .
1991 , Systems Design of Education , A Journey to Create the Future , Educational Technology , Englewood Cliffs , NJ . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 87778 @-@ 229 @-@ 2
1992 , A Systems View of Education : Concepts and Principles for Effective Practice , Educational Technology , Englewood Cliffs , CA . ISBN 0 @-@ 87778 @-@ 245 @-@ 8
1992 , " Comprehensive Systems Design in Education : Building a Design Culture , " in : Education . Educational Technology , 22 ( 3 ) 33 – 35 .
1996 , Designing Social Systems in a Changing World , Plenum , NY . ISBN 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 45251 @-@ 0
1998 , Evolution Guided by Design : A Systems Perspective , in Systems Research , Vol . 15 .
1997 , A Taste of Systemics , The Primer Project , 2007 .
2000 , Guided Evolution of Society : A Systems View , Springer ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 46382 @-@ 2
2000 , The Development of the AgoraWebsite : Personal Communication to Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Agora Structure , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Bio : Personal Communication to Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Story : Personal Communication to Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Reflections : The Circle of Agora Stewards , International Systems Institute , Asilomar Networked Democracy Group , Pacific Grove , CA .
2000 , Guided Evolution of Society : A Systems View , Kluwer Academic / Plenum , New York .
2002 , with Patrick M. Jenlink , " The Agora Project : the New Agoras of the Twenty @-@ first Century , " Systems Research and Behavioral Science
2002 , with Gordon Rowland , " Guiding our evolution : If we don 't do it , who will ? "
2005 , with Patrick M. Jenlink , et al . ( ed . ) , Dialogue as a Means of Collective Communication ( Educational Linguistics ) , Kluwer Academic / Plenum , New York . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 306 @-@ 48689 @-@ 0
2007 , with Patrick M. Jenlink , et al . ( ed . ) , Dialogue as a Means of Collective Communication ( Volume 2 ) , Kluwer Academic / Plenum , New York . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 387 @-@ 75842 @-@ 8
= Pithole , Pennsylvania =
Pithole , or Pithole City , is a ghost town in Cornplanter Township , Venango County in Pennsylvania , about 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) from Oil Creek State Park and the Drake Well Museum , the site of the first commercial oil well in the United States . Pithole 's sudden growth and equally rapid decline , as well as its status as a " proving ground " of sorts for the burgeoning petroleum industry , made it one of the most famous of oil boomtowns .
Oil strikes at nearby wells in January 1865 prompted a large influx of people to the area that would become Pithole , most of whom were land speculators . The town was laid out in May 1865 , and by December was incorporated with an approximate population of 20 @,@ 000 . At its peak , Pithole had at least 54 hotels , 3 churches , the third largest post office in Pennsylvania , a newspaper , a theater , a railroad , the world 's first pipeline and a red @-@ light district " the likes of Dodge City 's . " By 1866 , economic growth and oil production in Pithole had slowed . Oil strikes around other nearby communities and numerous fires drove residents away from Pithole and , by 1877 , the borough was unincorporated .
The site was cleared of overgrowth and was donated to the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1961 . A visitor center , containing exhibits pertaining to the history of Pithole , was built in 1972 . Pithole was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1973 .
= = Etymology = =
The city of Pithole derived its name from its proximity to Pithole Creek , which flows through Venango County to the Allegheny River . The origin of the name " Pithole " itself , however , is a mystery . One origination theory is that early pioneers stumbled across strange fissures from which sulfurous fumes wafted . Such " pit @-@ holes " are found in the area where Pithole Creek empties into the Allegheny River , with some measuring 14 inches ( 36 cm ) wide and 8 feet ( 2 m ) long . Another possible explanation involves the discovery of ancient pits dug by early settlers , some 8 feet ( 2 m ) wide and 12 feet ( 4 m ) deep , that were cribbed with oil @-@ soaked timbers . These " pit @-@ holes " , found along Oil Creek and in Cornplanter Township , supposedly predate the Senecas who inhabited the area from the mid @-@ 17th to the late 18th century .
= = Geology = =
Most of the oil produced in northwestern Pennsylvania was formed in sandstone reservoir rocks at the boundary between the Mississippian and Devonian rock layers . Over time , the oil migrated toward the surface , became trapped beneath an impervious layer of caprock , and formed a reservoir . The presence of upwards @-@ curving folds in the caprock called anticlines , or sometimes an inversion of an anticline called a syncline , greatly varied the depth of the reservoirs , from around 4 @,@ 000 feet ( 1 @,@ 200 m ) to just beneath the surface .
The majority of the oil wells in the vicinity of Pithole and the Oil Creek valley tapped into a sandstone formation known as the Venango Third sand . The Venango Third contained large volumes of oil under high pressure at only 450 to 550 feet ( 140 to 170 m ) below ground level . Other oil @-@ producing formations in the area were " the Venango First and Second [ sands ] , the latter often prevailing after the Third sand was lost . " At Pithole , the " first sandstone was reached at 115 feet [ 35 m ] , the second at 345 feet [ 105 m ] , the third at 480 feet [ 146 m ] , the fourth at 600 feet [ 183 m ] , and the oil itself at 615 feet [ 187 m ] " by the Frazier Well , according to a report by the Oil City Register . Inaccurate numbering of the layers by the drillers , however , put the Fourth sand above the real Third at 670 feet ( 200 m ) .
= = Geography and climate = =
Pithole is located in northwestern Pennsylvania , 50 miles ( 80 km ) southeast of Erie and 103 miles ( 166 km ) north @-@ northeast of Pittsburgh . The nearest cities to Pithole are Titusville , approximately 8 miles ( 13 km ) to the northwest , and Oil City , 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the southwest . Pithole is located on Pithole Road ( State Route 1006 ) , almost 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) southwest of Pennsylvania Route 36 and about 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east Pennsylvania Route 227 .
Pithole was laid out with four primary east – west streets : First , Second , Third and Fourth . Duncan , Mason , Prather , Brown and Holmden Streets traversed Pithole from north to south . Each street was 60 feet ( 18 m ) wide , except for Duncan at 80 feet ( 24 m ) . All five north – south streets terminated at First Street ; Mason started at Third ; Prather and Brown started at Fourth . Duncan and Holmden Streets both began at a Y @-@ intersection with the road from Titusville . All four east – west streets began at Duncan and ended at Holmden Street except for First , which extended to the Frazier Well .
July is the hottest month in Pithole , when the average high temperature is 81 ° F ( 27 ° C ) and the average low is 57 ° F ( 14 ° C ) . January is the coldest month with an average high of 32 ° F ( 0 ° C ) and an average low of 13 ° F ( − 11 ° C ) . The average 44 inches ( 1 @,@ 118 mm ) of precipitation a year wreaked havoc on Pithole 's many unpaved streets , especially the heavily traveled First and Holmden . Portions of First Street were planked or corduroyed in response to the resulting quagmire of mud that would often trap wagons and draft animals .
= = History = =
The area around Pithole , and modern @-@ day Venango County , was formerly inhabited by Eries , who were eventually wiped out by the Iroquois in 1653 . On October 23 , 1784 , the Iroquois , which included the Seneca , ceded the land to Pennsylvania in the Treaty of Fort Stanwix . Venango County was formed from portions of Allegheny and Lycoming counties on March 12 , 1800 . Cornplanter Township was settled in 1795 and was incorporated on November 28 , 1833 .
In 1859 , Edwin Drake successfully drilled the first oil well along the banks of Oil Creek , outside of Titusville in Crawford County . Within a half year , over 500 wells were built along Oil Creek , in the 16 @-@ mile ( 26 km ) corridor from Titusville to the creek 's mouth at the Allegheny River in Oil City . Other wells were drilled down the Allegheny towards Franklin and upriver to Tionesta in Forest County . Pithole Creek did not attract the same attention from speculators and investors , who preferred to risk their money on the tried @-@ and @-@ true method of drilling on flatter terrain near large rivers like the Allegheny and Oil Creek , rather than gamble on rougher terrain . In January 1864 , Isaiah Frazier leased two tracts of land , totaling 35 acres ( 14 ha ) , from Thomas Holmden , a farmer along Pithole Creek . Frazier , James Faulkner Jr . , Frederick W. Jones and J. Nelson Tappan formed the United States Petroleum Company in April 1864 and started drilling what was dubbed the United States Well , or Frazier Well , in June . On January 7 , 1865 , the Frazier Well struck oil .
= = = Boom = = =
Two weeks after the Frazier strike , the Twin Wells , just to the south of the Frazier Well , also struck oil . In May 1865 , A. P. Duncan and George C. Prather purchased the Holmden Farm , including the portions still leased to United States Petroleum , for $ 25 @,@ 000 and a bonus of $ 75 @,@ 000 . The wooded bluff overlooking the Frazier and Twin Wells was cleared and a town was laid out . The town was divided into 500 lots , which were put up for sale on May 24 . By July , the population was estimated to have been at least 2 @,@ 000 . The population of Pithole rose to 15 @,@ 000 people in September and 20 @,@ 000 by Christmas . Pithole was incorporated as a borough on November 30 , 1865 .
As many residents were temporary , Pithole had a total of 54 hotels ranging from simple rooming houses to luxury hotels like the Chase and Danforth Houses , or the Bonta House located in Prather City on the bluff on the opposite side of Pithole Creek . The Astor House , Pithole 's first hotel , was built in one day . Construction of the hotel was especially poor ; a lack of insulation and innumerable gaps in the walls made conditions in the hotel miserable during the winter . At one point , the Pithole Post Office , located on the first @-@ floor of the Chase House , was the third @-@ busiest in the state of Pennsylvania , behind Philadelphia and Pittsburgh . Three different churches — Catholic , Methodist and Presbyterian — were constructed by their respective congregations . Pithole 's local newspaper , the Pithole Daily Record was started on September 5 , 1865 . The largest building in Pithole — the three @-@ story , 1 @,@ 100 @-@ seat Murphy 's Theater — opened on September 17 . Among all the glamour , " every other building [ in Pithole ] was a bar " . Prostitution was rampant in Pithole , with most of the brothels built along First Street . Although the borough council passed ordinances banning the sex trade and carried out raids in an attempt to enforce them , they had little impact .
As oil production increased through the success of wells like the Frazier , Twin , Pool , Grant , and the two Homestead Wells , transportation of the oil to the outside world was still reliant on teamsters . The teamsters were notorious for mistreatment of their horses , most of which lost their hair due to a buildup of oil and only had a lifespan of a few months in Pithole . The high mortality rate caused a horse shortage , with more having to be brought in by rail from Ohio and New York . Teamsters often refused to work on days when the roads were impassable or gouged the oil producers . Various investors , fed up with the teamsters , pooled resources and built a plank toll road from Pithole to Titusville . Samuel Van Sykle , an oil buyer also frustrated with the teamsters , designed the world 's first pipeline , which opened on October 9 , 1865 . The 2 @-@ inch @-@ diameter ( 51 mm ) , 5 @.@ 5 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 8 @.@ 9 km ) pipeline connected Pithole to the Oil Creek Railroad and was initially able to transport 81 barrels ( 13 m3 ) per hour operating with three steam engines , equivalent to 300 teams working a 10 @-@ hour shift . A fourth engine brought the pipeline 's maximum capacity to 2 @,@ 500 barrels ( 397 m3 ) a day . The Oil City and Pithole Railroad ( OC & P ) was opened on December 18 . A second railroad was partly built but never finished , and plans for other railroads never led to construction . Along with the pipeline , another innovation developed in Pithole was the railroad tank car , which was essentially two wooden tanks , each with a capacity of 80 barrels ( 13 m3 ) , mounted onto a flatcar .
= = = Bust = = =
In March 1866 , a chain of banks owned by Charles Vernon Culver , a financier and member of United States House of Representatives for Pennsylvania 's 20th congressional district , collapsed . This triggered a financial panic throughout the oil region , bursting the oil bubble . Speculators and potential investors stopped coming to Pithole and life in Pithole settled down . In the early morning of February 24 , a house caught fire and the flames were spread to other buildings by the wind . In two hours , most of Holmden Street , and parts of Brown and Second Streets , were reduced to smoldering ashes . The worst of multiple fires occurred on August 2 , burning down several city blocks and destroying 27 wells .
When many oil strikes occurred elsewhere in Venango County in 1867 , people left Pithole , often taking their houses and places of business with them or abandoning their property . By December 1866 , the population had dropped to 2 @,@ 000 . The newspaper was relocated to Petroleum Center in July 1868 , becoming the Petroleum Center Daily Record . Both the Chase House and Murphy 's Theater were sold in August 1868 and moved to Pleasantville . Prather and Duncan sold their interests in Pithole before the downturn ; Prather split an estimated $ 3 million with his two brothers and moved to Meadville , while Duncan returned to Scotland with his fortune . The 1870 United States Census recorded the population of Pithole as only 237 . The borough charter of Pithole was officially annulled in August 1877 . The remains of the city were sold , in 1879 , back to Venango County for $ 4 @.@ 37 . The Catholic church was dismantled and moved to Tionesta in 1886 ; the Methodist church was kept in " usable condition " through private donations before being taken down in the 1930s . A stone altar was erected and consecrated by the Methodist Episcopal Church on August 27 , 1959 , the centennial of the Drake Well strike .
= = Visitor center = =
The site was purchased in 1957 by James B. Stevenson , the publisher of the Titusville Herald , who later served as the chairman of the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission from 1962 to 1971 . Stevenson cleared the brush from the site , and donated it to the Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission in 1961 . Today , only a few foundations and mowed paths mark the buildings and former streets of Pithole . The site of Pithole was listed in the National Register of Historic Places on March 20 , 1973 . A walking tour of Pithole 's 84 @.@ 3 acres ( 34 @.@ 1 ha ) of streets can be completed in 42 minutes . The visitor center was constructed in 1972 .
The Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission operates the visitor center as part of the nearby Drake Well Museum , adjacent to Oil Creek State Park , outside of Titusville . The visitor center contains several exhibits , including a scale model of the city at its peak , an oil @-@ transport wagon that is stuck in mud , and a small , informational theater . The visitor center is usually open , annually , from the Memorial Day weekend , at end of May , through Labor Day in September . The season is kicked off with the annual Wildcatter Day celebration featuring music , tours , demonstrations and other activities .
= King of Pop ( album ) =
King of Pop is a compilation album by American recording artist Michael Jackson released in commemoration of Michael Jackson 's 50th birthday . The album differs significantly in each country it was released because fan voting was employed to determine the songs for each country 's version . The album 's title comes from the title Jackson acquired approximately 20 years earlier . The album 's launch was made public on June 20 , 2008 , with the official announcement of the Australian version . The first release came with the German edition ( which is identical to the Swiss edition ) on August 22 , 2008 .
Fans in countries where Sony BMG operates national offices were given the opportunity to vote for songs from a list of Jackson 's back catalogue to be included in their country 's version of the album . Aside from the tracks selected by fans , a megamix of five songs from the Thriller album by Jason Nevins was also included in the pool . The album has been released in a total of 26 countries . Each pool list and release date differed slightly by country . " Billie Jean " is the only song to appear on all versions of the album . There has been no announcement of a release in North America .
= = Background = =
Prior to the release of King of Pop , Jackson issued the double @-@ disc album Thriller 25 , a 25th anniversary edition of Thriller . It was a commercial success , having done particularly well as a re @-@ issue , peaking at number one in eight countries and Europe . It reached number two in the US , number three in the UK and top 10 on over 30 national charts . In the US , Thriller 25 was just 14 @,@ 000 copies short of reaching the peak position , selling 166 @,@ 000 copies . It was ineligible for the Billboard 200 chart as a re @-@ release , but entered atop the Pop Catalog chart , where it stayed for 10 non @-@ consecutive weeks and had the best sales on that chart since December 1996 .
A few months afterward , Sony announced the release of regional editions of the King of Pop compilation , in celebration of Jackson 's 50th birthday . The album 's title is a reference to the same title Jackson acquired approximately 20 years ago when actress and friend Elizabeth Taylor presented Jackson with an " Artist of the Decade " award at the 1989 Soul Train Awards , proclaiming him " the true king of pop , rock and soul " . MTV , VH1 , FOX , and Jackson 's record label began marketing Jackson as the " King of Pop " to coincide with the release of Dangerous and the music video for " Black or White " , the album 's first single .
= = Versions = =
= = = Argentina = = =
On November 11 , the Argentinian version of the compilation was released . It contains 2 bonustracks : the song Come Together ( that is featured in Moonwalker and also the HIStory album , released in 1995 ) and a radio edit of the Megamix of the Thriller album . 2 tracks on the album , Billie Jean and Don 't Stop ' Til You Get Enough were named incorrectly as " Billy Jean " and " Don 't Stop Till You Get Enough " .
" Billie Jean " - 4 : 53
" Beat It " - 4 : 18
" Black Or White " - 4 : 15
" Bad " - 4 : 07
" Heal the World " ( 7 Edit ) - 4 : 32
" Human Nature " - 4 : 05
" Don 't Stop Till You Get Enough " ( 7 Edit ) - 3 : 59
" Smooth Criminal " - 4 : 18
" Man In The Mirror " - 5 : 18
" I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " - 4 : 12
" Come Together " ( Bonus Track ) - 4 : 02
" Thriller Megamix " ( Bonus Track ) ( Radio Edit ) - 4 : 07
= = = Austria = = =
On July 20 , the Austrian version of the double disc compilation was announced ; it was released on Jackson 's birthday . The pool list fans got to choose from contained 100 tracks . This is the only version of the album to contain the single ABC , which is the earliest song on any version of the album .
Disc 1
" Man in the Mirror " - 5 : 19
" Smooth Criminal " - 4 : 11
" Billie Jean " - 4 : 53
" The Way You Make Me Feel " - 4 : 58
" Black or White " - 4 : 16
" Remember the Time " - 3 : 59
" You Are Not Alone " ( Single Version ) - 4 : 55
" Human Nature " - 4 : 05
" Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " ( Single Version ) - 4 : 17
" They Don 't Care About Us " ( LP Edit ) - 4 : 09
" Dirty Diana " - 4 : 41
" We 've Had Enough " - 5 : 45
" Give In to Me " - 5 : 30
" Will You Be There " ( Radio Edit ) - 3 : 39
" Heal the World " ( 7 " Edit ) - 4 : 32
" Got the Hots " - 4 : 27
Disc 2
" ABC " - 2 : 57
" Can You Feel It " - 5 : 58
" Say Say Say " - 3 : 58
" Thriller " ( Single Version ) - 5 : 12
" Bad " - 4 : 07
" Who Is It " ( 7 " Edit ) - 4 : 00
" Earth Song " ( Radio Edit ) - 5 : 02
" Beat It " - 4 : 18
" Rock with You " ( Single Version ) - 3 : 23
" I Just Can 't Stop Loving You " - 4 : 12
" We Are the World " ( Demo ) - 5 : 20
" Stranger in Moscow " - 5 : 22
" You Rock My World " - 5 : 09
" Scream " - 4 : 40
" Ghosts " - 5 : 08
" Thriller Megamix " ( Radio Edit ) - 4 : 07
= = = Australia = = =
The Australian version was announced by Sony BMG Australia on June 20 , 2008 , and was released on Jackson 's birthday . Starting on June 21 , 2008 , Australian fans had three weeks to vote for their 30 favourite tracks for the album ; made up of Jackson 's prior material . Each fan could choose five songs from the pool ; made up of all the tracks from Off the Wall , Thriller ( 2001 special edition , including " Carousel " ) , Bad ( 2001 special edition ) , Dangerous , HIStory : Past , Present and Future , Book I , Blood on the Dance Floor : HIStory in the Mix , Invincible and the track " For All Time " from Thriller 25 . The pool of songs also included seven from Jackson 's time in The Jackson 5 / The Jacksons . These songs were " Blame It on the Boogie " , " Can You Feel It " , " ABC " , " I Want You Back " , " I 'll Be There " and " Ben " . King of Pop was released in two editions : The first was a limited edition digipak that featured the names of selected voters , messages left by the fans and a fold @-@ out poster that follows Jackson through his musical career ; The second edition was a standard release of the album without the poster . This is the only version of the album to contain the single You Can 't Win . This Australia version contains the full 9 @-@ minute version of Thriller Megamix instead of the radio edit commonly found on other versions .
Disc 1 :
" Billie Jean "
" Man in the Mirror "
" Smooth Criminal "
" Beat It "
" Thriller "
" They Don 't Care About Us "
" Who Is It "
" Black or White "
" You Rock My World "
" Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' "
" The Way You Make Me Feel "
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough "
" Dirty Diana "
" Blood on the Dance Floor "
" Rock With You "
" Stranger in Moscow "
" Remember the Time "
| style = " width : 50 % ; text @-@ align : left ; vertical @-@ align : top ; " | Disc 2 :
" Will You Be There "
" Give In to Me "
" You Are Not Alone "
" Say Say Say "
" Scream "
" State of Shock "
" Got the Hots "
" You Can 't Win "
" Fall Again "
" Sunset Driver "
" Someone Put Your Hand Out "
" In the Back "
" We Are the World "
" One More Chance "
" Thriller Megamix "
= = = Belgium = = =
On July 26 , it was announced that the double disc album would be released August 25 . Fans could vote for their 5 favorite tracks from a pool of 124 , on the web site of the Belgian newspaper Het Nieuwsblad . This is the only version of the album to contain the single Girlfriend .
" Billie Jean "
" Beat It "
" Bad "
" Blood on the Dance Floor "
" Say Say Say "
" Can You Feel It "
" Blame It on the Boogie "
" Another Part of Me "
" Baby Be Mine "
" 2 Bad "
" Dangerous "
" Dirty Diana "
" Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough "
" Earth Song "
" Childhood "
" Beautiful Girl "
" Come Together "
" Butterflies "
" Break of Dawn "
" Cry "
| style = " width : 50 % ; text @-@ align : left ; vertical @-@ align : top ; " |
" Heal the World "
" Ghosts "
" Burn This Disco Out "
" Can 't Let Her Get Away "
" I Just Can 't Stop Loving You "
" Thriller "
" Give In to Me "
" HIStory "
" Smooth Criminal "
" Human Nature "
" Remember the Time "
" Liberian Girl "
" Scream "
" D.S. "
" Girlfriend "
" Jam "
" Rock with You "
" Man in the Mirror "
" For All Time "
" Don 't Walk Away "
= = = Brazil = = =
The Brazilian edition was released on October 17 . This is the only version of the album to contain the single The Girl Is Mine 2008 and not contain Smooth Criminal
= = = China = = =
On December 18 , 2009 , China version named " Michael Jackson King Of Pop The China Collection " released by Sony Music China .
Different from the other versions , Fans in China were not given the opportunity to vote for songs included in China 's version , and this version was not released in 2008 to celebrate Michael Jackson 's birthday , but after his death in late 2009 . The songs in China 's version were a selection from the Hong Kong Version with the exclusion of Smooth Criminal , Don 't Stop ' til You Get Enough , and Blood on the Dance Floor . Spine of slipcase incorrectly mentions the title as " King Of Pop - The Hong Kong Collection " .
= = = Finland = = =
The Finnish edition was released on October 1 .
= = = France = = =
" King of Pop - The French Fans ' Selection " was released on December 12 .
= = = Germany & Switzerland = = =
On July 14 , it was announced that German fans had until July 28 to choose their top 30 songs from an extensive pool of 121 tracks ; The German version was released on August 22 . The German pool list contained almost every song Jackson released in his solo career . Notably expansions on the pool choice included : A larger option of tracks from Thriller 25 and the inclusion of 12 tracks from The Ultimate Collection . There were also 8 tracks included from the singers time in The Jackson 5 / Jacksons ; slightly more than the other versions . The German edition was also released in Switzerland on the same day . In Germany , King of Pop is the fourth most downloaded album of all time .
= = = Greece = = =
The 32 @-@ track double @-@ CD Greek edition was released on November 17 , 2008 . Sony BMG Greece teamed up with music television channel Mad TV through which fans cast votes for their favourite songs .
= = = Hong Kong = = =
On August 6 , it was announced that the double disc album would be released August 28 . Fans could vote for 10 of their favorite tracks on the web site of Sony BMG Hong Kong .
= = = Hungary = = =
On July 9 , it was announced that Hungarian fans had until July 27 , to choose their songs from an extensive pool of 122 tracks , in a two @-@ stage process . The pool list contained almost every song Jackson has released in his solo career . Notably expansions on the pool choice included : A larger option of tracks from Thriller 25 and the inclusion of 12 tracks from The Ultimate Collection ( these are not available in the Australian or New Zealand version ) . In the first round ( July 9 - July 15 ) the fans were able to vote for their top 50 tracks . In round two ( July 16 - July 27 ) the 50 were cut down to the album track list .
= = = India = = =
Sony BMG India partnered with ibibo.com to roll out the Indian version of ' Michael Jackson - King Of Pop ' . The double CD collection was available in stores by January 2009 and is a special selection of Michael Jackson songs collectively voted by community members of ibibo.com. Additionally the best moon walkers were selected by the Ibibo community along with Sony BMG and could win laptops and iPods .
= = = Italy = = =
" King of Pop - The Italian Fans ' Selection " was released on October 3 . It was the first collection to feature the full version of " Carousel " from the Special Edition of Thriller , and the only version of the album to contain " Tabloid Junkie " .
= = = Japan = = =
On July 18 , the Japanese edition " キング ・ オブ ・ ポップ @-@ ジャパン ・ エディション " ( King of Pop - Japan edition ) was announced with fans picking from a selection pool of 120 tracks . The compilation was released on September 24 by Sony Music Japan .
= = = Netherlands = = =
On July 22 , it was announced that Dutch fans could vote for their favorite Jackson tracks , choosing 5 songs from a list of 100 . The release date of the album was August 22 .
= = = New Zealand = = =
On July 3 , it was announced that fans in New Zealand would have until July 20 , to vote for their version of King of Pop . In New Zealand , the compilation was released on August 25 . Fans could vote for five songs in a pool that differed slightly from the Australian song pool . The songs available from Thriller 25 were different ; " For All Time " had been replaced by " The Girl Is Mine 2008 " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' 2008 " . " Todo Mi Amor Eres Tu " from Bad ( 2001 special edition ) was not available . While the Australian pool included seven songs from Jackson 's group career , the New Zealand pool had only three : " Blame It on the Boogie " , " Can You Feel It " and " State of Shock " .
= = = Philippines = = =
Sony BMG Philippines and MYX Music Channel announced the Philippine release of the King of Pop . Filipino fans were asked to send their Top 10 all @-@ time favorite Michael Jackson tracks via e @-@ mail . The album was released on August 28 , 2008 . This is the only version of the album to contain the single Gone Too Soon .
= = = Poland = = =
On August 29 , it was announced that the double disc album would be released in Poland on October 20 . Fans could vote for 20 of their favourite tracks from a pool of 120 on the special web site of Sony BMG Poland . That site was launched on August 29 ( on Michael Jackson 's 50th birthday ) and voting was closed on September 17 .
= = = Portugal = = =
The Portuguese edition was released on December 9 , 2008 .
= = = South Korea = = =
" King of Pop - The Korean Limited Edition " was released on December 11 , 2008 .
= = = Spain = = =
" King of Pop - Edición Exclusiva España " was released in Spain on January 13 , 2009 . This is the only version of the album to contain the song Unbreakable .
= = = Sweden = = =
The Swedish edition was released on October 15 .
= = = Taiwan = = =
On July 31 , 2009 , double disc album called " King of Pop ( The Taiwan Colletion ) " released by Sony Music Taiwan . This version released after Michael Jackson 's death , and the track listing is exactly the same as Hong Kong Version .
= = = Turkey = = =
" King of Pop - The Turkish Collection " was released on November 24 .
= = = United Kingdom = = =
On July 18 , the United Kingdom version of the compilation was announced , with a release date of August 25 . Sony BMG UK teamed up with GMTV and The Sun allowing fans , until August 10 , to pick 18 tracks from the song pool . The pool list , at only 50 tracks , is the least diverse ; there were no songs included from Jackson 's group career . 66 @,@ 000 people took part in the vote . Despite the pool conducting a possible 18 tracks , only 17 are included . Most notable is the fact that " Scream " is included on the album , as this song had not appeared on any compilation album in the United Kingdom prior due to legal rights with Janet Jackson 's label Virgin Records .
= = = = Deluxe box set = = = =
In the United Kingdom , a three disc version was released on September 29 , 2008 . The third disc was advertised as featuring " Rarities and Classic 12 " s " , although many of the mixes were already remastered and re @-@ released on the 2006 boxset Visionary : The Video Singles .
The album tracks are :
= = = Comparison = = =
The songs included on each international version and format are summarised below , with their disc and track numbers ( interactively sortable using the track order on an edition ) .
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Japanese battleship Yashima =
Yashima ( 八島 , Yashima ) was a Fuji @-@ class pre @-@ dreadnought battleship built for the Imperial Japanese Navy ( IJN ) in the 1890s . As Japan lacked the industrial capacity to build such warships herself , the ship was designed and built in the United Kingdom . She participated in the early stages of the Russo @-@ Japanese War of 1904 – 1905 , including the Battle of Port Arthur on the second day of the war . She was involved in the subsequent operations until she struck two mines off Port Arthur in May 1904 . She did not sink immediately , but capsized while under tow a number of hours later . The Japanese were able to keep her loss a secret from the Russians for over a year so they did not try to take advantage of her loss .
= = Description = =
Yashima was 412 feet ( 125 @.@ 6 m ) long overall and had a beam of 73 feet 6 inches ( 22 @.@ 4 m ) and a full @-@ load draught of 26 feet ( 7 @.@ 925 m ) . She normally displaced 12 @,@ 230 long tons ( 12 @,@ 430 t ) and had a crew of 650 officers and enlisted men . Unlike her sister ship Fuji , she was fitted as an admiral 's flagship .
The ship was powered by two vertical triple @-@ expansion steam engines using steam generated by ten cylindrical boilers . The engines were rated at 13 @,@ 500 indicated horsepower ( 10 @,@ 100 kW ) , using forced draught , and designed to reach a top speed of 18 @.@ 25 knots ( 33 @.@ 80 km / h ; 21 @.@ 00 mph ) . Yashima , however , reached a top speed of 19 @.@ 46 knots ( 36 @.@ 04 km / h ; 22 @.@ 39 mph ) from 14 @,@ 075 ihp ( 10 @,@ 496 kW ) on her sea trials . She carried a maximum of 1 @,@ 200 tonnes ( 1 @,@ 200 long tons ) of coal which allowed her to steam for 4 @,@ 000 nautical miles ( 7 @,@ 400 km ; 4 @,@ 600 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) .
Yashima 's main battery consisted of four 12 @-@ inch ( 305 mm ) guns mounted in two twin gun turrets , one each fore and aft of the superstructure . The secondary battery consisted of ten 6 @-@ inch ( 152 mm ) quick @-@ firing guns , four mounted in casemates on the sides of the hull and six mounted on the upper deck , protected by gun shields . A number of smaller guns were carried for defence against torpedo boats . These included fourteen 47 @-@ millimetre ( 1 @.@ 9 in ) 3 @-@ pounder guns and ten 2 @.@ 5 @-@ pounder Hotchkiss guns of the same calibre . She was also armed with five 18 @-@ inch torpedo tubes . Yashima 's waterline armour belt consisted of Harvey armour and was 14 – 18 inches ( 356 – 457 mm ) thick . The armour of her gun turrets was six inches thick and her deck was 2 @.@ 5 inches ( 64 mm ) thick .
In 1901 , the ship exchanged 16 of her 47 mm guns for an equal number of QF 12 pounder 12 cwt guns . This raised the number of crewmen to 652 and later to 741 .
= = Construction and career = =
Yashima , an old name for Japan , was ordered as part of the 1894 Naval Programme and the ship was laid down by Armstrong Whitworth at their Elswick shipyard on 6 December 1894 as yard number 625 . The ship was launched on 28 December 1896 and completed on 17 August 1897 , at a total cost of ¥ 10 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 . She conducted her sea trials during the following month . Yashima departed the UK on 15 September and arrived at Yokosuka on 30 November .
She was initially assigned to the Standing Fleet , the IJN 's primary combat fleet , but was reduced to reserve on 20 November . The ship was reclassified as a first @-@ class battleship on 21 March 1898 and reassigned to the Standing Fleet . Two years later , Yashima was again placed in reserve where she remained until reactivated on 28 December 1903 and assigned to the 1st Division of the 1st Fleet of the Combined Fleet .
At the start of the Russo @-@ Japanese War , Yashima , commanded by Captain Hajime Sakamoto , participated in the Battle of Port Arthur on 9 February 1904 when Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō led the 1st Fleet in an attack on the Russian ships of the Pacific Squadron anchored just outside Port Arthur . Tōgō had expected the surprise night attack by his destroyers to be much more successful than it was , anticipating that the Russians would be badly disorganized and weakened , but they had recovered from their surprise and were ready for his attack . The Japanese ships were spotted by the protected cruiser Boyarin , which was patrolling offshore and alerted the Russian defences . Tōgō chose to attack the Russian coastal defences with his main armament and engage the ships with his secondary guns . Splitting his fire proved to be a poor decision as the Japanese eight @-@ inch ( 203 mm ) and six @-@ inch guns inflicted little damage on the Russian ships , which concentrated all their fire on the Japanese ships with some effect . Although many ships on both sides were hit , Russian casualties numbered only 17 , while the Japanese suffered 60 killed and wounded before Tōgō disengaged . Yashima was not hit during the battle .
On 10 March , Yashima and her sister Fuji , under the command of Rear Admiral Nashiba Tokioki , blindly bombarded the harbour of Port Arthur from Pigeon Bay , on the southwest side of the Liaodong Peninsula , at a range of 9 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) . They fired 154 twelve @-@ inch shells , but did little damage . When they tried again on 22 March , they were attacked by Russian coast defence guns that had been transferred there by the new Russian commander , Vice Admiral Stepan Makarov , and also from several Russian ships in Port Arthur using observers overlooking Pigeon Bay . The Japanese ships disengaged after Fuji was hit by a 12 @-@ inch shell .
Yashima participated in the action of 13 April when Tōgō successfully lured out a portion of the Pacific Squadron , including Makarov 's flagship , the battleship Petropavlovsk . When Makarov spotted the five battleships of the 1st Division , he turned back for Port Arthur and Petropavlovsk struck a minefield laid by the Japanese the previous night . The Russian battleship sank in less than two minutes after one of her magazines exploded , Makarov one of the 677 killed . Emboldened by his success , Tōgō resumed long @-@ range bombardment missions , which prompted the Russians to lay more minefields .
On 14 May 1904 , Nashiba put to sea with the battleships Hatsuse ( flagship ) , Shikishima , and Yashima , the protected cruiser Kasagi , and the dispatch boat Tatsuta to relieve the Japanese blockading force off Port Arthur . On the following morning , the squadron encountered a minefield laid by the Russian minelayer Amur . Hatsuse struck one mine that disabled her steering around 11 : 10 and Yashima struck two others when moving to assist Hatsuse . One blew a hole in her starboard aft boiler room and the other detonated on the starboard forward side of her hull , near the underwater torpedo room . After the second detonation the ship had a 9 ° list to starboard that gradually increased during the day .
Yashima was towed away from the minefield , north towards the Japanese base in the Elliott Islands . She was still taking on water at an uncontrollable rate and Captain Sakamoto ordered the ship anchored around 17 : 00 near Encounter Rock to allow the crew to easily abandon ship . He assembled the crew , which sang the Japanese national anthem , Kimigayo , and then abandoned ship . Kasagi took Yashima in tow , but the battleship 's list continued to increase and she capsized about three hours later , after the cruiser was forced to cast off the tow , roughly at coordinates 38 ° 34 ′ N 121 ° 40 ′ E. No Russians observed Yashima sink so the Japanese were able to conceal her loss for more than a year . As part of the deception , the surviving crewmen were assigned to four auxiliary gunboats that were assigned to guard Port Arthur for the rest of the war and addressed their letters as if they were still aboard the battleship .
= Conquistador ( Thirty Seconds to Mars song ) =
" Conquistador " is a song by American rock band Thirty Seconds to Mars , featured on their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams ( 2013 ) . Written by lead vocalist Jared Leto , who also produced the song with Steve Lillywhite , " Conquistador " features combative lyrics and call @-@ and @-@ response verses . Described as the " wild child " of the album , it is an alternative rock song with influences and elements from electronica . Thirty Seconds to Mars premiered the song on Vevo on May 2 , 2013 , two weeks before the album 's release .
" Conquistador " received mostly positive reviews from music critics , who praised the composition and its raw energy . The song appeared on the UK Rock Chart upon the album 's release at number 24 for a single week , being one of two songs from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams to appear on the chart , the other being " City of Angels " . Thirty Seconds to Mars included the song in the setlist of their Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour and the subsequent Carnivores Tour .
= = Background = =
" Conquistador " was written by lead vocalist Jared Leto , who also produced the song with Steve Lillywhite . The latter had previously worked with Thirty Seconds to Mars on the production of the band 's third studio album , This Is War ( 2009 ) . The song was engineered by Jamie Reed Schefman and mixed by Lillywhite . Clay Blair engineered it for mixing at Boulevard Recording in Los Angeles , California . It was recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound and mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering in Los Angeles . Thirty Seconds to Mars unveiled six songs from their fourth studio album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams , including " Conquistador " , during a preview held at the Electric Lady Studios in New York City on March 14 , 2013 .
" Conquistador " was officially revealed on March 18 , 2013 , at a press release for the announcement of the band 's fourth album Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . In the weeks preceding the album 's release , the band promoted a Twitter hashtag , namely # MARSmay21st , to which , on May 2 , 2013 , it successfully reached the worldwide trending topics on the social platform . As a way of saying thanks to their fans for trending the hashtag , the band released the lyric video for " Conquistador " on Vevo the same day , two weeks before the album 's release . Jared Leto explained that Thirty Seconds to Mars were " very excited " to release the song and to show the " flip side of the coin " to " Up in the Air " , the album 's lead single which had a more electronic @-@ influenced sound .
= = Composition = =
" Conquistador " is an alternative rock song with influences and elements from electronica , utilizing programming and synthesizers . It opens with an electronic buzz followed by the sounds of guitars and drum beats , with a heavy bassline . The song features call @-@ and @-@ response verses leading to an anthemic chorus as Jared Leto voices the line " Say a prayer " . It includes the contribution from the band 's fans , credited as the Knights of the White Shadow , who provide additional vocals recorded at the band 's studio . During the song 's bridge , Leto proclaims " This is a fight to the death " over a " crushing " riff by guitarist Tomo Miličević and " pounding " drums by Shannon Leto . James Montgomery , writing for MTV News , felt that the sentiment " seems oddly fitting " as the song " crashes and careens " around Leto 's vocals .
In an interview with Loudwire , Jared Leto named the song the " dark wild child " of Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams . He explained , " Unbridled , and full of anarchistic madness , this song is crushed full of passion and energy . " He further described it as " big and bombastic and full of guitars " . The track features combative lyrics and repeated chants of " We will rise again " . Nadia Noir of CBS News felt that " conquistador " is an " apt title " for the " bombastic blitzkreig @-@ rock tune , an apocalyptic summons to something greater " . Michael Depland of MTV explained that the song 's lyrics suggest " tumult and upheaval " , while critic Emily Zemler from Billboard magazine wrote that its chanting chorus makes the song feel " almost like a war cry " . In a preview of the record , Jeff Benjamin from Fuse felt that the track is " self @-@ detonated with the band 's recognizable alt @-@ rock bombast , complete with soaring violins , " and noted that it " closed with a massive , stadium @-@ filling chorus , delivered in [ Leto 's ] famous screamo vocal . "
= = Reception = =
" Conquistador " received mostly positive reviews from music critics . Emily Zemler of Billboard called it " one of the grandest numbers " on the album and an " appropriately compelling early track " . Kaitlyn Hodnicki from Stature magazine described the song as a " sleazy rock stomp " that works " perfectly " with drummer Shannon Leto 's " addictive beat " , with lead guitarist Tomo Miličević delivering " one of his best riffs so far " . She also felt that the grit in Jared Leto 's voice is " surprising " and " works well " with the tone of the track . Stephen Thomas Erlewine from AllMusic praised it as one of the album 's highlights . Alex Lai from Contactmusic gave the song a positive review , calling it a " thumping anthem " which is " instantly grasped " with the various chanted vocal parts . Brent Faulkner from PopMatters felt that the song " reveals " the total picture of the album , noticing the " dirty guitars that rock from the onset " . He stated that " Leto never fights the production for vocal clarity , even when things grow gargantuan on the anthemic chorus . "
Chris Maguire , writing for AltSounds , was impressed with the song , calling it a " solid rock track " , while Ian Winwood from Kerrang ! found it " rousing " . Adam Silverstein of Digital Spy named it a stand @-@ out track from the album and felt that songs like " Conquistador " " power up the vibe " . James Montgomery from MTV praised its " massive guitars , stabbing strings and thundering drums " . Andy Baber of musicOMH noticed the song 's " big guitar riff " and the " combative lyrics " . PureVolume 's Tom Lanham called it a " marching " that " keeps upping the sonic ante " . In a mixed review , John Watt from Drowned in Sound described the track as a " weird Brit @-@ rock stomp " which " fails to resonate " . Dan Slessor of Alternative Press felt that the song sounded " just too easy " for the typical sound of the band .
= = Live performances = =
" Conquistador " was first performed at special concerts , dubbed as Church of Mars , in May 2013 , shortly before the release of the album . It later became a signature part of the following Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams Tour . The song , along with " Birth " , usually served as a set opener during the entirety of the tour , much like their appearances on Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams as opening tracks . However , it was later moved to the middle of the setlist . Fans and critics responded favorably to the song in a live setting . Ashley Zimmerman from the New Times Broward @-@ Palm Beach felt that " everyone got even more amped " as the band performed songs like " Conquistador " , while Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic deemed it a highlight of the show .
Thirty Seconds to Mars performed " Conquistador " at multiple major festivals , including Rock Werchter , Pinkpop , Download , Rock am Ring and Rock im Park , which saw the band playing as headline act . The song was also included in the Carnivores Tour , a tour on which Thirty Seconds to Mars co @-@ headlined with Linkin Park , and usually appeared approximately halfway through the set .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Performed by Thirty Seconds to Mars
Written by Jared Leto
Produced by Steve Lillywhite and Jared Leto
Recorded at The International Centre for the Advancement of the Arts and Sciences of Sound , Los Angeles , California
Additional vocals by Knights of the White Shadow
Audio engineering by Jamie Reed Schefman
Mixed by Steve Lillywhite
Engineered for Mix by Clay Blair at Boulevard Recording , Los Angeles , California
Mastered by Howie Weinberg and Dan Gerbarg at Howie Weinberg Mastering , Los Angeles , California
Credits adapted from Love , Lust , Faith and Dreams album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= Ashley Tisdale =
Ashley Michelle Tisdale ( born July 2 , 1985 ) is an American actress , singer , and producer . During her childhood , she appeared in more than 100 TV advertisements and had roles in theatre and television shows . In 2004 , she was cast as Maddie Fitzpatrick in Disney Channel 's The Suite Life of Zack & Cody , and rose to prominence in 2006 as Sharpay Evans in the television film High School Musical . The High School Musical series included three films and the spin @-@ off Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure ( 2011 ) . Tisdale 's resultant popularity led her to sign a record deal with Warner Bros. Records in 2006 . Her debut album , Headstrong ( 2007 ) , was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) and features the single " He Said She Said " . Two years later , Tisdale released her second studio album , Guilty Pleasure . In 2013 , she announced plans to make music again and confirmed that she has been recording her third studio album .
From 2007 until 2015 , Tisdale voiced Candace Flynn in Disney Channel 's three @-@ time Emmy Award @-@ winning animated series Phineas and Ferb . The cartoon quickly became the television 's most @-@ watched animated series among kids and tweens and has received critical acclaim . Her other roles have included Savannah Monroe in The CW 's television drama series Hellcats ( 2010 – 11 ) , Jody Sanders in Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) and the title character of Hub Network 's animated series Sabrina : Secrets of a Teenage Witch ( 2013 – 14 ) , for which she received a Daytime Emmy Award nomination in 2014 .
Besides acting and singing , Tisdale has ventured into producing . After forming a production company in 2008 , she began working as the executive producer on films and television series including the ABC Family television film Picture This ( 2008 ) , the unscripted series Miss Advised ( 2013 ) , and the comedy series Young & Hungry ( 2014 ) .
= = Life and career = =
= = = 1985 – 2003 : Early life and career beginnings = = =
Tisdale was born in Monmouth County , New Jersey , on July 2 , 1985 , to Lisa Morris and contractor Michael Tisdale . Her father is Christian and her mother is Jewish ; she was raised with " a little bit of both " religions . Tisdale 's elder sister Jennifer is an actress and producer . She is also related to businessman Ron Popeil through her maternal grandfather Arnold Morris who was best known for being a pitchman for the Ginsu knife . At the age of three , Tisdale met her manager , Bill Perlman , at a New Jersey mall . He sent her to various auditions for commercials , and she was placed in more than 100 national network TV advertisements as a child . She began her theatrical career by appearing in Gypsy : A Musical Fable and The Sound of Music at Monmouth County 's Jewish Community Center .
Tisdale was eight years old when she was cast to play the part of Cosette in the musical Les Misérables , and only recalled taking a single singing lesson before landing the role . In 2007 , Tisdale told Newsday , " When I was little , I saw the play Les Misérables on Broadway . I thought it was the most amazing thing I have ever seen , so I went to my manager and told him I wanted to be in it " . Tisdale toured for two years with Les Misérables before landing a role in a touring production of Annie in Korea . At the age of 12 , Tisdale sang for President Bill Clinton during an event at the White House . In the late 1990s and early 2000s , after moving to Los Angeles , California with her family , Tisdale had minor roles in television shows including The Hughleys , Smart Guy , 7th Heaven , Boston Public , and Bette , appeared in the feature films A Bug 's Life and Donnie Darko , and worked as a model for Ford Models . For her role as Carol Prader in Boston Public , she received a 2000 Young Artist Award nomination for " Best Guest Performance In a TV drama " .
= = = 2004 – 06 : High School Musical and rise to prominence = = =
The producers of the Disney Channel television series The Suite Life of Zack & Cody cast Tisdale as Maddie Fitzpatrick , a teenage candy @-@ counter girl who works in a fancy hotel , in 2004 . The series premiered in March 2005 and ended in September 2008 . For this role , she won her first award at the Nickelodeon UK Kids ' Choice Awards 2007 for " Best TV Actress " in 2008 .
In 2006 , Tisdale played Sharpay Evans in the Disney Channel Original Movie High School Musical . High School Musical became Disney Channel 's most @-@ watched movie that year , viewed by 7 @.@ 7 million in its US premiere broadcast . The soundtrack , on which Tisdale contributed vocals for several songs , sold more than 3 @.@ 7 million copies in the US and became the top @-@ selling album that year . All of the songs featured on the soundtrack appeared on the Billboard Hot 100 chart . Tisdale subsequently became the first female artist to debut with two songs simultaneously on the Hot 100 chart , with What I 've Been Looking For and " Bop to the Top " . High School Musical was nominated for six Primetime Emmy Awards , winning two . To promote the film , Tisdale and the cast embarked on a tour titled High School Musical : The Concert during 2006 and 2007 . After meeting dancer Jared Murillo while working on High School Musical , he and Tisdale dated from 2007 to 2009 .
= = = 2007 – 09 : Studio albums and film career = = =
After the release of High School Musical , Tisdale opted not to sign with Disney 's affiliated record label Hollywood Records like her co @-@ stars . She eventually signed with Warner Bros. Records to a recording contract , and she began work on her debut album Headstrong . In December 2006 , producer J.R. Rotem confirmed he was producing and writing with Tisdale on the album . In contrast to her songs in High School Musical , Tisdale opted to pursue a more mature sound with R & B , dance @-@ pop , and hip hop influences while working on her debut . To promote Headstrong , the song " Be Good to Me " was released to mainstream radio stations in the month preceding the album 's release as its lead single . Headstrong was released in February 2007 and debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling 64 @,@ 000 copies in the first week . The second single " He Said She Said " became Tisdale 's most successful single in the US . A documentary about the album 's creation , along with a three @-@ song music video trilogy , was featured on a music DVD titled There 's Something About Ashley , released in November 2007 . Headstrong was eventually certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for sales exceeding 500 @,@ 000 copies in the US .
Work on High School Musical 2 began in 2007 , and Tisdale was confirmed to return for the sequel as Sharpay Evans . The film premiered on Disney Channel in August 2007 to 17 million viewers and became the most @-@ watched movie on cable television . She received positive reviews for her performance in the film , which earned two Primetime Emmy Awards nominations . The soundtrack , featuring Tisdale , debuted at number one on the Billboard chart with sales of 615 @,@ 000 copies , making it the fourth biggest week 's sales for a soundtrack album as of 2014 .
Disney Channel picked up the animated series Phineas and Ferb in 2006 ; Tisdale was cast as the voice of Candace Flynn , a main character whose primary motivation is getting her brothers in trouble . The series ' first episode was broadcast immediately after the premiere of High School Musical 2 to 10 million viewers and became the most @-@ watched animated series among kids and tweens in 2010 . Phineas and Ferb has also received acclaim by critics and has won three Primetime Emmy Awards .
In 2008 , Tisdale formed her own production company , Blondie Girl Productions . The television film Picture This marked Tisdale 's debut as an executive producer and as an actress in a leading role ; she played Mandy Gilbert , an unpopular and bullied teenager . The film premiered on ABC Family in 2008 to 4 @.@ 3 million viewers .
Tisdale reprised her role as Sharpay Evans in High School Musical 3 : Senior Year , which premiered in October 2008 . It earned $ 42 million in its domestic opening weekend , and grossed a total of $ 255 million worldwide . Her performance in the film earned her critical acclaim , earning an MTV Movie Award for " Breakthrough Performance Female " in 2009 . Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly labeled her one of film 's breakout stars , and Mark Kermode said Tisdale was 2008 's " best supporting actress " .
Tisdale began work on her second studio album Guilty Pleasure soon after she finished promoting High School Musical 3 : Senior Year . She said she had been involved in every aspect of the production of the album , from its " guitar @-@ driven " sound to much of the writing process . " It 's Alright , It 's OK " was the song chosen to precede the album as its lead single ; it was released to mainstream radio and digital retailers in April 2009 . Guilty Pleasure was eventually released in June 2009 . Described by Tisdale as a " rocker and edgier " album , it debuted at number 12 on the Billboard 200 , selling 25 @,@ 000 copies in the first week ; this was significantly lower than the first @-@ week sales for her previous album .
Tisdale starred in the 2009 20th Century Fox family film Aliens in the Attic as teenager Bethany Pearson . Although she is credited as one of the main characters , The New York Times said Tisdale " spends much of the film off screen " . The film was a minor success in box offices , grossing $ 60 million worldwide . From 2009 to 2011 , she was in a relationship with director Scott Speer , who directed five of her music videos .
= = = 2010 – 12 : Return to broadcast television and producing = = =
Tisdale 's return to broadcast television was announced in 2010 . She starred in The CW drama series Hellcats as Savannah Monroe , the captain of a cheerleading team . The series based its script on the book Cheer : Inside the Secret World of College Cheerleaders by journalist Kate Torgovnick ; it was described by critics as " Election meets Bring It On " . TV Guide reported Tisdale was the best @-@ paid cast member of the series , earning $ 30 @,@ 000 per episode . Hellcats ran for one season before being cancelled by The CW in 2011 .
She performed voice roles in animated series during 2010 , including The Cleveland Show , Family Guy , and Glenn Martin , DDS . In 2012 , she made a guest appearance in an episode of Raising Hope and had a starring role in a CBS pilot produced by Louis C.K. , which was not picked up by the channel . Tisdale also portrayed a desirable and high @-@ priced escort in a two @-@ episode arc in the fifth season of FX 's Sons of Anarchy . In 2010 , Disney Channel announced its intention to produce a High School Musical spin @-@ off focusing on the life of Sharpay Evans in New York after she concluded high school . Tisdale was confirmed to return as Evans for the spin @-@ off and serve as the executive producer of the project . Sharpay 's Fabulous Adventure premiered on Disney Channel to 5 million viewers in August 2011 .
Tisdale and her production company Blondie Girl Productions signed a multiyear production deal with Relativity Media in 2010 to create , develop , and produce films and television series . Miss Advised was the first project on which Tisdale served as the executive producer without also performing in a starring role . A reality show that followed three single relationship experts , it debuted on Bravo in the United States and aired for one season in 2012 .
= = = 2013 – present : Return to television and marriage = = =
In 2013 , E ! aired a television special produced by Tisdale named Inner Circle that focused on her friendship with actress Vanessa Hudgens . The next year , Tisdale teamed again with Disney Channel on the film Cloud 9 , on which she worked as an executive producer . ABC Family 's comedy series Young & Hungry is also produced by Tisdale ; it stars Emily Osment and premiered in June 2014 . Future projects Tisdale and her production company have been working on include three series intended for internet release .
In June 2012 , The Weinstein Company announced that Tisdale had been given the leading role in Dimension Films ' Scary Movie 5 . Starring alongside Lindsay Lohan and Charlie Sheen , she portrayed Jody , a dancer in her late @-@ 20s . The film was released in April 2013 , and grossed $ 15 million on its first weekend , making it the lowest @-@ grossing weekend for a Scary Movie film ; it was also panned by critics . Tisdale had a recurring role in ABC 's sitcom Super Fun Night as Jazmine , the sister of Rebel Wilson 's character , and guest starred on CBS 's The Crazy Ones in 2013 . That same year , Tisdale was cast to voice the title character of Hub Network 's animated series Sabrina : Secrets of a Teenage Witch . For her performance as Sabrina , Tisdale was nominated for " Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program " in the 41st Daytime Emmy Awards . In December 2014 , The Hollywood Reporter announced Tisdale was cast to star as a prostitute in the comedy Amateur Night alongside Jason Biggs . In 2014 , Tisdale auditioned for TBS 's workplace comedy series Clipped , on which she was eventually cast in a main role as Danni . The series ran from June to August 2015 , and was canceled in October after one season .
Four years after the release of her second studio album Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) , Tisdale told MTV that she had been recording her third studio album . She said she was inspired to make music again and that she hoped to " surprise people a little bit , something different from what I 've done before " . Tisdale announced to MTV that she opted to pursue a dance @-@ pop sound on the album , which was expected to be released in 2014 . In December 2013 , Tisdale teased on her Twitter account about a " special project " related to music . She confirmed that the project was a single titled " You 're Always Here " , which was written about her late grandfather . The song was eventually released independently to digital stores that same month .
Tisdale began dating Christopher French , the lead singer of the band Annie Automatic , in December 2012 . They became engaged in August 2013 and married on September 8 , 2014 in a small private ceremony held in Santa Barbara , California .
Tisdale confirmed in a 2016 interview that she will not be returning to the High School Musical franchise for its fourth installment .
= = Artistry = =
= = = Acting = = =
Tisdale said that she brings something different with every character she portrays in order to make them her own . After the completion of the High School Musical series in 2008 , Tisdale was at first reluctant on accepting older roles because she felt " you can never go backward " . She eventually began to accept more mature roles in 2012 . Her first adult roles were Emma Jean , a high @-@ priced escort in the drama series Sons of Anarchy ( 2012 ) , and Jody Sanders , a mother of three children in the feature film Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) . Tisdale commented after Scary Movie 5 that the role had taken her out of her comfort zone , and that she planned to continue to challenge herself in the future . While discussing her portrayal of Logan Rawlings , a lesbian , on Young & Hungry ( 2014 ) , she said she likes " to play different characters and push the envelope out of [ her ] own comfort level " , but confessed she had been nervous about the idea of playing a lesbian .
Her acting performances have been met with praise by critics and film producers . She was named a " scene stealer " in High School Musical 2 ( 2007 ) by Laura Fries of Variety . Jennifer Frey of The Washington Post says that Tisdale dominated the film despite not being the lead character , while Andy Webster of The New York Times praised her acting style , mainly because of her " elastic face [ that ] lends itself to numerous reaction shots " . John Schultz , who directed the film Aliens in the Attic ( 2009 ) in which Tisdale starred , says she is a " big comedic actress " and has a " gift " for comedy . The creator of the television series Hellcats ( 2010 ) , Kevin Murphy , praised her acting skills and said Tisdale " can hold multiple colors in the same palette . " Her performance in Scary Movie 5 ( 2013 ) , however , received negative reviews . Frank Scheck of The Hollywood Reporter panned the film as whole and said Tisdale was not funny enough. and Rafer Guzman of Newsday added she did not have " comic timing " in the film .
= = = Musical style = = =
Tisdale 's music , which is predominantly considered pop , has included ballads , dance @-@ pop , hip hop , and rock influences . Boys , heartbreak , and relationship breakups are common themes in Tisdale 's songs . She defined her music career as a way to connect herself with the fans and to inspire them . She claimed that , while Headstrong ( 2007 ) allowed her to " learn [ herself ] as an artist " , with her second album , Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 ) , she knew exactly what she wanted to do as an artist .
She often co @-@ writes the songs she records ; for her debut album Headstrong , she had writing credits in four songs , while she co @-@ wrote five tracks for her album Guilty Pleasure . The songs in which she has songwritting credits are often personal . In 2009 , while discussing the songs she co @-@ wrote for her second studio album , Tisdale said that " a lot of the songs on the album [ were ] about survival and staying strong " and that she wanted those songs to be " a statement and a reflection of what [ she went ] through over the past year and how [ she has ] grown up . " She named the song " What If " as the most personal song she co @-@ wrote for Guilty Pleasure . In 2013 , she discussed the death of her grandfather in the song " You 're Always Here " , which she wrote with her husband French .
Her music has received mixed reactions by critics . Her debut album Headstrong was compared to the first works of Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera by Billboard . Heather Phares of AllMusic defined Tisdale 's voice as " pleasant enough " but not " distinctive " while reviewing her debut album Headstrong and added she had " more character singing " as her role in the High School Musical series . Phares later praised Tisdale 's voice by saying her " chirpy , slightly saccharine voice is perfect " . Her second studio album Guiilty Pleasure , released in 2009 , achieved a 48 % rating on Metacritic , which indicates " mixed or average reviews " . Keri Masson of Billboard stated that Tisdale " can deliver the radio @-@ ready goods " with her 2009 album Guilty Pleasure , but criticized the album as a whole ; he believed the album " doesn 't give the singer room to comfortably let loose " . Stephen Thomas Erlewine , also of AllMusic , said she is not " convincing " on Guilty Pleasure , but praised the overall quality of the songs on the album . Margaret Wappler of the Los Angeles Times gave the album a negative review ; she said the album has " few glimmers of hope " and went on to criticize the producers as " not seem [ ing ] to have gifted Tisdale with their best work " . Despite the mixed reception by critics , the album was well received by fans ; it achieved a user score of 6 @.@ 5 on Metacritic , which means " generally favorable reviews " , and was also named the seventh best album of the decade by Billboard readers in 2009 .
= = = Influences = = =
Tisdale has named many influences on her musical career , including Christina Aguilera , Michael Jackson , Lady Gaga , Pat Benatar , Pink , Katy Perry , Kelly Clarkson , Led Zeppelin , and AC / DC . Tisdale said that " almost anything " inspires her , but she is mainly inspired by female pop singers .
Her main acting influences are Jake Gyllenhaal , Johnny Depp , Robin Williams and Rebel Wilson . Tisdale claims that she would like to emulate Shia LaBeouf 's career because " he did it so well " and that she is inspired by Wilson 's ability to work simultaneously as a writer , producer and actress in ABC 's Super Fun Night .
= = Public image = =
Tisdale is considered a sex symbol , ranking on Maxim 's Hot 100 list of sexiest women and hottest celebrities in the 2008 list ( at number 10 ) , in 2013 ( at number seven ) , and in 2014 ( at number 33 ) . She appeared on the cover of Maxim 's May 2013 issue and was in the 2011 annual " nude issue " for Allure in May of that year . She told Allure that " being in this shoot was me saying , ' I 'm not just the young girl everybody thinks I am . I 'm actually a woman . ' "
Tisdale has become a popular and active figure in social media ; she is one of the most @-@ followed musicians on Twitter , with more than 12 million followers , and she has more than 22 million Likes on Facebook . Her popularity on social media led her to appear for three weeks on Billboard 's Social 50 chart , peaking at number 18 , and to win the award for " Social Media Superstar " at the Young Hollywood Awards in 2014 . She was also named the 45th most influential woman on Twitter by The Huffington Post in 2015 .
= = Other ventures = =
= = = Philanthropy = = =
Tisdale has supported various charitable organizations and causes during her career . She collaborated with the Make a Wish Foundation in 2008 by visiting sick children in hospitals and helping to raise funds for the organization . Tisdale is also a supporter of Habitat for Humanity , a charity devoted to building homes for people in need . She was scheduled to perform on Idol Gives Back 2008 , along with her High School Musical co @-@ star Vanessa Hudgens . However , they were unable to appear due to their High School Musical 3 : Senior Year filming schedule ; they recorded a video from the film 's set to support the cause instead . She contributed to the A Very Special Christmas 7 album with her rendition of Wham ! ' s " Last Christmas " ; proceeds from sales benefited the Special Olympics . Tisdale was a phone operator during Hope for Haiti Now : A Global Benefit for Earthquake Relief , a charity telethon held on January 2010 to raise funds for seven non @-@ profit organizations that carried out relief work in Haiti following the 2010 Haiti earthquake .
Tisdale volunteered for the " Get on the Bus " charity campaign in 2011 , which was hosted by the television series Extreme Makeover : Home Edition . She helped to build a house for a family and later performed some of her songs to raise funds . In 2012 , she became the face of Project Pink , a campaign launched by Puma SE to raise money for the research of breast cancer treatments . As part of the campaign , she visited Los Angeles ' BEST After School Enrichment Program at Pacoima Charter School in California and presented each child that attended with shoes , clothes , and gift cards . In 2013 , Tisdale recorded her song titled " You 're Always Here " and later released it to digital stores as a charity single . During an interview with On Air with Ryan Seacrest , she confirmed that 30 percent of the proceeds of the song would go to St. Jude Children 's Research Hospital .
= = = Business endorsements = = =
In 2007 , Tisdale appeared in promotional campaigns for Staples , T @-@ Mobile , Toys " R " Us , and the Eckō Red clothing brand ; the latter included a mall tour in the US , featuring performances in fashion shows . In 2008 , she was the face of Degree Girl in the US ; to promote the deodorant , she shot several commercials and covered five hit singles from the 1980s , including Cyndi Lauper 's " Time After Time " . That year , Tisdale was paid $ 5 @.@ 5 million for her work in films , television , and endorsement deals , leading her to being named number 17 in the Forbes ' High Earners Under 30 list , number 94 on the Forbes 2008 Celebrity 100 list , and number six on the Forbes ' Hollywood 's 10 Top @-@ Paid Tweens list , a chart that listed actors whose work is directed to the 8 @-@ to @-@ 14 @-@ year @-@ old demographic . In 2011 , Tisdale joined the Got Milk ? campaign . She was the face of Ocean Pacific in 2012 , along with actress Sarah Hyland , in which they were required to pose for numerous shots wearing a variety of colorful bikinis . In 2014 , she promoted the U.S. launch of Lindt HELLO chocolates by producing an episode of the online series It Started with HELLO . In September 2015 , Tisdale was named creative director of Signorelli . She will be overseeing the creation of their spring 2017 sportswear line .
= = Filmography = =
= = Discography = =
Headstrong ( 2007 )
Guilty Pleasure ( 2009 )
= = Awards and nominations = =
= Iris ( TV series ) =
Iris ( Hangul : 아이리스 ) is a 2009 South Korean espionage television drama series , starring Lee Byung @-@ hun , Kim Tae @-@ hee , Jung Joon @-@ ho , Kim Seung @-@ woo , Kim So @-@ yeon and T.O.P ( Choi Seung @-@ hyun ) of Big Bang . It aired on KBS2 from October 14 to December 17 , 2009 , on Wednesdays and Thursdays at 21 : 55 for 20 episodes .
With a budget in excess of 20 billion won ( 17 million USD ) , it , along with its spin @-@ off Athena : Goddess of War , share the record for the most expensive Korean dramas ever produced . The series was a critical and commercial success , with an average viewership of over 30 % in addition to ranking as the top program consistently every week after its debut . The series also took home many of the highest honors at the 2009 KBS Drama Awards , including Lee Byung @-@ hun winning the top recognition , the Daesang Award . Among other nominations and recognitions , Lee and Kim Tae @-@ hee were also named as one of the best on @-@ screen couples .
The plot revolves around two brothers from the 707th Special Mission Battalion recruited into a secret South Korean black ops agency known as the National Security Service . Of the pair , recruit Kim Hyun @-@ jun begins to uncover evidence that his foggy past may not be so irrelevant to his joining of the secret organization after all . As the two friends find their loyalties tested and forge new , unlikely alliances , the journey takes them from their home country to Hungary , Japan , and China where they find themselves at the center of an international conspiracy .
The success of the series has led to a feature film , a 2010 spin @-@ off , and a sequel series in 2013 .
= = Plot = =
Brothers Kim Hyun @-@ jun ( Lee Byung @-@ hun ) and Jin Sa @-@ woo ( Jung Joon @-@ ho ) , were training under the South Korean army 's 707th Special Mission Battalion until they were scouted by NSS ( National Security Service ) . The duo was independently scouted by the beautiful NSS agent , Choi Seung @-@ hee ( Kim Tae @-@ hee ) ; the two didn 't realize they have fallen for the same woman and continued to win her love . Unaware they have been scouted , the two were secretly captured and subjected through a simulated torture test and the duo passed their test to be worthy NSS agents .
After completing the test , Hyun @-@ jun and Sa @-@ woo were introduced to the director of the NSS , Baek San ( Kim Yeong @-@ cheol ) . Baek San explained to them that the NSS is a secret organization tasked with preempting foreign threats and protecting the country 's interests through wetwork operations , including assassination of anyone who could be a threat to South Korean ( SK ) national security . Since its founding in 1976 , during the rule of Park Chung @-@ hee , the agency 's very existence has remained a state secret from everyone , including the President .
After entering NSS , the pair learned that Seung @-@ hee was their undercover scout agent . While the duo was surprised and somewhat hurt , Hyun @-@ jun was angered the most as he felt his heart was toyed with ; during a team celebration dinner , Hyun @-@ jun confronted her alone and the two embraced the passion they have for one another . Afterwards , the two maintained a secret romantic relationship without the knowledge of anyone .
Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee took the opportunity to secretly fly off to Akita @-@ Japan for a romantic winter escape after saving the life of SK President Cho Myung @-@ ho ( Lee Jung @-@ gil ) ; Baek San seized opportunity to reveal NSS to the president to gain his support . While vacationing , the couple befriended a young teen , Yuki ( who was smitten with Hyun @-@ jun at first sight ) . However , their vacation was cut short after being recalled back by NSS for a life @-@ changing mission at Budapest : recovering the head NK nuclear scientist , Hong Seung @-@ ryong .
At Budapest , Sa @-@ woo catches up with Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee to extract Hong Seung @-@ ryong back to SK ; Sa @-@ woo learned of their romantic relationship and pretended to be happy for them . Unfortunately , Hong Seung @-@ ryong was killed along with his handlers by IRIS Agent , Vic . Afterwards , Baek San ( who is secretly an IRIS agent ) tricked Hyun @-@ jun by having him assassinate North Korean Minister Yoon .
Hyun @-@ jun successfully killed NK Minister Yoon and was on the run . NK agents , Seon @-@ hwa and Cheol @-@ young , hunted for Hyun @-@ jun as he escaped . Wounded , Hyun @-@ jun escaped capture and tried to get help , but Baek San betrayed him by manipulating Sa @-@ woo to silence him ; he escaped capture and after reunited with Seung @-@ hee . The couple agreed to run away together , but both thought each other had been killed by the enemy ( Seung @-@ hee by car bomb and Hyun @-@ jun by crashed plane ) . Because of their failure to capture Hyun @-@ jun , NK agent , Seon @-@ hwa , was stripped of her title and jailed .
Both Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee survived their ordeal . Hyun @-@ jun was rescued by Jeong @-@ hoon ( a friend of Hyun @-@ jun 's deceased parents and revealed Baek San murdered them ) . Seung @-@ hee refused to accept Hyun @-@ jun 's death , but Sa @-@ woo convinced her he is dead . Jeong @-@ hoon warned Hyun @-@ jun of a war profiteering organization known as IRIS , a force that had long existed to create political turmoil to profit from a country 's strife and his counter @-@ agency that opposes them . Not willing to help a stranger , he escaped to Akita @-@ Japan to investigate .
NK intelligence later found out Hyun @-@ jun lives and gave Seon @-@ hwa a final chance to kill Hyun @-@ jun for redemption . Seon @-@ hwa failed and was captured by Hyun @-@ jun ; he gave mercy and even offered his life to her after he completes his quest for vengeance . Seon @-@ hwa believed him and eventually integrated herself with Yuki 's family as well . Over time , Seon @-@ hwa falls in love with him . The two eventually make their way back to Korea after an unfortunate scuffle with Vic that lead to Yuki and her family 's death . Hyun @-@ jun defects and cooperates with a NK black @-@ ops team to get his revenge on Baek San .
Not long , Baek San and Sa @-@ woo ( manipulated into working for IRIS ) found Jeong @-@ hoon . They used NSS resources to track him down . Before Jeong @-@ hoon died , he activated a video feed to record his final moments for Hyun @-@ jun ( via cell phone video ) to see . The video was meant to be part evidence and also a clue for Hyun @-@ jun to continue his mission ; the clue led him to meet President Cho Myung @-@ ho once again . In a private meeting , Hyun @-@ jun finally had a chance to explain his side of the story and that he is now a double @-@ agent between both sides to stop a nuclear plot ( by IRIS ) from happening .
Around the same time , Cheol @-@ young , discovered his own commanding officer , Gi @-@ hoon , is part of a coup with IRIS to start a civil war and take control both sides of Korea under their unified control . Hyun @-@ jun and Seon @-@ hwa teams up with the very black @-@ ops team that 's in charge of nuking South Korea . Because he 's not trusted , Hyun @-@ jun helped the team infiltrate and attack NSS HQ to steal special equipment to complete building their nuke . However , their actions wasn 't enough to earn the team 's trust as they had their own agendas and the team went ahead with their plans without Hyun @-@ jun and Seon @-@ hwa .
It was between this time that Hyun @-@ jun finally reunited with Seung @-@ hee and learned what really happened at Budapest , including Sa @-@ woo 's actions . It was also the first time she learned about IRIS , however , there wasn 't enough time to explain things as NSS agents are after them . Seung @-@ hee confronts Sa @-@ woo with the truth and told him she 'll never forgive his actions against Hyun @-@ jun .
Impatient of allowing IRIS to act any further through NSS , President Cho Myung @-@ ho had Head of National Security , Yoo Kwang @-@ ho , execute a hostile takeover on NSS ; both Sa @-@ woo and Baek San were arrested for conspiracy . Later , on the president 's official announcement of reunification , Hyun @-@ jun and Seon @-@ hwa searched for the hidden nuke . During this time , Cheol @-@ young successfully rooted out IRIS agents within North Korean ranks ; through arrested confessions , he reported to the duo that IRIS had targeted the Federal Building Complex , the U.S. Embassy , and the Blue House . While searching throughout Seoul , Hyun @-@ jun realized the notes they found earlier corresponded to a particular bus route and figured out the nuke was within a moving tour bus . However , their former NK black @-@ ops teammates tried to stop them in a massive gunfight to lead to their deaths ; Hyun @-@ jun saved the day . With the nuke neutralized and all enemy forces killed , the SK president thanked Hyun @-@ jun in his efforts and earned his complete faith .
Peace had finally come and Hyun @-@ jun took time off . Afterwards , Hyun @-@ jun took the time to bid farewell to Seon @-@ hwa . Even though Hyun @-@ jun got presidential permission to allow Seon @-@ hwa live in SK ; due to her unrequited love for Hyun @-@ jun , she declined and returned to NK . Seon @-@ hwa wanted to retire from being an agent ; she would quickly return to SK with the Cheol @-@ young when she realized Seung @-@ hee 's profile was within a discovered IRIS personnel database and wanted to warn Hyun @-@ jun of the potential danger .
Meanwhile , Hyun @-@ jun went to Jeju Island to vacation with Seung @-@ hee , but inexplicably left without notice . Hyun @-@ jun couldn 't find her as he was called back to Seoul due to the IRIS jailbreak with Sa @-@ woo and Baek San . She would later confess that she met with Baek San as he tried to recruit her into IRIS . She explained that Baek San helped raise her like a daughter and she didn 't want to talk about it due to personal conflicts within herself ; Hyun @-@ jun sympathized and forgave her .
In the hunt for Baek San , Hyun @-@ jun found and killed Vic ; he avenged Yuki 's death . Clues left behind suggests that IRIS had hidden themselves within private golf club house ; Hyun @-@ jun infiltrated and attacked the golf club house with an NSS team to arrest Baek San and Sa @-@ woo , but Sa @-@ woo escaped . When Hyun @-@ jun and Baek San finally meet , Hyun @-@ jun demanded Baek San to ask for forgiveness , but Baek San couldn 't help laugh at the matter . Hyun @-@ jun was tempted to kill Baek San , but Hyun @-@ jun had him arrested .
Later , Sa @-@ woo and IRIS agents attacked a local mall for hostages to blackmail both sides of the Korean government to release their IRIS agents and to make SK 's president announce their political stand to not unite with NK . Hyun @-@ jun became the negotiator for the president and for the hostages ' release , but he was really there to appeal to Sa @-@ woo 's conscience . Because the IRIS agents had conflicting commands with Sa @-@ woo , Hyun @-@ jun and Sa @-@ woo were forced to team up again and kill all the IRIS agents . During the gun @-@ fight , Sa @-@ woo was mortally wounded . Dying before his friends , he apologized and was forgiven before he died . With all things hindering the reunification process gone , the peace talks resumed .
At the reunification summit , the president personally requested Hyun @-@ jun to be at his side . Concurrently , NSS agents realized they 've been duped : the presumed dead IRIS agents at the mall crisis was actually the hostages . The true IRIS agents escaped and infiltrated the summit to kill all delegates . IRIS agents killed and replaced various security agents for a massacre . Unfortunately , it failed with Seung @-@ hee 's interference . She pretended to be an IRIS agent and used the confusion to stop them . This created mass panic as IRIS agents make their stand against all security forces . Ultimately , the SK president and NK forces survived the assault and Hyun @-@ jun saved the day again .
In the aftermath , Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee left NSS for a normal life . While Seung @-@ hee waited at a lighthouse for Hyun @-@ jun , he was driving up to meet her and propose . However , during the drive , Hyun @-@ jun was sniped in the head by IRIS Agent Ray ( from IRIS II ) . Afterwards , Hyun @-@ jun ’ s life and death were later classified , Baek San was sent to a “ black prison , ” and IRIS receded for three years until they regained their strength to take on the world once again .
= = Cast = =
Iris featured an ensemble cast split between characters of North Korean and South Korean descent . Because the series explores the tension and mentality behind the two sides of the conflict , both the North and South perspectives are shown at length . The plot focuses on the cast overcoming the manipulation they face at an international level and occasionally attempting to reconcile their differences to fight an evil greater than either side ever acknowledged , making way for scenarios in which their allegiances are stressed and put to the test .
Lee Byung @-@ hun as Kim Hyun @-@ jun
A soldier with the South Korean Special Forces , Hyun @-@ jun has floated through life with little attention for the details . Possessing a photographic memory , top athletic ability , and proficiency with most firearms , he has little difficulty distinguishing himself as a member of the NSS . Assuming the codename " TK1 " during operations , he is frequently paired with his brother and colleague Jin Sa @-@ woo .
Kim Tae @-@ hee as Choi Seung @-@ hee
Ranked as a " Team Leader " within the NSS , Seung @-@ hee is an expert profiler that assisted the second @-@ in @-@ command , Park Sang @-@ hyun , with recruiting Kim Hyun @-@ jun and , more directly , Jin Sa @-@ woo . Admired for her beauty and perspicacity , Seung @-@ hee is universally liked within the organization and remains very close with fellow NSS member Yang Jung @-@ in .
Jung Joon @-@ ho as Jin Sa @-@ woo
A friend that has grown up alongside Hyun @-@ jun , Sa @-@ woo is the more level @-@ headed and responsible of the two . While members of the Special Forces , they often found themselves in fierce competitions , and after joining the NSS , find themselves competing for the affection of Choi Seung @-@ hee . In accordance with Hyun @-@ jun 's codename , he becomes known as " TK2 " .
Kim Seung @-@ woo as Park Cheol @-@ young
A seasoned and steadfast supporter of the WPK , Park Cheol @-@ young is the head of the North Korean security team responsible for escorting and protecting heads of state on diplomatic missions . He first encounters Kim Hyun @-@ jun as they are caught in a political impasse in Hungary — one that leaves Park and his entire team at the mercy of their superiors should they not resolve the situation quickly in their favor .
Kim So @-@ yeon as Kim Seon @-@ hwa
Despite being one of very few females to achieve her status , Kim Seon @-@ hwa has gained the trust and acknowledgment of her colleagues in the North Korean security forces . As a subordinate of Park Cheol @-@ young and a ranking officer in his security outfit , she has great admiration for her superior and harbors deep resentment for the South .
T.O.P. as Vick
A mysterious assassin working for an even more mysterious organization , Vick answers to a man known only as " Mr. Black . " Though of apparent Korean descent , his actual origins are unknown and he communicates fluently in both English and Korean . Often , he is responsible for eliminating political targets and retrieving , as well as destroying , sensitive information at the behest of his superiors .
= = = Supporting cast = = =
= = = = National Security Service ( NSS ) = = = =
The NSS is headed by Baek San ( Kim Yeong @-@ cheol ) , its standing deputy director only in title and the man responsible for the recruiting of Hyun @-@ jun and Sa @-@ woo . The named director of the NSS comes and goes with each change of power in the presidency , but it is the deputy director that oversees the organization . Baek San 's motivations for many of his actions are mysterious , occasionally outright inconsistent with that of the general national interests . Due to the very existence of the organization being kept secret , he enjoys a state of personal protection that few others do .
While Baek San oversees the organization , the acting chief director , Park Sang @-@ hyun ( Yoon Je @-@ moon ) , is the general supervisor and runs the daily operations of the NSS . He fabricated the understanding but also intransigent where failures are concerned , often personally dealing with each and every agent . For field assignments , he watches over and commands all missions set domestically .
Many of the NSS agents have close personal ties to one another , and the floor supervisor and head of security resources , Yang Jung @-@ in ( Kim Hye @-@ jin ) , is no exception . She is often viewed as a dependable and accommodating authority figure and remains a very close friend to colleague Choi Seung @-@ hee .
Being the South 's first line of defense against foreign threats , the NSS houses technology
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unavailable to their sister intelligence agencies . The two primary tech agents , Yang Mi @-@ jung ( Juni ) and Hwang Tae @-@ sung ( Na Yoon ) , are often responsible for ensuring field agents have all that is required to see their missions through . Mi @-@ jung does not meet the expected conventions of someone involved in national intelligence . Given that her sense of fashion and general interests are more contemporary than that of her associates , she often stands out from the others , but her status as the top hacker in Korea has made her irreplaceable . Still , Tae @-@ sung remains the more perdurable of the two and is often instrumental in the success of a number of operations .
The forensics and scientific investigations section is headed by Oh Hyun @-@ ku ( Yoon Joo @-@ sang ) , an eccentric that is the eldest of the general staff . He often exhibits a fatherly relationship with many of the agents , including Mi @-@ jung and Seung @-@ hee .
= = = = The Blue House = = = =
Due to the overarching plot of the series involving the disputes inherent to the Korean Peninsula and the intricacies of the foreign relations between the North and South , the Blue House and its primary staff are featured prominently throughout . The candidate that wins the election and assumes office is eventual President of South Korea Cho Myung @-@ ho ( Lee Jung @-@ gil ) . His administration begins with his undertaking the grand task of forwarding talks of reunification between the North and South after witnessing the grim reality that is the struggle between the two nations . With strong ambitions , he leads diplomatic outreaches with the North that no one expected of a candidate so early in his term .
President Cho 's chief advisor and head of his cabinet is Jung Jyun @-@ jun ( Jung Han @-@ yong ) , and is one of the few around him that the president feels he can trust with any information , no matter how sensitive it may be . Later in the series , he becomes the only reliable lifeline the president has against the influence of sabotage originating inside and outside the Blue House .
The secretary to the president , Hong Soo @-@ jin ( Myung Ji @-@ yun ) , tends to find herself at odds with the head of the his chief advisor . She rarely speaks her mind freely and appears to have allegiances beyond those that are already apparent .
= = = = Others = = = =
Given the wide range of countries the characters find themselves in throughout the story , a number of recurring characters arise from countries outside of Korea .
Early in the series , Hyun @-@ jun and Seung @-@ hee encounter a young Japanese schoolgirl while in Akita by the name of Yuki ( Karen Miyama ) . Her family operates one of the tourist traps nearby , and she exhibits affection for Hyun @-@ jun and attempts to find herself in his company as much as possible . Later , it is Hyun @-@ jun that needs her , as Yuki and her family help him when he needs them most .
When Hyun @-@ jun finds himself tangled in a political web while in Japan , he crosses paths with Eriko Sato ( Yoo Min ) . A Japanese woman with the country 's national intelligence agency , Sato is charged with investigating foreign threats that find themselves on Japanese soil .
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Based on the general concept of the 1999 film Shiri , Iris was first revealed in 2008 by its production company Taewon Entertainment and attracted wide attention due to its record budget and star power . Kang Je @-@ gyu , the director of Shiri , was involved with initially developing the project for television , which would later be directed by Kim Kyu @-@ tae and Yang Yun @-@ ho .
Written by Kim Hyun @-@ jun , Jo Gyu @-@ won , and Kim Jae @-@ un , the series began pre @-@ production without the backing of a Korean broadcaster in an attempt to spark a bidding war amongst potential suitors .
On April 18 , 2008 , it was announced that Lee Byung @-@ hun had been cast in the lead role . It was to be Lee 's first television role since 2003 after a five @-@ year hiatus to focus on film roles , including the 2009 film G.I. Joe : The Rise of Cobra , which had been filming at the time of the announcement . Lee 's salary was the third highest in the history of Korean television dramas , amounting to ₩ 100 million ( $ 90 @,@ 000 USD ) per episode and was six times greater than that of the Korean industry guideline . His salary was inclusive of an overhead deal of ₩ 1 @.@ 5 billion won ( $ 1 @.@ 35 million USD ) in guarantees due to his namesake drawing potential investors , particularly in Japan , and opportunities in other overseas markets .
The production company announced on June 24 that Big Bang member T.O.P would be starring alongside Lee as an assassin and the recurring antagonist of the series . It was announced on October 10 that Kim Tae @-@ hee , known for her roles in Forbidden Love and Stairway to Heaven , had been cast as the female lead in the series . Like Lee , she had not worked in television for several years and had been working in film prior to accepting the role .
Pre @-@ production continued on Iris as it drew increasing attention not only in Korea but also in Japan due to Lee 's involvement . Kim Seung @-@ woo and Jung Joon @-@ ho were also cast as the head of the North Korean security team and Kim Hyun @-@ jun 's lifelong friend , respectively .
The large budget and notable talent for the project made it difficult for the production company to secure directors willing to take on the series , causing 2009 to begin with a brief stir of media attention . Shortly thereafter , Taewon announced that the search was over and Kim Kyu @-@ tae and Yang Yun @-@ ho would be helming the series . Simultaneously , KBS was announced as the South Korean broadcaster . Later in the month , on February 19 , Kim So @-@ yeon was cast as a North Korean agent .
= = = Filming and promotion = = =
The first filmed scenes of Iris were shot in Akita , Japan on March 10 , 2009 . Lee Byung @-@ hun 's popularity in Japan caused the series and its production to gain immediate notability in the country . Lee 's filming was often shadowed by fans , beginning with thousands greeting him at Akita Airport upon his arrival . Due to several pivotal moments of the series being filmed in the prefecture , Akita soon experienced a surge of Korean tourists going on tours tailored to followers of the show . The crew went on to shoot in Japan for three weeks and left the country on March 28 .
With its unprecedented budget , Iris was able to pioneer several firsts for Korean television dramas , particularly with its large scale action sequences . Throughout filming , the actors were often responsible for filming their own stunts and action sequences , including Lee Byung @-@ hun jumping from the 130 meter @-@ tall Tamagawa Dam in Semboku , Akita . To prepare for the demanding physical requirements of the series , several members of the primary cast , including Kim Tae @-@ hee , underwent special training to lend authenticity to the action . During a break in filming , Lee Byung @-@ hun appeared at the 2009 Cannes Film Festival in support of the production in May . A press conference was also held later in the month with the entire finalized cast of the series .
The following international shoot commence on June 9 in Hungary . Shot in and around Budapest and other locales , the filming lasted for one month before the cast and crew returned to Korea . In late July , it was announced that Iris would air on Wednesdays and Thursdays on KBS2 , for premiere on October 14 . Filming continued throughout the year and , on October 5 , a production press conference was held for the Korean and world media just over a week prior to the series premiere .
Filming continue after the premiere of the series . On November 29 , 2009 , the filming crew took over a section of Sejong @-@ ro at Gwanghwamun Plaza , Seoul for twelve hours to film lengthy gunfight scenes . The five lanes along the plaza in front of the Sejong Center for the Performing Arts were closed to traffic for filming from 07 : 00 to 19 : 00 . This marks the first time the Seoul Metropolitan Government has granted permission to blocked traffic along the Plaza for filming and it is part of Government 's plans to promote the city 's major tourist attractions .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
Iris premiered on October 14 , 2009 to strong ratings and went on to become one of the most critically and commercially successful series of the year , earning numerous awards for its actors and production .
The series ended its initial run on December 17 , 2009 . KBS announced that an Iris special would be aired the following week , on December 22 . The special contained extensive behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from the filming in Hungary , Japan , and Korea , along with numerous interviews with the cast and crew .
On January 28 , 2010 , it was reported that the distribution rights for the Japanese market were purchased by TBS for a record 400 million yen ( $ 4 @.@ 2 million USD ) . The station began airing the Japanese @-@ dubbed version during primetime — a first for a South Korean @-@ produced drama series in the country — on April 21 , 2010 with numerous acting talents providing the voiceovers , including Tatsuya Fujiwara as Kim Hyun @-@ jun . The two @-@ hour premiere drew TBS 's highest ratings for the day and doubled the station 's usual average for the timeslot . The airing had been preceded by a promotional blitz with stars Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee appearing on numerous Japanese programs , in addition to billboards and posters being placed throughout Tokyo .
Publicity for Iris in Japan was strong from its premiere and beyond . In late May 2010 , a set of two concert events billed as dramatic live stage shows drew sold @-@ out crowds that amounted to over 60 @,@ 000 attendees . The concerts were a combination of live interviews with much of the primary cast , re @-@ enactments of pivotal scenes from the series , and performances by the musical acts featured in its soundtrack . Broadcaster TBS revealed in June 2010 that airings of the series on its satellite offerings had broken records daily , doubling the ratings of its previous programs . Such was the influence of the series that flights between Seoul and Akita that had been nearing decommission were revitalized as a result of mounting tourist interest . Due to the commerce generated for Akita prefecture as a result of Iris having filmed there , local governments in Japan began competing for interest from producers in order to solicit tourists with future installments of the series .
A producer with Taewon Entertainment , the production company behind Iris , was quoted on May 6 , 2010 as saying they were in negotiations toward exporting the series to American television for broadcast on a major network . The episode count would be reduced from the original twenty down to twelve and , should the deal go through , would mark the first time a South Korean @-@ produced drama program was aired on a major television network in the United States .
= = Ratings = =
= = International broadcast = =
= = Media = =
= = = Music = = =
The Iris original soundtrack was released as a 16 @-@ track album on November 13 , 2009 , with music composed by Yi Dong @-@ jun and Choe Seong @-@ gwon . The soundtrack contained a number of the vocal themes used in the series , including those by Baek Ji @-@ young , Shin Seung @-@ hun , and Big Bang .
On December 24 , a limited edition was released as a two @-@ disc set with a 76 @-@ page photobook . The first disc contained ten vocal themes , four of which were used in the second half of the series and not included on the original release . The second disc collected fifteen instrumentals used as backdrops during the show 's run , including four not on the previous collection .
In the week preceding the premiere of Iris on Japanese television , it was announced that Big Bang would be contributing an all @-@ new ballad to be inserted into the TBS airings . Titled " Tell Me Goodbye , " the song was released as a single in the country on June 9 , 2010 , and was available in both a CD and a CD & DVD edition .
Coinciding with the initial broadcast of the series in Japan , a deluxe soundtrack box @-@ set was released on May 26 , 2010 by Being Inc . In addition to featuring thirteen vocal themes and nineteen instrumentals on two discs , the release includes a 72 @-@ page photobook adapted from the previous Korean release and a DVD of music videos used to promote the series . Those featured were " Hallelujah " by Big Bang , " Don 't Forget " by Baek Ji @-@ young , and " Love of Iris " by Shin Seung @-@ hun .
= = = Novelization and graphic novel = = =
A two @-@ volume novelization was published prior to and during the show 's initial run . Written by Chae Woo @-@ do , the first volume was published on October 12 , 2009 , two days prior to the show 's premiere on KBS . The second volume was published exactly one month later on November 12 , and , unlike its predecessor , did not follow the eventual plot of the television series .
In July 2010 , it was confirmed that an Iris graphic novel was in the works for a Fall 2011 release . Reports of the project , which features the likenesses of Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee , date back to August 2009 , prior to the series airing . Launching first in Japan and later in Korea , the graphic novel retained the relationship between the male and female leads but deviates from the scenarios featured in the original story .
= = = Home video = = =
Iris was released on Region 3 DVD in South Korea on February 12 , 2010 in an 8 @-@ disc set , complete with English subtitles . The first pressing included a 50 @-@ page photobook with previously unpublished photographs from the production of the series .
Earlier , on November 27 , 2009 , a 100 @-@ minute making @-@ of documentary titled Iris Navigate DVD was released for the Japanese market , documenting the filming of the series in Hungary , Japan , and Korea .
The full series is set to be released over two uncut DVD box @-@ sets in Japan . The first was announced for a July 2 , 2010 release and retails for 19 @,@ 950 yen ( $ 212 USD ) , with the second following on September 15 . On August 3 , 2010 , the first volume was released on Blu @-@ ray with the second set to follow on October 20 , both priced at 25 @,@ 200 yen ( $ 268 USD ) . The first pressings included replica NSS ID cards , a postcard set , a bonus disc , and a 24 @-@ page data booklet .
In addition , two behind @-@ the @-@ scenes production diary box @-@ sets began to be issued in Japan beginning June 16 , 2010 . The first follows the cast 's filming in Akita and Hungary while the second tracks their work in Korea and was released September 15 .
= = Awards and recognition = =
Iris was the top @-@ rated program for its initial run and received strong ratings throughout , culminating in nearly 40 % of the South Korean viewing audience tuning in for its finale .
The series and its actors won numerous awards at the 2009 KBS Drama Awards , including Lee Byung @-@ hun receiving the Daesang for his portrayal of Kim Hyun @-@ jun . Kim Tae @-@ hee was given the Excellence Award for an Actress , while Jung Joon @-@ ho and Kim Seung @-@ woo were both awarded the Excellence Award for an Actor for their work on the series . Yoon Joo @-@ sang was named Best Supporting Actor , and Kim So @-@ yeon was given the Popularity Award . Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee were one pair to win the Best Couple Award , and in addition , Lee was also honored with the Netizens ' Award for an Actor .
At the 46th annual Baeksang Arts Awards , Lee won for Best Actor and the series itself was awarded Best Drama .
On August 27 , 2010 , series cast member Jung Jun Ho and lead producer Chung Tae @-@ won were on hand at an appreciation ceremony held by the prefecture of Akita in Japan . The prefecture 's governor presented Iris with the award as an expression of gratitude for encouraging tourism and awareness of the area . Later , in September , Lee Byung @-@ hun was named as a recipient to be honored with the Seoul Tourism Award for " portraying and boosting the beauty and lively aspects of Seoul " for his work on the series . In October 2010 , Lee was also cited for an award from the Japanese Ministry of Land , Infrastructure , Transport and Tourism over the series .
At the 2010 International Drama Festival in Tokyo , Lee Byung @-@ hun was named Best Actor in Asia for his appearance in the series . Iris itself was also acknowledged as the best foreign production at the same ceremony .
= = Spin @-@ off = =
A spin @-@ off series to begin filming in 2010 and premiered later in the same year was announced following the success of Iris . Starring Jung Woo @-@ sung , Cha Seung @-@ won , Soo Ae , Choi Si @-@ won and Lee Ji @-@ ah , the series Athena : Goddess of War was filmed on location in a number of overseas locations , including Italy , New Zealand , Japan , and the United States . Production head of Taewon Entertainment , Chung Tae @-@ won , confirmed in an interview on May 31 , 2010 that Iris and Athena would be set in the same universe , allowing for crossovers between characters of the two franchises . Filming on Athena was projected to last over five months , with production commencing in Korea in June before moving to Italy in July . The series premiered December 13 , 2010 on SBS and saw its finale on February 21 , 2011 . Shortly before the series ended , the head of production was quoted as expressing interest in producing sequels to continue Athena and further connect it to other entries in the franchise .
= = Sequel = =
A true sequel series , tentatively titled Iris 2 , was originally announced for October 2011 . At the time of announcement , pre @-@ production was underway and reports estimated filming on the sequel was expected to commence in March 2011 . Representatives from Taewon Productions stated in April 2010 that they expected original stars Lee Byung @-@ hun , Kim Tae @-@ hee , and Kim So @-@ yeon to be cast in the sequel . Later , just prior to the finale of Athena being broadcast , lead producer Chung Tae @-@ won confirmed that he anticipated Iris 2 to be in production in time for a fall 2012 premiere . Concurrently , it was reported that the proposed series remained in pre @-@ production with the scriptwriters in the process of crafting the story . Chung also revealed that no casting decisions had been made and that the writing staff were preparing two potential versions of the series as a result — one featuring the full original cast and another that would see the return of only a select few . The leads of the original series , Lee Byung @-@ hun and Kim Tae @-@ hee , were officially confirmed to ultimately not be reprising their roles for the sequel on August 24 , 2012 .
On September 13 , 2012 , it was announced that veteran film and television actor Jang Hyuk had been offered the lead in Iris 2 . Actress Lee Da @-@ hae was confirmed on September 18 as being eyed for the female lead in the series , which would reunite her with co @-@ star Jang Hyuk from their work on 2010s award @-@ winning historical series Chuno . In addition to confirming the two leads , on September 19 , several additions were made to the cast , with Kim Seung @-@ woo , Kim Min @-@ jong , Kim Yeong @-@ cheol , Im Soo @-@ hyang , and Oh Yeon @-@ soo all being confirmed for the series . Kim Seung @-@ woo has signed on to reprise his role of North Korean agent Park Cheol @-@ young previously featured in Iris and Athena , while Kim Min @-@ jong is set to return as defector Kim Gi @-@ soo from Athena and Kim Yeong @-@ cheol is to come back as the villain from the original series , Baek San . Several others , including Kang Ji @-@ young from South Korean pop group Kara , Yoon Doo @-@ joon of boy band B2ST , and Lee Joon from MBLAQ were all also discussed for roles , along with American actor Daniel Henney .
Iris 2 premiered on February 13 , 2013 .
= = Feature film = =
Iris : The Movie is a feature length edit of the twenty episode TV series for cinemas . While not featuring a differing story , additional scenes were shot that expanded upon the original storyline , including an all @-@ new extended ending . The film first saw its premiere at the 34th Hong Kong International Film Festival and was later screened for potential international buyers at the 2010 Cannes Film Festival with a runtime of 123 minutes . The movie was released via content distribution company Cine21i in Korea on November 22 , 2010 , and was announced to be launching on IPTV , cable networks , and 100 online websites . The title 's distributors include Kadokawa Pictures in Japan , I @-@ cable Entertainment in Hong Kong , and Clover Films in Singapore .
The movie saw its theatrical premiere in Japan on January 8 , 2011 under the title Iris : The Last .
= Black Isle 's Torn =
Black Isle 's Torn was a role @-@ playing video game developed for Windows by Black Isle Studios , announced on March 22 , 2001 and cancelled in July of that year . The game was to use a modified version of the SPECIAL role @-@ playing system , which had been implemented in the Fallout series . Developed on various editions of the Lithtech engine , Torn possessed features unseen in previous Black Isle Studios games , such as 3D graphics and real @-@ time camera movement .
In Torn , the player assumed the role of a wanderer , who was cursed to bring misfortune to people and places around it . Under a king 's orders , the player undertook quests to clarify a series of conflicting prophecies . Unlike several other Black Isle Studios games , the game was to take place in an original world titled " Torn " instead of a traditional Dungeons & Dragons location .
= = Gameplay = =
Torn was to use a modified version of the SPECIAL system ; combat occurred in quasi @-@ real @-@ time , rather than strictly being turn @-@ based . To achieve this , Black Isle Studios created the " recovery system " , in which action points were used to determine the amount a combatant could accomplish in a given amount of time . Action points were spent with each action , and based on what percentage of an acting character 's total action points were used , that character would need to wait a varying amount of time before taking action again . For example , if two characters expend half of their action points , they will attack each other at the same speed , regardless of the point totals for each character . Exceptions to this were to include recovery being hindered by movement , using items , or switching equipment , which was always allowed , though it reset the recovery time .
Like Fallout , the game was not to support character classes ; instead , the designers opted for a system where a player defined their character by the skills and special abilities selected when leveling up . For example , a character with skill choices of stealth and assassination would become the rough equivalent of a " rogue " . The system would have allowed players to choose their characters ' race , which would change the types of abilities selectable .
= = = Companions = = =
Torn was to allow the player direct control over only the protagonist character . However , up to five artificial intelligence @-@ controlled " companions " could be hired at once , and would have replaced a conventional adventuring party . Companions would have interacted with one another , obligating the player to find companions who worked well together .
Torn would have introduced a unique method for the player to communicate with and control allies ; altering their behaviour through conversation , and a command menu and hot key @-@ driven command system which allowed the player to give companions commands at any time . The system was based around the concept of simple behaviors , such as " Attack , " which could be combined into complex strings . Companions could be ordered to attack , support , defend themselves , follow the player character without attacking , and / or remain behind . It was also possible for the player to command them to carry these orders out in " aggressive " or " passive " manners . Lastly , commands and manners could be " leashed " to other party members or the player character ; for example , " support the entire party aggressively , " or " support another companion passively . " Depending on the playable character 's personality , and the orders companions were given , their level of co @-@ operation would vary .
Companions would have followed commands to the best of their ability , but in accordance with their personality ; for example , a berserker @-@ type companion told to attack aggressively would charge into melee combat , while an assassin @-@ type companion would attempt to hide , and then creep about knocking foes unconscious or backstabbing . In contrast , a priestess @-@ type companion might support the player character by casting beneficial spells , while a paladin @-@ type would give support by attacking the player character 's target , and then healing the protagonist after the battle or if he or she came close to dying .
While these features were publicized , Feargus Urquhart later stated that " even at the end of our work on Torn , we were still considering going back to a system that gave players direct , full control over the party members " .
= = = Magic system = = =
Torn was to contain four types of magic : Chaos , Order , Alchemy and Summoning . Order magic primarily consisted of healing , protective , and empowering spells . Conversely , Chaos magic was to have consisted of harmful elemental attacks , detrimental status afflictions , and invisibility spells .
Alchemical magic was used to create or alter potions to achieve more powerful effects , repair or enchant items , identify unknown items or creatures , and combine different Order or Chaos spells to create spells with multiple elements ( such as earth and fire spells creating a molten metal spell ) . Alchemical magic could also imbue a target with elemental attributes ; for example , a warrior imbued with the Water element would deal extra cold @-@ type damage but receive additional heat @-@ type damage .
Lastly , Summoning magic was to consist of " Call " and " Gate " spells , the former summoning entities able to exist for a set duration of time , or until slain . Summoned creatures behaved in different manners ; one type might simply defend the caster , while another worked to heal the caster and his or her allies . Gate spells opened a portal , allowing different things access to the game 's world . Lead designer David Maldonado called the resulting spells " generally amongst the weirdest in the game , " with the effect often being a combination of " normal " spells fired simultaneously .
Unlike Black Isle Studios ' previous games , Torn would have used a " mana point " system . Each spell cast would deplete mana points ; when fully depleted , a spell @-@ caster would have been unable to cast spells until their mana had been restored . Certain races were more adept at casting certain types of magic than others , increasing the importance of racial choice in how the player wished to experience the game .
= = Setting and plot = =
Torn 's background plot established an omnipotent being , dubbed " the Architect , " as the ultimate creator of the game 's universe . The Architect created a number of god @-@ like beings , who in turn created the world " Torn " . The gods eventually divided into three separate factions , each pursuing a different philosophy . One faction worshipped Chaos , believing in constant alteration of the world , while another worshipped Order , believing that all things should remain unchanged ; between these two was a third faction , which promoted balance between chaos and order .
The game 's various races were originally created for combat purposes by the three factions of gods , as the deities struggled to dominate Torn with their respective viewpoints . The name of the game 's world was to have been derived from this conflict , due to the ravaging of the world which took place . In the end , the Architect banished the feuding Chaos and Order factions to the ethereal realms of " nightmare " and " dream " , respectively , and left Torn in the hands of the faction that advocated balance . While isolated , the Order and Chaos factions continued influencing the world 's development , although their segregation forced them to act indirectly through agents still residing in Torn 's world . Resulting from the ability of Torn 's inhabitants to draw energy from the separate realms occupied by the gods of Chaos and Order , magic became available .
Black Isle Studios stated on multiple occasions that their goal was to create a world that was both familiar to role @-@ playing game fans , while simultaneously new . David Maldonado once commented on this in an interview with IGN :
" I feel that a sense of familiarity and association is a powerful thing , and may be used to heighten a player 's emotional experience in the game . If something can be tied into existing imagery ( even if only subtly so ) and be enhanced by or play off of pre @-@ existing feelings and conceptions within the player , why throw away that extra bit of power at your disposal ? "
Later in the interview , Maldonado explained how the world of Torn came about :
" I was given a set of directives by Feargus Urquhart , Black Isle Studios ' division head . He was clear that he would encourage the sort of mature , gritty setting that we used in Fallout or Planescape : Torment , but didn 't want a world that was simply " covered in darkness " ... there should places of light , darkness , and a whole lot o ' gray in between . He also wanted some sort of clear , over @-@ arching conflict that influenced all things on some level but didn 't simply overpower everything . We decided on Order vs. Chaos as it 's far less black and white than Good vs. Evil ... after all , agents of Order or Chaos could potentially use any means at their disposal to bring about the rise of their cause , meaning that either side has its share of goodies and baddies . "
To this end , the game 's plot was to contain a splinter group of Order followers who would scheme to destroy the entire world , in order to re @-@ create it as a new , unblemished one , so as to achieve " ultimate order . "
Torn 's primary narrative revolved around a wandering protagonist character , cursed to bring pain and misfortune wherever he or she traveled , and to whomever he or she traveled with . A misguided king , later revealed to be the game 's ultimate antagonist , would have acted as the player 's benefactor , assigning them various quests in order to discover the truth about a series of apparently conflicting prophecies . It would eventually have been revealed that all the prophecies , and even the protangonist character 's mysterious curse , could be rationalized , and were in fact related to the protagonist character , effectively granting the player control over which interpretation of the future was realized .
= = Development = =
Announced during GDC 2001 , Torn was subject to much interest by the press , because the team behind the cult classic Planescape : Torment was revealed to be developing it , and the game itself was to use the much @-@ praised SPECIAL system . According to lead designer David Maldonado , the game had been in development for " about fourteen months " before its announcement .
Torn made a playable showing at E3 2001 . Although the preview was an early build of the game with several graphical features disabled , it was generally well received . However , the division director of Black Isle Studios , Feargus Urquhart , later stated that the switch from the LithTech 2 @.@ 3 engine to the upgraded 3 @.@ 0 version shortly before the E3 presentation had " significant ramifications " , and the amount of changing and recoding necessitated by the switch caused the game 's E3 showing to suffer .
In July 2001 , after circulation of rumors , Torn was officially cancelled . Following the incident , fifty @-@ six members of Black Isle Studios ' staff were laid off . The ultimate reason for Torn 's cancellation was eventually revealed by Feargus Urquhart :
" I don 't know if we ever released an official reason on why [ Torn ] was canceled , but in a nutshell , the game was canceled because it was not going to be done in time to get Interplay the revenue the company needed to continue operations . That sounds like it was all Interplay 's fault , but that 's really not the case . The project was not going well and continued to be an ongoing challenge . "
At least a few other members of the development team contested this appraisal off the record , however , and management issues as well as unreasonable expectations for another Baldur 's Gate @-@ style hit have been mentioned .
= Joseph Desha =
Joseph Desha ( December 9 , 1768 – October 11 , 1842 ) was a U.S. Representative and the ninth governor of the U.S. state of Kentucky . After the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , Desha 's Huguenot ancestors fled from France to Pennsylvania , where Desha was born . Eventually , Desha 's family settled near present @-@ day Gallatin , Tennessee , where they were involved in many skirmishes with the Indians . Two of Desha 's brothers were killed in these encounters , motivating him to volunteer for " Mad " Anthony Wayne 's campaign against the Indians during the Northwest Indian War . Having by then resettled in Mason County , Kentucky , Desha parlayed his military record into several terms in the state legislature .
In 1807 , Desha was elected to the first of six consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives . A Democratic @-@ Republican , he was considered a war hawk , supporting the War of 1812 . In 1813 , he volunteered to serve in the war and commanded a division at the Battle of the Thames . Returning to Congress after the war , he was the only member of the Kentucky congressional delegation to oppose the unpopular Compensation Act of 1816 . Nearly every other member of the delegation was defeated for reelection after the vote , but Desha 's opposition to the act helped him retain his seat . He did not seek reelection in 1818 , and made an unsuccessful run for governor in 1820 , losing to John Adair . By 1824 , the Panic of 1819 had ruined Kentucky 's economy , and Desha made a second campaign for the governorship almost exclusively on promises of relief for the state 's large debtor class . He was elected by a large majority , and debt relief partisans captured both houses of the General Assembly . After the Kentucky Court of Appeals overturned debt relief laws favored by Desha and the majority of the legislature , the legislators abolished the court and created a replacement court , to which Desha appointed several debt relief partisans . The existing court refused to acknowledge the legitimacy of the move , and during a period known as the Old Court – New Court controversy , two courts of last resort existed in the state .
Although popular when elected , Desha 's reputation was damaged by two controversies during his term . The first was his role in the ouster of Horace Holley as president of Transylvania University . While the religious conservatives on the university 's board opposed Holley because they considered him too liberal , Desha 's opposition was primarily based on Holley 's friendship with Henry Clay , one of Desha 's political enemies . After Desha bitterly denounced Holley in an address to the legislature in late 1825 , Holley resigned . Desha 's reputation took a further hit after his son , Isaac , was charged with murder . Partially because of Desha 's influence as governor , two guilty verdicts were overturned . After the younger Desha unsuccessfully attempted suicide while awaiting a third trial , Governor Desha issued a pardon for his son . These controversies , along with an improving economy , propelled Desha 's political foes to victory in the legislative elections of 1825 and 1826 . They abolished the so @-@ called " Desha court " over Desha 's veto , ending the court controversy . In a final act of defiance , Desha threatened to refuse to vacate the governor 's mansion , although he ultimately acquiesced without incident , ceding the governorship to his successor , National Republican Thomas Metcalfe . At the expiration of his term , he retired from public life and ultimately died at his son 's home in Georgetown , Kentucky , on October 11 , 1842 .
= = Early life and career = =
Joseph Desha was born to Robert and Eleanor ( Wheeler ) Desha in Monroe County , Pennsylvania , on December 9 , 1768 . He was of part French Huguenot ancestry , and his ancestors had fled from France to Pennsylvania after the revocation of the Edict of Nantes , which had largely protected the Huguenots from religious persecution . He obtained a limited education in the state 's rural schools . In July 1781 , Desha 's family relocated to Fayette County , Kentucky , and the following year , they settled in what was then known as Cumberland district near the present @-@ day city of Gallatin , Tennessee . Desha 's younger brother , Robert , would later represent Tennessee in the U.S. House of Representatives .
Like most frontier settlers , the Desha family frequently found themselves in conflict with American Indians after moving to Tennessee , and between the ages of 15 and 22 , Joseph Desha volunteered in several military campaigns against them . In one such campaign , two of his brothers were killed while fighting alongside him . Following the war , Desha lived with William Whitley in the town of Crab Orchard , Kentucky . He married Margaret " Peggy " Bledsoe in December 1789 . The couple had thirteen children over the course of their marriage . In 1792 , the family moved to Mason County , Kentucky , where Desha worked as a farmer . In 1794 , he served in the Northwest Indian War under Lieutenant William Henry Harrison . He participated in General " Mad " Anthony Wayne 's rout of the Indians at the August 20 Battle of Fallen Timbers .
Desha entered politics in 1797 , when he was elected as a Democratic @-@ Republican to the Kentucky House of Representatives . When the House debated the Kentucky Resolutions in 1798 , he chaired the Committee of the Whole . He again served in the House from 1799 to 1802 , and was elected to the Kentucky Senate from 1802 to 1807 . Concurrent with his legislative career , he continued to serve in the state militia . On January 23 , 1798 , he was appointed as a major in the 29th Regiment . He was promoted to colonel on March 23 , 1799 , and on September 5 , 1805 , he was promoted to brigadier general and given command of the 7th Brigade of the Kentucky Militia . On December 24 , 1806 , he was made a major general , remaining with the 7th Brigade .
= = Service in the House and the War of 1812 = =
Desha was elected without opposition to the first of six consecutive terms in the U.S. House of Representatives in 1807 . Though he was known as a capable orator , he did not speak often , claiming it was best " to think much and speak but little . " He opposed renewing the charter of the First Bank of the United States because most of the bank 's investors were foreigners . Specifically , he was concerned about the fact King George III of Great Britain was a major shareholder . ( It was thought by many that the British monarch was on the verge of madness at this time . ) The bank 's charter ultimately was not renewed in 1811 .
Early in his career , Desha advocated an adequate army to defend American territory from Great Britain and France . He supported President Thomas Jefferson 's Embargo Act of 1807 and related enforcement legislation . He was considered a war hawk , and House Speaker Henry Clay , a fellow Kentuckian and leader of the War Hawks in the House , selected him to serve on the House Foreign Relations Committee during the Twelfth Congress ( 1811 – 13 ) . Consistent with Clay 's expectations , Desha consistently supported the war measures brought before the House , including bills to arm merchant ships , increase the number of regular troops in U.S. Army , and authorize President James Madison to accept volunteer units for military service . Proclaiming his dissatisfaction with Macon 's Bill Number 1 , he maintained that all embargoes and sanctions would fail as long as " the British have a Canada or a Nova Scotia on the continent of America " , although he acknowledged the high cost in both money and lives that annexation of Canada would entail . On June 4 , 1812 , he voted in favor of a declaration of war on Great Britain , officially beginning the War of 1812 .
Desha returned to Kentucky after the congressional session . He responded to Governor Isaac Shelby 's call for volunteers to serve in William Henry Harrison 's campaign into Upper Canada . He was commissioned a major general and given command of the 2nd Division of Kentucky militia . The 3 @,@ 500 @-@ man division , composed of the 2nd and 5th Brigades and the 11th Regiment , assembled on the Ohio River at Newport , Kentucky . They joined Harrison in forcing the British retreat from Detroit and held the Indian allies of the British off his left flank during the American victory at the Battle of the Thames on October 5 , 1813 . According to historian Bennett H. Young , Desha 's old friend William Whitley had a premonition of his own death the night before the battle and gave his rifle and powderhorn to Desha , asking him to convey it to his widow , along with a message of his affection . Whitley was indeed killed in the fighting the following day .
Desha resumed his service in Congress at its next term . He was disappointed at the decision not to pursue the annexation of Upper Canada and to ignore British impressment of American mariners in favor of pursuing peace with the British . Ultimately , he was dissatisfied with the Treaty of Ghent that ended the war . When William Henry Harrison was being considered by Congress for the position of general @-@ in @-@ chief in late 1813 and early 1814 , Desha opposed giving him the title because he claimed that Harrison had determined not to pursue British General Henry Procter following the Battle of the Thames and had only done so after strenuous urging by Isaac Shelby . Desha 's charge was a contributing factor in Congress 's decision to remove Harrison 's name from a resolution of thanks for service in the Northwest Army and withhold from him a Congressional Gold Medal . Both Harrison and Shelby denied Desha 's account , and as the issue began to damage Desha 's reelection chances , he partially recanted his story . He claimed that he had only told some friends that Harrison was wary of pursuit during a council of war held at Sandwich , Ontario , after the battle , but that he had not personally witnessed a disagreement over the pursuit between Harrison and Shelby .
Desha gradually became more conservative after his return to the House , consistently resisting expansion of the U.S. Navy . He also opposed Secretary of War James Monroe 's request to maintain a standing peacetime army of 20 @,@ 000 men . Desha argued that a large standing army provided the advocates of a larger federal government with an excuse to increase taxes , and proposed that the standing army should consist of only 6 @,@ 000 men . A coalition of Federalists and conservative Democratic @-@ Republicans in the House united to adopt Desha 's suggestion by a vote of 75 – 65 . The version of the bill passed by the Senate , however , required a standing army of 15 @,@ 000 men . The legislation was referred to a conference committee , which ultimately adopted a compromise of 10 @,@ 000 men .
During the Fourteenth Congress ( 1815 – 17 ) , he was the only member of the twelve @-@ member Kentucky congressional delegation to oppose the Compensation Act of 1816 . The act , sponsored by fellow Kentuckian Richard Mentor Johnson , modified congressional compensation , paying each member a flat salary of $ 1 @,@ 500 a year instead of a $ 6 per diem while Congress was in session . The measure proved extremely unpopular with the electorate . Every member of the Kentucky delegation that voted for the bill – excepting Johnson and Henry Clay , who were both extremely popular – lost his congressional seat , either because he did not seek reelection or because he was defeated by another candidate .
Desha served as chairman of the Committee on Public Expenditures during the Fifteenth Congress ( 1817 – 19 ) . On March 14 , 1818 , he voted with the minority against a resolution introduced by South Carolina 's William Lowndes asserting Congress 's power to appropriate federal funds for the construction of internal improvements . He did not run for reelection in 1818 .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1820 = =
Desha was one of four candidates who sought the governorship of Kentucky in 1820 . In the aftermath of the Panic of 1819 – the first major financial crisis in United States history – the primary issue of the campaign was debt relief . Sitting governor Gabriel Slaughter had lobbied for some measures favored by the state 's large debtor class , particularly punitive taxes against the branches of the Second Bank of the United States in Louisville and Lexington . The Second Party System had not yet developed , but there were nonetheless two opposing factions that arose around the debt relief issue . The first – primarily composed of land speculators who had bought large land parcels on credit and were unable to repay their debts due to the financial crisis – was dubbed the Relief Party or faction and favored more legislation favorable to debtors . Opposed to them was the Anti @-@ Relief Party or faction ; it was composed primarily of the state 's aristocracy , many of whom were creditors to the land speculators and demanded that their contracts be adhered to without interference from the government . They claimed that no government intervention could effectively aid the debtors and that attempts to do so would only prolong the economic depression .
Although Desha was clearly aligned with the Relief faction , the faction 's leader was John Adair , a veteran of the War of 1812 whose popularity was augmented because of his very public defense of the Kentuckians who served under him at the Battle of New Orleans against charges of cowardice by Andrew Jackson . Adair won a close election with 20 @,@ 493 votes , besting William Logan 's 19 @,@ 947 votes , Desha 's 12 @,@ 418 votes , and Anthony Butler 's 9 @,@ 567 votes . Relief partisans also secured control of both houses of the Kentucky General Assembly . Much debt relief legislation was passed during Adair 's term , but as his term neared expiration , the Kentucky Court of Appeals struck down one popular and expansive debt relief law as unconstitutional , ensuring that debt relief would again be the central issue in the upcoming gubernatorial election .
= = Gubernatorial election of 1824 = =
With Adair constitutionally ineligible to seek a second consecutive term , Desha was the first candidate to publicly declare his intention to seek the governorship in 1824 . He began his campaign in late 1823 and faced little opposition until Christopher Tompkins declared his candidacy in May 1824 . Tompkins was a little @-@ known judge from Bourbon County who vehemently held to the principles of the Anti @-@ Relief faction . Colonel William Russell , a military veteran of 50 years , also sought to carry the mantle of the Anti @-@ Relief faction . While not as eloquent or well @-@ versed in the faction 's rhetoric , he had few political enemies and his military career brought him great respect among the electorate .
While Tompkins and his supporters primarily campaigned through the state 's newspapers , most of which supported the Anti @-@ Relief faction , Desha traveled the state making stump speeches . Offering no specific platform , he focused exclusively on the idea that he opposed " judicial usurpation " and believed " all power belonged to the people " . He was generally acknowledged as the candidate of the Relief Party , but historian Arndt M. Stickles has noted that he used Anti @-@ Relief rhetoric in some counties . Desha attacked Tompkins ' record as a judge , claiming that he had consistently supported the Second Bank of the United States and the current Court of Appeals . This , Desha said , put him in direct and open opposition to the state 's farmers and ensured that , if he were elected , the state would be governed by the judicial branch , not the governor . Desha claimed the state 's newspapers persecuted him the same way the Anti @-@ Relief party persecuted debtors . He also charged that Tompkins was not the true choice of the Anti @-@ Relief party , but only gained its support by being the first candidate with that position to announce his candidacy . Backers of Russell , who consistently ran a distant third in voter support , agreed with this claim , saying Tompkins had joined the race before a date that had been previously agreed on among Anti @-@ Relief candidates , giving him an unfair advantage over Russell .
Anti @-@ Relief partisans opened many lines of attack against Desha . They said his refusal to articulate a specific campaign platform showed that he was trying to be all things to all people . They assailed his military record , claiming he had only volunteered for service in the War of 1812 after being promised command of a division , that he balked at fighting and discouraged General Harrison 's pursuit of the British and Indians , and that he billed excessive expenses to the government after his service . Desha 's legislative career was also subject to scrutiny and attack . Anti @-@ Relief partisans claimed that he had espoused certain positions for the sole purpose of pitting the state 's agrarian interests against its aristocracy . They charged that he had secretly favored the Compensation Act of 1816 and had worked to pass it , despite his vote against it . In contrast to his rhetoric in favor of a strong , well @-@ equipped army and navy , opponents claimed he had actually voted against increasing the military 's budget . As further evidence of his lack of trustworthiness , they pointed to his vote for William H. Crawford while serving as a presidential elector in 1816 , even though Kentuckians were nearly unanimous in their support of James Monroe .
Although Desha was universally acknowledged as the leading candidate during the early months of the campaign , as election day approached , some began to doubt whether he could withstand the withering attacks of the Anti @-@ Relief Party . The Frankfort Argus , a pro @-@ Desha newspaper , remained confident , however , predicting that the Relief candidate would win by a margin of 4 @-@ to @-@ 1 . On election day , Desha secured a comfortable victory , receiving 38 @,@ 378 votes , nearly 60 % of the votes cast , and carrying large majorities even in some strongly Anti @-@ Relief counties . Tompkins garnered 22 @,@ 499 votes , with his support concentrated mostly in Central Kentucky . Russell finished third with 3 @,@ 900 votes . Desha and his allies in the General Assembly interpreted the victory as a mandate from the voters to aggressively pursue their debt relief agenda .
= = Governor of Kentucky = =
On November 4 , 1824 , just months after the election , the state capitol building was destroyed by a fire . Some furnishings and records were saved , but the four @-@ year @-@ old building was a total loss . When Gilbert du Motier , Marquis de Lafayette toured the United States in 1825 , a new capitol had not yet been constructed and the governor 's mansion was too small to host a proper reception , so the governor had to entertain the dignitary at Weisiger 's Tavern .
Desha 's major accomplishment as governor was in the area of internal improvements . In 1825 , he convinced the legislature to fund the creation of the Louisville and Portland Canal on the Falls of the Ohio . The canal opened in 1830 , and proved very profitable , so much so that Desha lamented the fact that the state had split the cost of the project – and consequently , its profits – with the federal government and private investors . He also urged state investment in a turnpike joining Maysville to Louisville via Lexington . He advocated using excess money earmarked for education to construct hard @-@ surfaced roads in the state , but the General Assembly was less responsive to this suggestion .
= = = Old Court – New Court controversy = = =
Kentucky historian Thomas D. Clark wrote that Desha " made rash promises to relieve the horde of bankrupt voters ... promises on which he had to deliver . " His first address to the legislature was critical of the judiciary in general , especially the Supreme Court 's recent decision in the case of Green v. Biddle which held that land claims granted by Virginia in the District of Kentucky prior to Kentucky becoming a separate state took precedence over those later granted by the state of Kentucky if the two were in conflict . Encouraged by Desha 's strong stance against the judiciary , Relief partisans set about removing the judges on the Court of Appeals who had earlier struck down their debt relief legislation . The first punitive measure proposed against the offending judges was to reduce their salaries to 25 cents per year , but this course was quickly abandoned . Next , legislators attempted to remove the judges by address , but they found they lacked the necessary two @-@ thirds majority in both houses to effect this removal .
Finally , on December 9 , 1824 , the Kentucky Senate passed a measure repealing the legislation that created the Kentucky Court of Appeals and establishing a new court of last resort in the state . The bill was sent to the House , and a vigorous debate ensued on December 23 . During the debate , which continued past midnight , Desha appeared on the floor of the chamber to lobby legislators to support the bill and actually moved the previous question to end debate , which was , in the words of Kentucky historian Lowell H. Harrison , a " flagrant violation of House rules " . The House passed the bill by a vote of 54 – 43 , and Desha signed it immediately .
On January 10 , 1825 , Desha appointed four justices to the new court . He chose his Secretary of State , former U.S. Senator William T. Barry , as chief justice . The other three members were Lexington lawyer James Haggin , Circuit Judge John Trimble ( brother of Supreme Court Justice Robert Trimble ) , and Benjamin Patton . Of the new court – called by detractors the " Desha court " – Barry " seems to have been the only one who had in a measure an even show in experience , prestige , and ability to rank as a jurist with the old @-@ court justices " , according to Stickles . Achilles Sneed , clerk of the Old Court , refused to surrender the court 's records to Francis P. Blair , clerk of the New Court , so Blair took the records from Sneed 's office by force , and Sneed was fined 10 pounds for contempt of court because of his refusal to cooperate . The Old Court continued to hear cases in a Frankfort church , while the New Court occupied the official court chambers . Neither recognized the other , and both claimed to be the legitimate court of last resort in the state . Most of the state 's lawyers and judges were supporters of the Old Court and continued to practice before them and abide by their mandates , but others chose to acknowledge the New Court as legitimate .
Although Desha and his entire administration campaigned on behalf of New Court candidates during the legislative elections of 1825 , Old Court supporters regained the state House and evenly split the Senate between Old and New Court supporters . Desha 's message to the newly reconstituted General Assembly remained critical of banks and the judiciary , but urged legislators to seek a compromise to resolve the court question . Stickles records that Desha was sincere in his desire for a compromise , albeit one that would save face for the New Court Party . He promised that , if the legislature would again authorize appointment of a new set of judges , he would appoint them equally from both parties . Another plan would have expanded the court to six judges , with three appointed from each party . One legislator proposed that all members of both courts resign , along with Desha , lieutenant governor Robert B. McAfee , and all the legislators in the General Assembly , essentially allowing the state government to reset itself . This bill passed the House but was killed in the Senate . The House passed a measure to restore the Old Court , but the Senate deadlocked on the measure and McAfee , the presiding officer in the Senate , cast the tie @-@ breaking vote to defeat it .
By 1826 , the economic climate in the state had improved significantly . Seeing the resultant upsurge in Old Court support , two of the four New Court justices resigned . Desha offered the appointments to three different individuals , all of whom ignored or rejected them . John Telemachus Johnson finally accepted the appointment in April 1826 , and the New Court met with only three justices during its 1826 term . In the August 1826 elections , the Old Court Party won majorities of 56 – 44 in the House and 22 – 16 in the Senate . Desha again encouraged the legislators to compromise to resolve the court impasse . The Old Court majorities in both houses , however , completely repudiated the New Court , passing a bill to restore the Old Court and overturn all legislation related to the New Court . Desha vetoed the bill , and scolded the legislators for passing a blatantly partisan bill as opposed to a compromise measure . The General Assembly overrode Desha 's veto on January 1 , 1827 . In a conciliatory move , the Senate confirmed Desha 's appointment of George M. Bibb , a New Court partisan , to a position on the re @-@ empowered Old Court after John Boyle resigned to accept a federal judgeship in November 1826 .
= = = Pardon of Isaac Desha = = =
Governor Desha 's reputation was further tarnished because of a pardon issued to his son . On November 2 , 1824 , Isaac B. Desha had brutally murdered Francis Baker , a Mississippian who was visiting Kentucky . On November 24 , 1824 , John Rowan , one of the governor 's allies in the General Assembly , introduced legislation ordering the Fleming County Circuit Court to convene a special session on January 17 , 1825 , for Isaac Desha 's trial and providing that the accused should have the option to request a change of venue to Harrison County at that time . Miles from the scene of the murder , Harrison County was the governor 's home county , and he possessed a great deal of influence with officials there . Governor Desha appeared before the legislative committee considering the bill on November 26 and asked that they report it favorably to the full legislature . This was done , and the bill was approved on December 4 , 1824 .
At his trial in December , Isaac Desha requested the change of venue ; the case was transferred to Harrison County and scheduled for early January . John Trimble was scheduled to hear the case , but Governor Desha appointed him to the New Court of Appeals following the " abolishment " of the Old Court in late 1824 . Trimble personally appealed to Judge George Shannon of Lexington to hear the case . Governor Desha assembled a formidable defense team for his son , including his newly appointed Secretary of State , William T. Barry ; John Rowan , who had just been elected to the U.S. Senate ; and former congressmen William Brown and T. P. Taul . William K. Wall and future Congressman John Chambers – the Commonwealth 's Attorneys for Harrison and Fleming counties , respectively – collaborated with attorney Martin P. Marshall to prosecute the case . Governor Desha attended each day of the proceedings , seated with the defense counsel .
Despite the best efforts of his father to secure a favorable venue , judge , and defense team , on January 31 , 1825 , the jury convicted Isaac Desha of murder and sentenced him to hang . Rowan immediately requested a new trial upon grounds of jury interference , and Shannon granted the request on February 10 . Jury selection proved problematic , occupying at least parts of four terms of the Harrison County Circuit Court . In September 1825 , a jury was finally empaneled . The judge , Harry O. Brown , had been temporarily appointed to his position by Governor Desha to fill a vacancy . Desha was again found guilty , and sentenced to hang on July 14 , 1826 . Judge Brown overturned the verdict because the prosecution had not proven that the murder took place in Fleming County , as alleged in the indictment against Desha . The state argued that this was of no consequence , since a change of venue had already been granted , but the judge 's ruling stood , and Governor Desha 's reputation took a further hit .
In July 1826 , Isaac Desha , free on bail while awaiting a third trial and apparently in a highly intoxicated state , attempted suicide by cutting his own throat . Physicians saved his life by reconnecting his severed windpipe with a silver tube . He recovered , and in June 1827 , faced a third trial . During the June term of the court , Desha 's lawyers used a number of peremptory challenges to again prevent the court from empaneling a jury . The judge ordered him held without bail until the next session of the court , but Governor Desha , who was present at the proceedings , stood and issued a pardon for his son , as well as lambasting the judge in a lengthy impromptu speech . Some accounts hold that the governor immediately resigned upon granting the pardon , but the official records reflect no such action .
Following his release , Isaac Desha traveled to Texas under an alias , where he robbed and killed another man . He was identified based on family resemblance and the silver pipe that had earlier saved his life . After being arrested , he confessed to both murders . He died of a fever the day before his trial in August 1828 .
= = = Conflict with Horace Holley = = =
Another controversial issue during Desha 's tenure was his disdain for Horace Holley , president of Transylvania University . From the time Holley assumed the post of president in 1818 , the university had risen to national prominence and attracted well @-@ qualified and well @-@ respected faculty members such as Constantine Samuel Rafinesque , Daniel Drake , Charles Caldwell , William T. Barry , and Jesse Bledsoe . However , Holley 's New England Unitarian beliefs were too liberal for the tastes of many in Kentucky . Many called Holley an infidel and charged that he was a drinker and a gambler . He was criticized for spending time at the horse races and for furnishing his home with nude classical statues .
Desha was drawn into the Holley controversy during the 1824 presidential election . When no candidate achieved a majority of the electoral votes cast , the contest was resolved by the U.S. House of Representatives . Desha and the New Court partisans in the General Assembly instructed the state 's congressional delegation to cast their votes for Andrew Jackson , but the delegation , led by House Speaker Henry Clay , defied these instructions and voted instead for John Quincy Adams . Because of this vote , Clay , a trustee for Transylvania and supporter of Holley , became Desha 's political enemy . Desha 's hostility for Transylvania and Holley worsened when , in the aftermath of the Isaac Desha trial , a student at Transylvania delivered a speech critical of the governor in the university 's chapel . Although Holley was present for the speech , Transylvania historian John D. Wright , Jr. wrote that he did not know the student 's topic beforehand and after hearing the speech , made no effort to condone its content . It was Holley 's practice , however , to allow students to speak openly about current political matters , regardless of which position they took . Desha maintained that , because Holley had not silenced the student , he was at fault for tacitly condoning disrespectful criticism of the state 's chief executive .
Desha vehemently attacked Transylvania and Holley in his annual message to the General Assembly in November 1825 . He claimed that the university had not made wise use of the public funding allocated to it by previous Assemblies , noting in particular that Holley 's salary as president exceeded his own . Finally , Desha claimed that under Holley , Transylvania had become too elitist and could not be otherwise , given the high cost of attendance . Holley , who had traveled to Frankfort to speak with Desha and the legislature , was present for Desha 's speech . Afterward , he decided instead to return to Lexington and tender his resignation . Sympathetic members of the university 's board of trustees convinced Holley to remain for another year . Kentucky historian James C. Klotter opined that , with Holley 's departure , " perhaps the state 's best chance for a world @-@ class university had passed . "
= = = Gubernatorial legacy and transition = = =
The numerous controversies of Desha 's term severely damaged his reputation . Harrison recorded that a visitor to Kentucky remarked in 1825 , " [ Desha ] is said by some to possess talents ; I have never been furnished with evidence . " Harrison further noted that " [ b ] y 1828 , many Kentuckians would have agreed with that assessment . "
Desha supported William T. Barry , the Democratic @-@ Republican gubernatorial nominee , to succeed him . Early reports showed Barry leading his opponent , National Republican Thomas Metcalfe , but the final margin favored Metcalfe . Not only did Desha not agree with Metcalfe politically , he believed that the governorship should go to a high @-@ born aristocrat . Although Metcalfe was the son of a Revolutionary War soldier , his nickname of " Old Stone Hammer " indicated his pride in his trade of masonry , which was considered a common profession .
Due to a constitutional quirk , Metcalfe 's term was scheduled to begin eight days before the expiration of Desha 's . Desha charged that Metcalfe was not allowing him to finish out his term and threatened not to vacate the governor 's mansion until his term officially ended . Clark records as legend that , after drinking heavily at a local tavern , Metcalfe and some of his supporters formed a mob and went to the governor 's mansion to evict him by force . Accounts in the local newspapers of the time instead record that the Deshas left the mansion peacefully without intervention by Metcalfe .
= = Later life and death = =
At the expiration of his term as governor , Desha retired from public life to his farm in Harrison County . During the final years of his life , Desha and his wife Margaret moved to Georgetown , Kentucky , where one of his sons , a physician , lived . Desha died at his home in Georgetown , Kentucky , on October 11 , 1842 , and was buried on the grounds . The state erected a monument over his grave . In 1880 , both Desha 's body and the monument were moved to Georgetown Cemetery .
= Geoffrey A. Landis =
Geoffrey Alan Landis ( born May 28 , 1955 ) is an American scientist , working for the National Aeronautics and Space Administration ( NASA ) on planetary exploration , interstellar propulsion , solar power and photovoltaics . He holds nine patents , primarily in the field of improvements to solar cells and photovoltaic devices and has given presentations and commentary on the possibilities for interstellar travel and construction of bases on the Moon , Mars , and Venus .
Supported by his scientific background Landis also writes hard science fiction . For these writings he has won a Nebula Award , two Hugo Awards , and a Locus Award , as well as two Rhysling Awards for his poetry . He contributes science articles to various academic publications .
= = Biography = =
Landis was born in Detroit , Michigan and lived in Virginia , Maryland , Philadelphia , and Illinois during his childhood . His senior education was at New Trier High School , Winnetka , Illinois . He holds undergraduate degrees in physics and electrical engineering from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology ( MIT ) and a PhD in solid @-@ state physics from Brown University . He is married to science fiction writer Mary A. Turzillo and lives in Berea , Ohio .
= = Career = =
After receiving his doctorate at Brown University , Landis worked at the NASA Lewis Research Center ( now NASA Glenn ) and the Ohio Aerospace Institute before accepting a permanent position at the NASA John Glenn Research Center , where he does research on Mars missions , solar energy , and technology development for future space missions . He holds nine patents , and has authored or co @-@ authored more than 300 published scientific papers in the fields of astronautics and photovoltaics .
Landis has commented on the practicalities of generating oxygen and creating building materials for a future Moon base in New Scientist , and on the possibilities of using readily available metallic iron to manufacture steel on Mars .
He is the recipient of numerous professional honors , including the American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics Aerospace Power Systems Award , the NASA Space Flight Awareness award and the Rotary National Award for Space Achievement Stellar Award in 2016 .
= = = Photovoltaic Power Systems = = =
Much of Landis ' technical work has been in the field of developing solar cells and arrays , both for terrestrial use and for spacecraft .
= = = Mars = = =
Landis has worked on a number of projects related to developing technology of human and robotic exploration of Mars and scientific analysis of the Martian surface , including studies of the performance of photovoltaic cells in the Mars environment , the effect of Martian dust on performance , and technologies for dust removal from the arrays . He was a member of the Rover team on the Mars Pathfinder mission , and named the Mars rock , " Yogi " . He is a member of the science team on the 2003 Mars Exploration Rovers mission , where his work includes observations of Martian dust devils , atmospheric science measurements , and observation of frost on the equator of Mars . He was also a member of the Mars ISPP Propellant Precursor experiment team for the Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander mission , an experiment package to demonstrate manufacture of oxygen from the Martian atmosphere . ( which was cancelled after the failure of the Mars Polar Lander ) .
He has also done work on analyzing concepts for future robotic and human mission to Mars . These include the Mars Geyser Hopper spacecraft , a Discovery @-@ class mission concept that would investigate the springtime carbon dioxide Martian geysers found in regions around the south pole of Mars , the Human Exploration using Real @-@ time Robotic Operations ( " HERRO " ) concept for telerobotic Mars exploration , and concepts for use of In @-@ situ resource utilization for a Mars Sample Return mission . In a 1993 paper , he suggested the use of a phased program of Mars exploration , with a series of incremental achievements leading up to human landings on Mars .
= = = NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts = = =
Landis was a fellow of the NASA Institute for Advanced Concepts ( " NIAC " ) , where he worked on a project investigating the use of laser- and particle @-@ beam pushed sails for propulsion for interstellar flight . In 2002 Landis addressed the annual convention of the American Association for the Advancement of Science on the possibilities and challenges of interstellar travel in what was described as the " first serious discussion of how mankind will one day set sail to the nearest star " . Dr. Landis said , " This is the first meeting to really consider interstellar travel by humans . It is historic . We 're going to the stars . There really isn 't a choice in the long term . " He went on to describe a star ship with a diamond sail , a few nanometres thick , powered by solar energy , which could achieve " 10 per cent of the speed of light " .
He was selected again as a NASA Innovative Advanced Concepts fellow in 2012 , with an investigation of a Landsailing rover for Venus exploration , and in 2015 was the science lead on a NIAC study to design a mission to Neptune 's moon Triton .
= = = Academic positions = = =
In 2005 – 2006 , he was named the Ronald E. McNair Visiting Professor of Astronautics at MIT , and won the AIAA Abe M. Zarem Educator Award in 2007 . Landis has also been a faculty member of the International Space University ; in 1998 he was on the faculty of the Department of Mining , Manufacturing , and Robotics in the Space Studies Program , and in 1999 he was on the faculty of the 12th Space Studies Program at the Suranaree University of Technology in Nakhon Ratchasima , Thailand. and co @-@ chair of the student project " Out of the Cradle . " He was also a guest lecturer at the ISU 13th Space Studies Program in Valparaíso , Chile , and the 2015 Space Studies Program in Athens , Ohio .
As a writer , he was an instructor at the Clarion Writers Workshop at Michigan State University in 2001 . He was a guest instructor at the Launch Pad workshop for 2012 .
= = Writing = =
= = = Science fiction = = =
= = = = History = = = =
Landis first science fiction story , Elemental , appeared in Analog in December 1984 , and received a nomination for a Hugo award as well as earning him a nomination for the John W. Campbell award for Best New Writer . In the field of science fiction , Landis has published over 70 works of short fiction , and two books . He won the 1989 Nebula Award for best short story for " Ripples in the Dirac Sea " ( Asimov 's Science Fiction , October 1988 ) , the 1992 Hugo Award for " A Walk in the Sun " ( Asimov 's Science Fiction , October 1991 ) , and the 2003 Hugo for his short story " Falling Onto Mars " ( Analog Science Fiction and Fact , July / Aug 2002 ) .
His first novel , Mars Crossing , was published by Tor Books in 2000 , winning a Locus Award . A short story collection , Impact Parameter ( and Other Quantum Realities ) , was published by Golden Gryphon Press in 2001 and named as noteworthy by trade magazine Publishers Weekly . He has also won the Analog Analytical Laboratory Award for the novelette The Man in the Mirror ( 2009 ) . His 2010 novella The Sultan of the Clouds won the Sturgeon award for best short science fiction story , and was nominated for both the Nebula and Hugo awards .
He attended the Clarion Workshop in 1985 , with other emerging SF writers such as Kristine Kathryn Rusch , Martha Soukup , William Shunn , Resa Nelson , Mary Turzillo and Robert J. Howe .
= = = = Novels = = = =
Mars Crossing ( 2000 )
= = = = Collections = = = =
Impact Parameter ( and Other Quantum Realities ) ( 16 shorts )
A Walk in the Sun
Impact Parameter
Elemental
Ecopoiesis
Across the Darkness
Ouroboros
Into the Blue Abyss
Snow
Rorvik 's War
Approaching Perimelasma
What We Do Here at NASA
Dark Lady
Outsider 's Chance
Beneath the Stars of Winter
The Singular Habits of Wasps
Winter Fire
A Walk in the Sun ( Great Science Fiction Stories ) 2004
= = = = Short Stories = = = =
Ripples in the Dirac Sea
A Walk in the Sun
Falling Onto Mars
The Man in the Mirror 2009
The Sultan of the Clouds 2010
A Hotel in Antarctica 2014
= = = Poetry = = =
Landis has also published a number of poems , much of it involving science fiction or science themes . He won the Rhysling Award twice , for his poems " Christmas , after we all get time machines " in 2000 ( which also won the 2000 Asimov 's Reader 's Award for best poem ) , and for " Search " in 2009 , and the Dwarf Stars Award in 2010 , for the poem " Fireflies " . He has won the Asimov 's Reader 's award for best poem three times , most recently in 2014 , for his poem " Rivers " . In 2009 , he won 2nd place in the Hessler Street Fair poetry contest for his poem " Five Pounds of Sunlight , " and 1st place in 2010 for " Human Potential . "
His poetry collection Iron Angels was published in 2009 .
= = = Major awards = = =
1989 Nebula Award for best short story for " Ripples in the Dirac Sea "
1992 Hugo Award for best short story " A Walk in the Sun "
2001 Locus Award for best first novel for Mars Crossing
2003 Hugo Award for best short story " Falling Onto Mars "
2011 Theodore Sturgeon Award for best short science fiction for " The Sultan of the Clouds "
2014 Robert A. Heinlein Award " bestowed for outstanding published works in science fiction and technical writings that inspire the human exploration of space . "
= = = Other writing = = =
Landis has also written non @-@ fiction and popular science articles , encyclopedia articles and columns for a large range of publications , including Analog Science Fiction and Fact , Space Sciences , Asimov 's Science Fiction , Spaceflight , and Science Fiction Age . His article " The Demon Under Hawaii " won the Analog Analytical Laboratory Award for best science article in 1993 .
= = Works = =
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( 1991 ) . Myths , legends , and true history . Author 's Choice Monthly 26 . Eugene , OR : Pulphouse Publications . OCLC 25242854 .
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( November 2001 ) . Mars Crossing . Tor Books . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8125 @-@ 7648 @-@ 1 .
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( December 2001 ) . Impact Parameter ( and Other Quantum Realities ) . Urbana , IL : Golden Gryphon Press . ISBN 1 @-@ 930846 @-@ 06 @-@ 1 .
Landis , Geoffrey A. ( 2009 ) . Iron Angels . Van Zeno Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 9789244 @-@ 7 @-@ 8 .
Geoffrey A. Landis . Laser @-@ powered Interstellar Probe on the Geoffrey A. Landis : Science. papers available on the web
= Sitti Nurbaya =
Sitti Nurbaya : Kasih Tak Sampai ( Sitti Nurbaya : Unrealized Love , often abbreviated Sitti Nurbaya or Siti Nurbaya ; original spelling Sitti Noerbaja ) is an Indonesian novel by Marah Rusli . It was published by Balai Pustaka , the state @-@ owned publisher and literary bureau of the Dutch East Indies , in 1922 . The author was influenced by the cultures of the west Sumatran Minangkabau and the Dutch colonials , who had controlled Indonesia in various forms since the 17th century . Another influence may have been a negative experience within the author 's family ; after he had chosen a Sundanese woman to be his wife , Rusli 's family brought him back to Padang and forced him to marry a Minangkabau woman chosen for him .
Sitti Nurbaya tells the story of two teenage lovers , Samsulbahri and Sitti Nurbaya , who wish to be together but are separated after Samsulbahri is forced to go to Batavia . Not long afterwards , Nurbaya unhappily offers herself to marry the abusive and rich Datuk Meringgih as a way for her father to escape debt ; she is later killed by Meringgih . It ends with Samsulbahri , then a member of the Dutch colonial army , killing Datuk Meringgih during an uprising and then dying from his wounds .
Written in formal Malay and including traditional Minangkabau storytelling techniques such as pantuns , Sitti Nurbaya touches on the themes of colonialism , forced marriage , and modernity . Well @-@ received upon publication , Sitti Nurbaya continues to be taught in Indonesian high schools . It has been compared to Romeo and Juliet and the Butterfly Lovers .
= = Writing = =
Sitti Nurbaya was written by Marah Rusli , a Dutch @-@ educated Minangkabau from a noble background with a degree in veterinary science . His Dutch education led him to become Europeanized . He abandoned some Minangkabau traditions , but not his view of the subordinate role of women in society . According to Bakri Siregar , an Indonesian socialist literary critic , Rusli 's Europeanisation affected how he described Dutch culture in Sitti Nurbaya , as well a scene where the two protagonists kiss . A. Teeuw , a Dutch critic of Indonesian literature and lecturer at the University of Indonesia , notes that the use of pantuns ( a Malay poetic form ) shows that Rusli was heavily influenced by Minangkabau oral literary tradition , while the extended dialogues show influence from the tradition of musyawarah ( in @-@ depth discussions by a community to reach an agreement ) .
Indonesian critic Zuber Usman credits another , more personal , experience as influencing Rusli in writing Sitti Nurbaya and his positive view of European culture and modernity . After expressing interest in choosing a Sundanese woman to become his wife , which " caused an uproar among his family " , Rusli was told by his parents to return to his hometown and marry a Minangkabau woman chosen by them ; this caused conflict between Rusli and his family .
= = Plot = =
In Padang in the early 20th century Dutch East Indies , Samsulbahri and Sitti Nurbaya – children of rich noblemen Sutan Mahmud Syah and Baginda Sulaiman – are teenage neighbours , classmates , and childhood friends . They begin to fall in love , but they are only able to admit it after Samsu tells Nurbaya that he will be going to Batavia ( Jakarta ) to study . After spending the afternoon at a nearby hillside , Samsu and Nurbaya kiss on her front porch . When they are caught by Nurbaya 's father and the neighbours , Samsu is chased out of Padang and goes to Batavia .
Meanwhile , Datuk Meringgih , jealous of Sulaiman 's wealth and worried about the business competition , plans to bankrupt him . Meringgih 's men destroy Sulaiman 's holdings , driving him to bankruptcy and forcing him to borrow money from Meringgih . When Meringgih tries to collect , Nurbaya offers to become his wife if he will forgive her father 's debt ; Datuk Meringgih accepts .
Writing to Samsu , Nurbaya tells him that they can never be together . However , after surviving Meringgih 's increasingly violent outbursts , she runs away to Batavia to be with Samsu . They fall in love again . Upon receiving a letter regarding her father 's death , Nurbaya hurries back to Padang , where she dies after unwittingly eating a cake poisoned by Meringgih 's men on his orders . Receiving news of her death by letter , Samsu seemingly commits suicide .
Ten years later , Meringgih leads an uprising against the Dutch colonial government to protest a recent tax increase . During the uprising , Samsu ( now a soldier for the Dutch ) meets Meringgih and kills him , but is mortally wounded himself . After meeting with his father and asking for forgiveness , he dies and is buried next to Nurbaya .
= = Characters = =
Sitti Nurbaya
Sitti Nurbaya ( sometimes spelled Siti Nurbaya ; abbreviated Nurbaya ) is the title character and one of the main protagonists . Indonesian short @-@ story writer and literary critic Muhammad Balfas describes her as a character who is capable of making her own decisions , indicated by her decision to marry Datuk Meringgih when he threatens her father , willingness to take control with Samsulbahri , and dismissal of Datuk Meringgih after the death of her father . She is also independent enough to move to Batavia to look for Samsulbahri on her own . Her actions are seen as being heavily against adat — the strong Indonesian cultural norms — and this eventually leads to her being poisoned . Her beauty , to the point that she is called " the flower of Padang " , is seen as a physical manifestation of her moral and kind nature .
Samsulbahri
Samsulbahri ( sometimes spelled Sjamsulbahri ; abbreviated Samsu ) is the primary male protagonist . He is described as having skin the colour of langsat , with eyes as black as ink ; however , from afar he can be confused with a Dutchman . These physical attributes have been described by Keith Foulcher , a lecturer of Indonesian language and literature at the University of Sydney , as indicating Samsu 's mimicry and collaborationist nature . His good looks are also seen as a physical manifestation of his moral and kind nature .
Datuk Meringgih
Datuk Meringgih is the primary antagonist of the story . He is a trader who originated from a poor family , and became rich as a result of shady business dealings . Indonesian writer and literary critic M. Balfas described Meringgih 's main motivations as greed and jealousy , being unable to " tolerate that there should be anyone wealthier than he " . Balfas writes that Datuk Meringgih is a character that is " drawn in black and white , but strong enough to create serious conflicts around him . " He later becomes the " champion of anti @-@ colonist resistance " , fuelled only by his own greed ; Foulcher argues that it is unlikely that Datuk Meringgih 's actions were an attempt by Rusli to insert anti @-@ Dutch commentary .
= = Style = =
According to Bakri Siregar , the diction in Sitti Nurbaya does not reflect Marah Rusli 's personal style , but a " Balai Pustaka style " of formal Malay , as required by the state @-@ owned publisher . As a result , Rusli 's orally @-@ influenced story telling technique , often wandering from the plot to describe something " at the whim of the author " , comes across as " lacking " .
Sitti Nurbaya includes pantuns ( Malay poetic forms ) and " clichéd descriptions " , although not as many as contemporary Minangkabau works . The pantuns are used by Nurbaya and Samsul in expressing their feelings for each other , such as the pantun
Its main messages are presented through debates between characters with a moral dichotomy , to show alternatives to the author 's position and " thereby present a reasoned case for [ its ] validation " . However , the " correct " ( author 's ) point of view is indicated by the social and moral standing of the character presenting the argument .
= = Themes = =
Sitti Nurbaya is generally seen as having an anti @-@ forced marriage theme or illustrating the conflict between Eastern and Western values . It has also been described as " a monument to the struggle of forward @-@ thinking youth " against Minangkabau adat .
However , Balfas writes that it is unjust to consider Sitti Nurbaya as only another forced marriage story , as the marriage of Nurbaya and Samsu would have been accepted by society . He instead writes that Sitti Nurbaya contrasts Western and traditional views of marriage , criticising the traditionally accepted dowry and polygamy .
= = Reception = =
Rusli 's family was not pleased with the novel ; his father condemned him in a letter , as a result of which Rusli never returned to Padang . His later novel , Anak dan Kemenakan ( 1958 ) was even more critical of older generation 's inflexibility .
Until at least 1930 , Sitti Nurbaya was one of Balai Pustaka 's most popular works , often being borrowed from lending libraries . After Indonesia 's independence , Sitti Nurbaya was taught as a classic of Indonesian literature ; this has led to it being " read more often in brief synopsis than as an original text by generation after generation of Indonesian high school students " . As of 2008 , it has seen 44 printings .
Sitti Nurbaya is generally considered one of the most important works of Indonesian literature , with its love story being compared to William Shakespeare 's Romeo and Juliet and the Chinese legend of the Butterfly Lovers . Some Western critics , including Dutch critic A. Teeuw and writer A. H. Johns , consider it to be the first true Indonesian novel , as opposed to Azab dan Sengsara , which was less developed in its theme of forced marriage and the negative aspects of adat .
Teeuw wrote that the moral messages and sentimentality in Sitti Nurbaya are overdone , similar to Azab dan Sengsara . However , he considers the plot of Sitti Nurbaya more interesting for a reader from a Western background than the older novel .
Siregar wrote that Rusli " in many things acts as a dalang " , or puppet master , occasionally removing the characters in order to speak directly to the reader , making the message too one @-@ sided . He considered the plot to be forced in places , as if the author were preventing the story from flowing naturally . He considered Rusli a mouthpiece of the Dutch colonial government , who had controlled Indonesia since the early 17th century , for making Samsul , " the most sympathetic character " , a member of the Dutch forces and Datuk Meringgih , " the most antipathetic character " , the leader of Indonesian revolutionary forces , as well as for Rusli 's antipathy to Islam in the novel .
Sitti Nurbaya inspired numerous authors , including Nur Sutan Iskandar , who stated that he wrote Apa Dayaku Karena Aku Perempuan ( What Am I to Do Because I Am a Girl , 1924 ) as a direct result of reading it ; Iskandar later wrote Cinta yang Membawa Maut ( Love that Brings Death , 1926 ) , which deals with the same themes . The Sitti Nurbaya storyline has often been reused , to the point that Balfas has referred to similar plots as following " the ' Sitti Nurbaya ' formula " .
= = Adaptations = =
Sitti Nurbaya has been translated into numerous languages , including Malaysian in 1963 . It has been adapted into a sinetron ( soap opera ) twice . The first , in 1991 , was directed by Dedi Setiadi , and starred Novia Kolopaking in the leading role , Gusti Randa as Samsulbahri , and HIM Damsyik as Datuk Meringgih . The second , starting in December 2004 , was produced by MD Entertainment and broadcast on Trans TV . Directed by Encep Masduki and starring Nia Ramadhani as the title character , Ser Yozha Reza as Samsulbahri , and Anwar Fuady as Datuk Meringgih , the series introduced a new character as a competitor for Samsul 's affections .
In 2009 , Sitti Nurbaya was one of eight classics of Indonesian literature chosen by Taufik Ismail to be reprinted in a special Indonesian Cultural Heritage Series edition ; Sitti Nurbaya featured a West Sumatran @-@ style woven cloth cover . Actress Happy Salma was chosen as its celebrity icon .
= Battle of The Cedars =
The Battle of The Cedars ( French : Les Cèdres ) was a series of military confrontations early in the American Revolutionary War during the Continental Army 's invasion of Quebec that had begun in September 1775 . The skirmishes , which involved limited combat , occurred in May 1776 at and around The Cedars , 45 km ( 28 mi ) west of Montreal , Quebec . Continental Army units were opposed by a small number of British troops leading a larger force of Indians ( primarily Iroquois ) , and militia .
Brigadier General Benedict Arnold , commanding the American military garrison at Montreal , had placed a detachment of his troops at The Cedars in April 1776 , after receiving rumors of British and Indian military preparations to the west of Montreal . The garrison surrendered on May 19 after a confrontation with a combined force of British and Indian troops led by Captain George Forster . American reinforcements on their way to The Cedars were also captured after a brief skirmish on May 20 . All of the captives were eventually released after negotiations between Forster and Arnold , who was bringing a sizable force into the area . The terms of the agreement required the Americans to release an equal number of British prisoners . However , the deal was repudiated by Congress , and no British prisoners were freed .
Colonel Timothy Bedel and Lieutenant Isaac Butterfield , leaders of the American force at The Cedars , were court @-@ martialed and cashiered from the Continental Army for their roles in the affair . After distinguishing himself as a volunteer , Bedel was given a new commission in 1777 . News of the affair included greatly inflated reports of casualties , and often included graphic but false accounts of atrocities committed by the Iroquois , who made up the majority of the British forces .
= = Background = =
The Cedars is located on the north shore of the Saint Lawrence River , about 45 kilometres ( 28 mi ) from the center of modern Montreal , to the southwest of the western tip of the island of Montreal , from which it is separated by the Ottawa River . The nearby rapids in the Saint Lawrence required portage , making The Cedars a strategic landing point for anyone navigating the river to or from Montreal . Crossing of the Ottawa River was made between Fort Anne and Quinze @-@ Chênes , now Vaudreuil .
= = = Montreal = = =
In September 1775 , early in the American Revolutionary War , a Continental Army under the direction first of Major General Philip Schuyler , and later of Brigadier General Richard Montgomery , invaded the British Province of Quebec . The city of Montreal was taken without a fight on November 13 , following the Siege of Fort St. Jean . Montgomery left a garrison of troops under the command of Major General David Wooster in control of Montreal before leading the rest of the army to Quebec City . The occupation of Montreal was poorly managed , and relations between the Americans and the population , including those supportive of the Americans , deteriorated for a variety of reasons . One major factor that contributed to the poor relations was the American interdiction of trade with the Indian populations on the upper St. Lawrence and the Great Lakes , since the trade goods might be used to support British garrisons in those areas . The fur trade was economically important to the city , and its absence affected both supporters and opponents of the American cause .
Following the American losses at the battle of Quebec at the end of 1775 , Wooster eventually led reinforcements to Quebec . He arrived early in April 1776 , and the military administration of Montreal passed temporarily to Colonel Moses Hazen before going to Brigadier General Benedict Arnold , who had been in command at Quebec . The American forces occupying the city numbered about 500 , with additional forces at posts outside the city . Wooster had reported to General Schuyler as early as March 5 of rumored scheming between British troops and Indians to the west of the city . In response to these alarming reports , as well as the unauthorized departures of two fur traders and Claude de Lorimier , a British Indian agent from Montreal , Hazen had sent 400 troops commanded by Colonel Timothy Bedel of Bedel 's Regiment to occupy a strategic position at The Cedars in early April . Lieutenant Isaac Butterfield led an advance force that arrived at The Cedars on April 26 and began construction of a wooden stockade fort , fortifying it with two 4 @-@ pound cannons . Bedel and the rest of the detachment arrived on May 6 .
= = = British call to arms = = =
The Indian agent Lorimier traveled west to Oswegatchie , where a company of the 8th Regiment of Foot under the command of George Forster had occupied Fort de La Présentation . Lorimier proposed recruiting a force of Indians to launch an attack on Continental forces at Montreal from the west . When Forster agreed , Lorimier went to Saint Regis , where he recruited 100 Mohawk men from Akwesasne . Word of these activities led the American rebels to fortify The Cedars .
At Fort Niagara in early May the Loyalist captain , John Butler , held a conference with several hundred tribesmen , primarily from the Six Nations of the Iroquois , in which his goal was to break pledges of neutrality some of them had made in 1775 . Butler , an experienced Indian agent , plied the natives with liquor and tales of combat ; he convinced more than 50 Seneca , Cayuga , and Onondaga warriors to join the British cause , as well as some warriors from further west . Historians are uncertain whether any of these recruits participated in the action at The Cedars , but it appears unlikely . Stanley ( 1973 ) is of the opinion that Indian participation was limited to those recruited by Lorimier , who went as far as Gananoque to recruit . Lanctot ( 1967 ) and Smith do not identify any specific tribes participating in the action .
James Stanley Goddard , one of the fur traders who left with Lorimier , traveled further west in an ultimately unsuccessful effort to raise an Indian force to oppose the Americans occupying Quebec . He reached Fort Michilimackinac in June , where the British commander , Captain Arent DePeyster , sent him recruiting among the Menominee and Winnebago tribes near Green Bay . DePeyster also sent out Joseph Ainsse , a local Indian interpreter , to recruit from tribes closer to the fort . None of the Indians recruited by these men reached Montreal until well after the Americans had left the city .
= = Prelude = =
Once forces began assembling at Oswegatchie , Lorimier made arrangements with a sympathetic priest near The Cedars for the provisioning of supplies for the troops . With the assistance of some men of the 8th Foot , he strategically hid several shallow @-@ draft boats , known as bateaux , near a point where the Saint Lawrence River could be crossed .
Forster left Oswegatchie on May 12 with about 40 regular troops , 10 British and French @-@ speaking Canadien militia , and 160 Iroquois . On May 14 , they picked up 44 more Iroquois at Saint Francis , and camped at the western end of Saint Francis Lake on May 16 . On May 17 , Forster received scouting reports about the troop strength at The Cedars . The Indians were concerned about the number of troops , but news that the Americans were in retreat from the city of Quebec emboldened them to act .
On May 15 , Bedel left The Cedars , leaving Butterfield in charge of the fort . Bedel later claimed that the reason for his departure was to meet with the friendly Caughnawaga Indians . In his court martial , the judges concluded this claim was suspect . He returned to Montreal and reported that a force of 150 British troops of the 8th Foot and about 500 Iroquois commanded by Forster was approaching . On this news , Colonel John Paterson sent Major Henry Sherburne with 140 men from his regiment toward The Cedars . Arnold , who was meeting with the retreating Continental Army command at Sorel , returned to Montreal when the news reached him and set about organizing a larger relief force .
= = Battle = =
= = = The Cedars = = =
Forster 's force landed near the American @-@ occupied fort on May 18 , and sent in a demand for surrender . Butterfield countered with a request to withdraw under arms , which Forster refused . The parties exchanged fire . During the course of the exchange , Forster received word that Sherburne had crossed the Ottawa River from the island of Montreal to Quinze @-@ Chênes , but , believing The Cedars to have fallen already , had retreated back across the river . This news caused the besiegers to redouble their efforts the next day . Additional help arrived for the British in the form of about 40 Canadiens under Jean @-@ Baptiste Testard de Montigny ; Forster sent them to harass Sherburne . Word then came to Forster that Sherburne had resumed his advance ; Butterfield , unaware of this , surrendered the fort . The terms of capitulation included a guarantee of the personal safety of the captured men . The Iroquois plundered the fort 's stores , and denied some of the captives small pouches of sometimes valuable personal items .
= = = Quinze @-@ Chênes = = =
Sherburne reached Fort Anne , across the Ottawa River from Quinze @-@ Chênes , on May 17 . A scout he sent across the river the next day was captured by Lorimier . The scout was allowed to notify Sherburne of his capture ; in his message he included a claim that 500 Indians had surrounded the fort at The Cedars . Consequently , Sherburne decided to delay crossing the river , and sent word back to Montreal requesting further assistance .
Sherburne decided to advance on May 20 . Some of his men were apparently suffering from the aftereffects of smallpox , so these were left behind . Sherburne landed about 100 of his men at Quinze @-@ Chênes , about 16 kilometres ( 10 mi ) from The Cedars . When word of this crossing reached Forster , he ordered Lorimier to take 100 Indians and stop Sherburne . Lorimier was at first only able to raise 40 warriors , but was joined on the way by another 40 . Sherburne , not realizing that Butterfield had already surrendered , marched his troops right at Lorimier 's advancing force . They fought for about 40 minutes before Sherburne , believing he was being attacked by a much larger force , surrendered . The Iroquois claimed these captives as war spoils , since they were not part of the fort 's garrison , and prepared to kill some of them in retaliation for their own losses . Only the intervention of Forster , who paid a ransom , prevented this ; it did not prevent the Iroquois from stripping the prisoners of all but their clothes .
= = = Arnold 's relief = = =
Following his successes , Forster moved his forces , including all of the prisoners , down to Quinze @-@ Chênes , where more Loyalist militia had assembled . Leaving some of the prisoners there , he advanced on May 23 to Fort Senneville , a fortified works located on the southwest tip of Montreal island that was owned by Montigny . In the meantime , Arnold gathered most of the few remaining forces in Montreal , and sent requests to the outposts around the city for additional troops . By May 24 , he was entrenched at Lachine , south of the city , and his force had reached 450 men . Forster began to advance on Lachine , but decided to retreat back to Quinze @-@ Chênes when his scouts notified him of Arnold 's position . He also received intelligence from Montreal that Arnold 's force was going to be massively reinforced — the reported number of reinforcements was 1 @,@ 500 to 2 @,@ 000 men , more than Arnold had available in the area .
Once his scouts reported Forster 's retreat , Arnold gave chase . He reached Fort Senneville ( which he burned ) on May 26 , just as Forster 's men were landing on the far shore at Quinze @-@ Chênes . Arnold decided to send a group of Caughnawagas , who were friendly to the Americans , with a demand that Forster release his prisoners and a threat that he would destroy area Indian villages if any of the prisoners were harmed . Forster countered that he would permit his Indians to kill the prisoners if Arnold attacked . Arnold attempted to cross the Ottawa River with a number of his men in bateaux , but Forster used the four @-@ pounders captured at The Cedars to drive them back .
Arnold called a war council so the Americans could consider their options . He wanted to mount a surprise attack the next morning ; Hazen , who had acquired significant experience fighting Indians in the French and Indian War , argued against the idea . The disagreement between the two men was severe enough that it nearly provoked Arnold to file charges of insubordination against Hazen . The council decided not to act , voting Arnold 's proposed attack down . Early in the morning of May 27 , a boat crossed the river carrying Sherburne and Forster 's deputy , Lieutenant Parke . Forster , whose forces were somewhat reduced as some of the Indians had returned to their homes , had negotiated a prisoner exchange with Sherburne and Butterfield . After further negotiations , both Arnold and Forster agreed to terms . The American prisoners were returned to Arnold at Fort Anne on May 30 , after being delayed for two days
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dwelt on mistakes to the detriment of his concentration , a tendency his friend Stan Wilson called " picking at daisies " . A short temper also caused occasional problems ; he was sent off on more than one occasion .
= = Coaching career = =
After a couple of months pondering his future career plans , he received a telephone call from the Stockport County chairman , Victor Bernard , who offered him the position of general manager . Stockport was a struggling lower league club with a small budget , and Trautmann 's appointment was an attempt to improve its image . Many people in the local area supported one of the two Manchester clubs , so to stimulate interest Trautmann and Bernard decided to move matches to Friday evenings , when neither Manchester club would be playing . This improved revenue , but the team continued to struggle . Trautmann resigned in 1966 following a disagreement with Bernard . From 1967 to 1968 , he was the manager of the German team Preußen Münster , taking them to a 13th @-@ place finish in the Regionalliga West , following which he had a short spell at Opel Rüsselsheim .
The German Football Association then sent him as a development worker to countries without national football structures . His first posting was in Myanmar ( Burma ) , where he spent two years as the national coach , qualifying for the Olympics in 1972 , and winning the President 's Cup , a tournament contested by south @-@ east Asian countries , later that year . His work subsequently took him to managing Tanzania , Liberia , Pakistan and North Yemen , until 1988 , when he retired and settled in Spain .
= = Legacy and influence = =
Over the course of his career , Trautmann received many plaudits from leading football figures . The Russian goalkeeper Lev Yashin , himself considered one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time , believed that Trautmann and himself were the " only ... two world @-@ class goalkeepers " .
Trautmann 's idiosyncratic style of play also had an influence on budding young goalkeepers at the height of his career . The former Arsenal goalkeeper Bob Wilson names Trautmann as his boyhood hero , and Gordon Banks cited him as an influence on his playing style .
Media outlets have since recognised Trautmann 's reputation , with Trautmann placed unofficially as the 19th greatest goalkeeper of all @-@ time by the Daily Mail . ESPN consider Trautmann as one of the greatest FA Cup goalkeepers , with Trautmann representing Manchester City in two consecutive FA Cup finals in 1955 and 1956 while his lunge at Peter Murphy 's feet to grasp the ball in the 1956 FA Cup Final is rated as the greatest FA Cup save – a save that broke Trautmann 's neck .
In November 1995 , Trautmann returned to Maine Road to open the rebuilt Kippax Stand . However , the stand was gone within a decade : in May 2003 the club moved to the City of Manchester Stadium , Maine Road was closed and its stadium demolished the following year .
= = Awards = =
In 1997 Trautmann received the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany . He was appointed an honorary OBE in 2004 for his work in Anglo @-@ German relations , and received the award at the British Embassy in Berlin . The following night , at a concert given by the Berlin Philharmonic Orchestra , he met the Queen . " Ah , Herr Trautmann . I remember you , " she said . " Have you still got that pain in your neck ? "
In 2005 , he was inducted into the National Football Museum 's Hall of Fame . He continued to follow Manchester City and visited Manchester to watch them play , as recently as April 2010 . Trautmann said during his visit , " I watch all City 's games on TV , they 're still my club " , and added , " I love England too and still shout for them – even if they 're playing Germany ! " In 1999 , he had also appeared in the BBC Timewatch programme episode " The Germans We Kept " , recounting the experiences of German prisoners of war who decided to remain in the UK .
= = Personal life = =
Trautmann married a St Helens woman , Margaret Friar , in 1950 , but they divorced in the 1960s . ( Catrine Clay Trautmann 's Journey p . 259 ) The couple had three children , John , Mark and Stephen . John , his firstborn son , was killed in a car accident a few months after the FA Cup Final in 1956 , aged five . According to Trautmann , his wife 's struggle to come to terms with the loss ultimately resulted in the breakup of their marriage . He also had a daughter from a previous relationship from whom he was estranged for many years . He married Ursula von der Heyde , a German national , while living in Burma in the 1970s , but divorced in 1982 . From 1990 , Trautmann lived with his third wife Marlis in a small bungalow on the Spanish coast near Valencia . He since helped found the Trautmann Foundation , which continues his legacy by fostering courage and sportsmanship .
Trautmann 's autobiography Steppes to Wembley was published in 1956 .
= = Death = =
Trautmann died at home in Spain on 19 July 2013 at the age of 89 . He had suffered two heart attacks earlier in the year . The president of the German Football Association , Wolfgang Niersbach , said that Trautmann was " an amazing sportsman and a true gentleman ... a legend " . Bob Wilson , a former Arsenal goalkeeper , tweeted , " Amazing man who helped bring our warring countries closer together " . Joe Corrigan , a former Manchester City goalkeeper , said Trautmann was " a fantastic man and was one of the greatest goalkeepers of all time " .
= = Honours = =
Manchester City
FA Cup : 1956
Individual
FWA Footballer of the Year : 1956
Member of the English Football Hall of Fame
= = Career statistics = =
Sources : Rowlands , Trautmann : The Biography , p . 252 ; James , Manchester City : The Complete Record , pp. 367 – 395 .
= Hurricane Debby ( 2000 ) =
Hurricane Debby caused minor damage in the Greater and Lesser Antilles in August 2000 . The seventh tropical cyclone , fourth named storm , and second hurricane of the annual season , Debby developed from a tropical wave east of the Lesser Antilles on August 19 . Favorable conditions allowed the depression to become Tropical Storm Debby early on August 20 , and further strengthening into a hurricane occurred 24 hours later . Sustained winds peaked at 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) on August 21 . Debby made three landfalls on August 22 , in Barbuda , Saint Barthélemy , and Virgin Gorda , before re @-@ entering the Atlantic north of Puerto Rico . As Debby moved parallel to the north coast of Hispaniola late on August 23 , it weakened back to a tropical storm . The storm tracked westward and weakened further , instead of approaching Florida and strengthening into a major hurricane . While south of eastern Cuba on August 24 , Debby was downgraded to a tropical depression , six hours before completely dissipating .
Light rainfall and gusty winds caused minor damage in Barbuda , Saint Martin , and Trinidad and Tobago . In the United States Virgin Islands , brief blackouts and damage reaching $ 200 @,@ 000 ( 2000 USD ) was reported . Effects were most severe in Puerto Rico , where isolated locations experienced more than 12 inches ( 300 mm ) of rainfall . The heavy precipitation resulted in mudslides and flooding , which in turn damaged roads , bridges , and houses . At least 406 homes on the island were flooded , five of which suffered moderate to severe damage . Additionally , there were many car accidents in San Juan due to slick roads . One indirectly fatality was reported after a man fell off his roof while attempting to remove a satellite dish . Damage on the island of Puerto Rico reached $ 501 @,@ 000 . In Dominican Republic , the Civil Defense Force reported that severe flooding in the northern portions of that country caused the evacuation of more than 700 people . Overall , the storm caused roughly $ 35 @,@ 000 in damage across the island . Impact was lesser in Haiti , where squalls tore tin roofs off of numerous shanty homes and subsequently flooded a few . Additionally , rainfall in Cuba brought relief to an 8 month long drought impacting the region .
= = Meteorological history = =
A strong tropical wave emerged into the Atlantic Ocean from the west coast of Africa on August 16 . By the following day , an area of low pressure was noted near 10 ° N 30 ° W. However , Dvorak classifications were not be initiated due to insignificant convective banding . At 0000 UTC on August 18 , the National Hurricane Center 's Tropical Analysis and Forecast Branch ( TAFB ) indicated a low @-@ level circulation , though the system was still considered " too weak to classify " . The TAFB released an initial classification later that day at 1145 UTC . Convective banding had increased , though the system as a whole was poorly organized . It then began to gradually organize while moving westward at approximately 17 mph ( 27 km / h ) . By late on August 19 , convection had consolidated around a well @-@ defined center of circulation . As a result , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Seven developed at 1800 UTC , while located about 1 @,@ 035 miles ( 1 @,@ 665 km ) east of the Windward Islands . In the initial advisory by the National Hurricane Center , the agency noted a large area of convection , weak vertical wind shear , warm sea surface temperatures ( SSTs ) , all of which produced a favorable environment for intensification .
The depression strengthened and became Tropical Storm Debby at 0000 UTC on August 20 . Operationally , it was not upgraded to a tropical storm until 15 hours later . After classification , the center of circulation was difficult to locate due to the re @-@ organization of convection . Although the circulation remained relatively disorganized , the central dense overcast ( CDO ) associated with Debby was large , symmetrical , and had cold cloud tops . By 0600 UTC on August 21 , Debby had strengthened into a Category 1 hurricane . Despite reconnaissance aircraft flight reports of sustained winds ranging from 92 to 101 mph ( 148 to 163 km / h ) , Debby was not upgraded to a hurricane . Six hours later , the storm reached its maximum sustained wind speed of 85 mph ( 140 km / h ) . Additionally , Debby attained its minimum barometric pressure of 991 mbar ( 29 @.@ 3 inHg ) early on August 22 . It was operationally not upgraded to a hurricane until 0900 UTC on August 22 , due to a poorly defined circulation . Hurricane @-@ force winds were very concentrated , extending only 25 miles ( 40 km ) from the storm 's center of circulation .
At 0600 UTC on August 22 , Debby made landfall in Barbuda with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . A few hours later , the storm also struck Saint Barthélemy at the same intensity . It made a third landfall in Virgin Gorda with winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) , at 1500 UTC on August 22 . In an advisory issued later that day , the National Hurricane Center noted that although the agency anticipated further strengthening , it would not be " significant " in the short @-@ term , due to Debby 's rapid movement west @-@ northwestward and potential land interaction with Hispaniola . Late on August 22 , the storm passed about 35 miles ( 56 km ) north of Puerto Rico . Early on August 23 , computer models varied extensively with the Geophysical Fluid Dynamics Laboratory ( GDFL ) model , regarded by the National Hurricane Center as an " extreme outlier " , depicting a 926 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) low pressure area over the Florida Keys on August 26 . Due to increasing southwesterly wind shear , Debby began to weaken and was downgraded to a tropical storm at 1200 UTC on August 23 , while situated north of Dominican Republic .
Beginning late on August 23 , it was predicted that Debby would re @-@ strengthen , as SSTs were between 84 and 86 ° F ( 29 and 30 ° C ) and the storm was anticipated to resume the original west @-@ northwest movement , reducing land interaction . However , Debby curved westward and continued to become increasingly disorganized , with the low @-@ level circulation being displaced well west of the main , deep convective area . Early on August 24 , the storm entered the Windward Passage and began passing south of Cuba . The National Hurricane Center continued to predict re @-@ intensification , but noted the potential for degeneration into a tropical wave during the next few days in its advisory at 0900 UTC on August 24 , due to persistent wind shear . Three hours later , Debby was downgraded to a tropical depression . The storm degenerated into a tropical wave at 1800 UTC on August 24 , while located south of Cuba .
= = Preparations = =
Several storm warnings were issued for the Greater and Lesser Antilles to warn residents of the approaching storm . In Philipsburg , Sint Maarten , several shops in the downtown area were boarded up to prepare for Debby 's approach . Elsewhere along the range of the cyclone 's predicted path , homes and businesses were boarded up , and families buried emergency supplies in the ground . Ten United States Navy ships and two submarines off the Coast of Vieques Island temporarily abandoned training exercises and moved over 300 miles ( 480 km ) to the south of Puerto Rico , out of the storm predicted path . On Antigua , electricity was shutoff to prevent storm damage to the island 's infrastructure . When the hurricane moved into the coastal waters of the U.S. Virgin Islands , the Hovensa oil refinery in St. Croix was shut down , and as a result gas prices rose .
Around 7 @,@ 000 people in Cuba were evacuated to avoid the oncoming hurricane . Several shelters were opened by the Montserrat Red Cross on Montserrat , but few people sought refuge in them . Over 40 shelters were ready for use in Nassau , Bahamas , even though Debby never affected the island . A total of 889 people in the northern coastal plains were evacuated and placed in shelters out of Debby path . Three shelters were opened for the coming of Debby in Saint Thomas , and another two in Saint John . The total number of people in all five shelters only reached 64 . An additional 17 people took refuge in an unknown number of shelters on St. Croix .
In addition , many tropical cyclone warnings and watches were posted in the Greater and Lesser Antilles . At 2100 UTC on August 20 , a hurricane watch was issued for Sint Maarten , Saba , and Sint Eustatius , while there was a tropical storm watch for Antigua , Barbuda , and Anguilla . Early on August 21 , the hurricane watch was expanded to include the United States Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico . Additionally , the tropical storm watch was extended out to the British Virgin Islands , Guadeloupe , Montserrat , Saint Barthélemy , Saint Kitts and Nevis , and Saint Martin . A hurricane warning was issued for Guadeloupe , Puerto Rico , and the Virgin Islands late on August 21 . In Dominica , both a tropical storm warning and a hurricane watch were reported , while a tropical storm watch was put into effect in Dominican Republic . At 0300 UTC on August 22 , a hurricane watch was issued for Haiti north of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince as was a tropical storm warning in Dominican Republic from Palenque to Cabrera . An hour later , a tropical storm watch was put into effect for the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands . By 0900 UTC on August 22 , Dominican Republic 's entire north coast was under a hurricane warning . Additionally , the tropical storm watch for the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands was upgraded to a hurricane watch .
The hurricane warning for Antigua , Barbuda , Guadeloupe , Montserrat , and St. Kitts and Nevis was discontinued at 1200 UTC on August 22 , as was the tropical storm warning for Dominica . Three hours later , a hurricane warning was issued for the southeastern Bahamas and Turks and Caicos Islands , and another hurricane watch was posted for the central Bahamas . Additionally , the hurricane warning for Saba , Sint Eustatius , Sint Maarten , was discontinued . At 2100 UTC on August 22 , a hurricane watch was issued in Cuba for the provinces of Holguín and Las Tunas , while a tropical storm warning was issued for Haiti north of Port @-@ au @-@ Prince . The hurricane warning for the United States Virgin Islands and Puerto Rico was lowered to a tropical storm warning , before being canceled early on August 23 . Additionally , all watches and warning east of the United States Virgin Islands were discontinued . On August 23 , a hurricane warning was issued for the central Bahamas and Cuba in the provinces of Guantanamo , Holguín , and Las Tunas . A hurricane watch was put into effect for the northwestern Bahamas and Cuba in Camagüey and Ciego de Ávila on the north coast and Santiago de Cuba and Granma on the south coast . By 1500 UTC on August 25 , all of the remaining tropical cyclone watches and warnings were cancelled .
Although the hurricane was still situated far from Florida , a state of emergency was declared for the Florida Keys . Non @-@ residents in Monroe County were forced to leave , causing a significant reduction in the tourism for the year 2000 . For a period of time , forecasters predicted Debby to approach the Florida Keys as a Category 2 hurricane , while the GDFL predicted a much more intense Debby near the Florida Keys as a Category 4 hurricane with a minimum central pressure of 926 mbar ( 27 @.@ 3 inHg ) .
= = Impact = =
Because of the relatively weak and disorganized nature of the storm , impact throughout its path was widespread , but not particularly severe . Puerto Rico bore the brunt of the storm , followed by the United States Virgin Islands , then the Dominican Republic . Debby was attributed to about $ 735 @,@ 000 in damage and 1 indirect fatality , which occurred in Puerto Rico when a man fell off a roof while attempting to remove a satellite dish .
= = = Lesser Antilles = = =
Throughout the Leeward Islands , gusty winds damaged fruit trees and downed power lines . Wind gusts estimated to have reached 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) lashed Anguilla . Some trees were destroyed , and electrical poles and power lines were downed . In Antigua , downed utility poles and trees were spotted . Precipitation totals in Antigua peaked at 0 @.@ 91 inches ( 23 mm ) . Rainfall on the island of Barbuda reached 1 @.@ 5 inches ( 38 mm ) . Debby caused moderate roof damage to several structures and destroyed a few sheds and fruit trees . Sint Maarten reported little rainfall as the storm almost uneventfully passed over the island , causing mostly minor flooding and vegetation damage . Losses reached $ 750 @,@ 000 , though it was entirely from cruise ship cancellations and closed businesses . With damage nearly nonexistent , the Sint Maarten Tourism Bureau remarked that Debby " was the weakest hurricane St. Maarten experienced in several years . "
On Saint Barthélemy , wind gusts as strong as 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) at Gustavia were reported . Wind damage was minor , limited to some downed trees and power poles . Rainfall totals were very light , ranging from 0 @.@ 59 to 0 @.@ 98 inches ( 15 to 25 mm ) . Tides on the island reached about 13 feet ( 4 @.@ 0 m ) above normal . Similar wave heights were reported on Saint Martin , while precipitation was slightly higher , ranging from 0 @.@ 78 to 1 @.@ 37 inches ( 20 to 35 mm ) . Impact was minimal on Guadeloupe . Wave heights reached approximately 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Rainfall was also light on Guadeloupe , with 1 @.@ 45 inches ( 37 mm ) in Le Moule , 1 @.@ 22 inches ( 31 mm ) in Sainte @-@ Rose , 1 @.@ 07 inches ( 27 mm ) in La Désirade , 0 @.@ 66 inches ( 17 mm ) in Sainte @-@ Anne , and 0 @.@ 66 inches ( 17 mm ) in Pointe @-@ à @-@ Pitre . Feeder bands from Debby affected countries as far south as Trinidad and Tobago , where heavy rainfall resulted in flooding in the Barrackpore region .
= = = United States territories = = =
In the United States Virgin Islands , losses reached approximately $ 200 @,@ 000 . On Saint Thomas , 1 @.@ 93 inches ( 49 mm ) of rain was recorded . At the Cyril E. King Airport , sustained winds reached 33 mph ( 53 km / h ) , while gusts up to 45 mph ( 72 km / h ) were reported . Elsewhere on Saint Thomas , one sailboat was washed ashore on Vessup Beach . Sustained winds of 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) and gusts of 43 mph ( 69 km / h ) on Saint Croix caused brief power outages . Additionally , 0 @.@ 46 inches ( 11 @.@ 7 mm ) of rain fell in St. Croix . Minor landscape damage occurred on Saint John .
Debby also dropped up to 12 inches ( 30 @.@ 5 mm ) of rainfall across Puerto Rico in less than 48 hours , causing mudslides and damage to bridges and roads ; however , most of the island territory only received 3 inches ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) of precipitation . The maximum rainfall on the island was 12 @.@ 63 inches ( 32 mm ) in Río Piedras , Puerto Rico . Additionally , 12 @.@ 16 inches ( 31 mm ) of precipitation was recorded near Cayey , though there were unofficial reports of 17 inches ( 43 mm ) in the interior mountains of the region . The hurricane dropped around 5 inches ( 127 mm ) of rain in San Juan , producing slick roads that resulted in several minor car accidents . There were 406 homes affected from the flooding , 5 of which were moderately to severely damaged . Losses in Puerto Rico reached $ 501 @,@ 000 , primarily in the Caguas municipality . The storm was also indirectly responsible for the death of a 78 @-@ year @-@ old man who fell while trying to remove a satellite dish from the roof of his home .
= = = Dominican Republic = = =
On the northern coast of the Dominican Republic , waves and rainfall caused light to moderate damage . Storm surge damaged about 20 homes and dozens of families were evacuated from Cabrera , Nagua , Río San Juan , and Samaná . In Nagua , several districts were left without drinking water and electricity after gusts blew down power cables and large trees . At San José de Matanzas , several coconut trees were uprooted from the ground . Also , two houses were slightly damaged from wind gusts . In the nearby town of La Vega , bridges over the Piedra River and Jumunucu River collapsed due to the heavy rainfall and flooding . In southern Puerto Plata , flooding in Aguas Negras , Playa Oeste and Dubeau districts forced dozens of families to leave their houses . In Monte Cristi , heavy rainfall caused flooding in various low @-@ lying districts , with over 200 people affected in the coastal portion of the province . Another town , Salcedo , lost approximately 23 sq mi ( 60 km2 ) of bananas , with the damage estimated to have reached approximately $ 35 @,@ 000 ( RD $ 500 @,@ 000 DOP ) . The country 's Civil Defense Force stated that over 700 people on the northern coast were forced out of their homes after severe flooding . A wedding was also delayed at the bavaro beach resort after flooding left the alter area suitable only for ducks .
= = = Greater Antilles = = =
Residents living in shanties in northern Haiti fled their homes during the storm . In Port @-@ de @-@ Paix , strong winds tore off many tin roofs and flooded some homes . A small coastal village , Carenage , experienced high winds that sunk at least five boats . Storm surge also swept away one home , but without any reports of injury or death . In Cuba , the remnants of Debby brought rainfall to the eastern portion of the country , particularly Guantánamo Province , with 24 ‑ hour precipitation totals of 3 @.@ 22 inches ( 82 mm ) in San Antonio del Sur , 2 @.@ 55 inches ( 65 mm ) in Maisí , and 2 @.@ 28 inches ( 58 mm ) and 2 @.@ 16 inches ( 55 mm ) at separate locations in Guantánamo . Due to a severe eight @-@ month drought in Guantanamo Province , the accumulated rainfall was largely beneficial . However , as a precaution against potential flooding , more than 32 @,@ 000 people and thousands of cattle residing in low @-@ lying areas were evacuated to higher ground . A few locations reported gusty winds . At Maisí , sustained winds between 29 and 31 mph ( 47 and 50 km / h ) were reported , along with gusts up to 42 mph ( 68 km / h ) . Additionally , tides caused coastal flooding in Baracoa .
= Grey @-@ necked rockfowl =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl ( Picathartes oreas ) is a medium @-@ sized bird in the family Picathartidae with a long neck and tail . Also known as the grey @-@ necked picathartes , this passerine is mainly found in rocky areas of close @-@ canopied rainforest from south @-@ west Nigeria through Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , and south @-@ west Gabon . It additionally lives on the island of Bioko . Its distribution is patchy , with populations often isolated from each other . The rockfowl typically chooses to live near streams and inselbergs in its forested habitat . It has no recognized subspecies , though some believe that it forms a superspecies with the white @-@ necked rockfowl . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl has grey upperparts , a light grey breast , and lemon @-@ coloured underparts . Its unusually long tail is used for balance , and its thighs are muscular . The head is nearly featherless , with the exposed skin being powder blue on the forehead and upper mandible and carmine on the hindcrown . The bird ’ s cheeks and eyes are covered in a large , circular black patch that , though narrow , connects and divides the carmine and powder blue skin at the peak of the crown . Though the bird is usually silent , some calls are known .
This rockfowl feeds primarily on insects , though some plant matter , such as fruit and flower buds , is eaten . One feeding strategy involves following Dorylus army ant swarms , feeding on insects flushed by the ants . Rockfowl move through the forest mainly through a series of hops and bounds , or short flights in low vegetation . It travels either alone or in small groups . This species rarely flies for long distances . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is monogamous and pairs nest either alone or in the vicinity of other pairs , sometimes in colonies of two to five nests , though one colony of forty nests has been recorded . These nests are constructed out of mud and are formed into a deep cup that is built on rock surfaces , typically in caves or on cliffs . Two eggs are laid twice a year . Though the birds breed in colonies , infanticide exists in this species , with rockfowl attempting to kill the young of other pairs . Nestlings mature in about a month .
This species is classified as vulnerable as its dwindling and fragmented populations are threatened by habitat destruction . A conservation plan has been drawn up for this species , and research into its current distribution is ongoing . Some of the indigenous peoples of Cameroon either respect this species or , in some cases , fear it . Today , this rockfowl is considered one of Africa ’ s most desirable birds by birders and is a symbol of ecotourism across its range .
= = Taxonomy = =
This species was first described by Anton Reichenow in 1899 from a bird collected at the base of Mount Cameroon near Limbe , Cameroon . He published his description in Ornithologische Monatsberichte and described it as Picathartes oreas . The generic name was first used by René @-@ Primevère Lesson in 1828 after he split the grey @-@ necked rockfowl 's close relative the white @-@ necked rockfowl from the crow genus Corvus and placed it in its own genus , Picathartes , as the white @-@ necked rockfowl did not share characteristics common to members of Corvus such as a feathered head . This generic name comes from a combination of the Latin genera pica for " magpie " and cathartes for " vulture " . The species name is derived from the Ancient Greek word oreas , meaning " mountain " . Since its initial description , the picathartes have been placed in more than five different families , including those of crows ( Corvidae ) , starlings ( Sturnidae ) , Old World flycatchers ( Muscicapidae ) , babblers ( Timaliidae ) and Old World warblers ( Sylviidae ) . Today the grey @-@ necked rockfowl and the white @-@ necked rockfowl are believed to comprise a unique family , Picathartidae . Additionally , it has been suggested , though not generally accepted , that the two rockfowl represent the remnants of an ancient bird order . Recent DNA analysis has shown that Picathartidae and its closest relatives , southern Africa 's rockjumpers and south @-@ east Asia 's rail @-@ babbler , form a clade . The analysis suggests that the rockfowl split from the common ancestor of their clade 44 million years ago . It is believed that the ancestor of this clade originated in Australia and spread to Africa . Though the grey @-@ necked rockfowl has no subspecies , it may form a superspecies with the white @-@ necked rockfowl , with plumage and facial pattern being the main differences between the two species .
This species has numerous common names , including the grey @-@ necked rockfowl , grey @-@ necked picathartes , bare @-@ headed rockfowl , red @-@ headed rockfowl , blue @-@ headed picathartes , and grey @-@ necked bald crow . Rockfowl is a reference to the species ' habit of building mud nests on rock surfaces and caves . Picathartes refers to the species ' scientific name . Bald crow is a reference to its featherless head and somewhat crow @-@ like appearance , especially in its beak .
= = Description = =
This rockfowl measures approximately 33 to 38 centimetres ( 13 to 15 in ) in length , with its notably long tail contributing about 14 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 5 in ) . This species does not show sexual dimorphism . The adult 's head is largely featherless , and the skin on the forehead and forecrown as well as the upper mandible of the beak behind the bird 's nostril is a powder blue . The lower mandible and rest of the upper mandible are black . This beak is unusually large and crow @-@ like at 30 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 in ) in length and is also decurved . There are some small , bristle @-@ like feathers located on the crown that can be erected . Behind the crown , the species ' bare skin on the hindcrown and nape is carmine in coloration and has a few more bristle @-@ like feathers . The area between these patches of skin , as well as the lores , cheeks , and ear region , are featherless with black skin . Its eyes are dark brown . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl 's mantle , back , rump , and uppertail coverts are all grey . The feathers on the rump are long , dense , and silky . Additionally , the tail is grey . The rockfowl 's chin , throat , sides of the neck , and upper breast are all a pale grey . This bird is buffy lemon in colour on its lower breast , belly , flanks , thighs , and undertail coverts , though the flanks can sometimes appear to be greyish . The wing is grey , though the wing 's remiges are black , forming a line between the lemon underparts and grey upperparts . Its legs and feet are silver @-@ grey and muscular . The adult rockfowl weighs 200 to 250 grams ( 7 @.@ 1 to 8 @.@ 8 oz ) .
The nestling is born nearly featherless except for tiny primary quills and a fine down along its spine , humerus , forearm , and femur . Its skin is dark pink but displays variable black patches on its upperside . The gape is yellow . As the nestling develops , its plumage begins to resemble that of the adult , though it has white flecks on its wing coverts and the featherless skin on the head is black or dark brown , not powder blue , on the forecrown and dark reddish brown , not carmine , on the hindcrown . After fledging , the immature closely resembles the adult except for the bare patch on the back of the head being golden yellow instead of carmine and the tail being only a third as long as that of an adult .
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is a relatively silent species . It has been known to give a quiet , one to two second long , hissing " wheet " call several times at intervals of about four seconds . To give this call , the rockfowl opens its beak and inflates its throat . When bringing food to their nests , the adults give one or two " peep " s . After reaching the nest , the adult repeatedly makes a low " ga @-@ a @-@ a " sound that has been described as being between a snore and a sigh . It also makes a hissing noise that has been described as a " shisss " .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is found in West Africa from southeast Nigeria to southwest Gabon . In Nigeria , it is only found in the nation 's southeastern corner near the coast and the Cameroon border . The species is widespread in southwestern Cameroon , and this country is considered to be the species ' stronghold . It is found throughout Equatorial Guinea and into southwestern Gabon . Additionally , the species resides in the southwestern forests of the island of Bioko in the Gulf of Guinea . There is only one record of this species from the Republic of the Congo , though it is suspected that the rockfowl may have an undiscovered population in this country . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl 's total range covers approximately 314 @,@ 000 square kilometres ( 121 @,@ 000 sq mi ) .
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl prefers rugged terrain in these forests covered in large boulders , caves , and gorges . Additionally , it often found near inselbergs and a source of water , either a river or a forest pool . The understory of its forests has sparse undergrowth or open spaces but is covered in mosses , ferns , lianas , and epiphytes . In southwestern Bioko it is found in low forests that receive nearly 10 metres ( 33 ft ) of rain a year . Bioko 's habitat also has dense undergrowth and vertical gorges near a caldera . The rockfowl 's habitat is normally found between 450 and 2 @,@ 100 metres ( 1 @,@ 480 and 6 @,@ 890 ft ) above sea level , though it is lower in elevation on Bioko . This species is non @-@ migratory , and at one site in Cameroon the birds remained within 300 metres ( 980 ft ) of their nesting site throughout the year . It is capable of living near human activity , and one breeding site in Cameroon was located within 30 metres ( 98 ft ) of a maize plot . This and other recent observations suggest that the rockfowl has greater tolerance for degraded habitat than previously thought .
= = Ecology and behavior = =
This rockfowl usually lives either alone or in pairs , although small flocks of three to ten birds are not uncommon . It normally moves through its habitat in a series of runs and long , springing hops on the ground and in low branches . It uses its tail for balance while hopping and running . When in a flock , rockfowl hop almost in unison . In the unusual occurrences when the species does fly , it is fast and is capable of navigating through the trees and rocks well . When it is standing still , the rockfowl has its tail down and its head looking up . Typically , it silently evades any unusual movements in their forest . However , if these birds know that they have been sighted , they can become quite inquisitive and occasionally approach observers . This is not a shy species once it knows that it has been seen , and often studies things of interest , including humans , from an open location . When this species is suspicious , it raises the small crown on its head and the ruff on its neck while uttering a muffled groan . It is most active in the early morning and late evening , and from 10 : 30 am to 7 : 00 pm remains perched with little activity either in liana @-@ tangled areas or in caves away from the nests . To scratch its head , the species lifts its foot over its head . It bathes in small pools . While its lifespan in the wild is unknown , it has lived up to 25 years in captivity .
= = = Diet = = =
This species forages in the early morning or late afternoon either alone or in small groups in leaf litter and on dead tree trunks . It is also known to leap upwards to grab prey on overhanging foliage . It looks for its prey either by standing still and scanning the surrounding area or by tossing the leaf litter away with its beak . It also frequently follows columns of Dorylus ants , feeding on the insects flushed by the ants . It also is known to hunt in streams for crabs and fish . It crushes snails with its beak and , if its prey struggles , smashes it against the ground . While an uncommon occurrence , male rockfowl have been observed giving food to a female .
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl feeds on a diverse range of invertebrates and small vertebrates , though plant matter does constitute a major part of its diet . It is known to eat beetles , including weevils , rove beetles , and click beetles from the genus Psephus , butterflies , ants from the genera Dorylus and Pachycondyla , grasshoppers , cockroaches from the family Blattidae , earwigs , caterpillars , ant @-@ lions , silverfish , and earthworms . Small lizards , frogs , snails , and slugs are also eaten , as are crabs from the genus Potamon , fruits , flower buds , mosses , and leaves . Fish have also been identified as a prey item in Nigeria . At at least one nesting site , it relies heavily on the arthropods feeding on the bat guano near the cave for sustenance , while this behaviour has been reported to a lesser extent at other sites . It is known to regurgitate what it has eaten in pellet form . Overall , between 52 and 60 percent of the bird 's diet is believed to be composed of animals . Rove beetle larvae and ants were the most frequently eaten prey in a study in Nigeria .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl breeds either alone or in small colonies averaging two to five nests in size , though nearly fifty nests are present at one site . It is monogamous and therefore does not breed with rockfowl other than its mate . It is believed to breed cooperatively in Equatorial Guinea , as four different birds were observed feeding one nest . The rockfowl 's courtship displays are unknown . The timing of the egg laying in a colony is not synchronized , leading to various stages of development of nestlings within the colony . It has been suggested that this is to promote cooperative breeding . The laying dates also vary by region , typically coinciding with a few weeks before the onset of the wet season ; in areas where the wet season is bimodal , two different breeding seasons occur . However , in mountainous regions such as Mount Cameroon , it breeds during the dry season to avoid the frequent mists of the wet season . Birds in Nigeria lay their eggs between August and November , birds in Gabon lay between November and April , birds in western Cameroon lay between March and November with peaks of June , July , and October , and birds in southern Cameroon have two breeding seasons , a main one from October to December and a secondary one lasting from April to May . In Equatorial Guinea , nesting occurs in mid @-@ February .
This rockfowl builds its nest onto the sides of rocks , normally in caves , where nests are built both by the entrance and deep within , or on nearly vertical cliff faces , which can be either bare or have some vegetation , though never woody branches , near the nest . Nests need to be built under an overhang to protect it from water , and the rock surface normally slopes forward slightly . The nests are almost always found near water , which can be in the form of either streams or forest pools . These streams , particularly those located at the base of a nesting cliff , help keep predators away from the nests . Nests on rock surfaces are normally built 1 @.@ 2 to 5 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 to 17 @.@ 1 ft ) above the ground . In addition to the rock face nests , there is a record of a nest being constructed on the buttress root of a Piptadeniastrum tree above a small stream . Two nests were even built onto a concrete bridge in Gabon 's Lopé National Park . The male and female rockfowl work equally on the nest 's construction , and it can take two to three months to build one , though in some extreme cases it takes more than a year . The nest itself is a half @-@ cup constructed of dry mud with grass fibres and dead leaves mixed in , often with the plant matter sticking out of the nest 's walls . It is either built onto the rock surface or , in some cases , is built more like a retaining wall across the opening of a small rock fissure . Nests are built at least away 1 metre ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) from each other , and in some cases up to 5 metres ( 16 ft ) . The nest is normally 30 to 40 centimetres ( 12 to 16 in ) thick , though the nest is uneven in its construction and one nest was 140 centimetres ( 55 in ) thick . It is about 290 centimetres ( 110 in ) wide and 400 centimetres ( 160 in ) long and weighs about 3 kilograms ( 6 @.@ 6 lb ) . However , nest sizes do have a large degree of variability . After the mud dries , it becomes a very hard structure . The inside of the nest is lined with rootlets and thin strips of grass .
One to three eggs , normally two , are laid , with the second egg being laid between 24 and 48 hours after the first . The eggs are variable in coloration and can be a light yellow @-@ brown with dark brown blotches , creamy white with dark brown or grey blotches , or pale grey with brown mottling . The eggs weigh about 15 @.@ 2 grams ( 0 @.@ 54 oz ) and have an average size of 40 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 59 in ) by 27 @.@ 5 millimetres ( 1 @.@ 08 in ) . The rockfowl begins to incubate after both eggs are laid . The time the rockfowl spends incubating varies greatly , though it is mostly for less than five minutes at a time with nearly two hours between sessions . Both the male and female rockfowl incubate . When the incubating bird 's mate comes , it gives a brief call that causes the incubating bird to leave the nest . In the two days prior to hatching , the adult rockfowl prods at the eggs , sometimes with food in its beak . Incubation lasts for 21 to 24 days . When the infants hatch , they hatch about a day apart . The adult rockfowl quickly remove the eggshell fragments from the nest . The newborn weighs only 12 grams ( 0 @.@ 42 oz ) after hatching , but it quickly gains weight . The eyes open and the tail begins to grow on the fifth day . During the first couple of days , food is brought to the nestlings three to six times an hour , peaking in the evening . Begging nestlings expose their beak and gape to their parent , though they do not make a sound . The second @-@ hatched nestling often fails to gain weight and dies , and there is evidence suggesting that the adults cannibalize the remains . For the first ten days after hatching , one adult rockfowl stays and guards the nestlings while the other collects food ; despite this , nests have been destroyed by chimpanzees and drills . The chicks leave the nest after 24 days . Infanticide has been recorded in this species , with rockfowl killing other rockfowl 's young . In one case , a second pair of rockfowl moved onto a nest after killing the first pair 's nestlings .
= = Relationship with humans = =
In Cameroon , the grey @-@ necked rockfowl is respected by the indigenous peoples and , in some cases , even feared . It is known by many names to the indigenous peoples of Nigeria , with most of the translating to " bird of the rocks " or " fowl of the stream " . Hunters sheltering in the rockfowl 's nesting caves have been known to kill and eat adult rockfowl , though it is generally thought to be too small to eat and is left for children to hunt . In the 1950s and 1960s , western zoos desired this species , leading to a large demand to collect the rockfowl for display . British conservationist and author Gerald Durrell made this species a target on two of his trips to Cameroon , which he describes in The Bafut Beagles and A Zoo in My Luggage . The trade of this species is non @-@ existent today , and , as the zoo population did not sustain itself despite sporadic breeding , the last captive rockfowl died at the Frankfurt Zoo in 2009 . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl has been depicted on numerous postage stamps from Cameroon and Nigeria , as well as stamps from Benin and Togo , where it does not live . It is considered one of the most difficult species of bird to see in the wild . The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is a symbol for both conservation and ecotourism efforts in its range . This species is considered one of the five most desirable birds in Africa by ornithologists .
= = = Conservation = = =
The grey @-@ necked rockfowl is considered to be vulnerable due to habitat destruction , its isolated populations , collection of adults , predation , and a low breeding success rate . Its habitat is being destroyed to create large agricultural fields and cocoa plantations , as well as for logging and slash @-@ and @-@ burn agriculture . Due to the highly specialized requirements for its habitat , its population is very fragmented , and the species is believed to be naturally rare . Competition for its nesting sites is a result of these strict requirements and can lead to infanticide . Its estimated population is between 2 @,@ 500 and 10 @,@ 000 individuals , though it is believed that the population is at the lower end of the estimate . However , due to the inaccessibility of some parts of its range , it is also possible that this species is more common than believed . The population of some of these colonies is reaching the minimum levels needed for long @-@ term viability . It also falls victim to spring traps set for mammals by hunters . However , a more serious threat to its numbers was the widespread collection of rockfowl for display in zoos in the 1950s and 1960s . There is a risk that it will be negatively affected by ecotourism due to disturbances in its daily routine if proper viewing procedures are not followed .
Cameroon is the only nation with a national law protecting this species . This law prohibits killing the rockfowl , though it can be captured with a proper permit . International trading of the grey @-@ necked rockfowl is governed under CITES Appendix I , meaning that legal trading of this species is only authorized in extraordinary circumstances . In 2006 BirdLife International drafted an international action plan to provide strategies for protecting this species . This plan focused on surveying the remaining habitat , raising awareness amongst the local populace , and limiting the continued destruction of its habitat .
This rockfowl is protected in some of the areas in which it lives by national parks . Additionally , there seems to be little habitat destruction in Gabon and on Bioko as the locations in these places in which the rockfowl lives is believed to be too inaccessible for future human development . Recent surveys have also discovered new populations of the grey @-@ necked rockfowl .
= God Hates Us All =
God Hates Us All is the ninth studio album by American thrash metal band Slayer . Released on September 11 , 2001 , the album received positive critical reviews and entered the Billboard 200 at number 28 . It was recorded in three months at The Warehouse Studio in Canada , and includes the Grammy Award @-@ nominated " Disciple " . The album is the band 's last to feature drummer Paul Bostaph until their 2015 Repentless . Guitarist Kerry King wrote the majority of the lyrics , taking a different approach from earlier recordings by exploring topics such as religion , murder , revenge and self @-@ control .
= = Recording = =
Slayer began writing lyrics for a new album prior to their appearance at the 1999 Ozzfest . However , every three to four months the band was distracted by commitments to Ozzfest , and worldwide " Tattoo the Earth " tour with Slipknot . Guitarist Jeff Hanneman later admitted " that was the last break . Then we got our shit together . " The band 's longtime producer , Rick Rubin , was too busy to work with Slayer , and felt " burned out " — unable to create intense music . Araya and King had similar feelings about Rubin , and King remarked he " wanted to work with someone into the heavy @-@ music scene , and Rubin 's not anymore . I wanted somebody who knows what 's hot , knows what 's selling , knows the new techniques , and will keep me on my toes . " Rubin recommended two producers , although the first producer was not going to work out personality @-@ wise according to Hanneman . The band gave second candidate , Matt Hyde , a trial on the song " Bloodline " , which appeared in the movie Dracula 2000 . The band was pleased with Hyde 's work on " Bloodline " and hired him to produce the entire album . " Bloodline " was also briefly used in the 2009 film Law Abiding Citizen . The song " Here Comes the Pain " had originally been recorded almost two years prior to the release of God Hates Us All , appearing on the compilation album WCW Mayhem : The Music in 1999 , and then used as the opening theme for WCW Thunder from February 16 , 2000 to the final episode on March 21 , 2001 .
God Hates Us All was to be recorded in a Hollywood studio ; however , the band relocated to Vancouver , British Columbia due to the availability of cheaper studio time . Hyde recommended a studio to the band — The Warehouse Studio ( owned by Bryan Adams ) as he had previously worked there . The studio was altered to make it " feel like home " for Slayer ; as opposed to the setting for , in King 's words , the " lightweight Canadian pop singer " . This consisted of adding incense burners , candles , dimmed lights and pornography on the walls . Two banner flags of two middle fingers were also hung up . Vocalist Tom Araya says " that was basically the attitude of Slayer in the studio . We had a red devil head on one of the speakers . We had a skull on another . That 's the kind of shit we put up . Spooky stuff that makes you feel at home . "
Hyde used the digital audio workstation Pro Tools during the engineering , production , and audio mixing stages of the album . Slayer members wanted to keep the use of computer effects to a minimum , only to include a small amount of delay and distortion . As with previous recordings , the drum tracks were recorded first . Drummer Paul Bostaph follows a simple rule suggested by Rubin when in the studio : " The perfect take is the one that felt like it was going to fall apart but never did . " Seven @-@ string guitars were used on the tracks " Warzone " and " Here Comes the Pain , " the first time Slayer had done so . King was at the B.C. Rich guitar company ( manufacturer of his signature model , the KKV ) and decided to borrow a seven string guitar . After writing one song , King ordered a seven string as he thought " there 's no point having one tuning for just one song , " so he wrote another , going on to comment " you don 't have to be good to make up a seven @-@ string riff . " The album features two songs on seven string guitars , four songs with guitars tuned to Drop @-@ B and all other songs in C # Standard .
= = Lyrical themes = =
God Hates Us All explores such themes as religion , murder , revenge , and self @-@ control . King wrote a majority of the lyrics , which he based on " street " subjects which everyone could relate to , rather than " Satan this , " " Satan that , " and " the usual Dungeons & Dragons shit " from the band 's previous records . King told Guitar World :
I definitely wanted to put more realism in it , more depth . God Hates Us All isn 't an anti @-@ Christian line as much as it 's an idea I think a lot of people can relate to on a daily basis . One day you 're living your life , and then you 're hit by a car or your dog dies , so you feel like , " God really hates me today . "
The song " Threshold " is about reaching one 's limit with a person in a situation where one is about to break — and are about to blow up as they get " under your skin " , while " Cast Down " features a fallen Angel who falls into drugs . " God Send Death " and " Deviance " take up the idea of killing people for pleasure . Both songs were written by Hanneman . Having read several books on serial killers , Hanneman came to the conclusion he could only kill someone if they really " pissed him off " , and decided he was unable to kill someone he did not know just for power . He later admitted he was trying to get into that person 's mind ; " why do they get off on it ? Without being angry , just killing for the sake of killing and getting off on it . I just wanted to get into that mindset . "
While other members went to local pubs , Araya spent his free hours reading factual books regarding serial killers , including Gordon Burn 's Happy Like Murderers : The Story of Fred and Rosemary West . Araya was seeking inspiration , and aimed to sound convincing while singing the lyrics , avoiding himself to sound like a gimmick . Araya sang the lyrics more " over @-@ the @-@ top " than done on previous albums , as King 's writing style is more " aggro . " This resulted in Kerrang ! reviewer Jason Arnopp describing the album 's lyrics as " so packed with foul and abusive language that it sounds as if D @-@ 12 and the Sopranos family were going head @-@ to @-@ head in a celebrity swearathon . "
= = Cover art and album title = =
God Hates Us All was originally intended to be named Soundtrack to the Apocalypse . However , Araya suggested that the title would be better used for a box set , which the band released in 2003 . The phrase God Hates Us All originates from the song " Disciple " , during which the line is repeated over the chorus . The lyrics are in reference to God 's allowance of acts such as suicide and terrorism , while seemingly doing nothing to prevent them ( see problem of evil ) . A member of the heavy metal band Pantera suggested using " God Hates Us All " for a shirt design after King played the song to the band . King agreed , although he thought the phrase would have more impact as the album title .
The original album cover depicts a Bible spiked with nails placed in a pentagram star shape , covered in blood with the word " Slayer " burnt across it . The liner notes intersperse the lyrics between passages from the biblical book of Job , partly crossed out with a black marker . The idea was suggested by the band 's record company , although King wanted more time to develop a better cover . King 's concept for the cover was to show nails in the shape of a pentagram , and have them miss keywords in Bible verses so it appeared as if it had been created by a sociopath who knew where every word appears . He later complained that the outcome was typical of " a record company with absolutely no idea what the fuck they were going to do " , and said that the cover " looked like a seventh grader defaced the Bible . " A slip insert was placed in front of the covers in major retail outlets .
= = Reception = =
God Hates Us All was set for release on July 10 ; however , concerns regarding audio mixing , the album cover , and the band 's label — American Recordings — changing distributor , caused the release date to be delayed until September 11 , 2001 . The release drew a connection to the September 11 attacks , which was the second time Slayer caused controversy towards one of their releases — the video for " Seasons in the Abyss " was filmed in Egypt and released prior to the Gulf War . In its week of release , God Hates Us All debuted at number 28 on the Billboard 200 , and sold 51 @,@ 000 copies . It entered the Canadian Albums Chart at number 9 , and debuted at number 18 on the top Internet album chart . As of August 16 , 2006 the album has sold 304 @,@ 000 copies in the United States .
God Hates us All received generally positive reviews from music critics . On Metacritic , the album has a score of 80 out of 100 based on 12 reviews . Kerrang ! ' s Jason Arnopp described the album as " easily Slayer 's most convincing collection since Seasons in the Abyss , " awarding the album five out of five . Rolling Stone 's Rob Kemp wrote the record was " Slayer 's most brutal record since 1986 's immortal ( or undead ) Reign in Blood , " describing the music as " galloping double @-@ bass @-@ drum salvos " which " switch on a dime to furious double @-@ time pummeling , as ominous power chords and jagged shred solos slice and dice with Formula One precision . " Kemp awarded the album three and a half out of five . AllMusic reviewer Jason Birchmeier commented that " nearly 20 years into their evolution , Slayer have abandoned the extravagancies and accessibility of their late- ' 80s / early- ' 90s work and returned to perfect the raw approach of their early years . A near flawless album , " and that Araya 's performance possibly makes " the most exhausting Slayer album yet . "
Not all critics were impressed with the album . Blabbermouth.net reviewer Borivoj Krgin dismissively labeled the album as " another failure on the band 's part to take the initiative and reinvent themselves . " Krgin described King as " the weaker and less inventive of the two main songwriters " ( King and Hanneman ) , feeling the album followed " a familiar direction that almost always sounds tired and forced " as a result of King being the album 's main songwriter . Krgin also singled out Araya for criticism , and called the vocalist a " hollow shell of his former self , boasting a singing style that is monotonous , devoid of creativity and at times virtually unlistenable . " Krgin awarded the record 6 out of 10 , and ended the review by observing that " Slayer 's rapidly diminishing record sales ( Diabolus In Musica has shifted less than 300 @,@ 000 copies in the US compared to 600 – 700 @,@ 000 + ) as a sign that the band is in dire need of a new lease on life . " The Washington Post gave it a mixed review , stating , " Of course , what Slayer says isn 't supposed to be nearly as important as how it says it : The riffs are all overdriven and suffocating , and that 's a conscious decision . In its simplest form , a song like " Exile " could pass for Motorhead pushed through the blades of a lawn mower , but that 's selling Slayer short ; guitarist Kerry King actively fights the groove that naturally comes from playing heavy rock @-@ and @-@ roll . "
The song " Disciple " received a Grammy Award nomination for " Best Metal Performance " at the 44th Grammy Awards , the band 's first nomination . The members cared neither about the nomination nor the award ceremony , and although they did not expect to win , thought it was " cool " to be nominated . The ceremony took place on February 27 , 2002 , with Tool winning the award for their song " Schism " .
= = Bostaph 's departure = =
Prior to Christmas 2001 , Bostaph sustained a chronic elbow injury which hindered his ability to drum , resulting in his decision to leave the band . His third @-@ to @-@ last performance with Slayer was recorded on War at the Warfield . To date , Bostaph has not viewed the footage ; he has likened the experience to " breaking up with a girlfriend , " and wants to move on with his life . Bostaph does not regret his time spent with the band , and described the period as a high point in his career . Bostaph eventually rejoined Slayer in 2013 , once again replacing Dave Lombardo .
Without a drummer the band were unable to finish their God Hates Us All tour . King contacted original drummer Dave Lombardo almost ten years after his departure , and asked him if he would be willing to play for the remainder of the tour . Lombardo accepted the offer , and played for the remaining 21 shows ; however , he did not take on a permanent position with the band .
Following the tour , the band continued their search for a permanent drummer , and sought solicitation via demo tape and snail mail . Interested fans sent video recordings of renditions of the songs " Disciple , " " God Send Death , " " Stain of Mind , " " Angel of Death " , " Postmortem / Raining Blood , " " South of Heaven , " " War Ensemble , " and " Seasons in the Abyss " ; complete with résumés . The band listened to hundreds of demo tapes , and created a " good pile " and " ungood pile , " though the " ungood " was much larger . Those whose performances the band were pleased with were offered an audition in Dallas , San Francisco or Peoria , Illinois ; many applicants , however , were unable to attend due to flight costs . The band auditioned roughly two to three drummers a day , and their top choice was one of Lombardo 's recommendations . However , the band ultimately returned to Lombardo after deciding that they could not find a drummer who suited the job ; Lombardo re @-@ joined Slayer and attended music festivals worldwide to promote God Hates Us All and record drums on the 2006 album Christ Illusion .
= = Track listing = =
= = = Limited edition = = =
The European LP does not contain track 12
= = = Bonus DVD materials = = =
" Darkness of Christ " ( DVD Intro video )
" Bloodline " ( Video )
" Raining Blood " ( Live Video ) ( 2001 @-@ 12 @-@ 07 San Francisco , CA )
" Interview / B @-@ Roll Footage
= = Personnel = =
= Liberty Head double eagle =
The Liberty Head double eagle or Coronet double eagle is an American twenty @-@ dollar gold piece struck as a pattern coin in 1849 , and for commerce from 1850 to 1907 . It was designed by Mint of the United States Chief Engraver James B. Longacre .
The largest denomination of United States coin authorized by the Mint Act of 1792 was the eagle , or ten @-@ dollar piece . The large amount of bullion being brought east after the discovery of gold in California in the 1840s caused Congress to consider new denominations of gold coinage . The gold dollar and double eagle were the result . After considerable infighting at the Philadelphia Mint , Chief Engraver James B. Longacre designed the double eagle , and it began to be issued for commerce in 1850 . Only one 1849 double eagle is known to survive ; it rests in the National Numismatic Collection at the Smithsonian .
The coin was immediately successful ; merchants and banks used it in trade . It was struck until replaced by the Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagle in 1907 , and many were melted when President Franklin D. Roosevelt recalled gold coins from the public in 1933 . Millions of double eagles were sent overseas in international transactions throughout its run to be melted or placed in bank vaults . Many of the latter have now been repatriated to feed the demand from collectors and those who desire to hold gold .
= = Inception = =
Under the Mint Act of 1792 , the largest @-@ denomination coin was the gold eagle , or ten @-@ dollar piece . Also struck were a half eagle ( $ 5 ) and quarter eagle ( $ 2 @.@ 50 ) . Bullion flowed out of the United States for economic reasons for much of the late 18th and early 19th centuries . The eagle 's size made it convenient for use in international transactions , and , faced with the likelihood that most being struck were exported , the Director of the Mint Elias Boudinot ended its production in 1804 . In 1838 , coinage resumed after Congress revised the weight and fineness of American gold coins . The new eagle was struck to a design by Christian Gobrecht , who was one of the Mint 's engravers .
In 1836 , the Public Ledger , a Philadelphia newspaper , proposed the issuance of both a gold dollar and a twenty @-@ dollar piece ; they wrote of the latter , " Twenty [ silver dollars ] are an encumbrance in a pocket ... if we are to have larger coins , let them be of gold . Along with the eagle , which has the size of the half dollar , we would recommend the double eagle , which [ would be ] of the size of our silver dollar , [ and ] would contain the value of twenty . " Others perceived a need for a large U.S. gold coin to be used in international transactions — American merchants sometimes used high @-@ denomination Latin American gold coins for that purpose .
No proposal for a gold twenty @-@ dollar piece was considered until after the California Gold Rush , beginning in 1848 , greatly increased the amount of the metal available in the United States . The increase in the supply of gold caused silver coins to be worth more than their face value , and they were heavily exported , generating new support for a gold dollar to take their place in commerce . The massive quantity of gold made a larger denomination desirable as well , to more efficiently convert gold to coins . In January 1849 , North Carolina Congressman James Iver McKay amended his previously introduced legislation for a gold dollar to provide for a double eagle as well . He wrote to Mint Director Robert M. Patterson , who responded , " there can be no other objection to the Double eagle except that it is not needed . It will be a handsome coin , between the half dollar and dollar in size . "
Concerned about likely Whig opposition to the coinage bill , McKay got his fellow Democrat , New Hampshire Senator Charles Atherton , to introduce the bill in the Senate on February 1 , 1849 — Atherton was chairman of the Senate Finance Committee . McKay introduced a version of the bill into the House on February 20 ; debate began the same day . The dollar was attacked on ground it would be too small ; the double eagle on the claim that it would be heavily abraded in circulation , and would become lightweight . McKay did not respond substantively , but stated that if no one wanted these denominations , they would be unasked @-@ for at the Mint , and would not be coined . Pennsylvania Representative Joseph Ingersoll , a Whig , spoke against the bill , noting that Patterson opposed the new denominations . Ingersoll stated that a twenty @-@ dollar piece would be " doubled into a ponderous and unparalleled size " . Nevertheless , the bill providing for the issuance of the gold dollar and double eagle passed both houses by large margins , and was signed into law by President James K. Polk on March 3 , 1849 . According to numismatist David Lange , " the double eagle was a banker 's coin intended to simplify transfers of large sums between financial institutions and between nations " .
= = Preparation = =
The act authorizing the gold dollar and double eagle precipitated conflict at the Philadelphia Mint . There the officers , including Chief Coiner Franklin Peale , were mostly the friends and relations of Director Patterson . The outsider in their midst was Chief Engraver James B. Longacre , successor to Gobrecht ( who had died in 1844 ) . A former copper @-@ plate engraver , Longacre had been appointed through the political influence of South Carolina Senator John C. Calhoun . Patterson despised Calhoun , and Longacre became a loner at the mint . Most of Peale 's formal duties were performed by his predecessor , Adam Eckfeldt , who continued to do the work of chief coiner despite his retirement . Peale spent the resulting free time running a private medal business taking commissions from the public and using the government 's facilities , including its Contamin portrait lathe . This machine , used in Peale 's medal work , was needed to reduce models of new designs to coin @-@ sized reductions from which working dies could be made . So long as no new coin designs were needed , dies could be reproduced mechanically , without using the Contamin device . Although it belonged to his department , Longacre did not use the Contamin lathe much until Congress ordered that the two new coins be struck .
When Longacre began work on the two new coins in early 1849 , he had no assistants . He completed work on the gold dollar first , anxious to show that he could create a coin design . In May , he requested that Patterson hire another engraver to assist him . The director declined , willing only to have engraving work contracted out . This was unsatisfactory to Longacre , who was responsible under the law for the proper execution of coinage dies , and who could not supervise outside work .
As Longacre worked on the double eagle design , according to numismatist Walter Breen , " Peale , with Patterson 's tacit approval , began harassment . " Longacre prepared a large model of the new coin in wax , and was instructed to give it to Peale for use in preparing a metal galvano , which could be used in the lathe . The operation failed , and Longacre 's model was destroyed . Longacre had , however , made a cast of his model in plaster , and was able to use it in the machine . The resulting steel die had to be hardened in Peale 's department ; as Longacre put it , " it unluckily split in the process " . According to numismatic historian Don Taxay , " Peale 's adoption of a process not normally used at the Mint , together with its catastrophic failures , seems more than coincidental " .
Longacre set forth on a third attempt to create a die . He was hampered not only by the continued opposition of Peale , but by poor lighting and the noxious fumes that penetrated his office at the Philadelphia Mint . A friend , New York engraver Charles Cushing Wright , arranged for Peter F. Cross to assist Longacre with making hubs and dies . Cross made the first obverse die in November and December 1849 at Longacre 's direction , and the chief engraver made the reverse . On December 22 , 1849 , Patterson wrote to Treasury Secretary William M. Meredith that the dies were completed . He enclosed a double eagle , asking Meredith , if he approved of the piece , to send word as quickly as possible to allow the coinage of 1849 double eagles in quantity . Before any reply could be received , Peale objected on December 24 , complaining that the relief of the head of Liberty was so high that pieces struck using the Philadelphia Mint 's steam @-@ powered machinery could not fully bring out the design — the coin sent to Meredith had been coined on a medal press , by hand . In addition , Peale alleged that the head was in such high relief that the coins would not stack . Patterson sent Peale 's letter to Meredith on December 25 , noting that this meant there would be a lengthy delay .
Longacre completed the lower @-@ relief dies about January 12 , 1850 . Peale did not test them for two weeks ; when he did , he rejected them , stating that Liberty 's head opposed the eagle on the reverse , making it difficult for the full design to be brought forth . He stated that Longacre would have to move the position of the head . Longacre , outraged , appealed to Director Patterson , who took no action , but early the next month came to see Longacre in his office . He told the engraver that the Taylor administration ( which had taken office in March 1849 ) had decided on Longacre 's removal , and urged him to send in his resignation as quickly as possible . Longacre did not resign , but went to Washington to see Secretary Meredith . He found that Patterson had lied to Meredith about a number of matters . For example , when Longacre took a new double eagle from his pocket , Meredith expressed surprise , believing that the dies from which it had been made had been broken . Longacre kept his job .
According to numismatic author Q. David Bowers , Longacre 's last set of dies were completed in February 1850 , and were accepted . Breen , however , stated that the first production coins appeared about January 26 , 1850 . Only one 1849 double eagle is known to be extant ; it forms part of the Smithsonian Institution 's National Numismatic Collection . The specimen sent to Meredith is unlocated , and is said to have been owned in the 1950s by coin dealer William K. Nagy , whose former business partner John W. Haseltine supposedly acquired it from the Meredith estate . Nagy allegedly stated that he had sold the coin to a private collector . One 1849 piece , in gilt brass , was later struck for Philadelphia druggist and numismatist Robert Coulton Davis , who had close ties to the Mint . Its location is also unknown .
= = Design = =
The obverse depicts a head of Liberty in the Greco @-@ Roman style , facing left , with her hair pulled back — according to numismatists Jeff Garrett and Ron Guth , " attractively " — in a bun . Some of her hair descends the back of her neck . She wears a coronet , inscribed " Liberty " , and is surrounded by thirteen stars , representative of the original states , and the year of issue . The reverse features a heraldic eagle , holding a double ribbon , on which " E Pluribus Unum " is inscribed . The double ribbon is an allusion by Longacre to the denomination of the piece he was designing . The design is a variant on the Great Seal of the United States ; the eagle protects a shield , which represents the nation , and holds an olive branch and arrows . Above the bird , Longacre again placed thirteen stars , arranged as a halo , together with an arc of rays .
Longacre 's initials , JBL , appear on the truncation of the head . The gold dollar and twenty @-@ dollar piece were the first American federal coins on which the designer 's initials appear — on the gold dollar , only the " L " is used . Longacre 's designs for the double eagle and the Type I gold dollar ( 1849 – 1854 ) are similar .
Art historian Cornelius Vermeule disliked the double eagle and other Longacre coins showing Liberty , calling them routine . He did find that the reverse " has some commendable points of heraldic imagery " and likened that side of the coin to " the frontispiece for a patriotic brochure " . The Daily Alta California in May 1850 reprinted a piece from an unnamed Eastern newspaper , which said of the new piece , " we cannot say that we admire it ... [ the eagle on the reverse is ] imperfectly formed , and marred by some adjacent flummery intended for radiance we suppose , by which the whole thing is rendered confused " . The Journal of Commerce , a New York periodical , suggested that the piece be replaced with one showing George Washington on one side and on the other " a handsome eagle standing out as if it were not ashamed of itself " . The Boston Evening Transcript suggested that Mint authorities should be " stopping the issuance of this very shabby coin . The manager of the mint would seem to be utterly destitute of taste to allow such a specimen to go forth . " Bowers , writing in 2004 , stated that despite the negative contemporary reaction , the design of the double eagle is now very popular among collectors .
= = Production = =
= = = Type I ( 1850 – 1866 ) = = =
The double eagle soon became the most popular gold coin in terms of the number of pieces struck . During the denomination 's life , from 1850 to 1933 , far more gold was struck into double eagles than into all other denominations combined . Of all gold coins struck from the start of gold coinage for circulation in 1795 to the end in 1933 , just under half of the coins struck were double eagles , but 78 % of the gold used was struck into twenty @-@ dollar pieces . According to Bowers , the double eagle " represented the most efficient way to coin a given quantity of gold bullion into coin form " .
Regular production of the double eagle began with the striking of just over a million at Philadelphia in 1850 , and 141 @,@ 000 at the New Orleans Mint that year . Double eagles were struck at New Orleans every year from 1850 to 1861 , generally in small quantities . In the early years of the Liberty Head double eagle , when no mint was in the Far West , some California gold was presented there for coining into double eagles . Once the San Francisco Mint opened in 1854 , New Orleans mintages were light as for the most part only local gold was deposited , and there was not much of it . The Philadelphia Mint continued to receive much of the California gold . After Louisiana seceded from the Union in 1861 , some of the double eagles from New Orleans that year , though bearing the standard designs , were struck under the authority of the State of Louisiana , and later , the Confederacy . That mint then closed , reopening in 1879 . The branch mints at Charlotte and Dahlonega , which also closed with the Civil War , had limited coinage facilities , and struck no denomination higher than a half eagle .
A shortage of gold coins occurred in California and the Far West in the early 1850s ; federal authorities refused to accept gold dust for payment of customs duties and private minters soon stepped into the breach . California Senator William Gwin proposed legislation to establish assay offices in California and for the issuance of high @-@ denomination gold coins , as large as $ 10 @,@ 000 . Although most of his proposals were defeated , an assay office was established at San Francisco . Nevertheless , two money panics roiled California , and in 1852 , Congress established the San Francisco Mint . The first double eagle was coined there on April 3 , 1854 ; struck in proof condition , that piece is now part of the National Numismatic Collection . Just over half of the double eagles struck between 1850 and 1933 were minted at San Francisco .
Many of the high @-@ grade San Francisco Type I double eagles known today were taken from shipwrecks , where they had rested for over a century . These ships included the SS Brother Jonathan , the SS Central America , and the SS Yankee Blade . Thousands of almost @-@ pristine 1857 double eagles struck at San Francisco ( 1857 @-@ S ) went down with the Central America when it sank off the East Coast of the United States that September , as did some 435 people , including Captain William Herndon . The cargo was salvaged beginning in the 1980s ; once litigation over its ownership was settled , the pieces were marketed to the public . The Brother Jonathan , a luxurious paddle steamer en route from San Francisco north to Portland , sank in July 1865 ; few survived the wreck . The thousands of double eagles and other coins on board were salvaged beginning in 1996 , and once litigation concluded , many mint state double eagles came on the market .
The word " LIBERTY " on double eagles between 1850 and 1858 was originally spelled " LLBERTY " by Longacre , who converted the second L into an I ; this is visible under magnification . In 1860 , Assistant Engraver Anthony C. Paquet completed a revision of the reverse , with taller , narrower letters . After production had begun in early 1861 at Philadelphia and San Francisco , it was noticed that the design lacked a rim high enough to protect the design from abrasion , and the Mint went back to the old reverse . Only a handful of the Philadelphia specimens were not melted , but by the time word reached San Francisco to stop production , the western mint had issued 20 @,@ 000 pieces . A Philadelphia specimen sold at auction for $ 1 @,@ 610 @,@ 000 in August 2006 , setting a record for the Liberty Head double eagle series . In February 2013 , an 1866 @-@ S double eagle with no motto was discovered in the Saddle Ridge Hoard in the Gold Country on the western slope of the Sierra Nevada in California . Only a very small number of proof coins in the Liberty Head double eagle series were struck for sale to the public , beginning in 1858 , at Philadelphia ; Breen noted , " few collectors could afford them even then " .
= = = Type II ( 1866 – 1876 ) = = =
With the nation in the midst of an internal war , in November 1861 , Secretary of the Treasury Salmon P. Chase received a proposal that American coinage bear an expression of faith in God . After various wordings were considered , " In God We Trust " was placed on the new two @-@ cent piece in 1864 . The Act of March 3 , 1865 that authorized the copper @-@ nickel three @-@ cent piece also required that the motto appear on all coins large enough to bear it . Pursuant to this mandate , Longacre began re @-@ engraving the various denominations of U.S. coinage . In 1866 , he added " In God We Trust " to all coins that did not already have it , excepting the pieces smaller in diameter than the nickel , a coin which began to be struck that year . The San Francisco Mint used up leftover double eagle reverse dies from 1865 before switching over during 1866 .
Longacre made the required addition to the double eagle by slightly enlarging the circle of stars on the reverse , and placing the motto within it . He took the opportunity to make other changes to the double eagle . The shield on the reverse was given rococo sides ; previously they had been straight . A ninth leaf was added to the olive branch , and the shape of the leaves was changed . The finials of the scroll were made smaller though more elaborate — on the left @-@ hand scroll , the finials impinge less on the letters " ibus " in " Pluribus " than before . The eagle 's wings and tail feathers were also slightly elongated .
In 1870 , the Carson City Mint opened in Nevada at the urging of silver mining interests , so that ore could be refined and converted to coin locally . In addition to silver , it struck gold half eagles , eagles , and double eagles . The 1870 @-@ CC double eagle , like other coins from that mint 's first year of operations , is a great rarity — only 3 @,@ 789 were struck . One sold for $ 414 @,@ 000 at auction in March 2009 . Carson City double eagles circulated for the most part only locally , since they were only struck in response to the deposit of gold bullion and the request of the depositor that it be coined into twenty @-@ dollar pieces . Heavy production of the coin occurred in San Francisco and satisfied the needs of Californians and those in the export trade . As gold did not circulate in the East , most Philadelphia pieces of this era were either sent west , or exported and melted .
In November 1872 , Chief Engraver William Barber , Longacre 's successor , submitted a set of logotypes to show how the following year 's date would appear on the coinage . They were approved , but on January 18 , 1873 , Chief Coiner A. Loudon Snowden filed a written complaint , stating that the " 3 " in the date too closely resembled an " 8 " . Barber was ordered to redo his work ; this decision affected most denominations of U.S. coins . The differences between the " Closed 3 " and " Open 3 " on the double eagle are small . One difference is that on the Closed 3 , the two knobs on the " 3 " are equal in size ; on the Open 3 the upper one is somewhat smaller . All Carson City and most San Francisco issues from that year are Closed 3 .
= = = Type III ( 1877 – 1907 ) = = =
In 1876 , William Barber altered the double eagle 's reverse , emboldening " In God We Trust " . The two varieties are known as the " Heavy Motto " and " Light Motto " types . He made more extensive changes for the following year 's production . He truncated Liberty 's neck at a sharper angle to allow more space for the date , which was punched into the dies by hand . In Longacre 's original version , the tip of Liberty 's coronet is very close to the seventh star clockwise from the date ; beginning in 1877 , it points between the sixth and seventh stars . A more noticeable change was made to the reverse , where the denomination , formerly " Twenty D. " , was spelled out as " Twenty Dollars " . The phrase " E Pluribus Unum " , on the ribbon that the eagle bears , was enlarged . The new dies initially created difficulties at the Mint and Barber made minor adjustments to the design over the first few months of production .
Many double eagles were struck at San Francisco between 1877 and 1883 . Beginning in 1881 , mintage of double eagles at Philadelphia was sharply curtailed . For the seven years 1881 – 1887 , only 4 @,@ 521 were made at that mint for circulation , none being struck in 1882 , 1883 , and 1887 . They were struck yearly in proof at Philadelphia : the 1883 ( mintage 92 ) , 1884 ( 71 ) and 1887 ( 121 ) are great rarities . The mintage of 2 @,@ 325 at New Orleans in 1879 , the only postwar strikings there , is unexplained — Breen suggested that the local mint superintendent might have anticipated a demand for the denomination . Double eagles were unpopular in commerce in the South , as were eagles . Millions of double eagles were sent to Europe as payment in international transactions beginning in the 1880s , often in cloth bags containing 250 coins , for a total of $ 5 @,@ 000 per bag .
In 1900 , William Barber 's successor as chief engraver , his son Charles E. Barber , slightly adjusted the design ; other modifications to U.S. coins about that time suggest that he most likely did it as part of a plan to re @-@ engrave all denominations . The most significant change made by Charles Barber was smoothing the back of the eagle 's neck . In 1904 , the Mint set records for production of double eagles : 6 @,@ 256 @,@ 699 at Philadelphia and 5 @,@ 134 @,@ 175 at San Francisco — highs for the series for those mints . The only higher production of double eagles , after the Liberty Head series ended , was the figure of 8 @,@ 816 @,@ 000 from Philadelphia in 1928 .
The 1891 discovery of gold at Cripple Creek , Colorado , in 1891 led to a gold rush there . The greater availability of gold in Colorado was one reason the Denver Mint was authorized in 1904 — it opened in 1906 . About a dozen proofs were struck for presentation to dignitaries when production of double eagles was inaugurated at Denver on April 4 , 1906 .
= = = Replacement = = =
In 1904 , President Theodore Roosevelt complained to his Secretary of the Treasury , Leslie M. Shaw , about the designs on American coinage , and enquired if a sculptor such as the President 's friend , Augustus Saint @-@ Gaudens , could be hired to provide beautiful , up @-@ to @-@ date designs .
The following year , the Mint hired Saint @-@ Gaudens to create new designs for the four gold pieces then being struck , as well as the cent . Other commissions delayed him , and as he became more ill with the cancer that would kill him , his work slowed . Chief Engraver Barber repeatedly objected to the design Saint @-@ Gaudens finally submitted , which shows Liberty striding across a rocky outcrop , on the grounds that its relief was too high . After Saint @-@ Gaudens 's death on August 3 , 1907 , Barber produced his own , low @-@ relief version of Saint @-@ Gaudens 's coin . Its striking began in late 1907 , and it entered commerce that December — thereby putting an end to the Liberty Head double eagle series .
= = Collecting = =
Large quantities of double eagles were melted in the 1930s by the government after they were called in under President Franklin D. Roosevelt . Although many of the double eagles exported in bulk in the late 19th and early 20th centuries were melted — records show that most sent to the United Kingdom were recoined into sovereigns — millions remained in banks . Large quantities of double eagles were found in the vaults of European banks beginning in the 1940s , and were placed on the numismatic market . Many common and low @-@ grade Liberty Head double eagles have been sold as investments , valued based on their bullion content . Type I double eagles have been recovered from shipwrecks , bringing many high @-@ grade early specimens onto the market , with the romance of " treasure coins " increasing the public demand .
In the 19th century , double eagles were little collected . Numismatists did not yet consider mintmarked coins to be distinct from those without . Even proof coins — with mintages in the dozens or low hundreds — sold on the secondary market at a slight increase from face value , and probably many were spent in hard times . In 1909 , early numismatic writer Edgar H. Adams published a catalog of American gold issues . No Liberty Head double eagle was considered by Adams to be worth more than the value inscribed on it .
As it became clear in the 1940s that the withdrawal of gold coins in 1933 had left several late @-@ date Saint @-@ Gaudens double eagles unexpectedly rare , collector interest grew in the denomination . The massive importation of double eagles held overseas once Americans were allowed to own gold again in 1974 added to the supply , but according to numismatic writer and coin dealer Bowers , " today they are of such wide popularity , fascination , and interest that the record prices achieved [ at an important sale in 1949 ] seem like incredible bargains ! "
There are many ways to collect Liberty Head double eagles . Some , wishing only a few pieces , may choose one each of the three major types , or seek pieces from the five mints that struck them . Carson City double eagles are highly popular . As the 1870 @-@ CC is almost unobtainable , collectors may limit themselves to Carson City Type III pieces ( 1877 – 1893 ) . Collectors seeking one double eagle per year of mintage will find it expensive to fill the 1886 entry , a year in which double eagles were only struck at Philadelphia , and just 1 @,@ 000 business strikes and 106 proof pieces were issued . The 2015 edition of R.S. Yeoman 's A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the 1886 in Very Fine condition ( VF @-@ 20 ) at $ 22 @,@ 500 .
= 1979 Gillette Cup Final =
The 1979 Gillette Cup Final was a cricket match between Somerset County Cricket Club and Northamptonshire County Cricket Club played on 8 September 1979 at Lord 's in London . It was the seventeenth final of the Gillette Cup , which had been the first English domestic knock @-@ out competition between first @-@ class sides . Northamptonshire had won the competition in 1976 ; Somerset were playing their second consecutive final , having lost to Sussex in 1978 .
After winning the toss , Northamptonshire captain Jim Watts opted to bowl first . Somerset scored 269 runs off their full allocation of 60 overs , during which West Indian batsman Viv Richards top @-@ scored for the county , totalling 117 runs . In their response , Northamptonshire lost early wickets , but a partnership of 113 between Geoff Cook and Allan Lamb kept them in the game . Six wickets from Joel Garner helped Somerset bowl their opponents out for 224 with 3 @.@ 3 overs remaining , earning the county the first trophy in their 104 @-@ year history .
= = Background = =
Northamptonshire 's only previous Gillette Cup Final appearance had come three summers earlier when they beat Lancashire by four wickets to win the 1976 Gillette Cup , which was the club 's only silverware since becoming a first @-@ class county in 1905 . Somerset had appeared in two previous finals , losing in 1967 to Kent , and in 1978 to Sussex . In addition to losing the Gillette Cup final in 1978 , Somerset had narrowly missed out in the John Player League , and according to Vic Marks , there was " a deep determination to atone for the acute disappointments of the 1978 season . "
= = Route to the final = =
Northamptonshire entered the competition in the second round , in which they were drawn against Surrey County Cricket Club . They won the match by six wickets , aided by a century from Geoff Cook which earned him the man of the match award . In the quarter @-@ finals , they beat Leicestershire by eight wickets , with particularly economical bowling from Sarfraz Nawaz and Richard Williams helping to limit their opponents to 180 , a total which Northamptonshire reached with 4 @.@ 2 overs to spare . Northamptonshire batted first during their semi @-@ final against Sussex , a match which they won by 37 runs . Allan Lamb and Peter Willey shared a partnership of 157 for the fourth wicket , and Willey 's economical bowling was then instrumental in restricting Sussex to 218 , for which he was named man of the match .
Like their opponents in the final , Somerset joined the tournament in the second round , facing Derbyshire . Bowling first , Somerset limited their opponents to 224 ; Joel Garner was their most economical bowler . In reply , Somerset captain and opening batsman Brian Rose remained not out on 88 when his side reached their winning target with 3 @.@ 5 overs remaining , having lost two wickets . Kent travelled to Taunton for the quarter @-@ final , in which Somerset chose to bat first after winning the toss . Only Graham Burgess reached a half @-@ century for Somerset against a bowling attack which included five Test players . In Kent 's reply , Garner claimed five wickets and Ian Botham three as Somerset bowled their opponents out for 60 runs . Against Middlesex in the semi @-@ final , Somerset 's bowlers were once again led by Garner , who picked up four wickets as the London @-@ based club were dismissed for 185 . Somerset won with 9 @.@ 4 overs remaining for the loss of three wickets and Peter Denning remained unbeaten on 90 .
= = Match = =
= = = Summary = = =
The sun was shining on the morning of the final , and Somerset 's captain Brian Rose was glad when Northamptonshire won the toss . The conditions favoured batting first , but had Somerset won the toss they would most likely have chosen to bat second , given their success in chasing throughout the season . Northamptonshire captain Jim Watts opted to field , giving Somerset the benefit of batting first . Somerset 's opening batsmen began quickly , taking the score to 34 before Peter Denning was caught by the wicket @-@ keeper George Sharp off the bowling of Sarfraz Nawaz . His wicket in the seventh over brought in Viv Richards . Before going out to bat , Richards focussed his mind on the fact that " it wasn 't a day for daring , carefree sixes . It was a day for maturity " . Rose played a patient innings for his 41 runs , before being bowled by Watts , leaving Somerset 95 / 2 . At the other end , Richards was playing what David Foot described as " a controlled gem " . He remained at the wicket until the final over , scoring 117 runs in a chanceless innings . His boundaries were scored predominantly from straight drives and leg hits , powerfully struck . Ian Botham played aggressively when he came in at number five , scoring 27 runs off 17 deliveries , and Joel Garner played similarly when he batted towards the end of the innings , adding 24 runs to the total . Somerset batted through their full allocation of overs , finishing on 269 / 8 . Of the Northamptonshire bowlers , Watts was the most economical , conceding 34 runs off his 12 overs . Tim Lamb conceded the most , allowing 70 runs to be scored from his 12 . The wickets were shared by the bowlers ; Watts , Lamb and Griffiths took two each , while Sarfraz Nawaz and Peter Willey claimed one apiece . Towards the end of the innings , Watts broke a bone in his right hand when catching a throw from the outfield , which prevented him from participating further in the match .
The Northamptonshire reply was made more difficult when Garner trapped Wayne Larkins leg before wicket and induced Richard Williams to hit his own wicket during his opening bowling spell . Opening batsman Geoff Cook was then joined at the crease by Allan Lamb , and the pair fought back , adding 113 runs in 13 overs before Cook was run out by Roebuck . In his history of Somerset cricket , Roebuck describes this run out as vital , though he does not give himself credit , stating that " Geoff Cook ran himself out " . Marks identified the point at which Lamb was stumped by Derek Taylor as the point at which " victory was almost assured . " Jim Yardley and George Sharp added 20 and 22 runs respectively , but with their captain , Watts , unable to bat through injury , and Somerset 's West Indian fast bowler Garner in good form , Northamptonshire were bowled out for 224 . Garner added four more wickets to the two he had taken during his first spell , to finish with career @-@ best figures of six wickets for 29 runs . Garner , Botham and Keith Jennings all bowled very economically , each restricting their opponents to less than 30 runs from their bowling . Somerset won the match by 45 runs , winning the Gillette Cup , the first trophy they had won during their 104 @-@ year history .
= = = Scorecard = = =
= = Aftermath = =
Somerset were awarded £ 5 @,@ 500 for winning the competition , while Northamptonshire collected £ 2 @,@ 500 . The day after their success in the Gillette Cup Final , Somerset travelled to Nottingham , where they beat Nottinghamshire to clinch the 1979 John Player League . The Somerset captain , Brian Rose was one of two Somerset players to be named as a Wisden Cricketer of the Year in 1980 , primarily for his captaincy of Somerset during the 1979 season . Also one of the five players was Joel Garner , of whom Wisden said " His part in Somerset 's double success during 1979 admits no arguments as to his potent and continuing ability to swing matches . " Northamptonshire were eliminated in the first round of the 1980 Gillette Cup , but won the 1980 Benson & Hedges Cup , defeating Essex in the final .
= Smalls Paradise =
Smalls Paradise ( often called Small 's Paradise and Smalls ' Paradise , and not to be confused with Smalls Jazz Club ) , was a nightclub in Harlem , New York City . Located in the basement of 2294 Seventh Avenue , it opened in 1925 and was owned by Ed Smalls . At the time of the Harlem Renaissance , Smalls Paradise was the only one of the well @-@ known Harlem night clubs to be owned by an African @-@ American and integrated . Other major Harlem night clubs admitted white patrons only , unless the person was an African @-@ American celebrity .
The entertainment at Smalls Paradise was not limited to the stage ; waiters danced the Charleston or roller @-@ skated as they delivered orders to customers . Waiters were also known to vocalize during the club 's floor shows . Unlike most of the Harlem clubs which closed between 3 @-@ 4am , Smalls was open all night , offering a breakfast dance which featured a full floor show beginning at 6am .
After 30 years as the owner of the night club , Ed Smalls sold the club to Tommy Smalls ( no relation ) in 1955 . It was later owned by Wilt Chamberlain , and renamed Big Wilt 's Smalls Paradise . Many well known musicians , both white and African @-@ American , - appeared at the club over the years , and often came to Smalls after their evening engagements to jam with the Smalls Paradise band . The club was responsible for promoting popular dances such as the Charleston , the Madison and the Twist . Smalls Paradise was the longest @-@ operating club in Harlem before it closed in 1986 . The building has been the site of Thurgood Marshall Academy since 2004 .
= = Early history = =
Entrepreneur Ed Smalls owned a small venue in Harlem , the Sugar Cane Club , from 1917 to 1925 , which catered primarily to local residents . When Smalls opened Smalls Paradise in the basement of an office building at 2294 Seventh Avenue , he envisioned a night club which would not exclude his neighbors , but would also be attractive to New Yorkers who lived in the city 's downtown area . Smalls arranged a lavish gala for the club 's opening on October 26 , 1925 , which was attended by almost 1 @,@ 500 people . Though Prohibition was in effect , patrons were able to bring their own liquor or purchase bootlegged liquor from the club 's waiters .
Opening Day music was provided by Charlie Johnson and his musicians , who remained as the " house band " for ten years . The members of Johnson 's band included Jabbo Smith , Benny Carter , Jimmy Harrison , Sidney De Paris and Sidney Bechet . While performing at Smalls Paradise in 1925 , Sam Wooding and his orchestra were heard by a Russian impressario ; Leonidoff promptly hired Wooding and his musicians for a European tour with the Chocolate Kiddies revue . The revue opened in Berlin in 1925 , with Wooding and his band performing in the revue for a year . Wooding and his orchestra left the revue to perform in Europe and South America until 1927 .
Banjo player Elmer Snowden , whose band played at the Smalls Paradise Sunday matinees , would often jam with the Johnson band after he had finished his nightly performance at the Hot Feet Club . Other musicians also made it a habit to drop in at Smalls Paradise after their engagements were over for the evening . Glenn Miller , Tommy Dorsey and Buddy Rich often came to Smalls Paradise to jam with the house band for the joy of it .
Like the other large and successful night clubs in Harlem , the Cotton Club and Connie 's Inn , Smalls regularly showcased revues which featured the club 's permanent staff of entertainers . Ed Smalls commissioned original music for the stage productions of the night club . Smalls Paradise was the only major Harlem night spot which was owned by an African @-@ American , and was racially integrated . The other clubs admitted white patrons only unless the person was an African @-@ American celebrity . Smalls previously had some success in attracting a racially mixed clientele at his Sugar Cane Club with the quality entertainment and waiters who danced while balancing trays of drinks and sang during floor shows . Beginning with the opening of Smalls Paradise , Smalls had his waiters dance the Charleston while serving guests ; patrons were also served drinks by waiters on roller skates .
Smalls Paradise had no
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Old Testament Studies at Southern , also left the school . His credentials as a minister of the church were not renewed .
= = = Southern Adventist University , 1996 @-@ present = = =
In May 1996 , the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools granted approval for Southern to become an accredited Level III institution , allowing the school to confer master 's degrees . By September of that year , the college 's constituency approved the name change to Southern Adventist University . In 1996 , attendance was 1600 . Since 1996 , Southern has continued to grow and build , reaching a peak enrollment of 3 @,@ 053 in 2010 ( compared with 2 @,@ 079 in 1980 ) .
= = Academics = =
The student @-@ faculty ratio at Southern Adventist University is 16 : 1 and its most selected majors are biological and biomedical sciences ; business , management , marketing , and related support services ; education ; and health professions and related clinical sciences . Southern offers 81 undergraduate degrees , with sixty majors , thirty @-@ eight minors and two one @-@ year certificate programs . It also offers master 's degrees in business , computer science , education , psychology , nursing , religion and social work . The university is accredited by the Commission on Colleges of the Southern Association of Colleges and Schools and the Accrediting Association of Seventh @-@ day Adventist Schools , Colleges , and Universities . In 2009 , the Princeton Review , an education services company , selected Southern as one of 141 institutions it listed in its " Best in the Southeast " section .
= = = School of Nursing = = =
The nursing program was instituted in 1934 . Upon completion of the program students were able to transfer to Florida Sanitarium and Hospital , where they could earn a diploma in nursing . In 1963 , Southern 's President Rees announced that the school 's nursing program had received its Bachelor of Science National League of Nursing accreditation . In 2002 , the master 's program also received official accreditation . Southern 's School of Nursing has existed on the Collegedale campus since 1956 .
In 2003 , the School announced an accelerated program allowing registered nurses with an associate 's degree to receive a Master of Science in Nursing . At this date approximately half of Southern 's nursing graduate program were non @-@ Adventist .
In December 2010 , the college temporarily suspended a home health nursing program after two of its nursing students were accosted at gunpoint in Chattanooga . The school is considering a safer , more controlled environment for the program .
In 2011 , the university opened Florida Hospital Hall , a new building with twice the space of the former nursing building , to accommodate an expanding student base .
= = = Institute of Archaeology = = =
The Institute of Archaeology is part of the School of Religion . It coordinates the archaeological programs at Southern through an undergraduate degree , an archeological museum , the William G. Dever Research Library and its archaeological excavations and publications . Southern is one of two schools in the U.S. where students can pursue an undergraduate degree in biblical archaeology . The Lynn H. Wood Archaeological Museum has a collection of nearly 600 artifacts , many of which were unearthed in Israel between 1967 and 1975 .
The current Institute Director , Professor of Near Eastern Studies and Archaeology Michael Hasel , studied for his doctorate under William G. Dever at the University of Arizona . In 2000 , Dever gave his artifact collection in loan to Hasel and Southern . This made the development of Southern 's program possible . The artifacts , valued at $ 250 @,@ 000 , date from 3200 BC to 450 AD . The collection has an almost complete set of the many strains of pottery from this period which students can study . In 2008 , Dever placed his personal library at Southern , along with 15 @,@ 000 photographic slides of archaeological excavations .
= = = School of Visual Art and Design = = =
Wayne and Maria Hazen founded the School of Visual Art and Design in 1998 . The film department produced Angel in Chains in 2003 , a film " based on a true story about acceptance and forgiveness . " In 2007 , Southern released Secret of the Cave , a feature film which was awarded a Crystal Heart Award at the Heartland Film Festival in Indiana . The family @-@ oriented feature was filmed in Ireland and was the first feature @-@ length film produced at the university . The school offers degrees in graphic design , animation , film production and fine art .
= = = McKee Library = = =
The McKee Library is located on the campus and opened in 1970 . Its collection of books and media comprises approximately 165 @,@ 000 volumes on the shelves , 25 @,@ 000 electronic books , subscriptions to more than 880 print and electronic periodicals and access to more than 19 @,@ 000 electronic journals . The library is defined by the Thomas Memorial Collection , a major Civil War collection with more than 3 @,@ 600 volumes concerning Lincoln and the Civil War , and authentic photos and newspapers . The Collection has two original copies of the only Lincoln biography ever read and approved by him , the Life of Abraham Lincoln by J. L. Scripps , and a section of his original marble sarcophagus .
= = Ideology = =
Southern is known for its religious and social conservatism , and some say is the most conservative of denominationally owned Adventist colleges in North America . In 2001 , Adventist noted theologian and scholar Raymond Cottrell , a " progressive Adventist " , wrote that Southern operated " an agency of Southern Bible belt obscurantism . "
In explaining why he placed his collection of artifacts and his personal library at Southern Adventist University , archaeologist William Dever said , " The major support for archaeology work in Israel and Jordan comes from conservative and evangelical circles where the Bible is still taken seriously and no one is more serious and committed about archaeological study in the Middle East than Adventists . "
= = Student life = =
The Princeton Review describes Southern as a " religiously loving environment . " Most forms of jewelry are not allowed on campus , including engagement rings , and students may be fined for not complying with this policy . Southern is a dry campus , as the Adventist Church opposes the use of alcohol . The university observes the Sabbath from sundown Friday to sundown Saturday and students are expected to refrain from secular activities during these hours .
Although Southern does not have fraternities or sororities , there are 40 clubs on campus , one of which is a chapter of the Adventist Forum , publisher of Spectrum Magazine . The Southern Accent is a weekly student @-@ run newspaper that has been the voice of Southern students since 1926 and gives information on events and outings and " hot issues that are being talked about on campus " . There are 21 student @-@ led ministries on campus and in the community and a Student Missions program .
Southern has more than 10 miles ( 16 km ) of hiking / mountain biking trails used by students and local community members alike .
There is a campus @-@ wide internet network with all classrooms accessing the wireless network and a computer lab in each building with access to printing . Wireless printing is also accessible in the dormitories .
= = = Dormitories = = =
Southern 's dormitories are single gender although students can opt out of the dormitories during summer sessions or with permission from a dean . Upperclass and married students can receive exemptions from this policy . The men 's dormitory is Talge Hall and the women 's dormitory is Thatcher Hall . An accidental fire in Thatcher Hall in April 2005 killed one student and injured two others . The dormitories have also been used to shelter storm victims who needed short @-@ term housing , such as after tornadoes in early 2011 .
= = = WSMC @-@ FM radio station = = =
Southern owns and operates FM radio station WSMC which is almost completely staffed by students and the only classical music station in the Chattanooga area . In 2003 , following technical problems that caused the station to keep dropping off the air , WSMC upgraded equipment to improve its reliability . It has been in operation since 1961 and is located on campus .
= = McKee Foods = =
McKee Foods has its headquarters beside the campus and has been an important part of school history as one of the companies which have provided jobs within walking distance for students to fund their education . It was founded by a Southern alumnus and is the headquarters for Little Debbie , Sovex and Sunbelt products . McKee Foods is one of the largest employers in Hamilton County .
= = People = =
= = = Principals , presidents = = =
= = = Notable alumni = = =
Jim Davis , state senator
Clifford Goldstein , author and editor
Dwight Nelson , pastor
Cherie Priest , novelist and blogger
Mathew Staver , founder and Chairman of Liberty Counsel
Lisa Robertson , actress and QVC host
= Chrono Resurrection =
Chrono Resurrection , also known as Chrono Trigger : Resurrection , is an unreleased fangame developed by North American team Resurrection Games under Nathan Lazur 's direction . It is based on the critically acclaimed Super NES role @-@ playing game Chrono Trigger by the Japanese company Square . The project was initially called CT64 and was meant to be a complete remake of the original game for the Nintendo 64 , with both 2D and 3D playing modes .
After a first interruption in development , the project was redefined as a short interactive demo for Windows @-@ based personal computers . New team members , including professional artists and designers , were recruited for the demo , which would feature ten scenes from Chrono Trigger and most of its playable characters . In 2004 , the project was publicly closed after Square Enix issued a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter to Resurrection Games for trademark and copyright infringement . Despite its closure , the project has received critical and popular praises .
= = Nintendo 64 version = =
Nathan Lazur initially planned to create a Chrono Trigger remake for the Nintendo 64 , called CT64 , using GNU @-@ based homebrew tools . Lazur 's motivation for the project came in 1999 when playing Chrono Trigger and Super Mario 64 . The remake , developed by a team of four people , was Lazur 's first attempt at creating a complete title . The game was intended to have two playing modes and the same battle system as the original .
The first mode would feature 2D and pre @-@ rendered graphics enhanced with 3D spell and battle effects . Some of the effects created by Lazur would rely on software programming rather than the Nintendo 64 hardware , as the latter would not be capable of rendering them directly . The second mode would be a full 3D mode played in either regular or high display resolution , and would feature different level of detail textures depending on camera distances , to maximize clarity and performance . Both modes would be in a top @-@ down perspective , although more cinematic camera angles , similar to those from The Legend of Zelda : Ocarina of Time , were also considered for the 3D mode .
A gallery feature was also planned and would allow players to unlock bonus material depending on their progression in the game . Fan artwork and music would be unlockable through this feature , as well as minigames , including a card game similar to Triple Triad from Final Fantasy VIII . The remake was expected to be released on the Internet for free and played on console emulators , since there would be no cartridge version due to financial constraints . Only a semi @-@ working 3D test was actually completed , and the project was discontinued in mid @-@ 2000 due to a number of factors , including the accidental loss of Lazur 's data and his desire to improve his programming skills .
= = Second version = =
= = = Development = = =
The second version of the project , tentatively called Chrono Trigger : Brink of Time then Chrono Resurrection , started development in April 2003 . Lazur has given several reasons to explain his willingness to restart the project , including his experience coding for the Dreamcast Visual Memory Unit , programming for game developer DC Studios , and playing Chrono Cross , the official sequel to Chrono Trigger for PlayStation . Unlike CT64 , the second version would be a short demo developed in a cross @-@ platform engine with a single 3D playing mode . The Windows version was planned for a free Internet release , while Nintendo GameCube and Xbox ports would be reserved for official developers with access to development kits of either of the two consoles .
The new development team was mostly recruited on the game developers website Gamasutra and worked in a small studio in Lazur 's apartment , in Montreal , Quebec , Canada . The team included up to nine members , most of which had about two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years of experiences in the industry . Lazur has admitted that he began to seriously focus on the quality of the demo only after art director Luis Martins joined the project . Other professional designers in the team included Moise Breton , a 3D artist who had worked on character models for the commercially successful movie The Matrix Reloaded , and Michel Cadieux , an animator who had worked for game company Microïds . Difficulties were encountered in the game engine development as Lazur was the unique programmer and worked from scratch .
The score for the demo was composed by Mathew Valente , who had been with the project since its Nintendo 64 version . The score was to consist in arrangements of the official Chrono Trigger soundtrack written by Yasunori Mitsuda , Nobuo Uematsu and Noriko Matsueda . Valente 's goal was to retain the feeling of the original music while enhancing it for a modern platform . Most of the arrangements were created in the Impulse Tracker format , then converted to MIDI and enhanced with a number of tools .
= = = Content = = =
The team tried to capture the feel of the original game with updated graphics and sounds in the demo . It was to feature ten short interactive scenes from Chrono Trigger . Despite receiving requests from fans , the development team did not intend to create a complete remake of the original game since they would not have the necessary resources , and because they thought the result would not have been on par with Square Enix @-@ developed titles . The story of the game was altered slightly to allow for the ten scenes to better flow from one to the other .
The demo was meant to be played using a " default party " of characters , with other party members unlockable for additional replay value . Due to time constraints , the development team expected that two of the seven characters of the original game , Robo and Ayla , would have 50 % chances of not being featured . While the team tried to capture the feel of the original game with updated graphics and sounds , the artists and animators faced difficulty in reproducing the characters due to the differences of style between the sprites , artwork and PlayStation version anime sequences . They noted , however , that they overcame the issues and managed to add a bit of their own art style into the game .
= = Closure and aftermath = =
Chrono Resurrection was originally set for a Christmas 2004 release . However , Square Enix issued a cease @-@ and @-@ desist letter to Resurrection Games before the release for trademark and copyright infringement . Faced with a threat of legal action , the project was publicly closed on September 6 , 2004 . According to the development team , the website of the project had received significant hits from Square Enix Japanese IP addresses for a period of three months before the letter issuing . They assumed these visits were mostly from employees rather than top executives , and hoped the company would see the demo as how the team sees it , a tribute to Chrono Trigger rather than a replacement .
Gaming websites 1UP.com and GameSpot called the project 's second version " ambitious " and praised its graphics , noting that the art style is mostly faithful to that of the original game 's character designer Akira Toriyama . Website Nintendo World Report praised the game 's graphics and music , and called the quality of the artwork " professional " . 1UP.com judged the project 's closure " unfortunate " but deduced that Square Enix could not leave the possibility of a " competing " Chrono Trigger remake open . GameSpot also expressed their disappointment in Square Enix 's decision to shut down the " furthest along " of Chrono Trigger fan remakes , pointing at the fact that with no news of another official sequel , fans of the Chrono series " have been left in the cold " . Website GamePro Australia called the project " possibly the greatest fan remake to get crushed under the huge shoe of a big @-@ time developer " .
Several Internet petitions were created by fans to pressure Square Enix into green @-@ lighting Chrono Resurrection ; none have had any effect , however . Nathan Lazur , though disappointed , holds no ill will towards Square Enix for protecting its intellectual property , and he has stated that he " felt honoured to even be recognized " by the company . He added that to avoid legal issues , developers of fangames should present their polished demos directly to the original publishers so that the products can be handled in a " more traditional business procedure " . Before the closure of Chrono Resurrection , Lazur had stated that his team had no plans to remake other games after the project 's completion and would have liked to develop an original concept based in feudal Japan .
= Halo ( megastructure ) =
Halo rings are eponymous fictional megastructures and superweapons in the Halo science fiction franchise . They are referred to as " Installations " by their AI monitors , and are collectively referred to as " the Array " by the installations ' creators , the Forerunners . The series ' alien antagonists , the Covenant , refer to the structures as the " Sacred Rings " , believing them to form part of a greater religious prophecy known as " The Great Journey " . According to Halo 's fiction , the Forerunners built the rings to contain and study the Flood , an infectious alien parasite . The rings act together as a weapon of last resort ; when fired , the rings kill any sentient life capable of falling prey to the Flood , starving the parasite of its food . The installations are at the crux of the plot progression for the Halo series .
The Halos are massive ringworlds , which feature their own wildlife and weather . The constructs resemble Iain M. Banks ' Orbital concept in shape and design . The structure that Halo : Combat Evolved takes place on was initially to be a hollowed @-@ out planet , but was changed to its ring design later in development ; a staff member provided " Halo " as the name for both the ring and the video game after names such as Red Shift were suggested .
= = Overview = =
= = = Design and development = = =
The term " megastructure " refers to artificial structures where one of three dimensions is 100 kilometers ( 62 mi ) or larger . The first use of a ring @-@ shaped megastructure in fiction was Larry Niven 's novel Ringworld ( 1970 ) . Niven described his design as an intermediate step between Dyson spheres and planets - a ring with a radius of more than 93 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 150 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ) and a width of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km ) ; these are dimensions far exceeding the ringworlds found in the Halo series , which feature radii of 5 @,@ 000 miles ( 8 @,@ 000 km ) The Halos are closer in proportion to the Bishop Ring ( habitat ) , an actual proposed space habitat first explained by Forrest Bishop , though the proportions of the Halos do not exactly match up with Bishop 's idea . As seen in the games , Halo installations feature a metallic exterior , with the interior of the ring filled with an atmosphere , water , plant life , and animal life . What appear to be docking ports and windows dot the exterior surface , suggesting that a fraction of the ring structure itself is hollow and used for maintenance , living , and power generation .
Before the title for game developer Bungie 's next project was announced and development of the game that would become Halo was in its early stages , the megastructure that Halo : Combat Evolved took place on was a massive , hollowed @-@ out planet called " Solipsis " . The planet became a Dyson Sphere , and then a Dyson Ring . Some Bungie staffers felt the change to a ringworld was " ripping off Larry Niven " , according to Bungie artist Paul Russel . Bungie employee Frank O 'Connor wrote in a post on Bungie.net that " the specific accusation that we swiped the idea of a ring @-@ shaped planet wholesale is not accurate , " explaining that Bungie used a ringworld because " it 's cool and therefore the type of thing a Forerunner civilization would build . "
At the time , the game was known as Blam ! , but Bungie had always expected to replace the working title with something better ( Blam ! was only used after studio co @-@ founder Jason Jones could not bring himself to tell his mother their next project was dubbed Monkey Nuts . ) Titles such as The Crystal Palace , Hard Vacuum , Star Maker , Star Shield , and The Santa Machine were suggested . Russel suggested calling it Project : Halo because of the ring . Despite concerns that the title seemed too religious or lacked action , the name stuck . In turn , " Halo " became the ring 's name as well .
Combat Evolved 's Halo was intended to be populated with large animal life , collectively known as Fauna . The Fauna included " pseudo @-@ dinosaurs " and mammals , as well as a Chocobo @-@ like creature — the " Blind Wolf " — that players could ride . The animals were removed for technical and conceptual reasons ; there were difficulties in getting herd and behavior action to work , and under pressure to complete the game 's more central aspects , the animals were dropped . Bungie also felt that the desolate ring heightened the sense of Halo 's mystery , and made the appearance of the parasitic Flood more terrifying and unexpected .
= = = Scientific analysis = = =
Physicist Kevin Grazier posited in a 2006 essay the composition and problems associated with a Halo installation . The complete Halos seen in Halo : Combat Evolved and Halo 2 orbit gas giants similar to Jupiter , though much larger ; the bodies exhibit characteristics of both a jovian planet and a small star . In each system , there are five points where a body of negligible mass would remain stationary to the two much larger bodies in the system , the gas giant and its moon . These areas , known as Lagrange points , are classified by stability ; while bodies at 60 ° angles to the gas giant would remain in the same location relative to the other objects in the system , the other three Lagrange points are meta @-@ stable , having the tendency to be unstable in one direction . As the Halos are located at point L1 , the installations must actively correct its orbit . The apparent gravity of the Halo installations is close to Earth normal . A Halo would have to spin with a tangental speed of 7 kilometers ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) per second to match Earth 's gravity , translating to 19 @.@ 25 rotations in a day .
Aside from its unstable position , Halos would have to contend with thousands of meteor and micrometeor impacts which would destabilize or destroy the ring ; there is no evidence in the games that the installations project an energy shield to prevent this occurrence . Because of the magnetic environment around the gas giant , a Halo would be exposed to high levels of radiation . Earth is protected from such radiation by charged particles created by the planet 's magnetic field . Grazier posits that huge conductive cables could run the circumference of a Halo ; when an electric current was run through these cables , a protective magnetic environment could be created to sustain life .
In the games , spectroscopic analysis of the ring 's composition proved " inconclusive " , implying that the Halos are constructed of an unknown material ( unobtainium ) . Were a Halo to be constructed using conventional materials a light steel alloy would be most feasible . Assuming that the ring structure is 50 % empty space , a 5000 km ring composed of steel alloy at an average density of 7 @.@ 7 grams ( 0 @.@ 27 oz ) per 1 cubic centimeter ( 0 @.@ 061 cu in ) would result in a total mass of 1.7x1017 kg . The amount of material required to build such a ring would be akin to the total material available in the asteroid belt .
= = Installations = =
= = = Installation 03 = = =
Installation 03 , also referred to as Gamma Halo , appears in Halo 4 . It is monitored by 049 Abject Testament and is located in the Khaphrae system , orbiting a damaged planet . Whilst no gameplay takes place on the installation , an extremely dense asteroid field surrounding the installation is the site of the UNSC scientific research base Ivanoff . It is here that UNSC scientists are conducting experiments on the Forerunner artifact called the Composer , which has the ability to convert biological forms , specifically humans , into AIs . Once the game 's antagonist , the Didact , activates the device , the UNSC base is left uninhabited . In Halo : Escalation , a series of comics which follows many events after Halo 4 , establishes that 049 Abject Testament has long disappeared from the ring , leading a monitor to arrive at the Installation , just to be ambushed by a still living Didact , using the Installation to use the Composer .
= = = Installation 04 = = =
Installation 04 , also referred to as Alpha Halo , appears in Halo : Combat Evolved . The majority of gameplay takes place in areas on this installation , and its exploration drives the story . The ring was managed by an artificial intelligence known as 343 Guilty Spark , and is located in the Soell system , dominated by a gas giant known as Threshold . Halo orbits Threshold 's only satellite , an extremely large moon known as Basis . A group of humans aboard the ship Pillar of Autumn crash @-@ land on the ring after being pursued by the alien Covenant . The ring holds religious significance to the aliens , while the humans believe it is a weapon that could turn the tide of the war against the Covenant in their favor . In reality , the ring is home to a virulent parasite called the Flood , which is accidentally released by the Covenant and threaten to infest the galaxy . The human soldier Master Chief eventually detonates the Pillar of Autumn 's reactors in order to destabilize the ring and cause it to break up , preventing the spread of the Flood and the activation of the Halo network , which would kill all sentient life as a fail @-@ safe to starve the Flood . The Ark was alerted to its destruction and proceeded to create Installation 04B , which , too , was destroyed by Master Chief . During the game 's events , Guilty Spark alludes to a previous firing of the network , which Bungie 's director of cinematics Joseph Staten said occurred around 100 @,@ 000 years previous to the events of the game in the year 2552 .
= = = Installation 05 = = =
During the events of Halo 2 , the Covenant and humans discover a second ringworld , Installation 05 , or Delta Halo . It was monitored by 2401 Penitent Tangent , who completely ignored Flood warnings and was captured by their leader , the Gravemind . The Covenant leadership wants to activate the installation , believing it is the key to their salvation . At the same time , the Flood , led by an intelligence known as the Gravemind , lay siege to the Covenant 's city @-@ ship , High Charity . After 343 Guilty Spark informs Halo 's true purpose to the Arbiter , a Covenant holy warrior , of the danger that the Halos truly represent , a group of humans and Covenant Elites prevent the firing of the ring . The unexpected shutdown activates a fail @-@ safe protocol , priming the remaining Halo installations for remote activation from a location known as The Ark . In Halo 4 , it is revealed that the UNSC has created an oversight base on the Installation ( or around it ) , as they did with Installation 03 .
= = = The Ark = = =
The Ark , also referred to as Installation 00 , is located outside the Milky Way galaxy and serves as the construction and control station for the Halo weapon system . It does not share the ringworld geometry of the other installations . During Halo 3 , the Covenant discover a portal on Earth that leads to the Ark and are pursued by the humans and a breakaway faction of Covenant opposed to activating the rings . Gravemind , having hijacked High Charity , crash @-@ lands on the installation . The remote firing of the rings is halted by Master Chief and the Arbiter . In order to end the threat of the Flood , Master Chief decides to activate Installation 04B under construction in The Ark , the replacement for the Halo that he destroyed in Halo : Combat Evolved . Unknown to everyone but 343 Guilty Spark , a premature firing would destroy the installation ; the monitor attempted to defend ' his ' ring but was destroyed by Master Chief , who proceeded to fire the weapon . The firing tears apart the incomplete Halo and severely damages The Ark as Master Chief , Cortana , and the Arbiter try to escape through the Portal , which closes as they enter , leaving Master Chief and Cortana drifting in space while the Arbiter returns to Earth successfully , forming the setting of Halo 4 .
According to Greg Bear 's Forerunner Trilogy , a " Greater Ark " served as the location for the construction of larger 30 @,@ 000 km rings .
= It Girl ( Jason Derulo song ) =
" It Girl " is a song by American recording artist Jason Derulo , released as the second single from his second studio album , Future History on August 9 , 2011 . The song was written by Derulo , E. Kidd Bogart , Lindy Robbins and Emanuel " Eman " Kiriakou , who also handled the song 's production . Musically , " It Girl " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B love song , that features a whistling intro and an acoustic guitar melody . Lyrically , it revolves around Derulo singing the praises of the perfect girl he found after searching all over . The lyrics reference the title in the opening chorus phrase , " You could be my it girl " .
The song received positive reviews from music critics , who praised its catchy production and radio @-@ friendly lyrics . They also added that it has the potential to overshadow the commercial success of Derulo 's debut single , " Whatcha Say " ( 2009 ) . " It Girl " attained worldwide success , reaching the top @-@ ten on the singles charts in Australia , Denmark , Ireland , New Zealand and the United Kingdom , and the top @-@ twenty in Hungary , Japan , the Netherlands and Norway . The song peaked at number 17 on the US Billboard Hot 100 , number six on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , and at number 10 on the US Pop Songs chart .
The accompanying music video of " It Girl " was directed by Colin Tilley and filmed at a mansion in Malibu , California . It portrays a fictional relationship between Derulo and his love interest played by actress Tika Sumpter . To promote the song , Derulo performed the song live on televised shows , including America 's Got Talent , The Wendy Williams Show , The Ellen DeGeneres Show and The X Factor Australia . The official remix of the song premiered online in February 2012 , and features Derulo 's former girlfriend Jordin Sparks .
= = Background and development = =
" It Girl " was written by Jason Derulo , E. Kidd Bogart , Lindy Robbins and Emanuel " Eman " Kiriakou , who also produced the track . The engineering process was handled by Jens Koerkmeier . It was mixed by Serban Ghenea at Mixstar Studios in Virginia Beach , Virginia . The song 's keyboards , whistle , guitars , bass , percussion and drum programming were provided by Eman , with additional keyboards and drum programming by Koerkmeier and Andrew Goldstein . On July 29 , 2011 , the audio of " It Girl " was uploaded to Derulo 's official YouTube account . When speaking of the song , Derulo told The Daily Telegraph , " I wanted to put myself in a position as if I 'd found my It Girl , to make myself feel like if I found that one true love . I 've basically described what it would be like if I found her . " Derulo further elaborated about the concept of the song in another interview with Matt Elias of MTV News :
An ' It Girl ' to me is someone who is selfless , someone who 's always thinking about others before she thinks about herself . You know , my mom is a very charitable woman , so I 'd want someone who is in line with that kind of thought process . I also like a girl who 's polite . I feel like that 's a lost art , and just saying ' please ' and ' thank you ' goes a very long way with me . That 's just so lost these days . So , ladies , it 's OK to say ' thank you.'
Derulo explained that he did not believe in the possibility of " It Girl " to be the next single from Future History . However , his peers believed that it was very distinct from the lead single , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and that response motivated him to pick it as the second single . He believed that showing the difference in the new album was important in picking the single . He did not want to put another dance song so that his fans do not assume that the entire album consisted of uptempo songs . He concluded that " growing up has definitely taken place . My music has always been a representation of who I am and I guess I speak differently , my demeanour is different . "
= = Composition = =
" It Girl " is a mid @-@ tempo pop and R & B love song , built on a finger @-@ clicking beat . The song is set in common time with a moderate tempo of 95 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E major with Derulo 's vocal range spanning from the note of E4 to the note of B5 . According to Rap @-@ Up , the song 's lyrics find Derulo as the male protagonist singing praises of " a lovely lady " , comparing her to his " greatest hit " . " It Girl " opens with a whistling intro and an acoustic guitar melody . In the first verse , he chants about how he searched all over and finally found the girl of his dreams . He also affirms that the girl means much more than a Grammy Award to him . Its hook , which forms part of the chorus , contains the lyrics : " You could be my it girl / Baby , you 're the shit girl / Lovin ; you could be a crime / Crazy how we fit , girl / This is it , girl / Gimme 25 to life / I just wanna rock all night long and put you in the middle of my spotlight / You could be my it girl / You 're my biggest hit , girl / Let me play it loud . " Scott Shelter from Pop Crush noted that the song uses the " oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocal chants after the chorus .
= = Release = =
" It Girl " was added to the B @-@ playlist of urban radio station BBC Radio 1Xtra in the United Kingdom on August 5 , 2011 . The song was released as a digital download on iTunes Stores worldwide from May 6 , 2011 . " It Girl " impacted contemporary hit radio in the United States on August 16 , 2011 , and mainstream radio in the UK on August 24 , 2011 . A digital extended play with four remixes of the song , was released in Denmark , Ireland , Switzerland and the United Kingdom on September 16 , 2011 . " It Girl " was made available as a CD single in Germany on November 25 , 2011 . On February 29 , 2012 , the official remix of " It Girl " premiered online , which features Derulo 's former girlfriend Jordin Sparks . The remix has a slower tempo than the original and features a new verse by Sparks . Cristin Maher of PopCrush noted that both singers " harmonize together on the chorus , with their voices matching up beautifully " . The remix was accompanied by a video that displays behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage of Derulo and Sparks spending time together .
= = Critical reception = =
" It Girl " garnered mixed reviews from music critics . Describing it as " a catchy pop song with major hit potential " , Scott Shetler of Pop Crush awarded " It Girl " four @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half out of five stars , writing that " even though Derulo 's debut produced hits like ' Whatcha Say ' and ' In My Head ' , ' It Girl ' could be his best single to date . " Shetler concluded that " every element of the song works , from the sweet whistling intro to the acoustic guitar melody to the ' oh @-@ oh @-@ oh @-@ oh ' vocal chants after the chorus . " Similarly , Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV , who viewed " It Girl " as Derulo 's " valiant attempt to trump his monstrous [ ... ] hit ' Whatcha Say ' , gave the song a positive review , writing that it is catchy and it is " perfectly crafted for radio success " . Jess Holton of The Music Network noted that the song " delivers with catchy whistling and tender lyrics " and that it " will appeal to the lady fans of Derulo who like to see the romantic side of the crooner " . Robbie Daw of Idolator wrote that the song " comes dangerously close to being just another bland , cookie cutter R & B @-@ pop experience , but lucky for him , that whistle gimmick in the chorus makes it a somewhat enjoyable three minutes . "
Kyle Anderson of Entertainment Weekly awarded the song a B- rating and wrote that " perhaps [ Derulo ] should have pitched woo with something hotter than a flat midtempo beat , some acoustic flourishes , and a whistle garnish . " Shahryar Rizvi of Dallas Observer gave the song a mixed review , criticizing its lyrics : " [ ... ] if you read between the lines in ' It Girl ' , it becomes clear that Derulo has some really weird taste in women . " Lewis Corner of Digital Spy gave the song a negative review , " with the charts now welcoming the return of the organic singer @-@ songwriter " , Derulo may not have equipped enough himself with " his own gut @-@ wrenching ballad . "
= = Chart performance = =
On the issue dated August 27 , 2011 , " It Girl " debuted at number 39 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart , and fell to number 68 the following week . After descending the Hot 100 for three consecutive weeks , " It Girl " moved from number 61 to number 38 in its fifth week . It peaked at number 17 on the issue dated October 29 , 2011 . On the US Pop Songs chart , " It Girl " debuted at number 34 on the issue dated September 10 , 2011 . The song peaked at number 10 on the issue dated November 10 , 2011 , becoming Derulo 's fourth top @-@ ten single on the chart . " It Girl " peaked at number six on the US Hot Dance Club Songs chart , giving Derulo his second top @-@ ten single on the chart . The song was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , denoting sales of 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies. the Canadian Hot 100 it debuted at number 73 and peaked at 37 .
In Australia , " It Girl " debuted at number 16 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 22 , 2011 , becoming the highest debuting single of that week . The following week , the song peaked at number three , and at number one on the ARIA Urban Singles Chart . " It Girl " was certified six times platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of 420 @,@ 000 copies . The song debuted and peaked at number three on the New Zealand Singles Chart , becoming Derulo 's highest debut in that country to date . It was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) , denoting sales of 7 @,@ 500 copies . On the Danish Singles Chart , " It Girl " peaked at number nine , giving Derulo his second top @-@ ten single in that country . In Ireland , " It Girl " debuted and peaked at number three for the week ending September 22 , 2011 . " It Girl " debuted and peaked at number four in the United Kingdom for the week ending October 1 , 2011 , giving Derulo his fifth top @-@ five single in that country . It peaked at number two on the UK R & B Singles Chart .
= = Music video = =
= = = Background and development = = =
The accompanying music video for " It Girl " was directed by Colin Tilley and shot at a mansion in Malibu , sitting on a cliff overlooking the Pacific Ocean . On July 19 , 2011 , several stills from the video were released online , and showed Derulo at the oceanside mansion dressed in a white suit . Gossip Girl actress , Tika Sumpter , also appeared in the photos , and plays Derulo 's " It Girl " in the video . Derulo told MTV News that he wanted the video to look like an open book . He said ,
I wanted it to be almost like a photo album , so every single scene is kind of like a picture that you 're kind of looking into our relationship . So it is a 1920s vibe , it 's black and white , very high fashion — you know , you 'll see me very dapper in 1920s , Frank Sinatra @-@ ish . So you 'll see the cars from that era , you 'll definitely feel the vibe of the house having that 1920s vibe as well . So it 's very different and very intimate , and it 's not a lot of dancing — it 's more personal .
A behind @-@ the @-@ scenes footage from the video shoot showed Derulo wearing different outfits , including a dark pinstripe suit with a pair of sunglasses , a rose @-@ colored button @-@ down shirt and white pants . The footage also showed Derulo and Sumpter shooting a scene in a silver corvette , as well as a kissing scene between the two . A 37 @-@ second preview of the video was released on August 12 , 2011 . The completed video premiered online on August 15 .
= = = Synopsis and reception = = =
The beginning of the video is shot in black @-@ and @-@ white , and shows Derulo sitting on the hood of a corvette outside a Malibu mansion dressed in 1920s attire . In another scene , Derulo is seen dancing at an area of the mansion which is surrounded by trees . The video then shows intercut scenes in full color of Derulo at the beach , on the mansion 's balcony , and in the bedroom with his love interest ( played by Tika Sumpter ) . More scenes in full color , show Derulo on the balcony interacting with her , and also shows him singing to her in the bedroom using a microphone . During another scene , Derulo is seen dressed in all white . The video ends with a kissing scene between the two which then fades away .
Melinda Newman of HitFix praised the concept of the video , writing : " [ ... ] when [ Derulo is not ] busy showing off his dance moves , he is living the high life with his lady in their palatial estate . He sings to her , she wraps her legs around him , they pose in some awesome topiary gardens . It is not the most thrilling of videos , and he may want to think twice about moonwalking in a video-- someone did it before him and better-- but it is a nice change of pace from some of his more hectic , gruffer clips . " Cameron Matthews of AOL Music commented that the video gives " a kaleidoscopic view " between Derulo 's beachfront paradise , an assortment of " edgy suits " and " a little bit of pillow talk with his new ' It Girl ' . " According to Jenna Hally Rubenstein of MTV , " the romance factor in Jason 's full @-@ length ' It Girl ' video is very , very high . "
= = Live performances = =
On August 4 , 2011 , Derulo performed a medley of " It Girl " and " Don 't Wanna Go Home " on America 's Got Talent . Robbie Daw of Idolator compared his performance to Michael Jackson , writing " we 're used to the 21 @-@ year @-@ old [ copying ] MJ 's legendary moves , especially on AGT . But why not stage some original shuffling of your own at some point , Jason ? " . He later sang the song on The Wendy Williams Show on September 30 , 2011 . During an Australian promotional tour for Future History , Derulo performed " It Girl " at the Westfield shopping mall in Parramatta , New South Wales , as part of a set list which included " In My Head " and " Don 't Wanna Go Home " . On October 18 , 2011 , he performed " It Girl " on The X Factor Australia . Derulo later performed the song on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on October 25 , 2011 .
On November 6 , 2011 , Derulo performed " It Girl " at the Belfast City Hall in Northern Ireland , to coincide with the 2011 MTV Europe Music Awards . The song was part of a set list which also included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " Breathing " . Holly Thomas of the Daily Mail praised his set , writing that " Jason Derulo gave a steamy performance " . On December 3 , 2011 , he performed " It Girl " at radio station KDWB @-@ FM 's annual Jingle Ball , which took place at the Target Center in Minneapolis , Minnesota . The song was part of a set list which included " Whatcha Say " , " In My Head " , " Ridin ' Solo " , " Don 't Wanna Go Home " and " Fight for You " . According to Jon Bream of Star Tribune Derulo " turned it out with sweet vocals and smooth dancing " .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes for Future History .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
= Naroda Patiya massacre =
The Naroda Patiya massacre took place on 28 February 2002 at Naroda , in Ahmedabad , India , during the 2002 Gujarat riots . 97 Muslims were killed by a mob of approximately 5 @,@ 000 people , organised by the Bajrang Dal , a militant wing of the Vishva Hindu Parishad , and supported by the Bharatiya Janata Party which was in power in the Gujarat State Government . The massacre at Naroda occurred during the bandh ( strike protest ) called by Vishwa Hindu Parishad ; a day after the Godhra train burning . During the post @-@ Godhra rioting , which lasted over 10 hours , during which the mob looted , stabbed , sexually assaulted , gang @-@ raped and burnt people individually and in groups . After the conflict , a curfew was imposed in the state and army troops were called in to contain further violence .
The communal violence at Naroda was deemed " the largest single case of mass murder " during the 2002 Gujarat riots ; it accounted for the greatest number of deaths during a single event . Survivors faced socio @-@ economic problems ; many were left homeless , orphaned and injured . A number of shrines were destroyed and many schools were adversely affected , cancelled exams or closed entirely . The surviving victims were given shelter in relief camps provided by both the state and central government , and efforts were begun to restore destroyed properties and shrines . The state government formed a " Gujarat state commission of inquiry " for citizens to have a forum in which to make recommendations and suggest reforms . Mainstream media criticised the Gujarat government 's handling of the riots ; it was remarked that a number of reports were exaggerated , and " inflammatory headlines , stories and pictures " were published , resulting in anti @-@ Muslim prejudice among the Hindu readership .
Allegations were made against the state police , state government and the chief minister Narendra Modi , citing that government authorities were involved and various police personnel played a role in the massacre : a number of eyewitnesses reported police officers favouring the mob by allegedly injuring or killing Muslims and damaging public and private property . All allegations were proved to be false and the government and police were cleared of wrongdoing by a Special Investigation Team . The initial report on the case was filed by the Gujarat police , accusing 46 people , all of whom the Special Court deemed unreliable . In 2008 , the Supreme Court of India formed a Special Investigation Team to investigate the case . In 2009 , the team submitted its report , which accused 70 people of wrongdoing , 61 of whom were charged . On 29 August 2012 , the Special Court convicted 32 people and acquitted 29 due to insufficient evidence . Among those convicted were Maya Kodnani – former Cabinet Minister for Women and Child Development of Gujarat and former Bharatiya Janata Party MLA from Naroda – who was sentenced to 28 years imprisonment , and Bajrang Dal 's Babu Bajrangi , who received a life sentence .
= = Background = =
On 27 February 2002 , the Godhra train burning incident initiated a series of riots in Gujarat . Hindu pilgrims returning from Ayodhya on the Sabarmati Express train were attacked and the train , which had stopped at Godhra station , was set on fire causing the death of 58 Hindus including 25 women and 15 children – activists of Vishva Hindu Parishad and Kar Sevaks . Following the attack , false rumours were spread by a senior Vishwa Hindu Parishad leader that Muslims had kidnapped three Hindu girls during the incident . Retaliatory attacks on Muslims began the same evening ; a number of incidents in which Muslims were attacked and killed were reported in various cities in Gujarat before the Naroda incident . The first attacks on the Muslim community occurred at Ahmedabad , where Hindu mobs began throwing stones and later burnt Gulbarg Society , a Muslim housing complex . The initial violence was believed to be instigated by the unsubstantiated rumours about Muslims kidnapping three Hindu girls . Violence spread to the largely rural districts of Panchmahal , Mehsana , Kheda , Junagadh , Banaskantha , Patan , Anand and Narmada the next day .
= = The massacre = =
At the time of the riots Naroda Patiya and Naroda Gam – a suburb 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) from Naroda Patiya ; both of which constitute the municipality of Naroda – located in Gujarat 's largest city , Ahmedabad , had around 2 @,@ 000 daily wage @-@ earning Muslim inhabitants , and many immigrants from Karnataka and Maharashtra . On the evening of 27 February 2002 , Vishwa Hindu Parishad declared a statewide strike in response to the Godhra train burning incident , starting from 28 February . On the first day of the strike , a mob of approximately 5 @,@ 000 people , allegedly led by the Bharatiya Janata Party and the Bajrang Dal , attacked and attempted to burn the entire Muslim community of Naroda Patiya . The rioting began at 9 am when the Noorani Mosque was destroyed by exploding liquified petroleum gas ( LPG ) cylinders .
Cases of hacking , looting , stabbing and sexual assaults including public gang @-@ rapes in which the victims were burnt , were reported . Many people were burnt alive , individually or in groups by " chasing them into huge pits " and setting fire to them using LPG cylinders . Burnt bodies were also thrown in a dry well . Women and girls were sexually assaulted , raped and killed by burning or by stabbing . Maya Kodnani , Babu Bajrangi and a few others supplied weapons to the crowd , and Suresh Chara and others raped and killed women . LPG cylinders were used to destroy a number of buildings in the residential and working areas . The massacre lasted for over 10 hours and finally a curfew was imposed in 27 towns and cities across Gujarat .
Most of the homes of Muslims in Naroda were burnt while Hindu homes remained undamaged . As the riots ended , it was estimated that around 125 people had been killed in the violence . After the rioting , 94 bodies were recovered ; three more people were reported missing and were later declared dead . More than 30 people were found injured . The dead – all Muslims – comprised 36 women , 35 children and 26 men . The incident is considered to be the " most gruesome of all post @-@ Godhra violent incidents " and " the largest single case of mass murders " , and claimed the highest number of lives of all the events during the Gujarat riots .
= = Aftermath = =
By the evening of 28 February , a curfew was imposed in 27 towns and cities of the state in an attempt to curb the violence . Over the next two days , Bharuch , Rajkot and later Surat were hit . Approximately 151 towns and 993 villages in 16 of the state 's 25 districts were affected by the post @-@ Godhra violence , which was particularly severe in six districts . The violence raged heavily between 28 February and 3 March 2002 , slowed briefly , then restarted on 15 March and continued until mid @-@ June . Northern and central Gujarat and the north @-@ eastern tribal belt – which are closer to Godhra City – were the worst affected while Saurashtra and Kutch remained relatively peaceful . 1 @,@ 000 army troops were flown in by the evening of 1 March to restore order . Intelligence officials alleged that the state government deliberately delayed the deployment . On 3 May , former Punjab police chief Kanwar Pal Singh Gill was appointed as security adviser to Modi . The Gujarat government transferred several senior police officers , who had taken steps to contain and investigate violent attacks , to administrative positions .
According to an official estimate , 1 @,@ 044 people were killed during the 2002 Gujarat riots – 790 Muslims and 254 Hindus . Another 223 people were reported missing , 2 @,@ 548 were injured , 919 women were widowed and 606 children were orphaned . When people missing after the riots were declared dead after seven years , total deaths rose from 1 @,@ 044 to 1 @,@ 267 Unofficial estimates put the death toll closer to 5 @,@ 000 , with Muslims forming the majority . Police records say that 298 dargahs , 205 mosques , 17 temples and three churches were damaged during the riots .
Opposition parties and three coalition partners of the Bharatiya Janata Party @-@ led central government demanded the dismissal of Gujarat chief minister Narendra Modi for failing to contain the violence , with some calling for the removal of Union Home Minister L. K. Advani as well . On 18 July 2002 , Modi asked the governor of Gujarat , Sunder Singh Bhandari , to dissolve the state assembly and call fresh elections . The Indian Election Commission ruled out early elections , citing the prevailing law and order situation , a decision the union government unsuccessfully appealed against in the Supreme Court . Elections were held in December and Modi returned to power .
= = = Rehabilitation of victims = = =
Residents left homeless by the massacre were given shelter in relief camps constructed by the state government . On 16 March 2002 , the state government formed an all @-@ party committee consisting of 13 member and chaired by Bhandari to provide relief and rehabilitation to the victims of the riots . Modi proposed to close the camps by the end of March but later decided not to close them . Under pressure from the opposition party , the Indian National Congress , the all @-@ party committee reached a consensus to implement rehabilitation measures suggested by various non @-@ governmental organisations which were to aid people to build houses .
= = = Effects on children and education = = =
A number of children were killed , injured or orphaned by the violence . Organisations such as Citizens ' Initiative reported that the violence resulted in the disturbance of children 's studies and that there was a lack of counselling . Students at Gujarat University were unable to take examinations , which were cancelled due to the chances of disruption . While other schools in the state had to postpone or cancel exams , it was reported that some schools held examinations under police protection . It was also reported that many students were forced to leave their studies due to lack of funds or to earn a livelihood because they had lost income @-@ earning members of their families .
= = = Restoration of shrines = = =
A number of darghas , including a 500 @-@ year @-@ old heritage masjid in Isanpur , and many mosques in Naroda were destroyed in the rioting . In 2003 , a petition was filed in Gujarat High Court by advocate Yusuf Muchhala on behalf of the Islamic Relief Committee , asking the court to direct the state to restore the religious shrines destroyed during the violence . In response to the petition , the Gujarat government stated that , " as a secular state , they cannot aid any community to re @-@ build shrines " . On 8 February 2012 , the High Court directed the state government to rebuild the shrines , and said it was the state 's " constitutional responsibility to restore the shrines " . The matter went to the Supreme Court , which refused to stay the order .
= = Response by the government of Gujarat = =
The state government stated that the massacre was " a spontaneous reaction to the Godhra train carnage and the state government and ruling party had nothing to do with it " . On 1 March 2002 , Modi , talking about the violence , said that he tried everything to control the " riots resulting from the natural and justified anger of people " , " . Referring to the massacre , Modi said , " The five crore ( 50 million ) people of Gujarat have shown remarkable restraint under grave provocation " .
The state government appointed a " Gujarat state commission of inquiry " to investigate the case and give recommendations . The committee was chaired by retired Gujarat High Court judge K.G. Shah . The formation of the committee raised concerns about delays in implementing recommendations because two similar reports about reforms , by the Reddy and Dave commissions , had been pending implementation since 1969 and 1985 respectively . The government of Gujarat presented its report to National Human Rights Commission of India , justifying its role and stating its findings about the massacre . The state government 's report did not mention the involvement of Vishwa Hindu Parishad and Bajrang Dal activists , despite statements by numerous eyewitnesses . The report also included , according to Human Rights Watch , a " grossly under @-@ counted " total of the shrines destroyed in the violence .
= = Role played by media = =
Television and newspaper reports , particularly local Gujarati @-@ language media , carried graphic and at times sensationalised images and accounts of the Godhra train fire and Naroda Patiya massacre . This was the first major communal violence after the advent of satellite television in India . Television news channels identified the community of those involved in the violence , breaking a long @-@ standing practice and setting a precedent . Critical reporting on the Gujarat government 's handling of the situation helped bring about the Indian government 's intervention in controlling the violence . The Gujarat government banned television news channels that were critical of its response ; STAR News , Zee News , Aaj Tak , CNN and local stations were blocked . The Editorial Guild of India rejected the charge that graphic news coverage aggravated the situation , saying that the coverage exposed the horrors of the riots and the " supine if not complicit " attitude of the state , helping propel remedial action . The team also faulted Gujarati @-@ language newspapers Gujarat Samachar and the pro @-@ Hindutva Sandesh for distorted and provocative reporting . Rather than Naroda Patiya , the Godhra train fire was extensively covered until the subsequent violence and the presentation of the Union budget overtook it .
Modi said that the media had exaggerated while covering the extent of violence and criticised the media for " provoking the violence by naming the religion of victims " . Newspapers , particularly Sandesh , were reported by various organisations to have published " inflammatory headlines , stories and pictures " . A headline in Sandesh on 28 February 2002 read , " Avenge Blood With Blood " . After the massacre , when Muslims had returned from Hajj , Sandesh had published the headline , " Hindus Beware : Hajj pilgrims return with deadly conspiracy " , which caused terror among the returning Muslim community , and they were escorted by Army officials to their homes and were given protection to avoid attacks . A report by the People 's Union for Civil Liberties stated , " Major effect of media under long period has been to feed on the prevalent anti @-@ Muslim prejudices of its Hindu readership and provoke it further by sensationalizing , twisting , mangling and distorting news or what passes for it . "
In its 2007 expose The Truth : Gujarat 2002 - Tehelka report , the political weekly Tehelka released hidden camera footage of several members of the Bharatiya Janata Party , Vishwa Hindu Parishad and the Bajrang Dal admitting their role in the riots . While the report was criticised for being politically motivated , some newspapers said the revelations simply reinforced what was common knowledge . Several inaccuracies in the statements cast doubt on the sting operation . Bajrangi and Suresh Richard said that Narendra Modi visited Naroda Patiya a day after the massacre to thank them , but the official record shows that Modi did not visit Naroda Patiya . The Gujarat government blocked cable news channels from broadcasting the expose , an action which was criticised by the Editors Guild of India .
= = Attacks against women = =
A number of women and girls were raped , sexually assaulted and killed during the incident . Reports presented by Citizen 's Initiative , and Human Rights Watch stated that out of the 36 women killed in the Naroda Patiya massacre , most were sexually assaulted before their deaths ; surviving women also reported being assaulted . According to Human Rights Watch , women and girls were " brutally raped before being killed " . Most of the rapes took place in public , and the victims were then killed and their bodies burnt . Among the women surviving in the relief camp , many suffered the most bestial forms of sexual violence – including rape , gang rape , mass rape , stripping , insertion of objects into their bodies and molestation . Citizens ' initiative 's report stated that " A majority of rape victims have been burnt alive . There is evidence of State and Police complicity in perpetuating crimes against women . No effort was made to protect women . No Mahila women police was deployed . State and Police complicity is continuing as , women survivors continue to be denied the right to file FIRs . There is no existing institutional mechanism in Gujarat through which women can seek justice " .
According to Human Rights Watch , the abdomens of three pregnant women were cut open and the foetus removed and thrown into a fire . In an incident that came to light in 2007 , Suresh Dedawala ( Richard ) alias Langado was caught on camera in a Tehelka sting operation talking to Bajarangi about slitting the belly of pregnant Muslim Kausar Banu , removing her foetus and killing it with a sword .
= = Alleged involvement of police and SRP in the massacre = =
It was alleged that the police helped the mob against the Muslim community on the day of massacre . Evidence included complaints filed by victims ' family members which state that police officials fired bullets and helped the mob , resulting in the killings . It was also alleged that police guided the mob of rioters to residents ' hiding places . According to Human Rights Watch , the police did nothing as houses and people were burnt and , on the day of the violence , did not respond to telephone calls until the massacre ended . Numerous eyewitnesses saw police aiming tear gas shells at , and firing upon , Muslim youths who tried to defend themselves or others . There also have been allegations that police themselves burnt houses and looted . In the violence , the extensive use of liquefied petroleum gas ( LPG ) was reported , which was cited as evidence of the involvement of officials because of easy access to it .
A report based on eyewitness statements submitted by the Citizens ' Initiative to the National Human Rights Commission of India states that the State Reserve Police ( SRP ) , a force of specially trained emergency police , were seen chasing the victims and helping the rioters rather than calming the situation . According to Human Rights Watch , some victims said that they were able to handle the crowd but when police and SRP joined in , it became difficult as the police sided with the rioters and fired on Muslim residents . The state government denied these allegations ; Modi said that police fired to " contain outbreaks of violence " and added that they had " mowed down people to quell the violence " . The Special Investigation Team also defended the role played by officials and said that everything was done to stop the violence .
= = Allegations against the state government and Narendra Modi = =
Human Rights Watch and other Indian human rights groups alleged that the Gujarat government authorities and police helped the mob on the day of violence in Naroda . Human Rights Watch found evidence that the state government helped the mob in the attacks because action by police and other officials was delayed and " less effective " . A Bharatiya Janata Party insider alleged to Human Rights Watch that Narendra Modi and state government were involved in the riots , stating ; " Insiders in the Bharatiya Janta Party admit that the police were under instructions of Narendra Modi administration not to act firmly " . Celia Dugger of the New York Times reported that witnesses were " dismayed by the lack of intervention from local police " , who often " watched the events taking place and took no action against the attacks on Muslims and their property " .
Babu Bajrangi , the Bajrang Dal leader that was one of the main organisers of the massacre , has stated that he called the State 's Home minister Gordhan Zadaphia at the end of the day and told him everything that had happened . Zadaphia is said to have advised him to leave the State and go into hiding . He also stated that a State Reserve Police officer that made a statement against him was promoted by Narendra Modi , which " silenced him . " Maya Kodnani , a BJP legislator described as the " kingpin of the violence " by Judge Yagnik , was later appointed as a Minister for Women and Child Welfare in Narendra Modi 's government . Cell phone records showed that she was in touch with the Chief Minister 's Office , the Home Minister as well as top police officials during the massacres . The Chief Minister 's office was also in touch with other rioters Tanmay Mehta , Sanjay Bhavsar and Anil Mukim .
Modi and the state government denied any involvement in the riots . On 10 April 2012 , the Special Investigation Team cleared Modi and the government in the riot cases , stating that , " Law and order review meetings were held by Modi and all the things was done to control the situation ... the Army was called on time to contain the communal violence . Modi was busy with steps to control the situation , establishment of relief camps for riot victims and also with efforts to restore peace and normalcy . "
An affidavit was filed in the Supreme Court on the basis of a report on testimony of suspended IPS officer Sanjiv Bhatt that Modi ordered top police officers not to take active actions in the riots . Bhatt said that on the night of 27 February 2002 , Modi said that " Hindus must be allowed to carry out retaliatory violence against Muslims . " The report filed by Raju Ramachandran , a Supreme Court lawyer and an amicus curiae , alleged that Modi " gave instructions to top police officers to go slow on rioters " . On 7 May 2012 , Ramachandran said that Modi can be prosecuted under sections 153 A ( 1 ) ( a ) & ( b ) , 153 B ( 1 ) , 166 and 505 ( 2 ) of the Indian Penal Code for promoting enmity among different groups during the 2002 Gujarat riots , including the Naroda incident . The Special Investigation Team criticised the amicus report for relying heavily on Bhatt 's testimony , who according to the Special Investigation Team ( SIT ) was an " unreliable witness " as he remained silent for nine years . The report was rejected by the team and according to the SIT , " No case can be made out against Gujarat Chief Minister Narendra Modi in connection with the 2002 communal riots under any of the Sections of the Indian Penal Code mentioned by him [ Ramachandran ] " .
= = Investigations = =
= = = Initial investigation = = =
As the investigations began , some victims reported that the Gujarat Police " didn 't cooperate well " and declined to lodge a First Information Report against some people . Later the police filed all complaints and presented their first report . The police accused and arrested 46 persons in the case ; however , the investigation was criticised by the special court and was considered " unreliable as the investigator 's propriety in recording the statements had itself been rebutted . "
= = = Special Investigation Team report = = =
In 2008 , the Supreme Court of India directed that the case be transferred from police investigation to a committee appointed by the court , the Special Investigation Team , because the police had become one of the riot cases . The team was led by ex @-@ Central Bureau of Investigation director R. K. Raghavan , and the case was the sixth Gujarat riots case assigned to them for investigation . Taking into account the findings about telephone records of various activists , Kodnani and other major leaders were included in the report for the first time . The Special Investigation Team 's findings added 24 more names to the 46 people arrested by the police . Before the trial began , 6 of the accused died . In 2009 the trial started , during which three of the accused died , thus the final report covered 61 people .
The report said that Kodnani , Bajrangi and other leaders had led violence as well as " instigating the mob " . Kodnani 's telephone records revealed that she had made calls to the Chief Minister 's Office ( CMO ) on the day of the massacre and that her telephone was located at places where the violence occurred . She had also contacted numerous police officials , especially K.K. Mysorewala , the police inspector in charge of Naroda at the time of the massacre . Her logs also revealed that she had received calls from the CMO and other police officers , the reasons for which are unknown .
= = Trial = =
The court examined 327 witnesses , including eyewitnesses , victims , doctors , police personnel , government officials , and forensic experts . The special public case was prosecuted by Akhil Desai and Gaurang Vyas .
= = = The judgement = = =
The first verdict in the case was handed down on 29 August 2012 by Judge Jyotsna Yagnik . The special trial court convicted Maya Kodnani , the sitting Bharatiya Janata Party MLA from Naroda and former Minister for Women and Child Development of Gujarat , and Bajrang Dal politician Babu Bajrangi under Indian Penal Code Section 120 B ( criminal conspiracy ) and 302 ( murder ) . It also convicted 30 other people of murder , criminal conspiracy and other criminal charges , and acquitted 29 accused , giving them the benefit of the doubt as there was lack of evidence against them . Kodnai was the first woman , MLA and minister to be convicted in the Gujarat riot case . Suresh Dedawala ( Richard ) alias Langado and accomplices were convicted of rape and murder along with accomplices .
The prosecution requested the death penalty for all the convicts . Sentencing took place on 31 August : Kodani was given a 28 @-@ year prison term , and received two sentences ; the first for 10 years under Indian Penal Code Section 326 ( voluntarily causing grievous hurt by dangerous weapons or means ) and the second for 18 years under Section 302 ( murder ) and others . Her sentences are set to run consecutively , making a total of 28 years . Bajrangi received life imprisonment . Of the rest of the 30 convicted , 22 were sentenced to a minimum of 14 years and 7 to a minimum of 21 years in prison ; they included Naresh Chara , Morli Sindhi , Haresh Rathod , Suresh Langado , Premchand Tiwari , Manojbhai Sindhi Kukrani and Bipin Panchal . One of the convicted , Suresh alias Shahjad Nekalkar , absconded and his sentencing was deferred .
= = = Comments about Kodnani and the initial investigation = = =
Kodnani said that she had never been to Naroda and had become a " victim of politics " . Judge Yagnik described her as the " kingpin of the violence " , and as the 37 months of trials ended , the court said in a statement that Kodnani had received help from the state government , and efforts had been made to avoid her name appearing on the list of accused . The statement said , " Kodnani was tremendously favoured by the then investigating agencies ( before the Supreme Court @-@ appointed Special Investigation Team took over ) . All care , at the cost of the duty of the investigating officer and even the interest of the victims , was taken to see to it that Kodnani 's involvement does not come on the books . This , in fact , comes in the way to believe that Kodnani was ever a victim of any politics . "
In the verdict , the special court criticised the initial investigation and the police for " not doing any policing during the 2002 riots and then deliberately conducting poor investigations . " The verdict said that statements of witnesses recorded by the Gujarat police were " unreliable as the investigator 's propriety in recording the statements had itself been rebutted . " The special court judge also criticised Mysorewala 's actions in investigation , and said that " Mysorewala and his force were totally inactive on all fronts and in every aspect . " The court added that : " No doubt , it was an elephantine task to investigate the kind of crimes , but then it cannot be believed that the senior Investigating Officers , having experience , do not know what should be the priorities in such kind of investigation . But , it seems that they must have been over @-@ shadowed by some element "
= = = Responses to verdict = = =
Residents in the city , including the victims , appreciated the judgement and celebrated . Digvijay Singh of the Indian National Indian National Congress welcomed the verdict and statement of Modi 's role in the riots and said , " Now it is proved that ministers and officials of BJP were involved in Gujarat riots and all this happened under the guidance of Modi ... can any minister ( take part in riots ) do this without the support of the Chief Minister ? " The president of the Gujarat Pradesh Congress Committee , Arjun Modhwadia , said on Twitter : " Naroda Patiya : justice delayed not denied. thousands behind the bars , more awaiting. but will the law be able to touch the ' beneficiary ' ? " Modi , in response to the sentencing of Kodnani – who was a minister in his cabinet – refused to apologise . Modi said his government had played no role in the riots , and that , " If Modi has sinned , then Modi should be hanged . But even after trying sincerely to save many lives , some people want to bad @-@ mouth me due to political reasons , then I can 't answer them . " Jaynarayan Vyas , spokesman for the cabinet of the Gujarat government , said that it was not involved and was not responsible for the actions of Kodnani : " Ms. Kodnani , a practising gynaecologist , was not a Minister at the time of the massacre and was only an MLA , and her individual action could not be construed as a ' cumulative responsibility of the Cabinet ' . "
= = Citation = =
= Kepler @-@ 8 =
Kepler @-@ 8 is a star located in the constellation Lyra in the field of view of the Kepler Mission , a NASA @-@ led operation tasked with discovering terrestrial planets . The star , which is slightly hotter , larger , and more massive than the Sun , has one gas giant in its orbit , Kepler @-@ 8b . This gas giant is larger than Jupiter , but is less massive , and thus more diffuse . The planet 's discovery was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 along with four other planets . As the fifth confirmed planetary system verified by Kepler , it helped demonstrate the capabilities of the Kepler spacecraft .
= = Nomenclature and history = =
Kepler @-@ 8 was named the way it was because it is home to the eighth planetary system confirmed during the course of the Kepler Mission , a NASA @-@ directed program tasked with searching a region of the sky for terrestrial planets that transit , or cross in front of ( and thereby , for a while , make dimmer ) the stars that they orbit with respect to Earth . The planet in orbit around Kepler @-@ 8 , Kepler @-@ 8b , was the fifth of the first five planets discovered by the Kepler spacecraft ; the first three planets confirmed by Kepler had been previously discovered , and were only used to verify the accuracy of Kepler 's measurements . Kepler @-@ 8b 's discovery was announced to the public on January 4 , 2010 at the 215th meeting of the American Astronomical Society in Washington , D.C. , alongside planets in orbit around Kepler @-@ 4 , Kepler @-@ 5 , Kepler @-@ 6 , and Kepler @-@ 7 .
The data that was used to identify Kepler @-@ 8b 's existence was re @-@ examined and verified by observatories in Hawaii , Arizona , Texas , California , and the Canary Islands .
= = Characteristics = =
Kepler @-@ 8 is situated some 1330 ( ± 180 ) pc ( or 4 @,@ 338 ± 587 light years ) from Earth . With a mass of 1 @.@ 213 Msun and a radius of 1 @.@ 486 Rsun , Kepler @-@ 8 is more massive than the Sun by about a fifth of the Sun 's mass , and is nearly three halves its size . The star is predicted to be 3 @.@ 84 ( ± 1 @.@ 5 ) billion years old , compared to the Sun 's age at 4 @.@ 6 billion years . Kepler @-@ 8 has a metallicity of [ Fe / H ] = -0.055 ( ± 0 @.@ 03 ) , making it 12 % less metal @-@ rich than the metal @-@ rich Sun ; metallicity is important in stars because stars richer in metal are more likely to harbor planets . The star also has an effective temperature of 6213 ( ± 150 ) K , meaning that it is hotter than the Sun , which has an effective temperature of 5778 K.
Kepler @-@ 8 has an apparent magnitude of 13 @.@ 9 ; in other words , as seen from Earth , Kepler @-@ 8 is an extremely dim star . It cannot be seen with the naked eye .
= = Planetary system = =
Kepler @-@ 8b is the only planet that has been discovered in the orbit of Kepler @-@ 8 . With a mass of .603 MJ and a radius of 1 @.@ 419 RJ , the planet is 60 % the mass of , but 42 % larger than planet Jupiter . The planet is diffuse , with a density of .261 grams / cc , especially in comparison to Jupiter and its density of 5 @.@ 515 grams / cc . At a distance of .0483 AU , Kepler @-@ 8b orbits its star every 3 @.@ 5225 days . The eccentricity of Kepler @-@ 8 is assumed to be 0 , which would give the planet a circular orbit . In comparison , planet Mercury orbits the Sun at .3871 AU every 87 @.@ 97 days . Mercury also has an elliptical orbit , with an eccentricity of .2056 .
= Dave Gallaher =
Dave Gallaher ( born David Gallagher , 30 October 1873 – 4 October 1917 ) was a New Zealand rugby union footballer best remembered as the captain of the " Original All Blacks " — the 1905 – 06 New Zealand national team , the first representative New Zealand side to tour the British Isles . Under Gallaher 's leadership the Originals won 34 out of 35 matches over the course of tour , including legs in France and North America ; the New Zealanders scored 976 points and conceded only 59 . Before returning home he co @-@ wrote the classic rugby text The Complete Rugby Footballer with his vice @-@ captain Billy Stead . Gallaher retired as a player after the 1905 – 06 tour and took up coaching and selecting ; he was a selector for both Auckland and New Zealand for most of the following decade .
Born in Ramelton , Ireland , Gallaher migrated to New Zealand with his family as a small child . After moving to Auckland , in 1895 he joined Ponsonby RFC and was selected for his province in 1896 . In 1901 – 02 he served with the New Zealand Contingent in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . He first appeared on the New Zealand national team for their unbeaten tour of Australia in 1903 , and played in New Zealand 's first ever Test match , against Australia in Sydney . The Originals Gallaher captained during 1905 – 06 helped to cement rugby as New Zealand 's national sport , but he was relentlessly pilloried by the British press for his role as wing @-@ forward . The use of a wing @-@ forward , which critics felt was a tactic to deliberately obstruct opponents , contributed to decades of strain between the rugby authorities of New Zealand and the Home Nations ; the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) effectively outlawed the position in 1931 .
During the First World War , Gallaher enlisted in the New Zealand Division to fight in Europe . He was killed in 1917 at the Battle of Passchendaele in Belgium . He has since been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame , International Rugby Hall of Fame , and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame . A number of memorials exist in Gallaher 's honour , including the Gallaher Shield for the winner of Auckland 's club championship , and the Dave Gallaher Trophy contested between the national teams of France and New Zealand .
= = Early life = =
Dave Gallaher was born as David Gallagher on 30 October 1873 at Ramelton , County Donegal , Ireland , the third son of James Henry Gallagher , a 69 @-@ year @-@ old shopkeeper , and his 29 @-@ year @-@ old wife , Maria Hardy Gallagher ( née McCloskie ) . James was a widower who had married Maria in 1866 , a year after the death of his first wife . James had two children from his first marriage , and David was the seventh from his marriage to Maria . The couple had three more children after David , but of their ten offspring , three died in infancy . The couple 's other offspring were : Joseph ( born 1867 ) , Isabella ( 1868 ) , James ( 1869 ) , Maria ( called Molly , 1870 ) , Jane ( 1871 ) , Thomas ( 1872 ) , William ( 1875 ) , Oswald ( 1876 ) , and James Patrick ( 1878 ) . David was baptised as a Presbyterian in the First Ramelton Meeting House on 8 January 1874 .
After the struggling in his drapery business in Ramelton , James decided to emigrate with his family to New Zealand as part of George Vesey Stewart 's Katikati Special Settlement scheme . In May 1878 the Gallaghers – minus the sick James Patrick who at eight weeks old was too weak to make the trip – sailed from Belfast on the Lady Jocelyn for Katikati in the Bay of Plenty . On arriving in New Zealand , the family altered their surname to " Gallaher " in an effort to reduce confusion over its spelling and pronunciation .
The Gallaher couple and their six children arrived in Auckland after a three @-@ month voyage , and from there sailed to Tauranga in the Bay of Plenty , before their final voyage to Katikati . On arrival they found the settlement scheme was not what they had envisaged or been promised : the land allocated to the family required enormous work to be broken in before being suitable for farming , there was no easy access to water , and the settlement was very hilly . It had been hoped that James would be employed as the agent for the Donegal Knitting Company in New Zealand , which was to be established by Lord George Augusta Hill . But Hill died unexpectedly and his successor did not support the initiative . As the family 's poor quality land was insufficient to make a living , the children 's mother Maria soon became the chief breadwinner after she obtained a position teaching for £ 2 a week at the new No. 2 School .
In January 1886 David spent a week in Auckland hospital undergoing surgery to treat stunted muscles in his left leg which had led to curvature of his spine . His mother became sick that same year , and in 1887 lost her teaching position . His mother 's condition worsened and she died of cancer on 9 September 1887 . With a father in his seventies , the 13 @-@ year @-@ old David was compelled to leave school so he could help his brothers to support the family . He took a job with a local stock and station agent .
The older Gallaher children had to work to prevent the local authorities from putting their younger siblings up for adoption . In 1889 , with the exception of William who remained in Katikati , the family joined Joseph in Auckland , where he had found work . David – who was by now 17 years old – was able to obtain work at the Northern Roller Mills Company , and was soon a member of the firm 's junior cricket team . In the late 1890s Gallaher took employment at the Auckland Farmers ' Freezing Company as a labourer ; by the time of his deployment for the First World War two decades later he had risen to the position of foreman . His work required the constant handling of heavy animal carcasses , which helped him build upper body strength and kept him fit .
= = Early rugby career = =
Gallaher first gained attention for his talents as a rugby player while living in Katikati . After moving to Auckland , he played junior rugby for the Parnell club from 1890 . He joined the Ponsonby District Rugby Football Club in 1895 , after the family moved to Freemans Bay following Joseph 's marriage to Nell Burchell . Gallaher , who played at hooker , was selected for an Auckland " B " side that year , and made his debut for the Auckland provincial side against the touring Queensland team on 8 August 1896 . The Aucklanders won 15 – 6 . Gallaher was retained for Auckland 's remaining fixtures that season : defeats to Wellington , Taranaki and Otago .
In 1897 , Gallaher 's Ponsonby club won eight of their nine matches en route to the Auckland club championship . He was selected to play for Auckland against the New Zealand representative side that had just completed a tour of Australia . The Aucklanders won 11 – 10 after scoring a late try ; it was only New Zealand 's second loss of their eleven @-@ match tour . Later that year Gallaher was selected for Auckland 's three @-@ match tour where they defeated Taranaki , Wellington and Wanganui . Wellington 's defeat was their first loss at home since the formation of the Wellington Rugby Football Union in 1879 . The following season was less eventful for Gallaher – he played much of the season for Ponsonby , but injury prevented his selection for Auckland .
After missing the 1898 season for Auckland , Gallaher continued to be selected for the province throughout 1899 and 1900 . The side was undefeated over this time ; he played for them twice in 1899 , and in all four matches in 1900 . He represented Auckland province a total of 26 times over his career .
= = Anglo @-@ Boer War = =
In January 1901 Gallaher joined the Sixth New Zealand Contingent of Mounted Rifles for service in the Anglo @-@ Boer War . When enlisting he gave his date of birth as 31 October 1876 , three years later than the actual date . It is unknown why he did this but the later date continued to be used in official records for the rest of his life . Gallaher was given a send @-@ off dinner by his Ponsonby club before the contingent departed from Auckland on 31 January . After disembarking in South Africa at East London on 14 March 1901 , Gallaher 's contingent immediately embarked for Pretoria , and it was there that , as part of forces under the command of General Herbert Plumer , they set about their task of " rid [ ding ] the Northern Transvaal of Boer guerrillas and sympathizers . "
A member of the contingent 's 16th ( Auckland ) Company , he served in the advanced guard , who scouted ahead of the main force . In October 1901 Gallaher contracted malaria , and was hospitalised in Charlestown , Natal . In a letter he composed to his sister while recovering he wrote :
.. we have been all over S [ outh ] Africa pretty well I believe , on the trek the whole time and it looks as if we will be trekking till the end of the Chapter . We have a fair share of the fighting all the time and I am still alive and kicking although I have had a couple of pretty close calls , one day I thought I would have to say good bye to old New Zealand but I had my usual luck and so came out all right
Between late December 1901 and early January 1902 Gallaher and his contingent were involved in a number of skirmishes . He described one incident where he had several Boer fighters in his sights , but did not have " the heart " to fire at them while they rescued one of their comrades . Describing a later encounter to his sister , Gallaher wrote : " We had a total of 22 killed and 36 injured and a few taken prisoners [ ; ] it was a pretty mournful sight to see the Red Cross bearers cruising around the field fetching all the dead and wounded who were laying all over the place " . By March 1902 Gallaher had reached the rank of squadron sergeant @-@ major , and his contingent was on its way to Durban . There the unit boarded ship for New Zealand , but Gallaher stayed behind , transferring to the Tenth New Zealand Contingent . His new unit did not see active service in South Africa , and he returned with them to New Zealand in August 1902 . For his service Gallaher received the Queen 's South Africa Medal ( Cape Colony , Orange Free State , and Transvaal Clasps ) , and King 's South Africa Medal ( South Africa 1901 and South Africa 1902 Clasps ) .
= = Resumption of his rugby career = =
During his time in South Africa Gallaher did play some rugby , including captaining the New Zealand military team that played ten games and won the rugby championship among the British forces . But he was not fit enough to play immediately upon his return to New Zealand , and so did not resume playing rugby for Ponsonby until the 1903 season . When he did return for his club , for the first match of the year , he was described as " the outstanding forward " in a comprehensive defeat of Parnell .
Despite having missed two seasons of provincial rugby , Gallaher was included in the 22 @-@ man New Zealand representative squad to tour Australia during 1903 . He was the first Ponsonby player ever to play for the New Zealand team , commonly known as the " All Blacks " . The 1903 team to Australia was , according to Winston McCarthy 's 1968 history of the All Blacks , " still regarded by old @-@ timers as the greatest team to ever leave New Zealand . " The tour did not start well – a preliminary match in New Zealand , against Wellington , was lost 14 – 5 , though Gallaher did score his first try for his country .
Gallaher played eight matches – the first four as hooker and the remainder as wing @-@ forward – out of eleven during the six @-@ week tour . The party was captained by the veteran Otago player Jimmy Duncan , who was widely recognised as a master tactician . The first match in Australia , against New South Wales , was won 12 – 0 by the New Zealanders , despite their having a man sent off . After playing a Combined Western Districts side , New Zealand played a second match against New South Wales . New Zealand won again , but only 3 – 0 on a flooded pitch at Sydney Cricket Ground . The side continued touring the state before making their way north to Queensland , where they twice played the state side . The New Zealanders then returned to New South Wales , where the first @-@ ever Australia – New Zealand rugby union Test match took place in Sydney .
Since the selection of the first New Zealand team in 1884 , inter @-@ colonial games had been played against New South Wales ( ten New Zealand wins from thirteen matches ) , and Queensland ( seven New Zealand wins from seven ) , but none had been contested against a combined Australian side . The match – won 22 – 3 by the New Zealanders , who scored three tries to nil – marked Gallaher 's first international cap . The last match of the tour was against New South Wales Country ; New Zealand won 32 – 0 . On their ten @-@ match tour of Australia , New Zealand had scored 276 points and conceded only 13 .
Back in New Zealand , Gallaher was selected for the North Island in his first ever Inter @-@ Island match ; the South won 12 – 5 . He then continued playing for Auckland , who were conducting a tour of both islands . Gallaher appeared in six of their seven matches , against Taranaki , Wellington , Southland , Otago , Canterbury , and South Canterbury . Auckland lost the first two matches , but won the others .
In 1904 the first Ranfurly Shield match was played . The shield , a provincial challenge trophy won by defeating the holder , was to become the most prestigious trophy in domestic New Zealand rugby . Due to their unmatched provincial record at the time Auckland were awarded the shield . The first shield challenge was played against Wellington , who were not expected to pose much of a threat . Auckland had not lost at home in six years , but , with Gallaher in the side , were upset 6 – 3 by the Wellingtonians . Gallaher was then selected for the New Zealand team that faced the touring British Isles in what was New Zealand 's first Test match on home soil . The British team were conducting a tour of Australia and New Zealand , and had finished their Australian leg unbeaten .
Jimmy Duncan , who was coaching New Zealand after retiring as a player , said before the historic match : " I have given them directions . It 's man for man all the time , and I have bet Gallaher a new hat that he can 't catch [ Percy ] Bush . Bush has never been collared in Australia but he 'll get it today . " The match was tied 3 – 3 at half @-@ time , but New Zealand were the stronger side in the second half and eventually won 9 – 3 . Gallaher was praised by press for his all @-@ round display at wing @-@ forward , but in particular for his successful harassment of the British Isles ' half @-@ back Tommy Vile .
The New Zealand defeat was the first tour loss for the British side , who then drew with a combined Taranaki @-@ Wanganui @-@ Manawatu side before travelling to Auckland . Gallaher played for Auckland against the tourists and scored one of the tries in their 13 – 0 victory . He was part of a forward pack that dominated their opponents , and again he troubled Vile ; his tackling of Vile and Bush killed many British attacks . The rugby historian Terry McLean would write in 1987 that " his display could be ranked with the finest exhibitions of wing @-@ forward play " . Gallaher represented Auckland once in 1904 , a 3 – 0 loss to Taranaki .
= = 1905 tour = =
= = = Background and preparations = = =
At the end of the 1904 season the New Zealand Rugby Football Union ( NZRFU ) suspended Gallaher from playing after a disagreement over a claim for expenses he had submitted to the Auckland Rugby Football Union for travel to play in the match against the British Isles . Eventually the matter was resolved when , under protest , Gallaher repaid the disputed amount . This settlement , coupled with his performance in 26 – 0 North Island win over the South Island in the pre @-@ tour trial , allowed Gallaher to be considered for selection for New Zealand 's 1905 – 06 tour of Europe and North America . The NZRFU had been trying to secure an invitation to send a team to Britain for some time , and were finally able to secure satisfactory financial guarantees to proceed in 1905 . This was the first representative New Zealand team to undertake such a tour , though a privately organised team , the New Zealand Natives , had preceded them in 1888 – 89 .
The NZRFU named Gallaher captain for the tour , with Billy Stead as vice @-@ captain . A week into the voyage to Britain aboard the SS Rumutaka , rumours circulated that some of the southern players were unhappy with the appointment of Gallaher , and with what they perceived as an Auckland bias in the squad . The dissidents contended that the captain and vice @-@ captain should have been elected by the players , as they had been on the 1897 and 1903 tours to Australia . Gallaher recognised the damage factionalism might do to the team and offered to resign , as did the vice @-@ captain Stead . Although the teams ' manager refused to accept the resignations , the players still took a vote — 17 out of 29 endorsed the NZRFU 's selections .
During the voyage to England the team conducted training drills on the ship 's deck ; for this the forwards were coached by Gallaher and fellow player Bill Cunningham , while Stead was in charge of the backs . Consequently , the services of the NZRFU @-@ appointed coach Jimmy Duncan were not used ; his appointment had caused opposition from many in the squad who believed his expertise was not required , and that an extra player should have been taken on tour instead . After a six @-@ week voyage , the team arrived in Plymouth , England on 8 September 1905 .
= = = Early tour matches = = =
The New Zealanders ' first match was against the Devon county side at Exeter . A close contest was expected , but New Zealand ran out 55 – 4 winners , scoring twelve tries and conceding only a drop @-@ goal . Reaction to the match was mixed – the team were accompanied by a cheering crowd and marching band following the win , but Gallaher 's play at wing @-@ forward provoked some criticism in the press .
The use of a wing @-@ forward was a distinctive feature of New Zealand play . Instead of having eight men in the scrum as was normal elsewhere , seven men were used – the missing man , the wing @-@ forward , instead fed the ball into the scrum then held onto one of their hookers while the ball progressed through the scrum to their half @-@ back . With the wing @-@ forward bound to the side of the scrum , the opposing half @-@ back would then have to manoeuvre past him to tackle the player with the ball . This increased the amount of time the half @-@ back would have in possession of the ball before his opposite could tackle him .
The use of this new tactic by New Zealand meant that Gallaher , the team 's wing @-@ forward , was repeatedly accused by the English of obstruction , though the referee Percy Coles , an official of the English Rugby Football Union ( RFU ) , rarely penalised him in the Devon match . The Originals ' fullback Billy Wallace posited that New Zealand 's superior scrum made Gallaher 's style of play more prominent . Unlike British and Irish teams of the time , New Zealand employed specialist positions for their forwards . Despite often facing an extra man in the scrum , the New Zealanders " drove like a cleaver through British forward packs " . Gallaher later said : " I think my play is fair – I sincerely trust so – and surely the fact that both Mr Percy Coles and Mr D. H. Bowen – two of the referees of our matches , and fairly representative of English and Welsh ideas , have taken no exception so it ought to have some weight . " The British press , looking to find fault in New Zealand 's play , continued to criticise Gallaher throughout the tour . Gallaher believed the key to his side 's success was a difference in playing styles , while Winston McCarthy believed the unique backline formation to be a major factor .
Following the opening match the " All Blacks " – as the New Zealand team came to be known – defeated Cornwall and then Bristol , both 41 – 0 . They then defeated Northampton 32 – 0 . The tour continued in much the same way , with the All Blacks defeating Leicester , Middlesex , Durham , Hartlepool Clubs and Northumberland ; in nearly all cases the defeats were inflicted without conceding any points ( the one exception being Durham , who scored a try against New Zealand ) . The New Zealanders then comfortably defeated Gloucester and Somerset before facing Devonport Albion , the incumbent English club champions , who had not lost at home in 18 months . New Zealand beat them 21 – 3 in front of a crowd of 20 @,@ 000 . Gallaher scored the All Blacks ' final try , an effort described by the Plymouth Herald as , " ... a gem . It was a tearing rush for about fifty yards with clockwork @-@ like passing all the way . "
New Zealand won their next seven matches , including victories over Blackheath , Oxford University and Cambridge University . Billy Wallace contended that the New Zealanders ' form peaked with the win over Blackheath ; he recalled that " after this game injuries began to take their toll and prevented us ever putting in so fine a team again on the tour . " By the time the All Blacks played their first Test match , against Scotland , the team had played and won nineteen matches , and scored 612 points while conceding only 15 .
= = = Scotland , Ireland and England internationals = = =
The Scottish Football Union ( SFU ) , the governing body for rugby union in Scotland , did not give the New Zealanders an official welcome , and sent only one official to greet them on their arrival in Edinburgh . In addition , the SFU refused a financial guarantee for the match , promising the gate receipts to the New Zealanders instead ; this meant that the NZRFU had to take on all monetary responsibilities for the match . One reason for the cold reception from the SFU may have been because of negative reports from David Bedell @-@ Sivright , who was Scotland 's captain and had also captained the British Isles team on their 1904 tour of New Zealand . Bedell @-@ Sivright had reported unfavourably on his experiences in New Zealand the previous year , especially regarding the wing @-@ forward play of Gallaher .
When time for the Scotland Test did arrive , it was discovered that as the ground had not been covered for protection from the elements , and had frozen over . The SFU wanted to abandon the match , but Gallaher and the tour manager George Dixon contended that the weather would improve enough for the pitch to thaw , and the match was eventually allowed to proceed . The Test was closely contested , with Scotland leading 7 – 6 at half @-@ time , but the All Blacks scored two late tries to win 12 – 7 ; despite the close score @-@ line , the New Zealanders were clearly the better of the two sides .
Four days later the tourists played a West of Scotland selection , where they received a much warmer reception than for the Scotland match , then travelled via Belfast to Dublin where they faced Ireland . Gallaher did not play in either match due to a leg injury suffered during the Scotland Test . New Zealand won the Ireland match 15 – 0 , then defeated a team representing Munster province .
By the time of New Zealand 's next game , against England in London , Gallaher had recovered from his injury enough to play . Between 40 @,@ 000 and 80 @,@ 000 saw the match . The All Blacks scored five tries ( four by Duncan McGregor , playing at wing ) to win 15 – 0 . According to the England player Dai Gent , the victory would have been even greater had the match conditions been dry . " One cannot help thinking that England might have picked a stronger side , " said Gallaher . " From our experience , we did not think that this side was fully representative of the best men to be found in the country . " Observers noted that Gallaher still seemed to be suffering from his leg injury during the match . New Zealand played three more matches in England – wins over Cheltenham , Cheshire , and Yorkshire – before travelling on to Wales .
= = = Wales = = =
Wales were the dominant rugby country of the four Home Nations , and in the middle of a " golden age " at the time . Gallaher and his team faced them three days after the Yorkshire match . The All Blacks had thus far played 27 matches on tour , scoring 801 points while conceding only 22 , and all in only 88 days . They were struggling to field fifteen fit players ; a number of their best players , including Stead , were unavailable due to injury .
The match was preceded by an All Black haka , to which the crowd responded with the Welsh national song " Land of my Fathers " . Wales had developed tactics to negate the seven @-@ man New Zealand scrum , and removed a man from their scrum to play as a " rover " , equivalent to Gallaher 's wing @-@ forward position . Gallaher was consistently penalised by the Scottish referee , John Dallas , who held that the New Zealander was feeding the ball into the scrum incorrectly . This eventually compelled Gallaher to instruct his team not to contest the scrums , and therefore give Wales possession following each scrum . Bob Deans , playing at wing for New Zealand that day , later said that Dallas had gone " out to penalise Gallaher – there is no doubt about that " . Teddy Morgan scored an unconverted try for Wales shortly before half @-@ time to give the home side a 3 – 0 lead .
The New Zealand backs had been poor in the first half , and the side 's general form was well below that of earlier in the tour . However New Zealand were generally perceived to be the better side in the second half , with the performance of the Welsh fullback Bert Winfield keeping his team in the game . The most controversial moment of the tour happened late in the second half . Wallace recovered a Welsh kick and cut across the field , and with only Winfield to beat , passed to the New Zealand wing Deans . What happened next has provoked intense debate : Deans was tackled by the Welsh and either fell short of the try @-@ line , or placed the ball over it before being dragged back . Dallas , who had dressed in heavy clothing and was struggling to keep up with the pace of the game , was 30 yards ( 27 m ) behind play . When he arrived he ruled that Deans was short of the try @-@ line , and so did not award New Zealand a try . Play continued , but the All Blacks could not score , and Wales won 3 – 0 . This was New Zealand 's first loss of the tour .
Following the match Gallaher was asked if he was unhappy with any aspect of the game ; he replied that " the better team won and I am content . " When asked about Dallas 's refereeing , he said : " I have always made it a point never to express a view regarding the referee in any match in which I have played " . Gallaher was gracious in defeat , but Dixon was highly critical of both Dallas and the Welsh newspapers , who he accused of " violently and unjustly " attacking New Zealand 's captain . Gallaher would later admit that he had been annoyed by this criticism , which he found unfair ; he also pointed out that though the Welsh condemned the wing @-@ forward position , they had themselves adopted some elements of it . Later during the tour , when discussing the issue of his feeding the ball into the scrum , he said :
No referee could accuse me throughout the tour of putting the ball in unfairly or of putting ‘ bias ’ on it . I would be quite content to accept the verdict on such referees as Mr. Gil Evans or Mr. Percy Coles on the point . There were times when the scrum work was done so neatly that as soon as the ball had left my hands the forwards shoved over the top of it , and it was heeled out , and Roberts was off with it before you could say ‘ knife ’ . It was all over so quickly that almost everyone – the referee sometimes included – thought there was something unfair about it , some ‘ trickery ’ and that the ball had not only been put in but passed out unfairly . People here have been accustomed when the ball was put into the scrum to see it wobbling about and frequently never coming out in a proper way . How can a man possibly put ‘ bias ’ on a ball if he rolls it into the scrum ? The only way to put my screw on a ball would be , I would say , to throw it straight down , shoulder high , on to its end , so that it may possibly bounce in the desired direction . I have never done that – in fact , it can ’ t be done in the scrum and if I had ever attempted it I should have expected to be penalised immediately .
Four more matches were contested in Wales , with Gallaher appearing in three . He played in the match against Glamorgan , won by New Zealand 9 – 0 , but had his finger bitten , which was serious enough for him to miss the fixture against Newport . He returned to face Cardiff , the Welsh champions , on Boxing Day . Gallaher was again booed by the Welsh crowd , and once more the All Blacks were troubled in the scrum , this time after losing a player to injury . The New Zealanders won , but narrowly ; Gallaher asserted after the match that Cardiff were the strongest club side they had met during the tour . New Zealand then faced Swansea in their last match in the British Isles . Gallaher again struggled to field a fit side , and at 3 – 0 down late in the match they were heading for their second defeat on tour . Wallace kicked a drop @-@ goal – then worth four points – late in the game to give the All Blacks a narrow 4 – 3 victory .
= = = France , North America , and return = = =
The side departed Wales and travelled to Paris , where they faced France on 1 January 1906 , in the home side 's first ever Test match . The All Blacks led 18 – 3 at half time . After the French scored their second try , giving them 8 points – the most any team had scored against the All Blacks – the New Zealanders responded with six unanswered tries to win 38 – 8 . They then returned to London , where they learned that New Zealand 's Prime Minister , Richard Seddon , had arranged for them to return home via North America . Not all of the players were keen on the idea , and four did not make the trip , but the new plans did give the team over two weeks to spend in England before their departure .
Before the New Zealand squad left Britain for North America , the English publisher Henry Leach asked Stead and Gallaher to author a book on rugby tactics and play . They finished the task in under a fortnight and were each paid £ 50 . Entitled The Complete Rugby Footballer , the book was 322 pages long and included chapters on tactics and play , as well as a summary of rugby 's history in New Zealand including the 1905 tour . It was mainly authored by Stead , a bootmaker , with Gallaher contributing most of the diagrams . Gallaher almost certainly made some contributions to the text , including sections on Auckland club rugby , and on forward play . The book showed the All Blacks ' tactics and planning to be superior to others of the time , and according to Matt Elliott is " marvellously astute " ; it received universal acclaim on its publication . According to a 2011 assessment by ESPN 's Graham Jenkins , it " remains one of the most influential books produced in the realms of rugby literature " .
The New Zealanders travelled to New York , where they played an exhibition game , then on to San Francisco . There they played two official matches against British Columbia , and won both easily . The tour programme thus ended ; New Zealand had played 35 games and lost only once . Gallaher had played in 26 of those matches , including four Tests . Over their 32 matches in the British Isles New Zealand scored 830 points and conceded 39 ; overall they scored 976 points and conceded only 59 . On their arrival back in New Zealand on 6 March 1906 , the All Blacks were welcomed by a crowd of 10 @,@ 000 before being hosted at a civic reception in Auckland . Invited to speak at the reception , Gallaher said : " We did not go behind our back to talk about the Welshman , but candidly said that on that day the better team had won . I have one recommendation to make to the New Zealand [ Rugby ] Union , if it was to undertake such a tour again , and that is to play the Welsh matches first . "
= = = Aftermath and impact = = =
The 1905 – 06 Originals are remembered as perhaps the greatest of All Black sides , and set the standard for all their successors . They introduced a number of innovations to Britain and Ireland , including specialised forward positions and unfamiliar variations in attacking plays . But while their success helped establish rugby as New Zealand 's national sport and fed a growing sporting nationalism , the controversial wing @-@ forward position contributed to strained ties with the Home Nations ' rugby authorities . British and Irish administrators were also wary of New Zealand 's commitment to the amateur ethos , and questioned their sportsmanship . According to the historian Geoffrey Vincent , many in the traditional rugby establishment believed that : " Excessive striving for victory introduced an unhealthy spirit of competition , transforming a character @-@ building ' mock fight ' into ' serious fighting ' . Training and specialization degraded sport to the level of work . "
The success of the Originals provoked plans for a professional team of players to tour England and play Northern Union clubs in what is now known as rugby league . Unlike rugby league , which was professional , rugby union was strictly amateur at the time , and in 1907 a professional team from New Zealand known as the " All Golds " ( originally a play on " All Blacks " ) toured England and Wales before introducing rugby league to both New Zealand and Australia . According to historian Greg Ryan , the All Golds tour " confirmed many British suspicions about the rugby culture that had shaped the 1905 team . "
These factors may have contributed to the gap between All Black tours of the British Isles – they next toured in 1924 . The NZRFU was denied representation on the International Rugby Football Board ( IRFB ) – composed exclusively of English , Irish , Scottish and Welsh members – until 1948 . After complaining about the wing @-@ forward for years , the Home Nations @-@ administered IRFB made a series of law changes that effectively outlawed the position in 1931 .
= = Auckland and All Black selector = =
Gallaher retired from playing after the All Blacks ' tour , but remained involved in the sport as a coach and selector . He coached at age group level for Ponsonby and in 1906 succeeded Fred Murray as sole selector of the Auckland provincial team . He was Auckland selector until 1916 ; over this time Auckland played 65 games , won 48 , lost 11 and drew 6 . Gallaher did make a brief comeback as a player – travelling as the selector of an injury depleted Auckland team , he turned out against Marlborough at Blenheim in 1909 ; Marlborough won 8 – 3 . He also played against the Maniapoto sub @-@ union just over a week later . Auckland held the Ranfurly Shield from 1905 to 1913 , successfully defending it 23 times . The team struggled to retain the shield during 1912 and 1913 and eventually lost it to Taranaki in a 14 – 11 defeat . During Gallaher 's tenure as selector Auckland inflicted a 11 – 0 defeat of the touring 1908 Anglo @-@ Welsh side , defeated the New Zealand Māori in 1910 , and beat Australia 15 – 11 in 1913 .
Gallaher was also a national selector from 1907 to 1914 , and with George Nicholson co @-@ coached the All Blacks against the 1908 Anglo @-@ Welsh team . A number of Gallaher 's team @-@ mates from the 1905 – 06 tour were included in the New Zealand squad for the series ; of three Tests , the All Blacks won two and drew the other . During Gallaher 's incumbency as a national selector , New Zealand played 50 matches , won 44 , lost four and drew two . This included 16 Tests , of which only one was lost and two drawn .
= = First World War = =
Although exempt from conscription due to his age , Gallaher enlisted in May 1916 . While awaiting for his call @-@ up to begin training he learnt that his younger brother Company Sergeant @-@ Major Douglas Wallace Gallaher had been killed while serving with the 11th Australian Battalion at Laventie near Fromelles on 3 June 1916 . Douglas had been living in Perth , Australia prior to the war and had previously been wounded at Gallipoli . Biographer Matt Elliott describes it as a " myth " that Gallaher enlisted to avenge his younger brother ; rather he claims that it was most likely due to " loyalty and duty " .
After enlisting and completing his basic training at Trentham he was posted to 22nd Reinforcements , 2nd Battalion , Auckland Regiment within the New Zealand Division . Gallaher left New Zealand aboard the Aparima in February 1917 and reached Britain on 2 May . Gallaher was a member of the ship 's Sports Committee and spent time organising and practising for a planned rugby match at the Cape of Good Hope – it is unknown if the match ever took place . After arriving in England he was promoted to the rank of temporary sergeant and dispatched to Sling Camp for further training . His rank was confirmed as sergeant on 6 June 1917 .
Gallaher 's unit fought in the Battle of Messines , near La Basse Ville , and in August and September 1917 they trained for the upcoming Passchendaele offensive . In the attack on Gravenstafel Spur on 4 October 1917 Gallaher was wounded by a piece of shrapnel that penetrated through his helmet , and he died later that day at the 3rd Australian Casualty Clearing Station , Gravenstafel Spur . He was 43 years old .
Dave Gallaher is buried in grave No. 32513 at Nine Elms British Cemetery , which is west of Poperinge on the Helleketelweg , a road leading from the R33 Poperinge ring road in Belgium . His regulation gravestone , bearing the silver fern of New Zealand , incorrectly gives his age as 41 . New Zealand sides touring Europe have since regularly visited his grave site . For his war service Gallaher was posthumously awarded the British War Medal and the Victory Medal . His brother Henry , who was a miner , served with the Australian 51st Battalion and was killed on 24 April 1917 . Henry 's twin brother , Charles , also served in the war and survived being badly wounded at Gallipoli .
= = Personal life = =
On 10 October 1906 Gallaher married " Nellie " Ellen Ivy May Francis at All Saints Anglican Church , Ponsonby , Auckland . Eleven years younger than Gallaher , Nellie was the daughter of Nora Francis and the sister of Arthur ( ' Bolla ' ) Francis – a fellow rugby player . For many years prior to the marriage Gallaher had boarded at the Francis family home where he had come to know Nellie . Both had also attended the All Saints Anglican Church where Nellie sang in the choir . With his limited income , and frequent absences from work playing rugby , Gallaher found boarding his best accommodation option . On 28 September 1908 their daughter Nora Tahatu ( later Nora Simpson ) was born . Nellie Gallaher died in January 1969 .
Gallaher 's brother @-@ in @-@ law Bolla Francis played for Ponsonby , Auckland and New Zealand sides for a number of years , including when Gallaher was a selector . In 1911 , at age 29 , and in the twilight of his All Blacks ' career , he decided to switch to the professional sport of rugby league . Francis went on to represent New Zealand in rugby league , making him a dual @-@ code international . It is unlikely his switch to rugby league was done without Gallaher 's knowledge . Francis did eventually return to rugby union as a coach .
Gallaher was also a member of the fraternal organisation the United Ancient Order of the Druids , and attended meetings fortnightly in Newton , not far from Ponsonby . He also played several sports in addition to rugby , including cricket , yachting and athletics .
= = Memorial and legacy = =
In 1922 the Auckland Rugby Football Union introduced the Gallaher Shield in his honour ; it has since been awarded to the winner of the union 's premier men 's club competition . Ponsonby – Gallaher 's old club – have won the title more than any other club . At international level New Zealand and France contest the Dave Gallaher Trophy , which was first awarded when New Zealand defeated France on Armistice Day in 2000 . In 2011 New Zealand 's then oldest living All Black , Sir Fred Allen , unveiled a 2 @.@ 7 @-@ metre ( 8 ft 10 in ) high bronze statue of Gallaher beside one of the entrances at Eden Park in Auckland . The statue was created by Malcolm Evans . Gallaher has been inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame , the World Rugby Hall of Fame , and the New Zealand Sports Hall of Fame .
In 2005 members of the All Blacks witnessed the unveiling of a plaque at Gallaher 's birthplace in Ramelton , which was presented in conjunction with the renaming of Letterkenny RFC 's home ground to Dave Gallaher Memorial Park . Gallaher 's name is also incorporated into the club 's crest . The ground was upgraded following its renaming , and in 2012 the Letterkenny section of the ground was opened by former All Black , and Ponsonby stalwart , Bryan Williams . An Ireland @-@ produced documentary about Gallaher 's life , The Donegal All Black , was aired in 2015 . Later that year , a jersey worn by Gallaher during the 1905 British Isles tour was sold at auction in Cardiff for £ 180 @,@ 000 — nearly 10 times the previous record auction price for a rugby jersey .
= = Leadership and personality = =
" Gallaher played many dashing games , " the British newspaper The Sportsman reported after his death , " and led his side from one success to another until they were deemed invincible . He was a veritable artist , who never deserved all the hard things said about him , especially in South Wales . A great player , a great judge of the game " . Gallaher 's military experience gave him an appreciation for " discipline , cohesion and steadiness under pressure . " He was however quiet , even dour , and preferred to lead by example . He insisted players spend an hour " contemplating the game ahead " on match days , and also that they pay attention to detail . Original All Black Ernie Booth wrote of Gallaher : " To us All Blacks his words would often be , ‘ Give nothing away ; take no chance . ’ As a skipper he was somewhat a disciplinarian , doubtless imbibed from his previous military experience in South Africa . Still , he treated us all like men , not kids , who were out to ‘ play the game ’ for good old New Zealand . " Another contemporary said he was " perhaps not the greatest of wing @-@ forwards , as such ; but he was acutely skilled as a judge of men and moves " .
Paul Verdon , in his history of All Black captains , Born to Lead , writes : " The overwhelming evidence suggests Gallaher 's leadership style , honed from time spent in the Boer War , was very effective . " Gallaher 's biographer Matt Elliott asserts that in the century since his playing retirement " his reputation as a player and leader have only enhanced " . According to historian Terry McLean : " In a long experience of reading and hearing about the man , one has never encountered , from the New Zealand angle , or from his fellow players , criticism of his qualities as a leader . " In the view of the English rugby journalist E. H. D. Sewell , writing soon after Gallaher 's death , the New Zealand captain was " a very quiet , taciturn sort of cove , who spoke rarely about football or his own achievements ... I never heard a soul who met him on that famous trip , say a disparaging word about him . "
= Don 't Forget ( song ) =
" Don 't Forget " is a song performed by American singer Demi Lovato , from her debut album of the same name . It was written by Lovato and the Jonas Brothers , who co @-@ produced the song with John Fields . The inspiration of the song came from Lovato falling in love with someone who later left her . According to Lovato , it is one of the songs on the album that she most relates to . Musically , " Don 't Forget " is a midtempo glam rock ballad that features Lovato singing with breathy falsetto vocals .
Upon the release of the album , " Don 't Forget " was well @-@ received from music critics , who noted the transition from her " tween sound " to more mature material . The song achieved moderate commercial success , reaching number forty @-@ one on the Billboard Hot 100 . It also reached number seventy @-@ six on the Canadian Hot 100 . To promote the song , Lovato has performed the song numerous times including on The Ellen DeGeneres Show .
= = Background and composition = =
" Don 't Forget " was written by Lovato along with the Jonas Brothers , who produced it with John Fields . The song features Dorian Crozier and Michael Bland on drums , and Fields on bass , guitars and keyboards . Nick Jonas also played the guitar and percussion on the song . The song is registered as " Did You Forget " with the Broadcast Music , Inc . Lovato has stated that " Don 't Forget " is one of the songs on Don 't Forget that she relates to the most , and that she felt " a lot of emotion while recording it " . In an interview with PopEater , she elaborated , " Everyone goes through the experience of falling in love , but then the other person just walks away , and goes somewhere else . I went through an experience like that and wanted to write about it . I got over it , and now a year later I don 't have those feelings about that person anymore . " The song and " La La Land " were included as bonus tracks on European editions of her sophomore album Here We Go Again .
" Don 't Forget " is a midtempo glam rock ballad sung with vulnerable and breathy vocals in a falsetto tone . According to the sheet music published at Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , the song is set in common time with a metronome of 92 beats per minute . It is composed in the key of E major and Lovato 's vocal range spans from the note of C ♯ 4 to the note of E5 . The song includes a " rocking " instrumental and a heavy guitar break . Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic compared the track to songs by Green Day . Lyrically , " Don 't Forget " is about one of Lovato 's old love interests who left her just as she was falling in love with him . The theme is demonstrated in lyrical lines such as , " Did you forget that I was even alive ? Did you forget everything we ever had ? "
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The song was well @-@ received from music critics . Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic included " Don 't Forget " on his " Top 10 from the Disney girls " list at number two , and wrote , " She really sells this epic glam @-@ rock ballad with her choked @-@ up vocals , [ ... ] She wrote it with the Jonas Brothers , one of whom has clearly been enjoying Green Day 's latest work . But truthfully , this would have been among the more compelling anthems on ' 21st Century Breakdown ' . " Judy Coleman of The Boston Globe wrote , " Lovato has already mastered the limited range of skills required of today 's pop starlets : the vulnerable @-@ kitten verse , the banshee @-@ shriek chorus , the stiffly sexy whispered asides . She rhymes “ we used to be so strong ” and “ our love is like a song ” without irony . " Michael Menachem of Billboard wrote that Lovato , like Miley Cyrus before her , " has also stepped away briefly from the tween sound with her album 's title track , ' Don 't Forget ' . " Menachem wrote , " She may be reaching a new level with a poised vocal performance , as she too is looking to be taken seriously . " Joey Guerra of The Houston Chronicle called the track an " age @-@ appropriate blueprint laid out by Hilary Duff and [ Miley ] Cyrus " .
= = = Chart performance = = =
Due to strong digital sales when the album was released , " Don 't Forget " debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 at number sixty @-@ eight on October 11 , 2008 and fell off the chart the following week . On April 4 , 2009 , it re @-@ entered the chart at number eighty @-@ four . The song steadily ascended the chart for three weeks , before eventually reaching a peak of number forty @-@ one on its fifth week on the chart . It was Lovato 's best performing solo song on the chart until " Here We Go Again " reached number fifteen on August 8 , 2009 . In Canada , " Don 't Forget " debuted on the Canadian Hot 100 at number eighty @-@ two on May 2 , 2009 . The next week , it reached seventy @-@ six , which became its peak . The song also reached number sixty @-@ two on the now defunct Pop 100 chart .
= = Music video = =
" Don 't Forget " was directed by Robert Hales . According
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to Lovato , different video treatments had been written , but she rejected them as she wanted to come up with the idea herself . She said , " They had treatments [ for the video ] , but I was just like , ' No , scratch them . ' I want to come up with the idea . I want to show you the colors , I want to show you everything . This is art to me and I don 't want it to be somebody else 's decision . " The video premiered on March 16 , 2009 on Lovato 's MySpace account and was made available for digital download on the iTunes Store on April 7 , 2009 . In an interview with PopEater , Lovato said of the video ,
" It was actually really freezing cold [ in the rain ] . You could see your breath . And I was in the rain for only a short time – my whole band was out there for an hour @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half . It was one of the hardest things I 've ever had to do on a shoot . But it went by so quickly . I had a body suit on underneath my clothes , so there 's a little fun fact for you . I was trying not to break my focus pretty much the entire shoot , because I was really in that zone – thinking a lot about the position I was in a year ago ... thinking about the situation and how much I wanted to get all that emotion off my chest . "
Steve Helling of People magazine wrote that Lovato shows her mature side in the video , saying that " it 's hard not to notice that the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Camp Rock star is growing up . " The video begins in a tour bus with Lovato 's band . She is seen sitting next to a window in the back of the bus , where she precedes to sing the first lines . As the song progresses , she walks out of the bus in the rain , holding an umbrella . She walks out of the parking lot and into an amusement park , where she stands in front of a carousel in the rain as she continues to sing . After the second chorus , Lovato and her band perform in the rain with the water altering colors in the background . As the last verse approaches , she is back on the tour bus . A single tear rolls down her cheek and the video ends .
= = Live performances = =
Lovato performed " Don 't Forget " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show on April 14 , 2009 . Also in April 2009 , the song was performed as part of the iTunes Live from London series . The full performances were released as an iTunes Store @-@ exclusive extended play featuring recorded live versions of the tracks . In May 2009 , Lovato performed the song at a Walmart concert , which was later released as part of a live album entitled Demi Lovato : Live : Walmart Soundcheck ( 2009 ) . The release featured recorded live versions of the performers on a CD , and the full performances on a DVD .
During the summer of 2008 , Lovato performed the song on the Jonas Brothers ' Burnin ' Up Tour , for which she served as the opening act . Later in 2009 , the song was performed during her first headlining tour , Summer Tour 2009 . While reviewing a show in Glendale , Arizona , Ed Masley of The Arizona Republic wrote that the song " survived the transformation to an unplugged ballad , making the most of Lovato 's most vulnerable vocal performance of the night . " In 2010 , she performed the song during her South American tour . Lovato also performed the song during her set at the Jonas Brothers Live in Concert World Tour 2010 . Scott Mervis of Pittsburgh Post @-@ Gazette wrote that Lovato performed a " high @-@ energy , high @-@ volume " version of the song . In September 2011 , Lovato performed the song during the revue concert An Evening with Demi Lovato . Lovato also performed an acoustic medley of " Don 't Forget " and " Catch Me " at the Vevo Certified SuperFanFest in 2014 .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Demi Lovato – writer , lead vocals
Kevin Jonas – writer
Nick Jonas – writer , guitars , percussion
Dorian Crozier – drums
Michael Bland – drums
John Fields – bass , guitars , keyboards , programming , producer
Joe Jonas – writer
Jonas Brothers – producers
Source : Album notes .
= = Charts and sales = =
= Carnivàle =
Carnivàle / kɑːrnɪˈvæl / is an American television series set in the United States during the Great Depression and Dust Bowl . In tracing the lives of two disparate groups of people , its story depicts the battle between good and evil and the struggle between free will and destiny ; the storyline mixes Christian theology with gnosticism and Masonic lore , particularly that of the Knights Templar . The show was filmed in Santa Clarita , California , and other Southern Californian locations .
Carnivàle was produced by HBO and ran for two seasons between September 14 , 2003 and March 27 , 2005 . The show was created by Daniel Knauf , who also served as executive producer with Ronald D. Moore and Howard Klein . The incidental music was composed by Jeff Beal . Nick Stahl and Clancy Brown starred as Ben Hawkins and Brother Justin Crowe , respectively .
Early reviews praised the style of Carnivàle but questioned the approach and execution of the story . Carnivàle 's first episode set a new audience record for an HBO original series , but the show was unable to retain its ratings in its second season . Carnivàle was canceled after 24 episodes , cutting its intended six @-@ season run short by four seasons . The show won five Emmys in 2004 , was nominated for 10 further Emmy awards , and received numerous other nominations and industry awards between 2004 and 2006 .
= = Plot introduction = =
The two seasons of Carnivàle take place in the Depression @-@ era Dust Bowl between 1934 and 1935 , and consist of two main plotlines that slowly converge . The first involves a young man with strange healing powers named Ben Hawkins ( Nick Stahl ) , who joins a traveling carnival when it passes near his home in Milfay , Oklahoma . Soon thereafter , Ben begins having surrealistic dreams and visions , which set him on the trail of a man named Henry Scudder , a drifter who crossed paths with the carnival many years before , and who apparently possessed unusual abilities similar to Ben 's own .
The second plotline revolves around a Father Coughlin @-@ esque Methodist preacher , Brother Justin Crowe ( Clancy Brown ) , who lives with his sister Iris in California . He shares Ben 's prophetic dreams and slowly discovers the extent of his own unearthly powers , which include bending human beings to his will and making their sins and greatest evils manifest as terrifying visions . Certain that he is doing God 's work , Brother Justin fully devotes himself to his religious duties , not realizing that his ultimate nemesis Ben Hawkins and the carnival are inexorably drawing closer .
= = Production = =
= = = Conception = = =
Daniel Knauf conceived the initial script for the show between 1990 and 1992 when he was unsatisfied with his job as a Californian health insurance broker and hoped to become a screenwriter . He had always been interested in carnivals and noted that this subject had rarely been dramatized on film . The resulting story and its treatment of freaks was strongly informed by Knauf 's experiences of growing up with a disabled father who was not commonly accepted as a normal human being .
Knauf named the intended feature film script Carnivàle , using an unusual spelling for a more outlandish look . Knauf had plotted the story 's broad strokes as well as several plot details from early on and knew the story destination until the final scene . However , the resulting 180 @-@ page long script was twice the length of a typical feature film script , and Knauf still felt that it was too short to do his story justice . He therefore shelved the screenplay as a learning experience . In the meantime , all but one of Knauf 's other scripts were rejected by Hollywood studios , often for being " too weird . "
In the mid @-@ 1990s , Knauf met a few Writers Guild TV writers who encouraged him to revise Carnivàle as a TV series . Knauf turned the script 's first act into a pilot episode , but , having no contacts in the television business , he was forced to shelve the project again and return to his regular job . A few years later , after realizing that his insurance career was not working out , he decided to give his screenwriting efforts a last chance by offering the Carnivàle pilot on his website . The script was subsequently forwarded to Howard Klein by Scott Winant , a mutual friend of the two men . After several meetings and conversations , Klein felt confident that Carnivàle would make a good episodic television series that could last for many years . Klein brought it to the attention of Chris Albrecht and Carolyn Strauss of HBO , who were immediately receptive . The network deemed Knauf too inexperienced in the television business to give him full control over the budget , and appointed Ronald D. Moore as showrunner . ( Knauf would replace Moore after one season when Moore left for the reimagined Battlestar Galactica . )
The pilot episode , which was filmed over a period of 21 days , served as the basis for additional tweaking of intended story lines . Long creative discussions took place among the writers and the network , leading to the postponement of the filming of the second episode for fourteen months . One major change was the addition of extra material for Brother Justin 's side of the story . Brother Justin was originally conceived as a well @-@ established preacher , and as a recurring character rather than a regular one . However , after perusing the preliminary version of the pilot , Knauf and the producers realized that there was no room for Justin to grow in a television series . Hence , it was decided to make Brother Justin an ordinary Methodist minister in a small town , setting him back in his career by about one or two years . Expanding Brother Justin 's role opened new possibilities , and his sister Iris was created as a supporting character . Little was changed on Ben Hawkins ' side except for the addition of the cootch ( striptease ) family ; a Carnivàle consultant had elated the producers by calling attention to his research about families managing cootch shows in the 1930s .
= = = Format = = =
The Carnivàle story was originally intended to be a trilogy of " books " , consisting of two seasons each . This plan did not come to fruition , as HBO canceled the show after the first two seasons . Each season consists of twelve episodes .
Airing on HBO benefited Carnivàle in several ways . Because HBO does not rely on commercial breaks , Carnivàle had the artistic freedom to vary in episode length . Although the episodes averaged a runtime of 54 minutes , the episodes " Insomnia " and " Old Cherry Blossom Road " were 46 minutes and 59 minutes , respectively . HBO budgeted approximately US $ 4 million for each episode , considerably more than most television series receive .
= = = Historical production design = = =
Carnivàle 's 1930s ' Dust Bowl setting required significant research and historical consultants to be convincing , which was made possible with HBO 's strong financial backing . As a result , reviews praised the look and production design of the show as " impeccable , " " spectacular " and as " an absolute visual stunner . " In 2004 , Carnivàle won four Emmys for art direction , cinematography , costumes , and hairstyling .
To give a sense of the dry and dusty environment of the Dust Bowl , smoke and dirt were constantly blown through tubes onto the set . The actors ' clothes were ragged and drenched in dirt , and Carnivàle had approximately 5 @,@ 000 people costumed in the show 's first season alone . The creative team listened to 1930s ' music and radio and read old Hollywood magazines to get the period 's sound , language , and slang right . The art department had an extensive research library of old catalogs , among them an original 1934 Sears Catalog , which were purchased at flea markets and antique stores . The East European background of some characters and Asian themes in Brother Justin 's story were incorporated into the show . Aside from the show 's supernatural elements , a historical consultant deemed Carnivàle 's historic accuracy to be excellent regarding the characters ' lives and clothes , their food and accommodations , their cars and all the material culture .
= = = Filming locations = = =
Carnivàle 's interiors were filmed at Santa Clarita Studios in Santa Clarita , California , while the show 's many exterior scenes were filmed on Southern California locations . The scenes of fictional California town of Mintern , where the stories about Brother Justin and Iris in Season 1 were based , were shot at Paramount Ranch in Agoura Hills . The carnival set itself was moved around the greater Southern California area , to movie ranches and to Lancaster , which were to replicate the states of Oklahoma , Texas , and New Mexico . The permanent filming location of the carnival in Season 2 was Big Sky Ranch , which was also used for Brother Justin 's new home in fictional New Canaan .
= = = Opening title sequence = = =
Carnivàle 's opening title sequence was created by A52 , a visual effects and design company based in Los Angeles , and featured music composed by Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman . The opening title sequence won an Emmy for " Outstanding Main Title Design " in 2004 .
The production team of A52 had intended to " create a title sequence that grounded viewers in the mid @-@ 1930s , but that also allowed people to feel a larger presence of good and evil over all of time . " A52 then pitched their idea to Carnivàle executives in early 2003 , who felt that the company 's proposal was the most creative for the series ' concept . The actual production included scanned transparencies of famous pieces of artwork , each scanned transparency being up to 300 MB in size . The resulting images were photoshopped and digitally rendered . A last step involved stock footage clips being compiled and digitally incorporated into the sequence .
The opening title sequence itself begins with a deck of Tarot cards falling into the sand , while the camera moves in and enters one card into a separate world presenting layers of artwork and footage from iconic moments of the American Depression era ; the camera then moves back out of a different card and repeats the procedure several times . The sequence ends with the camera shifting from the " Judgement " Tarot card to the " Moon " and the " Sun " , identifying the Devil and God respectively , until the wind blows away all cards and the underlying sand to reveal the Carnivàle title artwork .
= = = Music = = =
Carnivàle features instrumental music composed by Jeff Beal , as well as many popular and obscure songs from the 1920s and 1930s , the time when Carnivàle 's story takes place . The main title was written by Wendy Melvoin and Lisa Coleman , and was released with selected themes by Jeff Beal on a Carnivàle television soundtrack by the record label Varèse Sarabande on December 7 , 2004 . Beal released tracks of Season 2 on his personal website . A complete list of music credits is available on the official HBO website .
Jeff Beal 's score is primarily acoustic sounding electronics , but mixes themes of bluegrass as well as atmospheric rhythmic sounds . Bigger groups of strings support smaller ensembles of guitars , pianos , violins , cellos , and trumpets . The music sometimes uses ethnic instruments such as banjos , harmonicas , ukuleles , and duduks .
Because HBO does not break individual episodes with commercials , Carnivàle 's music is paced similar to a movie , with character @-@ specific leitmotifs from as early as the first episode . Characters get musically identified by solo instruments chosen for the character 's ethnic background or nature . Some characters whose connections would only be disclosed later in the series have intentionally similar themes .
Different music is consciously used to represent the two different worlds of the story . Brother Justin 's world features music of constructed orchestral sound with religious music and instruments . On the other hand , the score of the carnival side is more deconstructed and mystical , especially when the carnival travels through the Dust Bowl and remote towns . For carnival scenes taking place in the cootch ( striptease ) show or in cities , however , contemporary pop music , blues , folk , and ethnic music is played . One of the most defining songs of Carnivàle is the 1920s song " Love Me or Leave Me " sung by Ruth Etting , which is used in several episodes to tie characters in the two worlds thematically .
= = Cast = =
The plot of Carnivàle takes place in the 1930s Dust Bowl and revolves around the slowly converging storylines of a traveling carnival and a Californian preacher . Out of the 17 actors receiving star billing in the first season , 15 were part of the carnival storyline . The second season amounted to 13 main cast members , supplemented by several actors in recurring roles . Although such large casts make shows more expensive to produce , the writers are benefited with more flexibility in story decisions . The backgrounds of most characters were fully developed before the filming of Carnivàle began but were not part of the show 's visible structure . The audience would therefore only learn more about the characters as a natural aspect in the story .
Season 1 's first storyline is led by Nick Stahl portraying the protagonist Ben Hawkins , a young Okie farmer who joins a traveling carnival . Michael J. Anderson played Samson , the diminutive manager of the carnival . Tim DeKay portrayed Clayton " Jonesy " Jones , the crippled chief roustabout . Patrick Bauchau acted as the carnival 's blind mentalist Lodz , while Debra Christofferson played his lover , Lila the Bearded Lady . Diane Salinger portrayed the catatonic fortune teller Apollonia , and Clea DuVall acted as her tarot @-@ card @-@ reading daughter , Sofie . Adrienne Barbeau portrayed the snake charmer Ruthie , with Brian Turk as her son Gabriel , a strongman . John Fleck played Gecko the Lizard Man , and Karyne and Sarah Steben appeared as the conjoined twins Alexandria and Caladonia . The cootch show Dreifuss family was played by Toby Huss and Cynthia Ettinger as Felix " Stumpy " and Rita Sue , and Carla Gallo as their daughter Libby . Amanda Aday portrayed their other daughter , Dora Mae Dreifuss , in a recurring role . John Savage played the mysterious Henry Scudder in several episodes , while Linda Hunt lent her voice to the mysterious Management . The second storyline is led by Clancy Brown portraying the primary antagonist , the Methodist minister Brother Justin Crowe . Amy Madigan played his sister Iris . Robert Knepper supported them as the successful radio host Tommy Dolan later in the first season , while Ralph Waite had a recurring role as Reverend Norman Balthus , Brother Justin 's mentor . K Callan performed in a recurring role as Eleanor McGill , a parishioner who became devoted to Brother Justin after seeing his power firsthand .
Several cast changes took place in Season 2 , some of them planned from the beginning . John Fleck , Karyne Steben and her sister Sarah had made their last appearance in the first season 's finale , while Patrick Bauchau 's and Diane Salinger 's status was reduced to guest @-@ starring . Ralph Waite joined the regular cast . Several new characters were introduced in recurring roles , most notably John Carroll Lynch as the escaped convict Varlyn Stroud and Bree Walker as Sabina the Scorpion Lady .
= = = Casting = = =
The casting approach for Carnivàle was to cast the best available actors and to show the characters ' realness as opposed to depending on freak illusions too much . Carnivàle 's casting directors John Papsodera and Wendy O 'Brien already had experience in casting freaks from previous projects . The producers generally preferred actors who were not strongly identified with other projects , but were willing to make exceptions such as for Adrienne Barbeau as Ruthie .
The script for the pilot episode was the basis for the casting procedure , with little indication where the show would go afterwards . This resulted in some preliminary casting disagreements between the creators and producers , especially for leading characters such as Ben , Brother Justin and Sofie . The character of Ben was always intended to be the leading man and hero of the series , yet he was also desired to display a youthful , innocent and anti @-@ hero quality ; Nick Stahl had the strongest consensus among the producers . The character of Sofie was originally written as more of an exotic gypsy girl , but Clea DuVall , a movie actor like Stahl , got the part after four auditions . Tim DeKay was cast as Jonesy because the producers felt he best portrayed a " very American " looking baseball player of that period . One of the few actors who never had any real competition was Michael J. Anderson as Samson , whom Daniel Knauf had wanted as early as the initial meeting .
= = Mythology = =
Although almost every Carnivàle episode has a distinctive story with a new carnival setting , all episodes are part of an overarching good @-@ versus @-@ evil story that only culminates and resolves very late in Season 2 . The pilot episode begins with a prologue talking of " a creature of light and a creature of darkness " ( also known as Avatars ) being born " to each generation " preparing for a final battle . Carnivàle does not reveal its characters as Avatars beyond insinuation , and makes the nature of suggested Avatars a central question . Reviewers believed Ben to be a Creature of Light and Brother Justin a Creature of Darkness .
Other than through the characters , the show 's good @-@ and @-@ evil theme manifests in the series ' contemporary religion , the Christian military order Knights Templar , tarot divination , and in historical events like the Dust Bowl and humankind 's first nuclear test . The writers had established a groundwork for story arcs , character biographies and genealogical character links before filming of the seasons began , but many of the intended clues remained unnoticed by viewers . While Ronald D. Moore was confident that Carnivàle was one of the most complicated shows on television , Daniel Knauf reassured critics that Carnivàle was intended to be a demanding show with a lot of subtext and admitted that " you may not understand everything that goes on but it does make a certain sense " . Knauf provided hints about the show 's mythological structure to online fandom both during and after the two @-@ season run of Carnivàle , and left fans a production summary of Carnivàle 's first season two years after cancellation .
Matt Roush of TV Guide called Carnivàle " the perfect show for those who thought Twin Peaks was too accessible " . The Australian stated that Carnivàle " seems to have been conceived in essentially literary terms " which " can sometimes work on the page but is deadly on the large screen , let alone a small one . It 's almost like a biblical injunction against pretension on television . " A reviewer admitted his temptation to dismiss the first season of Carnivàle as " too artsy and esoteric " because his lack of involvement prevented him from understanding " what the heck was going on , [ which ] can be a problem for a dramatic television series . " TV Zone however considered Carnivàle " a series like no other and [ ... ] the fact that it is so open to interpretation surprisingly proves to be one of its greatest strengths . " Carnivàle was lauded for bringing " the hopelessness of the Great Depression to life " and for being among the first TV shows to show " unmitigated pain and disappointment " , but reviewers were not confident that viewers would find the " slowly unfolding sadness " appealing over long or would have the patience or endurance to find out the meaning of the show .
= = Cancellation and future = =
At the time , HBO made their commitments for only one year at a time , a third season would have meant opening up a new two @-@ season book in Daniel Knauf 's six @-@ year plan , including the introduction of new storylines for current and new characters , and further clarification and elaboration on the show 's mythology . HBO announced that the show had been cancelled on May 11 , 2005 . HBO 's president Chris Albrecht stated that the network would have considered otherwise if the producers had been willing to lower the price of an episode to US $ 2 million ; but the running costs for the sizable cast , the all @-@ on @-@ location shooting and the number of episodes per season were too enormous for them .
The cancellation resulted in several story plot lines being unfinished , and outraged loyal viewers organized petitions and mailing drives to get the show renewed . This generated more than 50 @,@ 000 emails to the network in a single weekend . Show creator Daniel Knauf was unconvinced of the success of such measures , but explained that proposed alternatives like selling Carnivàle to a competing network or spinning off the story were not possible because of HBO owning Carnivàle 's plot and characters . At the same time , Knauf was hopeful that , given a strong enough fan base , HBO might reconsider the show 's future and allow the continuation of the show in another medium ; but because of the amount of unused story material he still had , Knauf did not favor finishing the Carnivàle story with a three @-@ hour movie .
Knauf would not release a detailed run @-@ down of intended future plots to fans , explaining that his stories are a collaboration of writers , directors and actors alike . He and the producers did , however , answer a few basic details about the immediate fate of major characters who were left in near @-@ fatal situations in the final episode of Season 2 . Knauf additionally provided in @-@ depth information regarding the underlying fictional laws of nature that the writers had not been able to fully explore in the first two seasons . June 2007 however marked the first time that a comprehensive work of detailed character backgrounds was made public . Following a fundraising auction , Knauf offered fans a so @-@ called " Pitch Document , " a summary of Carnivàle 's first season . This document was originally written in 2002 and 2003 to give the writers and the studio an idea about the series ' intended plot , and answered many of the show 's mysteries .
= = Marketing and merchandise = =
= = = Pre @-@ broadcast marketing = = =
HBO reportedly invested in Carnivàle 's promotion as much as for any of its primetime series launches . The series ' unconventional and complex narrative made the network deviate from its traditional marketing strategies . Teaser trailers were inserted on CD @-@ ROMs into Entertainment Weekly issues to draw attention to the show 's visual quality . 30 @-@ second TV spots were aired in national syndication , cable and local avails for four weeks before the show 's premiere instead of the usual seven days . The historical context of Carnivàle was deliberately emphasized in the show 's print art , which depicted the 17 @-@ member cast surrounding a carnival truck . This image was accompanied by a tagline of the show 's good versus evil theme : " Into each generation is born a creature of light and a creature of darkness . " These measures were hoped to be backed up by positive critical reviews . To give ratings an initial boost , HBO placed the premiere of Carnivàle directly after the series finale of the successful Sex and the City . The series continued to receive extensive online advertisement for almost its entire run .
= = = Games = = =
Personalized and interactive online games inspired by tarot divination were created for Carnivàle 's internet presence . The official HBO website collaborated with RealNetworks to offer FATE : The Carnivàle Game , a downloadable game made available for trial and for purchase .
= = = DVDs = = =
Carnivàle : The Complete First Season was released as a widescreen six @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set on December 7 , 2004 , one month before the premiere of the second season . It was distributed by HBO Home Video and contained three audio commentaries and a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurette . The outer slipcover of the Region 1 set was made of a thick cardboard to mimic a bound book . The same set was released with less elaborate packaging in Region 2 on March 7 , 2005 , and in Region 4 on May 11 , 2005 .
Carnivàle : The Complete Second Season was released as a widescreen six @-@ disc Region 1 DVD box set on July 18 , 2006 , in Region 2 on August 7 , 2006 , and in Region 4 on October 4 , 2006 . Each of these releases was distributed by HBO Home Video and contained three audio commentaries , on @-@ stage interviews of the cast and producers , a featurette about the mythology of the series , and four short " Creating the Scene " segments about the concept , inspiration and execution process .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Carnivàle aired on HBO on a Sunday 9 : 00 pm timeslot during its two @-@ season run between 2003 and 2005 . " Milfay " , Carnivàle 's pilot episode , drew 5 @.@ 3 million viewers for its premiere on September 14 , 2003 . This marked the best ever debut for an HBO original series at the time , caused in part by the established HBO series Sex and the City being Carnivàle 's lead @-@ in . This record was broken on March 21 , 2004 by HBO series Deadwood , which debuted with 5 @.@ 8 million viewers as the lead @-@ out of The Sopranos .
Viewership dropped to 3 @.@ 49 million for Carnivàle 's second episode but remained stable for the remainder of the season . The final episode of season one finished with 3 @.@ 5 million viewers on November 30 , 2003 . Season one averaged 3 @.@ 54 million viewers and a household rating of 2 @.@ 41 .
Viewership for the second season premiere on January 9 , 2005 was down by two @-@ thirds to 1 @.@ 81 million . The ratings never recovered to their first @-@ season highs , although the season two finale experienced an upswing with 2 @.@ 40 million viewers on March 27 , 2005 . Season 2 averaged 1 @.@ 7 million viewers , not enough to avert an imminent cancellation .
= = = Critical reviews = = =
Many early reviews gave Carnivàle good marks but also stated that its unique characters and story might prevent it from becoming a huge mainstream audience success . Daily Variety TV editor Joseph Adalian predicted that " it will get mostly positive reviews but some people will be put off by the general weirdness of the show . " Phil Gallo of Variety described Carnivàle as " an absolute visual stunner with compelling freak show characters — but the series unfortunately takes a leisurely approach toward getting to a point , " and Eric Deggans of the St. Petersburg Times suggested that " it 's as if executives at the premium cable network want to see how far they can slow a narrative before viewers start tossing their remotes through the screen " . James Poniewozik of Time called the first three episodes " frustrating " as well as " spellbinding . " Amanda Murray of BBC said " With so little revealed , it 's almost impossible to pass judgment on the show — it 's hard to tell if this is just good , or going to be great . "
Later reviews were able to judge the series based on full seasons . While the acting , set design , costuming , art direction and cinematography continued to be praised , some reviewers disfavored the writing , especially of Season 1 , saying " the plot momentum is often virtually non @-@ existent " or as " sometimes gripping but mostly boring . " Other reviewers pointed out that Carnivàle may " demand more from its audience than many are willing to invest . [ ... ] Without paying close attention , it 's tempting to assume that the show is unnecessarily cryptic and misleading . " Carnivàle 's story was surveyed as long and complex , " and if you don 't start from the beginning , you 'll be completely lost . " IGN DVD 's Matt Casamassina , however , praised the show in two reviews , writing that the " gorgeously surreal " first season " dazzles with unpredictable plot twists and scares " , and that the " extraordinary " second season was " better fantasy – better entertainment , period – than any show that dares to call itself a competitor . "
A significant portion of reviews drew parallels between Carnivàle and David Lynch 's 1990s mystery TV series Twin Peaks , a show in which Carnivàle actor Michael J. Anderson had previously appeared . Knauf did not deny a stylistic link and made comparisons to John Steinbeck 's novel The Grapes of Wrath . When Lost began to receive major critical attention , Carnivàle and its type of mythological storytelling were compared to Lost 's story approach in several instances .
Critical opinion remained divided about Carnivàle in the years after the show 's cancellation . Alessandra Stanley of the Australian newspaper The Age remembers Carnivàle as a " smart , ambitious series that move [ s ] unusual characters around an unfamiliar setting imaginatively and even with grace , but that never quite quit the surly bonds of serial drama . " Variety 's Brian Lowry remembers the show as " largely a macabre fantasy " that eventually suffered from " its own bleakness and eccentricities " . The A.V. Club dwelled on Carnivàle 's cliffhanger ending in a piece on unanswered TV questions and called the show " a fantastically rich series with a frustratingly dense mythology " .
= = = Fandom = = =
Like other cult television shows , Carnivàle gained a respectable following of dedicated viewers . Carnivàle fans referred to themselves as " Carnies " or " Rousties " ( roustabouts ) , terms adopted from the show . Carnivàle 's complexity and subliminal mythology spawned dedicated fansites , although most discussion took place on independent internet forums . Show creator Daniel Knauf actively participated in online fandom and offered story- and mythology @-@ related clues . He also gave insight into reasons for Carnivàle 's cancellation on a messageboard before speaking to the press .
One year after Carnivàle 's cancellation , a major Carnivàle convention called CarnyCon 2006 Live ! was organized by fans . It took place in Woodland Hills , California on August 21 – 23 , 2006 . Many of the show 's cast and crew attended the event and participated in discussion panels , which were recorded and made available on DVD afterwards .
= = = Awards = = =
Despite its short two @-@ season run , Carnivàle received numerous awards and nominations . The show 's inaugural season received nominations for seven Emmy Awards in 2004 , winning five including " Outstanding Art Direction For A Single @-@ camera Series " and " Outstanding Costumes For A Series " for the pilot episode " Milfay " , " Outstanding Cinematography For A Single @-@ Camera Series " for the episode " Pick A Number " , " Outstanding Hairstyling For A Series " for the episode " After the Ball Is Over " , and " Outstanding Main Title Design " . In 2005 , the second season received eight further Emmy nominations without a win .
Other awards include but are not limited to :
Win – Artios Award : " Best Casting for TV , Dramatic Pilot " , 2004
Win – VES Award : " Outstanding Special Effects in Service to Visual Effects in a Televised Program , Music Video or Commercial " , 2004
Win – Costume Designers Guild Award : " Excellence in Costume Design for Television – Period / Fantasy " , 2005
Nominated – two Golden Reel Awards , 2003
Nominated – two Saturn Awards , 2004
Nominated – two VES Awards , 2004
Nominated – Costume Designers Guild Award , 2005
= = = International reception and broadcasters = = =
HBO president Chris Albrecht stated that Carnivàle was " not a big show for foreign [ distribution ] , " but did not go into more detail . Reviews however indicate that the show 's cryptic mythology and inaccessibility to the casual viewer were major factors . Nevertheless , Carnivàle was sold to several foreign networks and was distributed to HBO channels abroad . The DVD releases of Carnivàle extended the availability of the show further .
= = Lawsuit = =
On June 9 , 2005 , a lawsuit was filed in United States district court by Los Angeles writer Jeff Bergquist . He claimed that the creators of Carnivàle did not originate the idea for the show , but rather stole it from his unpublished novel Beulah , a quirky drama set amid a traveling carnival during the Depression that Bergquist had been working on since the 1980s . Bergquist sought both recognition and punitive damages by arguing that HBO and Carnivàle creator Daniel Knauf violated his copyright on Beulah , but HBO and Knauf denied any claims as having " absolutely no merit . "
= Lafayette dollar =
The Lafayette dollar was a silver coin issued as part of the United States participation in the Paris World 's Fair of 1900 . Depicting Lafayette with George Washington and designed by Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber , it was the only U.S. silver dollar commemorative prior to 1983 , and the first U.S. coin to depict American citizens .
Beginning in 1898 , prominent Americans sought to erect in Paris a monument to Lafayette , a Frenchman who fought in the American Revolutionary War . Among these supporters was Chicago businessman Ferdinand Peck , whom President William McKinley chose as commissioner @-@ general to the exposition . Peck made the monument proposal a part of the American plans for Paris , and appointed the Lafayette Memorial Commission to raise funds for it . A part of this fundraising was the one @-@ dollar commemorative coin , approved by Congress on March 3 , 1899 .
Conjoined busts of Washington and Lafayette appear on the obverse . Barber stated that the bases for his work were a sculpture of Washington by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , and an 1824 medal of Lafayette by François @-@ Augustin Caunois . For the reverse , he used an early sketch of the planned monument , designed by Paul Wayland Bartlett , whose last name appears on the base of the statue on the reverse . The coins did not sell out , and 14 @,@ 000 were later melted by the United States Treasury . The Lafayette dollar is valued from several hundred dollars to tens of thousands , depending on condition .
= = Background = =
Gilbert du Motier de La Fayette was born on September 6 , 1757 to a noble French family . When the boy was less than two years old , his father was killed at the Battle of Minden , making the toddler a wealthy nobleman . The young marquis married in 1774 .
In 1775 , while on military duty in Metz , Lafayette heard of the rebellion against British rule in North America . The young officer quickly came to believe that the American cause was noble . On learning that the Second Continental Congress lacked funds , Lafayette hired a ship at his own expense and in 1777 sailed for America , though he initially received a cold reception from the Congress . So many foreign officers had sought to be a part of the Continental Army that its commanding general , George Washington , asked that no more be engaged . Lafayette 's application , which sought no pay , met with eventual success . Congress had received a letter from the American envoy to France , Benjamin Franklin , stating that Lafayette 's family was wealthy and influential . Franklin urged Congress to accommodate Lafayette , and also keep him safe and out of the action lest his death harm the American cause .
Congress dutifully voted in July 1777 to commission Lafayette as a major general , and sent him to meet Washington . The two men formed a very close relationship despite a quarter @-@ century difference in age . Franklin 's wish to keep Lafayette safe was frustrated by the young man 's desire to be where battles raged , and he was wounded at the Battle of Brandywine in September 1777 . France soon entered the war on the American side , and was instrumental in the victory . Lafayette helped lead the decisive Yorktown campaign , leading to the surrender of British Lieutenant General Lord Cornwallis .
Lafayette returned to France after 1781 , a national hero in both countries . He returned to the United States in 1784 , his last visit for 40 years . In France , he involved himself in politics , favoring a constitutional monarchy . He was given office and commands after the French Revolution , but was captured by the Austrians in 1792 , remaining in captivity for five years . After Napoleon arranged his release , Lafayette remained on his estates and away from politics during the Emperor 's rule . After the restoration of the monarchy in 1815 , he again engaged himself in politics , sitting in the Chamber of Deputies .
In 1824 , the American Congress voted unanimously to have President James Monroe invite Lafayette to return as the guest of the nation . The marquis and his son , George Washington Lafayette , arrived in New York City to mammoth celebrations . Over the next year and a half , Lafayette visited all 24 states . He was given innumerable honors and gifts , including land in Florida . The marquis returned to France in 1825 , and died in 1834 . One of only eight people to be made an honorary citizen of the United States , according to Arnie Slabaugh in his book on commemorative coins , " Lafayette became so popular and respected in both countries that the friendship he helped cement between the two nations has extended to this day " .
= = Inception = =
In March 1898 , a resolution was introduced in Congress for a commission to erect a monument to Lafayette in Paris on behalf of the United States . The bill passed the Senate , and hearings were held before the House Committee on Foreign Affairs . Chicago businessman and philanthropist Ferdinand Peck testified in support of the bill , which though favored by the committee was not considered by the House due to higher priorities during the Spanish – American War .
Later in 1898 , President William McKinley appointed Peck as United States Commissioner @-@ General to the 1900 Exposition Universelle , a World 's Fair to be held in Paris , France . Peck revived the Lafayette proposal as part of the American participation in the fair , and created a Lafayette Memorial Commission to supervise the monument project . The commission was to ensure that the monument was unveiled on July 4 , 1900 — both Independence Day and also United States Day at the exposition . On September 1 , 1898 , Peck appointed a number of prominent Americans to the commission , including Iowa Senator William B. Allison , Secretary of State William R. Day , Archbishop John Ireland , and Reverend Edward Everett Hale . The commission 's officers included the treasurer , Comptroller of the Currency ( and future Vice President of the United States ) Charles G. Dawes , and the secretary , Robert J. Thompson .
Fundraising to build the Lafayette monument was a major component of the commission 's work , and it sought to involve American schools and schoolchildren in the project . October 19 , 1898 — the 117th anniversary of Cornwallis 's surrender at Yorktown — was proclaimed the first " Lafayette Day " by 42 governors or commissioners of education of the states or territories . Although President McKinley did not issue a similar proclamation , he did praise the plan in a letter printed in the press . Special ceremonies in honor of Lafayette ( along with appropriate lesson plans ) were observed in many schools , and pupils were called upon to donate cents in honor of the French patriot . A total of $ 45 @,@ 858 @.@ 30 was obtained from the events at the schools ; those institutions were furnished , on the next Lafayette Day ( intended to be annual ) , with ornate receipts , signed by Dawes and meant as momentos to descend to posterity .
Another proposed means of paying for the statue was a commemorative coin . In early 1899 , the commission sought enactment of legislation granting it an appropriation of $ 50 @,@ 000 in the form of 100 @,@ 000 commemorative half dollars , that could be sold to the public at a premium . Such a method had helped to finance ( though with mixed success ) the 1893 World 's Columbian Exposition in Chicago . Instead , Congress passed and McKinley signed on March 3 , 1899 , a civil appropriations bill that included provision for 50 @,@ 000 silver one @-@ dollar pieces to be granted to the commission . The bullion for the striking was to be purchased on the open market and was not to come from the Mint 's remaining stocks acquired pursuant to the repealed Sherman Silver Purchase Act , though the Mint would not exhaust its inventory from that legislation until 1904 . Congress placed a ceiling on the cost of the silver at $ 25 @,@ 000 . In the event , the United States Treasury bought 38 @,@ 675 @.@ 875 troy ounces of silver for $ 23 @,@ 032 @.@ 80 . The designs were to be selected by the Mint Director , with the approval of the Secretary of the Treasury .
= = Preparation = =
Once the bill passed , Bureau of the Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber took personal charge of the project , seeking to avoid the delays and disputes that had marked the two previous commemoratives , the Columbian half dollar and the Isabella quarter . On March 24 , 1899 , Mint Director George E. Roberts wrote in a letter that the Lafayette Memorial Commission was contemplating having , on one side of the coin , a representation of the new monument . Barber responded the following day to Philadelphia Mint Superintendent Henry Boyer , referencing that letter and asking for a sketch of the monument .
By April 12 , 1899 , the chief engraver had obtained from commission secretary Thompson a preliminary sketch of the monument — an equestrian statue by Paul Bartlett . Barber sketched other designs , including one with Lafayette 's 1784 prayer for the prosperity of the United States . He also created one showing a standing figure of Lafayette , based on a statement by Thompson that they might omit the horse . Barber 's concepts showing an equestrian statue for one side , and jugate heads of Lafayette and Washington for the other , would form the basis for the eventual coin . Roberts quickly approved Barber 's sketch of the two heads , and without consulting the commission leaked the information to the American Journal of Numismatics , which printed it in its April 1899 issue .
On May 23 , 1899 , Barber wrote to Roberts that he planned to base the Washington bust ( on the obverse ) on the well @-@ known 1785 bust of the first president by Jean @-@ Antoine Houdon , and upon an early medallic use of the Houdon bust , the 1786 " Washington Before Boston " medal by Pierre @-@ Simon @-@ Benjamin Duvivier . The Lafayette bust ( also on the obverse ) was to be based on a 1824 medal of Lafayette by François @-@ Augustin Caunois .
Peck and other commission members were not satisfied with the design proposals , and suggested some of their own . Barber denigrated these in a letter to Roberts on June 8 . Peck had proposed that only the faces of Washington and Lafayette be shown , with no depiction of the rest of the head . Barber stated , " I am of the opinion that the heads of Washington and Lafayette should be treated from the sculptor 's standpoint , and every effort be made to represent them with a grandeur and dignity commensurate with the position they fill in the Nation 's history , which certainly could not be done if they are to be shown peeping out of a half moon . " At the instructions of Roberts , Barber went to New York and met with Peck over two days on June 14 and 15 . Afterwards , Barber reported to the Mint Director , " I think we will hear no more of the Lafayette prayer " and that Peck now appreciated that the space available for a design , even on a silver dollar ( the largest US coin ) was limited , " and as it is the desire of the Committee [ commission ] to have the monument displayed , the prayer will have to find some other place " . Although Barber indicated that the decision of the commission to represent the statue without its pedestal represented progress toward the point where he might engrave dies , " I learned in New York that the work of the sculptor must be submitted to a committee in Paris who will have entire charge of the monument , and the sculptor 's work has to be changed in any and every detail until it meets the approval of this Committee of Frenchmen ... to me it looks as if it might be sometime in 1900 . "
On June 20 , 1899 , Barber submitted the final designs for the coin . They were approved by Director Roberts on July 1 . This did not put an end to the wrangles over what should be on the coin : the commission wished to have the coins dated 1900 , but have them to sell as early as possible in 1899 . Secretary of the Treasury Lyman Gage insisted on the provision of the Coinage Act of 1873 that required the date of production to appear on the coins . In the end , the matter was compromised : the pieces were struck in December 1899 , not distributed until the following month , and the inscription " Paris 1900 " appears on the coins .
= = Design = =
The obverse of the Lafayette dollar features jugate , or conjoined , heads of Washington and Lafayette . Slabaugh noted Barber 's account that the busts were based on the sculpture by Houdon and the medal by Caunois , but , " possibly these did have some effect on the design but it has always been my belief that the immediate source or idea for the design was the Yorktown Centennial medal of 1881 . " Swiatek and Breen contended that although the ultimate ancestor of Barber 's depiction of Washington was the Houdon bust , the source of the Lafayette bust and the format of the obverse " was beyond doubt Peter L. Krider 's Yorktown Centennial Medal ( 1881 ) " . Krider , a Philadelphia engraver not employed by the Mint , issued a number of tokens and medals in the 1870s and 1880s . " United States of America " and " Lafayette Dollar " appear at the top and bottom of the obverse of the coin .
The reverse is based on an early sketch of the statue of Lafayette by Bartlett . It depicts a mounted statue of Lafayette , riding left . Barber 's monogram does not appear on the coin , but the name " Bartlett " is inscribed on the base of the statue . Also on the base , and extending below it , is a palm branch . The reverse inscription , " Erected by the youth of the United States in honor of Gen Lafayette / Paris 1900 " is a tribute to the school fundraising efforts that took place in 1898 . Swiatek and Breen pointed out that even if one grants that the 1900 date was intended to be that of the exposition and the erection of the statue , the coins would still violate the 1873 act , that required the date of mintage to appear on the coins , and thus " the Lafayette dollars are technically undated and therefore illegal ! "
On the reverse , Lafayette holds a sword , extended upwards . Bartlett described the version of the statue that Barber worked from : " Lafayette is represented in the statue as a fact and a symbol , offering his sword and services to the American colonists in the cause of liberty . He appears as the emblem of the aristocratic and enthusiastic sympathy shown by France to our forefathers . " Swiatek and Breen noted , " We may take Lafayette 's pose on the statue , as depicted on the coin , to represent him in triumphal procession rather than charging against the enemy — note his sheathed sword , like a Highland pipe major 's baton , serving as a standard rather than brandished unsheathed as a weapon . "
Barber 's design for the Lafayette dollar has often been criticized . Swiatek and Breen complained about the " lifeless head of the President [ Washington ] " . Q. David Bowers stated that " the shallow relief of Barber 's work is but a travesty of Krider 's extremely detailed high @-@ relief artistry " . According to Don Taxay , " When one compares Barber 's portraits to those by Du Vivier [ sic ] and Caunois , it is clear why [ sculptor and Barber enemy ] Saint @-@ Gaudens used to refer contemptuously to the " commercial medalists of the Mint " . The difference here is not merely in the relief , but in elementary modeling skill . " Art historian Cornelius Vermeule stated that , " the Lafayette dollar lacks the quaint , dated appeal of the Isabella quarter or the amusing originality of the Columbian half @-@ dollar . Despite the necessity for low relief the jugate busts are too linear . The reverse suffers from too much lettering of uniform size . The words ' Paris 1900 ' might have been enough ; at most , the addition of ' From the Youth of the United States ' would have conveyed the matter . "
= = Production and aftermath = =
All Lafayette dollars were struck at the Philadelphia Mint on December 14 , 1899 , the centennial of the death of George Washington . The Philadelphia Public Ledger reported ,
Present at this small Lafayette dollar ceremony were several Mint officials , members of the Lafayette Memorial Commission and a few members of the press . After Miss Gleary [ the coining press operator ] removed the first Lafayette dollar struck , she presented it to Mint Superintendent Henry Boyer . Mint Chief Engraver Charles E. Barber then inspected it . It was then shown to Robert J. Thompson , secretary of the Memorial Commission , and then given to Director of the Mint George E. Roberts . It was placed in a coin or medal case and brought back to Washington , D.C. , by Mr. Roberts , to be given to President William McKinley . The coin was then to be sent in an elaborate $ 1 @,@ 000 presentation case , to be given to the president of the French Republic .
Once the ceremony at the Philadelphia Mint had concluded , striking of the Lafayette dollar continued on an older coinage press capable of minting eighty pieces per minute , or 4 @,@ 800 per hour . A total of 50 @,@ 026 pieces were struck , including 26 coins laid aside for inspection and testing at the 1900 meeting of the United States Assay Commission .
The first Columbian half dollar had been sold for $ 10 @,@ 000 . An offer of $ 5 @,@ 000 was made but declined for the first Lafayette dollar to be struck , which was designated for presentation to the French president . Thompson , designated a special commissioner of the United States for the purpose , took the casket to France aboard the S.S. La Champagne . The ceremony was originally scheduled for February 22 , 1900 ( Washington 's Birthday ) , but was not held until March 3 , when Thompson presented the casket and coin to French President Émile Loubet . The two objects are now in the Louvre .
The commission was plagued by a number of financial difficulties . In January 1900 , sculptor Charles Henry Niehaus questioned why $ 150 @,@ 000 was the fundraising target of the commission , as no equestrian statue had ever cost more than half that . The commission was sued by architect Henry Hornbostel , demanding fees for designing a pedestal for Bartlett 's statue . The out @-@ of @-@ court settlement reimbursed him for his expenses .
The commission was tardy in giving the final order for the statue to Bartlett , so late that it was impossible to have the final bronze piece ready in time ; a one @-@ third model was only completed in May . According to Q. David Bowers , " the French are at home in such problems . " The commission was able to have a full @-@ sized plaster model ready by July 4 by sawing the scale model in pieces and distributing them to various workshops , that made enlargements in plaster . Brought together , the plaster pieces fitted perfectly . This assembly was ceremoniously dedicated in the Place du Carrousel on July 4 , 1900 . Afterwards , Bartlett was dissatisfied with certain aspects of the design , and changed them . His bronze statue erected there in 1908 differs considerably from the statue depicted on the coin . Changes made included the elimination of Lafayette 's three @-@ cornered hat , and the position of the raised arm and sword . The statue stood there for almost eighty years , but was displaced in the 1980s during the excavations for I. M. Pei 's glass pyramid at the Louvre . It now stands on Cours @-@ la @-@ Reine in Paris , along the River Seine .
Once the coins were minted , the commission began sales at $ 2 each . After February 1900 , when the commission moved its offices from Chicago to Paris , sales were handled by the American Trust & Savings Bank of Chicago . Only small numbers were sold to coin collectors . Sales , conducted through the bank , continued for several years . Prices initially dropped on the secondary market — the pieces could be purchased for $ 1 @.@ 10 in 1903 — and thousands may have been released into circulation , or were spent by purchasers in hard times . By 1920 , the market price passed the original issue price , and thereafter prices rose steadily , reaching $ 3 @.@ 50 by 1930 , $ 5 at the height of the commemorative coin boom in July 1936 , $ 13 by 1950 , $ 55 by 1960 , and $ 650 by 1975 .
Fourteen thousand pieces were returned to the Treasury , and were held in $ 1 @,@ 000 sacks . This followed poor sales of the new coin in Paris — only 1 @,@ 800 sold there ; some 10 @,@ 000 were returned to the United States . They were held for many years . In 1945 , Omaha coin dealer Aubrey Beebe learned about the coins from government records and enquired , only to be told that the coins had been recently melted .
The Lafayette dollar is the first American coin to depict a US citizen . After the Lafayette piece , the Mint did not again strike a commemorative silver dollar until the 1983 @-@ S Los Angeles Olympics dollar .
= = Collecting = =
In 1925 , numismatist George H. Clapp discovered a Lafayette dollar that slightly differed from published descriptions . He researched the matter further over the following decade , and discovered two additional varieties . These exist because multiple dies , for both obverse and reverse , were used in striking the Lafayette piece , and the dies were not identical . Swiatek , writing in 2012 , noted a fifth die combination he had discovered , and examined images of hundreds of Lafayette dollars he owned or that were on the Internet . He reported that two varieties combined for more than 90 % of the specimens , with the remaining ones much rarer . Because of this , he speculated that the dollars were struck on at least two machines , not one as usually reported , with the rarer varieties the result of replacement dies being inserted as the original ones wore out . The differences are minor ( for example , whether the M in " America " is raised or even with the A that precedes it on the obverse , and details of the palm branch on the reverse ) and the coin is rarely collected by die type , meaning that little premium value attaches to the less common varieties .
R.S. Yeoman 's 2014 edition of A Guide Book of United States Coins lists the Lafayette dollar at $ 650 in Almost Uncirculated ( AU @-@ 50 ) ranging upwards to $ 19 @,@ 000 in near @-@ pristine MS @-@ 66 . One in MS @-@ 67 condition , tied with multiple others for the best condition known , sold in 2004 for $ 66 @,@ 700 . Most Lafayette dollars display contact marks from other coins as the pieces were mechanically ejected from the press into a hopper and no attempt was made to preserve their appearance for collectors . Although whether the specimen is well @-@ struck or not rarely affects value , clearly struck specimens will show the engraving line separating Lafayette 's boot from the rest of his uniform , and details of the lower part of his clothing will also be distinct . The highest points on the coin , at which wear should be most apparent , are Washington 's cheekbone on the obverse and the face of Lafayette on the reverse .
The coin has been counterfeited from time to time . Various techniques have also been used to make genuine specimens shinier to deceive collectors , including polishing , a process that damages their surfaces and patina .
= Solaris ( 1972 film ) =
Solaris ( Russian : Солярис , tr . Solyaris ) is a 1972 Soviet science fiction art film adaptation of Polish author Stanisław Lem 's novel Solaris ( 1961 ) . The film was co @-@ written and directed by Andrei Tarkovsky . The film is a meditative psychological drama occurring mostly aboard a space station orbiting the fictional planet Solaris . The scientific mission has stalled because the skeleton crew of three scientists have fallen into separate emotional crises . Psychologist Kris Kelvin travels to the Solaris space station to evaluate the situation only to encounter the same mysterious phenomena as the others .
The original science fiction novel is about the ultimate inadequacy of communication between humans and other species . Tarkovsky 's adaptation is a " drama of grief and partial recovery " concentrated upon the thoughts and the consciences of the cosmonaut scientists studying Solaris ' mysterious ocean . In loyalty to the novel 's complex and slow @-@ paced narrative , Tarkovsky wanted to bring a new emotional and intellectual depth to the genre , viewing most of western science fiction as shallow . The ideas which Tarkovsky tried to express in this film are further developed in Stalker ( 1979 ) .
The critically successful Solaris features Natalya Bondarchuk ( Hari ) , Donatas Banionis ( Kris Kelvin ) , Jüri Järvet ( Dr Snaut ) , Vladislav Dvorzhetsky ( Henri Berton ) , Nikolai Grinko ( Kris Kelvin 's Father ) , Olga Barnet ( Kris Kelvin 's Mother ) , Anatoli Solonitsyn ( Dr Sartorius ) , and Sos Sargsyan ( Dr Gibarian ) ; the music is by Johann Sebastian Bach and Eduard Artemyev . At the 1972 Cannes Film Festival , it won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury , the FIPRESCI prize and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . The film is often cited as one of the greatest science fiction films in the history of cinema .
= = Plot = =
Psychologist Kris Kelvin ( Donatas Banionis ) spends his last day on Earth reflecting on his life while walking by a lake near his childhood home where his elderly father still resides . Kelvin is about to embark on an interstellar journey to a space station orbiting the remote oceanic planet Solaris . After decades of study , the scientific mission at the space station has barely progressed . The crew is sending confusing messages . Kelvin is dispatched to evaluate the situation aboard the ship and determine whether the venture should continue .
Henri Berton ( Vladislav Dvorzhetsky ) , a former space pilot , visits Kelvin . They watch film footage of Berton 's own testimony years before of seeing a four @-@ meter @-@ tall child on the ocean surface of Solaris while searching for two lost scientists . However , the cameras of his craft recorded only clouds and the flat ocean surface ; Berton 's report was dismissed as hallucinations . After failing to convince Kelvin of the reality of his experience , Berton angrily departs , only to contact Kelvin later via videophone from his private car . He explains that he met the child of a scientist lost on that mission , and the child was like a much smaller version of the one he had seen on Solaris .
Before departing Earth for Solaris , Kelvin destroys most of his personal mementos in a bonfire , noting the volume of keepsakes he has accumulated . In Kelvin 's last conversation with his father ( Nikolai Grinko ) , they realize that the father will probably not live to see Kelvin return . Although he readily accepted the mission , it is a choice that weighs heavily upon Kelvin 's conscience .
Upon his arrival at Solaris Station , a scientific research station hovering above the oceanic surface of the planet Solaris , none of the three remaining scientists bother to greet Kelvin , who finds the disarrayed space station dangerously neglected . He soon learns that his friend among the scientists , Dr. Gibarian ( Sos Sargsyan ) , had killed himself . The two surviving crewmen are uncooperative and evasive . Kelvin soon glimpses other people aboard the station , not supposed to be there . Upon entering the late Gibarian 's room , Kelvin finds a rambling cryptic farewell video message from Gibarian addressed to him .
Waking exhausted from a restless sleep , Kelvin finds a woman with him in his quarters despite the barricaded door . To his surprise , it is Hari ( Natalya Bondarchuk ) , his late wife who committed suicide some years before . She is unaware of what has happened or how she got there . Terrified by her presence , he lures her into a space capsule and launches the replica of his wife into outer space . In his haste to be rid of her he is scorched by the rocket 's blast . Dr. Snaut tends to his burns and explains that the " visitors " began appearing after the scientists attracted the attention of Solaris , seemingly a sentient entity .
That evening , Hari reappears in his quarters . This time Kelvin calmly accepts her presence and embraces Hari throughout the night . Kelvin later causes her to panic by suddenly leaving the room and shutting the door behind him . She hysterically tears her way through the room 's metal door , severely cutting herself . Before he can give first aid , her injuries heal before his eyes . Dr. Sartorius ( Anatoli Solonitsyn ) calls for a meeting , and Kelvin introduces Hari as his wife . In their symposium , the scientists begin to understand that Solaris created Hari from Kelvin 's memories of his dead wife . The Hari present among them , though not human , thinks and feels as though she were . Sartorius theorizes that the visitors are composed of " neutrino systems " but that it might still be possible to destroy them through use of an offscreen device known as " the annihilator " .
Kelvin shows Hari films of himself and his parents when he was a boy and , later , of his wife . While she is asleep , Snaut proposes beaming Kelvin 's brainwave patterns at Solaris in hopes that it will understand them and stop the disturbing apparitions as communication . However , Sartorius suggests a radical attack of heavy radiation bombardment . In time , Hari becomes independent and is able to exist away from Kelvin 's presence . She learns from Sartorius that the original Hari had committed suicide ten years earlier , and Kelvin is forced to tell her the entire story . Sartorius , Snaut , Kelvin and Hari gather together for a birthday party which turns into a philosophical argument during which Sartorius tells Hari that she is not human , but a mere copy . Distressed , Hari kills herself again by drinking liquid oxygen , only to painfully , spasmodically resurrect a few minutes later . On the surface of Solaris , the ocean is moving even faster .
Kelvin goes to sleep only to wake up agitated and running a fever and gives a monologue to Snaut on the subject of suffering and universal love , then falls asleep again . He dreams of his mother as a young woman , caring for him and expressing her worry concerning Kelvin 's emotional state . When he awakens , Hari is gone , and Snaut reads him the farewell note she left behind . The note indicates that Hari petitioned the two scientists to destroy her . Snaut tells Kelvin that since they broadcast Kelvin 's brainwaves at Solaris , the visitors stopped appearing and islands began forming on the planet 's surface . Kelvin debates whether or not to return to Earth or to descend to Solaris in hopes of reconnecting with everything he has loved and lost .
Again at the shore of the frozen lake , Kelvin finds himself at his father 's house . His dog runs to him , and he happily walks towards it . He realizes something is peculiar , however , when he sees that his father seems oblivious to the fact that it 's raining inside the house . Father and son embrace on the front step of the lakeside house which the camera zooms out to reveal is located on an island in the middle of an ocean on the planet Solaris .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
In 1968 , the director Andrei Tarkovsky had two motives for cinematically adapting the Polish science fiction novel , Solaris ( 1961 ) , by Stanisław Lem : firstly , he admired Lem 's work . Secondly , he needed work and money , because his previous film , Andrei Rublev ( 1966 ) had gone unreleased , and his screenplay , A White , White Day , had been rejected ( even though in 1975 it would be realised as The Mirror ) . A film of a novel by Stanisław Lem , a popular and critically respected writer in the USSR , was a logical commercial and artistic choice . Tarkovsky and Lem collaborated and remained in communication about the cinematic adaptation of the novel Solaris . With Fridrikh Gorenshtein , Tarkovsky co @-@ wrote the first screenplay in the Summer of 1969 ; two @-@ thirds of it occurred on Earth . The Mosfilm committee disliked it and Lem got furious over this unacceptably drastic alteration of his novel . The final screenplay yielded the shooting script which has less action on Earth , and Kelvin 's marriage to his second wife , Maria , was deleted from the story .
In the literary Solaris , Lem describes science 's inadequacy in allowing humans to communicate with an alien life form , because certain forms , at least , of sentient extra @-@ terrestrial life may operate well outside of human experience and understanding . In the cinematic Solaris , Tarkovsky concentrates upon Kelvin 's feelings for his wife , Hari , and the impact of outer space exploration upon the human condition . Dr. Gibarian 's monologue [ from the novel 's sixth chapter ] is the highlight of the final library scene , wherein Snaut says , " We don 't need other worlds . We need mirrors " . Unlike the novel , which begins with psychologist Kris Kelvin 's spaceflight , and occurs entirely on Solaris , the film shows Kelvin 's visit to his parents ' house in the country before leaving Earth for Solaris . The contrast establishes the worlds in which he lives – a vibrantly living Earth versus an austere , closed @-@ in space station orbiting the planet Solaris – demonstrating and questioning space exploration 's impact upon the human psyche .
The set design of Solaris features paintings by the Old Masters . The interior of the space station is decorated with full reproductions of the 1565 painting cycle of The Months ( The Hunters in the Snow , The Gloomy Day , The Hay Harvest , The Harvesters , and The Return of the Herd ) , by Pieter Brueghel the Elder , and details of Landscape with the Fall of Icarus and The Hunters in the Snow ( 1565 ) . The scene of Kelvin kneeling before his father and the father embracing him alludes to The Return of the Prodigal Son ( 1669 ) , by Rembrandt . The references and allusions are Tarkovsky 's efforts to give the young art of cinema a historic perspective of centuries , to evoke the viewer 's feeling that cinema is a mature art .
The film references Tarkovsky 's earlier 1966 film Andrei Rublev by having an icon by Andrei Rublev being placed in Kelvin 's room . It thus forms the second part , together with Tarkovsky 's next film The Mirror which was made in 1975 and which references Andrei Rublev by having a poster of the film being hanged on a wall , in a series of three films by Tarkovsky referencing Andrei Rublev .
= = = The cast = = =
Initially , Tarkovsky wanted his ex @-@ wife , Irma Raush , as Hari . After meeting Swedish actress Bibi Andersson in June 1970 , however , he decided that she was a better actress for the role . Wishing to work with Tarkovsky , Andersson accepted her salary in rubles . Nevertheless , Natalya Bondarchuk was ultimately cast as Hari . Tarkovsky had met her when they were students at the State Institute of Cinematography . It was she who had introduced the novel , Solaris to him . Tarkovsky auditioned her in 1970 but decided she was too young for the part . He instead recommended her to director Larisa Shepitko who cast her in You and I. Half @-@ a @-@ year later , Tarkovsky screened that film and was so pleasantly surprised by her performance that he decided to cast Natalya Bondarchuk as Hari after all .
Tarkovsky cast Lithuanian actor Donatas Banionis as Kris Kelvin , the Estonian actor Jüri Järvet as Dr. Snaut , the Russian actor Anatoly Solonitsyn as Dr. Sartorius , the Ukrainian actor Nikolai Grinko as Kelvin 's father , and Olga Barnet as Kelvin 's mother . Earlier , the director had worked with Solonitsyn , who had played Andrei Rublev ( 1966 ) , and with Nikolai Grinko , who appeared in Andrei Rublev and Ivan 's Childhood ( 1962 ) . Tarkovsky thought Solonitsyn and Grinko would need extra directorial assistance . After filming was almost completed , Tarkovsky rated actors and performances thus : Bondarchuk , Järvet , Solonitsyn , Banionis , Dvorzhetsky , and Grinko ; yet wrote in his diary that “ Natalya B. has outshone everybody ” .
= = = Filming = = =
In the summer of 1970 , the USSR State Committee for Cinematography ( Goskino SSSR ) authorized the production of Solaris , with a length of 4 @,@ 000 metres ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) , equivalent to a two @-@ hour @-@ twenty @-@ minute running time . The exteriors were photographed at Zvenigorod , near Moscow ; the interiors were photographed at the Mosfilm studios . The scenes of space pilot Berton driving through a city were photographed in Japan , in September and October 1971 , at Akasaka and Iikura in Tokyo . The original plan was to film futuristic structures at the World Expo ' 70 but the trip was delayed . The shooting began in March 1971 with cinematographer Vadim Yusov who also photographed Tarkovky 's previous films . They quarreled so much on this film that they ended up never working together again . The first version of Solaris was completed in December 1971 .
The Earth , the sensual source of life , and the sterile space station orbiting the planet Solaris , are contrasted with lively images of underwater plants , fire , snow , rain and other natural phenomena . A similar contrast appears at story 's end on Solaris with Kelvin 's " Winter " visit to his father 's house , featuring a frozen pond surrounded by bare trees . The dead scenery of this island on Solaris contrasts with the earlier , Summer pond scenes of long @-@ bladed green grasses or ferns gently floating in the water current underneath blooming trees . The Solaris ocean was created with acetone , aluminium powder , and dyes . Mikhail Romadin designed the space station as lived @-@ in , beat @-@ up and decrepit rather than shiny , neat and futuristic . The designer and director consulted with scientist and aerospace engineer Lupichev , who lent them a 1960s @-@ era mainframe computer for set decoration . For some of the sequences , Romadin designed a mirror room which enabled the cameraman , Yusov , to hide within a mirrored sphere so as to be invisible in the finished film . Akira Kurosawa , who was visiting the Mosfilm studios just then , expressed admiration for the space station design .
In January 1972 , the State Committee for Cinematography requested editorial changes before releasing Solaris . These included a more realistic film with a clearer image of the future and deletion of allusions to God and Christianity . Tarkovsky successfully resisted such major changes , and after a few minor edits Solaris was approved for release in March 1972 .
= = = Music = = =
The soundtrack of Solaris features the chorale prelude for organ , Ich ruf ' zu dir , Herr Jesu Christ ( BWV 639 ) , by Johann Sebastian Bach , and an electronic score by Eduard Artemyev . The prelude is the central musical theme of Solaris . Tarkovsky initially wanted the film to be devoid of music and asked composer Artemyev to orchestrate ambient sounds as a musical score . The latter proposed subtly introducing orchestral music . In counterpoint to classical music as Earth 's theme is fluid electronic music as the theme for the planet Solaris . The character of Hari has her own subtheme , a cantus firmus based upon J. S. Bach 's music featuring Artemyev 's composition atop it ; it is heard at Hari 's death and at story 's end .
= = Reception and legacy = =
Solaris premiered at the 1972 Cannes Film Festival and won the Grand Prix Spécial du Jury and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or . In the USSR , the film premiered in the Mir film theater in Moscow on February 5 , 1973 . Tarkovsky did not consider the Mir cinema the best projection venue . Despite the film 's narrow release in only five film theaters in the USSR , the film nevertheless sold 10 @.@ 5 million tickets . Unlike the vast majority of commercial and ideological films in the 1970s , Solaris was screened in the USSR in limited runs for 15 years without any breaks , giving it cult status . In the Eastern Bloc and in the West , Solaris premiered later . In the United States , a version of Solaris that was truncated by 30 minutes premiered at the Ziegfeld Theatre in New York City on October 6 , 1976 .
Although Stanisław Lem worked with Tarkovsky and Friedrich Gorenstein in developing the screenplay , Lem maintained that he " never really liked Tarkovsky 's version " of his novel . Tarkovsky wanted a film story based on the novel but artistically independent of its origin . However , Lem opposed any divergence of the screenplay from the novel . Lem went as far as to say that Tarkovsky made Crime and Punishment rather than Solaris , omitting epistemological and cognitive aspects of his book . Tarkovsky claimed that Lem did not fully appreciate cinema and that he expected the film to merely illustrate the novel without creating an original cinematic piece . Tarkovsky 's film is about the inner lives of its scientists as human beings . Lem 's novel is about the conflicts of man 's condition in nature and the nature of man in the universe . For Tarkovsky , Lem 's exposition of that existential conflict was the starting point for describing the inner lives of the characters .
In the autobiographical documentary Voyage in Time ( 1983 ) , Tarkovsky says he viewed Solaris as an artistic failure because his film did not transcend genre as he believed his film Stalker ( 1979 ) did due to the required technological dialogue and special effects . M. Galina in the 1997 article Identifying Fears called this film " one of the biggest events in the Soviet science fiction cinema " and one of the few works that does not seem anachronistic nowadays .
A list of " The 100 Best Films of World Cinema " compiled by Empire magazine in 2010 ranked Tarkovsky 's Solaris at No. 68 . In 2002 , Steven Soderbergh wrote and directed an American adaptation of Solaris , which starred George Clooney .
Salman Rushdie calls Solaris " a sci @-@ fi masterpiece " , and has urged that : " This exploration of the unreliability of reality and the power of the human unconscious , this great examination of the limits of rationalism and the perverse power of even the most ill @-@ fated love , needs to be seen as widely as possible before it 's transformed by Steven Soderbergh and James Cameron into what they ludicrously threaten will be 2001 meets Last Tango in Paris . ' What , sex in space with floating butter ? Tarkovsky must be turning over in his grave . "
Film critic Roger Ebert compared the 2011 film Another Earth with Solaris by noting that Another Earth " is as thought @-@ provoking , in a less profound way , than Tarkovsky 's Solaris , another film about a sort of parallel Earth . "
In an example of life imitating art , Natalya Bondarchuk ( Hari ) revealed in a 2010 interview that she fell in love with Tarkovsky during the filming of Solaris and , after their relationship ended , became suicidal . She claims her decision was partly influenced by her role as such a woman in the film " Solaris " .
The film was selected for screening as part of the Cannes Classics section at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival .
= = Home media = =
Solaris was released on LaserDisc in Japan 1986 , in the U.S in 1998 , and again in Japan in 1999 . All three editions were in widescreen .
On May 24 , 2011 , The Criterion Collection released Solaris on Blu @-@ ray Disc . The most noticeable difference from the previous 2002 Criterion DVD release was that the blue and white tinted monochrome scenes from the film were restored .
= Leonard W. Murray =
Rear Admiral Leonard Warren Murray , CB , CBE ( 22 June 1896 – 25 November 1971 ) was an officer of the Royal Canadian Navy who played a significant role in the Battle of the Atlantic . He commanded the Newfoundland Escort Force from 1941 – 1943 , and from 1943 to the end of the war was Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Canadian Northwest Atlantic . He was the only Canadian to command an Allied theatre of operations during World War I or World War II .
= = Early years to the end of World War I = =
Leonard Warren Murray was born at Granton , Nova Scotia on 22 June 1896 . His father Simon Dickson Murray ( 1859 – 1936 ) was a direct descendant of the Scottish immigrants who travelled to Pictou County on the Hector in 1773 , and his mother was Jane Falconer ( 1868 – 1968 ) . Simon was mid @-@ level manager in various enterprises in Pictou Landing , and Leonard grew up close to the water . At 14 years of age , Murray left Pictou Academy to join the first intake of 21 recruits into the Royal Naval College of Canada in Halifax , which had just been created by the Naval Service Act of 4 May 1910 .
" The first winter at the naval college was absolute hell , we had no uniforms , we arrived in what we stood up in and had to send home for further clothing . A case of measles broke out very shortly and we were quarantined , and the only time we got out of the college was when we went to the skating rink to play hockey ; and that was a great relief . " - Admiral Murray .
Immediately after graduating in January 1913 , he served as a Midshipman on the Royal Navy vessel HMS Berwick on duty protecting British interests in the Mexican Revolution , and then aboard HMS Essex . At the outbreak of World War I he was assigned to the protected cruiser HMCS Niobe , the largest ship in the Royal Canadian Navy during World War I. Four of his classmates were sent to the Royal Navy cruiser HMS Good Hope and were killed off the coast of South America on 1 November 1914 at the Battle of Coronel – thereby becoming the first Canadian @-@ service casualties of World War I. Murray served briefly as Flotilla Gunnery Officer on HMCS Margaret and then in February 1916 was promoted to Sub @-@ Lieutenant while aboard HMCS Rainbow . He spent the last two years of World War I as Assistant Navigating Officer on HMS Leviathan from January 1917 as Lieutenant , where he set up troop convoys across the Atlantic to outwit German U @-@ boats – invaluable experience for the Battle of the Atlantic more than 20 years later . Murray ended the war in the North Sea aboard HMS Agincourt , and witnessed the surrender of the German fleet at Scapa Flow .
= = Between the wars = =
After World War I , Murray served briefly on HMS Ithuriel , and then on the newly commissioned HMS Calcutta under the distinguished British Captain Percy Noble , from whom Murray learned the basic skills of command , and who eighteen years later served opposite Murray on the receiving end of the convoys as Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief , Western Approaches Command . Following a short tour aboard HMS Crescent , Murray was assigned to HMS Aurora as Navigation Officer , until Aurora was paid off in 1921 due to naval budget cuts . Leonard married Jean Chaplin Scott in Westmount , Quebec on 10 October 1921 , and with the Royal Canadian Navy depleted of ships on which he could serve , at this point he considered a civilian career , in 1924 qualifying as master of a foreign @-@ going vessel . Deciding to remain with the armed forces , Murray joined many of his colleagues and spent the inter @-@ war years alternating between shore assignments as a training officer with the Royal Canadian Naval Volunteer Reserve , and serving aboard Royal Navy vessels , which in Murray 's case included HMS Revenge ( during a tour in 1923 in Turkey where he befriended Lord Louis Mountbatten ) , and HMS Queen Elizabeth . Understandably , this provided Murray and his peers , including Percy W. Nelles , with a distinct anglophile and , in matters military , Royal Navy bias . In January 1925 , Murray was promoted to Lieutenant @-@ Commander and spent two years at the Royal Canadian Navy 's main training base at HMCS Stadacona . In 1927 , Murray returned to the UK where he did a tour aboard HMS Tiger and then spent 1928 studying at the Royal Naval Staff College at Greenwich . During a simulation exercise at the College , Murray broke new ground by planning large convoys - convoys that were regarded at the time as " almost suicidal " , but which had become normal by the time of the Battle of the Atlantic . Upon return to Canada in January 1929 , Murray was promoted to Commander and became the senior naval officer at CFB Esquimalt . In notes for a lecture to RMC Kingston in 1932 , his continuing interest in the offensive merit of convoys over patrols is evident :
" The institution of a system of convoy requires a reorientation of the protective forces . Instead of patrolling the focal areas [ where vessels congregate near ports or narrow passages ] , the group of ships forming the convoy is escorted by an armed escort capable of dealing with any possible scale of attack . This may mean that an increase in the protective force is necessary , but ... the protective force is more definite and concrete than in the patrolling method . In the convoy method ... it is not possible for an enemy to attack without laying herself open to attack and possible destruction " - Admiral Murray .
From June 1932 Murray was assigned for a year to Naval Service Headquarters in Ottawa as a Naval Staff Officer before setting back to sea for two years , leading the small fleet of East Coast destroyers from the bridge of his first operational command HMCS Saguenay . At this point , in mid @-@ 1934 , Murray was appointed to a new position of Senior Naval Officer , Halifax , a position that combined the Commander of the East Coast with the Command of the Naval Dockyard in Halifax . In June 1936 Murray was sent back to the UK to work in the Admiralty Operations Division , and in December 1936 he started his final tour with the Royal Navy serving as Executive Officer aboard the former battleship HMS Iron Duke , where he participated in the 1937 Coronation Fleet Review . In August 1938 , in the middle of a final year at the Imperial Defence College , Murray was promoted to Captain , and so it was that , on the eve of World War II when the Royal Navy was mobilized , Murray returned to Ottawa as a Captain , and Director Naval Operations and Training .
= = World War II and the Battle of the Atlantic = =
= = = 1939 @-@ 42 = = =
At the outbreak of World War II , he was appointed Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff . From this HQs position Murray played a key role in the build @-@ up of the Navy to its eventual wartime strength of approximately 332 vessels , including crossing Canada to recruit retired Royal Navy officers back into the Royal Canadian Navy , and advocating for the " small @-@ ship anti @-@ submarine " investment strategy that was eventually so successful . In March 1940 he made a secret visit to the UK to negotiate the construction of destroyers in the UK for the Royal Canadian Navy , and subsequently was a founding member of the Permanent Joint Board on Defence . It was while he was working for the PJBD that he renewed his friendship with Commander James " Chummy " Prentice , who was shortly thereafter assigned the position of Senior Officer , Canadian Corvettes under Murray . Both men would work closely together until the spring of 1944 . In October 1940 , he went back to sea briefly as Captain of HMCS Assiniboine and Commodore Commanding Halifax Force , effectively in command of the five Canadian warships that were dispatched to the UK in January 1941 to serve convoy duty . Back ashore in the UK , Murray was given the unusual title of Commodore Commanding Canadian Ships , and liaised closely with the Admiralty in the planning of an Atlantic strategy , including the resolution of jurisdictional matters relating to the Dominion of Newfoundland .
On return to Canada he was promoted to full Commodore on 31 May 1941 , and on 13 June 1941 he was put in charge of the Newfoundland Escort Force ( NEF ) based out of St John 's . This was the most important operational mandate given to a Royal Canadian Navy officer until that point , in full command of 6 Canadian destroyers , 7 British destroyers , and 21 corvettes , and with responsibility for convoy escort from New York out as far as the transfer point to UK escorts south of Iceland . In recognition of this increased role , Murray was subsequently appointed Rear Admiral on 2 December 1941 .
" Conditions were terrible that winter . Groups worked on a 35 day cycle which entailed 29 days away from St John ’ s , 27 days away from fresh bread , 25 days away from fresh meat , added to which at the northern end of their beat there was no sunlight to speak of in the winter . We had to revert to the old rations of Nelson ’ s time , barreled salt beef with lime juice or tomato juice to scare away scurvy " - Admiral Murray .
= = = The Saint Pierre and Miquelon " incident " = = =
While based in Newfoundland , Admiral Murray hosted a visit from the Free French Admiral Muselier . Acting on orders from the Admiralty , Murray gave Muselier temporary command of three French corvettes and a submarine that were assigned to Murray 's fleet , for passage to Halifax . On return from Halifax , Muselier took the vessels to Vichy @-@ controlled Saint Pierre and Miquelon , and on 24 December 1941 raised the Free French flag on the islands . This was interpreted as a territorial claim on behalf of General Charles de Gaulle , thereby creating a diplomatic incident between France , Canada and the United States . De Gaulle 's seizure of the archipelago was over the opposition of Canada , Great Britain , and the United States , which were concerned about pushing the Vichy government into an openly pro @-@ German stance .
Murray was later asked to account for his role in this adventure - but steadfastly claimed ( as did Muselier ) that he had no part in it . Nevertheless , in 1946 Murray was awarded the Legion d 'Honneur by the Government of France , for " eminent services rendered to the cause of Free France at the time of the rallying of the inhabitants of St Pierre and Miquelon " .
= = = 1942 @-@ 45 = = =
The NEF was reorganized in February 1942 as the Mid @-@ Ocean Escort Force ( MOEF ) . On 9 September 1942 , Murray was appointed to Commanding Officer Atlantic Coast , with his Headquarters in Halifax , and effective command over 322 armed ships . As a direct result of the Atlantic Convoy Conference of 1 – 12 March 1943 , where it was agreed that the US Navy would concentrate on the South Atlantic leaving Canada and the UK to cover the North Atlantic , on 1 April 1943 Murray was made Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief Canadian Northwest Atlantic . Still headquartered in Halifax , thereafter he commanded all Allied air and naval forces involved in convoy protection between Canada and the coast of Ireland until the end of the war with Germany in 1945 .
In order to encourage the captains of the merchant ships of all countries which carry the lifeblood of the U.K. , I made it a point to attend the briefing conference of all captains and chief engineers before their departure . During the winter of ' 42- ' 43 , when sinkings were at their worst , I could see when I told them of the measures by escort and air cover that were being taken for their protection and safety ; I could see that they knew very well and that they knew I knew in spite of my brave words , that anything up to 25 per cent of them would probably not arrive in the U.K. in their own ships , and that probably half of that number would not arrive in the U.K. at all . But there was never a waver in their resolve - Admiral Murray .
A personal highlight of this period occurred on 14 September 1943 , when Murray gave an impromptu guided tour of Halifax to the British Prime Minister Winston Churchill . Churchill and his family , together with the First Sea Lord , boarded HMS Renown in Halifax harbour for their return voyage to the United Kingdom following consultations with US President Roosevelt . Murray was appointed Commander of the Order of the British Empire in the 1943 King 's Birthday Honours , and Companion of the Order of the Bath the following year .
As the Allies gained the upper hand in the Battle of the Atlantic throughout 1943 and 1944 , attacks on convoys diminished and the amount of escort cover was reduced , but the hard work of planning and organizing convoys never ceased . By May 1944 , British participation in convoy escorts was withdrawn entirely , and Canada was left with sole responsibility until September 1944 . Murray 's moment of singular pride came in this period , when the largest convoy of World War II , HX 300 sailed for the UK via New York on 17 July 1944 , with 167 merchant ships ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 500 @,@ 000 t ) ) . It arrived in the UK , without incident , on 3 August 1944 .
= = VE Day and early retirement = =
Admiral Murray was controversially blamed for allowing sailors shore leave in Halifax on VE Day , a decision that is generally considered to have contributed to the Halifax Riot of 7 – 8 May 1945 . James Lorimer Ilsley , the Acting Prime Minister of Canada , responded quickly to the situation and on 10 May appointed Justice Kellock to chair a Royal Commission into the disorders . On 12 May , Murray was abruptly removed from his command ; and the next day a separate Naval Board of Inquiry under Admiral Brodeur was appointed to investigate naval participation in the disorders . The Kellock Commission placed considerable blame upon the Navy and in particular upon the Admiral , for not having exercised better control over the sailors ' celebrations ashore . The Naval Inquiry 's findings were more balanced , finding that the riot was caused by several factors , including a failure in the naval command . Murray himself felt that responsibility lay mainly with the civil authorities of Halifax , and he was frustrated that the Kellock Commission effectively placed the Navy on trial without providing him or his officers with an opportunity to defend themselves . He asked for a court martial to clear his name , but this was never agreed . The Government made an attempt to leave the Admiral with his honour intact :
" It would be a regrettable thing if , resultant upon the Halifax disturbances , the truly great services of this officer and those under his command were to be forgotten by the people of Canada . "
But the Admiral was never assigned another command . Concluding that he was being held up as a scapegoat , and feeling bitter that the country and the Navy had abandoned him suddenly at the moment of the Navy 's greatest accomplishment , Murray left Canada for the United Kingdom in September 1945 , and officially retired from the Navy on 14 March 1946 .
= = Later years = =
Murray remained active in his retirement , qualifying as a lawyer on 17 November 1949 , and with his specialty in maritime law he represented the British government at the 1950 enquiry into the accidental sinking of SS Hopestar . He was involved with his local church , and served as a rural councillor as well as on school boards . His love of the sea was kept alive by keen membership in the Bar Yacht Club where he was racing Captain for ten years , and a leadership role with the Sea Scouts — coincidentally carried back to Canada where a Canadian Sea Cadet Corps in New Glasgow , near his home town , is named in his honour ( RCSCC 87 Admiral Murray ) . Murray stopped practising law in 1960 to care better for his ailing wife , who died in 1962 . Following a chance meeting on a Greek cruise , Leonard remarried on 23 August 1963 , in Buxton to an ophthalmic surgeon Antonina Schcheyteenin — who quickly came to be known as Nina Murray . He dabbled in British politics , becoming a member of the Conservative Party and ran unsuccessfully as a candidate in municipal council elections in Buxton in 1965 , before turning his attention to a spirited debate with the Canadian military establishment , the media and Prime Minister Pearson wherein he opposed the 1966 integration of the Canadian Armed Forces . Although clearly feeling that Canada had abandoned him following the Halifax Riot , Murray maintained his ties to Canada and last visited in 1970 , when he participated in the 25th anniversary celebrations of the Battle of the Atlantic .
= = Legacy = =
Leonard died peacefully in Buxton on 25 November 1971 , and his ashes were placed in St Paul 's Church in Halifax on 17 September 1972 . His memory lived on in the Royal Canadian Navy , where the Admiral L.W. Murray Trophy for Gunnery Proficiency was awarded annually at least until the early 1970s . Since his death , a number of commemorative steps have been taken , including the placing of a memorial in his honour in Pictou , a collection of his medals and related naval artifacts in the Canadian Naval Operations School ( CFNOS ) in Halifax , the naming of a Maritimes Branch of the Royal Canadian Naval Association , the renaming of Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Corps NEW GLASGOW in New Glasgow , Nova Scotia to Royal Canadian Sea Cadet Corps ADMIRAL MURRAY , and the naming of several naval buildings , including CFNOS building at CFB Halifax .
= = Quote = =
" Except for the few months at sea in Assiniboine , my war work was a solid slog , mostly at a desk , averaging 15 hours a day with frequently a full 24 . My job was to obtain the greatest possible result from relatively inexperienced personnel . There was little opportunity for anyone to step on another ’ s toes . They were spread too thinly and there was a more responsible job for each as soon as he felt confident of his ability to take it on . In the autumn of 1941 young volunteer reserve officers who had never seen salt water before the war took command of corvettes manned by 88 men — the number of white and black keys on a piano and each with his own peculiar note — and took their full part in the Battle of the Atlantic . Experience had taught me this : to find out what you ’ re capable of , it is only necessary to get a chance to do it — and someone else must have enough confidence in you to provide that chance . In my dealings with the young RCNVR captains I did my best to give them the opportunity to find their own feet and they did it . Once having tasted success they never looked back . What a blessing that we had the bright young peoples to accept this kind of responsibility " - Admiral Murray .
= = Honours and decorations = =
= Lunar : The Silver Star =
Lunar : The Silver Star ( ルナ ザ ・ シルバースター , Runa Za Shirubā Sutā ) is a role @-@ playing video game developed by Game Arts and Studio Alex for the Sega / Mega @-@ CD , originally published by Game Arts and released in Japan in 1992 . After a successful release , the game was translated and localized by Working Designs for release in North America the following year .
Designed as a " different kind of RPG " , Lunar : The Silver Star made use of the up @-@ and @-@ coming CD @-@ ROM format by featuring high quality audio , full motion video , and voice acting to narrate a fantasy story set in a magical world . The game centers on the exploits of Alex , a young boy from a small town who dreams of one day becoming a great hero like his idol , Dragonmaster Dyne . When a childish adventure later turns to discovering an ancient dragon , Alex and his friends must journey across the world to gather the necessary power to become the next Dragonmaster , and save the world in the process .
Lunar : The Silver Star was critically and commercially successful , becoming the number one selling Mega @-@ CD title in Japan and the second highest @-@ selling Mega @-@ CD title of all time . As the first game in the Lunar series , it set the standard for other follow @-@ up titles including the direct sequel Lunar : Eternal Blue in 1994 . Since the game 's original release , three enhanced remakes have been produced for various systems : Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete in 1996 , Lunar Legend in 2002 , and Lunar : Silver Star Harmony in 2009 .
= = Gameplay = =
Lunar : The Silver Star is a traditional , top @-@ down role @-@ playing video game featuring two @-@ dimensional characters and environments . The player must navigate towns , fields , and harsh environments to complete story @-@ based objectives that move the plot forward , as well as interact with non @-@ player characters to expand the script and gain various rewards . Making use of the Sega CD 's disc hardware capabilities , short video and audio interludes accompany the game 's narrative , including full or quarter @-@ screen animated images and CD @-@ DA sound files . Players record their progress by saving to either the Sega CD 's internal RAM , or a separately purchased RAM cartridge that fit into the accompanying Mega Drive / Genesis .
While traveling in the game 's world , players randomly encounter enemy monsters that must be defeated or avoided to progress . Battle sequences utilize a turn @-@ based approach , with the player and enemies acting in accordance with their " speed " rating . The player issues commands to each controlled character in their party , which are then carried out in sequence until the battle ends . While on the battlefield , players may choose to move their characters to attack the enemy , retreat into a corner , stand their ground , or flee the battle entirely , with characters only able to strike enemies if they are close enough to their target or use a ranged attack . Nall , a supporting character not directly involved in combat , is present throughout the game to analyze enemies before battles begin , gauging their relative strength to the player 's group . Players may find weapons , equipment , and assorted items during gameplay that increase the effectiveness of characters in battle , such as causing more damage to opponents and increasing their stamina . Winning battles grant experience points that go towards making characters stronger and able to battle progressively more difficult enemies . Upon defeat , a player may choose to load a previous save file , or restart their game at an automatically saved checkpoint .
= = Plot = =
= = = Setting = = =
The game takes place in the fantasy land of Lunar , a small habitable world orbiting the massive , barren blue planet ( known as the Blue Star ) , forming a loose parallel between the game 's world and the Earth and its moon . Centuries before the start of the game , the Blue Star was rendered unlivable by years of war .. The powerful and benevolent goddess Althena relocated humanity to the Silver Star , the world of Lunar , and entrusted four dragons to safeguard the elements of the new world . From this point on , those who would use the power of the dragons to serve the goddess and protect the world were known as " Dragonmasters " , and no such Dragonmaster was more revered than Dyne , a legendary hero who defended the goddess and succumbed to an unknown fate . The stories surrounding Dyne 's exploits would form the life model for a young boy named Alex , the game 's protagonist and central character , who also aspires to become a Dragonmaster himself . Many of the locations of Lunar : The Silver Star were given a deliberate " northern " feel to present an environment that was cooler than the settings of most role @-@ playing games , if only to allow the characters to wear more clothing . Many towns and locations were based on areas of Russia and Medieval Europe .
= = = Characters = = =
The characters of Lunar : The Silver Star were designed by anime and manga artist Toshiyuki Kubooka . The main characters include Alex and his companions , each of which have their own reasons for joining his quest :
Alex - a 15 @-@ year @-@ old boy from a small town with dreams of becoming an adventurer . Alex is a silent protagonist , typical for a Japanese RPG he never speaks in the game .
Nall - a small , winged creature resembling a white cat who has been with him since birth .
Luna - Alex 's childhood friend and love interest who has the unique ability to heal with music .
Ramus - son of the town mayor who dreams of one day opening his own shop , and begins Alex 's adventuring career by having him fetch a priceless diamond from a dragon 's cave .
Nash - a junior premier of the floating city of Vane , often prone to rash decisions and occasionally despair .
Mia - another junior premier of Vane , though much more reserved than Nash .
Kyle - a headstrong and womanizing bandit .
Jessica - a tomboyish daughter of a famous hero who is training to be a priestess .
Major supporting characters include the three surviving members of the Four Heroes , a legendary band of adventurers who aided Dragonmaster Dyne in protecting the Goddess Althena years before the game 's story , whose ranks include :
" Deadly " Mel D 'Alkirk , father of Jessica and mayor of the bustling city of Meribia .
Lemia Ausa , mother of Mia and head of Vane .
Ghaleon , powerful sorcerer and teacher of Nash who becomes the primary antagonist after assuming his alter ego , the Magic Emperor .
The party is aided by :
Laike , a powerful swordsman and expert adventurer who acts as a mentor to Alex and is later revealed to be Dragonmaster Dyne after losing his powers .
Tempest and Fresca , plains @-@ dwelling fighters who have their own reasons for helping Alex and his group .
Many of the character 's original Japanese names were altered for the game 's North American release , such as Killy to Kyle , Faidy to Quark , Temzin to Tempest , and Pilya to Fresca ; Mel 's original epithet , " Hell " Mel , was changed to " Deadly " for censorship reasons . A witch named Xenobia serves as a secondary antagonist and Ghaleon 's right hand servant .
= = = Story = = =
Much of the plot of Lunar : The Silver Star was written by novelist Kei Shigema , and involves a world of high fantasy and with emphasis on folklore and legend . The game begins in the small mountain town of Burg , where a young Alex frequently visits the monument to the fallen hero Dyne , his idol . At the behest of Ramus , eager son of the town mayor ,
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Ramus and Alex embark on their first real adventure , with Alex 's adopted sister Luna and their talking flying pet Nall , to the mysterious Dragon 's Cave in search of a valuable diamond . Making their way through the cavern , the group meets Quark , an aged dragon who senses great potential in Alex , and urges him to complete the trials of other dragons to become the next Dragonmaster , champion of the Goddess Althena , and protector of the world . Quark shows an interest in Luna as well , remarking that she has a familiar aura about her . Obtaining the diamond from Quark , Ramus finds he cannot sell it in Burg , and must travel to the major trade city of Meribia to claim his fortune . The group then makes their way to Saith , a small port town to the south , where Luna leaves the group to stay with Alex 's family .
Across the ocean , Alex , Nall , and Ramus enter Meribia , where they meet one of the legendary Four Heroes , Mel . Attempting to sell his diamond , Ramus is swindled by a jewel dealer who flees into the sewers . After reclaiming it , Ramus slyly bargains the owner 's life for his entire shop , and leaves the group to pursue his dream of becoming rich . Alex and Nash depart for the city of Vane where they meet Mia , daughter of the city 's ruler and Nash 's love interest , who informs them of Ghaleon , head of the guild and former great hero who fought with Dyne years ago . Seemingly intrigued by Alex 's quest , Ghaleon sends Alex on a mission to investigate the appearance of a false Dragonmaster in a faraway town . Upon arrival , Alex meets Jessica , daughter of Mel and aspiring priestess , who helps him locate the imposter before returning to Vane . Pleased with his success , Ghaleon accompanies Alex back to his hometown to meet Quark and discuss Alex 's future , when he suddenly attacks , revealing himself as the Magic Emperor and seemingly kills Quark in a fit of rage . Citing the loss of his friend Dyne , who died protecting the Goddess , Ghaleon swears revenge on both she and her dragons and departs after kidnapping Luna . Distraught , Alex and Nall return to Meribia to find it under attack by a band of monsters under Ghaleon 's command . Regrouping with Jessica , the group fights back a wave of invaders before witnessing Mel turn to stone from a dark spell of Xenobia , Ghaleon 's top general . Wanting revenge , Jessica accompanies Alex to Vane , also under siege , and assists Nash and Mia with a similar invasion before they too join the group .
Realizing they must make Alex a Dragonmaster to confront Ghaleon and save Luna , the team heads to the border town of Nanza to enlist Kyle , Jessica 's boyfriend , in letting them cross into foreign land . After traveling to a town of inventors , the group obtains a floating device that leads them to the lair of the Red Dragon , who is seemingly destroyed by Ghaleon just before they arrive . The dragon 's spirit grants Alex her power before disappearing , and the group departs for the Blue Dragon 's cave behind a musical town . Again , the dragon is defeated before their arrival , and the team must travel to the distant and barren Frontier to seek the final trial . The party finds the black dragon , which attacks the team in a mad rage induced by Ghaleon but is defeated . With the final dragon 's blessing , Alex and his companions approach the construction site of Ghaleon 's mobile mechanical castle , the Grindery , but are unable to stop its advance before it destroys Vane using the power of Luna , who is revealed to be the human form of the Goddess Althena and who is under the Magic Emperor 's control . After obtaining Althena 's Sword and learning the truth about Luna , the party attacks the Grindery defeats both Xenobia and the Magic Emperor . Knowing what he must do to bring Luna back , Alex climbs the path to Luna , who , as Althena , continuously blasts him with lightning ; he plays his harp as he advances , and hearing their song allows Luna 's personality to return . She awakens in Alex 's arms , surrounded by their friends .
= = Development = =
Lunar : The Silver Star was developed by Game Arts in an attempt to create a role @-@ playing game that would both primarily focus on animation and storytelling . The team turned to scenario writer and novelist Kei Shigema to craft a story that would break away from " hum @-@ drum ' model ' " games that " had stories , but had no story @-@ telling " . Using the Sega CD 's video playback capabilities , animator and artist Toshiyuki Kubooka oversaw the planning of several video sequences that would be coupled with voice @-@ overs to better tell the story of the Lunar world . Settling on an overall fantasy approach as opposed to the popular role @-@ playing alternative of science fiction , the team wanted to explore the mythos and history of a fictional world that would gradually reveal itself to the player over time . Having mostly developed side @-@ scrollers and scrolling shooters for the Mega Drive and PC Engine , Game Arts formed its subsidiary company , Studio Alex , named for the main character of this title , to oversee most of the game 's development . Due to time constraints , nearly one @-@ third of the Lunar project was scrapped by the game 's release .
Lunar 's English version was handled by Working Designs , a small California @-@ based publisher who had previously localized smaller games for the TurboGrafx @-@ 16 and TurboDuo . Their biggest project yet , the team , headed by company vice president and chief writer Victor Ireland , took to the project seriously , often collaborating with the original Japanese team themselves . New gameplay elements were often added at Ireland 's request , including new sequences such as playing Alex 's harp to awaken Luna near the end of the game . Working Designs also put extra effort into the game 's packaging , giving the instruction booklet embossed lettering , and having seven separate stamps , each with different artwork , produced for the front of the game discs to increase collection value .
The English script was nearly four megabytes in size , yet Working Designs completed the translation in only eight weeks after a marathon programming session . During translation , the developers did find time to inject some of their own humor in to the game 's text , dropping in sentences such as Have you ever tried swimming in lemon jello ? , and numerous light @-@ hearted pop culture references not seen in the original version , including allusions to American commercials , celebrities , colloquialisms , products , and role @-@ playing game clichés .
= = Audio = =
The music for Lunar : The Silver Star was composed by Noriyuki Iwadare , Hiroshi Fujioka , Isao Mizoguchi , and Yoshiaki Kubodera , who utilized the Sega CD 's sound capabilities to create CD @-@ quality CD @-@ DA . The game features the opening theme " Lunar " , performed by Mayumi Sudou in the original Japanese version . The untitled English version is a slightly arranged piece performed by vocalist Shiya Almeda which features new lyrics by Victor Ireland , who intended the song to sound less " lovey @-@ dovie " with a greater " sense of urgency " .
The Lunar : The Silver Star Original Soundtrack was released exclusively in Japan by Toshiba @-@ EMI Records on April 22 , 1992 , two months before the actual release of the game . The album features full versions of the Japanese opening and ending themes , as well as karaoke arrangements . Most of the game 's background themes are presented as multi @-@ song medleys rather than separate tracks . Although an official North American version was never released , many of the songs present on the album were featured as special arrangements on the bonus soundtrack found in the Lunar : Silver Star Story Complete collector 's edition , including the English opening theme .
= = = Voice = = =
Both the Japanese and English adaptations of Lunar : The Silver Star contain roughly fifteen minutes of spoken dialogue from a number of prominent voice actors . Though the game has a number of main and supporting characters , only five are actually voiced during specific story sequences . The Japanese version features Kikuko Inoue as both Alex and Luna , Rei Sakuma as Nall , Kōichi Kitamura as the white dragon Quark , and Rokurō Naya as Ghaleon . The English version comprised mostly new talent and associates of Working Designs ' staff , such as a young Ashley Parker Angel as Alex , Rhonda Gibson as Luna , Jackie Powers as Nall , Hal Delahousse as Quark , and John Truitt as Ghaleon . While the entire Japanese cast was replaced for the game 's remake on the PlayStation , all of the original English cast would return to reprise their roles .
= = Reception = =
Lunar : The Silver Star was well received in Japan , selling an estimated 100 @,@ 000 copies , its entire production run , in its first year after release , nearly as much as the Mega CD itself . It is considered the Mega @-@ CD 's first hit game , which Sega credits solely for pushing the system 's sales in that region . The game remains the best @-@ selling Sega CD title of all time in Japan , and second highest selling worldwide behind Sonic the Hedgehog CD . Readers of Japanese magazine Megadrive Beep voted it the number one Mega Drive role @-@ playing game for 17 straight months before being trumped by Shining Force II .
The English version released the following year met with a similar response , with Skid of GameFan magazine calling it " far and away the best RPG I have ever played in English " , praising the game 's graphics , sound , and story as " well conceived and executed " . The magazine 's editors would later name it as the greatest role @-@ playing game of 1993 . GamePro similarly reviewed it as " not just the best Sega CD RPG ever , but one of the best on any Sega system " , giving particular merit to the game 's translation . Game Players described it as a " solid RPG , and well worth your time " but found fault in the game 's small character graphics that " look like every other RPG " and the virtually non @-@ existent replay value . Electronic Gaming Monthly had five reviewers , Ed , Dano , Al , Sushi @-@ X , and Mike , give the game scores of 9 , 8 , 7 , 7 , and 7 , respectively , ranging from " worthy " to " virtually flawless " ratings . The magazine commended the game 's background music soundtrack but described its battle sequences as " a bit dull . " EGM 's 1999 Video Game Buyer 's Guide listed four of these scores , 9 , 8 , 7 , and 7 , averaging out to 7 @.@ 75 out of 10 overall , and described the game as " one of the best RPGs ever . "
As the number one selling Sega CD title in Japan , the game sold nearly as many copies as the system itself , and remains the second highest @-@ selling Mega @-@ CD title of all time . Mega placed the game at # 8 in their top Mega CD games of all time . In 2006 , Lunar ranked 113th in EGM and 1UP.com 's list of the greatest " videogames of their time , " celebrating the games that were considered the best during their original release . Retro Gamer included The Silver Star among top ten Mega CD games , noting its " astounding soundtrack " and " fantastic " localization .
= = Legacy = =
As the first game in the Lunar series , The Silver Star established many of the themes and characters that would be seen in later installments . The game was followed by Lunar : Eternal Blue in 1994 , a direct sequel that takes place one thousand years in The Silver Star 's future , and contains many references to the original title . Other follow @-@ ups , including Lunar : Walking School in 1996 and Lunar : Dragon Song in 2005 would act as the game 's prequels , taking place many hundred years before the game 's story .
= = = Remakes = = =
Lunar : The Silver Star has been re @-@ made several times by different developers and publishers for a number of consoles between 1996 and 2009 . These games feature graphic and sound enhancements as well as an expanded script .
= 1999 Pacific hurricane season =
The 1999 Pacific hurricane season was one of the least active Pacific hurricane seasons on record . The season officially began on May 15 in the Eastern Pacific , and on June 1 in the Central Pacific ; in both basins , it ended on November 30 . These dates conventionally delimit the period during which most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The first tropical cyclone of the season , Hurricane Adrian , developed on June 18 , while the final storm of the season , Tropical Storm Irwin , dissipated on October 11 . No storms developed in the Central Pacific during the season . However , two storms from the Eastern Pacific , Dora and Eugene , entered the basin , with the former entering as a hurricane .
The season produced fourteen tropical cyclones and nine named storms , which was well below the average of sixteen named storms per season ; this was largely due to a strong La Niña taking over much of the Pacific . However , the total of six hurricanes and two major hurricanes during the season was near the averages of eight and three , respectively . Although it remained offshore , Hurricane Adrian caused 6 deaths from flooding and rough surf in Mexico . Hurricane Dora was a long @-@ lived and intense cyclone , which had the second longest track of a Pacific hurricane on record . The storm brought minor impacts to the island of Hawaii ; however , no deaths or damage was reported . The deadliest tropical cyclone , Hurricane Greg , killed 10 people from flooding in Mexico .
= = Season summary = =
The 1999 Pacific hurricane season officially started on May 15 , 1999 in the eastern Pacific , and on June 1 , 1999 in the central Pacific , and lasted until November 30 , 1999 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the northeastern Pacific Ocean . The 1999 Pacific hurricane season was well below average , due to the strong La Niña that was occurring at the time , which causes wind shear to be increased and water temperatures to decrease , resulting in conditions less conductive for tropical cyclones in the East Pacific . There were 14 cyclones in total , including 5 unnamed tropical depressions . Of these , 9 became a tropical storm , while 6 reached hurricane status . Further , 2 of these became major hurricanes , which is Category 3 intensity or higher on the Saffir @-@ Simpson hurricane scale .
Tropical cyclogenesis began with Hurricane Adrian , which developed on June 18 . Although it remained offshore , Adrian brought rough surf and flooding to Mexico , which resulted in 6 fatalities . The storm peaked as a Category 2 before dissipating on June 22 . No other tropical cyclones formed in June . Activity halted until July 9 , when Hurricane Beatriz developed . Though it peaked as a Category 3 hurricane before dissipating on July 17 , the storm caused no damage on land because it remained well offshore . The next system , a short @-@ lived Tropical Depression Three @-@ E , did not result in impact as a tropical cyclone , though the precursor brought heavy rainfall and gusty winds to Central America . Tropical Depression Four @-@ E , was the first of three cyclones to cross into the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , which is between 140 ° W and the International Date Line . Two other short @-@ lived system in July , Tropical Storm Calvin and Tropical Depression Six @-@ E , caused no damage .
In August , Hurricane Dora , the strongest storm of the 1999 Pacific hurricane season , produced gusty winds and large waves on Johnston Atoll and the island of Hawaii , though minimal damage was left in its wake . After crossing the International Date Line on August 20 , Dora became the first tropical cyclones to exist in all three basins of the North Pacific – Eastern , Central , and Western – since Hurricane John in 1994 . Hurricane Eugene also existed in the Eastern and Central Pacific , but dissipated on August 15 while south of the main Hawaiian Islands , well before reaching the International Date Line . Nonetheless , it produced up to 2 inches ( 51 mm ) of rainfall on the Big Island of Hawaii . In the remainder of August , there was a series of short @-@ lived tropical cyclones that did not effect land , including Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E , Tropical Storm Fernanda , and Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E.
During the month of September , the deadliest tropical cyclone of the season , Hurricane Greg , was spawned near the Pacific coast of Mexico . Greg which killed 10 people when it made landfall on southern Baja California . The hurricane and its precursor produced heavy rainfall across much of Mexico , with the highest total reaching 22 @.@ 23 in ( 566 @.@ 9 mm ) . The heavy rains damaged or destroyed more than 2 @,@ 000 homes . The remnant moisture from the system , combined with an area of low pressure , resulted in strong thunderstorms across California , which led to numerous power outages , damage to homes and vehicles , and started many wildfires . The other in the month of September was Hurricane Hilary , a storm that approached Baja California , but dissipated offshore on September 21 , resulting in no impact . The final system , Tropical Storm Irwin , produced scattered areas of heavy rainfall over Mexico in October , but caused no significant flooding . It dissipated on October 11 , over a month and a half before the official end of the season on November 30 .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Adrian = = =
A broad area of low pressure developed into Tropical Depression One at 0600 UTC on June 18 , while situated 290 miles ( 465 km ) southeast of Acapulco , Guerrero . Moving towards west @-@ northwestward , the depression intensified into Tropical Storm Adrian about 12 hours later . Favorable levels of wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures ( SST 's ) caused the storm to strengthen further . Early on June 20 Adrian intensified into a hurricane , while located about 420 miles ( 680 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of Baja California . About 24 hours later , Adrian reached its peak intensity with winds of 100 mph ( 155 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 973 mbar ( 28 @.@ 73 inHg ) .
After reaching peak intensity on June 21 , Adrian began weakening due to colder SST 's and higher wind shear . Adrian fell to tropical storm status late on June 21 , and further weakened to a tropical depression on June 22 . Six hours later at 1800 UTC , Adrian degenerated into a swirl of low clouds while situated 300 mi ( 480 km ) southwest of the southern tip of Baja California . Heavy rainfall produced from the storm caused minor flooding throughout Mexico . Two fatalities were directly attributed to the floods , while another person was listed as missing . Four other people were killed when they drowned in rough seas produced offshore the Mexican coastline . There is no damage estimate from the heavy rainfall or rough seas associated with the hurricane .
= = = Hurricane Beatriz = = =
A tropical wave developed into by 0600 UTC on July 9 , while situated roughly 300 mi ( 480 km ) south of Lázaro Cárdenas , Mexico . At this time , the depression was in an environment of strong upper @-@ tropospheric outflow , resulting in gradual intensification . The depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Beatriz at 1200 UTC on July 9 . Steady strengthened continued and about 48 hours later , Beatriz became a Category 1 while situated roughly 560 miles ( 900 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Moving westward around the southern periphery of a ridge to the north , it continued to intensify . A well @-@ defined eye became visible on satellite imagery early on July 12 . Microwave imagery a few hours later revealed that Beatriz was likely undergoing an eyewall replacement cycle and was complete by 1700 UTC .
Further intensification occurred , and Beatriz became the first major hurricane of the season at 1800 UTC on July 12 . At 0600 UTC the following day , the hurricane attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 195 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 955 mbar ( 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) while situated roughly 800 miles ( 1300 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Curving towards the west @-@ northwest , Beatriz began to encounter an area of cooler sea surface temperatures , which led to gradual weakening . The hurricane weakened to a tropical storm at 0000 UTC on July 16 , and further to a tropical depression by 1800 UTC that day . At 0600 UTC on July 17 , Beatriz degenerated into a swirl of clouds .
= = = Tropical Depression Three @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave moved across the Atlantic and Caribbean in early July . While crossing Central America on July 11 and July 12 , the system produced gusty winds and heavy rainfall , especially in Honduras , Nicaragua , and Mexico , where precipitation reached 15 @.@ 75 inches ( 400 mm ) in Coyutla , Veracruz . By July 13 , the wave and associated low pressure area emerged into the Pacific Ocean . The system organized further and developed into Tropical Depression Three @-@ E at 1200 UTC on July 14 , while located about 290 miles ( 470 km ) west @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . It initially headed west @-@ northwestward until July 15 , when it curved west @-@ southwestward . The depression failed to strengthen further and dissipated at 1800 UTC on July 15 , while located about 460 miles ( 740 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico .
= = = Tropical Depression Four @-@ E = = =
On July 15 , a tropical wave entered the eastern Pacific Ocean . Over the following days , slow organization occurred , and it is estimated that the system became developed into Tropical Depression Four @-@ E at 0000 UTC on July 23 . Later that day , the depression reached its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 1007 mbar ( 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) , having failed to reach tropical storm status . While moving westward , the depression entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on July 24 . By this time , however , the depression was already becoming disorganized and dissipated early on the following day .
= = = Tropical Storm Calvin = = =
A tropical wave crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea between early and mid @-@ July . Later in the month , the wave acquired a low @-@ level circulation . Thus , Tropical Depression Five @-@ E developed at 0600 UTC on July 25 , while situated about 645 miles ( 1 @,@ 038 km ) south @-@ southwest of Cabo San Lucas . Due to further organization on satellite imagery , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Calvin six hours later . However , wind shear exposed the low @-@ level circulation and halted intensification . Calvin continued west @-@ northwestward as a sheared cyclone .
According to satellite classifications , it is estimated that Calvin weakened back to a tropical depression at 0600 UTC on July 26 . There was a convective burst late on July 26 , though the storm did not re @-@ strengthen . Around that time , Calvin turned northwestward in response to a mid @-@ tropospheric trough . The burst in convection did not persist and the depression dissipated by 1200 UTC on July 27 , while located well west @-@ southwest of Baja California . A low @-@ cloud swirl remained and subsequently continued on a west @-@ northwesterly course for a few days .
= = = Tropical Depression Six @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave that previously crossed the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea reached the eastern Pacific basin until late July . The system developed a surface circulation on July 26 , while microwave imagery data indicated wind speeds of 37 mph ( 60 km / h ) . As a result , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Six @-@ E developed at 1800 UTC , while located nearly 1 @,@ 150 miles ( 1 @,@ 850 km ) west @-@ southwest of the southern tip of Baja California and about 415 miles ( 668 km ) southwest of Tropical Depression Calvin . The depression moved toward the west @-@ northwest and encountered strong vertical wind @-@ shear . Despite a few convective bursts , the depression remained weak and degenerated into a swirl of low clouds at 0000 UTC on July 28 .
= = = Hurricane Dora = = =
A tropical wave moved off Africa on July 23 and crossed the Atlantic Ocean without development . However , the wave quickly increased in organization after entering the Eastern Pacific Ocean on August 4 , and was designated Tropical Depression Seven @-@ E on August 6 . The depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Dora later that day . Dora continued to intensify despite upper @-@ level wind shear , and became a hurricane on August 8 . Shortly after , the hurricane moved westward into a more favorable environment and began to intensify more quickly , reaching Category 4 strength on August 10 . It maintained that intensity for three days as it moved almost due west .
Dora weakened to Category 1 strength as it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility on August 14 . However , it briefly restrengthened into a Category 3 as it passed south of Hawaii on August 16 . Dora then began weakening for the final time as it passed south of Johnston Atoll on August 18 . At the atoll , Dora produced large waves and wind gusts between 40 and 45 mph ( 75 and 85 km / h ) . In Hawaii , heavy surf on the Big Island forced the closure of beaches , campsites , and hiking trails in the districts of Kau and Puna . On August 20 , Dora crossed the International Date Line , shortly before weakening to a tropical storm . Due to vertical wind shear , it did not re @-@ strengthen in the western Pacific basin . The storm weakened and fell to tropical depression intensity early on August 22 . Dora dissipated late on the following day , while situated several hundred miles east of Wake Island .
= = = Hurricane Eugene = = =
A tropical wave crossed Central America between July 28 and July 29 , before entering the Pacific Ocean and slowly organizing . After the cloud pattern consolidated , it is estimated that Tropical Depression Eight @-@ E developed at 0600 UTC on August 6 , while located about 975 miles ( 1 @,@ 569 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas , Mexico . Twelve hours later , the depression was upgraded to Tropical Storm Eugene . It continued to deepen , reaching hurricane status late on August 8 . About 24 hours later , Eugene peaked as a strong Category 2 hurricane with winds of 110 mph ( 175 km / h ) . The storm began to weaken and was downgraded to a Category 1 hurricane early on August 11 .
Eugene continued westward , and on August 11 , it entered the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility . It continued to weaken and was downgraded to a tropical storm early on August 13 . Eugene passed south of the Hawaiian Islands on August 14 , with minimal impact noted . Minor surf occurred along the east and southeast shores of the Big Island . Additionally , 24 ‑ hour rainfall totals over windward sections of Maui and the Big Island were near 2 inches ( 51 mm ) . The storm weakened to a tropical depression by late on August 14 . At 0000 UTC on August 16 , Eugene dissipated while located about 550 miles ( 890 km ) southeast of Johnston Atoll .
= = = Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave moved off the African coast on July 27 and entered the Pacific Ocean on August 6 . The system continued westward without development until August 11 , when convection began to increase . By 1200 UTC on August 13 , the National Hurricane Center began classifying the system as Tropical Depression Nine @-@ E. Due easterly wind shear , the depression did not further intensify as it moved on a generally west @-@ northwesterly track . The depression had dissipated by August 15 .
= = = Tropical Storm Fernanda = = =
A tropical wave developed into Tropical Depression Ten @-@ E at 0600 UTC on August 17 , while located about 460 miles ( 740 km ) in south @-@ southwest of Socorro Island , Mexico . The depression intensified gradually due to favorable conditions . At 0000 UTC on August 18 , the cyclone was upgraded to Tropical Storm Fernanda while centered about 520 miles ( 840 km ) southwest of Socorro Island . The storm continued to slowly strengthened and 1200 UTC on August 19 , Fernanda attained its peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 994 mbar ( 29 @.@ 4 inHg ) .
Around the time of peak intensity on August 19 , Fernanda curved west @-@ southwest track , a motion which persisted for the remainder of its duration . While this track carried the storm over warmer SST 's , increasing easterly wind shear caused Fernanda to weaken . By early on August 21 , Fernanda weakened to a tropical depression . After weakening slightly further , the storm degenerated into a remnant low cloud swirl at 0000 UTC on August 23 . The remnants of Fernanda persisted until finally losing its identity about 290 miles ( 470 km ) west @-@ southwest of Socorro Island on August 28 .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E = = =
A tropical wave entered the eastern Pacific on August 15 and formed a surface low pressure area south of Mexico on August 19 . After consolidating and organizing somewhat , the system became Tropical Depression Eleven @-@ E late on August 23 . However , colder SST 's caused convection to diminish almost immediately , while moving parallel to the southern coast of Baja California. as thunderstorm activity slowly decreased due to cool SST 's . By 1200 UTC on August 24 , the depression dissipated just west of the tip of Baja California , having lasted for less than 24 hours . The highest rainfall total reported in Mexico was 8 @.@ 27 inches ( 210 mm ) at Los Cabos , Baja California Sur .
= = = Hurricane Greg = = =
The northern portion of a tropical wave in the Atlantic spawned Tropical Storm Emily , while the southern portion headed westward and crossed Central America between August 31 and September 1 . Thereafter , the system emerged into the Pacific Ocean and began to organize . By 1200 UTC on September 5 , Tropical Depression Twelve @-@ E developed near Manzanillo , Mexico . Six hours later , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Greg . Further intensification occurred , and late on September 6 , Greg was upgraded to a hurricane as winds reached 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) . However , Greg weakened to a tropical storm on September 7 , while approaching Baja California . At 2100 UTC that day , it made landfall near Cabo San Lucas . The storm then curved westward and weakened over colder SST 's , until dissipating on late September 9 .
Both Gerg and its predecessor disturbance brought heavy rain to much of Mexico . The highest report was of 22 @.@ 23 inches ( 566 @.@ 9 mm ) in Tecomán , Colima . Precipitation from Greg caused flooding in the states of Colima , Michoacán , Sinaloa , Nayarit , and Jalisco . It was most severe along the Los Mezcales River . The flooding killed ten people . In addition , 2 @,@ 000 people were rendered homeless and 2 @,@ 000 others were affected in some way . The remnants of Greg produced thunderstorms in California , particularly the San Francisco Bay Area . As a result , there was widespread power outages and isolated damage to houses and vehicles , as well as causing several small wildfires . Overall damage was relatively limited , however .
= = = Hurricane Hilary = = =
A tropical wave moved off the coast of western Africa into the Atlantic Ocean on August 29 . It continued to move westward through the tropical waters of the Atlantic into the Caribbean . It still remained a tropical wave as it moved over Central America and began to acquire more convection and organization , from September 10 through September 11 . Visible satellite imagery showed low level circulation and more organized deep convection as it became a tropical depression on September 17 , while located about 475 miles ( 764 km ) south @-@ southeast of the southern tip of the Baja California Peninsula .
The system strengthened and was upgraded to Tropical Storm Hilary at 1200 UTC on September 18 . Due to the development of an eye feature and large increase in deep convection , Hilary was upgraded to hurricane on September 20 , while located about 200 miles ( 320 km ) southwest of the Baja California Peninsula . However , later that day , Hilary weakened back to a tropical storm . The storm fell further to tropical depression status on September 21 . Hours later , the storm degenerated into a swirl of low @-@ level clouds , as it bypassed Baja California on September 21 .
= = = Tropical Storm Irwin = = =
The southern portion of the tropical wave that previously spawned Tropical Depression Eleven in the Gulf of Mexico entered the Pacific Ocean in early October . After becoming better organized , the system developed into Tropical Depression Fourteen @-@ E at 1200 UTC on October 8 , while situated about 145 miles ( 233 km ) south @-@ southwest of Manzanillo , Mexico . The depression initially moved slowly north @-@ northwestward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Irwin about six hours later . After a strong mid @-@ tropospheric ridge developed over northern Mexico , Irwin moved northwestward and remained offshore Mexico .
Early on October 9 , the center of the storm passed within about 85 miles ( 137 km ) of the coastline between Manzanillo and Cabo Corrientes . The storm then curved west @-@ northwestward and at 1800 UTC on October 9 , Irwin attained peaked with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) . Stable air and increasing wind shear caused Irwin to weaken and fall to tropical depression intensity early on October 11 . About 12 hours later , the storm dissipated while located about 405 miles ( 652 km ) southwest of Cabo San Lucas . While passing offshore , Irwin brought patches of heavy rainfall to some areas of Mexico , peaking at 9 @.@ 92 inches ( 252 mm ) in Coahuayutla de Guerrero , Guerrero .
= = Other storms = =
= = = Tropical Depression Tanya = = =
According to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center and Japan Meteorological Agency , on August 19 a tropical depression formed east of the International Dateline , and soon it exited CPHC 's area of responsibility ; however , this storm wasn 't included into CPHC database .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms in the Pacific in 1999 . This is the same list used in the 1993 season . No new names were used for the first time in the Pacific Basin . No storms were retired during the season , thus this same list was used again in the 2005 season .
For storms that form in the Central Pacific Hurricane Center 's area of responsibility , encompassing the area between 140 ° W and the International Date Line , all names are used in a series of four rotating lists . The next four names that were slated for use in 1999 are shown below , however none of them were used .
= Indonesian occupation of East Timor =
Indonesia occupied East Timor from December 1975 to October 1999 . After centuries of Portuguese colonial rule in East Timor , a 1974 coup in Portugal led to decolonisation among its former colonies , creating instability in East Timor and leaving its future uncertain . After a small @-@ scale civil war , the pro @-@ independence FRETILIN declared victory in the capital city of Dili and declared an independent East Timor on 28 November 1975 .
Claiming its assistance had been requested by East Timorese leaders , Indonesian military forces invaded on 7 December and by 1979 had all but destroyed armed resistance to the occupation . Following a controversial " Popular Assembly " which many said was not a genuine act of self @-@ determination , Indonesia declared the territory a province of Indonesia ( Timor Timur ) .
For twenty @-@ four years the Indonesian government subjected the people of East Timor to extrajudicial executions , routine and systematic torture , massacres and deliberate starvation . The 1991 Santa Cruz Massacre caused outrage around the world , and reports of other such killings were numerous . Resistance to Indonesian rule remained strong ; in 1996 the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to two men from East Timor , Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos @-@ Horta , for their ongoing efforts to peacefully end the occupation . A 1999 vote to determine East Timor 's future resulted in an overwhelming majority in favour of independence , and in 2002 East Timor became an independent nation . The Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor estimated the number of deaths during the occupation from famine and violence to be between 90 @,@ 800 and 202 @,@ 600 including between 17 @,@ 600 and 19 @,@ 600 violent deaths or disappearances , out of a 1999 population of approximately 823 @,@ 386 . The truth commission held Indonesian forces responsible for about 70 % of the violent killings .
Immediately after the invasion , the United Nations General Assembly and Security Council passed resolutions condemning Indonesia 's actions and calling for immediate withdrawal . Australia and Indonesia were the only nations in the world to recognise East Timor as a province of Indonesia , and soon afterwards began negotiations to divide resources found in the Timor Gap . Other governments , including Japan , Canada and Malaysia , also supported the Indonesian government . The invasion and suppression of East Timor 's independence movement , however , caused great harm to Indonesia 's reputation and international credibility .
After the 1999 vote for independence , paramilitary groups working with the Indonesian military undertook a final wave of violence during which most of the country 's infrastructure was destroyed . The Australian led International Force for East Timor restored order and following the departure of Indonesian forces from East Timor , the United Nations Transitional Administration in East Timor administered the territory for two years , establishing a Serious Crimes Unit to investigate and prosecute crimes committed during 1999 . Its limited scope and the small number of sentences delivered by Indonesian courts have caused numerous observers to call for an international tribunal for East Timor .
= = Background = =
The Portuguese first arrived in Timor in the 16th century , and in 1702 East Timor came under Portuguese colonial administration . Portuguese rule was tenuous until the island was divided with the Dutch Empire in 1860 . A significant battleground during the Pacific War , East Timor was occupied by 20 @,@ 000 Japanese troops . The fighting helped prevent a Japanese occupation of Australia , but resulted in 60 @,@ 000 East Timorese deaths .
When Indonesia secured its independence after World War II under the leadership of Sukarno , it did not claim control of East Timor , and aside from general anti @-@ colonial rhetoric it did not oppose Portuguese control of the territory . A 1959 revolt in East Timor against the Portuguese was not endorsed by the Indonesian government . A 1962 United Nations document notes : " the government of Indonesia has declared that it maintains friendly relations with Portugal and has no claim to Portuguese Timor ... " . These assurances continued after Suharto took power in 1965 . An Indonesian official declared in December 1974 : " Indonesia has no territorial ambition ... Thus there is no question of Indonesia wishing to annex Portuguese Timor . "
In 1974 , a coup in Lisbon caused significant changes in Portugal 's relationship to its colony in Timor . The power shift in Europe invigorated movements for independence in colonies like Mozambique and Angola , and the new Portuguese government began a decolonisation process for East Timor . The first of these was an opening of the political process .
= = = FRETILIN , UDT , and APODETI = = =
When East Timorese political parties were first legalised in April 1974 , three groupings emerged as major players in the postcolonial landscape . The União Democrática Timorense ( Timorese Democratic Union , or UDT ) , was formed in May by a group of wealthy landowners . Initially dedicated to preserving East Timor as a protectorate of Portugal , in September UDT announced its support for independence . A week later , the Frente Revolucionária de Timor @-@ Leste Independente ( Revolutionary Front for an Independent East Timor , or FRETILIN ) appeared . Initially organised as the ASDT ( Associacão Social Democrata Timorense ) , the group endorsed " the universal doctrines of socialism " , as well as " the right to independence " . As the political process grew more tense , however , the group changed its name and declared itself " the only legitimate representative of the people " . The end of May saw the creation of a third party , Associacão Popular Democratica Timorense ( Timorese Popular Democratic Association , or APODETI ) . Advocating East Timor 's integration with Indonesia and originally named Associacão Integraciacao de Timor Indonesia ( Association for the Integration of Timor into Indonesia ) , APODETI expressed concerns that an independent East Timor would then be economically weak and vulnerable .
Indonesian nationalist and military hardliners , particularly leaders of the intelligence agency Kopkamtib and special operations unit , Opsus , saw the Portuguese coup as an opportunity for East Timor 's integration with Indonesia . The central government and military feared that an East Timor governed by leftists could be used as a base for incursions by unfriendly powers into Indonesia , and also that an independent East Timor within the archipelago could inspire secessionist sentiments within Indonesian provinces . The fear of national disintegration were played upon military leaders close to Suharto and remained as one of Indonesia 's strongest justifications for refusing to entertain the prospect of East Timorese independence or even autonomy until the late 1990s . The military intelligence organisations initially sought a non @-@ military annexation strategy , intending to use APODETI as its integration vehicle .
In January 1975 , UDT and FRETILIN established a tentative coalition dedicated to achieving independence for East Timor . At the same time , the Australian government reported that the Indonesian military had conducted a " pre @-@ invasion " exercise at Lampung . For months , the Indonesian Special Operations command , OPSUS , had been covertly supporting APODETI through Operasi Komodo ( Operation Komodo , named after the lizard ) . By broadcasting accusations of communism among FRETILIN leaders and sowing discord in the UDT coalition , the Indonesian government fostered instability in East Timor and , observers said , created a pretext for invading . By May tensions between the two groups caused UDT to withdraw from the coalition .
In an attempt to negotiate a settlement to the dispute over East Timor 's future , the Portuguese Decolonization Commission convened a conference in June 1975 in Macau . FRETILIN boycotted the meeting in protest of APODETI 's presence ; representatives of UDT and APODETI complained that this was an effort to obstruct the decolonisation process . In his 1987 memoir Funu : The Unfinished Saga of East Timor , FRETILIN leader José Ramos @-@ Horta recalls his " vehement protests " against his party 's refusal to attend the meeting . " This " , he writes , " was one of our tactical political errors for which I could never find an intelligent explanation . "
= = = Coup , civil war , and independence declaration = = =
The tension reached a boiling point in mid @-@ 1975 , when rumours began circulating of possible power seizures from both independence parties . In August 1975 , UDT staged a coup in the capital city Dili and a small @-@ scale civil war broke out . Ramos @-@ Horta describes the fighting as " bloody " , and details violence committed by both UDT and FRETILIN . He cites the International Committee of the Red Cross , which counted 2 @,@ 000 – 3 @,@ 000 people dead after the war . The fighting forced the Portuguese government onto the nearby island of Atauro . FRETILIN defeated UDT 's forces after two weeks , much to the surprise of Portugal and Indonesia . UDT leaders fled to Indonesian @-@ controlled West Timor . There they signed a petition on 7 September calling for East Timor 's integration with Indonesia ; most accounts indicate that UDT 's support for this position was forced by Indonesia .
Once they had gained control of East Timor , FRETILIN faced attacks from the west , by Indonesian military forces — then known as Angkatan Bersenjata Republik Indonesia ( ABRI ) — and by a small group of UDT troops . Indonesia captured the border city of Batugadé on 8 October 1975 ; nearby Balibó and Maliana were taken eight days later . During the Balibó raid , members of an Australian television news crew — later dubbed the " Balibo Five " — were killed by Indonesian soldiers . Indonesian military officials say the deaths were accidental , and East Timorese witnesses say the journalists were deliberately killed . The deaths , and subsequent campaigns and investigations , attracted international attention and rallied support for East Timorese independence .
At the start of November , the foreign ministers from Indonesia and Portugal met in Rome to discuss a resolution of the conflict . Although no Timorese leaders were invited to the talks , FRETILIN sent a message expressing their desire to work with Portugal . The meeting ended with both parties agreeing that Portugal would meet with political leaders in East Timor , but the talks never took place . In mid @-@ November , Indonesian forces began shelling the city of Atabae from the sea , and captured it by the end of the month .
Frustrated by Portugal 's inaction , FRETILIN leaders believed they could ward off Indonesian advances more effectively if they declared an independent East Timor . National Political Commissioner Mari Alkatiri conducted a diplomatic tour of Africa , gathering support from governments there and elsewhere . According to FRETILIN , this effort yielded assurances from twenty @-@ five countries — including the People 's Republic of China , the Soviet Union , Mozambique , Sweden , and Cuba — to recognise the new nation . Cuba currently shares close relations with East Timor today . On 28 November 1975 , FRETILIN unilaterally declared independence for the Democratic Republic of East Timor . Indonesia announced , UDT and APODETI leaders in and around Balibó would respond the next day by declaring that region independent from East Timor and officially part of Indonesia . But this Balibo Declaration was drafted by Indonesian intelligence and signed on Bali . Later this was described as the ' Balibohong Declaration ' , a pun on the Indonesian word for ' lie ' . Portugal rejected both declarations , and the Indonesian government approved military action to begin its annexation of East Timor .
= = Invasion = =
On 7 December 1975 , Indonesian forces invaded East Timor . Operasi Seroja ( Operation Lotus ) was the largest military operation ever carried out by that nation . Troops from FRETILIN 's military organisation FALINTIL engaged ABRI forces in the streets of Dili , and reported 400 Indonesian paratroopers were killed as they descended into the city . Angkasa Magazine reports 35 dead Indonesian troops , and 122 from the Fretilin side . By the end of the year , 10 @,@ 000 troops occupied Dili and another 20 @,@ 000 had been deployed throughout East Timor . Massively outnumbered , FALINTIL troops fled to the mountains and continued guerrilla combat operations .
= = = Indonesian atrocities = = =
From the start of the invasion onward , TNI forces engaged in the wholesale massacre of Timorese civilians . At the start of the occupation , FRETILIN radio sent the following broadcast : " The Indonesian forces are killing indiscriminately . Women and children are being shot in the streets . We are all going to be killed .... This is an appeal for international help . Please do something to stop this invasion . " One Timorese refugee told later of " rape [ and ] cold @-@ blooded assassinations of women and children and Chinese shop owners " . Dili 's bishop at the time , Martinho da Costa Lopes , said later : " The soldiers who landed started killing everyone they could find . There were many dead bodies in the streets – all we could see were the soldiers killing , killing , killing . " In one incident , a group of fifty men , women , and children – including Australian freelance reporter Roger East – were lined up on a cliff outside of Dili and shot , their bodies falling into the sea . Many such massacres took place in Dili , where onlookers were ordered to observe and count aloud as each person was executed . It is estimated that at least 2 @,@ 000 Timorese were massacred in the first two days of the invasion in Dili alone . In addition to FRETILIN supporters , Chinese migrants were also singled out for execution ; five hundred were killed in the first day alone .
The mass killings continued unabated as Indonesian forces advanced on the Fretilin @-@ held mountain regions of East Timor . A Timorese guide for a senior Indonesian officer told former Australian consul to Portuguese Timor James Dunn that during the early months of the fighting TNI troops " killed most Timorese they encountered . " In February 1976 after capturing the village of Aileu - to the south of Dili - and driving out the remaining Fretilin forces , Indonesian troops machine gunned most of the town 's population , allegedly shooting everyone over the age of three . The young children who were spared were taken back to Dili in trucks . At the time Aileu fell to Indonesian forces , the population was around 5 @,@ 000 ; by the time Indonesian relief workers visited the village in September 1976 only 1 @,@ 000 remained . In June 1976 , TNI troops badly battered by a Fretilin attack exacted retribution against a large refugee camp housing 5 @-@ 6 @,@ 000 Timorese at Lamaknan near the West Timor border . After setting several houses on fire , Indonesian soldiers massacred as many as 2 @,@ 000 men , women and children .
In March 1977 ex @-@ Australian consul James Dunn published a report detailing charges that since December 1975 Indonesian forces had killed between 50 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 civilians in East Timor . This is consistent with a statement made on 13 February 1976 by UDT leader Lopez da Cruz that 60 @,@ 000 Timorese had been killed during the previous six months of civil war , suggesting a death toll of at least 55 @,@ 000 in the first two months of the invasion . A delegation of Indonesian relief workers agreed with this statistic . A late 1976 report by the Catholic Church also estimated the death toll at between 60 @,@ 000 and 100 @,@ 000 . These figures were also corroborated by those in the Indonesian government itself . In an interview on 5 April 1977 with the Sydney Morning Herald , Indonesian Foreign Minister Adam Malik said the number of dead was " 50 @,@ 000 people or perhaps 80 @,@ 000 " .
The Indonesian government presented its annexation of East Timor as a matter of anticolonial unity . A 1977 booklet from the Indonesian Department of Foreign Affairs , entitled Decolonization in East Timor , paid tribute to the " sacred right of self @-@ determination " and recognised APODETI as the true representatives of the East Timorese majority . It claimed that FRETILIN 's popularity was the result of a " policy of threats , blackmail and terror " . Later , Indonesian Foreign Minister Ali Alatas reiterated this position in his 2006 memoir The Pebble in the Shoe : The Diplomatic Struggle for East Timor . The island 's original division into east and west , Indonesia argued after the invasion , was " the result of colonial oppression " enforced by the Portuguese and Dutch imperial powers . Thus , according to the Indonesian government , its annexation of the 27th province was merely another step in the unification of the archipelago which had begun in the 1940s .
= = = UN response and international law = = =
On the day following the invasion , a committee of the United Nations General Assembly convened to debate the situation . Nations allied with Indonesia — including India , Japan , and Malaysia — wrote a resolution blaming Portugal and the Timorese political parties for the bloodshed ; it was rejected in favour of a draft prepared by Algeria , Cuba , Senegal , and Guyana , among others . This was adopted as GA Resolution 3485 ( XXX ) on 12 December , calling on Indonesia to " withdraw without delay " . Ten days later the United Nations Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 384 ( 1975 ) , which echoes the GA resolution 's call for an immediate Indonesian withdrawal . One year later the Security Council expressed the same sentiment in Resolution 389 ( 1976 ) , and the General Assembly passed resolutions every year between 1976 and 1982 calling for self @-@ determination in East Timor . Governments of large countries like China and the United States opposed further action ; smaller countries like Costa Rica , Guinea @-@ Bissau , and Iceland were the only delegations calling for strong enforcement of the resolutions . The 1982 resolution calls on the UN Secretary @-@ General to " initiate consultations with all parties directly concerned , with a view to exploring avenues for achieving a comprehensive settlement of the problem " .
Legal expert Roger S. Clark notes that Indonesia 's invasion and occupation violated two key elements of international law : the right to self @-@ determination and the prohibition on aggression . Neither the petition of 7 September 1975 calling for integration , nor the later resolution of the " People 's Assembly " in May 1976 , qualify as " informed and democratic processes impartially conducted and based on universal adult suffrage " , as required by UN General Assembly Resolution 1541 ( XV ) , which establishes the guidelines for the norms of self @-@ determination . Other inadequacies existed in the petitions as well .
Indonesia 's use of military force in East Timor is cited as a violation of Chapter I of the United Nations Charter , which states : " All Members shall refrain in their international relations from the threat or use of force against the territorial integrity or political independence of any state .... " Some observers have argued that East Timor was not a state at the time of the invasion , and is thus not protected by the UN Charter . This claim mirrors those made against Indonesia by the Dutch during the Indonesian National Revolution . As legal scholar Susan Marks points out , if East Timor was considered a Portuguese colony , then although " there may be some doubt about the application of this provision [ of UN Charter Chapter I ] in the context of an armed conflict between a colonial power and its own colony , there can hardly be doubt that it applies to force by one sovereign state against another state 's colony " .
= = Indonesian hegemony = =
On 17 December , Indonesia formed the Provisional Government of East Timor ( PGET ) which was headed by Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo of APODETI as president and Lopez da Cruz of UDT . Most sources describe this institution as a creation of the Indonesian military . One of PGET 's first activities was the formation of a " Popular Assembly " consisting of elected representatives and leaders " from various walks of Timorese life " . Like the PGET itself , the Popular Assembly is usually characterised as an instrument of propaganda created by the Indonesian military ; although international journalists were invited to witness the group 's meeting in May 1976 , their movement was tightly constrained . The Assembly drafted a request for formal integration into Indonesia , which Jakarta described as " the act of self @-@ determination " in East Timor .
Indonesia kept East Timor shut off from the rest of the world , except for a few years in the late 1980s and early 1990s , claiming that the vast majority of East Timorese supported integration . This position was followed closely by the Indonesian media such that an East Timorese acceptance of their integration with Indonesia was taken for granted by , and was a non @-@ issue for , the majority of Indonesians . East Timor came to be seen as a training ground for the officer corps in tactics of suppression for Aceh and Papua , and was pivotal in ensuring military sector dominance of Indonesia .
= = = Indonesian campaigns against the resistance = = =
Leaders of Indonesian intelligence influential with Suharto had initially envisaged that invasion , subdual of Fretilin resistance , and integration with Indonesia would be quick and relatively painless . The ensuing Indonesian campaigns up through 1976 were devastating for the East Timorese , an enormous drain on Indonesian resources , were severely damaging to Indonesia internationally , and ultimately a failure . The wanton , wholesale killings by the TNI near the coastal regions during the opening months of the invasion had driven a large portion of the population and most of the remaining FALINTIL into the central regions . This proved counterproductive as it left Indonesian troops fighting against an enemy which was well equipped and had access to agricultural resources and population . The civilian population came to see the FALINTIL as a buffer against the excesses of the Indonesian forces , which led to heightened support for the resistance . From 1975 to 1977 , the FRETILIN protected at least 40 % of the population who had fled the coastal regions , in inhospitable conditions , with the active support of rallied communities . Schwarz suggests the fact that Indonesian military 's power base remained barely dented by the mid @-@ 1970s intelligence miscalculations and ongoing failures , was a measure of the military 's dominance of Indonesian affairs .
By the end of 1976 , a stalemate existed between the FALINTIL and the Indonesian army . Unable to overcome heavy resistance and drained of its resources , the TNI began rearming . Indonesian navy ordered missile @-@ firing patrol @-@ boats from the United States , Australia , the Netherlands , South Korea , and Taiwan , as well as submarines from West Germany . In February 1977 , Indonesia also received thirteen OV @-@ 10 Bronco aircraft from the Rockwell International Corporation with the aid of an official US government foreign military aid sales credit . The Bronco was ideal for the East Timor invasion , as it was specifically designed for counter @-@ insurgency operations in difficult terrain . By the beginning of February 1977 , at least six of the 13 Broncos were operating in East Timor , and helped the Indonesian military pinpoint Fretilin positions . The OV @-@ 10 Broncos dealt a heavy blow to the FALINTIL when the aircraft attacked their forces with conventional weapons and Soviet @-@ supplied Napalm known as ' Opalm . ' Along with the new weaponry , an additional 10 @,@ 000 troops were sent in to begin new campaigns that would become known as the ' final solution ' .
TNI strategists implemented a strategy of attrition against the FALINTIL beginning in September 1977 . This was accomplished by rendering the central regions of East Timor unable to sustain human life through napalm attacks , chemical warfare and destruction of crops . This was to be done in order to force the population to surrender into the custody of Indonesian forces and deprive the FALINTIL of food and population . Catholic officials in East Timor called this strategy an " encirclement and annihilation " campaign . 35 @,@ 000 ABRI troops surrounded areas of FRETILIN support and killed of men , women , and children . Air and naval bombardments were followed by ground troops , who destroyed villages and agricultural infrastructure . Thousands of people may have been killed during this period . In early 1978 , the entire civilian population of Arsaibai village , near the Indonesian border , was killed for supporting Fretilin after being bombarded and starved . The success of the ' encirclement and annihilation ' campaign led to the ' final cleansing campaign ' , in which children and men would be forced to hold hands and march in front of Indonesian units searching for Fretilin members . When Fretilin members were found , the members would be forced to surrender or to fire on their own people .
During this period , allegations of Indonesian use of chemical weapons arose , as villagers reported maggots appearing on crops after bombing attacks . FRETILIN radio claimed Indonesian planes dropped chemical agents , and several observers — including the Bishop of Dili — reported seeing napalm dropped on the countryside . The UN 's Commission for Reception , Truth and Reconciliation in East Timor , based on interviews with over 8 @,@ 000 witnesses , as well as Indonesian military papers and intelligence from international sources , confirmed that the Indonesians used chemical weapons and napalm to poison food and water supplies in FRETILIN controlled areas during the " encirclement and annihilation " campaign .
While brutal , the Indonesian ' encirclement and annihilation ' campaign of 1977 – 1978 was effective in that it broke the back of the main Fretilin militia . The capable Timorese President and military commander , Nicolau Lobato , was shot and killed by helicopter @-@ borne Indonesian troops on 31 December 1978 .
= = = Resettlement and enforced starvation = = =
As a result of the destruction of food crops , many civilians were forced to leave the hills and surrender to the TNI . Often , when surviving villagers came down to lower @-@ lying regions to surrender , the military would execute them . Those who were not killed outright by TNI troops were sent to receiving centers which were prepared in advance . These camps were located in close proximity to local military bases where Indonesian forces " screened " the population in order to single out members of the resistance , often with the aid of Timorese collaborators . In these transit camps , the surrendered civilians were registered and interrogated . Those who were suspected of being members of the resistance were detained and killed .
These centers were often constructed of thatch huts with no toilets . Additionally , the Indonesian military barred the Red Cross from distributing humanitarian aid and no medical care was provided to the detainees . As a result , many of the Timorese - weakened by starvation and surviving on small rations given by their captors - died of malnutrition , cholera , diarrhea and tuberculosis . By late 1979 , between 300 @,@ 000 and 370 @,@ 000 Timorese had passed through these camps . After a period of three months , the detainees were resettled in " strategic hamlets " where they were imprisoned and subjected to enforced starvation . Those in the camps were prevented from traveling and cultivating farmland and were subjected to a curfew . The UN truth commission report confirmed the Indonesian military 's use of enforced starvation as a weapon to exterminate the East Timorese civilian population , and that large numbers of people were " positively denied access to food and its sources " . The report cited testimony from individuals who were denied food , and detailed destruction of crops and livestock by Indonesian soldiers . It concluded that this policy of deliberate starvation resulted in the deaths of 84 @,@ 200 to 183 @,@ 000 Timorese . One church worker reported five hundred East Timorese dying of starvation every month in one district .
World Vision Indonesia visited East Timor in October 1978 and claimed that 70 @,@ 000 East Timorese were at risk of starvation . An envoy from the International Committee of the Red Cross reported in 1979 that 80 percent of one camp 's population was malnourished , in a situation that was " as bad as Biafra " . The ICRC warned that " tens of thousands " were at risk of starvation . Indonesia announced that it was working through the government @-@ run Indonesian Red Cross to alleviate the crisis , but the NGO Action for World Development charged that organisation with selling donated aid supplies .
= = = Operasi Keamanan : 1981 – 82 = = =
In 1981 the Indonesian military launched Operasi Keamanan ( Operation Security ) , which some have named the " fence of legs " program . During this operation , Indonesian forces conscripted 50 @,@ 000 to 80 @,@ 000 Timorese men and boys to march through the mountains ahead of advancing TNI troops as human shields to foreclose a FRETILIN counterattack . The objective was to sweep the guerillas into the central part of the region where they could be eradicated . Many of those conscripted into the " fence of legs " died of starvation , exhaustion or were shot by Indonesian forces for allowing guerillas to slip through . As the " fence " converged on villages , Indonesian forces massacred an unknown number of civilians . At least 400 villagers were massacred in Lacluta by Battalion 744 of the Indonesian Army in September 1981 . An eyewitness who testified before the Australian Senate stated that soldiers deliberately killed small children by smashing their heads against a rock . The operation failed to crush the resistance , and popular resentment toward the occupation grew stronger than ever . As FRETILIN troops in the mountains continued their sporadic attacks , Indonesian forces carried out numerous operations to destroy them over the next ten years . In the cities and villages , meanwhile , a non @-@ violent resistance movement began to take shape .
= = = ' Operation Clean @-@ Sweep ' : 1983 = = =
The failure of successive Indonesian counterinsurgency campaigns led the Indonesian military elite to instruct the commander of the Dili @-@ based Sub regional Military Resort Command , Colonel Purwanto to initiate peace talks with FRETILIN commander Xanana Gusmão in a FRETILIN @-@ controlled area in March 1983 . When Xanana sought to invoke Portugal and the UN in the negotiations , ABRI Commander Benny Moerdani broke the ceasefire by announcing a new counterinsurgency offensive called " Operational Clean @-@ Sweep " in August 1983 , declairing , " This time no fooling around . This time we are going to hit them without mercy . "
The breakdown of the ceasefire agreement was followed by a renewed wave of massacres , summary executions and " disappearences " at the hands of Indonesian forces . In August 1983 , 200 people were burned alive in the village of Creras , with 500 others killed at a nearby river . Between August and December 1983 , Amnesty International documented the arrests and " disappearances " of over 600 people in the capital city alone . Relatives were told by Indonesian forces that the " disappeared " were sent to Bali .
Those suspected of opposing integration were often arrested and tortured . In 1983 Amnesty International published an Indonesian manual it had received from East Timor instructing military personnel on how to inflict physical and mental anguish , and cautioning troops to " Avoid taking photographs showing torture ( of someone being given electric shocks , stripped naked and so on ) " . In his 1997 memoir East Timor 's Unfinished Struggle : Inside the Timorese Resistance , Constâncio Pinto describes being tortured by Indonesian soldiers : " With each question , I would get two or three punches in the face . When someone punches you so much and so hard , it feels as if your face is broken . People hit me on my back and on my sides with their hands and then kicked me .... [ In another location ] they psychologically tortured me ; they didn 't hit me , but they made strong threats to kill me . They even put a gun on the table . " In Michele Turner 's book Telling East Timor : Personal Testimonies 1942 – 1992 , a woman named Fátima describes watching torture take place in a Dili prison : " They make people sit on a chair with the front of the chair on their own toes . It is mad , yes . The soldiers urinate in the food then mix it up for the person to eat . They use electric shock and they use an electric machine .... "
= = = Violence against women = = =
Indonesian military abuses against women in East Timor were numerous and well @-@ documented . In addition to suffering arbitrary detainment , torture , and extrajudicial execution , women faced rape and sexual abuse — sometimes for the crime of being related to an independence activist . The scope of the problem is difficult to ascertain , owing to the intense military control imposed during the occupation , compounded by the shame felt by victims . In a 1995 report on violence against women in Indonesia and East Timor , Amnesty International USA wrote : " Women are reluctant to pass on information to non @-@ governmental organizations about rape and sexual abuse , let alone to report violations to the military or police authorities . "
Other forms of violence against women took the form of harassment , intimidation , and enforced marriage . The Amnesty report cites the case of a woman forced to live with a commander in Baucau , then harassed daily by troops after her release . Such " marriages " took place regularly during the occupation . Women were also encouraged to accept sterilisation procedures , and some were pressured to take the contraceptive Depo Provera , sometimes without full knowledge of its effects .
In 1999 researcher Rebecca Winters released the book Buibere : Voice of East Timorese Women , which chronicles many personal stories of violence and abuse dating to the earliest days of the occupation . One woman tells of being interrogated while stripped half @-@ naked , tortured , molested , and threatened with death . Another describes being chained at the hands and feet , raped repeatedly , and interrogated for weeks . A woman who had prepared food for FRETILIN guerrillas was arrested , burned with cigarettes , tortured with electricity , and forced to walk naked past a row of soldiers into a tank filled with urine and feces .
= = = Abuses by FRETILIN = = =
The Indonesian government reported in 1977 that several mass graves containing " scores " of people killed by FRETILIN had been found near Ailieu and Samé . Amnesty International confirmed these reports in 1985 , and also expressed concern about several extrajudicial killings for which FRETILIN had claimed responsibility . In 1997 Human Rights Watch condemned a series of attacks carried out by FRETILIN , which led to the deaths of nine civilians .
= = = Demography and economy = = =
The Portuguese language was banned in East Timor and Indonesian was made the language of government , education and public commerce , and the Indonesian school curriculum was implemented . The official Indonesian national ideology , Pancasila , was applied to East Timor and government jobs were restricted to those holding certification in Pancasila training . East Timorese animist belief systems did not fit with Indonesia 's constitutional monotheism , resulting in mass conversions to Christianity . Portuguese clergy were replaced with Indonesian priests and Latin and Portuguese mass was replaced by Indonesian mass . Before the invasion , less than 30 percent of East Timorese were Roman Catholics , and by the 1980s , 80 percent were registered as Catholics . With a 90 percent Catholic population , East Timor is currently one of the most densely Catholic countries in the world .
East Timor was a particular focus for the Indonesian government 's transmigration program , which aimed to resettle Indonesians from densely to less populated regions . Media censorship under the " New Order " meant that the state of conflict in East Timor was unknown to the transmigrants , predominantly poor Javanese and Balinese wet @-@ rice farmers . On arrival they found themselves under ongoing threat of attack by East Timorese resistance fighters , and became the object of local resentment , since large tracts of land belonging to East Timorese had been compulsorily appropriated by the Indonesian government for transmigrant settlement . Although many gave up and returned to their island of origin , those migrants that stayed in East Timor contributed to the " Indonesianisation " of East Timor 's integration . 662 transmigrant families ( 2 @,@ 208 people ) settled in East Timor in 1993 , whereas an estimated 150 @,@ 000 free Indonesian settlers lived in East Timor by the mid @-@ 1990s , including those offered jobs in education and administration . Migration increased resentment amongst Timorese who were overtaken by more business savvy immigrants .
Following the invasion , Portuguese commercial interests were taken over by Indonesians . The border with West Timor was opened resulting in an influx of West Timorese farmers , and in January 1989 the territory was open to private investment . Economic life in the towns was subsequently brought under the control of entrepreneurial Bugis , Makassarese , and Butonese immigrants from South Sulawesi , while East Timor products were exported under partnerships between army officials and Indonesian businessmen . Denok , a military @-@ controlled firm , monopolised some of East Timor 's most lucrative commercial activities , including sandal wood export , hotels , and the import of consumer products . The group 's most profitable business , however , was its monopoly on the export of coffee , which was the territory 's most valuable cash crop . Indonesian entrepreneurs came to dominate non @-@ Denok / military enterprises , and local manufactures from the Portuguese period made way for Indonesian imports .
The Indonesian government 's primary response to criticism of its policies was to highlight its funding of development in East Timor 's health , education , communications , transportation , and agriculture . East Timor , however , remained poor following centuries of Portuguese colonial neglect and Indonesian critic George Aditjondro points out that conflict in the early years of occupation lead to sharp drops in rice and coffee production , and livestock populations . Other critics argue that infrastructure development , such as road construction , is often designed to facilitate Indonesian military and corporate interests . While the military controlled key businesses , private investors , both Indonesian and international , avoided the territory . Despite improvements since 1976 , a 1993 Indonesian government report estimated that in three @-@ quarters of East Timor 's 61 districts , more than half lived in poverty .
= = 1990s = =
= = = Changing resistance and integration campaigns = = =
Major investment by the Indonesian government to improve East Timor 's infrastructure , and health and education facilities since 1975 , did not end East Timorese resistance to Indonesian rule . Although by the 1980s Fretilin forces had dropped to a few hundred armed men , Fretilin increased its contacts with young Timorese especially in Dili , and an un @-@ armed civil resistance seeking self @-@ determination took shape . Many of those in the protest movements were young children at the time of the invasion and had been educated under the Indonesian system . They resented the repression of Timorese cultural and political life at the expense of the Indonesian , were ambivalent of Indonesian economic development , and spoke Portuguese amongst themselves , stressing their Portuguese heritage . Seeking help from Portugal for self @-@ determination , they considered Indonesia an occupying force . Abroad , Fretilin 's members — most notably former journalist José Ramos @-@ Horta ( later to be Prime Minister and President ) — pushed their cause in diplomatic forums .
The reduced armed resistance prompted the Indonesian government in 1988 to open up East Timor to improve its commercial prospects , including a lifting of the travel ban on journalists . The new policy came from foreign minister Ali Alatas against the advice of the military leadership who feared it would lead to loss of control . Alatas and diplomats swayed Suharto of the policy as a response to international concerns . In late 1989 , hardline military commander Brigadier General Mulyadi was replaced by Brigadier General Rudolph Warouw who promised a more " persuasive " approach to anti @-@ integrationists . Restrictions on travel within the territory were reduced , groups of political prisoners were released , and the use of torture in interrogation became less common . Warouw attempted to increase military discipline ; in February 1990 an Indonesian soldier was prosecuted for unlawful conduct in East Timor , the first such action since the invasion .
A reduced fear of persecution encouraged the resistance movements ; anti @-@ integration protests accompanied high @-@ profile visits to East Timor including that of Pope John Paul II in 1989 . The end of the Cold War removed much of the justification for western support of Indonesia 's occupation . The resulting increase in international attention to self @-@ determination and human rights put further pressure on Indonesia . Subsequent events within East Timor in the 1990s helped to dramatically raise the international profile of East Timor , which in turn significantly boosted the momentum of the resistance groups .
= = = Santa Cruz massacre = = =
During a memorial mass on 12 November 1991 for a pro @-@ independence youth shot by Indonesian troops , demonstrators among the 2 @,@ 500 @-@ strong crowd unfurled the Fretlin flag and banners with pro @-@ independence slogans , and chanted boisterously but peacefully . Following a brief confrontation between Indonesian troops and protesters , 200 Indonesian soldiers opened fire on the crowd killing at least 250 Timorese .
The testimonies of foreigners at the cemetery were quickly reported to international news organisations , and video footage of the massacre was widely broadcast internationally causing outrage . In response to the massacre , activists around the world organised in solidarity with the East Timorese , and a new urgency was brought to calls for self @-@ determination . TAPOL , a British organisation formed in 1973 to advocate for democracy in Indonesia , increased its work around East Timor . In the United States , the East Timor Action Network ( now the East Timor and Indonesia Action Network ) was founded and soon had chapters in ten cities around the country . Other solidarity groups appeared in Portugal , Australia , Japan , Germany , Malaysia , Ireland , and Brazil . Coverage of the massacre was a vivid example of how growth of new media in Indonesia was making it increasingly difficult for the " New Order " to control information flow in and out of Indonesia , and that in the post @-@ Cold War 1990s , the government was coming under increasing international scrutiny . A number of pro @-@ democracy student groups and their magazines began to openly and critically discuss not just East Timor , but also the " New Order " and the broader history and future of Indonesia .
Sharp condemnation of the military came not just from the international community , but from within parts of the Indonesian elite . The massacre ended the governments 1989 opening of the territory and a new period of repression began . Warouw was removed from his position and his more accommodating approach to Timorese resistance rebuked by his superiors . Suspected Fretilin sympathisers were arrested , human rights abuses rose , and the ban on foreign journalists was reimposed . Hatred intensified amongst Timorese of the Indonesian military presence . Major General Prabowo 's , Kopassus Group 3 trained militias gangs dressed in black hoods to crush the remaining resistance .
= = = Arrest of Xanana Gusmão = = =
On 20 November 1992 FRETILIN leader Xanana Gusmão was arrested by Indonesian troops . In May 1993 he was sentenced to life imprisonment for " rebellion " , but his sentence was later commuted to 20 years . The arrest of the universally acknowledged leader of the resistance was a major frustration to the anti @-@ integration movement in East Timor , but Gusmão continued to serve as a symbol of hope from inside the Cipinang prison . Nonviolent resistance by East Timorese , meanwhile , continued to show itself . When President Bill Clinton visited Jakarta in 1994 , twenty @-@ nine East Timorese students occupied the US embassy to protest US support for Indonesia .
At the same time , human rights observers called attention to continued violations by Indonesian troops and police . A 1995 report by Human Rights Watch noted that " abuses in the territory continue to mount " , including torture , disappearances , and limitations on basic rights . After a series of riots in September and October 1995 , Amnesty International criticised Indonesian authorities for a wave of arbitrary arrests and torture . The report indicates detainees were beaten with iron bars , kicked , lacerated , and threatened with death .
= = = Nobel Peace Prize = = =
In 1996 East Timor was suddenly brought to world attention when the Nobel Peace Prize was awarded to Bishop Carlos Filipe Ximenes Belo and José Ramos @-@ Horta " for their work towards a just and peaceful solution to the conflict in East Timor " . The Nobel Committee indicated in its press release that it hoped the award would " spur efforts to find a diplomatic solution to the conflict in East Timor based on the people 's right to self @-@ determination " . As Nobel scholar Irwin Abrams notes :
For Indonesia the prize was a great embarrassment .... In public statements the government tried to put distance between the two laureates , grudgingly recognising the prize for Bishop Belo , over whom it thought it could exercise some control , but accusing Ramos @-@ Horta of responsibility for atrocities during the civil strife in East Timor and declaring that he was a political opportunist .
At the award ceremony Chairman Sejersted answered these charges , pointing out that during the civil conflict Ramos @-@ Horta was not even in the country and on his return he tried to reconcile the two parties .
Diplomats from Indonesia and Portugal , meanwhile , continued the consultations required by the 1982 General Assembly resolution , in a series of meetings intended to resolve the problem of what Foreign Minister Ali Alatas called the " pebble in the Indonesian shoe " .
= = End of Indonesian control = =
Renewed United Nations @-@ brokered mediation efforts between Indonesia and Portugal began in early 1997 .
= = = Transition in Indonesia = = =
Independence for East Timor , or even limited regional autonomy , was never going to be allowed under Suharto 's New Order . Notwithstanding Indonesian public opinion in the 1990s occasionally showing begrudging appreciation of the Timorese position , it was widely feared that an independent East Timor would destabilise Indonesian unity . The 1997 Asian Financial Crisis , however , caused tremendous upheaval in Indonesia and led to Suharto 's resignation in May 1998 , ending his thirty @-@ year presidency . Prabowo , by then in command of the powerful Indonesian Strategic Reserve , went into exile in Jordan and military operations in East Timor were costing the bankrupt Indonesian government a million dollars
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on the basis of statistical data available from the Portuguese and Indonesian authorities , and from the Catholic Church , between December 1975 and December 1981 , approximately 308 @,@ 000 Timorese lost their lives ; this constituted about 44 % of the pre @-@ invasion population . Similarly Indonesian Professor George Aditjondro , formerly of Salatiga University in Java , concluded from his study of Indonesian Army data that in fact 300 @,@ 000 Timorese had been killed in the early years of the occupation .
Robert Cribb of the Australian National University argues that the toll was significantly exaggerated . He argues that the 1980 census that counted 555 @,@ 350 Timorese , although " the most reliable source of all , " was probably a minimum rather than a maximum estimate for the total population . " It is worth recalling that hundreds of thousands of East Timorese disappeared during the violence of September 1999 , only to reappear later , " he writes . The 1980 census becomes more improbable in the face of the 1987 census that counted 657 @,@ 411 Timorese – this would require a growth rate of 2 @.@ 5 % per year , nearly identical to the very high growth rate in East Timor from 1970 to 1975 , and a highly unlikely one given the conditions of the brutal occupation , including Indonesian efforts to discourage reproduction . Noting the relative lack of personal accounts of atrocities or of traumatised Indonesian soldiers , he further adds that East Timor " does not appear — on the basis of news reports and academic accounts — to be a society traumatized by mass death ... the circumstance leading up to the Dili massacre of 1991 ... indicate a society which retained its vigor and indignation in a way which would probably not have been possible if it had been treated as Cambodia was treated under Pol Pot . " Even Indonesian military strategy was based on winning the " hearts and minds " of the population , a fact that does not support charges of mass killing .
Kiernan , starting from a base population of 700 @,@ 000 Timorese in 1975 ( based on the 1974 Catholic Church census ) calculated an expected 1980 population of 735 @,@ 000 Timorese ( assuming a growth rate of only 1 % per year as a result of the occupation ) . Accepting the 1980 count that Cribb regards as at least 10 % ( 55 @,@ 000 ) too low , Kiernan concluded that as many as 180 @,@ 000 may have died in the war . Cribb argued that the 3 % growth rate suggested by the 1974 census was too high , citing the fact that the church had previously postulated a growth rate of 1 @.@ 8 % , which would have produced a figure in line with the Portuguese population estimate of 635 @,@ 000 for 1974 .
Although Cribb maintained that the Portuguese census was almost certainly an underestimate , he believed it to be more likely correct than the church census , due to the fact that any church attempt to extrapolate the size of the total population " must be seen in light of its incomplete access to society " ( less than half of Timorese were Catholic ) . Assuming a growth rate in line with the other nations of South East Asia , then , would yield a more accurate figure of 680 @,@ 000 for 1975 , and an expected 1980 population of slightly over 775 @,@ 000 ( without accounting for the decline in the birth rate resulting from the Indonesian occupation ) . The deficit remaining would be almost exactly 200 @,@ 000 . According to Cribb , Indonesian policies restricted the birth rate by up to 50 % or more , thus around 45 @,@ 000 of these were not born rather than killed ; another 55 @,@ 000 were " missing " as a result of the Timorese evading the Indonesian authorities who conducted the 1980 census . A variety of factors — the exodus of tens of thousands from their homes to escape FRETELIN in 1974 @-@ 5 ; the deaths of thousands in the civil war ; the deaths of combatants during the occupation ; killings by FRETELIN ; and natural disasters — diminish further still the civilian toll attributable to Indonesian forces during this time . Considering all this data , Cribb argues for a much lower toll of 100 @,@ 000 or less , with an absolute minimum of 60 @,@ 000 , and a mere tenth of the civilian population dying unnaturally , for the years 1975 – 80 .
Kiernan responded , however , by asserting that the influx of migrant workers during the occupation and the increase in the population growth rate typical of a mortality crisis justifies accepting the 1980 census as valid despite the 1987 estimate , and that the 1974 church census — though a " possible maximum " — cannot be discounted because the church 's lack of access to society might well have resulted in an undercount . He concluded that at least 116 @,@ 000 combatants and civilians were killed by all sides or died " unnatural " deaths from 1975 – 80 ( if true , this would yield the result that about 15 % of the civilian population of East Timor was killed from 1975 – 80 ) . F. Hiorth separately estimated that 13 % ( 95 @,@ 000 out of an expected 730 @,@ 000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates ) of the civilian population died during this period . Kiernan believes that the deficit was most probably around 145 @,@ 000 when accounting for the reduction in birth rates , or 20 % of East Timor 's population . The mid @-@ value of the UN report is 146 @,@ 000 deaths ; R.J. Rummel , an analyst of political killings , estimates 150 @,@ 000 .
Many observers have called the Indonesian military action in East Timor an example of genocide . In a study of the word 's legal meaning and applicability to the occupation of East Timor , legal scholar Ben Saul concludes that because no group recognised under international law was targeted by the Indonesian authorities , a charge of genocide cannot be applied . However , he also notes : " The conflict in East Timor most accurately qualifies as genocide against a ‘ political group ’ , or alternatively as ‘ cultural genocide ’ , yet neither of these concepts are explicitly recognised in international law . " The occupation has been compared to the killings of the Khmer Rouge , the Yugoslav wars , and the Rwandan Genocide .
Accurate numbers of Indonesian casualties are well @-@ documented . The complete names of around 2 @,@ 300 Indonesian soldiers and pro @-@ Indonesian militias who died in action as well as from illness and accidents during the entire occupation is engraved into the Seroja Monument located in Armed Forces Headquarters in Cilangkap , south of Jakarta . < http : / / www.pelita.or.id / baca.php ? id = 3551 >
= = = Justice = = =
Saul goes on to discuss prosecutions of responsible parties for " crimes against humanity , war crimes , and other gross violations of human rights " . In the years after the end of the occupation , a number of proceedings have been carried out to such an end . The 1999 UN Security Council resolution authorising UNTAET described the history of " systematic , widespread and flagrant violations of international and human rights law " and demanded " that those responsible for such violence be brought to justice " . To achieve these ends , UNTAET established a Serious Crimes Unit ( SCU ) , which has attempted to investigate and prosecute individuals responsible for such violence . However , the SCU has been criticised for accomplishing relatively little , presumably because it is funded inadequately , limited in mandate to crimes committed only in 1999 , and for other reasons . Indonesian trials purporting to punish those responsible for the violence were described as " manifestly inadequate " by a UN commission .
Deficiencies in these processes have led a number of organisations to call for an international tribunal to prosecute individuals responsible for killings in East Timor , similar to those established in Yugoslavia and Rwanda . A 2001 editorial by the East Timor NGO La 'o Hamutuk said :
An uncountable number of Crimes Against Humanity were committed during the 1975 – 1999 period in East Timor . Although an international court could not pursue all of them , it ... [ would ] confirm that the invasion , occupation and destruction of East Timor by Indonesia was a long @-@ standing , systematic , criminal conspiracy , planned and ordered at the highest levels of government . Many of the perpetrators continue to wield authority and influence in East Timor ’ s nearest neighbour . The future of peace , justice and democracy in both East Timor and Indonesia depends on holding the highest @-@ level perpetrators accountable .
In 2005 , the Indonesia @-@ Timor Leste Commission of Truth and Friendship was set up with the goal of establishing the truth relating to crimes under the occupation , and healing divisions between the countries . It has received criticism from NGOs and was rejected by the United Nations for offering impunity .
= = Indonesian governors of East Timor = =
President of the Provisional Government :
17 December 1975 – 17 July 1976 : Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo
Governors :
1976 – 1978 : Arnaldo dos Reis Araújo
1978 – 1982 : Guilherme Maria Gonçalves
18 September 1982 – 18 September 1992 : Mário Viegas Carrascalão
18 September 1992 – 25 October 1999 : José Abílio Osório Soares
= London Road Fire Station , Manchester =
London Road Fire Station is a former fire station in Manchester , England . It was opened in 1906 , on a site bounded by London Road , Whitworth Street , Minshull Street South and Fairfield Street . Designed in the Edwardian Baroque style by Woodhouse , Willoughby and Langham in red brick and terracotta , it cost £ 142 @,@ 000 to build . It has been a Grade II * listed building since 1974 .
In addition to a fire station , the building housed a police station , an ambulance station , a bank , a coroner 's court , and a gas @-@ meter testing station . The fire station operated for eighty years , housing the firemen , their families , and the horse @-@ drawn appliances that were replaced by motorised vehicles a few years after its opening . It was visited by royalty in 1942 , in recognition of the brigade 's wartime efforts . After the war it became a training centre and in 1952 became the first centre equipped to record emergency calls . However , the fire station became expensive to maintain and after council reorganisation decline set in .
The building was the headquarters of the Manchester Fire Brigade until the brigade was replaced by the Greater Manchester Fire Service in 1974 . The fire station closed in 1986 , since when it has been largely unused despite several redevelopment proposals . It was placed on English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register in 2001 and in 2010 Manchester City Council served a compulsory purchase order on the fire station 's owner , Britannia Hotels . Britannia announced in 2015 their intention to sell the building opening up the possibility of redevelopment after nearly 30 years of dereliction .
= = Construction = =
In 1897 the Manchester Watch Committee was considering a replacement for its fire station on Jackson 's Row . A five @-@ man sub @-@ committee was set up and recommended a site on Newton Street . In 1899 , George William Parker who had designed fire stations in Bootle and Belfast , and been referred to as the " architect of the world 's fire service " was appointed Chief of the Manchester Fire Brigade and asked his opinion on the proposal . Parker reported that the site on Newton Street was unsuitable and submitted plans for a fire station on a site bounded by London Road , Whitworth Street , Minshull Street South and Fairfield Street .
Parker 's proposal was for a 7 @-@ bay fire station on a site more than double the size of the one proposed on Newton Street . The choice of London Road was influenced by its proximity to a development of warehouses on Whitworth Street and Princess Street . Parker convinced the city council to choose his proposals rather than those on Newton Street .
A competition , with prizes of £ 300 , £ 200 and £ 100 ( equivalent to £ 29 @,@ 000 , £ 19 @,@ 000 and £ 10 @,@ 000 in 2016 ) was organised to design the new fire station . The competition drew interest from across the country , attracting 25 entries . The winning entry was by John Henry Woodhouse , George Harry Willoughby and John Langham , a team of local architects . Their design was based closely on Parker 's initial plans . The fire station was described by Fire Call magazine as " the finest fire station in this round world " before construction started .
The fire station was built between 1904 and 1906 at a cost of £ 142 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to £ 13 @.@ 8 million in 2016 ) . The building 's substructure and foundations were built by C. H. Normanton of Manchester . The superstructure was built by Gerrard 's of Swinton at a cost of £ 75 @,@ 360 . It was faced with red brick and terracotta by Burmantofts , a common choice for early 20th @-@ century buildings in Manchester as it was cleanable and resisted the pollution and acid rain caused by local industry . Other notable Manchester buildings from this era making use of terracotta include the Midland Hotel , the Refuge Assurance Building , the University 's The Sackville Street Building ( formerly known as UMIST main building ) and the Victoria Baths . The building 's exterior featured sculptural models by John Jarvis Millson representing the functions of the building such as justice , fire and water .
The building had stained glass windows and the interior was decorated with glazed bricks , similar to other public buildings of this era in the city , such as the Victoria Baths . The similarities suggest the influence and adoption of a standard design by Henry Price 's newly created City Architect 's Department .
= = Operation = =
The building was opened on 27 September 1906 by the Lord Mayor of Manchester James Herbert Thewlis . In addition to the fire station , the building housed a police station on Whitworth Street , an ambulance station on Minshull Street South , a branch of Williams Deacon 's Bank at the corner of London Road and Fairfield Street , < a coroner 's court , and a gas @-@ meter testing station on London Road . The coroner 's court and gas @-@ meter testing station replaced the proposed public library and gym .
The fire station contained flats for 32 firemen and their families and 6 single firemen . Facilities included a laundry , gym , billiards room and children 's play @-@ areas . The complex contained stables for the horses that pulled the fire appliances , and a blacksmith 's workshop . There were electric bells and lights to alert firemen to an alarm , poles to expedite the firemen 's response , suspended harnesses to allow the horses to be harnessed quickly , and electric doors . The fire station was also designed with foresight ; the appliance bays were made wide enough to take motorised fire appliances . The station 's first motorised fire appliance arrived in 1911 , five years after it opened .
The building featured a 130 @-@ foot ( 40 m ) hose tower and a ventilation system designed by Musgrave and Company to prevent the odour from the horses ' stalls entering the firemens ' living quarters . Fresh air was drawn in through the top of the fire station 's tower , purified and circulated around the building . When the air reached the end of the circuit , in the stalls , it was extracted from the building . The system meant that the air in the building was replaced every 10 minutes .
During the Second World War the basement was converted into an air @-@ raid shelter and an extension built in the yard to provide more space in the control room . The fire services were nationalised in 1941 , and London Road became the headquarters of Division C. In recognition of the fire fighters ' efforts King George VI and Queen Elizabeth visited the fire station in 1942 .
After the war the Manchester Fire Brigade was again municipalised , and reorganised . London Road Fire Station was restored as the headquarters of the brigade and became the only fire station serving the city centre . A fire service training centre was established in 1948 . At about the same time , the ambulance station closed and was converted into the fire brigade 's workshops . The control room was modernised in 1952 , becoming the first in the country with equipment to record emergency calls .
The interior of the building was refurbished in 1955 . The exterior had been cleaned every year since the fire station opened , and as a result was still in pristine condition when the building celebrated its Golden Jubilee on 6 October 1956 .
= = Decline = =
By the end of the 1960s maintenance was becoming increasingly expensive , and the building 's design ill @-@ suited to modern fire appliances . Plans to replace the fire station were put on hold pending the formation of the Greater Manchester Fire Service .
The building has been Grade II * listed since 1974 , the same year that the replacement of the Manchester Fire Brigade by the Greater Manchester Fire Service precipitated the relocation of the brigade 's headquarters to a new facility in Swinton . As part of the reorganisation , London Road became the headquarters of the brigade 's " E Division " , with the station 's control room responsible for two divisions covering the City of Manchester , the Metropolitan Borough of Stockport and Tameside .
The reorganisation meant the number of appliances was reduced , until only three remained at the station . The control room at London Road closed in 1979 , replaced by a single computerised control room at brigade headquarters in Swinton .
In the same year , following the establishment of Greater Manchester Police and a reorganisation of policing in the city , the police station in the building also closed . The closure left the ground floor on the Whitworth Street side empty . The last tenants of the bank section , a firm of solicitors , and the fire brigade 's workshops , also vacated the building at about the same time .
In 1984 construction work began on a £ 2 @.@ 4 million , 4 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 8 ha ) replacement in Thompson Street and in 1985 the old London Road Fire Station was brought within the Whitworth Street Conservation Area . In 1986 the fire service left London Road for its new fire station , London Road Fire Station closed and the building was sold .
= = Dereliction and redevelopment = =
After the sale the building was mainly used for storage whilst planning applications to convert it into a hotel were made in 1986 , 1993 , and 2001 , with varying degrees of success . The coroner 's court was the last to vacate the premises , in 1998 . In 2001 , the building was placed on English Heritage 's Buildings at Risk Register . By 2004 it was in steep decline , and momentum was building for the fire station 's owner , Britannia Hotels , to act .
In February 2006 , Argent , developers proposed leasing the building from Britannia Hotels to transform it into a music and arts venue . Manchester City Council backed the plans and refused to rule out a compulsory purchase order ( CPO ) if the owner did not act to redevelop the building . Britannia Hotels branded Argent 's plans " unworkable " and proposed turning the building into a company headquarters , 200 @-@ bed hotel , and fire station museum . A planning application was promised by March 2006 , but by May none had been made . Work was carried out by February 2007 to make the building watertight and in autumn 2007 a proposal was made by Britannia to convert the building into a hotel .
Britannia Hotels appointed Purcell Miller Tritton to draw up plans to convert the building into a hotel in 2008 but none were produced by May 2009 and the city council lost faith in Britannia Hotels ' commitment to its redevelopment . The city council was concerned that the state of the fire station was limiting regeneration in the area , including a proposed government complex on the former Mayfield Railway Station site . The city council set a deadline of July 2009 for progress on redevelopment . Britannia Hotels ' proposal in July 2009 was to convert the fire station into a hotel with a 15 @-@ storey tower in its courtyard and promised a planning application by October 2009 , but none was made and the city council 's Chief Executive recommended issuing a CPO . A meeting of the city council in January 2010 approved a request for up to £ 5 @.@ 25 million to cover the costs associated with the fire station 's acquisition . Britannia Hotels responded by pledging to make a new proposal by February 2010 , rendering the CPO unnecessary .
Britannia submitted an application to turn the fire station into a 227 @-@ bed 4 @-@ star hotel in June 2010 . The Victorian Society praised the proposed conversion . Manchester City Council decided to continue with the CPO . The city council issued a CPO on 5 August 2010 . Despite the plans being approved 16 September 2010 , the council continued to pursue a CPO and solicited bids for a development partner in January 2011 . Britannia 's objection to the CPO led to a public inquiry in April 2011 . On 29 November 2011 , the Department for Communities and Local Government confirmed the CPO had been rejected . Despite Britannia 's guarantee at the inquiry to proceed with the development it reconsidered its plans . In a letter to English Heritage , Britannia said the proposed scheme was unsustainable for the foreseeable future . Britannia wanted to return to the rejected tower plan . English Heritage and the city council expressed disappointment . The city council offered to buy the building at market value .
In February 2013 after a public meeting the Friends of London Road Fire Station ( FoLRFS ) was formed to pressurise Britannia Hotels and persuade the council to attempt a second CPO . The group organised an online petition , fundraising events , public meetings , an online survey to discover locals ' views , an art exhibition and public engagement with its history , and published the outcome of a Freedom of Information Act request on what the council had done regarding surveying the building and issuing urgent @-@ works notices . In November 2013 , Britannia applied to extend the 2010 planning permissions but despite objections the applications were approved on technical grounds in December 2013 . The council considered applying for a CPO for the second time in September 2014 and confirmed its intention to do so in December 2014 and meet with FoLRFS in early 2015 . FoLRFS received a grant from Locality 's Community Assets in Difficult Ownership ( CADO ) programme to pay for public outreach work . On 30 April 2015 , FoLRFS met Pat Bartoli , head of the council 's urban regeneration team and Howard Bernstein who praised their campaign . It was announced immediately after the meeting that Britannia Hotels had decided to sell the building .
London Road Fire Station was put on the market on 1 May 2015 and expected offers of around £ 10 million while restoration is expected to cost £ 20 – 30 million . Allied London acquired the firestation on 16 November 2015 .
= Ann Bishop ( biologist ) =
Ann Bishop ( 19 December 1899 – 7 May 1990 ) was a biologist from Girton College at the University of Cambridge and a Fellow of the Royal Society , one of the few female Fellows of the Royal Society . She was born in Manchester but stayed at Cambridge for the vast majority of her professional life . Her specialties were protozoology and parasitology ; early work with ciliate parasites , including the one responsible for blackhead disease in the domesticated turkey , lay the groundwork for her later research . While working towards her doctorate , Bishop studied parasitic amoebae and examined potential chemotherapies for the treatment of amoebic diseases including amoebic dysentery .
Her best known work was a comprehensive study of Plasmodium , the malaria parasite , and investigation of various chemotherapies for the disease . Later she studied drug resistance in this parasite , research that proved valuable to the British military in World War II . She discovered the potential for cross @-@ resistance in these parasites during that same period . Bishop also discovered the protozoan Pseudotrichomonas keilini and worked with Aedes aegypti , a malaria vector , as part of her research on the disease . Elected to the Royal Society in 1959 , Bishop was the founder of the British Society for Parasitology and served on the World Health Organization 's Malaria Committee .
= = Life = =
Bishop was born in Manchester , England on 19 December 1899 . Her father , James Kimberly Bishop , was a furniture @-@ maker who owned a cotton factory inherited from his father . Her mother , Ellen Bishop ( née Ginger ) , was from nearby Bedfordshire . Bishop had one brother , born when she was 13 . At an early age , Bishop wished to continue the family business , though her interests quickly turned to the sciences after her father encouraged her to go to university . Appreciative of music from a young age , Bishop regularly attended performances of the Halle Orchestra in Manchester . As a researcher , she was introverted and meticulous , preferring to work alone or with other scientists whom she considered to have high standards . She was a fixture at Girton College for most of her life ; The Guardian dubbed her " Girtonian of Girtonians " in her obituary . A keen cook , she was also known for her annoyance at the lack of scientific measures in recipes she found .
Bishop was recognized at the College for her distinctive hats , which she would wear to breakfast every day before walking to the Molteno Institute , a distance of 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) . She was skilled in needlework and appreciated the arts , though she did not like modern art . Her pastimes included walking and travelling , especially in the Lake District : however , she rarely left Britain . She also spent time in London at the beginning of each year , attending the opera and ballet and visiting galleries . Towards the end of her life , when her mobility was limited by arthritis , Bishop developed a fascination with the history of biology and medicine , although she never published in that field . Ann Bishop died of pneumonia at the age of 90 after a short illness . Her memorial service was conducted in the College 's chapel and was filled with her wide circle of friends .
= = Education = =
Educated at home until she was seven , Bishop then went to a private elementary school until the age of nine . In 1909 , then ten years old , she entered the progressive Fielden School in her hometown of Manchester , where she studied for three years . She completed her high school education at the Manchester High School for Girls . Though Bishop intended to study chemistry , her lack of education in physics meant that she could not pursue her preferred course in the Honours School of Chemistry . Instead , she matriculated at Manchester University in October 1918 to study botany , chemistry , and zoology . That first @-@ year course in zoology sparked her lifelong interest in and commitment to the field . She graduated with honours from the School of Zoology , receiving her Bachelor of Science degree in 1921 ; she received her master 's degree in 1922 . During her undergraduate years , under the tutelage of the helminthologist R.A. Wardle and the protozoologist Geoffrey Lapage , Bishop studied ciliates acquired from local ponds .
Two years into her undergraduate career , after winning the John Dalton Natural History Prize awarded by the University , she began work for another protozoologist , a Fellow of the Royal Society , Sydney J. Hickson . In 1932 , she received her D.Sc. from Manchester University , for her work with the blackhead parasite . She received her Sc.D. from the University of Cambridge in 1941 , though it was in title only : women were not granted full degrees from Cambridge at this time .
= = Scientific career = =
= = = Early work = = =
Bishop 's undergraduate work with Hickson was her first major research effort , concerning the reproduction of Spirostomum ambiguum , a large ciliate that has been described as " wormlike " . In 1923 , while working at Manchester University , Bishop was appointed an honorary research fellow . In 1924 , she became a part @-@ time instructor for the Department of Zoology at Cambridge , one of only two women , both of whom were sometimes marginalised . For example , she was not allowed to sit at the table with the men of the department at tea : instead , she sat on a first @-@ aid kit . There , Bishop continued her work with Spirostomum as the only protozoologist on the faculty .
She left that position in 1926 , to work for Clifford Dobell at the National Institute for Medical Research where she stayed there for three years . Under Dobell , Bishop studied parasitic amoebae found in the human gastrointestinal tract , focusing on the species responsible for amoebic dysentery , Entamoeba histolytica . Dobell , Bishop , and Patrick Laidlaw studied the effects of amoebicides like emetine for the purpose of treating amoebal diseases . Later in her career , she named the amoeba genus Dobellina after her mentor .
= = = Molteno Institute = = =
The majority of her career was spent at Cambridge 's Molteno Institute for Parasite Biology , where she returned in 1929 . Her work there was an extension of her research with Dobell , as she studied nuclear division in parasitic flagellates and amoebae of diverse species , including both vertebrates and invertebrates . She isolated one type of protozoan , aerotolerant anaerobes , from the digestive tract of Haemopis sanguisuga during this period . Bishop also discovered a new species , Pseudotrichomonas keilini , which she named to acknowledge her colleague David Keilin , as well as the parasite 's resemblance to the genus Trichomonas . Her research at Manchester with H.P. Baynon concerned the identification , isolation , and study of the turkey blackhead parasite ( Histomonas meleagridis ) ; this study pioneered a technique for isolating and growing parasites from lesions on the liver . Bishop and Baynon were the first scientists to isolate Histomonas and then prove its role in blackhead . Bishop 's expertise with parasitic protozoa translated into her best @-@ known work , a comprehensive study of the malaria parasite ( Plasmodium ) and potential chemotherapies for the disease .
Between 1937 and 1938 , Bishop studied the effects of various factors , including different substances in blood and different temperatures , on the feeding behaviour of the chicken malaria ( Plasmodium gallinaceum ) vector , Aedes aegypti . She also examined factors that contributed to Plasmodium reproduction . This work became the basis for subsequent ongoing research into a malaria vaccine . Her subsequent work was spurred by the outbreak of the Second World War . During the war , she investigated alternative chemotherapies for malaria . Her research aided the British war effort because the most prevalent antimalarial , quinine , was difficult to obtain due to the Japanese occupation of the Dutch West Indies . From 1947 to 1964 , she was in charge of the Institute 's Chemotherapy Research Institute , associated with the Medical Research Council .
Bishop 's work evolved to include studies of drug resistance in both the parasites and the host organisms , the studies that would earn her a place in the Royal Society . Significant work from this period of Bishop 's life included a study showing that the parasite itself did not develop resistance to quinine , but that host organisms could develop resistance to the drug proguanil . Her in vitro research was proven accurate when the drugs she studied were used to treat patients suffering from tertian malaria , a form of the illness in which the paroxysm of fever occurs every third day . She also investigated the drugs pamaquine and atebrin , along with proguanil , though proguanil was the only one shown to cause the development of drug resistance . Other studies showed that malaria parasites could develop cross @-@ resistance to other antimalarial drugs . Bishop worked at Molteno until 1967 . Her research and experimental protocols were later used in rodent and human studies , albeit with modifications .
= = = Honours and legacy = = =
Bishop received several honorary titles and fellowships during her career . In 1932 , she was appointed a Yallow Fellow of Girton College , an honour she held until her death in 1990 . Bishop was also a Beit Fellow from 1929 – 1932 . The Medical Research Council awarded her a grant in 1937 that sparked her study of Plasmodium . In 1945 and 1947 , she was involved in organising Girton College 's Working Women 's Summer School , an institution designed to provide intellectual fulfilment for women whose formal education ended at the age of 14 . She was elected to the Royal Society in 1959 , and at one point was a member of the Malaria Committee of the World Health Organization .
The British Society for Parasitology was founded in the 1950s , largely due to Bishop 's efforts . She was initially given only five pounds and a secretary to start the Society ; in order to raise funds Bishop passed around a pudding basin at the Society 's meetings . The society was originally a subgroup of the Institute of Biology at Cambridge , but it became an independent group in 1960 and was headed by Bishop . She was the president of the group , called the Institute of Biology Parasitology Group , from 1960 @-@ 1962 , the third overall leader of the group . Later that decade , the Department of Biology asked her to be the department head , but she declined because of the public nature of the role . For 20 years , the scientific journal Parasitology had Bishop on staff as an editor . Her lifelong association with Girton College prompted the placement of a plaque commemorating her life , whose inscription , quoted from Virgil , reads " Felix , qui potuit rerum cognoscere causas " , Latin for " Happy is the one who has been able to get to know the causes of things " . In 1992 , the British Society for Parasitology created a grant in Bishop 's name , the Ann Bishop Travelling Award , to aid young parasitologists in travelling for field work where their parasites of interest are endemic .
= = Selected publications = =
Bishop , Ann ( 1923 ) . " Some observations upon Spirostomum ambiguum ( Ehrenberg ) " ( PDF ) . Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Society 67 : 391 – 434 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1927 ) . " The cytoplasmic structures of Spirostomum ambiguum ( Ehrenberg ) " ( PDF ) . Quarterly Journal of the Microscopical Society 71 : 147 – 172 .
Laidlaw , P. P. ; Dobell , Clifford ; Bishop , Ann ( 1928 ) . " Further experiments on the action of emetine in cultures of Entamoeba histolytica " . Parasitology 20 ( 2 ) : 207 – 220 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000011604 .
Bishop , Ann ; Dobell , Clifford ( 1929 ) . " Researches on the intestinal protozoa of monkeys and man . III : The action of emetine on natural amoebic infections in Macaques " . Parasitology 21 ( 4 ) : 446 – 468 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000029334 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1929 ) . " Experiments on the action of emetine in cultures of Entamoeba coli " . Parasitology 21 ( 4 ) : 481 – 486 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S003118200002936X .
Bishop , Ann ( 1931 ) . " The morphology and division of Trichomonas " . Parasitology 23 ( 2 ) : 129 – 156 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000013524 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1938 ) . " Histomonas meleagridis in domestic fowls ( Gallus gallus ) . Cultivation and experimental infection " . Parasitology 30 ( 2 ) : 181 – 194 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000025749 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1942 ) . " Chemotherapy and avian malaria " . Parasitology 34 ( 1 ) : 1 – 54 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000015985 .
Bishop , Ann ; Gilchrist , Barbara M. ( 1946 ) . " Experiments upon the feeding of Aëdes aegypti through animal membranes with a view to applying this method to the chemotherapy of malaria " . Parasitology 37 ( 1 – 2 ) : 85 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000013202 .
Bishop , Ann ; Birkett , Betty ( 1947 ) . " Acquired resistance to paludrine in Plasmodium gallinaceum " . Nature 159 ( 4052 ) : 884 – 885 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 159884a0 .
Bishop , Ann ; Birkett , Betty ( 1948 ) . " Drug @-@ resistance in Plasmodium gallinaceum , and the persistence of paludrine @-@ resistance after mosquito transmission " . Parasitology 39 ( 1 – 2 ) : 125 – 137 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000083657 .
Bishop , Ann ; McConnachie , Elspeth W. ( 1948 ) . " Resistance to sulphadiazine and ‘ paludrine ’ in the malaria parasite of the fowl ( p . Gallinaceum ) " . Nature 162 ( 4118 ) : 541 – 543 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1038 / 162541a0 .
Bishop , Ann ; McConnachie , Elspeth W. ( 1950 ) . " Sulphadiazine @-@ resistance in Plasmodium gallinaceum and its relation to other antimalarial compounds " . Parasitology 40 ( 1 – 2 ) : 163 – 174 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000017996 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1955 ) . " Problems concerned with gametogenesis in Haemosporidiidea , with particular reference to the genus Plasmodium " . Parasitology 45 ( 1 – 2 ) : 163 – 185 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000027542 .
Bishop , Ann ; McConnachie , Elspeth W. ( 1956 ) . " A study of the factors affecting the emergence of the gametocytes of Plasmodium gallinaceum from the erythrocytes and the exflagellation of the male gametocytes " . Parasitology 46 ( 1 – 2 ) : 192 – 215 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1017 / S0031182000026433 .
Bishop , Ann ( 1959 ) . " Drug resistance in protozoa " . Biological Reviews 34 ( 4 ) : 334 – 500 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1469 @-@ 185X.1959.tb01317.x.
= Slash 's Snakepit =
Slash 's Snakepit was an American rock supergroup from Los Angeles , California , formed by then @-@ Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash in 1993 . Though often described as a solo or side project , Slash stated that Snakepit was a band with equal contributions by all members . The first lineup of the band consisted of Slash , two of his Guns N ' Roses band mates — drummer Matt Sorum and guitarist Gilby Clarke — as well as Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez and former Jellyfish live guitarist Eric Dover on lead vocals .
Their debut album , It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere , was released in 1995 . For the supporting tour , Slash enlisted James LoMenzo and Brian Tichy , of Pride and Glory , in place of Inez and Sorum who had other commitments . They played shows in the US , Europe , Japan and Australia before Geffen Records pulled their financial support for the tour , with Slash returning to Guns N ' Roses and Slash 's Snakepit disbanding .
Following his departure from Guns N ' Roses in 1996 , Slash formed the cover band Slash 's Blues Ball . After a tour in 1997 , Slash approached Blues Ball bassist Johnny Griparic about forming a new lineup of Slash 's Snakepit . The new lineup consisted of Slash , Griparic , singer Rod Jackson , guitarist Ryan Roxie and drummer Matt Laug ( Roxie and Laug were both former members of Alice Cooper 's solo band ) . They recorded and released their second album entitled Ain 't Life Grand in 2000 , which was preceded by a tour supporting AC / DC and followed by their own headlining tour . For the tour , Keri Kelli joined the group in place of Ryan Roxie , who departed following the completion of the album . However , after the final show , Slash disbanded Slash 's Snakepit due to a lack of commitment from his band members .
= = History = =
= = = Formation ( 1993 – 1994 ) = = =
Following the two and a half year world tour in support of the albums Use Your Illusion I and Use Your Illusion II , Guns N ' Roses guitarist Slash returned to Los Angeles . He soon sold his home , the Walnut House , and moved to Mulholland Drive . He built a small home studio , nicknamed The Snakepit , over his garage and began working on demos for songs he had written during the tour . Slash worked on the demos with Guns N ' Roses band mate and drummer Matt Sorum . They were later joined by guitarist Gilby Clarke and Alice in Chains bassist Mike Inez , jamming and recording most nights . Slash played the demos for Guns N ' Roses singer Axl Rose who rejected the material , though he would later want to use them for the next Guns N ' Roses album . They had recorded twelve songs by 1994 , the same year that Guns N ' Roses went on hiatus .
Slash decided to record the Snakepit demos with Sorum , Clarke and Inez , later adding former Jellyfish live guitarist Eric Dover as lead vocalist . The decision to record with Dover led to a disagreement between Slash and Sorum , due to Slash not seeking Sorum 's approval before hiring Dover .
= = = It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere and breakup ( 1994 – 1996 ) = = =
Slash and Dover wrote the lyrics to all twelve songs with Slash using the songwriting to vent his frustrations at Guns N ' Roses singer Rose . Clarke contributed the song " Monkey Chow " to the album while " Jizz da Pit " is an instrumental by Slash and Inez . They recorded the album at Conway Recording Studios and The Record Plant with Mike Clink and Slash co @-@ producing and Steven Thompson and Michael Barbiero mixing , all of whom had worked with Guns N ' Roses on their debut album Appetite for Destruction . The album featured contributions by Duff McKagan ( who co @-@ wrote " Beggars & Hangers @-@ On " ) , Dizzy Reed on keyboards , Teddy Andreadis on harmonica , and Paulinho da Costa on percussion . Slash 's brother , Ash Hudson , designed the album 's cover .
The resulting album , titled It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere , was released in February 1995 through Geffen Records . The album 's title was taken from a phrase Slash overheard at an airport . At the insistence of the record label , the album was released under the name Slash 's Snakepit , instead of The Snakepit , despite Slash not wanting his name used . Upon release , the album charted at number 70 on the Billboard 200 and number 15 on the UK Albums Chart . It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere went on to sell over a million copies and was certified platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America . " Beggars & Hangers @-@ On " was released as the first , and only , single from the album ; while a music video was also shot for " Good to Be Alive " , directed by August Jakobsson .
Critically , the album received mainly positive reviews . Metal Hammer stated that " the sleazy , downtrodden blues hard rock [ ... ] breaks new ground . " AllMusic reviewer Stephen Thomas Erlewine called Slash 's contributions " quite amazing " , though criticised the song @-@ writing , stating " it 's too bad that nobody in the band bothered to write any songs . " Devon Jackson of Entertainment Weekly described the album as " relaxed headbanging and Southern @-@ tinged blues @-@ rock " while Classic Rock reviewer Malcolm Dome stated " musically , it 's a loose @-@ limbed record that has a lot of heavy guitar @-@ led punk @-@ style pop @-@ rock . " Slash 's Snakepit toured in support of the album , with bassist James LoMenzo and drummer Brian Tichy , of Pride and Glory , replacing Inez and Sorum , who had opted out of touring , with Sorum returning to Guns N ' Roses . They toured the US , Europe , Japan and Australia with Slash stating that " for the first time in years , touring was easy , [ his ] band mates were loads of fun and low on drama , and every gig was about playing rock and roll . " While booking another leg of the tour , Slash was informed by Geffen that Rose was ready to begin work on the new Guns N ' Roses album and that he was to return to Los Angeles . Geffen pulled financial support for the band 's tour with Slash 's Snakepit disbanding soon after .
= = = Slash 's Blues Ball and reformation ( 1996 – 1999 ) = = =
Slash departed Guns N ' Roses in 1996 , due to musical differences between himself and singer Axl Rose . Following his departure , Slash toured Japan for two weeks with Chic , and worked on the soundtrack to the film Curdled . He later began touring in a cover band that eventually became Slash 's Blues Ball . Aside from Slash , the band consisted of Teddy Andreadis , guitarist Bobby Schneck , bassist Johnny Griparic , saxophonist Dave McClarem and drummer Alvino Bennett . The band toured on and off until 1998 , which included a headline slot at a jazz festival in Budapest . They covered various artists and bands such as B.B. King , Steppenwolf , Otis Redding , as well as Guns N ' Roses and Slash 's Snakepit material .
Following a tour in 1997 , Slash approached Griparic about forming a new lineup of Slash 's Snakepit They began looking for a singer , receiving over 300 audition tapes from mostly unknown singers . Jon Stevens of Noiseworks , who had been recording with Slash , was seen as a potential singer in early 1998 . However , he returned to Australia to continue his solo career . They eventually added singer Rod Jackson to the group after Griparic played a tape of him for Slash . Completing the lineup were guitarist Ryan Roxie , formerly of Alice Cooper , and drummer Matt Laug , also from Alice Cooper and the band Venice . They began rehearsing at Mates Studio before rehearsing and recording in Slash 's new home studio in Beverly Hills .
= = = Ain 't Life Grand and second breakup ( 1999 – 2002 ) = = =
The band began recording material with producer Jack Douglas at Slash 's home studio as well as Ocean Way Studios . The recording featured contributions by Teddy Andreadis , Jimmy Zavala and Lee Thornburg , amongst others . Initially , the label was positive about the album , setting a release date for February 22 , 2000 . However , when Slash was informed by Geffen , who had folded into Interscope Records , that the album was not the type of music the label produced , he bought the album back and signed a deal with Koch Records . Following the completion of the album , Roxie departed the band with former Big Bang Babies , Warrant and Ratt guitarist Keri Kelli joining in his place .
Ain 't Life Grand was released on October 20 , 2000 through Koch with " Mean Bone " released as the first single . The album did not sell as well as its predecessor , and critical reception to it was mixed . Entertainment Weekly reviewer Tony Scherman stated that " Slash 's playing is as flashily incendiary as ever , but the songs and arrangements recycle hard @-@ rock cliches worthier of Ratt than of a bona fide guitar god " . Rob Sheffield of Rolling Stone noted that " great guitarists need great bands , and the Snakepit dudes are barely functional backup peons " . Steve Huey of Allmusic noted that " the new Snakepit does kick up a lot of noise as the album rushes by , and the strong chemistry between the members is immediately obvious " . However , he stated that songwriting was the main problem , and that " it never rises above the level of solid , and too many tracks are by @-@ the @-@ numbers hard rock at best ( and pedestrian at worst ) " . The band were dropped by Koch two months following the album 's release .
Prior to the album 's release , Slash 's Snakepit supported AC / DC on their Stiff Upper Lip tour from August to September , followed by their own headlining tour of theatres . They played only the first two shows on the winter leg of AC / DC 's tour . After falling ill and checking into a hospital in Pittsburgh , Slash was ordered by his doctor to stay at home to recuperate , reportedly from pneumonia . Due to this , Slash 's Snakepit pulled out of supporting AC / DC in early 2001 . Slash later revealed in his self @-@ titled biography that he had actually suffered cardiac myopathy caused by years of alcohol and drug abuse , with his heart swelling to the point of rupture . After being fitted with a defibrillator and undergoing physical therapy , Slash returned to the group to continue touring . They later rescheduled their US tour , performing shows from June 16 – July 6 , co @-@ headlining three shows with Billy Idol . Following the tour , feeling that his band was unprofessional and his band mates were not fully committed , Slash disbanded Slash 's Snakepit in an announcement made in early 2002 .
= = = Post – breakup activities = = =
Following the breakup of Slash 's Snakepit , Slash announced he was to begin working on a solo album . Instead he later worked with The Black Crowes drummer Steve Gorman and an unnamed bassist on a new project . Together with his former Guns N ' Roses band mates Duff McKagan and Matt Sorum , they formed The Project , that eventually became the hard rock supergroup Velvet Revolver following the addition of former Wasted Youth guitarist Dave Kushner , and then @-@ former Stone Temple Pilots singer Scott Weiland . They released their debut album Contraband , in 2004 , followed by Libertad in 2007 , before they parted ways with Weiland and went on hiatus in 2008 . With Velvet Revolver on hiatus , Slash began work on his debut solo album . Slash was released on March 31 , 2010 , and featured a number of guests such as Andrew Stockdale of Wolfmother , M. Shadows of Avenged Sevenfold , Kid Rock , Ozzy Osbourne , Myles Kennedy of Alter Bridge , and Fergie . His band for the tour in support of the album consisted of Kennedy , bassist Todd Kerns , and drummer Brent Fitz . It also included guitarist Bobby Schneck , formerly of Slash 's Blues Ball .
= = Musical style = =
Slash 's Snakepit 's music was often described as hard rock and blues rock with elements of southern rock . The band were also often described as Slash 's solo or side project though Slash maintained that they were a band , stating " everybody wrote , everybody had equal input even though I had my name on it . " Rolling Stone reviewer J.D. Considine noted the differences between Guns N ' Roses and Slash 's Snakepit on their first album , stating that " Guns [ N ] ' Roses typically treat the melody as the most important part of the song , most of what slithers out of the Snakepit emphasizes the playing . " He noted that singer Eric Dover " conveys the raw @-@ throated intensity of a hard @-@ rock frontman " and " he avoids the genre 's most obvious excesses . " The riff to " Good to Be Alive " drew a comparison to Chuck Berry while the musicianship on the album was praised . Stephen Thomas Erlewine of Allmusic stated that " there 's little argument that Slash is a great guitarist " who is " capable of making rock and blues clichés sound fresh " . Reviewing Ain 't Life Grand for Allmusic , Steve Huey described second singer Rod Jackson as " a combination of ' 80s pop @-@ metal bluster and Faces @-@ era Rod Stewart " with a " touch of Aerosmith " , a description that he felt also fitted the band as a whole . He noted , though , that Slash 's guitar playing was " tame " and stated that the main problem of the album was the songwriting , though it was " still a passable , workmanlike record that will definitely appeal to fans of grimy , old @-@ school hard rock . " Malcolm Dome of Classic Rock stated that " from the moment that " Been There Lately " opens , there 's a vibe here that was missing before " and that Ain 't Life Grand showed " purpose , direction and individuality . "
= = Personnel = =
Slash – lead guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1995 , 1998 – 2002 )
Gilby Clarke – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1995 )
Eric Dover – vocals ( 1994 – 1995 )
Mike Inez – bass , backing vocals ( 1994 – 1995 )
Matt Sorum – drums , percussion ( 1994 – 1995 )
James LoMenzo – bass ( 1995 )
Brian Tichy – drums ( 1995 )
Johnny Griparic – bass ( 1998 – 2002 )
Rod Jackson – vocals ( 1999 – 2002 )
Matt Laug – drums , percussion ( 1999 – 2002 )
Ryan Roxie – rhythm guitar , backing vocals ( 1999 – 2000 )
Keri Kelli – rhythm guitar ( 2000 – 2002 )
= = = Timeline = = =
= = Discography = =
Studio albums
It 's Five O 'Clock Somewhere ( 1995 )
Ain 't Life Grand ( 2000 )
Singles
" Beggars & Hangers @-@ On " ( 1995 )
" Mean Bone " ( 2001 )
= John Marburger =
John Harmen Marburger III ( February 8 , 1941 – July 28 , 2011 ) was an American physicist who directed the Office of Science and Technology Policy in the administration of President George W. Bush , serving as the Science Advisor to the President . His tenure was marked by controversy regarding his defense of the administration against allegations from over two dozen Nobel Laureates , amongst others , that scientific evidence was being suppressed or ignored in policy decisions , including those relating to stem cell research and global warming . However , he has also been credited with keeping the political effects of the September 11 attacks from harming science research — by ensuring that tighter visa controls did not hinder the movement of those engaged in scientific research — and with increasing awareness of the relationship between science and government . He also served as the President of Stony Brook University from 1980 until 1994 , and director of Brookhaven National Laboratory from 1998 until 2001 .
= = Early life = =
Marburger was born on Staten Island , New York , to Virginia Smith and John H. Marburger Jr . , and grew up in Severna Park , Maryland . He attended Princeton University , graduating in 1962 with a B.A. in Physics , followed by a Ph.D. in Applied Physics from Stanford University in 1967 .
After completing his education , he served as a professor of Physics and Electrical Engineering at the University of Southern California in 1966 , specializing in the theoretical physics of nonlinear optics and quantum optics , and co @-@ founded the Center for Laser Studies at that institution . He rose to become chairman of the physics department in 1972 , and then Dean of the College of Letters , Arts and Sciences in 1976 . He was engaged as a public speaker on science , including hosting a series of educational television programs on CBS . He was also outspoken on campus issues , and was designated the university 's spokesperson during a scandal over preferential treatment of athletes .
= = Stony Brook University = =
In 1980 , Marburger left USC to become the third president of the State University of New York at Stony Brook on Long Island , New York . At the time , state budget cuts were afflicting the university : he returned it to growth with increases in the university 's science research funding from the federal government . He also presided over the founding of Stony Brook University Medical Center .
From 1988 to 1994 , Marburger chaired Universities Research Association , the organization that operated Fermilab and oversaw construction of the ill @-@ fated Superconducting Super Collider , an experience that is credited with convincing him of the influence government had in how science is carried out . During this time he also served as a trustee of Princeton University . He stepped down as President of Stony Brook University in 1994 , and began doing research again as a member of the faculty .
= = = Chair of Shoreham commission = = =
In 1983 , he was picked by New York Governor Mario Cuomo to chair a scientific fact @-@ finding commission on the Shoreham Nuclear Power Plant , a job that required him to find common ground between the many viewpoints represented on the commission . The commission eventually recommended the closure of the plant , a course he personally disagreed with . Cuomo had formed the commission in mid @-@ May 1983 to provide him with recommendations regarding the plant 's safety , the adequacy of emergency plans , and the economics of operating the plant . The commission 's consensus recommendations included unanimous findings that no emergency evacuation of the plant could be conducted without the cooperation of Suffolk County , which was refusing to approve an evacuation plan ; that the construction of the plant would have been prevented if it had been started after new Nuclear Regulatory Commission regulations were put into effect after the Three Mile Island accident in 1979 ; and that operating the plant would not reduce utility costs . Marburger himself at the time emphasized that the governor had not been seeking a consensus but rather encouraged multiple viewpoints to be reflected , and characterized the consensus conclusions as not the only important section of the report .
Marburger characterized his participation as a learning experience , and the experience was credited with profoundly changing his view on the relationship between the scientific community and the public . He had never been to a public hearing prior to his participation in the Shoreham commission , and he said that he had initially expected that the issues could be resolved by examining scientific data and establishing failure probabilities . However , he quickly became aware of the importance of the public participation process itself , stating that it was " one of the rare opportunities for the public to feel they were being heard and taken seriously " . Marburger 's conduct on the committee was praised by activists on both sides of the debate , with his focus on listening to all viewpoints and ability to not take disagreements personally being especially noted .
= = Brookhaven National Laboratory = =
In January 1998 , Marburger became president of Brookhaven Science Associates , which subsequently won a bid to operate Brookhaven National Laboratory for the federal government , and he became the director of the lab . He took office after a highly publicized scandal in which tritium leaked from the lab 's High Flux Beam Reactor , leading to calls by activists to shut down the lab . Rather than directly oppose the activists , Marburger created policies that improved the environmental management of the lab as well as community involvement and transparency . Marburger also presided over the commissioning of the Relativistic Heavy Ion Collider , expanded the lab 's program in medical imaging and neuroscience , and placed more emphasis on its technology transfer program .
The tritium leak , combined with other disclosures about improper handling and disposal of hazardous waste , had caused Secretary of Energy Federico Peña to fire the lab 's previous manager , Associated Universities , Inc . Upon starting as the laboratory 's director , Marburger noted the increased importance of health and environmental concerns since the beginning of the Cold War , stating that " getting the people at Brookhaven to understand that won 't be simple , and there may be some disagreement on how we should do it , but that 's my job . " Marburger set up a permanent community advisory council and met with local environmental groups to increase communication between them and the laboratory 's management . By 2001 , when Marburger left to join the Bush administration , local environmental groups credited him with having largely dissipated the distrust that had existed between the groups when he started .
= = Bush administration = =
In September 2001 , Marburger became Director of the Office of Science and Technology Policy under George W. Bush . Marburger was a noted Democrat , a fact that Nature magazine stated was relevant to the decision by the administration to take the unusual step of withholding from Marburger the title of " special assistant " to the President that previous science advisors had been granted .
His tenure was marked by controversy as he defended the Bush Administration from accusations that political influence on science was distorting scientific research in federal agencies and that scientific evidence was being suppressed or ignored in policy decisions , especially on the topics of abstinence @-@ only birth control education , climate change policy , and stem cell research . Marburger defended the Bush Administration from these accusations , saying they were inaccurate or motivated by partisanship , especially on the issue of science funding levels . Marburger continued to be personally respected by many of his academic colleagues .
Marburger 's tenure as Director was the longest in the history of that post . After the September 11 attacks , he helped to establish the DHS Directorate for Science and Technology within the new Department of Homeland Security . He has been called a central player opposing new restrictions of international scientific exchanges of people and ideas after the attacks . He later was responsible for reorienting the nation 's space policy after the Space Shuttle Columbia disaster , and played an important part in the nation 's re @-@ entry into the International Thermonuclear Experimental Reactor program . Marburger was also known for his support of the emerging field of science of science policy , which seeks to analyze how science policy decisions affects a nation 's ability to produce and benefit from innovation .
In February 2004 , the Union of Concerned Scientists published a report accusing the Bush administration of manipulating science for political purposes , listing more than 20 alleged incidents of censoring scientific results or applying a litmus test in the appointment of supposedly scientific advisory panel members . In April 2004 , Marburger published a statement rebutting the report and exposing errors and incomplete explanations in it , and stating that " even when the science is clear — and often it is not — it is but one input into the policy process , " but " in this Administration , science strongly informs policy . " The Union of Concerned Scientists issued a revised version of their report after Marburger 's statement was published . Marburger also called the report 's conclusions illusory and the result of focusing on unrelated incidents within a vast government apparatus , and attributed the controversy as being related to the upcoming elections . It was noted that Marburger enjoyed a close personal relationship with President Bush , with White House Chief of Staff Andrew Card and Office of Management and Budget Director Joshua Bolten attesting to his active involvement within the administration .
Marburger responded to criticism of his support for Bush Administration policies in 2004 , stating " No one will know my personal positions on issues as long as I am in this job . I am here to make sure that the science input to policy making is sound and that the executive branch functions properly with respect to its science and technology missions " . On the topic of stem cell research , he in 2004 said that stem cells " offer great promise for addressing incurable diseases and afflictions . But I can ’ t tell you when a fertilized egg becomes sacred . That ’ s not my job . That ’ s not a science issue . And so whatever I think about reproductive technology or choice , or whatever , is irrelevant to my job as a science adviser " . However , in February 2005 , in a speech at the annual conference of the National Association of Science Writers , he stated , " Intelligent design is not a scientific theory .... I don 't regard intelligent design as a scientific topic " . Also In 2005 , he told The New York Times that " global warming exists , and we have to do something about it . "
Sherwood Boehlert , the Republican chair of the House Committee on Science during most of Marburger 's tenure , said that " the challenge he faced was serving a president who didn 't really want much scientific advice , and who let politics dictate the direction of his science policy ... and he was in the unenviable position of being someone who had earned the respect of his scientific colleagues while having to be identified with policies that were not science @-@ based " . On the other hand , Robert P. Crease , a colleague of Marburger at Stony Brook University , characterized him as someone who " [ went ] to the White House as a scientist , not an advocate . He refused to weigh in on high @-@ profile , politically controversial issues , but instead set about fixing broken connections in the unwieldy machinery by which the government approves and funds scientific projects .... Some bitterly criticized him for collaborating with the Bush administration . But he left the office running better than when he entered . "
= = Later life = =
Marburger returned to Stony Brook University as a faculty member in 2009 , and co @-@ edited the book The Science of Science Policy : A Handbook , which was published in 2011 . He also served as Vice President for Research but stepped down on July 1 , 2011 . Marburger died Thursday , July 28 , 2011 , at his home in Port Jefferson , New York , after four years of treatment for non @-@ Hodgkins lymphoma . He was survived by his wife , two sons , and a grandson . His final publication , a book on quantum physics for laypeople called Constructing Reality : Quantum Theory and Particle Physics , was published shortly after his death .
= Whitton Bridge Pasture =
Whitton Bridge Pasture is a Site of Special Scientific Interest ( SSSI ) in the unitary authority of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees , England . At 3 @.@ 18 hectares ( 7 @.@ 9 acres ) it lies to the south of Whitton village and north west of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees . SSSIs are chosen by Natural England , and Whitton Bridge Pasture was designated in 2004 because of its biological interest . It is one of 18 SSSIs in the Cleveland area of search .
The biological interest is focused on the species @-@ rich mesotrophic grassland found across the site , which is actively maintained by grazing . The species present are predominantly grasses , although herbs and orchids are also found . The area has been classified as MG5 under the British National Vegetation Classification because of the species composition . The site is small and isolated , and therefore requires careful management to avoid damage caused by activity on neighbouring land .
= = Reason for notification = =
SSSIs are designated by Natural England , previously English Nature , which uses the 1974 – 1996 county system . This means there is no grouping of SSSIs by Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees unitary authority , or County Durham which is the relevant ceremonial county . As such Whitton Bridge Pasture is one of 18 SSSIs in the Cleveland area of search .
Whitton Bridge Pasture is nationally important for its species @-@ rich grassland which is unimproved by fertilisers . This type of grassland — once common in the Tees lowland — is becoming increasingly rare with its associated species also becoming scarce . Whitton Bridge Pasture is one of only two remaining examples of this habitat in the Tees lowland area . The other example is Briarcroft Pasture , an SSSI about 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the south , which was designated at the same time but is significantly smaller .
Under the British National Vegetation Classification ( NVC ) Whitton Bridge Pasture is considered as mesotrophic grassland because it represents well @-@ drained and permanent pasture . In particular it is considered to be an MG5 community because of the species present . MG5 is widespread in many lowland areas in England , Wales , and Scotland , particularly in the Midlands . Whitton Bridge Pasture is predominantly subcommunity MG5c ( Danthonia decumbens ) , however subcommunity MG5a ( Lathyrus pratensis ) is present with a substantially different species composition .
= = Site description = =
= = = Abiotic = = =
Located north @-@ west of Stockton @-@ on @-@ Tees and 500 metres ( 550 yd ) south of the village of Whitton , it is a small site of 3 @.@ 18 hectares ( 7 @.@ 9 acres ) between a sewage works and Whitton Beck . Topographically the site slopes north towards the stream from a height of 40 metres ( 130 ft ) to less than 30 metres ( 98 ft ) . The underlying geology of Whitton Bridge Pasture is responsible for shaping the species @-@ rich community found on the surface . Glacial tills and sands are the prominent geological features resulting in a relatively base @-@ poor soil , characteristic of glacial drift geology . The soils of MG5c ( Danthonia decumbens ) subcommunity are typically acidic .
Because Whitton Bridge Pasture is located in North East England it experiences a climate that is different from the UK average . The North East receives on average 370 millimetres ( 15 in ) less rainfall than the UK over a year . Similarly the North East has roughly 129 days each year with more than 1 millimetre ( 0 @.@ 039 in ) of rainfall , more than 25 days fewer than UK average . Despite these differences the temperature is similar for both the North East and the UK , although the North East does have fewer days with air frost and more hours of sunshine per year .
= = = Biotic = = =
The majority of the site is made up of species @-@ rich grassland ( subcommunity MG5c ) , which comprises three dominant species of grass and several other grass species at lower abundances . The dominant species are Red Fescue ( Festuca rubra ) , Common Bent ( Agrostis capillaris ) and Yorkshire Fog ( Holcus lanatus ) . The less abundant species of grass include , Crested Dog 's @-@ tail ( Cynosurus cristatus ) , Heath @-@ grass ( Danthonia decumbens ) and Cocksfoot ( Dactylis glomerata ) . The subcommunity also has many broad @-@ leaved herbs including Common Knapweed ( Centaurea nigra ) , Tormentil ( Potentilla erecta ) , Devils @-@ bit scabious ( Succisa pratensis ) and Betony ( Stachys officinalis ) .
A second subcommunity ( MG5a ) is present and is characterised by the legume Meadow vetchling ( Lathyrus pratensis ) . Other species present in this subcommunity include Salad burnet ( Sanguisorba minor ) , Quaking grass ( Briza media ) , Pignut ( Conopodium majus ) and the Orchid species : Common Twayblade ( Neottia ovata ) and Early Purple Orchid ( Orchis mascula ) . The subcommunity also contains Meadow barley ( Hordeum secalinum ) , a perennial grass , which is a characteristic species of the Tees Lowland .
The two subcommunities of MG5 , characterised by species rich grassland form a belt across the site , but they do not cover the whole site . Towards the north there is a community dominated by False oat @-@ grass ( Arrhenatherum elatius ) , a constant species in the MG1 and MG2 communities of the British NVC and therefore not typical of an MG5 community . At Whitton Bridge Pasture it is growing on alluvial soils located at the northern edge of the site , which have most likely been formed by Whitton Beck just to the north . A number of springs at the site are associated with flushes of the Pale sedge ( Carex pallescens ) , which form small populations .
= = Management = =
Natural England 's role is to advise and help the owners manage Whitton Bridge Pasture effectively . To achieve this Natural England provides guidelines for each SSSI . Species @-@ rich grassland , such as that found at Whitton Bridge , requires careful management for it to retain its high species diversity . This means many activities are not allowed at the site including : ploughing , drainage and the use of fertilisers , pesticides or herbicides .
Management of the site requires moderate grazing during the summer and autumn to help maintain the species diversity . This is because grazing removes each year 's new growth which helps stop the site becoming dominated by vigorously growing grasses . Such grasses would allow a buildup of dead organic matter , which together with the increased growth , would reduce the growth of less vigorous species . The overall effect would be a reduction in species diversity , which was one of the reasons for the SSSI designation . Trampling can be of benefit because it breaks up accumulated dead organic matter .
The small and isolated nature of the site makes it susceptible to damage from the surrounding area . For example , herbicides , thought to be generally damaging for the species richness , could get onto the site from the drift of spray from surrounding fields . To help combat this the maintenance of mature hedgerows around the perimeter is encouraged . As of 2006 the condition of Whitton Bridge Pasture is described as favourable , which means that the land is being adequately conserved and any conservation objectives are being met , but that there is scope for enhancement of the site . The condition of the site was also described as favourable in 2004 and 2005 assessments . In the future it is hoped that the grazing regime will become more regularised and will be of high priority .
= No worries =
No worries is an expression seen in Australian , British and New Zealand English meaning " do not worry about that " , " that 's all right " , or " sure thing " . It is similar to the American English no problem . The phrase is widely used in Australian speech and represents a feeling of friendliness , good humour , optimism and " mateship " in Australian culture . The phrase has been referred to as the national motto of Australia .
The phrase has influenced a similar phrase used in the Tok Pisin language in Papua New Guinea . No worries utilization migrated to New Zealand after origination in Australia . Its usage became more common in British English after increased usage in Australian soap operas that aired on television in the United Kingdom . Linguistics experts are uncertain how the phrase became utilized in American English ; theories include use by Steve Irwin on the television program The Crocodile Hunter and usage by the United States media during the 2000 Sydney Olympics . It has also gained usage in Canadian English .
= = Definition = =
" No worries " is an Australian English expression , meaning " do not worry about that " , or " that 's all right " . It can also mean " sure thing " and " you 're welcome " . Other colloquial Australian terms which mean the same thing include " she 'll be right " . The expression has been compared to the American English equivalent " no problem " . In their book Australian Language & Culture : No Worries ! , authors Vanessa Battersby , Paul Smitz and Barry Blake note : " No worries is a popular Australian response akin to ' no problems ' , ' that 's OK ' or ' sure thing ' . "
= = Cultural origins = =
Early documentation dates the phrase back to 1966 . According to author of When Cultures Collide : Leading Across Cultures , Richard D. Lewis , the phrase is a form of expression of the relaxed attitude in Australian culture . Anna Wierzbicka comments that the expression illustrates important parts of Australian culture , including : " amiability , friendliness , an expectation of shared attitudes ( a proneness to easy ' mateship ' ) , jocular toughness , good humour , and , above all , casual optimism " . She concludes that along with " good on you " , the expressions reflect the " national character " and " prevailing ethos " of Australia . Though initially utilized in Australia , the phrase migrated to New Zealand as well .
= = Usage = =
Wierzbicka writes in her book Cross @-@ cultural Pragmatics that the expression " permeates Australian speech " , " serves a wide range of illocutionary forces " and displays a " casual optimism " . In her 1992 book Semantics , Culture , and Cognition , Wierzbicka classifies the phrase as " among the most characteristic Australian expressions " , along with " good on you " .
The term can also be used in the context of an apology . The phrase has been used widely in British English since the late 1980s , a development partly attributed to the success of Australian soap operas such as Neighbours in the United Kingdom .
The phrase " no wucking forries " has the same meaning in Australia ; as a spoonerism of " no fucking worries " , and is contracted to the phrases " no wuckers " and " no wucks " .
= = Influence = =
" No worries " was referred to as " the national motto " of Australia in 1978 , and in their 2006 work , Diving the World , Beth and Shaun Tierney call " no worries , mate " the national motto of the country . Writing in The New York Times Book Review , Annette Kobak calls the expression a " ritual incantation " which has " particular charm " . The phrase " no waris " in the Papua New Guinea language Tok Pisin is derived from the Australian English term .
According to The Sunday Mail a 2004 newspaper report notes that " no worries " has begun to be used in American English . Writing in a 2004 article for The Advertiser , Samela Harris comments : " The Americans have no idea of the etymology of ' no worries ' . So , while they may cheerily adopt our ' no worries ' mantra , ' no worries ' will never catch on as an attitude . " According to Tom Dalzell , author of two books on slang usage in the United States , linguistics experts are not certain how the expression became popular in that country . Usage of the term by Steve Irwin on The Crocodile Hunter , as well as attempts by members of the American press to imitate the expression during the 2000 Sydney Olympics , have been put forth as theories explaining the pervasiveness of the expression in the United States . Linguistics professor Kate Burridge writes in her 2004 book Weeds In the Garden Of Words that expressions including " no worries " , " absolutely " , and " bottom line " have become less prevalent in favor of newer sayings . The phrase has had some usage in Canadian English .
= Mrs. Donaghy =
" Mrs. Donaghy " is the eleventh episode of the fifth season of the American television comedy series 30 Rock , and the 91st overall episode of the series . It was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt and directed by Tricia Brock . The episode originally aired on the National Broadcasting Company ( NBC ) network in the United States on January 20 , 2011 . Guest stars in this episode include Meng Ai , Jean Brassard , Todd Buonopane , Tituss Burgess , Cheyenne Jackson , Chris Parnell and Sherri Shepherd .
In the episode , the fictitious show The Girlie Show with Tracy Jordan ( TGS ) staff are affected by budget cuts at NBC . Meanwhile , Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) married his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) but following the wedding he learns that the minister ( Brassard ) did not marry the two of them . At the same time , TGS star Jenna Maroney ( Jane Krakowski ) shares a dressing room with her co @-@ star Danny Baker ( Jackson ) , and Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) has a health scare .
Before the airing , NBC moved the program to a new timeslot at 10 : 00 p.m. , moving it from its 8 : 30 p.m. slot that began in the beginning of the fifth season . This episode of 30 Rock was generally , though not universally , well received among television critics . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Mrs. Donaghy " was watched by 5 @.@ 338 million households during its original broadcast , and received a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share among viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = Plot = =
Jack Donaghy ( Alec Baldwin ) married his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) over New Year 's . However , when he returns to New York following the nuptials he discovers that he is instead married to his employee and friend Liz Lemon ( Tina Fey ) . At the wedding , Liz was Jack 's best man and wore a white shirt with a head net while Avery wore a black dress . As a result of what Liz was wearing , the minister ( Jean Brassard ) instead married Jack and Liz . He informs Liz that the minister married the two of them instead of him and Avery . The two set out for a divorce , however , TGS with Tracy Jordan producer Pete Hornberger ( Scott Adsit ) tells Liz not to sign the divorce papers as she can use their marriage to her advantage as TGS — a show she is the head writer for — is affected by budget cuts at NBC as part of the merger with the fictional network company Kabletown . She demands that Jack , an executive at NBC , give the show its lost budget but he denies the request , as a result Liz will not sign the divorce papers unless her conditions are met .
Meanwhile , TGS star Jenna Maroney 's ( Jane Krakowski ) dressing room is now a temporary room for a technician ( Meng Ai ) as Jack is renting space on the TGS floor in the 30 Rock building to keep the budget down , as a result Jenna is forced to share a dressing room with her TGS co @-@ star Danny Baker ( Cheyenne Jackson ) . Immediately , the two start behaving like an old married couple . NBC page Kenneth Parcell ( Jack McBrayer ) gets upset about Jenna and Danny fighting and decides to stop their bickering . Kenneth interrupts one of their arguments by showing them a childish picture he drew of the two . This works to no avail as Jenna and Danny continue arguing . To put a stop to this , Danny moves out from his dressing room and into the Y.
At the same time , TGS star Tracy Jordan ( Tracy Morgan ) is informed by Dr. Leo Spaceman ( Chris Parnell ) that he has health problems as Tracy has a weakened system only found on dead people . Tracy and his wife Angie Jordan ( Sherri Shepherd ) meet with Jack and Tracy reveals what Dr. Spaceman told him . Angie becomes concerned on whether or not their family will be taken care of after Tracy dies . Jack offers Angie a job in the entertainment business , and takes the opportunity to get even with Liz by assigning Angie as Liz 's intern . Liz realizes that Angie 's new job is Jack 's way of messing with her , and explains to Angie that as her intern she is not getting paid and fires her . Angie gets upset with Jack and Liz but Jack offers her a reality show during TGS 's time slot unless Liz signs the divorce papers . Liz , however , still refuses — even admitting she likes the concept of a reality show starring Angie and would watch it . To get back at Jack , Liz holds a press conference and announces that she and Jack have decided to donate $ 5 million to The Jack and Elizabeth Donaghy High School for Teen Drama , The Arts , and Feelings . The next day , Jack and Liz have a sit down meeting with NBC Human resource mediator Jeffrey Weinerslav ( Todd Buonopane ) to discuss their marriage as NBC has strict anti @-@ nepotism guidelines . During the meeting , the two realize that they have had the longest and most meaningful relationship either of them has ever had , and apologize to each other with Liz agreeing to sign the divorce papers and Jack promising to restore TGS 's budget .
= = Production = =
This episode of 30 Rock was written by co @-@ executive producer Jack Burditt , his second episode for the fifth season , and his fourteenth writing credit after " Jack Meets Dennis " , " The Baby Show " , " The Fighting Irish " , " Cleveland " , " Rosemary 's Baby " , " Subway Hero " , " Sandwich Day " , " The One with the Cast of Night Court " , " St. Valentine 's Day " , " The Ones " , " Kidney Now ! " , " Don Geiss , America and Hope " , and " Let 's Stay Together " . The episode was directed by Tricia Brock , making it her second for the series after directing the March 19 , 2009 , episode " The Bubble " from the show 's third season . " Mrs. Donaghy " originally aired in the United States on January 20 , 2011 , on NBC as the eleventh episode of the show 's fifth season and the 91st overall episode of the series .
The episode featured several appearances by several frequent guest stars , including Todd Buonopane as NBC Human resource mediator Jeffrey Weinerslav , Cheyenne Jackson as TGS cast member Danny Baker , Chris Parnell as Dr. Leo Spaceman , and Sherri Shepherd as Angie Jordan the wife of Tracy Jordan . Buonopane , Jackson , Parnell , and Shepherd made their fifth , eighth , sixteenth , and sixth appearances on the show , respectively . In an interview with TV Guide in November 2010 , co @-@ showrunner and executive producer Robert Carlock revealed that Shepherd 's character " will be getting her own Real Housewives @-@ type reality show . Having the cameras around forces Tracy to act on better behavior . " This is evident in the following episode " Operation Righteous Cowboy Lightning " . Tina Fey , the series creator , executive producer and lead actress on 30 Rock , told Entertainment Weekly , in regards to Angie 's reality show , " We 're hoping to , maybe , if we can get away with it , do an entire episode that 's just an episode of Queen of Jordan . Now I 'm just superimposing my own TV viewing habits onto 30 Rock . " In the episode , Dr. Spaceman informs Tracy Jordan — played by Tracy Morgan — that he is dying , television columnist Meredith Blake from the Los Angeles Times wondered if this subplot was written as a way to deal with Tracy Morgan 's recent kidney transplant as he is expected to miss several episodes to recover from the procedure .
In the episode , it is revealed that Jack Donaghy accidentally married Liz Lemon instead of his girlfriend Avery Jessup ( Elizabeth Banks ) . At the wedding , Liz was Jack 's best man and wore a white shirt with a head net , while Avery wore a black cocktail dress . As a result of what Liz was wearing , the minister ( Jean Brassard ) instead married Jack and Liz . The two decide to get a divorce , however , they use their marriage to get the upper hand over one another . Ultimately , Jack and Liz decide to stop their feud and get a divorce . Since beginning , the series has occasionally hinted at a romantic relationship between the two characters . In one episode , Jack passes Liz off as his live @-@ in girlfriend to his ex @-@ wife Bianca ( Isabella Rossellini ) to make her jealous . In another episode , Jack 's mother Colleen Donaghy ( Elaine Stritch ) tells him that Liz is a perfect match for him , and in the same episode he has Liz listed as his emergency contact . In an April 2010 Esquire interview , Fey said that one of the plots that 30 Rock will never do is have Liz and Jack get together . " Let me put the Internet at ease : Liz and Jack will never be together . " Alec Baldwin was asked if the two characters will ever hook @-@ up , he responded " I sincerely doubt it , and I think the show is better off that way . Once they cross that line , all the tension goes out of those relationships . And I think the lesson we learned about both those characters is that they are married to their jobs and they are married to their work . "
= = Cultural references = =
Dr. Spaceman tells Tracy that he is dating Squeaky Fromme and says that she is a handful . Fromme is a member of the Manson Family , and was sentenced to life imprisonment for attempting to assassinate United States President Gerald Ford in 1975 . Jenna and Danny begin arguing after the two are forced to share a dressing room . She takes down Danny 's poster of the Montreal Alouettes , a Canadian Football League team based in Montreal , Quebec , which was signed by Marc Trestman , the head coach of the Alouettes . Jenna says that she took down the poster because it was tacky , as are his mother 's chain e @-@ mails ( a message that attempts to induce the recipient to make a number of copies of the letter and then pass them on to as many recipients as possible ) .
Later , Jack gives Angie a reality show that will feature her friends and family . The show is a parody of the reality show The Real Housewives of ... which airs on the cable network Bravo and follows the lives of relatively affluent , bourgeois housewives and professional women in the suburban or urban areas of several American cities . During the press conference , in which Liz announces that she and Jack have decided to donate $ 5 million to " a high school for drama , the arts , and feelings " , Liz spoke as socialite Edith Bouvier Beale . Later , Jack asks Liz what that voice was with Liz responding that that was " Drew Barrymore 's impression of that crazy lady " , a reference to actress Drew Barrymore who portrayed Beale in the 2009 HBO film Grey Gardens .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
Before the airing of this episode , NBC unveiled its 2010 – 11 primetime schedule in May 2010 with the network moving 30 Rock from the 9 : 30 p.m. time to the 8 : 30 p.m. timeslot for the show 's fifth season . In November 2010 , it was announced that the program would move from 8 : 30 to the 10 : 00 timeslot . The network moved 30 Rock to the 10 : 00 time in order to " make room " for the return of the comedy show Parks and Recreation and the debut of the new comedy Perfect Couples . Many questioned whether or not it was a good decision to move the show to 10 : 00 as it is a low rated show . According to Nielsen Media Research , " Mrs. Donaghy " was watched by 5 @.@ 338 million households in its original American broadcast . According to New York magazine the staff were most worried about how 30 Rock and Community — another program that airs on NBC 's Thursday lineup — would do in the new time change but said that both shows " did great . " The episode earned a 2 @.@ 7 rating / 7 share in the 18 – 49 demographic . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds , and 7 percent of all 18- to 49 @-@ year @-@ olds watching television at the time of the broadcast . " Mrs. Donaghy " was up nearly 30 percent against the previous episode , " Christmas Attack Zone " , that aired at 8 : 30 p.m. on December 9 , 2010 .
= = = Reviews = = =
The A.V. Club 's Zack Handlen noted that the Jack and Liz being married plot " was strong enough to carry the episode overall , as watching Liz drive Jack crazy is almost always entertaining . " Handlen did not enjoy the other two stories from the episode , citing that Jenna and Danny 's " had some good lines " and that it was good to see these two characters play off each other but " this really needed to get a lot crazier , or else have some sort of character development " , and that the third plot was only worth towards the opening credits to Angie 's reality show . " This was hilarious ... but everything else was like watching echoes of old gags . [ ... ] There wasn 't a lot of connective tissue to hold any of this together , so it came across as haphazard . " Juli Weiner of Vanity Fair wrote that this was a " fine episode about marriage and mistranslation . " Weiner , however , opined that the portrayal of Angie Jordan here , played by Sherri Shepherd , " was less than ideal . " Alan Sepinwall from HitFix wrote that the show is having a strong season with its fifth season but wrote that this episode was not a particularly strong one nonetheless " the writers can almost always rely on the Jack / Liz relationship for both heart ... and comedy . It was the first part of the episode that made me consistently laugh , and it also worked because I like Jack and Liz – and like that the show remains committed to a complete lack of romantic tension between them " . TV Guide 's Matt Roush was glad that Chris Parnell returned as his 30 Rock character in this episode . Ian McDonald of Zap2it wrote that the Jeffrey character " made one of the best in @-@ jokes of the episode , recapping ( and misinterpreting ) Liz and Jack 's ' will they / won 't they chemistry . ' The kicker , though , was we 're meant to realize that Liz and Jack are perfect for each other in a completely platonic way . " McDonald was positive about Jane Krakowski and Cheyenne Jackson 's subplot , saying it was nice to see them share a story , and that their characters " have great , toxic chemistry . " Bob Sassone of TV Squad said that the ending in which the Jeffrey character summarized Jack and Liz 's friendship " was a perfect summation of the heart of 30 Rock itself . "
IGN contributor Matt Fowler commented that the Jenna and Danny story " felt weak " but that Angie getting her own show " more than made up for it . " Fowler gave the episode an 8 out of 10 rating . Brad Sanders of the Indiana Daily Student commented that " Mrs. Donaghy " had a " solid comeback " , while Entertainment Weekly 's Breia Brissey was glad that the show returned . " The strength of [ ' Mrs. Donaghy ' ] was that , however silly , all of the illogical circumstances of the show can be explained with a bit of reason " , reported Caitlin Smith of The Atlantic . Smith said her favorite scene was when Jack and Liz have a sit down meeting with Jeffrey , and " [ h ] e 's counseling the newly married couple to avoid bringing their personal relationship into work and reads off a lengthy checklist of things to avoid . " Meredith Blake from the Los Angeles Times explained that the reason the series is having a strong season is due to it returning to the basics with the Jack and Liz friendship ; " Somehow , Liz and Jack are such a perfect , if unexpected , pair that this theme manages not to wear thin . Their accidental marriage ... was almost inevitable , the logical end to which the writers could stretch the relationship . It does make you wonder what the writers can possibly do next , but I have faith . " New York magazine 's Willa Paskin enjoyed Tina Fey 's impression of Edith Bouvier Beale during her press conference . Elliott Hammer of The Collegian wrote that Angie 's tagline for her reality show " I 'm Angie and I think elegance and attitude are the same thing " was brilliant .
Dan Forcella of TV Fanatic commented that " [ t ] here were moments when I laughed " but that " Mrs. Donaghy " did not come together to make a great episode . He noted that Jack and Liz discovering that they were married " didn 't bring much new to the table . Jack and Liz arguing like this is standard for 30 Rock , and I got bored of their story rather quickly . " Further in his recap , Forcella said that the ending scene , with Jeffrey explaining all of the things Jack and Liz have done together as close friends , " was almost as if they expected us to predict one of them was going to think it was something more than a friendship , and then flip it on the audience . " Kelsea Stahler of the New York Post noted that when it was revealed that Jack accidentally married Liz that it " fell a little flat " , reasoning " I mean , Jack accidentally married [ Liz ] , this scene could have reached so many levels of insanity , but instead they settled for Jonathan 's ( Maulik Pancholy ) piercing squeal before moving onto the rest of the show . " Johnny Firecloud of CraveOnline did not enjoy the Jenna , Danny , and Kenneth plot explaining that it unfolded " very strangely , and eventually saps a good deal of energy out of the show . It 's a dead @-@ end sub @-@ plot that 's simply useless . " Firecloud gave this episode a 7 out of 10 rating .
= Karthi =
Karthik Sivakumar ( born 25 May 1977 ) , better known by his stage name Karthi , is an Indian film actor who works in the Tamil and Telugu film industries . The younger son of actor Sivakumar , Karthi holds a Bachelor 's degree in Mechanical Engineering and master of business administration in Industrial Engineering . Since he had always wanted to become a film director , he returned to India and joined Mani Ratnam as an assistant director . He was offered acting roles and made his acting debut in Paruthiveeran in 2007 as the title character , a careless village ruffian , winning critical acclaim and several accolades including the Filmfare Award for Best Actor and a Tamil Nadu State Film Award . His next role was that of a coolie in Aayirathil Oruvan ( 2010 ) , an adventure film directed by Selvaraghavan . He achieved consecutive commercial successes with his subsequent releases – Paiyaa ( 2010 ) , Naan Mahaan Alla ( 2010 ) and Siruthai ( 2011 ) . After appearing in a series of box office flops , he starred in successful films such as Biriyani ( 2013 ) , Madras ( 2014 ) and Oopiri ( 2016 ) which established him in the Tamil film industry .
Apart from his film career , Karthi has also been involved in social welfare activities , encouraging fans to do likewise through the " Makkal Nala Mandram " , a social welfare club that he inaugurated . In 2011 , he became a cause ambassador to promote awareness of lysosomal storage disease . As of 2015 , he is the treasurer of the Nadigar Sangam .
= = Early life = =
Karthi was born on 25 May 1977 in Madras ( now Chennai ) , Tamil Nadu , India . He had his schooling at Padma Seshadri Bala Bhavan and St. Bede 's Anglo Indian Higher Secondary School , Chennai . He gained a bachelor 's degree in Mechanical Engineering from Crescent Engineering College , Chennai . After graduation , he worked as an Engineering consultant in Chennai and considered higher studies abroad . " I was earning about ₹ 5000 , per month and found the work monotonous . That was when I thought , I should do something more " , he recalled in an interview . Karthi got a scholarship for his higher studies in the United States , and enrolled at Binghamton University , New York , where he earned his Master of Science in Industrial Engineering . While pursuing his masters , he also attended lectures on filmmaking .
During his stay in New York , Karthi worked as a part @-@ time graphic designer . He then decided to pursue a career in film @-@ making ; he attended two courses in basic film @-@ making at State University of New York . He stated , " I always knew I wanted to be in films but I did not know exactly what I wanted to do . I loved movies and watched a lot of them . But my father insisted that I get a good education before I joined the film industry " .
= = Career = =
= = = 2007 : Debut success = = =
When Karthi returned to India , he met director Mani Ratnam , who offered him the role of Arjun ( later played by Siddharth ) in the film Aayutha Ezhuthu . He declined the offer and worked as an assistant director on the same film and its Hindi version Yuva because he wanted to become a film director and preferred directing to acting , though he did appear as an extra in Aaytha Ezhuthu . He continued to receive acting offers and his father convinced him to take up acting , telling him " ... one can always direct films but one will not get a chance to act once you grow older " . He accepted his first acting assignment in April 2005 . When director Ameer approached him to play the titular character in the film Paruthiveeran , he accepted the offer because the film was " ... so compelling " . The film was released in July 2005 and experienced financial difficulties , and was almost abandoned by mid – 2006 . It was released in January 2007 , to critical acclaim and became commercially successful .
Critics unanimously praised Karthi 's portrayal of a careless village ruffian . Behindwoods said : " He has done away with every trace of sophistication in his body language and even handles the sickle with consummate ease . He looks every inch a hot blooded youngster from some rural part of Tamil Nadu [ and ] appears seasoned in the romantic scenes ... Uninformed people might not believe that this is the young man ’ s big screen debut
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aft funnel . The guns were numbered ' 1' to ' 5' from front to rear . Their anti @-@ aircraft armament consisted of two Canon de 75 mm modèle 1924 guns in single mounts positioned amidships . The ships carried two above @-@ water triple sets of 550 @-@ millimeter ( 21 @.@ 7 in ) torpedo tubes . A pair of depth charge chutes were built into their stern ; these housed a total of twenty 200 @-@ kilogram ( 440 lb ) depth charges . They were also fitted with four depth @-@ charge throwers for which they carried a dozen 100 @-@ kilogram ( 220 lb ) depth charges .
= = Construction and career = =
Panthère , named after the eponymous feline , was ordered on 26 February 1923 from Arsenal de Lorient . She was laid down on 23 December 1923 , once the slipway was vacated by her sister ship Jaguar . Launched on 27 October 1924 , commissioned on 1 November 1926 , completed on 4 January 1927 and entered service a month later . Completion was delayed by problems with her propulsion machinery and late deliveries by sub @-@ contractors . The ship was assigned to the 1st Large Destroyer Division ( 1ère division de contre @-@ torpeilleurs ) ( DCT ) of the Mediterranean Squadron ( renamed 5th Light Division ( Division légère ) ( DL ) of the First Squadron ( 1ère Escadre ) on 1 February 1927 ) based at Toulon upon completion , together with her sisters Jaguar and Chacal . On 27 April 1927 , Panthère participated in a naval review by Gaston Doumergue , President of France , off Marseilles . The ship was also present when he next reviewed the fleet on 3 July 1928 off Le Havre .
Together with Guépard , Panthère escorted the light cruisers Lamotte @-@ Picquet and Primauguet to the French West Indies between 17 January and 30 April 1930 . Two months later , the ship participated in the naval review at Algiers on 10 May 1930 commemorating the centenary of the first French landing in Algeria on 13 June 1830 . The four depth charge throwers were removed in 1932 and the ship was assigned to the 9th DL of the Torpedo Training School ( Ecole d 'application du lancement à la mer ) at Toulon on 1 October 1932 . About two years later , the 75 @-@ millimeter guns were replaced by four twin mounts for 13 @.@ 2 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 5 in ) anti @-@ aircraft machineguns .
When the war started in September 1939 , Panthère was still assigned to the 4th DCT with her sisters Tigre and Lynx . She was assigned to the Western Command ( Forces maritimes de l 'Ouest ) for convoy escort duties from October to May 1940 where she guarded convoys traveling between Gibraltar and Brest as well as Casablanca , French Morocco , and Le Verdon @-@ sur @-@ Mer . In October – December , two depth @-@ charge throwers were reinstalled , No. 3 gun removed , and her depth charge stowage reduced to a dozen 200 kg and eight 100 kg depth charges to improve her stability .
In May 1940 , Panthère began a refit at Toulon that included the addition of piping between the forecastle and forward fuel tank to allow the ship to refuel at sea and the removal of the mainmast in favor of a platform with a twin @-@ gun mount for the 3 @.@ 7 cm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) Mle 1933 light AA gun . When France surrendered on 22 June , she was still being worked on and only one propeller shaft was available . Shortly afterwards , the ship was reduced to reserve with only a skeleton crew aboard and her anti @-@ aircraft guns were transferred to more modern ships .
On 27 November 1942 , the ship was captured almost intact by the Germans when they occupied Toulon and was turned over to the Italians on 14 December . The Regia Marina redesignated her as FR 22 and she recommissioned on 19 January 1943 after Pierre Laval , head of Vichy France , agreed to transfer her on 11 January ; she sailed to Taranto on 23 March where the Italians used her as a transport in Italian waters . The ship 's most notable mission was when she transported former Italian Premier Benito Mussolini from Ponza Island to La Maddalena , Sardinia on 6 August . The ship was scuttled at La Spezia on 9 September 1943 following the Italian armistice and broken up after the war .
= Typhoon Abe ( 1990 ) =
Typhoon Abe , known as Typhoon Heling in the Philippines , was the fourteenth named storm of 1990 Pacific typhoon season . Forming on August 23 from a tropical disturbance , the depression which would eventually develop into Typhoon Abe initially tracked in a steady west @-@ northwestward direction . As a result of an intense monsoon surge , Abe 's trajectory briefly changed to an eastward then northward path before returning to its original track . Abe only intensified by a small amount between 00 : 00 UTC August 24 and 06 : 00 UTC August 27 due to the disruptive effects of the surge , and on August 30 , Abe peaked in intensity as a Category 2 @-@ equivalent typhoon on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . After peaking in intensity , Abe crossed the Ryukyu Islands and the East China Sea , making landfall in China where it affected the provinces of Zhejiang and Jiangsu before entering the Yellow Sea , crossing South Korea , and finally transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
Typhoon Abe killed 108 – 195 people after it caused flooding and landslides in the Philippines and Taiwan , ravaged coastal areas of China , and brought high waves to Japan . Abe , which is responsible for killing 108 in China , affected half of Zhejiang 's land area and a fourth of its population , leaving thousands homeless and causing ¥ 3 @.@ 5 billion yuan ( RMB , $ 741 @.@ 5 – 743 million USD ) to be lost in damages . Additional damage and one fatality occurred in Okinawa Prefecture in Japan , where at least ¥ 890 million yen ( JPY , $ 6 million USD ) in damage was caused .
= = Meteorological history = =
The tropical disturbance which would eventually intensify to become Typhoon Abe was first noted by the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) in a Significant Tropical Weather Advisory as an area of persistent atmospheric convection on August 23 at 01 : 00 UTC . Located near the end of what the JTWC considered to be " an active monsoon trough " , the initial minimum sea @-@ level pressure was estimated to be approximately 1 @,@ 007 millibars ( 1 @,@ 007 hPa ; 29 @.@ 74 inHg ) . Following this mention , the disturbance tracked in a mostly west @-@ northwestward direction , traveling beneath a subtropical ridge , with a Tropical Cyclone Formation Alert being issued at 06 : 00 UTC based on the improving state of the low .
Following an increase in the storm 's central convection , the JTWC determined at 00 : 00 UTC August 24 that it had intensified into a tropical storm which it assigned the designation 15W , and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) began to monitor the system six hours later . The JMA upgraded the system to a tropical storm on its scale at 00 : 00 UTC August 25 , and by the time twelve hours had passed , a strong surge in the monsoon westerlies had started to develop to the south of the storm 's convective area , slowing its westward movement . After enhanced convection associated with the surge on the east side of Abe 's main convective cloud mass wrapped around the north , the storm 's center of circulation reorganized to the north between the competing convective masses . At 06 : 00 UTC August 27 , the JMA upgraded Abe to a severe tropical storm with winds of 95 km / h ( 60 mph ) , and as a ragged eye developed in the storm , the JTWC upgraded Abe to typhoon status six hours later . Late on August 28 , the JMA upgraded Abe to a typhoon on its scale , with ten @-@ minute sustained winds of 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) .
Following the monsoon surge , Abe returned to its original west @-@ northwestward track , further intensifying to become a Category 2 @-@ equivalent typhoon at 12 : 00 UTC on August 29 . A weakness appeared in the subtropical ridge in association with a short @-@ wave trough , and Typhoon Abe recurved through this weakness , taking it along the coast of China . Prior to making landfall , Abe attained a minimum atmospheric pressure of 955 millibars ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 20 inHg ) on August 29 at 18 : 00 UTC as determined by the JMA . It was found by the JTWC that Abe 's one @-@ minute sustained winds peaked at 165 km / h ( 105 mph ) at 00 : 00 UTC August 30 , and the JMA determined that its ten @-@ minute sustained winds peaked at 140 km / h ( 85 mph ) at 18 : 00 UTC on August 29 . As a direct result of this interaction with land , Abe weakened to a tropical storm at 12 : 00 UTC on August 31 , entering the Yellow Sea and crossing South Korea in the 30 hours that followed . It was determined at 18 : 00 UTC on September 1 that the storm had transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The JTWC ceased tracking the system at 06 : 00 UTC September 2 , and the JMA followed suit 36 hours later .
= = Impacts = =
In the Philippines where Abe was known by the PAGASA name " Heling " , as a result of flooding and landslides caused by Abe , about 150 homes were washed away along Dalton Pass , leaving 1 @,@ 500 people without homes and an additional 85 people dead . Rainfall @-@ induced landslides ravaged areas previously damaged by an earthquake a month earlier , with landslide @-@ caused fatalities totaling 32 in the Philippine provinces of Benguet , Nueva Ecija , and Nueva Vizcaya , Significant flooding in Luzon resulted in the deaths of 12 people in Manila , and Philippine Airlines responded by suspending domestic air services . In response to flooding caused by Typhoon Abe and Typhoon Becky in the Philippines , President of the Philippines Corazon Aquino issued a proclamation declaring the existence of a state of public calamity for affected areas of the country .
Parts of Okinawa Prefecture in Japan experienced high winds and heavy rainfall as Typhoon Abe passed nearby . Precipitation totals as high as 306 mm ( 12 @.@ 0 in ) and winds of 115 km / h ( 72 mph ) were recorded in Ohara , and total forestry losses for Ishigaki totaled ¥ 500 @,@ 000 yen ( JPY , $ 3 @,@ 000 USD ) . Some parts of Ishigaki experienced a suspension of their water supply , and about 800 households experienced power failures . Hundreds of millions of yen in agricultural losses , especially to sugar cane , occurred due to the typhoon , totaling ¥ 878 @.@ 53 million yen ( JPY , $ 6 @.@ 0882 million USD ) , and losses in the water industry totaled an additional ¥ 12 @.@ 02 million yen ( JPY , $ 8 @,@ 330 USD ) . The area also experienced airline flight cancellations , leaving thousands stranded while the storm passed . One person was drawn out to sea after winds of up to 110 km / h ( 70 mph ) and high waves affected the coast .
In Taiwan , one person was killed and six others were injured as Typhoon Abe traveled across the East China Sea . Approximately 70 @,@ 000 households had their supply of electricity cut off , and floods and landslides occurred as a result of heavy rainfall .
Early on August 31 , Typhoon Abe made landfall over Zhejiang Province in China approximately 250 – 270 km ( 160 – 170 mi ) south of Shanghai . In Zhejiang , where Abe was reportedly " the worst typhoon to hit the province in 34 years " , casualties of the storm numbered in the hundreds , with 65 people rendered dead , 839 wounded , and an additional 45 reported missing . Significant flooding affected vast swaths of farmland and stranded about 660 @,@ 000 people . Approximately a quarter of the province 's population , about ten million people , was affected by the storm , which left 41 @,@ 000 people without their homes and brought about the collapse of 21 @,@ 800 houses . Additionally , about 1 @,@ 000 ships at sea were destroyed , and the combined direct economic losses which resulted from Abe were about ¥ 3 @.@ 5 billion yuan ( RMB , 741 @.@ 5 – 743 million USD ) . The adjacent province of Jiangsu also experienced significant impacts ; 23 people died and hundreds of others were injured as a result of the storm . Houses suffered serious impacts , with 80 @,@ 000 destroyed and 120 @,@ 000 damaged . Over 1 @.@ 34 million hectares of fields were flooded . Three people were killed and 46 were injured in Shanghai , and a suburban area experienced a tornado . Altogether , an estimated 108 people were killed in China .
Abe brought heavy rain and gale @-@ force winds to South Korea prior to transitioning to an extratropical cyclone near the east coast of the peninsula .
= Kamiya Kaoru =
Kamiya Kaoru ( 神谷 薫 ) , known as Kaoru Kamiya in the Media Blasters English @-@ language dub and Kori Kamiya in the English Sony Samurai X dub , is a fictional character in the Rurouni Kenshin manga created by Nobuhiro Watsuki . In the story Kaoru is the instructor of a kendo school in Tokyo , Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū ( 神谷活心流 ) . The students leave when many people are killed by someone claiming to be the Hitokiri Battōsai ( 人斬り抜刀斎 ) from the Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryū " , damaging the school 's reputation . Kaoru is saved from the murderous impostor by the real Battōsai , Himura Kenshin , now a wanderer who has sworn to stop killing . During the series , Kaoru grows fond of Kenshin due to his good actions to society and becomes his ally .
Kaoru also appears in the film version of the series and other media of the franchise , including electronic games and a series of original video animations ( OVAs ) . Although Watsuki wanted to design Kaoru " more cutely " and to be " more fashionable " , he toned down those qualities and made her poor and " down @-@ to @-@ earth " . There was concern that Watsuki might kill her off , and critical reception of the character has been mixed .
= = Appearances = =
= = = Rurouni Kenshin = = =
Kaoru is the instructor of the Kamiya Kasshin martial @-@ arts school . She inherited her fighting style and a small dojo from her father , who was drafted by a police swordsmen unit and died defending a comrade during the Seinan War . At the beginning of the story , Kaoru has no students and runs the dojo alone ; she seems likely to lose it when Kenshin helps her . Despite occasional mood swings and a reputation for bad cooking , she is independent , compassionate , courageous and a good fighter . In her first appearance Kaoru searches for the assassin Hitokiri Battosai , who claims to be from Kamiya Kasshin @-@ ryu . Kaoru is saved by the real Battosai , Himura Kenshin , and invites him to her dojo . One of her greatest fears is that Kenshin might return to wandering , leaving her alone again , and she is jealous if another girl ( such as Takani Megumi ) is interested in him . In the series ' first story arc , Kaoru gains a student ( Myojin Yahiko ) and loses one ( Tsukayama Yutaro ) .
When the Meiji government requests Kenshin 's aid to kill the former Hitokiri Shishio Makoto , he bids Kaoru an emotional farewell and leaves for Kyoto . Kaoru falls into a depression before she follows him to Kyoto after a pep talk from Megumi . With the Oniwabanshu 's Makimachi Misao , she defeats one of Shishio 's Juppongatana : Honjō Kamatari .
In Tokyo , after Kaoru learns about Yukishiro Enishi 's plans to kill everyone connected to Kenshin she teaches Yahiko the ougi of the Kamiya Kasshin . Enishi says that his goal is not to kill Kenshin , but to make him suffer by killing the person most important to him : Kaoru . He kidnaps her , leaving a replica of her dead body . Convinced that he again failed to save the one who was most important to him , Kenshin flees to the Fallen Village and falls into a catatonic depression . When he learns that Kaoru is alive , he and the group rescue her from Enishi . They marry and have a son , Himura Kenji .
= = = Other media = = =
In Samurai X : Reflection , although Kenshin and Kaoru are married he begins wandering again because he needs to help others ; he returns every couple of years . Kaoru lets him go , promising to welcome him home with a smile and their child . Kenshin develops a mysterious disease , and Kaoru convinces him to transmit it to her . He leaves to help people in the First Sino @-@ Japanese War , as he had promised the Meiji government . When he returns to Japan , Kenshin collapses in Kaoru 's arms and dies .
In the pilot issue of Rurouni : Meiji Swordsman Romantic Story , first published in 1992 , Kaoru is the sister of Megumi and Yahiko . Many of the character 's details changed in her transition to mainstream manga .
Kaoru appears in all Rurouni Kenshin video games ( including Jump Super Stars and Jump Ultimate Stars ) , primarily as a supporting character . In the manga reboot Rurouni Kenshin : Restoration , Kaoru works for Takeda Kanryū to regain her dojo . After Kenshin defeats Takeda , she continues living in the dojo with Kenshin and his friends . Kaoru was played by Emi Takei in 2012 's Rurouni Kenshin and its two sequels .
= = Concept = =
Watsuki said that he used " no specific model " and " no specific motif " in designing Kaoru , saying that if he had to name one model it would be Chiba Sanako of Ryōma no Koibito . He wanted to include the " commanding " qualities of Sasaki Mifuyu ( 佐々木 三冬 ) from Shōtarō Ikenami 's Kenkaku Shōbai . According to Watsuki , Kaoru is a " plain , regular girl " despite her commanding qualities . By the first Japanese compilation , he thought that the character worked and many female Rurouni Kenshin readers identified with Kaoru . At the time , Watsuki had not decided if Kaoru would be Kenshin 's love interest . Although he wanted to design Kaoru " more cutely " and to be " more fashionable " , he toned down those qualities and made her poor and " down @-@ to @-@ earth " . The artist described her ponytail as " de rigueur " for a girl practicing kendo . According to Watsuki , he enjoys drawing Kaoru but filling in her hair is " sometimes a pain . " At the end of Rurouni Kenshin , Kaoru received a new hairstyle . Watsuki felt that Kaoru would look odd without her ponytail , but her original hairstyle did not look maternal and he changed it for the ending . When female readers asked Watsuki if Kaoru was a strong fighter , he called the character " quite independent for her age " who could " hold her own " against the local dojo masters and compete at the national level ( although she is weaker than Kenshin and Sagara Sanosuke ) .
Watsuki said that in volume seven the series took on a more adult tone , influenced by the shōjo manga he was reading at the time . During the series he considered killing Kaoru off , deciding against it in favor of a happy ending for a manga aimed at young readers and influenced by the previous story arc 's upbeat ending . However , he thought the storyline then lost its main theme ( revenge ) ; readers praised and criticized the twist . Watsuki apologized to his young audience for the dark chapters suggesting that Kaoru was dead .
= = Reception = =
Kaoru has been popular with Rurouni Kenshin readers , placing fourth or fifth in every popularity poll . Watsuki described Tomo Sakurai 's CD @-@ drama voice as " not too airhead @-@ y , " " not too high " and " not too low . " Kaoru merchandise includes plushes , keychains and sweatbands . Miki Fujitani ( who voices the character ) said in an interview that in the OVA series Kaoru is brave and very different from her original version whose characterization has been felt closer to the calm Yukishiro Tomoe .
Manga , anime and video @-@ game publications have responded positively to Kaoru ; in T.H.E.M. Anime Reviews , Carlos Ross called her a " spirited girl " . According to Megan Lavey of Mania Entertainment , the manga Kaoru is " a lot wiser " than her anime version . Kaoru and Kenshin 's relationship ranked eighth in About.com 's " Top 8 Anime Love Stories " , with Katherine Luther calling it a " classic romance . "
Kaoru 's Reflection OVA series version was criticized ; Efrain Diaz , Jr. of IGN wrote that although some of Kenshin and Kaoru 's private moments are touching , others are depressing . According to Anime News Network 's Mike Crandol , Kaoru is the least visually successful character redesign in the Reflection OVA . Citing the manga version 's " distinctive girlish charm " , Crandol said that the staff members tried too hard to make her look like Yukishiro Tomoe . Rebecca Silverman of Anime News Network was disappointed by Kaoru 's lack of development in the series Rurouni Kenshin Restoration .
= Attack on German Flatts ( 1778 ) =
The Attack on German Flatts ( September 17 , 1778 ) was a raid on the frontier settlement of German Flatts , New York ( which then also encompassed what is now Herkimer ) during the American Revolutionary War . The attack was made by a mixed force of Loyalists and Iroquois under the overall command of Mohawk leader Joseph Brant , and resulted in the destruction of houses , barns , and crops , and the taking of livestock for the raiders ' use . The settlers , warned by the heroic run of Adam Helmer , took refuge in local forts but were too militarily weak to stop the raiders .
Brant 's attack was one of a series executed under his command or that of Loyalist and Seneca leaders against communities on what was then the frontier of western New York and northern Pennsylvania . New York authorities responded by ordering an expedition that destroyed Brant 's forward operating bases in Iroquois territory .
= = Background = =
With the failure of British General John Burgoyne 's campaign to the Hudson after the Battles of Saratoga in October 1777 , the American Revolutionary War in upstate New York became a frontier war . British leaders in the Province of Quebec supported Loyalist and Native American partisan fighters with supplies and armaments . During the winter of 1777 – 78 Brant and other British @-@ allied Indians developed plans to attack frontier settlements in New York and Pennsylvania . In February 1778 Brant established a base of operations at Onaquaga ( present @-@ day Windsor , New York ) . He recruited a mix of Iroquois and Loyalists estimated to number between two and three hundred by the time he began his campaign in late May . One of his objectives was to acquire provisions for his forces and those of John Butler , who was planning operations in the Susquehanna River valley . His first expedition was a raid on Cobleskill , and he raided other frontier communities throughout the summer .
When he raided settlements at Springfield and Andrustown ( present @-@ day Jordanville ) in July , Brant left the survivors with warnings that German Flatts would soon also be attacked . The settlement of German Flatts ( now known as Herkimer due to a survey error in 1788 that reversed the names of Herkimer and what is now German Flatts on the south bank of the Mohawk River ) was founded in 1723 by Palatine German immigrants . The district was defended by a local militia regiment under the command of Colonel Peter Bellinger . There were two main forts , Fort Dayton and Fort Herkimer , on either side of the Mohawk .
= = Prelude = =
Although Brant had planned on raiding German Flatts sooner than September , the absence of John Butler delayed his plans . Butler had returned to Fort Niagara after his attack on the Wyoming Valley communities in July , sending Captain William Caldwell to Unaquaga to recruit men for the unit known as Butler 's Rangers . By early September it was clear that Butler was not returning to the area , so Brant and Caldwell launched the expedition with the men they had . The exact composition of the force that left Unadilla is unclear . Sources generally agree that 152 Iroquois , principally Mohawk , were in the force , but that the Loyalists ( in either Caldwell 's Ranger company or in Brant 's company of volunteers ) numbered between 200 and 300 .
Because of warnings received earlier that Brant was planning an attack , Colonel Bellinger had been sending out scouts in the direction of Unadilla to gather intelligence . On September 16 Brant 's company overwhelmed a scouting party of nine , killing a few and scattering the rest . One of the survivors was Adam Helmer , who ran 26 miles ( 42 km ) ahead of the advancing force to warn German Flatts . Colonel Bellinger sounded the call to arms of his regiment and sent an urgent request to Colonel Jacob Klock for the assistance of his regiment , while the settlers took refuge in the forts .
= = Raid = =
Caldwell , Brant , and their men arrived at German Flatts not long after Helmer 's warning , on the evening of September 16 , and began their attack the next morning . Because the settlers had taken refuge in the forts , there was no significant opportunity for the raiders to take prisoners or scalps . They demonstrated before the forts , but lacked heavy weapons with which to properly assault them . They instead rampaged through the communities on both sides of the Mohawk , destroying 63 homes , a similar number of barns , three grist mills , and one saw mill . They drove off a large number of horses , cattle , and sheep , killing those they could not take with them . The only buildings left standing were the forts , a barn , the church , and the homes of the minister and a few Loyalists . More than 700 people were made homeless by their destruction . Because of Helmer 's warning only three Americans were killed . Captain Caldwell wrote that his men " would have in all probability killed most of the inhabitants of German Flatts had they not been apprised of our coming by one of the scouts getting in and warning of our approach , and perhaps got to their forts " .
= = Aftermath = =
Klock 's regiment did not arrive until after the raiders had left . The militia pursued the raiders , but were unable to catch up with them . Some friendly Oneidas and Tuscaroras , however , capitalized on Brant 's absence from Unadilla to raid that town , freeing prisoners that Brant had taken while en route to German Flatts .
The Americans launched retaliatory raids in early October that destroyed Unadilla and Onaquaga . Brant and John Butler 's son Walter organized a retaliatory expedition against Cherry Valley , which was the scene of a massacre in November . This action and others by Brant and Butler contributed to the decision by the Continental Congress to authorize a major Continental Army expedition into Iroquois territory . Commanded by Generals John Sullivan and James Clinton , the 1779 expedition systematically destroyed the villages of Iroquois tribes fighting for the British , but did little to stop the frontier war . The German Flatts area in particular was the subject of repeated raids .
Walter D. Edmonds ' 1936 novel Drums Along the Mohawk recounts the story of Adam Helmer 's run and gives an overview of the German settlements along the river . It was adapted as a film by the same name , directed by John Ford and released in 1939 .
= Headstrong ( Ashley Tisdale album ) =
Headstrong is the debut studio album by American singer @-@ songwriter Ashley Tisdale , released on February 6 , 2007 , by Warner Bros. Records . Tisdale began working on the project after the first installment of High School Musical ( 2006 ) , and after she had achieved the feat of being the first female artist to debut with two songs on the Billboard Hot 100 . The singer worked with a variety of established writers and producers on the album , including Diane Warren , J.R. Rotem , Ryan Tedder , Evan " Kidd " Bogart , and Kara DioGuardi , among others . Commenting that the album garnered its title from her personality , Tisdale said she wanted to use her first album to formally introduce herself personally , and as not one of the characters she portrays .
Headstrong 's music derives mainly from the genres of dance @-@ pop and R & B , provided by electronica . Meanwhile , it incorporates hip hop beats and some tracks infuse dancehall and other world music . The album also lyrically explores themes in teen pop . Many critics compared her first effort to the first works of fellow Disney @-@ alums Britney Spears and Christina Aguilera . Carrying primarily an urban tone , the " hip pop " of Gwen Stefani is also said to be an influence on the album . Headstrong itself was given mixed reviews by critics , who while complimenting it overall , called it ordinary and panned the ballads . Critics were also ambivalent towards Tisdale 's vocal performance . Whereas , the album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 , selling over 64 @,@ 000 copies in its opening week , it also charted in numerous international markets . It was later certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America and Irish Recorded Music Association .
The album 's lead single , " Be Good to Me , " charted moderately in the United States and select European markets . Tisdale 's breakthrough hit , " He Said She Said " peaked at 58 in the US , and appeared on several international charts , peaking in the top 20 in Germany and Austria . The last two singles were released in certain countries in Europe exclusively . The third single , " Not Like That " charted in the top half of several European charts , while the fourth and final single " Suddenly " charted in Germany . Tisdale supported the album with promotional appearances , High School Musical : The Concert , and her tour , Headstrong Tour Across America . The album was voted as the sixth best album of 2007 by the readers of Billboard .
= = Background and development = =
Tisdale got her first start on Billboard when she became the first female artist in history to debut with two songs on the Billboard Hot 100 , from the soundtrack of High School Musical . Tisdale called the feat " crazy , " stating , " When I think about artists like Madonna and Beyoncé ... it ’ s surreal . I seriously can ’ t comprehend it . " Soon after the completion of High School Musical , Tisdale began work on her debut album . In December 2006 , producer J.R. Rotem confirmed he was producing and writing with Tisdale for the album .
Tisdale said that the album was an opportunity for her fans to get to know her better , commenting , " People know my characters , but they don ’ t know me . " Noting that she never spills much information about her life in interviews , she also said that the album talks about life and things personal to her . Regarding the previous statement , the singer said she wanted people to understand that she was normal , and how they could relate to her . Tisdale titled the album Headstrong , because she calls her self a " headstrong " type of person , commenting that she was the term in the sense of knowing how she wants to look , sing , and come across . In addition to wanting to record songs that " touched " her and those that she could personally identify with , she co @-@ wrote three songs on the album , " Over It , " " Not Like That , " and " Suddenly . "
" Don 't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) " is a cover song , performed originally performed by Tata Young . Tisdale collaborated with Rotem , Ryan Tedder , and Evan " Kidd " Bogart on " He Said She Said . " Tisdale also worked heavily with production teams The Matrix and Twin . Additionally , Diane Warren , David Jassy , Guy Roche , Shelly Peiken , Sarah Hudson , Samantha Jade , and Bryan Todd were the other remaining music veterans that worked on the project , with the rest being relatively unknown writers . While the album does not contain credited featured artists , Jassy , Jack D. Elliot , Keely Pressly , Lauren Christy , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards , Kara DioGuardi , Victoria Sandstorm , Windy Wagner , Bryan Todd , Tata Young , and Marissa Pontecorvo provide background vocals on tracks . Jassy performed rap interludes on " Be Good to Me , " which he co @-@ wrote . The album was released in the United States on February 6 , 2007 .
= = Composition = =
Headstrong derives mainly from the genres of dance @-@ pop , electropop , and R & B while incorporating teen pop themes and hip hop and dancehall elements . It carries many elements of hip pop itself , and has been compared to the music of Gwen Stefani . The title track " Headstrong " mixes " slinky " verses with cheerleader chants like Stefani 's " Hollaback Girl . " The album begins with a " futuristic " introduction which contains excerpts of other songs on the set . " So Much For You " is a dance song about a confident girl who wants true love . " He Said She Said " has been described as " steamy dancefloor seduction . " " Be Good to Me " contains an urban beat . " Not Like That , " which contains influences of Middle Eastern music , covers the topic of the " familiar misunderstood @-@ celebrity , " but was referred to as more " worked up " than " whiny . " Containing rap interludes by Tisdale and clap along beats , according to Gary Graff of Billboard , the song is also liking to Stefani . " Positivity " makes use of syncopated beats and " old @-@ school " synths . " Over It " has " boingy " effects . " Goin ' Crazy " has similarities to Britney Spears ' " ( You Drive Me ) Crazy , " while " Suddenly " seems to cover Tisdale discovering her stardom . Jon Dolan of Blender coined the song " The Little Mermaid @-@ worthy . " Spears is also said to be an influence of Tisdale 's " husky , alto " voice in " Over It , " and " So Much For You . " The dance song " Don 't Touch ( The Zoom Song ) " has an ' 80 's style beat .
= = Critical reception = =
Heather Phares of Allmusic rated the album 3 out of 5 stars and commented , " her voice is pleasant enough , but it 's not especially distinctive , and she 's not helped by a batch of songs that aren 't nearly as charming as High School Musical 's tunes . " Phares also said that although the album wasn 't winning considering the high @-@ profile songwriters and producers involved , " it 's fine for anyone who just wants to hear more of Ashley Tisdale 's -- and not Sharpay Evans ' -- singing . " Jon Dolan of Blender said Tisdale did not import her " spunky " High School Musical character in the album , and that even with the quality of producers , " no stylistic slipper fits right . " Gary Graff of Billboard said Tisdale went , " the contemporary CHR school of fellow Mouse products Britney Spears and first @-@ album Christina Aguilera — lots of synthesizer @-@ laden , beat @-@ heavy , layered @-@ vocal dance tracks " that varied between " come @-@ hithers " and " self @-@ affirming anthems . " Graff commented , " she 'll have to develop a more defined identity before she can truly win our affections . " James Ross of The Arizona Daily Wildcat commended the album 's uptempo songs but critiqued the ballads , commenting she hits the right notes on uptempo numbers , while on ballads , " Any ' Musical ' fan knows that Tisdale can belt one out , but this is not apparent on the album . " Overall , Ross said , " Although the album fails in places , it is ll [ sic ] a worthy attempt by an up @-@ and @-@ coming pop artist to please her audience . "
= = Chart performance = =
The album debuted at number five on the Billboard 200 in the US , selling over 64 @,@ 000 copies in its first week . On June 3 , 2008 , the album was certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 units . The album sold over 471 @,@ 000 copies in United States as of July 13 , 2009 and 1 million copies worldwide as of February 2010 . The album debuted on the Austrian Albums Chart at number 33 , and after its fifth week on the chart , it peaked at 21 . In its opening week on New Zealand Albums Chart and the Swiss Albums Chart , it peaked at 22 and 98 , respectively . On the Australian Albums Chart , it peaked at 80 , while spending 33 weeks on the German Albums Chart , peaking at 23 . Headstrong also peaked at 155 on the UK Albums Chart and 16 on the Irish Albums Chart , and was later certified Gold in the latter region by the Irish Recorded Music Association .
= = Singles = =
The album 's lead single , " Be Good to Me " was released to mainstream airplay as the album 's lead single on March 6 , 2007 . It was originally released as a B @-@ side for the promo release of " He Said She Said . " The single peaked at number 80 on the Billboard Hot 100 , while reaching 67 in Austria and 57 in Germany . The second single , " He Said She Said , " originally released as a promo single for the album , was sent to mainstream radio on November 6 , 2007 . The single peaked at 58 in the United States , 21 in Austria , 17 in Germany , and 62 in Canada . It was later certified Gold in the United States by the Recording Industry Association of America for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies . " Not Like That " served as the third single in several European countries , first released on January 25 , 2008 . It peaked in the top 20 of Germany , top 30 in Switzterland , and at number 31 in Austria . The fourth and final single from Headstrong was " Suddenly , " which select European markets also received . It was released on May 2 , 2008 , and peaked at 45 in Germany .
= = Promotion = =
To promote the album , Tisdale appeared in several live and televised appearances , performing the singles , " Be Good to Me " and " He Said She Said . " On February 6 , 2007 , she appeared and performed on Good Morning America , and appeared at a signing at FYE in West Nyack , New York . The following day when the album was released , she performed on Live With Regis and Kelly . On February 8 , 2007 , she appeared in the studios of WPIX and KTLA for their respective morning news shows . Tisdale also appeared at a Verizon Wireless store in Pasadena , California on February 10 , 2007 , to promote the set . She also performed " He Said She Said " on The Early Show . Additionally , Tisdale performed cuts from the album during her solo set list on High School Musical : The Concert . On October 22 , 2007 , Tisdale co @-@ hosted MTV 's TRL . During the winter , she performed at Christmas at Rockefeller Center , Z100 's Jingle Ball , Y100 's Jingle Ball , and Q102 's Jingle Ball .
= = = Headstrong Tour Across America = = =
Headstrong Tour Across America was a 2007 mall tour in which Tisdale promote the album , as well as her DVD , There 's Something About Ashley , and Eckō red .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits adapted from Headstrong at Allmusic .
Lead vocals – Ashley Tisdale , David Jassy
Background vocals – David Jassy , Jack D. Elliot , Keely Pressly , Britney Jean SpearsLauren Christy , Scott Spock , Graham Edwards , Kara DioGuardi , Victoria Sandstorm , Windy Wagner , Bryan Todd , Tata Young , Marissa Pontecorvo
Keyboards - Rasmus Billie Bähncke
Bass – Adam Anders
Guitar – Adam Anders , Emanuel Kiriakou and Joacim Persson
Production
Executive Producers : Lori Feldman and Tom Whalley
Vocal Producers : Adam Anders and Nikki Hassman
Mastering : Chris Gehringer
Mastering Assistant : Will Quinnell
Engineers : Adam Anders , Rasmus Billie Bähncke , Dushyant Bhakta , Stuart Brawley , Steve Churchyard , Joe Corcoran , Dave Dillbeck , Kara DioGuardi , Chris Holmes , Emanuel Kiriakou , Alan Mason , The Matrix , Greg Ogan and Twin
String Arranger : David Campbell
Assistant Engineers : Tom Bender and Cliff Lin
A & R : Tommy Page
Photography : Mark Liddell & Brian Bowen Smith
Art Direction : Ellen Wakayama
Design : Julian Peploe
= = Charts and certifications = =
= Pittsburgh mayoral election , 2013 =
The 2013 Pittsburgh mayoral election took place on November 5 , 2013 . Democrat Bill Peduto was elected the 60th Mayor of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania . The primary election was held on May 21 , 2013 . Incumbent Democratic Mayor Luke Ravenstahl , although eligible for a second full term , did not seek reelection as Mayor of Pittsburgh .
Initially , Luke Ravenstahl had indicated an intention to seek reelection in the 2013 election and had led early Democratic primary polling . Following Ravenstahl 's withdrawal in early March 2013 , several candidates not previously considering a campaign joined the race and others became speculated candidates . As of the primary election petition filing deadline on March 12 , 2013 , seven Democratic candidates and one Republican candidate , Joshua Wander , had filed to run . One Democratic candidate , Bill Robinson , stated he would run despite missing the petition deadline . After the field settled , there were four candidates seeking the Democratic nomination who were listed on the ballot and one seeking the Republican nomination . In addition , the sole Republican candidate also expressed an intention to run for the Democratic nomination as a write @-@ in candidate .
On May 21 , 2013 , Bill Peduto won the Democratic primary and Josh Wander , who had run unopposed in the Republican primary , won his party 's nomination . Peduto defeated Wander and independent Lester Ludwig in the November general election . He was inaugurated as Pittsburgh 's 60th mayor upon the expiration of incumbent Mayor Luke Ravenstahl 's term in January 2014 . The next regular quadrennial mayoral election following the 2013 election is scheduled for November 2017 .
= = Background = =
In the 2005 election , Democrat Bob O 'Connor was elected Mayor of Pittsburgh and assumed office in January 2006 . In July 2006 , O 'Connor was diagnosed with a rare form of lymphoma , which was initially believed to be manageable . His health deteriorated , however , and he died on September 1 , 2006 . Luke Ravenstahl , as President of the Pittsburgh City Council , was subsequently sworn @-@ in and assumed office as Mayor . At the time , at age 26 , Ravenstahl was the youngest mayor of a major U.S. city .
A special election was scheduled for November 2007 , which pitted Ravenstahl and Republican businessman Mark DeSantis . DeSantis mounted a serious campaign despite a heavy Democratic voter registration advantage in Pittsburgh . Nonetheless , Ravenstahl won the election by a wide margin to serve out the remainder of O 'Connor 's term , ending in 2010 . Ravenstahl was again a candidate for re @-@ election , this time for a full term , in the regularly scheduled November 2009 election . In the primary , he defeated City Councilman Patrick Dowd and attorney Carmen Robinson . Both candidates were able to tap into Democratic support ; however , neither were able to overcome Ravenstahl 's name recognition throughout the city . In the general election , the cross @-@ filed Ravenstahl faced and ultimately defeated independent candidates Franco " Dok " Harris , son of former Pittsburgh Steelers player Franco Harris , and Kevin Acklin , who would eventually become Bill Peduto 's Mayoral Chief of Staff after the 2013 election .
Ravenstahl had an unstable relationship with the Pittsburgh City Council throughout his term as Mayor , which included disagreements over the city budget . City Councilman Bill Peduto emerged as a political opponent of Ravenstahl 's , with Peduto mounting a primary election challenge against Ravenstahl in 2007 before dropping out a short time later . Prior to the 2013 election , Ravenstahl had not held a fundraiser since 2009 and it was uncertain whether or not he would seek another term ; however , an undisclosed source indicated to local news outlet KDKA in September 2011 that Ravenstahl would run for re @-@ election in 2013 .
= = Democratic primary = =
= = = Early developments = = =
Several candidates expressed interest in running in the May 21 , 2013 , Democratic primary election . Incumbent Luke Ravenstahl officially announced in November 2012 that he would seek re @-@ election to a second full term . In addition , Bill Peduto , who had run for Mayor of Pittsburgh in 2005 ( losing in the primary to fellow Democratic City Councilman and eventual winner Bob O 'Connor ) and again for a short time in the 2007 special election before dropping out prior to the primary , announced his candidacy in December 2012 and was immediately endorsed by Allegheny County Executive Rich Fitzgerald . City Controller Michael Lamb , who stated that he had " every intention " of running for Mayor , declared his candidacy in mid @-@ January 2013 . Jack Wagner , former Auditor General of Pennsylvania , also publicly expressed interest in the race and filed a petition to run in March . Wagner also reportedly considered an independent general election campaign .
Polling conducted between late December 2012 to mid @-@ January 2013 by Civic Science found that a race between Luke Ravenstahl and Bill Peduto would be within single digit percentage points . The polling firm , however , emphasized that the poll was not intended to provide two @-@ way race numbers and that the polling ( which was completed on January 16 ) did not include Michael Lamb , who had entered the race the next day . According to the poll , blue @-@ collar primary voters were more apt to support Ravenstahl while white @-@ collar primary voters were more apt to support Peduto .
On March 1 , 2013 , Ravenstahl announced that he would not seek reelection , reversing a prior decision to run for another term . The announcement came amid an investigation of fund use at the Pittsburgh Bureau of Police , although Ravenstahl did not make any indication that this had contributed to his decision to withdraw . In addition , Ravenstahl alluded in his announcement to the medical condition of his mother , who had been suffering " medical issues , " but did not indicate that this had contributed to the decision either . Ravenstahl stated that he would serve out the remainder of his term , ending in January 2014 . Shortly thereafter , City Council President Darlene Harris confirmed her intention to run . In addition , Jake Wheatley , Jim Ferlo , and Ricky Burgess became speculated candidates .
= = = After Ravenstahl 's withdrawal = = =
In early March 2013 , following the withdrawal of incumbent mayor Luke Ravenstahl , a poll conducted by Keystone Analytics found that Bill Peduto was leading the race , garnering the support of 30 percent of respondents . Jack Wagner was second with 20 percent of respondents voicing support . Nearly a quarter of respondents , 22 percent , remained undecided .
The filing deadline to appear on the Democratic primary ballot was March 12 , 2013 , at 5 : 00 PM EDT . At this point , seven candidates had formally filed petitions to run for Mayor of Pittsburgh : Jim Ferlo , Darlene Harris , Michael Lamb , Bill Peduto , A. J. Richardson , Jake Wheatley and Jack Wagner . Allegheny County Councilman Bill Robinson stated that he would run for Mayor despite not meeting the deadline for petitions to appear on the ballot . Jim Ferlo , despite filing to run , dropped out of the race three days later , on March 15 . On March 27 , Darlene Harris dropped out of the race . On the same day , Jack Wagner received endorsements from Pittsburgh police and firefighter unions , as well as former candidate and State Senator Jim Ferlo . Also on March 27 , Bill Peduto was endorsed by State Representative Ed Gainey .
Michael Lamb ended his campaign on April 1 , 2013 and endorsed Jack Wagner . Shortly thereafter , on April 3 , a judge ruled that Wagner could use the approximately US $ 300 @,@ 000 in his statewide campaign account , leftover from his campaigns for State Auditor and Governor of Pennsylvania , after the usage of these funds was challenged by fellow candidate Bill Peduto . Also on April 3 , local media reported that candidate A. J. Richardson was arrested for allegedly driving under the influence after having been found by police passed out in his vehicle . Following his release from jail , Richardson dismissed the allegation as an attempt to sabotage his candidacy for Mayor and expressed an intention to continue his campaign . However , Richardson stated at a Mayoral candidates debate that evening that he would plead guilty to the charges .
Another poll released by Keystone Analytics in early April found that the Democratic primary had become largely a two @-@ way race between Bill Peduto and Jack Wagner , with Wagner taking the lead following Michael Lamb 's withdrawal and endorsement . Wagner garnered 38 percent in the poll , with Peduto receiving the support of 31 percent of respondents . Candidates Jake Wheatley and A. J. Richardson garnered 4 and 1 percent , respectively .
Two additional polls , released in late April and mid @-@ May by Keystone Analytics , showed Peduto regaining the lead in the primary race . In the April poll , Peduto 's lead was within the plus or minus 4 @.@ 38 percent margin of error ; he led Jack Wagner 38 to 36 percent . Jake Wheatley received 5 percent support and A. J. Richardson received less than 1 percent . A poll released in mid @-@ May , with a plus or minus 4 @.@ 9 percent margin of error , suggested that Peduto had expanded his lead over Wagner . Peduto was supported by 39 percent of respondents , while Wagner had 36 percent . Wheatley and Richardson garnered 8 and 1 percent , respectively . An additional poll , commissioned by the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review and conducted by Susquehanna Polling & Research and released in the final week before the primary , also showed Peduto leading Wagner , 42 to 33 percent . The same poll showed Wheatley with 6 percent and Richardson with 1 percent .
= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Bill Peduto , Pittsburgh City Councilman
A. J. Richardson , school bus monitor
Jack Wagner , former Pennsylvania Auditor General
Joshua Wander , Republican candidate , also write @-@ in candidate for Democratic nomination
Jake Wheatley , State Representative
= = = = Withdrew = = = =
Jim Ferlo , State Senator ( withdrew March 15 , 2013 )
Darlene Harris , Pittsburgh City Council President ( withdrew March 27 , 2013 )
Michael Lamb , Pittsburgh City Controller ( withdrew April 1 , 2013 )
Luke Ravenstahl , incumbent Mayor of Pittsburgh ( withdrew March 1 , 2013 )
= = = = Declined = = = =
Wayne D. Fontana , State Senator
Dan Onorato , former Allegheny County Executive
Chelsa Wagner , Allegheny County Controller and niece of candidate Jack Wagner
= = = Polling = = =
^ Internal poll for the Bill Peduto Campaign
= = = Results = = =
In the end , Bill Peduto defeated Jack Wagner , Jake Wheatley and A. J. Richardson . Peduto gained a majority of the vote , with about 52 percent . Wagner , Wheatley and Richardson finished with about 40 , 8 and 1 percent , respectively . Peduto carried much of the vote in wards in and around Downtown and to the east , with the exception of one ward carried by Wheatley in the uptown section . Wagner was most successful in the South Side and portions of the North Side .
= = Republican primary = =
Only one Republican candidate for Mayor , Squirrel Hill resident Joshua Wander , filed a petition prior to the March 12 filing deadline to run as a Republican . In addition , Wander had stated an intention to run as a write @-@ in candidate for the Democratic nomination . Wander had previously run as a write @-@ in candidate for the Republican Mayoral nomination in the 2009 election , but was defeated by incumbent Mayor Luke Ravenstahl , also a write @-@ in candidate in the Republican primary . The Republican primary took place alongside the Democratic primary on May 21 , 2013 . Wander , having run unopposed , won the nomination .
= = = Candidates = = =
= = = = Declared = = = =
Joshua Wander
= = = Results = = =
= = General election = =
Bill Peduto and Josh Wander won the Democratic and Republican primaries , respectively , on May 21 , 2013 . In addition , City Council President Darlene Harris switched her party registration to " independent " on April 22 , 2013 , less than an hour prior to the deadline to be eligible as a third party candidate in the general election . August 1 was the deadline for third @-@ party candidates to file to appear on the ballot . Harris did not file to run prior to the deadline , however , and thus was not an official candidate . Independent activist Lester Ludwig was the only officially declared independent running .
As such , three candidates appeared on the general election ballot : Peduto , Wander and Ludwig . From the outset , Peduto was heavily favored by local media and political observers to win the election owing to the Democratic Party 's voter registration advantage in Pittsburgh , although Wander stated that it was not his sole intention to win the race , but rather to " convey a message that there is a choice . " Two debates had been scheduled in October 2013 , but Wander — who had been running his campaign from Israel , where he was working as a security consultant — and Ludwig did not attend . As a result , Peduto was the only candidate to attend the events , reformatting them as town hall events , and local television station WTAE @-@ TV cancelled an October 29 debate as Wander did not confirm that he would be able to attend . Ultimately , Bill Peduto defeated both Wander and Ludwig to be elected as the 60th Mayor of Pittsburgh and was inaugurated to succeed Luke Ravenstahl in January 2014 .
= = = Candidates = = =
Bill Peduto ( Democratic ) , Pittsburgh City Councilman
Joshua Wander ( Republican ) , Squirrel Hill resident
Lester Ludwig ( Independent ) , activist
= = = = Declined = = = =
Darlene Harris ( Independent ) , Pittsburgh City Council President
= = = Results = = =
= Hurricane Carrie =
Hurricane Carrie was the strongest tropical cyclone of the 1957 Atlantic hurricane season . The third named storm and second hurricane of the year , Carrie formed from an easterly tropical wave off the western coast of Africa on September 2 , a type of tropical cyclogenesis typical of Cape Verde @-@ type hurricanes . Moving to the west , the storm gradually intensified , reaching hurricane strength on September 5 . Carrie intensified further , before reaching peak intensity on September 8 as a Category 4 hurricane with maximum sustained winds of 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) in the open Atlantic Ocean . The hurricane curved northwards and fluctuated intensity before recurving to the west and restrengthening , attaining Category 4 intensity for a second time as it neared Bermuda on September 14 . However , Carrie passed well north of the island and turned to the northeast towards Europe . Weakening as it reached higher latitudes , the storm transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 23 , prior to affecting areas of the British Isles .
Due to its distance away from any major land masses , Carrie caused relatively minor damage along its path . On September 16 , the hurricane passed well north of Bermuda , causing minimal damage despite its intensity at the time , though hurricane reconnaissance flights in the area were postponed due to damage sustained by one of the aircraft . As it was transitioning to an extratropical cyclone southwest of the Azores , the German ship Pamir encountered the storm and capsized on September 21 , resulting in the deaths of 80 crew members on board . As an extratropical storm , Carrie brought strong storm surge and heavy rain to the British Isles , which claimed three lives . The hurricane 's long duration and path in open water also helped it attain a number of Atlantic hurricane records .
= = Meteorological history = =
In early September , a trough was identified along the western coast of Africa . Moving towards the west as a result of a strong Azores High , the disturbance passed over Cape Verde on September 2 . Observations from weather stations evidenced cyclonic rotation in the region . An airplane belonging to Panair do Brasil passed within the vicinity of the vorticity and as a result reported the formation of a tropical storm . In HURDAT — the official database listing all known Atlantic tropical cyclones since 1851 — the system was listed to have reached tropical depression intensity at 0600 UTC that day .
The depression continued to steadily intensify as it moved westwards , later reaching the equivalent of a modern @-@ day Category 1 hurricane by 0600 UTC on September 5 . On September 6 , the ship African Star encountered the hurricane 700 mi ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) west of Cape Verde . Reported winds of 92 mph ( 148 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 1001 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 56 inHg ) confirmed the existence of the tropical cyclone . A Weather Bureau forecaster remarked that the hurricane was in a " blind spot " at the time due to its location outside of shipping lanes and Hurricane Hunter reconnaissance missions . Throughout the day , the hurricane intensified , reaching major hurricane intensity by 0000 UTC on September 7 . Shortly after , a United States Air Force reconnaissance flight headed for Bermuda was diverted to observe the hurricane . The flight reported a well @-@ defined eye measuring 20 mi ( 32 km ) across and a minimum pressure of 945 mbar ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) , the lowest measured in relation to the hurricane . At the time , Carrie had maximum sustained winds of 135 mph ( 217 km / h ) , equivalent to a modern @-@ day Category 4 hurricane . Further strengthening ensued , and the hurricane peaked in intensity on September 8 with winds of 155 mph ( 249 km / h ) .
After reaching peak intensity on September 8 , Carrie began to gradually weaken due to a decreasing pressure gradient caused by a trough that had cut through the Azores High . By September 11 , the hurricane had degenerated into a Category 1 hurricane . A reconnaissance flight reported a minimum pressure of 984 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 06 inHg ) . At the same time , Carrie began to slowly curve towards the north in response to the trough . The storm later began to slowly reintensify , reattaining major hurricane strength by 1200 UTC on September 13 . The restrengthening of the subtropical ridge on September 14 caused the hurricane to quickly curve towards the northwest . This was accompanied by additional strengthening , and Carrie reached Category 4 hurricane intensity for a second time by 1800 UTC that day , later reaching a secondary peak intensity with maximum sustained winds of 150 mph ( 240 km / h ) . National Hurricane Research Project ( NHRP ) observers described the hurricane as " one of the most perfectly formed hurricanes they had seen . " Carrie began to steadily weaken again beginning on September 15 . As it passed north of Bermuda the following day , weather radar imagery from the island indicated that the hurricane had an ill @-@ defined structure , with its eye having expanded to 40 – 70 mi ( 64 – 113 km ) in diameter . However , as it curved and accelerated eastward in response to a second trough of low pressure , Carrie maintained hurricane intensity up until September 23 , when it transitioned into an extratropical cyclone . The remnant system continued eastwards until it dissipated over Ireland by 1800 UTC on September 28 .
= = Preparations , impact , and records = =
= = = Preparations and impact = = =
After reports confirmed the existence of a hurricane in the eastern Atlantic , the Weather Bureau warned shipping lanes in the storm 's path . Small craft warnings were issued for offshore areas from Block Island , Rhode Island south to Savannah , Georgia on September 7 due to the threat of rough seas . After Carrie stalled on September 11 , the Weather Bureau gave Florida a slight chance of being affected by the storm , but the possibilities of the storm affecting the peninsula decreased after the hurricane curved northwards . After the storm was forecast to potentially impact Bermuda , schools were closed in preparation for Carrie , while vessels were warned of the oncoming hurricane . Most planes in Kindley Air Force Base on the island were evacuated , with the remaining planes weighted down by sandbags . After passing Bermuda , the storm was forecast to strike Nova Scotia , but instead Carrie curved towards the northeast .
As the U.S. Air Force was maintaining continuous reconnaissance of the hurricane using converted Boeing B @-@ 50 Superfortresses , one of the planes lost an engine and was forced to fly back to West Palm Beach , Florida for repairs . Four other undamaged aircraft were called back to West Palm Beach , including a crippled ship , while two other B @-@ 50s were held at Bermuda . Passing well north of the island on September 16 , effects of Carrie on Bermuda were minimal , with peak gusts reaching only 35 mph ( 56 km / h ) .
The German barque Pamir , en route from Buenos Aires to Hamburg , Germany , encountered the hurricane southwest of the Azores on September 21 while carrying barley cargo . The ship sunk due to the effects of Carrie , and 80 people out of the 86 crew members on board the ship perished . The final message received from the Pamir was a distress call and indicated that the ship had lost all of its sails and had been listing at a 45 ° angle . A search and rescue operation ensued after the loss of the ship was reported , involving the U.S. Air Force and Navy , as well as the British Air Force and Navy . Other ships from Canada and Portugal were also involved in the search . All associated groups were inconclusive in their findings , with no sign of debris left from the ship . However , two lifeboats and a raft were found , but they were empty . As an extratropical storm , Carrie impacted the Azores , though damages , if any , remain unknown . The extratropical remnants of Carrie later struck the British Isles on September 24 and 25 , causing strong winds , waves , and severe flooding . Winds from the system were estimated at 50 mph ( 80 km / h ) . The strong waves caused extensive property damage and killed three .
= = = Records = = =
Lasting as a hurricane for 20 @.@ 75 days , Carrie was at the time tied for second in terms of longest @-@ existing Atlantic tropical cyclones , alongside the ninth hurricane of the 1893 Atlantic hurricane season and behind the 1899 San Ciriaco hurricane . Due to the hurricane 's long duration , the Weather Bureau office in San Juan , Puerto Rico issued 62 advisories on the storm , which was at the time the most ever issued in association with an Atlantic hurricane . Carrie 's long duration and distance from any land masses also contributed to its record travel distance of 6 @,@ 000 mi ( 9 @,@ 700 km ) . Hurricane Faith of 1966 surpassed this record after it traveled 6 @,@ 850 mi ( 11 @,@ 020 km ) . Hurricane reconnaissance flights throughout Carrie 's existence traveled further east than any previous flight due to the storm 's location far from any land masses . The initial flight on September 7 covered 3 @,@ 700 mi ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) and lasted for nearly 17 hours .
= Malkin Tower =
Malkin Tower ( or the Malking Tower or Mocking Tower ) was the home of Elizabeth Southerns , also known as Demdike , and her granddaughter Alizon Device , two of the chief protagonists in the Lancashire witch trials of 1612 .
Perhaps the best @-@ known alleged witches ' coven in English legal history took place in Malkin Tower on 10 April 1612 . Eight of those attending were subsequently arrested and tried for causing harm by witchcraft , seven of whom were found guilty and executed . The house may have been demolished shortly after the trials . The only firm evidence for its location comes from the official account by the clerk of the court , Thomas Potts , who places it somewhere in the Forest of Pendle . Archaeological excavations in the area have failed to discover any confirmed remains of the building .
Several explanations have been suggested for the origins of the word Malkin . Despite its name , Malkin Tower is likely to have been a simple cottage .
= = Toponymy = =
The name Malkin has several possible derivations : it was a familiar form of the female names Mary or Maud , and a term for a poor or shabby woman ; the similar mawkin was a word used to describe a lower @-@ class woman or slut . Malkin was also used as a term for a cat , particularly an old cat , as in grimalkin or grey malkin , and was an old northern English name for a hare , into which witches were said to be able to transfigure . It has also been suggested that the name was a combination of mal and kin as a slight to the residents of Malkin Tower , which local historian Arthur Douglas considers unlikely owing to the poor education of people in the area at that time . Another possibility is a corruption of malt kiln , which is supported by a claim made by Alizon Device that the family of Anne Whittle , also known as Chattox , had broken into their fire house .
Authors have speculated on a range of buildings that could account for the Tower appellation . Malkin Tower may have incorporated a Norman peel tower , built as a defence against Scottish raiders or might have been a disused poacher 's lookout , but it is more likely that despite its name Malkin Tower was a simple cottage . Historian W. R. Mitchell suggests that it was originally a small farm building , perhaps a shelter for fodder or livestock , which was converted into poor @-@ quality living accommodation . Poverty was not uncommon among the residents of the Forest of Pendle , hence the building may have been no more than a hovel , and tower may have been a sarcastic name given by local residents . It is almost certain that Southerns and Device did not own Malkin Tower but were tenants .
Malkin Tower is sometimes alternatively referred to as Malking Tower , or Mocking Tower .
= = Association with witches = =
On Good Friday , 10 April 1612 , Malkin Tower was the venue for perhaps the best @-@ known alleged witches ' coven in English legal history . The house was home to Elizabeth Southerns , also known as Demdike , and her granddaughter Alizon Device , two of the alleged Pendle witches .
On 21 March 1612 Alizon had a chance encounter with John Law , a pedlar from Halifax , who refused to sell her some pins . Law collapsed shortly afterwards and his son accused Alizon of being responsible . She and her grandmother were summoned to the home of local magistrate , Roger Nowell , on suspicion of causing harm by witchcraft . Both were arrested and detained in Lancaster Gaol , along with two other women . Friends of the Demdike family met at Malkin Tower on 10 April 1612 , allegedly to plot the escape of the four gaoled women by blowing up Lancaster Castle . Nowell learned of the meeting and , after interrogating Alizon Device 's " mentally sub @-@ normal " brother , James , concluded that Malkin Tower had been the scene of a witches ' coven , and that all who had attended were witches . Eight were subsequently accused of causing harm by witchcraft and committed for trial , seven at Lancaster Assizes and one at York .
= = Location = =
The location of Malkin Tower is uncertain . It may have been demolished shortly after the 1612 trials , as it was common at the time to dismantle empty buildings and recycle the materials . The building may also have been destroyed to eradicate the " melancholy associations " of the place . The official account of the trials written by Thomas Potts , clerk to the court , in his The Wonderfull Discoverie of Witches in the Countie of Lancaster mentions Malking Tower many times , but only describes it as being in the Forest of Pendle , a former royal forest that covered a considerable area south and east of Pendle Hill , extending almost to the towns of Burnley , Colne and Padiham .
One contender is in the civil parish of Blacko , on the site of present @-@ day Malkin Tower Farm ; since the 1840s claims have been made that old masonry found in a field wall is from the remains of the building . In The Lancashire Witch @-@ Craze , Jonathan Lumby conjectures that the building was situated on the moors surrounding Blacko Hill , near to an old road between Colne and Gisburn . Local folklore in the parish holds that the remains of Malkin Tower are buried in a field behind the nearby Cross Gaits Inn public house ; the tower used to be featured on the inn 's sign . The primary evidence supporting this location seems to be that a hollow in the hillside east of the farm is known as Mawkin Hole . It has been suggested that this is the same place mentioned in the 16th @-@ century halmote court records for the manor of Colne as Mawkin Yarde , described as being " in the north of Colne " , but anywhere inside the manor of Colne would have been outside the Forest of Pendle , and the first Ordnance Survey map of the area , created in the 1840s , identifies the farm as Blacko Tower . The site is also several miles from any of the traceable locations mentioned at the trial .
In 1891 local grocer Jonathan Stansfield constructed a solitary tower on the nearby summit of Blacko Hill . Today this is also commonly known as Blacko Tower , and is often confused with Malkin Tower . Although he claimed at the time that he wished to see into neighbouring valleys , historian John Clayton suggests that , aware of the story , he may have wished to provide the area with his own version .
Another possible location is somewhere near the village of Newchurch in Pendle . Douglas claims there is " persuasive " evidence that an area near Sadler 's Farm ( now known as Shekinah Christian Centre ) was the site of Malkin Tower ; there were numerous reports of alleged witchcraft in the area , and it was in the vicinity of other locations named during the trial such as Greenhead , Barley and Roughlee . Others involved in the trials were known to have lived in the area ; alleged witches Jane and John Bulcock resided at Moss End Farm in Newchurch , and John Nutter , whose cows were claimed to have been bewitched , lived at the neighbouring Bull Hole Farm . Southerns ' son Christopher Holgate also lived nearby . But neither the deeds of Sadler 's Farm , which date back to the 17th century , nor contemporary maps of the region mention Malkin Tower or any fields in which it may have stood .
Archaeological excavations have been undertaken in several locations in the Pendle Forest area , including Newchurch , but nothing has been found . A potential candidate for the lost Malkin Tower was announced in December 2011 , after water engineers unearthed a 17th @-@ century cottage with a mummified cat sealed in the walls , close to Lower Black Moss reservoir near Barley .
= 1988 Giro d 'Italia =
The 1988 Giro d 'Italia was the 71st running of the Giro d 'Italia , one of cycling 's Grand Tour races . The Giro started in Urbino , on 23 May , with a 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) individual time trial and concluded in Vittorio Veneto , on 12 June , with a 43 km ( 26 @.@ 7 mi ) individual time trial . A total of 180 riders from 20 teams entered the 21 @-@ stage race , which was won by American Andrew Hampsten of the 7 @-@ Eleven – Hoonved team . The second and third places were taken by Dutchman Erik Breukink and Swiss Urs Zimmermann , respectively . It was the third time – and second successive year – in the history of the Giro that the podium was occupied solely by non @-@ Italian riders .
In the first half of the race , the overall classification had been headed for several days by Massimo Podenzana . He had participated in a breakaway during stage 4a , which won him sufficient time to hold the race leader 's maglia rosa ( English : pink jersey ) for more than a week . Franco Chioccioli then wore the pink jersey for two stages before Hampsten took the general classification lead after the fourteenth stage . The fourteenth stage of the 1988 Giro , conducted in adverse weather including a snowstorm , has been recognized as an iconic event in the history of the Giro . After this stage , Hampsten began to build up a solid two @-@ minute barrier against the second @-@ placed rider , Breukink . This gap was sufficient to win Hampsten the race , despite losing around twenty seconds in the final two stages .
Hampsten became the first American , and non @-@ European , to win the Giro . He also won the secondary mountains and combination classifications , as well as the special sprints classification . In the other classifications , Fanini @-@ Seven Up rider Stefano Tomasini of Italy placed ninth overall to finish as the best neo @-@ professional in the general classification ; Johan van der Velde of the Gisgelati @-@ Ecoflam team was the winner of the points classification , and Carrera Jeans – Vagabond finished as the winners of the team classification .
= = Teams = =
Twenty teams were invited by the race organizers to participate in the 1988 edition of the Giro d 'Italia , twelve of which were based outside of Italy . Each team sent a squad of nine riders , which meant that the race started with a peloton of 180 cyclists . The presentation of the teams – where each team 's roster and manager were introduced in front the media and local dignitaries – took place on 22 May , in the courtyard of the Ducal Palace in Urbino . From the riders that began the race , 125 made it to the finish in Vittorio Veneto .
The teams entering the race were :
= = Pre @-@ race favorites = =
The starting peloton did not include the 1987 winner , Stephen Roche , who was sidelined for the majority of the 1988 season with a knee injury. l 'Unità writer Gino Sala , author Bill McGann and an El Mundo Deportivo writer named several riders as contenders for the overall classification , including Andrew Hampsten , Urs Zimmermann , Erik Breukink , Franco Chioccioli , and Pedro Delgado . Sala believed Jean @-@ François Bernard came into the Giro in great shape and that the French rider could win the race if he could do well in the time trials and the mountains . In addition , Bernard Hinault told Sala that if Jean Francois could do well in this edition of the Giro , he could one day lead a team in the Tour de France . Former Giro champion Gianni Motta thought Hampsten would win because of the effort he was expected to make on the Gavia Pass stage . Motta believed that Hampsten would excel there , while the Italian riders – the majority of the peloton – would not because they did not realize its difficulty and thought the Gavia was " just another climb . "
The 1986 Tour de France winner Greg LeMond entered the race with his PDM – Ultima – Concorde squad , after a break from cycling due to injuries sustained in a hunting accident . Due to this , Sala did not see him as a front @-@ runner for the overall victory . Swiss rider Tony Rominger also partook in the race and was considered by McGann and Sala as a dark @-@ horse candidate for the victory after experiencing success at the beginning of his season . Guido Bontempi was seen by Sala as a favorite to win a couple of stages . Before he injured his right knee earlier in the season during the Tour de Romandie , many newspapers also believed Moreno Argentin to be a favorite to take several stages . Stampa Sera writer Curzio Maltese believed that Flavio Giupponi could take one of the stages containing many categorized climbs which award mountains classification points , if properly supported by his team Del Tongo @-@ Colnago .
During the presentation of the teams , the riders were asked to choose their top picks for the overall victory . Roberto Visentini garnered the most votes from his fellow riders , but Delgado , Hampsten and LeMond also received many votes . Many media outlets felt that the overall victory would likely go to a non @-@ Italian rider due to the lack of Italian general classification competitors , but that Visentini had the best chance of winning out of competing Italians .
= = Route and stages = =
The route for the 1988 edition of the Giro d 'Italia was revealed to the public on television by head organizer Vincenzo Torriani , on 5 March 1988 . It contained four time trial events , three of which were individual and one a team event . The race organizers hoped that the number of time trials , including one on the last day , would keep the race hotly contested to the end . There were fifteen stages containing thirty categorized climbs , of which four had summit finishes : stage 6 , to Campitello Matese ; stage 12 , to Selvino ; stage 13 , to Chiesa in Valmalenco ; and stage 15 , to the Merano 2000 mountain . Another stage with a mountain @-@ top finish was stage 18 , which consisted of a climbing time trial to Valico del Vetriolo . The organizers chose to not include any rest days . When compared to the previous year 's race , the race was 336 km ( 209 mi ) shorter , contained one fewer rest day and individual time trial , and lacked a prologue . In addition , this race contained one fewer stage , but one more set of half stages . The race was televised in parts of Europe by the Italy 's national public broadcasting service , RAI .
The eleventh stage between Parma and Colle Don Bosco was cancelled due to protests near the finish line . The fifteenth stage was originally intended to be 132 km ( 82 @.@ 0 mi ) and to start in Bormio . However , due to very poor weather conditions , the start was moved to Spondigna and the stage was shortened to 83 km ( 51 @.@ 6 mi ) . The route originally had the riders crossing the Stelvio Pass , but it was skipped due to snowdrifts that had developed on the roads . Excluding the finish on the Merano 2000 , the stage was relatively flat after the adjustments .
In previous years , the organizers had made the race easier for the Italian favorites by including fewer hard climbs . With the absence of Italian Francesco Moser from this edition , the race organizers included many famous and difficult climbs , such as the Gavia Pass . Moser himself stated that the route contained many difficult climbs and was not helping Italian cycling to prosper at a time when he believed it to be ailing . When asked about the route for the 1988 edition , 7 @-@ Eleven – Hoonved rider Bob Roll said " Those sons of bitches put every mountain they could find in the race that year . " Three @-@ time winner Gino Bartali also believed the route to be very difficult and in favor of non @-@ Italian competitors . Gino Sala also felt the route was harsher than in years past and that the team time trial could influence the overall classification greatly . La Stampa writer Gian Paolo Ormezzano praised the route saying it was beautiful and well crafted but contained one flaw , in that the race did not finish in any major Italian city . He also expressed his delight with the uphill time trial to Valico del Vetriolo as well as the inclusion of the Stelvio , Rombo and Gavia mountain passes .
= = Race overview = =
The Giro began with a 9 km ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) time trial in the city of Urbino , which was won by Jean @-@ François Bernard with a three @-@ second margin over Tony Rominger . Guido Bontempi won the second stage and moved to third overall , while Bernard gained a five @-@ second buffer over the second @-@ placed rider , Rominger . In stage 4a , Massimo Podenzana soloed to victory in Rodi Garganico , five minutes ahead of the second @-@ place finisher . This victory and the respective time bonus allowed Podenzana to gain the maglia rosa , which he held until stage 12 . Stage 4b was a 40 km ( 24 @.@ 9 mi ) team time trial won by Del Tongo @-@ Colnago , eleven seconds ahead of Carrera Jeans – Vagabond . Podenzana 's lead shrunk to a little over two minutes after his team , Atala @-@ Ofmega , finished two minutes and thirty @-@ six seconds behind Del Tongo @-@ Colnago .
The eleventh stage was run without problems until the final mile , when environmentalist protestors occupied the finish line and forced the annulment of the stage . The protestors were upset with a nearby factory , owned by chemical manufacturer Montedison , which the protestors claimed had been polluting the Bormida river . The next stage was marked by the appearance of the major mountains and by Pondenzana conceding the maglia rosa to Franco Chioccioli . The ensuing stages saw the general classification shift more frequently due to the intensity of the mountains and fatigue .
The fourteenth stage was memorable for its extreme weather , most notably on the final climb of the Gavia Pass . Overnight , a large amount of snow had accumulated on the Gavia , but the roads were cleared in time for the riders . Despite the cold and adverse weather forecast , the patron , Vincenzo Torriani , decided to go ahead with the stage . As snow fell on the riders climbing the muddy roads of the Gavia , Hampsten attacked at the base of the mountain but was chased by Erik Breukink , who eventually caught up and passed the American with seven kilometers to go . Although Breukink won the stage , Hampsten made the bigger story by becoming the first American to don the maglia rosa in the history of the Giro d 'Italia .
The start of the fifteenth stage was moved ahead from
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the Hot Latin Songs chart , and " Pensar en Ti " received airplay in Mexico . To further promote the record , Miguel launched the 1993 Aries Tour to some Latin American countries and the United States .
Aries peaked at number one on the US Billboard Latin Pop Albums , where it stayed for 19 weeks . Internationally , the album was certified triple platinum in Mexico , where it sold over one million copies . It was also certified diamond in Argentina . Aries has sold over two million copies worldwide as of 2000 . Upon its release , the album received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reviews from music critics ; they were divided on the dance tunes and ballads , although Miguel 's vocals and the album 's arrangements garnered positive reactions . Miguel received several accolades , including a Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album .
= = Background and recording = =
In 1991 Miguel released his eighth studio album , Romance , a collection of classic boleros , the oldest of which originated in the 1940s . The album , which was produced by Armando Manzanero and arranged by Bebu Silvetti , was a success in Latin America and sold over seven million copies worldwide . It revived interest in the bolero genre and was the first record by a Spanish @-@ speaking artist to be certified gold in Brazil , Taiwan , and the United States . In spite of Romance 's success , Miguel did not want to release an immediate follow @-@ up to the album . When asked why he chose not to record more boleros , he replied " I wanted to try my music , just forgetting a little bit about those boleros that everyone knows " . He began working with the composers for the album a year before recording in a studio in 1992 ; in Miguel 's words , he wanted to " discuss the works , the themes , and melodies ; ... The creation of an album has to part of me or else I would not be able to interpret it , or in it " .
On 24 August 1992 , Mexican newspaper El Siglo de Torreón reported that Miguel had begun collaborating with David Foster and Juan Carlos Calderón for their compositions , along with English @-@ speaking composers , and selecting cover versions for the album . He also received assistance from Cuban composer Rudy Pérez and Dominican singer @-@ songwriter Juan Luis Guerra with the songwriting . Recording began on 4 July 1992 . Miguel had difficulty finding a suitable producer for the record ; he initially worked with American audio engineer Bruce Swedien , but decided to re @-@ record the whole album after disagreements with Swedien 's direction . Unable to find a producer , he decided to co @-@ produce the album with his long @-@ time associate Kiko Cibrian . Recording the album took almost a year and was affected by several complications , including its high budget of over US $ 1 @.@ 5 million , his father 's death , and an appendectomy . Miguel announced the name of the album would be Aries during a presentation at the 1993 Festival Acapulco . About the naming of the album he said , " This album expresses my personal self . I had a lot to do . I produced everything and wanted to have a lot of fun , take what I like , and what better than the zodiacal sign representing what one is . "
= = Composition = =
Aries is composed of ten tracks , six of which are " romance @-@ themed " ballads . The rest of the album consists of four dance numbers which San Antonio Express @-@ News editor Ramiro Burr describes as " pop groove " and R & B influences , and compared them to Miguel 's earlier recordings before Romance . Miguel said the mixture of ballads and uptempo music was done to " keep a steady musical line " because he did not want his music to be unrecognizable . The dance tunes " Suave " , " Dame Tu Amor " , and " Que Nivel de Mujer " are " upbeat , brass @-@ heavy , attitudinal numbers " while " Luz Verde " incorporates Latin hip hop and R & B. " Suave " features a saxophone solo with American musician Kirk Whalum and " Que Nivel de Mujer " is a Spanish @-@ language adaptation of " Attitude Dance " by American band Tower of Power . The band members assisted with the horn section in the song , which was led by one of its lead members Emilio Castillo . Miguel said he included the band 's song on the album because of his fondness for R & B in the 1970s , citing the group as one of his musical influences .
" Ayer " is a Spanish @-@ language cover of David Foster 's instrumental " All That My Heart Can Hold " with additional lyrics by Rudy Pérez . Burr characterized the song as a " lush ballad sung by Miguel in his stylistic romantic swagger that simultaneously conveys pride and pain " . Similarly , John Lannert wrote for the Sun @-@ Sentinel that the track was comparable to Romance 's " sparse lyrical muse and smooth musical backdrop " . Lannert also called Juan Luis Guerra 's composition " Hasta Que Me Olvides " an " emotion @-@ drenched love ode " and referred " Me Niego Estar Solo " and " Hasta El Fin " as " desperate confessionals about being out of love " . Achy Obejas of the Chicago Tribune labeled the ballads " Hasta El Fin " and " Tu y Yo " as " luxuriantly slow narratives of love lost " .
= = Singles and promotion = =
" Ayer " was released as the lead single from Aries on 17 May 1993 . It reached number one on the Billboard Hot Latin Songs chart in the United States the week of 17 July 1993 , and stayed there for three weeks . The three music videos for " Ayer " were directed by Benny Corral , Rubén Galindo , and Gustavo Garzón respectively . The music videos were filmed in a mansion in Mexico City . " Ayer " ended 1993 as the sixth @-@ best @-@ performing Latin song of the year in the United States . The album 's second single , " Hasta Que Me Olvides " , was released in August 1993 and reached number one on the Hot Latin Songs chart the week of October 23 , and remained there for three weeks . The album 's third single , " Suave " , was released in September 1993 and peaked at number nine on the Hot Latin Songs chart ; its music video was directed by Kiko Guerrero and features Miguel dancing with several women on a beach . In the United States , " Hasta el Fin " and " Tu y Yo " both peaked at number four on the Hot Latin Songs chart . " Pensar en Ti " received airplay in Mexico .
To promote the album , Miguel began his Aries Tour on May 22 at the 1993 Acapulco Festival in Mexico . After his performances in Mexico , he toured several countries in Latin America beginning with Argentina and later performed in the United States . His set list consisted mainly of pop songs and ballads from Aries and his earlier career , as well as boleros from Romance , which he performed during the second half of the concerts .
= = Commercial reception = =
Aries was released internationally on 22 June 1993 . However , pirated cassettes of the album were being sold for $ 1 in Mexico ten days before Aries was officially released . WEA Latina prepared 500 @,@ 000 copies to be distributed on release date , but after finding legitimate copies of the compact disc were already being sold on the pirate market , they recounted the copies stored in their warehouse and found only 300 @,@ 000 units . WEA Latina responded to the piracy by having a Mexican radio station play the whole album a few days before its release . In Mexico , the album was certified triple platinum and has sold over one million copies in the country . In the United States , it debuted and peaked at the number two on the Billboard Top Latin Albums chart ; it was held off the number one position by Gloria Estefan 's album Mi Tierra . Aries remained at this position until it was replaced by the Gipsy Kings 's album Love and Liberté 20 weeks later .
Aries peaked at number one on the Billboard Latin Pop Albums chart and stayed at the top for 19 weeks . Aries ended 1993 as the second best @-@ selling Latin pop album in the United States after Romance . In Argentina , the album peaked at number two on the album chart and was certified diamond by the Argentine Chamber of Phonograms and Videograms Producers for sales of 500 @,@ 000 copies . Elsewhere in South America , the album peaked at number one on the Chilean albums chart and was certified platinum in Colombia . Aries has sold over two million copies worldwide as of 2000 .
= = Critical reception = =
Upon its release , Aries received mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reactions from music critics . AllMusic editor Jose F. Promis gave the album 2 @.@ 5 stars out of five who found the ballads to be " sometimes a little too syrupy " . He complimented some of the dance tunes such as " Suave " and " Dame Tu Amor " , but said " Luz Verde " was a " somewhat dated attempt at early- ' 90s Latin hip @-@ hop R & B " . An editor for Billboard magazine wrote a favorable review of Aries , stating that Miguel " trades in nostalgic boleros for a stylish , up @-@ to @-@ date package " and called " Ayer " a " perfect transition track from Romance " . Chicago Tribune editor Achy Obejas gave the record 2 @.@ 5 stars out of four , calling it " a kind of middle ground between Romance and its lush ballads , and the bouncy pop of 20 Años , its immediate antecedent " . She praised Miguel 's vocals as " wonderfully nuanced and dramatic " , and said the ballads mostly " work " , but that " the uptempo tunes fall flat most of the time " . Enrique Lopetegui of the Los Angeles Times gave the album three stars out of four ; he lauded Miguel 's inclusion of " healthy elements of jazz and funk into his polished sound " and said he " returns to familiar territory accompanied by his usual superb arrangements and musicianship " .
At the 36th Annual Grammy Awards in 1994 , Miguel won the Grammy Award for Best Latin Pop Album for Aries . At the 6th Lo Nuestro Awards in the same year , the album won the award for Pop Album of the Year and Miguel was named Pop Male Artist of the Year . He also received two nominations in the category of Pop Song of the Year for " Hasta Que Me Olvides " and " Ayer " ; the latter track was also nominated Video of the Year . At the inaugural Billboard Latin Music Awards in 1994 , Miguel received two awards including Pop Album of the Year and Pop Male Artist of the Year . Miguel was awarded Best Male Singer , Best Male Show for the tour , and Best Disc for the album at the 1994 Eres awards .
= = Track listing = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
The following credits are from AllMusic :
= = = Performance credits = = =
= = = Technical credits = = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= Treehouse of Horror ( series ) =
The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror episodes , also known as The Simpsons Halloween specials , is a series of Halloween specials in the animated series The Simpsons , each consisting of three separate , self @-@ contained segments . These segments usually involve the Simpson family in some horror , science fiction , or supernatural setting . They take place outside the show 's normal continuity and completely abandon any pretense of being realistic . The first , entitled " Treehouse of Horror " , aired on October 25 , 1990 , as part of the second season and was inspired by EC Comics horror tales . The episodes are known for being far more violent and much darker than an average Simpsons episode . As of 2015 , there are 26 Treehouse of Horror episodes , with one airing every year .
Episodes contain several trademarks , including the alien characters Kang and Kodos , " scary names " in the credits , a special version of the opening sequence , and parodies of horror , science fiction and fantasy films . The show 's staff regard the Treehouse of Horror as being particularly difficult to produce , as the scripts often go through many rewrites , and the animators typically have to design new characters and backgrounds .
Many of the episodes are popular among fans and critics of the show and have inspired a whole offshoot of Simpsons merchandise , including action figures , playsets , video games , books , DVDs , comic books and a special version of Monopoly . Several of the episodes have won awards for animation and sound editing . In 1996 and 2013 , " Treehouse of Horror VI " and " Treehouse of Horror XXIII " were nominated for the Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( for Programming Less Than One Hour ) " category .
= = Segments = =
Treehouse of Horror episodes typically consist of four parts : an opening and Halloween @-@ themed version of the credits , followed by three segments . These segments usually have a horror , science fiction or fantasy theme and quite often are parodies of films , novels , plays , television shows , Twilight Zone episodes , or old issues of EC Comics . Although they are sometimes connected by " wraparounds " , the three segments rarely have any kind of continuing connection within the episode . The exception is " Treehouse of Horror V " , in which Groundskeeper Willie is killed by an axe in a similar fashion in all three segments . The episodes are considered to be non @-@ canon and always take place outside the normal continuity of the show .
From " Treehouse of Horror " to " Treehouse of Horror XIII " , all three segments were written by different writers . In some cases there was a fourth writer who wrote the opening and wraparound segments . For the original " Treehouse of Horror " , there were three different directors for the episode . Starting with season 15 's " Treehouse of Horror XIV " , however , only one writer has been credited with writing each Treehouse of Horror episode .
On occasion , the episodes will be used to showcase special animation , such as the " Treehouse of Horror VI " segment " Homer3 " , in which a computer @-@ animated Homer is shown in a non @-@ animated setting . At the time ( 1995 ) , it was groundbreaking , as it was unusual for a television show to use such animation . The segment was executive producer Bill Oakley 's idea and included live action directed by David Mirkin . " Treehouse of Horror XX " included the segment " There 's No Business Like Moe Business " , which was the first to be musically @-@ themed .
= = Traditions = =
= = = Opening sequence = = =
Every Treehouse of Horror episode opens with a special introductory segment . The first , second and fifth Treehouse of Horror episodes open with Marge standing on a stage and warning parents about the content of the episode , advising them to put their children to bed . The warning in the first episode was put in as a sincere effort to warn young viewers , as the producers felt it was somewhat scary . The entire segment was a parody of the opening of the 1931 film Frankenstein . Marge 's warnings quickly became a burden to write . After " Treehouse of Horror V " , they were permanently dropped and the writers did not make any attempts at reviving them .
Other Treehouse of Horror episodes have opened with parodies ; for example , " Treehouse of Horror III " had Homer introduce the episode in a manner similar to Alfred Hitchcock in Alfred Hitchcock Presents , " Treehouse of Horror IV " had Bart introduce the episode and segments in a manner similar to Night Gallery , and " Treehouse of Horror V " featured a parody of The Outer Limits . The sixth and seventh episodes featured short clips with no lines because the episodes had run long and longer segments were cut . Following " Treehouse of Horror VII " , the opening has been upwards of a minute long and sometimes featured an introduction by a character , such as Mr. Burns in " Treehouse of Horror XVII " or included over @-@ the @-@ top violence , such as " Treehouse of Horror VIII " ( which showed a Fox Network censor being brutally murdered ) and " Treehouse of Horror XIV " ( which showed the Simpson family killing each other ) .
In the opening segment of the first five episodes , the camera zooms through a cemetery where tombstones with humorous epitaphs can be seen . These messages include the names of canceled shows from the previous season , deceased celebrities such as Walt Disney and Jim Morrison and a tombstone with an inscription that read " TV violence " that was riddled with bullets as the camera panned on it . They were last used in " Treehouse of Horror V " , which included a solitary tombstone with the words " Amusing Tombstones " to signal this . The tombstone gags were easy for the writers in the first episode , but like Marge 's warnings , they eventually got more difficult to write , so they were abandoned . Another reason they were dropped was that the tombstones would list television shows that had been canceled the previous season ; after a few years , several of the shows that were canceled were produced by former Simpsons writers .
While the early Treehouse of Horror episodes featured a Halloween themed opening sequence , the later ones only included the title and the " created by " and " developed by " credits . Every episode between " Treehouse of Horror II " and " Treehouse of Horror X " featured a couch gag with a Halloween theme , including the Simpson family dressed as skeletons , zombies and characters from previous Halloween episodes .
= = = Wraparounds = = =
The first four Treehouse of Horror episodes had brief wraparounds that occurred before each segment and loosely tied together all three stories . " Treehouse of Horror " was the only one that actually included a treehouse as a setting . In that episode , Bart and Lisa sat in it telling stories to each other . " Treehouse of Horror II " presented all of the segments as being nightmares of Lisa , Bart and Homer ; " Treehouse of Horror III " had Lisa , Bart and Grampa telling stories at a Halloween party ; and " Treehouse of Horror IV " is presented by Bart in a parody of Rod Serling 's Night Gallery . After a few years , the amount of broadcast time for an episode was shortened , allowing less time to tell a proper story . There were no wraparounds for " Treehouse of Horror V " because they had been cut to make more time for the segments . Following that , the writers permanently dropped them .
= = = Kang and Kodos = = =
Two characters that are virtually exclusive to the Treehouse of Horror series are Kang and Kodos , a pair of large green space aliens who were introduced in the " Hungry are the Damned " segment of " Treehouse of Horror " . Kang and Kodos have since appeared in every Treehouse of Horror episode , sometimes as important parts of a story , but often just for brief cameos . In some episodes , they only appear in the opening segment , but often they will make a cameo appearance in the middle of a different story . For example , a story about zombies attacking the town briefly cuts to them in their space ship , watching the events and laughing maniacally at the Earthlings ' suffering . The action then switches back to the actual story . The unofficial rule is that they must be in every episode , although quite often they will be forgotten and are added at the last moment , resulting in only a brief appearance . Their scene in " Treehouse of Horror VIII " nearly did not make the final cut of the episode , but David X. Cohen managed to persuade the producers to leave the scene in .
= = = Scary names = = =
Beginning with " Treehouse of Horror II " , the producers decided to give the cast and crew of the show " scary names " in the opening and closing credits . Although the names quickly became more silly than scary , there have been a wide variety of special credits , from simple names like " Bat Groening " to complex ones like " David ² + S. ² = Cohen ² " . Sam Simon , who left the show during the fourth season but still receives " developed by " and " executive producer " credits , has ever since been listed in Treehouse of Horror episodes as " Sam ' Sayonara ' Simon " . Since his death in 2015 he has been credited simply by his real name .
The idea for " scary names " came from executive producer Al Jean , who was inspired by EC Comics because some of the issues also used " scary " alternate names . The " scary names " became such a burden to write that they were cut for " Treehouse of Horror XII " and " Treehouse of Horror XIII " , but after hearing complaints from the fans , Jean decided to bring them back . Matt Groening 's rule for the " scary names " is that they cannot be longer than a person 's real name , but this is rarely followed by anyone else .
= = = Cultural references = = =
References to films , novels , plays , television shows and other media are commonly featured , and many segments have been parodies of a specific work in the horror , science fiction or fantasy genre . Many segments are spoofs of episodes of The Twilight Zone and entire segments will be based on a single episode . Some of the Twilight Zone episodes parodied include " A Kind of a Stopwatch " , " To Serve Man " , " A Small Talent for War " , " Living Doll " , " Nightmare at 20 @,@ 000 Feet " , " Little Girl Lost " , and " The Little People " . The " Bart 's Nightmare " segment of " Treehouse of Horror II " parodies the episode " It 's a Good Life " and is even presented in a format similar to an episode of The Twilight Zone . The Halloween episodes also regularly parody horror and thriller films such as The Exorcist , The Amityville Horror , King Kong , Night of the Living Dead , The Shining , A Nightmare on Elm Street , The Fly , Psycho , Paranormal Activity , and Dead Calm . Robert Englund , who portrays Freddy Krueger in the Nightmare on Elmstreet franchise , had a cameo appearance in " Treehouse of Horror IX " as the character . Science fiction films have also occasionally been used as inspiration for segments , and in later episodes many of the segments were based more on science fiction than horror . Science fiction works parodied include The Omega Man , the novel Nineteen Eighty @-@ Four , E.T. the Extra @-@ Terrestrial and Orson Welles 's The War of the Worlds radio broadcast . In " Treehouse of Horror " , Edgar Allan Poe 's poem " The Raven " is read by James Earl Jones while the parts are acted by various characters . Recent parodies have included films and television specials in more varied genres , including Mr. & Mrs. Smith , It 's the Great Pumpkin , Charlie Brown , Transformers , Sweeney Todd , the Twilight film series , and Jumanji .
= = Production = =
The first Treehouse of Horror episode aired in 1990 as part of the second season , and its on @-@ screen title was " The Simpsons Halloween Special . " It was inspired by EC Comics Horror tales . Although every episode is entitled " Treehouse of Horror " , the first one was the only episode that actually used the treehouse motif . During production of the first episode , Matt Groening was nervous about " The Raven " segment , and felt it would be " the worst , most pretentious thing [ they had ] ever done . "
The Treehouse of Horror episodes are difficult for both the writers and the animators . The episodes were originally written at the beginning of the production run , but in later seasons they were written at the end and aired at the beginning of the next season as holdovers , giving the animators more time to work . Part of the difficulty for the animators is that the episodes always involve many complex backgrounds , new characters , and new designs . They are difficult for the writers because they must produce three stories , an opening and , in the early episodes , a wraparound . They would have to try to fit all of this into a 20 – 22 minute episode . The episodes often go through many last minute changes , with rewrites requiring new lines to be recorded . " Treehouse of Horror III " in particular underwent somewhere between 80 and 100 line changes in the six @-@ week period between the arrival of the animation from Korea and the airing of the episode . By the fourth season , executive producers Al Jean and Mike Reiss were less enamored of Treehouse of Horror episodes and considered dropping them , but the other writers insisted that they be kept .
Part of the attraction for the writers is that they are able to break the rules and include violence that would not make a regular episode . In some cases , the writers will have an idea that is too violent and far @-@ fetched or too short for a normal episode , but can be used as a segment in the seasonal special . Several of the writers , former executive producer David Mirkin among them , believe that the episodes should be scary and not just funny . " Treehouse of Horror V " has been described by Mirkin as being one of " the most intense , disturbing Halloween show ever " as it was filled with violence and gore in response to new censorship rules . Earlier " Treehouse of Horror " episodes began with Marge issuing a disclaimer that " if you have sensitive children , maybe you should tuck them into bed early tonight instead of writing us angry letters tomorrow . " However , these episodes seem mild compared to the carnage that followed in later episodes , according to Jean , who calls it " a societal thing " . He points out that his 10 @-@ year @-@ old daughter loves films like Coraline , and that , " [ in ] the age of scary stories [ ... ] appropriateness has gotten lower . "
Although gruesome for the most part , some segments , such as " Citizen Kang " in " Treehouse of Horror VII " , satirize political issues . The opening segment of " Treehouse of Horror XIX " featured Homer attempting to vote for Barack Obama but a rigged electronic voting machine instead registers a vote for John McCain . Rather than taking sides in the election , Al Jean says it is " mostly a comment on what many people to believe to be the irregularities in our voting system . [ sic ] " In " Treehouse of Horror XVII " , a segment called " The Day the Earth Looked Stupid " ends with Kang and Kodos taking over Springfield as part of a mission called " Operation : Enduring occupation " . The script originally called for Kodos and Kang to look over the smoking ruins of Springfield and say " This sure is a lot like Iraq will be . " The Fox network did not have any objection to the line , but it was rejected by some of the writers as too obvious and was cut from broadcast . While cut from the aired version , the line does appear in the " review " version sent to newspapers and magazines .
The first " Treehouse of Horror " episode was the first time that an alternate version of the theme that airs over the end credits was used . Originally it was supposed to use a theremin , but one could not be found that could hit all the necessary notes . Usually when the producers submit an episode for the Primetime Emmy Award for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " , they submit a Treehouse of Horror episode , and to date , seven episodes have been nominated . The closing of " Treehouse of Horror IV " features a version of the theme that is a combination of the instruments used in The Munsters theme song and the harpiscord and clicking from the Addams Family theme song .
Although Treehouse of Horror episodes are Halloween @-@ themed , for several years new episodes have premiered in November . This is due to Fox 's current contract with Major League Baseball 's World Series . Season 12 's " Treehouse of Horror XI " was the first episode to air in November . There have been several references to this in the show , such as in " Treehouse of Horror XIV " where Kang looks at a TV Guide and says , " Pathetic humans . They 're showing a Halloween episode ... in November ! " and Kodos replies " Who 's still thinking about Halloween ? We 've already got our Christmas decoration up . " The camera then cuts to a shot of the fireplace with Christmas decorations , and festive Christmas music plays over the opening credits . Season 21 's " Treehouse of Horror XX " aired October 18 , before the World Series , but the following year 's episode , " Treehouse of Horror XXI " , aired in November . Season 23 's " Treehouse of Horror XXII aired on October 30 , however , as the World Series ( which went the maximum of seven games ) had concluded on October 28 . As of 2011 each Treehouse of Horror episode has aired in the month of October .
= = Merchandise = =
There has been a variety of merchandise based on the Treehouse of Horror episodes , including books , action figures , comic books , video games , DVDs and a " Treehouse of Horror " version of Hasbro 's board game Monopoly . Although every Treehouse of Horror episode until " Treehouse of Horror XVI " has been released along with its season in a boxset , in 2003 , The Simpsons : Treehouse of Horror DVD was released . It includes Treehouse of Horrors V , VI , VII and XII . A Treehouse of Horror comic book has been published annually since 1995 , and collected into several books , including The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror Fun @-@ Filled Frightfest , Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror Spine @-@ Tingling Spooktacular , Bart Simpson 's Treehouse of Horror Heebie @-@ Jeebie Hullabaloo and The Simpsons Treehouse of Horror Hoodoo Voodoo Brouhaha . Several video games based on The Simpsons include levels with a Halloween theme , including The Simpsons : Hit & Run and The Simpsons Game . In 2001 , Fox Interactive and THQ released The Simpsons : Night of the Living Treehouse of Horror on Game Boy Color . The entire game has a Halloween theme as the player tries to save the Simpson family from the Treehouse of Horror .
Many of the special character designs featured in the episodes have become action figures . Four different playsets have been made by Playmates Toys and released as Toys " R " Us exclusives . The sets are :
The " Treehouse of Horror I " set was released in 2000 and included a cemetery playset as well as " Devil Flanders " , " Bart the Fly " , " Vampire Burns " , and " King Homer " . It also came with an " Evil Krusty Doll " and Gremlin as accessories .
The " Treehouse of Horror 2 " set was released in 2001 and included an interior alien spaceship playset as well as Kang , Kodos and " Alien Ship Homer " . The entire set was based on " Treehouse of Horror " .
The " Treehouse of Horror 3 " set was released in 2002 and included a playset based on the " Ironic Punishment Division " of Hell in " Treehouse of Horror IV " . It came with " Donuthead Homer " , " Witch Marge " , Hugo Simpson and " Dream Invader Willie " .
The final " Treehouse of Horror 4 " set was released in 2003 and included a playset based on Comic Book Guy 's " Collector 's all @-@ plastic lair " . It came with " The Collector " , " Clobber Girl Lisa " , " Stretch Dude Bart " and Lucy Lawless . All the designs were based on " Treehouse of Horror X " .
After the Playmates Toys sets were finished , McFarlane Toys produced four Treehouse of Horror themed playsets including the " Ironic Punishment Box Set " released in 2004 , the " In the Belly of the Boss — Homer & Marge Action Figures " released in 2005 , " The Island of Dr. Hibbert Box Set " released in 2006 , and a " Lard Lad Box Set " released in 2007 .
= = Reception = =
The Treehouse of Horror episodes are often among the top @-@ rated episodes of their seasons and many of the Treehouse of Horrors have generally been well @-@ received by fans . However , like The Simpsons itself , critics have noted a decline in the quality of the later episodes . In its first airing , " Treehouse of Horror " finished with a 15 @.@ 7 Nielsen rating and a 25 % audience share and would lose to The Cosby Show . It was said that it " set a level of excellence that viewers never expected creator Matt Groening to repeat " , although it was also described as " kind of stupid and unsatisfying " . " Treehouse of Horror V " is considered the best episode by several critics : it finished ninth on Entertainment Weekly 's top 25 The Simpsons episode list , fifth on AskMen.com 's " Top 10 : Simpsons Episodes " list , and was named best episode of the sixth season by IGN.com. In 2006 , James Earl Jones , who guest starred in " Treehouse of Horror " and " Treehouse of Horror V " was named seventh on IGN 's " Top 25 Simpsons Guest Appearances " list .
In 2006 , IGN.com published a list of the top ten Treehouse of Horror segments , and they placed " The Shinning " from " Treehouse of Horror V " at the top , saying it was " not only a standout installment of the annual Halloween episode , but of The Simpsons , period . " Rounding out the list were " Dial " Z " for Zombies " , " The Devil and Homer Simpson " , " Time and Punishment " , " Hungry Are the Damned " , " Clown Without Pity " , " Citizen Kang " , " If I Only Had a Brain " , " Bart Simpson 's Dracula " and " Starship Poopers " . The third , fourth and fifth episodes were each represented by two segments . The most recent episode on the list was " Treehouse of Horror IX " , which first aired in 1998 .
" Treehouse of Horror VII " is Simpsons creator Matt Groening 's seventh favorite episode , and the line he likes best is " We have reached the limit of what rectal probing can teach us . " " King Homer " of " Treehouse of Horror III " is one of Matt Groening 's favorite segments . " Treehouse of Horror III " is also noted for the moment where Homer shoots Ned Flanders and Bart says " Dad , you killed the Zombie Flanders ! " only for Homer to reply , " He was a zombie ? " It is also one of Groening 's favorite lines .
= = = Awards = = =
In 1996 , the " Homer ³ " segment of " Treehouse of Horror VI " was awarded the Ottawa International Animation Festival grand prize . In 1998 , " Treehouse of Horror VIII " won a Golden Reel Award for " Best Sound Editing – Television Animated Specials " ; the recipients were Robert Mackston , Travis Powers , Norm MacLeod and Terry Greene . Bob Beecher also received a nomination for " Best Sound Editing in Television Animation – Music " for " Treehouse of Horror X " .
The second , third , fifth , eighth , ninth , fourteenth and fifteenth and eighteenth Treehouse of Horror episodes were nominated for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Music Composition for a Series ( Dramatic Underscore ) " at the Primetime Emmy Awards . The second and third " Treehouse of Horror " episodes were also nominated for " Outstanding Individual Achievement in Sound Mixing for a Comedy Series or a Special " . In 1996 , " Treehouse of Horror VI " was submitted for the Primetime Emmy Award in the " Outstanding Animated Program ( For Programming less than One Hour ) " category because it had a 3D animation sequence , which the staff felt would have given it the edge . The episode failed to win and Bill Oakley later expressed regret about submitting the episode . The twenty @-@ third and twenty @-@ fifth Treehouse of Horror episodes were nominated for the same award in 2013 and 2015 respectively .
= Coast Veddas =
The Coast Veddas or Vedar , by self @-@ designation , form a social group within the minority Sri Lankan Tamil ethnic group of the Eastern province of Sri Lanka . They are primarily found in small coastal villages from the eastern township of Trincomalee to Batticalao . Nevertheless , they also inhabit a few villages south of Batticalao as well . They make a living by fishing , slash and burn agriculture , paddy cultivation of rice , basket weaving for market and occasional wage labor . Anthropologists consider them to be partly descended from the indigenous Vedda people , as well as local Tamils . Residents of the Eastern province consider their Vedar ( Tamil for " hunter " ) neighbors to have been part of the local social structure from earliest times , whereas some Vedar elders believe that their ancestors may have migrated from the interior at some time in the past .
They speak a dialect of Sri Lankan Tamil that is used in the region . During religious festivals , people who enter a trance or spirit possession sometimes use a mixed language that contains words from the Vedda language . Most Vedar are Hindu Saivites and worship a plethora of folk deities , as well as the main Hindu deities such as Murugan , Pillaiyar and Amman . They also maintain the ancestor worship tradition of the interior Veddas . Clan divisions , if they still exist , do not play an important role in choosing of marriage partners or place of domicile . Most identify themselves as a caste among the Tamils as opposed to a separate ethnic group . Their economic conditions have been impacted by the Sri Lankan civil war .
= = Identity = =
Western observers such as James Emerson Tennent ( 1858 ) and Charles Gabriel Seligman ( 1911 ) have termed the social group Coast Veddahs , Coast Verdas or East Coast Veddas . Anthropologists have considered them to be at least partly descended from the Veddas of the interior of the island who had migrated at some unknown period in the past to the east coast , intermarrying with the local Tamils . Interior Veddas clans themselves have a number of divisions , each claiming either Sinhalese , Tamil , mixed , or pure Vedda lineages . Vedda identity also depends on whether these clans are hunter @-@ gatherers or settled agriculturalists . Settled Veddas have tended over a period of time to assume Sinhalese or Tamil identity based on the area of residence . If considered a subdivision of Veddas , then they are by far the largest sub @-@ group amongst the Vedda people . Residents of Eastern Province consider those who maintain a primitive life style , or are partly dependent on hunting and gathering , as Vedar without any connotations of ethnic origins .
Vedar are not designated as an indigenous community of Sri Lanka . They are placed within the Sri Lankan caste system . Vedar sometimes refer to themselves as " Veda Vellalar " , thus claiming a high caste ranking ( the Vellalar are given the highest ritual position within the caste structure of Sri Lankan Tamils in many regions ) . They also claim to marry into the higher castes of the neighboring region , such as Karaiyar . But some higher ranked castes did not consider Vedar quite their equals , although still placing them above the lower castes . Members of the Karaiyar caste sometimes downplayed their connections to Vedar as there was stigma attached to such unions . Field studies have indicated that mixed marriages across all caste groups of the eastern littoral was possible with Vedar . Vedar themselves claimed that they would not marry into lower Tamil castes such as Ambattar ( barbers ) , Vannar ( washerman ) and Pallar ( agricultural workers ) , but field studies indicated that such unions did sometimes take place .
Once a non @-@ Vedar married into a Vedar family , he or she was assimilated as part of the Vedar village . Almost all Vedar families had an ancestor who was Tamil or a family member who was married to a Tamil from a neighboring village .
Some Vedar have gradually lost most aspects of their aboriginal identity and culture and no longer identify themselves as Vedar . During the 1980s and 1990s , most Vedar families were displaced from their native villages due to the effects of the Sri Lankan civil war and were placed in refugee camps along with other Tamil refugees .
= = History = =
Ancestors of Vedar migrated to Sri Lanka via the Indian sub continent during the pre @-@ historic period . A number of Mesolithic sites have been excavated containing human remains dated to 35 @,@ 000 BCE . Anthropologists consider these skeletal remains to belong to a group ancestral to some of the surviving Vedar groups . Sri Lanka has also yielded Megalithic burial sites , one of which was excavated close to a present Vedar settlement , Kathiraveli . The precise time in which some of the Vedar lineage founders migrated to the east coast of Sri Lanka is unknown . The earliest written reference to Vedar is a Tamil chronicle , Nadukadu paraveni kalvettu , which is maintained amongst the custodians of a prominent Hindu temple in the town of Tirukovil in the Ampara District . It is a Tamil 14th to 16th @-@ century original text . The chronicle documents the presence of a people who practiced hunting and gathering for survival , exercising jurisdiction over vast jungle tracts close to the Akkaraipattu township . It names a number of Vedar chiefs , such as Kadariyan and Puliyan . These Vedars were not just hunter @-@ gatherers , but were also accepted as the rightful owners of the forest lands .
Emerson ( 1858 ) documented the presence of Vedar north of Eravur who subsisted by fishing or helping the traditional fisherfolk , as well by cutting wood for Muslim traders . He speculated that there were then at least 400 to 500 individuals in the group . He also recorded that it was the British colonial officers , as well as Weslyan missionaries who provided land for them to start cultivating yams and other vegetables .
Neville ( 1890 ) and Seligman ( 1911 ) also documented the presence of a subdivision of Vedar called Kovil Vanam ( " Temple precincts " in Tamil ) within the southern edges of the Batticalo District ; their name suggests they had originally lived in the jungles close to the Kataragama temple in the Hambantota District in the Southern Province . By the early 1900s these Vedar had mingled with the local Tamils and Sinhalese and were not encountered as a separate group any more . Local legends attribute the origins of some Hindu temples in the eastern province to the presence of Vedar . Important Hindu temples in villages such as Kokkadichcholai and Mandur have such Vedar creation legends . But Vedar are no longer associated with either the ownership or maintenance of these regionally important temples .
= = Culture = =
= = = Clans and family organization = = =
Clans of the interior Veddas
Interior Veddas have clans called Waruge or Variga that were named after trees , animals or places of origin . Seligman speculated that these clans were territorial , thus hunting territory was divided amongst the clan , not to be violated by members of other clans . These clans were :
Morana ( after Mora tree )
Unapana ( Water )
Namudana ( Namuda tree )
Ura ( Wild boar )
Ambilo ( Ant )
Tala ( Plains )
Rugam ( Village name )
Kovil Vannam ( Temple precincts )
Among these , the Morana and Unapana clans claimed superior status to Namudana , Ambilo and Ura clans . Seligman reported that Morana and Unapana clans considered the other three as their servile groups , a classification strongly denied by the others . This also led to so @-@ called servile groups denying such clan association when questioned and claiming Morana or Unapana clan origins .
Retention of Clan system amongst Vedar
When Seligman inquired about the Waruge divisions of the Vedar , most of them did not remember their clan origins . Of those who remembered , most self @-@ identified as Ura Waruge . Others mentioned clans such as Ogatam , Kavatam , Umatam , Aembalaneduwe and Aembale . They also had memories of other clans such as Morana and Unapana . By the 1980s the Vedar had no knowledge of any word Waruge , although they vaguely used the Tamil term Vamisam ( family origin ) to indicate some division amongst them . Some had come up with a two @-@ fold division of the Vedars based on the Kuti or matrilineal descent system popular in the East coast . These Kutis were supposed to have descended from former local chiefs called Vanniyar , who had ruled feudal divisions called Vannimai . But these clan divisions and related rules of endogamy were not totally followed by all Vedar , and there no practical prohibitions from marrying from each Kuti .
As with local Tamils , the preferred marriage pattern is based on cross cousin preference . Parallel cousins are considered brothers and sisters and are ineligible as partners . As most marriages take place between first and second cousins , clan endogamy even it is present is of no value . Within a village , most of the residents are related and this carries on over to villages that are three to five miles away as well . The longer the distance the more distantly are the villagers related to each other . Related lineages also maintain places of worship that are the private property of the family group .
= = = Religion = = =
Vedar are nominally Hindus ; they were known to wear the marks of Saivite Hinduism such as Vibuthi ( " sacred ash " ) on their forehead even in the 19th century . According to local legends , Vedars are considered to be the builders of most of the regional Hindu temples associated with Hindu high god Murugan . Although Vedars frequent regionally important Hindu temples and shrines associated with high Hindu deities such as Murugan , Pillaiyar and Siva , they propitiate local deities of folk Hinduism , who are sometimes unique to Veddars . Most of the folk deities are also commonly propitiated by other local Tamils such as Vairavar , Virapathirar , Kali and Narasingan . Seligman ( 1911 ) encountered two unique deities , Kapalpei ( “ Ship spirit ” ) and Kumara Deivam ( “ Young god ” ) who are peculiar to Vedar . The cult of Kappalpei is based on legends of foreigners coming over by ships and landing along the coast where the Vedar usually lived . They are propitiated to ward off evils and hard times . Kumara Deivam was also noted amongst the primitive Sinhalese village of Gonagolla in the Ampara District known as Kumara Devio . Jon Dart in the 1980s found that these deities were no longer worshipped , but were replaced by the Periyasami cult .
The worship pattern is a combination of Devil @-@ dancing called Sandangu ( " ceremony " in Tamil ) and orthodox Hindu Agamic rituals . The devil @-@ dancing is unique to Vedar , but the aspect of spirit possession as a part of devil dancing is not unique to Vedar . Locals Tamils also experience spirit procession and trance states during religious festivals . During devil @-@ dancing ceremonies , related family groups congregate in family @-@ owned worship centers and build platforms known as Pandals . These Pandals may have a weapon , such a lance known as a Vel , installed in their middle , a construction similar to the Kirikoroha function of the interior Veddas as well . Male family members dance throughout the night and as part of the ceremony some become possessed by spirits , sometimes those of their recently diseased family members . This pattern is similar in nature to the ancestor @-@ worshipping patterns of the interior Veddas . Most of the Sadangu locations are temporary ones without related permanent structures over them , but some have been turned into temples . In the village of Palchennai , one of these temporary structures has become a temple now identified with Hindu high god Vishnu . Vedars also participate in Tamil folk dramas called Kuttus that depict scenes from Hindu epics such as Mahabharatha and Ramayana .
= = = Language = = =
Vedar use the Sri Lankan Tamil dialect peculiar to the region , known as Batticaloa Tamil dialect , in their day to day conversations . Vedar children also study in that language in schools . During Sadangu ceremonies , those who are possessed by spirits speak in a mixed language that they call Vedar Sinkalam ( Vedar Sinhala " ) or Vedar Bhasai which is the Vedda language of the interior Vedas . This Vedar Sinkalam is mixed with many Tamil words , as people no longer know the language . There is evidence at some point in the past that the people were bilingual in Vedda language and Tamil , but that is no longer the case .
= = Geographic distribution = =
Native chronicles have documented the presence of Vedar or Vedar @-@ like people throughout the island from the beginning of the historic period . Vedar presence in the present Eastern province has been noted during the Kandyan Kingdom period ( 1469 to 1815 ) . Tennent noted that Vedars were found chiefly from Eravur to Venloos Bay . The 1946 Sri Lankan census returned 44 Vedar villages . The largest concentration of villages was close to the Vaharai peninsula ; predominantly Vedar villages there included Ammenthnaveli , Kandaladi , Komatalamadu , Palchennai , Puliyankandadi , Oddumadu , Thaddumunai , Uriyankadu , and Vammivattavan . Vedar are also found further south , in Panichankerni , Mankerni and Kayankerni . There are also Vedars close to Kalkudah , in a village called Pallanchenai , and in the Trincomalee District , between the towns of Muttur and Foul Point .
= = Economic status = =
Native chronicles such as Nadu Kadu Paraveni Kalvettu mention the socio @-@ economic status of the Vedar as that of primitive hunter gatherers . The chronicles also mention that the chiefs amongst them received gifts such as clothes from settlers and state that the Vedar in turn provided meat and honey to the settler population , indicating a system of barter trade between the groups . Vedar also seem to have provided manual labor to clear forest lands , in exchange for an annual portion of the food crops harvested . When Tennent visited the east coast in 1858 , the Vedar were living in houses that were made of mud and thatch . They were moved seasonally from place to place dependent on the availability of fish and other game . They were surviving primarily as fishermen , as well as wage laborers working for timber merchants , cutting and transporting timber from the forests . By the time Seligman visited them in 1911 , he considered the Vedar subdivision to be economically better off than the rest of the Indigenous population of the interior . He attributed this to the assimilation of Tamil economic and cultural values by the Vedar clans , as well as to absorption of non @-@ Vedar Tamils into Vedar families by intermarriage . Studies done in the 1980s by the anthropologist Jon Dart , indicated that Vedar in general were poorer than the rest of the Tamil and Muslim communities of the Eastern Province , which Dart attributed to their physical isolation in remote villages , as well as prevailing cultural norms that prevented them from fully integrating within the society . His studies did indicate that some Vedar had successfully integrated in Eastern society , with worldly possessions that did not much differ from those of their non @-@ Vedar neighbors . The marked impact of the Sri Lankan civil war was also noted , due to the proximity of the Vedar 's native villages to the theaters of operations of both rebel LTTE and government forces . ( See Vaharai bombing )
= 1917 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team =
The 1917 Georgia Tech Golden Tornado football team represented the Georgia Institute of Technology ( commonly known as Georgia Tech ) in American football during the 1917 college football season as a member of the Southern Intercollegiate Athletic Association ( SIAA ) . The Golden Tornado , coached by John Heisman in his 14th year as head coach , compiled a 9 – 0 record ( 4 – 0 SIAA ) and outscored opponents 491 to 17 on the way to its first national championship . Heisman considered the 1917 team his best , and for many years it was considered " the greatest football team the South had ever produced " .
The backfield of Albert Hill , Everett Strupper , Joe Guyon , and Judy Harlan led the Golden Tornado , and all four rushed for more than 100 yards in a 48 – 0 victory over Tulane . During the regular season Georgia Tech defeated strong opponents by large margins , and its 41 – 0 victory over eastern Penn shocked many ; Davidson , with Buck Flowers ( a future Tech star ) , was defeated 32 – 10 . Tech 's 83 – 0 victory over Vanderbilt is the worst loss in Vanderbilt history , and its 63 – 0 defeat of Washington & Lee was the worst loss in W & L history at the time . Tech finished the season by defeating Auburn 68 – 7 , clinching the conference title . Davidson and Auburn were the only teams to score points against Georgia Tech .
= = Before the season = =
Because of the American entry into World War I in April , several SIAA schools did not field football teams . However , Georgia Tech had an increasing enrollment and bright prospects for its football team after its undefeated 1916 season . Losses from the previous season 's team included guard Bob Lang and fullback Tommy Spence .
In 1917 football used a one @-@ platoon system , in which players played both offense and defense . Fifteen of the 21 players on the 1917 roster were from the state of Georgia , and 10 of its 11 starters came from Georgia high schools . The team 's captain was tackle Walker " Big Six " Carpenter . Its renowned backfield consisted of quarterback Al Hill , halfback Everett Strupper , halfback Joe Guyon , and freshman fullback Judy Harlan .
Coach John Heisman 's swift backfield used the pre @-@ snap movement of his " jump shift " offense , and Al Hill led the team in carries . Ev Strupper , arguably the best of the four , was partially deaf ; because of his deafness , he called the signals instead of the team 's quarterback . When " Strupe " tried out for the team , he noticed that the quarterback shouted the signals every time he was to carry the ball . Realizing that the loud signals would be a tip @-@ off to the opposition , Strupper told Heisman : " Coach , those loud signals are absolutely unnecessary . You see when sickness in my kid days brought on this deafness my folks gave me the best instructors obtainable to teach me lip @-@ reading . " Heisman recalled how Strupper overcame his deafness : " He couldn 't hear anything but a regular shout . But he could read your lips like a flash . No lad that ever stepped on a football field had keener eyes than Everett had . The enemy found this out the minute he began looking for openings through which to run the ball . "
Joe Guyon , the team 's best passer , was a Chippewa Indian who was born on the White Earth Indian Reservation ; his brother , Charles " Wahoo " Guyon , was the assistant coach . Guyon had played for Pop Warner at Carlisle , and had to sit out the 1916 season in accordance with conference transfer rules . He ran through ( and over ) opponents , in contrast to Strupper 's dodging style . Judy Harlan said about Guyon , " Once in a while the Indian would come out in Joe , such as the nights Heisman gave us a white football and had us working out under the lights . That 's when Guyon would give out the blood curdling war whoops . "
= = Schedule = =
= = Game notes = =
= = = Week 1 : Furman and Wake Forest = = =
The Golden Tornado opened its season on September 29 with a doubleheader in three inches of mud .
= = = = Furman = = = =
In the first game Georgia Tech defeated Furman 25 – 0 , playing mainly substitutes . Hay was spread on the field in an attempt to counteract the steady downpour . Tech quarterback Al Hill scored two touchdowns , and Dan Whelchel ( called Walthall ) scored a third when he recovered a fumble by Theodore Shaver after crossing the goal line . Although Furman 's lineup included future South Carolina Hall @-@ of @-@ Famer Speedy Speer , there was little Speer could do to affect the outcome . Tech 's starting lineup was Ulrich ( left end ) , Higgins ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Johnson ( center ) , Wright ( right guard ) , Doyle ( right tackle ) , Colcord ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Smith ( left halfback ) , Shaver ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = = Wake Forest = = = =
After the Furman game , the rain subsided and Tech defeated the Wake Forest Demon Deacons 33 – 0 . Ev Strupper and Joe Guyon had sat out the previous game . The first touchdown was on the play after Strupper dashed around end for a 17 @-@ yard gain ; Guyon 's first carry from scrimmage for Tech was a 75 @-@ yard run .
Strupper scored the second touchdown on a short drive set up by his 40 @-@ yard punt return . Early in the second quarter , Strupper shot through the line for 70 yards and the third touchdown . Tech 's fourth touchdown required considerable effort and a methodical drive , ending in a 15 @-@ yard dive for a touchdown by Strupper . End runs by Guyon and Simpson 's line plunging set up the fifth ( and final ) touchdown with Guyon 's 6 @-@ yard run . Strupper ran for 198 yards and three touchdowns on nine carries . Tech 's starting lineup was Bell ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Thweatt ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Rogers ( right tackle ) , Carpenter ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Armsley ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 2 : Penn = = =
In the second week of play , Georgia Tech beat Penn 41 – 0 . Bernie McCarty called it " Strupper 's finest hour , coming through against powerful Penn in the contest that shocked the East . " In comparison , Pop Warner 's undefeated Pittsburgh defeated Penn 14 – 6 . Penn was the first northeastern powerhouse to lose to a team from the South . Both Strupper and Hill rushed for more than 100 yards . Tech outgained Penn 276 yards to 11 at halftime . According to the Florida Times @-@ Union , " The result ... demonstrates that the large Eastern colleges will have to reckon with some of those of Dixieland in future . "
Tech baffled Penn by playing conventionally instead of using its regular shift . On its second play from scrimmage less than two minutes into the game Strupper ran around his end , " winding and twisting out of a mass of Red and Blue players " for a 68 @-@ yard touchdown . Walker Carpenter brushed two tacklers out of the way , side @-@ stepping Penn safety Joe Berry before running the last 30 yards . Tech " scored again in this period before Pennsylvania had recovered from its bewilderment " , a touchdown by Hill . For the last score of the half , Strupper made a short run behind guard .
Penn did not have a first down in the first half , as the Tech defense played well . Hill scored a touchdown in the third quarter on a 27 @-@ yard run through the line . Penn 's only scoring opportunity was in the third quarter . After another Al Hill touchdown and the kickoff return , Penn worked five complete forward passes in quick succession ( one 23 yards ) to reach Tech 's 6 @-@ yard line . The Tech defense responded , and Penn turned the ball over on downs . On first down , Carpenter threw Penn back for a 6 @-@ yard loss and a pass was incomplete on second down . On third down , Penn 's quarterback dropped back to pass Carpenter and William Higgins tackled him on the 25 @-@ yard line . On fourth down , Penn came out in a " freak formation " and its pass was incomplete . In the fourth quarter , Judy Harlan had a 65 @-@ yard interception return for a touchdown . Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Whelchel ( left tackle ) , Fincher ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Thweatt ( right tackle ) , Carpenter ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 3 : Davidson = = =
The Davidson Wildcats , which scored the most points against Tech ( 10 ) , included future Tech running back Buck Flowers in his freshman year . Unlike Tech 's other 1917 opponents , Davidson held its backs to less than 100 yards rushing . Writer Bernie McCarty considered Davidson the second @-@ best southern team that year .
The game 's first score of the game was in the second quarter , when Davidson 's Buck Flowers converted a 28 @-@ yard drop kick field goal for a 3 – 0 lead . Set up by a 27 @-@ yard run around end by Davidson fullback R. C. Burns , Al Hill prevented Burns from scoring a touchdown by tackling him from behind . Strupper and Guyon then worked the ball close to the goal ; Strupper was forced out of bounds , and Hill scored a touchdown .
Tech led 6 – 3 when Strupper broke the game open in the second half . After a fumble by Strupper , Hill caught a pass from the 22 @-@ yard line and ran in for a touchdown . Strupper made the next touchdown after Tech ran through Davidson 's right guard . Strupper then recovered a punt fumbled by Flowers on Davidson 's 30 @-@ yard line , leading to a score by Hill from 18 yards out on a criss @-@ cross run . Davidson scored its only touchdown on a forward pass . From midfield , quarterback Henry Spann hit end Georgie King on a 50 @-@ yard touchdown pass that went 30 yards in the air , catching Tech by surprise . For Tech 's last score , Judy Harlan returned an interception 40 yards for a touchdown .
The defense of Walker Carpenter and William Thweatt was the game 's highlight . Tech made 16 first downs and Davidson 13 . Neither Pup Phillips nor Ham Dowling played in this game , with Bill Fincher replacing Phillips at center . The umpire was F. F. Wood , and Boozer Pitts was the head linesman . Davidson captain George King said , " I consider Georgia Tech the best football team I have ever played against or ever expect to play against . " Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Whelchel ( left tackle ) , Higgins ( left guard ) , Fincher ( center ) , Rogers ( right guard ) , Thweatt ( right tackle ) , Carpenter ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 4 : Washington & Lee = = =
In a 63 – 0 victory against the Washington & Lee Generals , Tech made 35 first downs to Washington & Lee 's five . At the time , it was the Generals ' worst loss . According to Judy Harlan , Joe Guyon knocked a Washington & Lee player out of the game by " wearing an old horse collar shaped into a shoulder pad but reinforced with a little steel " . The player may have been Turner Bethel , who was knocked out of the game and taken to a local hospital .
" The game was never in doubt after ' Strup ' got away for his first long run " , a 35 @-@ yarder followed a few minutes later by his 16 @-@ yard touchdown run . Although Strupper only played in the first half because of a leg injury , he gained 128 yards in addition to scoring the touchdown . Al Hill scored four touchdowns , Guyon three , and Pup Phillips also had one with a 30 @-@ yard interception return . Tech 's starting lineup was Ulrich ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 5 : Vanderbilt = = =
Tech 's 83 – 0 defeat of the Vanderbilt Commodores was the worst in Vanderbilt history . " It was not until 1917 that a Southern team really avenged long @-@ time torment at McGugin 's hands . And it took one of history 's top backfields – Joe Guyon , Ev Strupper , Al Hill , and Judy Harlan of Georgia Tech – to do it , " writes Edwin Pope . The team was not the Commodores ' worst , and had defeated Alabama . Joe Guyon was the game 's star ; according to Morgan Blake , " Guyon has been great in all games this year . But Saturday he was the superman " . Guyon ran nine times for 124 yards , with kick returns for 95 yards and 80 yards passing . He scored on 48- and one @-@ yard runs , had a 75 @-@ yard kick return to set up a touchdown , and threw a pass to Shorty Guill for a score . Ev Strupper ran for four touchdowns and 147 yards in 14 carries , returning five punts for 111 yards . Al Hill ran 169 yards in 25 carries , scoring three touchdowns , and Judy Harlan carried 15 times for 132 yards and two touchdowns .
Vanderbilt captain Alf Adams praised the Tech team : " Tech 's magnificent machine won easily over Vanderbilt . It was simply the matter of a splendid eleven winning over an unseasoned , inexperienced team . Tech played hard , clean football , and we were somewhat surprised to meet such a fair , aggressive team , after the reports we had heard . I think that Vanderbilt could have broken that Tech shift if we had had last year 's eleven . Being outweighed , Vanderbilt could not check the heavy forwards , or open up the line . Thereby hangs the tale . " Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 6 : at Tulane = = =
Tech played coach Clark Shaughnessy 's Tulane Olive and Blue for its only road game , winning 48 – 0 . Against a solid foe with a 5 – 3 record , all four Tech backs ran over 100 yards . According to the Times @-@ Picayune , " Strupper , Guyon , Hill , and Harlan form a backfield with no superiors and few equals in football history " . Joe Guyon threw two touchdowns and ran for one , passing 91 yards and running 112 : " Guyon 's passing was so accurate it suggest possibilities yet undeveloped in the Tech offense " . Al Hill ran for 140 yards on 24 carries , including a 48 @-@ yard touchdown . Ev Strupper scored twice ( one on a 33 @-@ yard pass from Guyon ) and ran for 118 yards ; Harlan ran for 111 . Missing an extra point in the third quarter , Bill Fincher ended his streak at 31 . The game was called with six minutes left because of darkness . Tech 's starting lineup was Guill ( left end ) , Fincher ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Thweatt ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Harlan ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 7 : Carlisle = = =
In a 98 – 0 win against the Carlisle Indians , Strupper 's performance was praised . Morgan Blake of the Atlanta Journal wrote , " Everett Strupper played like a veritable demon . At one time four Carlisle men pounced on him from all directions , and yet through some superhuman witchery he broke loose and dashed 10 yards further . On another occasion he attempted a wide end run , found that he was completely blocked , then suddenly whirled and ran the other way , gaining something like 25 yards before he was downed . "
Hill and Strupper each scored five touchdowns ; Shorty Guill had two touchdowns and 108 yards rushing . Billy Sunday wrote , " That jump shift is about the slickest offense I ever saw . " One of Strupper 's touchdowns was a 32 @-@ yard fumble return . This was Carlisle 's last season before the school closed . Guyon asked to be substituted midway through the game against his former school , perhaps for sentimental reasons . Tech 's starting lineup was Fincher ( left end ) , Higgins ( left tackle ) , Whelchel ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Guill ( fullback ) .
= = = Week 8 : Auburn = = =
In the season 's final game , Tech defeated the Auburn Tigers 68 – 7 . Coach Mike Donahue 's Tigers had lost only to Davidson in an upset , and held undefeated Big Ten champion Ohio State to a scoreless tie less than a week before the Tech game . Ohio State , led by Chic Harley , had been favored 4 or 5 to 1 . Coach Heisman ( who previously coached at Auburn ) and his players were at the game , rooting for the Tigers .
In the game with Auburn , Tech piled up 472 yards on the ground in 84 rushes and 145 yards in the air . Guyon scored four touchdowns , and Strupper had a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run . According to the Atlanta Journal ,
It was not the length of the run that featured it was the brilliance of it . After getting through the first line , Stroop was tackled squarely by two secondary men , and yet he squirmed and jerked loosed from them , only to face the safety man and another Tiger , coming at him from different angles . Without checking his speed Everett knifed the two men completely , running between them and dashing on to a touchdown .
In the second quarter , Auburn 's Moon Ducote broke through the line toward the goal with blocking by Pete Bonner and William Donahue . After Guyon dove at Ducote and missed , Guyon gave chase and tackled him at the 26 @-@ yard line . For Auburn 's only score Ducote circled around end for 17 yards and lateraled to Donahue , who ran down the sideline for a six @-@ yard touchdown . Guyon was the star of the game , accounting for four touchdowns and having his best day passing . Strupper had touchdown runs of 62 and 50 yards . Auburn was considered a strong team , despite the lopsided score ; Ducote and Bonner were the only non @-@ Tech , unanimous All @-@ Southern selections . Tech 's starting lineup was Fincher ( left end ) , Higgins ( left tackle ) , Mathes ( left guard ) , Phillips ( center ) , Dowling ( right guard ) , Carpenter ( right tackle ) , Bell ( right end ) , Hill ( quarterback ) , Strupper ( left halfback ) , Guyon ( right halfback ) , and Guill ( fullback ) .
= = After the season = =
= = = Awards and honors = = =
The Golden Tornado led the nation in scoring , with 491 points . Quarterback Al Hill led the nation in touchdowns with 23 , and tackle Bill Fincher kicked 49 extra points .
A number of Georgia Tech players received post @-@ season honors . Walker Carpenter , Everett Strupper , and Joe Guyon were All @-@ America selections , with Carpenter and Strupper the first two players from the Deep South selected for a first @-@ team . In addition to Carpenter , Strupper , and Guyon , Bill Fincher , Pup Phillips , Si Bell , Shorty Guill , and Al Hill were selected to the All @-@ Southern Team by sportswriters . Phillips also received the Hal Nowell trophy for the most efficient play during the season .
= = = = National champions = = = =
On December 8 , the Golden Tornado celebrated its national @-@ championship season at a team dinner at the Druid Hills Golf Club in Atlanta . Each member was presented with a gold football inscribed with the words , " National Champions " . Clarke Mathes , William Thweatt , Dan Whelchel , Theodore Shaver , and William Higgins had already enlisted in the U. S. Marines for the First World War ; a week later , Si Bell , Jim Fellers , Pup Phillips , and Charles Johnson also left for the Marines .
Heisman challenged Pop Warner 's Pittsburgh team to a postseason game to determine a national champion , but since they did not play until the following season , Tech was named national champion . Although the Golden Tornado was invited to play the 4 – 3 Oregon team in the Rose Bowl , by then many players had joined the war effort .
= = = Legacy = = =
" I consider the 1917 Tech team the best football I have ever coached " , Heisman said . " It 's the best team I have seen in my long career as a coach . I was lucky in having under me a team whose members possessed much natural ability and who played the game intelligently . I have never seen a team that , as a whole , was so fast in the composite . " For many years , it was considered " the greatest football team the South had ever produced " . According to a contemporary New York Sun account , " Georgia Tech looms up as one of the truly great teams of all time . "
= = Personnel = =
= = = Depth chart = = =
The following chart provides a visual depiction of Tech 's lineup during the 1917 season with games started at the position reflected in parenthesis . The chart mimics the offense after the jump shift has taken place .
= = = Varsity letterwinners = = =
= = = = Line = = = =
= = = = Backfield = = = =
= = = Other players = = =
= = = Stats and scoring leaders = = =
The following is an incomplete list of statistics and scores , largely dependent on newspaper summaries .
= = Endnotes = =
= Noctilucent cloud =
Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are tenuous cloud @-@ like phenomena that are the " ragged edge " of a much brighter and pervasive polar cloud layer called polar mesospheric clouds in the upper atmosphere , visible in a deep twilight . They are made of ice crystals . Noctilucent roughly means night shining in Latin . They are most commonly observed in the summer months at latitudes between 50 ° and 70 ° north and south of the equator . These clouds can be observed only when the Sun is below the horizon for the observer , but while the clouds are still in sunlight .
They are the highest clouds in Earth 's atmosphere , located in the mesosphere at altitudes of around 76 to 85 kilometres ( 47 to 53 mi ) . They are normally too faint to be seen , and are visible only when illuminated by sunlight from below the horizon while the lower layers of the atmosphere are in the Earth 's shadow . Noctilucent clouds are not fully understood and are a recently discovered meteorological phenomenon ; there is no record of their observation before 1885 .
Noctilucent clouds can form only under very restricted conditions ; their occurrence can be used as a sensitive guide to changes in the upper atmosphere . They are a relatively recent classification . The occurrence of noctilucent clouds appears to be increasing in frequency , brightness and extent .
= = Formation = =
Night clouds or noctilucent clouds are composed of tiny crystals of water ice up to 100 nm in diameter and exist at a height of about 76 to 85 km ( 47 to 53 mi ) , higher than any other clouds in Earth 's atmosphere . Clouds in the Earth 's lower atmosphere form when water collects on particles , but mesospheric clouds may form directly from water vapour in addition to forming on dust particles .
Data from the Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere satellite suggests that noctilucent clouds require water vapour , dust , and very cold temperatures to form . The sources of both the dust and the water vapour in the upper atmosphere are not known with certainty . The dust is believed to come from micrometeors , although particulates from volcanoes and dust from the troposphere are also possibilities . The moisture could be lifted through gaps in the tropopause , as well as forming from the reaction of methane with hydroxyl radicals in the stratosphere .
The exhaust from Space Shuttles , which was almost entirely water vapour after the detachment of the Solid Rocket Booster at a height of about 46 km , was found to generate minuscule individual clouds . About half of the vapour was released into the thermosphere , usually at altitudes of 103 to 114 km ( 64 to 71 mi ) . In August 2014 , a SpaceX Falcon 9 also caused noctilucent clouds over Orlando , FL after a launch .
The exhaust can be transported to the Arctic region in little over a day , although the exact mechanism of this very high @-@ speed transport is unknown . As the water migrates northward , it falls from the thermosphere down into the colder mesosphere , which occupies the region of the atmosphere just below . Although this mechanism is the cause of individual noctilucent clouds , it is not thought to be a major contributor to the phenomenon as a whole .
As the mesosphere contains very little moisture , approximately one hundred millionth that of air from the Sahara desert , and is extremely thin , the ice crystals can form only at temperatures below about − 120 ° C ( − 184 ° F ) . This means that noctilucent clouds form predominantly during summer when , counterintuitively , the mesosphere is coldest , therefore they can 't be observed ( even if they are present ) inside the Polar circles because the Sun is never low enough under the horizon at this season at these latitudes . Noctilucent clouds form mostly near the polar regions , because the mesosphere is coldest there . Clouds in the southern hemisphere are about 1 km ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) higher than those in the northern hemisphere .
Ultraviolet radiation from the Sun breaks water molecules apart , reducing the amount of water available to form noctilucent clouds . The radiation is known to vary cyclically with the solar cycle and satellites have been tracking the decrease in brightness of the clouds with the increase of ultraviolet radiation for the last two solar cycles . It has been found that changes in the clouds follow changes in the intensity of ultraviolet rays by about a year , but the reason for this long lag is not yet known .
Noctilucent clouds are known to exhibit high radar reflectivity , in a frequency range of 50 MHz to 1 @.@ 3 GHz . This behaviour is not well understood but a possible explanation is that the ice grains become coated with a thin metal film composed of sodium and iron , which makes the cloud far more reflective to radar , although this explanation remains controversial . Sodium and iron atoms are stripped from incoming micrometeors and settle into a layer just above the altitude of noctilucent clouds , and measurements have shown that these elements are severely depleted when the clouds are present . Other experiments have demonstrated that , at the extremely cold temperatures of a noctilucent cloud , sodium vapour can rapidly be deposited onto an ice surface .
= = Discovery and investigation = =
Noctilucent clouds are first known to have been observed in 1885 , two years after the 1883 eruption of Krakatoa . It remains unclear whether their appearance had anything to do with the volcano eruption , or whether their discovery was due to more people observing the spectacular sunsets caused by the volcanic debris in the atmosphere . Studies have shown that noctilucent clouds are not caused solely by volcanic activity , although dust and water vapour could be injected into the upper atmosphere by eruptions and contribute to their formation . Scientists at the time assumed the clouds were another manifestation of volcanic ash , but after the ash had settled out of the atmosphere , the noctilucent clouds persisted . Finally , the theory that the clouds were composed of volcanic dust was disproved by Malzev in 1926 . In the years following their discovery , the clouds were studied extensively by Otto Jesse of Germany , who was the first to photograph them , in 1887 , and seems to have been the one to coin the term " noctilucent cloud " , which means " night @-@ shining cloud " . His notes provide evidence that noctilucent clouds first appeared in 1885 . He had been doing detailed observations of the unusual sunsets caused by the Krakatoa eruption the previous year and firmly believed that , if the clouds had been visible then , he would undoubtedly have noticed them . Systematic photographic observations of the clouds were organized in 1887 by Jesse , Foerster , and Stolze and , after that year , continuous observations were carried out at the Berlin Observatory . During this research , the height of the clouds was first determined , via triangulation . The project was discontinued in 1896 .
In the decades after Otto Jesse 's death in 1901 , there were few new insights into the nature of noctilucent clouds . Wegener 's conjecture , that they were composed of water ice , was later shown to be correct . Study was limited to ground @-@ based observations and scientists had very little knowledge of the mesosphere until the 1960s , when direct rocket measurements began . These showed for the first time that the occurrence of the clouds coincided with very low temperatures in the mesosphere .
Noctilucent clouds were first detected from space by an instrument on the OGO @-@ 6 satellite in 1972 . The OGO @-@ 6 observations of a bright scattering layer over the polar caps were identified as poleward extensions of these clouds . A later satellite , the Solar Mesosphere Explorer , mapped the distribution of the clouds between 1981 and 1986 with its ultraviolet spectrometer . The clouds were detected with a lidar in 1995 at Utah State University , even when they were not visible to the naked eye . The first physical confirmation that water ice is indeed the primary component of noctilucent clouds came from the HALOE instrument on the Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite in 2001 .
In 2001 , the Swedish Odin satellite performed spectral analyses on the clouds , and produced daily global maps that revealed large patterns in their distribution .
On April 25 , 2007 , the AIM satellite ( Aeronomy of Ice in the Mesosphere ) was launched . It is the first satellite dedicated to studying noctilucent clouds , and made its first observations on May 25 , 2007 . Images taken by the satellite show shapes in the clouds that are similar to shapes in tropospheric clouds , hinting at similarities in their dynamics .
On August 28 , 2006 , scientists with the Mars Express mission announced that they found clouds of carbon dioxide crystals over Mars that extended up to 100 km ( 62 mi ) above the surface of the planet . They are the highest clouds discovered over the surface of a planet . Like noctilucent clouds on Earth , they can be observed only when the Sun is below the horizon .
Research published in the journal Geophysical Research Letters in June 2009 suggests that noctilucent clouds observed following the Tunguska Event are evidence that the impact was caused by a comet .
The United States Naval Research Laboratory ( NRL ) and the United States Department of Defense Space Test Program ( STP ) conducted the Charged Aerosol Release Experiment ( CARE ) on September 19 , 2009 , using exhaust particles from a Black Brant XII suborbital sounding rocket launched from NASA 's Wallops Flight Facility to create an artificial noctilucent cloud . The cloud was to be observed over a period of weeks or months by ground instruments and the Spatial Heterodyne IMager for MEsospheric Radicals ( SHIMMER ) instrument on the NRL / STP STPSat @-@ 1 spacecraft . The rocket 's exhaust plume was observed and reported to news organizations in the United States from New Jersey to Massachusetts .
= = Observation = =
Noctilucent clouds are generally colourless or pale blue , although occasionally other colours including red and green occur . The characteristic blue colour comes from absorption by ozone in the path of the sunlight illuminating the noctilucent cloud . They can appear as featureless bands , but frequently show distinctive patterns such as streaks , wave @-@ like undulations , and whirls . They are considered a " beautiful natural phenomenon " . Noctilucent clouds may be confused with cirrus clouds , but appear sharper under magnification . Those caused by rocket exhausts tend to show colours other than silver or blue , because of iridescence caused by the uniform size of the water droplets produced .
Noctilucent clouds may be seen by observers at a latitude of 50 ° to 65 ° . They seldom occur at lower latitudes ( although there have been sightings as far south as Paris , Utah , Italy , Turkey and Spain ) , and closer to the poles it does not get dark enough for the clouds to become visible . They occur during summer , from mid @-@ May to mid @-@ August in the northern hemisphere and between mid @-@ November and mid @-@ February in the southern hemisphere . They are very faint and tenuous , and may be observed only in twilight around sunrise and sunset when the clouds of the lower atmosphere are in shadow , but the noctilucent cloud is illuminated by the Sun . They are best seen when the Sun is between 6 ° and 16 ° below the horizon . Although noctilucent clouds occur in both hemispheres , they have been observed thousands of times in the northern hemisphere , but fewer than 100 times in the southern . Southern hemisphere noctilucent clouds are fainter and occur less frequently ; additionally the southern hemisphere has a lower population and less land area from which to make observations .
The clouds may show a large variety of different patterns and forms . An identification scheme was developed by Fogle in 1970 that classified five different forms . These classifications have since been modified and subdivided .
They may be studied from the ground , from space , and directly by sounding rocket . Also , some noctilucent clouds are made of smaller crystals , 30 nm or less , which are invisible to observers on the ground because they do not scatter enough light .
= = Connection to climate change = =
It has been proposed that the relatively recent appearance of noctilucent clouds , and their gradual increase , may be linked to climate change . The author of this study , atmospheric scientist Gary Thomas of the Laboratory for Atmospheric and Space Physics at the University of Colorado has pointed out that the first sightings coincide with both Krakatoa and the nascent Industrial Revolution , and they have become more widespread and frequent throughout the twentieth century , including an uptick between 1964 and 1986 . The connecting of global warming and noctilucent clouds however , remains controversial . Gary Thomas may have penned his paper after Wilfried Schröder , who might hold the distinction of being the first to explain noctilucent clouds as " indicators " for atmospheric processes ( Gerlands Beiträge zur Geophysik , 1971 , Meteorologische Rundschau 1968 – 1970 ) . Most recently in 2012 Lonnie Cumberland 's physics PhD work supported viewing noctilucent clouds as a possible Miner 's Canary for climate change as her third conclusion as a sign of increasing the presence of water in the high atmosphere . NASA scientists speculate that methane may be driven higher into the mesophere where noctilucent clouds form by climate change and through reactions that end up producing water at such altitudes .
Climate models predict that increased greenhouse gas emissions cause a cooling of the mesosphere , which would lead to more frequent and widespread occurrences of noctilucent clouds . A complementing theory is that larger methane emissions from intensive farming activities produce more water vapour in the upper atmosphere . Methane concentrations have more than doubled in the past 100 years .
Tromp et al. also controversially suggest that a transition to a hydrogen economy would result in an increase in the free hydrogen concentration of the atmosphere by 1 ppm , which would increase the number of noctilucent clouds .
= Yasss Bish =
" Yasss Bish " is a song recorded by Trinidadian @-@ American rapper Nicki Minaj for her third studio album The Pinkprint ( 2014 ) , which did not make the final cut . It was written by Minaj along with the song 's producer Soulja Boy , who is also credited as a guest vocalist . The track was released through her official SoundCloud account as the album 's third promotional single on May 3 , 2014 following " Lookin Ass " and " Chi @-@ Raq " .
Musically , " Yasss Bish " is a bounce and drill song with a trap beat . Its stripped back hip hop production encompasses intense Roland TR @-@ 808 drum hits , a " sinister , echo @-@ y " vocal loop , " eerie " shimmering synthesizers , foreboding snares , and the sound of church bells ringing in an ominous tone . Lyrically , Minaj addresses her detractors , and references several celebrities including Donald Sterling and Will and Jada Smith .
Minaj performed the song live for the first time along with Soulja Boy on May 18 , 2014 at the Power 106 's Powerhouse , Minaj performed the song again on June 2 at Hot 97 Summer Jam 2014 .
= = Background = =
In September 2013 , Minaj began working on her third studio album , The Pinkprint ( 2014 ) . For the album , Minaj desired to return to her hip @-@ hop roots , calling the album 's sound " a continuation of The Re @-@ Up with a lot more " . Minaj told MTV News that the sound of The Pinkprint would be " next level " and will have " so much to talk about " , saying : " I 'm really excited and the people that have been working with me now , have been people that I haven 't worked with before so it 's like they 're bringing a new sound to the album that I 've never experimented with . "
In April 2014 , Minaj posted a picture on Instagram of herself with Soulja Boy in a studio . Later that month , he posted a Vine of him singing the song 's chorus . Originally , Soulja Boy created the song 's beat but according to him , it lacked a hook . However , he later came up with the idea for the hook while making a Vine , and added it into the song . He then brought the unfinished version of " Yasss Bish " to Minaj , who was impressed by the song and recorded her vocals . After Minaj sent the track back to him , it took " about a day " for Soulja Boy to finish mixing the record . In May 2014 , Minaj spoke of the meaning behind the word " yasss " : " When I watch ' RuPaul 's Drag Race , ' I live for the way they speak . Females , we adopted it and it makes us feel like very cocky and very just like sexy and feminine . So saying ' yass ' as opposed to ' yes , ' it 's just putting on a billion times more attitude to the word ' yes ' . " On May 3 , 2014 , Minaj posted the song on her official SoundCloud shortly after midnight .
= = Composition = =
Musically , " Yasss Bish " has been described as a " bouncy drill anthem " with a trap beat . It features a stripped back hip hop production that encompasses intense Roland TR @-@ 808 drum hits , a " sinister , echo @-@ y " vocal loop , " eerie " shimmering synthesizers , foreboding snares , and the sound of church bells ringing in an ominous tone . Minaj 's vocals in " Yasss Bish " have been described as " melodic " with a " fierce " message , while her rapping has been compared to the works of Southern hip hop group Migos . Several critics including Kyle Harvey of The Grio and Emma Goddard of Bustle noted the change in sound to be the beginning of a new image for Minaj . Harvey said the song continued her goal of shedding her image of a pop act , while Goddard said : " Although this song is definitely NSFW and it 's completely improbable that we 'll hear British sisters Sophia Grace and Rosie rapping her song anytime soon , Minaj has come back strong with a new image . "
Lyrically , she addresses her detractors and all those who don 't believe in her . The song opens with Soulja Boy singing " yasss bish " repeatedly for thirty seconds before Minaj begins her rap with " Me I 'm just me / Me I 'm just real / Me I 'm that bitch that be footing the bill . " In the line " I don 't fuck with you niggas / I own the Clippers / I own some homes / I own my own liquor " Minaj references ex @-@ Clippers owner Donald Sterling , who was banned from the NBA after leaked recordings of him making racist comments were made public . She also mentions Will and Jada Smith in the lyrics : " Bitches can 't beat me they ain 't got the skill / Eye of the tiger they ain 't got the kill / Look up to Jada / I love her and Will . "
= = Critical reception = =
Upon release , " Yasss Bish " received positive reviews from music critics . Lewis Corner of Digital Spy named " Yasss Bish " one of the " 10 tracks you need to hear " , praising Minaj 's vocal delivery , the inclusion of Soulja Boy , and the line " Fix it , Jesus . " Colin Joyce of Spin called the song an " unbridled joy " , and noted that while it may not be included on The Pink Print , the album would be " lucky , however , to feature any track half as exuberant as this one . " A writer for MTV News UK praised both the production and vocals on " Yasss Bish " , saying that Minaj 's " melodic " vocals and " fierce " rap delivery were the best part of the song . Several critics noted a musical departure from the pop and dance @-@ pop stylings of her second studio album Pink Friday : Roman Reloaded ( 2012 ) . MTV News writer Emilee Lindner said " Yasss Bish " found Minaj going back to her original sound , saying : " Nicki Minaj is letting her rapping speak for itself . She 's left her colorful wigs , fancy robes and tutus behind — along with the hyper @-@ pop production of some of her biggest hits — and now she 's getting back to her roots . " Emma Goddard of Bustle praised the chemistry between the two rappers and saw the song as a change from the more upbeat sound found in Minaj 's catalogue , which she credited with " show [ ing ] her rapping prowess much more " . Writing for The Source , Khari said of " Yasss Bish " : " [ Minaj ] sheds the wig and the excessive make @-@ up , we get the most gorgeous Nicki we 've seen in her career . Now , she grabs Soulja Boy for the hook and the beat . You guessed it , score again . "
= = Release history = =
= Common toad =
The common toad , European toad or in Anglophone parts of Europe , simply the toad ( Bufo bufo , from Latin bufo " toad " ) , is an amphibian found throughout most of Europe ( with the exception of Ireland , Iceland , and some Mediterranean islands ) , in the western part of North Asia , and in a small portion of Northwest Africa . It is one of a group of closely related animals that are descended from a common ancestral line of toads and which form a species complex . The toad is an inconspicuous animal as it usually lies hidden during the day . It becomes active at dusk and spends the night hunting for the invertebrates on which it feeds . It moves with a slow ungainly walk or short jumps and has greyish brown skin covered with wart @-@ like lumps .
Although toads are usually solitary animals , in the breeding season , large numbers of toads converge on certain breeding ponds , where the males compete to mate with the females . Eggs are laid in gelatinous strings in the water and later hatch out into tadpoles . After several months of growth and development , these sprout limbs and undergo metamorphosis into tiny toads . The juveniles emerge from the water and remain largely terrestrial for the rest of their lives .
The common toad seems to be in decline in part of its range but overall is listed as being of " least concern " in the IUCN Red List of Threatened Species . It is threatened by habitat loss , especially by drainage of its breeding sites , and some toads get killed on the roads as they make their annual migrations . It has long been associated in popular culture and literature with witchcraft .
= = Taxonomy = =
The common toad was first given the name Rana bufo by the Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of Systema Naturae in 1758 . In this work , he placed all the frogs and toads in the single genus Rana . It later became apparent that this genus should be subdivided , and in 1768 , the Austrian naturalist Josephus Nicolaus Laurenti placed the common toad in the genus Bufo , naming it Bufo bufo . The toads in this genus are included in the family Bufonidae , the true toads .
Various subspecies of Bufo bufo have been recognized over the years . The Caucasian toad is found in the mountainous regions of the Caucasus and was at one time classified as Bufo bufo verrucosissima . It has a larger genome and differs from Bufo bufo morphologically and is now accepted as Bufo verrucosissimus . The spiny toad was classified as Bufo bufo spinosus . It is found in the Mediterranean area and grows to a larger size and has a spinier skin than its more northern counterparts with which it intergrades . It is now accepted as Bufo spinosus . The Gredos toad , Bufo bufo gredosicola , is restricted to the Sierra de Gredos , a mountain range in central Spain . It has exceptionally large paratoid glands and its colour tends to be blotched rather than uniform . It is now considered to be a synonym of Bufo spinosus .
Bufo bufo is part of a species complex , a group of closely related species which cannot be clearly demarcated . Several modern species are believed to form an ancient group of related taxa from preglacial times . These are the spiny toad ( Bufo spinosus ) , the Caucasian toad ( Bufo verrucosissimus ) and the Japanese common toad ( Bufo japonicus ) . The European common toad ( Bufo bufo ) seems to have arisen more recently . It is believed that the range of the ancestral form extended into Asia but that isolation between the eastern and western species complexes occurred as a result of the development of the Central Asian Deserts during the Middle Miocene . The exact taxonomic relationships between these species remains unclear . A serological investigation into toad populations in Turkey undertaken in 2001 examined the blood serum proteins of Bufo verrucosissimus and Bufo spinosus . It found that the differences between the two were not significant and that therefore the former should be synonymized with the latter .
A study published in 2012 examined the phylogenetic relationships between the Eurasian and North African species in the Bufo bufo group and indicated a long evolutionary history for the group . Nine to thirteen million years ago , Bufo eichwaldi , a recently described species from south Azerbaijan and Iran , split from the main lineage . Further divisions occurred with Bufo spinosus splitting off about five million years ago when the Pyrenees were being uplifted , an event which isolated the populations in the Iberian Peninsula from those in the rest of Europe . The remaining European lineage split into Bufo bufo and Bufo verrucosissimus less than three million years ago during the Pleistocene . Very occasionally the common toad hybridizes with the natterjack toad ( Bufo calamita ) or the European green toad ( Bufo viridis ) .
= = Description = =
The common toad can reach about 15 cm ( 6 in ) in length . Females are normally stouter than males and southern specimens tend to be larger than northern ones . The head is broad with a wide mouth below the terminal snout which has two small nostrils . There are no teeth . The bulbous , protruding eyes have yellow or copper coloured irises and horizontal slit @-@ shaped pupils . Just behind the eyes are two bulging regions , the paratoid glands , which are positioned obliquely . They contain a noxious substance , bufotoxin , which is used to deter potential predators . The head joins the body without a noticeable neck and there is no external vocal sac . The body is broad and squat and positioned close to the ground . The fore limbs are short with the toes of the fore feet turning inwards . At breeding time , the male develops nuptial pads on the first three fingers . He uses these to grasp the female when mating . The hind legs are short relative to other frogs ' legs and the hind feet have long , unwebbed toes . There is no tail . The skin is dry and covered with small wart @-@ like lumps . The colour is a fairly uniform shade of brown , olive @-@ brown or greyish @-@ brown , sometimes partly blotched or banded with a darker shade . The common toad tends to be sexually dimorphic with the females being browner and the males greyer . The underside is a dirty white speckled with grey and black patches .
Other species with which the common toad could be confused include the natterjack toad ( Bufo calamita ) and the European green toad ( Bufo viridis ) . The former is usually smaller and has a yellow band running down its back while the latter has a distinctive mottled pattern . The paratoid glands of both are parallel rather than slanting as in the common toad . The common frog ( Rana temporaria ) is also similar in appearance but it has a less rounded snout , damp smooth skin , and usually moves by leaping .
Common toads can live for many years and have survived for fifty years in captivity . In the wild , common toads are thought to live for about ten to twelve years . Their age can be determined by counting the number of annual growth rings in the bones of their phalanges .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
After the common frog ( Rana temporaria ) , the edible frog ( Pelophylax esculentus ) and the smooth newt ( Lissotriton vulgaris ) , the common toad is the fourth most common amphibian in Europe . It is found throughout the continent with the exception of Iceland , the cold northern parts of Scandinavia , Ireland and a number of Mediterranean islands . These include Malta , Crete , Corsica , Sardinia and the Balearic Islands . Its easterly range extends to Irkutsk in Siberia and its southerly range includes parts of northwestern Africa in the northern mountain ranges of Morocco , Algeria and Tunisia . A closely related variant lives in eastern Asia including Japan . The common toad is found at altitudes of up to 2 @,@ 500 metres ( 8 @,@ 200 ft ) in the southern part of its range . It is largely found in forested areas with coniferous , deciduous and mixed woodland , especially in wet locations . It also inhabits open countryside , fields , copses , parks and gardens , and often occurs in dry areas well away from standing water .
= = Behaviour and lifecycle = =
The common toad usually moves by walking rather slowly or in short shuffling jumps involving all four legs . It spends the day concealed in a lair that it has hollowed out under foliage or beneath a root or a stone where its colouring makes it inconspicuous . It emerges at dusk and may travel some distance in the dark while hunting . It is most active in wet weather . By morning it has returned to its base and may occupy the same place for several months . It is voracious and eats woodlice , slugs , beetles , caterpillars , flies , earthworms and even small mice . Small , fast moving prey may be caught by a flick of the tongue while larger items are grabbed with the jaws . Having no teeth , it swallows food whole in a series of gulps . It does not recognise its prey as such but will try to consume any small , dark coloured , moving object it encounters at night . A research study showed that it would snap at a moving 1 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 in ) piece of black paper as if it were prey but would disregard a larger moving piece . Toads seem to use visual cues for feeding and can see their prey at very low light intensities where humans are unable to discern anything . Periodically , the common toad sheds its skin . This comes away in tattered pieces and is then consumed .
When attacked , the common toad adopts a characteristic stance , inflating its body and standing with its hindquarters raised and its head lowered . Its chief means of defence lies in the foul tasting secretion that is produced by its paratoid glands and other glands on its skin . This contains a toxin called bufagin and is enough to deter many predators although grass snakes seem to be unaffected by it . Other predators of adult toads include hedgehogs , rats and mink , and even domestic cats . Birds that feed on toads include herons , crows and birds of prey . Crows have been observed to puncture the skin with their beak and then peck out the animal 's liver , thus avoiding the toxin . The tadpoles also exude noxious substances which deter fishes from eating them but not the great crested newt . Aquatic invertebrates that feed on toad tadpoles include dragonfly larvae , diving beetles and water boatmen . These usually avoid the noxious secretion by puncturing the tadpole 's skin and sucking out its juices .
A parasitic fly , Lucilia bufonivora , attacks adult common toads . It lays its eggs on the toad 's skin and when these hatch , the larvae crawl into the toad 's nostrils and eat its flesh internally with lethal consequences . The European fingernail clam ( Sphaerium corneum ) is unusual in that it can climb up water plants and move around on its muscular foot . It sometimes clings to the toe of a common toad and this is believed to be one of the means by which it disperses to new locations .
In 2007 , researchers using a remotely operated underwater vehicle to survey Loch Ness , Scotland , observed a common toad moving along the bottom of the lake at a depth of 324 feet ( 99 m ) . They were surprised to find that an air @-@ breathing animal could survive in such a location .
= = = Reproduction = = =
The common toad emerges from hibernation in spring and there is a mass migration towards the breeding sites . The toads converge on certain ponds that they favour while avoiding other stretches of water that seem eminently suitable . Adults use the same location year after year and over 80 % of males marked as juveniles have been found to return to the pond at which they were spawned . They find their way to these mainly by using olfactory and magnetic cues . Toads experimentally moved elsewhere and fitted with tracking devices have been found to be able to locate their chosen breeding pond when the displacement exceeded three kilometres ( two miles ) .
The males arrive first and remain in the location for several weeks while the females only stay long enough to mate and spawn . Rather than fighting for the right to mate with a female , male toads may settle disputes by means of the pitch of their voice . Croaking provides a reliable sign of body size and hence of prowess . Nevertheless , fights occur in some instances . In a study at one pond where males outnumbered females by four or five to one , it was found that 38 % of the males won the right to mate by defeating rivals in combat or by displacing other males already mounted on females . Male toads generally outnumber female toads at breeding ponds . A Swedish study found that female mortality was higher than that of males and that 41 % of females did not come to the breeding pond in the spring and missed a year before reproducing again .
The males mount the females ' backs , grasping them with their fore limbs under the armpits in a grip that is known as amplexus . The males are very enthusiastic , will try to grasp fish or inanimate objects and often mount the backs of other males . Sometimes several toads form a heap , each male trying to grasp the female at the base . It is a stressful period and mortality is high among breeding toads . A successful male stays in amplexus for several days and , as the female lays a long , double string of small black eggs , he fertilises them with his sperm . As the pair wander piggyback around the shallow edges of the pond , the gelatinous egg strings , which may contain 3000 to 6000 eggs and be 3 to 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 10 to 15 ft ) in length , get tangled in plant stalks .
The strings of eggs absorb water and swell in size , and small tadpoles hatch out after two to three weeks . At first they cling to the remains of the strings and feed on the jelly . They later attach themselves to the underside of the leaves of water weed before becoming free swimming . The tadpoles at first look similar to those of the common frog ( Rana temporaria ) but they are a darker colour , being blackish above and dark grey below . They can be distinguished from the tadpoles of other species by the fact that the mouth is the same width as the space between the eyes , and this is twice as large as the distance between the nostrils . Over the course of a few weeks their legs develop and their tail gradually gets reabsorbed . By twelve weeks of age they are miniature toads measuring about 1 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 6 in ) long and ready to leave the pond .
= = = Development and growth = = =
The common toad reaches maturity at three to seven years old but there is great variability between populations . Juveniles are often parasitised by the lung nematode Rhabdias bufonis . This slows growth rates and reduces stamina and fitness . Larger juveniles at metamorphosis always outgrow smaller ones that have been reared in more crowded ponds . Even when they have heavy worm burdens , large juveniles grow faster than smaller individuals with light worm burdens . After several months of heavy worm infection , some juveniles in a study were only half as heavy as control juveniles . Their parasite @-@ induced anorexia caused a decrease in food intake and some died . Another study investigated whether the use of nitrogenous fertilisers affects the development of common toad tadpoles . The toadlets were kept in very dilute solutions of ammonium nitrate of various strengths . It was found that at certain concentrations , which were well above any normally found in the field , growth was increased and metamorphosis accelerated , but at others , there was no significant difference between the experimental tadpoles and controls . Nevertheless , certain unusual swimming patterns and a few deformities were found among the experimental animals .
A comparison was made between the growth rate of newly metamorphosed juveniles from different altitudes and latitudes , the specimens studied being from Norway , Germany , Switzerland , the Netherlands and France . At first the growth rates for males and females was identical . By the time they became mature their growth rate had slowed down to about 21 % of the initial rate and they had reached 95 % of their expected adult size . Some females that were on a biennial breeding cycle carried on growing rapidly for a longer time . Adjusting for differences in temperature and the length of the growing season , the toads grew and matured at much the same rate from the four colder localities . These juveniles reached maturity after 1 @.@ 09 years for males and 1 @.@ 55 years for females . However , the young toads from lowland France grew faster and longer to a much greater size taking an average 1 @.@ 77 years for males and 2 @.@ 49 years for females before reaching maturity .
= = Conservation = =
The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species considers the common toad as being of " least concern " . This is because it has a wide distribution and is , over most of its range , a common species . It is not particularly threatened by habitat loss because it is adaptable and is found in deciduous and coniferous forests , scrubland , meadows , parks and gardens . It prefers damp areas with dense foliage . The major threats it faces include loss of habitat locally , the drainage of wetlands where it breeds , agricultural activities , pollution and mortality on roads . Chytridiomycosis , an infectious disease of amphibians , has been reported in common toads in Spain and the United Kingdom and may affect some populations .
There are parts of its range where the common toad seems to be in decline . In Spain , increased aridity and habitat loss have led to a diminution in numbers and it is regarded as " near threatened " . A population in the Sierra de Gredos mountain range is facing predation by otters and increased competition from the frog Pelophylax perezi . Both otter and frog seem to be extending their ranges to higher altitudes . The common toad cannot be legally sold or traded in the United Kingdom but there is a slow decline in toad numbers and it has therefore been declared a Biodiversity Action Plan priority species . In Russia , it is considered to be a " Rare Species " in the provinces of Bashkiria , Tataria , Yamal @-@ Nenets Autonomous County and Irkutsk , but during the 1990s , it became more abundant in Moscow Province .
It has been found that urban populations of common toad occupying small areas and isolated by development show a lower level of genetic diversity and reduced fitness as compared to nearby rural populations . The researchers demonstrated this by genetic analysis and by noting the greater number of physical abnormalities among urban as against rural tadpoles when raised in a controlled environment . It was considered that long term depletion in numbers and habitat fragmentation can reduce population persistence in such urban environments .
= = = Roadkill = = =
Many toads are killed by traffic while migrating to their breeding grounds . In Europe they have the highest rate of mortality from roadkill among amphibians . Many of the deaths take place on stretches of road where streams flow underneath showing that migration routes often follow water courses . In some places in Germany , Belgium , Great Britain , Northern Italy and Poland , special tunnels have been constructed so that toads can cross under roads in safety . In other places , local wildlife groups run " toad patrols " , carrying the amphibians across roads at busy crossing points in buckets . The toads start moving at dusk and for them to travel far , the temperature needs to remain above 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) . On a warm wet night they may continue moving all night but if it cools down , they may stop earlier . An estimate was made of the significance of roadkill in toad populations in the Netherlands . The number of females killed in the spring migration on a quiet country road ( ten vehicles per hour ) was compared with the number of strings of eggs laid in nearby fens . A 30 % mortality rate was found , with the rate for deaths among males likely to be of a similar order .
= = Bufotoxin = =
The main toxic substance found in the parotoid gland and skin of the common toad is called bufotoxin . It was first isolated by Heinrich Wieland and his colleagues in 1922 and they succeeded in identifying its structure about 20 years later . Meanwhile , other workers succeeded in isolating the same compound and its parent steroid bufotalin from the Japanese toad ( Bufo japonicus ) . By 1986 , researchers at the Arizona State University had succeeded in synthesizing the toad venom constituents bufotalin , bufalitoxin and bufotoxin . The chemical formula of bufotoxin is C40H60N4O10 . Its physical effects resemble those of digitalis which in small doses increases the strength with which the heart muscle contracts and which is used in the treatment of congestive heart failure . The skin of one toad contains enough toxin to cause serious symptoms or even death in animals and man . Clinical effects include severe irritation and pain to eyes , mouth , nose and throat , cardiovascular and respiratory symptoms , paralysis and seizures , increased salivation , vomiting , hyperkalemia , cyanosis and hallucinations . There is no known anti @-@ venom . Treatment consists of supporting respiratory and cardiovascular functions , prevention of absorption and electrocardiography to monitor the condition . Atropine , phenytoin , cholestyramine and lidocaine may prove useful in its management .
= = Cultural significance = =
The toad has long been considered to be an animal of ill omen or a connection to a spirit world . This may have its origins in the fact that it is at home both on land and in the water . It may cause repugnance because of its blackish , wart @-@ like skin , its slow movements and the way it emerges from some dark hole . In Europe in the Middle Ages , the toad was associated with the Devil , for whom a coat @-@ of @-@ arms was invented emblazoned with three toads . It was known that the toad could poison people and , as the witch 's familiar , it was thought to possess magical powers . Even ordinary people made use of dried toads , their bile , faeces and blood . In some areas , the finding of a toad in a house was considered evidence that a witch was present . In the Basque Country , the familiars were believed to be toads wearing elegant robes . These were herded by children who were being trained as witches . Between 1610 and 1612 , the Spanish inquisitor Alonso de Salazar Frías investigated witchcraft in the region and searched the houses of suspected witches for dressed toads . He found none . These witches were reputed to use undomesticated toads as ingredients in their liniments and brews .
An English folk tale tells how an old woman , a supposed witch , cursed her landlord and all his possessions when he demanded the unpaid rent for her cottage . Soon afterwards , a large toad fell on his wife and caused her to collapse . The toad was thrown into the fire but escaped with severe burns . Meanwhile , the old witch 's cottage had caught fire and she was badly burnt . By next day , both toad and witch had died , and it was found that the woman 's burns exactly mirrored those of the toad .
The saliva of the toad was considered poisonous and was known as " sweltered venom " and it was believed that it could spit or vomit poisonous fire . Toads were associated with devils and demons and in Paradise Lost , John Milton depicted Satan as a toad when he poured poison into Eve 's ear . The First Witch in Shakespeare 's Macbeth gave instructions on using a toad in the concoction of spells :
It was also believed that there was a jewel inside a toad 's head , a " toadstone " , that when worn as a necklace or ring would warn the wearer of attempts to poison them . Shakespeare mentioned this in As You Like It :
Mr. Toad Esq. is one of the main characters in the children 's novel The Wind in the Willows , by Kenneth Grahame . This has been dramatized by several authors including A. A. Milne who called his play Toad of Toad Hall . Mr. Toad is a very conceited , anthropomorphic toad and in the book he composes a ditty in his own praise which starts like this :
George Orwell in his essay Some Thoughts on the Common Toad described the emergence of the common toad from hibernation as one of the most moving signs of spring .
= Amateur Station Operator 's Certificate =
Amateur Station Operator 's Certificate or ASOC is the examination that needs to be passed to receive an amateur radio licence in India . The exam is conducted by the Wireless and Planning and Coordination Wing ( WPC ) of the Ministry of the Ministry of Communications and Information Technology . The examination is held in various cities in India on monthly or quarterly basis depending on the size of the city . The licence may be awarded to an individual or a club station operated by a group of licensed amateur radio operators .
The first amateur radio operator was licensed in 1921 during the British rule . Partly due to low awareness among the general population and prohibitive equipment costs , the number of licensed amateur radio operators remained low for several decades . In 1970 , there were less than a thousand operators ; by 1980 , the number had risen to 1 @,@ 500 . In 2000 , there were 10 @,@ 000 operators and as of 2007 , there are more than 17 @,@ 000 licensed users in India .
= = History = =
= = Licence categories = =
= = Examination and syllabus = =
The exam consists of two parts :
Part I – Written Test
Section I : Radio Theory and Practice
Section 2 : Regulations
Part II – Morse
Section 1 : Morse Receiving and Sending : ( Speed : 5 words per minute )
Section 2 : Morse Receiving and Sending : ( Speed : 12 words per minute )
The maximum number of marks that a candidate can secure is 100 . To pass the examination , a candidate must score a minimum of 40 ( 50 for Grade I ) in each written section , and 50 ( 55 for Grade I ) in aggregate for a pass .
= = = Radio theory and practice = = =
The Radio theory and practice syllabus includes eight subtopics :
The first subtopic is the elementary theory of electricity that covers topics on conductors , resistors , Ohm 's Law , power , energy , electromagnets , inductance , capacitance , types of capacitors and inductors , series and parallel connections for radio circuits . The second topic is the elementary theory of alternating currents . Portions include sinusoidal alternating quantities such as peak values , instantaneous values , RMS average values , phase ; electrical resonance , and quality factor for radio circuits . The syllabus then moves on to semiconductors , specifically the construction and operation of valves , also known as vacuum tubes . Included in this portion of the syllabus are thermionic emissions with their characteristic curves , diodes , triodes and multi @-@ electrode valves ; and the use of valves as rectifiers , oscillators , amplifiers , detectors and frequency changers , stabilisation and smoothing .
Radio receivers is the fourth topic that covers the principles and operation of TRF receivers and Superheterodyne receivers , CW reception ; with receiver characteristics such as sensitivity , selectivity and fidelity ; Adjacent @-@ channel interference and image interference ; AGC and squelch ; and signal to noise ratio ( S / R ) . Similarly , the next topic on transmitters covers the principles and operation of low power transmitters ; oscillators such as the Colpitts oscillator , Hartley oscillator , crystal oscillators , and stability of oscillators .
The last three topics deal with radio propagation , aerials , and frequency measurement . Covered are topic such as wavelength , frequency , nature and propagation of radio waves ; ground and sky waves ; skip distance ; and fading . Common types of transmitting and receiving aerials such as Yagi antennas , and radiation patterns , measurement of frequency and use of simple frequency meters conclude the topic .
= = = Regulations = = =
Knowledge of the Indian Wireless Telegraph Rules and the Indian Wireless Telegraphs ( Amateur Service ) Rules are essential and always tested . The syllabus also includes international radio regulations related to the operation of amateur stations with emphasis on provisions of radio regulation nomenclature of the frequency and wavelength , frequency allocation to amateur radio service , measures to prevent harmful interference , standard frequency and time signals services across the world , identification of stations , distress and urgency transmissions , amateur stations , phonetic alphabets , and figure code are the other topics included in the portion .
Also included in the syllabus are Q codes such as QRA , QRG , QRH , QRI , QRK , QRL , QRM , QRN , QRQ , QRS , QRT , QRU , QRV , QRW , QRX , QRZ , QSA , QSB , QSL , QSO , QSU , QSV , QSW , QSX , QSY , QSZ , QTC , QTH , QTR , and QUM ; and CW abbreviations and prosigns such as AA , AB , AR , AS , C , CFM , CL , CQ , DE , K , NIL , OK , R , TU , VA , WA , and WB .
= = = Morse = = =
The syllabus includes the following Morse code characters : all alphabets , numbers , prosigns , and punctuations such as the full @-@ stop ; comma ; semi @-@ colon ; break sign ; hyphen and question mark .
Receiving
For Grade II , the test piece consists of a passage of 125 letters , five letters counting as one word . Candidates are required to copy for five minutes at the speed of five words per minute , international Morse signals from an audio oscillator keyed either manually or automatically . A short practice piece is sent at the prescribed speed before the start of the test . More than five errors disqualifies a candidate . For Grade I , the test piece consists of a passage of 300 characters : letters , figures , and punctuations . The average words contain five characters and each figure and punctuation is counted as two characters . Candidates have to receive for five consecutive minutes at a speed of 12 words per minute .
Sending
For Grade II , the test piece consists of 125 letters , with five letters forming one word . Candidates are required to transmit by using a Morse key for five consecutive minutes at the minimum speed of five words per minute . A short practice piece is allowed before the test . Candidates are not allowed more than one attempt in the test . More than five uncorrected errors disqualifies a candidate . For Grade I , the speed sent is 12 words per minute .
= = Fees = =
= Tryvandshøiden ( station ) =
Tryvandshøiden ( also Tryvannshøgda , Tryvann and Øvreseter ) was a planned station on the Holmenkollen Line in Oslo , Norway . It was planned by the company Tryvandsbanen in the early 1910s and partly constructed in 1916 at the end of a single @-@ tracked line from Frognerseteren . A red signalman 's house named " Norden " was the station 's only facility . Passenger trains never served the station , and the tracks from Frognerseteren to Tryvandshøiden were removed in 1939 . The signalman 's house was not demolished . In 1993 , 2004 and 2008 , proposals were made to re @-@ open the station so that it would be more convenient for Oslo residents to use the Tryvann Ski Resort . However , these proposals were all rejected by the operator Oslo Sporveier on the grounds that the extension would be too expensive .
= = History = =
In 1898 , Holmenkolbanen opened the Holmenkollen Line from Majorstuen to Besserud station ( then Holmenkollen ) . In 1910 – 11 , a recently established company named Tryvandsbanen planned to extend the line towards Frognerseteren and Tryvannshøyden . The company extended the line from Besserud to Tryvandshøiden station on 15 May 1916 . The line was double @-@ tracked to Frognerseteren and single @-@ tracked from there to Tryvandshøiden , as only the first section had passenger traffic . The single @-@ tracked line from Frognerseteren to Tryvandshøiden was 800 metres ( 2 @,@ 600 ft ) long and ran in a curve east of Øvresetertjern . The extension was financed partly by Tryvandsbanen 's equity , and partly by loans from the Municipality of Oslo .
In the 1930s , the Municipality of Oslo made plans for making Tryvann the " Davos of the North " , following the opening of Tryvann stadion in the winter of 1936 . The Holmenkollen Line was planned to be extended even further , from Tryvandshøiden station to a proposed hotel with 200 beds . This never happened , since the skating rinks at Øvresetertjern were too cold and windy to become popular among Oslo residents .
Even though Tryvandsbanen had prepared the Frognerseteren – Tryvandshøiden Line for an upgrade to double tracks , no action was taken due to a shortage of money . The line was therefore unsuitable for regular passenger service , and Tryvandsbanen considered it to be useless . The tracks from Tryvandshøiden station to a point some 200 metres ( 660 ft ) ahead of Frognerseteren station were removed in 1939 . In the 1960s , the right @-@ of @-@ way was gravelled over and converted into a rail trail .
= = = Reopening = = =
In 1993 , proposals were made to re @-@ open the line to Tryvandshøiden Station , so that the Tryvann Ski Resort would be more accessible to Oslo residents . Oslo Sporveier , the operator , turned down the proposals , arguing that it would cost about 3 billion NOK to lay the tracks and put up overhead line equipment , and that it would not attract enough passengers .
In 2004 , the writer Erling Fossen gathered 356 signatures in favor of extending the line to the ski resort , which were given to the Oslo City Council . Even though the proposal was supported by the prominent council members Peter N. Myhre , Ola Elvestuen and Rune Gerhardsen , Oslo Sporveier declined , stating that the extension of the line would not be profitable enough .
Peter N. Myhre stated in 2008 that the line would be extended to the ski resort before the FIS Nordic World Ski Championships 2011 , but no action was taken as neither Ruter nor the city council wanted to allocate the required 150 million NOK .
= = Facilities and services = =
A red @-@ painted house for the signalman was put up close to the station . Tryvandsbanen also developed plans for building a station house with a waiting shed , but these never materialised . The name of the red @-@ painted house was changed from Nordpolen ( " The North Pole " ) to Norden ( " The North " ) and it was modernised after the removal of the tracks . The station was included on the Nordmarka maps published in 1913 and 1938 .
The station was never served by passenger trains , but between 1914 and 1918 Norway Telecom ( now Telenor ) used the line for transporting steel when Tryvannstårnet was being constructed . Occasionally charter trips to Øvresetertjern for passengers were also arranged .
= Fred Tenney =
Frederick Tenney ( November 26 , 1871 – July 3 , 1952 ) was an American professional baseball player whose career spanned 20 seasons , 17 of which were spent with the Major League Baseball ( MLB ) Boston Beaneaters / Doves / Rustlers ( 1894 – 1907 , 1911 ) and the New York Giants ( 1908 – 1909 ) . Described as " one of the best defensive first basemen of all time " , Tenney is credited with originating the 3 @-@ 6 @-@ 3 double play and originating the style of playing off the first base foul line and deep , as modern first basemen do . Over his career , Tenney compiled a batting average of .294 , 1 @,@ 278 runs scored , 2 @,@ 231 hits , 22 home runs , and 688 runs batted in ( RBI ) in 1 @,@ 994 games played .
Born in Georgetown , Massachusetts , Tenney was one of the first players to enter the league after graduating college , where he served as a left @-@ handed catcher for Brown University . Signing with the Beaneaters , Tenney spent the next 14 seasons with the team , including a three @-@ year managerial stint from 1905 – 1907 . In December 1907 Tenney was traded to the Giants as a part of an eight @-@ man deal ; after two years playing for New York , he re @-@ signed with the Boston club , where he played for and managed the team in 1911 . After retiring from baseball , Tenney worked for the Equitable Life Insurance Society before his death in Boston on July 3 , 1952 .
= = Early life = =
Tenney was born in Georgetown , Massachusetts , the third of five children to Charles William and Sarah Lambert ( née DeBacon ) Tenney . Charles Tenney attended Dummer Academy from 1850 to 1853 , and served for the 50th Massachusetts Regiment in the Civil War , where he nearly died due to " intense suffering " . Growing up , Fred led his class in drawing and sketching . He reportedly started playing baseball around 1880 .
= = Career = =
= = = Brown University = = =
In 1892 , Tenney played his first professional game for the Binghamton
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continued until 22 February . The next stage of the campaign saw the Australians take Ratsua as they sought to establish a defensive line across the base of the Bonis Peninsula between Ratsua and Ruri Bay .
= = Background = =
= = = Strategic situation = = =
Japanese forces had landed on Bougainville in early 1942 , capturing it from the small force of Australians garrisoning the island . They had subsequently developed several airbases on the island , using it to conduct operations in the northern Solomon Islands and to attack the Allied lines of communication between the United States , Australia and the Southwest Pacific Area . These bases also helped protect Rabaul , the major Japanese garrison and naval base in Papua New Guinea ; throughout 1943 , Allied planners determined that Bougainville was vital for neutralising the Japanese base around Rabaul .
US Marines conducted an amphibious landing at Cape Torokina , on the western coast of Bougainville , north of Empress Augusta Bay , in November 1943 . After an initial counter @-@ attack that was repulsed , the Marines had been replaced by a garrison of US Army troops who began consolidating their position around Torokina , establishing a strong perimeter . In March 1944 , the Japanese launched a heavy counter @-@ attack , which was turned back with many casualties . After this , the situation on Bougainville became largely static , as the Japanese focused primarily on subsistence , and the US forces chose to adopt a mostly defensive posture aimed at maintaining the perimeter around Torokina .
In November – December 1944 , the Australian II Corps — consisting of Militia troops from the 3rd Division and the 11th Brigade — under Lieutenant General Stanley Savige took over responsibility for Allied operations on Bougainville from the American XIV Corps as part of a plan to free up the US troops for the fighting in the Philippines . Mistakenly believing that the Japanese forces on the island numbered just 17 @,@ 500 men it was decided that the Australians should pursue an aggressive campaign to clear the Japanese from Bougainville . After taking over the US perimeter that had been established around Torokina , the Australian campaign developed into three separate drives : in the north , it was planned that Japanese forces would be forced into the narrow Bonis Peninsula and contained ; in the centre the seizure of Pearl Ridge would give the Australians control of the east – west avenues of approach , as well as affording them protection against further counter @-@ attacks , while also opening the way for a drive to the east coast ; and the main campaign in the south , where the bulk of the Japanese forces were concentrated . Allied estimates of Japanese strength were later found to be grossly inaccurate and after the war it was found that the number of Japanese alive on the island at this time was closer to 40 @,@ 000 .
= = = Preliminary moves = = =
On 31 December 1944 , Savige ordered Brigadier John Stevenson , commander of the 11th Brigade , to begin clearing operations along the northwest coast of the island towards Soraken Harbour , as the Australians attempted to drive the Japanese in the sector on to the narrow Bonis Peninsula . At the time the Australians believed there were around 390 Japanese defending the area surrounding the Genga River — considered to be the main Japanese defence line in the northern sector — but it was later determined to be closer to 900 men from the 81st Infantry Regiment , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Shinzo Nakamura .
Nakamura , who according to Peter Charlton was considered to be a " master of jungle warfare " , had been ordered to prevent the Australian advance along the coast . He had perceived the likelihood of stopping the Australians well forward of the Genga as being unlikely and had therefore decided that he would concentrate his defence around the river itself , establishing a strong position on Tsimba Ridge , about 400 metres ( 440 yd ) south of the river . Described by war correspondent Fred Aldridge as a " horseshoe volcanic feature with steep jungle @-@ clad sides ... each toe [ of the ridge ended ] close to the sea , forming a natural amphitheatre by the beach " , it was a " textbook fortress " . According to Aldridge , it was a " maze of dugouts , trenches , [ and ] foxholes " , and was well camouflaged and heavily defended by snipers , machine guns and artillery , while supporting elements had been placed to the north , in depth , behind the Genga , near Kunamatoro .
Taking over control of the northern sector from the 7th Brigade , which was subsequently transferred to the southern sector to take part in the main offensive , the 11th Brigade advanced along the coast from Kuraio Mission , sending out patrols into the interior to flush the Japanese out of their positions in the mountains as they went . The 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion , under the command of Lieutenant Colonel Joseph Kelly and roughly 800 @-@ strong , formed the vanguard of the advance , its main body moving along the coast road towards Amun , Sipaai and Rukussia , while patrols were sent inland from Totokei towards Lalum and Soraken , both of which were considered key Japanese positions . By 16 January 1945 , the lead company of the 31st / 51st reached Rukussia , having encountered no Japanese up until that point .
= = Battle = =
The first contact came on 17 January when the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion 's advanced elements — drawn mainly from ' D ' Company , under Captain Thomas Titley — moved north from Rukussia and proceeded towards the Genga River . Reaching a clearing 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) north of Puto , a platoon @-@ sized patrol came across several huts in a cleared area and proceeded to attack it . One Japanese was killed in the initial assault , but as the Australians took the huts and pushed beyond them , they were engaged from entrenchments 100 yards ( 91 m ) in front of them . The Japanese then launched a counter @-@ attack using light and heavy machine guns . In response , the Australians brought up another platoon and over the course of two days the counter @-@ attack was repulsed , with six to eight Japanese estimated to have been killed and others wounded , while two Australians were wounded .
During the engagement the Japanese had opened up with the artillery that they had brought up in support of the main defensive position on Tsimba Ridge , firing for the first time in the sector . This barrage was largely ineffective , inflicting only one casualty , as many of the shells proved to be faulty and did not detonate . The Australians also came across a large camp , including a field hospital , which they captured intact . Another group of huts was also discovered , from where they gained intelligence identifying the Japanese troops in the area as belonging to the 81st Infantry Regiment . They also managed to capture two 70 mm guns , and ammunition for them .
On 19 January , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion 's ' A ' Company , under Captain Clyde Downs , sent a platoon @-@ sized patrol out to outflank the Japanese forward positions ; this patrol moved first to the right flank and then north along the jungle tracks around Totokei and Goton . Discovering evidence of Japanese movement in the area , they proceeded to the village of Kunamatoro , about 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of Junapopo . Here they encountered a force of around 30 to 50 Japanese and after the initial contact , in which the Australian platoon commander was wounded , the patrol attacked the village . Within 10 minutes the battle was over : 14 Japanese had been killed , along with a further five wounded , while the Australians lost one killed , one wounded and one missing . As darkness fell , the Australian patrol withdrew from the village .
The following day — 20 January — the advanced elements of the Australian force pressed on towards Tsimba Ridge . A formation about 200 yards ( 180 m ) long and about 60 feet ( 18 m ) in height , and stretching westerly to the Genga River where a steep cliff fell to the southern bank of the river , the ridge blocked the Australian advance across the river , while its south @-@ eastern most protrusion ( later known to the Australians as the " Pimple " ) was separated by a shallow saddle . On top of the ridge , dense jungle provided good concealment , while most of the approaches to the ridge were open to observation . As the Australians approached the ridge , one of their platoons captured a 47 mm gun positioned along the coast about 1 @,@ 000 yards ( 910 m ) south of the ridge , while another platoon contacted a lone Japanese soldier , who was killed in the subsequent firefight as they entered a garden that curved along the southern approach to the ridge , and which became known as the " Amphitheatre " . After the initial contact , the platoon 's advance through the garden was prevented by an intense burst of fire from the ridge , but the Australians managed to scale the high ground that rose to their east and were able to occupy the south @-@ eastern tip of the Pimple , capturing two 75 mm guns in the process .
Reports had been received from locals that the Japanese had brought reinforcements down from Soraken , Taiof Island and Tarlena , and at this point the Australians realised that the Japanese were concentrated in far greater numbers than anticipated and had in fact established their line of resistance in the sector upon the ridge . This was confirmed later after the Australians moved forward once more on 21 January , moving to within 800 yards ( 730 m ) of the Genga River , where the track upon which they were advancing opened into a large garden that curved around the edge of Tsimba Ridge , from where the Japanese defenders had an excellent line of sight . Subsequent patrols determined the extent of the Japanese position , reporting that they had constructed a well @-@ fortified position with a continuous trench along the crest of ridge , weapons pits and pill boxes , all with clear fields of fire , stretching up to 150 yards ( 140 m ) .
The Australian commander , Kelly , ordered ' B ' Company to move up and take the ridge and over the course of a week between 21 – 28 January they made several attempts against various parts of the ridge , approaching from the south , southeast and the north . These proved fruitless , although one platoon managed to encircle the position from the north before being engaged with heavy machine gun fire . On 23 January , the Australians established fire support in the form of guns from the 2nd Mountain Battery . Another three unsuccessful attempts were made on 24 January , and on 25 January ' C ' Company carried out a movement to the flank in an attempt to get around behind the ridge and attack from the north . Crossing the crocodile @-@ infested waters of the Genga about 600 yards ( 550 m ) from the ridge , the Australians established a bridgehead across the river with a line of communications back to the Pimple , which they kept open by constantly patrolling along it .
Over the following six days , the Japanese attacked the bridgehead , launching a series of assaults that , in the words of Robert Burla , bordered upon suicidal . These attacks were repulsed and the Australians began to launch patrols in all directions around the ridge . On 29 January , the Japanese launched a large @-@ scale attack on ' C ' Company 's positions and although the Australians resisted , the attack succeeded in breaking through one part of the perimeter and managed to roll up the position all the way to the main battalion position around Puto before it was turned back . The Australian counter @-@ attack , organised by the ' C ' Company 's commander , Captain Alwyn Shilton , and supported by accurate artillery fire , came on 1 February and resulted in over 30 Japanese killed or wounded .
Over the next few days the Japanese made further probes , which were also repulsed , and the Australians consolidated their positions prior to an assault on the ridge . Preparations included the manhandling of a mountain gun from Puto to a position 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the Pimple , from where it could fire directly upon the Japanese positions on the ridge , while aircraft from No. 5 Squadron , Royal Australian Air Force , carried out reconnaissance . To maintain the secrecy of these preparations , mortar fire was brought down upon the Japanese positions to mask the sounds of digging and movement while fire from Vickers machine guns kept the Japanese defenders from being able to leave their shelter and observe .
Following a day @-@ long artillery barrage , the main assault attack finally took place on 6 February . Supported by a barrage of over 500 artillery shells and mortar bombs , and airstrikes from Australian Wirraways and New Zealand Corsairs , three platoons from Captain Millett Harris ' ' B ' Company assaulted the ridge from different points in an effort to encircle the defenders . Following the preparatory artillery fire , the attack began at 09 : 00 hours when two platoons — 10 and 11 Platoons — along with company headquarters formed up south @-@ east of the amphitheatre and began to advance to the north @-@ west 200 yards ( 180 m ) to attack the ridge from behind , while another force — 12 Platoon — attacked from the garden , moving around the Pimple before assaulting the ridge from the east . From the north @-@ west , 10 Platoon , in the centre , managed to capture its objectives by 09 : 25 hours ; however , 12 Platoon came under intense fire and after suffering several casualties stopped their advance . By 11 : 30 hours the northernmost Australian platoon , 11 Platoon , had reached the high ground on the north @-@ western side of the ridge , completing the encirclement of the Japanese . The defenders subsequently withdrew from their forward positions , but refused to give up the position , occupying the reverse slope on the western side of the ridge . The attack cost the Australians nine killed and 20 wounded .
Throughout the night , Japanese artillery was very active , firing down on the Australian positions around The Pimple , after which a " banzai attack " was launched early on 7 February . Although repulsed , it enabled the Japanese to maintain a small pocket of resistance on the western tip of the ridge . On the evening of 7 February , Captain Kawakami 's 10th Company from the III Battalion , 81st Infantry Regiment , withdrew . Nevertheless , a small Japanese force remained until 9 February when the Australians called down an airstrike upon the position and the defenders withdrew from the feature . One of the Australians , Private Colin Jorgensen , was awarded the Military Medal for charging a Japanese weapon pit and knocking it out of action during the final assault .
= = Aftermath = =
Fighting around the Genga River continued for the next couple of days , with clashes occurring until the Australians had cleared the northern and southern banks by 11 February , during which time Japanese artillery opened up on the Australians , causing several casualties . In securing the ridge , the Australians captured a large amount of Japanese equipment , including four field and six anti @-@ tank guns , nine machine guns and 86 rifles . Japanese casualties were estimated at 66 killed , while Australian casualties in the Tsimba area were 12 killed and 20 wounded . Within the context of the campaign , these losses were considered heavy by the Australians , and an Australian newspaper report from shortly after the battle described it as the " bloodiest battle of the campaign " , while another described it as " fiercest " fought on Bougainville up to that point . From documents captured after the war , it was shown that the Japanese believed that these losses would slow the Australian advance . At the time they did not perceive the loss of Tsimba Ridge to be a defeat . They had been prepared to hold the position , and had the numbers to do it ; however , Nakamura had decided to withdraw from the ridge when the morale of his troops had fallen due to lack of ammunition and food , and rising casualties from tropical diseases . The real size of the force holding Tsimba Ridge was also revealed by documents captured after the war , highlighting the gross underestimation of Japanese strength by Australian intelligence sources .
After the fall of Tsimba Ridge , fighting continued around the Genga River for the next couple of weeks . By 10 February the area south of the Genga had been cleared of Japanese and the Australians began to patrol along the northern bank . Several minor clashes occurred , the most serious of which saw three Japanese killed and three Australians wounded when the Australians managed to capture a Japanese 37 mm gun . As the Japanese were forced to withdraw from a position along the track which ran 150 yards ( 140 m ) from the river , the Japanese artillery intensified and several men from the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion became casualties .
The 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion continued operations around the Genga River until 26 February , by which time three companies had reached the Gillman River , while another had struck inland , fighting a short engagement around Kunamatoro , before pressing on towards a ridge near the Soraken Plantation . Throughout the final weeks of February , ' A ' Company of the 31st / 51st , under Downs , fought the Japanese defenders off the position , which was subsequently named " Downs ' Ridge " by the Australians . On 26 February , the 31st / 51st was relieved by Lieutenant Colonel Bernard Callinan 's 26th Infantry Battalion , who continued the advance north towards the Soraken Peninsula , while the 55th / 53rd Infantry Battalion advanced on Ratsua as the Australians sought to establish a defensive line across the base of the Bonis Peninsula between Ratsua and Ruri Bay . The 31st / 51st would later take part in the failed landing at Porton Plantation in June , where they would suffer heavy casualties , including Downs , who was killed leading his company . In total , the Australians lost 34 killed and 91 wounded in the fighting around the Genga River , while it was estimated that the Japanese lost 148 killed . For its involvement in taking Tsimba Ridge , the 31st / 51st Infantry Battalion was awarded the battle honour " Tsimba Ridge " .
= Pennsylvania Route 664 =
Pennsylvania Route 664 ( designated by the Pennsylvania Department of Transportation as SR 0664 ) is a 17 @.@ 59 @-@ mile @-@ long ( 28 @.@ 31 km ) state highway located in Clinton and Lycoming counties in Pennsylvania . The southern terminus is at State Route 120 in Lock Haven , while the northern terminus is at State Route 44 on the Clinton @-@ Lycoming county line in the community of Haneyville . The route passes through small communities , but does not intersect with any other legislated highways in the area .
The route was assigned in 1930 , two years after a majority of state routes were assigned , and had continuous repavings done from 1935 to 1966 . There have been no changes in road alignment since its inception .
= = Route description = =
State Route 664 begins at an intersection with State Route 120 in community of Lock Haven . The highway progresses northward , leaving the community limits of Lock Haven . After the intersection with East Water Street , State Route 664 crosses the West Branch of the Susquehanna River . The bridge over the branch of river was constructed in 1986 . At the intersection with Farrandsville Road , the highway turns eastward , paralleling the river . Nearing State Route 150 , the highway turns northward and into Dunnstown . While winding around a few curves , State Route 664 intersects with Armory Drive , an access road to a local armory . The route 's surroundings are highly developed in Dunnstown , with the highway passing along homes . At the intersection with Aikey Street , State Route 664 leaves Dunnstown and proceeds northward .
The highway passes some homes and forests north of Dunnstown , entering Woodward Township soon after . At the intersection with Township Road 406 , State Route 664 starts winding in several directions , but following a northward basis . This continues until the intersection with Arbutus Drive , where it heads straight to the northwest . At a clearing in a nearby forest , State Route 664 enters the community of Swissdale . The stay in the community is short , with the highway leaving after a few blocks . Just north of Swissdale , State Route 664 makes a long hairpin turn , curving from east to west before turning north once again . Just after the intersection with Honey Suckle Lane , State Route 664 progresses towards Haneyville .
The next stretch of State Route 664 is full of bends , and the highway continuously turns at a constant rate . At an intersection with another Honey Suckle Lane , the highway starts its northwestern progression once again . This changes again when Tedrow Lane begins paralleling the highway . Now following a steady northeastern alignment , the highway continues through the large patches of trees south of Haneyville . At Little Plum Run Road , the highway turns onto a steady northward alignment . The highway continues through the trees for a while , continuing northward on its way to Gallagher Township .
At a bend in the highway , there is a small patch of development , with a few houses near the highway . At the intersection with Township Road 529 , State Route 664 enters Gallagher Township . Eventually , the large patch of forests in the surroundings come towards a clearing , where the highway intersects with Old Dirt Road . After crossing a stream , State Route 664 gains the moniker of the Coudersport Pike . The highway passes a small patch of development , reaching another clearing in the forest . After entering another forest , State Route 664 ends at an intersection with State Route 44 in the community of Haneyville .
= = History = =
State Route 664 was assigned two years after the mass numbering of state routes in Pennsylvania in 1928 . The highway itself took several years to transition from gravel to actual pavement . The first segment , which occurred in 1935 , was from Little Plum Run Road and northward . The second segment was in 1936 , when the Pennsylvania Department of Highways paved the piece of State Route 664 from a point just south of Gallagher to the Gallagher Township line . In 1938 , the third segment , from Swissdale to Gallagher Township was paved .
In 1949 , the Department of Highways paved the piece of State Route 664 from Gallagher Township to the Lycoming County line . In 1951 , the section between Swissdale and Little Plum Run Road was paved once again . Two years after that , the section from the Lycoming County line to State Route 44 was improved in its condition . That lone section was improved in 1966 . There have been no recorded changes in alignment since its 1930 assignment .
= = Major intersections = =
= Love Minus Zero / No Limit =
" Love Minus Zero / No Limit " ( read " Love Minus Zero over No Limit " ) is a song written by Bob Dylan for his fifth studio album Bringing It All Back Home , released in 1965 ( see 1965 in music ) . The song was originally written as a tribute to Dylan 's future wife Sara Lowndes . Its main musical hook is a series of three descending chords , while its lyrics articulate Dylan 's feelings for his lover , and how she brings a needed zen @-@ like calm to his chaotic world . The song uses surreal imagery , some of which recalls Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Raven " and the biblical Book of Daniel . The style of the lyrics is reminiscent of William Blake 's poem , " The Sick Rose " .
Dylan has performed " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " live on several of his tours . Since its initial appearance on Bringing It All Back Home , live versions of the song have been released on a number of Dylan 's albums , including Bob Dylan at Budokan , MTV Unplugged ( European versions ) , and The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue , as well as on the reissued Concert for Bangladesh album by George Harrison & Friends . Live video performances have been included on the Concert for Bangladesh and Other Side of the Mirror : Live at Newport Folk Festival 1963 – 1965 DVD releases .
Artists who have covered " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " include Ricky Nelson , The Turtles , Joan Baez , Judy Collins , Fleetwood Mac , and Rod Stewart . Eric Clapton played it at Bob Dylan 's 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration .
= = Composition and recording = =
The version of the song that appears on Bringing It All Back Home was recorded on January 14 , 1965 and was produced by Tom Wilson . This version was recorded by the full rock band that Dylan used to accompany him on the songs that appeared on side one of the album , and features a prominent electric guitar part played by Bruce Langhorne . However , like the other love song on side one , " She Belongs to Me " , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " was recorded a day earlier in various acoustic configurations , and one of these takes was a strong contender to be included on the album . The January 13 , 1965 recordings and a first take from January 14 were released on the 6 @-@ disc and 18 @-@ disc versions of The Bootleg Series Vol . 12 : The Cutting Edge 1965 – 1966 in 2015 .
The song is tuneful , with a prominent series of three descending diatonic chords providing the main hook . The music is soothing , so that the love expressed seems tranquil even when images such as cloaks and daggers and trembling bridges are evoked by the lyrics . The tune and rhythm have a Latin feel and the lyrical rhyming pattern varies from verse to verse . For example , in the first verse , the first and second lines rhyme , the fourth and eighth lines rhyme and the sixth and seventh lines rhyme , but the third and fifth lines are unrhymed . But in the second verse , the first three lines rhyme . Throughout the song , the rhymes are sometimes approximate ; for example " another " is rhymed with " bother " and " trembles " is rhymed with " rambles . "
= = Interpretation = =
" Love Minus Zero / No Limit " was written as a tribute to Dylan 's future wife Sara Lowndes . The lyrics reflect her Zen @-@ like detachment through a series of opposites , for example , that she " speaks like silence " and is both " like ice " and " like fire " . Another famous line from the song also captures this dichotomy : " She knows there 's no success like failure , and that failure 's no success at all . "
The first verse of the song has the singer infatuated with the woman , admiring her inner strength . The three remaining verses reflect the inauthentic chaos that the singer has to deal with in the outside world , from which the lover 's Zen @-@ like calm provides needed refuge . The final image is of the lover being like some raven at the singer 's window with a broken wing . This image recalls Edgar Allan Poe 's " The Raven " , but is also a symbol of the lover 's vulnerability in spite of her strength . The broken wing may also be a reference to the woman 's need for shelter , or else to a flaw in her . The style of the song 's lyrics are comparable to William Blake 's poem , " The Sick Rose " , in their economy of language and use of a detached tone to express the narrator 's intense emotional experience . The song 's surreal images anticipate the psychedelic songs Dylan would later write .
Some of the song 's images evoke prophecies from the Biblical Book of Daniel . For example , the line :
Statues made of matchsticks
Crumble into one another
is reminiscent of Daniel 's prophecy that Nebuchadnezzar would build a statue of precious metals only to see it crumble like " chaff " . Another line in the song states that people " Draw conclusions on the wall . " Drawing conclusions on the wall rather than from the wall evokes the story from the Book of Daniel where a hand writes on a wall the words " MENE MENE TEKEL UPHARSIN , " warning that the Neo @-@ Babylonian Empire was about to end .
One interpretation of the lover in this song , as well as that which features in " She Belongs to Me " , is that she is Dylan 's muse . In each song , the inaccessibility of the lover / muse can be interpreted as Dylan 's acknowledgment of his own limitations — limitations that he attempts to overcome in writing the songs . In this interpretation , the final raven image sitting at the window can be viewed as a symbol of the muse 's inaccessibility , and the raven 's broken wing a symbol of its wildness . A related interpretation is that the song reflects an artist 's " self @-@ awareness through isolation . " The line " She knows there 's no success like failure , and that failure 's no success at all " can be seen as a reflection of the isolation of the American writer .
The original title of the song was " Dime Store " , which originates from the line " In the dime stores and bus stations ... " The official title " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " is , according to Dylan , a fraction with " Love Minus Zero " on the top and " No Limit " on the bottom , and this is how the title appeared on early pressings of the Bringing It All Back Home LP . Therefore , the correct pronunciation of the song 's title is " Love Minus Zero over No Limit " . In theory , the resulting quotient would be equal to " absolutely unlimited love . " The title is also based on gambling terminology that would mean that all love is a risk .
= = Performances and recordings = =
Dylan has frequently performed the song in concert since the time it was written , nearly always acoustically . He performed it occasionally in concert during 1965 and 1966 , but more frequently during the Rolling Thunder Revue tours from 1974 through 1976 . Dylan also played it at The Concert for Bangladesh , during the first of the two August 1 , 1971 benefit concerts organized by George Harrison and Ravi Shankar to help provide relief for refugees in Bangladesh . Dylan has also been playing the song live throughout the Never Ending Tour that began in 1988 .
In addition to its appearance on Bringing It All Back Home , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " has been included on several Dylan live and compilation albums . In the 1970s , it was included on the compilation Masterpieces and on the live Bob Dylan at Budokan album , recorded in 1978 . Other live performances have been included on The Bootleg Series Vol . 5 : Bob Dylan Live 1975 , The Rolling Thunder Revue ( recorded December 1975 ) , on the European versions of MTV Unplugged ( recorded November 1994 ) , and on the 2005 reissue of the Concert for Bangladesh album . Footage of Dylan playing the song is included on the 2005 DVD of the Concert for Bangladesh film and in The Other Side of the Mirror : Live at Newport Folk Festival 1963 – 1965 , a film by Murray Lerner showing Dylan 's performances at the Newport Folk Festival . A snippet from an impromptu performance of " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " is also included in the film Dont Look Back .
The song was also included on the Rhino / Starbucks compilation album This is Us : Songs from Where You Live .
= = Cover versions = =
The song was covered several times in 1965 , including a version by The Turtles on their album It Ain 't Me Babe and a version by The Walker Brothers on their album Take It Easy with The Walker Brothers . Los Angeles band The Leaves covered the song on their 1966 album Hey Joe and Joan Baez included it on her 1968 album of Dylan covers Any Day Now . A version by singer / songwriter Turley Richards became a minor hit in 1970 ( US # 84 ) . It was also covered in 1993 by Judy Collins on Judy Collins Sings Dylan ... Just Like a Woman . Eric Clapton covered the song on during Bob Dylan 's 30th Anniversary Concert Celebration . Other musicians who have covered the song include Fleetwood Mac , Rod Stewart , Jackson Browne , Ricky Nelson , Buck Owens , Bridget St. John , Eliza Gilkyson and Les Fradkin .
= = Legacy = =
In a 2005 reader 's poll for Mojo magazine , " Love Minus Zero / No Limit " was listed as the # 20 all @-@ time greatest Bob Dylan song , and a similar poll of artists ranked the song # 32 . In 2002 , Uncut magazine listed it as the # 23 all @-@ time greatest Bob Dylan song . Australian music critic Toby Creswell included the song in his book 1001 Songs : The Great Songs of All Time and the Artists , Stories and Secrets Behind Them .
= Burger King grilled chicken sandwiches =
International fast @-@ food restaurant chain Burger King and its Australian franchise Hungry Jack 's have had a variety of grilled chicken sandwiches in their product portfolio since 1990 . The BK Broiler was the first iteration , and was one of the most successful product introductions in the fast food industry to that point in time . However sales dropped in the following two years , and the product was reformulated and renamed to the Chicken Whopper to align the product with the company 's Whopper Sandwich . A change of ownership of Burger King in 2004 prompted another reformulation of the product into the BK Baguette product line that focused on a more health @-@ oriented product . This new formulation proved unpopular and was replaced in 2005 with the TenderGrill chicken sandwich . The TenderGrill sandwich was introduced as part of a series of sandwiches designed to expand Burger King 's menu with both more sophisticated , adult oriented fare and present a larger , meatier product that appealed to 24- to 36 @-@ year @-@ old males . Burger King was the first major fast food chain to introduce a grilled chicken sandwich to the marketplace , beating rivals Wendy 's by six months and McDonald 's by four years . These two chains also went through a series of reformulations and naming schemes for their grilled chicken products .
The company sells slightly different versions of the sandwich between international markets , using white meat chicken breast in some regions while using dark meat chicken thighs in others . To promote continuing interest in the product , Burger King occasionally releases limited @-@ time ( LTO ) variants on its grilled chicken sandwiches that have different ingredients from the standard sandwich recipe . Being one of the company 's major offerings , the grilled chicken sandwich is sometimes the center of product advertising for the company . Additionally , as a major product in the company 's portfolio , Burger King has registered many global trademarks to protect its investment in the product .
= = History = =
= = = BK Broiler = = =
Burger King 's first broiled chicken sandwich was introduced in 1990 and was called the BK Broiler . This sandwich was made with lettuce , tomato and a dill ranch sauce served on an oat dusted roll . The product came at a time of fundamental change in terms of chicken product in the restaurant industry ; more than 90 % of chicken products sold by the major chains were fried . Shortly after its introduction , the sandwich was selling more than a million units per day , and poaching sales from traditional fried chicken chains such as Kentucky Fried Chicken . Additionally , the sandwiches were part of an industry trend towards the diversification of menus with healthier products such as reformulated cooking methods and salads . At the time , the sandwich had 379 calories and 18 grams of fat , 10 of which came from the sauce .
The introduction of the BK Broiler was one of the most successful product launches in the restaurant industry at the time , encouraging the company look into introducing additional products that would match the success of the Broiler . Furthermore , the success of the product was credited by analysts from Shearson Lehman Hutton Securities as one of the main factors helping Burger King realize a 47 % increase in profit margin over the same period in 1989 . By 1992 , sales of the BK Broiler had slowed to half of what they were at the height of it introduction .
The company reformulated the BK Broiler in 1998 into a larger , more male @-@ oriented sandwich served on a Whopper bun , increasing its patty size while changing the ingredients to mayonnaise , lettuce and tomato . The idea behind the up @-@ sizing of the product was to give the customer a sense of value , with a company spokesman stating " When they [ the customer ] see a lot , it seems like they 're getting a lot for their money , and even if they don 't eat it all , they think they 're being treated fairly . " The move was part of the company 's " back to basics " movement in which it reorganized its menu , focusing on its core products and simplifying its product base .
= = = Chicken Whopper = = =
As part of the forty @-@ fifth anniversary of its Whopper sandwich in 2002 , BK introduced an updated version of the sandwich called the Chicken Whopper and added a smaller version called the Chicken Whopper Jr. sandwich along with a new Caesar salad sandwich topped with a Chicken Whopper filet . The introduction of the Chicken Whopper represented the company 's first move to extend the Whopper brand name beyond beef @-@ based sandwiches since the original Whopper 's introduction in the 1950s . The sandwiches featured a whole chicken breast filet , weighing either 4 @.@ 7 oz ( 130 g ) for the larger sandwich and a 3 @.@ 1 oz ( 88 g ) for the Jr . , mayonnaise , lettuce , and tomato on a sesame seed roll . A newly reformulated low fat mayonnaise was introduced in conjunction with the new sandwiches . Along with the company 's new BK Veggie sandwich , The Chicken Whopper Jr. version of the sandwich was lauded by the Center for Science in the Public Interest as being one of the best nutritionally sound products sold by a fast food chain . Conversely , the CSPI decried the rest of the Burger King menu as being vastly unhealthy .
Development of the sandwich began in 2001 in response to several major factors . After an overall sales decline of 17 % coupled with a profit decline of 29 % , Burger King held a series of consumer tests that showed the company 's customer base was looking for a wider variety of options when making purchases . Additional survey results revealed that a lack of newer products was discouraging consumers from visiting the chain . Furthermore , the company was seeking to counter the threat to its sales by newer fast casual restaurants that had begun to bite into sales . By July 2002 , the chain had sold nearly fifty million of the sandwiches , eventually displacing the BK Broiler 's initial launch figures as the company 's best selling product introduction . The successful introduction of the Chicken Whopper was one of the few noted positive highlights of the company during negotiations for the sale of Burger King by its owner Diageo to a group of investors led by the TPG Capital ; Chicago @-@ based consulting firm Technomic Inc. president Ron Paul was quoted that he was encouraged by recent product changes at Burger King such as the new Chicken Whopper , but he said it 's too early to tell whether the changes have been successful . Despite the Chicken Whopper 's initial success , just over a year after the Chicken Whopper 's introduction enthusiasm for the product was waning ; Burger King 's largest franchisee , Carrols Corporation , was complaining that the product line was a failure , describing the sandwich as a pedestrian product with a great name . As of November 2013 , the Chicken Whopper is the current grilled chicken sandwich sold by Burger King in the Middle East .
With its 2014 expansion in to India , Burger King introduced the Chicken Whopper as one of three versions of the Whopper . The other two variants are the Mutton Whopper and the Veggie Whopper .
= = = BK Baguette = = =
In 2004 , BK introduced its BK Baguette line of sandwiches designed to replace the Chicken Whopper . The sandwiches were introduced at the insistence of the new CEO , former Darden Restaurants executive Bradley ( Brad ) Blum , shortly after the company was acquired by TPG Capital in 2002 . The sandwiches were designed to be a lower fat alternative with 5g of fat and 350 or fewer calories . The line was a health conscious oriented product that got its taste from ingredients instead of fat . They were formally introduced in 2004 as its BK Baguette line of sandwiches , that replacing the Chicken Whopper sandwiches .
The baguette sandwiches were introduced to Europe starting in the UK in 2003 , with several new varieties designed to cater to the population mix of the country . While the baguette sandwiches were well received and continue to be sold , several red flags have been raised by the British government and private groups in regards the healthiness of these and other products sold by the fast food industry . In 2005 , British Food Standards Agency ( FSA ) cited large levels of fats and salt in the company 's beef @-@ based Monterey Melt baguette and chided BK for backing out of an agreement to help make the company 's products healthier . In 2007 the private public interest group Consensus Action on Salt and Health , abbreviated to CASH , cited Burger King and other fast food chains over the continued levels of sodium contained in these types of foods . The group specifically claimed that the Chicken BLT Baguette sandwich , when paired with fries and a Coca @-@ Cola , was one of the three saltiest fast food products in the UK .
= = = TenderGrill = = =
The Baguette sandwiches failed to catch on in the American market , and as a result they were discontinued as part of a menu reorganization . In 2005 , they were replaced by the TenderGrill sandwich . The new sandwich was one of several products that were designed to appeal to a group of customers Burger King identified as adult males , 24 – 36 years old that desired a larger , meatier product .
= = = Chicken Burger = = =
In December 2015 , Burger King introduced the Chicken Burger in the U.S. This sandwich has a patty topped with the standard Whopper toppings of mayonnaise , lettuce , tomato , pickles , ketchup and onion on a toasted brioche bun .
= = = Competitive products = = =
Similar products from other chains have also been introduced , reformulated and generally been fluid in their presences in the marketplace since 1990 . Despite the present day competitive products from multiple vendors , Burger King was the first national fast food chain to bring a broiled chicken sandwich to market , beating rival Wendy 's by a period of several months . Wendy 's introduced their first grilled chicken product , simply called a grilled chicken sandwich , in August 1990 . The sandwich originally was made with grilled chicken on 4 @-@ inch bun with lettuce , tomato and a honey mustard sauce . Wendy 's introduced a reformualted grilled chicken sandwich in 1996 that they claimed was plumper and juicier . Wendy 's reformulated their grilled chicken product in 2004 as the Ultimate Chicken Grill sandwich during an overhaul of its chicken sandwich line . As of November 2013 , the Ultimate Chicken Grill is still Wendy 's main grilled sandwich in the United States .
While McDonald 's had been trying to develop and test a similar product for several years , the company was caught off guard at the time when its mainline competitors introduced their grilled chicken products and was not able to initially deploy a similar product . This was primarily due to the fact the company 's highly specialized kitchens could not produce a high quality product without a large investment in new equipment . By early @-@ 1991 , McDonald 's grilled chicken product was still in development , and the vendor would not introduce its version , the McGrilled Chicken Classic , until 1994 . The McGrilled chicken sandwich was replaced with the Grilled Chicken Deluxe sandwich in September and October 1996 as part of McDonald 's Deluxe line of " upscale " sandwiches ; the company had hoped that a higher value product would help improve average check performance at its stores . However , by 1998 the whole Deluxe line was said to be not selling well , and the Grilled Chicken Deluxe was eliminated when McDonald 's brought back the Chicken McGrill sandwich back in 1999 . The Chicken McGrill sandwich was retired in 2005 when the company introduced its new Premium line of products , which like the TenderCrisp sandwich was targeted to a more adult audience with higher quality ingredients such as natural cheeses and whole leaf lettuce . Beginning in April 2015 , McDonald 's moved to a new grilled chicken sandwich , the Artisan Grilled Chicken ; the new chicken uses a smaller list of ingredients in the chicken filet , removing ingredients such as maltodextrin and sodium phosphates . The new sandwich is in response to consumer @-@ based market trends of food products that have simpler , more natural ingredients .
= = Product description = =
The TenderGrill is a chicken sandwich , consisting of a 5 @.@ 2 oz ( 150 g ) flame @-@ grilled chicken breast filet , mayonnaise , lettuce and tomatoes on an brioche bun . In some Asian markets , such as Singapore , the filet is made from chicken thigh meat and uses a sesame @-@ seed bun . Burger King will also add any condiment it sells upon request based on its long standing slogan " Have It Your Way " . Additionally , Burger King has sold several different promotional varieties throughout the years as limited time offerings ( LTO ) , such as Chicken Caesar Club , made with Romaine lettuce , Parmesan cheese , bacon and caesar dressing on toasted sourdough bread , or the Carolina BBQ TenderGrill made with pepper jack cheese , bacon , jalapeños , red onion and a mustard @-@ based barbecue sauce which was sold during Burger King 's 2012 and 2013 Summer BBQ Menu promotions .
= = Advertising = =
The BK Broiler was introduced as part of the company 's Sometimes you gotta break the rules campaign designed by the firms of D 'Arcy Masius Benton & Bowles and Saatchi & Saatchi , a campaign that many of Burger King 's franchisees derided as ineffectual and unclear in its message . Despite the failure of the advertising campaign , the product went on to be one of the most successful fast food product launches up to that time .
The Chicken Whopper was introduced initially via an April Fools ' Day ad in several major news papers that claimed the company was changing its name to " Chicken King " . A later press release announced the joke was to introduce the public to the new product . The television advertising program used to introduce the Chicken Whopper featured animated chickens in cowboy boots marching to the " Have It Your Way " tune and was created by animation house Kurtz & Friends . Later commercials featured comedian Steve Harvey . A second series of ads called @ BK , love is guaranteed that were developed by Los Angeles @-@ based ad house Amoeba , guaranteed that customers would receive a free sandwich if they don 't " love " the chain 's Whopper and Chicken Whopper sandwiches . With the discovery of mad cow disease by the FDA in 2003 , the company instructed their advertising agency at the time , Young & Rubicam of New York , to retool a forthcoming series of ads featuring the company 's signature product , the Whopper , to include the Chicken Whopper . A Burger King spokesman stated that the change was because Burger King " decided that if there 's anybody who wants a chicken option , at this point , we wanted to remind them that the Whopper comes in chicken as well as the original beef , " noting their confidence in their beef supply .
The BK Baguettes line was introduced in the United States via an ad campaign from advertising firm Crispin , Porter + Bogusky that featured the tagline " Flavor from grilling not fat . " The American advertising campaigns for the sandwiches featured several celebrity chefs , such as Rick Bayless , visiting locations where similar style food stuffs were found , e.g. a farmers ' market , and commenting on how these ingredients make the new Baguette line better and more healthy . The advertising firm of Euro RSCG Leedex produced ads for the sandwiches in Great Britain .
The advertising campaign for the TenderGrill sandwich in Spain in 2010 featured a humor @-@ based ad in which men were asked what type of advertisement would get them to buy the sandwich . The responses , which included what men would like to see in the commercials , formed the basis for the ads . The advertisement , made entirely by women , was filmed in London and featured barbarians , ninjas and unicorns in an advertisement that poked fun at the men 's preferences . The making of the commercial was the basis of a mini @-@ documentary from UK firm Feral Films . In a 2011 Singapore campaign , Burger King presented an attack advertisement that was designed to counter the introduction of the Chicken McGrill sandwich from McDonald 's . The campaign took McDonald 's slogan , " Make it better " and changed it to " Make it even Better " and put the sandwich on sale for SGD $ 1 @.@ 00 on the same day the McDonald 's product was set to debut . Burger King called the McDonald 's menu item " fake grilled " as opposed to flame grilled .
= = = Controversies = = =
The 2012 campaign from Clemenger BBDO for the TenderGrill for the Australian Burger King franchise , Hungry Jack 's , featured a goth girl , complete with facial piercings and tattoos that loses her piercings and tattoos as she eats the sandwich . By the time she has finished her meal , her clothing and style had completely changed – much to her and her friends horror . At the end of the commercial , the announcer states the tag line " There is nothing naughty about the new Hungry Jack 's TenderGrill ... Hungry Jack 's makes it better . " The Australian Advertising Standards Bureau received several complaints from the public claiming the commercial demeaned alternative lifestyles , was discriminatory and insulting to non @-@ conformists . The Advertising Standards Board determined that the advertisement did not breach any pertinent anti @-@ discrimination codes , and dismissed the complaint .
= = Trademarks = =
The name " TenderGrill " is registered trademark of Burger King Holdings and are displayed with the " circle @-@ R " ( ® ) symbol in the markets it is sold , including the United States , Canada and Great Britain . [ Notes 1 ] Other grilled chicken @-@ related trademarks owned by Burger King include " BK Broiler " . [ Notes 2 ]
= The Jacket ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Jacket " is the third episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and the show 's eighth episode overall . In the episode , protagonist Jerry Seinfeld buys an expensive suede jacket and has dinner with the father of his ex @-@ girlfriend Elaine Benes . Elaine 's father Alton ( Lawrence Tierney ) , a war veteran and writer , makes Jerry and his friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) very uncomfortable . Elaine is delayed and Jerry and George are stuck with Alton waiting for her at the hotel .
The episode was written by Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld and was directed by Tom Cherones . Most of the episode 's storyline was based on one of David 's personal experiences . For example , Elaine 's father , a published author , was inspired by Richard Yates , author of Revolutionary Road , who Larry David had met while dating his daughter . Tierney 's performance as Elaine 's father was praised by the cast and crew . However , they were taken aback by his eccentric behavior , and it was discovered that he stole a knife from the set and pulled it threateningly towards Jerry . The majority of the episode was filmed on December 4 , 1990 . " The Jacket " premiered on American television on February 6 , 1991 , on NBC , it gained a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 / 16 and was praised by critics .
= = Plot = =
When Jerry is shopping for clothes with Elaine , he finds a suede jacket that he likes . He has doubts about buying the jacket because it is very expensive and has a candy stripe lining . He eventually decides to buy it . While Jerry is at home in his living room looking at himself in a mirror with his jacket , Kramer comes in and likes the jacket , he is even more impressed when he discovers the price by reading the label . Kramer persuades Jerry to give him his old leather jacket as he will no longer be using it .
The following night , Jerry , Elaine , and George have dinner with Elaine 's father , writer Alton Benes . While preparing for the dinner , George arrives at Jerry 's apartment with the song " Master of the House " from the musical Les Misérables stuck in his head . George and Jerry are both very nervous to meet Alton because he is such a famous author . When they are about to leave , Jerry puts on his new jacket . George is very impressed and attempts to get Jerry to reveal its cost . Kramer enters the apartment and asks for two minutes ' help guarding his illegally parked car as he carries down some doves that he is looking after for a magician friend . However , they refuse to help because he often underestimates how long things take to do .
George is still singing as they enter Alton Benes 's hotel . Elaine has not arrived yet , so they sit down with her father and nervously order drinks . They have an awkward conversation with him ; Alton asks who is the " funny guy " ( Jerry ) , to which George says it 's Jerry . Alton then recalls about a funny guy in Korea who got his brains blown out over the Pacific and that " there 's nothing funny about that " . Jerry ( frightened ) eventually goes to the bathroom , abandoning George ( also frightened ) , who attempts to compliment Alton about his book , Fair Game . George gets uncomfortable and tells Alton he has to make a phone call . He meets Jerry in the bathroom and both mention how terrified they are because of Alton ; they decide to go home if Elaine does not show up in the next ten minutes . When they return , Alton receives a message from Elaine , who will arrive in thirty minutes , which worries them both .
When Elaine finally arrives , she explains that Kramer promised her a lift if she would wait in his car for two minutes . He returned over twenty minutes later , and the car had been towed for being illegally parked . She was eventually forced to walk to the restaurant . Alton , returning from the bathroom , greets Elaine and tells Jerry and " chorus boy " George that they are going to a Pakistani restaurant five blocks away . On their way out , they notice it is snowing . Jerry knows snow would ruin his suede jacket and asks Alton if they can take a cab , but Alton replies that it is only a few blocks away . George suggests that Jerry could turn the jacket inside out , but because of the candy stripe lining , Alton notices and tells him to turn it back , saying he looks " like a damn fool " and that he 's " not going to walk down the street with me and my daughter dressed like that . " George then reminds Jerry that the restaurant is only a few blocks away ; Jerry , reluctantly , puts his jacket back to normal .
The next day Kramer notices Jerry 's jacket hanging in the bathroom , badly damaged by the snow . Kramer takes it , chiding Jerry for not turning it inside out . Elaine arrives , and tells Jerry that her father had a good time . She explains how he usually hates everyone but liked Jerry , as he reminded him of a certain " somebody " from Korea ; she then mentions that he thinks George is gay because " he pretty much thinks everyone is gay . " Meanwhile , as Alton drives home , he finds himself singing " Master of the House " as well .
= = Cultural references = =
Throughout the episode , George sings the song " Master of the House " from the musical Les Misérables . Les Misérables ran on Broadway for sixteen years , making it one of the longest running musicals in the history of Broadway . In response to George constantly singing " Master of the House " , Jerry tells him about German composer Robert Schumann , who went insane from hearing the same note over and over in his head . George also mentions Bud Abbott , an actor and comedian during the 1940s and 1950s , who was part of the Abbott and Costello duo , with Lou Costello . When Jerry and George discuss their options in the bathroom at the hotel , George suggests that they should leave to which Jerry replies " he 'll clunk our heads together like Moe " ; this a reference to Moe Howard , one of The Three Stooges , who frequently clunked the heads of the other Stooges together .
= = Production = =
" The Jacket " was written by Seinfeld 's co @-@ creators Larry David and Jerry Seinfeld and directed by Tom Cherones . The episode 's storyline was based on one of David 's personal experiences ; when he was dating Monica Yates , she wanted him to meet her father , Richard Yates , a respected novelist . David had just bought a suede jacket , and met Richard Yates at the Algonquin Hotel . Richard was , as David stated in an interview , " ... every bit as intimidating as Alton Benes " . David 's story is similar to what happened in the episode , as , when they headed out to the restaurant , his jacket was ruined by the snow . Additional dialogue at the store where Jerry buys his jacket was cut before broadcast , it featured a reference to Gary Gilmore . The material was later included on the Seinfeld Volume 1 DVD set . " The Jacket " is the only episode in which one of Elaine 's parents appears ; Louis @-@ Dreyfus once suggested Mary Tyler Moore to portray Elaine 's mother , but the character never appeared on the show . The episode also contains the first mention to Elaine 's job as a manuscript reader for Pendant Publishing , in early drafts of the script her job was an optician . Also in early drafts , in the final scene Kramer entered Jerry 's house with a dove on his shoulder .
The episode was first read by the cast on November 28 , 1990 at 10 @.@ 30 AM . It was filmed in front of a live audience on December 4 , 1990 . The episode was filmed at CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California , where , starting with the season two premiere " The Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , all filming for the second season took place . The final scene in the episode , which showed Alton Benes singing " Master of the House " in his car , was pre @-@ recorded on December 3 , 1990 , as it could not be filmed in front of an audience because it took place in a car .
= = Lawrence Tierney = =
Lawrence Tierney was cast as Alton Benes . He was known for his bad @-@ guy roles in films during the 1940s and 1950s , such as Dillinger , The Hoodlum and Born to Kill . Tierney 's appearance in the episode is one of his only comedic roles . Cast and crew members were very impressed with Tierney 's performance , and intended to make Alton Benes a recurring character . However , they were frightened of him ; during filming it was discovered that Tierney had stolen a butcher knife from the knife block in Jerry 's apartment set . Various cast members remember Seinfeld encountering Tierney and stating " Hey Lawrence , what do you got there in your jacket ? " . Tierney , realizing he had been caught , tried to make a joke about how he thought taking the knife would be funny , by reenacting a scene from Alfred Hitchcock 's Psycho ( 1960 ) , holding the knife above his head and making threatening motions towards Seinfeld . Tom Cherones , Jason Alexander and Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus saw this happen , and , as Alexander recalled , it " scared the living crap out of all of us . " Cherones stated that , afterwards , Larry David would jokingly threaten to have Tierney back on the show if Cherones did his work badly .
= = Reception = =
On February 6 , 1991 , " The Jacket " was first broadcast in the United States on NBC . It gained a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 4 and an audience share of 16 , this means that 10 @.@ 4 % of American households watched the episode , and that 16 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . It faced strong competition from the CBS crime drama Jake and the Fatman ; viewers would frequently tune out of Seinfeld to watch the second half of Jake and the Fatman 's . Seinfeld once jokingly stated that this was because the " Fatman " would run in the second half of the show .
The episode gained positive responses from critics . Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide stated " An otherwise mediocre episode , Lawrence Tierney ’ s gruff turn as Elaine ’ s father helps redeem ' The Jacket ' " . DVD reviewer Jonathan Boudreaux considered " The Jacket " one of season two 's best episodes , along with " The Chinese Restaurant " . Critics Mary Kaye Schilling and Mike Flaherty of Entertainment Weekly graded the episode with a B- , stating " Jerry and George 's torturous hotel @-@ lobby meeting with Mr. Benes is a squirm @-@ inducing joy " .
= Faye Morton =
Faye Lindsey Byrne ( née Morton , previously Michaels , Hewson , Wilson ) is a fictional character from the BBC medical drama Holby City , portrayed by actress Patsy Kensit . The character first appeared on @-@ screen on 30 January 2007 in the episode " Into the Dark " - series nine , episode 17 of the program . Kensit had made a former unrelated guest appearance on Holby City 's sister show Casualty in 2001 .
Faye is a Ward Sister at Holby General , with a mysterious past including two dead husbands and a disabled son . Her storylines have seen her marry registrar Joseph Byrne ( Luke Roberts ) , and develop feelings for consultant Linden Cullen ( Duncan Pow ) following the death of her son . Her introductory storyline , shot on location in Dubai , in which she kills her third husband and leaves for Holby , proved so popular that Kensit was shortlisted " Best Actress " in the 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards for her portrayal of the character within three months of arriving on the show . However , the dramaticism of the character 's storylines and the manner in which they reflect upon real NHS nurses has attracted criticism . Kensit left the show on 28 December 2010 in the episode " Snow Queens " - series thirteen , episode 11
= = Development = =
= = = Creation = = =
Early publicity for the character gave her name as Eliza Clark . This was ultimately changed to Faye Morton , and although Faye did not first appear on @-@ screen until January 2007 , the announcement that Patsy Kensit had been cast in the role was made on 14 December 2005 . Holby City 's executive producer Richard Stokes and series producer Emma Turner spoke of their delight at Kensit 's casting , describing her as " a talented and popular actress who lights up the screen . " Kensit took the role in Holby City after two years of working on the ITV soap opera Emmerdale , commenting that she was " thrilled " to be offered the part , and was looking forward to working in London . Having formerly worked in Yorkshire to film Emmerdale , working in London reduced the actress ' daily commute to 45 minutes . Television critic Jim Shelley noted that Kensit 's casting in the role followed a trend of Holby City producers for hiring established actors , including comedian Adrian Edmondson and Jesus of Nazareth star Robert Powell .
In preparation for the role , Kensit spent three days shadowing a real nurse , and observed open heart surgery being performed as research . She commented on the experience : " I wanted to throw up . First of all I stood in the corner but in the end I couldn 't get close enough ... nurses are incredible women . They 're doing this job for next to nothing and do it with such love and care ... I couldn 't do it , I 'd get too emotionally involved , I don 't think I could cope . " In 2001 , Kensit had made a guest appearance in series 16 of Holby City 's sister show Casualty , appearing as a domestic abuse victim and giving what TV critic Ian Hyland deemed " a convincing performance " . Prior to her move into television roles , Kensit had predominantly worked in films , but explained upon joining the cast of Holby City : " Making films isn 't for me any more because I 'm an old girl in that world ... I 've been very lucky , this is something I grew up doing , in television there 's so much satisfaction ... I 'll stay as long as they want me , I feel like I 've come back home . "
= = = Personality and relationships = = =
Initial publicity for the character billed her as " a nurse who has more than a few secrets to hide and an attitude that cannot fail to ruffle the feathers of her colleagues . " The Daily Express have described her as " Gregarious ... likes a gossip , but she 's emotionally vulnerable " , while Holby City actress Tina Hobley has compared Faye to her own character , Chrissie Williams , explaining that " Faye is a quieter character all round who will do anything for an easy life , whereas Chrissie likes to stir up a bit of drama . I think she sees Faye as a goody two shoes . "
In the flashback episode " What Lies Beneath " , exploring Faye 's decision to move to Holby , she is seen to fight with her husband James , then later step over his dead body on the stairs . Kensit explained : " there 's a scuffle and he pins her against the wall and practically tries to rape her . He ends up dead . It 's the way she deals with it — she coolly steps over his body and leaves . It turns out similar things have happened before . " Shortly after arriving in Holby , the character began a relationship with cardiothoracic registrar Sam Strachan ( Tom Chambers ) . The situation soon escalated into a love triangle , with Sam reigniting his former relationship with Faye 's colleague , Matron Chrissie Williams . Kensit said of the relationship in August 2007 , as the storyline was ongoing : " For Faye , Sam is not Mr Right , simply Mr Right Now . But Faye is not as sweet as she looks - there 's a streak of toughness there ... It 's all going to get very messy ! " Upon discovering Sam 's infidelity , the character terminated their relationship , and became involved with his colleague Joseph Byrne .
In terms of friendships , Faye is close to Ward Sister Kyla Tyson ( Rakie Ayola ) . Though the BBC describe Faye and Chrissie as rivals , Hobley has commented : " I 'd like there to be more development with Chrissie and Faye 's relationship as they 've only really had Sam as a common interest up until now . I just hope its friendship that develops , because I can 't bear all that bitchy cat @-@ fighting stuff . "
= = Storylines = =
Faye arrives at Holby General in the episode " Into the Dark " , requesting that registrars Joseph Byrne and Jac Naylor ( Rosie Marcel ) help her gain employment as a Bank Nurse . During her first few months at the hospital , Faye remains close to Joseph , but does not get on well with Jac , who she speaks to sternly about her close relationship with Joseph 's father , Lord Byrne ( Ronald Pickup ) . In the episode " What Lies Beneath " , flashbacks show the trio 's first meeting in Dubai . Faye 's husband James reveals to her that he has lost her life savings . The pair fight , and James ends up dead at the bottom of their stairs . Faye leaves him , and returns to England with Joseph and Jac . Faye is questioned by the police about James ' death but is not charged .
Faye begins a friendship with Ward Sister Kyla Tyson , and supports her through her domestic abuse ordeal at the hands of her husband , his subsequent death , and the loss of her son to foster care . She resists the advances of hospital lothario Sam Strachan , and impresses general surgical consultant Dan Clifford ( Peter Wingfield ) with her approach to patient care - leading to an on the spot promotion after a clash with Thandie Abebe ( Ginny Holder ) in the episode " Leap of Faith " .
Faye begins dating Sam , unaware that he is cheating on her with Ward Sister Chrissie Williams . She ends their relationship when she discovers his infidelity and turns her attention to Joseph , who had tried to warn her about Sam 's indiscretion . She supports Joseph when he is tormented by Jac about the relationship she had had with his father prior to his death . When STI clinician Tim attacks staff members with a crossbow , Faye is shot in the back , but makes a full recovery . She reveals to Joseph that she was formerly married to a much older man named Donald , who left her a substantial amount of money after his death from cancer . She is investigated by the police , who find it suspicious that she has been twice widowed . Her stepson , Carl Hewson , blackmails her for money , but is later attacked by loan sharks and dies in theatre .
Following a fight with Joseph , Faye disappears to South Africa . Joseph and consultant Linden Cullen travel there to find her , and discover that Faye has a young son , Archie , who has Lowe syndrome . He has been kidnapped by his father , Faye 's first husband Lucas , and Joseph is forced to operate on him to save his life . Faye and Joseph go on to become engaged , and marry at his family home . When Archie 's nurse Lauren accidentally administers him the wrong drug , he dies . Faye is arrested for his murder when post @-@ mortem results prove inconclusive , and is suspended from work . She is acquitted when Lauren confesses , and fights with the nurse , who attempts suicide . Faye is able to make her peace with Lauren , but is unable to fully forgive her . In the aftermath of Archie 's death , Faye and Joseph grow apart , and she develops romantic feelings for Linden .
Faye and Joseph separate , and she and Linden begin a relationship . Faye discovers that she is pregnant with Joseph 's baby , but Linden promises to support her and they become briefly engaged . Increasingly concerned that Faye may be a pathological liar , Linden terminates their engagement . Faye is later attacked by a heroin @-@ addicted patient , and when Linden attempts to defend her , he is hit in the head with a glass bottle and dies . Faye suffers a breakdown in the aftermath of Linden 's death , and is admitted to a psychiatric unit . She self @-@ harms , and refuses to leave the unit when she goes into labour , until Jac assures her that Joseph does not intend to take their child away from her . Faye delivers a boy by Caesarean . She initially fails to bond with him , but when Joseph puts their divorce proceedings on hold , she makes an effort and names him Harry , after Joseph 's deceased younger brother . Despite Joseph 's opposition , she insists on returning to the psychiatric unit .
Faye left her job on 28 December 2010 and went to live in France , leaving her son , Harry , in the care of Joseph .
= = Reception = =
Within four months of first appearing in Holby City , Kensit was nominated for the " Best Actress " award at the 2007 TV Quick and TV Choice Awards for her portrayal of Faye . The character 's introductory episode , " Into the Dark " drew a high of 7 million viewers , while " What Lies Beneath " , the flashback episode in which the character was seen to kill her husband in Dubai drew ratings of 6 @.@ 32 million . The character 's introduction to the series was highly publicised in the media , including a front cover and inside spread featuring Kensit discussing her new role in the week 's edition of the Radio Times . The Liverpool Echo selected the character 's introductory episode as a televisual ' Pick of the Day ' , The Mirror 's TV critic Jim Shelley selected her arrival as a highlight of the week , and Kevin O 'Sullivan of the Sunday Mirror described her debut as " sensational " .
Faye has continued to generate high publicity for the series , with the 11 August 2007 edition of Total TV Guide featuring Kensit , Hobley and Chambers on its front cover , appearing in character to promote their love triangle storyline , and the 1 September 2007 Daily Express television supplement again featuring Kensit and Hobley on its cover , with an inside feature on the same storyline . It was reported on 19 August 2007 that Kensit 's casting had " boosted the series ' appeal " to such an extent that for the first time , a Holby City calendar had been commissioned . The report quoted a series insider as stating : " Patsy has really set the show off this year , and what better way to thank the dedicated fans ? " .
The character was heavily criticised in the July 2007 edition of the Nursing and Midwifery Council magazine . The publication discussed the topic of nurses in popular culture , and the negative impression of the nursing profession conveyed by fictional nurses . With a promotional image of Kensit as Faye adorning the front cover , the magazine asserted :
This criticism was echoed by Shelley , who , commenting on an interview Kensit had given to publicise the show and her role with Jonathan Ross , suggested that " reality " was not a term that could be applied to Holby City 's portrayal of nursing .
In July 2009 , Conservative Party strategists identified " Holby City woman " as a key voter demographic who may help the party win the 2010 General Election . The " Holby City woman " archetype is modelled on Faye , a female voter in her 30s or 40s , employed in a clinical or clerical position or some other public sector job . She is a swing voter in General Elections , who has voted for the Labour Party in previous elections , though her identification with the Labour Party is not strong . Jonathan Oliver for The Times noted that " Faye Morton , the Holby City staff nurse played by Patsy Kensit is just the sort of person that Cameron might now hope to recruit " .
= Venus =
Venus is the second planet from the Sun , orbiting it every 224 @.@ 7 Earth days . It has the longest rotation period ( 243 days ) of any planet in the Solar System and rotates in the opposite direction to most other planets . It has no natural satellite . It is named after the Roman goddess of love and beauty . It is the second @-@ brightest natural object in the night sky after the Moon , reaching an apparent magnitude of − 4 @.@ 6 , bright enough to cast shadows . Because Venus is an inferior planet from Earth , it never appears to venture far from the Sun ; its elongation reaches a maximum of 47 @.@ 8 ° .
Venus is a terrestrial planet and is sometimes called Earth 's " sister planet " because of their similar size , mass , proximity to the Sun , and bulk composition . It is radically different from Earth in other respects . It has the densest atmosphere of the four terrestrial planets , consisting of more than 96 % carbon dioxide . The atmospheric pressure at the planet 's surface is 92 times that of Earth . Venus is by far the hottest planet in the Solar System , with a mean surface temperature of 735 K ( 462 ° C ; 863 ° F ) , even though Mercury is closer to the Sun . Venus is shrouded by an opaque layer of highly reflective clouds of sulfuric acid , preventing its surface from being seen from space in visible light . It may have had water oceans in the past , but these would have vaporized as the temperature rose due to a runaway greenhouse effect . The water has probably photodissociated , and the free hydrogen has been swept into interplanetary space by the solar wind because of the lack of a planetary magnetic field . Venus 's surface is a dry desertscape interspersed with slab @-@ like rocks and is periodically resurfaced by volcanism .
As one of the brightest objects in the sky , Venus has been a major fixture in human culture for as long as records have existed . It has been made sacred to gods of many cultures , and has been a prime inspiration for writers and poets as the " morning star " and " evening star " . Venus was the first planet to have its motions plotted across the sky , as early as the second millennium BC , and was a prime target for early interplanetary exploration as the closest planet to Earth . It was the first planet beyond Earth visited by a spacecraft ( Mariner 2 ) in 1962 , and the first to be successfully landed on ( by Venera 7 ) in 1970 . Venus 's thick clouds render observation of its surface impossible in visible light , and the first detailed maps did not emerge until the arrival of the Magellan orbiter in 1991 . Plans have been proposed for rovers or more complex missions , but they are hindered by Venus 's hostile surface conditions .
= = Physical characteristics = =
Venus is one of the four terrestrial planets in the Solar System , meaning that it is a rocky body like Earth . It is similar to Earth in size and mass , and is often described as Earth 's " sister " or " twin " . The diameter of Venus is 12 @,@ 092 km ( only 650 km less than Earth 's ) and its mass is 81 @.@ 5 % of Earth 's . Conditions on the Venusian surface differ radically from those on Earth because of its dense carbon dioxide atmosphere . The mass of the atmosphere of Venus is 96 @.@ 5 % carbon dioxide , with most of the remaining 3 @.@ 5 % being nitrogen .
= = = Geography = = =
The Venusian surface was a subject of speculation until some of its secrets were revealed by planetary science in the 20th century . Venera landers in 1975 and 1982 returned images of a surface covered in sediment and relatively angular rocks . The surface was mapped in detail by Magellan in 1990 – 91 . The ground shows evidence of extensive volcanism , and the sulfur in the atmosphere may indicate that there have been some recent eruptions .
About 80 % of the Venusian surface is covered by smooth , volcanic plains , consisting of 70 % plains with wrinkle ridges and 10 % smooth or lobate plains . Two highland " continents " make up the rest of its surface area , one lying in the planet 's northern hemisphere and the other just south of the equator . The northern continent is called Ishtar Terra , after Ishtar the Babylonian goddess of love , and is about the size of Australia . Maxwell Montes , the highest mountain on Venus , lies on Ishtar Terra . Its peak is 11 km above the Venusian average surface elevation . The southern continent is called Aphrodite Terra , after the Greek goddess of love , and is the larger of the two highland regions at roughly the size of South America . A network of fractures and faults covers much of this area .
The absence of evidence of lava flow accompanying any of the visible caldera remains an enigma . The planet has few impact craters , demonstrating that the surface is relatively young , approximately 300 – 600 million years old . Venus has some unique surface features in addition to the impact craters , mountains , and valleys commonly found on rocky planets . Among these are flat @-@ topped volcanic features called " farra " , which look somewhat like pancakes and range in size from 20 to 50 km across , and from 100 to 1 @,@ 000 m high ; radial , star @-@ like fracture systems called " novae " ; features with both radial and concentric fractures resembling spider webs , known as " arachnoids " ; and " coronae " , circular rings of fractures sometimes surrounded by a depression . These features are volcanic in origin .
Most Venusian surface features are named after historical and mythological women . Exceptions are Maxwell Montes , named after James Clerk Maxwell , and highland regions Alpha Regio , Beta Regio , and Ovda Regio . The latter three features were named before the current system was adopted by the International Astronomical Union , the body which oversees planetary nomenclature .
The longitudes of physical features on Venus are expressed relative to its prime meridian . The original prime meridian passed through the radar @-@ bright spot at the centre of the oval feature Eve , located south of Alpha Regio . After the Venera missions were completed , the prime meridian was redefined to pass through the central peak in the crater Ariadne .
= = = Surface geology = = =
Much of the Venusian surface appears to have been shaped by volcanic activity . Venus has several times as many volcanoes as Earth , and it has 167 large volcanoes that are over 100 km across . The only volcanic complex of this size on Earth is the Big Island of Hawaii . This is not because Venus is more volcanically active than Earth , but because its crust is older . Earth 's oceanic crust is continually recycled by subduction at the boundaries of tectonic plates , and has an average age of about 100 million years , whereas the Venusian surface is estimated to be 300 – 600 million years old .
Several lines of evidence point to ongoing volcanic activity on Venus . During the Soviet Venera program , the Venera 9 orbiter obtained spectroscopic evidence of lightning on Venus , and the Venera 12 descent probe obtained additional evidence of lightning and thunder . The European Space Agency 's Venus Express in 2007 detected whistler waves further confirming the occurrence of lightning on Venus . Although rainfall drives thunderstorms on Earth , there is no rainfall on the surface of Venus ( though sulfuric acid rain falls in the upper atmosphere , then evaporates around 25 km above the surface ) . One possibility is that ash from a volcanic eruption was generating the lightning . Another piece of evidence comes from measurements of sulfur dioxide concentrations in the atmosphere , which dropped by a factor of 10 between 1978 and 1986 , jumped in 2006 , and again declined 10 @-@ fold . This may mean that levels had been boosted several times by large volcanic eruptions .
In 2008 and 2009 , the first direct evidence for ongoing volcanism was observed by Venus Express , in the form of four transient localized infrared hot spots within the rift zone Ganis Chasma , near the shield volcano Maat Mons . Three of the spots were observed in more than one successive orbit . These spots are thought to represent lava freshly released by volcanic eruptions . The actual temperatures are not known , because the size of the hot spots could not be measured , but are likely to have been in the 800 – 1100 K range , relative to a normal temperature of 740 K.
Almost a thousand impact craters on Venus are evenly distributed across its surface . On other cratered bodies , such as Earth and the Moon , craters show a range of states of degradation . On the Moon , degradation is caused by subsequent impacts , whereas on Earth it is caused by wind and rain erosion . On Venus , about 85 % of the craters are in pristine condition . The number of craters , together with their well @-@ preserved condition , indicates the planet underwent a global resurfacing event about 300 – 600 million years ago , followed by a decay in volcanism . Whereas Earth 's crust is in continuous motion , Venus is thought to be unable to sustain such a process . Without plate tectonics to dissipate heat from its mantle , Venus instead undergoes a cyclical process in which mantle temperatures rise until they reach a critical level that weakens the crust . Then , over a period of about 100 million years , subduction occurs on an enormous scale , completely recycling the crust .
Venusian craters range from 3 km to 280 km in diameter . No craters are smaller than 3 km , because of the effects of the dense atmosphere on incoming objects . Objects with less than a certain kinetic energy are slowed down so much by the atmosphere that they do not create an impact crater . Incoming projectiles less than 50 metres in diameter will fragment and burn up in the atmosphere before reaching the ground .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Without seismic data or knowledge of its moment of inertia , little direct information is available about the internal structure and geochemistry of Venus . The similarity in size and density between Venus and Earth suggests they share a similar internal structure : a core , mantle , and crust . Like that of Earth , the Venusian core is at least partially liquid because the two planets have been cooling at about the same rate . The slightly smaller size of Venus means pressures are 24 % lower in its deep interior than Earth 's . The principal difference between the two planets is the lack of evidence for plate tectonics on Venus , possibly because its crust is too strong to subduct without water to make it less viscous . This results in reduced heat loss from the planet , preventing it from cooling and providing a likely explanation for its lack of an internally generated magnetic field . Instead , Venus may lose its internal heat in periodic major resurfacing events .
= = = Atmosphere and climate = = =
Venus has an extremely dense atmosphere composed of 96 @.@ 5 % carbon dioxide , 3 @.@ 5 % nitrogen , and traces of other gases , most notably sulfur dioxide . The mass of its atmosphere is 93 times that of Earth 's , whereas the pressure at its surface is about 92 times that at Earth 's — a pressure equivalent to that at a depth of nearly 1 kilometre under Earth 's oceans . The density at the surface is 65 kg / m3 , 6 @.@ 5 % that of water or 50 times as dense as Earth 's atmosphere at 20 ° C at sea level . The CO
2 @-@ rich atmosphere generates the strongest greenhouse effect in the Solar System , creating surface temperatures of at least 735 K ( 462 ° C ) . This makes Venus 's surface hotter than Mercury 's , which has a minimum surface temperature of 55 K ( − 220 ° C ) and maximum surface temperature of 695 K ( 420 ° C ) , even though Venus is nearly twice Mercury 's distance from the Sun and thus receives only 25 % of Mercury 's solar irradiance . This temperature is higher than that used for sterilization . The surface of Venus is often said to resemble traditional accounts of Hell .
Studies have suggested that billions of years ago Venus 's atmosphere was much more like Earth 's than it is now , and that there may have been substantial quantities of liquid water on the surface , but after a period of 600 million to several billion years , a runaway greenhouse effect was caused by the evaporation of that original water , which generated a critical level of greenhouse gases in its atmosphere . Although the surface conditions on Venus are no longer hospitable to any Earthlike life that may have formed before this event , there is speculation on the possibility that life exists in the upper cloud layers of Venus , 50 km ( 31 mi ) up from the surface , where the temperature ranges between 30 and 80 ° C but the environment is acidic .
Thermal inertia and the transfer of heat by winds in the lower atmosphere mean that the temperature of Venus 's surface does not vary significantly between the night and day sides , despite Venus 's extremely slow rotation . Winds at the surface are slow , moving at a few kilometres per hour , but because of the high density of the atmosphere at the surface , they exert a significant amount of force against obstructions , and transport dust and small stones across the surface . This alone would make it difficult for a human to walk through , even if the heat , pressure , and lack of oxygen were not a problem .
Above the dense CO
2 layer are thick clouds consisting mainly of sulfuric acid droplets . The clouds also contain sulfur aerosol , about 1 % ferric chloride and some water . Other possible constituents of the cloud particles are ferric sulfate , aluminium chloride and phosphoric anhydride . Clouds at different levels have different compositions and particle size distributions . These clouds reflect and scatter about 90 % of the sunlight that falls on them back into space , and prevent visual observation of Venus 's surface . The permanent cloud cover means that although Venus is closer than Earth to the Sun , it receives less sunlight on the ground . Strong 85 m / s ( 300 km / h ) winds at the cloud tops go around Venus about every four to five Earth days . Winds on Venus move at up to 60 times the speed of its rotation , whereas Earth 's fastest winds are only 10 – 20 % rotation speed .
The surface of Venus is effectively isothermal ; it retains a constant temperature not only between day and night but between the equator and the poles . Venus 's minute axial tilt — less than 3 ° , compared to 23 ° on Earth — also minimises seasonal temperature variation . The only appreciable variation in temperature occurs with altitude . The highest point on Venus , Maxwell Montes , is therefore the coolest point on Venus , with a temperature of about 655 K ( 380 ° C ) and an atmospheric pressure of about 4 @.@ 5 MPa ( 45 bar ) . In 1995 , the Magellan spacecraft imaged a highly reflective substance at the tops of the highest mountain peaks that bore a strong resemblance to terrestrial snow . This substance likely formed from a similar process to snow , albeit at a far higher temperature . Too volatile to condense on the surface , it rose in gaseous form to higher elevations , where it is cooler and could precipitate . The identity of this substance is not known with certainty , but speculation has ranged from elemental tellurium to lead sulfide ( galena ) .
The clouds of Venus are capable of producing lightning much like the clouds on Earth . The existence of lightning had been controversial since the first suspected bursts were detected by the Soviet Venera probes . In 2006 – 07 , Venus Express clearly detected whistler mode waves , the signatures of lightning . Their intermittent appearance indicates a pattern associated with weather activity . The lightning rate is at least half of that on Earth . In 2007 , Venus Express discovered that a huge double atmospheric vortex exists at the south pole .
Venus Express also discovered , in 2011 , that an ozone layer exists high in the atmosphere of Venus . On 29 January 2013 , ESA scientists reported that the ionosphere of Venus streams outwards in a manner similar to " the ion tail seen streaming from a comet under similar conditions . "
= = = Magnetic field and core = = =
In 1967 , Venera 4 found Venus 's magnetic field to be much weaker than that of Earth . This magnetic field is induced by an interaction between the ionosphere and the solar wind , rather than by an internal dynamo in the core like the one inside Earth . Venus 's small induced magnetosphere provides negligible protection to the atmosphere against cosmic radiation . This radiation may result in cloud @-@ to @-@ cloud lightning discharges .
The lack of an intrinsic magnetic field at Venus was surprising , given that it is similar to Earth in size , and was expected also to contain a dynamo at its core . A dynamo requires three things : a conducting liquid , rotation , and convection . The core is thought to be electrically conductive and , although its rotation is often thought to be too slow , simulations show it is adequate to produce a dynamo . This implies that the dynamo is missing because of a lack of convection in Venus 's core . On Earth , convection occurs in the liquid outer layer of the core because the bottom of the liquid layer is much hotter than the top . On Venus , a global resurfacing event may have shut down plate tectonics and led to a reduced heat flux through the crust . This caused the mantle temperature to increase , thereby reducing the heat flux out of the core . As a result , no internal geodynamo is available to drive a magnetic field . Instead , the heat from the core is being used to reheat the crust .
One possibility is that Venus has no solid inner core , or that its core is not cooling , so that the entire liquid part of the core is at approximately the same temperature . Another possibility is that its core has already completely solidified . The state of the core is highly dependent on the concentration of sulfur , which is unknown at present .
The weak magnetosphere around Venus means that the solar wind is interacting directly with its outer atmosphere . Here , ions of hydrogen and oxygen are being created by the dissociation of neutral molecules from ultraviolet radiation . The solar wind then supplies energy that gives some of these ions sufficient velocity to escape Venus 's gravity field . This erosion process results in a steady loss of low @-@ mass hydrogen , helium , and oxygen ions , whereas higher @-@ mass molecules , such as carbon dioxide , are more likely to be retained . Atmospheric erosion by the solar wind probably led to the loss of most of Venus 's water during the first billion years after it formed . The erosion has increased the ratio of higher @-@ mass deuterium to lower @-@ mass hydrogen in the atmosphere 100 times compared to the rest of the solar system .
= = Orbit and rotation = =
Venus orbits the Sun at an average distance of about 0 @.@ 72 AU ( 108 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 km ; 67 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 mi ) , and completes an orbit every 224 @.@ 7 days . Although all planetary orbits are elliptical , Venus 's orbit is the closest to circular , with an eccentricity of less than 0 @.@ 01 . When Venus lies between Earth and the Sun in inferior conjunction , it makes the closest approach to Earth of any planet at an average distance of 41 million km . The planet reaches inferior conjunction every 584 days , on average . Because of the decreasing eccentricity of Earth 's orbit , the minimum distances will become greater over tens of thousands of years . From the year 1 to 5383 , there are 526 approaches less than 40 million km ; then there are none for about 60 @,@ 158 years .
All the planets in the Solar System orbit the Sun in an anti @-@ clockwise direction as viewed from above Earth 's north pole . Most planets also rotate on their axes in an anti @-@ clockwise direction , but Venus rotates clockwise in retrograde rotation once every 243 Earth days — the slowest rotation of any planet . Because its rotation is so slow , Venus is very close to spherical . A Venusian sidereal day thus lasts longer than a Venusian year ( 243 versus 224 @.@ 7 Earth days ) . Venus 's equator rotates at 6 @.@ 5 km / h ( 4 @.@ 0 mph ) , whereas Earth 's is approximately 1 @,@ 670 km / h ( 1 @,@ 040 mph ) . Venus 's rotation has slowed down by 6 @.@ 5 min per Venusian sidereal day in the 16 years between the Magellan spacecraft and Venus Express visits . Because of the retrograde rotation , the length of a solar day on Venus is significantly shorter than the sidereal day , at 116 @.@ 75 Earth days ( making the Venusian solar day shorter than Mercury 's 176 Earth days ) . One Venusian year is about 1 @.@ 92 Venusian solar days . To an observer on the surface of Venus , the Sun would rise in the west and set in the east , although Venus 's opaque clouds prevent observing the Sun from the planet 's surface .
Venus may have formed from the solar nebula with a different rotation period and obliquity , reaching its current state because of chaotic spin changes caused by planetary perturbations and tidal effects on its dense atmosphere , a change that would have occurred over the course of billions of years . The rotation period of Venus may represent an equilibrium state between tidal locking to the Sun 's gravitation , which tends to slow rotation , and an atmospheric tide created by solar heating of the thick Venusian atmosphere . The 584 @-@ day average interval between successive close approaches to Earth is almost exactly equal to 5 Venusian solar days , but the hypothesis of a spin – orbit resonance with Earth has been discounted .
Venus has no natural satellites . It has several trojan asteroids : the quasi @-@ satellite 2002 VE68 and two other temporary trojans , 2001 CK32 and 2012 XE133 . In the 17th century , Giovanni Cassini reported a moon orbiting Venus , which was named Neith and numerous sightings were reported over the following 200 years , but most were determined to be stars in the vicinity . Alex Alemi 's and David Stevenson 's 2006 study of models of the early Solar System at the California Institute of Technology shows Venus likely had at least one moon created by a huge impact event billions of years ago . About 10 million years later , according to the study , another impact reversed the planet 's spin direction and caused the Venusian moon gradually to spiral inward until it collided with Venus . If later impacts created moons , these were removed in the same way . An alternative explanation for the lack of satellites is the effect of strong solar tides , which can destabilize large satellites orbiting the inner terrestrial planets .
= = Observation = =
To the naked eye , Venus appears as a white point of light brighter than any other planet or star ( apart from the Sun ) . The greatest luminosity , apparent magnitude − 4 @.@ 9 , occurs during crescent phase when it is near Earth . Venus fades to about magnitude − 3 when it is backlit by the Sun . The planet is bright enough to be seen in a midday clear sky , and it can be easy to see when the Sun is low on the horizon . As an inferior planet , it always lies within about 47 ° of the Sun .
Venus " overtakes " Earth every 584 days as it orbits the Sun . As it does so , it changes from the " Evening Star " , visible after sunset , to the " Morning Star " , visible before sunrise . Although Mercury , the other inferior planet , reaches a maximum elongation of only 28 ° and is often difficult to discern in twilight , Venus is hard to miss when it is at its brightest . Its greater maximum elongation means it is visible in dark skies long after sunset . As the brightest point @-@ like object in the sky , Venus is a commonly misreported " unidentified flying object " . U.S. President Jimmy Carter reported having seen a UFO in 1969 , which later analysis suggested was probably Venus .
As it moves around its orbit , Venus displays phases like those of the Moon in a telescopic view . The planet presents a small " full " image when it is on the opposite side of the Sun . It shows a larger " quarter phase " when it is at its maximum elongations from the Sun , and is at its brightest in the night sky , and presents a much larger " thin crescent " in telescopic views as it comes around to the near side between Earth and the Sun . Venus is at its largest and presents its " new phase " when it is between Earth and the Sun . Its atmosphere can be seen in a telescope by the halo of light refracted around it .
= = = Transits = = =
The Venusian orbit is slightly inclined relative to Earth 's orbit ; thus , when the planet passes between Earth and the Sun , it usually does not cross the face of the Sun . Transits of Venus occur when the planet 's inferior conjunction coincides with its presence in the plane of Earth 's orbit . Transits of Venus occur in cycles of 243 years with the current pattern of transits being pairs of transits separated by eight years , at intervals of about 105 @.@ 5 years or 121 @.@ 5 years — a pattern first discovered in 1639 by the English astronomer Jeremiah Horrocks .
The latest pair was June 8 , 2004 and June 5 – 6 , 2012 . The transit could be watched live from many online outlets or observed locally with the right equipment and conditions .
The preceding pair of transits occurred in December 1874 and December 1882 ; the following pair will occur in December 2117 and December 2125 . Historically , transits of Venus were important , because they allowed astronomers to determine the size of the astronomical unit , and hence the size of the Solar System as shown by Horrocks in 1639 . Captain Cook 's exploration of the east coast of Australia came after he had sailed to Tahiti in 1768 to observe a transit of Venus .
= = = Pentagram of Venus = = =
The pentagram of Venus is the path that Venus makes as observed from Earth . Successive inferior conjunctions of Venus repeat very near a 13 : 8 orbital resonance ( Earth orbits 8 times for every 13 orbits of Venus ) , shifting 144 ° upon sequential inferior conjunctions . The resonance 13 : 8 ratio is approximate . 8 / 13 is approximately 0 @.@ 615385 while Venus orbits the Sun in 0 @.@ 615187 years .
= = = Ashen light = = =
A long @-@ standing mystery of Venus observations is the so @-@ called ashen light — an apparent weak illumination of its dark side , seen when the planet is in the crescent phase . The first claimed observation of ashen light was made in 1643 , but the existence of the illumination has never been reliably confirmed . Observers have speculated it may result from electrical activity in the Venusian atmosphere , but it could be illusory , resulting from the physiological effect of observing a bright , crescent @-@ shaped object .
= = Habitability = =
The speculation of the existence of life on Venus decreased significantly since the early 1960s , when spacecraft began studying Venus and it became clear that the conditions on Venus are extreme compared to those on Earth .
The fact that Venus is located closer to the Sun than Earth , raising temperatures on the surface to nearly 735 K ( 462 ° C ) , the atmospheric pressure is 90 times that of Earth , and the extreme impact of the greenhouse effect , make water @-@ based life as we know it unlikely . However , a few scientists have speculated that thermoacidophilic extremophile microorganisms might exist in the lower @-@ temperature , acidic upper layers of the Venusian atmosphere .
= = Studies = =
= = = Early studies = = =
Venus was known to ancient civilizations both as the " morning star " and as the " evening star " , names that reflect the early assumption that these were two separate objects . The Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa , believed to have been compiled around the mid @-@ seventeenth century BCE , shows the Babylonians understood the two were a single object , referred to in the tablet as the " bright queen of the sky " , and could support this view with detailed observations . The Ancient Greeks thought of the two as separate stars , Phosphorus and Hesperus . Pliny the Elder credited the realization that they were a single object to Pythagoras in the sixth century BCE , while Diogenes Laertius argued that Parmenides was probably responsible . The ancient Chinese referred to the morning Venus as " the Great White " ( Tai @-@ bai 太白 ) or " the Opener of Brightness " ( Qi @-@ ming 啟明 ) , and the evening Venus as " the Excellent West One " ( Chang @-@ geng 長庚 ) . The Romans designated the morning aspect of Venus as Lucifer , literally " Light @-@ Bringer " , and the evening aspect as Vesper , both literal translations of the respective Greek names .
In the second century , in his astronomical treatise Almagest , Ptolemy theorized that both Mercury and Venus are located between the Sun and the Earth . The 11th century Persian astronomer Avicenna claimed to have observed the transit of Venus , which later astronomers took as confirmation of Ptolemy 's theory . In the 12th century , the Andalusian astronomer Ibn Bajjah observed " two planets as black spots on the face of the Sun " , which were later identified as the transits of Venus and Mercury by the Maragha astronomer Qotb al @-@ Din Shirazi in the 13th century .
When the Italian physicist Galileo Galilei first observed the planet in the early 17th century , he found it showed phases like the Moon , varying from crescent to gibbous to full and vice versa . When Venus is furthest from the Sun in the sky , it shows a half @-@ lit phase , and when it is closest to the Sun in the sky , it shows as a crescent or full phase . This could be possible only if Venus orbited the Sun , and this was among the first observations to clearly contradict the Ptolemaic geocentric model that the Solar System was concentric and centred on Earth .
The 1639 transit of Venus was accurately predicted by Jeremiah Horrocks and observed by him and his friend , William Crabtree , at each of their respective homes , on 4 December 1639 ( 24 November under the Julian calendar in use at that time ) .
The atmosphere of Venus was discovered in 1761 by Russian polymath Mikhail Lomonosov . Venus 's atmosphere was observed in 1790 by German astronomer Johann Schröter . Schröter found when the planet was a thin crescent , the cusps extended through more than 180 ° . He correctly surmised this was due to scattering of sunlight in a dense atmosphere . Later , American astronomer Chester Smith Lyman observed a complete ring around the dark side of the planet when it was at inferior conjunction , providing further evidence for an atmosphere . The atmosphere complicated efforts to determine a rotation period for the planet , and observers such as Italian @-@ born astronomer Giovanni Cassini and Schröter incorrectly estimated periods of about 24 h from the motions of markings on the planet 's apparent surface .
= = = Ground @-@ based research = = =
Little more was discovered about Venus until the 20th century . Its almost featureless disc gave no hint what its surface might be like , and it was only with the development of spectroscopic , radar and ultraviolet observations that more of its secrets were revealed . The first ultraviolet observations were carried out in the 1920s , when Frank E. Ross found that ultraviolet photographs revealed considerable detail that was absent in visible and infrared radiation . He suggested this was due to a dense , yellow lower atmosphere with high cirrus clouds above it .
Spectroscopic observations in the 1900s gave the first clues about the Venusian rotation . Vesto Slipher tried to measure the Doppler shift of light from Venus , but found he could not detect any rotation . He surmised the planet must have a much longer rotation period than had previously been thought . Later work in the 1950s showed the rotation was retrograde . Radar observations of Venus were first carried out in the 1960s , and provided the first measurements of the rotation period , which were close to the modern value .
Radar observations in the 1970s revealed details of the Venusian surface for the first time . Pulses of radio waves were beamed at the planet using the 300 m ( 980 ft ) radio telescope at Arecibo Observatory , and the echoes revealed two highly reflective regions , designated the Alpha and Beta regions . The observations also revealed a bright region attributed to mountains , which was called Maxwell Montes . These three features are now the only ones on Venus that do not have female names .
= = = Exploration = = =
The first robotic space probe mission to Venus , and the first to any planet , began with the Soviet Venera program in 1961 . The United States ' exploration of Venus had its first success with the Mariner 2 mission on 14 December 1962 , becoming the world 's first successful interplanetary mission , passing 34 @,@ 833 km ( 21 @,@ 644 mi ) above the surface of Venus , and gathering data on the planet 's atmosphere .
On 18 October 1967 , the Soviet Venera 4 successfully entered the atmosphere and deployed science experiments . Venera 4 showed the surface temperature was hotter than Mariner 2 had calculated , at almost 500 ° C , determined that the atmosphere is 95 % carbon dioxide ( CO
2 ) , and discovered that Venus 's atmosphere was considerably denser than Venera 4 's designers had anticipated . The joint Venera 4 – Mariner 5 data was analysed by a combined Soviet – American science team in a series of colloquia over the following year , in an early example of space cooperation .
In 1975 the Soviet Venera 9 and 10 landers transmitted the first images from the surface of Venus , which were in black and white . In 1982 the first colour images of the surface were obtained with the Soviet Venera 13 and 14 landers .
NASA obtained additional data in 1978 with the Pioneer Venus project that consisted of two separate missions : Pioneer Venus Orbiter and Pioneer Venus Multiprobe . The successful Soviet Venera program came to a close in October 1983 , when Venera 15 and 16 were placed in orbit to conduct detailed mapping of 25 % of Venus 's terrain ( from the north pole to 30 ° N latitude )
Several other Venus flybys took place in the 1980s and 1990s that increased the understanding of Venus , including Vega 1 ( 1985 ) , Vega 2 ( 1985 ) , Galileo ( 1990 ) , Magellan ( 1994 ) , Cassini – Huygens ( 1998 ) , and MESSENGER ( 2006 ) . Then , Venus Express by the European Space Agency ( ESA ) entered orbit around Venus in April 2006 . Equipped with seven scientific instruments , Venus Express provided unprecedented long @-@ term observation of Venus 's atmosphere . ESA concluded that mission in December 2014 .
As of 2016 , Japan 's Akatsuki is in a highly elliptical orbit around Venus since 7 December 2015 , and there are several probing proposals under study by Roscosmos , NASA , and India 's ISRO .
= = In culture = =
= = = Symbol = = =
The astronomical symbol for Venus is the same as that used in biology for the female sex : a circle with a small cross beneath . The Venus symbol also represents femininity , and in Western alchemy stood for the metal copper . Polished copper has been used for mirrors from antiquity , and the symbol for Venus has sometimes been understood to stand for the mirror of the goddess .
= = = In fiction = = =
Venus is a primary feature of the night sky , and so has been of remarkable importance in mythology , astrology and fiction throughout history and in different cultures . Classical poets such as Homer , Sappho , Ovid and Virgil spoke of the star and its light . Romantic poets such as William Blake , Robert Frost , Alfred Lord Tennyson and William Wordsworth wrote odes to it . With the invention of the telescope , the idea that Venus was a physical world and possible destination began to take form .
The impenetrable Venusian cloud cover gave science fiction writers free rein to speculate on conditions at its surface ; all the more so when early observations showed that not only was it similar in size to Earth , it possessed a substantial atmosphere . Closer to the Sun than Earth , the planet was frequently depicted as warmer , but still habitable by humans . The genre reached its peak between the 1930s and 1950s , at a time when science had revealed some aspects of Venus , but not yet the harsh reality of its surface conditions . Findings from the first missions to Venus showed the reality to be quite different , and brought this particular genre to an end . As scientific knowledge of Venus advanced , so science fiction authors tried to keep pace , particularly by conjecturing human attempts to terraform Venus .
= = Colonization and terraforming = =
Due to its extremely hostile conditions , a surface colony on Venus is not possible with current technology . The atmospheric pressure and temperature approximately fifty kilometres above the surface are similar to those at Earth 's surface . In Venus 's mostly carbon dioxide atmosphere , Earth 's air ( nitrogen and oxygen ) would act as a lifting gas . This has led to proposals for " floating cities " in the Venusian atmosphere . Aerostats ( lighter @-@ than @-@ air balloons ) could be used for initial exploration and ultimately for permanent settlements . Among the many engineering challenges are the dangerous amounts of sulfuric acid at these heights .
= = = Cartographic resources = = =
Map @-@ a @-@ Planet : Venus by the U.S. Geological Survey
Gazeteer of Planetary Nomenclature : Venus by the International Astronomical Union
Venus crater database by the Lunar and Planetary Institute
Map of Venus by Eötvös Loránd University
= Requiem ( Fauré ) =
Gabriel Fauré composed his Requiem in D minor , Op. 48 , between 1887 and 1890 . The choral @-@ orchestral setting of the shortened Catholic Mass for the Dead in Latin is the best @-@ known of his large works . Its focus is on eternal rest and consolation . Fauré 's reasons for composing the work are unclear , but do not appear to have had anything to do with the death of his parents in the mid @-@ 1880s . He composed the work in the late 1880s and revised it in the 1890s , finishing it in 1900 .
In seven movements , the work is scored for soprano and baritone soloists , mixed choir , orchestra and organ . Different from typical Requiem settings , the full sequence Dies irae is omitted , replaced by its section Pie Jesu . The final movement In Paradisum is based on a text that is not part of the liturgy of the funeral mass but of the burial .
Fauré wrote of the work , " Everything I managed to entertain by way of religious illusion I put into my Requiem , which moreover is dominated from beginning to end by a very human feeling of faith in eternal rest . "
The piece premiered in its first version in 1888 in La Madeleine in Paris for a funeral mass . A performance takes about 35 minutes .
= = History = =
Fauré 's reasons for composing his Requiem are uncertain . One possible impetus may have been the death of his father in 1885 , and his mother 's death two years later , on New Year 's Eve 1887 . However , by the time of his mother 's death he had already begun the work , about which he later declared , " My Requiem wasn 't written for anything – for pleasure , if I may call it that ! " The earliest composed music included in the Requiem is the Libera me , which Fauré wrote in 1877 as an independent work .
In 1887 – 88 , Fauré composed the first version of the work , which he called " un petit Requiem " with five movements ( Introit and Kyrie , Sanctus , Pie Jesu , Agnus Dei and In Paradisum ) , but did not include his Libera me . This version was first performed on 16 January 1888 for the funeral of Joseph Lesoufaché , an architect , at La Madeleine , Paris . The composer conducted his work ; the treble soloist was Louis Aubert .
In 1889 , Fauré added the Hostias portion of the Offertory and in 1890 he expanded the Offertory and added the 1877 Libera me . This second version was premiered on 21 January 1893 , again at the Madeleine with Fauré conducting .
In 1899 – 1900 , the score was reworked for full orchestra . This final version was premiered at the Trocadéro in Paris on 12 July 1900 , during the Exposition Universelle . Paul Taffanel conducted forces of 250 performers .
The composer said of the work , " Everything I managed to entertain by way of religious illusion I put into my Requiem , which moreover is dominated from beginning to end by a very human feeling of faith in eternal rest . " He told an interviewer ,
It has been said that my Requiem does not express the fear of death and someone has called it a lullaby of death . But it is thus that I see death : as a happy deliverance , an aspiration towards happiness above , rather than as a painful experience . The music of Gounod has been criticised for its inclination towards human tenderness . But his nature predisposed him to feel this way : religious emotion took this form inside him . Is it not necessary to accept the artist 's nature ? As to my Requiem , perhaps I have also instinctively sought to escape from what is thought right and proper , after all the years of accompanying burial services on the organ ! I know it all by heart . I wanted to write something different .
In 1924 the Requiem , in its full orchestral version , was performed at Fauré 's own funeral . It was not performed in the United States until 1931 , at a student concert at the Curtis Institute of Music in Philadelphia . It was first performed in England in 1936 .
= = Text = =
Most of the text is in Latin , except for the Kyrie which is Koine Greek . As had become customary , Fauré did not set the Gradual and Tract sections of the Mass . He followed a French Baroque tradition by not setting the Requiem sequence ( the Dies irae ) , only its section Pie Jesu . He slightly altered the texts of the Introit , the Kyrie , Pie Jesu , Agnus Dei , and In Paradisum , but substantially changed the text of the Offertory ( described below ) . He did not set the Benedictus ( an optional , but conventional , adjunct to the Sanctus ) , and added two texts from the Order of Burial , Libera me and In Paradisum .
Fauré made changes to the text of the Offertory ; at the beginning , he adds an " O " . He changed " libera animas omnium fidelium defunctorum " ( " deliver the souls of all the faithful departed " ) to simply " libera animas defunctorum " ( " deliver the souls of the departed " ) . He replaced " Libera eas " ( " Deliver them " ) at the beginning of the next verse with a repetition of " O Domine Jesu Christe , Rex gloriae , libera animas defunctorum " , and he omitted the third verse ( beginning " Sed signifer sanctus ... " ) . He concludes with an added " Amen " .
= = Structure and scoring = =
The composition is structured in seven movements :
The piece has a duration of about 35 minutes .
Fauré scored the work for two soloists , chorus and orchestra . Its movements and their sections are listed in a table for the scoring in voices , key , time signature ( using the symbol for common time , equivalent to 44 ) and tempo marking . The voices are abbreviated , S for soprano , A for alto , T for tenor , B for bass . The composer divides the choir into as many as six parts , SATTBB , but frequently uses unison of one part or several . Given the liturgical nature of the work , boy trebles are often used instead of sopranos .
= = = Details = = =
The structure of Fauré 's work bears striking similarity to that of Ein deutsches Requiem by Brahms , although Fauré set Latin liturgical texts to music , whereas Brahms chose German Bible quotations . Both works have seven movements , both employ a baritone and a soprano soloist , the baritone singing with the choir in movements 2 and 6 , the soprano in a central movement , movement 4 in Faurè , movement 5 in Brahms where she appears with the choir . In both works , the four remaining movements are sung by the choir alone , whereas Verdi , for example , has the soloists sing several arias and ensembles in his Requiem .
= = = Introit et Kyrie = = =
Similar to Mozart 's Requiem , the work begins slowly in D minor . After one measure of just D in the instruments , the choir enters pianissimo in six parts on the D minor chord and stays on
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it in homophony for the entire text " Requiem aeternam " ( eternal rest ) . In gradual progression of harmony and a sudden crescendo , a first climax is reached on " et lux perpetua " ( and lasting light ) , diminishing on a repeated " luceat eis " ( may shine for them ) . The tenors repeat the prayer alone for eternal rest on a simple melody . The sopranos continue similarly that praise is due in Jerusalem , then all voices exclaim " Exaudi " ( hear ) .
The Kyrie begins with the same melody that the tenor sang before , but now in unison of soprano , alto and tenor , repeated in the following four measures in four @-@ part harmony . The call " Christe " is strong and urgent the first time , repeated more softly a few more times . The final call " Kyrie " appears pianissimo .
= = = Offertoire = = =
The Offertoire begins in B minor with a canon of alto and tenor in short succession on a simple modal melody with little ambitus , in a prayer " O Domine , Jesu Christ , rex gloriae " ( O Lord , Jesus Christ , King of Glory ) to free the souls of the departed from eternal punishment and the deep lake , ending in unison . The sequence is repeated beginning one step higher for the next line , and again one step higher for the following more urgent call to Jesus , enforced by the basses . The voices add only softly , broken by rests , what the prayer is about : " ne cadant – in obscurum " ( that they may not fall into the obscure ) .
The baritone enters with " Hostias et preces " , offerings brought with praises , beginning on one repeated note , but asking with more melody " fac eas , Domine , de morte transire ad vitam " ( make them , Lord , transcend from death to life ) . The choir repeats the first line of the text on the same motif as in the beginning , but in more elaborate polyphony in four parts , concluded by an uplifting Amen in B major .
= = = Sanctus = = =
Sanctus ( Holy ) , in contrast with other compositions of mass and Requiem where it is often illustrated with great vocal and instrumental forces ( particularly Verdi 's Requiem ) , is here expressed in extremely simple form . The sopranos sing softly in a very simple rising and falling melody of only three notes , which the male voices repeat , accompanied by arpeggios on the harp and a dreamy rising melody in the violins ( sometimes just a solo violin ) . The pattern appears several times , with the melodies increasing in ambitus , and the volume reaching forte on " excelsis " ( the highest ) . The orchestra changes tone , the dreamy accompaniment is replaced by firm and powerful major chords with a horn fanfare marked forte , and the male voices declare " Hosanna in excelsis " ( praise in the highest ) . This is answered by the sopranos in diminuendo , and the music softens and reverts to the dreamy harp arpeggios that it began with as the violin melody floats upwards to the final note in E flat major and the full choir repeats , with the altos finally joining : " Sanctus " .
= = = Pie Jesu = = =
The solo soprano sings the prayer to the " good Jesus " for everlasting rest . The one line of text is repeated three times , the first two times asking for " requiem " ( rest ) , then intensified for " sempiternam requiem " ( everlasting rest ) . The first call is a modal melody in B @-@ flat major of six measures , the second call is similar but reaching up higher . The words " Dona eis , Domine , dona eis requiem " begin with more expansion , but reach alternating between only two notes on two repetitions of " sempiternam requiem " . The last call begins as the first and leads again to alternating between two notes in even lower range , until the last " requiem " has a gentle upward motion .
= = = Agnus Dei = = =
" Agnus Dei " , in many settings of Mass and Requiem set with dark expression , begins in F major with a fluent expansive melody in the orchestra . After six measures , the tenor sings a melody to it that gently rises and falls , and repeats it almost the same way . Then , while the motion in the orchestra stays the same , the key changes to the minor mode , and the Lamb of God is asked for rest in chords of daring harmonic progression . Then the tenor , without instrumental introduction , repeats the first line , leading to a peaceful " sempiternam " .
The sopranos alone begins the following section " Lux aeterna luceat eis " ( Light eternal shine for them ) with a long " Lux " , then the choir , divided in six parts , lets that light shimmer .
The choir closes with a reprise of the Introit , the opening of the mass ( " Requiem aeternam " ) , before the orchestra picks up the " Agnus Dei " melody to close the movement .
= = = Libera me = = =
The baritone soloist sings the first section alone . On a bass in an ostinato rhythm of two quarter notes , a rest and the upbeat to the next two quarters , he sings the text " Libera me ... " ( Free me , Lord , from eternal death on that terrible day when the heavens will move and the earth , when you come to judge the world with fire . ) , embarking on a melody of wide range , with some sharp leaps . The text is continued by the choir in four parts in homophony : " Tremens factus sum ego " ( I am trembling ) . In more motion , " Dies irae " ( day of wrath ) is expressed by fortissimo chords , giving way to the prayer for rest in the same motion , but piano , with a crescendo on " dona eis , Domine " , but suddenly softening on a last " et lux perpetua luceat eis " . Then the choir repeats the opening statement of the baritone fully in unison . Soloist , then choir , end the movement softly , repeating " Libera me , Domine " .
= = = In Paradisum = = =
The text of the last movement is taken from the Order of Burial . " In paradisum deducant angeli " ( May angels lead you to paradise ) rests on a continuous shimmering motion in fast broken triads in the orchestra . The soprano sings a rising expressive melody , enriched by chords of the other voices , divided in six parts , on the final " Jerusalem " . A second thought is again sung by the soprano , filled on the last words by the others : Requiem aeternam .
= = Versions = =
Fauré revised and enlarged the Requiem in the years between its first performance in 1888 and the publication of the final version in 1901 . The latter is scored for full orchestra ; since the 1970s attempts have been made by several Fauré scholars to reconstruct the composer 's earlier versions , scored for smaller orchestral forces .
= = = First version = = =
Five of the seven sections of the Requiem were completed by January 1888 and performed that month at the Madeleine for the funeral of the architect Joseph Lesoufaché . This version lacked the Offertoire and Libera me , which Fauré added at some time in the following decade . The Libera me predates the rest of the Requiem , having been composed eleven years earlier as a baritone solo . The forces required for the original 1888 version were a choir about forty in number consisting of boys and men ( the Madeleine did not admit female choristers ) , solo boy treble , harp , timpani , organ , strings ( solo violin , divided violas , divided cellos and basses ) . For a performance at the Madeleine in May 1888 Fauré added horn and trumpet parts .
= = = 1893 version = = =
Fauré continued to work intermittently on the Requiem , and by 1893 he judged the score ready to be published ( although the proposed publication fell through ) . Several attempts have been made to reconstruct the score as it was in 1893 . The Fauré specialist Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux began working on it in the 1970s , but the first edition to be published was by the English conductor John Rutter in 1989 . Nectoux 's edition , jointly edited with Roger Delage , was published in 1994 . They had the advantage of access to important source material unavailable to Rutter : a set of orchestral parts discovered in 1968 in the Madeleine and a score made in the 1890s by a bass in the Madeleine choir and annotated by Fauré . Music and Letters judged the Rutter edition , " makeshift and lacking in the standards of scholarship one expects from a university press " . The Musical Times considered the Nectoux and Delage edition " invaluable " .
Fauré 's own manuscript survives but , as the critic Andrew Thomson puts it , " the waters were muddied by his overwritings on the original MSS , adding two bassoons and two more horns and trumpets , together with modifications of the cello and bass parts . " Reviewing the Nectoux and Delage edition , Thomson wrote of " several pleasant surprises [ including ] the restoration of the urgent timpani rolls underlining ' Christe eleison ' , and the ethereal harp chords which so enhance the spiritual atmosphere of ' Lux aeterna ' " .
For the 1893 version a baritone solo , two bassoons , four horns and two trumpets are added to the original scoring . When possible Fauré employed a mixed choir and a female soprano soloist , partly because the soprano lines , particularly the solo in the Pie Jesu , are difficult to sing and demand excellent breath control , easier for adult women than for boys .
= = = Final version = = =
At the end of the 1890s Fauré 's publisher , Hamelle , suggested that the composer should rescore the Requiem for performance in concert halls . The intimate sound of the earlier versions was effective in liturgical performances , but for the large concert venues , and large choral societies of the time , a larger orchestra was required . The autograph of the resulting 1900 version does not survive , and critics have speculated whether Fauré , who was not greatly interested in orchestration , delegated some or all of the revision to one of his pupils . Many details of the augmented score differ from Fauré 's own earlier amendments to the original 1888 manuscript . The new score was published in 1901 at the same time as a vocal score edited by one of Fauré 's favourite pupils , Jean Roger @-@ Ducasse , and some critics have speculated that he reorchestrated the full score at Fauré 's instigation . Others have questioned whether so skilled an orchestrator as Roger @-@ Ducasse would have " perpetrated such pointlessly inconspicuous doublings " , or left uncorrected the many misprints in the 1901 edition . Alan Blyth speculates that the work may have been done by someone in Hamelle 's firm . The misprints have been corrected in later editions , notably those by Roger Fiske and Paul Inwood ( 1978 ) and Nectoux ( 2001 ) .
The orchestration of the final version comprises mixed choir , solo soprano , solo baritone , two flutes , two clarinets ( only in the Pie Jesu ) , two bassoons , four horns , two trumpets ( only in the Kyrie and Sanctus ) , three trombones , timpani ( only in the Libera me ) , harp , organ , strings ( with only a single section of violins , but divided violas and cellos , as before ) .
Nectoux has expressed the view that what he terms the " church " ( 1893 ) and the " concert " ( 1900 – 1901 ) versions of the Requiem should both be performed , the choice of edition being dictated by the size of the venue . It is not clear whether the composer favoured either version over the other . Blyth comments " All of his comments about the Requiem ring truer as descriptions of the 1888 and 1894 [ sic ] versions than of the published text of 1901 " . Fauré , however , complained in 1921 that the orchestra at a performance of the work had been too small , and commented to Eugène Ysaÿe on the " angelic " violins during the Sanctus in the full orchestral version .
= = Selected editions = =
Fauré : Messe de requiem , Op. 48 , ed . Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux and Reiner Zimmerman , Edition Peters
Fauré : Requiem , Op. 48 , ed . Roger Fiske and Paul Inwood , Eulenburg / Schott
Fauré : Requiem ( 1893 Version ) , ed . Jean @-@ Michel Nectoux and Roger Delage ( full score and miniature score , Hamelle )
= = Selected recordings = =
The Requiem was first recorded in 1931 , by Fanny Malnory @-@ Marseillac , soprano ; Louis Morturier , baritone ; the Choeur de la Société Bach and Orchestre Alexandre Cellier , conducted by Gustav Bret . It was first issued on the " Gramophone " label , and reissued in 1934 on HMV . That recording used the full 1900 orchestrations , as did all others except one over the next half century . The exception was a Columbia set recorded in 1938 , with Suzanne Dupont , soprano ; Maurice Didier , baritone ; Les Chanteurs de Lyon and Le Trigentuor instrumental lyonnais , conducted by Ernest Bourmauck .
Since 1984 , when John Rutter 's edition of the 1893 score was recorded for the Conifer label , there have been numerous sets of both the 1893 and 1900 versions issued on CD . Those singled out for particular mention by critics are listed below . The Requiem is often combined in recordings and concert performances with Fauré 's early Cantique de Jean Racine , an award @-@ winning composition originally for choir and organ which the composer wrote aged 19 in his last year of ten years at the school of church music École Niedermeyer de Paris .
= = = 1893 version = = =
Caroline Ashton ; Stephen Varcoe ; Cambridge Singers ; City of London Sinfonia ; John Rutter ( 1984 ) . Recommended by The Penguin Guide to the 1000 Finest Classical Recordings ( 2011 ) and The Gramophone Guide 2012 .
Sandrine Piau ; Stéphane Degout ; Maîtrise de Paris ; Orchestre National de France ; Laurence Equilbey ( 2008 ) . Recommended by The Gramophone Guide 2012 .
= = = 1900 version = = =
Victoria de los Ángeles ; Dietrich Fischer @-@ Dieskau ; Chorale Élisabeth Brasseur ; Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire ; André Cluytens ( 1963 ) . Recommended by All Music Guide to Classical Music ( 2005 ) .
Robert Chilcott ; John Carol Case ; Choir of King 's College , Cambridge ; New Philharmonia Orchestra ; Sir David Willcocks ( 1967 ) . Recommended by The Gramophone Guide 2012 .
Kathleen Battle ; Andreas Schmidt ; Philharmonia Chorus and Orchestra ; Carlo Maria Giulini ( 1986 ) . Recommended by All Music Guide to Classical Music ( 2005 ) .
Judith Blegen ; James Morris ; Atlanta Symphony Chorus and Orchestra ; Robert Shaw ( 1987 ) . Recommended by The American Record Guide ( 2000 ) .
= 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane =
The 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane was the most severe hurricane in Georgia since 1752 , causing over 500 deaths and at least $ 1 @.@ 6 million ( 1804 USD ) in damage throughout the southeastern United States . Originating near Antigua on 3 September , it initially drifted west @-@ northwestward , soon nearing Puerto Rico . Throughout its existence in the Caribbean Sea , the hurricane damaged , destroyed , and capsized numerous ships , and at Saint Kitts , it was considered to be the worst since 1772 . By 4 September , the storm arrived at the Bahamas and turned northward before approaching the coast of northern Florida on 6 September . The hurricane eventually came ashore along the coastline of Georgia and South Carolina while producing mostly southeasterly winds . A severe gale was noted in New England later that month , on 11 and 12 September , although it was likely not the same system as that which had passed through the Caribbean and southeastern United States earlier that month .
The hurricane produced a wide swath of damage along its path , especially in Georgia and South Carolina . Maritime losses along the coastlines of both states were significant , with numerous ships damaged or destroyed . Crop damage , especially to rice , cotton , and corn , was also considerable , with impending harvests ruined by the hurricane 's arrival . Strong winds and heavy rainfall inundated streets , residences , and fields , and also toppled chimneys , fences , and cracked windows across the region . Wharves , struck by stranded boats , endured significant damage as well . Hundreds of slaves drowned , with many deaths caused by owners ' neglect . Dozens of residences and other structures were destroyed or rendered uninhabitable due to inundation or collapse . Notably , Aaron Burr , then attempting to flee authorities , visited St. Simons Island in Georgia during the hurricane , later returning to Hampton and giving a detailed account of the hurricane 's effects . Damage in Savannah , Georgia , totaled $ 500 @,@ 000 , compared to $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 at Charleston , South Carolina .
= = Meteorological history = =
The 1804 Antigua – Charleston hurricane was first sighted on 3 September as it swept past Saint Barthélemy , Saint Kitts , and Antigua , drifting toward the west @-@ northwest and soon approaching Puerto Rico and the Turks and Caicos Islands . The storm reached the Bahamas while turning northward on 4 September , nearing the northern Floridan coast by 6 September . It remained offshore on 7 September , gradually approaching the coast throughout the day , and eventually made landfall that evening along the coasts of Georgia and South Carolina . Observations in Savannah , Georgia , indicated north @-@ to @-@ northeast winds throughout 8 September , though other reports recorded northeast @-@ to @-@ easterly gusts ; at Charleston , South Carolina , however , winds , initially northeast @-@ to @-@ east , curved southeastward later in the storm . Little information exists on the hurricane 's whereabouts between North Carolina and New England , with a single report at Norfolk , Virginia of east @-@ northeasterly winds veering east @-@ to @-@ east @-@ southeast from 7 to 9 September , suggesting the disturbance 's passage west of there . A severe gale arrived in New England on 11 and 12 September , though the long pause between the departure of the hurricane from the Carolinas and its arrival in the northeastern United States evidences the possibility that the two systems may have been unrelated .
= = Impact = =
= = = Georgia = = =
The hurricane of 1804 was the first since 1752 to strike Georgia with such strength . Damage to ships was considerable , especially offshore Georgia . Betsy was stripped of its freight and somewhat damaged , the Phoebe ran aground at Tybee Island , the Liberty perished with its crew killed , the Patsy nearly sank , and the Experiment capsized . At the time the hurricane struck , Aaron Burr , hiding from federal officials , was taking refuge at St. Simons Island on the property of John Couper , though was unable to return to Hampton due to deteriorating conditions . Upon the passage of the storm 's eye , Burr fled back to the residence of Pierce Butler at Hampton . In an account of the hurricane , Burr recorded strong winds , which destroyed several outhouses and uprooted numerous trees at St. Simon 's , with the storm later cracking windows , toppling chimneys , and flooding the house ; in the town proper , he discovered many local roads were obstructed . Nineteen slaves owned by Butler drowned , while Couper suffered $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1804 USD ) in losses alone , with cabins housing over a hundred slaves destroyed . Many other local planters experienced similar difficulties . Seawater inundated and ruined several acres of cotton around the Horton House plantation at Jekyll Island , devaluing the year 's harvest by 20 percent ; similar losses were endured by other rice , cotton , and corn farmers along the coast .
At Broughton Island , orders were given to transfer slaves away from a rice barn upon indications of a storm 's arrival ; however , efforts to do so were not undertaken promptly , and more than seventy slaves drowned , leading the plantation owner to sell the property following financial losses . Similar events transpired at St. Catherines Island , where two slaves died . At Darien , meanwhile , a tannery was destroyed , and flood waters ruined its tanning baths . At Sunbury , intense winds and high waves uprooted trees and wrecked three houses , of which two were newly built , and five slaves died after being impaled by flying wreckage or drowning . The hurricane also ruined most boats under the possession of plantation owners , and also devastated crops , storage houses , stables , and slave residences . Meanwhile , at Cockspur Island , Fort Greene was obliterated with all its buildings destroyed and thirteen men killed . Muskets , canisters , bars of lead upward of 300 lb ( 140 kg ) , and cannons weighing 4 @,@ 800 lb ( 2 @,@ 200 kg ) littered the island , which was completely inundated during the storm . The fort was never rebuilt ; Fort Pulaski was later built in its former location . Meanwhile , at Wilmington Island , one house collapsed and swaths of farmland were flooded . North @-@ to @-@ northeast winds surrounded Hutchinson Island , producing tides 7 to 10 ft ( 2 @.@ 1 to 3 @.@ 0 m ) above normal , submerging rice crops , sweeping away plantation buildings , and drowning nearly a hundred slaves .
The hurricane 's effects were especially severe in the city of Savannah , where winds incessantly gusted northeast @-@ to @-@ north for 17 consecutive hours . The hurricane 's storm surge overcame sand bars , sweeping into bays , rivers , wharves , and any areas below an elevation of 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) . Droplets of sea spray mixed with rain , apparently giving it a saline taste , while particles of sand were lifted from the shore to the upper floors of 30 ft ( 9 @.@ 1 m ) -tall houses . By the storm 's peak , all vessels in the city harbor were damaged to some degree by the storm , while it also inflicted damage to nearly all residences in the city 's southern sector . A gunboat was swept 7 mi ( 11 km ) from its original position and landed in a faraway field . The steeple of the Presbyterian Meeting House in the city toppled and portions of a wall of the Christ Episcopal Church caved in . The local courthouse was also damaged , shingles were torn off of a jail roof , and a tobacco house was unroofed . Two children were crushed to death in one house , one individual was killed by a falling chimney at another . Maritime losses were observed throughout the city ; the Mary struck a wharf near Fort Wayne , the Thomas Jefferson came aground at Hunter and Minis 's Wharf , the General Jackson slammed into McCradie 's Wharf , the Liberty capsized near Howard 's Wharf , and the Minevra was driven ashore at Coffee House Wharf . Numerous other wharves were damaged as a result of similar accidents , and at some wharves , vessels became stacked upon each other . Fish and poultry markets , as well as businesses along the wharves , disintegrated into the Savannah River . Timber , cotton , tobacco , liquor , sugar , and produce was also strewn along the bluff . Overall , eighteen vessels were capsized in Savannah throughout the course of the hurricane . Many smaller vessels were apparently " cracked like egg shells , " floating in waters paralleling the bluff , which itself was strewn with " serpents , turtles , [ and ] marsh @-@ birds " . Damage in the city totaled at least $ 500 @,@ 000 ( 1804 USD ) .
= = = South Carolina = = =
Tides in South Carolina rose 9 ft ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) above normal , causing the May River to top its banks , flooding cotton and rice fields , and sweeping plantations ' cotton storage houses and slave cabins away . Inundation also occurred at various offshore locations , including Daufuskie Island , where five slaves drowned . Bridges and roadways at Beaufort , South Carolina were flooded and carried away by high tides , while high tides of up to 5 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 m ) flooded farmland , ruining fields of cotton and produce . Strong gusts knocked down chimneys and damaged the town 's Baptist church . Cotton farmland and African slave prices fell 30 percent in the region following the storm 's passage . All residences at Bay Point Island were destroyed , having been driven out to sea . The storm 's salt water storm surge rendered thirty barrels of rice aboard the Guilelmi , which ran ashore at Saint Helena Island , worthless , while the Collector came aground at Lady 's Island . Copious rainfall caused the Pocotaligo , Stony , and Huspa creeks to overflow . From Sheldon to Motley , the storm flooded creeks and rivers , inundating rice and cotton fields , with the saline water destroying the year 's harvest . Roads and causeways inundated under flood waters were rendered unusable , and numerous animals were also killed in the flood .
The hurricane 's effects were severe in the city of Charleston , where the storm produced northeasterly winds and heavy rainfall . The bulwark of the fort at nearby James Island was destroyed , and the palisades of the fort at Castle Pinckney were wrecked at the mouth of Charleston 's harbor . The hurricane also swept vessels aground into marshes and wharves between Gadsden 's Wharf and South Bay along the Cooper River . Several wharves — Pritchard 's , Cochran 's , Beale 's , Craft 's , and William 's — were struck by vessels and consequently severely damaged . The Montserrat , Mary , Birmingham Packet , Amazon , and Orange all endured some degree of damage . Three vessels and the Mary collided with Governor 's Bridge , which was impaired as a result ; two vessels and the Favorite slammed into Faber 's Wharf , while the Concord filled with water at Prioleau 's Wharf , resulting in the loss of 50 tierces of rice . A counting and scale house was separated from its foundation after being struck by the Lydia within the vicinity of Blake 's Wharf , while the African slave boat Christopher capsized at Geyer 's Wharf , with all aboard escaping safely . Four slaves drowned after a boat overturned in the Ashley River .
High waters enveloped wharves , and neighboring stores collapsed or were washed away , with rice and cotton falling into the water . A breakwater near South Bay disintegrated and a nearby home 's chimney toppled , resulting in one death . Homes were inundated , and residents along South Bay consequently fled their dwellings . The hurricane 's storm surge also permeated locations along then @-@ new East Bay Street , as well as buildings on Lamboll and Water streets ; Meeting Street sank below 2 ft ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) -high flood waters . High winds , meanwhile , tore off roofs , dislodged trees , and toppled fences . To the north of Charleston , at Sullivan 's Island , the storm rendered 15 to 20 houses uninhabitable ; although the island was mostly inundated , many residences were saved , encircled by dunes , and several men rescued women and children . Overall , only one death was recorded on the island . The Pee Dee and Black rivers gradually rose throughout the day , eventually spilling their banks . Meanwhile , at Georgetown , high tides flooded wharves and submerged streets and businesses , destroying corn , salt , and other goods . Turtles and fish were killed , and at the Sampit River , two individuals drowned attempting to cross . A rice harvest equivalent to ten thousand barrels was ruined by high tides and torrential rain within the vicinity of Georgetown . Damage in the city reached $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( 1804 USD ) , and overall , the 1804 hurricane was responsible for more than 500 deaths in the southeastern United States .
= = = Elsewhere = = =
At Saint Kitts , the hurricane destroyed approximately one hundred ships in the local harbor — all that were stationed there — while heavy rainfall drove houses to sea . An additional 56 of the 58 boats at Saint Barthélemy were lost , 58 were wrecked at Antigua , and 26 of 28 were ruined at Dominica . Damage to shipping was also severe on the Windward Islands , several vessels were lost in western Puerto Rico , and another 44 vessels were destroyed at Saint Thomas after the storm 's passage . Among these vessels included a 64 @-@ gun storeship HMS De Ruyter was washed ashore and broke apart , resulting in one death , and HMS Drake , a 16 @-@ gun sloop @-@ of @-@ war , which came aground on a shoal off of Nevis . At Saint Kitts , the hurricane was considered to be the worst since 1772 .
Although high waves and severe northeasterly gusts were noted from 6 to 7 September 1804 at St. Augustine , Florida and eight of the nine vessels in the local port were rendered unfit for use , the town proper largely escaped damage .
In North Carolina , the hurricane blew down trees as far as 100 mi ( 160 km ) inland , and copious rainfall isolated Scotland Neck . Around the mouth of the Cape Fear River , the vessel Wilmington Packet ran aground at Bald Point .
In the New England gale possibly related to the Antigua – Charleston hurricane , several ships sank in Boston 's harbor , while at Salem , the South Church 's steeple was toppled .
= Tropical Storm Henri ( 2003 ) =
Tropical Storm Henri was a weak tropical storm that formed in the 2003 Atlantic hurricane season . The eighth storm of the season , Henri was one of six tropical cyclones to hit the United States in the year . Henri formed from a tropical wave in the Gulf of Mexico in early September , and crossed over Florida as a tropical depression . Its remnants later moved into the Mid @-@ Atlantic before dissipating completely .
Henri caused little damage as a tropical cyclone . In Florida , it dropped heavy rainfall , though damage was limited to minor flooding damage . In Delaware and Pennsylvania , damage was greater , where heavy rainfall damaged hundreds of houses and businesses . The resulting floods in Delaware were described as a 1 in 500 year event . The total damage by Henri along its path amounted to $ 19 @.@ 6 million ( 2003 USD , $ 21 @.@ 5 million 2006 USD ) , but no deaths were reported .
= = Meteorological history = =
On August 22 , a tropical wave moved off the coast of Africa , and it moved westward across the Atlantic Ocean and Caribbean Sea without developing significantly . On September 1 the wave axis entered the Gulf of Mexico , and upon doing so convection steadily organized around a low @-@ level center of circulation . The system moved northward and developed into Tropical Depression Twelve on September 3 while located about 300 miles ( 480 kilometers ) west of Tampa , Florida . Embedded within a slow mid @-@ latitude trough , the depression moved eastward and strengthened into Tropical Storm Henri on September 5 .
Despite strong southwesterly vertical shear , Henri continued intensifying while moving eastward , and reached a peak strength of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) later on September 5 . Shortly thereafter , though , the shear greatly weakened the storm , and it was downgraded to a tropical depression . Henri was not able to recover its intensity , and made landfall near Clearwater , Florida on September 6 as a 35 mph ( 55 km / h ) tropical depression , and quickly crossed the state as it accelerated to the northeast . Despite initial predictions of re @-@ intensification over open waters due to potentially lower shear , Henri failed to re @-@ strengthen and degenerated into a remnant low pressure area on September 8 off the coast of North Carolina .
The broad and disorganized remnant low remained nearly stationary due to a ridge of high pressure to its north . Residual convection within the remnants of Henri remained disorganized , but forecasters kept watch for the potential for redevelopment . However , it moved inland near Cape Hatteras on September 12 without reorganizing . The remnants continued to the north and dissipated on September 17 over New England .
= = Preparations = =
The National Hurricane Center issued a Tropical Storm Warning from Englewood to Indian Pass , Florida while Henri was a tropical depression ; however , warnings were discontinued by the time Henri made landfall . Flood warnings were issued across the state prior to the storm making landfall , with predictions of 5 to 10 inches ( 125 – 255 mm ) of rainfall . As a result of the storm 's approach , twelve shelters were placed on standby . Similarly , the Hurricane Shelter Information Hotline was placed on standby and ready to be activated within 10 minutes . Levy County officials declared a state of emergency . There , sand bags and sand were sent to Cedar Key , Yankeetown , and Inglis in anticipation for storm surge and flooding .
= = Impact = =
Henri dropped heavy rainfall along its path , with the worst of the flooding occurring in Delaware . The storm caused $ 19 @.@ 6 million in damage ( 2003 USD ) , primarily in Delaware .
= = = Florida , Bahamas , and Bermuda = = =
Prior to making landfall , the storm produced strong waves on the Florida west coast . Following a summer of tropical moisture in Florida , Henri brought more heavy rainfall to the saturated state , peaking at 9 @.@ 09 in ( 230 mm ) in Hialeah in the southeast portion of the state . Two other areas experienced over 7 in ( 180 mm ) , though most areas received only light rainfall . In Hernando County , a stationary thunderstorm dropped over 5 in ( 125 mm ) of rain in around an hour . It caused a rapid flooding of roads , though quickly retreated . Damage was minor , due to lack of many homes in the area . A feeder band in Charlotte County dropped 7 in ( 180 mm ) of rain in three hours , flooding numerous streets and homes . Throughout Florida , damage was minimal , and there were no deaths . However , lightning from a feeder band injured a man in Lee County , while an indirect injury occurred from a car crash due to hydroplaning .
In the Bahamas , outer rainbands from Henri dropped around 1 inch ( 25 mm ) of rain . Winds in the archipelago gusted to 32 mph ( 51 km / h ) . Just days after Hurricane Fabian struck Bermuda , moisture from Henri brought thunderstorms and heavy rainfall and thunderstorms totaling to 2 @.@ 44 inches ( 62 mm ) at the airport . This hindered cleanup efforts , though caused no known damage .
= = = Mid @-@ Atlantic = = =
In North Carolina , Virginia , and Maryland , rainfall was generally light , with the exception of a few areas receiving over 3 inches ( 75 mm ) . Henri produced greater amounts of rain in Delaware and Pennsylvania , with a peak of 9 @.@ 02 in ( 229 mm ) in Hockessin . In Downingtown , Pennsylvania , over eight inches ( 203 mm ) of rain fell in around six hours , while Doppler Radar estimated that Kennett Square received over 10 inches ( 255 mm ) in a five @-@ hour period . The heavy rainfall led to record discharge rates along the Red Clay Creek , which also had a record crest peaking at just below 26 feet ( 8 m ) . Parts of the creek saw a 500 @-@ year flood , which has a 0 @.@ 2 % chance of occurring in any given year . Numerous rivers in southeastern Pennsylvania also crested above their flood stage .
In Delaware , the flooding damaged numerous houses , including 194 in the Glenville area . The rapid flooding trapped numerous people in their cars and homes , forcing at least one rescue by helicopter . Those people were evacuated to nearby schools . The severe flooding washed out most of a bridge in Hockessin and destroyed 6 Wilmington & Western Railroad bridges , causing about $ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 5 @.@ 5 million 2006 USD ) in damage . The railroad bridges were still being rebuilt as of 2006 . Greenbank Mill , a historic gristmill complex , saw $ 450 @,@ 000 in damage . Damage in Delaware totaled to $ 16 @.@ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 17 @.@ 5 million 2006 USD ) .
Flash flooding in Pennsylvania resulted in 2 @,@ 600 emergency 911 calls and around 100 rescues for cars or houses . The flooding destroyed 12 homes , and damaged 336 , over half of them severely . Wet soil downed trees and power lines , causing power outages to 109 @,@ 000 PECO Energy customers . High floodwaters damaged 22 bridges and closed 2 indefinitely , while the flooding closed several roads , including a portion of U.S. Highway 1 in Chadds Ford . Damage in Pennsylvania totaled to $ 3 @.@ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 3 @.@ 8 million 2006 USD ) . The impacts were severely compounded the following week by Hurricane Isabel across the region .
= = Aftermath = =
On September 23 , just days after the storm moved through , President George W. Bush declared New Castle County , Delaware as a disaster area following the effects of Henri and later Hurricane Isabel . The declaration designated the affected citizens eligible for grants to pay for temporary housing , house repairs , and serious disaster @-@ related expenses . The declaration also allowed for federal funding for 75 % of the repair cost for replacing public facilities . By two months after the storm , 659 residents had applied for disaster aid through the Federal Emergency Management Agency ( FEMA ) , totaling to just over $ 1 million ( 2003 USD , $ 1 @.@ 1 million 2006 USD ) . 141 small businesses applied for loans , totaling to around $ 2 @.@ 5 million ( 2003 USD , $ 2 @.@ 75 million 2006 USD ) . In addition , FEMA received 183 applications for public assistance , which would be used for rebuilding public roads and buildings . Over twenty volunteer organizations met to establish a long @-@ term committee to find resources for disaster recovery needs . One goal sought by the committee was to find a permanent housing solution for every one who was displaced from their houses from the storms . Volunteers also helped remove ruined appliances and furniture to local landfills , totaling to more than 300 tons . State and county governments in Delaware purchased 171 homes following the damage in the Glenville area , the highest number of houses purchased in the state due to storm damage . The house purchasing was done to mitigate the flood damage by restoring the area as a wetland .
On September 26 , President Bush also declared Chester County , Pennsylvania as a disaster area following the damage of Henri , Tropical Storm Isabel , and severe flooding unrelated to either tropical cyclone . By a month after the declaration , 342 homeowners and business owners applied for disaster aid , totaling to around $ 600 @,@ 000 ( 2003 USD , $ 660 @,@ 000 2006 USD ) .
= Don 't Stop the Music ( Rihanna song ) =
" Don 't Stop the Music " is a song recorded by Barbadian singer Rihanna for her third studio album , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . Written by Tawanna Dabney and produced by StarGate , it was released worldwide on September 7 , 2007 as the album 's fourth single . The dance song , featuring rhythmic devices used primarily in hip hop music , samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Michael Jackson 's 1983 single " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . Rihanna and Jackson were sued by Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango , who claimed that the hook originated in his 1972 song " Soul Makossa " .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was critically acclaimed , with many music journalists praising its sampling of the " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . It received a number of accolades , including a Grammy Award nomination for Best Dance Recording . The song reached number one in more than 10 countries , including Australia , France , Germany , and Switzerland . Reaching number four on the UK Singles Chart , it was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) . The single peaked at number three on the US Billboard Hot 100 and number one on the US Billboard Dance Club Songs charts . Certified four times platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) , it sold more than 3 @.@ 7 million copies in the US .
Anthony Mandler filmed the song 's music video in Prague . In the video , Rihanna and her friends sneak into the back of a candy store which contains a secret club and she parties with club @-@ goers . The singer performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 50th Annual Grammy Awards and the NRJ Music Awards in 2008 , and included it on her Good Girl Gone Bad , Last Girl on Earth , Loud and Diamonds World Tour set lists . The American Society of Composers , Authors , and Publishers ( ASCAP ) recognized it as one of the most @-@ performed songs of 2009 . English recording artist Jamie Cullum recorded a cover version of the song as the second single from his 2009 album , The Pursuit .
= = Development and release = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " was written and produced by the Norwegian production duo StarGate , with additional songwriting by Tawanna Dabney and Michael Jackson . Tim Sturges and Phillip Ramos provided additional production for the song . " Don 't Stop the Music " was recorded at Battery Studios in New York City and Westlake Recording Studios in Los Angeles by Mikkel S. Eriksen and Al Hemberger . Phil Tan and Josh Houghkirk mixed the single , and StarGate provided vocal production and instrumentation .
The song samples the line " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " from Jackson 's 1983 single , " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . In February 2009 , Cameroonian musician Manu Dibango filed a lawsuit claiming that " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " used the hook without his permission . According to Dibango , the line is from his 1972 single " Soul Makossa " . Agence France @-@ Presse reported that Jackson admitted that he borrowed the line for " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " and settled out of court . When Rihanna asked Jackson in 2007 for permission to sample the line , he allegedly approved the request without contacting Dibango beforehand . Dibango 's attorneys brought the case before a court in Paris , demanding € 500 @,@ 000 in damages and for Sony BMG , EMI and Warner Music to be " barred from receiving ' mama @-@ say mama @-@ sa ' -related income until the matter is resolved " .
" Don 't Stop the Music " was the fourth single from Rihanna 's third album , Good Girl Gone Bad ( 2007 ) . Before its release , two promotional remixes of the song ( Solitaire 's More Drama and the Wideboys Club Mix ) were added to digital outlets in Canada and the United States on August 7 , 2007 . On September 7 , an EP of " Don 't Stop the Music " was released via the iTunes Store in territories including Australia , Italy , New Zealand and Spain . The EP contains the Wideboys Club Mix and instrumental and album versions of the song . That day , " Don 't Stop the Music " was released as a CD single in Germany with the same material as the EP and the song 's music video . The following month , it was released as a CD single in France . Def Jam Recordings furnished the song to contemporary hit radio stations in the United States on January 13 , 2008 , and to rhythmic contemporary stations a week later . Nine remixes , including the album version of " Don 't Stop the Music " , were released on May 14 to digital outlets in territories including Australia , Germany , New Zealand and Spain .
= = Composition = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " is a four @-@ minute , 27 @-@ second dance song . According to Sony / ATV Music Publishing 's digital sheet music , it was written in the key of F ♯ minor in common time , with a moderate tempo of 123 beats per minute . Rihanna 's voice ranges from F ♯ 3 to A4 . The syncopated song samples a variety of layered rhythms , with hip @-@ hop rhythms and a heavy bass drumbeat predominating . The sampled " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " was added to the arrangement for a " pulsating musical structure " .
Sal Cinquemani of Slant Magazine compared " Don 't Stop the Music " to Rihanna 's 2006 single , " SOS " . According to Fraser McAlpine of BBC 's Chart Blog , Rihanna 's vocals on the song sound like she recorded them to a different backing track , " then gave them to some nerdy beatmatcher with an extensive collection of dark electro and classic pop . " McAlpine compared the verses ' vocal melody to that of Aaliyah 's 2000 single , " Try Again " , and the chorus to that of Madonna 's 1987 single , " La Isla Bonita " . He concluded , " The backing track is pure four @-@ to @-@ the @-@ floor trance . It 's like Eric Prydz all over again . " After the release of Rihanna 's single " Only Girl ( In the World ) " in 2010 , many critics compared its composition and structure to " Don 't Stop the Music " .
= = Critical reception = =
The song received generally @-@ positive reviews from music critics , with many praising its " Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa " hook . Tom Breihan of Pitchfork Media called " Don 't Stop the Music " " an amazing bit of euroclub insanity combined with synth and bass " . According to Breihan , the hook from Jackson 's 1983 song " come [ s ] in and seamlessly blur [ s ] into the track 's overpowering beat " . Nick Levine of Digital Spy called the song " brilliant and unwitting " , and said that " Don 't Stop the Music " was the best single with a Jackson writing credit since his 1997 " Blood on the Dance Floor " .
McAlpine called Rihanna 's vocals " emotionally removed , a little distant and naughty , but a smidge melancholy and tearful " . According to a New York Times reviewer , in " Don 't Stop the Music " Rihanna found exuberance in a severe techno beat . Quentin B. Huff of PopMatters said , " The song that follows , the Michael Jackson @-@ sampling ' Don 't Stop the Music ' , inspires the type of tail feather shaking you can only produce when you 're chanting , ' Mama @-@ say , mama @-@ sa , ma @-@ ma @-@ ko @-@ ssa ' " . In 2012 , Billboard ranked the song 13th on its list of " Rihanna 's 20 Biggest Billboard Hits " of all time .
" Don 't Stop the Music " won the Best International Song award at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards . It was nominated for Single of the Year at the 2008 Teen Choice Awards , losing to the Jonas Brothers ' " When You Look Me in the Eyes " . The song was nominated for Best Dance Recording at the 50th Grammy Awards , losing to Justin Timberlake 's " LoveStoned / I Think She Knows " . At the 2009 Kids ' Choice Awards " Don 't Stop the Music " was nominated as Best Favorite Song , losing to Beyoncé 's " Single Ladies ( Put a Ring on It ) " . At the American Society of Composers , Authors and Publishers Pop Music Awards , ASCAP recognized it as one of 2009 's most @-@ performed songs . " Don 't Stop the Music " was a winning song at the 2009 BMI Pop Awards . In 2014 , David Drake of the magazine Complex called the single " one of the earliest shots fired in the mainstreaming of dance music " compared with typical 2007 Top @-@ 40 fare .
= = Commercial performance = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " debuted at number 94 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart in the issue dated December 8 , 2007 . After two months on the chart the song peaked at number three on February 16 , 2008 , Rihanna 's fourth top @-@ three single . It topped the US Dance Club Songs chart ( Rihanna 's sixth number @-@ one single ) , reached number two on the Pop Songs chart and number 74 on the Hot R & B / Hip Hop Songs chart . " Don 't Stop the Music " has sold 3 @.@ 7 million digital copies in the US as of June 2015 , and has been certified four @-@ times platinum from the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) . The song reached number two on the Canadian Hot 100 , remaining on the chart for a total of 52 weeks . It was Rihanna 's second song to reach the chart 's top three , following " Umbrella " .
In Australia , " Don 't Stop the Music " debuted at number 22 on February 3 , 2008 . After three weeks , on February 24 , the song peaked at number one and remained there for four weeks . It was Rihanna 's third number @-@ one single in the country , after " SOS " and " Umbrella " , remaining on the chart for 27 weeks . " Don 't Stop the Music " charted at number 12 on the 2008 year @-@ end Australian Singles Chart . In 2008 , the song was certified platinum by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) for sales of over 70 @,@ 000 digital copies . The single debuted at number 31 in New Zealand on October 12 , 2007 . After fluctuating for four weeks , it peaked at number three for a week and spent a total of 22 weeks on the chart . " Don 't Stop the Music " was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of New Zealand ( RIANZ ) in April 2008 for sales of over 7 @,@ 500 digital copies .
In the United Kingdom , the song debuted at number 68 on December 15 , 2007 . After seven weeks on the chart , it peaked at number four . In July 2013 , the song was certified gold by the British Phonographic Industry ( BPI ) for sales of over 400 @,@ 000 digital copies . The single was 24th on the 2008 year @-@ end UK Singles Chart . " Don 't Stop the Music " debuted atop the French Singles Chart on October 27 , 2007 , Rihanna 's first number @-@ one single on the chart . Remaining at number one for two weeks , the song spent a total of 34 weeks on the chart . On the German Singles Chart , it debuted at number two on September 24 , 2007 . After two weeks , it reached number one for two consecutive weeks . " Don 't Stop the Music " was certified gold by the Bundesverband Musikindustrie for shipments of 100 @,@ 000 copies . It was successful on the Swiss Singles Chart , peaking at number one for five weeks . The song also reached number one in Austria , Flanders and Wallonia in Belgium , Hungary and the Netherlands .
= = Music video = =
The song 's accompanying music video was directed by Rihanna 's regular director , Anthony Mandler , and filmed in a Prague nightclub . It was choreographed by Tina Landon , who had previously worked with Janet Jackson and did the dance visual for Ricky Martin 's 1999 " Livin ' la Vida Loca " . The video was digitally released on iTunes on July 26 , 2007 .
In the video Rihanna and two friends arrive at a nightclub in a yellow taxi , and enter a candy store where a boy is standing with his mother . Rihanna tells the boy not to tell anyone where they are going , and the singer and her friends sneak into the back of the store ( where there is a secret nightclub entrance ) . The narrative is intercut with Rihanna singing the song against a wall and dancing in the club . After she enters the club , she checks her makeup in a restroom as she sings .
Rihanna returns to the dance floor for the chorus , dancing and singing with her friends . Her fellow club @-@ goers clap along with a sample of " Wanna Be Startin ' Somethin ' " . VH1 's Chris Rosa ranked the video 18th on his list of Rihanna 's 20 sexiest videos : " This dance @-@ by @-@ numbers song gets a facelift with its brisk , energetic video featuring R as the undisputed queen of the clubs " . For About.com , Bill Lamb called the video one of Rihanna 's ten best .
= = Live performances = =
" Don 't Stop the Music " was the fourteenth song on the set list of Rihanna 's 2007 – 09 Good Girl Gone Bad Tour , her first world tour . The singer 's performance in Manchester was released in the United Kingdom through iTunes , and is featured on the Good Girl Gone Bad Live DVD . Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at the 2008 NRJ Music Awards in Cannes on January 26 , 2008 . She sang the song at the 50th Grammy Awards on February 10 , 2008 as half of a medley with " Umbrella " with American funk band The Time . On June 20 , 2008 Rihanna was a guest on NBC 's Today Concert Series at Rockefeller Center in New York City , performing " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Umbrella " and " Take a Bow " .
After the 2009 United Kingdom release of her fourth album , Rated R , Rihanna gave a Nokia promotional concert at the Brixton Academy in London . She performed songs from the new album , including " Russian Roulette " , " Wait Your Turn " and " Hard " ( the latter sung with Young Jeezy ) . Rihanna also performed " Don 't Stop the Music " and other previously @-@ released songs , including " Disturbia " , " Unfaithful " and " Take a Bow " . On December 4 , 2009 the singer performed on The Release , MySpace Music 's urban @-@ music concert series . Rihanna performed her new material , mashed up with older songs including " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Live Your Life " and " Run This Town " , against a background of stacked vintage televisions and silver mannequins .
On February 1 , 2010 , Rihanna performed " Don 't Stop the Music " and " Hard " on The Ellen DeGeneres Show . She performed at the 2010 Kids ' Choice Awards on March 27 , 2010 in the Pauley Pavilion of the UCLA campus , singing " Don 't Stop the Music " , " Hard " and her 2010 single " Rude Boy " . To promote Rated R Rihanna embarked upon the 2010 – 11 Last Girl on Earth Tour ( her second worldwide tour ) , where she performed the song . In June 2011 Rihanna began the Loud Tour , her third major worldwide tour , when the single was twentieth on the set list . She performed " Don 't Stop the Music " at Radio 1 's Hackney Weekend on May 24 , 2012 as the thirteenth song on the set list , with a giant onstage sphinx . The song was on the set list for Rihanna 's 2013 Diamonds World Tour , where she sang it as part of a medley with " S & M " and " Only Girl ( In the World ) " .
= = Cover versions = =
During the sixth season of the dance reality @-@ television series America 's Best Dance Crew , the dancers Phunk Phenomenon performed a Charlie Chaplinesque music @-@ hall version of " Don 't Stop the Music " . In 2011 , the California indie pop duo The Bird and the Bee covered the song and posted it on SoundCloud . South Korean recording artist Hyoyeon , part of the girl group Girls ' Generation , covered the song during the group 's 2011 tour . Her version was included on their second live album , 2011 Girls ' Generation Tour , which was released on April 11 , 2013 . In October 2011 Rihanna joined L.A. Reid at his home in the Hamptons to help him judge male contestants for the first season of the American version of The X Factor , where contestant Philip Lomax performed a stripped @-@ down version of " Don 't Stop the Music " for Rihanna and Reid . The song was performed by the Treblemakers in the 2012 film Pitch Perfect , and was included on its soundtrack .
= = = Jamie Cullum version = = =
British singer and songwriter Jamie Cullum covered " Don 't Stop the Music " on his 2009 album , The Pursuit . Produced by Martin Terefe , the song was digitally released as the second single from the album on January 20 , 2010 . Cullum 's version substituted the original 's electro @-@ house groove with a " sinuous " acoustic bass and " brushed " drumming . Cullum 's version is in the key of C major and set in common time at 100 beats per minute . His voice ranges from C ♯ 4 to F5 .
According to PopMatters ' Will Layman , the piano builds the groove from soft to loud ( a technique used by Herbie Hancock during the 1960s ) . Adrian Edwards of BBC Music wrote , " Cullum 's take on Rihanna 's ' Don 't Stop the Music ' is best of all , where the novel production techniques and his broken @-@ voiced pleading to his girl on the dance floor would blend well in any night club with strobe lighting and the clink of glasses at the bar " . Cullum 's version peaked at number two on the Ultratip chart in Belgium , number 28 in the Netherlands and number 58 in Germany . A music video for the song was released on December 2 , 2009 on Cullum 's YouTube Vevo channel .
= = = = Credits and personnel = = = =
Credits adapted from the liner notes of The Pursuit ( Decca Records ) .
= = = = Charts = = = =
= = = = Release history = = = =
= = Track listing and formats = =
Notes
a ^ Released as separate digital singles in both United States and Canada via iTunes .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recorded at Battery Studios , New York City and Westlake Recording Studios , Los Angeles , California .
Personnel
Credits adapted from the liner notes of Good Girl Gone Bad ( Def Jam Recordings , SRP Records ) .
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
Since May 9 , 2013 , RIAA certifications for digital singles include on @-@ demand audio and video song streams in addition to downloads .
= = Release history = =
= Everett Strupper =
George Everett Strupper , Jr . ( July 26 , 1896 – February 4 , 1950 ) , known variously as " Ev " or " Strup " or " Stroop " was an American football player . He played halfback for Georgia Tech from 1915 to 1917 . Strupper overcame deafness resulting from a childhood illness and was selected as an All @-@ American in 1917 .
During Strupper 's three years playing for Georgia Tech , the team compiled a record of 24 – 0 – 2 and outscored its opponents by a combined score of 1 @,@ 135 to 61 . In Georgia Tech 's record @-@ setting 222 – 0 win over Cumberland College in 1916 , Strupper scored eight touchdowns . For many years , 1917 Georgia Tech was considered the greatest football team the South ever produced . Strupper starred as part of a renowned backfield including also Joe Guyon , Judy Harlan , and Al Hill . Strupper and teammate Walker Carpenter were the first players from the Deep South selected for an All @-@ America first team .
Sportswriter Morgan Blake called Strupper " probably the greatest running half @-@ back the South has known . " Bernie McCarty writes " Strupper ranks among the greatest broken @-@ field gallopers in Southern football history . And he caught and threw passes , returned kicks , blocked well , punted and played a bang @-@ up defensive game . " He was posthumously inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame in 1972 and the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame in 1974 .
= = Early years = =
Strupper was born in Columbus , Georgia , in 1896 . His parents , G. Everett Strupper , Sr. ( born 1872 ) , and Bessie H. ( Hatcher ) Strupper ( born 1875 ) , were both Georgia natives . As of 1910 , his father was employed as a manager at a cotton oil company . Stupper attended Riverside Military Academy in Gainesville , Georgia . He was the star of the school 's football team in 1913 ; and is a member of the school 's sports hall of fame .
= = Georgia Tech = =
Strupper enrolled at the Georgia Institute of Technology ( Georgia Tech ) in Atlanta in 1914 . During his freshman year , Strupper became a member of the Georgia Phi chapter of the Sigma Alpha Epsilon Fraternity . He was a multi @-@ sport athlete competing for Georgia Tech in basketball , football , and track and field .
In 1914 , Strupper played for the freshman football team at Georgia Tech . He then played halfback for Georgia Tech 's varsity football teams under head coach John Heisman from 1915 to 1917 . Strupper was deaf , and because of his deafness , he called the signals instead of the team 's quarterback . Strupper was a small man , with his height being stated in varying accounts to be between five @-@ feet seven inches and five @-@ feet , ten inches . His coach John Heisman later wrote that Strupper was " but 5 feet 7 inches in height , weighed only 148 pounds stripped . " He was sometimes known as " little Everett Strupper . "
Georgia Tech never lost a game in which Strupper played , compiling three consecutive undefeated seasons from 1915 to 1917 . During Strupper 's three years playing for Georgia Tech , the team compiled a record of 24 – 0 – 2 . Only two teams managed a tie – the University of Georgia in 1915 and Washington & Lee in 1916 . In those 26 games , Georgia Tech outscored its opponents by a combined score of 1 @,@ 135 to 61 .
Georgia Tech coach John Heisman later described Strupper as follows :
" Everett Strupper was a small package of condensed lightning when you turned him loose in an open field with a ball you wanted delivered somewhere in the neighborhood of the enemy 's goal line . He was small , but he was put together like a high @-@ powered motor . His arms and legs did just what his mind told them to do , and , believe me , his mind worked faster than Ty Cobb 's when he 's running the bases . Dodging and twisting , stiff @-@ arming and hipping , he 'd run the gauntlet of men big enough , you 'd think , to pick him up and spank him , and most of the time , too , he 'd get away from them , try as hard as they would . "
Heisman also said of Strupper " Were I compelled to risk my head on what one absolutely unaided gridster might accomplish , football under arm and facing eleven ferocious opponents , I would rather choose and chance this man on how he might come through the gauntlet than any ball carrier I have ever seen in action . "
Heisman recalled that , when Strupper first arrived from Riverside Military Academy , Heisman could not imagine Strupper playing on the football team : " Too light for the line , I didn 't see how he could play in the backfield , because he wouldn 't be able to get the signals . He could have played quarterback fine , but his enunciation wasn 't clear enough for him to call the plays . " Heisman recalled how Strupper overcame the obstacle posed by his deafness : " He couldn 't hear anything but a regular shout . But he could read your lips like a flash . No lad that ever stepped on a football field had keener eyes than Everett had . The enemy found this out the minute he began looking for openings through which to run the ball . " He was nominated though not selected for an Associated Press All @-@ Time Southeast 1869 – 1919 era team .
= = = 1915 season = = =
In his sophomore year , Strupper proved to be an all @-@ around athlete . As Heisman told it , Strupper " was a star baseball player , a crack at basketball and the best sprint man we had in the school . " Heisman recalled that , despite his small stature , Strupper had a powerful body : " Stripped down in the dressing rooms Everett was a sight to behold . There never was a better set up lad than he ; he was a regular Apollo , beautifully muscled and built and coordinating rhythmically in every movement . "
When Strupper tried out for the team , he noticed that the quarterback would shout the signals every time Strupper was to carry the ball . Realizing the loud signals would be a tip @-@ off to the opposition , Strupper told Heisman , " Coach , those loud signals are absolutely unnecessary . You see when sickness in my kid days brought on this deafness my folks gave me the best instructors obtainable to teach me lip @-@ reading . "
Strupper first starred in a game against Transylvania , scoring four touchdowns . He was injured the next week against LSU , and blamed LSU 's Phillip Cooper .
Tech closed what was then the greatest season in its history with a 7 – 0 defeat of the Auburn Plainsmen . To begin the second quarter , Strupper had two key plays , the last of which was the game @-@ deciding touchdown . First he made 20 yards around with a pass from Froggie Morrison before being forced out of bounds . Next was the 19 @-@ yard touchdown . Strupper started around left end , then cut back into the center of the field , away from his blockers . He juked and eluded " every man on the Auburn team . " On the last move Strupper faked right and then dove left underneath the outstretched arms of Baby Taylor into the endzone .
At the end of the 1915 season , Strupper received two selections from a composite All @-@ Southern eleven selected by ten sports writers and coaches , including those from Memphis , Nashville , Atlanta , Birmingham , Chattanooga , and New Orleans .
= = = 1916 season = = =
In 1916 , Strupper had a 92 @-@ yard punt return for a touchdown on opening day against Mercer . The next week , Strupper led Georgia Tech in a 222 – 0 victory over Cumberland College , " the most lopsided game in football history . " The score ( compiled on 32 touchdowns and 30 extra points ) broke the old record of a 153 – 0 set by the University of Michigan in 1912 . Strupper scored eight touchdowns in the game , six rushing and two on punt returns . One historic account of the 1916 Cumberland game described Strupper as the " lord high executioner " :
" There were many executioners that crisp early @-@ fall Saturday . Halfback G.E. Strupper scored from 20 yards out on Tech 's first offensive play and went on to be lord high executioner with eight touchdowns and a conversion for a total of 49 points . "
In the first quarter alone , Strupper scored four touchdowns on runs of 20 , 10 , 60 , and 45 yards . Strupper chose to allow others to share in the scoring . With a 42 – 0 lead midway through the first quarter , Strupper broke clear and could have scored easily , but he intentionally grounded the ball at the one @-@ yard line to allow Georgia Tech tackle J. Cantey Alexander to score the first touchdown of his career . A teammate later recalled the play as follows :
" Strupper swapped positions with Alexander ... The team didn 't want to make it too easy for Cantey , though . The other boys wouldn 't block for him or help in any way . As soon as the ball was snapped , they ran away from the line and out of the play completely . Leaving poor Cantey to go it alone . Finally , on fourth down , a bruised and weary Alexander managed to get the ball across while his teammates howled with laughter . "
The game was eventually halted after just 44 minutes of play . It was said only one newspaper in all of the South neglected to have Strupper on its All @-@ Southern team for 1916 . He ranked third in the nation in scoring , including 16 touchdowns .
= = = 1917 season = = =
Strupper also played on the 1917 team then considered the greatest the South ever produced , including one of the greatest backfields . According to the Times @-@ Picayune , " Strupper , Guyon , Hill , and Harlan form a backfield with no superiors and few equals in football history " . Tech gave Vanderbilt its worst loss in school history 83 – 0 . " It was not until 1917 that a Southern team really avenged long @-@ time torment at McGugin 's hands . And it took one of history 's top backfields – Joe Guyon , Ev Strupper , Al Hill , and Judy Harlan of Georgia Tech – to do it , " writes Edwin Pope . The team also defeated the University of Pennsylvania , then one of the Eastern powers , 41 – 0 . It was called by one writer " Strupper 's finest hour . " In a 98 – 0 win over the Carlisle Indians in 1917 , Strupper drew praise for his performance . The Atlanta Journal wrote :
" Everett Strupper played like a veritable demon . At one time four Carlisle men pounced on him from all directions , and yet through some superhuman witchery he broke loose and dashed 10 yards further . On another occasion he attempted a wide end run , found that he was completely blocked , then suddenly whirled and ran the other way , gaining something like 25 yards before he was downed . "
Strupper scored five touchdowns against Carlisle , including a 32 @-@ yard fumble return for a touchdown . And in a 68 – 7 win over rival Auburn , Strupper had a 65 @-@ yard touchdown run that drew the following praise from the Atlanta Journal :
" It was not the length of the run that featured it was the brilliance of it . After getting through the first line , Stroop was tackled squarely by two secondary men , and yet he squirmed and jerked loosed from them , only to face the safety man and another Tiger , coming at him from different angles . Without checking his speed Everett knifed the two men completely , running between them and dashing on to a touchdown . "
Remarkably , two Georgia Tech players led the country in touchdowns for the 1917 season . Quarterback Albert Hill was first with 23 touchdowns , and Strupper was second with 20 touchdowns . Strupper rushed for some 1 @,@ 150 yards on a little over 100 carries .
Strupper has been recognized as a consensus first @-@ team player on the 1917 College Football All @-@ America Team , having received first @-@ team honors from Frank Menke Syndicate , Paul Purman , and Dick Jemison of the Atlanta Constitution . Strupper and team captain Walker Carpenter were the first players from the Deep South selected for an All @-@ America first team . Strupper was named as one of four backs on Georgia Tech 's " All @-@ Era " team for the Heisman era covering the years from 1904 to 1919 .
= = Military football and coaching = =
On December 8 , 1917 , Strupper was elected by his teammates to be the captain of the 1918 Georgia Tech football team . However , Strupper enlisted in the U. S. Army on August 28 , 1918 , and was assigned to the First Replacement Regiment at Camp Gordon in Augusta , Georgia . In October 1918 , Strupper transferred to Camp Hancock and promoted to the rank of sergeant . He played football for Camp Gordon and Camp Hancock teams . In November 1918 , Camp Gordon played a game in Strupper 's home town of Columbus , Georgia , and the locals held " Strupper Day " in his honor . In a game for Camp Gordon on December 7 , 1918 , he had two runs of 80 yards and scored four touchdowns . At the end of the season , he was picked as a second @-@ team halfback on Walter Camp 's All @-@ America service team .
The war ended in November 1918 , and Strupper was discharged from the Army on December 20 , 1918 , as part of the post @-@ war demobilization . In August 1919 , Strupper accepted a job as the backfield coach for Oglethorpe University . He next led the Columbus High School football team . Strupper was an assistant coach under Josh Cody at Mercer in 1922 .
= = Family and later years = =
Strupper was married in approximately 1920 to his wife , Odelle . As of 1921 , Strupper was living in Columbus , Georgia , working as a salesman for E. F. Gray . From at least 1925 to 1928 , Strupper was living in Columbus with his wife , Odelle , and operating a tire business under the name Everett Strupper , Inc . The business sold Dunlop Tires and also provided vulcanizing , road service , washing , greasing and oil .
By 1930 , Strupper and his wife , Odelle , had moved to Atlanta where he was employed as the sales manager for an automobile accessories business . He was also a contributor to the Atlanta Journal . Although there are competing stories as to the origin of the Red Elephant mascot for the University of Alabama , some sources have cited a story written by Strupper about an October 1930 football game between Alabama and Mississippi . Strupper wrote : " At the end of the quarter , the earth started to tremble , there was a distant rumble that continued to grow . Some excited fan in the stands bellowed , ' Hold your horses , the elephants are coming , ' and out stamped this Alabama varsity . "
By 1934 , he was working as a solicitor for the Massachusetts Mutual Life Insurance Company . He worked with former teammate , Pup Phillips , at Massachusetts Mutual . As of 1941 , Strupper was still living in Atlanta and employed by Massachusetts Mutual . His spouse , apparently a second wife , was identified as Frances C. Strupper .
Strupper later became a general agent for the Volunteer State Life Insurance Company , and by 1948 , he became the president of the Piedmont Life Insurance Co. based in Atlanta .
Strupper died at his home in Atlanta 's Georgian Terrace Hotel in February 1950 from thrombosis . He was age 57 at the time of his death . He was survived by a wife and a step @-@ daughter , Gwyneth Oliver . He was buried in Columbus , Georgia .
In 1972 , the National Football Foundation named Strupper and nine others players who played before 1920 to the " Pioneer " section of the College Football Hall of Fame . He was also inducted into the Georgia Tech Athletics Hall of Fame in 1956 and the Georgia Sports Hall of Fame in 1974 .
= A Forest =
" A Forest " is a song by the English alternative rock band The Cure . Co @-@ produced by Mike Hedges and The Cure 's Robert Smith , it was released as a single from the band 's second album Seventeen Seconds in April 1980 . It was their debut entry on the United Kingdom chart , where it reached number 31 . The accompanying music video was first shown on BBC 's Top of the Pops programme on 24 April 1980 .
Recorded and mixed over seven days , along with the rest of the songs from the album , " A Forest " is representative of The Cure 's early 1980s gothic rock phase . The song has featured on the band 's setlists for many years . Several versions have appeared on concert albums , and it was remixed and released as a single from the Mixed Up album in 1990 . The song has been covered by several artists including Blank & Jones , Sophie Barker and Ror @-@ Shak .
= = Background and recording = =
Mike Hedges co @-@ produced the album Seventeen Seconds as well as " A Forest " with The Cure 's Robert Smith . Hedges had first worked with the band on the track " Killing an Arab " . Interviewed in 2004 , he did not recall any demos existing for Seventeen Seconds ; the band generally played the track in the studio before laying down a backing track to which overdubs were added . At the time of the recording of the album , bass guitarist Simon Gallup and keyboardist Matthieu Hartley had been added to the band 's lineup . Gallup had replaced Michael Dempsey , who had departed to join The Associates . Gallup and Hartley joined remaining Cure members Smith ( vocals ) and Lol Tolhurst ( drums ) in late 1979 during the group 's Future Pastimes tour , on which " A Forest " was one of the new songs added to their setlist .
Due to budgetary restraints , Seventeen Seconds was recorded and mixed in seven days on a budget of between £ 2000 and £ 3000 , which resulted in the band working 16 or 17 hours a day to complete the album . Hedges and Robert Smith knew " A Forest " would take more work to complete than other songs on the album , and would require more overdubs . " A Forest " was one of the last tracks recorded ; the backing tracks were recorded first , followed by touch @-@ ups to the individual parts , then Smith 's vocals . Fiction Records owner Chris Parry told Smith that the song had the potential to be a hit if they made it sound " radio friendly " , but Smith refused , stating that the way the track sounded was the sound he envisioned in his head , dismissing concerns about radio friendliness . Work on mixing " A Forest " took up much of the final day of sessions for the album .
= = Composition and lyrics = =
" A Forest " and its parent album Seventeen Seconds are representative of The Cure 's gothic rock phase in the late 1970s and early 1980s . Cure biographer Jeff Apter refers to " A Forest " as " the definitive early Cure mood piece " and he argued the song is the centrepiece of the album . Smith 's intention with " A Forest " was to make a song that was " really atmospheric " . He has stated that it was a pivotal recording for the group , and represented " the archetypal Cure sound " .
" A Forest " is performed in the key of A minor . Initially only the synth , guitar and drums are heard , followed by the introduction of the bass guitar and a second guitar part . The song initially follows an Am – C – F – Dm progression . Later on the track , its bridge contains a B – C – F # m – C – B – C sequence , which ends with a chromatic movement to the F chord before returning to Am . Following the echoing repetition of the word " again " , a guitar solo appears which avoids string bends and moving in a pentatonic manner . The single version of the song fades out at around four minutes , while on the longer ( album ) version the instruments exit one by one , concluding with the sound of the bass guitar at 4 @.@ 46 " . The sound of Smith 's guitar was a departure from that prevalent in the 1970s . Mike Hedges favored the use of flanging at the time , and he estimated that there were seven flanger devices used on " A Forest " . Rikki Rooksby said that the slow phase effect heard on the guitar in " A Forest " " almost became a Smith trademark for a while " . Simon Gallup said that his playing on the track was intended to be reminiscent of the bass work in the music of The Stranglers , whose bassist Jean @-@ Jacques Burnel was a major influence on him .
Smith has given varying explanations behind his lyrics for " A Forest " . He has said that the lyrics were based upon a dream he had as a child where he was lost in the woods unable to escape but later denied it and stated , " It 's just about a forest " .
= = Release and promotion = =
" A Forest " was released as a single on 5 April 1980 . Its B @-@ side was " Another Journey by Train " , an instrumental remake of The Cure 's " Jumping Someone Else 's Train " . The single received a mixed critical reception , though commercially its sales were an improvement for the band . In early 1980 , it spent eight weeks in the UK Singles Chart , peaking at number 31 on 12 April of that year . It was the highest they had placed on the chart by that point in their career . In the United States , the song reached number 47 on the Billboard Dance Music / Club Play Singles chart .
The version included on 1986 compilation Standing on a Beach ( Staring at the Sea ) is neither the album version ( which was also on the 12 " single ) , nor is it the 7 " single edit ( which removes a few bars between verses and fades out part way through the guitar solo ending ) .
Andy Anderson , who later became the Cure 's drummer , said " A Forest " was the first song he heard by the band . He was taken by both the music and vocals , and was especially drawn to Smith 's guitar work and the keyboard melody , which he described as " haunting . " He described the spare and simple 4 / 4 drum pattern as straightforward ; " all that is needed . "
= = Re @-@ recordings and cover versions = =
Since its release , " A Forest " has become the most played Cure song , with nearly 1 @,@ 000 live appearances . A live version of " A Forest " appeared on a four @-@ song edition of " The Hanging Garden " released in July 1982 . It was performed with what has been described as a " rough , punk @-@ edged " sound on the 1984 live album Concert : The Cure Live . A performance appears on the live video The Cure in Orange , highly regarded by Allmusic reviewer Ned Raggett . , while other live versions of the song include the concert film Show , and on disc one of the live album Bestival Live 2011 .
In 1990 , the track was re @-@ recorded and remixed by Mark Saunders for The Cure 's Mixed Up album . The " Tree mix " version of " A Forest " was released as a single on 6 December 1990 , while the album had been released a few weeks before on 20 November . The song was redone for the second time on the Join the Dots box set , this time remixed by Mark Plati and featuring Earl Slick on guitar . This version was described as " awful " and " instantly dated " by reviewer Chris Ott . An acoustic version was recorded and released on the bonus disc that came with some copies of the 2001 Greatest Hits CD . Robert Smith supplied vocals for a Blank & Jones cover version of the song , which appeared on their 2004 album Monument .
Finnish avant @-@ garde metal band Waltari recorded a cover version released on their album So Fine ! , in 1994 .
French band Nouvelle Vague covered A Forest in a bossa @-@ nova style , as part of its self @-@ titled debut album in 2004 .
Texas Band The Toadies covered A Forest for their 2008 album No Deliverance . This version was an iTunes exclusive bonus track .
Sophie Barker released a recording on her double A @-@ side single " A Forest / Say Goodbye " which was released on 31 October 2011 .
Ror @-@ Shak , a collaboration between DJ DB and Stakka , covered the song on their only album Deep , which was released in 2005 . The music video was used in the TV Series Fringe in 2008 . English artist Bat for Lashes covered the song for the 2008 Cure tribute album Perfect as Cats : A Tribute to the Cure . Luke Lewis of NME praised the version , noting it " teases out a crepuscular , pagan atmosphere absent in the original " .
Norwegian black metal band Carpathian Forest recorded the song for their 1998 album Black Shining Leather .
British band Creaming Jesus included a cover of this song on their 1990 EP Bark .
British musician Steven Wilson recorded a cover of the song for his solo release " Cover Version III " in 2005 , as part of his Cover Versions series .
A cover of the track appears on the album 8 : 58 , a project by Paul Hartnoll , with vocals from The Unthanks .
= = Music video = =
The promotional video for " A Forest " was the band 's first . It was created by David Hiller , who mixed footage from the band 's 24 April 1980 debut appearance on BBC 's Top of the Pops programme with a forest montage . Smith said that the group " came across looking very morose and disinterested " in the video because that is how they felt at the time ; he " hated " Top of the Pops as he was " really anti @-@ pop " during this period . He recalled that he had been in pain at the time of the shoot as he had broken his thumb trying to change a tyre a few days previously .
= = Track listing = =
7 " - Fiction / Polydor ( UK )
" A Forest " - 3 @.@ 54
" Another Journey by Train " - 3 @.@ 04
7 " - Fiction ( UK )
" A Forest " [ Tree Mix ] - 6 @.@ 55
" A Forest " [ Original ]
" Inbetween Days " [ Shiver Mix ] - 6 @.@ 24
= = Personnel = =
Robert Smith - vocals , guitar
Simon Gallup - bass
Matthieu Hartley - keyboards
Lol Tolhurst - drums
= = Chart positions = =
= Heinz Field =
Heinz Field is a stadium located in the North Shore neighborhood of Pittsburgh , Pennsylvania , United States . It primarily serves as the home to the Pittsburgh Steelers of the National Football League ( NFL ) and the Pittsburgh Panthers of the National Collegiate Athletic Association ( NCAA ) . The stadium opened in 2001 , after the controlled implosion of the teams ' previous stadium , Three Rivers Stadium . The stadium is named for the locally based H. J. Heinz Company , which purchased the naming rights in 2001 . It hosted the 2011 NHL Winter Classic between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals on January 1 , 2011 .
Funded in conjunction with PNC Park and the David L. Lawrence Convention Center , the $ 281 million ( $ 375 @.@ 5 million today ) stadium stands along the Ohio River , on the Northside of Pittsburgh in the North Shore neighborhood . The stadium was designed with the city of Pittsburgh 's history of steel production in mind , which led to the inclusion of 12 @,@ 000 tons of steel into the design . Ground for the stadium was broken in June 1999 and the first football game was hosted in September 2001 . The stadium 's natural grass surface has been criticized throughout its history , but Steelers ownership has kept the grass after lobbying from players and coaches . Attendance for the 68 @,@ 400 seat stadium has sold out for every Steelers home game , a streak which dates back to 1972 ( a year before local telecasts of home games were permitted in the NFL ) . A collection of memorabilia from the Steelers and Panthers of the past can be found in the Great Hall .
= = History = =
= = = Planning and funding = = =
The Pittsburgh Steelers and the Pittsburgh Pirates shared Three Rivers Stadium from 1970 to 2000 . After discussions over the Pittsburgh Pirates building a full @-@ time baseball park , a proposal was made to renovate Three Rivers Stadium into a full @-@ time football facility . Though met with negative reaction from Steelers ownership , the proposal was used as a " fallback position " that would be used if discussions for a new stadium failed . Steelers ownership stated that failing to build a new stadium would hurt the franchise 's chances of signing players who might opt to sign with other teams , such as the other three teams in the Steelers division who had all recently built new football @-@ only stadiums . In June 2001 , the H. J. Heinz Company purchased the naming rights to the stadium . As per the deal , Heinz will pay the Steelers a total of $ 57 million through 2021 ; the " 57 " being an intentional reference to Heinz 57 . Despite Heinz later announcing its acquisition of Kraft Foods Group to form Kraft Heinz Company in 2015 , the stadium 's name will remain known as Heinz Field .
Originally , a sales tax increase was proposed to fund three projects : Heinz Field , PNC Park , and an expansion of the David L. Lawrence Convention Center . After the rejection of this proposal in a referendum , the city developed Plan B. Similarly controversial , the alternative proposal was labeled Scam B by opponents . The Steelers ' pledge toward the new stadium was criticized for being too little , even after it was raised from $ 50 million to $ 76 @.@ 5 million . Other local government members criticized the $ 281 million of public money allocated for Plan B. One member of the Allegheny Regional Asset District board called the use of tax dollars " corporate welfare " . The plan , totaling $ 809 million , was approved by the Allegheny Regional Asset District board on July 9 , 1998 , with $ 233 million allotted for Heinz Field . Shortly after Plan B was approved , the Steelers made a deal with Pittsburgh city officials to stay in the city until at least 2031 . The total cost of Heinz Field was $ 281 million .
= = = Design and construction = = =
HOK Sport designed the stadium . HOK Sport 's project manager for the project , Melinda Lehman , said that the Rooney family asked for the stadium 's design to " acknowledge the history of Pittsburgh and also bring in an element of looking forward , this is where Pittsburgh is going . " In order to accomplish this , HOK Sport used steel structurally and externally . The stone used in Heinz Field 's design is artificial , in order to decrease cost . Of the glass used in the stadium 's design , Lehman said , " The glass is a more modern building element , which ties into a lot of the buildings in [ Downtown ] Pittsburgh and gives great views of the surrounding areas . " The Steelers and Panthers have their own locker rooms , which differ in size based on the amount of players each team is permitted to dress for each game . The visitor facilities are modeled after the home locker rooms ' design . As with its predecessor , Heinz Field 's culinary service provider is Aramark ; over 400 eateries are located throughout the stadium . A bronze statue of Steelers founder Art Rooney , similar to those located outside PNC Park , was moved 100 feet ( 30 m ) from its previous position outside Three Rivers Stadium . In addition , a statue of a Pitt Panther over a paved depiction of Pitt 's Cathedral of Learning was placed outside Gate A. Upon opening in 2001 , Heinz Field 's 27 by 96 foot Sony JumboTron was the largest scoreboard in the NFL . In 2007 , ESPN named the " tipping " of the oversized Heinz ketchup bottles atop the scoreboard one of the top ten touchdown celebrations in the NFL .
Ground was broken for Heinz Field on June 18 , 1999 , at a ceremony co @-@ hosted by the Steelers and the University of Pittsburgh . The stadium was constructed by Hunt Construction Group and Mascaro Corporation . The two companies directed 1 @,@ 400 workers over two years , in which there were no construction accidents or lawsuits . The stadium is inspected yearly , along with PNC Park , by Chronicle Consulting , LLC , for structural defects and maintenance .
= = = Opening and other events = = =
The first event held at Heinz Field was a concert hosted by the band ' N Sync , on August 18 , 2001 . Coincidentally , they were also the last band to perform at the Steelers ' previous home , Three Rivers Stadium . Prior to the Steelers regular season schedule , the team played a pre @-@ season game against the Detroit Lions on August 25 , 2001 . Pittsburgh won the stadium 's unofficial opening game 20 – 7 , with 57 @,@ 829 spectators in attendance . The first official football game played in the stadium was between the Pittsburgh Panthers and East Tennessee State , on September 1 . The Panthers won the game 31 – 0 , with quarterback David Priestley scoring the first touchdown on an 85 @-@ yard run . The Steelers were scheduled to open the regular season play at Heinz Field on September 16 against the Cleveland Browns ; however , due to the September 11 attacks , all NFL games of the week were postponed , thus moving the stadium 's premiere to October 7 , against the Cincinnati Bengals . Prior to the game , a speech from US President George W. Bush , ordering attacks on Taliban @-@ controlled Afghanistan , was shown live on the stadium 's JumboTron . The speech was met with much applause and support from the spectators in attendance . Pittsburgh defeated the Bengals , 16 – 7 . Steelers kicker Kris Brown scored the first NFL points in the stadium on a 26 @-@ yard field goal , and quarterback Kordell Stewart scored the first touchdown on an eight @-@ yard run .
On November 30 , 2002 , the Backyard Brawl college football game between Pitt and West Virginia drew 66 @,@ 731 spectators , the largest single @-@ game attendance in Heinz Field history . West Virginia won the game 24 – 17 .
In addition to football games , Heinz Field has hosted other various activities . Since its opening in 2001 , bands and artists including ' N Sync , Taylor Swift , Kenny Chesney , and LeAnn Rimes have performed at the stadium . In addition , hometown bands The Clarks and the Povertyneck Hillbillies have played multiple shows at the stadium . In 2002 , the Pittsburgh Marathon concluded at Heinz Field , the course was altered from past years to allow competitors to cross the finish line on the field . In 2005 , the Pittsburgh Wine Festival was held at Heinz Field , over 2 @,@ 000 people attended . The 2011 American Idol Auditions chose Pittsburgh of one of six cities and scheduled signups at Heinz Field on July 12 – 13 and auditions on July 15 , 2011 . In 2007 , writer Bill Evans named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL , behind Lambeau Field , in an article for ESPN.com. Although both stadiums received a score of 54 out of 70 , Sports Illustrated named Heinz Field the second best stadium in the NFL , also behind Lambeau Field .
That same year , two light @-@ emitting diode ( LED ) video displays from Daktronics were installed at the field . The larger , high definition video display measures approximately 28 feet ( 8 @.@ 5 m ) high by nearly 96 feet ( 29 m ) wide .
Heinz Field served as the home field of the Gotham Rogues in the 2012 film The Dark Knight Rises . An estimated 15 @,@ 000 unpaid extras filled the stadium during shooting on August 6 , 2011 .
On August 4 , 2012 , Heinz Field will host the Women 's Football Alliance 's National Championship Game , becoming the first NFL stadium to host a title game for any women 's football league .
The quickest score in NFL history occurred on September 8 , 2013 in the Steelers season opener against the Tennessee Titans , when the Steelers scored a safety on the opening kickoff three seconds into the game . Darius Reynaud of the Titans fielded the kickoff and took a short step backwards ( into the south end zone ) for what was ruled to be a safety , not a touchback , because the ball was not in the end zone when it was fielded . The Steelers , however , lost the game 16 @-@ 9 , which was also their first home opener loss since Heinz Field opened .
On July 27 , 2014 , Heinz Field hosted a soccer match between A.C. Milan and Manchester City which was part of the 2014 International Champions Cup and Manchester City won the match 5 @-@ 1 .
= = = NHL Winter Classic = = =
On May 28 , 2010 , National Hockey League commissioner Gary Bettman announced that Heinz Field would be the host of the 2011 NHL Winter Classic . The game was played January 1 , 2011 between the Pittsburgh Penguins and Washington Capitals . Pittsburgh native Jackie Evancho sang the Star Spangled Banner before local sports legends Franco Harris , Jerome Bettis and Mario Lemieux dropped the ceremonial puck . The Capitals won , 3 – 1 . The game was the highest rated NHL contest since 1996 and the highest rated regular season game since 1975 . It was also the first night Classic and the first to use " CableCam " technology .
= = Features = =
= = = Playing surface = = =
In June 2001 , Kentucky Bluegrass was laid on the field , at half the height of most NFL field 's 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) grass . The field is heated from below , using a mixture of antifreeze and hot water , to keep the field at around 62 ° F ( 17 ° C ) in order to keep the grass growing year @-@ round . The field was re @-@ surfaced multiple times , until the synthetic @-@ enhanced Desso GrassMaster was installed in 2003 . Debate continued over the surface after players began slipping during game play . Despite this players and coaches of Pitt , the Steelers , and their opponents supported keeping the current turf .
On Friday , November 23 , 2007 , Heinz Field hosted four WPIAL championship football games which were followed the day after with a game between Pitt and South Florida . After discussion with the NFL , Steelers ownership made the decision to re @-@ surface the field for their nationally televised game against the Miami Dolphins . A layer of sod was laid overtop the 2 @.@ 5 @-@ acre ( 1 @.@ 0 ha ) Desso GrassMaster surface . The field 's condition was exacerbated by 1 ½ inches of rain after the new sod had been laid , which did not allow the tarp to be removed from the field until 70 minutes before the game began . The field conditions during the game ended up being so bad that at one point during the game , a punt by Dolphins punter Brandon Fields ended up sticking into the turf without bouncing . The Steelers won the game 3 – 0 , with a field goal by Jeff Reed with 17 seconds remaining in regulation ; it was the NFL 's first 3 @-@ 0 game since 1993 and the longest two teams went without scoring since the New York Giants and Detroit Lions played to a scoreless tie on November 11 , 1943 . Scott Brown , of the Pittsburgh Tribune @-@ Review , called the field a " veritable mud pit " . While Gene Upshaw , head of the National Football League Players ' Association , also criticized the field citing a 2006 survey of NFL players that ranked Heinz Field as the second worst field in the league . Steelers receiver Hines Ward called the playing conditions " horrendous " after the game . However , the following day Ward and other Pittsburgh players lobbied to keep the natural surface stating , " I think everybody wants to keep the grass . " Since that season , the Steelers have played their game on the weekend following Thanksgiving on the road at the team 's request .
Debate continued over the field later in the season when Jacksonville running back Fred Taylor called the field " a lawsuit pending " . Pittsburgh 's ownership stated that the decision was up to the players , who once again defended the natural surface . In February 2008 , the Steelers announced that they would keep the Desso GrassMaster surface . During the 2008 season quarterback Ben Roethlisberger was given a concussion after being hit at Heinz Field . He later stated , " I 'm glad we weren 't on FieldTurf . That grass — you know , the soft Heinz Field — might 've helped a little bit . " After the 2008 season , a poll of 1 @,@ 565 NFL players rated the surface at Heinz Field as the worst of the 18 natural surfaces in the League .
The DDGrassmaster surface was removed in January 2009 and replaced with the old sod placed on top of the DDGrassmaster surface for the AFC Championship also in January 2009 .
= = = Field design = = =
Unique about the field is the design itself . Initially , the south end zone had either " Steelers " or " Panthers " painted in the end zone , depending on the game itself . The north end zone has always read " Pittsburgh " , which is painted in gold lettering and trimmed in either black for the Steelers or dark blue for Pitt . Although there is typically no midfield logo when both Pitt and the Steelers are in season , both teams have applied their logo if the field 's schedule allows for a sufficient break to remove or apply the other team 's logo for that team 's next upcoming game . The Steelers have typically added their logo to midfield after Pitt 's football season has ended .
In 2003 , the Steelers played the Philadelphia Eagles in a preseason game to commemorate the 60th anniversary of the Steagles team , when the two merged as a result of player shortages caused by World War II . Steelers president Dan Rooney had initially considered wearing a throwback uniform for the game , but decided against it because the merged team wore the Eagles uniforms , and the Steelers didn 't want to wear the Eagles ' colors . Instead , the team had the south end zone painted in plain diagonal white lines , which were common in NFL endzones until the 1960s .
Although the Steelers lost the game 21 – 16 , Rooney liked the look of the south end zone being " plain " , and decided to keep it permanently . As with the team 's logo at midfield , the Steelers paint " Steelers " in the south end zone once the college football season ends . The Green Bay Packers also adopted the plain diagonal white lines in the end zones at Lambeau Field for 2007 due to an Anniversary logo being painted on each end , before switching back to wordmark endzones in 2008 which have remained since .
= = = Seating and tickets = = =
As of 2008 , the Pittsburgh Steelers have sold out every home game since the 1972 season . Entering the 2008 season , the Steelers average ticket price of $ 69 @.@ 47 was the 15th highest out of the NFL 's 32 teams . The majority of the 65 @,@ 050 seats are colored " Steeler gold " , though club seats are dark gray . Heinz Field features 1 @,@ 500 seats in 129 luxury boxes , with prices ranging from $ 64 @,@ 000 to $ 135 @,@ 000 depending on location and size . These boxes were predicted to increase the Steelers ' profits from $ 10 to $ 11 million per season over those at Three Rivers Stadium . The stadium also features 6 @,@ 600 club seats that include a restaurant and an indoor bar , at prices up to $ 2 @,@ 000 per person . For the 2010 season , season ticket prices for Panthers games range from a maximum of $ 295 per club seat with required donations per seat between $ 250 and $ 500 depending on location , to as low as $ 87 per seat with no required donation for upper end zone sections . Individual game ticket prices ranged from $ 30 to $ 65 depending on the seat location and the opponent . Attendance for Panthers games has varied from an average high of 59 @,@ 197 people per game throughout the 2003 season to a low of 43 @,@ 680 in 2007 . Most recently , Pitt averaged 48 @,@ 150 in home attendance during the 2015 season .
= = = Great Hall = = =
The Great Hall spans approximately 40 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 700 m2 ) on the east side of the stadium and houses a collection of Steelers and Pittsburgh Panthers memorabilia . The Hall includes a timeline of the Steelers franchise 's major events , an oversized Steelers helmet hangs from the ceiling beside a video screen that shows entertainment for fans throughout game days . The Great Hall also features the actual lockers of several former Steelers , including Hall of Fame members Franco Harris , Joe Greene , and Bill Dudley . Six large Super Bowl trophies @-@ shaped display columns were erected and contain artifacts from each championship the Steelers have won including replica trophies . Two display columns are dedicated to the University of Pittsburgh and contain memorabilia from the Panthers ' teams . The floor is painted to resemble the field at Three Rivers Stadium , with the word " Steelers " painted in black over a gold background . University of Pittsburgh players are featured on two large murals within the Hall . Eight additional tile murals created by local high schools represent western Pennsylvania football history . In 2007 , the Great Hall was named the best concourse at an NFL stadium by writer Bill Evans , in an article for ESPN.com.
= = Seating expansion = =
The Steelers notified the Pittsburgh Stadium Authority in December 2010 of their intention to add up to 4 @,@ 000 seats to the lower southern end of the stadium . The plan would increase seating up to 69 @,@ 050 as soon as the 2012 NFL season . Seating was added in that section for the 2011 NHL Winter Classic which had an attendance of 68 @,@ 111 . The temporary seating was left in place for the 2010 – 11 NFL playoffs , with the AFC Championship game on January 23 having a record attendance of 66 @,@ 662 .
On April 12 , 2012 , the Steelers confirmed they would seek approval from the NFL to expand seating by 3 @,@ 000 . On May 19 , 2014 , after more than two years , the Steelers and the SEA came to an agreement to add about 3 @,@ 000 seats to the venue . After contractors surveyed the complex the final number of 2 @,@ 390 added seats with five additional suites including more parking , restrooms and concessions was determined in December 2014 to increase capacity to a total of 67 @,@ 890 . The seating was put in place by the summer of 2015 .
= = Transportation access = =
Heinz Field is located at Exit 1B of Interstate 279 within a mile of direct access to both Interstate 376 and Interstate 579 . The stadium also has dedicated elevated walkway access to the Allegheny Station of the Light Rail / Subway system . On Steelers and Pitt Panthers game days , access is also provided from Station Square parking facilities via the Gateway Clipper Fleet .
= Exclusion of judicial review in Singapore law =
Exclusion of judicial review has been attempted by the Parliament of Singapore to protect the exercise of executive power . Typically , this has been done though the insertion of finality or total ouster clauses into Acts of Parliament , or by wording powers conferred by Acts on decision @-@ makers subjectively . Finality clauses are generally viewed restrictively by courts in the United Kingdom . The courts there have taken the view that such clauses are , subject to some exceptions , not effective in denying or restricting the extent to which the courts are able to exercise judicial review . In contrast , Singapore cases suggest that ouster clauses cannot prevent the High Court from exercising supervisory jurisdiction over the exercise of executive power where authorities have committed jurisdictional errors of law , but are effective against non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law .
A partial ouster or time limit clause specifies a restricted period , after which no remedy will be available . Such clauses are generally effective , unless the public authority has acted in bad faith . Similarly , the existence of bad faith entitles applicants to challenge decisions of authorities despite the existence of statutory provisions declaring such decisions to be conclusive evidence of certain facts . In the absence of bad faith , the courts will enforce conclusive evidence clauses .
In general , subjectively worded powers are also viewed restrictively by the Singapore courts . In Chng Suan Tze v. Minister for Home Affairs ( 1988 ) , the Court of Appeal took the view that an objective test applied to the exercise of discretion conferred by the Internal Security Act ( Cap . 143 , 1985 Rev. Ed . ) ( " ISA " ) on the President and the Minister for Home Affairs concerning the detention without trial of persons thought to be a risk to national security . Hence , the jurisdiction of the High Court was not completely ousted , and it could objectively examine whether the relevant decision @-@ makers had exercised their powers properly . However , legislative amendments to the ISA in 1989 reversed the effect of Chng Suan Tze by mandating that the courts are to apply a subjective test to the exercise of the discretion , and by excluding judicial review except where there is doubt whether the procedures set out in the Act were adhered to . Nevertheless , the subjective test is only applicable in the context of the ISA , and the rule that an objective test applies to subjectively worded powers continues to apply where statutes other than the ISA are concerned .
= = Total ouster or finality clauses = =
An ouster clause in a statute is an attempt by the legislature to prevent an act or decision by a public authority from being challenged before the courts . Such clauses thus serve as a signal to decision @-@ makers that they may operate without fear of intervention by the courts at a later stage . One common kind of ouster clause is the total ouster or finality clause , which is inserted into a statute to indicate that the decision of a particular judge or tribunal is final and cannot be challenged by any court .
The main legal issue with ouster clauses is whether it is in fact possible to exclude the jurisdiction of the courts by the use of carefully drafted provisions . Thio Li @-@ ann has noted that " courts generally loathe ouster clauses as these contradict the rule of law whereby judges finally declare the legal limits of power and also as the individual 's ultimate recourse to the law is denied . Hence , courts try to construe these strictly to minimise their impact . In so doing , they may be going against the grain of parliamentary will . "
Ouster clauses are related to another administrative law concept : jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . Traditionally , at common law , an ouster clause precludes a court from interfering with a decision made by a public authority which was acting within its jurisdiction , but committed a non @-@ jurisdictional error of law . However , the clause is not effective in preventing judicial review of errors of law that affect the jurisdiction of the authority to make the decision . For instance , in R. v. Medical Appeal Tribunal , ex parte Gilmore ( 1957 ) , Lord Justice of Appeal Alfred Denning said that it was " well settled that the remedy by certiorari is never to be taken away by any statute except by the most clear and explicit words . The word ' final ' is not enough . " The effect of such a clause is to make " the decision final on the facts , but not final on the law . Notwithstanding that the decision is by a statute made ' final , ' certiorari can still issue for excess of jurisdiction or for error of law on the face of the record . " However , in the light of developments in the law , such a differentiation may no longer be applicable depending on the judicial school of thought employed .
= = = UK position = = =
= = = = General rule = = = =
The starting point for analysing ouster clauses and their effects is the landmark decision Anisminic Ltd. v. Foreign Compensation Commission ( 1968 ) . In that case , the House of Lords is regarded as having abolished the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law when it was considering the effect of an ouster clause . In Anisminic , their Lordships were faced with a provision which stated that " the determination by the Commission of any application made to them under this Act shall not be called in question in any court of law " . In his judgment , Lord Reid differentiated between the arguments put forth by the parties . He held that while the respondents had argued that the provision clearly denied the court the ability to question the determination made by the Foreign Compensation Commission , the question at hand did not even involve the questioning of the purported determination and instead focused on whether there was in fact a valid determination . He pointed out that " if you seek to show that a determination is a nullity you are not questioning the purported determination – you are maintaining that it does not exist as a determination " . He then held it was a well @-@ established principle that a provision ousting the ordinary jurisdiction of the court must be construed strictly – if such a provision is reasonably capable of having two meanings , the meaning which preserves the ordinary jurisdiction of the court should be taken . If Parliament had intended to introduce a new kind of ouster clause that would protect such nullities from being questioned , better drafting of the provision would be required .
In his judgment , Lord Reid also took the opportunity to deal with the issue of jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . While recognizing the traditional understanding that jurisdictional errors of law are of no effect , his Lordship also stated that there are many cases where although the decision @-@ maker has jurisdiction to decide , the determination is also a nullity . He then gave a non @-@ exhaustive list of these cases :
The decision @-@ maker may have given its decision in bad faith .
It may have made a decision which it had no power to make .
It may have failed in the course of the inquiry to comply with the requirements of natural justice .
It may , in perfect good faith , have misconstrued the provisions giving it power to act so that it failed to deal with the question remitted to it and decided some question which was not remitted to it .
It may have refused to take into account something which it was required to take into account .
It may have based its decision on some matter which , under the legal provisions establishing the decision @-@ maker , it had no right to take into account .
However , what is of significance is that his Lordship did not expressly reject the effectiveness of such ouster clauses where the decision is valid . He recognized that " [ u ] ndoubtedly such a provision protects every determination which is not a nullity " . Peter Cane has written that Lord Reid thus affirmed that " the ouster clause in question would be effective to prevent the award of a judicial review remedy only if the error of law was within jurisdiction " . However , it appears that Anisminic had defined the concept of jurisdictional error of law so broadly that it had made redundant the old divide between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors and had " led to the use of the word ' jurisdictional ' in a wide sense to cover all errors of law which entailed illegality " . The judgment thus had the effect of reducing the effect of statutory ouster clauses and expanding the limits of judicial review .
Later cases have treated Anisminic as implying that any action committed in error by an administrative agency or body is deemed to affect the jurisdiction of the body to carry out the action , and hence is reviewable by a court of law despite the ouster clause . The blurred distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law was recognized and discussed in R. v. Lord President of the Privy Council , ex parte Page ( 1992 ) . The House of Lords reviewed the development of general principles of judicial review since Anisminic and concluded that the courts will intervene to ensure that the powers of public decision @-@ making bodies are exercised lawfully . In his judgment , Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson referred to O 'Reilly v. Mackman ( 1983 ) and opined that " the decision in [ Anisminic ] rendered obsolete the distinction between errors of law on the face of the record and other errors of law by extending the doctrine of ultra vires . " Thus , an ouster clause is ineffective when the decision @-@ maker has acted unlawfully , whether the unlawfulness is jurisdictional or non @-@ jurisdictional in nature . This is because " Parliament had only conferred the decision @-@ making power on the basis that it was to be exercised on the correct legal basis : a misdirection in law in making the decision therefore rendered the decision ultra vires " .
The issue was revisited in the subsequent case of R. ( on the application of Cart ) v. Upper Tribunal ( 2011 ) . The Supreme Court of the United Kingdom disapproved of certain pronouncements by the lower courts which appeared to signal a return to the pre @-@ Anisminic position . According to Lord Dyson , this was not justified as " the importance of Anisminic is that it showed that a material error of law renders a decision a ' nullity ' so that the decision is in principle judicially reviewable " . He went on to state that " as a matter of principle , there is no justification for drawing the line at jurisdictional error " . In his opinion , any restrictions on judicial review require justification and , prima facie , such review should be available to challenge the legality of decisions of public bodies .
= = = = Exceptions = = = =
= = = = = Decisions under domestic laws ; court decisions = = = = =
Despite the extensiveness of the ruling in Anisminic , it appears that there may be instances where the courts will still be bound by the jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional error of law divide . Cane has noted that there are three views . The first is that the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law is still relevant , while the second is that all errors of law go to jurisdiction . The third view takes a middle ground that allows for certain exceptions to the approach in the second view .
This middle ground approach was discussed in ex parte Page when their Lordships dealt with whether the court can intervene and review a decision made by a visitor ( overseer ) of a university . Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson found that there were two reasons why the general rule that all errors of law are reviewable does not apply to visitors . First , the reason why courts can intervene in a normal case where the decision is considered ultra vires is because the law applicable to a decision made by such a body is the general law of the land . The visitor in ex parte Page did not apply the general law of the land but , rather , a " domestic law " ( the university 's charter and statutes ) of which he was the sole arbiter and over which the courts had no cognizance . Therefore , the visitor " cannot err in law in reaching [ his ] decision since the general law is not the applicable law " .
Secondly , there is a difference between the kinds of tribunals the decisions of which are being considered for judicial review . The source of this reasoning is the dissenting judgment of Lord Justice Geoffrey Lane in Pearlman v. Keepers and Governors of Harrow School ( 1978 ) . Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson noted that this dissenting judgment was approved by the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council in South East Asia Fire Bricks Sdn . Bhd. v. Non @-@ Metallic Mineral Products Manufacturing Employees Union ( 1980 ) , and also by a majority in Re Racal Communications Ltd . ( 1980 ) . In the latter case , Lord Diplock highlighted that the decision in Anisminic only applies to administrative bodies or tribunals as there is a presumption that Parliament does not intend such bodies to be the final arbiters of questions of law . This can be contrasted with courts of law in respect of which such a presumption is not present . Instead , the presumption is that " where Parliament had provided that the decision of an inferior court was final and conclusive the High Court should not be astute to find that the inferior court 's decision on a question of law had not been made final and conclusive , thereby excluding the jurisdiction to review it . "
The views expressed by Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson have been questioned by Cane . As regards the first reason , he has argued that the distinction between domestic law and general law is problematic . Such institutions may actually operate under a statutory framework which can result in a mixed issue of both general and domestic law arising . As such , the view taken by Lord Browne @-@ Wilkinson cannot be as cleanly applied as he had described it to be . Moreover , the actual scope of ex parte Page has yet to be resolved . There is some uncertainty as to the extent the exception applies to decision @-@ makers other than visitors . Where the second reason is concerned , Cane has noted that the correctness of the distinction between administrative tribunals and courts may be questionable as such an approach was " rejected by a Divisional Court and , apparently , by Lord Diplock himself . "
= = = = = Comprehensive tribunal system to correct errors of law = = = = =
Another exception can be found in the Cart judgment . Having affirmed the position taken in Anisminic , Lord Dyson then qualified his statement by emphasizing that " the scope of judicial review should be no more ( as well as no less ) than is proportionate and necessary for the maintaining of the rule of law " . On the facts of the case , he found it was neither proportionate nor necessary for the maintenance of the rule of law to require unrestricted judicial review . By enacting the Tribunals , Courts and Enforcement Act 2007 , Parliament had rationalized the system of administrative tribunals and had created the Upper Tribunal to hear appeals from lower tribunals , thus avoiding the ordinary courts from being overwhelmed by judicial review applications . As the system of tribunals provided ample opportunity for the correction of errors of law , this substantive policy reason precluded the need for all decisions of the Upper Tribunal to be subject to judicial review . Thus , judicial review would only be permitted from an Upper Tribunal decision if it would " raise some important point of principle or practice " or there was " some other compelling reason " .
= = = Singapore position = = =
The High Court case of Re Application by Yee Yut Ee ( 1978 ) suggests that the pre @-@ Anisminic position on ouster clauses applies in Singapore ; that is , the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law persists , and an ouster clause is only ineffective where a jurisdictional error of law has been committed . The ouster clause in question was section 46 of the Industrial Relations Act which states :
Subject to the provisions of this Act an award shall be final and conclusive , and no award or decision or order of a Court or the President or a referee shall be challenged , appealed against , reviewed , quashed , or called in question in any court and shall not be subject to certiorari , prohibition , mandamus or injunction in any court on any account .
The Court neither expressly rejected nor affirmed the abolition of the distinction in Anisminic and its effect on the effectiveness of ouster clauses . Instead , the Court cited UK authorities holding that ouster clauses are ineffective when there has been an absence of jurisdiction or an excess of jurisdiction on the part of the decision @-@ maker , a position which characterized the law prior to Anisminic . The Court did refer to Anisminic but only to observe that the House of Lords had held the ouster clause involved in that case to be irrelevant because a purported determination by the Foreign Compensation Commission which was legally incorrect could not be considered a real determination and had no effect at all . Ultimately , the Court quashed the order made by the Industrial Arbitration Court because it contained an error of law which had caused that court to exceed its jurisdiction .
In Stansfield Business International Pte . Ltd. v. Minister for Manpower ( 1999 ) , an employee fired for incompetence accused the plaintiff company of unfair dismissal and made representations to the Minister for Manpower under section 14 of the Employment Act to be reinstated . After investigating this claim , the Ministry came to the conclusion that the dismissal was made without just cause and recommended payment to the employee . Although section 14 ( 5 ) of the Employment Act provides that " the decision of the Minister on any representation made under this section shall be final and conclusive and shall not be challenged in any court " , the company applied for judicial review against the Minister 's decision .
The High Court held that the ouster clause in section 14 ( 5 ) of the Employment Act was ineffective as there had been a breach of the rules of natural justice in the process by which the Minister 's decision was reached . In his judgment , Justice Warren L. H. Khoo stated that the " broad principle " in Anisminic governing the matter had been restated in the case of South East Asia Fire Bricks as follows :
[ W ] hen words in a statute oust the power of the High Court to review decisions of an inferior tribunal by certiorari , they must be construed strictly ... they will not have the effect of ousting that power if the inferior tribunal has acted without jurisdiction or " if it has done or failed to do something in the course of the inquiry which is of such a nature that its decision is a nullity " : per Lord Reid at p . 171 [ of Anisminic ] . But if the inferior tribunal has merely made an error of law which does not affect its jurisdiction , and if its decision is not a nullity for some reason such as breach of the rules of natural justice , then the ouster will be effective .
In a 2010 lecture to students of the Singapore Management University School of Law , Chief Justice Chan Sek Keong briefly discussed the decision in Stansfield . He pointed out that Justice Khoo 's statements on Anisminic were obiter dicta because the decision had been " based on a breach of natural justice and not the doctrine of error of law " . He also considered an academic argument that an ouster clause may be inconsistent with Article 93 of the Singapore Constitution which vests the judicial power of Singapore in the courts . Chief Justice Chan stated that if this proposition was answered in the affirmative , it would follow that the supervisory jurisdiction of the courts cannot be ousted , and there would thus be no need for Singapore courts to draw the distinction between jurisdictional and non @-@ jurisdictional errors of law . Nevertheless , he highlighted the fact that he was not expressing an opinion on the issue .
= = Partial ouster or time limit clauses = =
Unlike a total ouster or finality clause which seeks to preclude judicial review entirely , a partial ouster or time limit clause specifies a restricted period of time after which no remedy will be available . Such clauses are generally effective , unless the public authority has acted in bad faith , in which case the decision impugned may be subject to judicial review even though the time permitted for challenging it has lapsed .
In Smith v. East Elloe Rural District Council ( 1956 ) , the House of Lords concluded by a majority that they could not impugn a partial ouster clause because , according to Viscount Simonds , " plain words must be given their plain meaning " , even though fraud on the part of the public authority had been alleged . In contrast , Lord Reid gave a dissenting opinion in which he doubted whether an order that had been obtained by corrupt or fraudulent means could be protected from being questioned in court . Despite the subsequent ruling in Anisminic , in R. v. Secretary of State for the Environment , ex parte Ostler ( 1976 ) the Court of Appeal of England and Wales applied Smith and upheld the validity of a partial ouster clause that gave the applicants six weeks to challenge a decision . Lord Denning , the Master of the Rolls , explained that upholding partial ouster clauses promoted the certainty of the executive 's actions . It would not be in the public interest if applicants could challenge decisions after the time limit for doing so had expired , as this would delay actions taken by the executive . As Lord Justice of Appeal Michael Mann put it in R. v. Cornwall County Council , ex parte
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eschwader 26 , ZG 26 ) destroyed the 3rd Air Reconnaissance Group aircraft when they swept over the airfield in one of the most effective attacks of the campaign . On the night of 11 / 12 April , the 8th Panzer Division captured Sremska Mitrovica on the Sava at 02 : 30 , after two important bridges over the Sava were captured intact . The 8th Panzer Division then destroyed a bridge over the Danube at Bogojevo , and advanced on Lazarevac about 32 kilometres ( 20 mi ) south of Belgrade . These advances delayed the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group south of the Sava .
= = Fate = =
By 12 April , the withdrawal of the 2nd Army Group was being threatened from the left flank , with 2nd Army being described by the Polish historian Andrzej Krzak as having " no combat importance at all " . On the far right flank , 6th Army attempted to regroup while being pressed by the 11th Panzer Division as it drove towards Belgrade . West of Belgrade , remnants of the 2nd Army Group tried to establish a line along the Sava , but XLVI Motorised Corps had already captured the bridges . Elements of the 8th Panzer Division captured Zemun without a fight . On 12 April , the 1st Army 's 3rd Cavalry Division counter @-@ attacked on the right flank of the 2nd Army at Šabac and pushed the Germans back across the Sava . The Ustaše had captured Brod without German assistance , but 2nd Army units recaptured the town and destroyed the bridge over the Sava . The Hungarians occupied Baranja without facing resistance .
On the evening of 12 April , elements of the SS Motorised Infantry Division Reich , under command of XLI Motorised Corps crossed the Danube in pneumatic boats and captured Belgrade without resistance . About the same time , most of the elements of XLVI Motorised Corps that were approaching Belgrade from the west were redirected away from the capital , but part of the 8th Panzer Division continued their thrust to capture the Sava bridges to the west of Belgrade , and entered the city during the night . The rest of the 8th Panzer Division turned southeast and drove towards Valjevo to link up with the left flank of the First Panzer Group southwest of Belgrade . The 16th Motorised Infantry Division was redirected south across the Sava , and advanced toward Zvornik .
On 13 and 14 April , the 8th Panzer Division led a southward thrust towards Sarajevo , where both the Yugoslav Supreme Command and the headquarters of the 2nd Army were located , and during that day the 2nd Army asked the Germans for a separate ceasefire agreement , but were rebuffed , as by this stage only the unconditional surrender of the whole Yugoslav Army would be considered by the Germans . On 14 and 15 April , tens of thousands of Yugoslav soldiers were taken prisoner by the Germans during their drive on Sarajevo in the centre of the country , including 30 @,@ 000 around Zvornik and 6 @,@ 000 around Doboj . On 15 April , the 8th Panzer Division approached Sarajevo from the east as the 14th Panzer Division entered it from the west , and the 2nd Army surrendered . After a delay in locating appropriate signatories for the surrender document , the Yugoslav Supreme Command unconditionally surrendered in Belgrade effective at 12 : 00 on 18 April .
= = = Books = = =
= = = Journals and papers = = =
= = = Web = = =
= New York State Route 292 =
New York State Route 292 ( NY 292 ) is a short state highway in the Hudson Valley of New York in the United States , bridging Putnam and Dutchess counties . The southern terminus of the route is at an intersection with NY 311 in the town of Patterson , and the northern terminus is at a junction with NY 55 in the town of Pawling . NY 292 traverses mostly rural areas as it heads northwestward through Patterson and Pawling . Along the way , NY 292 passes along the southern and western edges of Whaley Lake .
The portion of NY 292 between West Patterson and Whaley Lake originated as a dirt road named the Patterson – Dutchess County Line Road . This road was reconstructed in 1919 and became part of NY 39 , a highway extending from Poughkeepsie to Patterson by way of West Pawling , in the 1920s . In the 1930 renumbering of state highways in New York , the segment of NY 39 from East Fishkill to West Patterson was incorporated into the new NY 52 . By the end of the 1930s , the portion of NY 52 from Stormville to West Patterson was renumbered to NY 216 . In 1970 , NY 216 was truncated to its current length and NY 216 's former alignment from West Pawling to Patterson was renumbered to NY 292 .
= = Route description = =
NY 292 begins at NY 311 near the hamlet of Patterson . It heads west initially , paralleling the Putnam – Dutchess county line as it passes south of the Patterson Veteran Memorial Park and intersects County Route 63 ( CR 63 ) . It crosses a minor stream and briefly turns towards the southwest . After passing through the hamlet of West Patterson , NY 292 turns northwest , crosses the stream once again , and enters Dutchess County . Just north of the county line in the Pawling hamlet of Holmes , the route intersects with CR 30 . Near Holmes , the highway heads due north and passes between two small ponds .
The route continues onward , traveling north through a rural , wooded area of Pawling with little development before curving west to pass along the southern edge of Whaley Lake . At the southwestern tip of the lake , NY 292 turns north , paralleling the western and northern shores of the lake as it heads toward the hamlet of West Pawling . North of the lake in West Pawling , NY 292 turns east onto a former routing of NY 55 for a short distance before ending at modern NY 55 in the northwest corner of Pawling .
= = History = =
Part of the highway was once part of the Patterson – Dutchess County Line Road , a 1 @.@ 61 @-@ mile ( 2 @.@ 59 km ) dirt road that extended from Banks Corner to Whaley Lake . Plans were finalized in 1919 to rebuild the previously inadequate road ; the project cost an estimated $ 43 @,@ 500 ( $ 517 @,@ 298 2007 USD ) , including $ 15 @,@ 225 ( $ 181 @,@ 054 2007 USD ) of Putnam County 's portion of the construction . In May 1919 , the Danbury News reported , " On the road between Sodom and Pawling turn left and run through Patterson and continue to West Patterson . From West Patterson a new road about one and one @-@ half miles in length is under construction which connects with a good macadam road passing Whaley Pond and running to Stonehouse , thence continuing ... to Newburgh . " The new road was completed in November of that year .
NY 292 was originally part of NY 39 in the 1920s , which ran from Patterson to Poughkeepsie via West Patterson and East Fishkill . In the 1930 renumbering , the portion of NY 39 between East Fishkill and the western fringe of Patterson was redesignated as part of the new NY 52 . Between Patterson and NY 22 , old NY 39 was renumbered to NY 311 .
NY 52 was realigned c . 1937 to follow its current alignment between Stormville and Lake Carmel . The former routing of NY 52 between Stormville and Patterson became part of NY 216 . The route remained unchanged until January 1 , 1970 , when NY 216 was truncated to its current eastern terminus in Poughquag . As part of the truncation , its former alignment from West Pawling to Patterson was renumbered to NY 292 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Siege of Pensacola ( 1707 ) =
The Siege of Pensacola was two separate attempts in 1707 by English @-@ supported Creek Indians to capture the town and fortress of Pensacola , then one of two major settlements ( the other was St. Augustine ) in Spanish Florida . The attacks , part of Queen Anne 's War ( the North American theater of the War of the Spanish Succession ) , resulted in the burning of the town , and caused most of its Indian population to flee , although the fort withstood repeated attacks .
The first siege , in August 1707 , resulted in the destruction of the town , but Fort San Carlos de Austria successfully resisted the onslaught . In late November 1707 a second expedition arrived , and made unsuccessful attacks on three consecutive nights before withdrawing . Pensacola Governor Don Sebastián de Moscoso , whose garrison was depleted by disease , recruited convicted criminals to assist in the fort 's defense .
= = Background = =
English and Spanish colonization efforts in southeastern North America began coming into conflict as early as the middle of the 17th century . The Spanish population of Florida at the time was fairly small . Since its founding in the 16th century , the Spanish had set up a network of missions whose primary purpose was to pacify the local Indian population and convert them to Roman Catholicism . The founding in 1670 by the English of Charles Town ( present @-@ day Charleston , South Carolina ) in the recently established ( 1663 ) Province of Carolina heightened tensions . By the early 18th century Carolina traders like Anthony Dodsworth and Thomas Nairne had established alliances with Creek Indians in the upper watersheds of rivers draining into the Gulf of Mexico , who they supplied with arms and purchased slaves and animal pelts from . These traders penetrated into Spanish Florida , leading to raiding and reprisal expeditions on both sides .
In 1700 , Carolina 's governor , Joseph Blake , threatened the Spanish that English claims to Pensacola , established by the Spanish in 1698 , would be enforced . Pierre Le Moyne d 'Iberville , the French founder of Mobile , in January 1702 warned the Spanish commander at Pensacola that he should properly arm the Apalachee Indians and engage in a vigorous defense against English incursions into Spanish territory . D 'Iberville even offered equipment and supplies for the purpose . However , an attempt at a punitive expedition against the Creek resulted in a rout of the Spanish and their Apalachee allies in October 1702 , shortly before news of war declarations bringing England into the War of the Spanish Succession arrived . After a failed English assault on St. Augustine , Spanish mission towns were severely reduced by numerous raids by Carolina @-@ led Indians against the Spanish mission network from 1703 to 1706 . A French @-@ organized 1706 expedition against Charles Town was a failure but motivated Carolina authorities to again target the Spanish at Pensacola and the French at Mobile . Nairne proposed a major expedition after the attack on Charles Town , intending to recruit as many as 1 @,@ 500 Indians to capture Mobile , but political divisions in Carolina prevented execution of the plan .
= = First siege = =
In 1707 , Pensacola was under the command of Don Sebastián de Moscoso . The exact size of his garrison in 1707 is not known . The authorized strength of the garrison was 220 , but it rarely reached that strength owing to the difficulty in recruiting soldiers for what was viewed as a highly undesirable posting and a fairly high rate of desertion . Moscoso reported in 1708 that the garrison numbered about 100 , having been reduced by the events of 1707 . The garrison was housed in Fort San Carlos de Austria , a wooden stockade fort built in 1698 .
Extant records do not describe the composition of the forces that attacked Pensacola in August 1707 beyond " several hundred Tallapoosas and a few South Carolina traders " . The siege began on August 12 with the arrival of a band of 20 to 30 Indians , who began terrorizing the Indians living in the town outside the fort . They took prisoners ( including some women and children ) and began burning houses . Governor Moscoso fired one of the fort 's cannons , scattering the attackers ; some of their captives managed to escape to the fort in the confusion . Two days later , ten men sent out of the fort to do laundry disappeared . On August 14 an estimated 300 Indians appeared before the fort and engaged it in a battle lasting several hours . The next day the attack resumed , as did the pillaging of the town . Activity quieted down until the 18th , when an English flag was raised over a house near the fort . This prompted Moscoso to open fire from the fort , beginning a battle that raged until dark . That day , the attackers burned down the rest of the town , and Moscoso 's men had to work to prevent the fort from burning as well .
This marked the end of active assaults on the fort . However , the area beyond the range of the fort 's guns was unsafe for at least the next month ; a number of people disappeared after they ventured too far from its vicinity .
= = Second siege = =
The second siege began with the arrival on November 27 of a contingent of about 20 Carolina traders and 300 Creeks , primarily Tallapoosas and Alabamas . On that day , an Englishman ( unidentified in Spanish reports , but possibly Thomas Nairne ) brought a demand for surrender written in English . Since none of the Spaniards could read it , he was sent away , and the demand was eventually transmitted orally by a French Huguenot . Moscoso rejected the demand , even though his garrison was depleted by disease . The besiegers began an ineffectual attack on the fort around midnight which lasted until daybreak , at which point they delivered a final surrender demand . Moscoso again refused . In order to supplement his forces , he successfully recruited convicts being held in the fort 's guardhouse to participate in the defense , offering them freedom and money for their service . During each of the next two nights the besiegers renewed their attacks on the fort , without significant effect . During the night of November 29 / 30 , one of the leading Creek chiefs was killed . This apparently broke the besiegers ' morale , for the siege was lifted the following morning . The attackers were reported to have suffered significant casualties .
Word of the attacking force had reached the French at Mobile on November 24 . Governor Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville raised a force of 100 Frenchmen and 400 Indians . They reached Pensacola on December 8 , only to learn that the siege had been lifted a week earlier .
= = Aftermath = =
These attacks were the last major assaults on Pensacola in the war , although there continued to be minor skirmishes and kidnappings . Most of the Indians that fled during the sieges never returned , reducing Pensacola to little more than its garrison . Governor Bienville learned from a Spaniard who had escaped English hands that Mobile was also being targeted for attack . Although he improved Mobile 's defenses in 1708 , the outpost was never attacked , although a village of Mobile Indians was attacked in May 1709 .
A French force from Mobile captured Pensacola from the Spanish in 1719 , during the War of the Quadruple Alliance , but it was returned to Spain after the war . The location of Fort San Carlos de Austria is now occupied by Fort Barrancas , a National Historic Landmark whose construction began late in the 18th century .
= Ottawa dialect =
Ottawa ( or Odawa ) is a dialect of the Ojibwe language , spoken by the Ottawa people in southern Ontario in Canada , and northern Michigan in the United States . Descendants of migrant Ottawa speakers live in Kansas and Oklahoma . The first recorded meeting of Ottawa speakers and Europeans occurred in 1615 when a party of Ottawas encountered explorer Samuel de Champlain on the north shore of Georgian Bay . Ottawa is written in an alphabetic system using Latin letters , and is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin " speaking the native language " or Daawaamwin " speaking Ottawa " .
Ottawa is one of the Ojibwe dialects that has undergone the most language change , although it shares many features with other dialects . The most distinctive change is a pervasive pattern of vowel syncope that deletes short vowels in many words , resulting in significant changes in their pronunciation . This and other innovations in pronunciation , in addition to changes in word structure and vocabulary , differentiate Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe .
Like other Ojibwe dialects , Ottawa grammar includes animate and inanimate noun gender , subclasses of verbs that are dependent upon gender , combinations of prefixes and suffixes that are connected with particular verb subclasses , and complex patterns of word formation . Ottawa distinguishes two types of third person in sentences : proximate , indicating a noun phrase that is emphasized in the discourse , and obviative , indicating a noun phrase that is less prominent . Ottawa has relatively flexible word order compared with languages such as English .
Ottawa speakers are concerned that their language is endangered as the use of English increases and the number of fluent speakers declines . Language revitalization efforts include second language learning in primary and secondary schools .
= = History of scholarship = =
Explorer Samuel de Champlain was the first European to record an encounter with Ottawa speakers when he met a party of three hundred Ottawas in 1615 on the north shore of Georgian Bay . French missionaries , particularly members of the Society of Jesus and the Récollets order , documented several dialects of Ojibwe in the 17th and 18th centuries , including unpublished manuscript Ottawa grammatical notes , word lists , and a dictionary . In the 19th century , Ottawa speaker Andrew Blackbird wrote a history of the Ottawa people that included a description of Ottawa grammatical features . The first linguistically accurate work was Bloomfield 's description of Ottawa as spoken at Walpole Island , Ontario . The Odawa Language Project at the University of Toronto , led by Kaye and Piggott , conducted field work in Ottawa communities on Manitoulin Island in the late 1960s and early 1970s , resulting in a series of reports on Ottawa linguistics . Piggott also prepared a comprehensive description of Ottawa phonology . Rhodes produced a study of Ottawa syntax , a dictionary , and a series of articles on Ottawa grammar . Valentine has published a comprehensive descriptive grammar , a volume of texts including detailed analysis , as well as a survey of Ojibwe dialects that includes extensive description and analysis of Ottawa dialect features .
= = Classification = =
Ottawa is known to its speakers as Nishnaabemwin " speaking the native language " ( from Anishinaabe " native person " + verb suffix -mo " speak a language " + suffix -win " nominalizer " , with regular deletion of short vowels ) ; the same term is applied to the Eastern Ojibwe dialect . The corresponding term in other dialects is Anishinaabemowin . Daawaamwin ( from Odaawaa " Ottawa " + verb suffix -mo " speak a language " + suffix -win " nominalizer " , with regular deletion of short vowels ) " speaking Ottawa " is also reported in some sources . The name of the Canadian capital Ottawa is a loanword that comes through French from odaawaa , the self @-@ designation of the Ottawa people . The earliest recorded form is " Outaouan " , in a French source from 1641 .
Ottawa is a dialect of the Ojibwe language , which is a member of the Algonquian language family . The varieties of Ojibwe form a dialect continuum , a series of adjacent dialects spoken primarily in the area surrounding the Great Lakes as well as in the Canadian provinces of Quebec , Manitoba , and Saskatchewan , with smaller outlying groups in North Dakota , Montana , Alberta , and British Columbia . Mutual intelligibility is the linguistic criterion used to distinguish languages from dialects . In straightforward cases , varieties of language that are mutually intelligible are classified as dialects , while varieties of speech that are not mutually intelligible are classified as separate languages . Linguistic and social factors may result in inconsistencies in how the terms " language " and " dialect " are used .
Languages spoken in a series of dialects occupying adjacent territory form a dialect continuum or language complex , with some of the dialects being mutually intelligible while others are not . Adjacent dialects typically have relatively high degrees of mutual intelligibility , but the degree of mutual intelligibility between nonadjacent dialects varies considerably . In some cases speakers of nonadjacent dialects may not understand each other 's speech .
A survey conducted during the 1980s and 1990s found that the differences between Ottawa , the Severn Ojibwe dialect spoken in northwestern Ontario and northern Manitoba , and the Algonquin dialect spoken in western Quebec result in low levels of mutual intelligibility . These three dialects " show many distinct features , which suggest periods of relative isolation from other varieties of Ojibwe . " Because the dialects of Ojibwe are at least partly mutually intelligible , Ojibwe is conventionally considered to be a single language with a series of adjacent dialects . Taking account of the low mutual intelligibility of the most strongly differentiated dialects , an alternative view is that Ojibwe " could be said to consist of several languages " , forming a language complex .
= = Geographic distribution = =
The Ottawa communities for which the most detailed linguistic information has been collected are in Ontario . Extensive research has been conducted with speakers from Walpole Island in southwestern Ontario near Detroit , and Wikwemikong on Manitoulin Island in Lake Huron . South of Manitoulin Island on the Bruce Peninsula are Cape Croker and Saugeen , for which less information is available . The dialect affiliation of several communities east of Lake Huron remains uncertain . Although " the dialect spoken along the eastern shore of Georgian Bay " has been described as Eastern Ojibwe , studies do not clearly delimit the boundary between Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe .
Other Canadian communities in the Ottawa @-@ speaking area extend from Sault Ste Marie , Ontario along the north shore of Lake Huron : Garden River , Thessalon , Mississauga ( Mississagi River 8 Reserve , Serpent River , Whitefish River , Mattagami , and Whitefish Lake . In addition to Wikwemikong , Ottawa communities on Manitoulin Island are , west to east : Cockburn Island , Sheshegwaning , West Bay , Sucker Creek , and Sheguiandah . Other Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario in addition to Walpole Island are : Sarnia , Stoney and Kettle Point , and Caradoc ( Chippewas of the Thames ) , near London , Ontario .
Communities in Michigan where Ottawa linguistic data has been collected include Peshawbestown , Harbor Springs , Grand Rapids , Mount Pleasant , Bay City , and Cross Village . The descendants of migrant Ottawas live in Kansas and Oklahoma ; available information indicates only three elderly speakers in Oklahoma as of 2006 .
Reliable data on the total number of Ottawa speakers is not available , in part because Canadian census data does not identify the Ottawa as a separate group . One report suggests a total of approximately 8 @,@ 000 speakers of Ottawa in the northern United States and southern Ontario out of an estimated total population of 60 @,@ 000 . A field study conducted during the 1990s in Ottawa communities indicates that Ottawa is in decline , noting that " Today too few children are learning Nishnaabemwin as their first language , and in some communities where the language was traditionally spoken , the number of speakers is very small . " Formal second @-@ language classes attempt to reduce the impact of declining first @-@ language acquisition of Ottawa .
= = = Population movements = = =
At the time of first contact with Europeans in the early 17th century , Ottawa speakers resided on Manitoulin Island , the Bruce Peninsula , and probably the north and east shores of Georgian Bay . The northern area of the Lower Peninsula of Michigan has also been a central area for Ottawa speakers since the arrival of Europeans .
Population movements of Ottawa speakers since the arrival of Europeans have been complex , with extensive migrations and contact with other Ojibwe groups . Many Ottawa speakers in southern Ontario are descended from speakers of the Southwestern Ojibwe dialect ( also known as " Chippewa " ) who moved into Ottawa @-@ speaking areas during the mid @-@ 19th century . Ottawa today is sometimes referred to as " Chippewa " or " Ojibwe " by speakers in these areas . As part of a series of population displacements during the same period , an estimated two thousand American Potawatomi speakers from Wisconsin , Michigan and Indiana moved into Ottawa communities in southwestern Ontario . The non @-@ Ottawa @-@ speaking Ojibwes who moved to these areas shifted to speaking Ottawa , as did the Potawatomi migrants . As a result of the migrations , Ottawa came to include Potawatomi and Ojibwe loanwords .
Two subdialects of Ottawa arise from these population movements and the subsequent language shift . The subdialects are associated with the ancestry of significant increments of the populations in particular communities , as well as with differences in the way the language is named in those locations . On Manitoulin Island , where the population is predominantly of Ottawa origin , the language is called " Ottawa " , and has features that set it off from other communities that have significant populations of Southwestern Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) and Potawatomi descent . In the latter communities the language is called " Chippewa " , but is still clearly Ottawa . Dialect features found in " Ottawa Ottawa " that distinguish it from " Chippewa Ottawa " include deletion of the sounds w and y between vowels , glottalization of w before consonants , changes in vowel quality adjacent to w , and distinctive intonation .
= = Phonology = =
Ottawa has seventeen consonants and seven oral vowels ; there are also long nasal vowels whose phonological status is unclear . In this article , Ottawa words are written in the modern orthography described below , with phonetic transcriptions in brackets using the International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) as needed .
The most prominent feature of Ottawa phonology is vowel syncope , in which short vowels are deleted , or in certain circumstances reduced to schwa [ ə ] , when they appear in metrically defined weak syllables . Notable effects of syncope are :
Differences in pronunciation between Ottawa and other dialects of Ojibwe , resulting in a lower degree of mutual intelligibility .
Creation of new consonant clusters that do not occur in other dialects , through deletion of short vowels between two consonants .
Adjustments in the pronunciation of consonant sequences .
New forms of the person prefixes that occur on nouns and verbs .
Variability in the pronunciation of words that contain vowels subject to syncope , as speakers frequently have more than one way of pronouncing them .
= = = Consonants = = =
The table of consonants uses symbols from the modern orthography with the corresponding symbol in the International Phonetic Alphabet ( IPA ) following where the two vary , or to draw attention to a particular property of the sound in question .
* The sounds in parentheses f , r , l occur only in loanwords from English .
The plosive , fricative , and affricate consonants are divided into two sets , referred to as fortis and lenis . Fortis ( or " strong " ) consonants are typically distinguished from lenis ( or " weak " ) consonants by features such as greater duration or length , are voiceless where lenis consonants are typically voiced , and may be aspirated . In Ottawa , each fortis consonant is matched to a corresponding lenis consonant with the same place of articulation and manner of articulation . Ottawa fortis consonants are voiceless and phonetically long , and are aspirated in most positions : [ pːʰ ] , [ tːʰ ] , [ kːʰ ] , [ tʃːʰ ] . When following another consonant they are unaspirated or weakly articulated . The lenis consonants are typically voiced between vowels and word @-@ initially before a vowel , but are devoiced in word @-@ final position . The lenis consonants are subject to other phonological processes when adjacent to fortis consonants .
Labialized stop consonants [ ɡʷ ] and [ kʷ ] , consisting of a consonant with noticeable lip rounding , occur in the speech of some speakers . Labialization is not normally indicated in writing , but a subscript dot is utilized in a widely used dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe to mark labialization : ɡ ̣ taaji " he is afraid " and aaḳzi " he is sick " .
= = = Vowels = = =
Ottawa has seven oral vowels , four long and three short . There are four long nasal vowels whose status as either phonemes or allophones ( predictable variants ) is unclear . The long vowels / iː , oː , aː / are paired with the short vowels / i , o , a / , and are written with double symbols ii , oo , aa that correspond to the single symbols used for the short vowels i , o , a . The long vowel / eː / does not have a corresponding short vowel , and is written with a single e . The phonological distinction between long and short vowels plays a significant role in Ottawa phonology , as only short vowels can be metrically weak and undergo syncope . Long vowels are always metrically strong and never undergo deletion .
The table below gives the orthographic symbol and the primary phonetic values for each vowel .
The long nasal vowels are iinh ( [ ĩː ] ) , enh ( [ ẽː ] ) , aanh ( [ ãː ] ) , and oonh ( [ õː ] ) . They most commonly occur in the final syllable of nouns with diminutive suffixes or words with a diminutive connotation , as well as in the suffix ( y ) aanh ( [ - ( j ) ãː ] ) ' first person ( Conjunct ) Animate Intransitive ' . Orthographically the long vowel is followed by word @-@ final nh to indicate that the vowel is nasal ; while n is a common indicator of nasality in many languages such as French , the use of h is an orthographic convention and does not correspond to an independent sound . One analysis treats the long nasal vowels as phonemic , while another treats them as derived from sequences of long vowel followed by / n / and underlying / h / ; the latter sound is converted to [ ʔ ] or deleted . A study of the Southwestern Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) dialect spoken in Minnesota describes the status of the analogous vowels as unclear , noting that while the distribution of the long nasal vowels is restricted , there is a minimal pair distinguished only by the nasality of the vowel : giiwe [ ɡiːweː ] " he goes home " and giiwenh [ ɡiːwẽː ] " so the story goes " . Other discussions of Ottawa phonology and phonetics are silent on the issue .
= = Grammar = =
Ottawa shares the general grammatical characteristics of the other dialects of Ojibwe . Word classes include nouns , verbs , grammatical particles , pronouns , preverbs , and prenouns .
Ottawa grammatical gender classifies nouns as either animate or inanimate . Transitive verbs encode the gender of the grammatical object , and intransitive verbs encode the gender of the grammatical subject , creating a set of four verb subclasses . The distinction between the two genders also affects verbs through agreement patterns for number and gender . Similarly , demonstrative pronouns agree in gender with the noun they refer to .
= = = Morphology = = =
Ottawa has complex systems of both inflectional and derivational morphology . Inflectional morphology has a central role in Ottawa grammar . Noun inflection and particularly verb inflection indicate grammatical information through the use of prefixes and suffixes that are added to word stems .
Notable grammatical characteristics marked with inflectional prefixes and suffixes include :
A distinction between obviative and proximate third person , marked on both verbs and nouns .
Extensive marking on verbs of inflectional information concerning person .
Number ( singular and plural ) .
Tense .
Modality .
Evidentiality .
Negation .
Prefixes mark grammatical person on verbs , including first person , second person , and third person . Nouns use combinations of prefixes and suffixes to indicate possession . Suffixes on nouns mark gender , location , diminutive , pejorative , and other categories . Significant agreement patterns between nouns and verbs involve gender , singular and plural number , as well as obviation .
Ottawa derivational morphology forms basic word stems with combinations of word roots ( also called initials ) , and affixes referred to as medials and finals to create words to which inflectional prefixes and suffixes are added . Word stems are combined with other word stems to create compound words .
Innovations in Ottawa morphology contribute to differentiating Ottawa from other dialects of Ojibwe . These differences include : the reanalysis of person prefixes and word stems ; the loss of final / -n / in certain inflectional suffixes ; a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating doubt ; and a distinctive form for the verbal suffix indicating plurality on intransitive verbs with grammatically inanimate subjects .
The most significant of the morphological innovations that characterize Ottawa is the restructuring of the three person prefixes that occur on both nouns and verbs . The prefixes carry grammatical information about grammatical person ( first , second , or third ) . Syncope modifies the pronunciation of the prefixes by deleting the short vowel in each prefix .
The third @-@ person prefix / o- / , which occurs with both nouns and verbs , is completely eliminated in Ottawa . As a result , there is no grammatical marker to indicate third @-@ person on inflected forms of nouns or verbs . For example , where other dialects have jiimaan " a canoe " with no person prefix , and ojimaan " his / her canoe " with prefix o- , Ottawa has jiimaan meaning either " canoe " or " his / her canoe " ( with no prefix , because of syncope ) . Apart from the simple deletion of vowels in the prefixes , Ottawa has created new variants for each prefix . Restructuring of the person prefixes is discussed in detail in Ottawa morphology .
= = = Syntax = = =
Syntax refers to patterns for combining words and phrases to make clauses and sentences . Verbal and nominal inflectional morphology are central to Ottawa syntax , as they mark grammatical information on verbs and nouns to a greater extent than in English ( which has few inflections , and relies mainly on word order ) . Preferred word orders in a simple transitive sentence are verb @-@ initial , such as verb – object – subject ( VOS ) and VSO . While verb @-@ final orders are avoided , all logically possible orders are attested . Ottawa word order displays considerably more freedom than is found in languages such as English , and word order frequently reflects discourse @-@ based distinctions such as topic and focus .
Verbs are marked for grammatical information in three distinct sets of inflectional paradigms , called Verb orders . Each order corresponds generally to one of three main sentence types : the Independent order is used in main clauses , the Conjunct order in subordinate clauses , and the Imperative order in commands .
Ottawa distinguishes yes @-@ no questions , which use a verb form in the Independent order , from content questions formed with the Ottawa equivalents of " what " , " where " , " when " , " who " and others , which require verbs inflected in the Conjunct order .
Ottawa distinguishes two types of grammatical third person in sentences , marked on both verbs and animate nouns . The proximate form indicates a more salient noun phrase , and obviative indicates a less prominent noun phrase . Selection and use of proximate or obviative forms is a distinctive aspect of Ottawa syntax that indicates the relative discourse prominence of noun phrases containing third persons ; it does not have a direct analogue in English grammar .
= = Vocabulary = =
Few vocabulary items are considered unique to Ottawa . The influx of speakers of other Ojibwe dialects into the Ottawa area has resulted in mixing of dialects that were historically distinct . Given that vocabulary spreads readily from one dialect to another the presence of a particular vocabulary item in a given dialect is not a guarantee of the original source of the item . Two groups of function words are characteristically Ottawa : the sets of demonstrative pronouns and interrogative adverbs are both distinctive relative to other dialects of Ojibwe . Although some of the vocabulary items in each set are found in other dialects , taken as a group each is uniquely Ottawa .
= = = Demonstrative pronouns = = =
Ottawa uses a set of demonstrative pronouns that contains terms unique to Ottawa , while other words in the set are shared with other Ojibwe dialects . Taken as a group the Ottawa set is distinctive . The following chart shows the demonstrative pronouns for : ( a ) Wikwemikong , an Ottawa community ; ( b ) Curve Lake , an Eastern Ojibwe community ; and ( c ) Cape Croker , an Ottawa community that uses a mixed pronoun set . The terms maaba ' this ( animate ) ' , gonda ' these ( animate ) ' , and nonda ' these ( inanimate ) ' are unique to Ottawa .
= = = Interrogative pronouns and adverbs = = =
Ottawa interrogative pronouns and adverbs frequently have the emphatic pronoun dash fused with them to form a single word . In this table the emphatic pronoun is written as -sh immediately following the main word .
= = = Other vocabulary = = =
A small number of vocabulary items are characteristically Ottawa . Although these items are robustly attested in Ottawa , they have also been reported in some other communities .
= = Writing system = =
Written representation of Ojibwe dialects , including Ottawa , was introduced by European explorers , missionaries and traders who were speakers of English and French . They wrote Ottawa words and sentences using the letters and orthographic conventions of their own languages , adapting them to the unfamiliar new language . Indigenous writing in Ottawa was also based upon English or French , but only occurred sporadically through the 19th and 20th centuries . Modern focus on literacy and use of written forms of the language has increased in the context of second language learning , where mastery of written language is viewed as a component of the language learning process . Although there has never been a generally accepted standard written form of Ottawa , interest in standardization has increased with the publication of a widely used dictionary in 1985 and reference grammar in 2001 , which provide models for spelling conventions . A conference held in 1996 brought together speakers of all dialects of Ojibwe to review existing writing systems and make proposals for standardization .
= = = Early orthographic practices = = =
19th @-@ century missionary authors who wrote in Ottawa include Catholic missionary Frederic Baraga and Anglican Frederick O ’ Meara ( illustration , this section ) . Ottawa speaker Andrew Blackbird wrote a history of his people in English ; an appended grammatical description of Ottawa and the Southwestern Ojibwe ( Chippewa ) dialect also contains vocabulary lists , short phrases , and translations of the Ten Commandments and the Lord 's Prayer . Accurate transcriptions of Ottawa date from linguist Leonard Bloomfield ’ s research with Ottawa speakers in the late 1930s and early 1940s .
A tradition of indigenous literacy in Ottawa arose in the 19th century , as speakers of Ottawa on Manitoulin Island became literate in their own language . Manitoulin Island Ottawas who were Catholic learned to write from French Catholic missionaries using a French @-@ influenced orthography , while Methodist and Anglican converts used English @-@ based orthographies . Documents written in Ottawa by Ottawa speakers on Manitoulin Island between 1823 and 1910 include official letters and petitions , personal documents , official Indian band regulations , an official proclamation , and census statements prepared by individuals . Ottawa speakers from Manitoulin Island contributed articles to Anishinabe Enamiad ( " the Praying Indian " ) , an Ojibwe newspaper started by Franciscan missionaries and published in Harbor Springs , Michigan between 1896 and 1902 .
It has been suggested that Ottawa speakers were among the groups that used the Great Lakes Algonquian syllabary , a syllabic writing system derived from a European @-@ based alphabetic orthography , but supporting evidence is weak .
= = = Modern orthography = = =
Although there is no standard or official writing system for Ottawa , a widely accepted system is used in a recent dictionary of Ottawa and Eastern Ojibwe , a collection of texts , and a descriptive grammar . The same system is taught in programs for Ojibwe language teachers . One of its goals is to promote standardization of Ottawa writing so that language learners are able to read and write in a consistent way . By comparison , folk phonetic spelling approaches to writing Ottawa based on less systematic adaptations of written English or French are more variable and idiosyncratic , and do not always make consistent use of alphabetic letters . While the modern orthography is used in a number of prominent publications , its acceptance is not universal . Prominent Ottawa author Basil Johnston has explicitly rejected it , preferring to use a form of folk spelling in which the correspondences between sounds and letters are less systematic . Similarly , a lexicon representing Ottawa as spoken in Michigan and another based on Ottawa in Oklahoma , use English @-@ based folk spellings distinct from that employed by Johnson .
The Ottawa writing system is a minor adaptation of a very similar one used for other dialects of Ojibwe in Ontario and the United States , and widely employed in reference materials and text collections . Sometimes referred to as the Double Vowel system because it uses doubled vowel symbols to represent Ottawa long vowels that are paired with corresponding short vowels , it is an adaptation attributed to Charles Fiero of the linguistically oriented system found in publications such as Leonard Bloomfield ’ s Eastern Ojibwa . Letters of the English alphabet substitute for specialized phonetic symbols , in conjunction with orthographic conventions unique to Ottawa . The system embodies two basic principles : ( 1 ) alphabetic letters from the English alphabet are used to write Ottawa , but with Ottawa sound values ; ( 2 ) the system is phonemic in nature , in that each letter or letter combination indicates its basic sound value , and does not reflect all the phonetic detail that occurs . Accurate pronunciation cannot be learned without consulting a fluent speaker .
The Ottawa variant of this system uses the following consonant letters or digraphs :
b , ch , d , f , g , h , j , k , l , m , n , p , r , s , sh , t , w , y , z , zh
The letters f , l , and r are found in loan words , such as telephonewayshin " give me a call " and refrigeratoring " in the refrigerator " . Loan words that have recently been borrowed from English are typically written in standard English orthography .
The letter h is used for the glottal stop [ ʔ ] , which is represented in the broader Ojibwe version with the apostrophe . In Ottawa the apostrophe is reserved for a separate function noted below . In a few primarily expressive words , orthographic h has the phonetic value [ h ] : aa haaw " OK " .
Vowels are represented as follows :
Long ii , oo , aa , e ; Short i , o , a
By convention the three long vowels that correspond to a short vowel are written double , while the single long vowel written as orthographic e that does not have a corresponding short vowel is not written doubled .
The apostrophe ’ is used to distinguish primary ( underlying ) consonant clusters from secondary clusters that arise when the rule of syncope deletes a vowel between two consonants . For example , orthographic ng must be distinguished from n ’ g . The former has the phonetic value [ ŋ ] ( arising from place of articulation assimilation of / n / to the following velar consonant / ɡ / , which is then deleted in word @-@ final position as in mnising [ mnɪsɪŋ ] " at the island " ) , while the latter has the phonetic value [ nɡ ] as in san ’ goo [ sanɡoː ] " black squirrel " .
= = History = =
In the general model of linguistic change , " a single ancestor language ( a proto @-@ language ) develops dialects which in time through the accumulation of changes become distinct languages . " Continued changes in the descendant languages result in the development of dialects which again over time develop into distinct languages . The Ojibwe language is a historical descendant of Proto @-@ Algonquian , the reconstructed ancestor language of the Algonquian languages . Ojibwe has subsequently developed a series of dialects including Ottawa , which is one of the three dialects of Ojibwe that has innovated the most through its historical development , along with Severn Ojibwe and Algonquin .
= = Sample text = =
Traditional Ottawa stories fall into two general categories , aadsookaan " legend , sacred story " and dbaajmowin " narrative , story " . Stories in the aasookaan category involve mythical beings such as the trickster character Nenbozh . Stories in the dbaajmowin category include traditional stories that do not necessarily involve mythical characters , although the term is also used more generally to refer to any story not in the aasookaan category . Published Ottawa texts include a range of genres , including historical narratives , stories of conflict with other indigenous groups , humorous stories , and others .
Ottawa speaker Andrew Medler dictated the following text while working with linguist Leonard Bloomfield in a linguistic field methods class at the 1939 Linguistic Society of America Summer Institute . Medler grew up near Saginaw , Michigan but spent most of his life at Walpole Island . The texts that Medler dictated were originally published in a linguistically oriented transcription using phonetic symbols , and have been republished in a revised edition that uses the modern orthography and includes detailed linguistic analyses of each text .
Love MedicineAndrew Medler
( 1 ) Ngoding kiwenziinh ngii @-@ noondwaaba a @-@ dbaajmod wshkiniigkwen gii @-@ ndodmaagod iw wiikwebjigan .
Once I heard an old man tell of how a young woman asked him for love medicine .
( 2 ) Wgii @-@ msawenmaan niw wshkinwen .
She was in love with a young man .
( 3 ) Mii dash niw kiwenziinyan gii @-@ ndodmawaad iw wiikwebjigan , gye go wgii @-@ dbahmawaan .
So then she asked that old man for the love medicine , and she paid him for it .
( 4 ) Mii dash gii @-@ aabjitood maaba wshkiniigkwe iw mshkiki gaa @-@ giishpnadood .
Then this young woman used that medicine that she had bought .
( 5 ) Mii dash maaba wshkinwe gaa @-@ zhi @-@ gchi @-@ zaaghaad niw wshkiniigkwen .
Then this young man accordingly very much loved that young woman .
( 6 ) Gye go mii gii @-@ wiidgemaad , gye go mii wiiba gii @-@ yaawaawaad binoojiinyan .
Then he married her ; very soon they had children .
( 7 ) Aapji go gii @-@ zaaghidwag gye go gii @-@ maajiishkaawag .
They loved each other and they fared very well .
= The Hand of St. Sebastian =
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " is the eighth episode of the second season of the American crime @-@ thriller television series Millennium . It originally aired on the Fox network on November 14 , 1997 . The episode was written by Glen Morgan and James Wong , and directed by Thomas J. Wright . " The Hand of St. Sebastian " featured a guest appearance from C. C. H. Pounder .
Millennium Group offender profilers Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) and Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) travel to Germany to locate a preserved relic of Saint Sebastian , unintentionally discovering cracks within the unity of the Group .
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " was inspired by Wong 's research into Freemasonry and the Knights Templar ; Wong wanted to replicate the disharmony of these societies within the Millennium Group . The episode has received mixed responses from critics , and was viewed by approximately 6 @.@ 7 percent of the available audience in its initial broadcast .
= = Plot = =
In 998 , a monk is betrayed by his compatriot , and shot to death by archers . As they search his robe to find their objective — the mummified hand of Saint Sebastian — they notices a tattoo on the man 's body ; an ouroboros , symbol of the Millennium Group .
In 1998 , modern Group member Peter Watts ( Terry O 'Quinn ) asks his colleague Frank Black ( Lance Henriksen ) for help with a case the Group have not authorized ; he remains cryptic as to what it is . They travel to Germany to investigate the murder of a Dr. Schlossburg , whose lab is found to house a mummified body . The two are arrested by German police , but when the police realize they have apprehended fellow investigators they promise cooperation . However , the pair learn that Schlossburg has already been cremated ; later they narrowly escape death when their rental car has been rigged with a car bomb .
Black connects the attempt on their lives to Schlossburg 's murder . He demands details of the case from Watts , who explains that the mummy found earlier dates to early Christianity , the time when the Millennium Group first convened . However , they realize they are being tailed by two men , and return to their hotel . There , they are met by Cheryl Andrews ( C. C. H. Pounder ) , a fellow Group member who has worked with them in the past . She offers her help but Watts declines it . Watts is later able to access Schlossburg 's computer files ; meanwhile , the doctor is found to be alive , regaining consciousness in a hospital bed and telling police his assailant was Watts .
Andrews tells Black she has been sent to prevent Watts acting outside the Group 's remit ; she gives Black a contact number and leaves . Later , Black returns to Schlossburg 's lab and finds Watts , who explains that a knightly order , the Knights Chroniclers , had possessed the relic of Saint Sebastian at the turn of the second millennium ; the hand imparts knowledge to its possessor that will help to overcome the evils associated with the turn of the millennium . Watts reveals that Schlossburg had uncovered the order 's burial ground .
Black and Watts learn that Schlossburg is alive and visit him ; the doctor does not recognize Watts , but insists that his attacker identified himself as " Peter Watts " . He reveals the locations of the burial ground , in a peat bog . Black and Watts leave to reach it ; Schlossburg is murdered shortly afterwards by two assassins . At the bog , the pair find a mummified corpse clutching the relic ; however , they have been followed by the police , and Watts is arrested for Schlossburg 's murder . Black tracks down Andrews at the storage building where the relic has been taken . They are ambushed by the two assassins , and during their escape , Black mentions where the relic is hidden . Andrews immediately turns on Black ; the ambush was a trick to draw the information out of Black , while she had engineered events to use Watts as a fall man to discredit the Group . However , the police are able to intervene , hearing everything and rescuing Black . Later , Watts and Black study the relic , but Black is convinced that their own convictions will be more important to them than mystical artefacts .
= = Production = =
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " was written by frequent collaborators Glen Morgan and James Wong . It was the ninth episode to have been written by the pair , who had penned several across the first and second seasons . The pair had also taken the roles of co @-@ executive producers for the season . " The Hand of St. Sebastian " was directed by Thomas J. Wright ; Wright had directed eight episodes previously and would helm a further seventeen over the series ' run . Wright would also go on to direct " Millennium " , the series ' crossover episode with its sister show The X @-@ Files .
The episode was driven by Wong 's desire to write an episode focussing on Watts , as he wanted to showcase O 'Quinn as an actor . Wong also felt " that by revealing that the Millennium Group had existed for centuries and setting the episode overseas , that would give the story greater scope and weight " . The introduction of schisms within the Group was inspired by Wong 's research into the Knights Templar and Freemasonry , as he considered these secretive organizations to have mirrored the way he wanted to present the Group , and he felt each contained factions or reactionary elements which he wanted to recreate . The episode features the penultimate appearance by C. C. H. Pounder as pathologist Cheryl Andrews . Pounder portrayed the character in four other episodes , appearing across all three seasons .
= = Broadcast and reception = =
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " was first broadcast on the Fox network on November 14 , 1997 . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 6 @.@ 7 during its original broadcast , meaning that 6 @.@ 7 percent of households in the United States viewed the episode . This represented approximately 6 @.@ 566 million households , and left the episode the eightieth most @-@ viewed broadcast that week .
" The Hand of St. Sebastian " has received mixed responses from critics . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff rated the episode a " B + " , finding it to contain an entertaining mix of mysticism and espionage . However , he considered the revelation that Andrews was a turncoat within the Group to be confusing , finding it unclear how a human villain could be defined within a series already making use of demons and theological evil . Bill Gibron , writing for DVD Talk , rated the episode 4 @.@ 5 out of 5 , praising the guest performances by Pounder and Hall . Gibron wrote that the episode had a " feature film " feel , and described it as one of the best episodes of the season .
However , Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated " The Hand of St. Sebastian " one star out of five . Shearman felt that by this point , the series no longer resembled what it had been in its previous season , derisively comparing it to the Indiana Jones film series . He wrote that Henriksen 's portrayal of Frank Black seemed " weakened " in the episode , as the actor had built a credible and deep character who now seemed entirely unlike his former self .
= Pedra Branca , Singapore =
Pedra Branca ( formerly referred to by Malaysia as Pulau Batu Puteh and now as Batu Puteh ) is an outlying island and also the easternmost point of Singapore . The name means " white rock " in Portuguese ( Portuguese pronunciation : [ ˈpɛðɾɐ ˈβɾɐ ̃ kɐ ] ) , and refers to whitish guano ( bird droppings ) deposited on the rock . The island consists of a small outcrop of granite rocks with an area of about 8 @,@ 560 square metres ( 92 @,@ 100 sq ft ) . During the low water spring tide it measures , at its longest , 137 metres ( 449 ft ) and has an average width of 60 metres ( 200 ft ) . Despite being under Singapore 's sovereignty , the island has a unique distinction of not being located in any planning area , subzone or political constituency in the country . Pedra Branca is situated at 1 ° 19 ′ 48 ″ N 104 ° 24 ′ 27 ″ E , where the Singapore Strait meets the South China Sea .
There are two maritime features near Pedra Branca . Middle Rocks , under the sovereignty of Malaysia , consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart situated 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 7 mi ) south of Pedra Branca . South Ledge , which is 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca , is a rock formation visible only at low @-@ tide .
Pedra Branca was known to sailors for centuries . It was originally within the territory of the Johor Sultanate , which was founded in 1528 , and remained under the new Sultanate of Johor under the British sphere of influence following the signing of the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 between the United Kingdom and the Netherlands . Between 1850 and 1851 , the British built Horsburgh Lighthouse on the island without seeking the consent of the Johor authorities , or even informing them of the decision . From that time , the Straits Settlements administered the island ; Singapore then assumed responsibility in 1946 after the dissolution of the Straits Settlements . On 21 September 1953 , the Acting State Secretary of Johor , responding to a query from the Colonial Secretary of Singapore about the status of the island , stated that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " .
On 21 December 1979 , Malaysia published a map that showed the island to be within its territorial waters . This ignited a 29 @-@ year territorial dispute which , together with the issue of sovereignty over the nearby maritime features of Middle Rocks and South Ledge , the disputants presented to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) for resolution . On 23 May 2008 the ICJ ruled that Pedra Branca was under Singapore 's sovereignty . Although the island had originally been under the sovereignty of the Johor Sultanate , the United Kingdom and Singapore had carried out various acts of sovereignty in respect of the island . The failure of Malaysia and its predecessors to respond to these acts , and other actions that demonstrated their acknowledgment of Singapore 's sovereignty over the island , meant that Singapore had gained sovereignty over Pedra Branca . On the other hand , Middle Rocks remains part of Malaysian territory as Singapore had not manifested any acts of sovereignty in respect of it . The Court did not rule definitively on the remaining outcrop , South Ledge , merely declaring that it belonged to the state in the territorial waters of which it is located . Malaysia and Singapore have established what they have named the Joint Technical Committee to delimit the maritime boundary in the area around Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks , and to determine the ownership of South Ledge .
= = Etymology = =
Pedra Branca means " white rock " in Portuguese , and refers to whitish guano ( bird droppings ) deposited on the rock by the black @-@ naped tern , which used the island as a nesting ground . This name is used by both the English @-@ language and Malay @-@ language press in Singapore . Malaysia formerly referred to the island as Pulau Batu Puteh , which means " white rock island " in Malay , but the Government of Malaysia subsequently decided to drop the word Pulau ( " Island " ) . In August 2008 Foreign Minister Rais Yatim said Malaysia considered that the maritime feature did not meet internationally recognised criteria for an island , that is , land inhabited by humans that had economic activity .
The island is known in Mandarin as Baijiao ( Chinese : 白礁 ; pinyin : báijiāo ) , which means " white reef " . The Tamil name is பெட ் ரா பிராங ் கா , a transliteration of Pedra Branca .
= = Geography = =
Pedra Branca , located at 1 ° 19 ′ 48 ″ N and 104 ° 24 ′ 27 ″ E , is an island with an area of about 8 @,@ 560 square metres ( 92 @,@ 100 sq ft ) . During the low water spring tide it measures , at its longest , a mere 137 metres ( 449 ft ) and has an average width of 60 metres ( 200 ft ) . It is approximately 24 nautical miles ( 44 km ; 28 mi ) to the east of Singapore ; 7 @.@ 7 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 3 km ; 8 @.@ 9 mi ) south of Johor , Malaysia ; and 7 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 14 @.@ 1 km ; 8 @.@ 7 mi ) north of Bintan , Indonesia .
There are two maritime features near Pedra Branca . Middle Rocks , which is under the sovereignty of Malaysia , consists of two clusters of small rocks about 250 metres ( 820 ft ) apart situated 0 @.@ 6 nautical miles ( 1 @.@ 1 km ; 0 @.@ 7 mi ) south of the island . They stand 0 @.@ 6 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) to 1 @.@ 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) permanently above water . South Ledge , on the other hand , is a rock formation visible only at low @-@ tide . It is 2 @.@ 2 nautical miles ( 4 @.@ 1 km ; 2 @.@ 5 mi ) to the south @-@ south @-@ west of Pedra Branca . Its ownership has yet to be definitively determined by Malaysia and Singapore .
Rock samples from Pedra Branca , Middle Rocks and South Ledge show they are all composed of a light , coarse @-@ grained biotite granite . Therefore , from a geomorphological standpoint , the three maritime features belong to the same rock body .
= = History = =
= = = Up to the 1840s = = =
Pedra Branca was known to sailors for centuries . Part of the Chinese sailing instructions for the South China Sea based on information compiled by Admiral Zheng He ( 1371 – 1433 ) advised a navigator that after departing Long Ya Men ( Mandarin for " Dragon 's Teeth Gate " ) , a rocky outcrop at the gateway to what is now Keppel Harbour in Singapore , he should steer a course of between 75 ° and 90 ° for five watches until his vessel reached Baijiao . Pedra Branca was also mentioned in Dutch voyager Jan Huyghen van Linschoten 's Itinerario ( Itinerary ) , an account of his voyages in the Portuguese East Indies . After the publication of the work in 1596 , the island began appearing regularly on European maps of the Far East . The 1598 English edition of the work stated :
From the Cape of Singapura to the hook named Sinosura to the east , are 18 miles ; 6 or 7 miles from there lies a cliffe in the sea called Pedra Branque , or White Rock , where the shippes that come and goe from China doe oftentymes passe in greate danger and some are left upon it , whereby the Pilots when they come thither are in greate feare for other way than this they have not .
Pedra Branca was originally within the territory of the Johor @-@ Riau Sultanate , which was founded in 1528 by Sultan Alauddin Riayat Shah II , the son of Sultan Mahmud Shah of the Malacca Sultanate . In the mid @-@ 17th century , the Dutch Governor of Malacca wrote to the Dutch East India Company , asking it to send two boats to the Straits of Singapore to " cruise to the south of Singapore Straits under the Hook of Barbukit and in the vicinity of Pedra Branca " to stop Chinese traders from entering Johor River . The plan was put into force , and two Chinese junks were captured in the Straits and diverted to Malacca . However , this action provoked a protest from the Sultan of Johor , which showed that the Sultan regarded the junks ' seizure as an infringement of his sovereignty in the area . Three letters written in 1824 to the Government of India by the British Resident in Singapore , John Crawfurd , also confirm it was his understanding that all the islands in the region of the Straits of Singapore came under the Johor Sultanate .
In addition , other 19th @-@ century documents show that the Sultan of Johor exercised authority over the Orang Laut ( " sea people " ) who inhabited the maritime areas of the Straits of Singapore and visited Pedra Branca . One of these was a letter of November 1850 by John Turnbull Thomson , the Government Surveyor of Singapore , which reported on the need to exclude the Orang Laut from Pedra Branca where Horsburgh Lighthouse was being built . Calling them a " half fishing half piratical sect " , Thomson noted that they " frequently visit the rock so their visits should never be encouraged nor any trust put in them ... In the straits and islets of the neighbouring shores and islands many lives are taken by these people . "
On 17 March 1824 , the United Kingdom and the Netherlands signed the Anglo – Dutch Treaty of 1824 . It divided the old Johor Sultanate into two new Sultanates : the new Sultanate of Johor , which would be under the British sphere of influence , and the Sultanate of Riau – Lingga under Dutch influence . Under Article XII of the Treaty , Britain agreed that " no British Establishment shall be made on the Carimon Isles , or on the Island of Bantam , Bintang , Lingin , or on any of the other Islands South of the Straits of Singapore ... " The islands and islets within the Straits fell within the British sphere of influence . This included Pedra Branca , which thus remained part of the territorial domain of the new Johor Sultanate .
= = = 1840s to 1851 : Construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse = = =
Captain James Horsburgh , a Scottish hydrographer to the British East India Company who had prepared many charts and sailing instructions for the East Indies , China , New Holland , the Cape of Good Hope and other intermediate ports , died in May 1836 . Merchants and mariners felt that the building of one or more lighthouses would be a fitting tribute to him , and in as early as November 1836 Pedra Branca was proposed as one of the preferred sites . By 1844 , preference had been expressed for Romania Outer Island , or Peak Rock . Some time in November 1844 , the Governor of the Straits Settlements , William John Butterworth , wrote to the Sultan and the Temenggung of Johor regarding the matter . His letters have not been found , but English translations of the replies , dated 25 November 1844 , indicate that the Sultan and Temenggung favoured the proposal . In particular , the Temenggung wrote that " the [ East India ] company are at full liberty to put up a Light House there , or any spot deemed eligible " . Three days later , on 28 November , the Governor wrote to the Secretary of the Government in India to recommend that the lighthouse be sited on Peak Rock . Among other things , he said that " [ t ] his Rock is part of the Territories of the Rajah of Johore , who with the Tamongong ... have willingly consented to cede it gratuitously to the East India Company " , and enclosed the replies received from the Sultan and Temenggung . Although this was apparently the Governor 's understanding of the situation , he did not communicate it to the Sultan and Temenggung . It is unclear whether the correspondence was limited to Peak Rock or extended to other potential sites for the lighthouse such as Pedra Branca , and whether the sovereignty of Johor over any place chosen for the lighthouse was ceded to the British Government or only a permission to build , maintain and operate a lighthouse was granted .
On 22 August 1845 , Governor Butterworth wrote again to the Government of India , indicating he trusted that construction of the lighthouse on Peak Rock would begin soon " as a light in that quarters is becoming daily of more paramount importance " . Between 1824 and 1851 , at least 16 sizeable vessels were wrecked in the vicinity of Pedra Branca and Point Romania ( on the Johor coast ) . However , in April 1846 , the Lords of the Admiralty in London informed the Court of Directors of the East India Company they were inclined to think that Pedra Branca was the best point for the lighthouse . John Thomson and Captain S. Congalton , commander of the East India Company 's steamer called the Hooghly , carried out surveys in May and August . In a report dated 25 August , they said they were " decidedly of opinion that Pedra Branca is the only proper position for a Light to be placed ... for the safety of Shipping whether entering or departing for the Straits of Singapore ... " The following day , Governor Butterworth wrote to the Government of India stating that the Government " will at once perceive that Pedra Branca is the only true position " for the lighthouse . On 30 October 1846 the President in Council in India approved Pedra Branca as the site for the lighthouse . The East India Company gave its approval on 24 February 1847 , and on 10 May of that year the Government of India asked Governor Butterworth to take measures for the construction of the lighthouse . There is no evidence that the authorities in Singapore thought it necessary or desirable to inform the Johor authorities of the decision about the siting of the lighthouse or to seek any consent for its erection .
Although the private subscribers wishing to commemorate Horsburgh had raised a sum which , with compound interest , came up to more than 7 @,@ 400 Spanish dollars when it was paid over to the Singapore authorities , there was still a shortfall of funds for the building works . Thus , the Government of India , in agreement with the East India Company , authorised Governor Butterworth to prepare a law imposing a duty on vessels entering Singapore and asked him to take immediate measures to begin constructing the lighthouse . The Light Dues Act 1852 was duly enacted by the Governor @-@ General of India in Council on 30 January 1852 . Thomson , appointed by the Governor as architect for the project , took charge of planning and supervising the construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse . Construction work began in late March or early April 1850 . On Queen Victoria 's birthday , 24 May 1850 , the foundation stone was laid at a ceremony conducted by members of the newly founded Masonic Lodge Zetland in the East No. 749 and attended by the Governor , the commander of the Singapore garrison , a rear admiral and several foreign consuls . The construction of the lighthouse then continued till 21 October , and resumed after the monsoon in April 1851 . Up to 50 workmen were involved , including Chinese carpenters and stonemasons and their Malay assistants , Indian quarrymen and convict labourers , a cook and his assistant , and six lascars to defend the island from attack by pirates . The pirates of the South China Sea were notorious – during the construction of Horsburgh Lighthouse nine Chinese labourers were killed in pirate raids . Building materials and supplies were brought by the Hooghly , supported by two gunboats and two lighters . Unless he was required elsewhere , Thomson stayed on the island to supervise the works . The ceremonial first lighting of the lamp was arranged for 27 September 1851 , again attended by the Governor , Masons of the Zetland Lodge , foreign dignitaries , senior residents of Singapore and other notables ; the Singapore Free Press reported : " A simultaneous rising [ of the guests from the dinner table ] announced that the process of illumination had commenced . Three hearty cheers welcomed the light , the meteor @-@ like brilliancy of which will probably serve to guide the midnight path of the mariner for a thousand years to come . " On 15 October the lighthouse was permanently turned on , and Thomson finally departed Pedra Branca for Singapore on the Hooghly on 18 November 1851 .
= = = 1852 to the 1970s = = =
The Light Dues Acts of 1852 and 1854 ( India ) declared that Horsburgh Lighthouse and its appurtenances were the property of and vested in the East India Company . In 1867 , the Straits Settlements , of which Singapore was a part , became a Crown Colony , and by the Straits Settlements Light @-@ Houses Ordinance 1912 , the lighthouse was vested in Singapore . After 1912 , the duties levied on ships passing through the Singapore Strait were abolished ; instead , the costs of the lighthouse were shared by the neighbouring states .
In 1946 , following World War II , Singapore became a separate Crown Colony . The other Straits Settlements , Malacca and Penang , joined the Malay states ( including Johor ) to form the Malayan Union . The latter became the Federation of Malaya in 1948 , and the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . On 17 June 1953 , the Colonial Secretary of Singapore wrote to the British Adviser to the Sultan of Johor to clarify the status of Pedra Branca . He noted that the rock was outside the limits ceded by Sultan Hussein Shah and the Temenggung with the island of Singapore under the Treaty of Friendship and Alliance of 2 August 1824 they had entered into with the East India Company . However , the Colonial Government had been maintaining the lighthouse built on it , and " [ t ] his by international usage no doubt confers some rights and obligations on the Colony " . He therefore asked if " there is any document showing a lease or grant of the rock or whether it has been ceded by the Government of the State of Johore or in any other way disposed of " . The Acting State Secretary of Johor replied on 21 September that " the Johore Government does not claim ownership of Pedra Branca " . This correspondence indicated that as of 1953 Johor understood it did not have sovereignty over Pedra Branca , which had therefore vested in the United Kingdom .
The Colony of Singapore became a self @-@ governing state in 1959 , and left the British Empire to join the Federation of Malaysia in 1963 . Two years later , in 1965 , Singapore became a fully independent republic . In 1959 , in an official publication regarding meteorological information collected on Pedra Branca , Malaya listed Horsburgh Lighthouse as a " Singapore " station together with the Sultan Shoal and Raffles Lighthouses . The lighthouse on Pedra Branca was described in the same way in a joint Malaysian and Singaporean publication in 1966 , the year after Singapore left the Federation . In 1967 , when the two countries began reporting meteorological information separately , Malaysia ceased referring to Horsburgh Lighthouse . In maps published by the Malayan and Malaysian Surveyor General and Director of General Mapping in 1962 , 1965 , 1970 , 1974 and 1975 , the island was indicated with the word " ( SINGAPORE ) " or " ( SINGAPURA ) " under it . The same designation was used for an island that was unquestionably under Singapore 's sovereignty . On the other hand , the designation was not used for Pulau Pisang , an island under Malaysian sovereignty on which Singapore operated a lighthouse .
Singapore replaced the original kerosene @-@ fired lamp of Horsburgh Lighthouse with automated navigational lights in the 1970s . In 1972 , 1973 , 1974 and 1978 , the Port of Singapore Authority ( PSA ) considered the feasibility of carrying out reclamation of about 5 @,@ 000 square metres ( 54 @,@ 000 sq ft ) of land around Pedra Branca , but did not go ahead with the project . On 30 May 1977 , with the permission of the PSA , the Republic of Singapore Navy installed a military rebroadcast station which it shared with the Republic of Singapore Air Force . Subsequently , the PSA installed a helipad on the eastern half of the island , and a communications tower for its Vessel Traffic Information System for the 900 @-@ odd ships that pass daily through the south and middle channels which are the main shipping channels of the eastern part of the Singapore Strait .
= = Present = =
In the 1980s , Malaysian Marine Police boats entered the waters around Pedra Branca on several occasions . However , both Malaysia and Singapore acted with restraint , the Singapore Navy having been given strict instructions not to escalate matters . In 1989 , the then Prime Minister of Malaysia Mahathir Mohamad made an unannounced visit to the vicinity of the island . His boat was intercepted by Singapore naval vessels . To avoid an international incident , he directed his boat to leave .
With effect from 27 June 2002 , Pedra Branca was declared a protected area within the meaning of the Protected Areas and Protected Places Act . Consequently , a permit from the Maritime and Port Authority of Singapore is required for access to the island , and unauthorised presence there is a criminal offence . On 6 October 2008 , a Singaporean man , Roger Lee , was convicted of illegally landing on Pedra Branca . In court documents , he said he had gone to Batam , Indonesia , in 1998 . He later married and started a family with an Indonesian woman , but she left him in 2007 due to his unstable income and inability to hold down a job . As he had illegally overstayed in Indonesia , and had been cheated of his passport and other personal documents by a friend , Lee hatched a plan to pretend to be a lost fisherman in the hope that the Police Coast Guard would rescue him and take him back to Singapore . On 5 February 2008 he paid a boatman to transport him out to sea in a motorised sampan . As he did not see any coast guard or navy patrols he disembarked on Pedra Branca and was arrested by staff stationed there . Lee pleaded guilty to illegally entering Singapore via an unauthorised landing place . A second charge of being found in a protected place without permission was taken into consideration for sentencing purposes . In mitigation , Lee 's pro bono lawyer said that there was no sign on Pedra Branca warning against trespassing on the island . Lee was sentenced to six weeks ' imprisonment .
Speaking at the Singapore Energy Conference on 4 November 2008 , Minister Mentor Lee Kuan Yew mentioned that the Singapore Government had considered reclaiming land and building a nuclear power plant on Pedra Branca . Such a plant could not be built on the main island of Singapore as international standards require a safety zone of 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) around the plant . However , it was recognised that this was probably not feasible as Pedra Branca is less than 30 kilometres from the Malaysian coast .
= = Territorial dispute = =
= = = International Court of Justice case = = =
On 21 December 1979 , the Director of National Mapping of Malaysia published a map entitled Territorial Waters and Continental Shelf Boundaries of Malaysia showing Pedra Branca to be within its territorial waters . Singapore rejected this claim in a diplomatic note of 14 February 1980 and asked for the map to be corrected . The dispute was not resolved by an exchange of correspondence and intergovernmental talks in 1993 and 1994 . In the first round of talks in February 1993 the issue of sovereignty over Middle Rocks and South Ledge was also raised . Malaysia and Singapore therefore agreed to submit the dispute to the International Court of Justice ( ICJ ) , signing a Special Agreement for this purpose in February 2003 and notifying the Court of it in July 2003 . The case was heard at the Peace Palace in The Hague between 6 and 23 November 2007 .
The ICJ delivered its judgment on 23 May 2008 . It held that although Pedra Branca had originally been under the sovereignty of Johor , the conduct of Singapore and its predecessors à titre de souverain ( with the title of a sovereign ) and the failure of Malaysia and its predecessors to respond to such conduct showed that by 1980 , when the dispute between the parties arose , sovereignty over the island had passed to Singapore . The relevant conduct on the part of Singapore and its predecessors included investigating marine accidents in the vicinity of the island , planning land reclamation works , installing naval communications equipment , and requiring Malaysian officials wishing to visit the island to obtain permits . In contrast , Johor and its successors had taken no action with respect to the island from June 1850 for a century or more . In 1953 the Acting Secretary of the State of Johor had stated that Johor did not claim ownership of Pedra Branca . All visits made to the island had been with Singapore 's express permission , and maps published by Malaysia in the 1960s and 1970s indicated that it recognised Singapore 's sovereignty over Pedra Branca .
Like Pedra Branca , the Sultan of Johor held the original ancient title to Middle Rocks . As Singapore had not exercised any rights as a sovereign over Middle Rocks , the ICJ determined that Malaysia retained sovereignty over this maritime feature . As for South Ledge , the ICJ noted that it fell within the apparently overlapping territorial waters of mainland Malaysia , Pedra Branca and Middle Rocks . As the Court had not been mandated to draw the line of delimitation with respect to the territorial waters of Malaysia and Singapore in the area in question , it simply held that sovereignty over South Ledge belonged to the state which owned the territorial waters in which it is located .
= = = Reactions to ICJ decision = = =
Although both Malaysia and Singapore had agreed to respect and accept the ICJ 's decision , Malaysian Foreign Minister Rais Yatim later said his country had renewed its search for the letters written by Governor Butterworth to the Sultan and Temenggung of Johor seeking permission to build Horsburgh Lighthouse on Pedra Branca . He noted that the rules of the IC
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( Trifolium medium ) . A tall herb fringe hosts common butterbur ( Petasites hybridus ) .
Seven plants are protected by a regional scale : common spotted orchid , man orchid , bee orchid , zigzag clover , liquorice milkvetch , narrow @-@ leaved everlasting @-@ pea and wood forget @-@ me @-@ not .
= = = = Mosses = = = =
In 2012 , 43 species of bryophytes were inventoried , including Stellar calcareous moss ( Mnium stellare ) , taxon considered as endangered on the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais red regional list of bryophytes .
= = = Mushrooms = = =
Among the 115 species recorded in 2004 on the site , 15 are included in the red list of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region . In the shrubs near the path where green waste was deposited by people from outside the organization grow yellow club fungus ( Clavulinopsis helvola ) , gray shag ( Coprinopsis cinerea ) , black earth tongues ( Trichoglossum hirsutum ) , Arrhenia spathulata and Marasmius limosus . Those two last species are also in the Calamagrostide 's glade of a pioneer wood of willow and birch , with moor club ( Clavaria argillacea ) , Geoglossum cookeanum , lilac leg fibrecap ( Inocybe griseolilacina ) , ( Stropharia pseudocyanea ) , girdled knight ( Tricholoma cingulatum ) and burnt knight ( Tricholoma ustale ) . Near orchid stations in the pioneer wood exist golden spindles ( Clavulinopsis fusiformis ) , Hebeloma clavulipes , Hebeloma fusipes , Hebeloma pusillum , and also lilac leg fibrecap and burnt knight . Dog stinkhorn ( Mutinus caninus ) and Scytinostroma hemidichophyticum for their part , were observed in the shaded path north of the site on the edge of mature wood .
= = = Fauna = = =
= = = = Mammals = = = =
Common mammals found here include the red fox , red squirrel , hare and rabbit , mole , wood mouse , bank vole and field vole . Two species of bats frequent the site regularly to hunt : the Daubenton 's bat ( Myotis daubentonii ) and common pipistrelle ( Pipistrellus pipistrellus ) . They cannot , however , establish their habitat due to the lack of roosting sites in the reserve 's young trees .
= = = = Birds = = = =
Forty @-@ two species of birds have been observed on the site , 25 of which are breeding there . Twenty @-@ two species are protected nationally ; five are listed on the annex OO of the Bonn Convention , which aims to conserve migratory species throughout their range . However , no species can be considered as heritage . The northern goshawk and Eurasian sparrowhawk benefit from the abundance of sparrows feeding . The common grasshopper warbler stops there during its migration and the common nightingale nests there occasionally .
= = = = Reptiles ans amphibians = = = =
The common toad ( Bufo bufo ) and the common frog ( Rana temporaria ) are the only amphibians on the site . They use it in winter or during their migration . The viviparous lizard ( Zootoca vivipara ) likes the slate deposits and ballast of the track . It hunts in the herbaceous areas , very flowery in summer and high in insects . The common wall lizard ( Podarcis muralis ) has been seen in 2013 . The slow worm reproduction ( Anguis sp . ) is attested by the observation of young under rocks and other debris .
= = = = Invertebrates = = = =
Reproduction of Odonata is not possible on the site because of the lack of standing water . However , thanks to the richness of insects in the herbaceous areas , several species can be encountered including the western clubtail ( Gomphus pulchellus ) , a species present in the Regional Red List of dragonflies North Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais .
Twenty @-@ three species of butterflies and 105 species of moth enjoy the floral diversity of the site . The holly blue ( Celastrina argiolus ) is a heritage species .
Of the nine species of Orthoptera identified , two are considered heritage : the sickle @-@ bearing bush cricket ( Phaneroptera falcata ) , rare in the region , enjoys the dry and high herbaceous areas and the long @-@ horned groundhopper ( Tetrix tenuicornis ) is a pioneer species of poor vegetation settings .
= = = The wildlife corridor = = =
To the north are present two sites containing a rich biodiversity : the Natura 2000 Belgian area " Hauts @-@ Pays des Honnelles " and a ZNIEFF " Vallée de l ’ Hogneau et ses versants et les ruisseaux d ’ Heugnies et de Bavay " . The Bellignies quarry with embankments similar to those which filled " Carrière des Nerviens " is therefore under similar ecological conditions . In the south , the Forêt de Mormal is a major area for biodiversity covered by ZNIEFF and Natura 2000 sites . The railway , unused recently and the stream Ruisseau de Bavay then the river Hogneau provide connection .
= = = Threats and responses = = =
In the past , the site was threatened by garbage dumps or by passage of 4x4 vehicles or quads . The installation of gates by the municipality of Bavay solved the problem . Pedestrians rarely venture off the path . The anthropization is limited . The greatest threats to the species are primary succession and invasive plants .
= = = = Primary succession = = = =
The marls was colonized by pioneer species , then shrubs and trees , corresponding to a primary succession . Without human intervention , a climax community would be reached . This dynamic may eventually lead to the disappearance of related open environments , particularly heritage species . However woodlands can also play an important role in creating habitat for many species . The management plan is therefore to maintain patch dynamics .
= = = = Invasive species = = = =
Four invasive species are a problem in the reserve .
Wood small @-@ reed ( Calamagrostis epigejos ) is present in the center of the site and threatens to spread into herbaceous areas . It compromises sustainability of stations , including man orchid and bee orchid populations . Two distinct zones can be distinguished . The first , where the wood small @-@ reed has a very high rate of recovery , is not hosting any heritage value . It is mowed early and disposed of . Grazing is not possible at the moment . The second , on the contrary , not densely colonized by this plant is much more of a fragile situation due to the presence of orchids and the sickle @-@ bearing bush cricket or long @-@ horned groundhopper . Differentiated management is applied depending on the issues . At orchid stations , slight thinning is done early by hand pruning . The less dense areas where the grass is sparse ( conducive to the long @-@ horned groundhopper ( Tetrix tenuicornis ) ) are pulled . In the newly opened areas , a systematic and annual pulling avoids expansion . Finally , dense areas , well exposed , are left in that state .
Many extensive areas of Japanese knotweed ( Fallopia japonica ) are on the site . Heritage stations of common butterbur and hart 's @-@ tongue fern , colonized by invasive species , are managed by manual removal and disposal for incineration .
The bramble ( Rubus sp . ) lie around the ruins and along the south @-@ east of the site near the houses . Due to an interest in preserving wildlife ( e.g. refuge for mammals , insects , nesting wrens ) , they are not eradicated but contained .
Canada golden @-@ rod ( Solidago canadensis ) appeared in 2003 as a result of plant deposits . The threat proved to be serious the following year . Some stations show a significant concentration of the species , while isolated plants grow everywhere on the site . This plant is easily pulled by hand before flowering to prevent seed dispersal , and the shoots are burned .
Finally , panicled aster ( Symphyotrichum lanceolatum ) is also present among the invasive plants . In their native countries , American asters are found in wet places . In France , these plants colonize relatively dry ruderal areas ( brownfields , road shoulder ... ) or wetlands . In this second case , asters show strong invasive behavior . In the reserve , where the majority of areas are dry , this plant does not present special hazards and removal is managed easily .
= = Management = =
= = = Protection = = =
Parcels of land owned by the CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois were classified as a regional nature reserve on 25 May 2009 by decision of the Conseil Régional Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais . The entire site is included in a ZNIEFF type 1 Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) and another of type 2 Complexe écologique de la forêt de Mormal et des zones bocagères associées .
= = = Management objectives = = =
The second version of the environmental management scheme covers the period 2007 – 2012 . It presents the knowledge , management , monitoring and vulgarization objectives .
The preservation of the existing diversity was the most important goal . It required conservation of the heritage plant communities : tall @-@ herb fen with common butterbur , the chasmophytic vegetation with hart 's @-@ tongue fern and the woody fringe Lathyro sylvestris – Astragaletum glycyphylli . The survival of populations of round @-@ leaved wintergreen and of man orchid , the two most interesting plants , was also a priority , as a strikeout against brush invasion in the open areas where bee orchid and pyramidal orchid grow . The natural forest dynamics are to be contained within areas of clear undergrowth or fringes with these species : common spotted orchid , zigzag clover and lesser butterfly @-@ orchid . Pioneer areas with mushrooms should be preserved and the invasive species contained . Artificial infrastructures ( ruin , concrete pylons , walls and rock piles ) should be utilized for the creation of new habitats .
The education , interpretation and promotion of local heritage missions should also be continued , while the fauna knowledge was to be developed and floristic monitoring provided .
= = = Assessment of the activities = = =
Evaluation is in progress . However , a partial analysis is already underway .
= = = = Activities carried out = = = =
The Bavay 's municipality has erected two barriers to prohibit access to motorized vehicles . Volunteers and employees of the CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois manage the site regularly .
= = = = Management of the diversity = = = =
Manual removal of the Japanese knotweed has preserved heritage stations of common butterbur and hart 's @-@ tongue fern . Early hand pruning was conducive to orchids . The late mowing seems rather ineffective . The grubbing @-@ up of the Canada golden @-@ rod and American asters was successful . The bush clearing and selective logging have helped maintain the wood @-@ fringe with narrow @-@ leaved everlasting @-@ pea and liquorice milkvetch . Common spotted orchid , zigzag clover and lesser butterfly @-@ orchid , species non @-@ adapted to open areas , benefited areas without clearing . The low dry @-@ stone walls probably favored the installation of viviparous lizard or common wall lizard , observed in 2013 , but also the consolidation of the hart 's @-@ tongue fern population .
From 2007 to 2012 , the number of round @-@ leaved wintergreen footage increased by 50 percent . On the other hand , those of man orchid fall suddenly and continually . Whereas 27 plants were counted in 2003 , the number reached a peak of 240 in 2006 with the uprooting of the wood small @-@ reed , before collapsing to 13 plants in 2012 , despite the continued management . The observation of gnawed seedlings can assume leaf consumption by herbivores . Protection against rodents was established in 2013 and will be evaluated at flowering .
On this site , 171 plant species are surveyed . Given its size and poor soil , this diversity is notable . Management undertaken in recent years has been essential to maintaining open areas , the most threatened by primary succession . Thus , the various vegetation layers ( pioneer and mature woodland , bushy areas , open areas ) provide a mosaic of habitats , and thus remarkable species .
= = = = Improved knowledge of flora and fauna = = = =
Besides heritage plants monitoring , an additional inventory of Orthoptera is being undertaken ; three new species were identified in 2013 : common pheasant , Eurasian siskin and common wall lizard . Fourteen new plants were also identified . Inventories of bats and mushrooms are being carried out by partners .
= = = = Education , interpretation and promotion of local heritage = = = =
Guided outing and participatory management sessions are regularly held with the public or agricultural colleges , including invasive species managing . The heritage interpretation site has yet to be finalized .
= = = New opportunities = = =
Interreg micro projects , established in February 2012 , resulted in methodological exchanges on the management of reserves between two Belgian associations Réserves naturelles et ornithologiques de Belgique and Natagora .
A new environmental management scheme is now under consideration .
= = = Studies of the reserve = = =
The following documents are available from the operator : CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois .
CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois ( 2007 ) . Plan de gestion 2007 – 2012 de la réserve naturelle régionale de la carrière des Nerviens [ Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve Environmental Management Scheme 2007 – 2012 ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois. p . 141 .
Haouat , Safia ( 2013 ) . Proposition d 'évaluation du plan de gestion 2008 – 2012 de la Réserve Naturelle Régionale de la carrière des Nerviens dans le cadre du renouvellement de son plan de gestion [ Assessment proposal of Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve Environmental Management Scheme 2008 – 2012 in the context of its renewal ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : CPIE Bocage de l 'Avesnois. p . 107 .
Bissey , Virginie ( 2003 ) . Plan de gestion 2003 – 2007 de la future réserve naturelle régionale de Rametz [ Rametz future Regional Nature Reserve Environmental Management Scheme 2003 – 2007 ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : Nord Nature Bavaisis .
Julve , Philippe ( 2003 ) . Étude de la flore et de la végétation de l ’ ancienne carrière de Rametz [ Study of flora and vegetation of the old Rametz quarry ] ( in French ) . Gussignies : Nord Nature Bavaisis. p . 23 .
Lecron , Jean @-@ Michel ( 2013 ) . Inventaire des Bryophytes de la Réserve naturelle régionale de la Carrière des Nerviens [ Inventory of Bryophytes of the Carrière des Nerviens Regional Nature Reserve ] ( in French ) . Bailleul : Conservatoire Botanique National de Bailleul .
Lecuru , Christophe ; Courtecuisse , Régis ( 2004 ) . Rapport d ’ étude mycologique ( inventaire et évaluation patrimoniale ) sur le bois d ’ Encade ( Gussignies ) et la carrière de Rametz [ Mycology study report ( inventory and heritage evaluation ) in the bois d 'Encade ( Gussignies ) and Rametz quarry ] ( in French ) . Lille : A.R.U.M. ( Association de Recherches Universitaires Multi @-@ disciplinaires ) , Département de Botanique .
= = = History of quarry and geology = = =
Association française pour l 'avancement des sciences ( 1909 ) . Lille et la région du nord en 1909 [ Lille and the northern region in 1909 ] ( in French ) . Lille : imp . I. Danel. p . XIII , 1061 . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Boulvain , Frédéric ; Pingot , Jean @-@ Louis ( 2011 ) . Genèse du sous @-@ sol de la Wallonie [ Genesis of the Wallonia subsoil ] ( PDF ) . Bruxelles : Académie royale de Belgique. p . 190 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 8031 @-@ 0288 @-@ 4 . Retrieved 27 August 2013 .
Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières ( 1972 ) . Carte géologique à 1 / 50000 : Le Quesnoy [ Geologic card to 1 / 50000 : Le Quesnoy ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières. p . 19 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Bureau de Recherches Géologiques et Minières ( 2013 ) . " Géologie en Nord @-@ Pas de Calais " [ Geology in Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 23 August 2013 .
Copper , Paul ( 2002 ) . " Silurian and devonian reefs : 80 million years of global greenhouse between two ice ages " . Phanerozoic Reef Patterns 72 : 181 – 238 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2110 / pec.02.72.0181. Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Cornet , Jules ( 1899 ) . " Compte @-@ rendu de la session extraordinaire de la société géologique de Belgique tenue à Mons du 26 au 27 septembre 1899 " [ Record of the extraordinary session of the Geologic Society of Belgium held in Mons from 26 to 27 September 1899 ] . Annales de la société géologique de Belgique ( in French ) ( Société géologique de Belgique ) 26 : CCCVI , 177 , 41 , XXVIII . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Ladrière , Jules ( 5 November 1879 ) . " Documents nouveaux pour l 'étude du terrain dévonien des environs de Bavay " [ New documents for the study of Devonian near Bavay ] . Annales de la Société géologique du Nord ( in French ) ( Société géologique du Nord ) VII : 1 – 11 . Retrieved 18 August 2013 .
Ladrière , Jules ( 4 May 1881 ) . " Etude géologique sur les tranchées du chemin de fer du Quesnoy à Dour " [ Geologic study on the railway trenches of the line Le Quesnoy @-@ Dour ] . Annales de la Société géologique du Nord ( in French ) ( Société géologique du Nord ) XIII : 135 – 176 . Retrieved 18 August 2013 .
Ladrière , Jules ( September 1905 ) . " Les affleurements du Terrain Dévonien dans les environs de Bavai " [ Devonian outcrops near Bavai ] . Annales de la Société géologique du Nord ( in French ) ( Société géologique du Nord ) . XXXIV : 205 – 264 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
National Stratigraphic Commission Belgium ( 2013 ) . " Famennian Lithostratigraphic Units " . Retrieved 25 August 2013 .
Van Bellingen , Luc ( 2013 ) . " Géologie du Dévonien " [ Devonian geology ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Van Bellingen , Luc ( 2013 ) . " Le Famennien " [ Famennian ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
= = = Ecology and management = = =
Duhamel , Françoise ; Catteau , Emmanuel ( 2010 ) . " Inventaire des végétations de la région Nord @-@ Pas de Calais : Partie 1 . Analyse synsystématique . Évaluation patrimoniale ( influence anthropique , raretés , menaces et statuts ) . Liste des végétations disparues ou menacées . " [ Inventory of the vegetations of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region : Part 1 . Synsytematic analysis . Heritage assessment ( anthropogenic influence , rarities , threats and statutes ) . List of extirpated or threatened vegetations . ] ( PDF ) . Bull . Soc . Bot . N. Fr . ( Centre régional de phytosociologie agréé Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul , avec la collaboration du collectif phytosociologique interrégional ) 63 ( 1 ) : 1 – 83 . Retrieved 23 August 2013 .
European commission ( April 2013 ) . " Interpretation Manual of European Union Habitats : EUR 28 " ( PDF ) . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
GON , SfO et CFR ( 2012 ) . " Liste rouge régionale – Nord – Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais : Les Odonates du Nord – Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais " [ Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais red regional list : Odonata of the Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
INPN ( 2013 ) . " ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Commentaires " [ ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Comments ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 22 August 2013 .
INPN ( 2013 ) . " ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Espèces " [ ZNIEFF 310030028 - Château de Rametz ( carrière des Nerviens ) : Species ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 22 August 2013 .
Lecron , Jean @-@ Michel ; Hauguel , Jean @-@ Christophe ( May 2013 ) . Toussaint , Benoît , ed . Inventaire des Bryophytes du Nord @-@ Pas de Calais : statuts , rareté et menace [ Inventory of the Bryophytes of Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais : statutes , rarities and threats ] ( in French ) ( 1a ed . ) . Bailleul : Centre régional de phytosociologie agréé Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul , avec la collaboration du Collectif des Bryologues du Nord @-@ Ouest de la France .
Muller , Serge , ed . ( 2004 ) . Plantes invasives en France : État des connaissances et propositions d 'actions [ Invasive Plants in France : states of knowledge and action proposals ] . Patrimoines naturels ( in French ) 62 . Paris : Muséum national d 'Histoire naturelle. p . 168 . ISBN 978 @-@ 2 @-@ 85653 @-@ 570 @-@ 7 .
République française ( 1991 ) . " Arrêté du 1 avril 1991 relatif à la liste des espèces végétales protégées en région Nord - Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais complétant la liste nationale " [ Order of 1 April 1991 relating to the list of protected plants in Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais region completing the national list ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 19 August 2013 .
Rhind , Peter Martin ( 2010 ) . " Atlantic European Ecosystems " . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Toussaint , Benoît , ed . ( 2011 ) . Inventaire de la flore vasculaire du Nord @-@ Pas de Calais ( Ptéridophytes et Spermatophytes ) : raretés , protections , menaces et statuts [ Inventory of the vascular flora of the Nord @-@ Pas de Calais ( Pteridophyta and Spermatophyta ) : rarities , protection , threats and status ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) ( 4b ed . ) . Bailleul : Centre régional de phytosociologie agréé Conservatoire botanique national de Bailleul , avec la collaboration du Collectif botanique du Nord @-@ Pas de Calais. pp . I – XX ; 1 – 62 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
Swinnen , Vincent ( 2012 ) . " Première collaboration transfrontalière pour notre Régionale ! " [ First cross @-@ border cooperation for our regional ] ( PDF ) . Echo des marais ( in French ) ( Natagora ) ( 79 ) : 12 . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
La Voix du Nord ( 17 September 2010 ) . " Chantier nature demain avec le CPIE " [ Nature management tomorrow with CPIE ] ( in French ) . Retrieved 24 August 2013 .
= = = Other references = = =
Bromwich , James ( 2013 ) . The Roman Remains of Northern and Eastern France : A Guidebook . Routledge. p . 480 . ISBN 9780415139946 . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Conseil Régional Nord @-@ Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais ( 25 May 2009 ) . " Délibération de création de la réserve " [ Deliberation of the creation of the reserve ] ( PDF ) ( in French ) . Retrieved 20 August 2013 .
Réserves naturelles de France ( 2012 ) . " Carrière des Nerviens " ( in French ) . Retrieved 19 August 2013 .
= You Lost Me =
" You Lost Me " is a song by American recording artist Christina Aguilera from her sixth studio album Bionic ( 2010 ) . It was written by Aguilera , Sia Furler and the producer Samuel Dixon . " You Lost Me " was released on June 27 , 2010 , by RCA Records as the third single from Bionic in the United States and the second elsewhere . The track is a down @-@ tempo ballad that talks about an unfaithful man , who has left Aguilera 's world " infected " .
" You Lost Me " was well received by most critics , who noted it as one of the album 's outstanding songs and praised Aguilera 's vocals on the track . However , it was unsuccessful on charts worldwide . In the United States , the single reached number 20 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles , but topped the Hot Dance Club Play chart . The song had moderate success in Belgium and Israel , peaking in the top twenty in both countries .
The music video for the song was directed by Anthony Mandler . It was received positively by critics , who described it as a comeback by Aguilera following her video for Bionic 's lead single " Not Myself Tonight " ( 2010 ) . Aguilera performed " You Lost Me " on several television shows . The song has been covered by artists .
= = Background and release = =
In August 2008 , Australian recording artist Sia confirmed that she would work on several ballads for Aguilera 's then @-@ upcoming album . Aguilera commented about the collaboration , " I 'm definitely a fan of Sia 's . I was thrilled she also wanted to work together and , in turn , was a fan of mine " . In an interview for Billboard , Sia said , " She [ Aguilera ] was just excited to get to work with the artists she loves . There 's this misconception that she 's a middle @-@ America kind of person . But she 's a little hipster . You go back to her house and sit by the fire with some wine , and what 's playing over the sound system ? The Knife and Arthur Russell . She doesn 't listen to pop music " .
In the standard edition of Bionic , the couple co @-@ wrote three tracks , including " You Lost Me " . The song was described as " the heart of the album " by Aguilera . According to the Herald Sun , Aguilera wanted to collaborated more with Furler for the album . " You Lost Me " was announced to be released as the third single in the US and the second internationally from Bionic , while " I Hate Boys " would be the second single in Australia . The single 's cover artwork was revealed three days later via her official website . RCA Records officially released the song to US contemporary hit radio on June 27 , 2010 . A radio remix version of the track was digitally released on 7digital stores worldwide in July 2010 . Two digital EPs containing remixes of the song were also distributed by RCA Records later that year .
= = Composition = =
" You Lost Me " was written by Aguilera , Furler and its producer , Samuel Dixon . The song is a ballad lasts for a duration of 4 : 17 ( four minutes and 17 seconds ) . Written in the key of A minor , " You Lost Me " has a tempo of 50 beats per minute . Aguilera 's vocal range spans from E ♭ 3 to E5 . The verses are sung by Aguilera using melisma . The song 's instrumentation comes from piano and strings . Hinshaw Drew of The Village Voice labelled it the " un @-@ bionic moment on the record " .
Lyrically , " You Lost Me " talks about a " cheating " man , who has left Aguilera 's world " infected " . Amar Toor from AOL Radio thought that its lyrical content " perfectly captures one of the most difficult experiences young lovers have to go through " . The song begins with a " somber orchestral " piano opening , followed by the lines " I am done , smoking gun / We 've lost it all , the love is gone " sung by Aguilera . During the chorus , she sings , " I feel like our world 's been infected / And somehow you left me neglected " . Toward the ending , Aguilera 's " painful " and " catharsis " voice " crescendos dramatically " . According to Jon Pareles from The New York Times , Aguilera " barely " holds back her tears in the song . The Village Voice critic Drew Hinshaw thought that Aguilera is " less vexed by what he did than what he lost " .
= = Critical reception = =
" You Lost Me " received generally positive reviews from music critics . Leah Greenblatt from Entertainment Weekly noted Furler 's efforts on the " lovely " ballads " You Lost Me " , " All I Need " , and " I Am " had turned Aguilera into a " smoky , almost Fiona Apple @-@ esque torch singer " . Elysa Gardner of USA Today highlighted the song as one of the album 's standout ballads . According to Genevieve Koski from The A.V. Club , " You Lost Me " is the kind of ballad Aguilera " is best suited to " . Mesfin Fekadu of Northwest Herald thought that the " emotional " song shows off " the diva 's powerful voice " , while Drew Hinshaw from The Village Voice deemed " You Lost Me " as the most vulnerable song from Bionic .
Michael Cragg , writing for musicOMH , wrote that the ballads co @-@ written by Furler make Bionic " the first Aguilera album where the ballads aren 't ruined by her tendency to cover all the notes on the scale " . Her further compared " You Lost Me " to Aguilera 's previous hit " Beautiful " ( 2002 ) . Digital Spy editor Robert Cospey gave the song three stars out of five , praising her vocals yet thinking that the song " somehow lacks the sincerity " as she displayed on " Hurt " and " Oh Mother " . On a negative side , Sam Lansky from MTV Buzzworthy deemed " You Lost Me " a " weepy " song .
= = Chart performance = =
In the United States , " You Lost Me " debuted and peaked on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart at number 20 on June 26 , 2010 , becoming Aguilera 's first US single not to chart within the main Billboard Hot 100 . The song also peaked at number 28 on the Adult Contemporary , where it remained for four weeks . It was a success on the Hot Dance Club Play , peaking atop the chart . In the United Kingdom , " You Lost Me " became Aguilera 's lowest @-@ charting single in the country , only peaking at number 153 on the UK Singles Chart . The single also charted at number 78 in Slovakia , and number 79 in the Netherlands . The song was more commercially successful in Belgium , where it charted at number 19 on the Wallonian Ultratop chart . In Israel , it became a top @-@ ten hit on the Media Forest chart .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " You Lost Me " was directed by Anthony Mandler . According to Aguilera , the video " strips back the theatrics " . She also revealed that it used over 200 pounds of charcoal . During the making of the video , Aguilera said , " It was really important that I interpret the simplicity of the raw emotion that takes place within the song itself and not any sort of theatrics involved " . On July 22 , 2010 , the music video was released on Aguilera 's VEVO channel . Two days before the release , a sneak peek of the music video was revealed . According to Billboard writer Monica Herrera , the clip contrasts with the music video for the lead single of Bionic " Not Myself Tonight " , while Chris Ryan for MTV Buzzworthy thought that it goes " back to basics " .
The video features Aguilera with " strawberry @-@ blonde " hair . It begins with a close @-@ up of a gun barrel . Then , she slowly walks through a " deserted " bedroom and lies down in the room , which is filled with charcoal , while crying . She is seen with mascara streaming down her cheeks . As the scene moves on , Aguilera is fighting against a shirtless man , who is considered her lover . The clip ends as Aguilera takes off her shirt in an " Inception @-@ like dreamworld " . Critical response to " You Lost Me " video was positive : Latina writer Mariela Rosario and UK magazine OK ! noted that the clip was a comeback by Aguilera following the video for Bionic lead single " Not Myself Tonight " . Monica Hererra from Billboard also thought that it represents " a kind of return to form for Aguilera " . Writing for Entertainment Weekly , Brad Wete thought that the video for " You Lost Me " " has some quality material " . Similarly , MTV Buzzworthy 's Chris Ryan complimented it as one of Aguilera 's best videos ever .
= = Live performances and covers = =
Aguilera performed " You Lost Me " for the first time at the season finale of the ninth season of American Idol on May 26 , 2010 . Following the rendition of Aguilera 's songs " Beautiful " and " Fighter " by the top six female contestants , Aguilera appeared onstage as the stage went dark . Wearing a " demure black ensemble " , her hair was pulled back in her curls . On June 8 , 2010 , Aguilera performed the song again with several of her tracks , " Fighter " , " Bionic " , " Not Myself Tonight " , and " Beautiful " . According to James Dinh from MTV News , the performance of " You Lost Me " " brought a subtle and gentle ambience " to the show , and it was not aired on television .
During the Late Show with David Letterman aired on June 10 , 2010 , the singer performed " You Lost Me " with " 1950 's @-@ inspired hair " , red lipstick , " diamante leggings " and a white " glitter style cut @-@ out blouse " with " red sparkly stilettos " . A day later , she appeared on The Early Show to promote her then @-@ upcoming album Bionic , performing " Not Myself Tonight " , " Fighter " , " You Lost Me " , and a medley of " Genie in a Bottle " and " What a Girl Wants " . Aguilera performed the song again as part of her performance on VH1 Storytellers , aired on June 13 , 2010 .
On November 12 , 2010 , Canadian @-@ Cypriot @-@ Portuguese singer Nikki Ponte covered the song on the third week of the third season of The X Factor ( Greece ) . American singer Marcus Canty performed " You Lost Me " on the first season of The X Factor ( US ) on November 23 , 2011 . The track was recorded in a studio by Ewelina Lisowska , a semifinalist from the second season of the Polish version for The X Factor . " You Lost Me " was also performed by Spanish singer Alberto Bellido Marquez during the auditions of the third season of The X Factor in Germany on September 7 , 2012 , and Ukrainian The X Factor contestant Vladyslav Kurasov on January 19 , 2013 .
In 2014 Maltese child singer , Veronica Rotin , covered this song on her debut album , Veronica Rotin .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Recording
Recording and vocals recording – The Red Lips Room in Beverly Hills , California
Personnel
Credits adapted from Bionic album liner notes .
= = Charts = =
= = Radio and release history = =
= The Fabulous Moolah =
Mary Lillian Ellison ( July 22 , 1923 – November 2 , 2007 ) was an American professional wrestler , better known by her ring name The Fabulous Moolah . She began her career working with promoter Billy Wolfe and his wife , wrestler and trainer Mildred Burke , as well as working alongside professional wrestler " Nature Boy " Buddy Rogers . She won the NWA World Women 's Championship in 1956 and was the most prominent holder of the title for approximately the next 30 years .
In the 1980s , she joined the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF , later WWE ) as part of the Rock ' n ' Wrestling Connection storyline , feuding with Cyndi Lauper and Wendi Richter , the latter of whom defeated her for the WWF Women 's Championship in 1984 . Ellison was marketed by the WWF as holding the record for the longest title reign by any athlete in any professional sport . According to WWE , she was also the first WWF Women 's Champion and held the title a total of four times .
In addition , Ellison was a prominent trainer and promoter in women 's professional wrestling . In the 1990s , she returned to the WWF in a comedic role with longtime friend Mae Young . Ellison became the first woman to be inducted into the WWE Hall of Fame in 1995 and became the oldest champion in the history of professional wrestling when she won the WWF Women 's Championship at age 76 , in 1999 . In 2010 , WWE recognized her as the 27th best wrestler ever .
= = Early life = =
Mary Lillian Ellison was born in 1923 in Kershaw County , South Carolina , and grew up in Tookiedoo , 12 miles from Columbia . The youngest of five children , Ellison was the only daughter of a part Cherokee father and an Irish mother . Her parents owned a farm , a grocery store , and a service station .
When her mother died of cancer , eight @-@ year @-@ old Ellison went to live with her paternal grandmother and worked on her cousin 's cotton farm to make money . At age 10 , Ellison was still deeply distraught over her mother ’ s death ; to cheer her up , her father took her to the local wrestling matches . Ellison liked the matches , but it was not until she saw Women 's Champion Mildred Burke wrestle that " they began to mean much more to me . "
Ellison returned to the Columbia home of her father and brothers . She graduated Columbia High School , but at age 14 married 21 @-@ year @-@ old Walter Carroll . They soon became parents to a daughter . A few months after the birth of her daughter , she divorced Carroll . Still only 15 , she left her daughter with a friend and set out on a wrestling career of her own .
= = Professional wrestling career = =
= = = Early career ( 1940s – 1950s ) = = =
Ellison began her wrestling career with Mildred Burke ’ s husband Billy Wolfe , the dominant women 's promoter of the time . Her first match was on May 26 , 1949 against June Byers at the Boston Arena . Wolfe was notorious for advising his wrestlers to enter into sexual relationships with either himself or competing promoters to ensure additional bookings , a practice with which Ellison refused to go along . She , however , soon began a romance with wrestler Johnny Long . Long later introduced Ellison to Jack Pfefer who gave her the moniker " Slave Girl Moolah " . By the early 1950s , Moolah was a valet for " Nature Boy " Buddy Rogers , accompanying him to the ring while providing eye candy for the male audiences and assisting Rogers against his opponents . Ellison broke up the partnership because Rogers kept pushing her to begin a sexual relationship . She then served as the valet for the Elephant Boy ( Tony Olivas ) . Olivas was Mexican , but had very dark skin , which caused controversy when Ellison , a white woman , would kiss him on the cheek during their ring entrance routine . At one show in Oklahoma City , a man , who thought that Olivas was a black man , attempted to stab Ellison with a knife for kissing him . Moolah later left Pfeffer 's promotion and began wrestling under Boston promoters Tony Santos and Paul Bowser . In 1955 , she began working for Vince McMahon , Sr. ' s Capitol Wrestling Corporation .
= = = World Champion ( 1956 – 1970s ) = = =
On September 18 , 1956 , Moolah defeated Judy Grable in a 13 @-@ woman battle royal to win the vacant World Women 's Championship , which shares a lineage with the NWA World Women 's Championship . She was not immediately recognized by everyone as the NWA Champion because Billy Wolfe , with whom she had had conflict earlier in her career , still controlled the promotion . After the match , Vince McMahon , Sr. dubbed Ellison with a new ring name – The Fabulous Moolah . Subsequently , June Byers came out of retirement to challenge Moolah to a match for the title . During the match , Moolah acted as the aggressor and pinned Byers to retain the championship . Moolah 's first World Championship reign lasted over ten years . Moolah successfully defended the belt against the top female wrestlers in the world , such as Judy Grable and Donna Christanello , while also purporting to befriend some of the biggest celebrities of the day . Moolah claimed in her book , " First Goddess of the Squared Circle , " that she formed friendships with Elvis Presley and Jerry Lee Lewis .
After June Byers retired in 1964 , Moolah was subsequently recognized as official NWA Champion , thus making her the undisputed Women ’ s World Champion . Nevertheless , Moolah dropped the belt on September 17 , 1966 to Bette Boucher , although she regained the title just weeks later . She also traded the belt with Yukiko Tomoe during a tour of Japan in 1968 . On July 1 , 1972 , Moolah became the first woman allowed to wrestle at Madison Square Garden , which had previously banned women 's wrestling . In fact , Moolah helped overturn the ban on women 's wrestling in the entire state of New York , which the New York State Athletic Commission lifted in June 1972 . During her quest to overturn the ban , she flipped football player Roosevelt " Rosey " Grier onto his back on The Mike Douglas Show . Moolah continued an uninterrupted eight @-@ year reign before losing to Sue Green at Madison Square Garden in 1976 . Moolah regained her title a short time later . She also bought the legal rights to the championship in the late 1970s , and after losing the championship for two days to Evelyn Stevens in 1978 , began another long reign , defending her title for another six years . Also in the 1970s , Moolah held the NWA Women 's World Tag Team Championship twice with Toni Rose .
= = = Rock ' n ' Wrestling Connection ( 1980s ) = = =
In 1983 , Vince McMahon , Jr. began expanding the World Wrestling Federation ( WWF ) nationally , and Moolah sold him the rights to her Women ’ s World Championship . Moolah agreed to appear exclusively for the WWF , and thus became the first WWF Women 's Champion . The following year , singer Cyndi Lauper began a verbal feud with manager " Captain " Lou Albano , who long had a reputation of being a villain , that brought professional wrestling into mainstream culture in a storyline that became known as the " Rock ' n ' Wrestling Connection . " When it was finally time for Lauper and Albano to settle their differences in the ring , a match @-@ up was scheduled with Albano representing Moolah against the challenge of Lauper ’ s protégé , Wendi Richter . After much buildup and hype , the Fabulous Moolah lost the championship when defeated by Richter , who had Lauper in her corner , on July 23 , 1984 in the main event of The Brawl to End It All , which was broadcast live on MTV . Prior to the match , the WWF promoted Moolah as holding the championship for the previous 28 years .
After losing the title to Richter , Moolah aided Leilani Kai in defeating Richter for the title in February 1985 . Richter won it back at the inaugural WrestleMania , but when Richter ’ s relationship soured with the WWF , Moolah donned a mask as " The Spider Lady " and regained the belt on November 25 , 1985 , in a controversial decision . Richter was never told she would be losing the title and fell victim to a real @-@ life " screwjob " finish known as " The Original Screwjob " . Richter promptly quit the WWF afterward , while Moolah continued to be champion for another two years — excluding a six @-@ day reign by Velvet McIntyre during a tour of Australia in 1986 — before losing the belt to Sherri Martel on July 24 , 1987 . She later captained a team at the inaugural Survivor Series . Her team ( Moolah , Velvet McIntyre , Rockin ' Robin , and the Jumping Bomb Angels ) defeated champion Martel and her team ( Leilani Kai , Judy Martin , Donna Christanello , and Dawn Marie ) .
= = = Semi @-@ retirement = = =
Throughout the early 1990s , she made appearances in video packages and at live WWF events . On June 24 , 1995 , she was the first female wrestler to be inducted into the WWF Hall of Fame . In the late 1990s , Pat Patterson and Ellison began jokingly discussing a comeback for her , which resulted in Patterson contacting WWF Chairman Vince McMahon about the possibility . In 1998 , Moolah and Mae Young re @-@ emerged in the WWF ( later renamed World Wrestling Entertainment , WWE ) . The WWF women 's division , however , had since moved away from the traditional athletic match @-@ ups of the past and now featured women competing in sexually @-@ themed bikini contests and strip matches .
Moolah received a call from McMahon in late 1998 about returning to the company . On the September 9 , 1999 episode of SmackDown ! , Jeff Jarrett invited Moolah , 76 , into the ring and smashed a guitar over her head . Moolah and Young then began appearing regularly in comedic roles . On the September 27 , 1999 episode of Monday Night Raw , Moolah and Young defeated Ivory in a Handicapped Evening Gown match , which led to a title match at No Mercy on October 17 , 1999 . The match saw seventy @-@ six @-@ year @-@ old Moolah defeat Ivory to regain the WWE Women 's Championship , thus becoming the oldest WWE Women 's Champion ever , though she lost the title to Ivory eight days later .
On the September 15 , 2003 episode of Raw , Moolah won a match against Victoria . Moolah had been promised the match for her eightieth birthday and became the first octogenarian to compete in a WWE ring . After Moolah 's victory , the " Legend Killer " Randy Orton came out and performed an RKO on her . Moolah and Young made another appearance at New Years Revolution in 2006 , during a Bra and Panties Gauntlet match attacking Victoria and stripping her of her top . She also made brief appearances at WrestleMania 23 and the 2007 Draft Lottery on June 11 , 2007 . Her last WWE appearance before her death was at SummerSlam in August 2007 , in a backstage segment with Vince McMahon and Raw General Manager William Regal .
= = Training and promoting = =
Ellison and her second husband Johnny Long began training women to become female wrestlers , which included Ella Waldek , Daisy Mae , and Katherine Simpson . Long later contacted promoter Jack Pfefer , who agreed to book some of the wrestlers at his shows . After marrying wrestler Buddy Lee , he began helping Ellison train the female wrestlers . After she left Pfeffer 's promotion in the 1950s , Ellison found it difficult to book her trainees in shows due to Pfeffer 's influence over other National Wrestling Alliance promoters . Ellison claimed Pfeffer would threaten to reveal the pre @-@ planned nature of wrestling if any other promoters did not do as he liked . As a result , Ellison began selling cosmetics door @-@ to @-@ door and Lee opened a service station to make enough money to pay their bills . They later began to book their wrestlers , including Judy Grable in Boston , under promoter Paul Bowser .
In the late 1950s when the once @-@ dominant promoter of women 's wrestling , Billy Wolfe , was out of business , Ellison and Lee began to book their female wrestlers for more and more shows . They began calling their promoting business Girl Wrestling Enterprises ( GWE ) . Ellison demanded a lot from the girls of GWE , including that they had to keep their hair and make @-@ up done , act like a lady , and not date men who were in the professional wrestling business . In addition to women , Ellison also trained midget professional wrestlers , including Katie Glass in the 1960s . Ellison founded the Ladies ' International Wrestling Association , a non @-@ profit organization to help retired professional wrestlers , in the late 1980s . In the 1990s , she spent most of her time training female wrestlers at her school in Columbia , South Carolina . She also began training men , including Del Wilkes , and in 1995 trained more men than women . She also spent time training in Los Angeles at Verne Langdon 's Slammers Gym .
However , Wendi Richter stated that Ellison did not actually train the wrestlers at her wrestling school . Instead , Richter stated that Ellison accepted payment of the training fee ( which at the time of Richter 's training was five hundred dollars ) and had other female wrestlers within her camp ( including Leilani Kai , Judy Martin , Winona Littleheart , and Joyce Grable ) train the new recruits , and that these women did not get paid for their additional work as trainers . Richter also stated that Ellison required all women that received training at her camp to each sign a contract that allowed Ellison to function as their booker and receive twenty five percent of their booking fee . Trainees were also required to rent duplex apartments on Ellison 's property and they were responsible for paying her for rent and utilities . The training lasted six months and took place up to five hours per day inside a wrestling ring in a barn that lacked heating and air conditioning or fans . Debbie Johnson , another former trainee of Ellison 's , stated that she was required to give Ellison thirty percent of her booking fee , and her paycheck was further reduced as Ellison deducted travel expenses , food , rent , and utilities before paying her . As a result , Johnson worked for Ellison for two years before she received any money . Johnson stated that Ellison would refuse to book certain women in her training camp if they angered her , and that Ellison monitored her and refused to let her leave the physical constraints of the training camp unless she was accompanied by someone else .
Over the years , various female wrestlers have come forward with stories accusing Ellison of being a pimp that often provided various wrestling promoters with unsuspecting female wrestlers that would be used as sex objects . One of the most notorious accusations is from the family of Sweet Georgia Brown ( Susie Mae McCoy ) . McCoy , who was trained and booked by Ellison and her then @-@ husband Buddy Lee , told her daughter that she was often raped , given drugs and made an addict in an intentional attempt by Ellison and Lee to control her . Ida Martinez , who wrestled during the 1960s , also recalls that many of the regional promoters “ demanded personal services ” before they would pay the female wrestlers . In a 2002 interview , Luna Vachon claimed that when she was sixteen years old and training at Ellison 's camp , Ellison sent her out of state to be photographed by an older man . Although she remained clothed during the photo shoot , Vachon stated she felt taken advantage of by Ellison and the older man . Vachon also stated that her aunt , Vivian Vachon , witnessed Ellison abusing alcohol and having sex with her female trainees . Sandy Parker , a lesbian former pupil of Ellison 's , also claims that Ellison forbade her from going to any gay bars and tried to press her to date men . Parker says this enranged her , because " ( Moolah ) was two faced because she had her own little dalliances that we all knew about . "
As well as allegedly exploiting female wrestlers sexually , Ellison has been accused of using her financial influence to control the women 's wrestling scene and ensure that other women did not gain greater recognition . In addition to being a key participant in the original screwjob on Wendi Richter , Ellison used her influence to take over the spot originally held by her protégé Mad Maxine on the animated series Hulk Hogan 's Rock ' n ' Wrestling . Maxine was about to receive a big push by Vince McMahon but left the WWF shortly afterwards , as Ellison was unwilling to provide her with additional bookings . Numerous other former trainees defected from Ellison after growing tired of sharing their paychecks with Ellison . Women wrestlers including Vivian and Luna Vachon , Ann Casey , and Darling Dagmar moved into other regions where Ellison had less control and negotiated their own payouts with promoters .
Both Judy Martin and Leilani Kai told in later interviews that Moolah would collect the women wrestler 's pay from promoters , and after taking out her own pay , would only give the girls half of the money they were owed ( keeping half of their pay for herself , plus her own pay ) and telling them that was all the promoter gave her to give them . Martin stated that shortly before Ellison left the WWF in 1988 ( shortly after falling out with Martin and Kai due to Ellison no longer receiving their booking fees ) , she sabotaged the duo while they were touring Japan . Martin stated that Ellison contacted Japanese promoters and informed them that the Jumping Bomb Angels were supposed to drop the WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship to The Glamour Girls before Martin and Kai returned to the United States . This was contrary to the booking decision made by Pat Patterson before the Japanese tour began . Unable to reach Patterson by telephone , Kai and Martin agreed to win the titles from the Angels since Ellison had already misinformed the Japanese promoters . Martin stated that upon returning to the United States , Patterson was angry with them and confirmed that nobody within the WWF made the decision for the title change and that due to her long @-@ standing relationship with the company , the WWF refused to listen to their explanation of Ellison 's deceit . Shortly thereafter , the WWF phased out the WWF Women 's Tag Team Championship . In a later shoot interview , Leilani Kai told that had things gone as the WWF originally planned , The Glamour Girls would have had a title match against the Jumping Bomb Angels at Wrestlemania IV and that Ellison 's actions had cost the four girls what would have been ultimately their biggest ever payday .
Women that chose to continue allowing Ellison to work as their booker were kept under tight control . Velvet McIntyre was forced to compete against Ellison ( whom McIntyre stated she didn 't care for ) at WrestleMania 2 instead of competing during an all @-@ women tour of Kuwait with a group of Ellison 's other female wrestlers . Their Wrestlemania 2 match lasted less than two minutes with the referee ignoring McIntyre 's leg being on the ropes while she was being pinned . Women that did not agree to Ellison 's booking fees faced limited options . Rhonda Sing stated that Ellison contacted her and offered to let her wrestle Richter in a couple of pay @-@ per @-@ view matches for the WWF in 1985 , but demanded she receive half of Sing 's pay check ; a stipulation Sing was unwilling to accept . Penny Banner stated that her retirement was due in large part to Ellison refusing to allow any of her female wrestlers to accept bookings against Banner , which severely limited the number of bookings that Banner was offered by promoters .
= = Other media = =
An animated version of Moolah was included on a CBS Saturday morning cartoon during this lucrative time , titled Hulk Hogan 's Rock ' n ' Wrestling . In addition , she appeared in one of Cyndi Lauper 's music videos , " The Goonies ' R ' Good Enough " . An illness in the mid @-@ 1970s meant Ellison had to pull out of the Bill Cosby movie Mother , Jugs & Speed , which had a role written specifically for her . In 2002 , Moolah wrote her autobiography , The Fabulous Moolah : First Goddess of the Squared Circle . The book has been criticized for keeping kayfabe ( the stance that wrestling storylines are real ) and did not reveal a lot about her time controlling women 's wrestling . Defending herself against these claims , Ellison retorted it was hard to fit all of her almost five decade career into one book .
Moolah and Young , along with several other female wrestlers , starred in the 2004 film Lipstick and Dynamite a documentary about the female wrestlers from the 1950s era . They also appeared on Late Night with Conan O 'Brien promoting the film .
= = Personal life = =
Ellison 's first husband was Walter Carroll , who became the father of her daughter Mary . Mary wrestled briefly but decided against pursuing the profession . Ellison had six grandchildren , five biological and one adopted . Ellison and Carroll divorced shortly after their daughter 's birth . Later , Ellison married wrestler Johnny Long . Marital conflicts developed when Long wanted Ellison to be a housewife instead of a career woman . In addition , Ellison claims Long was a " womanizer " . Ellison and Long divorced . Ellison also says that she dated country singer Hank Williams for four months in 1952 . According to Ellison , Williams proposed to her , but Williams 's drinking and heroin abuse forced the couple to go separate ways . She further claimed that he wanted Ellison to quit her wrestling career , which she did not want to do . Two months after the breakup , Williams died due to an overdose .
Later , Ellison met a wrestler named Buddy Lee , whom she claims was the " love of her life . " They were eventually married , and after divorcing in 1970 after nine years of marriage , they remained friends until Lee 's death in 1999 . The divorce was attributed to Lee 's affair with Rita Cortez , one of the wrestlers the duo was training . In the early 1980s , Ellison opened Moolah 's Hideaway , a bar and grill which was operated by her daughter Mary and frequented by André the Giant .
Beginning in 1991 , Ellison lived with Mae Young in a house in Columbia , South Carolina . Her estate was located on a road named Moolah Drive . A midget professional wrestler named Katie Glass also lived with Moolah for over 40 years . Another wrestler , Donna Christanello , also lived with Ellison on @-@ and @-@ off for 40 years , ending in May 1999 .
During her return to the ring in 1999 , Ellison began experiencing occasional dizziness , and as a result , her doctor requested that she begin to wear a heart monitor . A few days later , Ellison was admitted to the hospital for what turned out to be two clogged arteries and viral pneumonia . She stayed at the intensive @-@ care unit of the hospital for 24 days , during which she was unconscious for fifteen days . After leaving the hospital , she again slipped into unconsciousness in the bathroom at her home , crushing several vertebrae . She underwent successful back surgery in mid @-@ December .
= = = Death = = =
Ellison died on November 2 , 2007 at the age of 84 in Columbia , South Carolina . According to her daughter Mary , the possible cause of death was a heart attack or blood clot related to a recent shoulder replacement surgery . Mary Ellison is buried in a grave plot at Greenlawn Memorial Park in Columbia , South Carolina . The plot appears to be a family plot designed for The Fabulous Moolah , Mae Young , and Katie Glass .
= = In wrestling = =
Finishing moves
Backbreaker
Schoolgirl
Small package
Signature moves
Diving headscissors takedown
Jumping snapmare
Missile dropkick
The Moolah Whip ( Moolah grabs the opponent by their hair and whips them through the air )
Managers
Harvey Wippleman
Wrestlers managed
Mae Young
Terri Runnels ( WrestleMania 2000 )
Leilani Kai
The Elephant Boy
" Nature Boy " Buddy Rogers
= = Championships and accomplishments = =
Cauliflower Alley Club
Ladies Wrestling Award ( 1997 )
National Wrestling Alliance
NWA Women 's World Tag Team Championship ( 2 times ) – with Toni Rose
NWA World Women 's Championship ( 5 times )
NWA Hall of Fame ( Class of 2012 )
Pro Wrestling Illustrated
Stanley Weston Award ( 1991 )
Professional Wrestling Hall of Fame and Museum
Class of 2003
World Wrestling Federation
WWF Women 's Championship ( 8 times , inaugural )
WWF Hall of Fame ( Class of 1995 )
Wrestling Observer Newsletter
Worst Match of the Year ( 1984 ) vs. Wendi Richter on July 23
Other
JWPA Women 's Championship
USA Women 's Wrestling Championship
= Reuben P. Boise =
Reuben Patrick Boise ( June 9 , 1819 – April 10 , 1907 ) was an American attorney , judge and politician in the Oregon Territory and the early years of the state of Oregon . A native of Massachusetts , he immigrated to Oregon in 1850 , where he would twice serve on the Oregon Supreme Court for a total of 16 years , with three stints as chief justice . Early in his legal career , he worked as a district attorney .
Boise was a member of the Oregon Constitutional Convention in 1857 , served in the Territorial Legislature , and helped to codify the laws of the Oregon Territory . He also served as a circuit court judge , and was a trustee at several colleges . Educated at Williams College , he was twice married to women from Massachusetts , and had a total of five children .
= = Early life = =
Reuben Boise was born in Blandford , Massachusetts , on June 9 , 1819 , to Reuben Boise and Sally Putnam Boise . He attended Williams College in Williamstown , Massachusetts , graduating with honors in 1843 with a Bachelor of Arts degree . Upon graduation , he moved to Missouri , where he taught school for two years before returning to Massachusetts . When Boise returned , he studied law under his uncle for three years , passing the bar in 1847 . He practiced law for a few years in Chickopee Falls , Massachusetts .
= = Oregon = =
In 1850 , Boise decided to move to the Oregon Territory . To get there , he traveled by ship to Panama and crossed the Isthmus of Panama to the Pacific Ocean . He took another ship , arriving in Astoria , Oregon , at the mouth of the Columbia River later that year . In the spring of 1851 , he moved upriver to Portland and set up a law practice . In Portland , he served on the first school board . In 1851 , Boise married Ellen Francis Lyon of Boston while in San Francisco , California . Boise had become engaged to her in Massachusetts , with her and her family sailing around Cape Horn to attend the wedding . Reuben and Ellen had three sons – Reuben P. Boise , Jr . , Whitney L. , and Fisher A. – before Ellen died in 1865 .
Also in 1851 , he was appointed by Oregon Supreme Court justice Orville C. Pratt as a district attorney . In 1852 , he purchased some land in Polk County , Oregon , and renamed the community there Ellendale after his wife . In 1857 , the Boise family moved to Salem , Oregon . In 1867 , Boise married Miss Emily A. Pratt who hailed from Webster , Massachusetts . The couple had two daughters , Ellen S. and Marie E. Boise .
= = Political career = =
In 1852 , the Oregon Territorial Legislature selected Boise to be the prosecuting attorney for Districts 1 and 2 , which covered most of the Willamette Valley . He was selected again the following year and served a total of four years in that capacity . In 1853 , he represented Polk and Tillamook counties in the Territorial Legislature as a Democratic Party politician in the lower chamber House of Representatives . The following year , he was selected to help codify Oregon 's laws , along with James K. Kelly and Daniel R. Bigelow . In 1857 , Boise was a Democratic delegate to the Oregon Constitutional Convention from Polk County . While serving at the Constitutional Convention , Boise served on the Legislation Committee .
In 1857 , Boise was appointed to the Territorial Supreme Court by U.S. President James Buchanan to replace Cyrus Olney , beginning service in 1858 . He was then elected to the Oregon Supreme Court in 1859 after Oregon became a state on February 14 , 1859 . Justice Boise served until 1870 , winning re @-@ election in 1864 . After winning re @-@ election in 1870 , he resigned when the election results were contested . Boise was elected to the commission overseeing the construction of the Oregon State Capitol in 1874 .
In 1876 , he returned to the Oregon Supreme Court after winning the election . Two years later , the Oregon Legislative Assembly divided the court into the Supreme Court and the Oregon Circuit Court , and reduced the number of justices on the Supreme Court to three . With the new court , all prior judges lost their seats and the three positions were filled by appointment of the governor . Boise was appointed by Governor W. W. Thayer to the new court in 1878 , with his term ending in 1880 . During his time with the court , he served as chief justice three times ; from 1864 to 1866 , 1870 to 1872 , and 1876 to 1878 .
After leaving the state 's highest court , he was elected as a state circuit court judge for Oregon 's third judicial district in 1880 , covering Yamhill , Tillamook , Marion , Linn , and Polk counties . He served on the court until 1892 , and then entered private legal practice . After six years in private practice in Salem , Boise returned to the circuit court in 1898 . He retired from the court in July 1904 .
= = Later life and legacy = =
In his later years , Boise served on the board of trustees at Willamette University in Salem and Pacific University in Forest Grove . Pacific gave him an honorary doctor of laws degree . Additionally , he was a trustee at the La Creole Academy preparatory school in Dallas and a regent of the Oregon Agricultural College ( now Oregon State University ) . He also spent five terms as the master of the state grange association , and owned the Ellendale Woolen Mill . A public speaker , he gave speeches for the Oregon Historical Society , the Oregon Pioneer Society , and the Oregon State Bar as well as at the dedication of a monument to missionary Jason Lee .
Reuben Patrick Boise died on April 10 , 1907 , at the age of 87 in Salem , and is buried at Salem Pioneer Cemetery . Former U.S. Attorney General George Henry Williams gave the eulogy at the funeral , with many prominent politicians and officials in attendance . In honor of the former judge , the state courts adjourned for the day . At the time of his death , Boise owned more than 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 11 km2 ) of farmland spread across three farms in Marion and Polk counties . Reuben Boise road in Polk County is named in his honor , as is the R. P. Boise Building in Salem , listed on the National Register of Historic Places .
= = Works = =
" Fifty Years Reminiscences of the Bench and Bar : Speech to the Oregon Bar Association , Nov. 19 , 1902 , " Weekly Oregon Statesman [ Salem ] , Nov. 21 , 1902 , pp. 6 , 8 .
= Larry David =
Lawrence Gene " Larry " David ( born July 2 , 1947 ) is an American comedian , writer , actor , and television producer . He and Jerry Seinfeld created the television series Seinfeld , and he served as its head writer and executive producer from 1989 to 1996 . David has subsequently gained further recognition for the HBO series Curb Your Enthusiasm , which he also created , in which he stars as a semi @-@ fictionalized version of himself .
David 's work won him a Primetime Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series in 1993 . Formerly a stand @-@ up comedian , David went into television comedy , writing and starring in ABC 's Fridays , as well as writing briefly for Saturday Night Live . He has won two Primetime Emmy Awards as well as being voted by fellow comedians and comedy insiders as number 23 of the greatest comedy stars ever in a 2004 British poll to select " The Comedian 's Comedian " .
= = Early life = =
David was born in the neighborhood of Sheepshead Bay , in Brooklyn , New York , the son of Rose ( née Ratner ) and Morty David , who was a men 's clothing manufacturer . His family is Jewish . He graduated from Sheepshead Bay High School , and then from the University of Maryland with a bachelor 's degree in History , before graduating in Business Administration from Maryland 's Robert H. Smith School of Business . After college , he enlisted in the United States Army Reserve .
= = Career = =
While a stand @-@ up comedian , David also worked as a store clerk , limousine driver , and historian . He lived in Manhattan Plaza , a federally subsidized housing complex in the Hell 's Kitchen neighborhood of Manhattan , across the hall from Kenny Kramer , the inspiration for the Cosmo Kramer character in Seinfeld . David then became a writer for and cast member of ABC 's Fridays from 1980 to 1982 , and a writer for NBC 's Saturday Night Live ( SNL ) from 1984 to 1985 . During his time at SNL , he was able to get only one sketch on the show , which aired at 12 : 50 AM , the last time slot on the show .
David quit his writing job at SNL in the first season , only to show up to work a few days later acting as though nothing had happened . That event inspired a second @-@ season episode of Seinfeld entitled " The Revenge " . David met his future Seinfeld stars during that early stage of his career : he worked with Michael Richards ( Kramer ) on Fridays and with Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ( Elaine ) on SNL . He can be heard heckling Michael McKean when McKean hosted SNL in 1984 , and he can be seen in the sketch " The Run , Throw , and Catch Like a Girl Olympics " when Howard Cosell hosted the season finale in 1985 .
= = = Seinfeld = = =
In 1989 , David teamed up with comedian Jerry Seinfeld to create a pilot for NBC called The Seinfeld Chronicles , which became the basis for Seinfeld , one of the most successful shows in history , reaching the top of TV Guide 's list of the 50 greatest TV shows of all time . Entertainment Weekly ranked it the third @-@ best TV show of all time . David made occasional uncredited appearances on the show , playing such roles as Frank Costanza 's cape @-@ wearing lawyer and the voice of George Steinbrenner . He was also the primary inspiration for the show 's character George Costanza . David left Seinfeld on friendly terms after the seventh season but returned to write the series finale in 1998 , two years later . He also continued to provide the voice for the Steinbrenner character .
David wrote 62 of the episodes of Seinfeld , including 1992 's " The Contest " , for which he won a Primetime Emmy Award and which TV Guide ranked the episode No. 1 on its list of " TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time " . Syndication of Seinfeld earned David an estimated US $ 250 million in 1998 alone . This amount has been steadily decreasing each year , but payments will continue until the full $ 1 @.@ 7 billion from the original deal has been paid . In 2008 David made $ 55 million from Seinfeld syndication , DVD sales , and Curb Your Enthusiasm . He was nominated for an Emmy award 19 times for Seinfeld , winning twice – once for best comedy and once for writing .
= = = Curb Your Enthusiasm = = =
The HBO cable television channel aired David 's 1 @-@ hour special , Larry David : Curb Your Enthusiasm , on October 17 , 1999 . This was followed by Curb Your Enthusiasm , a television series on HBO that aired its first episode on October 15 , 2000 . The show revisits many of the themes of Seinfeld , and is improvised from a story outline only several pages long that David writes ( as of the 5th season , additional writers were hired ) .
The actors improvise their dialogue based on the story outline , direction , and their own creativity . David has said that his character in the show , a fictionalized version of himself , is what he would be like in real life if he lacked social awareness and sensitivity . The character 's numerous and frequent social faux pas , misunderstandings , and ironic coincidences are the basis of much of the show 's comedy and have led to the entry into the American pop culture lexicon of the expression " Larry David moment " , meaning an inadvertently created socially awkward situation .
The basis of the show is the events in David 's life following the fortune he earned from the Seinfeld series ; David , semi @-@ retired , strives to live a fulfilled life . Alongside David is his wife Cheryl ( played by Cheryl Hines ) , his manager and best friend Jeff ( played by Jeff Garlin ) , and Jeff 's wife Susie ( played by Susie Essman ) . Celebrities , including comedians Bob Einstein , Wanda Sykes , and Richard Lewis , appear on the show regularly . Actors Ted Danson and Mary Steenburgen have had recurring roles as themselves .
The show is critically acclaimed and has been nominated for 30 Primetime Emmy Awards , with one win , as well as one Golden Globe win . In the first six seasons , Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus and Jason Alexander appeared in several episodes , and Jerry Seinfeld made a cameo . In season 7 , the cast of Seinfeld , including Michael Richards , returned in a story arc involving David 's attempt to organize a Seinfeld reunion special .
On Wednesday , June 2 , 2010 , the series premiered on the TV Guide Network , making its network television debut . TV Guide Network also produced a series of related discussions with high @-@ profile guest stars , media pundits , and prominent social figures called " Curb : The Discussion " debating the moral implications depicted in each episode . David is quoted as saying " Finally , thanks to the TV Guide Network , I 'll get a chance to watch actual , intelligent people discuss and debate the issues addressed on ' Curb ' . Now if only someone could tell me where this alleged ' Network ' is , I might even watch it . "
= = = Other projects = = =
David has also been involved in other films and television series . David wrote and directed the 1998 film Sour Grapes , about two cousins who feud over a casino jackpot . It was neither a commercial nor a critical success . He appeared in minor parts in two Woody Allen films – Radio Days and New York Stories – before taking the leading role in Allen 's New York @-@ based comedy film Whatever Works ( 2009 ) . Because his daughters were Hannah Montana fans , David , along with his daughters , guest @-@ starred , as themselves , in the episode " My Best Friend 's Boyfriend , " in which they were waiting for a table at a fancy restaurant . David had a cameo appearance on the HBO series Entourage as a client of Ari Gold , and also appeared as a panelist on the NBC series The Marriage Ref . During the 2008 U.S Presidential Election , David supported and actively campaigned for Barack Obama . In December 2010 , David penned an op @-@ ed piece for The New York Times , a sardonic critique of the extension of Bush @-@ era tax cuts headlined " Thanks for the Tax Cut ! " David played Sister Mary @-@ Mengele in the 2012 reboot of The Three Stooges . David co @-@ wrote and starred in the 2013 HBO television film Clear History .
David stars in the Broadway play Fish In The Dark , which he also wrote , alongside Rita Wilson , Jayne Houdyshell and Rosie Perez . The play centers on the death of a family patriarch and opened March 5 , 2015 . As of February 1 , 2015 , its advance sale of $ 13 @.@ 5 million had broken records for a Broadway show .
In 2015 and 2016 , David had multiple guest appearances portraying 2016 U.S. presidential candidate Bernie Sanders on Saturday Night Live ; he also hosted the show on February 6 , 2016 , with musical guest The 1975 and a cameo from Sanders himself .
= = Personal life = =
David married Laurie Lennard on March 31 , 1993 . They have two daughters , and lived in Pacific Palisades , California . David and his wife became contributing bloggers at The Huffington Post in May 2005 . On June 5 , 2007 , the couple announced their intention to separate amicably . Laurie David filed for divorce on July 13 , 2007 , citing irreconcilable differences and seeking joint custody of the couple 's two daughters . As of 2013 , David 's estimated net worth was $ 900 million . However , the estimate according to a former Reuters reporter does not take into account the divorce . David also disputes the figure , saying he has nowhere near that amount .
The results of a DNA test shown live on Lopez Tonight in 2009 revealed that 37 % of David 's ethnic lineage might be Native American , though some criticism was shared about the method of testing that the show used . Specifically : " The best known quirk of the test Lopez Tonight is using is its problem distinguishing between Iberian , Italian , and Ashkenazi heritage . Many people of Iberian , Italian and Ashkenazi heritage are assigned Native American ancestry - and Larry David is Ashkenazi . "
= = Awards and nominations = =
Nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for various episodes of Seinfeld from 1991 – 1994 .
Won an Emmy Award for Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series for the Seinfeld episode , The Contest , in 1993 .
Shared an Emmy Award for Outstanding Comedy Series for Seinfeld with co @-@ creator , Jerry Seinfeld .
Nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Television Series – Musical or Comedy for his role in Curb Your Enthusiasm in 2002 , 2004 , & 2005 .
Voted by fellow comedians and comedy insiders as number 23 of the greatest comedy stars ever in a poll to select The Comedian 's Comedian .
Nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Lead Actor in a Comedy Series for his role in Curb Your Enthusiasm in 2003 , 2004 , 2006 , 2010 and 2012 .
Laurel Award for TV Writing Achievement from the Writers Guild of America in 2010 .
= = Filmography = =
= = = Films = = =
= = = Television = = =
= = Theatre = =
= Canada 's Walk of Fame =
Canada 's Walk of Fame ( French : Allée des célébrités canadiennes ) , located in Toronto , Ontario , Canada , is a walk of fame that acknowledges the achievements and accomplishments of successful Canadians . It consists of a series of maple leaf @-@ like stars embedded in 13 designated blocks ' worth of sidewalks in Toronto , located in front of Roy Thomson Hall , The Princess of Wales Theatre , and The Royal Alexandra Theatre on King Street as well as Simcoe Street .
The first group of members was inducted in 1998 , and to date 163 Canadians have been inducted into Canada 's Walk of Fame . These Inductees include athletes ; coaches ; actors , directors , writers and producers of movies , television and stage ; singers , songwriters and musicians ; playwrights ; authors ; comedians ; cartoonists and models .
= = History = =
The Walk of Fame was first conceived in 1996 when co @-@ founder , Peter Soumalias , suggested the idea of a Walk of Fame for famous Torontonians to the board of the Toronto Entertainment District Association . They rejected his idea , but he went on to establish a Walk of Fame for Canadians in partnership with Bill Ballard , Dusty Cohl and Gary Slaight . In spite of a lack of funds , research and no media plan , they managed to succeed and the first class of inductees was inducted in 1998 . Canada 's Walk of Fame has since become a popular tourist attraction in Toronto and has been named the number one Canadian recognition event .
= = Walk of Fame = =
= = = Induction process = = =
Canada 's Walk of Fame accepts nominations for potential inductees from the public year round , culminating with their National Nomination Promotion during the month of April . In 2000 , prior to the introduction of the online voting system , over 30 @,@ 000 nominations were received via letters , fax and e @-@ mail . Now submissions are accepted on the official Canada 's Walk of Fame website and thousands of nominations are received every year , which are then sent to selection committee for consideration .
The committee then analyzes the nominees based on the following criteria : the nominee was born in Canada or has spent their formative or creative years in Canada ; they have had a minimum of 10 years experience in their field ; they have had a national or international impact on Canada ’ s Cultural heritage . Following the Selection Committee 's evaluation , the nominees that meet all of the requirements are forwarded to the board of directors , who then select the inductees .
The process differs greatly from that of the Hollywood Walk of Fame . The Hollywood version allows only celebrities of the silver screen , television , radio , live theatre and singers / musicians , while Canada 's Walk allows people of more diverse occupations , as listed above . While most celebrities on the Hollywood Walk of Fame are American or have achieved their fame in the United States , Canada 's Walk of Fame is exclusive to Canadians . For someone to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame , they must be nominated by a sponsor who must agree to field the approximately $ 25 @,@ 000 cost of installing a star . From there , the names are submitted to a nominating committee of five people , who pick 10 – 15 names to award stars to annually . The only criteria for it are : " professional achievement , longevity of five years or more , contributions to the community and the guarantee that the celebrity will attend the dedication ceremony if selected . "
Canadian stars are inducted in an annual group ceremony ; while the Hollywood Walk of Fame rarely inducts more than two major stars at a time . Celebrities can have more than one star on the Hollywood Walk , the same celebrity can receive as many as five stars under the various categories . This does not happen with Canada 's Walk of Fame , although some may have an individual star but are also included as part of a larger group , such as John Candy , Martin Short , Eugene Levy and Catherine O 'Hara who have their own star but also were in Second City Television .
= = = Induction ceremony = = =
New inductees are inducted annually at an unveiling ceremony where their star , a stylized maple leaf , is revealed . The first was held in 1998 and only four of the twelve living inductees attended : Karen Kain , Norman Jewison , Barbara Ann Scott and Rich Little . The 2007 ceremony was held at Toronto 's Hummingbird Centre , was attended by all seven inductees and was hosted by Eugene Levy .
Past hosts include Trish Stratus , Tom Green , Jann Arden , Kurt Browning and Catriona Le May Doan . The ceremony was broadcast by CTV until 2008 . Beginning in 2009 the ceremony was broadcast by Global . The first ceremony on the network was hosted by Anne Murray while Howie Mandel hosted for the following two years . Paul Shaffer hosted the event in 2012 .
= = Awards = =
= = = Cineplex Legends Award = = =
Established in 2008 , the Cineplex Legends Award is posthumously awarded to " Canadian pioneers in film , music , sport , arts , and innovation . " Sponsored by Cineplex Entertainment , the first recipients of the award were siblings Norma and Douglas Shearer . The award recipients are also given stars on the Walk of Fame .
= = = Allan Slaight Award = = =
First awarded in 2010 , the Allan Slaight Award , named after the leading figure in the Canadian radio industry , is awarded to a young Canadian for " making a positive impact in the fields of music , film , literature , visual or performing arts , sports , innovation or philanthropy . " Recipients receive an honorarium of $ 10 @,@ 000 from the Slaight Foundation , but are not considered inductees of the Walk of Fame . So far , recipients of the Slaight award have been Nikki Yanofsky , Drake , Melanie Fiona , Carly Rae Jepsen , The Weeknd and Shawn Mendes .
= = Initiatives & Programs = =
In recent years , Canada 's Walk of Fame undertaken several new initiatives and programs .
= = = Canada 's Walk of Fame Festival = = =
The Canada 's Walk of Fame Festival was established in 2010 . The festival spans 3 days , culminating with the Canada 's Walk of Fame Awards Show . Since its inaugural year , the festival has included musical performances from Canadian artists such as Sarah McLachlan , Serena Ryder , Crystal Shawanda , Tom Cochrane and Melanie Fiona . In addition to the musical performances , the festival has included both screenings of Canadian films , as well as comedy programming from Canadian comedy acts .
= = = RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize = = =
In 2012 , in partnership with RBC , Canada 's Walk of Fame launched the RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize competition . Valued at more than $ 100 @,@ 000 , the initiative aims to support the next generation of gifted Canadian musicians . Aspiring young musicians are asked to submit a 60 sec. musical audio or video performance for their chance to win the Grand Prize of $ 25 @,@ 000 cash , recording time , performance opportunities and much more . Taylor Kurta was the competitions inaugural Grand Prize Winner . The 2014 RBC Emerging Artist Music Mentorship Prize was awarded to NEFE ( Sarah Felker ) from Guelph , ON .
= = Criticism = =
In 1998 , Laurie Brown of the CBC criticized the Walk of Fame , calling it " just an attraction to lure tourists to theatres in the area . " She claimed that it would only honour Canadians with international impact , saying " if it was truly for Canadians , then I think there would be more of a national bend to the whole thing . But I doubt I 'm going to see a star on the Walk of Fame that is only a known @-@ name here in Canada . "
In September 2010 , William Shatner commented on Twitter regarding damage to his star on the Walk of Fame : " I hear my star on the Canadian Walk of Fame is a bit frazzled ... but , then again , so am I. I wonder if anybody hovering around that area can tell me what ’ s wrong with it and what needs fixing . " The family of Gordie Howe also commented on the damage to Gordie 's star . The Canadian Press reported that " A number of celebrities ' stars are looking a bit rough around the edges . " The president of the Walk of Fame stated that damage was due to the freezing and thawing during Canadian winters and also sidewalk snowplows . It was announced that the city of Toronto would replace Shatner and Howe 's damaged tiles , and the Walk of Fame was looking into an alternative to installing the plaques on a sidewalk where they are subjected to harsh environmental conditions .
= Robert R. Wilson =
Robert Rathbun Wilson ( March 4 , 1914 – January 16 , 2000 ) was an American physicist known for his work on the Manhattan Project during World War II , as a sculptor , and as an architect of the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory ( Fermilab ) , where he was the first director from 1967 to 1978 .
A graduate of the University of California , Berkeley ( BA and PhD ) , Wilson received his doctorate under the supervision of Ernest Lawrence for his work on the development of the cyclotron at the Berkeley Radiation Laboratory . He subsequently went to Princeton University to work with Henry DeWolf Smyth on electromagnetic separation of the isotopes of uranium . In 1943 , Wilson and many of his colleagues joined the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos Laboratory , where Wilson became the head of its Cyclotron Group ( R @-@ 1 ) , and later its Research ( R ) Division .
After the war , Wilson briefly joined the faculty of Harvard University as an associate professor , then went to Cornell University as professor of physics and the director of its new Laboratory of Nuclear Studies . Wilson and his Cornell colleagues constructed four electron synchrotrons . In 1967 he assumed directorship of the National Accelerator Laboratory , subsequently known as the Fermilab . He managed to complete the facility on time and under budget , but at the same time made it aesthetically pleasing , with a main administrative building purposely reminiscent of the Beauvais Cathedral , and a restored prairie with a herd of American Bison . He resigned in 1978 in a protest against inadequate government funding .
= = Early life = =
Robert Rathbun Wilson was born in Frontier , Wyoming , in 1914 , the son of Platt Elvin and Edith Elizabeth ( Rathbun ) Wilson . He had an older sister , Mary Jane . His parents separated when he was eight years old , and custody was awarded to his father , although he lived with his mother from time to time . Much of his early life was spent on cattle ranches . He changed schools frequently , and attended a number of schools , including the Todd School in Woodstock , Illinois , where his grandmother worked .
Wilson entered the University of California , Berkeley , in 1932 , and was awarded his Bachelor of Arts ( AB ) degree cum laude in 1936 . He joined Ernest O. Lawrence 's Radiation Laboratory , which was at that time blossoming into the top American site for both experimental and theoretical physics due to the efforts of Lawrence and J. Robert Oppenheimer , respectively . Wilson received his Doctor of Philosophy ( PhD ) in 1940 for his thesis on " Theory of the Cyclotron " . That year he married Jane Inez Scheyer .
Wilson ran into trouble with Lawrence 's harsh frugality while working on his cyclotron and was fired twice from the Radiation Laboratory . The first time was for losing a rubber seal in the 37 @-@ inch cyclotron which prevented its use in a demonstration to a potential donor . He was later rehired at Luis Alvarez 's urging , but melted an expensive pair of pliers whilst welding , and was fired again . Though offered his job back , he decided instead to go to Princeton University to work with Henry DeWolf Smyth .
= = Manhattan Project = =
At Princeton , Wilson eventually took over Smyth 's project the development of an alternative approach to electromagnetic separation from Lawrence 's calutron method , used for the purpose of separating the fissile uranium @-@ 235 isotope of uranium from the much more common uranium @-@ 238 , which is a key step to producing an atomic bomb . By 1941 the project had produced a device called the " isotron , " which , unlike the calutron , used an electrical field to separate the uranium instead of a magnetic one .
The work at Princeton was terminated during World War II when Oppenheimer 's secret laboratory for research on the atomic bomb , the Manhattan Project 's Los Alamos National Laboratory , opened in 1943 . " Like a bunch of professional soldiers , " Wilson later recalled , " we signed up , en masse , to go to Los Alamos . "
Wilson moved there with some of his Princeton staff and Harvard University 's cyclotron , and was appointed as head of the Cyclotron Group ( R @-@ 1 ) by Oppenheimer . Only in his late twenties , he was the youngest group leader in the experimental division . The cyclotron would be used for measurements of the neutron cross section of plutonium .
When Oppenheimer reorganized the laboratory in August 1944 to focus on the development of an implosion @-@ type nuclear weapon , Wilson became head of R ( Research ) Division . As such he had four groups reporting to him : the Cyclotron Group ( R @-@ 1 ) , still headed by himself ; the Electrostatic Group ( R @-@ 2 ) , headed by John H. Williams ; the D @-@ D ( Deuterium @-@ Deuterium ) Group ( R @-@ 3 ) , headed by John H. Manley ; and the Radioactivity Group ( R @-@ 4 ) , headed by Emilio G. Segrè . In March 1945 , R Division acquired the additional responsibility of developing instrumentation for the Trinity nuclear test in July 1945 . Wilson helped stack boxes of explosives for the 100 @-@ ton test that preceded it . At Los Alamos , he was also active in community affairs , serving on the town council .
In May 1945 , when Nazi Germany surrendered , and the initial motivation for the crash atomic bomb project dissipated as it was discovered that the German nuclear energy project was years behind , Wilson raised the question of whether they should continue with their work . News of this met with an icy reception from Major General Leslie Groves , director of the Manhattan Project . In later life , when interviewed in the Oscar @-@ nominated documentary The Day After Trinity ( 1980 ) , Wilson would say that he should have strongly considered ceasing work on the bomb after the surrender of Germany , and regretted not doing so to some extent .
After the atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki , Wilson helped organize the Association of Los Alamos Scientists ( ALAS ) , which called , with a scientists ' petition , for the international control of atomic energy . The petition was carried by Oppenheimer to Washington , D.C. , eventually making its way via Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson to President Harry S. Truman .
= = Post @-@ World War II = =
After the war , Wilson also helped form the Federation of American Scientists and served as its chairman in 1946 . He accepted an appointment as an associate professor at Harvard , but spent the first eight months of 1946 at Berkeley designing a new 150 MeV cyclotron for Harvard to replace the one taken to Los Alamos . At Harvard , Wilson published a seminal paper , " Radiological Use of Fast Protons " , which founded the field of proton therapy .
= = = Cornell = = =
In 1947 Wilson went to Cornell University as professor of physics and the director of its new Laboratory of Nuclear Studies . At Cornell , Wilson and his colleagues constructed four electron synchrotrons . The first , a 300 MeV synchrotron , was under construction when he arrived . In a 1948 report to the Office of Naval Research , he described their purpose :
The most important problems of nuclear physics , to our minds are : What are the elementary particles of which nuclei are made and what is the nature of the forces that hold these particles together ? A more general but connected problem concerns the general expression of electrical laws at such high energies as will be produced by our synchrotron . Our experiments are planned to attack all three problems . Thus we hope to produce artificial mesons which are supposedly elementary particles and to study the interactions of these mesons with nuclei . Further , we shall explore the electrical interactions of high energy electrons with electrons and protons in search of evidence pointing to a correct theory of electricity at high energy .
Wilson initiated the construction of a 1 @.@ 4 GeV synchrotron in 1952 . As he had foreseen in 1948 , it produced artificial K mesons and rho mesons , and tested quantum electrodynamics at short distances . The last machine he built at Cornell was a 12 GeV synchrotron that remains in use as an injector for the Cornell Electron Storage Ring ( CESR ) , built between 1977 and 1999 . It is located in what is now known as the Wilson Synchrotron Laboratory .
Wilson was one of the first physicists to use Monte Carlo methods , which he used to model electron and proton initiated particle showers . He invented the quantometer so that he could measure the intensity of high @-@ energy X @-@ ray beams .
= = = Fermilab = = =
In 1967 he took a leave of absence from Cornell to assume directorship of the nascent National Accelerator Laboratory at Batavia , Illinois , which was to be largest particle accelerator constructed to date . In 1969 , Wilson was called to justify the multimillion @-@ dollar machine to the Congressional Joint Committee on Atomic Energy . Bucking the trend of the day , Wilson emphasized it had nothing at all to do with national security , rather :
It only has to do with the respect with which we regard one another , the dignity of men , our love of culture ... It has to do with : Are we good painters , good sculptors , great poets ? I mean all the things that we really venerate and honor in our country and are patriotic about . In that sense , this new knowledge has all to do with honor and country but it has nothing to do directly with defending our country except to help make it worth defending .
Thanks to Wilson 's talented leadership , a management style very much adopted from Lawrence , the facility was completed on time and under budget . According to Wilson , he gave Atomic Energy Commission chairman Glenn T. Seaborg his assurance " signed in blood " that he would not exceed the authorized $ 250 million budget and " would rot in Hell " if he did . The facility centered on a four @-@ mile circumference , 400 GeV accelerator . Wilson subsequently initiated the design of the Tevatron , a 1 TeV particle accelerator . The National Accelerator Laboratory , was renamed the Fermi National Accelerator Laboratory in 1974 , after Enrico Fermi . It is frequently referred to as " Fermilab " .
Wilson had studied sculpture at the Accademia di Belle Arti di Firenze in Italy while on sabbatical in 1961 , and he wanted Fermilab to be an appealing place to work , believing that external harmony would encourage internal harmony as well , and labored personally to keep it from looking like a stereotypical " government lab " , playing a key role in its design and architecture . Surrounding the facility was a restored prairie which served as a home to a herd of American Bison that started with Wilson bringing in a bull and four cows in 1969 .
The site also had ponds , and a main building purposely reminiscent of the Beauvais Cathedral . Fermilab also celebrates his role as a sculptor , featuring several of his works , including " The Mobius Strip " , " The Hyperbolic Obelisk " , " Tractricious " , and " Broken Symmetry " . Another metal sculpture " Topological III " sits in the lobby of the Harvard Science Center . Fermilab 's Central Laboratory building was named Robert Rathbun Wilson Hall in his honor in 1980 .
Wilson served as the director of Fermilab until 1978 , when he resigned in protest against what he considered was inadequate funding by the Federal government . He then joined the faculty of the University of Chicago as Ritzma Professor at the Enrico Fermi Institute . He became Emeritus Professor of Physics at Chicago in 1980 . He moved to Columbia University , where he became I. I. Rabi Visiting Professor of Science and Human Relations in 1979 , Michael I. Pupin Professor of Physics in 1980 , and Emeritus Professor in 1982 . He retired in 1983 and moved back to Ithaca , NY .
= = Awards and honors = =
Wilson received many awards and honors , including the Elliott Cresson Medal from the Franklin Institute in 1964 , the National Medal of Science in 1973 , and the Department of Energy 's Enrico Fermi Award in 1984 . He was elected to the National Academy of Sciences and the American Philosophical Society , and was president of the American Physical Society in 1985 .
= = Death = =
Wilson suffered a stroke in 1999 , from which he never recovered . He died on January 16 , 2000 , at the age of 85 , at a nursing home in Ithaca , New York , and was buried at the 19th @-@ century Pioneer Cemetery on the Fermilab site . He was survived by his wife , Jane ; his three sons , Daniel , Jonathan and Rand ; and his sister , Mary Jane Greenhill . His papers are in the Cornell University Library .
= Props ( Glee ) =
" Props " is the twentieth episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the sixty @-@ fourth overall . Written and directed by Ian Brennan , the episode is the first of two new episodes that aired back @-@ to @-@ back on Fox in the United States on May 15 , 2012 . It features New Directions preparing a new performance routine for the impending Nationals competition , an extended sequence in which Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) has a vision of the glee club having swapped roles , including herself as Rachel , and an appearance by special guest star Whoopi Goldberg as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux .
The episode received mostly positive reviews overall , though reaction to the musical performances was not as strong . The body @-@ swap sequence was given an enthusiastic reception . The scenes featuring Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) were also much praised , and in particular the pair 's acting was highlighted . Their performance of the song " Mean " , by contrast , received the most divergent reactions from reviewers , yet it was the one song from the four singles released from the episode to chart in North America , and debuted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 .
Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 6 @.@ 09 million American viewers and received a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership was down significantly from " Prom @-@ asaurus " the week before .
= = Plot = =
When New Directions starts planning a setlist for the impending Nationals competition , Tina ( Jenna Ushkowitz ) is frustrated that Rachel ( Lea Michele ) is again singing lead while she remains stuck in the background , and walks out . When Rachel tries to bribe her to withdraw her objections , she tells Rachel that she wants to experience a standing ovation of her own . Tina later falls into a fountain and strikes her head , which causes her to experience a vision in which all of the glee club members have switched roles , — most notably , she sees herself as Rachel and Rachel as Tina . " Rachel " performs " Because You Loved Me " , and the club gives her a standing ovation . She thanks " Tina " for her support , and " Tina " in turn gives " Rachel " advice on how to salvage her failed NYADA audition . After Tina comes back to reality , she conveys that advice : Rachel should see NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux ( Whoopi Goldberg ) in person — she is conducting a master class at Oberlin . Tina drives Rachel there , but Carmen has been annoyed by Rachel 's repeated messages and says she does not deserve any special attention . Tina disagrees , telling Carmen that although Rachel wants whatever she can gets and is " a pain in the ass " , but retorts that Rachel gets it all because she is exceptional . Rachel invites Carmen to attend their Nationals performance , and pledges to audition for NYADA every year until she is accepted .
Sue ( Jane Lynch ) announces that rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline is the team to beat , thanks mostly to its transgender lead singer Wade " Unique " Adams ( Alex Newell ) , who has become a media star . Sue decides that New Directions needs a similar gimmick to win and she tells Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) to dress in drag , but he adamantly refuses . Puck ( Mark Salling ) dons a dress and volunteers to lead the drag number , but Will vetoes the gimmickry and refocuses the group on its choreography .
Santana ( Naya Rivera ) , Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , and Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) are worried because Coach Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) has not left her abusive husband , Cooter ( Eric Bruskotter ) , as she claimed . Beiste tells them that adult relationships are more complex and insists she is fine . Hockey player Rick " The Stick " ( Rock Anthony ) ridicules Puck for being seen in the dress ; they agree to a fight outside the school . Rick gains the upper hand and Puck is thrown into a dumpster , but he emerges brandishing a switchblade . Coach Beiste breaks up the fight ; in the locker room , Puck tells her that the knife is a fake stage prop , and she retorts that he could have gotten expelled . Puck replies that he is flunking out anyway and a failure , telling her that she does not know what it feels like to be worthless . He breaks down , and Beiste comforts him as he cries . At home , Beiste tells Cooter that she is leaving him , and removes her wedding ring . He asks who else would love her ; she answers : " Me " . Back at the school auditorium , she joins Puck in singing " Mean " , tells him that she has arranged for him to retake a crucial test to graduate , and promises to help him pass . As the episode ends , Rachel and Tina sing " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " , and board the glee club 's bus to Nationals .
= = Production = =
This episode was written by Glee co @-@ creator Ian Brennan , who also made his directorial debut in this episode . While the first scenes for the episode were shot on March 30 , 2012 , on a day that also saw scenes shot for the previous two episodes , shooting on the episode began in earnest on Monday , April 9 , 2012 , after the completion of the prior episode at the end of the week before . Filming continued into the following week at least through Wednesday , April 18 , 2012 , by which point the next episode had begun shooting in parallel .
The plot has Tina suffering a " mild " head injury — she falls into a fountain — that causes her to see an alternate reality version of New Directions : actors playing club members had to swap roles with another actor in the cast . Chris Colfer , who normally plays Kurt Hummel , said that the portrayals " were really hard to nail — they 're not over the top by any means " . Pairs who are swapping roles include Tina and Rachel , Kurt and Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Mike ( Harry Shum , Jr . ) and Joe ( Samuel Larsen ) , Puck and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , Artie ( Kevin McHale ) and Santana , Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Sugar ( Vanessa Lengies ) , Rory ( Damian McGinty ) and Sam ( Chord Overstreet ) , Mercedes and Brittany , and Will and Sue .
In addition to those mentioned above , other recurring roles include football coach Shannon Beiste ( Jones ) and her husband , football recruiter Cooter Menkins ( Bruskotter ) , and Newell as Vocal Adrealine lead singer Wade " Unique " Adams . Special guest star Whoopi Goldberg returns for a second appearance as NYADA dean Carmen Tibideaux .
Four songs from the episode were released in the US as singles available for digital download : Taylor Swift 's " Mean " performed by Jones and Salling , Jason Mraz 's " I Won 't Give Up " performed by Michele , Irene Cara 's " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " performed by Michele and Ushkowitz , and Celine Dion 's " Because You Loved Me " performed by Ushkowitz as Rachel . " I Won 't Give Up " is also featured on the soundtrack album Glee : The Music , The Graduation Album . A fifth song , an excerpt of " Always True to You in My Fashion " from Kiss Me Kate , is performed by an unnamed male student ( Derek L. Butler ) singing in a master class for Carmen ; it was not released as a single .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Props " was first broadcast on May 15 , 2012 in the United States on Fox . It aired at the usual time for an episode as the first hour in a two @-@ hour special evening with " Nationals " as the second hour . It received a 2 @.@ 5 / 8 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and attracted 6 @.@ 09 million American viewers during its initial airing , down from the 2 @.@ 7 / 8 rating / share and 6 @.@ 67 million viewers of the previous episode , " Prom @-@ asaurus " , which was broadcast on May 8 , 2012 . Viewership was down significantly in Canada , which also aired the episode as the first hour of a two @-@ episode special , where 1 @.@ 34 million viewers watched the episode on the same day as its American premiere , down over 18 % . It was the fourteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down from thirteenth in the previous week , when 1 @.@ 65 million viewers watched " Prom @-@ asaurus " .
Although the United Kingdom also aired these two episodes together , viewership rose rather than fell . " Props " first aired on May 17 , 2012 , and was watched on Sky 1 by 795 @,@ 000 viewers . This was an increase of nearly 7 % from the previous episode , " Prom @-@ asaurus " , which attracted 744 @,@ 000 viewers when it aired the week before . In Australia , " Props " was broadcast on May 17 , 2012 , but unlike in the other three countries , it was the only episode broadcast that week . It was watched by 607 @,@ 000 viewers , a decrease of over 4 % from the 636 @,@ 000 viewers for " Prom @-@ asaurus " on May 10 , 2012 . Glee was the seventeenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from thirteenth the week before .
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received mostly positive reviews . John Kubicek of BuddyTV called it " easily my favorite episode of the past two seasons , and quite possibly one of the best episodes the show has ever made " . Damian Holbrook of TV Guide described it and the episode that followed , " Nationals " , as " clever , funny and filled with moments that felt like little gifts to the fans who have hung in there " . Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson said the " double feature continued the recent hot streak " of episodes , and Michael Slezak of TVLine highlighted this episode 's " script that winkingly acknowledged fan complaints that Ryan Murphy & Co. all too often ignore some of Glee 's original players in favor of new and more @-@ hyped flavors " . The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff wrote that it showcased writer and director Ian Brennan 's " strengths of acid comedy and sad stories of small @-@ town teenagers who 'll never get anything but to sweat it out on the streets of a runaway American dream " ; he gave " Props " a " B " grade . Rae Votta of Billboard said , " It felt organically Glee , zany but with heart . "
E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins thought the body @-@ swap sequence " breathed fresh ' n ' crazy air into Glee " , and Kubicek called it " the best thing Glee has ever done and will ever do " . Jyll Saskin of MTV said it was " super trippy , makes no sense plot @-@ wise " and was a " totally awesome Glee moment " ; Entertainment Weekly 's Erin Strecker wrote that " the entire cast deserved an MVP award for their completely on @-@ point mannerisms " , and singled out " Finn and Puck all snuggly together , holding hands and dressed up like Kurt and Blaine " . VanDerWerff , however , described it as a " totally odd curiosity that comes out of nowhere " , and said that the car trip taken by Tina and Rachel later in the episode was more successful at showing Tina " what Rachel 's life is like " . Kubicek called the offer of the trip and subsequent drive a " sweet bonding moment " between the pair , and called it " great " that " Tina is the one who saves the day " at the meeting with Carmen , but Chaney wondered why it took Rachel two episodes to regain her drive and aspirations .
The scenes with Puck and Beiste were much praised , as were the actors . While reviewers such as Bell and VanDerWerff criticized the domestic abuse storyline , both were far happier with the way it was ended than with how it had been introduced in " Choke " — VanDerWerff wrote that " the fact that both Puck and Beiste 's storylines resolve at the same time in the same scene is a nice piece of writing , with some strong acting " . Votta called the pair 's scenes " delightful " and thought they merited a " road trip adventure spin @-@ off " ; Bell said that she " could have seriously watched an hour dedicated to Beiste and Puck " . Slezak highlighted " terrific work " by Jones and Salling , and the scenes with " Beiste holding a sobbing Puck " and confronting Cooter as " pretty remarkable " . Strecker called the latter scene " painful to watch , in the best possible way " , and Bell described Salling 's performance in the former as " truly incredible " .
= = = Music and performances = = =
The musical performances were greeted with somewhat less enthusiasm than the episode as a whole , and given mixed to positive reviews . An example of this was the song 's opening number , " I Won 't Give Up " . Saskin wrote that " Rachel sings Jason Mraz , like everything else , beautifully " , while Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman credits her for having made a " sappy ballad mildly more tolerable " . Strecker gave the performance a " B + " grade and called it a " classic Berry power ballad " ; " B " grades were given by Slezak and Washington Post 's Jen Chaney , who also noted Rachel 's " vocal power " .
" Because You Loved Me " performed by Tina as Rachel received the most consistently positive reviews , though both Chaney , who gave the song an " A − " , and Strecker , who graded it a " B + " , stated their belief that the real Rachel would have done it better , and Saskin was more blunt : " We love you , Tina , but you just can 't belt like Rachel " . Futterman was the most pleased , and wrote : " The richness of her voice removes some of the Lite FM softness embedded in the tune , and it really is great to see Tina get a song that suits her vocal abilities " .
The most divergent views were expressed about Puck and Beiste 's performance of " Mean " . Crystal Bell of Huffington Post asked , " How could you not be moved by their duet in the auditorium ? " E ! Online 's Jenna Mullins called it " one of the highlights of the season " , and Slezak gave it a grade of " A " . Chaney 's " B + " followed her statement that " it was more effective than Swift 's version because I can believe that both Puck and Beiste have had it rough " , and Strecker described it as " lovely and thematically perfect " and gave it a " B " . VanDerWerff said he " could have done without " their duet , and Futterman was even harsher : " it was quite unfortunate " . Houston Chronicle 's Bobby Hankinson wrote that he " sort of liked " how the pair were " simultaneously improving upon and butchering a Taylor Swift song " , and Saskin characterized it as " heartfelt and passionate " .
Futterman said of " Flashdance ... What a Feeling " that " there was a glimmer of old @-@ school Glee in the performance , carefree underdog status that made me smile " . Saskin and Chaney both found the performance lacking ; the former wrote that " something about this version falls flat " , and Chaney gave it a " B − " and said it " wasn 't as soaring as it could have been " , though " Rachel and Tina 's bonding moment was sweet " and she liked " the way it took us from hour one into hour two and Nationals " . Slezak and Strecker both gave the performance an " A − " .
= = = Chart history = = =
One of the four singles released for the episode , " Mean " , charted on the Billboard Canadian Hot 100 at number seventy @-@ one , which was higher than either of the two songs that debuted on that chart from " Nationals " in the same week ; none of these songs charted in the US . One other single from the episode , " I Won 't Give Up " , though it did not sell well enough to chart on the US Billboard Hot 100 the week it was released , affected the charting there of the Jason Mraz original , which moved up from thirty @-@ four to twenty @-@ nine on the Hot 100 ; it had previously charted as high as number eight .
= Richard M. Eakin =
Richard Marshall Eakin ( pronounced AY @-@ kin ; May 5 , 1910 – November 25 , 1999 ) , was an American zoologist and professor at the University of California , Berkeley , widely known for portraying prominent historical scientists during some of his lectures ; dressing in costume and speaking in character to entertain and inform his students . A 1953 Guggenheim fellow , he wrote several books and more than 200 scientific papers . His research focused on eyes and vision in animals , especially the parietal eye or " third eye " of vertebrates , as well as animal embryology . He served as chairman of the UC Berkeley Department of Zoology for over 10 years , was elected president of the Western Society of Naturalists and American Society of Zoologists , and was a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences .
Eakin was born in Florence , Colorado , and grew up in Tulsa , Oklahoma . He initially studied at the University of Tulsa , planning a career in the clergy , before switching to zoology , earning a bachelor 's degree and doctorate at UC Berkeley . After postdoctoral studies in Germany under Hans Spemann he returned to UC Berkeley as a faculty member , where he would teach for over 40 years , earning awards and recognition for his teaching before retiring with highest faculty honors .
= = Early life and education ( 1910 – 1936 ) = =
Richard Eakin was born on May 5 , 1910 , in Florence , Colorado , to parents Marshall and Mary Elizabeth Eakin . He attended high school in Tulsa , Oklahoma , graduating in 1927 . He initially planned to go into the clergy , enrolling in the University of Tulsa and studying subjects such as theology and Greek for two years , before deciding to pursue zoology .
In 1929 , Eakin moved to Berkeley , California to attend UC Berkeley . He earned his A.B. in 1931 , then enrolled in graduate school under J. Franklin Daniel , an ichthyologist and embryologist . For his dissertation , Eakin studied the development of salamander and frog embryos , earning a PhD in zoology in 1935 . From 1935 to 1936 he worked in Germany as a postdoctoral scholar in the laboratories of embryologists Otto Mangold and Nobel laureate Hans Spemann .
On August 8 , 1935 , Eakin married Mary Mulford , daughter of Walter Mulford , a Berkeley professor of forestry .
= = Career ( 1936 – 1977 ) = =
Upon his return to UC Berkeley in 1936 , Eakin was appointed instructor of zoology , becoming assistant professor in 1940 and full professor in 1949 . He was assistant dean of the College of Letters and Science from 1940 to 1943 , and chairman of the Department of Zoology from 1942 to 1948 , and again from 1952 to 1957 . As an administrator he helped found the university 's Bodega Marine Laboratory , Sagehen Creek Field Station , and Cancer Research Genetics Laboratory . In 1956 he published a history of zoological research at Berkeley spanning the period from the university 's 1868 founding through 1956 , followed by a 1988 companion article covering the intervening 32 years .
= = = Research = = =
Eakin was known for his research of animal eyes and photoreceptor cells , especially the parietal eye ( the so @-@ called " third eye " ) and associated pineal gland of vertebrates . He was persuaded to study the parietal eyes of reptiles by his colleague Robert C. Stebbins , and the two published several articles on the parietal eye of western fence lizards . Eakin , alone or with colleagues , published many other papers on the anatomy and function of reptilian parietal eyes and similar structures in amphibians . Eakin 's 1973 monograph , The Third Eye , was received as comprehensive and detailed enough for biologists , yet in a style approachable to non @-@ scientists or undergraduates . He also studied amphibian development and was recognized as a skilled and early practitioner of electron microscopy . Eakin received a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1953 , and the Boston Museum of Science 's Walker Prize in 1976 . He authored or co @-@ authored over 200 scientific papers , was elected president of the Western Society of Naturalists in 1949 and American Society of Zoologists in 1975 , and was a fellow of the California Academy of Sciences for 52 years .
= = = " Great scientists speak again " = = =
In 1970 , in order to combat boredom and absenteeism in his introductory zoology course , Eakin gave his first lecture in character , appearing unannounced in full costume and makeup as William Harvey , the 17th @-@ century physician who made the first complete descriptions of blood circulation . His portrayals of historic scientists , including Charles Darwin , Louis Pasteur , and Gregor Mendel , often involved elaborate wigs , makeup , costumes , and props , aided by professional makeup artists and drama teachers- his portrayal of Darwin required up to three hours of makeup , wig , and beard preparation . His lectures were popular with students from the start and attracted international attention , with profiles in publications such as LIFE , Der Spiegel , and the International Herald Tribune . He gave guest lectures at universities nationwide , and in 1975 compiled the text of his lectures , along with photographs , diagrams , and stage directions , into a book , Great Scientists Speak Again . Eakin typically gave six lectures in character during a course , with each " guest lecturer " introducing particular concepts . The figures portrayed , in order of appearance during a typical course , were :
William Harvey ( 1578 – 1657 )
William Beaumont ( 1785 – 1853 )
Hans Spemann ( 1869 – 1941 )
Gregor Mendel ( 1822 – 1884 )
Louis Pasteur ( 1822 – 1895 )
Charles Darwin ( 1809 – 1882 )
Eakin considered his impersonation of Spemann to be his most authoritative , due to knowing him personally from working in his lab in Germany , helping translate a book of his into English , and becoming good friends .
Eakin was recognized for his teaching long before he first donned a wig : in 1963 he was the first recipient of Berkeley 's Senior Citation for Distinguished Teaching and in 1968 received the Outstanding Teaching Award from the Associated Students of the University of California .
= = Later years ( 1977 – 1999 ) = =
Eakin retired in 1977 and was honored with the Berkeley Citation , the highest honor given to Berkeley faculty . He continued to periodically perform his lectures in character until 1988 , and also taught embryology at several historically black colleges and universities in the southern U.S. , including Tougaloo College , Mississippi ; Talladega College and Tuskegee University , Alabama ; and Fisk University in Tennessee .
Eakin was a member of the First Congregational Church of Berkeley for over 60 years , where his first wife , Mary Mulford Eakin – ordained by the United Church of Christ – was associate minister . He co @-@ authored a history of the church in 1999 . In a 1981 interview , Eakin stressed that matters of faith and science should be kept separate – as he did in his own life as both a Christian and a scientist – and that proponents of teaching creationism alongside evolution in public schools should similarly recognize the differences . " The great concepts of justice , mercy and love- science cannot test them or write a formula " , he said , " They are human beliefs and are outside the realm of science . "
His first wife Mary , with whom he had three children ( one of whom died prior to 1956 ) , died in 1980 . He later remarried Barbara Nichols , a former professor at the University of California , San Francisco .
Eakin died on November 25 , 1999 , at his home in Danville , California , at the age of 89 . He was survived by his wife Barbara , a son and daughter from his first marriage , and two stepdaughters .
= = Books = =
Vertebrate Embrology : A Laboratory Manual . University of California Press . 1973 .
The Third Eye . University of California Press . 1973 .
Great Scientists Speak Again . University of California Press . 1975 .
The Future is Watching : A History of the First 125 Years of First Congregational Church of Berkeley . First Congregational Church of Berkeley . 1999 . ( with James M. Spitze )
= Serb Uprising of 1596 – 97 =
The Serb Uprising of 1596 – 97 was a rebellion organized by Serbian Patriarch Jovan Kantul ( s . 1592 – 1614 ) and led by Grdan , the vojvoda ( " duke " ) of Nikšić against the Ottomans in the Sanjak of Herzegovina and Montenegro Vilayet , during the Long Turkish War ( 1593 – 1606 ) . The uprising broke out in the aftermath of the failed Banat Uprising in 1594 and the burning of Saint Sava 's relics on April 27 , 1595 ; it included the tribes of Bjelopavlići , Drobnjaci , Nikšić and Piva . The rebels , defeated at the field of Gacko ( Gatačko Polje ) in 1597 , were forced to capitulate due to a lack of foreign support .
= = Background = =
In early 1594 , the Serbs in Banat rose up against the Ottomans . The rebels had , in the character of a holy war , carried war flags with the icon of Saint Sava . The war banners were consecrated by Patriarch Jovan Kantul , and the uprising was aided by Serbian Orthodox metropolitans Rufim Njeguš of Cetinje and Visarion of Trebinje ( s . 1590 – 1602 ) . In response , Ottoman Grand Vizier Koca Sinan Pasha demanded that the green flag of the Prophet Muhammed be brought from Damascus to counter the Serb flag and ordered that the sarcophagus containing the relics of Saint Sava be removed from the Mileševa monastery and transferred to Belgrade via military convoy . Along the way , the Ottoman convoy killed all the people in its path as a warning to the rebels . The Ottomans publicly incinerated the relics of Saint Sava on a pyre atop the Vračar plateau on April 27 , 1595 , and had the ashes scattered .
The incineration of Sava 's relics provoked the Serbs , and empowered the Serb liberation movement . From 1596 , the center of anti @-@ Ottoman activity in Herzegovina was the Tvrdoš Monastery in Trebinje , where Metropolitan Visarion was seated . Many of the Orthodox bishops appealed to the Archduchy of Austria for help in liberating their lands . The Uskoks , irregular soldiers in Habsburg Croatia , supported Austria , being scattered over the whole area between Senj and Ragusa ( modern day Dubrovnik ) . With a daring raid on April 8 , 1596 , the Uskoks even managed to occupy the Klis Fortress , though they were unable to hold it . At one point , Austrian officials considered taking military action in Bosnia , where Dalmatian @-@ born Maltese knight Franjo Brtučević was in their service . However , they did not have the strength to fight the Ottomans in Bosnia . Earlier , Austrian forces had gone to great lengths and still barely managed to resist the Ottomans in Hungary .
= = Uprising = =
In 1596 , the liberation movement spread into Ottoman Montenegro and the neighbouring tribes in Herzegovina , especially those under the influence of Metropolitan Visarion . Of the priests , Patriarch Jovan depended mostly on Visarion , and of the chieftains , mostly on Grdan , the vojvoda ( " duke " ) of Nikšić . A Ragusan document from the beginning of 1596 claimed that the metropolitan and many Herzegovinian chieftains gathered in the Trebinje Monastery where they swore oath " to give up and donate 20 @,@ 000 heroes to the [ Austrian ] emperors ' light . " The rebels sought help from the Austrians , and asked to be handed an Austrian flag to show the Ottomans that they had at least symbolic Austrian support . Shortly thereafter , on April 8 , 1596 , Klis was captured by the Uskoks , prompting a wave of excitement among Christians from Lika to Herzegovina . At the end of 1596 , after the outbreak of the Himara Revolt , Serbs began to rebel against the Ottomans . The uprising , led by Grdan , broke out in Bjelopavlići , then spread to Drobnjaci , Nikšić , Piva and Gacko . Save for the Brđani , the Montenegrin tribes did not participate in the uprising . At the time , Dervish Bey , the sanjak bey of Montenegro , threatened the Montenegrins through the provveditore ( " overseer " ) of Kotor .
Two Serbian monks , Damjan Ljubibratić and Pavle , were dispatched by Patriarch Jovan Kantul to Pope Clement VIII in 1597 . Patriarch Jovan assured the pope of his " loyalty and obedience " to the Church of Rome , and sought help " to liberate the Serb people from the Ottomans " . The monks made an exhibition to the papal curia on Serbian history and , among other things , petitioned the pope to send an army to Herceg Novi , which would aid vojvoda Grdan on the land ; the tribes of Zupci , Nikšić , Piva , Banjani , Drobnjaci and Gacko would rise up in arms . From there , they would go to Onogošt ( Nikšić ) , where all chieftains of all Montenegro , Dukađin , and the nearby lands , would gather . In the case of action , they could count on 100 @,@ 000 fighters . It was said that since the Ottomans took Saint Sava from the Serbs " God does not help them any more , Christians kill them from every side " . The curia then accused the monks , of " [ praying ] to God for our Evil . " The monks asked the pope , with the support of Serb spiritual and secular leaders , to send a respectable Christian to oversee them .
The Archbishop of Ohrid , Atanasije , after his movement had largely failed in Albania , was now in Rome . The Serb uprising had no better luck ; the Herzegovinian tribes , Drobnjaci , Nikšić and Piva began fighting , but were defeated at the field of Gacko ( Gatačko Polje ) by Dervish Bey sometime in 1597 . According to the Venetian Lazzaro Soranzo ( 1599 ) , the Piperi , Kuči , Klimenti , Bjelopavlići and others tried to liberate themselves from Ottoman tyranny , and upon hearing the false claim that Sultan Mehmed III lost the battle and his life at the Siege of Eger , " they all rose up under the command of vojvoda Grdan and there was a great slaughter of Turks who were on their land . As I tried to find out more , I heard the contrary , that they unhappily withdrew into their mountains " ; Montenegrin historian Gligor Stanojević , based on Soranzo 's account , which he described as " the most interesting and most contradicting note on the movement of the Brda and Herzegovina tribes in this time " , believed that the rebellion did not have the scale of a national uprising .
[ There were ] spontaneous uprisings or rebellions which often erupted caused by some event and quickly died away . Such disturbances , insurrections or rebellions took place earlier and later in all parts of the Balkans , and the Turks very quickly and efficiently reacted to them . If those rebellions did not lead to anything , they were another drop of hatred between the conquerors and the people .
When the talks between the rebels and the papacy led to nothing and no foreign support arrived , the rebels were forced to capitulate to the Ottomans . Ahmed @-@ paša Dugalić , the beylerbey ( " governor " ) of Bosnia , pardoned Grdan of his crimes , and did not even strip him of his lands in Nikšić .
The rebels were challenged before any real action could be realized . Austria was not able to move towards Buda , let alone Bosnia or Serbia ; the papal curia did not choose to aid the rebels ; and Spain had their own problems . The diplomats — various adventurers , though well @-@ meaning — were amateurs , and had wrongfully and colourfully painted the picture to both sides . To some they promised more than they could do , and to others they presented opportunities as being more mature than they were . Many false reports were made . [ The rebels ] naïvely thought that the
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-@ hero . It also tracks how corrupt the Overlord is in accomplishing his goals . During the game the Overlord is tempted by each of the deadly sins while trying to kill their corresponding heroes . The player 's choices will influence your corruption level , either raising or lowering it . Slaughtering inoffensive townsfolk , stealing gold and other activities can also increase the corruption level . The corruption level changes the way townsfolk treat the Overlord and will also change his appearance , a system similar to Fable . As corruption increases , the Overlord 's armour will become more devilish with horns protruding out of the back , shoulders , elbows and knees and he will acquire a black aura . The corruption level also determines which game ending the player sees and which high @-@ level spells they can cast .
The game offers several multiplayer modes . Slaughter pits two Overlords against each other in a head to head combat with potentially hundreds of minions . In Survival , two Overlords team up against large armies of enemies . Pillage is a competition in which two Overlords and their minions compete to see who can pillage and plunder the most gold in a selected amount of time . The Xbox 360 version provides voice chat over Xbox Live . In the PlayStation 3 version Raising Hell , the game features a mini @-@ map on screen to help the player navigate through the game 's world .
= = Story = =
= = = Characters = = =
The player takes the role of the Overlord , the game 's silent protagonist / anti @-@ hero , whose motivations and personality are left for the player to determine . At the outset of the game , tiny gremlin @-@ like minions pry open his coffin and revive him . In rapid succession , his minions shove him into armour , name him successor to the previous Overlord , and task him with slaying his predecessor 's murderers , the Seven Heroes . In the intervening years , the Seven Heroes each fell prey to one of the Seven Deadly Sins . Despite recalling nothing of his past , the Overlord begins to rebuild the tower at the suggestion of his adviser Gnarl . As the new Overlord , the protagonist holds absolute sway over his minions . Complementing this power , he possesses some proficiency using axes , swords , and maces . Through his tower , the Overlord can channel magical energies capable of wanton destruction or defense .
Although the titular Overlord is the protagonist , the game relies heavily on Gnarl , the oldest minion , to advise and guide the player . For the majority of the game , he remains by the Tower Heart relaying information and reminders since " there are evil deeds that need doing " . He acts as narrator for the plot . Eventually , the Overlord 's mistress also comes to reside in the tower . She redecorates the rooms and upgrades the minions and the tower as well as shares opinions on certain actions . Rose is the first potential mistress rescued from bandits . Despite the Overlord 's menace and actions , she is initially strong @-@ willed , cheery and unafraid of the Overlord 's minions . The other potential mistress is Rose 's sister Velvet whose evil tendencies are less ambiguous than her sister 's and dresses far more provocatively . She repeatedly ask for presents and lusts for the Overlord and shows a distinct lack of empathy or grief over her fiancé 's murder at the hands of the Overlord .
The " seven heroes " are corrupt themselves , each with a trait representing one of the seven deadly sins . The Halfling leader Melvin Underbelly has become gluttonous and as a result , morbidly obese – he has taken to sending bands of armed ( also obese ) halflings to steal food from neighbouring Spree to feed his unending hunger . The mightiest Elven warrior of Evernight Forest , Oberon Greenhaze is in a constant sleep and his sloth has caused his nightmares to haunt the forest . His apathy allowed the dwarves to invade Evernight and kill or enslave most of the elves , but they were in turn driven out when the creatures of his nightmares became real . The ruler of Heaven 's Peak and Velvet 's fiancé , Sir William the Black shows strong lust towards unorthodox sexual interests such as having relations with a succubus , and indulges in decadent parties with a secret cult . The presence of the succubus has caused a plague of undeath in the fortified city . The Dwarf King Goldo Golderson of the Golden Hills has become overly greedy and desires wealth over all the other aspects of life where he has even forced the remaining elves to mine for it . His paranoia that his riches will be stolen has led him to heavily militarise the entire dwarven empire – he himself rides a war @-@ like steam roller named " Rollie " . Envy drives Jewel the Thieving Hero to steal anything valuable even though she cares nothing for possessions , and Kahn the Warrior is very protective of her and is driven wild with wrath whenever anything appears to threaten her . Both of them command the bandits and beholders from the Ruborian Desert . The Previous Overlord , having possessed the body of the Wizard ( who was the founder of the group of heroes ) , shows pride in his work , which involves deception and an urge for supreme power , and is the game 's main antagonist .
= = = Plot = = =
The game begins where Gnarl and the Brown minions awaken the Overlord from his tomb . From here they suit him in his armour and proclaim him Overlord in his old and dilapidated tower – the previous Overlord having been killed by heroes , ready to reconquer the lands . The Overlord first turns to the Mellow Hills , where the Halflings and their leader Melvin Underbelly are using the townspeople of Spree and Red minions as slave labour . The Overlord storms the Halfling Homes , slaying Melvin and reclaiming the Reds and Spree ( to the peasants ’ delight or disgust depending on whether the Overlord returns their stolen food ) . Castle Spree however has come under attack by bandits . After flushing them out , the castle mistress Rose offers her service to the Overlord . At Evernight Forest , the roots of a tree where Oberon Greenhaze sleeps cover the Elves ' home , nearly extinct after being ransacked by Dwarves . The Green minions are found and Oberon is slain . The Elves ' sacred statue , however , has been stolen by the Dwarves , angering Jewel , the Thieving Hero , who wanted to steal it for herself . At Heaven ’ s Peak the town is overrun by zombies and demons . Here the Overlord gains the Blue minions . At the town ’ s inn , it is discovered that town leader Sir William the Black had fallen for a Succubus , calling off his wedding to Rose ’ s sister Velvet . Killing Sir William in Angelis Keep , Velvet offers her services to the Overlord and he must choose between her and Rose .
The Overlord then turns to the Dwarven Golden Hills and their leader Goldo Golderson , who has become greedy for gold . Here the remaining enslaved Elves claim the last of their women are being held in the Royal Halls of the Dwarven Keep . Meanwhile , at the Dwarf construction site , Gnarl recommends that the Overlord stash a few minions inside the Elf sacred statue and allow Jewel to take it in order to follow her to her homeland , the Ruborian Desert . Back at the Royal Halls , where Goldo is defeated , the Overlord can either take his stash of gold or free the remaining Elf women before the halls collapse . The Ruborian desert is found and Jewel is captured and interrogated . An enraged Kahn the Warrior , protective of Jewel , strikes back and the Overlord now has to save Spree and Heaven ’ s Peak from his wrath .
Back at the tower the minions submit to the previous Overlord who has secretly possessed the Wizard , originally father to Rose and Velvet , and who now lays claim to his previous title . The old Overlord tells the current one that he was originally the eighth hero who came to slay him , yet fell from a great height and was left for dead by his companions while they looted the Tower . The Old Overlord however put him in the sarcophagus to heal his wounds in order to use him to defeat the other heroes . The Overlord battles the old Overlord , during which the old Overlord brags of being responsible for the corruption of the heroes . Upon the old Overlord 's death , the Overlord reclaims his tower and minions . Depending on the Overlord 's corruption and choices throughout , the ending will show 4 of 8 different ending cutscenes where either the Overlord is met with bliss and praise or he pillages and scorches the land and tortures the inhabitants . Regardless of the player 's unique ending , the Jester is shown performing some sort of ritual , with Gnarl narrating " Evil will always find a way " , opening up the events for Raising Hell .
= = Development = =
Overlord was officially announced by the start of May 2006 under the same name for the Xbox 360 and PC , advertised as being a next generation game set in a " twisted fantasy world where players have the choice to be evil ... or really evil ! " Along with this announcement , the first screenshots and artwork were released to game websites . Early concept art showed the Overlord with a clearly visible human face as opposed to his form in the final release as a dark covered shadow with lit up eyes . At E3 2006 , the majority of the game mechanics were revealed within the same month , while the multiplayer component had yet to be announced .
The Xbox 360 demo was released for download over Xbox Live on June 8 , while the PC demo was released just days later over the internet , weeks before the game 's first release in North America . The demo included only the initial portion of the game , which contained the game 's introductory cinematic and narration , the tutorial and the Overlord 's battle to free human peasants from a Halfling operated slave camp .
During post release , along with patches , by August there were already outlined plans for downloadable content for both versions . These were said to include the introduction of new multiplayer maps , offline co @-@ op and the possibility of an extension or an additional chapter to the game 's single @-@ player plot . A patch was released for the PC version of the game , updating the software to version 1 @.@ 2 and fixing a number of bugs , including one which occasionally prevented players from completing the game . The corresponding Xbox 360 update arrived several weeks later . The first official downloadable content was announced in November the same year , along with news of an official expansion , in the form of a " Challenge Pack " , which was to add seven new maps and two modes to the multiplayer feature , an offline split screen version and a " Legendary " difficulty for single player , with corresponding Achievement Points for the 360 version . These new modes were made available on February 15 , 2008 over the internet on various gaming sites for the PC and Xbox Live for the 360 , the Split @-@ Screen option for free .
In July 2007 , shortly after the release of Overlord there were rumours of a PlayStation 3 port , due to job advertisements at Triumph Studios , which mentioned one position needed " Porting [ Xbox 360 ] / PC code base to [ PlayStation 3 ] " . A spokesman for Codemasters however quickly corrected this by stating " We are not porting Overlord to [ PlayStation 3 ] . " It wasn 't until February 2008 , when Codemasters confirmed a PlayStation 3 version of Overlord was in development . However instead of a straight port of the original , the version is to include both the original game and its additional downloadable content and expansion on one Blu @-@ ray Disc , under the title Overlord : Raising Hell to be released in Summer 2008 . The demo was made available over the online PlayStation Store on May 15 , 2008 and later fully released the following month in June .
= = = Overlord : Raising Hell = = =
On November 1 , 2007 , Codemasters announced Overlord : Raising Hell , a downloadable expansion pack . The premise behind this is that an Abyss appears in each of the five kingdoms ( Mellow Hills , Evernight Forest , Heaven 's Peak , the Golden Hills and the Ruborian Desert ) , causing the residents to disappear ( they enter the abyss because they believe it will save them from the Overlord ) . In each of the Abysses there is a hero being tortured and an Abyss stone . In order to obtain the Abyss Stone and gain control over the Abyss , the Overlord has to battle the residents of the Abysses ( Wraiths ) and the fallen heroes . Once the Overlord has control of the Abysses , he will be able to battle the one who summoned these Abysses and fight for the domination of his realm . Along with the additional multiplayer content , Raising Hell was released over official game download websites for the PC and Xbox Live for the 360 , on February 15 , 2008 .
= = = Sequel and spin @-@ offs = = =
Following the games release on the PlayStation 3 , the same year on August 13 Codemasters announced a sequel entitled Overlord II to be released for all three platforms for the last Overlord to be released sometime in 2009 . According to developers , the game " massively increases the scope of the original concept " while taking the role of a different Overlord due to the events in the story of Raising Hell , continuing where the last game finished with a new " Roman @-@ inspired " prime foe . Control over minions will also be expanded allowing to do other tasks like " riding mounts , using war machines and sailing warships " In the same announcement for the official sequel were plans for a spin @-@ off for the Wii entitled Overlord : Dark Legend to feature a new Overlord although plot continuity with the main series has yet to be explained but is to establish " the idea that there have been a series of Overlords throughout time " . Being developed entirely for the Wii , it has motion controls implemented such as " plucking a minion from the horde , holding him by the neck and shaking him around " by using this feature . Another spin @-@ off entitled Overlord : Minions was released for the Nintendo DS handheld game console but with more puzzle based gameplay and only controlling the minions . Both Nintendo spin @-@ offs were developed by Climax Studios while Triumph Studios would work exclusively on developing Overlord II . All three games were eventually released during June , 2009 . A new installment in the series , Overlord : Fellowship of Evil was announced in April 2015 . The game was released on October 20 , 2015 for Microsoft Windows , PlayStation 4 and Xbox One and will support co @-@ operative multiplayer upon launch .
= = Reception = =
Before its release , at E3 2006 , Overlord won GameSpot 's E3 2006 Editors Choice Award of Best Surprise . Overlord gained a generally positive response from game critics with an average review score of 77 % for the Xbox 360 version and 81 % for the PC at GameRankings . Many sources praised the game for its concept , noted for being similar to that of Pikmin , which was popular for the same reason .
GameSpot noted " the satisfaction of running amok with your legion of wickedly enthusiastic minions is what makes Overlord worth playing " while Game Informer praised the game 's personality , notably that of the minions , where " The satire is funny , and the evil is deliciously over @-@ the @-@ top , but the minions are the real stars " . IGN stated similar pros , calling it " evil , yet light @-@ hearted , humor " and that with the " richly detailed world combine for a game that is worth diving into " . 1UP.com noted the personal element of controlling the minions , stating " If they ( minions ) die , just call up more . Something happens along the way , though : You start getting attached to the little guys " .
Despite the game 's premise as the choice to be " evil or really evil " , numerous reviewers pointed out that some of the game 's choices within missions are more good than evil ; such as , for example , the option to return the peasants ' stolen food stocks . While mentioning this too , Eurogamer added that , since the game humour is mainly satire , these good deeds " kind of becomes the joke . Especially early on , there 's a fairly obvious irony in that everyone else in the world is assuming that you 're this brave hero when in fact you 're clearly a sociopath " . In December 2007 , Overlord was included in Eurogamer 's Top 50 Games of 2007 .
Other reviewers noted that the game can become frustrating at times , due to the controls not being able to keep up with the game 's pace , and apparent glitches between platform and regional versions . IGN US gave the 360 version a 6 @.@ 6 / 10 due to a game crashing bug , calling it " the equivalent of having to critique a good book only to pause three quarters of the way through and have the author rip the remaining pages out simply because you took a break at the wrong moment " . IGN UK and Australia , however , did not find such a bug , giving Overlord a higher score of 8 @.@ 1 and 8 @.@ 0 . GameSpot had a similar issue over the poor camera control in the PC version , at first rating it with a 6 @.@ 0 , but re @-@ rated the game higher after reviewing a newer version . They still , however , held the shortcoming of the " controls that you 'll occasionally struggle against " . GameSpy noted the multiplayer mode being " sloppy " and " unstable " at times , not being as enjoyable as the single player mode , having " experienced a couple disconnects , and had more than one game end prematurely due to simple frustration " .
When Overlord : Raising Hell for the PlayStation 3 was released , it was met with similar praise and complaints as the previous two versions with a current review average of 75 % at GameRankings . Eurogamer continued its praise , even calling it " probably one of the best games currently available on PS3 " . IGN however found the PS3 version to harbour many technical issues including drop in frame rate , long load times and lag in multiplayer , issues that GameSpot also found by concluding while the PS3 version is the best value for money , due to " the unpredictable frame rate , sluggish controls , and fickle camera in the PS3 version " , it suggested others to " pick up the technically superior Xbox 360 version and spend a little extra to get the downloadable content " . Game Trailers also found a few technical issues but concluded that " when things are clicking ... With plenty of humor and a substantially long quest , players will be surprised at how enjoyable Overlord can be . "
= China =
China , officially the People 's Republic of China ( PRC ) , in Asia , is the world 's most populous state , with a population of over 1 @.@ 381 billion . The state is governed by its vanguard party based in the capital of Beijing . It exercises jurisdiction over 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , four direct @-@ controlled municipalities ( Beijing , Tianjin , Shanghai , and Chongqing ) , two mostly self @-@ governing special administrative regions ( Hong Kong and Macau ) , and claims sovereignty over Taiwan . China is a great power and a major regional power within Asia , and has been characterized as a potential superpower .
Covering approximately 9 @.@ 6 million square kilometers , China is the world 's second largest state by land area , and either the third or fourth @-@ largest by total area , depending on the method of measurement . China 's landscape is vast and diverse , ranging from forest steppes and the Gobi and Taklamakan deserts in the arid north to subtropical forests in the wetter south . The Himalaya , Karakoram , Pamir and Tian Shan mountain ranges separate China from south and central Asia . The Yangtze and Yellow rivers , the third and sixth longest in the world , respectively , run from the Tibetan Plateau to the densely populated eastern seaboard . China 's coastline along the Pacific Ocean is 14 @,@ 500 kilometres ( 9 @,@ 000 mi ) long , and is bounded by the Bohai , Yellow , East China , and South China seas .
China is a cradle of civilization , with its known history beginning with an ancient civilization – one of the world 's earliest – that flourished in the fertile basin of the Yellow River in the North China Plain . For millennia , China 's political system was based on hereditary monarchies known as dynasties . Since 221 BCE , when the Qin Dynasty first conquered several states to form a Chinese empire , the state has expanded , fractured and reformed numerous times . The Republic of China ( ROC ) replaced the last dynasty in 1912 , and ruled the Chinese mainland until 1949 , when it was defeated by the Communist Party of China in the Chinese Civil War . The Communist Party established the People 's Republic of China in Beijing on 1 October 1949 , while the ROC government relocated to Taiwan with its present capital in Taipei . Both the ROC and PRC continue to claim to be the legitimate government of all China .
China had the largest economy in the world for most of the past two thousand years , during which it has seen cycles of prosperity and decline . Since the introduction of economic reforms in 1978 , China has become one of the world 's fastest @-@ growing major economies . As of 2014 , it is the world 's second @-@ largest economy by nominal GDP and largest by purchasing power parity ( PPP ) . China is also the world 's largest exporter and second @-@ largest importer of goods . China is a recognized nuclear weapons state and has the world 's largest standing army and second @-@ largest defense budget . The PRC is a member of the United Nations , as it replaced the ROC as a permanent member of the U.N. Security Council in 1971 . China is also a member of numerous formal and informal multilateral organizations , including the WTO , APEC , BRICS , the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , the BCIM and the G @-@ 20 .
= = Etymology = =
The English word " China " is thought to have been originally derived from the Sanskrit word Cīna ( चीन ) , which is translated into the Persian word Chīn ( چین ) . Cīna was first used in early Hindu scripture , including the Mahābhārata ( 5th century BCE ) and the Laws of Manu ( 2nd century BCE ) . The word " China " itself was first recorded in 1516 in the journal of the Portuguese explorer Duarte Barbosa . The journal was translated and published in England in 1555 . The traditional theory , proposed in the 17th century by Martino Martini and supported by many later scholars , is that the word China and its earlier related forms are ultimately derived from the state of " Qin " ( 秦 ) , the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou dynasty which unified China to form the Qin dynasty . Other suggestions for the derivation of " China " however exist .
The official name of the modern state is the People 's Republic of China ( Chinese : 中华人民共和国 ; pinyin : Zhōnghuá Rénmín Gònghéguó ) . The common Chinese names for the state are Zhōngguó ( Chinese : 中国 , from zhōng , " central " or " middle " , and guó , " state " or " states " , and in modern times , " nation " ) and Zhōnghuá ( Chinese : 中华 ) , although the state 's official name has been changed numerous times by successive dynasties and modern governments . The term Zhōngguó appeared in various ancient texts , such as the Classic of History of the 6th century BCE , and in pre @-@ imperial times it was often used as a cultural concept to distinguish the Huaxia tribes from perceived " barbarians " . The term , which can be either singular or plural , referred to the group of states or provinces in the central plain , but was not used as a name for the state as a whole until the nineteenth century . The Chinese were not unique in regarding their state as " central " , with other civilizations having the same view of themselves .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
Archaeological evidence suggests that early hominids inhabited China between 250 @,@ 000 and 2 @.@ 24 million years ago . A cave in Zhoukoudian ( near present @-@ day Beijing ) exhibits hominid fossils dated at between 680 @,@ 000 and 780 @,@ 000 BCE . The fossils are of Peking Man , an example of Homo erectus who used fire . Fossilised teeth of Homo sapiens dating to 125 @,@ 000 – 80 @,@ 000 BCE have been discovered in Fuyan Cave in Dao County , Hunan . Chinese proto @-@ writing existed in Jiahu around 7000 BC , Dadiwan from 5800 BC to 5400 BC , Damaidi around 6000 BC and Banpo dating from the 5th millennium BC . Some scholars have suggested that the Jiahu symbols ( 7th millennium BC ) constituted the earliest Chinese writing system .
= = = Early dynastic rule = = =
According to Chinese tradition , the first dynasty was the Xia , which emerged around 2100 BCE . The dynasty was considered mythical by historians until scientific excavations found early Bronze Age sites at Erlitou , Henan in 1959 . It remains unclear whether these sites are the remains of the Xia Dynasty or of another culture from the same period . The succeeding Shang dynasty is the earliest to be confirmed by contemporary records . The Shang ruled the plain of the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BCE . Their oracle bone script ( from c . 1500 BCE ) represents the oldest form of Chinese writing yet found , and is a direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters . The Shang were conquered by the Zhou , who ruled between the 11th and 5th centuries BCE , though centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords . Many independent states eventually emerged from the weakened Zhou state and continually waged war with each other in the 300 @-@ year Spring and Autumn Period , only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king . By the time of the Warring States period of the 5th – 3rd centuries BCE , there were seven powerful sovereign states in what is now China , each with its own king , ministry and army .
= = = Imperial China = = =
The Warring States period ended in 221 BCE after the state of Qin conquered the other six kingdoms and established the first unified Chinese state . Qin Shi Huang , the emperor of Qin , proclaimed himself " First Emperor " ( 始皇帝 ) and imposed reforms throughout China , notably the forced standardization of Chinese characters , measurements , length of cart axles , and currency . His dynasty also conquered the Yue tribes , incorporating the Lingnan area into China . The Qin dynasty lasted only fifteen years , falling soon after Qin Shi Huang 's death , as its harsh legalist and authoritarian policies led to widespread rebellion .
The subsequent Han dynasty ruled China between 206 BCE and 220 CE , and created a lasting Han cultural identity among its populace that has endured to the present day . The Han Dynasty expanded the empire 's territory considerably with military campaigns reaching southern Korea , Vietnam , Mongolia and Central Asia , and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia . Han China gradually became the largest economy of the ancient world . The Han Dynasty adopted Confucianism , a philosophy developed in the Spring and Autumn period , as its official state ideology . Despite the Han 's official abandonment of Legalism , the official ideology of the Qin , Legalist institutions and policies remained and formed the basis of the Han government .
After the collapse of Han , a period of disunion known as the period of the Three Kingdoms followed . The brief unification of the Jin dynasty was broken by the uprising of the Five Barbarians . In 581 CE , China was reunited under the Sui . However , the Sui Dynasty declined following its defeat in the Goguryeo – Sui War ( 598 – 614 ) .
Under the succeeding Tang and Song dynasties , Chinese economy , technology and culture entered a golden age . After the campaigns against the Turks , China returned control of the Western Regions and reopened the Silk Road during the flourishing age of Tang dynasty , which was devastated and weakened by the An Shi Rebellion in the 8th century . The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy which was supported by the developed shipbuilding industry along with the sea trade . Between the 10th and 11th centuries , the population of China doubled in size to around 100 million people , mostly because of the expansion of rice cultivation in central and southern China , and the production of abundant food surpluses . The Song dynasty also saw a revival of Confucianism , in response to the growth of Buddhism during the Tang , and a flourishing of philosophy and the arts , as landscape art and porcelain were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity . However , the military weakness of the Song army was observed by the Jurchen Jin dynasty . In 1127 , Emperor Huizong of Song and the capital Bianjing were captured during the Jin – Song Wars , remnants of the Song retreated to southern China .
In the 13th century , China was gradually conquered by the Mongol Empire . In 1271 , the Mongol leader Kublai Khan established the Yuan dynasty ; the Yuan conquered the last remnant of the Song dynasty in 1279 . Before the Mongol invasion , the population of Song China was 120 million citizens ; this was reduced to 60 million by the time of the census in 1300 . A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Yuan Dynasty in 1368 and founded the Ming dynasty . Under the Ming Dynasty , China enjoyed another golden age , developing one of the strongest navies in the world and a rich and prosperous economy amid a flourishing of art and culture . It was during this period that Zheng He led voyages throughout the world , reaching as far as Africa . In the early years of the Ming Dynasty , China 's capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing . With the budding of capitalism , philosophers such as Wang Yangming further critiqued and expanded Neo @-@ Confucianism with concepts of individualism and equality of four occupations . The scholar @-@ official stratum became a supporting force of industry and commerce in the tax boycott movements , which , together with the famines and the wars against Japanese invasions of Korea and Manchu invasions led to an exhausted treasury .
In 1644 , Beijing was captured by a coalition of peasant rebel forces led by Li Zicheng . The last Ming Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide when the city fell . The Manchu Qing dynasty then allied with Ming dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Li 's short @-@ lived Shun dynasty , and subsequently seized control of Beijing , which became the new capital of the Qing Dynasty .
= = = End of dynastic rule = = =
The Qing dynasty , which lasted from 1644 until 1912 , was the last imperial dynasty of China . As a conquest dynasty , it successively conquered the Ming loyalists and Dzungar Khanate , adding Mongolia , Tibet and Xinjiang into the empire , and strengthened the centralized autocracy to crackdown on anti @-@ Qing sentiment . The Haijin ( " sea ban " ) and the ideological control as represented by the literary inquisition caused social and technological stagnation . In the 19th century , the dynasty experienced Western imperialism following the First Opium War ( 1839 – 42 ) and the Second Opium War ( 1856 – 60 ) with Britain and France . China was forced to sign unequal treaties , pay compensation , open treaty ports , allow extraterritoriality for foreign nationals , and cede Hong Kong to the British under the 1842 Treaty of Nanking . The First Sino @-@ Japanese War ( 1894 – 95 ) resulted in Qing China 's loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula , as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan .
The Qing dynasty also began experiencing internal unrest in which millions of people died . In the 1850s and 1860s , the failed Taiping Rebellion ravaged southern China . Other major rebellions included the Punti @-@ Hakka Clan Wars ( 1855 – 67 ) , the Nian Rebellion ( 1851 – 68 ) , the Miao Rebellion ( 1854 – 73 ) , the Panthay Rebellion ( 1856 – 73 ) and the Dungan Revolt ( 1862 – 77 ) . The initial success of the Self @-@ Strengthening Movement of the 1860s was frustrated by the series of military defeats in the 1880s and 1890s .
In the 19th century , the great Chinese Diaspora began . Losses due to emigration were added to by conflicts and catastrophes such as the Northern Chinese Famine of 1876 – 79 , in which between 9 and 13 million people died . In 1898 , the Guangxu Emperor drafted a reform plan to establish a modern constitutional monarchy , but these plans were thwarted by the Empress Dowager Cixi . The ill @-@ fated anti @-@ Western Boxer Rebellion of 1899 – 1901 further weakened the dynasty . Although Cixi sponsored a program of reforms , the Xinhai Revolution of 1911 – 12 brought an end to the Qing dynasty and established the Republic of China .
= = = Republic of China ( 1912 – 49 ) = = =
On 1 January 1912 , the Republic of China was established , and Sun Yat @-@ sen of the Kuomintang ( the KMT or Nationalist Party ) was proclaimed provisional president . However , the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai , a former Qing general who in 1915 proclaimed himself Emperor of China . In the face of popular condemnation and opposition from his own Beiyang Army , he was forced to abdicate and reestablish the republic .
After Yuan Shikai 's death in 1916 , China was politically fragmented . Its Beijing @-@ based government was internationally recognized but virtually powerless ; regional warlords controlled most of its territory . In the late 1920s , the Kuomintang , under Chiang Kai @-@ shek , the then Principal of the Republic of China Military Academy , was able to reunify the country under its own control with a series of deft military and political manoeuvrings , known collectively as the Northern Expedition . The Kuomintang moved the nation 's capital to Nanjing and implemented " political tutelage " , an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat @-@ sen 's San @-@ min program for transforming China into a modern democratic state . The political division in China made it difficult for Chiang to battle the Communists , against whom the Kuomintang had been warring since 1927 in the Chinese Civil War . This war continued successfully for the Kuomintang , especially after the Communists retreated in the Long March , until Japanese aggression and the 1936 Xi 'an Incident forced Chiang to confront Imperial Japan .
The Second Sino @-@ Japanese War ( 1937 – 1945 ) , a theatre of World War II , forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Communists . Japanese forces committed numerous war atrocities against the civilian population ; in all , as many as 20 million Chinese civilians died . An estimated 200 @,@ 000 Chinese were massacred in the city of Nanjing alone during the Japanese occupation . During the war , China , along with the UK , the US and the Soviet Union , were referred to as " trusteeship of the powerful " and were recognized as the Allied " Big Four " in the Declaration by United Nations . Along with the other three great powers , China was one of the four major Allies of World War II , and was later considered one of the primary victors in the war . After the surrender of Japan in 1945 , Taiwan , including the Pescadores , was returned to Chinese control . China emerged victorious but war @-@ ravaged and financially drained . The continued distrust between the Kuomintang and the Communists led to the resumption of civil war . In 1947 , constitutional rule was established , but because of the ongoing unrest , many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China .
= = = People 's Republic of China ( 1949 – present ) = = =
Major combat in the Chinese Civil War ended in 1949 with the Communist Party in control of most of mainland China , and the Kuomintang retreating offshore , reducing the ROC 's territory to only Taiwan , Hainan , and their surrounding islands . On 1 October 1949 , Communist Party Chairman Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People 's Republic of China . In 1950 , the People 's Liberation Army succeeded in capturing Hainan from the ROC and incorporating Tibet . However , remaining Nationalist forces continued to wage an insurgency in western China throughout the 1950s .
Mao 's regime consolidated its popularity among the peasants through the land reform with between 1 and 2 million landlords executed . Under its leadership , China developed an independent industrial system and its own nuclear weapons . The Chinese population almost doubled from around 550 million to over 900 million . However , Mao 's Great Leap Forward , a large @-@ scale economic and social reform project , resulted in an estimated 45 million deaths between 1958 and 1961 , mostly from starvation . In 1966 , Mao and his allies launched the Cultural Revolution , sparking a decade of political recrimination and social upheaval which lasted until Mao 's death in 1976 . In October 1971 , the PRC replaced the Republic of China in the United Nations , and took its seat as a permanent member of the Security Council .
In 1976 , Mao died . The Gang of Four was quickly arrested and held responsible for the excesses of the Cultural Revolution . In 1978 Deng Xiaoping took power and instituted significant economic reforms . The Communist Party loosened governmental control over citizens ' personal lives , and the communes were gradually disbanded in favour of private land leases . This marked China 's transition from a planned economy to a mixed economy with an increasingly open market environment . China adopted its current constitution on 4 December 1982 . In 1989 , the violent suppression of student protests in Tiananmen Square brought condemnation and sanctions against the Chinese government from various countries .
Jiang Zemin , Li Peng and Zhu Rongji led the nation in the 1990s . Under their administration , China 's economic performance pulled an estimated 150 million peasants out of poverty and sustained an average annual gross domestic product growth rate of 11 @.@ 2 % . The country formally joined the World Trade Organization in 2001 , and maintained its high rate of economic growth under Hu Jintao and Wen Jiabao 's leadership in the 2000s . However , rapid growth also severely impacted the country 's resources and environment , and caused major social displacement . Living standards continued to improve rapidly despite the late @-@ 2000s recession , but centralized political control remained tight .
Preparations for a decadal Communist Party leadership change in 2012 were marked by factional disputes and political scandals . During China 's 18th National Communist Party Congress in November 2012 , Hu Jintao was replaced as General Secretary of the Communist Party by Xi Jinping . Under Xi , the Chinese government began large @-@ scale efforts to reform its economy , which has suffered from structural instabilities and slowing growth . The Xi – Li Administration also announced major reforms to the one @-@ child policy and prison system .
= = Geography = =
= = = Political geography = = =
The People 's Republic of China is the second @-@ largest country in the world by land area after Russia , and is either the third- or fourth @-@ largest by total area , after Russia , Canada and , depending on the definition of total area , the United States . China 's total area is generally stated as being approximately 9 @,@ 600 @,@ 000 km2 ( 3 @,@ 700 @,@ 000 sq mi ) . Specific area figures range from 9 @,@ 572 @,@ 900 km2 ( 3 @,@ 696 @,@ 100 sq mi ) according to the Encyclopædia Britannica , 9 @,@ 596 @,@ 961 km2 ( 3 @,@ 705 @,@ 407 sq mi ) according to the UN Demographic Yearbook , to 9 @,@ 596 @,@ 961 km2 ( 3 @,@ 705 @,@ 407 sq mi ) according to the CIA World Factbook .
China has the longest combined land border in the world , measuring 22 @,@ 117 km ( 13 @,@ 743 mi ) from the mouth of the Yalu River to the Gulf of Tonkin . China borders 14 nations , more than any other country except Russia , which also borders 14 . China extends across much of East Asia , bordering Vietnam , Laos , and Myanmar ( Burma ) in Southeast Asia ; India , Bhutan , Nepal , Afghanistan , and Pakistan in South Asia ; Tajikistan , Kyrgyzstan and Kazakhstan in Central Asia ; and Russia , Mongolia , and North Korea in Inner Asia and Northeast Asia . Additionally , China shares maritime boundaries with South Korea , Japan , Vietnam , and the Philippines .
= = = Landscape and climate = = =
The territory of China lies between latitudes 18 ° and 54 ° N , and longitudes 73 ° and 135 ° E. China 's landscapes vary significantly across its vast width . In the east , along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea , there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains , while on the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north , broad grasslands predominate . Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges , while the central @-@ east hosts the deltas of China 's two major rivers , the Yellow River and the Yangtze River . Other major rivers include the Xi , Mekong , Brahmaputra and Amur . To the west sit major mountain ranges , most notably the Himalayas . High plateaus feature among the more arid landscapes of the north , such as the Taklamakan and the Gobi Desert . The world 's highest point , Mount Everest ( 8,848m ) , lies on the Sino @-@ Nepalese border . The country 's lowest point , and the world 's third @-@ lowest , is the dried lake bed of Ayding Lake ( − 154m ) in the Turpan Depression .
China 's climate is mainly dominated by dry seasons and wet monsoons , which lead to pronounced temperature differences between winter and summer . In the winter , northern winds coming from high @-@ latitude areas are cold and dry ; in summer , southern winds from coastal areas at lower latitudes are warm and moist . The climate in China differs from region to region because of the country 's highly complex topography .
A major environmental issue in China is the continued expansion of its deserts , particularly the Gobi Desert . Although barrier tree lines planted since the 1970s have reduced the frequency of sandstorms , prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices have resulted in dust storms plaguing northern China each spring , which then spread to other parts of east Asia , including Korea and Japan . China 's environmental watchdog , SEPA , stated in 2007 that China is losing a million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km ² ) per year to desertification . Water quality , erosion , and pollution control have become important issues in China 's relations with other countries . Melting glaciers in the Himalayas could potentially lead to water shortages for hundreds of millions of people .
= = = Biodiversity = = =
China is one of 17 megadiverse countries , lying in two of the world 's major ecozones : the Palearctic and the Indomalaya . By one measure , China has over 34 @,@ 687 species of animals and vascular plants , making it the third @-@ most biodiverse country in the world , after Brazil and Colombia . The country signed the Rio de Janeiro Convention on Biological Diversity on 11 June 1992 , and became a party to the convention on 5 January 1993 . It later produced a National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan , with one revision that was received by the convention on 21 September 2010 .
China is home to at least 551 species of mammals ( the third @-@ highest such number in the world ) , 1 @,@ 221 species of birds ( eighth ) , 424 species of reptiles ( seventh ) and 333 species of amphibians ( seventh ) . China is the most biodiverse country in each category outside the tropics . Wildlife in China share habitat with and bear acute pressure from the world 's largest population of homo sapiens . At least 840 animal species are threatened , vulnerable or in danger of local extinction in China , due mainly to human activity such as habitat destruction , pollution and poaching for food , fur and ingredients for traditional Chinese medicine . Endangered wildlife is protected by law , and as of 2005 , the country has over 2 @,@ 349 nature reserves , covering a total area of 149 @.@ 95 million hectares , 15 percent of China 's total land area .
China has over 32 @,@ 000 species of vascular plants , and is home to a variety of forest types . Cold coniferous forests predominate in the north of the country , supporting animal species such as moose and Asian black bear , along with over 120 bird species . The understorey of moist conifer forests may contain thickets of bamboo . In higher montane stands of juniper and yew , the bamboo is replaced by rhododendrons . Subtropical forests , which are predominate in central and southern China , support as many as 146 @,@ 000 species of flora . Tropical and seasonal rainforests , though confined to Yunnan and Hainan Island , contain a quarter of all the animal and plant species found in China . China has over 10 @,@ 000 recorded species of fungi , and of them , nearly 6 @,@ 000 are higher fungi .
= = = Environmental issues = = =
In recent decades , China has suffered from severe environmental deterioration and pollution . While regulations such as the 1979 Environmental Protection Law are fairly stringent , they are poorly enforced , as they are frequently disregarded by local communities and government officials in favour of rapid economic development . Urban air pollution is a severe health issue in the country ; the World Bank estimated in 2013 that 16 of the world 's 20 most @-@ polluted cities are located in China . China is the world 's largest carbon dioxide emitter . The country also has significant water pollution problems : 40 % of China 's rivers had been polluted by industrial and agricultural waste by late 2011 . This crisis is compounded by increasingly severe water shortages , particularly in the north @-@ east of the country .
However , China is the world 's leading investor in renewable energy commercialization , with $ 52 billion invested in 2011 alone ; it is a major manufacturer of renewable energy technologies and invests heavily in local @-@ scale renewable energy projects . By 2009 , over 17 % of China 's energy was derived from renewable sources – most notably hydroelectric power plants , of which China has a total installed capacity of 197 GW . In 2011 , the Chinese government announced plans to invest four trillion yuan ( US $ 618 @.@ 55 billion ) in water infrastructure and desalination projects over a ten @-@ year period , and to complete construction of a flood prevention and anti @-@ drought system by 2020 . In 2013 , China began a five @-@ year , US $ 277 @-@ billion effort to reduce air pollution , particularly in the north of the country .
= = Politics = =
China 's constitution states that The People 's Republic of China " is a socialist state under the people 's democratic dictatorship led by the working class and based on the alliance of workers and peasants , " and that the state organs " apply the principle of democratic centralism . " The PRC is one of the world 's few remaining socialist states openly endorsing communism ( see Ideology of the Communist Party of China ) . The Chinese government has been variously described as communist and socialist , but also as authoritarian and corporatist , with heavy restrictions in many areas , most notably against free access to the Internet , freedom of the press , freedom of assembly , the right to have children , free formation of social organizations and freedom of religion . Its current political , ideological and economic system has been termed by its leaders as the " people 's democratic dictatorship " , " socialism with Chinese characteristics " ( which is Marxism adapted to Chinese circumstances ) and the " socialist market economy " respectively .
= = = Communist Party = = =
China 's constitution declares that the country is ruled " under the leadership " of the Communist Party of China ( CPC ) . The electoral system is pyramidal . Local People 's Congresses are directly elected , and higher levels of People 's Congresses up to the National People 's Congress ( NPC ) are indirectly elected by the People 's Congress of the level immediately below . The political system is decentralized , and provincial and sub @-@ provincial leaders have a significant amount of autonomy . Other political parties , referred to as democratic parties , have representatives in the National People 's Congress and the Chinese People 's Political Consultative Conference ( CPPCC ) .
Compared to its closed @-@ door policies until the mid @-@ 1970s , the administrative climate is less restrictive than before . China supports the Leninist principle of " democratic centralism " , but critics describe the elected National People 's Congress as a " rubber stamp " body .
= = = Government = = =
The President of China is the titular head of state , serving as the ceremonial figurehead under National People 's Congress . The Premier of China is the head of government , presiding over the State Council composed of four vice premiers and the heads of ministries and commissions . The incumbent president is Xi Jinping , who is also the General Secretary of the Communist Party of China and the Chairman of the Central Military Commission , making him China 's paramount leader . The incumbent premier is Li Keqiang , who is also a senior member of the CPC Politburo Standing Committee , China 's de facto top decision @-@ making body .
There have been some moves toward political liberalization , in that open contested elections are now held at the village and town levels . However , the Party retains effective control over government appointments : in the absence of meaningful opposition , the CPC wins by default most of the time . Political concerns in China include the growing gap between rich and poor and government corruption . Nonetheless , the level of public support for the government and its management of the nation is high , with 80 – 95 % of Chinese citizens expressing satisfaction with the central government , according to a 2011 survey .
= = = Administrative divisions = = =
The People 's Republic of China has administrative control over 22 provinces and considers Taiwan to be its 23rd province , although Taiwan is currently and independently governed by the Republic of China , which disputes the PRC 's claim . China also has five subdivisions officially termed autonomous regions , each with a designated minority group ; four municipalities ; and two Special Administrative Regions ( SARs ) , which enjoy a degree of political autonomy . These 22 provinces , five autonomous regions , and four municipalities can be collectively referred to as " mainland China " , a term which usually excludes the SARs of Hong Kong and Macau . None of these divisions are recognized by the ROC government , which claims the entirety of the PRC 's territory .
= = = Foreign relations = = =
The PRC has diplomatic relations with 171 countries and maintains embassies in 162 . Its legitimacy is disputed by the Republic of China and a few other countries ; it is thus the largest and most populous state with limited recognition . In 1971 , the PRC replaced the Republic of China as the sole representative of China in the United Nations and as one of the five permanent members of the United Nations Security Council . China was also a former member and leader of the Non @-@ Aligned Movement , and still considers itself an advocate for developing countries . Along with Brazil , Russia , India and South Africa , China is a member of the BRICS group of emerging major economies and hosted the group 's third official summit at Sanya , Hainan in April 2011 .
Under its interpretation of the One @-@ China policy , Beijing has made it a precondition to establishing diplomatic relations that the other country acknowledges its claim to Taiwan and severs official ties with the government of the Republic of China . Chinese officials have protested on numerous occasions when foreign countries have made diplomatic overtures to Taiwan , especially in the matter of armament sales .
Much of current Chinese foreign policy is reportedly based on Premier Zhou Enlai 's Five Principles of Peaceful Coexistence , and is also driven by the concept of " harmony without uniformity " , which encourages diplomatic relations between states despite ideological differences . This policy may have led China to support states that are regarded as dangerous or repressive by Western nations , such as Zimbabwe , North Korea and Iran . China has a close economic and military relationship with Russia , and the two states often vote in unison in the UN Security Council .
= = = = Trade relations = = = =
In recent decades , China has played an increasing role in calling for free trade areas and security pacts amongst its Asia @-@ Pacific neighbours . In 2004 , it proposed an entirely new East Asia Summit ( EAS ) framework as a forum for regional security issues . The EAS , which includes ASEAN Plus Three , India , Australia and New Zealand , held its inaugural summit in 2005 . China is also a founding member of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization ( SCO ) , along with Russia and the Central Asian republics . China became a member of the World Trade Organization ( WTO ) on 11 December 2001 .
In 2000 , the United States Congress approved " permanent normal trade relations " ( PNTR ) with China , allowing Chinese exports in at the same low tariffs as goods from most other countries . China has a significant trade surplus with the United States , its most important export market . In the early 2010s , US politicians argued that the Chinese yuan was significantly undervalued , giving China an unfair trade advantage . In recent decades , China has followed a policy of engaging with African nations for trade and bilateral co @-@ operation ; in 2012 , Sino @-@ African trade totalled over US $ 160 billion . China has furthermore strengthened its ties with major South American economies , becoming the largest trading partner of Brazil and building strategic links with Argentina .
= = = = Territorial disputes = = = =
Ever since its establishment after the second Chinese Civil War , the PRC has been claiming the territories governed by the Republic of China ( ROC ) , a separate political entity today commonly known as Taiwan , as a part of its territory , which includes the island of Taiwan as Taiwan Province , Kinmen and Matsu as a part of Fujian Province and islands the ROC controls in the South China Sea as a part of Hainan Province and Guangdong Province . These claims are controversial because of the complicated Cross @-@ Strait relations , and has been one of the most important principles in Chinese diplomacy .
In addition to Taiwan , China is also involved in other international territorial disputes . Since the 1990s , China has been involved in negotiations to resolve its disputed land borders , including a disputed border with India and an undefined border with Bhutan . China is additionally involved in multilateral disputes over the ownership of several small islands in the East and South China Seas , such as the Senkaku Islands and the Scarborough Shoal . On 21 May 2014 President Xi , speaking at a conference in Shanghai , pledged to settle China 's territorial disputes peacefully . " China stays committed to seeking peaceful settlement of disputes with other countries over territorial sovereignty and maritime rights and interests " , he said .
= = = = Emerging superpower status = = = =
China is regularly hailed as a potential new superpower , with certain commentators citing its rapid economic progress , growing military might , very large population , and increasing international influence as signs that it will play a prominent global role in the 21st century . Others , however , warn that economic bubbles and demographic imbalances could slow or even halt China 's growth as the century progresses . Some authors also question the definition of " superpower " , arguing that China 's large economy alone would not qualify it as a superpower , and noting that it lacks the military and cultural influence of the United States .
= = = Sociopolitical issues , human rights , and reform = = =
The Chinese democracy movement , social activists , and some members of the Communist Party of China have all identified the need for social and political reform . While economic and social controls have been significantly relaxed in China since the 1970s , political freedom is still tightly restricted . The Constitution of the People 's Republic of China states that the " fundamental rights " of citizens include freedom of speech , freedom of the press , the right to a fair trial , freedom of religion , universal suffrage , and property rights . However , in practice , these provisions do not afford significant protection against criminal prosecution by the state . Although some criticisms of government policies and the ruling Communist Party are tolerated , censorship of political speech and information , most notably on the Internet , are routinely used to prevent collective action . In 2005 , Reporters Without Borders ranked China 159th out of 167 states in its Annual World Press Freedom Index , indicating a very low level of press freedom . In 2014 , China ranked 175th out of 180 countries .
Rural migrants to China 's cities often find themselves treated as second @-@ class citizens by the hukou household registration system , which controls access to state benefits . Property rights are often poorly protected , and taxation disproportionately affects poorer citizens . However , a number of rural taxes have been reduced or abolished since the early 2000s , and additional social services provided to rural dwellers .
A number of foreign governments , foreign press agencies and NGOs also routinely criticize China 's human rights record , alleging widespread civil rights violations such as detention without trial , forced abortions , forced confessions , torture , restrictions of fundamental rights , and excessive use of the death penalty . The government has suppressed popular protests and demonstrations that it considers a potential threat to " social stability " , as was the case with the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 .
Falun Gong was first taught publicly in 1992 . In 1999 , when there were 70 million practitioners , the persecution of Falun Gong began , resulting in mass arrests , extralegal detention , and reports of torture and deaths in custody . The Chinese state is regularly accused of large @-@ scale repression and human rights abuses in Tibet and Xinjiang , including violent police crackdowns and religious suppression .
The Chinese government has responded to foreign criticism by arguing that the right to subsistence and economic development is a prerequisite to other types of human rights , and that the notion of human rights should take into account a country 's present level of economic development . It emphasizes the rise in the Chinese standard of living , literacy rate and average life expectancy since the 1970s , as well as improvements in workplace safety and efforts to combat natural disasters such as the perennial Yangtze River floods . Furthermore , some Chinese politicians have spoken out in support of democratization , although others remain more conservative . Some major reform efforts have been conducted ; for an instance in November 2013 , the government announced plans to relax the one @-@ child policy and abolish the much @-@ criticized re @-@ education through labour program , though human rights groups note that reforms to the latter have been largely cosmetic . During the 2000s and early 2010s , the Chinese government was increasingly tolerant of NGOs that offer practical , efficient solutions to social problems , but such " third sector " activity remained heavily regulated .
= = Military = =
With 2 @.@ 3 million active troops , the People 's Liberation Army ( PLA ) is the largest standing military force in the world , commanded by the Central Military Commission ( CMC ) . The PLA consists of the Ground Force ( PLAGF ) , the Navy ( PLAN ) , the Air Force ( PLAAF ) , and the People 's Liberation Army Rocket Force ( PLARF ) . According to the Chinese government , China 's military budget for 2014 totalled US $ 132 billion , constituting the world 's second @-@ largest military budget . However , many authorities – including SIPRI and the U.S. Office of the Secretary of Defense – argue that China does not report its real level of military spending , which is allegedly much higher than the official budget .
As a recognized nuclear weapons state , China is considered both a major regional military power and a potential military superpower . According to a 2013 report by the US Department of Defense , China fields between 50 and 75 nuclear ICBMs , along with a number of SRBMs . However , compared with the other four UN Security Council Permanent Members , China has relatively limited power projection capabilities . To offset this , it has developed numerous power projection assets since the early 2000s – its first aircraft carrier entered service in 2012 , and it maintains a substantial fleet of submarines , including several nuclear @-@ powered attack and ballistic missile submarines . China has furthermore established a network of foreign military relationships along critical sea lanes .
China has made significant progress in modernising its air force in recent decades , purchasing Russian fighter jets such as the Sukhoi Su @-@ 30 , and also manufacturing its own modern fighters , most notably the Chengdu J @-@ 10 , J @-@ 20 and the Shenyang J @-@ 11 , J @-@ 15 , J @-@ 16 , and J @-@ 31 . China is furthermore engaged in developing an indigenous stealth aircraft and numerous combat drones . Air and Sea denial weaponry advances have increased the regional threat from the perspective of Japan as well as Washington . China has also updated its ground forces , replacing its ageing Soviet @-@ derived tank inventory with numerous variants of the modern Type 99 tank , and upgrading its battlefield C3I and C4I systems to enhance its network @-@ centric warfare capabilities . In addition , China has developed or acquired numerous advanced missile systems , including anti @-@ satellite missiles , cruise missiles and submarine @-@ launched nuclear ICBMs . According to the Stockholm International Peace Research Institute 's data , China became the world 's third largest exporter of major arms in 2010 – 14 , an increase of 143 per cent from the period 2005 – 09 .
= = Economy = =
As of 2014 , China has the world 's second @-@ largest economy in terms of nominal GDP , totalling approximately US $ 10 @.@ 380 trillion according to the International Monetary Fund . If purchasing power parity ( PPP ) is taken into account , China 's economy is the largest in the world , with a 2014 PPP GDP of US $ 17 @.@ 617 trillion . In 2013 , its PPP GDP per capita was US $ 12 @,@ 880 , while its nominal GDP per capita was US $ 7 @,@ 589 . Both cases put China behind around eighty countries ( out of 183 countries on the IMF list ) in global GDP per capita rankings .
= = = Economic history and growth = = =
From its founding in 1949 until late 1978 , the People 's Republic of China was a Soviet @-@ style centrally planned economy . Following Mao 's death in 1976 and the consequent end of the Cultural Revolution , Deng Xiaoping and the new Chinese leadership began to reform the economy and move towards a more market @-@ oriented mixed economy under one @-@ party rule . Agricultural collectivization was dismantled and farmlands privatized , while foreign trade became a major new focus , leading to the creation of Special Economic Zones ( SEZs ) . Inefficient state @-@ owned enterprises ( SOEs ) were restructured and unprofitable ones were closed outright , resulting in massive job losses . Modern @-@ day China is mainly characterized as having a market economy based on private property ownership , and is one of the leading examples of state capitalism . The state still dominates in strategic " pillar " sectors such as energy production and heavy industries , but private enterprise has expanded enormously , with around 30 million private businesses recorded in 2008 .
Since economic liberalization began in 1978 , China has been among the world 's fastest @-@ growing economies , relying largely on investment- and export @-@ led growth . According to the IMF , China 's annual average GDP growth between 2001 and 2010 was 10 @.@ 5 % . Between 2007 and 2011 , China 's economic growth rate was equivalent to all of the G7 countries ' growth combined . According to the Global Growth Generators index announced by Citigroup in February 2011 , China has a very high 3G growth rating . Its high productivity , low labour costs and relatively good infrastructure have made it a global leader in manufacturing . However , the Chinese economy is highly energy @-@ intensive and inefficient ; China became the world 's largest energy consumer in 2010 , relies on coal to supply over 70 % of its energy needs , and surpassed the US to become the world 's largest oil importer in September 2013 . In the early 2010s , China 's economic growth rate began to slow amid domestic credit troubles , weakening international demand for Chinese exports and fragility in the global economy .
In the online realm , China 's e @-@ commerce industry has grown more slowly than the EU and the US , with a significant period of development occurring from around 2009 onwards . According to Credit Suisse , the total value of online transactions in China grew from an insignificant size in 2008 to around RMB 4 trillion ( US $ 660 billion ) in 2012 . The Chinese online payment market is dominated by major firms such as Alipay , Tenpay and China UnionPay .
= = = China in the global economy = = =
China is a member of the WTO and is the world 's largest trading power , with a total international trade value of US $ 3 @.@ 87 trillion in 2012 . Its foreign exchange reserves reached US $ 2 @.@ 85 trillion by the end of 2010 , an increase of 18 @.@ 7 % over the previous year , making its reserves by far the world 's largest . In 2012 , China was the world 's largest recipient of inward foreign direct investment ( FDI ) , attracting $ 253 billion . In 2014 , China 's foreign exchange remittances were $ US64 billion making it the second largest recipient of remittances in the world . China also invests abroad , with a total outward FDI of $ 62 @.@ 4 billion in 2012 , and a number of major takeovers of foreign firms by Chinese companies . In 2009 , China owned an estimated $ 1 @.@ 6 trillion of US securities , and was also the largest foreign holder of US public debt , owning over $ 1 @.@ 16 trillion in US Treasury bonds . China 's undervalued exchange rate has caused friction with other major economies , and it has also been widely criticized for manufacturing large quantities of counterfeit goods . According to consulting firm McKinsey , total outstanding debt in China increased from $ 7 @.@ 4 trillion in 2007 to $ 28 @.@ 2 trillion in 2014 , which reflects 228 % of China 's GDP , a percentage higher than that of some G20 nations .
China ranked 29th in the Global Competitiveness Index in 2009 , although it is only ranked 136th among the 179 countries measured in the 2011 Index of Economic Freedom . In 2014 , Fortune 's Global 500 list of the world 's largest corporations included 95 Chinese companies , with combined revenues of US $ 5 @.@ 8 trillion . The same year , Forbes reported that five of the world 's ten largest public companies were Chinese , including the world 's largest bank by total assets , the Industrial and Commercial Bank of China .
= = = Class and income equality = = =
China 's middle @-@ class population ( if defined as those with annual income of between US $ 10 @,@ 000 and US $ 60 @,@ 000 ) had reached more than 300 million by 2012 . According to the Hurun Report , the number of US dollar billionaires in China increased from 130 in 2009 to 251 in 2012 , giving China the world 's second @-@ highest number of billionaires . China 's domestic retail market was worth over 20 trillion yuan ( US $ 3 @.@ 2 trillion ) in 2012 and is growing at over 12 % annually as of 2013 , while the country 's luxury goods market has expanded immensely , with 27 @.@ 5 % of the global share . However , in recent years , China 's rapid economic growth has contributed to severe consumer inflation , leading to increased government regulation . China has a high level of economic inequality , which has increased in the past few decades . In 2012 , China 's Gini coefficient was 0 @.@ 474 .
= = = Internationalization of the renminbi = = =
Since 2008 global financial crisis , China realized the dependency of US Dollar and the weakness of the international monetary system . The RMB Internationalization accelerated in 2009 when China established dim sum bond market and expanded the Cross @-@ Border Trade RMB Settlement Pilot Project , which helps establish pools of offshore RMB liquidity .
In November 2010 , Russia began using the Chinese renminbi in its bilateral trade with China . This was soon followed by Japan , Australia , Singapore , the United Kingdom , and Canada . As a result of the rapid internationalization of the renminbi , it became the eighth @-@ most @-@ traded currency in the world in 2013 .
= = Science and technology = =
= = = Historical = = =
China was a world leader in science and technology until the Ming Dynasty . Ancient Chinese discoveries and inventions , such as papermaking , printing , the compass , and gunpowder ( the Four Great Inventions ) , later became widespread in Asia and Europe . Chinese mathematicians were the first to use negative numbers . However , by the 17th century , the Western world had surpassed China in scientific and technological development . The causes of this Great Divergence continue to be debated .
After repeated military defeats by Western nations in the 19th century , Chinese reformers began promoting modern science and technology as part of the Self @-@ Strengthening Movement . After the Communists came to power in 1949 , efforts were made to organize science and technology based on the model of the Soviet Union , in which scientific research was part of central planning . After Mao 's death in 1976 , science and technology was established as one of the Four Modernizations , and the Soviet @-@ inspired academic system was gradually reformed .
= = = Modern era = = =
Since the end of the Cultural Revolution , China has made significant investments in scientific research , with $ 163 billion spent on scientific research and development in 2012 . Science and technology are seen as vital for achieving China 's economic and political goals , and are held as a source of national pride to a degree sometimes described as " techno @-@ nationalism " . Nonetheless , China 's investment in basic and applied scientific research remains behind that of leading technological powers such as the United States and Japan . Chinese @-@ born scientists have won the Nobel Prize in Physics four times , the Nobel Prize in Chemistry and Physiology or Medicine once respectively , though most of these scientists conducted their Nobel @-@ winning research in western nations .
China is rapidly developing its education system with an emphasis on science , mathematics and engineering ; in 2009 , it produced over 10 @,@ 000 Ph.D. engineering graduates , and as many as 500 @,@ 000 BSc graduates , more than any other country . China is also the world 's second @-@ largest publisher of scientific papers , producing 121 @,@ 500 in 2010 alone , including 5 @,@ 200 in leading international scientific journals . Chinese technology companies such as Huawei and Lenovo have become world leaders in telecommunications and personal computing , and Chinese supercomputers are consistently ranked among the world 's most powerful . China is furthermore experiencing a significant growth in the use of industrial robots ; from 2008 to 2011 , the installation of multi @-@ role robots in Chinese factories rose by 136 percent .
The Chinese space program is one of the world 's most active , and is a major source of national pride . In 1970 , China launched its first satellite , Dong Fang Hong I , becoming the fifth country to do so independently . In 2003 , China became the third country to independently send humans into space , with Yang Liwei 's spaceflight aboard Shenzhou 5 ; as of 2015 , ten Chinese nationals have journeyed into space , including two women . In 2011 , China 's first space station module , Tiangong @-@ 1 , was launched , marking the first step in a project to assemble a large manned station by the early 2020s . In 2013 , China successfully landed the Chang 'e 3 probe and Yutu rover onto the Moon ; China plans to collect lunar soil samples by 2017 .
= = Infrastructure = =
= = = Telecommunications = = =
China currently has the largest number of active cellphones of any country in the world , with over 1 billion users by February 2012 . It also has the world 's largest number of internet and broadband users , with over 688 million internet users as of 2016 , equivalent to around half of its population . The national average broadband connection speed is 9 @.@ 46 MB / s , ranking China 91st in the world in terms of internet speed . As of July 2013 , China accounts for 24 % of the world 's internet @-@ connected devices . Since 2011 China is the nation with the most installed telecommunication bandwidth in the world . By 2014 , China hosts more than twice as much national bandwidth potential than the U.S. , the historical leader in terms of installed telecommunication bandwidth ( China : 29 % versus US : 13 % of the global total ) .
China Telecom and China Unicom , the world 's two largest broadband providers , accounted for 20 % of global broadband subscribers . China Telecom alone serves more than 50 million broadband subscribers , while China Unicom serves more than 40 million . Several Chinese telecommunications companies , most notably Huawei and ZTE , have been accused of spying for the Chinese military .
China is developing its own satellite navigation system , dubbed Beidou , which began offering commercial navigation services across Asia in 2012 , and is planned to offer global coverage by 2020 .
= = = Transport = = =
Since the late 1990s , China 's national road network has been significantly expanded through the creation of a network of national highways and expressways . In 2011 China 's highways had reached a total length of 85 @,@ 000 km ( 53 @,@ 000 mi ) , making it the longest highway system in the world . In 1991 , there were only six bridges across the main stretch of the Yangtze River , which bisects the country into northern and southern halves . By October 2014 , there were 81 such bridges and tunnels .
China has the world 's largest market for automobiles , having surpassed the United States in both auto sales and production . Auto sales in 2009 exceeded 13 @.@ 6 million and may reach 40 million by 2020 . A side @-@ effect of the rapid growth of China 's road network has been a significant rise in traffic accidents , with poorly enforced traffic laws cited as a possible cause — in 2011 alone , around 62 @,@ 000 Chinese died in road accidents . In urban areas , bicycles remain a common mode of transport , despite the increasing prevalence of automobiles – as of 2012 , there are approximately 470 million bicycles in China .
China 's railways , which are state @-@ owned , are among the busiest in the world , handling a quarter of the world 's rail traffic volume on only 6 percent of the world 's tracks in 2006 . As of 2013 , the country had 103 @,@ 144 km ( 64 @,@ 091 mi ) of railways , the third longest network in the world . All provinces and regions are connected to the rail network except Macau . The railways strain to meet enormous demand particularly during the Chinese New Year holiday , when the world 's largest annual human migration takes place . In 2013 , Chinese railways delivered 2 @.@ 106 billion passenger trips , generating 1 @,@ 059 @.@ 56 billion passenger @-@ kilometers and carried 3 @.@ 967 billion tons of freight , generating 2 @,@ 917 @.@ 4 billion cargo tons @-@ kilometers .
China 's high @-@ speed rail ( HSR ) system , built entirely since the early 2000s , had 11 @,@ 028 kilometres ( 6 @,@ 852 miles ) of track in 2013 and was the longest HSR network in the world . The network includes the Beijing – Guangzhou – Shenzhen High @-@ Speed Railway , the single longest HSR line in the world , and the Beijing – Shanghai High @-@ Speed Railway , which has three of longest railroad bridges in the world . The HSR track network is set to reach approximately 16 @,@ 000 km ( 9 @,@ 900 mi ) by 2020 . The Shanghai Maglev Train , which reaches 431 km / h ( 268 mph ) , is the fastest commercial train service in the world .
As of May 2014 , 20 Chinese cities have urban mass transit systems in operation , with a dozen more to join them by 2020 . The Shanghai Metro , Beijing Subway , Guangzhou Metro , Hong Kong MTR and Shenzhen Metro are among the longest and busiest in the world .
There were 182 commercial airports in China in 2012 . With 82 new airports planned to open by 2015 , more than two @-@ thirds of the airports under construction worldwide in 2013 were in China , and Boeing expects that China 's fleet of active commercial aircraft in China will grow from 1 @,@ 910 in 2011 to 5 @,@ 980 in 2031 . With rapid expansion in civil aviation , the largest airports in China have also joined the ranks of the busiest in the world . In 2013 , Beijing 's Capital Airport ranked second in the world by passenger traffic ( it was 26th in 2002 ) . Since 2010 , the Hong Kong International Airport and Shanghai Pudong International Airport have ranked first and third in air cargo tonnage .
Some 80 % of China 's airspace remains restricted for military use , and Chinese airlines made up eight of the 10 worst @-@ performing Asian airlines in terms of delays . China has over 2 @,@ 000 river and seaports , about 130 of which are open to foreign shipping . In 2012 , the Ports of Shanghai , Hong Kong , Shenzhen , Ningbo @-@ Zhoushan , Guangzhou , Qingdao , Tianjin , Dalian ranked in the top in the world in container traffic and cargo tonnage .
= = = Other infrastructure = = =
According to data presented by the Joint Monitoring Program for Water Supply and Sanitation of WHO and UNICEF in 2015 , about 36 % of the rural population in China still did not have access to improved sanitation .
Water supply and sanitation infrastructure in China is facing challenges such as rapid urbanization , as well as water scarcity , contamination , and pollution . In June 2010 , there were 1 @,@ 519 sewage treatment plants in China and 18 plants were added each week .
= = Demographics = =
The national census of 2010 recorded the population of the People 's Republic of China as approximately 1 @,@ 370 @,@ 536 @,@ 875 . About 16 @.@ 60 % of the population were 14 years old or younger , 70 @.@ 14 % were between 15 and 59 years old , and 13 @.@ 26 % were over 60 years old . The population growth rate for 2013 is estimated to be 0 @.@ 46 % .
Although a middle @-@ income country by Western standards , China 's rapid growth has pulled hundreds of millions of its people out of poverty since 1978 . Today , about 10 % of the Chinese population lives below the poverty line of US $ 1 per day , down from 64 % in 1978 . Urban unemployment in China reportedly declined to 4 % by the end of 2007 . At present , the urban unemployment rate of China is about 4 @.@ 1 % .
With a population of over 1 @.@ 3 billion and dwindling natural resources , the government of China is very concerned about its population growth rate and has attempted since 1979 , with mixed results , to implement a strict family planning policy , known as the " one @-@ child policy . " Before 2013 , this policy sought to restrict families to one child each , with exceptions for ethnic minorities and a degree of flexibility in rural areas . A major loosening of the policy was enacted in December 2013 , allowing families to have two children if one parent is an only child . The government is now dropping the one @-@ child policy in favor of a two @-@ child policy . Data from the 2010 census implies that the total fertility rate may now be around 1 @.@ 4 .
The policy , along with traditional preference for boys , may be contributing to an imbalance in the sex ratio at birth . According to the 2010 census , the sex ratio at birth was 118 @.@ 06 boys for every 100 girls , which is beyond the normal range of around 105 boys for every 100 girls . The 2010 census found that males accounted for 51 @.@ 27 percent of the total population . However , China 's sex ratio is more balanced than it was in 1953 , when males accounted for 51 @.@ 82 percent of the total population .
= = = Ethnic groups = = =
China officially recognizes 56 distinct ethnic groups , the largest of which are the Han Chinese , who constitute about 91 @.@ 51 % of the total population . The Han Chinese – the world 's largest single ethnic group – outnumber other ethnic groups in every provincial @-@ level division except Tibet and Xinjiang . Ethnic minorities account for about 8 @.@ 49 % of the population of China , according to the 2010 census . Compared with the 2000 population census , the Han population increased by 66 @,@ 537 @,@ 177 persons , or 5 @.@ 74 % , while the population of the 55 national minorities combined increased by 7 @,@ 362 @,@ 627 persons , or 6 @.@ 92 % . The 2010 census recorded a total of 593 @,@ 832 foreign citizens living in China . The largest such groups were from South Korea ( 120 @,@ 750 ) , the United States ( 71 @,@ 493 ) and Japan ( 66 @,@ 159 ) .
= = = Languages = = =
There are as many as 292 living languages in China . The languages most commonly spoken belong to the Sinitic branch of the Sino @-@ Tibetan language family , which contains Mandarin ( spoken natively by 70 % of the population ) , and other Chinese varieties : Wu ( including Shanghainese ) , Yue ( including Cantonese and Taishanese ) , Min ( including Hoochew , Hokkien and Teochew ) , Xiang , Gan , and Hakka . Languages of the Tibeto @-@ Burman branch , including Tibetan , Qiang , Naxi and Yi , are spoken across the Tibetan and Yunnan – Guizhou Plateau . Other ethnic minority languages in southwest China include Zhuang , Thai , Dong and Sui of the Tai @-@ Kadai family , Miao and Yao of the Hmong – Mien family , and Wa of the Austroasiatic family . Across northeastern and northwestern China , minority ethnic groups speak Altaic languages including Manchu , Mongolian and several Turkic languages : Uyghur , Kazakh , Kyrgyz , Salar and Western Yugur . Korean is spoken natively along the border with North Korea . Sarikoli , the language of Tajiks in western Xinjiang , is an Indo @-@ European language . Taiwanese aborigines , including a small population on the mainland , speak Austronesian languages .
Standard Mandarin , a variety of Mandarin based on the Beijing dialect , is the official national language of China and is used as a lingua franca in the country between people of different linguistic backgrounds .
Chinese characters have been used as the written script for the Sinitic languages for thousands of years . They allow speakers of mutually unintelligible Chinese varieties to communicate with each other through writing . In 1956 , the government introduced simplified characters , which have supplanted the older traditional characters in mainland China . Chinese characters are romanized using the Pinyin system . Tibetan uses an alphabet based on an Indic script . Uyghur is most commonly written in a Perseo @-@ Arabic script . The Mongolian script used in China and the Manchu script are both derived from the Old Uyghur alphabet . Modern Zhuang uses the Latin alphabet .
= = = Urbanization = = =
China has urbanized significantly in recent decades . The percent of the country 's population living in urban areas increased from 20 % in 1980 to over 50 % in 2014 . It is estimated that China 's urban population will reach one billion by 2030 , potentially equivalent to one @-@ eighth of the world population . As of 2012 , there are more than 262 million migrant workers in China , mostly rural migrants seeking work in cities .
China has over 160 cities with a population of over one million , including the seven megacities ( cities with a population of over 10 million ) of Chongqing , Shanghai , Beijing , Guangzhou , Tianjin , Shenzhen , and Wuhan . By 2025 , it is estimated that the country will be home to 221 cities with over a million inhabitants . The figures in the table below are from the 2010 census , and are only estimates of the urban populations within administrative city limits ; a different ranking exists when considering the total municipal populations ( which includes suburban and rural populations ) . The large " floating populations " of migrant workers make conducting censuses in urban areas difficult ; the figures below include only long @-@ term residents .
= = = Education = = =
Since 1986 , compulsory education in China comprises primary and junior secondary school , which together last for nine years . In 2010 , about 82 @.@ 5 percent of students continued their education at a three @-@ year senior secondary school . The Gaokao , China 's national university entrance exam , is a prerequisite for entrance into most higher education institutions . In 2010 , 27 percent of secondary school graduates are enrolled in higher education . Vocational education is available to students at the secondary and tertiary level .
In February 2006 , the government pledged to provide completely free nine @-@ year education , including textbooks and fees . Annual education investment went from less than US $ 50 billion in 2003 to more than US $ 250 billion in 2011 . However , there remains an inequality in education spending . In 2010 , the annual education expenditure per secondary school student in Beijing totalled ¥ 20 @,@ 023 , while in Guizhou , one of the poorest provinces in China , only totalled ¥ 3 @,@ 204 . Free compulsory education in China consists of primary school and junior secondary school between the ages of 6 and 15 . In 2011 , around 81 @.@ 4 % of Chinese have received secondary education . By 2007 , there were 396 @,@ 567 primary schools , 94 @,@ 116 secondary schools , and 2 @,@ 236 higher education institutions in China .
As of 2010 , 94 % of the population over age 15 are literate , compared to only 20 % in 1950 . In 2009 , Chinese students from Shanghai achieved the world 's best results in mathematics , science and literacy , as tested by the Programme for International Student Assessment ( PISA ) , a worldwide evaluation of 15 @-@ year @-@ old school pupils ' scholastic performance . Despite the high results , Chinese education has also faced both native and international criticism for its emphasis on rote memorization and its gap in quality from rural to urban areas .
= = = Health = = =
The National Health and Family Planning Commission , together with its counterparts in the local commissions , oversees the health needs of the Chinese population . An emphasis on public health and preventive medicine has characterized Chinese health policy since the early 1950s . At that time , the Communist Party started the Patriotic Health Campaign , which was aimed at improving sanitation and hygiene , as well as treating and preventing several diseases . Diseases such as cholera , typhoid and scarlet fever , which were previously rife in China , were nearly eradicated by the campaign . After Deng Xiaoping began instituting economic reforms in 1978 , the health of the Chinese public improved rapidly because of better nutrition , although many of the free public health services provided in the countryside disappeared along with the People 's Communes . Healthcare in China became mostly privatized , and experienced a significant rise in quality . In 2009 , the government began a 3 @-@ year large @-@ scale healthcare provision initiative worth US $ 124 billion . By 2011 , the campaign resulted in 95 % of China 's population having basic health insurance coverage . In 2011 , China was estimated to be the world 's third @-@ largest supplier of pharmaceuticals , but its population has suffered from the development and distribution of counterfeit medications .
As of 2012 , the average life expectancy at birth in China is 75 years , and the infant mortality rate is 12 per thousand . Both have improved significantly since the 1950s . Rates of stunting , a condition caused by malnutrition , have declined from 33 @.@ 1 % in 1990 to 9 @.@ 9 % in 2010 . Despite significant improvements in health and the construction of advanced medical facilities , China has several emerging public health problems , such as respiratory illnesses caused by widespread air pollution , hundreds of millions of cigarette smokers , and an increase in obesity among urban youths . China 's large population and densely populated cities have led to serious disease outbreaks in recent years , such as the 2003 outbreak of SARS , although this has since been largely contained . In 2010 , air pollution caused 1 @.@ 2 million premature deaths in China .
= = = Religion = = =
Over the millennia , Chinese civilization has been influenced by various religious movements . The " three teachings " , including Confucianism , Buddhism , and Taoism , historically have a significant role in shaping Chinese culture . Elements of these three belief systems are often incorporated into popular or folk religious traditions . Freedom of religion is guaranteed by China 's constitution , although religious organizations that lack official approval can be subject to state persecution .
Demographically , the most widespread religious tradition is the Chinese folk religion , which overlaps with Taoism , and describes the worship of the shen ( 神 ) , a character that signifies the " energies of generation " . The shen comprises deities of the natural environment , gods representing specific concepts or groups , heroes and ancestors , and figures from Chinese mythology . Among the most popular folk cults are those of Mazu ( goddess of the seas ) , Yellow Emperor ( one of the two divine patriarchs of the Chinese race ) , Guandi ( god of war and business ) , Caishen ( god of prosperity and richness ) , Pangu and many others . China is home to many of the world 's tallest religious statues , including the tallest of all , the Spring Temple Buddha in Henan .
The government of the People 's Republic of China is officially atheist . Religious affairs and issues in the country are overseen by the State Administration for Religious Affairs . A 2015 poll conducted by Gallup International found that 61 % of Chinese people self @-@ identified as " convinced atheist . " Scholars have noted that in China there is no clear boundary between religions , especially Buddhism , Taoism and local folk religious practice . According to the most recent demographic analyses , an average 30 — 80 % of the Chinese population practice some form of Chinese folk religions and Taoism . Approximately 10 — 16 % are Buddhists , 2 — 4 % are Christians , and 1 — 2 % are Muslims . In addition to Han people 's local religious practices , there are also various ethnic minority groups in China who maintain their traditional autochthone religions . Various sects of indigenous origin comprise 2 — 3 % of the population , while Confucianism as a religious self @-@ designation is popular among intellectuals . Significant faiths specifically connected to certain ethnic groups include Tibetan Buddhism and the Islamic religion of the Hui and Uyghur peoples .
= = Culture = =
Since ancient times , Chinese culture has been heavily influenced by Confucianism and conservative philosophies . For much of the country 's dynastic era , opportunities for social advancement could be provided by high performance in the prestigious imperial examinations , which have their origins in the Han Dynasty . The literary emphasis of the exams affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China , such as the belief that calligraphy , poetry and painting were higher forms of art than dancing or drama . Chinese culture has long emphasized a sense of deep history and a largely inward @-@ looking national perspective . Examinations and a culture of merit remain greatly valued in China today .
The first leaders of the People 's Republic of China were born into the traditional imperial order , but were influenced by the May Fourth Movement and reformist ideals . They sought to change some traditional aspects of Chinese culture , such as rural land tenure , sexism , and the Confucian system of education , while preserving others , such as the family structure and culture of obedience to the state . Some observers see the period following the establishment of the PRC in 1949 as a continuation of traditional Chinese dynastic history , while others claim that the Communist Party 's rule has damaged the foundations of Chinese culture , especially through political movements such as the Cultural Revolution of the 1960s , where many aspects of traditional culture were destroyed , having been denounced as " regressive and harmful " or " vestiges of feudalism " . Many important aspects of traditional Chinese morals and culture , such as Confucianism , art , literature , and performing arts like Peking opera , were altered to conform to government policies and propaganda at the time . Access to foreign media remains heavily restricted .
Today , the Chinese government has accepted numerous elements of traditional Chinese culture as being integral to Chinese society . With the rise of Chinese nationalism and the end of the Cultural Revolution , various forms of traditional Chinese art , literature , music , film , fashion and architecture have seen a vigorous revival , and folk and variety art in particular have sparked interest nationally and even worldwide . China is now the third @-@ most @-@ visited country in the world , with 55 @.@ 7 million inbound international visitors in 2010 . It also experiences an enormous volume of domestic tourism ; an estimated 740 million Chinese holidaymakers travelled within the country in October 2012 alone .
= = = Literature = = =
Chinese literature is based on the literature of the Zhou dynasty . Concepts covered within the Chinese classic texts present a wide range of thoughts and subjects including calendar , military , astrology , herbology , geography and many others . Some of the most important early texts include the I Ching and the Shujing within the Four Books and Five Classics which served as the Confucian authoritative books for the state @-@ sponsored curriculum in dynastic era . Inherited from the Classic of Poetry , classical Chinese poetry developed to its floruit during the Tang dynasty . Li Bai and Du Fu opened the forking ways for the poetic circles through romanticism and realism respectively . Chinese historiography began with the Shiji , the overall scope of the historiographical tradition in China is termed the Twenty @-@ Four Histories , which set a vast stage for Chinese fictions along with Chinese mythology and folklore . Pushed by a burgeoning citizen class in the Ming dynasty , Chinese classical fiction rose to a boom of the historical , town and gods and demons fictions as represented by the Four Great Classical Novels which include Water Margin , Romance of the Three Kingdoms , Journey to the West and Dream of the Red Chamber . Along with the wuxia fictions of Jin Yong , it remains an enduring source of popular culture in the East Asian cultural sphere .
In the wake of the New Culture Movement after the end of the Qing dynasty , Chinese literature embarked on a new era with written vernacular Chinese for ordinary citizens . Hu Shih and Lu Xun were pioneers in modern literature . Various literary genres , such as misty poetry , scar literature and the xungen literature , which is influenced by magic realism , emerged following the Cultural Revolution . Mo Yan , a xungen literature author , was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature in 2012 .
= = = Cuisine = = =
Chinese cuisine is highly diverse , drawing on several millennia of culinary history and geographical variety , in which the most influential are known as the " Eight Major Cuisines " , including Sichuan , Cantonese , Jiangsu , Shandong , Fujian , Hunan , Anhui , and Zhejiang cuisines . All of them are featured by the precise skills of shaping , heating , colorway and flavoring . Chinese cuisine is also known for its width of cooking methods and ingredients , as well as food therapy that is emphasized by traditional Chinese medicine . Generally , China 's staple food is rice in the south , wheat based breads and noodles in the north . The diet of the common people in pre @-@ modern times was largely grain and simple vegetables , with meat reserved for special occasions . And the bean products , such as tofu and soy milk , remain as a popular source of protein . Pork is now the most popular meat in China , accounting for about three @-@ fourths of the country 's total meat consumption . While there is also a Buddhist cuisine and an Islamic cuisine . Southern cuisine , due to the area 's proximity to the ocean and milder climate , has a wide variety of seafood and vegetables ; it differs in many respects from the wheat @-@ based diets across dry northern China . Numerous offshoots of Chinese food , such as Hong Kong cuisine and American Chinese food , have emerged in the nations that play host to the Chinese diaspora .
= = = Sports = = =
China has become a prime sports destination worldwide . The country gained the hosting rights for several major global sports tournaments including the 2008 Summer Olympics , the 2015 World Championships in Athletics and the upcoming 2019 FIBA Basketball World Cup .
China has one of the oldest sporting cultures in the world . There is evidence that archery ( shèjiàn ) was practised during the Western Zhou Dynasty . Swordplay ( jiànshù ) and cuju , a sport loosely related to association football date back to China 's early dynasties as well .
Physical fitness is widely emphasized in Chinese culture , with morning exercises such as qigong and t 'ai chi ch 'uan widely practised , and commercial gyms and fitness clubs gaining popularity in the country . Basketball is currently the most popular spectator sport in China . The Chinese Basketball Association and the American National Basketball Association have a huge following among the people , with native or ethnic Chinese players such as Yao Ming and Yi Jianlian held in high esteem . China 's professional football league was established in 2004 , it is the largest football market in Asia . Other popular sports in the country include martial arts , table tennis , badminton , swimming and snooker . Board games such as go ( known as wéiqí in Chinese ) , xiangqi , mahjong , and more recently chess , are also played at a professional level . In addition , China is home to a huge number of cyclists , with an estimated 470 million bicycles as of 2012 . Many more traditional sports , such as dragon boat racing , Mongolian @-@ style wrestling and horse racing are also popular .
China has participated in the Olympic Games since 1932 , although it has only participated as the PRC since 1952 . China hosted the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing , where its athletes received 51 gold medals – the highest number of gold medals of any participating nation that year . China also won the most medals of any nation at the 2012 Summer Paralympics , with 231 overall , including 95 gold medals . In 2011 , Shenzhen in Guangdong , China hosted the 2011 Summer Universiade . China hosted the 2013 East Asian Games in Tianjin and the 2
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4 , Pulaski 's camp was captured by Johann von Drewitz , and he was forced to retreat into Austria . Early in August he met with the French emissary , Charles François Dumouriez . He disregarded an order to take Lanckoronna and instead cooperated with Michał Walewski in a raid on Kraków on the night of August 31 . He then departed for Częstochowa . On September 10 , along with Walewski , he used subterfuge to take control of the Jasna Góra monastery . On September 18 he met Franciszka z Krasińskich , an aristocrat from the Krasiński family and the wife of Charles of Saxony , Duke of Courland ; he impressed her and she would become one of his protectors . Around September 22 – 24 Walewski was made the commandant of Jasna Góra , which slighted Pulaski . Nonetheless he continued as the de facto commander of Confederate troops stationed in and around Jasna Góra . Between September 10 , 1770 , and January 14 , 1771 , Pulaski , Walewski and Józef Zaremba commanded the Polish forces during the siege of Jasna Góra monastery . They successfully defended against Drewitz in a series of engagements , the largest one on November 11 , followed by a siege from December 31 to January 14 . The defense of Jasna Góra further enhanced his reputation among the Confederates and abroad . A popular Confederate song taunting Drewitz included lyrics about Pulaski and Jasna Góra . Pulaski intended to pursue Drewitz , but a growing discord between him and Zaremba prevented this from becoming a real option .
In February 1771 , Pulaski operated around Lublin ; on February 25 he was victorious at Tarłów and on the night of February 28 and March 1 , his forces besieged Kraśnik . In March that year he became one of the members of the Confederates ' War Council . Dumouriez , who became a military adviser to the Confederates , at the time described him as " spontaneous , more proud than ambitious , friend of the prince of Courland , enemy of the Potocki family , brave and honest " as well as popular among other commanders . This was due to his refusal to follow orders and adhere to discipline . Jędrzej Kitowicz who met him as well around that time described him as short and thin , pacing and speaking quickly , and uninterested in women or drinking . Furthermore , he enjoyed fighting against the Russians above everything else , and was daring to the extent he forgot about his safety in battles , resulting in his many failures on the battlefield .
In May 1771 , Pulaski advanced on Zamość , refusing to coordinate an operation with Dumouriez against Alexander Suvorov ; without Pulaski 's support , the Confederates were defeated at the Battle of Lanckorona . Pulaski 's forces were victorious at the Battle of Majdany , and briefly besieged Zamość , but it was relieved by Suvorov . He retreated , suffering major losses , towards Częstochowa . On July 27 , pressured by Franciszka z Krasińskich , he declared he would from then on strictly adhere to orders from the Confederacy that he had previously habitually disregarded . In October his responsibilities in the War Council were increased , and the same month he became involved with the plan to kidnap King Poniatowski . Pulaski was initially opposed to this plan but later supported it on the condition that the king would not be harmed . The attempt failed , weakening the international reputation of the Confederates , and when Pulaski 's involvement with the attempted kidnapping became known , the Austrians expelled him from their territories . He spent the following winter and spring in Częstochowa , during which time several of his followers were defeated , captured or killed .
On May 31 , 1772 , Pulaski , increasingly distanced from other leaders of the Confederation , left the Jasna Góra monastery and went to Silesia in Prussia . In the meantime , the Bar Confederation was defeated , with most fighting ending around the summer . Overall , Pulaski was seen as one of the most famous and accomplished Confederate leaders . " At the same time , he often acted independently , disobeying orders from Confederate command , and among his detractors ( which included Dumouriez ) had a reputation of a " loose cannon " .
Leaving Prussia , Pulaski sought refuge in France , where he unsuccessfully attempted to join the French Army . In 1773 , his opponents in Poland accused him of attempted regicide , and proceedings began at the Sejm Court on June 7 .
Poniatowski himself warned Pulaski to stay away from Poland , or risk death . The court verdict , declared in absentia in July , stripped Pulaski of " all dignity and honors " , demanded that his possessions be confiscated , and sentenced him to death . He attempted to recreate a Confederate force in the Ottoman Empire during the Russo @-@ Turkish War , but before he could make any progress , the Turks were defeated , and he barely escaped by sea to Marseilles , France . He found himself in debt and unable to find an army that would enlist him . He spent the year of 1775 in France , imprisoned at times for debts , until his allies gathered enough funds to arrange for his release . Around that time , due to the efforts of his friend Claude @-@ Carloman de Rulhière , he was recruited by the Marquis de Lafayette and Benjamin Franklin ( whom he met in spring 1777 ) for service in the American Revolutionary War .
= = = In the United States = = =
= = = = Northern front = = = =
Franklin was impressed by Pulaski , and wrote of him : " Countb Pulaski of Poland , an officer famous throughout Europe for his bravery and conduct in defence of the liberties of his country against the three great invading powers of Russia , Austria and Prussia ... may be highly useful to our service . " He subsequently recommended that General George Washington accept Pulaski as a volunteer in the Continental Army cavalry and said that Pulaski " was renowned throughout Europe for the courage and bravery he displayed in defense of his country 's freedom . " Pulaski departed France from Nantes in June , and arrived in Marblehead , Massachusetts , near Boston , on July 23 , 1777 . After his arrival , Pulaski wrote to Washington , " I came here , where freedom is being defended , to serve it , and to live or die for it . "
On August 20 , he met Washington in his headquarters in Neshaminy Falls , outside Philadelphia . He showed off riding stunts , and argued for the superiority of cavalry over infantry . Because Washington was unable to grant him an officer rank , Pulaski spent the next few months traveling between Washington and the US Congress in Philadelphia , awaiting his appointment . His first military engagement against the British occurred before he received it , on September 11 , 1777 , at the Battle of Brandywine . When the Continental Army troops began to yield , he reconnoitered with Washington 's bodyguard of about 30 men , and reported that the enemy were endeavoring to cut off the line of retreat . Washington ordered him to collect , as many as possible , the scattered troops who came his way , and employ them according to his discretion to secure the retreat of the army . His subsequent charge averted a disastrous defeat of the Continental Army cavalry , earning him fame in America and saved the life of George Washington . As a result , on September 15 , 1777 , on the orders of Congress , Washington made Pulaski a brigadier general in the Continental Army cavalry . At that point , the cavalry was only a few hundred men strong organized into four regiments . These men were scattered among numerous infantry formations , and used primarily for scouting duties . Pulaski immediately began work on reforming the cavalry , and wrote the first regulations for the formation .
On September 16 , while on patrol west of Philadelphia , Pulaski spotted significant British forces moving toward the Continental position . Upon being informed by Pulaski , Washington prepared for a battle , but the encounter was interrupted by a major storm before either side was organized . On October 4 , Pulaski took part in the Battle of Germantown . He spent the winter of 1777 to 1778 with most of the army at Valley Forge . Pulaski argued that the military operations should continue through the winter , but this idea was rejected by the general staff . In turn , he focused on reorganizing the cavalry force , mostly stationed in Trenton . While at Trenton his assistance was requested by General Anthony Wayne , whom Washington had dispatched on a foraging expedition into southern New Jersey . Wayne was in danger of encountering a much larger British force sent to oppose his movements . Pulaski and 50 cavalry rode south to Burlington , where they skirmished with British sentries on February 28 . After this minor encounter the British commander , Lieutenant Colonel Thomas Stirling , was apparently convinced that he was facing a much larger force than expected , and prepared to withdraw his troops across the Delaware River into Pennsylvania at Cooper 's Ferry ( present @-@ day Gloucester City ) . Pulaski and Wayne joined forces to attack Stirling 's position on February 29 while he awaited suitable weather conditions to cross . In the resulting skirmish ( which only involved a few hundred men out of the larger forces on either side ) , Pulaski 's horse was shot out from under him and a few of his cavalry were wounded .
American officers serving under Pulaski had difficulty taking orders from a foreigner who could scarcely speak English and whose ideas of discipline and tactics differed enormously from those to which they were accustomed . This resulted in friction between the Americans and Pulaski and his fellow Polish officers . There was also discontent in the unit over delays in pay , and Pulaski 's imperious personality was a regular source of discontent among his peers , superiors , and subordinates . Pulaski was also unhappy that his suggestion to create a lancer unit was denied . Despite a commendation from Wayne , these circumstances prompted Pulaski to resign his general command in March 1778 , and return to Valley Forge .
Pulaski went to Yorktown , where he met with General Horatio Gates and suggested the creation of a new unit . At Gates ' recommendation , Congress confirmed his previous appointment to the rank of a brigadier general , with a special title of " Commander of the Horse " , and authorized the formation of a corps of 68 lancers and 200 light infantry . This corps , which became known as the Pulaski Cavalry Legion , was recruited mainly in Baltimore , where it was headquartered . Henry Wadsworth Longfellow would later commemorate in verse the consecration of the Legion 's banner . By August 1778 , it numbered about 330 men , both Americans and foreigners . General Charles Lee commented on the high standards of the Legion 's training . The " father of the American cavalry " demanded much of his men and trained them in tested cavalry tactics . He used his own personal finances when money from Congress was scarce , in order to assure his forces of the finest equipment and personal safety . However , later that year a controversy arose related to the Legion 's finances , and its requisitions from the local populace . His troubles with the auditors continued until his death ; Pulaski complained that he received inadequate funds , was obstructed by locals and officials , and that he was forced to spend his own money . He was not cleared of these charges until after his death .
In the autumn Pulaski was ordered to Little Egg Harbor , where in the engagement on October 15 , known as The Affair at Little Egg Harbor , the legion suffered heavy losses . During the following winter Pulaski was stationed at Minisink , at that time in New Jersey . Ordered to take part in a punitive Sullivan Expedition against the Iroquois , he was dissatisfied with this command , and intended to leave the service and return to Europe , but instead asked to be reassigned to the Southern front . On February 2 , 1779 Washington instead ordered him to South Carolina .
= = = = Southern front = = = =
Pulaski arrived in Charleston on May 8 , 1779 , finding the city in crisis . General Benjamin Lincoln , commander of the southern army , had led most of the army toward Augusta , Georgia , in a bid to recapture Savannah , which had been captured by the British in late 1778 . The British commander , Brigadier General Augustine Prevost , responded to Lincoln 's move by launching a raiding expedition from Savannah across the Savannah River . The South Carolina militia fell back before the British advance , and Prevost 's force followed them all the way to Charleston . Pulaski arrived just as military leaders were establishing the city 's defenses . When the British advanced on May 11 , Pulaski 's Legion engaged forward elements of the British force , and was badly mauled in the encounter . The Legion infantry , numbering only about 60 men before the skirmish , was virtually wiped out , and Pulaski was forced to retreat to the safety of the city 's guns . Although some historians credit this action with Prevost 's decision to withdraw back toward Savannah the next day ( despite ongoing negotiations of a possible surrender of Charleston ) , that decision is more likely based on news Prevost received that Lincoln 's larger force was returning to Charleston to face him , and that Prevost 's troops had gone further than he had originally intended . One early historian criticized Pulaski 's actions during that engagement as " ill @-@ judged , ill @-@ conducted , disgraceful and disastrous " . The episode was of minor strategic consequence and did little to enhance the reputation of Pulaski 's unit .
Although Pulaski frequently suffered from malaria while stationed in Charleston , he remained in active service . At the beginning of September Lincoln prepared to launch an attempt to retake Savannah with French assistance . Pulaski was ordered to Augusta , where he was to join forces with General Lachlan McIntosh . Their combined forces were to serve as the forward elements of Lincoln 's army . Pulaski captured a British outpost near Ogeechee River . His units then acted as an advance guard for the allied French units under Admiral Charles Hector , comte d 'Estaing . He rendered great services during the siege of Savannah , and in the assault of October 9 commanded the whole cavalry , both French and American .
= = = Death and burial = = =
While attempting to rally fleeing French forces during a cavalry charge , Pulaski was mortally wounded by grapeshot . The reported grapeshot is on display today at the Georgia Historical Society in Savannah ; The Charleston Museum also has a grapeshot reported to be from Pulaski 's wound . A wounded Pulaski was carried from the field of battle and taken aboard the South Carolina merchant brig privateer Wasp under the command of Captain Samuel Bulfinch , where he died two days later , having never regained consciousness . His death , perceived by American Patriot supporters as heroic , further boosted his reputation in America .
The historical accounts for Pulaski 's time and place of burial vary considerably . According to several contemporary accounts there were witnesses , including Pulaski 's aide @-@ de @-@ camp , that Pulaski received a symbolic burial in Charleston on October 21 , sometime after he was buried at sea . Other witnesses , including Captain Samuel Bulfinch of the Wasp however , claimed that the wounded Pulaski was actually later removed from the ship and taken to the Greenwich plantation in the town of Thunderbolt , near Savannah , where he died and was buried .
In March 1825 , during his grand tour of the United States , Lafayette personally laid the cornerstone for the Casimir Pulaski Monument in Savannah , Georgia . Remains at Monterey Square in that city , alleged to be Pulaski 's , were exhumed in 1996 and examined in a forensic study . The eight @-@ year examination , including DNA analysis , ended inconclusively , although the skeleton is consistent with Pulaski 's age and occupation . A healed wound on the skull 's forehead is consistent with historical records of an injury Pulaski sustained in battle , as is a bone defect on the left cheekbone , believed to have been caused by a benign tumor . The remains were reinterred with military honors in 2005 .
= = Tributes and commemoration = =
The United States has long commemorated Pulaski 's contributions to the American Revolutionary War , and already on October 29 , 1779 , the United States Congress passed a resolution that a monument should be dedicated to him , but the first monument to him was not built until 1854 . A bust of Pulaski was added to a collection of other busts of American heroes at United States Capitol in 1867 . On May 11 , 1910 , US President William Taft revealed a Congress @-@ sponsored General Casimir Pulaski statue . In 1929 , Congress passed another resolution , this one recognizing October 11 of each year as " General Pulaski Memorial Day " , with a large parade held annually on Fifth Avenue in New York City . Separately , a Casimir Pulaski Day is celebrated in Illinois and some other places on the first Monday of each March . After a previous attempt failed , Congress passed a joint resolution conferring honorary U.S. citizenship on Pulaski in 2009 , sending it to President Barack Obama for approval . He duly signed it on November 6 , 2009 , making Pulaski the seventh person so honored .
In Poland , in 1793 Pulaski 's relative , Antoni Pułaski , obtained a cancellation of his brother 's sentence from 1773 . He has been mentioned in the literary works of numerous Polish authors , including Adam Mickiewicz , Juliusz Słowacki and Józef Ignacy Kraszewski . Adolf Nowaczyński wrote a drama " Pułaski w Ameryce " ( Pulaski in America ) in 1917 . A museum dedicated to Pulaski , the Kazimierz Pułaski Museum , opened in Warka in 1967 .
Throughout Poland and the United States , people have celebrated anniversaries of Pulaski 's birth and death , and there exist numerous objects of art such as paintings and statues of him . In 1879 , to commemorate the 100th anniversary of his death , Henri Schoeller composed " A Pulaski March " . Twenty years earlier , Eduard Sobolewski composed his opera , " Mohega " , about the last days of Pulaski 's life . Commemorative medals and stamps of Pulaski have been issued . Several towns and counties in United States are named after him , as are numerous streets , parks and structures , such as the Pulaski Bridge or the Pulaski Skyway . There is also a number of educational , academic , and Polish @-@ American institutions named after him . A US Navy submarine , USS Casimir Pulaski , has been named for him , as was a 19th @-@ century United States Revenue Cutter Service cutter . A Polish frigate , ORP Generał Kazimierz Pułaski , is also named after Pulaski . Fort Pulaski , active during the American Civil War , is named in honor of Casimir Pulaski . A statue commemorating Pulaski titled General Casimir Pulaski stands at the eastern end of Freedom Plaza in Washington , D.C. There is an equestrian statue of Pulaski in Roger Williams Park in Providence , Rhode Island . A statue by Granville W. Carter depicting Pulaski on a rearing horse signaling a forward charge with a sword in his right hand is erected in Hartford , Connecticut .
Polish historian Władysław Konopczyński , who wrote a monograph on Pulaski in 1931 , noted that he was one of the most accomplished Polish people , grouping him with other Polish military heroes such as Tadeusz Kościuszko , Stanisław Żółkiewski , Stefan Czarniecki , and Prince Józef Poniatowski .
" The Mysterious Stranger " , a 1959 episode of the ABC / Warner Brothers western television series Sugarfoot , features Adam West as Frederick Pulaski , a declared descendant of the Casimir Pulaski . However , Pulaski never married or had direct heirs . In the story line , Frederick Pulaski is a concert pianist who defends oppressed Polish miners in a western town . Series character Tom " Sugarfoot Brewster ( Will Hutchins ) , befriends Pulaski in a legal hearing and reconciles him with the young woman to whom both are smitten , Kathy O 'Hara ( Sue Randall ) , who is also studying to be a concert pianist . Karl Swenson appears in this episode as Kathy 's wealthy Irish father , Dennis O 'Hara .
= = In popular culture = =
In the Season 3 episode of The West Wing entitled " Stirred " , Pulaski is mentioned , and US President Jed Bartlett describes him as " a Polish Brigadier General who vanquished the Russian and Prussian military , then came to the colonies and commanded our cavalry during the American Revolution " .
There is a statue of Pulaski in the fictional town of Stars Hollow from the TV series Gilmore Girls .
Singer @-@ songwriter Sufjan Stevens wrote a song entitled " Casimir Pulaski Day " on his Illinois album .
= 6th Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 6th Battalion was an infantry battalion of the Australian Army . Originally formed in 1914 for service during the First World War , the battalion fought at Gallipoli and on the Western Front . The battalion was disbanded in 1919 but was re @-@ raised in 1921 as part of the Citizens Force , and adopted the title of " Royal Melbourne Regiment " in 1935 . The battalion did not serve overseas during the Second World War and was eventually disbanded in 1944 . It was re @-@ raised in 1948 and remained in existence until 1960 when it was absorbed into the Royal Victoria Regiment . Today its honours and traditions are maintained by the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment .
= = History = =
= = = First World War = = =
Following the outbreak of the First World War , the decision was made to raise an all volunteer force outside of the existing Citizens Force units for overseas service known as the Australian Imperial Force ( AIF ) . The 6th Battalion was completely recruited from Victoria , drawing from Melbourne and the surrounding suburbs to the north where four Citizens Force battalions — the 55th , 56th , 63rd and 64th Infantry — were headquartered . Raising was complete within a fortnight of the outbreak of the war in August 1914 and less than two months later the battalion embarked for overseas on the troop transport Suffolk , forming part of the 2nd Brigade , 1st Division .
The battalion proceeded to Egypt , arriving on 2 December and after a period of training it took part in the Landing at Anzac Cove on 25 April 1915 , where it went ashore as part of the second wave . Shortly after the landing the 2nd Brigade was transferred from Anzac Cove to Cape Helles to assist in the attack on Krithia . During the unsuccessful attack , the 6th Battalion suffered heavy casualties , losing 133 men killed or died of wounds . Afterwards , they returned to Anzac Cove , arriving there on 17 May , to take part in defending the beachhead that had been established . In August , when the Allies attempted a break out , the battalion took part in the attack on Lone Pine . In September they were withdrawn for a period of rest to Lemnos . They returned in November and resumed defensive duties . By that time , due to the failure of August Offensive , the campaign evolved into a stalemate . They remained in the line December , when the Allies carried out a successful evacuation . During the campaign they lost 22 officers and 398 other ranks killed .
After the withdrawal from Gallipoli , the battalion returned to Egypt where they received reinforcements and carried out defensive duties . During this time the AIF was reorganised and expanded as fresh divisions were raised . In order to spread experience across the new units , the existing units were split up and the 6th Battalion provided half its experienced officers and non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) to the 58th Battalion . In March 1916 , it sailed to France and deployed to the Somme , where it was sent to a quiet sector near Fleurbaix . Its first combat came on 12 June when the battalion launched a trench raid on the Germans opposite their position . Their first major action in France came later , however , at Pozières in July 1916 , during which time they lost 102 men killed . Later the battalion fought at Ypres , in Belgium , before returning to the Somme in winter , during which time they undertook defensive duties as well as patrols into no man 's land . After this the battalion took part in the Second Battle of Bullecourt , before taking part in the Battle of Menin Road in September 1917 , when Lieutenant Frederick Birks earned the 6th Battalion 's only Victoria Cross .
In March and April 1918 , the battalion took part in the defensive actions in response to the German spring offensive , before subsequently taking part in the Allied Hundred Days Offensive , launched near Amiens on 8 August 1918 . The 6th Battalion joined the advance the following day , striking out from Villers @-@ Bretonneux and taking part in the capture of Lihons . The battalion continued operations to late September 1918 , taking part in the advance towards Herleville , but was then withdrawn from the line for rest and reorganisation and did not see any further combat . In November , the members of the battalion began being repatriated back to Australia as the demobilisation process began . The process was undertaken gradually based upon length of service and as the battalion 's numbers began to dwindle it was amalgamated with the 7th Battalion in March 1919 . Later , this battalion was also amalgamated with the 5th and 8th Battalions , to form the 2nd Brigade Battalion .
During the war the 6th Battalion lost 1 @,@ 066 killed and 2 @,@ 017 wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Victoria Cross , one Order of St Michael and St George , five Distinguished Service Orders with one bar , 31 Military Crosses with two bars , 34 Distinguished Conduct Medals , 127 Military Medals with nine bars , nine Meritorious Service Medals , 48 Mentioned in Despatches and 13 foreign awards .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
In 1921 , the decision was made to perpetuate the numerical designations and battle honours of the AIF by re @-@ raising the AIF units as part of the Citizens Force . This was done by reorganising the existing Citizens Forces units so that they would adopt the identity of the AIF units that had been recruited within their regions and in which many of the pre @-@ war citizen soldiers had served . This was designed so as to maintain the regional identity of the Citizens Forces units , as well as the honours and traditions of the AIF units . In this time the 6th Battalion was re @-@ raised from personnel drawn from six existing units : all of the 2nd Battalion , 6th Infantry Regiment ; as well as part of the 29th Light Horse Regiment ; the 2nd Battalion , 46th Infantry Regiment ; the 2nd Battalion , 60th Infantry Regiment ; the 5th Battalion , 5th Infantry Regiment and the 5th Battalion , 21st Infantry Regiment . Through these units , the battalion gained a complex lineage , including that of the 64th Infantry , a unit that could trace its lineage back to 1854 and claimed to be the oldest infantry unit in Australia .
Initially attached to the 2nd Infantry Brigade , 4th Division , in 1927 , when territorial titles were adopted by the Army , the battalion adopted the title of 6th Battalion , City of Melbourne Regiment . It also adopted the motto Semper Parartus at this time . In 1929 , following the election of the Scullin Labor government , the compulsory training scheme was abolished and in its place a new system was introduced whereby the Citizens Forces would be maintained on a part @-@ time , voluntary basis only . It was also renamed the " Militia " at this time . The decision to suspend compulsory training , coupled with the economic downturn of the Great Depression meant that the manpower of many Militia units dropped considerably and as a result the decision was made to amalgamate a number of units . Nevertheless , the 6th Battalion was not affected by this decision and in 1931 it formed an alliance with the Royal Fusiliers . In 1935 , the battalion was re @-@ designated as the " Royal Melbourne Regiment " . This title was officially approved on King George V 's jubilee and was a unique honour , as the battalion was at the time the only Australian infantry unit to carry the Royal prefix .
= = = Second World War = = =
At the outset of the Second World War , due to the provisions of the Defence Act ( 1903 ) which prohibited sending the Militia to fight outside of Australian territory , The decision was made to raise an all volunteer force to serve overseas — initial operations were conceived to be likely in the Middle East , France and later possibly England — while it was decided that the Militia would be used to defend the Australian mainland and to improve Australia 's overall level of readiness through the reinstitution of compulsory military service and extended periods of continuous periods of training . During this time the 6th Battalion was called up for a number of periods of continuous service in order to bolster their readiness and undertook garrison duties in Australia . In 1944 , however , the decision was made to disband the unit , as the Australian government sought to reallocate resources to the economy and began the demobilisation process early . Later , in January 1945 , the battalion 's parent unit , the 2nd Brigade was also disbanded .
= = = Post Second World War = = =
In 1948 , with the completion of the demobilisation process , the Citizens Force was re @-@ raised as the Citizens Military Force ( CMF ) , which was established on a restricted establishment of two divisions . As a part of this force , it was announced on 1 May 1948 that the 6th Battalion , Royal Melbourne Regiment would be re @-@ raised . Two companies were formed in Melbourne along with battalion headquarters , while depots were located at Carlton and Preston . It was also decided that the battalion would perpetuate the battle honours of the 2 / 6th Battalion , which had fought in North Africa , Greece and New Guinea during the war . Waltzing Matilda was approved as the battalion 's regimental march in 1953 .
In mid @-@ 1960 , the Australian Army adopted the Pentropic divisional structure , which was based on the establishment of five @-@ company battalions . The result of this was a reduction in the number of CMF units , many of which were merged to form new units on the Pentropic establishment . At the same time , it was decided to amalgamate the old local and regional regiments that had existed into six new multi @-@ battalion state @-@ based regiments , such as the Royal Victoria Regiment . As a result of these changes , in July the 6th Battalion was merged with the 5th Battalion and the 58th / 32nd Battalion to form the 1st Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( 1 RVR ) ; within this organisation the 6th Battalion 's identity was maintained by ' C ' ( Melbourne ) Company . Prior to this , in March , the battalion had received the Freedom of the City from the City of Melbourne .
In 1965 , the Pentropic system was abandoned and a further re @-@ organisation of the CMF was undertaken as existing battalions were reduced and additional battalions were raised in the more populous areas , namely in Queensland , Victoria and New South Wales . At the same time , the concerns about the regional identity of these units were addressed by reintroducing the old numerical designations . As a result , the large Pentropic battalions were split up once again and the 6th Battalion once again was raised as a full battalion , known as the 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment . In July 1975 , due to declining troop numbers further reorganisation resulted in the amalgamation of the 5th and 6th Battalions once more , albeit under the guise of the 1st Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( 1 RVR ) . This lasted until August 1982 when due to concerns about the strategic situation following the Russian invasion of Afghanistan , the Australian government announced the expansion of the CMF and decided to raise another battalion in Victoria . This battalion was the 5th / 6th Battalion , Royal Victoria Regiment ( 5 / 6 RVR ) and by mid @-@ 1981 , 1 RVR had reached peak strength and the following year the battalion was split to form the new 5 / 6 RVR , a unit which remains in existence today and maintains the battle honours and traditions of its predecessor AIF and Militia units .
= = Alliances = =
United Kingdom – Royal Fusiliers .
= = Battle honours = =
The 6th Battalion was awarded the following battle honours :
Second Boer War : South Africa 1899 – 1902 .
First World War : Somme 1916 – 18 , Pozières , Bullecourt , Ypres 1917 , Menin Road , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Lys , Hazebrouck , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Hindenburg Line , Epehy , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 , Helles , Krithia , ANZAC , Landing at ANZAC , Defence at ANZAC , Suvla , Sari Bair , Gallipoli 1915 , Egypt 1915 – 16 .
Second World War : North Africa , Bardia 1941 , Capture of Tobruk , Greece 1941 , South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 45 , Wau , Lababia Ridge , Bobdubi II , Mubo II , Komiatum , Liberation of Australian New Guinea , Maprik , Yamil – Ulupu , Kaboibus – Kiarivu .
= Henry Cornelius Burnett =
Henry Cornelius Burnett ( October 25 , 1825 – October 1 , 1866 ) was a U.S. Representative from the state of Kentucky and a Confederate States senator . A lawyer by profession , Burnett had held only one public office — circuit court clerk — before being elected to Congress . He represented Kentucky 's 1st congressional district immediately prior to the Civil War . This district contained the entire Jackson Purchase region of the state , which was more sympathetic to the Confederate cause than any other area of Kentucky . Burnett promised the voters of his district that he would have President Abraham Lincoln arraigned for treason . Unionist newspaper editor George D. Prentice described Burnett as " a big , burly , loud @-@ mouthed fellow who is forever raising points of order and objections , to embarrass the Republicans in the House " .
Besides championing the Southern cause in Congress , Burnett also worked within Kentucky to bolster the state 's support of the Confederacy . He presided over a sovereignty convention in Russellville in 1861 that formed a Confederate government for the state . The delegates to this convention chose Burnett to travel to Richmond , Virginia to secure Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . Burnett also raised a Confederate regiment at Hopkinsville , Kentucky , and briefly served in the Confederate States Army . Camp Burnett , a Confederate recruiting post two miles west of Clinton in Hickman County , Kentucky , was named after him .
Burnett 's actions were deemed treasonable by his colleagues in Congress , and he was expelled from the House in 1861 . He is one of only five members of the House of Representatives ever to be expelled . Following his expulsion , Burnett served in the Provisional Confederate Congress and the First and Second Confederate Senates . He was indicted for treason after the war , but never tried . He returned to the practice of law , and died of cholera in 1866 at the age of 40 .
= = Early life and political career = =
Henry Cornelius Burnett was born to Dr. Isaac and Martha F. ( Garrett ) Burnett on October 25 , 1825 , in Essex County , Virginia . In his early childhood , he moved to Cadiz , Kentucky , with his family . He was educated in the common schools of the area and at an academy in Hopkinsville , Kentucky . Following this , he studied law , was admitted to the bar in 1847 , and commenced practice at Cadiz . He was a member of the Cadiz Christian Church .
On April 13 , 1847 , Burnett married Mary A. Terry , the daughter of a prominent Cadiz merchant . They had four children : John , Emeline , Henry , and Terry ( who died shortly after birth ) . The younger Henry Burnett became a successful lawyer in Paducah and , later , Louisville .
In the first election following the ratification of the Kentucky Constitution of 1850 , Burnett was elected clerk of the circuit court of Trigg County , Kentucky , defeating James E. Thompson . He resigned in 1853 to run for Congress . Later that year , he was elected as a Democrat to the 34th Congress , succeeding Speaker of the House Linn Boyd . He was re @-@ elected to the three succeeding Congresses ; during the 35th Congress , he chaired the Committee of Enquiry regarding the sale of Fort Snelling and served on the Committee on the District of Columbia .
= = Outset of the Civil War = =
Burnett supported fellow Kentuckian John C. Breckinridge for president in the 1860 presidential election , but Breckinridge lost to Abraham Lincoln . Lincoln had campaigned against the expansion of slavery beyond the states in which it already existed . His victory in the election resulted in seven Southern states declaring their secession from the Union . Despite this , most Americans believed the Union could still be saved . Burnett , however , disagreed . In the January 7 , 1861 issue of Paducah 's Tri @-@ Weekly Herald , he declared , " There is not the slightest hope of any settlement or adjustment of existing troubles . " Despite his pessimism , Burnett endorsed the ill @-@ fated Peace Conference of 1861 .
Following the rapid secessions of Mississippi , Florida , Alabama , Georgia , Louisiana , and Texas , Congress began preparing the nation for war , including by strengthening the army and navy and raising funds for the treasury . Burnett attempted to circumvent these measures by proposing an amendment stipulating that none of these new appropriations could be used to subdue or make war against any of the southern states , but the amendment was defeated .
To avert war then , the Kentucky General Assembly called for a meeting of border states to convene in Frankfort on May 27 . Kentucky 's twelve delegates to the convention were to be chosen by special election on May 4 . However , after the Confederates fired on Fort Sumter on April 12 , the secessionist candidates withdrew from the election . Expressing the view of the majority of these delegates , Burnett opined in the Tri @-@ Weekly Herald that the convention would not occur . He was wrong ; the convention was held as scheduled , but it failed to accomplish anything of significance .
= = Special congressional elections of 1861 = =
President Lincoln called for special congressional elections to be held in Kentucky in June 1861 . The voters of the First District 's Southern Rights party called a meeting to be held May 29 , 1861 at the Graves County courthouse in Mayfield . The purpose of the meeting was ostensibly to re @-@ nominate Burnett for his congressional seat , but some Unionists believed an ulterior motive was in play . George D. Prentice , editor of the Unionist Louisville Journal , wrote on May 21 , 1861 that " the object of [ the Mayfield Convention ] , though not officially explained , is believed to be the separation of the First District from Kentucky if Kentucky remains in the Union , and its annexation to Tennessee " .
Most of the records of the Mayfield Convention were lost , presumably in a fire that destroyed the courthouse in 1864 . The most extensive surviving record comes from the notes of James Beadles , a Unionist observer of the proceedings . After a number of speeches were delivered , a majority committee chaired by Paducah circuit judge James Campbell presented a report containing seven resolutions . The resolutions declared the region 's sympathy with the South , although it pledged to abide by Kentucky 's present policy of neutrality . It condemned President Lincoln for waging an unjust war , and praised Governor Beriah Magoffin for refusing Lincoln 's call for troops . The report also condemned the federal government for arming Union sympathizers in the state with so @-@ called " Lincoln guns " . A minority committee report was given by Ballard County resident and future U.S. Representative Oscar Turner . This report called Kentucky 's neutrality " futile " and " cowardly , " promised to fight off any invasion by the North , and recommended calling for aid from Tennessee and the Confederate States in the event of such an invasion . It further warned that if the entire state did not adopt this position , the Purchase region would secede and align itself with Tennessee .
Burnett , along with Lyon County 's Willis B. Machen and Union County 's Benjamin P. Cissell , initially endorsed Campbell 's majority report . After some debate , Burnett proposed four resolutions in lieu of both reports . The resolutions condemned President Lincoln for the war against the South and the federal government for the provision of the " Lincoln guns " . They also praised Governor Magoffin for rebuffing Lincoln 's call for troops and encouraged him to drive away any Union invasion of the state . Burnett 's resolutions were passed by large margins in preference to both the majority and minority reports .
Finally , the convention turned to the issue of nominating Burnett . Four others , including Turner , Machen , and Cissell , were also offered as nominees . Burnett received 124 of 155 votes on the first ballot and was chosen unanimously on the second ballot . In his acceptance speech , Burnett declared that he was undecided as to whether he would take the oath of office if elected . This statement alluded to an earlier comment by Turner that " no man who is engaged in the cause of the South could go to Congress and take the oath of office without perjuring himself . " Burnett promised that if he did assume his seat , he was determined to arraign President Lincoln for treason .
In the special elections , Burnett defeated Lawrence Trimble of Paducah . He was the only states ' rights candidate elected in the statewide canvass . He won handily in the Jackson Purchase region , which was by far the most pro @-@ Southern area of the state . However , outside the Purchase , he won only his home county of Trigg , and that by a slim margin of 20 votes . ( Besides the Purchase counties , the First District also included Caldwell , Crittenden , Hopkins , Livingston , Lyon , Trigg , Union , and Webster counties . )
Burnett took his seat in the 37th Congress ; sources make no mention of his making good on his threat not to take the oath of office . Just days after the First Battle of Bull Run , Burnett 's fellow Kentuckian , John J. Crittenden proposed a resolution blaming the war on the disloyal Southerners and defining the war 's aim as preservation of the Union without interference in the rights or institutions of the states . Burnett asked that the question be divided . His request was granted , but he only found one colleague willing to vote with him against blaming Southerners for the war .
= = Confederate military service and expulsion = =
After Congress adjourned on August 6 , 1861 , Burnett returned home to Cadiz and spoke at a number of pro @-@ Southern rallies . On September 4 , 1861 , Confederate Major General Leonidas Polk violated Kentucky 's neutrality by ordering Brigadier General Gideon Johnson Pillow to occupy Columbus . In response , Ulysses S. Grant captured Paducah on September 6 , 1861 . With neutrality no longer a tenable option , Burnett presided over a conference of Kentucky 's Southern sympathizers that occurred at Russellville between October 29 and October 31 , 1861 . The self @-@ appointed delegates to this conference called for a sovereignty convention on November 18 , 1861 for the purpose of establishing a Confederate government for the state .
In the interim between the two conventions , Burnett traveled to Hopkinsville , where he and Colonel W.C.P. Breckinridge raised a Confederate regiment dubbed the 8th Kentucky Infantry . On November 11 , 1861 , Burnett himself enlisted in the Confederate States Army at Camp Alcorn ; he was chosen as colonel of the 8th Kentucky , but never took command .
The sovereignty convention gathered at the William Forst House in Russellville as scheduled on November 18 , 1861 . Burnett also presided over this convention . Fearing for the safety of the delegates , he first proposed postponing proceedings until January 8 , 1862 , but Scott County 's George W. Johnson convinced the majority of the delegates to continue . By the third day , the military situation was so tenuous that the entire convention had to be moved to a tower on the campus of Bethel Female College , a now @-@ defunct institution in Russellville .
The convention passed an ordinance of secession and established a provisional Confederate government for Kentucky . Burnett , William Preston of Fayette County and William E. Simms of Bourbon County were chosen as commissioners for the provisional government and were dispatched to Richmond , Virginia to negotiate with Confederate President Jefferson Davis to secure Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy . For reasons unexplained by the delegates , Dr. Luke P. Blackburn , a native Kentuckian living in Mississippi , was invited to accompany the commissioners . Despite the fact that Kentucky 's elected government in Frankfort had opposed secession , the commissioners convinced Davis to recommend Kentucky 's admission to the Confederacy ; the Confederate Congress officially admitted Kentucky on December 10 , 1861 .
Following his successful mission to Richmond , Burnett joined the 8th Kentucky at Fort Donelson . On February 16 , 1862 , Ulysses S. Grant led a combined Federal army @-@ navy attack against the fort . Most of the Confederate garrison was captured , including the 8th Kentucky , but Burnett escaped in General John B. Floyd 's retreat following the defeat . This battle ended Burnett 's military service .
Burnett 's subversive activities did not go unnoticed by his colleagues in Congress . He was absent when the body reconvened December 2 , 1861 . The following day , Indiana representative W. McKee Dunn introduced a resolution to expel Burnett from Congress . The resolution passed easily , removing Burnett from the seat he had occupied continuously since 1855 .
= = Confederate political service = =
Burnett represented Kentucky in the Provisional Confederate Congress from November 18 , 1861 to February 17 , 1862 , and served as a member of that body 's Finance Committee . He was then elected as a senator to the First and Second Confederate Congresses , serving from February 19 , 1862 to February 18 , 1865 . In the Confederate Senate , he served on the Engrossment and Enrollment and Military Affairs Committees .
On March 29 , Confederate president Jefferson Davis called on the Confederate Congress to pass a conscription bill . The bill would require a three @-@ year term of service for all able @-@ bodied white men between the ages of 18 and 35 . At first , the bill was unpopular , but as the military situation grew more desperate for the Confederacy , both houses quickly passed it . Still , the measure caused some to question Davis ' military decisions ; among them was Burnett , usually one of Davis ' staunchest allies . In an April 19 , 1862 address to the legislature , Burnett denounced Davis ' preference for those who were , like Davis himself , graduates of West Point . The speech drew such a vigorous positive response from the gallery that some of the most zealous had to be removed .
Following the conclusion of the Civil War , Burnett sought an audience with President Andrew Johnson , an old congressional colleague , but Johnson told him to go home . Burnett was indicted for treason at Louisville , but released on bond and never prosecuted . He partnered with Judge John R. Grace and resumed the practice of law in Cadiz . He died of cholera in Hopkinsville on September 28 , 1866 . Initially buried in the Old Cadiz Cemetery , he was moved to the East End Cemetery in Cadiz . His tombstone bears no mention of his Confederate service .
= Business routes of U.S. Route 127 in Michigan =
There have been 10 business routes of US Highway 127 in the state of Michigan . The business routes are all sections of state trunkline highway that run through the central business districts of their respective towns connecting them to the mainline highway outside of those downtown areas . These various business routes were formerly part of the routing of US Highway 127 ( US 127 ) or its predecessor in Central Michigan , US 27 before the construction of highway bypasses . The southern two , in Jackson and Mason were previously parts of US 127 , while seven of the northern eight ( Lansing , St. Johns , Ithaca , St. Louis , Mount Pleasant , Clare and Harrison ) were originally part of US 27 , a highway which was replaced on its northern end by US 127 in 2002 . The business loop through Alma was once numbered US 27A .
In the late 1920s , US 27 was shifted to run through St. Louis instead of Alma , and the former route was renumbered US 27A . US 127 was realigned near Mason in the mid @-@ 1940s , and a business loop was created out of the former routing there . A similar bypass of Jackson in the late 1950s also spawned a business loop . In the early 1960s , a new expressway ( later freeway ) for US 27 through Central Michigan led to the creation of several business loops . Other bypasses opened in the 1980s and 1990s and created the last two business loops . The 2002 extension of US 127 to replace US 27 also led to the redesignation of business loops to their current monikers .
= = Jackson = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop of US 127 through Jackson that is wholly concurrent with M @-@ 50 . Its southern end is at an interchange in a rural section of Summit Township . From exit 34 on US 127 , the business loop runs north and northwesterly , crossing the Grand River . North of the river , the roadway is bounded by businesses as it runs along Cooper Street through residential areas on the southeastern side of Jackson . In the downtown area , Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 merges with Business Loop Interstate 94 ( BL I @-@ 94 ) and splits to follow a one @-@ way pairing of streets that form a loop through downtown . Northbound traffic continues along the eastern side of this loop on Cooper Street and crosses the Grand River again . At the intersection with Michigan Avenue , BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 turns westward onto Louis Glick Highway around the northern side of downtown . The business loop crosses the Grand River a third and final time along Louis Glick . On the western side of downtown , the business loop angles southwesterly as Louis Glick Highway merges into Michigan Avenue . ( At the same time , the southern half of the one @-@ way loop , Washington Street , also splits from Michigan Avenue . ) BL I @-@ 94 / Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 follows Michigan Avenue westward through residential neighborhoods to an intersection with West Avenue , where Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 50 turns northward , separating from BL I @-@ 94 ( Michigan Avenue ) . As the business loop approaches its parent highway , it transitions into a commercial area . The northern terminus of Bus . US 127 is at the same interchange northwest of Jackson in Blackman Township where the US 127 and I @-@ 94 freeways merge .
Jackson was first bypassed on its eastern side around 1959 with a new US 127 freeway . At that time , the former routing of US 127 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 127 . In 1964 , several changes were made to the business routes in downtown Jackson . Southbound Bus . US 127 traffic was shifted off Michigan Avenue along Blackstone Street to Washington Avenue , and from there it ran along Washington to Francis Street and back to Michigan Avenue . The northbound traffic was shifted north at Mechanic Street to Pearl Street , continuing until turning south at Blackstone back to Michigan Avenue . The eastern end was updated further in 1968 to use Louis Glick Highway to connect to the northern half of the loop around downtown to Michigan Avenue . A set of connector streets on the western side of the downtown loop opened in November 1969 to streamline the flow of traffic further resulting in the last changes to the BL I @-@ 94 routing in Jackson . Southbound traffic was redirected to the connector on Michigan Avenue just east of Third Street . This connector curved south then east to Washington Avenue near First Street . Louis Glick Highway was extended west from Blackstone curving south to merge into Michigan .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Jackson County .
= = Mason = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) was a business loop that ran through downtown Mason . It started at an intersection on the southern edge of the city where US 127 split from Hull Road to bypass downtown Mason to the west . From there , the business loop ran northward along Hull Road , becoming Jefferson Street . At the intersection with M @-@ 36 ( Ash Street ) , Bus . US 127 turned westward and ran concurrently with M @-@ 36 . After four blocks and a crossing of the Sycamore Creek , Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 36 turned northward on Cedar Street to Columbia Avenue and then turned westward along Columbia to an intersection with US 127 west of downtown .
The state bypassed Mason around 1946 , building a new highway to the west of downtown , and the former route of US 127 through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 127 . This business loop existed until 1964 . At that time , the bypass around Mason was upgraded to a full freeway with an interchange at Cedar Street northwest of downtown . Two segments of highway were turned over to local control at this time : the southern half of Bus . US 127 along Hull Road and Jefferson Street as well as the section of Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 36 along Columbia Avenue . M @-@ 36 was extended northward along Cedar Street to the new interchange , and the Bus . US 127 designation was decommissioned .
Major intersections
The entire highway was in Mason , Ingham County .
= = Lansing = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business route in Lansing that is unsigned . The trunkline starts at an intersection with Business Loop Interstate 96 ( BL I @-@ 96 ) at the corner of Cedar and North streets in the northern part of the city . Marked as Old US 27 on maps , the business route follows Cedar Street northeasterly and transitions onto East Street . The highway runs through residential areas on the north side of Lansing . Along the route of Bus . US 127 , the highway is immediately bounded by some commercial businesses . At Sheridan Road , the highway crosses from Ingham County into Clinton County and continues as a road named Old US 27 . Bus . US 127 continues through suburban southern Clinton County , still bordered by businesses and residential neighborhoods , northward to an interchange with I @-@ 69 in DeWitt Township .
In 1984 , part of the northern freeway bypass of Lansing opened as I @-@ 69 . At that time , US 27 was rerouted to follow the new freeway . The former routing of US 27 through downtown Lansing was redesignated Bus . US 27 as a business loop along Lansing Road , I @-@ 496 and BL I @-@ 96 at this time . Eight years later , the last section of I @-@ 69 was completed in Michigan . Afterwards , Bus . US 27 was truncated to the interchange between BL I @-@ 96 / Capitol Loop and I @-@ 496 , and the state reconfigured it into a business spur into downtown Lansing from the north .
In 1999 , MDOT petitioned the American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state . However , unlike the other new Bus . US 127s , this one had no connection to US 127 , its new parent highway . MDOT has retained the business route as an unsigned trunkline designation ever since .
Major intersections
= = St. Johns = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) starts at the Price Road interchange along US 127 south of St. Johns . From here , Bus . US 127 follows Price Road to the former US 27 and turns north along South Old US 27 . In the city of St Johns , it is known as Whittemore Street and intersects M @-@ 21 ( State Street ) . Bus . US 127 continues north on North Old US 27 to its northern terminus . The northern terminus of Bus . US 127 nearly coincides with the northern end of the existing US 127 freeway in Clinton County . Approximately one @-@ half mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) north of the Bus . US 127 interchange north of St. Johns , the US 127 freeway merges back onto its former alignment to proceed northerly into Gratiot County .
The St. Johns Bypass on US 27 opened on August 31 , 1998 , and the former route of the highway through downtown was redesignated Bus . US 27 afterward . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Clinton County .
= = Ithaca = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop that runs from an interchange on US 127 on the southern Ithaca city limits through downtown and back to the freeway north of the city . The southern end is at exit 117 on US 127 , and from there , the business loop runs westward along Center Street through a cluster of businesses adjacent to the freeway interchange . Further west , Bus . US 127 passes through residential neighborhoods to enter downtown Ithaca . At Main Street , the business loop turns northward one block to Emerson , then turns westward one block along Emerson to Pine River Street , bypassing downtown Ithaca . From there , Bus . US 127 turns northward along the former route of US 27 through town . North of downtown , the highway passes through another residential area before exiting Ithaca . North of town , the business loop passes a golf course before turning eastward a short distance along Polk Road to connect to the freeway .
An expressway through Gratiot County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Ithaca to the east . The former route of US 27 along Center and Pine River streets in Ithaca was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . On April 26 , 1973 , the state transferred control over one block of Center Street west of Main Street and one block of Pine River Street south of Emerson Street . At the same time , the city transferred control of one block each of Main and Emerson streets . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Gratiot County .
= = Alma = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop through Alma . The highway starts at a partial interchange for exit 123 on US 127 in a rural area east of Alma . There are a few businesses adjacent to the interchange and an intersection with State Road , which provides access to another partial interchange with US 127 as well as the Bus . US 127 for St. Louis . Continuing westward along Lincoln Road , the landscape along the southern leg of Bus . US 127 comprises farm land . Once the highway enters Alma , the street name changes to Superior Street . Bus . US 127 crosses the Pine River and runs through residential neighborhoods on the eastern side of Alma before entering the downtown area . At an intersection with Wright Avenue to the east of the campus of Alma College , Bus . US 127 turns northward . North of downtown , the business loop crosses another residential area before passed the hospital and more commercial properties . In Pine River Township north of the city , Bus . US 127 intersects M @-@ 46 ( Monroe Road ) . M @-@ 46 connects the Alma business loop to the St. Louis business loop and a partial interchange with US 127 , while the Alma business loop continues less than half a mile ( 0 @.@ 6 km ) to the partial interchange with US 127 that serves as the business loop 's northern terminus .
When the state highway system was initially signposted in 1919 , the highway running north south through the Alma area was numbered M @-@ 14 . In 1926 , this highway was renumbered as part of US 27 . The new highway designation was supposed to pass through St. Louis instead of Alma , but US 27 initially follows the routing of M @-@ 14 . By the end of 1929 , the mainline of US 27 is shifted to its desired routing through St. Louis , and the former route of it through Alma became US 27A .
An expressway through Gratiot County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Alma to the east . The former route of US 27A along Lincoln Road / Superior Street and Wright Avenue / Alger Road ) in Alger was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Gratiot County .
= = St. Louis = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop through St. Louis . The highway starts at an interchange with US 127 south of St. Louis at exit 114 . From there , it follows State Road northward through farmland into the southern edge of town . There , Bus . US 127 follows Main Street through residential areas into downtown . At the intersection with M @-@ 46 ( Washington Street ) , the business loop turns westerly along the other highway , running concurrently . The combined highway crosses the Pine River and runs through residential areas as it exits the town . As Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 46 approaches US 127 , it passes several businesses . The business loop terminates at exit 127A near the northern terminus of the Bus . US 127 for Alma .
An expressway through Gratiot County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing St. Louis to the west . The former route of US 27 along State Road / Main Street and M @-@ 46 ( Washington Street / Monroe Road ) in St. Louis was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Gratiot County .
= = Mount Pleasant = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) in Mount Pleasant runs along a former section of US 27 in the city . The business loop starts at a partial interchange with US 127 at exit 139 in Union Township south of town . The exit ramp from the northbound direction of the freeway exits from the left and forms the northbound lanes of the business loop while the southbound lanes of the business loop merge into the southbound direction of the freeway . Bus . US 127 runs to the west as a four @-@ lane divided highway parallel to tracks of the Great Lakes Central Railroad . Near the south end of the city 's commercial strip in the township , the two directions of the business loop merge as an undivided highway and follow Mission Street . Mission runs on the eastern edge of the campus of Central Michigan University , including running past Kelly / Shorts Stadium , home field of the Central Michigan Chippewas football team . North of Bellows Street , the blocks to either side of Mission Street takes on a more residential character while the main street continues to be lined with retail and commercial establishments . M @-@ 20 merges in from the west at High Street to run concurrently along the business loop . At Pickard Street , M @-@ 20 turns east and Bus . US 127 continues through the north end of town . North of Corporate Way in Union Township , the business loop leaves Mission Street and returns to a divided highway , veering northeasterly to connect to exit 139 on US 127 . This is also a partial interchange as the northbound lanes from the business loop merge into the northbound lanes of the freeway from the left and the southbound lanes of the business loop are formed from the exit ramp off US 127 . The total length of Bus . US 127 in the Mount Pleasant area is 5 @.@ 688 miles ( 9 @.@ 154 km ) .
In early 1961 , a divided highway section for US 27 was opened in Gratiot and Isabella counties ; this routing connected into the former US 27 alignment south of Mount Pleasant at Mission Street . By the end of 1961 , the US 27 freeway through Isabella County was completed and the divided highway was upgraded to full freeway status . With this project completed , the connector between the freeway and Mission Street south of Mount Pleasant and the former routing along Mission in town was rechristened Bus . US 27 . A new divided highway connector on the north end of town was built to complete the business route . In 2002 , when US 127 replaced US 27 north of Lansing , the Mount Pleasant business loop was given its current moniker to match .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Isabella County .
= = Clare = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop in Clare . The northern half of the route of the highway is shared with Bus . US 10 , running concurrently through downtown . The southern end is at a directional interchange with US 127 south of Clare in Isabella County . This interchange provides access to northbound Bus . US 127 from northbound US 127 only , and traffic from the southbound business loop must enter the southbound freeway only . The business loop runs northwesterly away from the freeway to a roundabout intersection with Mission Road . Bus . US 127 turns northward on Mission Road , crossing into Clare County and following McEwan Street through residential areas on the south side of Clare . At the intersection with 5th Street in downtown , Bus . US 10 merges in from the east and M @-@ 115 terminates from the west . Bus . US 127 / Bus . US 10 passes through a residential area on the north side of the city and crosses the South Branch of the Tobacco River . As the business loop approaches US 127 / U.S. Route 10 in Michigan , it follows Clare Avenue past several businesses before terminating at a full interchange with the freeway .
An expressway through Isabella and Clare counties opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Clare to the east . The former route of US 27 along McEwan Street and Clare Avenue was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . A freeway bypass north of Clare and Farwell opened in 1975 , and US 10 was rerouted along the US 27 freeway to connect from the new bypass to the existing freeway east of the city , bypassing both cities . The section of US 10 in downtown Clare was designated Bus . US 10 at this time , running along Bus . US 27 to connect to US 27 / US 10 north of downtown . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state .
Major intersections
= = Harrison = =
Business US Highway 127 ( Bus . US 127 ) is a business loop running through downtown Harrison . The southern end starts at exit 170 on US 127 and runs concurrently northwesterly and northward along M @-@ 61 through rural woodland away from the freeway . The business loop passes through the unincorporated community of Allendale as Park Street and turns northwesterly near the southern end of Budd Lake . Now named 1st Street , Bus . US 127 / M @-@ 61 enters Harrison and turns northward through residential areas into downtown . At the intersection with Main Street , M @-@ 61 separates to the west , and the business loop continues northwesterly parallel to the shore of Budd Lake . Bus . US 127 turn northward and exists Harrison hear the Clare County Fairgrounds . North of town , the business loop passes the unincorporated community of Ash Acres in Hayes Township before passing the Clare County Airport . Bus . US 127 turns northeasterly through woodland north of the airport and terminates at exit 176 on US 127 .
An expressway through Clare County opened in late 1961 , and US 27 was rerouted to follow it , bypassing Harrison to the east . The former route of US 27 along M @-@ 61 and 1st Street / Clare Avenue in Harrison was designated Bus . US 27 at this time . In 1999 , MDOT petitioned AASHTO to decommission the US 27 designation in the state ; the change was approved on April 16 , 1999 . The state waited until 2002 to make the change . After the change was implemented , Bus . US 27 was renumbered to Bus . US 127 as with all of the other similar business routes in the state to reflect the new parent highway designation .
Major intersections
The entire highway is in Clare County .
= Joel Brand =
Joel Brand ( 25 April 1906 – 13 July 1964 ) was a rescue worker , born in Transylvania and raised in Germany , who became known during the Holocaust for his efforts to save Hungary 's Jews from deportation to Auschwitz , after the German invasion of that country in March 1944 .
A leading member of Budapest 's Aid and Rescue Committee , which smuggled Jews out of occupied Europe , Brand was approached in April 1944 by Adolf Eichmann , the German Schutzstaffel ( SS ) officer in charge of the deportations . Eichmann proposed that Brand broker a deal between the SS and the United States or Britain , in which the Nazis would exchange one million Jews for 10 @,@ 000 trucks for the Eastern front and large quantities of tea and other goods . It was the most ambitious of a series of such deals between Nazi and Jewish leaders ; Eichmann called it " Blut gegen Waren " ( " blood for goods " ) .
Nothing came of the proposal , which the London Times called one of the most loathsome stories of the war . Historians believe that the SS , including its commander , Heinrich Himmler , intended the negotiations as cover for peace talks with the Western Allies that would exclude the Soviet Union and perhaps even Adolf Hitler . Whatever its purpose , the proposal was thwarted by the British government . They arrested Brand in Aleppo ( then under British control ) , where he had gone to propose Eichmann 's offer to the Jewish Agency , and put an end to it by leaking details to the media .
The failure of the proposal , and the wider issue of why the Allies were unable to save the 435 @,@ 000 Hungarian Jews deported to Auschwitz between May and July 1944 , became the subject of bitter debate for many years . In 1961 Life magazine called Brand " a man who lives in the shadows with a broken heart . " He told an interviewer shortly before his death in 1964 : " An accident of life placed the fate of one million human beings on my shoulders . I eat and sleep and think only of them . "
= = Background = =
= = = Early life = = =
One of seven children , Brand was born to a Jewish family in Naszód , Siebenbürgen ( Transylvania ) , then part of Austria @-@ Hungary , now Năsăud , Romania . His mother was from Naszód , the daughter of a banker , and his father was the founder of the Budapest telephone company . Brand 's paternal grandfather , also Joel Brand , had owned the post office in Mukacheve .
The family moved to Erfurt in Germany when Brand was four . Brand attended school until 1923 and said he had completed his Abitur . When he was 19 he went to stay with an uncle in New York , then worked his way across the United States , washing dishes and working on roads and in mines . He joined the Communist Party , worked for the Comintern as a sailor , and sailed to Hawaii , the Philippines , South America , China and Japan . In or around 1930 he returned to Erfurt , where his father had founded another telephone company . Brand took a job with the company and became a functionary with the Thuringian KPD ( Communist Party of Germany ) .
He was living in Germany on 30 January 1933 when Adolf Hitler was sworn in as Chancellor , and as a communist was arrested just before the Reichstag fire on 27 February that year . Released in 1934 , he settled in Budapest where he worked again for his father 's company . He joined the Poale Zion , a Marxist @-@ Zionist party , became a vice @-@ president of the Budapest Palestine Office , which organized Jewish emigration to Palestine , and sat on the governing body of the Jewish National Fund .
= = = Aid and Rescue Committee = = =
In 1935 Brand married Haynalka " Hansi " Hartmann and together they opened a knitwear and glove factory on Rozsa Street , Budapest , which after a few years had a staff of over 100 . The couple had met as members of a hachscharah , a group of Jews preparing to move to Palestine to work on a kibbutz , but Brand 's plans changed when his mother and three sisters fled to Budapest from Germany and he had to support them .
Brand 's involvement in smuggling Jews into Hungary began in July 1941 , when Hansi Brand 's sister and brother @-@ in @-@ law were caught up in the Kamianets @-@ Podilskyi deportations . The Hungarian government sent 18 @,@ 000 Jews to German @-@ occupied Ukraine because they were unable to prove they were Hungarian citizens ; 14 @,@ 000 – 16 @,@ 000 of them were shot by the SS . Brand paid a Hungarian counter @-@ espionage officer to bring his wife 's relatives back safely .
Through the Poale Zion party , the Brands joined other Zionists engaged in rescue work , including Rezső Kasztner , a lawyer and journalist from Kolozsvár ( Cluj ) , and Ottó Komoly , an engineer , and in January 1943 the group set up the Aid and Rescue Committee with Komoly as chairperson . The committee raised money , forged documents , maintained contacts with intelligence agencies and ran safe houses . Brand testified during Adolf Eichmann 's trial that , between 1941 and
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advantage , beating Houston 122 @-@ 120 and 112 @-@ 105 in Games 1 and 2 respectively , fueled by Aldridge 's 46 points and 18 rebounds in Game 1 , and 43 points and 3 blocks in Game 2 . The biggest headline came in the sixth game of the series with the Rockets threatening to force a Game 7 back at Houston . Down two points with 0 @.@ 9 seconds left in the game , Damian Lillard hit a buzzer @-@ beating three @-@ pointer to close out the series , and the Blazers advanced to the semifinals for the first time since 2000 , where they lost to the eventual champion San Antonio Spurs in 5 games .
During the 2014 offseason , Olshey signed center Chris Kaman and two @-@ time former Blazer guard Steve Blake to bolster the bench . Expectations by sportswriters and analysts were high for the Trail Blazers going into the 2015 NBA season given their surprise success in 2013 – 14 . The Blazers beat the reigning Northwest Division Champion Oklahoma City Thunder 106 @-@ 89 in their season opener at home on October 29 , 2014 . Like the season before , the Trail Blazers dominated the month of November , at one point winning nine straight games from November 9 to November 26 before being defeated by the Memphis Grizzlies . Injuries , which had not amounted to significance the previous season , started to inflict themselves on various players . Starting center Lopez fractured his right hand in a game against the Spurs on December 15 , 2014 , and would miss the next 23 games . Initially , the Blazers were much unfazed , winning 129 – 119 in triple overtime against the Spurs on December 19 , a game that saw Lillard and Aldridge combine for 75 points on 29 field goals ; Lillard netted a career @-@ high 43 points . Four days later , Lillard hit a three @-@ pointer to tie the game and force overtime against the Thunder en route to 40 points and a 115 – 111 victory . Three Blazers went to New Orleans for the All Star Weekend : Matthews for the Foot Locker Three @-@ Point Contest , Lillard as a reserve to the All @-@ Star Game , and Aldridge as a starter to the All @-@ Star game .
More injuries appeared around the start of the new year , which forced Aldridge , Batum , and Joel Freeland to miss various amounts of time , but none greater than Wesley Matthews ' Achilles tendon tear on March 5 , 2015 . Called " the heart and soul " of the team by Aldridge , Matthews was in the midst of a career year when the freak injury occurred in a game against the Mavericks . The loss of his defense , three @-@ point shooting and hustle was part of the reason why the Blazers stumbled in the latter half of the season . In the first half of the season , the Blazers had a record of 30 – 11 , allowed opponents to score an average of 97 @.@ 0 points , and forced them to shoot 29 @.@ 7 % on three @-@ pointers ; in the second half the Blazers regressed to a 21 – 20 record , allowed 100 @.@ 2 points , and let opponents shoot 37 @.@ 9 % from three . The Blazers clinched a return trip to the playoffs on March 30 , 2015 , defeating the Phoenix Suns , 109 – 86 . Finishing the season 51 – 31 , they clinched their first Northwest Division title since 1999 , but fell to the Grizzlies in five games in the first round of the playoffs .
= = = 2015 – present = = =
In the 2015 NBA draft , the Blazers selected Arizona forward Rondae Hollis @-@ Jefferson and subsequently traded him to the Brooklyn Nets along with Steve Blake for center Mason Plumlee and the 42nd pick , Pat Connaughton .
After losing four of their five starters at the end of the 2014 – 15 season , the Blazers won 44 games , were the 5th seed in the Western Conference , and beat the Clippers in six games in the first round but were eliminated by the Golden state Warriors in five games in the conference semifinals .
= = Season @-@ by @-@ season results = =
In the Blazers ' 46 years of existence ( through 2016 ) , they have qualified for the NBA playoffs 32 times , including a streak of 21 straight playoff appearances from 1983 through 2003 . The team has one NBA title , in 1977 , and appeared in the NBA Finals two other times , in 1990 and 1992 . The best record posted by the team was 63 – 19 , in 1991 ; the worst record was 18 – 64 , in the team 's second season .
= = Players = =
= = = Current roster = = =
= = = Retained draft rights = = =
The Trail Blazers hold the draft rights to the following unsigned draft picks who have been playing outside the NBA . A drafted player , either an international draftee or a college draftee who isn 't signed by the team that drafted him , is allowed to sign with any non @-@ NBA teams . In this case , the team retains the player 's draft rights in the NBA until one year after the player 's contract with the non @-@ NBA team ends . This list includes draft rights that were acquired from trades with other teams .
= = = Retired numbers = = =
1 As team owner and founder , number is still available to players .
2 Ramsay did not play for the team ; the number represents the 1977 NBA Championship he won while coaching the Blazers .
3 Number retired twice in 2008
= = = Basketball Hall of Famers = = =
= = = = Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame = = = =
Notes :
1 In total , Wilkens was inducted into the Hall of Fame three times : as player , as coach and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
2 Inducted posthumously .
3 In total , Drexler was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice : as player and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
4 In total , Pippen was inducted into the Hall of Fame twice : as player and as a member of the 1992 Olympic team .
= = = = FIBA Hall of Fame = = = =
Notes :
1 Inducted posthumously .
= = = = Oregon Sports Hall of Fame = = = =
The Oregon Sports Hall of Fame honors Oregon athletes , teams , coaches , and others who have made a significant contribution to sports in Oregon . Also inducted into the Hall are the 1976 – 77 team , and the following Trail Blazers ' players :
= = = Franchise leaders = = =
Bold denotes still active with team .
Italic denotes still active but not with team .
Points scored ( regular season ) ( as of the end of the 2015 – 16 season )
Other statistics ( regular season ) ( as of April 14 , 2016 )
= = = Individual awards = = =
= = = NBA draft = = =
The Trail Blazers have had the No. 1 pick in the NBA draft four times in their history ; each time selecting a center . In 1972 the choice was LaRue Martin , Bill Walton was picked in 1974 , Mychal Thompson in 1978 , and Greg Oden was taken in 2007 . Several Blazer picks have been criticized by NBA commentators as particularly unwise :
The selection of Martin over Bob McAdoo .
The selection of Thompson over Larry Bird ( drafted No. 6 by the Boston Celtics ) in 1978 .
The selection of center Sam Bowie with the No. 2 pick in the 1984 NBA draft over Michael Jordan ( who was then drafted by the Chicago Bulls ) ; other notable players taken later in that draft include future Hall @-@ of @-@ Famers Charles Barkley and John Stockton .
The selection of Greg Oden over Kevin Durant in the 2007 NBA draft
Other notable draft picks include player @-@ coach Geoff Petrie , Sidney Wicks , Larry Steele , Lionel Hollins and Jim Paxson in the 1970s and Clyde Drexler , Jerome Kersey , Terry Porter and Arvydas Sabonis in the 1980s .
In the 1990s , the Blazers selected Jermaine O 'Neal and in the modern millennium drafted Zach Randolph and , in 2006 , acquired Brandon Roy and LaMarcus Aldridge in a draft day that included six trades involving the Trail Blazers .
= = Team branding = =
The team 's colors are red , black , white , and silver , which was added in 2002 . The team 's " pinwheel " logo , originally designed by the cousin of Glickman , is a graphic interpretation of two five @-@ on @-@ five basketball teams lined up against each other . One side of the pinwheel is red ; the other side is silver ( formerly black or white ) . The logo has gone from a vertical alignment to a slanted one starting in the 1991 season , creating a straight edge along the top
Portland 's home uniforms are white in color , with red , black , and silver accents ; the primary road uniform is black , with red , white , and silver accents . The alternate road uniform is red with white , silver , and black accents . From 1970 to the 1977 – 78 season , the team wore red road uniforms , switching to black in that year , with a switch from horizontal lettering with the tail added on the last letter to vertical lettering midway through its lifespan . The team again wore red from 1979 to 1985 , switching back to black road jerseys after that . In 2002 , the team reintroduced red jerseys . The team 's uniforms have remained nearly the same since the 1977 – 78 season , featuring a " blaze " strip diagonal down the jersey and into the shorts . Notable alterations include the change from lowercase lettering to uppercase in 1991 – 92 , tapered ends on the letters and silver trim in 2002 – 03 , and the return of the city name to the black road jerseys in 2006 – 07 . In the 2009 – 10 NBA season they introduced a special jersey commemorating the Blazers ' " Rip City " nickname , borrowing elements from their old and current logos . For the 2012 – 13 NBA season , the red jerseys were slightly altered , featuring a straightened " Portland " script and black lettering with silver trim , along with a modified " blaze " striping , " Rip City " shorts script and pinwheel logo in front of the uniform .
The team 's mascot is Blaze the Trail Cat , a two @-@ tone silver @-@ colored mountain lion , which has been the team 's official mascot since 2002 . Prior to Blaze 's debut , the Trail Blazers never had any official mascot . A popular unofficial mascot was the late Bill " The Beerman " Scott , a Seattle beer vendor / cheerleader who worked for numerous pro teams , including the Trail Blazers , the Seattle Seahawks , and the Seattle Mariners . Scott worked for the Trail Blazers from 1981 through 1985 .
= = Front office = =
The team is owned by Microsoft co @-@ founder Paul Allen ; ownership of the Trail Blazers is via a series of holding companies which Allen owns . Vulcan Inc. is a private corporation in which Allen is the chairman and sole shareholder . A subsidiary of Vulcan , Vulcan Sports and Entertainment ( VSE ) , manages Allen 's sports @-@ related properties , including the Trail Blazers , the Seattle Seahawks NFL team , the Seattle Sounders MLS team , and the Moda Center . In the fall of 2012 , Peter McLoughlin was named CEO of Vulcan Sports and Entertainment .
The Trail Blazers as a corporate entity are owned by VSE . Allen serves as the team 's chairman , and his longtime associate Bert Kolde is vice @-@ chairman . The position of president and chief executive officer is held by Chris McGowan , with Larry Miller having held the job until resigning in July 2012 . The post of chief operating officer is vacant ; the most recent COO of the team was Mike Golub , who resigned in July 2008 to take a more enhanced role with VSE . Kevin Pritchard served as general manager of the Trail Blazers until he was fired on June 24 , 2010 . The announcement was issued by the Blazers ' head office just an hour before the beginning of the 2010 NBA draft . A month later , the Blazers named Oklahoma City Thunder assistant general manager Rich Cho as their new general manager . Cho was fired less than a year later , and director of college scouting Chad Buchanan served as interim general manager for the entire 2011 – 12 season . In June 2012 , the Trail Blazers hired Neil Olshey as general manager .
Before Allen purchased the team in 1988 , the Trail Blazers were owned by a group of investors headed by Larry Weinberg , who is chairman emeritus .
= = Venues = =
The Trail Blazers play their home games in the Moda Center , a multipurpose arena which is located in Portland 's Rose Quarter , northeast of downtown . The Moda Center , originally named the Rose Garden , opened in 1995 and can seat a total of 19 @,@ 980 spectators for basketball games ; capacity increases to 20 @,@ 580 with standing room . Like the Trail Blazers , the Moda Center is owned by Paul Allen through subsidiary Vulcan Sports and Entertainment , and the arena is managed by Global Spectrum . During a two @-@ year period between 2005 and 2007 , the arena was owned by a consortium of creditors who financed its construction after the Oregon Arena Corporation , a now @-@ defunct holding company owned by Allen , filed for bankruptcy in 2004 . In August 2013 , the arena 's name was changed from the Rose Garden to the Moda Center , after the Blazers ' front office officials reached a $ 4 million agreement with Moda Health Corporation . The name change was met with considerable criticism from fans .
Prior to 1995 , the Trail Blazers home venue was the Memorial Coliseum , which today stands adjacent to the Moda Center . This facility , built in 1960 , can seat 12 @,@ 888 spectators for basketball . It was renamed the Veterans Memorial Coliseum in 2011 .
= = = In @-@ game entertainment = = =
The team has a cheerleading @-@ dance squad known as the BlazerDancers . Consisting of 16 members , the all @-@ female BlazerDancers perform dance routines at home games , charity events , and promotional events . The 2008 – 2009 team held auditions in late July 2008 . Seven new dancers , as well as nine returning dancers made up the new team . A junior dance team composed of 8- to 11 @-@ year @-@ old girls also performs at selected home games , as does a hip hop dance troupe . Other regular in @-@ game entertainment acts include a co @-@ educational acrobatic stunt team which performs technically difficult cheers , a break dancing squad known as the Portland TrailBreakers , and a pair of percussion acts .
= = Fan support and " Blazermania " = =
The relationship between the team and its fans , commonly known as " Blazermania " , has been well @-@ chronicled . The Trail Blazers have long been one of the NBA 's top draws , with the exception of two periods in the team 's history . The team drew poorly during its first four seasons of existence , failing to average more than 10 @,@ 000 spectators per game . Attendance increased in 1974 , when the team drafted Bill Walton .
The phenomenon known as Blazermania started during the 1976 – 77 season , when the team posted its first winning record , made its first playoff appearance , and captured its only NBA title , defeating the heavily favored Philadelphia 76ers in the NBA Finals ; the team has been popular in Portland since that time . That season , the team started a sellout streak which continued until the team moved into the Rose Garden in 1995 . The team continued to average over 19 @,@ 000 spectators per game until the 2003 – 04 season , when attendance declined after the team continued to suffer image problems due to the " Jail Blazer " reputation it had gained , and was no longer as competitive on the court . After drafting eventual Rookie of the Year and three @-@ time All Star Brandon Roy in 2006 , attendance climbed in the 2006 – 07 season and continued to rebound in the 2007 – 08 season . The final 27 home games of the 2007 – 2008 season were consecutive sell @-@ outs , a streak which continued through the entire 2008 – 2009 season and into the start of the 2011 – 2012 season .
= = Media = =
= = = Television and radio broadcast = = =
Like all NBA franchises , games of the Trail Blazers are routinely broadcast via television and radio . The team was one of the first in the NBA to produce its own television broadcasts . The team 's television production facility is known as Post @-@ Up Productions . Television broadcasts of Blazer games , when not carried on a national network , are broadcast either on Comcast SportsNet Northwest or the Blazers Television Network , a network of five over @-@ the @-@ air television stations ( four in Oregon ; one in Washington ) . The flagship station of the Blazers Television Network is KGW in Portland .
For the 2007 – 08 season , all but six regular @-@ season games were carried on one these networks ; the other six were broadcast nationally on TNT or ESPN . Thirty @-@ four games were produced and broadcast in high @-@ definition television . The Trail Blazers ' former television play @-@ by @-@ play team was Mike Barrett and Mike Rice , joined by sideline reporter Michael Holton , who succeeded Terry Porter ( 2010 – 11 ) and Rebecca Haarlow ( 2009 – 10 ) . The team was also known for its long association with Steve " Snapper " Jones , who played for the team prior to his career as a television analyst ; Jones departed the franchise in 2005 .
All Trail Blazer games are broadcast over the radio , with broadcasting carried on the Trail Blazers radio network , which consists of 25 stations located in the Pacific Northwest . The flagship station of the Blazers ' radio network is 620 KPOJ in Portland . The radio broadcasting team consists of play @-@ by @-@ play announcer Brian Wheeler and studio host Jay Allen . All games are preceded by a pre @-@ game analysis show , Blazers Courtside , and followed by a post @-@ game show known as The 5th Quarter . Bob Akamian served as studio host until halfway through the 2010 – 2011 season , when the team hired away Adam Bjaranson from their over @-@ the @-@ air TV partner , KGW , and former Trail Blazers ' player Michael Holton is the studio analyst . The original radio announcer for the team was Bill Schonely , who served as the team 's radio play @-@ by @-@ play announcer from 1970 until his retirement in 1998 — calling 2 @,@ 522 Blazers games — and remains with the team as a community ambassador .
Trail Blazers broadcasts have been criticized on several fronts . The broadcast personalities , all of whom are Trail Blazers employees , have been criticized in the media for being " homers " ; further it has been alleged that the 2005 departure of Steve Jones was due in part to team displeasure with Jones ' sometimes frank analysis of the team 's on @-@ court performance and off @-@ court decisions . Furthermore , the team 's television contract with CSN Northwest has been criticized due to the channel 's lack of carriage on satellite television providers such as DirecTV and Dish Network , both of which compete with Comcast 's cable television operations .
On June 16 , 2016 , The Oregonian reported that Barrett , Rice , and analyst Antonio Harvey had been released by the Trail Blazers . Wheeler will call games on radio alone , while new television commentators are to be determined . The three personalities will still receive pay for the final season of their contracts . The change comes as part of a plan by the team to overhaul its telecasts as it enters the final year of its current television deal with CSN Northwest .
On July 6 , 2016 , the team renewed its contract with CSN Northwest through the 2020 @-@ 2021 season . Under the new deal , CSN Northwest will have exclusive rights to all Trail Blazers games beginning in the 2017 @-@ 18 season . The team had originally considered an arrangement with KPTV , under which games would be broadcast over @-@ the @-@ air and simulcast via an internet service , but deals with potential streaming partners fell through . Root Sports Northwest made a higher @-@ value , long @-@ term offer . However , the offer was rejected for its potential impact on reach ; although DirecTV , which serves 33 % of the Portland market , carries the network by virtue of its co @-@ ownership by AT & T , Root Sports could not guarantee whether its carriage deal with Comcast Cable , which serves 55 % of the Portland market , would be renewed . Team president Chris McGowan also praised the recent leadership changes at the CSN networks , noting that their new president David Preschlack ( formerly of ESPN ) had a background in television distribution .
= = = Press relations = = =
Several local news outlets provide in @-@ depth coverage of the Trail Blazers . Chief among them is The Oregonian , the largest paper in the state of Oregon . Other newspapers providing detailed coverage of the team ( including the assignment of beat writers to cover the team ) include the Portland Tribune , a weekly Portland paper , and the Vancouver , Washington Columbian . Notable local journalists to cover the team include John Canzano of the Oregonian , Jason Quick of CSNNW , and Dwight Jaynes of the Portland Tribune . Online coverage of the Oregonian is provided through OregonLive.com , a website collaboration between the paper and Advance Internet . In addition to making Oregonian content available , oregonlive.com hosts several blogs covering the team written by Oregonian journalists , as well as an additional blog , " Blazers Blog " , written by Sean Meagher .
Relations between the team and The Oregonian have often been tense ; the paper is editorially independent of the team and is often critical . During the Steve Patterson era , relations between the two institutions became increasingly hostile ; several NBA executives told ESPN 's Chris Sheridan that the situation was the " most dysfunctional media @-@ team relationship " that they could recall . For instance during a portion of a pre @-@ 2006 NBA draft workout , which was closed to the media , an Oregonian reporter looked through a curtain separating the press from the workout and wrote about this on his blog . Outraged , the team closed subsequent practices to the press altogether , leading John Canzano of the paper to respond with outrage on his blog . In November 2006 , the Oregonian commissioned an outside editor to investigate the deteriorating relationship , a move the rival Willamette Week called " unusual " . In the report , both sides were criticized somewhat , but did not make any revelations which were unexpected .
Additional coverage is offered by various blogs , including Blazers Edge ( part of SB Nation ) and The Portland Roundball Society ( part of ESPN 's TrueHoop Network ) .
= Béla IV of Hungary =
Béla IV ( 1206 – 3 May 1270 ) was King of Hungary and Croatia between 1235 and 1270 , and Duke of Styria from 1254 to 1258 . Being the oldest son of King Andrew II , he was crowned upon the initiative of a group of influential noblemen in his father 's lifetime in 1214 . His father , who strongly opposed Béla 's coronation , refused to give him a province to rule until 1220 . In this year , Béla was appointed Duke of Slavonia , also with jurisdiction in Croatia and Dalmatia . Around the same time , Béla married Maria , a daughter of Theodore I Laskaris , Emperor of Nicaea . From 1226 , he governed Transylvania with the title Duke . He supported Christian missions among the pagan Cumans who dwelled in the plains to the east of his province . Some Cuman chieftains acknowledged his suzerainty and he adopted the title of King of Cumania in 1233 . King Andrew died on 21 September 1235 and Béla succeeded him . He attempted to restore royal authority , which had diminished under his father . For this purpose , he revised his predecessors ' land grants and reclaimed former royal estates , causing discontent among the noblemen and the prelates .
The Mongols invaded Hungary and annihilated Béla 's army in the Battle of Mohi on 11 April 1241 . He escaped from the battlefield , but a Mongol detachment chased him from town to town as far as Trogir on the coast of the Adriatic Sea . Although he survived the invasion , the Mongols devastated the country before their unexpected withdrawal in March 1242 . Béla introduced radical reforms in order to prepare his kingdom for a second Mongol invasion . He allowed the barons and the prelates to erect stone fortresses and to set up their private armed forces . He promoted the development of fortified towns . During his reign , thousands of colonists arrived from the Holy Roman Empire , Poland and other neighboring regions to settle in the depopulated lands . Béla 's efforts to rebuild his devastated country won him the epithet of " second founder of the state " ( Hungarian : második honalapító ) .
He set up a defensive alliance against the Mongols , which included Daniil Romanovich , Prince of Halych , Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow and other Ruthenian and Polish princes . His allies supported him in occupying the Duchy of Styria in 1254 , but it was lost to King Ottokar II of Bohemia six years later . During Béla 's reign , a wide buffer zone — which included Bosnia , Barancs ( Braničevo , Serbia ) and other newly conquered regions — was established along the southern frontier of Hungary in the 1250s .
Béla 's relationship with his oldest son and heir , Stephen became tense in the early 1260s , because the elderly king favored his daughter , Anna and his youngest child , Béla , Duke of Slavonia . He was forced to cede the territories of the Kingdom of Hungary east of the river Danube to Stephen , which caused a civil war lasting until 1266 . Nevertheless , Béla 's family was famed for his piety : he died as a Franciscan tertiary , and the veneration of his three saintly daughters — Kunigunda , Yolanda , and Margaret — was confirmed by the Holy See .
= = Childhood ( 1206 – 20 ) = =
Béla was the oldest son of King Andrew II of Hungary by his first wife , Gertrude of Merania . He was born in the second half of 1206 . Upon King Andrew 's initiative , Pope Innocent III had already appealed to the Hungarian prelates and barons on the 7th of June to swear an oath of loyalty to the King 's future son .
Queen Gertrude showed blatant favoritism towards her German relatives and courtiers , causing widespread discontent among the native lords . Taking advantage of her husband 's campaign in the distant Principality of Halych , a group of aggrieved noblemen seized and murdered her in the forests of the Pilis Hills on 28 September 1213 . King Andrew only punished one of the conspirators , a certain Count Peter , after his return from Halych . Although Béla was a child when his mother was assassinated , he never forgot her and declared his deep respect for her in many of his royal charters . In his correspondence with his sister , the noted Franciscan saint , Elizabeth of Hungary , he was often counseled to restrain his anger at the nobles for the death of their mother .
Andrew II betrothed Béla to an unnamed daughter of Tzar Boril of Bulgaria in 1213 or 1214 , but their engagement was broken . In 1214 , the King requested the Pope to excommunicate some unnamed lords who were planning to crown Béla king . Even so , the eight @-@ year @-@ old Béla was crowned in the same year , but his father did not grant him a province to rule . Furthermore , when leaving for a Crusade to the Holy Land in August 1217 , King Andrew appointed John , Archbishop of Esztergom to represent him during his absence . During this period , Béla stayed with his maternal uncle Berthold of Merania in Steyr in the Holy Roman Empire . Andrew II returned from the Holy Land in late 1218 . He had arranged the engagement of Béla and Maria , a daughter of Theodore I Laskaris , Emperor of Nicaea . She accompanied King Andrew to Hungary and Béla married her in 1220 .
= = Rex iunior = =
= = = Duke of Slavonia ( 1220 – 26 ) = = =
The senior king ceded the lands between the Adriatic Sea and the Dráva River — Croatia , Dalmatia and Slavonia — to Béla in 1220 . A letter of 1222 of Pope Honorius III reveals that " some wicked men " had forced Andrew II to share his realms with his heir . Béla initially styled himself as " King Andrew 's son and King " in his charters ; from 1222 he used the title " by the Grace of God , King , son of the King of Hungary , and Duke of all Slavonia " .
Béla separated from his wife in the first half of 1222 upon his father 's demand . However , Pope Honorius refused to declare the marriage illegal . Béla accepted the Pope 's decision and took refuge in Austria from his father 's anger . He returned , together with his wife , only after the prelates had in the first half of 1223 persuaded his father to forgive him . Having returned to his Duchy of Slavonia , Béla launched a campaign against Domald of Sidraga , a rebellious Dalmatian nobleman , and captured Domald 's fortress at Klis . Domald 's domains were confiscated and distributed among his rivals , the Šubići , who had supported Béla during the siege .
= = = Duke of Transylvania ( 1226 – 35 ) = = =
King Andrew transferred Béla from Slavonia to Transylvania in 1226 . In Slavonia , he was succeeded by his brother , Coloman . As Duke of Transylvania , Béla adopted an expansionist policy aimed at the territories over the Carpathian Mountains . He supported the Dominicans ' proselytizing activities among the Cumans , who dominated these lands . In 1227 he crossed the mountains and met Boricius , a Cuman chieftain , who had decided to convert to Christianity . At their meeting , Boricius and his subjects were baptized and acknowledged Béla 's suzerainty . Within a year , the Roman Catholic Diocese of Cumania was established in their lands .
Béla had long opposed his father 's " useless and superfluous perpetual grants " , because the distribution of royal estates destroyed the traditional basis of royal authority . He started reclaiming King Andrew 's land grants throughout the country in 1228 . The Pope supported Béla 's efforts , but the King often hindered the execution of his son 's orders . Béla also confiscated the estates of two noblemen , brothers Simon and Michael Kacsics , who had plotted against his mother .
Béla 's youngest brother , Andrew , Prince of Halych was expelled from his principality in the spring of 1229 . Béla decided to help him to regain his throne , proudly boasting that the town of Halych " would not remain on the face of the earth , for there was no one to deliver it from his hands " , according to the Galician – Volhynian Chronicle . He crossed the Carpathian Mountains and laid siege to Halych together with his Cuman allies in 1229 or 1230 . However , he could not seize the town and withdrew his troops . The Galician – Volhynian Chronicle writes that many Hungarian soldiers " died of many afflictions " on their way home .
Béla invaded Bulgaria and besieged Vidin in 1228 or 1232 , but he could not capture the fortress . Around the same time , he set up a new border province , the Banate of Szörény ( Severin , Romania ) , in the lands between the Carpathians and the Lower Danube . In a token of his suzerainty in the lands east of the Carpathians , Béla adopted the title " King of Cumania " in 1233 . Béla sponsored the mission of Friar Julian and three other Dominican monks who decided to visit the descendants of the Hungarians who had centuries earlier remained in Magna Hungaria , the Hungarians ' legendary homeland .
= = His reign = =
= = = Before the Mongol invasion ( 1235 – 41 ) = = =
King Andrew died on 21 September 1235 . Béla , who succeeded his father without opposition , was crowned king in Székesfehérvár on 14 October . He dismissed and punished many of his father 's closest advisors . For instance , he had Palatine Denis blinded and Julius Kán imprisoned . The former was accused of having , in King Andrew 's life , an adulterous liaison with Queen Beatrix , the King 's young widow . Béla ordered her imprisonment , but she managed to escape to the Holy Roman Empire , where she gave birth to a posthumous son , Stephen . Béla and his brother , Coloman considered her son a bastard .
Béla declared that his principal purpose was " the restitution of royal rights " and " the restoration of the situation which existed in the country " in the reign of his grandfather , Béla III . According to the contemporaneous Roger of Torre Maggiore , he even " had the chairs of the barons burned " in order to prevent them from sitting in his presence during the meetings of the royal council . Béla set up special commissions which revised all royal charters of land grants made after 1196 . The annulment of former donations alienated many of his subjects from the King . Pope Gregory IX protested strongly at the withdrawal of royal grants made to the Cistercians and the military orders . In exchange for Béla 's renouncing of the taking back of royal estates in 1239 , the Pope authorized him to employ local Jews and Muslims in financial administration , which had for decades been opposed by the Holy See .
After returning from Magna Hungaria in 1236 , Friar Julian informed Béla of the Mongols , who had by that time reached the Volga River and were planning to invade Europe . The Mongols invaded Desht @-@ i Qipchaq — the westernmost regions of the Eurasian Steppes — and routed the Cumans . Fleeing the Mongols , at least 40 @,@ 000 Cumans approached the eastern borders of the Kingdom of Hungary and demanded admission in 1239 . Béla only agreed to give them shelter after their leader , Köten , promised to convert together with his people to Christianity , and to fight against the Mongols . However , the settlement of masses of nomadic Cumans in the plains along the Tisza River gave rise to many conflicts between them and the local villagers . Béla , who needed the Cumans ' military support , rarely punished them for their robberies , rapes and other misdeeds . His Hungarian subjects thought that he was biased in the Cumans ' favor , thus " enmity emerged between the people and the king " , according to Roger of Torre Maggiore .
Béla supported the development of towns . For instance , he confirmed the liberties of the citizens of Székesfehérvár and granted privileges to Hungarian and German settlers in Bars ( Starý Tekov , Slovakia ) in 1237 . Zadar , a town in Dalmatia which had been lost to Venice in 1202 , acknowledged Béla 's suzerainty in 1240 .
= = = Mongol invasion of Hungary ( 1241 – 42 ) = = =
The Mongols gathered in the lands bordering Hungary and Poland under the command of Batu Khan in December 1240 . They demanded Béla 's submission to their Great Khan Ögödei , but Béla refused to yield and had the mountain passes fortified . The Mongols broke through the barricades erected in the Verecke Pass ( Veretsky Pass , Ukraine ) on 12 March 1241 .
Duke Frederick II of Austria , who arrived to assist Béla against the invaders , defeated a small Mongol troop near Pest . He seized prisoners , including Cumans from the Eurasian Steppes who had been forced to join the Mongols . When the citizens of Pest realized the presence of Cumans in the invading army , mass hysteria emerged . The townsfolk accused Köten and their Cumans of cooperating with the enemy . A riot broke out and the mob massacred Köten 's retinue . Köten was either slaughtered or committed suicide . On hearing about Köten 's fate , his Cumans decided to leave Hungary and destroyed many villages on their way towards the Balkan Peninsula .
With the Cumans ' departure Béla lost his most valuable allies . He could muster an army of less than 60 @,@ 000 against the invaders . The royal army was ill @-@ prepared and its commanders — the barons alienated by Béla 's policy — " would have liked the king to be defeated so that they would then be dearer to him " , according to Roger of Torre Maggiore 's account . The Hungarian army was virtually annihilated in the Battle of Mohi on the Sajó River on 11 April 1241 . A great number of Hungarian lords , prelates and noblemen were killed , and Béla himself narrowly escaped from the battlefield . He fled through Nyitra to Pressburg ( Nitra and Bratislava in Slovakia ) . The triumphant Mongols occupied and ravaged most lands to the east of the Danube River by the end of June .
Upon Duke Frederick II of Austria 's invitation , Béla went to Hainburg an der Donau . However , instead of helping Béla , the Duke forced him to cede three counties ( most probably Locsmánd , Pozsony , and Sopron ) . From Hainburg , Béla fled to Zagreb and sent letters to Pope Gregory IX , Emperor Frederick II , King Louis IX of France and other Western European monarchs , urging them to send reinforcements to Hungary . In the hope of military assistance , he even accepted Emperor Frederick II 's suzerainty in June . The Pope declared a Crusade against the Mongols , but no reinforcements arrived .
The Mongols crossed the frozen Danube early in 1242 . A Mongol detachment under the command of Kadan , a son of Great Khan Ögödei , chased Béla from town to town in Dalmatia . Béla took refugee in the well @-@ fortified Trogir . Before Kadan laid siege to the town in March , news arrived of the Great Khan 's death . Batu Khan wanted to attend at the election of Ögödei 's successor with sufficient troops and ordered the withdrawal of all Mongol forces . Béla , who was grateful to Trogir , granted it lands near Split , causing a lasting conflict between the two Dalmatian towns .
= = = " Second Founder of the State " ( 1242 – 61 ) = = =
Upon his return to Hungary in May 1242 , Béla found a country in ruins . Devastation was especially heavy in the plains east of the Danube where at least half of the villages were depopulated . The Mongols had destroyed most traditional centers of administration , which were defended by earth @-@ and @-@ timber walls . Only well @-@ fortified places , such as Esztergom , Székesfehérvár and the Pannonhalma Archabbey , had successfully resisted siege . A severe famine followed in 1242 and 1243 .
Preparation for a new Mongol invasion was the central concern of Béla 's policy . In a letter of 1247 to Pope Innocent IV , Béla announced his plan to strengthen the Danube — the " river of confrontations " — with new forts . He abandoned the ancient royal prerogative to build and own castles , promoting the erection of nearly 100 new fortresses by the end of his reign . These fortresses included a new castle Béla had built at Nagysáros ( Veľký Šariš , Slovakia ) , and another castle Béla and his wife had built at Visegrád .
Béla attempted to increase the number of the soldiers and to improve their equipment . He made land grants in the forested regions and obliged the new landowners to equip heavily armoured cavalrymen to serve in the royal army . For instance , the so @-@ called ten @-@ lanced nobles of Szepes ( Spiš , Slovakia ) received their privileges from Béla in 1243 . He even allowed the barons and prelates to employ armed noblemen , who had previously been directly subordinated to the sovereign , in their private retinue . Béla granted the Banate of Szörény to the Knights Hospitaller on 2 June 1247 , but the Knights abandoned the region by 1260 .
To replace the loss of at least 15 percent of the population , who perished during the Mongol invasion and the ensuing famine , Béla promoted colonization . He granted special liberties to the colonists , including personal freedom and favorable tax treatment . Germans , Moravians , Poles , Ruthenians and other " guests " arrived from neighboring countries and were settled in depopulated or sparsely populated regions . He also persuaded the Cumans , who had in 1241 left Hungary , to return and settle in the plains along the River Tisza . He even arranged the engagement of his firstborn son , Stephen , who was crowned king @-@ junior in or before 1246 , to Elisabeth , a daughter of a Cuman chieftain .
Béla granted the privileges of Székesfehérvár to more than 20 settlements , promoting their development into self @-@ governing towns . The liberties of the mining towns in Upper Hungary were also spelled out in Béla 's reign . For defensive purposes , he moved the citizens of Pest to a hill on the opposite side of the Danube in 1248 . Within two decades their new fortified town , Buda , became the most important center of commerce in Hungary . Béla also granted privileges to Gradec , the fortified center of Zagreb , in 1242 and confirmed them in 1266 .
Béla adopted an active foreign policy soon after the withdrawal of the Mongols . In the second half of 1242 he invaded Austria and forced Duke Frederick II to surrender the three counties ceded to him during the Mongol invasion . On the other hand , Venice occupied Zadar in the summer of 1243 . Béla renounced Zadar on 30 June 1244 , but Venice acknowledged his claim to one third of the customs revenues of the Dalmatian town .
Béla set up a defensive alliance against the Mongols . He married three of his daughters to princes whose countries were also threatened by the Mongols . Rostislav Mikhailovich , a pretender to the Principality of Halych , was the first to marry , in 1243 , one of Béla 's daughters , Anna . Béla supported his son @-@ in @-@ law to invade Halych in 1245 , but Rostislav 's opponent , Daniil Romanovich repulsed their attack .
On 21 August 1245 Pope Gregory freed Béla of the oath of fidelity he had taken to Emperor Frederick during the Mongol invasion . In the following year Duke Frederick II of Austria invaded Hungary . He routed Béla 's army in the Battle of the Leitha River on 15 June 1246 , but perished in the battlefield . His childless death gave rise to a series of conflicts , because both his niece , Gertrude , and his sister , Margaret , made a claim to Austria and Styria . Béla decided to intervene in the conflict only after the danger of a second Mongol invasion had diminished by the end of the 1240s . In retaliation of a former Austrian incursion into Hungary , Béla made a plundering raid into Austria and Styria in the summer of 1250 . In this year he met and concluded a peace treaty with Daniil Romanovich , Prince of Halych in Zólyom ( Zvolen , Slovakia ) . With Béla 's mediation , a son of his new ally Roman married Gertrude of Austria .
Béla and Daniil Romanovich united their troops and invaded Austria and Moravia in June 1252 . After their withdrawal , Ottokar , Margrave of Moravia — who had married Margaret of Austria — invaded and occupied Austria and Styria . In the summer of 1253 , Béla launched a campaign against Moravia and laid siege to Olomouc . Daniil Romanovich , Boleslaw the Chaste of Cracow , and Wladislaw of Opole intervened on Béla 's behalf , but he lifted the siege by the end of June . Pope Innocent IV mediated a peace treaty , which was signed in Pressburg ( Bratislava , Slovakia ) on 1 May 1254 . In accordance with the treaty , Ottokar , who had in the meantime become King of Bohemia , ceded Styria to Béla .
Béla appointed his son @-@ in @-@ law , Rostislav Mikhailovich Ban of Macsó ( Mačva , Serbia ) in 1254 . Rostislav 's task was the creation of a buffer zone along the southern borders . He occupied Bosnia already in the year of his appointment and forced Tzar Michael Asen I of Bulgaria to cede Belgrade and Barancs ( Braničevo , Serbia ) in 1255 . Béla adopted the title of King of Bulgaria , but he only used it occasionally in the subsequent years .
The Styrian noblemen rose up in rebellion against Béla 's governor Stephen Gutkeled and routed him in early 1258 . Béla invaded Styria , restored his suzerainty and appointed his oldest son , Stephen , Duke of Styria . In 1259 , Batu Khan 's successor , Berke , proposed an alliance by offering to marry one of his daughters to a son of Béla , but he refused the Khan 's offer .
Discontented with the rule of Béla 's son , the Styrian lords sought assistance from Ottokar of Bohemia . Béla and his allies — Daniil Romanovich , Boleslaw the Chaste , and Leszek the Black of Sieradz — invaded Moravia , but Ottokar vanquished them in the Battle of Kressenbrunn on 12 June 1260 . The defeat forced Béla to renounce Styria in favor of the King of Bohemia in the Peace of Vienna , which was signed on 31 March 1261 . On the other hand , Ottokar divorced his elderly wife , Margarete of Austria , and married Béla 's granddaughter — the daughter of Rostislav Mikhailovich by Anna — Kunigunda .
Béla had originally planned to give his youngest daughter , Margaret , in marriage to King Ottokar . However , Margaret , who had been living in the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island , refused to yield . With the assistance of her Dominican confessor , she took her final religious vows which prevented her marriage . Infuriated by this act , the King , who had up to that time supported the Dominicans , favored the Franciscans in the subsequent years . He even became a Franciscan tertiary , according to the Greater Legend of his saintly sister , Elisabeth .
= = = Civil war ( 1261 – 66 ) = = =
Béla and his son , Stephen jointly invaded Bulgaria in 1261 . They forced Tzar Constantine Tikh of Bulgaria to abandon the region of Vidin . Béla returned to Hungary before the end of the campaign , which was continued by his son .
Béla 's favoritism towards his younger son , Béla ( whom he appointed Duke of Slavonia ) and daughter , Anna irritated Stephen . The latter suspected that his father was planning to disinherit him . Stephen often mentioned in his charters that he had " suffered severe persecution " by his " parents without deserving it " when referring to the roots of his conflict with his father . Although some clashes took place in the autumn , a lasting civil war was avoided through the mediation of the Archbishops Philip of Esztergom and Smaragd of Kalocsa who persuaded Béla and his son to make a compromise . According to the Peace of Pressburg , the two divided the country along the Danube : the lands to the west of the river remained under the direct rule of Béla , and the government of the eastern territories was taken over by Stephen , the king @-@ junior .
The relationship between father and son remained tense . Stephen seized his mother 's and sister 's estates which were situated in his realm to the east of the Danube . Béla 's army under the command of Princess Anna crossed the Danube in the summer of 1264 . She occupied Sárospatak and captured Stephen 's wife and children . A detachment of the royal army , under the command of Béla 's Judge royal Lawrence forced Stephen to retreat as far as the fortress at Feketehalom ( Codlea , Romania ) in the easternmost corner of Transylvania . The king @-@ junior 's partisans relieved the castle and he started a counter @-@ attack in the autumn . In the decisive Battle of Isaszeg , he routed his father 's army in March 1265 .
It was again the two archbishops who conducted the negotiations between Béla and his son . Their agreement was signed in the Dominican Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island ( Margaret Island , Budapest ) on 23 March 1266 . The new treaty confirmed the division of the country along the Danube and regulated many aspects of the co @-@ existence of Béla 's regnum and Stephen 's regimen , including the collection of taxes and the commoners ' right to free movement .
= = = Last years ( 1266 – 70 ) = = =
The " nobles of all Hungary , who are called servientes regis " from both the senior and the junior king 's domains assembled in Esztergom in 1267 . Upon their request , Béla and Stephen jointly confirmed their privileges , which had first been spelled out in the Golden Bull of 1222 , before 7 September . Shortly after the meeting , Béla assigned four noblemen from each county with the task of revising property rights in Transdanubia .
King Stephen Uroš I of Serbia invaded the Banate of Macsó , a region under the rule of Béla 's widowed daughter , Anna . A royal army soon routed the invaders and captured Stephen Uroš . The Serbian monarch was forced to pay ransom before being released .
Béla 's favorite son , Béla , died in the summer of 1269 . On 18 January 1270 the King 's youngest daughter , the saintly Margaret , also died . In short order , Béla fell terminally ill . Before his death , he requested King Ottokar II of Bohemia , ( Princess Anna 's son @-@ in @-@ law ) , to assist his wife , daughter and partisans in case they were forced to leave Hungary by his son . Béla died on Rabbits ' Island on 3 May 1270 . With his death at the age of 63 , he exceeded in age most members of the House of Árpád . He was buried in the church of the Franciscans in Esztergom , but Archbishop Philip of Esztergom had his corpse transferred to the Esztergom Cathedral . The Minorites only succeeded in regaining Béla 's remains after a long lawsuit .
= = Family = =
Béla 's wife , Maria Laskarina was born in 1207 or 1208 , according to historian Gyula Kristó . She died in July or August 1270 . Their first child , Kunigunda , was born in 1224 , four years after her parents ' marriage . She married to Boleslaw the Chaste , Duke of Cracow in 1246 .
A second daughter , Margaret followed Kunigunda in about 1225 ; she died unmarried before 1242 . The third daughter of Béla , Anna was born around 1226 . She and her husband , Rostislav Mikhailovich were especially favored by Béla . Her great @-@ grandson , Wenceslaus — a grandson of her daughter , Kunigunda by King Ottokar II of Bohemia — was King of Hungary from 1301 to 1305 .
Béla 's fourth child , Catherina died unmarried before 1242 . Next , Elisabeth was born ; she was given in marriage to Henry XIII , Duke of Bavaria in about 1245 . Her son , Otto was crowned King of Hungary in 1305 , but was forced to leave the country by the end of 1307 . Elisabeth 's sister , Constance married , around 1251 , Lev Danylovich , second son of Prince Daniil Romanovich of Halych . Béla 's seventh daughter , Yolanda became the wife of Bolesław the Pious , Duke of Greater Poland .
Béla 's first son , Stephen was born in 1239 . He succeeded his father . Béla 's youngest daughter , Margaret was born during the Mongol invasion in 1242 . Dedicated to God by her parents at birth , she spent her life in humility in the Monastery of the Blessed Virgin on Rabbits ' Island and died as a Dominican nun . The King 's youngest ( namesake ) son , Béla was born between around 1243 and 1250 .
The Greater Legend of Saint Elisabeth of Hungary ( Béla 's sister ) described Béla 's family as a company of saints . It wrote that the " blessed royal family of the Hungarians is adorned with resplendent pearls that irradiate all the earth " . In fact , the Holy See sanctioned the veneration of three daughters of Béla and his wife : Kunigunda was beatified in 1690 , Yolanda in 1827 ; and Margaret was canonized in 1943 . A fourth daughter , Constance also became subject to a local cult in Lemberg ( Lviv , Ukraine ) , according to the Legend of her sister , Kunigunda .
The following family tree presents Béla 's offspring , and some of his relatives mentioned in the article .
= = Legacy = =
Bryan Cartledge writes that Béla " reorganised the structure of government , re @-@ established the rule of law , repopulated a devastated countryside , encouraged the growth of towns , created the new royal town of Buda and revived the commercial life of the country " during his over three @-@ decade @-@ long reign . Béla 's posthumous epithet — the " second founder of the state " — shows that posterity attributed to him Hungary 's survival of the Mongol invasion . On the other hand , the Illuminated Chronicle notes that Béla " was a man of peace , but in the conduct of armies and battles the least fortunate " when narrating Béla 's defeat in the Battle of Kressenbrunn . The same chronicle preserved the next epigram which was written on his tomb :
= Water supply and sanitation in Colombia =
This article was last updated on substance in August 2012 . However , sections of this article are older and may need to be updated . Feel free to update this article wherever needed .
Water supply and sanitation in Colombia has been improved in many ways over the past decades . Between 1990 and 2010 , access to improved sanitation increased from 67 % to 82 % , but access to improved water source 's increased only slightly from 89 % to 94 % . In particular , coverage in rural areas lags behind . Furthermore , despite improvements , the quality of water and sanitation services remains inadequate . For example , only 73 % of those receiving public services receive water of potable quality and in 2006 only 25 % of the wastewater generated in the country underwent any kind of treatment .
= = Overview = =
A comprehensive sector policy , introduced in 1994 , aimed at increasing water and sanitation investments through targeted transfers to municipalities , improving service quality and efficiency by promoting private sector participation in the poorest parts of the country where utilities were not performing well , the establishment of autonomous regulatory agencies at the national level , increased cost recovery , and protecting the poorest through cross @-@ subsidies in the form of area @-@ based tariffs . This same policy has been pursued and refined by different consecutive governments .
Responsibilities in the sector are divided as follows :
The Vice @-@ Ministry of Water and Sanitation , created in October 2006 within the Ministry of Environment , Housing and Territorial Development is in charge of setting sector policy .
Regulation is the responsibility of two separate institutions at the national level , the Potable Water and Basic Sanitation Regulation Commission ( CRA ) and the Superintendency of Residential Public Services ( SSPD ) , a multi @-@ sector regulatory agency .
Service provision is the responsibility of 1 @,@ 500 water and sanitation service providers in urban areas and probably more than 12 @,@ 000 communal organizations providing services in rural and peri @-@ urban areas . While most urban service providers are public , in 2004 there were 125 private and 48 mixed public @-@ private water companies in the country .
Cost recovery in the sector has improved substantially . Between 1990 and 2001 , the average tariff for water and sanitation in Colombia increased from US $ 0 @.@ 32 / m3 to US $ 0 @.@ 81 / m3 , equivalent to an increase of 153 % . As a result , 24 % of investments were self @-@ financed by utilities in 2004 . Other features of the sector are the existence of some large , well @-@ performing public companies ; a strong and stable participation by the local private sector in service provision ; and some well @-@ performing community @-@ based organizations in peri @-@ urban areas .
Recently , the government of Álvaro Uribe has initiated a number of complementary policies to accelerate increases in access to water and sanitation services , such as the strengthening of the roles of departments in the governance of the sector , a program for marginal urban neighborhoods and an increase in investments for wastewater treatment .
= = Access = =
In 2010 , 92 % of the population had access to an improved source of water and 77 % had access to adequate sanitation . The rural population , which accounts for about 25 % of the national total , has the lowest coverage rates , with only 72 % having access to safe water and 63 % to adequate sanitation . Coverage is lowest on the Atlantic Coast ( Caribbean Region ) , in the Orinoquia , and in Amazonia .
= = Service quality = =
In addition to issues of service coverage , Colombia ’ s water and sanitation sector faces issues of service quality . However , service quality has improved considerably over the last fifteen years . The biggest cities tend to offer better service quality than smaller towns and rural areas .
Continuity of supply . The average duration of daily water service has increased from 15 @.@ 36 hours in 1993 to 19 @.@ 82 hours in 2003 at the national level . In the four biggest cities of the country , service is continuous . Nevertheless , rationing of water and interrupted sanitation are ordinary incidents in small towns and rural areas .
Drinking water quality . According to a survey of the Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios ( SSPD ) or Superintendency for Residential Public Services in 2004 , 72 % of the users had water of potable quality . In some cases , the water supply system ’ s pressure is not adequate , increasing the risk of bacterial contamination .
Sewerage . Sewage collection systems do not have sufficient hydraulic capacity to handle wastewater flows , especially in poor neighborhoods , which results in combined sewer overflows and sanitary sewer overflows .
Wastewater treatment . In 2006 , 25 % of the wastewater generated in the country underwent some kind of treatment . The remaining 75 % is discharged without any treatment , contaminating a significant part of the natural water resources .
= = History = =
The water and sanitation sector in Colombia underwent one cycle of centralization and decentralization within the past several decades . Since the enactment of a comprehensive new sector policy in 1994 , various governments have pursued the same set of basic policies , including targeted transfers to municipalities , private sector participation , regulation , cost recovery and a system of cross @-@ subsidies .
= = = Centralization ( 1950s to late 1980s ) = = =
In the first half of the 20th century , municipalities were responsible for the provision of basic water and sanitation services in Colombia . In 1950 , similar to many other countries , a centralized system was adopted and the Instituto de Fomento Municipal ( INSFOPAL ) or Municipal Development Institute was created . Empresas Departamentales de Acueducto y Alcantarillado ( ACUAS ) or Departmental Water and Sewerage Companies were created , consisting of the departments , the municipalities and INSFOPAL , which took care of managing and maintaining the infrastructure of the member communities . In that way , investment at the national level was channelled into this important area of public health .
In 1976 , within the framework of a change in sector policies , the ACUAS were transformed into Empresas de Obras Sanitarias ( EMPOS ) or Sanitary Works Companies at the regional or municipal level , which were put in charge of financing , planning , developing and managing public services in most municipalities . However , some municipalities kept the responsibility for service provision at the local level and created municipal companies . The most notable case are the Empresas Públicas de Medellín ( EPM ) , a municipally owned multi @-@ sector utility created in 1955 .
At the national level , the water sector institutionally depended on the Ministry of Health .
= = = Decentralization ( late 1980s to 1993 ) = = =
In the 1980s , the sector was in crisis , characterized by low investment , poor cost recovery and poor service quality in most of the country . As a result , the government decided to break up INSFOPAL at the end of the 1980s and to devolve the responsibility for service provision back to the municipalities after four decades , except for some cases like the Valle de Cauca department , where the regional companies continued providing the services . Furthermore , the institutional responsibility for the sector was transferred from the Ministry of Health to the Ministry of Economic Development . This change was not only an administrative change , but it introduced a different focus and perspective to the sector .
= = = New financing system and public @-@ private partnerships ( 1994 @-@ 2006 ) = = =
The two liberal governments of César Gaviria ( 1990 @-@ 1994 ) and Ernesto Samper ( 1994 @-@ 1998 ) pursued a policy of economic opening and business modernization . In the spirit of these policies , the government established a comprehensive new sector policy that aimed at increasing water and sanitation investments through targeted transfers to municipalities , improving service quality and efficiency by promoting private sector participation in the poorest parts of the country where public utilities were not performing well , the establishment of autonomous regulatory agencies at the national level , increased cost recovery , and protecting the poorest through cross @-@ subsidies in the form of area @-@ based tariffs . The basis of this sector policy was established by Law 142 of July 1994 , at the end of president César Gaviria ’ s term of office . With some modifications to that law in 2001 , the same policy continues to be pursued to today despite several changes of governments .
In 1995 , the first water and sanitation concession in Colombia was given to a mixed public @-@ private company in the city of Cartagena , followed by a second concession in Barranquilla in 1996 and more concessions in the next years . In 2002 , the government launched a program of business modernization to introduce private sector participation also in small and medium @-@ sized municipalities , leading to significant improvements in quality and efficiency of service provision in some municipalities . Drinking water use has decreased by 25 % between 1996 and 2001 . Tariff increases and the inclusion of low income users who did not have access to piped water before influenced this trend .
= = = Creation of a Vice @-@ Ministry for Water and Sanitation and Departmental Plans ( since 2006 ) = = =
The government of Álvaro Uribe wants to rapidly increase coverage , overtaking the Millennium Development Goals for the sector and to improve service quality , especially in small towns and rural areas , which have the highest requirement of service improvement .
At the end of 2006 , a Vice @-@ Ministry for Water and Sanitation was created . It has initiated four new programs :
Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans
Programa de Saneamiento para Asentamientos ( SPA ) or Sanitation Program for Settlements within the framework of an Integral Quarter Improvement Program
Municipal Waste Water Sanitation Program ( SAVER ) to increase the rate of treated municipal water
Handwashing Program
Water Storage campaign
The Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans program provides such services as planning and harmonizing resources and has regional systems of service provision at the level of each department of the country . The program was first implemented in four departments which have some of the most difficult conditions : Sucre , Córdoba , Magdalena and La Guajira . The program also aimed to overcome the sector ’ s fragmentation into many small utilities to benefit from economies of scale . In 2010 30 Departmental Plans were completed and published , covering almost all of the country 's 32 departments .
In about 2011 , the responsibility for water supply and sanitation , and with it the Vice @-@ Ministry , was transferred to the newly created Ministry of Housing , Cities and Territories . As of August 2012 , the Vice @-@ Ministry 's website made no more reference to the Departmental Water and Sanitation Plans . The handwashing program , the SPA and SAVER were still in place . In addition , two new programs were started :
A " water culture " ( Cultura del Agua ) program that combats apathy and lack of interest concerning water utilities , promotes water reuse and the protection of watersheds , and fights water losses , illegal connections and the non @-@ payment of water bills .
A " transparent water " program to ensure greater visibility and a wider implication of various stakeholders in water projects , especially during an early stage of implementation .
= = Responsibility for water supply and sanitation = =
The current responsibilities and policies in the water and sanitation sector in Colombia are primarily defined in the 1991 constitution and in Law 142 of 1994 ( Ley de Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios or Public Housing Services Law )
= = = Policy and regulation = = =
The Vice @-@ Ministry of Water and Sanitation , created in October 2006 within the Ministry of Environment , Housing and Territorial Development is in charge of setting sector policy . This sector policy is defined in the framework of national policy established by the Departamento Nacional de Planificación ( DNP ) or National Planning Department .
Responsibility for regulating water services is vested in two separate institutions at the national level . The Comisión de Regulación de Agua Potable y Saneamiento Básico ( CRA ) or Potable Water and Basic Sanitation Regulatory Commission defines criteria for efficient service provision and sets the rules for tariff revision , but is not in charge of controlling the application of these rules . The latter is the responsibility of the Superintendencia de Servicios Públicos Domiciliarios ( SSPD ) or Superintendency for Residential Public Services , a multi @-@ sector regulatory agency .
The Government aims at improving the performance of the water and sanitation sector through : ( 1 ) strengthening the regulatory framework ; ( 2 ) implementing technical assistance programs ; ( 3 ) providing financial support to promote modernization and efficient management as well as to subsidize the poor ; and ( 4 ) rationalizing the institutional framework at the national level to improve coordination in the sector . The government also supports private sector participation in the sector .
= = = Service provision = = =
Colombian municipalities are responsible for “ ensuring that their inhabitants are given domestic services of water supply and sanitation in an efficient way by public companies ” . Therefore , public utilities are directly responsible for service provision , except for some special cases defined in the law , in which municipalities can offer the services directly . In rural areas and some marginal urban areas , communal water boards also offer water supply services .
Over the last few years , the number of companies has increased and the direct service provision by municipalities has decreased . To simplify the process of changing suppliers ' ownership structure , municipal utilities were transformed into public stock corporations , which allow private sector participation without a further change of the legal status . In 2006 , 53 % of all suppliers were public companies , the remainder being direct municipal suppliers ( 15 % ) , private companies ( 12 % ) , official companies , which are companies that are not specialized in water and sanitation ( 13 % ) , mixed companies ( 6 % ) and authorized organizations ( 1 % ) . Smaller utilities included , there are more than 1 @,@ 500 water and sanitation service providers of in urban areas , and probably more than 12 @,@ 000 communal organizations providing services in rural areas .
The sector is characterized by a high degree of fragmentation which makes it difficult to realize economies of scale , according to a World Bank study . To solve this problem , the creation of regional companies has been suggested .
= = = = Urban areas = = = =
Most Colombian cities - including the three largest ones , Bogota , Medellin and Cali - are served by public utilities . However , the private sector also plays an important role , including 125 private and 48 mixed public @-@ private water companies in 2004 out of 1 @,@ 500 urban service providers .
= = = = = Public utilities = = = = =
Some of Colombia 's larger cities are home to well @-@ performing public utilities , some of them providing multiple services , others being specialized in water and sanitation only . The Empresas Públicas de Medellín or Public Companies of Medellín , is a municipally owned multi @-@ sector utility in charge of water supply , sanitation , solid waste management , electricity generation and distribution as well as local telecommunications in Medellín and its surrounding areas .
Another multi @-@ sector utility is the Empresas Municipales de Cali ( Emcali ) , which provides fixed line local telecoms , Internet , potable water , sewage and electricity services to some 600 @,@ 000 clients . EMCALI has suffered financially due to onerous payment obligations resulting from a Power Purchase Agreement signed in 1997 with an Independent Power Producer , TermoEmcali .
The capital of Colombia , Bogotá , is served by a water and sanitation utility , the Empresa de Acueducto y Alcantarillado de Bogotá ( EAAB ) .
= = = = = Private sector participation = = = = =
Private sector participation in Colombia 's water and sanitation sector has been much more stable than in some other Latin American countries . In 2004 , there were 125 private and 48 mixed public @-@ private water companies in Colombia , including large , medium and small companies . Private sector involvement in the Colombian water sector began in 1995 in Cartagena , with support from the World Bank . The most important examples are in Cartagena , Barranquilla , Santa Marta , Tunja , Montería , Palmira , Girardot , and Riohacha . Operators are to a large extent Colombian . Overall performance of utilities with private sector participation has improved , in some cases spectacularly , and some – such as Barranquilla – have had impressive successes in expanding coverage to the urban poor .
According to a World Bank report , the key to success of private sector participation in the Colombian water sector has been the development of homegrown solutions , and , at times , skillfully adapting models used elsewhere to the particular circumstances and culture of Colombia .
The World Bank 's Private Participation in Infrastructure Database shows private investment commitments in water supply and sanitation of US $ 940 million from 1995 to 2006 through 51 transactions , including 27 classified as concessions , 22 as management and lease contracts , and 2 as greenfield projects .
= = = = Small towns and peri @-@ urban areas = = = =
In some smaller towns and peri @-@ urban areas , there are examples of successful provision of water supply and sanitation services by community organizations and regional companies , which in some cases set an example in terms of community empowerment , transparency and accountability .
An example of a regional association is Acuavalle S.A. ESP , which provides drinking water and sanitation to 582 @,@ 000 inhabitants in 33 municipalities of the Valle del Cauca department . It was founded as a non @-@ profit public limited company in 1959 . The shareholders of the company are the Valle del Cauca department , the ‘ ’ Corporación Autónoma regional del valle del Cauce ’ ’ and 33 municipalities , which are served by the utility .
Another example , is the Junta Administradora del Acueducto La Sirena en el Valle del Cauca ( Water Board La Sirena ) in the southwestern outskirts of Cali , which manages 778 residential connections , offering continuous service to some 4 @,@ 200 users . It operates a sewerage system and a wastewater treatment plant . Water consumption is metered . The average monthly tariff is US $ 3 @.@ 5 for 28m3 . There is no social stratification , but special tariffs are applied to those users who consume more than 28m3 . The annual cash surplus is about US $ 10 @,@ 000 which is reinvested in preventive maintenance and in some cases in construction works . In this way , in the last 3 years a water capture facility was constructed in Quebrada Epaminondas , another one at Melendez River was improved , and a water tank with a capacity of 220m3 was constructed .
Another example is the Asociación Acueducto de Río Negro de Popayán , which was formed 10 years ago integrating 10 supply systems , supplying 7 @,@ 000 residential connections . The association is preparing its own water treatment plant and preparing to install meters with the aid of the Colombian organization Asociados en Desarrollo Rural ( ADR ) or Associates in Rural Development and the United States Agency for International Development ( USAID ) .
= = = = Rural areas = = = =
Coverage in rural areas is unusually low , given the level of economic development and sector development . Using a broad definition of access , based on the WHO definition of an improved water source , access in rural areas in Colombia was 71 % , while it was 81 % in Honduras - a considerably poorer country - and 89 % in Ecuador , also a poorer country than Colombia .
In addition to the armed conflict , there are other explanations for this situation : Municipalities tend to use their financial resources from the Sistema General de Participaciones or General Participation System ( Law 715 of 2001 ) mainly in urban areas . Furthermore , there is no institution or program at the national level which offers technical assistance to the 12 @,@ 000 rural community organizations . Law 142 of 1994 assigns that task to the departments , but these have not carried out the task in a satisfactory way so far .
The 2002 Inventario Sanitario Rural ( ISR ) or Rural Sanitary Register confirms that situation . Only 21 % of the rural community organizations were considered able to carry out maintenance and only 10 % to commercially operate the service . Only 32 % issued bills and only 10 % used metering . In 2005 , the government defined guidelines for basic water supply and sanitation policy in rural areas to increase coverage and improve quality in those areas .
In addition a GIS study published in 2014 documented that for many rural areas the time needed to drive to water testing labs than is longer than the sample is viable .
= = Innovative approaches = =
Since 1994 Colombia has pioneered many innovative approaches for basic service provision in general and for water supply and sanitation in particular .
Some of them were introduced at the national level , while others were initiated in one city or region . Notable innovations at the national level are the introduction of two autonomous economic regulatory agencies ( one , CRA , to develop and fine @-@ tune regulatory tools in the water and sanitation sector , and another one , SSPD , to implement them in across all basic services ) in 1994 ; the introduction of socio @-@ economic strata as a basis for spatially differentiated tariffs , also in 1994 ; and the spatial aggregation of municipal service providers in small towns at the departmental level to benefit from economies of scale since 2006 , with strong support from the national government .
A notable innovation initiated by a city or a region is the creation of mixed public @-@ private enterprises for urban water supply that has begun in 1995 in Cartagena , followed by Barranquilla and other Northern and Central cities and towns . Another innovation is an association of community @-@ based organizations ( CBOs ) providing water supply in rural and peri @-@ urban areas in the departments of El Valle , Cauca and Risaralda in Southwestern Colombia . It began in the late 1990s with the assistance of the Universidad del Valle in Cali in order to protect and recover source watersheds and to strengthen the CBOs ' capacity to administrate , operate and maintain their water systems .
In addition , Colombia boasts one of the oldest and largest multi @-@ utilities in Latin America , Empresas Públicas de Medellín ( EPM ) , created in 1955 .
= = Efficiency = =
The average level of non @-@ revenue water ( physical and economic losses ) in Colombia in 2006 is estimated to be 49 % . This level is higher than the Latin American average ( approximately 40 % ) and the regulatory goal of 30 % . In the past , the national average of non @-@ revenue water was estimated 40 % in 2001 , which is almost the same as in 1990 . In the largest cities of the country , levels of non @-@ revenue water are below the national average ( 40 % in Bogotá , 35 % in Medellín and 39 % in Cali ) .
= = Financial aspects = =
= = = Tariffs = = =
The Colombian tariff system is defined in the Ley de Servicios Públicos or Public Services Law from 1994 . It is applied in public , mixed and private companies . The tariff system aims at reconciling the achievement of cost recovery with the protection of the poor . The basic tariff is calculated on the basis of economic costs according to a methodology defined at the national level by CRA ( Law 287 of 2004 ) . Therefore , in principle , tariffs in different municipalities do not differ due to local government ’ s decisions to raise tariffs or not , but only because of the different costs of the services .
The base tariff of each service provider has to be adjusted by law for different geographic areas within the city , each assumed to correspond to one socio @-@ economic class , according to adjustment factors that are specified by law . This system of area @-@ based tariffs is supposed to provide cross @-@ subsidies from more affluent to poorer users . Every municipality has defined geographic areas that each correspond to one of the six socio @-@ economic classes . Class 1 represents the lowest income group while class 6 stands for the highest . As per 2007 , the tariff adjustment factors were the following :
There are many more citizens who live in areas corresponding to classes 1 – 3 than those who live in the areas corresponding to classes 5 and 6 . For example , in Bogotá 73 % of the population live in zones of classes 1 – 3 , whereas only 10 % live in zones classified as 5 and 6 . Consequently , the tariff system permanently causes deficits which require subsidies paid by the national government .
Between 1990 and 2001 , the average tariff for water and sanitation in Colombia increased from US $ 0 @.@ 32 / m3 to US $ 0 @.@ 81 / m3 , equivalent to an increase of 153 % . In 2006 , the average monthly bill for residential customers was about US $ 6 @.@ 80 for water supply and US $ 4 @.@ 60 for sanitation services .
Free basic water . Inspired by the Human Right to Water , two important cities in Colombia make a basic amount of water ( Minimo Vital de Agua Potable ) available to their poorest residents free of charge . In 2009 , Medellin made 2 @.@ 5 cubic meters of water per month and per person - or 10 cubic meters for a family of four - available for free to all urban residents in class 1 . The city wants to reach 45 @,@ 000 households and has budgeted 25 billion Pesos ( USD 14 million ) to finance free basic water and associated awareness campaigns . In February 2012 Bogota also introduced 6 cubic meters of free basic water per household for households in classes 1 and 2 , covering more than 1 @.@ 5 million households or 39 % of all households . The annual cost is estimated at 60 billion Pesos ( USD 33 million ) .
= = = Investment = = =
Between 1995 and 2003 , US $ 3 @.@ 4 billion ( 7 @,@ 965 billion Colombian pesos ) were invested in the sector , of which 16 % were financed by the private sector . Since 1998 , private financing increased from almost zero to become a significant share of the total investment . Furthermore , despite a drop in 2001 , investment in the sector has increased since 1999 .
The SSPD forecasts a total investment of US $ 2 @.@ 2 billion ( 4 @,@ 922 billion Colombian pesos ) in the water and sanitation sector from 2007 to 2017
The Minister of Environment , Housing and Territorial Development announced in May 2008 that US $ 5 @.@ 2 million ( 9 @.@ 2 billion Colombian pesos ) will be spent in order to facilitate the construction of facilities in areas without access to drinking water . The national government will control the destination of the resources and guarantees transparency in the whole spending process . According to the minister , Colombia should already have reached full drinking water coverage , given the past investments in the sector .
= = = Financing = = =
According to the ministry , the investments were mainly financed through three sources : self @-@ financing , funding by the national government and charges for the extraction of petroleum and carbon .
A World Bank study estimates an investment of US $ 411m in 2004 , which was financed as follows :
US $ 108m ( 26 % ) by companies through self @-@ financing
US $ 249m ( 61 % ) by state funding through SGP
US $ 49m ( 12 % ) by Corporaciones Autónomas Regionales ( CAR ) or Regional Autonomous Corporations
US $ 5m ( 1 % ) by other sources
According to the report , the average annual transfers from the national government to the municipalities for water supply and sanitation ( including solid waste ) were about US $ 278m between 1998 and 2001 . 86 % of that funding was allocated through the SGP as defined in Law 715 . A certain percentage of these resources was dedicated exclusively for water supply and sanitation . They mainly go to small municipalities that show low income levels . Nevertheless , many municipalities use funding through SGP dedicated for water supply and sanitation for other purposes .
The CAR receive property tax , electric power utilities , environmental charges for extracting water and charges for discharging waste water .
= = External cooperation = =
The main external cooperation partners for the Colombian water and sanitation sector are the World Bank , the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) and the Andean Development Corporation ( CAF ) .
= = = World Bank = = =
The World Bank supports the sector through dedicated water and sanitation projects , as well as through water and sanitation components in other , broader projects .
Dedicated water and sanitation projects :
Bogotá Urban Services Project
Cartagena Water Supply , Sewerage and Environmental Management Project
La Guajira Water and Sanitation Infrastructure and Service Management Project
Water And Sanitation Sector Support Project First Phase APL
Water Sector Reform Assistance Project
Non @-@ dedicated projects :
Disaster Vulnerability Reduction First Phase APL
Rio Frio Carbon Offset Project
Amoya River Environmental Services
Sustainable Development Investment Project
= = = Inter @-@ American Development Bank ( IDB ) = = =
Potable Water and Sanitation Pereira
= = = Andean Development Corporation ( CAF ) = = =
CAF supports the sector through a USD 42 @.@ 5 million loan to the Cesar Department in 2006 and a USD 58 @.@ 1 million loan to the Empresas Aguas del Magdalena approved in 2007 .
For information on CAF projects in Colombia see : CAF Colombia
= German submarine U @-@ 47 ( 1938 ) =
German submarine U @-@ 47 was a Type VIIB U @-@ boat of Nazi Germany 's navy ( Kriegsmarine ) during World War II . She was laid down on 25 February 1937 at Friedrich Krupp Germaniawerft in Kiel as yard number 582 and went into service on 17 December 1938 under the command of Günther Prien .
During U @-@ 47 's career , she sank a total of 31 enemy vessels and damaged eight more , including the British battleship HMS Royal Oak on 14 October 1939 . U @-@ 47 ranks as one of the most successful German U @-@ boats of World War II .
= = Design = =
German Type VIIB submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIA submarines . U @-@ 47 had a displacement of 753 tonnes ( 741 long tons ) when at the surface and 857 tonnes ( 843 long tons ) while submerged . She had a total length of 66 @.@ 50 m ( 218 ft 2 in ) , a pressure hull length of 48 @.@ 80 m ( 160 ft 1 in ) , a beam of 6 @.@ 20 m ( 20 ft 4 in ) , a height of 9 @.@ 50 m ( 31 ft 2 in ) , and a draught of 4 @.@ 74 m ( 15 ft 7 in ) . The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four @-@ stroke , six @-@ cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of 2 @,@ 800 to 3 @,@ 200 metric horsepower ( 2 @,@ 060 to 2 @,@ 350 kW ; 2 @,@ 760 to 3 @,@ 160 shp ) for use while surfaced , two AEG GU 460 / 8 @-@ 276 double @-@ acting electric motors producing a total of 750 metric horsepower ( 550 kW ; 740 shp ) for use while submerged . She had two shafts and two 1 @.@ 23 m ( 4 ft ) propellers . The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to 230 metres ( 750 ft ) .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of 17 @.@ 9 knots ( 33 @.@ 2 km / h ; 20 @.@ 6 mph ) and a maximum submerged speed of 8 knots ( 15 km / h ; 9 @.@ 2 mph ) . When submerged , the boat could operate for 90 nautical miles ( 170 km ; 100 mi ) at 4 knots ( 7 @.@ 4 km / h ; 4 @.@ 6 mph ) ; when surfaced , she could travel 8 @,@ 700 nautical miles ( 16 @,@ 100 km ; 10 @,@ 000 mi ) at 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . U @-@ 47 was fitted with five 53 @.@ 3 cm ( 21 in ) torpedo tubes ( four fitted at the bow and one at the stern ) , fourteen torpedoes , one 8 @.@ 8 cm ( 3 @.@ 46 in ) SK C / 35 naval gun , 220 rounds , and one 2 cm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) anti @-@ aircraft gun . The boat had a complement of between forty @-@ four and sixty .
= = Service history = =
U @-@ 47 carried out ten combat patrols and spent a total of 238 days at sea . She sank 31 enemy ships ( totalling 164 @,@ 953 tons ) and damaged eight more . Prior to her disappearance in March 1941 , U @-@ 47 lost one crewman , Heinrich Mantyk , who fell overboard on 5 September 1940 .
= = = First patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 was assigned to the 7th U @-@ boat Flotilla on 17 December 1938 , ( the day she was commissioned ) . She was an operational boat in the 7th Flotilla for her entire career . U @-@ 47 was sent to sea in a pre @-@ emptive move before war broke out in September 1939 , this move would enable her to engage enemy vessels as soon as the war began . She left for her first war patrol on 19 August 1939 ( two weeks before the commencement of hostilities ) , from the port of Kiel . During her first patrol , she circumnavigated the British Isles and entered the Bay of Biscay . It was here that U @-@ 47 sank her first three ships , SS Bosnia on 5 September , SS Rio Carlo on 6 September and SS Gartavon on 7 September 1939 .
= = = Second patrol and the sinking of HMS Royal Oak = = =
On 8 October 1939 , U @-@ 47 began her second patrol . On 14 October 1939 ( six days after leaving port ) , she succeeded in penetrating the Royal Navy 's primary base at Scapa Flow . Although most of the Home Fleet was not at the base at the time , U @-@ 47 managed to find a target , the battleship HMS Royal Oak . Once she had spotted Royal Oak , she opened fire with her torpedoes . Her first two salvos did nothing more than sever an anchor chain . After reloading the bow tubes the last salvo of three torpedoes struck the British warship , causing severe flooding . Taking on a list of 15 degrees , her open portholes were submerged , worsening the flooding and increasing the list to 45 degrees ; Royal Oak sank within 15 minutes with the loss of over 800 men . Following the attack , Prien received the nickname Der Stier von Scapa Flow ( " The Bull of Scapa Flow " ) ; the emblem of a snorting bull was then painted on the conning tower of U @-@ 47 and the image soon became the emblem of the entire 7th U @-@ boat Flotilla . Prien was awarded the Knight 's Cross of the Iron Cross , the first sailor of a U @-@ boat and the second member of the Kriegsmarine to receive this decoration . The rest of the crew members were awarded the Iron Cross . Two other U @-@ 47 crew members also earned the Knight 's Cross later on during World War II : the chief engineer ( Leitender Ingenieur ) Johann @-@ Friedrich Wessels and 1st watch officer ( I. Wachoffizier ) Engelbert Endrass .
Many years later , in September 2002 , one of the unexploded torpedoes that U @-@ 47 had fired during the attack on Royal Oak rose to the surface from its resting place on the bottom . The unexploded torpedo , minus its warhead , gradually drifted towards the shore , where it was spotted by a crewman aboard the Norwegian tanker Petrotrym . A Royal Navy tugboat intercepted the torpedo , and after identifying it as having belonged to U @-@ 47 63 years earlier , EOD ( explosive ordnance disposal ) personnel discarded it a mile from shore .
On 16 April 2016 Royal Navy bomb disposal experts detonated a World War Two torpedo found in Scapa Flow in Orkney . It is believed to have been one of those fired at HMS Royal Oak by a German U @-@ boat in 1939 .
= = = Third patrol = = =
Following a lavish celebration in Berlin for the sinking of HMS Royal Oak in which the crew members of U @-@ 47 were received by Adolf Hitler and decorated , the boat returned to sea on 16 November 1939 . Once the U @-@ boat had left Kiel on 16 November , she headed out into the North Sea . After traveling around the British Isles into the Bay of Biscay and the English Channel , U @-@ 47 sank a further three vessels , Navasota on 5 December , the Norwegian steamer MV Britta on 6 December and Tajandoen on 7 December . Following the sinking of Navasota , British destroyers briefly fired depth charges at the U @-@ boat but she managed to safely evade the attack without any damage .
= = = Fourth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 left the port of Wilhelmshaven and began her fourth patrol on 11 March 1940 . For 19 days , she roamed the North Sea in search of any Allied convoys . However , she only managed to torpedo the Danish steam merchantman Britta north of Scotland on 25 March . Following the sinking of Britta , U @-@ 47 returned to Wilhelmshaven on 29 March .
= = = Fifth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's fifth patrol was her first one that resulted in no ships sunk . She left Wilhelmshaven on 3 April 1940 , and headed once again out into the North Sea . While she did not sink any Allied vessels on her fifth patrol , around 19 April , she fired a torpedo aimed at the British battleship HMS Warspite but the torpedo missed its target or failed to detonate upon impact . Several nearby destroyers attempted to sink the U @-@ boat using depth charges . U @-@ 47 managed to escape .
= = = Sixth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's sixth patrol was much more successful . Having left Kiel on 3 June 1940 , she ventured out into the North Sea and operated off the southern coast of Ireland . Along with six other U @-@ boats in Wolfpack Prien , she attacked Convoy HX @-@ 47 and the first ship to fall victim to the U @-@ boat was the British vessel , SS Balmoralwood ; which was sunk on 14 June . Within less than a month , the boat sank a further seven vessels , San Fernando on the 21st , Cathrine on the 24th , Lenda and Leticia on the 27th , Empire Toucan on the 29th , Georgios Kyriakides on the 30th , and SS Arandora Star on 2 July . The German submarine returned to Kiel on 6 July after 34 days at sea and eight enemy vessels sunk .
= = = Seventh patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's seventh patrol consisted of her travelling north of the British Isles and into the North Atlantic , south of Iceland . During a period of 30 days , she sank a total of six enemy vessels and damaged another . U @-@ 47 's first victory during her seventh patrol was the sinking of the Belgian passenger ship Ville de Mons on 2 September 1940 . This was followed by the sinking of a British vessel , Titan , on 4 September and Gro , José de Larrinaga , and Neptunian on the 7th . On the 9th , U @-@ 47 sank the Greek merchant ship Possidon , and on 21 September she damaged the British merchant ship Elmbank . Following these victories , on the 25th , U @-@ 47 entered the French port of Lorient , which was now under German control following the decisive Battle of France .
= = = Eighth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 's eighth patrol began on 14 October 1940 when she left her home port of Lorient . While her eighth patrol lasted ten days , she sank four enemy vessels and damaged a further two in only two days . On 19 October , U @-@ 47 damaged the British vessel Shirak and sank Uganda and Wandby , both of which were British registered . The next day , the U @-@ boat damaged the British vessel Athelmonarch and sank La Estancia as well as Whitford Point . She returned to port three days later on the 23rd .
= = = Ninth patrol = = =
U @-@ 47 left her home port of Lorient on 3 November 1940 and moved out into the North Atlantic in search of Allied convoys . During her ninth patrol , she damaged three ships , Gonçalo Velho , Conch and Dunsley and sank another , Ville d ´ Arlon . U @-@ 47 returned to Lorient for the last time on 6 December .
= = = Disappearance = = =
U @-@ 47 departed Lorient on her tenth and last patrol on 20 February 1941 . She went missing on 7 March 1941 and was believed at the time to have been sunk by the British destroyer HMS Wolverine west of Ireland , when a submarine was attacked by Wolverine and HMS Verity . The British ships took turns covering each other 's ASDIC blind spots and dropping patterns of depth charges until the submarine rose almost to the surface before sinking and then exploding with an orange flash visible from the surface . Postwar assessment showed that the boat attacked there was U @-@ A , part of the foreign U @-@ Boat corps . To date , there is no official record of what happened to U @-@ 47 , although a variety of possibilities exist , including mines , a mechanical failure , a victim of her own torpedoes , or possibly a later attack that did not confirm any claims by the corvette team of HMS Camellia and HMS Arbutus . U @-@ 47 had a crew of 45 officers and men during her last North Atlantic patrol in early 1941 , all of whom were presumed to have died .
= = = Wolfpacks = = =
U @-@ 47 took part in one wolfpack , namely .
Prien ( 12 – 17 June 1940 )
= = Summary of raiding history = =
During her service in the Kriegsmarine , U @-@ 47 sank 30 commercial ships totalling 162 @,@ 769 GRT and one warship of 29 @,@ 150 tons ; she also damaged eight commercial ships totalling 62 @,@ 751 GRT and one warship of 10 @,@ 035 tons .
= Bold Orion =
The Bold Orion missile , also known as Weapons System 199B ( WS @-@ 199B ) , was a prototype air @-@ launched ballistic missile ( ALBM ) developed by Martin Aircraft during the 1950s . Developed in both one- and two @-@ stage designs , the missile was moderately successful in testing , and helped pave the way for development of the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt ALBM . In addition , the Bold Orion was used in early anti @-@ satellite weapons testing , performing the first interception of a satellite by a missile .
= = Design and development = =
The Bold Orion missile was developed as part of Weapons System 199 , initiated by the United States Air Force ( USAF ) in response to the U.S. Navy 's Polaris program , with funding authorised by the United States Congress in 1957 . The purpose of WS @-@ 199 was the development of technology that would be used in new strategic weapons for the USAF 's Strategic Air Command , not to deliver operational weapons ; a primary emphasis was on proving the feasibility of an air @-@ launched ballistic missile .
The designation WS @-@ 199B was assigned to the project that , under a contract awarded in 1958 to Martin Aircraft , would become the Bold Orion missile . The design of Bold Orion was simple , using parts developed for other missile systems to reduce the cost and development time of the project . The initial Bold Orion configuration was a single @-@ stage vehicle , using a Thiokol TX @-@ 20 Sergeant solid @-@ fuel rocket . Following initial testing , the Bold Orion configuration was altered to become a two @-@ stage vehicle , an Allegany Ballistics Laboratory Altair upper stage being added to the missile .
= = Operational history = =
Having been given top priority by the Air Force , the first flight test of the Bold Orion missile was conducted on May 26 , 1958 , from a Boeing B @-@ 47 Stratojet carrier aircraft , which launched the Bold Orion vehicle at the apex of a high @-@ speed , high @-@ angle climb . The zoom climb tactic , combined with the thrust from the rocket motor of the missile itself , allowed the missile to achieve its maximum range , or , alternatively , to reach space .
A twelve @-@ flight test series of the Bold Orion vehicle was conducted ; however , despite suffering only one outright failure , the initial flight tests of the single @-@ stage rocket proved less successful than hoped . Authorisation was received to modify the Bold Orion to become a two @-@ stage vehicle ; in addition to the modifications improving the missile 's reliability , they increased the range of Bold Orion to over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) . Four of the final six test firings were of the two @-@ stage vehicle ; these were considered completely successful , and established that the ALBM was a viable weapon .
= = = ASAT test = = =
The final test launch of Bold Orion , conducted on October 13 , 1959 , was a test of the vehicle 's capabilities in the anti @-@ satellite role . Launched from an altitude of 35 @,@ 000 feet ( 11 @,@ 000 m ) from its B @-@ 47 mothership , the missile successfully intercepted the Explorer 6 satellite , passing its target at a range of less than 4 miles ( 6 @.@ 4 km ) at an altitude of 156 miles ( 251 km ) . Had the missile been fitted with a nuclear warhead , the satellite would have been destroyed .
The Bold Orion ASAT test was the first interception of a satellite by any method , proving that anti @-@ satellite missiles were feasible . However this test , along with an earlier , unsuccessful test of the High Virgo missile in the anti @-@ satellite role , had political repercussions ; the Eisenhower administration sought to establish space as a neutral ground for everyone 's usage , and the " indication of hostile intent " the tests were seen to give was frowned upon , with anti @-@ satellite weapons development being curtailed shortly thereafter .
= = = Legacy = = =
The results of the Bold Orion project , along with those from the testing of the High Virgo missile , also developed under WS @-@ 199 , provided data and knowledge that assisted the Air Force in forming the requirements for the follow @-@ on WS @-@ 138A , which would produce the GAM @-@ 87 Skybolt missile .
= = Launch history = =
= New Jersey Route 35 =
Route 35 is a state highway in the U.S. state of New Jersey , primarily traveling through the easternmost parts of Middlesex , Monmouth , and Ocean counties . It runs 58 @.@ 11 mi ( 93 @.@ 52 km ) from the entrance to Island Beach State Park in Berkeley Township , Ocean County to an intersection with Route 27 in Rahway , Union County . Between Seaside Park and Mantoloking , Route 35 follows the right @-@ of @-@ way of the former Pennsylvania Railroad along the Jersey Shore . The route heads through Point Pleasant Beach and crosses the Manasquan River on the Brielle Bridge , meeting Route 34 and Route 70 at the former Brielle Circle in Wall Township . From there , Route 35 heads north and intersects Route 138 , an extension of Interstate 195 , continuing north through Monmouth County before crossing the Victory Bridge over the Raritan River into Perth Amboy , where the route continues north to Rahway .
Route 35 was designated in 1927 to run from Lakewood to South Amboy , replacing Pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 from Lakewood to Belmar and from Eatontown to South Amboy . It was realigned onto its current alignment between Brielle and Belmar in 1929 and saw a northward extension along U.S. Route 9 from South Amboy to Iselin in 1947 . In 1953 , Route 35 was realigned to run from Point Pleasant to Seaside Heights along a former part of Route 37 , with Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant becoming Route 88 . At the same time , Route 35 was removed from U.S. Route 9 between South Amboy and Iselin and realigned to follow a former piece of Route 4 between South Amboy and Rahway . From the late 1950s to the mid @-@ 1970s , there were plans to build a freeway along the Route 35 corridor from Seaside Heights north into Monmouth County ; the only portion that was built became part of Route 18 . Route 35 was extended south to the Island Beach State Park entrance by the 1980s . Recent improvements to the route have removed many traffic circles and replaced the first cloverleaf interchange in the United States , built in 1929 , at U.S. Route 1 / 9 in Woodbridge Township with a partial cloverleaf interchange .
= = Route description = =
= = = Ocean County = = =
Route 35 begins at the entrance to Island Beach State Park in Berkeley Township , Ocean County on the Barnegat Peninsula . It heads north on a divided highway with parking spaces in the median through residential areas of South Seaside Park . It briefly becomes an undivided highway before crossing into Seaside Park , where the route becomes four @-@ lane , divided Central Avenue , which also has median parking spaces . Route 35 passes by residences in Seaside Park , with the median widening for the Seaside Park Police Department building at the Sixth Avenue intersection , and then the road widening to six lanes further north . Upon crossing Decatur Street , the southbound lanes of Route 35 run one block to the west of the northbound lanes and then turns to the west , crossing into Seaside Heights , a beach resort that has a boardwalk and two amusement piers , Casino Pier and Funtown Pier . In Seaside Heights , Route 35 turns north and interchanges with Route 37 on the Seaside Heights / Berkeley Township border on the eastern shore of Barnegat Bay .
Past the Route 37 interchange , Route 35 continues north along Barnegat Bay , curving eastward and crossing into Toms River Township , where the route splits into a block @-@ wide one @-@ way pair with two lanes in each direction that heads north through residential and commercial Ortley Beach . After crossing into Lavallette a mile later , the northbound direction of Route 35 becomes Grand Central Avenue and the southbound direction of Route 35 becomes Anna O. Hawkins Boulevard . The route then crosses back into Toms River Township , passing through Dover Beaches North . When Route 35 enters Brick Township , the northbound direction becomes Ocean Avenue and the one @-@ way pair between the opposing directions of Route 35 narrows as it passes oceanfront residences . Upon crossing into Mantoloking , Route 35 becomes a two @-@ lane , undivided road and heads north along a narrow peninsula , intersecting the eastern terminus of County Route 528 ( Herbert Street ) less than a mile later .
Route 35 continues north through Bay Head , becoming Main Avenue , then enters Point Pleasant Beach , a beach resort with a boardwalk that is home to Jenkinson 's Aquarium , where the route swings to the west and turns north onto another one @-@ way pair with two lanes in each direction — the northbound direction following Cincinnati Avenue and the southbound direction following Richmond Avenue . Southbound Route 35 intersects the eastern terminus of Route 88 in this area . The one @-@ way pair carries the route through the downtown area of Point Pleasant Beach . At the County Route 633 ( Arnold Avenue ) intersection , northbound Route 35 shifts slightly to the west and becomes Hawthorne Avenue . The route becomes a two @-@ way highway again after half a mile and becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway after intersecting County Route 635 ( Broadway ) , almost immediately crossing a channel of the Manasquan River and entering Monmouth County .
= = = Monmouth County = = =
Route 35 crosses into Brielle , Monmouth County , immediately passing over the main channel of the Manasquan River on a drawbridge . Upon crossing into Brielle , the route interchanges with Ashley Avenue and the southern terminus of Route 71 . The route continues northwest and crosses into Wall Township and meets Route 34 and Route 70 at the former Brielle Circle , now an at @-@ grade intersection with jughandles . Past this intersection , Route 35 heads north on a two @-@ lane , undivided road that passes by many businesses . It meets County Route 524 Spur at the Manasquan Circle , where the Circle Factory Outlet Center is located . Past the Manasquan Circle , Route 35 heads north as a three @-@ lane road with a center left @-@ turn lane that intersects County Route 524 ( Allaire Road ) . Route 35 widens to a four @-@ lane divided highway and interchanges with the eastern terminus of Route 138 , which continues west to become Interstate 195 . Route 35 curves to the east and crosses into Belmar . Here , the route runs along the south bank of the Shark River as a four @-@ lane undivided highway , intersecting Route 71 again and forming a concurrency with that route . The two routes continue north along a divided highway until the intersection with 8th Avenue , where Route 71 heads to the east . Past this intersection , Route 35 becomes a four @-@ lane , undivided road again and crosses the Shark River into Neptune Township .
Past the Shark River bridge , Route 35 continues as a four @-@ lane divided highway that features an interchange with County Route 40A ( Memorial Drive ) , crossing into Neptune City . The route continues northwest through residential and commercial areas of Neptune City as a four @-@ lane , undivided highway before heading north as a two @-@ lane , undivided road called Morris Avenue . Route 35 crosses back into Neptune Township , where it becomes Stokes Avenue and crosses Route 33 . It continues through suburban development and comes to the Asbury Park Circle where the route intersects County Route 16 ( Asbury Avenue ) , crosses into Ocean Township , and intersects the eastern terminus of Route 66 . The route becomes a four @-@ lane divided highway and passes by the Seaview Square Shopping Center as it continues north through commercial areas , intersecting many roads with jughandles and passing near Weltz County Park . The route becomes Neptune Boulevard at the Talmadge Avenue intersection .
Route 35 then enters Eatontown , where it passes by the Monmouth Mall and intersects Route 36 at the former Eatontown Circle , now an at @-@ grade intersection with ramps . After that intersection , the route becomes an undivided highway , turning into Main Street . Consequently , Route 35 passes through a few more roads and commercial areas before finally crossing County Route 547 ( Wyckoff Road ) , where it becomes Broad Street . Past this intersection , Route 35 intersects the northern terminus of Route 71 and County Route 537 , forming a concurrency with County Route 537 that lasts until the Tinton Avenue intersection adjacent to the former entrance to Fort Monmouth . Route 35 crosses into Shrewsbury and continues north through residential and commercial areas , passing by The Grove at Shrewsbury . It intersects County Route 520 ( Newman Springs Road ) , running concurrent with that route and immediately crossing into Red Bank . Upon entering Red Bank , County Route 520 , along with County Route 11 , head north on Broad Street and Route 35 heads northwest on two @-@ lane Maple Avenue , which turns north and passes by numerous homes . Route 35 splits from Maple Avenue and rejoins on four @-@ lane Riverside Avenue , where it heads northwest and then crosses the Navesink River into Middletown Township .
Past the Navesink River , the route runs along a four @-@ lane , divided highway with a jersey barrier , passing through commercial areas . It crosses under Normandy Road , which serves as a road and railroad link between the two sections of Naval Weapons Station Earle . Along the northbound lanes of Route 35 , just before the intersection of Kings Highway , stands the Evil Clown of Middletown , a large sign advertising a liquor store . A mixed @-@ use complex , the Middletown Town Center , is also planned to be built in this area . The route intersects County Route 516 ( Cherry Tree Farm Road ) , running concurrent with that route as it enters Holmdel Township . The concurrency with County Route 516 ends at the intersection with South Laurel Avenue , where that route heads to the north and County Route 52 heads to the south on South Laurel Avenue . Route 35 continues west past numerous businesses and runs through Hazlet before crossing into Keyport . In Keyport , the route comes to an interchange with the northern terminus of Route 36 that also features access to the Garden State Parkway . Past this interchange , the road continues northwest and intersects the northern terminus of County Route 3 , where it also features ramps to County Route 516 , which Route 35 passes under just to the north . Past this interchange , the road crosses the Matawan Creek into Aberdeen Township , where it heads northwest through Cliffwood Beach .
= = = Middlesex and Union Counties = = =
Route 35 crosses the Whale Creek into Old Bridge Township , Middlesex County , where it continues northwest through businesses and residences in Laurence Harbor and Cliffwood Beach , both sections of Old Bridge Township . It crosses the Cheesequake Creek on a drawbridge into Sayreville and turns to the west . The road then interchanges with Pine Avenue , which provides access to County Route 615 ( Bordentown Avenue ) . Past this interchange , the route turns north and crosses into South Amboy , where Route 35 comes to an interchange and forms a concurrency with U.S. Route 9 . The two routes head through commercial areas and woodland , interchanging with Raritan Street and Kearney Road , crossing back into Sayreville . U.S. Route 9 and Route 35 split at an interchange ( the former Victory Circle ) that features access to the southbound Garden State Parkway by way of Chevalier Avenue , with Route 35 continuing north on a four @-@ lane divided highway that passes through marshland and crosses the Raritan River on the Victory Bridge into Perth Amboy . In Perth Amboy , the route becomes four @-@ lane , undivided Convery Boulevard upon crossing County Route 656 ( Smith Street ) .
The route continues north through commercial and residential sections of Perth Amboy , crossing over a connector to Route 440 . It intersects the eastbound direction of Route 184 , the former alignment of Route 440 , before meeting Route 440 ( also an unsigned part of County Route 501 ) at an interchange . Route 35 intersects the westbound direction of Route 184 and heads north , crossing into Woodbridge Township , where it becomes Amboy Avenue . In Woodbridge Township , the route passes by William Warren County Park and crosses over the New Jersey Turnpike ( Interstate 95 ) . Past the New Jersey Turnpike , the road heads into residential neighborhoods , crossing County Route 514 ( Main Street ) . Route 35 merges onto St. Georges Avenue and comes to a partial cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 1 / 9 . Past U.S. Route 1 / 9 , the road passes homes and businesses , crossing into Rahway , Union County just before crossing the Rahway River . Upon entering Rahway , Route 35 crosses under the Northeast Corridor rail line just before ending at Route 27 . Route 27 continues north on St. Georges Avenue past the terminus of Route 35 .
= = History = =
The present @-@ day alignment of Route 35 follows parts of many 19th @-@ century turnpikes , including the Keyport and Middletown Turnpike , which was chartered on March 5 , 1852 , the Middletown Turnpike , chartered in 1866 to run from Middletown Township to Red Bank , the Middletown and Keyport Turnpike , which was chartered on March 15 , 1859 to run from Middletown Township to Keyport , the Red Bank and Eatontown Turnpike , chartered on February 9 , 1865 along present @-@ day Broad Street , County Route 11 , and Route 35 , and the Shrewsbury Turnpike , which was chartered in 1857 to run from Red Bank to Eatontown . In 1916 , the current alignment of Route 35 was legislated as a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Point Pleasant and Brielle and from Eatontown to South Amboy . In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering , Route 35 was designated to run from Lakewood to South Amboy , replacing pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 from Lakewood to Belmar and from Eatontown to South Amboy with the portion of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 between Belmar and Eatontown becoming Route 4N ( now Route 71 ) . At this time , U.S. Route 9 followed the portions of Route 35 that were formerly a part of pre @-@ 1927 Route 4 .
By the 1940s , Route 35 was designated onto its current alignment between Brielle and Belmar with the former alignment becoming a southern extension of Route 4N . U.S. Route 9 was also moved off of Route 35 onto a newly completed alignment of Route 4 between Lakewood and South Amboy . In 1947 , Route 35 was extended north to end at Route 25 ( now U.S. Route 1 ) in Iselin , running concurrent with U.S. Route 9 .
In the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering , the portion of Route 35 between Lakewood and Point Pleasant became Route 88 and Route 35 was designated to head south from Point Pleasant to Seaside Heights on what had been a part of Route 37 . This section of Route 35 follows the right @-@ of @-@ way of the former Pennsylvania Railroad between Seaside Park and Mantoloking , which was removed in 1949 . Also in the 1953 renumbering , the Route 35 designation was removed from the concurrency with U.S. Route 9 between South Amboy and Iselin and reassigned to the former alignment of Route 4 between South Amboy and Route 27 in Rahway . The western bypass of Seaside Heights was built by the 1960s , extending Route 35 south to the border with Seaside Park .
In the late 1950s , plans were made for a freeway along the Route 35 corridor between Seaside Heights and Long Branch to reduce congestion along the current route . This proposed freeway was built as Route 18 between Wall Township and Eatontown from 1965 to 1991 while the southern portion to Seaside Heights was never built . In the early 1970s , a Route 35 freeway was planned to run from Route 18 north to the planned Route 74 freeway in Matawan with an estimated cost of $ 53 million . This freeway was never built due to the cancellation of the Route 74 freeway in the mid @-@ 1970s .
Since the 1953 renumbering , the current alignment of Route 35 has seen many changes and improvements . The section of the route through downtown Point Pleasant Beach was turned into a one @-@ way pair by 1969 . Route 35 was extended south to the entrance of Island Beach State Park by the 1980s . Many traffic circles have been removed along Route 35 in recent years , including the Brielle Circle in 2001 and the Eatontown Circle , which were both converted into at @-@ grade intersections with traffic lights , and the Victory Circle , which was replaced with an interchange between 2003 and 2006 . Between 2002 and 2005 , the Victory Bridge over the Raritan River was reconstructed at a cost of $ 109 million . Between February 2006 and November 2008 , the cloverleaf interchange with U.S. Route 1 / 9 in Woodbridge Township , which was the first cloverleaf interchange in the United States built in 1929 when this portion of Route 35 was still a part of Route 4 , was replaced with a partial cloverleaf interchange , costing $ 34 million .
On February 1 , 2013 , Route 35 through Mantoloking was fully reopened after being closed since October 29 , 2012 after Hurricane Sandy hit the area . The night of the storm at the intersection where the Mantoloking Bridge and Route 35 meet , a new inlet was formed by the raging storm waters . This effectively cut off the island from the mainland .
Beginning in March 2013 ( after a 6 @-@ month delay due to Hurricane Sandy ) , a four @-@ year major construction project because on Route 35 between Raritan Blvd in Cliffwood Beach ( Old Bridge Township , New Jersey ) and Amboy Avenue in Aberdeen . The project includes several highway improvements designed to alleviate the flooding the highway is prone to due to its lowness and being adjacent in several areas to tidal marshes and Whale Creek and Long Neck Creek , widening of four intersections ( Birchwood Drive , County Road , Cliffwood Ave and Amboy Ave ) , and lane alignments , and additions for pedestrian and bicyclist safety . Also planned are traffic signal upgrades to reduce congestion . The project is expected to be completed in 2015 .
= = Major intersections = =
= Architecture of Fremantle Prison =
The architecture of Fremantle Prison includes the six @-@ hectare ( 15 @-@ acre ) site of the former prison on The Terrace , Fremantle , in Western Australia . Limestone was quarried on @-@ site during construction , and the south @-@ western corner ( the South Knoll ) and eastern portion of the site are at a considerably higher ground level . The Fremantle Prison site includes the prison cell blocks , gatehouse , perimeter walls , cottages , tunnels , and related infrastructure .
The Main Cell Block is the longest and tallest cell range in Australia , and a dominating feature of the prison . New Division , constructed between 1904 and 1907 , continues the façade alignment of the main block . Service buildings were converted into the separate Women 's Prison . Fremantle Prison is surrounded by limestone perimeter walls , while a two storey limestone gatehouse , with a central clock , presents an imposing entrance . North and south of the gatehouse , on The Terrace , are several cottages and houses – three of which are built in Victorian style in contrast to the Georgian style of the others .
A network of tunnels exists under the prison , built to provide the prison , and later the town of Fremantle , with a supply of fresh water . Other elements of the site include the hospital building , prisoner workshops , open spaces , and a limestone ramp on the axis of the gatehouse , heading down towards the port area of Fremantle . Archaeological zones and sub @-@ surface remains of varying levels of significance are found throughout the area of the convict grant .
= = Background = =
Fremantle Prison dates from the early years of European settlement , when it was constructed as the centre of the British Imperial Convict Establishment in Western Australia . While the colony was established as a " free settlement " in 1829 , by the 1840s the early reluctance to accept Britain 's convicts was overcome . Cheap convict labour could overcome the significant shortage of manpower in the colony . However , the arrival of the first convict ship Scindian on 2 June 1850 was unexpected . While a sailing ship had been sent ahead to inform of the pending arrival of seventy @-@ five convicts , it had been blown off course . The Round House was full to capacity , almost overflowing , so the convicts had to be left on the ship . There was also no prepared accommodation for the warders , pensioner guards , Captain Edward Walcott Henderson , Comptroller General of Convicts , or his clerk , James Manning . Rents for accommodation in Fremantle quickly rose due to the sudden increase in demand , leaving Henderson paying more for his basic lodgings in Fremantle than for his house in London . Eventually Henderson leased two properties in Essex Street for £ 250 per year , at the site of the modern @-@ day Esplanade Hotel . He used his convicts to convert the buildings into a temporary prison . Meanwhile , Henderson was looking for a site to build a permanent convict establishment . Whilst he favoured Mount Eliza ( now known as Kings Park ) due to its height , which gave it pleasing vistas and supposedly healthier air , Governor Charles Fitzgerald rejected that proposal . Henderson ultimately settled on the current site on a hill , in a raised and dominant position overlooking the port city of Fremantle .
= = Site = =
= = = Description = = =
Fremantle Prison was built on a land grant of about 36 acres ( 15 ha ) from limestone quarried on @-@ site , and timber cut from Mount Eliza . The site exhibits considerable changes in ground level , natural and man @-@ made , as a result of its location and former use . The ground level is considerably higher in the south @-@ western corner of the site with what remains of the natural landform , formerly known as Church Hill , now referred to as the South Knoll . The eastern portion of the site is also considerably higher than the ground level established around the main cell block . It is a comparatively level terrace and is the highest part of the precinct .
Fremantle Prison comprises substantially intact convict era structures , including the limestone perimeter walls of exceptional heritage significance . Other structures , dating from the time the precinct was in use as a colonial and state prison , are also significant . The convict era complex includes the 1859 main cell block , chapel and wards , yards and refractory cells ; perimeter walls , gate house complex and prison officer residences on the Terrace ; service buildings and hospital ; south @-@ eastern workshops ; ramp access tramway ( Fairbairn Street ) and Henderson Street Warder 's Cottages . Other elements which contribute to the site 's overall heritage significance include the western workshops ( 1900 ) ; new division ( 1907 ) ; and conversion of service building to the female division and the addition of an eastern range ( 1889 – 1909 ) .
= = = Layout = = =
A 15 @-@ foot ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) tall boundary wall encloses the prison grounds , with a gatehouse in the centre of the western wall , facing The Terrace . Other roads bounding the site are Knutsford Street to the north , Hampton Road to the east , and Fothergill Street to the south . Cottages , which housed prison workers and officials , are located outside the wall either side of the gatehouse . Inside the walls , the parade ground is located east of the gatehouse . Beyond it is the Main Cell Block at the centre of the site , which contains two chapels . North of the main block is New Division , and west of that , in the north @-@ western corner , is the former Women 's Prison , previously the cookhouse , bakehouse and laundry . The hospital building stands in the north @-@ eastern corner , while the former workshops are located in the south @-@ eastern corner , as well as to the north of the gatehouse . A system of underground tunnels , constructed to provide fresh water from an aquifer , runs under the eastern edge of the site .
= = = Archaeology = = =
Archaeological zones and sub @-@ surface remains of varying levels of significance are found throughout the area of the convict grant . In particular , the sites of the three former cottages to the east of the perimeter wall in the Hampton Road reserve , the site of the former ' cage ' in the New Division courtyard and the features upon and under the knoll terraces . Other site features include those associated with the water supply system constructed in the 1890s : the brick @-@ vaulted underground reservoir , the associated pumping station , a complex series of rock cut shafts , drives , weirs and the one @-@ kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) underground tunnel network . Graffiti and a tablet records the progress of the excavators .
= = Walls and gatehouse = =
The prison is surrounded by limestone perimeter walls , which define the extent of the depot and its original topography to the south , east and north . The walls are of random rubble limestone and lime mortar and range in height from 1 @.@ 2 to 5 metres ( 3 ft 11 in to 16 ft 5 in ) . The additional four courses added in 1898 are of dark stone with a coping . Attached piers occur at approximately 6 @-@ metre ( 20 ft ) centres on the lee sides of the walls . There are a number of openings including both vehicular and pedestrian gates . The walls are of exceptional heritage significance being a vital part of the precinct defining its character . Sterile zones , inside the main perimeter walls and the walls encircling the female division and outside the prison wall , were standard prison practice for surveillance and contribute to the austere character of the prison .
The entry complex consists of a combined gate house and quarters , an entry court and
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of wedlock . Laura , Carlos 's wife , also comes from an important family : her father is a factory owner and a diplomat with the United Nations . Many members of the extended family live as neighbours in large houses on an expansive compound with numerous servants . In the early 1950s the García girls are born . Carla , Sandra , Yolanda and Sofía enjoy a happy , protected childhood and are brought up by their parents , aunts and uncles to preserve the family traditions . Their countless cousins serve them as playmates .
= = = Part I = = =
The first part of the novel establishes Yolanda at the centre of the story as she narrates the opening and closing chapter : " Antojos " and " The Rudy Elmenhurst Story " , respectively . In third person , Yolanda 's return to Dominican Republic as an adult is described in the context of a family birthday party and a road trip . Their unity as sisters as " The Four Girls " is introduced in the third chapter , which is a communally narrated . They celebrate Carlos , the patriarch 's , birthday , and Sofía introduces her baby son to his grandfather , helping to repair the father and daughter 's relationship somewhat . During Sofía 's chapter , " The Kiss " , it is revealed that Carlos discovered a packet of love letters addressed to his daughter , enraging him and leading to a conflict which ends in Sofía running away to her German lover . A major focus in this section is the romantic relationships between the four sisters and their partners . Sofía is married to a " world @-@ class chemist " ; Carla and Sandra are in long @-@ term relationships ; and Yolanda is in love with her psychiatrist and has previously broken up with a man named John . Part I closes with " The Rudy Elmenhurst Story " , narrated by Yolanda . This describes Yolanda 's first real relationship , and the tension between her upbringing and American relationships : " I would never find someone who would understand my particular mix of Catholicism and agnosticism , Hispanic and American styles . "
= = = Part II = = =
Part II details the family 's collective experience of living in the United States as immigrants . The girls first attend a Catholic school in New York and later boarding school , and assimilate fairly well to their new environments , although meeting with a few set @-@ backs along the way . Their time in the US begins with the opening chapter , " A Regular Revolution " , and delivers the girls ' ( collective ) opinion that " We didn 't feel we had the best the United States had to offer . We had only second @-@ hand stuff , rental houses in one redneck Catholic neighborhood after another " . While during their first few months in New York they regularly pray to God that they will soon be able to return to their homeland , they quickly start appreciating the advantages of living in a " free country " so that even being sent back to the Dominican Republic for the summer becomes a form of punishment for them .
A major turning point in the novel comes with Laura 's discovery of a bag of Sofía 's marijuana , and her subsequent punishment of being removed from her boarding school and forced to spend a year in the Dominican Republic with family . This event is representative of the girls ' transformation into Americans and away from the Dominican culture and Laura and Carlos ' conflicted relationship with the assimilation . Laura " still did lip service to the old ways " , and Carlos makes a point of educating the accents out of the girls , thus showing the tension between the cultures .
Carla becomes the victim of racism in the third chapter , " Trespass " , with school boys telling her to " Go back to where you came from , you dirty spic ! " Later she is subjected to a child molester who masturbates in his car while pulling up at the curb and talking lecherously to her through the open window . The second part of the novel finishes with the chapter " Floor Show " , in which the García family goes to a Spanish restaurant and Sandra witnesses the host 's wife amorously attempting to kiss her father on the way to the bathroom . Overall , Part II presents the unexpected aspects of living in the United States and becoming Americans , and explores the tensions that develop with the immigrant experience .
= = = Part III = = =
The five chapters in Part III , the concluding section , focus on the García family 's early years in the Dominican Republic , and are the most political of the novel .
The first chapter , " The Blood of the Conquistadores " , opens with an account of two of Trujillo 's agents coming to the family home looking for Carlos . His revolutionary politics and work against the Chapitas made the family a target , and this chapter explicitly details the danger of their situation . The issues in past chapters appear superficial in comparison to the life @-@ or @-@ death nature of the conflicts that the Garcías face earlier in their lives . The family escapes persecution , but is forced to emigrate immediately , establishing their motive for relocating to New York .
The second chapter , " The Human Body " , describes what happens to Mundin , Yolanda and Sofia in the dirty shed near the house . Yolanda plays with her boy cousin , Mundin , and in exchange for a Human Body doll and a modeling clay , shows him her genitals . Sofia also follows suit . ' " Go on , " Mundin ordered impatiently . Fifi had caught on and lowered her pants and panties to her ankles . I gave my sister a defiant look as I lifted up my cowboy skirt , tucked it under my chin , and yanked my panties down ( Alvarez , 235 ) .'
As Part III progresses , the narrative switches to describing their upper @-@ class life on the island , and filling details of the lifestyle the family was born into . The story of the voodoo practicing Haitian family maid is elucidated : she escaped Trujillo 's massacre of Haitians and came to work for Laura , although much of her family was not so lucky .
In the last three chapters Carla , Yolanda and Sandra narrate stories from their childhood surrounded by the extended family , and the girls ' relationship with the United States begins . " An American Surprise " tells of their early ideas of New York City , " where it was winter and the snow fell from heaven to earth like the Bible 's little pieces of manna bread . " The reader realizes that the innocence of childhood and idealized vision of their soon @-@ to @-@ be adopted country , given the reverse @-@ chronological narration of How the García Girls Lost Their Accents , are left behind with the García 's home in the Dominican Republic .
= = Characters = =
= = = Sofia = = =
Sofia , " Fifi " , is the youngest of the four girls , and is the maverick out of her sisters . She gains the attention of the reader multiple times throughout the book , as her stories are different in nature from those of the other García girls . In the book Alvarez quotes " Sofia was the one without the degrees . She had always gone her own way " . Out of her sisters , she was the plain one but had consistent boyfriends and was always being asked advice about men from the other three girls . In the first chapter , " The Kiss " , readers are told the story of her rebellious marriage to a " jolly and good natured " German man in Colombia during a rebellious vacation with her current boyfriend . After her marriage to him , her relationship with her father deteriorates significantly until her son is born . The family reunites to celebrate her father 's birthday and son ’ s christening , although Sofia still feels the same antagonism she felt towards him beforehand .
= = = Sandra = = =
Sandi is the second daughter in the novel , the pretty one who could " pass as an American , with soft blue eyes and fair skin " . We see the loving and caring part of her personality emerge in " Floor Show " where at a very young age she decides that if her family got into a really bad financial situation , she would attempt to get adopted by a rich family , get an allowance " like other American girls got " which she would then pass onto her family . The spot @-@ light falls on her again when she goes away to a graduate program and her parents receive a letter from the dean saying Sandra has been hospitalized after an extreme diet , revealing that she is anorexic . She dreams of being an artist . She broke her arm .
= = = Yolanda = = =
Yolanda is the third oldest and most imaginative of the four girls . She plays the most important role in the novel as Alvarez 's alter ego . She is a schoolteacher , a poet and a writer . Her nicknames , which reflect and represent the different aspects of her personality , consist of " Joe " , " Yosita " , " Yoyo " and simply " Yo " , which is also the title of the sequel to How the García Girls Lost Their Accents . Each of these nicknames are the product of one of Yolanda 's multiple personalities . There is important significance in her character as " Yo " , Spanish first person pronoun , the " I " of the narrator . The nickname " Yoyo " is reminiscent of the toy that goes up and down , back and forth , similar to Yolanda ’ s bouncing from culture to culture , from one extreme to the other . The last , " Joe " represents the American version of Yolanda . Her ultimate return to the Island " represents her desire to displace herself from the North American Joe to the Yolanda of her family and youth . " These nicknames " act to properly define and name the many diverse facets of her complex personality " . Her character is that whose voice and words are most frequently heard throughout the novel ; she is the most developed character and her identity is the most explored of the four girls .
= = = Carla = = =
Carla is the eldest of the four daughters . As is common for the oldest sibling , she is somewhat seen as the mediator between the four sisters in the novel . " As the therapist in the family Carla likes to be the one who understands everything " and " has a tendency to lace all her compliments with calls to self @-@ improvement " . However to her sisters , this creates a somewhat dominating character at times reminiscent of their mother . Her criticism goes farther when she writes an autobiographical paper calling her mother mildly anal @-@ retentive . In Carla ’ s first and perhaps most prominent story in the novel , " Trespass " , as she is walking home from school in New York , a man exposes himself to her and attempts to lure her into his car . Alvarez uses Carla 's character to display the language difficulties faced with only having " classroom English " , and how communication barriers affect immigrants .
= = Style and structure = =
Alvarez defies the Aristotelian notion of a well @-@ knit plot , as the story is told in reverse chronological order through a series of fifteen chapters , with no linear , unifying storyline . In Julia Alvarez : A critical companion , Scholar Silvio Sirias argues that " a well @-@ constructed plot has an underlying structure that promises the reader that the author is in control , and that any event she is telling will eventually make sense " . Sirias then goes on to explain how Alvarez 's initial exposure of the girls to the reader in their somewhat adjusted , adult states enables her to first evoke certain assumptions in the reader and subsequently shatter these assumptions with the disclosure of the García family 's troubled past . Scholar Julie Barak argues that the reverse chronological order Alvarez employs is actually a unique stylistic technique which adds " to the reader 's uncertainty and instability , [ allowing for the recreation ] of the Garcia girls ' own ambiguities " .
Scholar William Luis observes a strong resemblance between the structure of Julia Alvarez ’ s How the García Girls Lost Their Accents and Alejo Carpentier 's Viaje a la Semilla as both employ the tactic of backwards narration and consequently lay claim to two beginnings and two endings . Alvarez has also been said to follow the stylistic traditions established by novels such as Pedro Juan Labarthe 's The Son of Two Nations : The Private Life of a Columbia Student ( 1931 ) , Marcio Veloz Maggiolo 's El prófugo ( 1962 ) , Humberto Cintrón 's Frankie Cristo ( 1972 ) , and Richard Ruiz 's The Hungry American ( 1978 ) . Despite the overtly North American stylistic qualities the book appears to boast at first glance , each of the aforementioned authors are of Hispanic descent .
Julie Barak emphasizes the significance of " one other stylistic idiosyncrasy of the work that adds to the sophistication of [ Alvarez 's ] artistry " as there is a marked transition from third to first person narration for each girl in the last section of the novel . Luis describes this shift as a pivotal moment after which the events assume a chronological order and time accelerates , illuminating life in such a manner that it suddenly makes sense . The manner in which Alvarez alters the narrative voice is a stylistic expression of the extent to which each one of the girls " wants to be in control of her own version of her history ... These first person narratives in the last section become , in effect , a defense offered by each girl in her own words , an explanation of who they have become in the present , of why they ' turned out ' the way they have . " The transition of narrative voice " changes the dynamic of the reader @-@ character @-@ author triad " and allows for the reader , who has been kept at a distance by the third person narrator , to relive " the memory with the character , closely connected to her , developing a strong empathy with a unified character " .
Jacqueline Stefanko rationalizes Alvarez ’ s decision to alternate amongst the varying voices of all four García girls , wither her assertion that " the amnesia produced by the diasporic cultures of Latinas gets negotiated within the text through polyphony " . After significant observation , Stefanko has concluded that " as hybrid selves who cross and recross borders of language and culture , these Latina writers create hybrid texts in order to ' survive in diaspora , ' to use Donna Haraway 's term , seeking to heal the fractures and ruptures resulting from exile and dispersal " . Through her creation of How the García Girls Lost Their Accents Alvarez has intentionally fictionalized her own life story in a polyphonous manner which extends beyond the boundaries of traditional style and genre , thus setting herself apart from the average author both stylistically and structurally .
= = Major themes = =
= = = Fragmentation of self = = =
Perhaps one of the most prominent themes in How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is that of the fragmented concept of the self . The fragmentation of one 's personal identity is a serious issue suffered by all four García girls throughout the course of the novel . Their immigration has left them as multiple beings , torn between their Dominican and American identities . As a college student , Yolanda encounters a boy named Rudy Elmenhurst , who is relentless in his attempts to pressure her into bed with him . When he can bear frustration no longer , Rudy lashes out and ends their relationship , leaving Yolanda devastated and hoping for his return . The inner turmoil evoked in Yolanda by this traumatic episode is evident through her realization of " what a cold lonely life awaited [ her ] in this country . [ Yolanda ] would never find someone who would understand [ her ] peculiar mix of Catholicism and agnosticism , Hispanic and American styles " . Julie Barak , of Mesa State College , has described this passage as a poignant and elegant reprisal of the recurrent sense of being divided selves and speaking divided languages found throughout the majority of the text .
The Flamenco dance in the " Floor Show " chapter evokes similar feelings of desolation in Sandra , as Mrs. Fanning 's drunken interruption of the distinctly Hispanic dance performance makes " a parody of it , a second @-@ rate combination of cultures that Sandi cannot find fulfilling . She is searching for a unified self , something noble , true , beautiful . Just as she gets close to it , however , it is ruined , dissolving into a gauche pastiche too similar to her own divided life in the States " .
Latin American literature scholar , Jacqueline Stefanko , along with several of her peers , has made pointed mention of the significant implications Yolanda ’ s multiple nicknames hold for her fragile and fragmented sense of self . Stefanko observes that " as Yolanda 's names proliferate on the page , we begin to see the multiplicity of her identity [ and ] realize the struggle Yolanda must engage in to not be fragmented in a society that marginalizes her " . Scholar William Luis reinforces the notion that Yolanda ’ s shattered identity stems largely from the " multiple names used [ to refer to her ] . She is Yolanda , Yoyo , Yosita , Yo and , last but not least the English Joe . And above all , she is ' Yo , ' the Spanish first person pronoun , the ' I ' of the narrator . "
Julie Barak finds the wording of Yolanda ’ s note to her husband , John , explaining why she must leave him , quite significant with reference to her divided self @-@ concept . Yolanda began " I 'm going home to my folks till my head @-@ slash @-@ heart clears . She revised the note . I 'm needing some space , some time , until my head @-@ slash @-@ heart @-@ slash @-@ soul- No , no , no she didn 't want to divide herself any @-@ more , three persons in one Yo . "
= = = Quest for clarification of identity = = =
The search for a clear and distinct personal identity is thematically quite closely related to that of the fragmented self . The quest undertaken by the García sisters for the clarification of their confused identities , however , is an attempt to achieve a solution to the problem posed by the fragmented self , and thus warrants separate categorization . Scholar William Luis reminds readers of Alvarez that " Yolanda 's search for her Dominican identity must be understood within the context of the 1960s in the United States " . As they begin to grow , the girls resent their parents who appear oblivious to their need to " fit in America among Americans ; they needed help figuring out who they were , why the Irish kids whose grandparents had been micks were calling them spics " .
Luis uses the term " onomastic displacement " with reference to the multiple nicknames that fragment Yolanda 's concept of a whole and unified self . This continuous onomastic displacement incites in Yolanda the desire to question her divided identity , to seek unity , clarity and a coherent understanding of her circumstances . Yolanda achieves this clarity through the act of writing and even as a young girl she revels in the completion of her speech for the Teacher 's Day address because " she finally sound [ s ] like herself in English ! " Unlike her sister Sandi , " whose artistic predilections were crushed as a child , Yolanda faces and works through her identity problems in her writing " . Barak views Yolanda 's writing as a process that can be used to reunite the fragments of her identity ; as an aid in the acceptance of " her own ' hybrid ' nature ... bringing both her worlds and all her selves into balance " . It is thus only through writing , the expression of Yolanda 's most intricately personal thoughts and revelations , that the protagonist can retain the hope of restoring her unified personal identity .
= = = Assimilation = = =
Assimilation is a particularly difficult process for Hispanic Americans because they have " old countries that are neither old nor remote . Even those born in North America travel to their parents ' homeland , and constantly face a flow of friends and relatives from ' home ' who keep the culture current . This constant cross @-@ fertilization makes assimilation a more complicated process for them than for other minority groups " . Julie Barak confirms Gonzalez Echevarria ’ s assertions regarding Latin American immigration and continues on to demonstrate how the privileged , wealthy existence led by the García girls in the Dominican Republic serves to further complicate their process of assimilation . The girls are vastly unaware of their good fortune until they are faced with the economic hardships of immigration in the United States .
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents confirms the suspicion widely expressed in circles of Latin American literature that North Americans choose not to differentiate between political and economic exile . Alvarez pointedly demonstrates the North American tendency to undervalue cultural diversity by highlighting instances of American ignorance toward distinctions between different Hispanic @-@ Caribbean groups . The García girls are quite conflicted upon their arrival in the United States as they find that distinct cultural groups are lumped together under one broad " immigrant " category and newcomers are encouraged to assimilate silently to the American norm . Yolanda ’ s conflict with her father regarding the potentially controversial speech she has prepared for the Teacher ’ s Day Address provides a classic example of the manner in which the García girls are pressured to conform to the norm . Yolanda feels as though she has sacrificed her principles and sold out to the hyper @-@ sensitive authorities when her father forces her to discard her empowering , rebellious achievement of artistic self @-@ expression for " two brief pages of stale compliments and the polite commonplaces on teachers . A speech wrought by necessity and without much invention " . Julie Barak affirms that " although this incident is in many ways a defeat for both Yolanda and her mother , it does teach them the lesson of conformity that is so important to living peacefully in America . Yolanda learns to fit in , to do the expected " . The girls go on to attend the best schools , lose their Spanish accents and acquire the same psychological disorders as their upper @-@ class American counterparts . Sandra battles anorexia , Carla and Yolanda both have failed marriages , Yolanda and Sandra are both institutionalized for psychiatric issues at one time or another , and Sofía is impregnated out of wedlock .
= = = Fear = = =
How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is rife with the constant presence of fear which manifests itself in a seemingly endless variety of outlets . Alvarez depicts quite vividly the fear evoked in the girls ' mother , Laura , near the chronological beginning of the book , as she " sees the black V.W. [ the trademark of Dominican dictator Trujillo ’ s henchmen ] , and her heart plummets right down to her toes " . Even after the García family has spent several years in the United States , safe from the threat of Trujillo 's retribution , a relentless paranoia continues to plague Carlos , their father , " who still lives in fear of the SIM and who is afraid to speak of ' revolt ' out loud " . This initial fear of Carlos ' punishment for his role in the attempted assassination of Trujillo is what originally prompted the García family ’ s flight from the island and spawned the myriad other fears that would later plague their lives . The conflicted life the daughters would come to lead in the sexually liberated United States would be haunted by the fear of pregnancy and eternal damnation should they allow themselves to be seduced .
The Cuban Missile Crisis also becomes a significant source of fear for the girls . In a very brief chapter entitled " Snow " , Alvarez reveals the impact of this widespread cultural paranoia through the character of Yolanda , who mistakes her first experience of snowfall for " the beginning of a much anticipated nuclear attack " , causing a panicked outbreak of general hysteria in her classroom .
As they continue to grow and mature , the girls have many disappointing encounters which leave them fearful of the loneliness that must awaits them in this foreign country where they struggle hopelessly to fit in and be understood . Even as a grown woman , returning to her Dominican roots , Yolanda finds she can never truly escape the fear that has hovered over her for as long as she can remember . This is evident in the very first chapter , " Antojos " , as Alvarez reveals the panic evoked in the adult Yolanda at the sudden realization that she is stranded in a guava field in the Dominican Republic , where women do not go about unchaperoned at night . Alvarez evokes Yolanda 's fear as she reports that " the rustling leaves of the guava trees echo the warnings of her old aunts : you will get lost , you will get kidnapped , you will get raped , you will get killed " .
As scholar Julie Barak has put it , " the vocabulary of fear that accompanies them is not only a part of their Spanish , but also of their English vocabulary " and the García family can therefore never hold legitimate hopes of escaping the fear .
= = = Memory = = =
William Luis argues that How the García Girls Lost Their Accents " is an attempt to understand memory , the past and a time before the sisters lost their innocence and accents " . Memory plays a significant role in the text , as a means by which the girls can return to the past of their childhood in the attempt to make sense of their present @-@ day realities . The youngest child , Sofía carries with her only a single memory of her brief childhood on the island , in which the García 's Haitian maid , Chucha , says a voodoo goodbye to the girls before they leave for the United States . Sofía feels segregated and deprived " because she has only this one memory to help her reconstruct her bicultural , bilingual self . Though this lack of memory makes her the least divided of her sisters in many ways ... the most disturbed , the most rebellious against her circumstances . " Ironically enough , Chucha ’ s voodoo prediction itself is largely concerned with the concept of memory , as she insists that after leaving the island the girls " will be haunted by what they do and don 't remember . But they have spirit in them . They will invent what they need to survive " . Julie Barak confirms this notion of memory as both a positive and negative force in the García girls ’ constant struggle to unearth their true identities .
= = Literary significance and reception = =
When How the García Girls Lost Their Accents was published in 1991 , the book " made a resounding splash on the literary scene " according to Jonathan Bing in the 1996 Publishers Weekly review of the novel . Although it was her first novel , Alvarez gained significant attention for the book , including a part in the New York Public Library 's 1991 exhibit " The Hand of the Poet from John Donne to Julia Alvarez " . The Women 's Review of Books also lauds the author , stating that " With this first novel , Julia Alvarez joins the rank of other Latina writers such as Nicholasa Mohr and Helena María Viramontes " .
The novel was generally critically acclaimed , with Cecilia Rodríguez Milanés of The Women 's Review of Books writing that " How the García Girls Lost Their Accents is a noteworthy book , demanding our attention . " The Publishers Weekly article notes that " the novel provided a keen look at the island social structure they [ the García family ] wistfully remember and the political turmoil they escaped " .
Since 1991 , the book has become widely read and referenced ; a well @-@ known part of the canon of Latino literature . Julia Alvarez was awarded the status of Doctor Honoris Causa , Humanidades , by Pontificia Universidad Católica Madre y Maestra , Santiago , Dominican Republic on January 24 , 2006 for How the García Girls Lost Their Accents .
In 1999 , Library Journal reported that a " select cadre of librarians representing New York City 's three public library systems have released their hand @-@ picked list of ' 21 new classics for the 21st century ' " and the novel was included on the list .
A number of scholarly articles and papers have been written on Alvarez 's book since its publication , including " A Search for Identity in Julia Alvarez 's How the García Girls Lost Their Accents " by William Luis and Joan Hoffman 's " She Wants to be Called Yolanda Now : Identity , Language , and the Third Sister in How the García Girls Lost Their Accents " , which was featured in the Bilingual Review .
= Bayshore Freeway =
The Bayshore Freeway is a part of U.S. Route 101 in the San Francisco Bay Area of the U.S. state of California . It runs along the west shore of the San Francisco Bay , connecting San Jose with San Francisco . Within the city of San Francisco , the freeway is also known as James Lick Freeway , named after the California philanthropist . The road was originally built as a surface road , the Bayshore Highway , and later upgraded to freeway standards . Before 1964 , it was mostly marked as U.S. Route 101 Bypass , with US 101 using the present State Route 82 ( El Camino Real ) .
= = Route description = =
The Bayshore Freeway begins at the Blossom Hill Road interchange on US 101 , where SR 82 begins its northwesterly path along Monterey Highway to San Jose . The freeway curves north and northwest , bypassing downtown San Jose to the east , and then curves west @-@ northwest , crossing I @-@ 880 and SR 87 , the latter just north of the San Jose International Airport . The portion of the highway from San Jose to South San Francisco is relatively straight and flat , running near the west edge of the San Francisco Bay . Junctions here include SR 237 in Sunnyvale , SR 85 in Mountain View , SR 84 in Menlo Park and Redwood City , SR 92 in San Mateo , and the San Francisco International Airport and I @-@ 380 in San Bruno . In South San Francisco , the freeway curves northeast around San Bruno Mountain , crossing its east edge at Sierra Point , and then heads north on a causeway across the former Candlestick Cove to the San Francisco city line .
In San Francisco , where the road is also known as the James Lick Freeway , it continues north @-@ northwesterly between Bayview Park and McLaren Park , and crosses I @-@ 280 at the Alemany Maze . There it curves north @-@ northeasterly around Bernal Heights and then northwest around Potrero Hill , meeting the Central Freeway at the border between the Mission District and South of Market . The Bayshore Freeway ends at the intersection of US 101 and Interstate 80 , which , although signed as Interstate 80 , is not officially Interstate 80 until the San Francisco @-@ Oakland Bay Bridge . The freeway that goes from US 101 to the Bay Bridge that is signed as I @-@ 80 but not officially I @-@ 80 is called the San Francisco Skyway .
= = History = =
= = = Initial construction = = =
Before the Dumbarton and San Mateo @-@ Hayward Bridges were built across the San Francisco Bay in the 1920s , San Francisco was bottled up at the north end of a long peninsula , with driving south on El Camino Real towards San Jose as the only reasonable alternative to the ferries for crossing the bay . The first of several highways built as an alternate to El Camino Real was the Skyline Boulevard , which was added to the state highway system in 1919 . A second route , the Bay Shore Highway ( Route 68 ) , became a state highway in 1923 , but only from the San Francisco city limits into San Mateo County , where the Dumbarton Bridge would begin . Just prior to the start of construction on the Dumbarton Bridge , San Francisco Supervisor Richard J. Welch noted that the Bay Shore Highway would need to be built all the way to San Jose as an escape valve for the additional traffic that the bridge would attract .
The state legislature extended the highway in 1925 , defining it to run from near the intersection of Army Street ( Cesar Chavez Street ) and San Bruno Avenue in San Francisco to a point in San Jose . The governor approved the bill with the stipulation that only the portion between the city limits of San Francisco and San Jose would be a state highway . Construction between South San Francisco and Burlingame had begun by 1924 , funded by a $ 500 @,@ 000 contribution from San Francisco , and was completed in 1928 . A disconnected segment north of San Mateo was built by the state at the same time . It was not until February 1929 that the road was fully paved between San Francisco and Burlingame , and on October 20 , 1929 the new highway was officially dedicated to San Mateo , several months after the connecting San Mateo @-@ Hayward Bridge opened ( at what is now Third Avenue ) . Even then , motorists had to wait until May 7 , 1931 to reach Jefferson Avenue in Redwood City ( near the west end of the four @-@ year @-@ old Dumbarton Bridge ) . The roadway was extended to Oregon Avenue in Palo Alto in mid @-@ 1932 , Lawrence Station Road in mid @-@ 1933 , and to Lafayette Street near Santa Clara , across the Guadalupe River from San Jose , by 1934 . The final piece to Oakland Road ( 13th Street ) in San Jose , which was then the main road - Legislative Route 5 and Sign Route 17 - between San Jose and Oakland , was dedicated on June 12 , 1937 , over ten years after the Dumbarton Bridge opened in January 1927 .
Although the highway was designed and built to what were , at the time , high standards , with a 100 @-@ foot ( 30 m ) wide right @-@ of @-@ way in most places , it was accident @-@ prone because it lacked a median barrier . One segment of the so @-@ called " Bloody Bayshore " was " Boneyard Hill " , a steep grade through the Visitacion Valley near the San Francisco city line , running past a bone meal plant . Causes of the crashes included turning conflicts at intersections , and speeding drivers crossing the centerline to use the oncoming lanes as a passing lane . The roadway was entirely at @-@ grade except for crossings of rail lines . It generally followed the present alignment of the Bayshore Freeway , but deviated in several places : Old Bayshore Highway in San Jose , Veterans Boulevard in Redwood City , Bayshore Highway in Burlingame , a destroyed section of road through San Francisco International Airport , and Airport and Bayshore Boulevards from South San Francisco through Brisbane into San Francisco . Within that city , the new highway continued three miles ( 5 km ) along the present Bay Shore Boulevard to Army ( Cesar Chavez ) Street and Potrero Avenue .
When the Bayshore Highway was completed in 1937 , U.S. Route 101 signs were moved to it from El Camino Real , and El Camino became U.S. Route 101 Alternate . Businesses along El Camino created the El Camino Real Association to protest the move and resulting loss of business , and by 1939 the main route had been moved back , with the Bayshore Highway becoming U.S. Route 101 Bypass . The two routes split in San Jose at the junction of First and Second Streets near Keyes Street , with the El Camino route mostly following the present SR 82 and the Bayshore route using locally maintained Second , Reed , and Fourth Streets to reach the state @-@ maintained Bayshore Highway . In San Francisco , they rejoined at the present location of the Alemany Maze , with the El Camino route following Alemany Boulevard from near the city line ; from there US 101 continued north on Bay Shore Boulevard , Potrero Avenue , and 10th and Fell Streets to Van Ness Avenue , meeting the Bay Bridge approach ( US 40 / US 50 ) at Bryant and Harrison Streets . The Bryant / Harrison one @-@ way pair was added to Route 68 ( which already included the bridge ) in 1937 and removed in 1947 along with the bridge ; in 1961 the new freeway approach became part of Route 68 , which was extended back over the bridge to Route 5 at its Oakland landfall .
Construction of an extension to Route 115 ( Santa Clara Street , now SR 130 ) at 30th Street in San Jose began in 1939 , and was completed by late 1940 . As with the portion between Fourth and 13th Streets , it was not marked as a numbered route . The state legislature authorized an extension beyond San Jose back to El Camino Real near Ford Road in 1947 , which was already under construction , and was completed that year . This was the first segment built with interchanges , and included a median barrier . Despite this , most crossings were at @-@ grade ; only the two ends at Route 115 ( Santa Clara Street ) and regular US 101 included bridges , the former a diamond interchange and the latter a simple split with additional access to Ford Road . It also crossed over Coyote Road , though with no access , just south of the Coyote Creek bridge . The original 1947 bridge over Coyote Road remains , though widened in 1990 , and is one of the oldest road @-@ road grade separations on the present freeway .
= = = Reconstruction = = =
By 1940 , at the dawn of the freeway era , the state was making plans to convert the Bayshore Highway into a ten @-@ lane Bayshore Freeway between San Francisco and Palo Alto . The first piece built was from Peninsula Avenue at the San Mateo @-@ Burlingame line to South San Francisco . This six @-@ lane freeway , completed in 1949 , followed the existing highway to Broadway in Burlingame , but then took a more inland alignment past the San Francisco International Airport , and crossed the old road at South San Francisco , running just east of it to near the south end of the cut at Sierra Point . Construction began inside San Francisco in 1950 and was completed in 1958 ; the new causeway across Candlestick Cove , connecting the completed section in South San Francisco with San Francisco , was dedicated in mid @-@ 1957 . In 1951 , the state legislature renamed the portion within San Francisco after James Lick , a California pioneer and philanthropist .
A movement to make the four @-@ lane undivided " Bloody Bayshore " safer all the way to San Jose began in Palo Alto . As a temporary measure , the state lowered the speed limit , installed traffic signals , closed minor crossroads , and prohibited left turns in places . The community convinced the state to extend the six @-@ lane freeway , which was completed in 1962 . The freeway continued to end at the old El Camino Real merge near Ford Road until the early 1980s , when the South Valley Freeway was constructed .
= = Exit list = =
Except where prefixed with a letter , postmiles were measured on the road as it was in 1964 , based on the alignment that existed at the time , and do not necessarily reflect current mileage . R reflects a realignment in the route since then , M indicates a second realignment , L refers an overlap due to a correction or change , and T indicates postmiles classified as temporary ( for a full list of prefixes , see the list of postmile definitions ) . Segments that remain unconstructed or have been relinquished to local control may be omitted . The numbers reset at county lines ; the start and end postmiles in each county are given in the county column .
= Silver Age of Comic Books =
The Silver Age of Comic Books was a period of artistic advancement and commercial success in mainstream American comic books , predominantly those in the superhero genre . Following the Golden Age of Comic Books and an interregnum in the early to mid @-@ 1950s , the Silver Age is considered to cover the period from 1956 to circa 1970 , and was succeeded by the Bronze and Modern Ages . A number of important comics writers and artists contributed to the early part of the era , including writers Stan Lee , Gardner Fox , John Broome , and Robert Kanigher , and artists Curt Swan , Jack Kirby , Gil Kane , Steve Ditko , Mike Sekowsky , Gene Colan , Carmine Infantino , John Buscema , and John Romita , Sr. By the end of the Silver Age , a new generation of talent had entered the field , including writers Denny O 'Neil , Gary Friedrich , Roy Thomas , and Archie Goodwin , and artists such as Neal Adams , Herb Trimpe , Jim Steranko , and Barry Windsor @-@ Smith .
The popularity and circulation of comic books about superheroes declined following World War II , and comic books about horror , crime and romance took larger shares of the market . However , controversy arose over alleged links between comic books and juvenile delinquency , focusing in particular on crime and horror titles . In 1954 , publishers implemented the Comics Code Authority to regulate comic content . In the wake of these changes , publishers began introducing superhero stories again , a change that began with the introduction of a new version of DC Comics ' The Flash in Showcase # 4 ( Oct. 1956 ) . In response to strong demand , DC began publishing more superhero titles including Justice League of America , which prompted Marvel Comics to follow suit beginning with Fantastic Four # 1 . Silver Age comics have become collectible , with a copy of Amazing Fantasy # 15 ( Aug. 1962 ) , the debut of Spider @-@ Man , selling for $ 1 @.@ 1 million in 2011 .
= = Origin of the term = =
Comics historian and movie producer Michael Uslan traces the origin of the " Silver Age " term to the letters column of Justice League of America # 42 ( Feb. 1966 ) , which went on sale December 9 , 1965 . Letter @-@ writer Scott Taylor of Westport , Connecticut wrote , " If you guys keep bringing back the heroes from the [ 1930s @-@ 1940s ] Golden Age , people 20 years from now will be calling this decade the Silver Sixties ! " According to Uslan , the natural hierarchy of gold @-@ silver @-@ bronze , as in Olympic medals , took hold . " Fans immediately glommed onto this , refining it more directly into a Silver Age version of the Golden Age . Very soon , it was in our vernacular , replacing such expressions as ... ' Second Heroic Age of Comics ' or ' The Modern Age ' of comics . It wasn 't long before dealers were ... specifying it was a Golden Age comic for sale or a Silver Age comic for sale . "
= = History = =
= = = Background = = =
Spanning World War II , when American comics provided cheap and disposable escapist entertainment that could be read and then discarded by the troops , the Golden Age of comic books covered the late 1930s to the late 1940s . A number of major superheroes were created during this period , including Superman , Batman , Wonder Woman , Captain Marvel , and Captain America . In subsequent years comics were blamed for a rise in juvenile crime statistics , although this rise was shown to be in direct proportion to population growth . When juvenile offenders admitted to reading comics , it was seized on as a common denominator ; one notable critic was Fredric Wertham , author of the book Seduction of the Innocent ( 1954 ) , who attempted to shift the blame for juvenile delinquency from the parents of the children to the comic books they read . The result was a decline in the comics industry . To address public concerns , in 1954 the Comics Code Authority was created to regulate and curb violence in comics , marking the start of a new era .
= = = DC Comics = = =
The Silver Age began with the publication of DC Comics ' Showcase # 4 ( Oct. 1956 ) , which introduced the modern version of the Flash . At the time , only three superheroes — Superman , Batman , and Wonder Woman — were still published under their own titles . According to DC comics writer Will Jacobs , Superman was available in " great quantity , but little quality . " Batman was doing better , but his comics were " lackluster " in comparison to his earlier " atmospheric adventures " of the 1940s , and Wonder Woman , having lost her original writer and artist , was no longer " idiosyncratic " or " interesting . " Jacobs describes the arrival of Showcase # 4 on the newsstands as " begging to be bought , " the cover featured an undulating film strip depicting the Flash running so fast that he had escaped from the frame . Editor Julius Schwartz , writer Gardner Fox , and artist Carmine Infantino were some of the people behind the Flash 's revitalization . Robert Kanigher wrote the first stories of the revived Flash , and John Broome was the writer of many of the earliest stories .
With the success of Showcase # 4 , several other 1940s superheroes were reworked during Schwartz ' tenure , including Green Lantern , the Atom , and Hawkman , as well as the Justice League of America . The DC artists responsible included Murphy Anderson , Gil Kane and Joe Kubert . Only the characters ' names remained the same ; their costumes , locales , and identities were altered , and imaginative scientific explanations for their superpowers generally took the place of magic as a modus operandi in their stories . Schwartz , a lifelong science fiction fan , was the inspiration for the re @-@ imagined Green Lantern — the Golden Age character , railroad engineer Alan Scott , possessed a ring powered by a magical lantern , but his Silver Age replacement , test pilot Hal Jordan , had a ring powered by an alien battery and created by an intergalactic police force .
In the mid @-@ 1960s , DC established that characters appearing in comics published prior to the Silver Age lived on a parallel Earth the company dubbed Earth @-@ Two . Characters introduced in the Silver Age and onward lived on Earth @-@ One . It was established that the two realities were separated by a vibrational field that could be crossed , should a storyline involve superheroes from different worlds teaming up .
Although the Flash is generally regarded as the first superhero of the Silver Age , the introduction of the Martian Manhunter in Detective Comics # 225 predates Showcase # 4 by almost a year , and at least one historian considers this character the first Silver Age superhero . However , comics historian Craig Shutt , author of the Comics Buyer 's Guide column " Ask Mister Silver Age " , disagrees , noting that the Martian Manhunter debuted as a detective who used his alien abilities to solve crimes , in the " quirky detective " vein of contemporaneous DC characters who were " TV detectives , Indian detectives , supernatural detectives , [ and ] animal detectives . " Schutt feels the Martian Manhunter only became a superhero in Detective Comics # 273 ( Nov. 1959 ) when he received a secret identity and other superhero accoutrements , saying , " Had Flash not come along , I doubt that the Martian Manhunter would 've led the charge from his backup position in Detective to a new super @-@ hero age . " Unsuccessful attempts to revive the superhero archetype 's popularity include Captain Comet , who debuted in Strange Adventures # 9 ( June 1951 ) ; St. John Publishing Company 's 1953 revival of Rocket Man under the title Zip @-@ Jet ; Fighting American , created in 1954 by the Captain America team of Joe Simon and Jack Kirby ; Sterling Comics ' Captain Flash and its back @-@ up feature Tomboy that same year ; Ajax / Farrell Publishing 's 1954 @-@ 55 revival of the Phantom Lady ; Strong Man , published by Magazine Enterprises in 1955 ; Charlton Comics ' Nature Boy , introduced in March 1956 , and its revival of the Blue Beetle the previous year ; and Atlas Comics ' short @-@ lived revivals of Captain America , the Human Torch , and the Sub @-@ Mariner , beginning in Young Men Comics # 24 ( Dec. 1953 ) .
Cartoon animal super @-@ heroes were longer @-@ lived . Supermouse and Mighty Mouse were published continuously in their own titles from the end of the Golden Age through the beginning of the Silver Age . Atomic Mouse was given his own title in 1953 , lasting ten years , and Atomic Rabbit , later named Atomic Bunny , was published from 1955 to 1959 . In England , the Marvelman series was published during the interregnum between the Golden and Silver Ages , substituting for the British reprints of the Captain Marvel stories after Fawcett stopped publishing the character 's adventures .
= = = Marvel Comics = = =
DC Comics sparked the superhero revival with its publications from 1955 to 1960 . Marvel Comics then capitalized on the revived interest in superhero storytelling with sophisticated stories and characterization . In contrast to previous eras , Silver Age characters were " flawed and self @-@ doubting " .
DC added to its momentum with its 1960 introduction of Justice League of America , a team consisting of the company 's most popular superhero characters . Martin Goodman , a publishing trend @-@ follower with his 1950s Atlas Comics line , note 1 by this time called Marvel Comics , " mentioned that he had noticed one of the titles published by National Comics seemed to be selling better than most . It was a book called The [ sic ] Justice League of America and it was composed of a team of superheroes , " Marvel editor Stan Lee recalled in 1974 . Goodman directed Lee to likewise produce a superhero team book , resulting in The Fantastic Four # 1 ( Nov. 1961 ) .
Under the guidance of writer @-@ editor Stan Lee and artists / co @-@ plotters such as Jack Kirby and Steve Ditko , Marvel began its own rise to prominence . With an innovation that changed the comic @-@ book industry , The Fantastic Four # 1 initiated a naturalistic style of superheroes with human failings , fears , and inner demons , who squabbled and worried about the likes of rent @-@ money . In contrast to the straitlaced archetypes of superheroes at the time , this ushered in a revolution . With dynamic artwork by Kirby , Steve Ditko , Don Heck , and others complementing Lee 's colorful , catchy prose , the new style became popular among college students who could identify with the angst and the irreverent nature of the characters such as Spider @-@ Man , the X @-@ Men and the Hulk during a time period of social upheaval and the rise of a youth counterculture . Comic book readers of the Silver Age were more scientifically @-@ inclined than previous generations . Thus , comic books of the Silver Age explained superhero phenomenons and origins through science , as opposed to the Golden Age , which commonly relied on magic or mysticism .
Comics historian Peter Sanderson compares the 1960s DC to a large Hollywood studio , and argues that after having reinvented the superhero archetype , DC by the latter part of the decade was suffering from a creative drought . The audience for comics was no longer just children , and Sanderson sees the 1960s Marvel as the comic equivalent of the French New Wave , developing new methods of storytelling that drew in and retained readers who were in their teens and older and thus influencing the comics writers and artists of the future .
= = = Other publishers = = =
One of the top American comics publishers in 1956 , Harvey Comics , discontinued its horror comics when the Comics Code was implemented and sought a new target audience . Harvey 's focus shifted to children from 6 to 12 years of age , especially girls , with characters such as Richie Rich , Casper the Friendly Ghost , and Little Dot . Many of the company 's comics featured young girls who " defied stereotypes and sent a message of acceptance of those who are different . " Although its characters have inspired a number of nostalgic movies and ranges of merchandise , Harvey comics of the period are not as sought after in the collectors ' market as DC and Marvel titles .
The publishers Gilberton , Dell Comics , and Gold Key Comics used their reputations as publishers of wholesome comic books to avoid becoming signatories to the Comics Code and found various ways to continue publishing horror @-@ themed comics in addition to other types . Gilberton 's extensive Classics Illustrated line adapted literary classics , with the likes of Frankenstein alongside Don Quixote and Oliver Twist ; Classics Illustrated Junior reprinted comic book versions of children 's classics such as The Wizard of Oz , Rapunzel , and Pinocchio . During the late 1950s and the 1960s , Dell , which had published comics in 1936 , offered licensed TV series comic books from Twilight Zone to Top Cat , as well as numerous Walt Disney titles . Its successor , Gold Key — founded in 1962 Western Publishing started its own label rather than packaging content for business partner Dell — continued with such licensed TV series and movie adaptations , as well as comics starring such Warner Bros. Cartoons characters as Bugs Bunny and such comic strip properties as Beetle Bailey .
With the popularity of the Batman television show in 1966 , publishers that had specialized in other forms began adding campy superhero titles to their lines . As well , new publishers sprang up , often using creative talent from the Golden Age . Harvey Comics ' Harvey Thriller imprint released Double @-@ Dare Adventures , starring new characters such as Bee @-@ man and Magic Master . Dell published superhero versions of Frankenstein , Dracula and the Werewolf . Gold Key did licensed versions of live @-@ action and animated superhero television shows such as Captain Nice , Frankenstein Jr. and The Impossibles , and continued the adventures of Walt Disney Pictures ' Goofy character in Supergoof . American Comics Group gave its established character Herbie a secret superhero identity as the Fat Fury , and introduced the characters of Nemesis and Magic @-@ Man . Even the iconic Archie Comics teens acquired superpowers and superhero identities in comedic titles such as Archie as Capt. Pureheart and Jughead as Captain Hero . Archie Comics also launched its Archie Adventure line ( subsequently titled Mighty Comics ) , which included the Fly , the Jaguar , and a revamp of the Golden Age hero the Shield . In addition to their individual titles , they teamed in their group series The Mighty Crusaders , joined by the Comet and Flygirl join with three characters with their own titles . Their stories blended typical superhero fare with the 1960s ' camp .
Among straightforward Silver Age superheroes from publishers other than Marvel or DC , Charlton Comics offered a short @-@ lived superhero line with characters that included Captain Atom , Judomaster , the Question , and Thunderbolt ; Tower Comics had Dynamo , Mercury Man , NoMan and other members of the superhero espionage group T.H.U.N.D.E.R. Agents ; and even Gold Key had Doctor Solar , Man of the Atom .
= = = Underground comix = = =
According to John Strausbaugh of The New York Times , " traditional " comic book historians feel that although the Golden Age deserves study , the only noteworthy aspect of the Silver Age was the advent of underground comics . One commentator has suggested that , " Perhaps one of the reasons underground comics have come to be considered legitimate art is due to the fact that the work of these artists more truly embodies what much of the public believes is true of newspaper strips — that they are written and drawn ( i.e. , authentically signed by ) a single person . " While a large number of mainstream @-@ comics professionals both wrote and drew their own material during the Silver Age , as many had since the start of American comic books , their work is distinct from what another historian describes as the " raw id on paper " of Robert Crumb and Gilbert Shelton . Most often published in black @-@ and @-@ white with glossy color cover and distributed through counterculture bookstores and head shops , underground comics targeted adults and reflected the counterculture movement of the time ,
= = = End and aftermath = = =
The Silver Age of comic books was followed by the Bronze Age . The demarcation is not clearly defined , but there are a number of possibilities .
Historian Will Jacobs suggests the Silver Age ended in April 1970 when the man who had started it , Julius Schwartz , handed over Green Lantern — starring one of the first revived heroes of the era — to the new @-@ guard team of Denny O 'Neil and Neal Adams in response to reduced sales . John Strausbaugh also connects the end of the Silver Age to Green Lantern . He observes that in 1960 , the character embodied the can @-@ do optimism of the era . However , by 1972 Green Lantern had become world weary ; " Those days are gone – gone forever – the days I was confident , certain ... I was so young ... so sure I couldn 't make a mistake ! Young and cocky , that was Green Lantern . Well , I 've changed . I 'm older now ... maybe wiser , too ... and a lot less happy . " Strausbaugh writes that the Silver Age " went out with that whimper . "
Comics scholar Arnold T. Blumberg places the end of the Silver Age in June 1973 , when Gwen Stacy , girlfriend of Peter Parker ( Spider @-@ Man ) was killed in a story arc later dubbed " The Night Gwen Stacy Died " , saying the era of " innocence " was ended by " the ' snap ' heard round the comic book world — the startling , sickening snap of bone that heralded the death of Gwen Stacy . " Silver Age historian Craig Shutt disputes this , saying , " Gwen Stacy 's death shocked Spider @-@ Man readers . Such a tragedy makes a strong symbolic ending . This theory gained adherents when Kurt Busiek and Alex Ross ' Marvels miniseries in 1994 ended with Gwen 's death , but I 'm not buying it . It 's too late . Too many new directions — especially [ the sword @-@ and @-@ sorcery trend begun by the character ] Conan and monsters [ in the wake of the Comics Code allowing vampires , werewolves and the like ] — were on firm ground by this time . " He also dismisses the end of the 12 @-@ cent comic book , which went to 15 cents as the industry standard in early 1969 , noting that the 1962 hike from 10 cents to 12 cents had no bearing in this regard . Shutt 's line comes with Fantastic Four # 102 ( Sept . 1970 ) , Jack Kirby 's last regular @-@ run issue before the artist left to join DC Comics ; this combines with DC 's Superman # 229 ( Aug. 1970 ) , editor Mort Weisinger 's last before retiring .
According to historian Peter Sanderson , the " neo @-@ silver movement " that began in 1986 with Superman : Whatever Happened to the Man of Tomorrow ? by Alan Moore and Curt Swan , was a backlash against the Bronze Age with a return to Silver Age principles . In Sanderson 's opinion , each comics generation rebels against the previous , and the movement was a response to Crisis on Infinite Earths , which itself was an attack on the Silver Age . Neo @-@ silver comics creators made comics that recognized and assimilated the more sophisticated aspects of the Silver Age .
= = Legacy = =
The Silver Age marked a decline in the prominence of American comics in genres such as horror , romance , teen and furry animal humor , or westerns , which were more popular than superhero adventures in the late 1940s through the mid @-@ 1950s , and fans of these genres see the Silver Age as a decline from that earlier era .
An important feature of the period was the development of the character makeup of superheroes . Young children and girls were targeted during the Silver Age by certain publishers ; in particular , Harvey Comics attracted this group with titles such as Little Dot . Adult @-@ oriented underground comics also began during the Silver Age . Some critics and historians argue that one characteristic of the Silver Age was that science fiction and aliens replaced magic and gods . Others argue that magic was an important element of both Golden Age and Silver Age characters . Many Golden Age writers and artists were science @-@ fiction fans or professional science @-@ fiction writers who incorporated SF elements into their comic @-@ book stories . Science was a common explanation for the origin of heroes in the Silver Age .
The Silver Age coincided with the rise of pop art , an artistic movement that used popular cultural artifacts , such as advertising and packaging , as source material for fine , or gallery @-@ exhibited , art . Roy Lichtenstein , one of the best @-@ known pop art painters , specifically chose individual panels from comic books and repainted the images , modifying them to some extent in the process but including in the painting word and thought balloons and captions as well as enlarged @-@ to @-@ scale color dots imitating the coloring process then used in newsprint comic books . An exhibition of comic strip art was held at the Musée des Arts Décoratifs of the Palais de Louvre in 1967 , and books were soon published that contained serious discussions of the art of comics and the nature of the medium .
In January 1966 , a live @-@ action Batman television show debuted to high ratings . Like pop art , the show took comic @-@ book tropes and re @-@ envisioned them in the context of a different medium . Voiceover narration in each episode articulated the words of comic @-@ book captions while fight scenes had sound effects like " Biff " , " Bam " and " Pow " appear as visual effects on the screen , spelled out in large cartoon letters . Circulation for comic books in general and Batman merchandise in particular soared . Other masked or superpowered adventurers appeared on the television screen , so that " American TV in the winter of 1967 appeared to consist of little else but live @-@ action and animated cartoon comic @-@ book heroes , all in living colour . " Existing comic @-@ book publishers began creating superhero titles , as did new publishers . By the end of the 1960s , however , the fad had faded ; in 1969 , the best @-@ selling comic book in the United States was not a superhero series , but the teen @-@ humor book Archie .
= = Artists = =
Arlen Schumer , author of The Silver Age of Comic Book Art , singles out Carmine Infantino 's Flash as the embodiment of the design of the era : " as sleek and streamlined as the fins Detroit was sporting on all its models . " Other notable artists of the era include Curt Swan , Gene Colan , Steve Ditko , Gil Kane , Jack Kirby and Joe Kubert .
Two artists that changed the comics industry dramatically in the late 1960s were Neal Adams , considered one of his country 's greatest draftsmen , and Jim Steranko . Both artists expressed a cinematic approach at times that occasionally altered the more conventional panel @-@ based format that has been commonplace for decades . Adams ' breakthrough was based on layout and rendering . Best known for returning Batman to his somber roots after the campy success of the Batman television show , his naturalistic depictions of anatomy , faces , and gestures changed comics ' style in a way that Strausbaugh sees reflected in modern graphic novels .
One of the few writer @-@ artists at the time , Steranko made use of a cinematic style of storytelling . Strausbaugh credits him as one of Marvel 's strongest creative forces during the late 1960s , his art owing a large debt to Salvador Dalí . Steranko started by inking and penciling the details of Kirby 's artwork on Nick Fury , Agent of S.H.I.E.L.D. beginning in Strange Tales # 151 , but by Strange Tales # 155 Stan Lee had put him in charge of both writing and drawing Fury 's adventures . He exaggerated the James Bond @-@ style spy stories , introducing the vortex beam ( which lifts objects ) , the aphonic bomb ( which explodes silently ) , a miniature electronic absorber ( which protected Fury from electricity ) , and the Q @-@ ray machine ( a molecular disintegrator ) — all in his first 11 @-@ page story .
= = Collectibility = =
A near @-@ mint copy of Amazing Fantasy # 15 , the first appearance of Spider @-@ Man , sold for $ 1 @.@ 1 million to an unnamed collector on March 7 , 2011 .
= Charles Thom =
Charles Thom ( November 11 , 1872 – May 24 , 1956 ) was an American microbiologist and mycologist . Born and raised in Illinois , he received his PhD from the University of Missouri , the first such degree awarded by that institution . He was best known for his work on the microbiology of dairy products and soil fungi , and in particular his research into the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium . His work influenced the establishment of standards for food handling and processing in the USA . He pioneered the use of culture media to grow microorganisms , and , with food chemist James N. Currie , developed a process to mass @-@ produce citric acid using Aspergillus . Thom played an important role in the development of penicillin in World War II .
= = Early life = =
Thom was born in Minonk , Illinois in 1872 , the fifth of six boys . His parents were Angus Sutherland Thom and Louisa ( Herick ) Thom , Scottish / Irish farmers who had settled in Illinois shortly before the American Civil War . Charles Thom was raised in a strongly religious household ; his father was an elder in the Presbyterian church . Thom upheld Presbyterian values throughout his life , kept active in church affairs , and became a staunch prohibitionist . His early years spent working on his father 's farm instilled the value of a strong work ethic , and first @-@ hand knowledge of agricultural practices that would prove useful in his later career .
After graduating from high school , Thom attended Lake Forest Academy , a preparatory institution for college , in 1889 . He earned a bachelor 's degree from Lake Forest College in 1895 . The next year he spent as a science teacher in a Danville high school , before returning to Lake Forest College to receive his Master 's degree in 1897 . In 1899 , working under the supervision of Howard Ayers , he received his PhD from the University of Missouri on the topic of fertilization in the ferns Aspidium and Adiantum . This was the first doctorate awarded by that institution . Thom married Ethel Winifred Slater in 1906 , with whom he had three children ( one died during childbirth ) . Ethel Thom died in October 1942 , shortly before his retirement . In 1944 he remarried , to Charlotte J. Bayles , with whom he lived until her death . Thom died two years after Charlotte at his home in Port Jefferson , New York , on May 24 , 1956 .
= = Career = =
In 1902 , Thom went to study with George F. Atkinson at Cornell University ; two colleagues included Benjamin Duggar and Herbert Hice Whetzel , who both later became noted botanists . Two years later , he accepted a position as dairy mycologist , working with Herbert William Conn , in charge of " cheese investigations " at the Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station in Connecticut . He remained in this institution — a branch of the U.S. Department of Agriculture ( USDA ) — holding various research and administrative positions , until his retirement in 1942 . During his employment there , Thom investigated the process of cheese ripening and sought to understand the composition of the microbiological flora required for imparting certain flavors on cheeses . Through this work he isolated and identified the fungi Penicillium camemberti and Penicillium roqueforti .
In 1914 , Thom became the Chief of the Microbiological Laboratory at the USDA Bureau of Chemistry , where his job was to study problems with the handling and processing of foods , and to enforce the Pure Food and Drug Act , a United States federal law that mandated federal inspection of food products . Known for his dedication to maintaining high standards in the food industry , he relished arguing court cases " in defense of sanitary practices in the handling and processing of perishable foods " . In one noted case involving the adulteration of tomato catsup , he presented partially rotten tomatoes to the jury , and , concluding his testimony , asked them " Should the American people have to eat these in their catsup ? "
During his time at the USDA , Thom became a world authority on the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium . Thom pioneered the technique of using defined , reproducible culture media to grow microorganisms ; most of the taxa he described are still valid today . Together with Margaret B. Church , Thom maintained collections of fungus cultures for the American Type Culture Collection , established in 1925 . In 1929 , a year after discovering penicillin , Alexander Fleming published a well @-@ known paper in which he identified the mold Penicillium rubrum as the one responsible for creating the drug . Harold Raistrick succeeded in growing the organism on a simple culture medium , but could not isolate the penicillin produced by the mold when grown this way . With Thom 's assistance , they correctly identified the organism as Penicillium notatum and , in 1941 , developed a method to scale up production at the Department of Agriculture 's Northern Regional Research Laboratory in Peoria , Illinois , which ultimately resulted in an inexpensive supply of the drug .
Thom 's work with the food chemist James N. Currie in 1916 – 17 enabled them to develop a process to mass @-@ produce citric acid using Aspergillus , and a few years later , the first large @-@ scale mold fermentation factory had been established in Brooklyn , New York . This early work ultimately led to the Department of Agriculture 's establishing four Regional Research Laboratories in 1938 that were devoted to industrial mold fermentations .
Thom held his job with the Bureau of Chemistry until 1927 , when the position was abolished . He was then appointed Principal Mycologist of the Division of Soil Microbiology for the newly created Bureau of Chemistry and Soils . In a few years , Thom became known as an authority on soil microbiology , and was often invited to present papers at national and international meetings . In one of Thom 's important contributions to the field , he led the research group responsible for advances that enabled the control of cotton root rot , which at the time was a major problem in the southwestern United States . In collaboration with his protégé Kenneth Raper , they published the Manual of Penicillin in 1940 . Thom formally retired in 1942 , although he remained active as a consultant and guest speaker until shortly before his death .
= = Memberships and honors = =
Thom was the U.S. Delegate to the 1905 International Dairy Congress held in Paris , France . He helped establish a graduate education program at the USDA . In 1907 , he became a charter member of the Dairy Association of America , and in 1918 , was appointed President of the Bacteriological Association of Washington . He attended the 1935 International Soil Congress in Oxford , England and was Vice President of the 1939 International Microbiological Congress in New York . He was a member of the National Academy of Sciences , a charter member of the Mycological Society of America , and president of the Society of American Bacteriologists in 1940 and the Society of Industrial Microbiology in 1950 . Thom was awarded an Honorary Doctor of Science degree by Lake Forest College in 1936 . For his work on penicillin , he and his research group received the Lasker Group Award in 1946 , and the USDA Distinguished Service Award in 1947 . The same year , he received a gold medal from the Spanish National Research Council for his contributions to microbiology and medicine .
= = Described taxa = =
= = Selected publications = =
Thom , Charles ( 1906 ) " Fungi in cheese ripening ; Camembert and Roquefort " in USDA Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 82 pp. 1 – 39
Thom , Charles ( 1910 ) " Cultural studies of species of Penicillium " in USDA Bureau of Animal Industry Bulletin 118 pp. 1 – 109
Thom , Charles ; Currie , James N. ( 1916 ) " Aspergillus niger group " in Journal of Agricultural Research 7 : 1 pp. 1 – 15
Thom , Charles ; Church , Margaret B. ( 1918 ) . " Aspergillus fumigatus , A. nidulans , A. terreus n. sp. and their allies " . American Journal of Botany 5 ( 2 ) : 84 – 104 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2435130 .
Thom , Charles ; Church , Margaret B. ( 1921 ) . " Aspergillus flavus , A. oryzae and associated species " . American Journal of Botany 8 ( 2 ) : 103 – 126 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 2307 / 2435149 .
Thom , Charles ; Hunter , Albert Clayton ( 1924 ) . " Hygienic Fundamentals of Food Handling " 228 pp .
Thom , Charles ; Church , Margaret B. ( 1926 ) . " The Aspergilli " . 272 pp .
Thom , Charles ( 1930 ) . " The Penicillia " . 644 pp .
Thom , Charles ( 1954 ) . " The evolution of species concepts in Aspergillus and Penicillium " . Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 60 : 24 – 34 @.@ doi : 10 @.@ 1111 / j.1749 @-@ 6632.1954.tb39995.x.
= Last voyage of the Karluk =
The last voyage of the Karluk , flagship of the Canadian Arctic Expedition of 1913 – 16 , ended with the loss of the ship and the subsequent deaths of nearly half her complement . On her outward voyage in August 1913 , Karluk , a brigantine formerly used as a whaler , became trapped in the Arctic ice while sailing to a rendezvous point at Herschel Island . After a long drift across the Beaufort and Chukchi seas , the ship was crushed and sunk . In the ensuing months , the crew and expedition staff struggled to survive , first on the ice and later on the shores of Wrangel Island . In all , eleven men died before help could reach them .
The Canadian Arctic Expedition was organised under the leadership of Canadian @-@ born anthropologist Vilhjalmur Stefansson , and had both scientific and geographic objectives . Shortly after Karluk was trapped , Stefansson and a small party left the ship , stating that they intended to hunt for caribou . As Karluk drifted from her fixed position it became impossible for the hunting party to return to the ship . Stefansson reached land and then devoted himself to the expedition 's other objectives , leaving the crew and staff on board the ship under the charge of its captain , Robert Bartlett . After the sinking , Bartlett organised a march to Wrangel Island , 80 miles ( 130 km ) away . Conditions on the ice were difficult and dangerous ; two parties of four men each were lost in the attempt to reach the island .
After the survivors had landed , Bartlett and an Inuk companion set out across the ice for the Siberian coast , in search of help . The pair eventually reached Alaska , but sea ice conditions prevented any immediate rescue mission . On Wrangel Island , the stranded party survived by hunting game , but were short of food and troubled by internal dissent . Before their rescue in September 1914 , three more of the party had died , two of illness and one in violent circumstances .
Historians have divided views on Stefansson 's decision to leave the ship . Some of the voyage 's survivors were critical of his seeming indifference to their ordeal and the loss of their comrades . He escaped official censure , and was publicly honoured for his later work on the expedition despite the Canadian government 's reservations about its overall management . Although Bartlett was criticised by an admiralty commission for taking Karluk into the ice , he was hailed as a hero by the public and by his former Karluk shipmates .
= = Canadian Arctic Expedition = =
= = = Background = = =
The Canadian Arctic Expedition was the brainchild of Vilhjalmur Stefansson , a US @-@ based , Canadian @-@ born anthropologist of Icelandic extraction who had spent most of the years between 1906 and 1912 studying Inuit life in the remote Arctic Canada . His fieldwork had resulted in the first detailed information on the life and culture of the Copper Inuit , the so @-@ called " blond Eskimos " . Stefansson had returned home with plans for another expedition to continue his Arctic studies , and obtained promises of financial backing totalling US $ 45 @,@ 000 ( around US $ 750 @,@ 000 in 2010 ) from the National Geographic Society ( NGS ) in Washington and the American Museum of Natural History in New York . However , he wanted to extend his plans to include geographical exploration in the Beaufort Sea , then a blank space on the world 's maps . For these expanded aims he needed more money , and approached the Canadian government for assistance .
The area known as the " High Arctic " was subject to claims of sovereignty not only from Canada , but also from Norway and the United States . The Canadian government was concerned that an American @-@ financed expedition would give the United States a legal claim to any new land discovered in the Beaufort Sea , so when the Canadian prime minister Robert Borden met Stefansson in Ottawa in February 1913 he offered to assume financial responsibility for the entire expedition . Borden 's government was hopeful that the expedition would strengthen Canada 's claim to sovereignty over the Arctic islands . The American sponsors agreed to withdraw , subject to an NGS condition that the Society could reclaim its rights to the expedition if Stefansson failed to depart by June 1913 . This created a narrow deadline and hurried preparations for the journey north , although Stefansson maintained in his 1921 account that " forethought appeared to have anticipated every eventuality " .
= = = Objectives and strategy = = =
The Canadian government 's financial involvement represented a shift in the expedition 's emphasis , towards geographical exploration rather than the original purpose of ethnological and scientific studies . In a letter to the Canadian Victoria Daily Times , Stefansson set out these separate aims . The main object was to explore the " area of a million or so square miles that is represented by white patches on our map , lying between Alaska and the North Pole " . The expedition also aimed to be the most comprehensive scientific study of the Arctic ever attempted . While a Northern Party searched for new lands , a mainly land @-@ based Southern Party under zoologist Rudolph Anderson would carry out surveys and anthropological studies in the islands off the northern Canadian coast .
The Northern Party 's ship , Karluk , would proceed north from the Canadian coast until it either found land or was stopped by ice . It would explore any land it encountered ; otherwise it would follow the ice edge eastward and attempt to winter at either Banks Island or Prince Patrick Island . If the ship was trapped in the ice and forced to drift , the party would study the direction of Arctic currents and carry out oceanographic research . Meanwhile , Rudolph Anderson 's party was expected to continue with the anthropological studies of the " blond Eskimo " , to collect varieties of Arctic flora and fauna , to carry out geological research , and to seek open @-@ water channels in the hope of establishing new trade routes .
= = = Organisation and personnel = = =
Stefansson 's plan was to take the expedition to the old whaling station at Herschel Island off the Canadian Arctic coast , where the final composition of the Northern and Southern Parties would be decided and where equipment and supplies would be divided among the different strands of the venture . The haste to meet the NGS deadline led to concerns among the expedition 's members about the adequacy of the provision of food , clothing and equipment . Stefansson , who was largely absent in the hectic weeks immediately before sailing and who revealed few of his plans to his team , dismissed such concerns as " impertinent and disloyal " . There were disputes between Stefansson and the scientists over the chain of command ; the Canadian Geological Survey , which had provided four scientists to the expedition , wanted these men to report to them rather than to Stefansson . Southern Party leader Rudolph Anderson threatened to resign over Stefansson 's claim to the publication rights of all private expedition journals .
The scientific team , made up of some of the most distinguished men in their fields , included representatives from the United States , Denmark , Norway and France , as well as from Britain and its Empire . Only two , however , had previous polar experience : Alistair Forbes Mackay , the expedition 's medical officer , had visited Antarctica with Sir Ernest Shackleton 's Nimrod expedition in 1907 – 09 , and had been one of the party of three to discover the location of the South Magnetic Pole . Another Nimrod veteran , the 46 @-@ year @-@ old James Murray , was Stefansson 's oceanographer . Among the younger scientists were William Laird McKinlay ( 1889 – 1983 ) , a 24 @-@ year @-@ old science teacher from Glasgow who was recommended by the Scottish explorer William Speirs Bruce , and Bjarn Mamen ( 1893 – 1914 ) , a 20 @-@ year @-@ old skiing champion from Christiania , Norway , who was taken on as a forester , despite lacking scientific experience .
Stefansson had wanted American whaling skipper Christian Theodore Pedersen to captain Karluk , the ship designated for the Northern Party . When Pedersen withdrew , the captaincy was offered to 36 @-@ year @-@ old Newfoundland @-@ born Robert Bartlett , an experienced polar navigator who had commanded Robert Peary 's ship on the latter 's 1909 polar expedition . Bartlett did not have time , however , to select Karluk 's crew , which was hurriedly assembled from around the Royal Navy Dockyard at Esquimalt in British Columbia . McKinlay later wrote of the crew that " one was a confirmed drug addict ... another suffered from venereal disease ; and in spite of orders that no liquor was to be carried , at least two smuggled supplies on board . " McKinlay worried that this crew might lack the qualities and character necessary in the arduous months ahead , concerns shared by Bartlett , whose first act on arrival in Esquimalt was to fire the first officer for incompetence . In his place he appointed the 22 @-@ year @-@ old Alexander " Sandy " Anderson .
= = = Ships = = =
Karluk had been chosen by Pedersen and bought by Stefansson for the bargain price of US $ 10 @,@ 000 . Stefansson was advised by Pedersen that , of four ships that were available , Karluk was " the soundest and best adapted for our purpose " , but Bartlett had deep reservations about her fitness for prolonged Arctic service . The ship , a 29 @-@ year @-@ old brigantine , was 129 feet ( 39 m ) in length with a beam of 23 feet ( 7 @.@ 0 m ) . She had been built for the Aleutian fishing industry ( karluk is the Aleut word for " fish " ) and later converted for whaling , when her bows and sides had been sheathed with 2 @-@ inch ( 51 mm ) Australian ironwood . Despite 14 arctic whaling voyages , including six overwinterings , she had not been built to withstand sustained ice pressure , and lacked the engine power to force a passage through the ice . She did not match the expectations of Bartlett , or of many of the more experienced crew .
The ship spent most of April and May 1913 undergoing repairs and refitting at the dockyard in Esquimalt . When Bartlett arrived in early June he immediately ordered further repair work . In addition to Karluk , Stefansson had purchased sight unseen a small gasoline @-@ driven schooner , Alaska , to act as a supply ship for the Southern Party . He later added a second schooner , Mary Sachs , when the hold space in Alaska proved inadequate . In the confusion surrounding the expedition 's departure , McKinlay notes , no attempt was made to align men or equipment to their appropriate ships . Thus anthropologists Henri Beuchat and Diamond Jenness , both designated for the Southern Party , found themselves sailing with Karluk , while their equipment was on board Alaska . McKinlay himself , aboard Karluk as magnetic observer , discovered that most of his equipment was with Alaska . Stefansson insisted that all would be sorted out when the ships reached their Herschel Island rendezvous . " Heaven help us all if we failed to reach Herschel Island " , McKinlay wrote .
= = = Towards Herschel Island = = =
Karluk left Esquimalt on 17 June 1913 , sailing north towards Alaska . The immediate destination was Nome , on the coast of the Bering Sea . There was trouble from the beginning with the steering gear and with the engines , both of which needed frequent attention . On 2 July Karluk reached the Bering Sea in mist , fog and rapidly falling temperatures ; six days later she arrived at Nome where she joined Alaska and Mary Sachs . While the ships were being loaded in Nome , some of the scientists pressed for a meeting with the leader to clarify plans , particularly with regard to the Northern Party whose schedule was vague . The meeting was unsatisfactory . Stefansson 's attitude offended several of the men , some of whom threatened to leave the expedition . They had read press reports in which Stefansson had apparently said that he expected Karluk to be crushed , and that the lives of the staff were secondary to the scientific work . Stefansson would not explain these matters , nor give further details of his plans for the Northern Party . Despite the scientists ' alarm and dissatisfaction , none resigned .
At Port Clarence , just north of Nome , 28 dogs were taken on board before Karluk sailed north on 27 July . The next day she crossed the Arctic Circle , and almost immediately encountered rough weather which resulted in flooded cabins and seasickness . However , McKinlay noted that " whatever defects she had , Karluk was proving herself a fine sea @-@ boat . " On 31 July they reached Point Hope , where two Inuit hunters , known as " Jerry " and " Jimmy " , joined the ship . On 1 August the permanent Arctic ice pack was seen ; Bartlett made several attempts to breach the ice , but each time was forced back . On 2 August , about 25 miles ( 40 km ) from Point Barrow , Karluk thrust her way into the ice but was soon trapped , and drifted slowly eastward for three days before reaching open water off Cape Smythe . Meanwhile , Stefansson had left to travel over the ice to Point Barrow . He rejoined the ship at Cape Smythe on 6 August , bringing with him Jack Hadley , a veteran trapper who required passage east . Hadley , a long @-@ time acquaintance of Stefansson 's , was entered in the ship 's books as carpenter .
At Cape Smythe two more Inuit hunters , Keraluk and Kataktovik , joined the expedition , together with Keraluk 's family — wife Keruk and their two young daughters Helen and Mugpi . As the voyage proceeded , Bartlett became increasingly anxious about the extent of ice in the area , and noted that the brass stemplates on the ship 's bow had already been damaged . Over the next few days Karluk struggled to make headway , as Bartlett took the ship northwards away from the coast , following channels of open water . The only scientific tasks of substance that could be carried out during this period were Murray 's dredging operations , through which he collected many species of Arctic sea life , and the regular depth soundings . On 13 August Bartlett calculated their position as 235 miles ( 378 km ) east of Point Barrow , with a similar distance to travel to Herschel Island . However , this proved to be the ship 's farthest point east , as at that position she became firmly trapped in the ice and began to move slowly westward ; by 10 September Karluk had retreated nearly 100 miles ( 160 km ) back towards Point Barrow . Shortly afterwards , Stefansson informed Bartlett that all hopes for further progress that year had ended , and that Karluk would have to winter in the ice .
= = In the ice = =
= = = Drifting west = = =
On 19 September , with Karluk ice @-@ bound and largely stationary , Stefansson announced that in view of the shortage of fresh meat and the likelihood of a long sojourn in the ice , he would lead a small hunting party that would search for caribou and other game in the area of the Colville River . He would take with him the two Inuit " Jimmy " and " Jerry " , the expedition secretary Burt McConnell , the photographer George Wilkins , and the anthropologist Diamond Jenness . Stefansson expected to be gone for about ten days ; Bartlett was instructed by letter that , if the ship should move from its present position , he should " send a party ashore , to erect one or more beacons giving information of the ship 's whereabouts . " The next day the six men departed . On 23 September , following a blizzard , the ice floe in which Karluk was trapped began to move , and soon the ship was travelling at between 30 and 60 miles ( 48 and 97 km ) a day — but to the west , steadily further from Herschel Island and from Stefansson 's party who , it soon became clear , would not be able to find their way back to the ship .
In an unpublished journal and later correspondence , McKinlay suggested that Stefansson 's departure amounted to abandoning the ship to its fate . The expedition 's historian S.E. Jenness ( son of Diamond Jenness ) rejects this view , pointing out that Stefansson and the hunting party members had left valuable property aboard Karluk ; a possible motive for the trip , Jenness surmises , was to train the younger staff . The anthropologist Gísli Pálsson , writing of the expedition , asserts that while the anger of Bartlett and the crew is understandable , there is no evidence that Stefansson deliberately abandoned the men . It is arguable , Pálsson says , that Stefansson acted responsibly in attempting to secure a supply of fresh meat which would counter the possibility of scurvy , should Karluk be trapped in the ice for a long time . The historian Richard Diubaldo writes " The evidence suggests that this was a normal hunting trip " and " ... there is strong evidence to suggest he [ Stefansson ] wished he had never left [ the ship ] " .
The constant snow and thick mists made it difficult for Bartlett to calculate the Karluk 's position accurately , although during a brief break in the weather on 30 September they glimpsed land which they took to be Cooper Island , in the vicinity of Point Barrow where they had been at the start of August . On 3 October the anxiety of crew and staff increased when , with Point Barrow just 5 miles ( 8 km ) distant , the drift turned northwards , away from the land . There were fears among some that Karluk would repeat the experience of the Jeannette , an American vessel that 30 years previously had drifted in the Arctic ice for months before sinking , with the subsequent loss of most of her crew . Bartlett became aware that Murray and McKay , the two veterans of Shackleton 's Nimrod expedition , were openly contemptuous of their captain 's leadership . They were making plans to leave the ship at an appropriate time , and head for land on their own .
As the weather grew worse Bartlett ordered supplies and equipment to be transferred on to the ice , both to lighten the ship and as a precaution should it be necessary to abandon the vessel in a hurry . Food supplies were augmented by seal hunts — two or three seals a day was the average bag , according to McKinlay — and by a single polar bear that had wandered near the ship in mid @-@ November . On 15 November Karluk reached 73 ° N , the most northerly point of its drift , and then began moving south @-@ west , in the general direction of the Siberian coast . By mid @-@ December the estimated position was 140 miles ( 230 km ) from Wrangel Island . Despite the bleak outlook — Bartlett was privately convinced that Karluk would not survive the winter — a determined effort was made to celebrate Christmas , with decorations , presents , a programme of sports on the ice , and a banquet . By then they were just 50 miles ( 80 km ) north of Herald Island , a rocky outpost east of Wrangel Island ; on 29 December land was visible in the distance , though whether this was Herald Island or Wrangel Island was not clear . The sighting of land briefly raised morale , but in the New Year the ice began breaking up and forming pressure ridges . Over the next few days , wrote McKinlay , " the twanging , drumming , ominous ice sounds got louder and nearer . "
= = = Sinking = = =
Early in the morning of 10 January 1914 , McKinlay records , " a severe shudder shook the whole ship " as the ice attacked the hull . Bartlett , still hoping to save his ship , gave orders to lighten her by removing all accumulated snow from the decks . He also ordered all hands to have warm clothing ready . At 6 @.@ 45 in the evening a loud bang indicated that the hull had been punctured ; Bartlett went immediately to the engine room and observed water pouring in through a gash 10 feet ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) long . There was no possibility that the pumps could deal with the inflow , and the captain gave the order to abandon ship . Weather conditions , says McKinlay , could hardly have been worse , but the crew and staff worked throughout the night , in pitch darkness and driving snow , to add to the quantities of rations and equipment already stashed on the ice . Bartlett remained on board until the last moments , playing loud music on the ship 's Victrola . At 3 : 15 p.m. on 11 January , Bartlett put on Chopin 's Funeral March as a final salute to the ship , and stepped off . Karluk sank within minutes , her yardarms snapping off as she disappeared through the narrow hole in the ice . McKinlay took stock of the stranded party : 22 men , one woman , two children , 16 dogs and a cat .
= = = Shipwreck Camp = = =
Bartlett 's decision to deposit stores on the ice ensured that an ice camp , known as " Shipwreck Camp " , was more or less established by the time Karluk sank . Two shelters had been built , one a snow igloo with a canvas roof , the other constructed from packing cases . To the latter was added a kitchen with a large stove rescued from Karluk 's engine room . A small , separate shelter was built for the five Inuit , and a rough perimeter created from coal bags and assorted containers . In McKinlay 's words , the camp provided " substantial and comfortable houses on which we could rely for shelter for a long time . " Stores were plentiful , and the party was able to eat well . Much of the time in the first days of the camp was spent preparing and adjusting clothing and sleeping gear , in readiness for the forthcoming march to Wrangel Island . The ice drift was slowly moving the camp in the direction of the island , but as yet there was insufficient daylight to attempt the march .
Amid this activity Mackay and Murray , now joined by the anthropologist Henri Beuchat , played little part in the general life of the camp and expressed their determination to leave it , independently , as soon as possible . Bartlett wanted to wait for the longer daylight hours of February before attempting the march , but was persuaded by McKinlay and Mamen to send a trailbreaking group to set up an advance camp on Wrangel Island . A party of four , led by Karluk 's first officer Alexander Anderson and including crew members Charles Barker , John Brady and Edmund Golightly , left Shipwreck Camp on 21 January with instructions from Bartlett to establish their camp at or near Berry Point on the north shore of Wrangel Island . On 4 February Bjarn Mamen , who accompanied the party as a scout , returned to Shipwreck Camp and reported that he had left the group a few miles short of land that was evidently not Wrangel Island , and was probably Herald Island , 38 miles ( 61 km ) from their intended destination . This was the last sighting of Anderson 's party ; their ultimate fate was not established until ten years later , when their remains were found on Herald Island .
= = = March to Wrangel Island = = =
Bartlett decided to send a team back to establish the exact location of the island that the Anderson party had approached , and to determine if Anderson had actually landed there . An injury to his knee ruled Mamen out from this mission , which was undertaken by ship 's steward Ernest Chafe , with the Inuit pair , Kataktovik and Kuraluk . Chafe 's group came within 2 miles ( 3 km ) of Herald Island before being stopped by open water . A careful examination through binoculars revealed no signs of the missing party , and Chafe concluded that Anderson and company had not reached the island . Chafe and his party then returned to Shipwreck Camp .
Meanwhile , on 4 February , Mackay and his group ( Murray and Beuchat , joined by seaman Stanley Morris ) announced they were leaving the next day , to seek land . Mackay presented Bartlett with a letter dated 1 February that began : " We , the undersigned , in consideration of the present critical situation , desire to make an attempt to reach the land . " The letter requested appropriate supplies , and concluded by emphasising that the journey was on their own initiative and absolving Bartlett from all responsibilities . Bartlett allocated them a sledge , a tent , six gallons of oil , a rifle and ammunition and food for 50 days . They left on 5 February ; the last sighting of them was a few days later , by Chafe and the Inuit , returning from their abortive trip to Herald Island . They found Mackay 's party struggling to make headway , with some of their provisions lost and clothing and other equipment discarded to lighten their load . Beuchat in particular was in a distressed state , nearly delirious and in the throes of hypothermia . However , the party refused assistance and rejected Chafe 's pleas that they return with him to Shipwreck Camp . Thereafter the only hint of their fate was a sailor 's scarf belonging to Morris , later found buried in an ice floe . It was assumed that the four had either been crushed by the ice , or had fallen through it .
Bartlett 's party now consisted of eight Karluk crew members ( himself , engineers John Munro and Robert Williamson , seamen Hugh Williams and Fred Maurer , fireman George Breddy , cook Robert Templeman , and Chafe ) , three scientists ( McKinlay , Mamen and geologist George Malloch ) , John Hadley , and five Inuit ( the family of four and Kataktovik ) . Hadley , nearing 60 years of age , was one of the few , along with Bartlett and the Inuit , with experience of travelling for distances over ice . Bartlett sent his forces out , in groups , to blaze a trail and lay down supply depots on the route to Wrangel Island , thus preparing his inexperienced party for the hazards of ice travel . When he felt they were ready for the main journey he divided them into four teams and sent the first two away on 19 February . Bartlett himself led the last two groups from the camp on 24 February , leaving a note of the party 's location in a copper drum in case the camp should drift into an inhabited area . The distance to Wrangel Island was estimated at 40 miles ( 64 km ) , but the journey proved to be twice that in length .
The ice surface was very broken up , making travel slow and difficult . At first the parties were able to travel along a track that had been marked out by the advance parties . However , recent storms had destroyed much of the trail , and in places progress was held up by breaking ice which at one point almost wrecked Bartlett 's camp as his team slept . On 28 February all the parties came together in front of the first of a series of high ridges , from 25 to 100 feet ( 7 @.@ 6 to 30 @.@ 5 m ) in height , that halted their progress . These stretched east and west , blocking any route to the island . McKinlay , Hadley and Chafe were sent on a risky journey back to Shipwreck Camp to pick up supplies that had been left there , while the rest slowly chopped and cut a pathway through the towering ridges . When McKinlay 's group returned to the main party a week later , the path forward had been advanced by only three miles ( 5 km ) , but the worst of the ridges had been overcome . Hadley claimed that the ridges were worse than anything he had seen in his long years of Arctic experience . The later stages of the journey were easier , as the group travelled over steadily smoother ice , and on 12 March they reached land , a long spit of sand stretching out from the northern shores of Wrangel Island .
= = Bartlett 's journey = =
Bartlett 's initial plan had been for the group to rest briefly on Wrangel Island and then to move on together to the Siberian coast . However , because three men — Mamen , Malloch and Maurer — were injured , and others were weak and frostbitten , Bartlett decided that the main party should remain on the island while he went for help taking only Kataktovik . The pair started off on 18 March , with seven dogs and provisions for 48 days ( 30 days for the dogs ) , and took an extended route round the island 's southern shores to look for signs of Anderson 's or Mackay 's parties . After finding nothing , they headed across the ice towards Siberia , but progress was slow over a surface that was frequently shifting and breaking up to form leads of open water . More time was lost digging out their provisions from the steadily drifting snow . As they drew nearer to the mainland , Kataktovik became nervous ; he had heard that the Alaskan Inuit were disliked in Siberia by the native Chukchi people , and feared for his life . Bartlett did his best to reassure him as they moved slowly forward .
On 4 April the pair reached land near Cape Jakan , west of Cape North on the northern Siberian coast . The presence of sledge marks in the snow showed they had landed in an inhabited area . They followed these tracks for a day , before arriving at a small Chukchi village . Here , contrary to Kataktovik 's fears , they were received hospitably , and given shelter and food . On 7 April they set out for East Cape and the villages on the Bering coast . Bartlett had not previously experienced such relentlessly cold weather , with blizzards , hurricane @-@ force winds , and temperatures often below − 50 ° C ( − 58 ° F ) . On the way they passed through other Chukchi villages , where Bartlett traded goods for necessary supplies — he exchanged his Colt revolver for a young , strong dog . Bartlett was touched by the kindness and generosity shown by many of those they encountered on the way , " typical of the true humanity of these kindly people " . On 24 April they arrived at Emma Town , a settlement a few miles west of East Cape . Bartlett calculated that in the 37 days since leaving Wrangel Island , he and Kataktovik had travelled about 700 miles ( 1 @,@ 100 km ) , all but the last stage on foot .
At Emma Town Bartlett met Baron Kleist , a distinguished Russian official who offered to take him to Emma Harbour on the coast , a week 's journey away , where he could look for a ship to Alaska . Bartlett accepted , and on 10 May , though still weak from his journey and an attack of tonsillitis , said goodbye to Kataktovik ( who was remaining for the time being in Emma Town ) , and set off with the baron . On the way they learned that Captain Pedersen was in the area . On 16 May they reached Emma Harbour ; five days later Pedersen arrived in the whaler Herman and , without delay , took Bartlett on board and set out for Alaska . They arrived off Nome on 24 May , but ice prevented them reaching the shore . After three days ' waiting they turned south , and landed at St Michael , where Bartlett was at last able to send a radio message to Ottawa informing the government of Karluk 's fate . He also made enquiries about the whereabouts of the United States revenue cutter Bear , which he saw as a possible rescue vessel for the stranded party .
= = On Wrangel Island = =
The landfall from Shipwreck Camp had been on the north side of Wrangel Island , at a spot which they named " Icy Spit " . Before his departure , Bartlett asked the party to set up several camps around the island , which would increase the hunting areas . The captain also felt that separation into smaller groups would assist general harmony by keeping incompatible characters apart . He wanted all groups to reassemble at Rodgers Harbor , on the south side of the island , about the middle of July .
However , dissension broke out almost immediately after Bartlett 's departure over the sharing of food . It had not been possible to drag all the supplies from Shipwreck Camp , and the trek had taken longer than expected ; consequently there were shortages of biscuit , pemmican ( a compound of dried meat , fat and sugar ) and dog food . There was little prospect of augmenting supplies by hunting birds and game until the weather improved in May or June . When Hadley and the Inuit , Kuraluk , returned from a seal hunt on the ice , Hadley was widely suspected of concealing the proceeds of the hunt for his own consumption ; the same pair were also accused of wasting scarce cooking oil . McKinlay records that the circumstances depressed morale and destroyed comradeship : " The misery and desperation of our situation multiplied every weakness , every quirk of personality , every flaw in character , a thousandfold . "
Two attempts were made to travel back to Shipwreck Camp to pick up extra food , but both failed , the second resulting in further losses of dogs and equipment . Chafe , whose feet had become gangrenous after severe frostbite , had his toes removed by second engineer Williamson , with improvised tools . McKinlay and Munro risked their lives by travelling over the sea ice towards Herald Island , in a final effort to locate either of the missing parties . They could get no nearer than 15 miles ( 24 km ) , and from an examination of the distant island through binoculars could see no indications of life .
Other health problems persisted ; Malloch 's frostbitten feet failed to heal , and Mamen 's knee , which he had dislocated during the days at Shipwreck Camp , troubled him continuously . A worrying illness began to affect many of the party , the general symptoms were swelling of the legs , ankles and other body parts , accompanied by acute lethargy . Malloch was the worst affected ; he died on 17 May , but his tent @-@ mate Mamen was too ill to see to his burial , so the body lay in the tent for several days , creating a " frightful smell " , until McKinlay arrived to help . Mamen himself died ten days later of the same debilitating disease .
From early June the diet was augmented with the appearance of birds . These birds and their eggs became a vital source of food ; as the supply of seal meat dwindled to nothing , the party was reduced to eating rotten flippers , hide , or any part of a seal that was remotely edible . The sharing of birds became another bone of contention ; according to Williamson " Wednesday last , [ Breddy and Chafe ] really obtained 6 eggs and 5 birds instead of 2 eggs and 4 birds as they reported . " Breddy was suspected of other thefts . On 25 June , after a gunshot was heard , Breddy was found dead in his tent . The circumstances of his death , whether accident , suicide or in Hadley 's view , murder ( with Williamson as the chief suspect ) could not be determined . Williamson later called Hadley 's suspicions " hallucinations and absolutely untrue . " Various items stolen from McKinlay were found among Breddy 's personal effects .
Despite the sombre outlook , the Canadian flag was raised at Rodgers Harbor on 1 July in honour of Dominion Day . Later in the month the party 's spirits improved when Kuraluk caught a 600 @-@ pound ( 270 kg ) walrus , which provided fresh meat for several days . As August came without sign of a ship and the weather began to turn wintry again , hopes of rescue fell ; the party began to prepare for another winter .
= = Rescue = =
The revenue cutter Bear arrived in St Michael , Alaska , midway through June . Her master , Captain Cochran , agreed to go to Wrangel Island as soon as he got permission from the United States government . It would be impossible , in any event , to attempt the rescue before mid @-@ July ; ice conditions in the Arctic that year were reported as severe . After receiving permission , Bear , with Bartlett aboard , left St Michael on 13 July ; the ship had many calls to make along the Alaskan coast before she could proceed with the rescue . On 5 August , at Port Hope , Bartlett met with Kataktovik and gave him his expedition wages and a new suit of clothing . At Point Barrow on 21 August Bartlett encountered Burt McConnell , Stefansson 's erstwhile secretary , who gave details of Stefansson 's movements after leaving Karluk the previous September . In April 1914 , McConnell reported , Stefansson had headed north with two companions , searching for new lands .
McConnell left Point Barrow for Nome aboard King and Winge , an American @-@ registered walrus hunter , while Bear finally sailed for Wrangel Island . On 25 August Bear was stopped by ice 20 miles ( 32 km ) from the island , and after failing to force a way through , Cochran had to return to Nome for more coal — a decision which , says Bartlett , gave him " days to try a man 's soul " . Back in Nome Bartlett met Olaf Swenson , who had chartered King and Winge for the season and was about to sail for Siberia . Bartlett requested that , if possible , King and Winge stop by Wrangel Island and look for the stranded Karluk party . Bear left Nome on 4 September , a few days after Swenson 's ship . King and Winge , with McConnell still aboard , reached Wrangel Island on 7 September . That morning the group at Rodgers Harbor were awakened early in the morning by the sound of a ship 's whistle , and found King and Winge lying a quarter of a mile offshore . They were rapidly transferred to the ship , which then picked up the remainder of the stranded party who were camped along the coast at Cape Waring . By the afternoon all 14 survivors were aboard .
After a futile attempt to approach Herald Island , the ship began the journey back to Alaska ; next day she encountered Bear , with Bartlett aboard . McConnell records that the party were unanimous in their desire to remain with the ship that had effected their rescue , but Bartlett ordered them aboard Bear . Before returning to Alaska , Bear made a final attempt to reach Herald Island ; ice limited their approach to 12 miles ( 19 km ) , and they saw no signs of life . The reunited party arrived at Nome on 13 September , to a great welcome from the local population .
= = Aftermath = =
Bartlett , celebrated as a hero by press and public , was honoured for " outstanding bravery " by the Royal Geographical Society . However , he was later censured by an admiralty commission for taking Karluk into the ice , and for allowing Mackay 's party to leave the main group — despite the letter that Mackay and the others had signed , absolving the captain from responsibility . Stefansson , too , was privately critical of Bartlett 's conduct . Bartlett resumed his career at sea , and over the next 30 years led many more excursions to the Arctic . During the Second World War he carried out surveying and supply work for the Allies ; he died , aged 70 , in April 1946 . His account of the Karluk disaster , published in 1916 , makes no direct criticism of Stefansson or anyone else ; Niven records , however , that to his friends Bartlett was highly uncomplimentary about his former leader .
In 1918 Stefansson returned after four years ' absence , reporting the discovery of three new islands . He was honoured by the National Geographical Society , received tributes from polar veterans such as Peary and Adolphus Greely , and was given the presidency of the Explorers Club of New York . In Canada his reception was more muted ; there were questions relating to the overall costs of the expedition , its poor initial organisation , and his handling of the Southern Party which , under Rudolph Anderson , completed its work independently of Stefansson . Anderson and other members of the Southern Party later petitioned the Canadian government to investigate statements made by Stefansson in his 1921 book The Friendly Arctic , which they felt reflected poorly on their honour . The request was declined on the ground that " no good could come of the enquiry . " In his book Stefansson takes responsibility for the " bold " decision to take Karluk into the ice rather than hugging the coast on the way to Herschel Island , and accepts that he " chose the wrong alternative " . However , McKinlay felt that the book gave an inaccurate account of the Karluk voyage and its consequences , " putting the blame ... on everyone but Vilhjalmur Stefansson . " The historian Tom Henighan believes that McKinlay 's biggest complaint against his leader was that " Stefansson never at any time seemed able to express an appropriate sorrow over his lost men . " Stefansson , who never returned to the Arctic , died in 1962 at the age of 82 .
The fate of First Officer Alexander Anderson 's party remained unknown until 1924 , when an American vessel landed at Herald Island and found human remains , with supplies of food , clothing , ammunition and equipment . From these artefacts it was established that this was Anderson 's party . No cause of death was established , though the plentiful unconsumed supplies ruled out starvation . One theory was that the tent had blown away in a storm and that the party had frozen to death . Another was carbon monoxide poisoning within the tent .
The mystery illness which affected most of the Wrangel Island party and accelerated the deaths of Malloch and Mamen was later diagnosed as a form of nephritis brought about by eating faulty pemmican . Stefansson explained this by saying that " our pemmican makers has failed us through supplying us with a product deficient in fat . " Peary had emphasised that a polar explorer should " give his personal , constant and insistent attention " to the making of his pemmican ; McKinlay believed that Stefansson had devoted too much time selling the idea of the expedition , and too little ensuring the quality of the food that its members would depend upon .
Of the survivors , Hadley continued working for the Canadian Arctic Expedition , becoming second officer and later master of the supply ship Polar Bear . He died of influenza , in San Francisco in 1918 . Hadley and McConnell wrote accounts of their experiences for Stefansson , who incorporated them in The Friendly Arctic . Chafe also wrote and published a short account . Most of the others quickly returned to relative obscurity , but in 1922 Fred Maurer was persuaded by Stefansson to join an attempt to colonise Wrangel Island . To the embarrassment of the Canadian government , Stefansson insisted on going ahead , even though Wrangel Island was indisputably part of what had then become the Soviet Union . A party of five , including Maurer , was sent to the island ; only one , an Inuit woman Ada Blackjack , survived . Despite their ordeal , many of the Karluk survivors lived long lives ; Williamson , who declined to speak or write of his experiences in the Arctic , lived to be 97 , dying in Victoria , Canada , in 1975 . McKinlay died in 1983 , aged 95 , having published his account of the expedition in 1976 . Kuraluk , Kuruk and their daughters , Helen and Mugpi , returned to their former life at Point Barrow . The two girls , says Pálsson , had provided " important sources of cheer at the darkest moments . " Mugpi , who later was known as Ruth Makpii Ipalook , became the very last survivor of the Karluk voyage , dying in 2008 after a full life , aged 97 .
= = Published voyage accounts = =
Six first @-@ hand accounts of Karluk 's last voyage have been published . These include Stefansson 's account which only covers the June to September 1913 period . Expedition secretary Burt McConnell wrote an account of the Wrangel Island rescue which was published in The New York Times , 15 September 1914 . A version of McConnell 's account appears in Stefansson 's book .
= Ebenezer Avery House =
The Ebenezer Avery House was originally located on Latham Street and Thames Street in Groton , Connecticut , United States . The date of the house 's construction is unknown , but it is believed to be from the 1760s and it was the house of Ebenezer Avery . The Ebenezer Avery House was the location where the British brought the injured soldiers after the Battle of Groton Heights on September 6 , 1781 . In 1971 , the house was moved to Fort Griswold Battlefield State Park in Groton and restored . Though it stands in a state park , the historic house museum continues to be maintained by the Avery Memorial Association .
= = History = =
Constructed around the 1760s , the Ebenezer Avery House is a 10 @-@ room house was owned by Ensign Ebenezer Avery . It was originally located on Latham Street and Thames Street in Groton , Connecticut . Avery was a tailor that answered the call for battle on September 6 , 1781 and went to defend of Fort Griswold from British attack . The Battle of Groton Heights ended with the American defeat and the deaths of its leader , Lieutenant Colonel William Ledyard and resulted in nearly 100 families being left homeless and much of the town 's waterfront .
Part of the Ebenezer Avery House history is how it came to be used after the battle while its owner was absent . Some of the wounded from the battle , those unable to walk , including Stephen Hempstead , were taken prisoner and placed on a wagon with others to be taken down to the fleet . The British men allowed the wagon to run down the hill , where it stopped when it struck a tree , throwing some of the men off the wagon and aggravated their injuries .
The wounded were set upon the beach in preparation for the boat trip to New York , but Ebenezer Ledyard , the brother of William Ledyard , offered himself as hostage . The British took the wounded to Ebenezer Avery 's house and placed Ebenezer Avery and other wounded inside and had them " parolled " . The house was later set on fire with the men inside and " with difficulty extinguished " . In the battle , Avery was shot in the neck " which cut the cords , and left him senseless as one of the dead . " Hempstead said that thirty @-@ five men had been laid upon the floor and the British left them , unattended and uncovered , until Dr. Downer and Dr. Prentiss arrived . Ebenezer Avery recovered , but lost his hearing , and continued to live in the house until his death on January 11 , 1828 at age 81 . The blood stains were still visible at the time of the centennial of the battle in 1881 , but no longer are present . In 1896 , the Thomas Starr Society placed a memorial tablet on the site .
= = Move and restoration = =
In 1970 , the Ebenezer Avery House was in danger of being torn down to construct apartments and it was purchased by R. Stanton Avery . R. Stanton Avery purchased the property with the intention of turning it over to the Avery Memorial Association . Edwin Park , an architect , assessed the house as in need of extensive reconstruction and the association discussed the plan to move the house to Fort Griswold Battlefield State Park . A meeting held on the association on July 24 , 1971 , was held to discuss the movement plan which involved disassembling and reassembling the house at its new location . The project to move the house was a shared cost between R. Stanton Avery and the Avery Memorial Association . By the 1972 meeting , the total cost of the relocation was $ 43 @,@ 000 and the act provoked interest from the State of Connecticut . The house was donated to the State of Connecticut for use as a historic house museum .
In 1973 , the association debated over the sale of land to cover costs of restoring and maintaining the Ebenezer Avery House . The total cost of the move was listed at $ 80 @,@ 000 with an expected $ 3000 per year and the intention was to serve have enough income generated by interest to cover the cost of the house . The Association owned 1 @.@ 3 acres , but would reserve the .3 acre upon which the Avery Monument is located . In May 1975 , the Ebenezer Avery House was opened after being restored to its " original condition " and filled with period items including Lieutenant Ebenezer Avery 's sword , a cousin of Ensign Ebenezer Avery , killed in the Battle of Groton Heights . According to Leary , bricks from the Fitz @-@ John Winthrop house , located in Bluff Point State Park were reclaimed and used to reconstruct the chimney of the Ebenezer Avery House . Fitz @-@ John Winthrop 's house was a sixteen room mansion that fell into disrepair before being destroyed by a fire in 1962 .
As of 2014 , the Ebenezer Avery House is opened from Memorial Day weekend through Labor Day weekend from 12 : 00 p.m. to 4 : 00 p.m. on Fridays , Saturdays and Sundays .
= Goodman Beaver =
Goodman Beaver is a comics character created by American cartoonist Harvey Kurtzman . Goodman is a naive and optimistic Candide @-@ like character , oblivious to the corruption and degeneration around him , and whose stories were vehicles for biting social satire and pop culture parody . Except for the character 's first appearance , which Kurtzman did alone , the stories were written by Kurtzman and drawn by Will Elder .
Goodman first appeared in a story in Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book in 1959 ; the best @-@ remembered were the five strips the Kurtzman – Elder team produced in 1961 – 62 for the Kurtzman @-@ edited magazine Help ! They tend to be in the parodic style Kurtzman developed when he wrote and edited Mad in the 1950s , but with more pointed , adult @-@ oriented satire and much more refined and detailed artwork on Elder 's part , filled with numerous visual gags .
The best @-@ known of the Goodman Beaver stories is " Goodman Goes Playboy " ( 1962 ) . A satire on the hedonistic lifestyle of Hugh Hefner using parodies of Archie comics characters , whose publisher threatened a lawsuit . The issue was settled out of court , and the copyright for the story passed to Archie Comics . Hefner , the actual target of the strip , found it amusing . Kurtzman and Elder developed a female version of Goodman Beaver for Playboy magazine called Little Annie Fanny ( 1962 – 88 ) .
= = Overview = =
Goodman Beaver is a naïve and optimistic character , oblivious to the degeneration around him . According to Kurtzman , the character was partially inspired by Voltaire 's Candide and Harold Gray 's comic strip character Little Orphan Annie , who , like Goodman , was drawn with blank circles for eyes . Art critic Greil Marcus compares Goodman to Young Goodman Brown in Nathaniel Hawthorne 's tale of the same name — both are pure @-@ souled characters who become disillusioned by the depravity they confront in the world .
Kurtzman wrote five Goodman Beaver stories for his long @-@ time collaborator Will Elder . Most of the stories were in the parodic style Kurtzman had developed as the creator , editor , and writer of Mad , but dealt with more significant issues concerning modernity . Published in the Kurtzman @-@ edited Help ! in the early 1960s , they were drawn in Elder 's " chickenfat " style , in which he crammed every panel with humorous detail and throwaway gags . Elder cited the Flemish Pieter Bruegel the Elder and the Spanish Diego Velázquez as influences on this style .
= = Stories = =
= = = " The Organization Man in the Gray Flannel Executive Suit " = = =
As an editor hired by Schlock Publications Inc . , Goodman loses his youthful idealism when awash in the sea of avarice and selfishness he encounters in the publishing world . In this story Kurtzman used his own personal experiences to satirize the corrupting influence of capitalism and power . Goodman finds himself groping the secretaries , just as the other cynical executives at Schlock do , and ends up stealing from the company .
Goodman was a semi @-@ autobiographical character , reflecting Kurtzman 's disillusioning experiences in the publishing industry . Kurtzman 's artwork is in an exaggerated cartoon style with round , fluid , elongated characters rendered with loose , fluid , and sketchy brushwork and gray wash . Dialogue is in an expressive , handwriting @-@ like style . Kurtzman blends the verbal and visual aspects of the work — for example , when an enraged Goodman Beaver confronts his diminutive boss Mr. Schlock , Goodman is graphically overwhelmed by Schlock 's word balloons , which demonstrates Goodman 's helpless subservience and Schlock 's effortless psychological dominance over his employees .
= = = " Goodman Meets T * rz * n " = = =
" Goodman Meets T * rz * n " first appeared in the September 1961 issue of Help ! , and was Elder 's first take on Goodman Beaver . Set against the backdrop of the fall of European colonialism in the face of the rise of African nationalism , such as in the Kenyan Mau @-@ Mau Uprising , and the spread of the Soviet sphere of influence , the story throws a modern 1960s spin on the romance of jungle adventure as exemplified by the Tarzan tales . Kurtzman sends up T * rz * n 's attitude of superiority , as when T * rz * n ( Tarzan ) confronts an African tribe , or when J * ne ( Jane ) gives T * rz * n basic English lessons .
Elder 's first efforts had Goodman depicted with more monkey @-@ like features — thick , black eyebrows , a large mouth , and small jaw and chin . Kurtzman and Elder desired to have a more " lovable " Goodman , so Elder reworked Goodman 's appearance in later stories , redrawing Goodman 's features to conform with this new look for later reprintings of the " Goodman Meets T * rz * n " story .
= = = " Goodman Goes Playboy " = = =
Help ! ' s most famous story was " Goodman Goes Playboy " , first published in the February 1962 issue of Help ! The story satirized Hugh Hefner and his lifestyle while parodying Archie comics in a much more outlandish way than Kurtzman 's parody " Starchie " in Mad a decade earlier . Kurtzman called this his favorite Goodman Beaver story , and said that Hefner would point people to it when he wanted to explain to people what Kurtzman 's work was about .
Goodman has returned to his hometown , and the Archie characters , home from college , are drinking , partying , skirt @-@ chasing hedonists . Jughead is a beatnik , and the others are leading glamorous lifestyles . Archie Andrews parody Archer explains to a behind @-@ the @-@ times Goodman , " You 've been away too long . Nowadays , the gang is interested mainly in hip @-@ ness — awareness " , rather than keeping up with how the football team is doing . Archer shows Goodman to his place , which must be entered through a staircase built into an enormous statue of a female abdomen . Archer leads Goodman to a Roman @-@ style orgy and has him change into a toga . The party is Archer 's last , as he reveals he has signed a pact with the Devil , and the debt ( Archer 's soul ) was due that night .
" Goodman Goes Playboy " appeared in altered form in the book collection Executive 's Comic Book in 1962 : in the orgy scene the exposed nipples were covered with white ink and the parody Archie characters were altered to obscure the resemblance to characters they were based on in a failed attempt to escape legal action from Archie 's publishers .
= = = " Goodman , Underwater " = = =
While trying to enjoy a book as he floats in a swim ring off a crowded beach , Goodman is interrupted by undersea adventurer Hammer Nelson , who invites Goodman to help him fight underwater crime . Don Quixote @-@ like , the overeager Nelson sees crime where there is none , interrupting swimmers and boaters at play . The pair set out to find a Russian submarine — and find one , but Nelson mistakes it for a monster to be subdued with his speargun . Goodman realizes Nelson 's insanity , abandons the adventurer , and returns to his book .
Framed within the story of Don Quixote , " Goodman , Underwater " satirizes Cold War tensions and sets out to deflate the deluded ideals of do @-@ gooders while parodying the 1960s television series Sea Hunt , which starred Lloyd Bridges as Mike Nelson . The illustrations that bookend the story are from 19th @-@ century French artist Gustave Doré 's Don Quixote illustrations . The story first appeared in Help ! # 14 ( May 1962 ) .
= = = " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " = = =
In " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " , Goodman stumbles across the superhero on a fishing trip . S * perm * n ( Superman ) has gone into hiding from society , sporting a beard and moccasins . He no longer has the desire to help a society he has lost faith in , and which criticizes him for his good deeds . Goodman takes him back to the city to prove that society is still full of good people . While in the city , Goodman encounters an old woman being attacked by a knife @-@ wielding maniac . Goodman flees in terror , but is stopped by S * perm * n who reveals himself as the old woman in disguise — he had been testing Goodman 's selflessness . S * perm * n is horrified and disappointed by the degeneration and corruption he sees in the city , and abandons society again .
First published in Help ! # 15 ( August 1962 ) , Elder described " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " and its detailed splash page as " Marx Brothers on paper . You never knew what to expect " , referring to the busy wealth of gags it was filled with . With artwork by Wally Wood , Kurtzman first parodied Superman in " Superduperman " in the fourth issue of Mad in 1953 .
= = = " Goodman Gets a Gun " = = =
Goodman attends a pool party in his hometown Riverdale , fresh from joining the police force . He spots the popular Liz Taylbone , with whom he had been smitten since high school , but he is too passive and timid to draw her attention . After watching a Marlon Brando movie on TV in the lounge he is infused with courage and returns to the party imitating Brando 's attitude and mannerisms . He draws the attention of Liz Taylbone and the crowd , but not for his Brando impression as he thinks — rather , they are impressed to learn that , as an off @-@ duty police officer , Goodman is carrying a pistol . The group coaxes him into going with them to a night club known for its rough clientele . When the rough crowd arrives , Goodman 's group expects the gun to serve as their protection — until Goodman lets them know his newfound self @-@ confidence drove him to quit the police force two hours earlier . The group abandons Goodman to a thrashing by the thugs .
" Goodman Gets a Gun " appeared first in Help ! # 16 ( November 1962 ) . It was the only Elder @-@ drawn story not to appear in the Executive 's Comic Book collection of 1962 .
= = Publication history = =
Goodman Beaver made his first appearance in Harvey Kurtzman 's Jungle Book in 1959 , in " The Organization Man in the Gray Flannel Executive Suit " . Jungle Book was the first American book of original comics , a mass @-@ market paperback that was the first in a planned series . The book sold poorly , but has been a favorite among Kurtzman fans .
The first Elder @-@ drawn Goodman story appeared in Help ! # 12 in 1961 and was followed in 1962 with four more stories in Help ! # 13 – 16 . A Goodman Beaver collection called Executive 's Comic Book appeared in 1962 from Macfadden Books . In this paperback collection of four stories — " Goodman Meets T * rz * n " , " Goodman Goes Playboy " , " Goodman , Underwater " , and " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " — the strips were reformatted to one panel per page . Elder extended the artwork of each panel to fit the page dimensions .
Kurtzman approached Hugh Hefner in 1960 with the idea of a comic strip feature for Playboy that would star Goodman Beaver . Until then , Playboy had printed many cartoons , but not a comic strip . After exchanging ideas with Hefner the project was approved , but Goodman Beaver was required to be transformed into a voluptuous female . Kurtzman brought in Will Elder as his primary collaborator on Little Annie Fanny .
In 1984 Kitchen Sink Press published a collection called Goodman Beaver , which reprinted four Kurtzman – Elder stories from Help ! — all the Elder @-@ drawn stories except for " Goodman Goes Playboy " , which appeared only in short excerpts permitted by fair use exemptions under US copyright law . The book reprinted the elongated versions of those strips that had appeared in Executive 's Comic Book . Original artwork for 38 of the 139 reproduced panels were lost ; according to Kurtzman , several pages were sent to French magazine Charlie Hebdo for translation and never returned . Kitchen Sink used proofs , photostats , or original magazine appearances for sources from which to reproduce the missing panels .
= = = List of original appearances = = =
= = Reception and legacy = =
Kurtzman had avoided drawing legal fire from the litigious DC Comics and Edgar Rice Burroughs , Inc. when he parodied their copyrighted properties , but the saturnalian depictions of the Archie characters in " Goodman Goes Playboy " provoked legal action from Archie publisher John L. Goldwater , who had earlier played a role in founding the comics industry 's self @-@ censorship body , the Comics Magazine Association of America .
Help ! publisher Jim Warren received a letter on 6 December 1961 accusing the magazine of copyright infringement and demanding removal of the offending issue from newsstands . Warren 's lawyer believed they could succeed if they fought the suit , but the legal costs would make it a " Pyrrhic victory " , and thus recommended settling out of court . Warren could not have the magazine recalled , but he agreed to pay Archie Comics $ 1000 and ran a note of apology in a subsequent issue of Help ! — the August 1962 issue , in which appeared another character franchise parody , " Goodman Meets S * perm * n " . Warren 's action disappointed Kurtzman , who felt that giving in to such censorship set a " terrible precedent " , and amounted to a kind of prostitution .
When the story was reprinted in the book collection Executive Comic Book in 1962 , Elder modified the artwork to obscure the appearance of the Archie characters . Archie Comics found the characters ' appearances still too close to their copyrighted properties and threatened another lawsuit . Kurtzman and Elder settled out of court by handing over the copyright to the story . Archie Comics held on to the copyright and refused to allow the story to be republished .
The actual target of " Goodman Goes Playboy " had been Hefner , who loved it . Kurtzman began working for Hefner again soon afterwards . The strip Kurtzman produced , Little Annie Fanny , is often thought of as a compromise — virtuosic in its visuals , but lacking in content in comparison to the Goodman Beaver stories . R. Fiore and other commentators have considered this ironic in light of the Faustian theme of " Goodman Goes Playboy " .
In June 1983 Denis Kitchen requested the right to reprint the story as part of a planned Goodman Beaver collection . Archie Enterprises chairman Michael J. Silberkleit responded that publishing a story that included the likenesses of the Archie characters would be " a serious breach of copyright and trademark law " . When the company learned that Kitchen planned to publish the story with the pages reduced in size and the characters ' faces blacked out , Archie Enterprises threatened another lawsuit , and Kitchen dropped the story from the collection , which appeared in 1984 . Kitchen went as far as to have the book 's cover redone , as the planned one had incorporated a " Goodman Goes Playboy " panel in the background .
Publisher and critic Gary Groth wrote that Elder 's artwork in the Goodman Beaver stories " clinched his reputation as the cartoon Brueghel [ sic ] with his intricate portraits of a world cheerfully going mad " . Elder considered the stories to be the funniest of his collaborations with Kurtzman , though he said that towards the end of the run he was getting tired of the painstaking work he put into the drawings . The stories placed sixty @-@ fourth on The Comics Journal 's " Top 100 English @-@ Language Comics of the Century " in 1999 , along with four other works with which Kurtzman was involved . Late @-@ 1990s talk of a Goodman Beaver feature film or television series circulated , but the Kurtzman estate was uninterested .
After Comics Journal co @-@ owner Gary Groth discovered that Archie Comics had let the copyright on " Goodman Goes Playboy " expire , he had the story reprinted in The Comics Journal # 262 ( September 2004 ) . It was also made available as a PDF file on the magazine 's website . The story has yet to appear in any reprint collection since the lapse of copyright .
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= Marionette ( Fringe ) =
" Marionette " is the ninth episode of the third season of the American science fiction drama television series Fringe . The episode was co @-@ written by Monica Owusu @-@ Breen and Alison Schapker , and directed by Joe Chappelle . It followed a series of organ recipients being tracked down and having their donated organs removed , all in a scientist 's attempt to resurrect his deceased love interest , whose organs were donated to the victims . Meanwhile , Olivia ( Anna Torv ) copes with the consequences of being back in the prime universe .
The episode first aired on December 9 , 2010 in the United States to an estimated 4 @.@ 74 million viewers . " Marionette " was the series ' winter finale , as well as the last episode to air on Thursdays in the US . It received generally positive reviews . Many critics praised Torv 's portrayal of Olivia after her recent trauma , as well as the aftereffects of Fauxlivia 's deception , as realistic and well @-@ acted .
= = Plot = =
Olivia ( Anna Torv ) has recovered from her ordeal of being trapped in the parallel universe and has rejoined the Fringe team , while others on the team , particularly Peter ( Joshua Jackson ) , struggle with the idea that the parallel universe 's Olivia , Fauxlivia , had successfully pretended to be Olivia . Throughout the episode , Olivia is shown to be struggling emotionally with knowing that Fauxlivia has lived in her apartment and has slept with Peter .
The team is called to the home of a man whose heart was removed through a makeshift operation . They learn that not only did someone call for emergency help shortly after the heart 's removal , but the man was found alive by the emergency response team well after his heart was removed , though he eventually died by the time Fringe arrived . Walter ( John Noble ) and Peter recognize scars on the blood vessels leading to the heart , identifying the victim as one that received a heart transplant . During the autopsy at the lab , Walter concludes that a serum was used to prolong the victim 's life well after the heart 's removal , a chemical based on his own past research into life restoration .
A second victim is found , this time a man whose eyes have been removed by forced surgery . Again , they discover the eyes were obtained from organ donation , and they find a connection to a woman called Amanda ( Anja Savcic ) , a ballerina who had committed suicide . They also note the care that the culprit performed the work , and speculate that the person they are looking for is showing some compassion for his victims , calling for emergency help and using the serum to hope that they are given the proper care in time . They find that Amanda 's alleged cremated remains are bogus , and that her body had been stolen before it could be cremated . They start to trace connections to Amanda , finding she was in a depression counseling support group . Though there are several possible suspects , Olivia 's intuition leads her to a man named Roland David Barrett ( Mark Ivanir ) , who was noted to have become enamored with Amanda at the meetings . At Roland 's home , he has recovered the corpse and surgically replaced the organs in her body . Using a makeshift set of ropes and pulleys , Roland engages Amanda 's body in a marionette act to make her perform like a ballerina , promising her he will bring her back to life .
As the Fringe division sets out to Roland 's home , Roland injects Amanda 's body with more of the serum , and she is brought back to life . By the time Fringe arrives , Roland gives himself up willingly , and they find Amanda dead again . Roland explains that though she was alive , when he looked into her eyes , he realized she wasn 't the same person and thus terminated the process . As Roland and Amanda 's body are taken away , Olivia breaks down in front of Peter ; she questions that if Roland could tell that Amanda wasn 't the same person by looking at her eyes , why couldn 't Peter do the same with Fauxlivia ? Peter is unable to answer her , and a distressed Olivia leaves on her own . As Walter takes Peter to get a milkshake , the two are identified by an Observer , who reports on his phone that " he is still alive " .
= = Production = =
The episode was co @-@ written by co @-@ executive producers Alison Schapker and Monica Owusu @-@ Breen , while being directed by executive producer Joe Chappelle . When asked why they chose " Marionette " and not the previous episode " Entrada " as the mid @-@ season finale , co @-@ showrunners Jeff Pinkner and J. H. Wyman stated they were more interested in consequences , such as the repercussions of having both Olivias back in their own worlds . Pinkner explained , " We 're always more interested in the ' And then what ? ' After ' Entrada , ' what are the consequences of what we witnessed for the first eight episodes ? We very much wanted to play that before the break . "
Pinkner and Wyman summarized the episode in an interview , " The headline here is ' Picking up the pieces . ' Olivia 's had this real Rip Van Winkle experience ; while she was away , life went on without her . Now she 's back and she 's going to find out what happened while she was gone . It 's going to shatter her " . In a conference call interview , Pinkner and Wyman further described the episode as " pretty fantastic " because " it 's one of our most cinematic episodes " . " Marionette " ended the episode arc begun in the season premiere , where one episode would take place entirely in one universe and then the following episode would alternate to the other ; now Fringe would take place entirely in the prime universe , something that Pinkner deemed " less predictable " for viewers .
The episode featured onetime guest appearances by Mark Ivanir as the puppeteer Roland David Barrett , Anja Savcic as the dead ballerina Amanda Walsh , Barbara Tyson as her mother Mrs. Walsh , Michael Bean as Grant Russo , Genevieve Buechner as Tabatha , and Elizabeth McLaughlin as Dr. Alexandra Ross . Actor John Noble believed Barrett to be " very gifted . " Recurring guest star Michael Cerveris also appeared as the Observer .
Noble tweeted live during the episode as part of a special promotion . A week after " Marionette " aired , Fox came out with a promotional video meant to reassure Fringe fans that the show 's move to Friday did not automatically mean it was on the road to being canceled . The new video featured the message " You May Think Friday Is Dead … But We 're Gonna Reanimate It , " a reference to the resurrection plot in " Marionette " . As with other Fringe episodes , Fox released a science lesson plan in collaboration with Science Olympiad for grade school children , focusing on the science seen in " Marionette " , with the intention of having " students learn about 3 @-@ dimensional protein models and how their use allows scientists to predict biological behavior . "
Lead actress Anna Torv later cited two scenes in " Marionette " of which she was most proud of during her time on Fringe . The first was Olivia 's discovery that Peter was sleeping with Fauxlivia and her reaction — going through all of her clothes in disgust ; the second related to her comment to Peter that she couldn 't " believe that you didn 't know it was me . " Torv explained , " The reason I love those scenes is because it ’ s really easy to be great in your own bedroom [ rehearsing ] , but when you get on set you have so many different obstacles . The scene with Peter and me outside was done at like 1 : 30 in the morning , in the middle of town , so we had piles of drunk people screaming up and down the street , and massive fire engines and trucks coming through … . We 're doing this quiet scene where I have to cry and we 're on the clock , but that ’ s what TV teaches you - – to just go with it very quickly . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Marionette " first aired on December 9 , 2010 in the United States on the Fox network . It was watched by an estimated 4 @.@ 74 million viewers , with a 2 @.@ 8 / 4 rating among all households and a 1 @.@ 7 / 5 ratings for viewers 18 @-@ 49 . Time shifted viewing increased the episode 's ratings by 53 percent among adults , resulting in a rise from 1 @.@ 7 to 2 @.@ 6 . This was the largest increase of the week in time @-@ shifting viewers . It was Fringe 's winter finale , with the next episode airing January 21 , 2011 . " Marionette " was the last episode to air in its Thursday timeslot , as the series moved to Fridays in the US .
= = = Reviews = = =
The episode received critical acclaim . Ken Tucker from Entertainment Weekly wrote that despite the " burden " placed on " Marionette " because of its timing , " by now , the series is so sure of its tone , its surging story @-@ telling power , that it more than met its challenges " . Tucker believed the show had become " exhilaratingly fearless " by pulling in the many references from literature , movies and other sources , and also thought that Olivia 's reaction to the Peter @-@ Fauxlivia relationship " felt right " . The A.V. Club 's Noel Murray gave the episode an A , explaining that he felt the episode was " very strong " and " was especially impressed with how Fringe handled the Olivia / Peter relationship " . Television Without Pity graded the episode a B. Andrew Hanson from the Los Angeles Times called the episode " the perfect epilogue to that first chapter , " explaining :
" I ’ ve always wanted to see more of what happens after the ending of a big action movie . Sure , we ’ ve defeated the evil alien mothership and saved mankind , but all our cities are blown up . Or we ’ ve fallen in love while escaping the malfunctioning homicidal robots , but whose side are we spending Christmas with ? It isn ’ t often that you get to see how people move on from these huge events , but “ Marionette ” gives us just that . Bundled with a retelling of the quintessential horror / sci fi story " .
Like Ken Tucker , Hanson also loved how Olivia coped with someone posing as herself , saying that it made her seem like an " honest , real woman " . Despite not typically liking " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episodes , James Poniewozik of Time Magazine thought it " did quite a good job using the case to tell the story of the tension between Peter and Olivia , and the emotional aftermath of returning to a life someone else has borrowed " . Rhea Dee of Pinkraygun.com almost entirely focused on Olivia 's reactions to being back in the prime universe . Dee praised the realistic tone , writing that normally in other shows she was used to the female character being " annoying " after trauma , but " not once in this episode did I feel like Olivia ’ s emotions were irrational " .
The staff of Open Salon.com enjoyed the episode , writing " While I enjoyed the last eight weeks of alternate universe hijinks , this week 's episode reminded me of what I had been missing from the earlier seasons ... It 's nice to know we 'll be back with our good old regular Earth @-@ 1 team for the foreseeable future . Overall , this week was really well done - very effectively creepy , well directed and plotted with just the right about of gore to make you jump " . Jeff Jensen of Entertainment Weekly named " Marionette " the eleventh best episode of the series , calling it " a strong , disturbing outing that was part of Fringe 's mid @-@ series peak , in which the show found its best storytelling voice by crafting strange , emotionally resonant case @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week plots that thematically paralleled the ongoing character arcs in ways that felt organic , not contrived . " In a similar 2013 list , Den of Geek ranked the episode as the third best of the entire series .
= = = Awards and nominations = = =
Anna Torv submitted " Marionette " , along with the season three episodes " Olivia " , " Entrada " , and Bloodline " for consideration in the Outstanding Lead Actress in a Drama Series category at the 63rd Primetime Emmy Awards . She failed to receive a nomination .
= Bolshoy Ice Dome =
The Bolshoy Ice Dome ( Russian : Большой Ледовый дворец ) is an indoor arena located in Olympic Park , Sochi , Russia . Opened in 2012 , the 12 @,@ 000 @-@ seat arena was primarily constructed to host hockey competitions during the 2014 Winter Olympics . Following the Games , it became the home arena of HC Sochi , an expansion team of the KHL . The arena has also hosted concerts and other events . Prior to the Games , the arena hosted the IIHF World U18 Championships and Channel One Cup in 2013 .
The arena 's exterior is distinguished by its LED @-@ illuminated roof , which its designers described as resembling fabergé eggs and frozen water droplets
= = Name and location = =
The arena was named " Bolshoy " , meaning " major " or " great " in Russian . This highlights the integral role of ice hockey at the Olympics , which has been dubbed " the most popular sport " of the Games by the organizers themselves . Furthermore , the name was chosen due to its universal familiarity in other countries , in addition to its allusion to the Bolshoi Theatre , Bolshoi Ballet , and other great Russian accomplishments .
The Ice Dome was situated in the Coastal Cluster zone of venues for the 2014 Winter Olympics . It served as the main arena for the men and women 's ice hockey tournament throughout the Games . It is the only venue in the Olympic Park located on top of a hill , and is less than 1 @,@ 000 feet ( 300 m ) away from Shayba Arena , which was the secondary ice hockey venue that hosted mainly preliminary round matches .
= = Structure and facilities = =
The construction of the Bolshoy Ice Dome started in 2009 and finished in 2012 . It was designed by architect firm Mostovik and completed at a cost of approximately US $ 180 million , although ITAR @-@ TASS estimated the cost to be as high as $ 300 million . A total of 20 architects and 70 engineers – headed by Andrey Ustinov – were responsible for the construction of the arena .
The exterior structure of the Ice Dome was designed to resemble a frozen ice droplet . It has also drawn comparisons to a Fabergé egg , due to the light @-@ emitting diodes ( LEDs ) resembling the " jewel @-@ encrusted surface " of the famous Russian art piece . Ustinov confirmed that the building was designed to be " a combination of both . " The roof of the dome is mostly silver in colour and is covered with aluminium panels . It is decorated with 38 @,@ 000 LED lights which illuminate the outside of the arena at night . The roof also doubles as a scoreboard that displays the live score of the game being played inside and an animation of a hockey puck whenever a goal is scored . However , it famously did not display the final score after the United States defeated the hosts Russia 3 – 2 in an overtime shootout during the 2014 Winter Olympics .
In the arena 's interior , the 12 @,@ 000 seats are arranged in bowl @-@ like configuration . The concourse features 35 @,@ 000 square feet ( 3 @,@ 300 m2 ) of glazed glass , which enables spectators to have a view of the Caucasus Mountains . The hockey rink 's dimensions are 60 metres ( 200 ft ) × 30 metres ( 98 ft ) , in line with the International Ice Hockey Federation ( IIHF ) specifications . This contrasts with the dimensions of the previous Olympics , which utilized National Hockey League ( NHL ) sized rinks that are 4 metres ( 13 ft ) narrower in width . It contains 12 dressing rooms for players , an entry tunnel that can be accessed by large vehicles , and a practice ice rink . Moreover , the Ice Dome uses heat transfer fluids on the ice and in the air conditioning system . This helps to preserve the quality of the ice , as well as moderate the temperature within the arena so that spectators are kept warm while maintaining the coolness of the ice . These technologies – along with the arena 's insulation – were developed by the Dow Chemical Company , one of the official sponsors of the Olympic Games .
= = Events = =
In order to test the arenas built for the Olympics , the Bolshoy Ice Dome served as one of the venues for the 2013 IIHF World U18 Championships . It subsequently held the Channel One Cup from 19 – 22 December 2013 in final preparation before the start of the Games . As the main venue for the 2014 Olympic ice hockey competition , the Ice Dome hosted most of the preliminary round games and almost all the playoff round matches for the men 's tournament , while hosting solely the medal matches of the women 's tournament . On February 20 , it held the gold medal match for the women 's tournament , which saw Canada overcome a 0 – 2 deficit against the United States to tie the game with less than a minute of regulation time remaining , before scoring in overtime to secure their fourth consecutive Olympic gold medal . The arena hosted the gold medal game of the men 's tournament three days later on 23 February – the final gold medal of the 2014 Games up for contention – in which Canada defeated Sweden by a score of 3 – 0 . In doing so , the Canadian team won an Olympic gold medal outside of North America for the first time in 62 years , became the first team since the Soviet Union in 1984 to finish the tournament with a perfect record , and the first team to successfully defend their gold medal since the Soviets in 1992 .
The venue hosted the 2015 Kontinental Hockey League All @-@ Star Game .
= = Future = =
After the conclusion of the Olympics , the arena will continue to host a variety of sports , in addition to becoming an entertainment centre and concert venue . The arena will host HC Sochi , a KHL expansion team .
= Thurso =
Thurso ( pronounced / ˈθɜːrsoʊ / , Scots : Thursa , Scottish Gaelic : Inbhir Theòrsa ) is a town and former burgh on the north coast of the Highland council area of Scotland . Situated in the historical area of Caithness , it is the northernmost town on the British mainland . It lies at the junction of the north @-@ south A9 road and the west @-@ east A836 road , connected to Bridge of Forss in the west and Castletown in the east . The 34 miles ( 55 km ) River Thurso flows through the town and into Thurso Bay and the Pentland Firth . The river estuary serves as a small harbour . At the 2011 Census , Thurso had a population of 7 @,@ 933 . The larger Thurso civil parish including the town and the surrounding countryside had a population of 9 @,@ 112 .
Thurso was an important Norse port , and has a later history of trade with ports throughout northern Europe until the 19th century . A thriving fishing centre , Thurso also had a reputation for its linen @-@ cloth and tanning activities . As of 2015 the Dounreay Nuclear power plant , although decommissioned at the end of the 20th century , employs a significant number of the local population . The Category @-@ A listed ruined Old St Peter 's Church ( St. Peter 's Kirk ) is one of the oldest churches in Scotland , dating to at least 1125 . The current church , St Andrew 's and St Peter 's , was built in 1832 to a design by William Burn in the Gothic style .
The town contains the main campus of North Highland College and Thurso High School , the northernmost secondary school on the British mainland , which was established in 1958 . Thurso Castle , built in 1872 , is in ruins . Thurso is home to the football ( soccer ) team , Thurso FC , established in 2008 , which play in the North Caledonian League , and the rugby teams Caithness Crushers and Caithness RFC . Thurso railway station , opened in 1874 , was the most northern station on the Sutherland and Caithness Railway . The nearby port of Scrabster provides ferry services to the Orkney Islands ; the Northlink ferry ( MV Hamnavoe ) operates between Scrabster and Stromness .
= = Etymology = =
Originally Thurso was known by the Celtic name of tarvodubron meaning " bull water " or " bull river " ; similarly Dunnet Head was tarvedunum standing for " bull fort " and the name of the town name may have its roots there . Norse influence altered its name to Thjorsá , then Thorsá , based on the deity of Thor and translating as the place on Thor ’ s River .
The local Scots name , Thursa , derives from the Norse , as does the modern Scottish Gaelic Inbhir Theòrsa ( The " th " is pronounced as " h " and the " bh " as " v " . ) . Inbhir means a river mouth , and is generally found as " Inver " in many anglicised names . It is possible that there was also a pre @-@ Norse Gaelic name as well , as " tarvodunum " is cognate with the modern Gaelic terms , " tarbh " ( bull ) , " dobhran " and " dun " .
= = History = =
Thurso 's history stretches back to at least the era of Norse Orcadian rule in Caithness , which ended conclusively in 1266 . Neolithic horned cairns found on nearby Shebster Hill , which were used for burials and rituals , date back about 5000 years . The town was an important Norse port , and has a later history of trade with ports throughout northern Europe until the 19th century . In 1330 Scotland 's standard unit of weight was brought in line with that of Thurso at the decree of King David II of Scotland , a measure of the town 's economic importance . Old St Peter 's Kirk is said to date from circa 1220 and the time of Caithness Bishop Gilbert Murray , who died in 1245 .
In 1649 , the Irish , led by Donald Macalister Mullach , attacked Thurso and were chased off by the residents , headed by Sir James Sinclair . One of the locals , a servant of Sinclair was said to have killed Mullach by " cutting a button from his master 's coat and firing it from a musket " . In 1811 , the parish had 592 houses with a population of 3462 . Following the passage into law of the 1845 Poor Law Act , a combination poorhouse was constructed ; work commenced in 1854 and was completed by 1856 . The building , which had a capacity to house 149 inmates , was on a five acres ( 2 @.@ 0 ha ) site to the west of Thurso Road and provided poor relief for Thurso and the parishes of Bower , Canisbay , Dunnet , Halkirk , Olrig , Reay and Watten . Many of the poorhouses in Scotland were under used , and by 1924 the building had been unoccupied for several years so was sold ; it was later utilised as housing but by 2001 was again abandoned .
Much of the town is a planned 19th @-@ century development . In 1906 , a new Royal National Lifeboat Institution boathouse and slipway was inaugurated near Scrabster Harbour . A fire on 10 December 1956 destroyed the building and its 47ft Watson @-@ class lifeboat and a new building and boat was built , launched the following year . A new lifeboat , named " The Three Sisters " was inaugurated in 1971 by The Queen Mother . A major expansion occurred in the mid @-@ 20th century when the Dounreay nuclear power plant was established at Dounreay in 1955 , 9 miles ( 14 km ) to the west of the town . The arrival of workers related to the power station caused a three @-@ fold increase in the population of Thurso ; the 1951 census gave a figure of 3 @,@ 000 but this had swelled to 9 @,@ 000 by 1971 . This led to around 1 @,@ 700 new houses being built in Thurso and nearby Castletown , a mixture of local authority housing blended with private houses and flats built by the United Kingdom Atomic Energy Authority . Decommissioned at the end of the 20th century , it is estimated the site will not be cleared of all the waste until the 2070s , so will continue to provide employment .
Thurso is also the name of the viscountcy held by the Sinclair family in the Peerage of the United Kingdom . Thurso hosted the National Mòd in 2010 , which was the first time this festival of Gaelic language and culture had been held so far north .
= = = Governance = = =
Thurso has history as a burgh of barony dating from 1633 when it was established by Charles I. In 1975 , under the Local Government ( Scotland ) Act 1973 , the local government burgh was merged into the Caithness district of the two @-@ tier Highland region . In 1996 , under the Local Government etc ( Scotland ) Act 1994 , the district was abolished and the region became a unitary council area . From 1996 until 2007 , the town of Thurso was covered by two or three wards , each electing one councillor by the first past the post system of election . In 2007 , a single Thurso ward was created to elect three councillors by the single transferable vote system . The new ward is one of three within the Highland Council 's Caithness ward management area and one of seven within the council 's Caithness , Sutherland and Easter Ross corporate management area .
Thurso Community Council was created in 1975 when the burgh was abolished . The community council is not a tier of local government , but it is recognised as a level of statutory representation . The community council represents an area which is somewhat smaller than that represented by ward councillors . The ward area also includes parts of other community council areas .
= = Geography = =
Thurso is the most northerly town on the British mainland , situated on the northern coastline overlooking the Orkney Islands . It is situated at the northern terminus of the A9 road , the main road linking Caithness with the south of Scotland , and is 19 @.@ 5 miles ( 31 @.@ 4 km ) west of John o ' Groats and 20 @.@ 4 miles ( 32 @.@ 8 km ) northwest of Wick , the closest town . Thurso railway station is the most northerly location served by Britain 's rail network , which links the town directly with Wick , the county town of Caithness , and with Inverness . Thurso is bordered by the parishes of Olrig and Bower to the east , Halkirk to the south , and Reay to the west , and stretches from Holburn Head and Crosskirk Bay in the west to Dunnet Head and Dunnet Bay in the east .
The 34 miles ( 55 km ) River Thurso , reputable for its salmon fishing , flows through the town and into Thurso Bay and the Pentland Firth . The river estuary serves as a small harbour . Thurso has a fine harbour and beach and looks out over the Pentland Firth to the Orkney island of Hoy and the towering Old Man of Hoy ( a stack of rock standing out from the main island ) .
= = = Climate = = =
Thurso has a cool oceanic climate , similar weather to the Scottish Highlands , Iceland , Alaska and the Scandinavian West Coast of Norway . The highest temperature recorded was 25 ° C ( July 1995 ) and the lowest -11 ° C ( December 2010 ) . Similar parallels in nearby Sweden have much more continental climates with much more extensive heat and coldwaves , further demonstrating the moderating effect of the North Atlantic . The moderate winter climate is some 30 ° C warmer than marine areas around Hudson Bay in Canada on similar latitudes .
= = Economy = =
Historically , Thurso was known for its production of linen cloth and had a thriving tanning business . Fishing has always been of major significance in the running of the local economy , and the Thurso Shipowner 's Association overlooked much of the shipping activity . The port of Scrabster lies about 1 1 ⁄ 2 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the west of the estuary of the River Thurso , and plays a significant role in the white fish industry in Scotland . Scrabster has deep water in the shelter of Holborn Head . The harbour includes a berth for the MV Hamnavoe , a roll @-@ on / roll @-@ off ferry operated by Northlink linking the Scottish mainland with Stromness on Orkney . There is also a large fishmart and the local lifeboat is stationed there too . From June 2007 , a summer @-@ only weekly ferry service operated by the Faroese company Smyril Line reopened , connecting Scrabster with the Faroe Islands , Iceland and Norway , but has now been discontinued .
Thurso boasts a small museum , Caithness Horizons , several hotels and bars , a surf shop / cafe stocking famous brands , and a large skatepark . There is also a sizeable British Telecom call centre and a plant making special lithium @-@ ion batteries for the MoD on the west side of the town , which along with the Dounreay Nuclear power plant , provide a high level of employment in Caithness . On 12 January 2010 , approval was granted for the Baillie wind farm near Thurso which will feature 21 turbines and supply 52 @.@ 5 MW , enough for 25 @,@ 000 homes .
= = Landmarks = =
The Category A listed ruined Old St Peter 's Church ( St. Peter 's Kirk ) is one of the older churches in Scotland , dated to at least 1125 , and at one time it was the principal church for the county , administered by the Bishops of Caithness . The church held hearings against criminal activity and determined how those caught should be punished . In 1701 , a woman who had a relationship with a Dutch sailor had her head shaved and was publicly shamed , paraded through the town by the local hangman .
The current church , St Andrew 's and St Peter 's , was built in 1832 to a design by William Burn in the Gothic style with buttressed walls and a square tower . The pipe organ was added by Norman & Beard in 1914 , and in 1922 Oscar Paterson contributed some of the stained glass windows such as ' The Sower ' . In 2013 gravestones were vandalised in the graveyard . Holburn Head Lighthouse , within the parish territory , was completed in 1862 to a design by David & Thomas Stevenson and has since achieved Category B listed status .
The Swanson Gallery of Thurso hosts exhibitions throughout the year , and showcases glass art by Ian Pearson . The Caithness Horizons building contains a museum and also hosts exhibitions . Hotels of note include the 103 @-@ room Royal Hotel , Pentland Hotel , Waterside House , Murray House and the Category B listed Forss House Hotel , about 4 miles to the west of Thurso in a Georgian country mansion . At Sir John 's Square is an ornamental garden and statue which was donated to the town by Sir Tollemache Sinclair in memory of his grandfather Sir John Sinclair , a prominent local figure responsible for the " compilation of the First Statistical Account of Scotland and the pioneering of agricultural reforms in Caithness " . A Category C listed fountain was built in 1894 by the son of Sir George Sinclair . Also of note is the wellhouse of Meadow Well at the junction of Traill Street and Manson 's Lane , which was the primary water supply for Thurso for centuries . The current well , with a conical roof , was completed in 1823 .
= = Education = =
The main campus of North Highland College , formerly Thurso College , is one of several partner colleges which constitute the University of the Highlands & Islands . It offers several certificate , diploma and degree courses from subjects as diverse as Nuclear Decommissioning , Hairdressing , Gamekeeping and Golf Management . Adjacent to the UHI is Thurso High School , the most northerly secondary school on the British mainland , established in 1958 . The town also has three primary schools , Pennyland , Miller Academy Primary and Mount Pleasant . Mount Pleasant Primary School teaches in Scottish gaelic , part of a revival of the language in Caithness . According to the 2011 census , 110 residents of the town age three and over ( 1 @.@ 43 % ) speak Gaelic while 181 overall ( 2 @.@ 35 % ) have some facility with the language . A Gaelic language nursery school , Cròileagan Inbhir Theòrsa , was created in the town in 1996 .
Caithness Horizons is a small museum that opened in 2008 . The museum now houses panels from the control room at the Dounreay Materials Testing Reactor ( DMTR ) , which in 1958 had become Scotland 's first operation nuclear reactor .
= = Sport = =
With its powerful swells , Thurso is a notable location for surfing and kayaking , with international surfing championship events having regularly been held in the area . It attracts surfers from all over the world , and both the European Surfing Championships and Scottish Surf Kayaking Championships have been held in Caithness , with Thurso East being the main focus of activity . An annual raft race is organised by the North Coast Branch of Coastguard Association .
The football ( soccer ) team , Thurso FC ( nicknamed " the Vikings " ) , was established in 2008 and plays in the North Caledonian League . Caithness Crushers are a rugby league club playing in the Scotland Rugby League Conference Division 1 , while Caithness RFC are a rugby union club that participate in the Caledonia One . The local athletics club is Caithness Amateur Athletics Club ( C.A.A.C. ) ; hurdler Moira Mcbeath was a 1986 Commonwealth Games athlete . Thurso has the largest swimming club in the Highland area , Thurso Amateur Swimming Club ( TASC ) , with over 250 members . Thurso Bowling Club is next door to the Tesco supermarket . Also of note is Caithness Motocross Club , which stages races fortnightly during the summer on tracks around the county .
= = Transport = =
Thurso railway station opened in 1874 . It was the most northern station on the Sutherland and Caithness Railway . The station became part of the Highland Railway Company in the late 19th century before being absorbed into the London , Midland and Scottish Railway in 1923 @.@ and it is now part of the Far North Line .
The nearby port of Scrabster provides ferry services to the Orkney Islands . The A9 trunk road , which connects Thurso to Inverness , Perth and the Central Belt ends at the ferry terminal . Stagecoach run bus services from Thurso to Wick and John O ' Groats , and a long distance service to Helmsdale and Inverness .
= = Twin towns = =
Thurso has been twinned with Brilon , Germany since 1972 , after two men from the respective towns met in London and agreed a formal link . The twinning has come under threat as Thurso High School no longer participates in its activities and there is a lack of young people willing to preserve relationships between the towns .
= = Notable people = =
Andrew Geddes Bain ( 1797 – 1864 ) — geologist , road engineer , palaeontologist and explorer .
David Orson Calder ( 1823 – 1884 ) — academician and pioneer settler in Utah .
John Charles " Jock " Campbell ( VC ) ( 1894 – 1942 ) — British Army officer .
Martin Carr ( born 1968 ) — writer and musician .
Robert Dick ( 1811 – 1866 ) — geologist ; lived in Thurso from 1830 until death .
John Finlaison ( 1783 – 1860 ) — civil servant and government actuary .
George Finlayson ( 1790 – 1823 ) — naturalist and traveler .
Bryan Gunn ( born 1963 ) — professional football goalkeeper and manager .
Robin Harper ( born 1940 ) — politician .
William Henderson ( 1810 – 1872 ) — physician and homeopath .
Jock Macdonald ( 1897 – 1960 ) — Canadian painter and art educator .
Gary Mackay @-@ Steven ( born 1990 ) — professional football winger , currently playing for Celtic .
Tommy McGee ( born 1979 ) — professional rugby player .
Anne McKevitt ( born 1967 ) — entrepreneur , TV Personality , author and philanthropist .
Martin Rennie ( born 1975 ) — professional football coach .
Sir William David Ross , KBE ( 1877 – 1971 ) — moral philosopher , editor and translator of Aristotle .
Arthur St. Clair ( 1737 – 1818 ) — American Revolutionary War soldier and politician .
Sir William Alexander Smith ( 1854 – 1914 ) — founder of the Boys Brigade .
Colin Stone ( born 1991 ) — Scottish television presenter and journalist , currently with STV News .
Donald Swanson ( 1848 – 1924 ) — senior police officer in the Metropolitan Police during the Jack the Ripper murders .
= The Xindi =
" The Xindi " is the 53rd episode of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , the first episode of the third season . It first aired on September 10 , 2003 , on the UPN network in the United States . The episode was written by executive producers Rick Berman and Brannon Braga , and directed by Allan Kroeker .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . Beginning with this episode , season three of Enterprise features an ongoing storyline following an attack on Earth by previously unknown aliens called the Xindi at the end of season two . In this episode , the crew of the Enterprise attempt to track down the location of the Xindi homeworld from a lone Xindi working in a mining colony . After being tricked by the mining foreman , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) and Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) escape with the alien , with assistance from Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) and the ship 's new Military Assault Command Operations ( MACO ) team .
" The Xindi " saw the first appearance of several new sets , as well as a new costume for Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) . The episode saw a large number of guest stars , including several who would recur several more times during the third season such as Major Hayes played by Steven Culp , Tucker Smallwood as the Xindi @-@ Primate Councilor and Randy Oglesby as Degra . The episode received ratings of 2 @.@ 6 / 5 percent according to Nielsen Media Research , and was watched by 4 @.@ 1 million viewers . " The Xindi " received a mixed reception from critics , who praised the increase of action promised for the season by this episode but criticised elements such as the writing and the MACOs .
= = Plot = =
As Enterprise travels deeper into the Delphic Expanse , a secret council of aliens discuss what to do with the lone human spaceship . Meanwhile , Captain Jonathan Archer ( Scott Bakula ) directs Enterprise to a mining penal colony within the Expanse . He then strikes a deal with the mine 's foreman ( Stephen McHattie ) : in exchange for a half @-@ liter of liquid platinum , Archer and Commander Charles " Trip " Tucker III ( Connor Trinneer ) will be allowed to meet a Primate worker named Kessick ( Richard Lineback ) .
Archer requests the coordinates of Xindus , the Xindi homeworld , from Kessick . But the alien refuses to help unless Archer helps him escape . Archer declines , but he soon learns that the foreman had ulterior motives , since he has ordered three warships to overpower Enterprise and enslave his crew . Kessick claims to know how to escape the mine , but asks for Archer 's help in return for guiding the Starfleet officers . Archer reluctantly agrees , and Kessick leads him and Tucker through the mine 's sewage removal system . However , the group is soon detected in a conduit , and the foreman floods the system with plasma in an effort to kill them . They narrowly escape being killed , but quickly fall into the hands of the mine 's security forces .
Meanwhile , Sub @-@ Commander T 'Pol ( Jolene Blalock ) persuades Lieutenant Malcolm Reed ( Dominic Keating ) to allow the newly assigned MACOs ( Military Assault Command Operations ) to attempt an extraction . Led by him , they perform remarkably well in combat , and manage to rescue Archer , Tucker , and Kessick . Enterprise then leaves orbit just as the warships arrive . Unfortunately , Kessick dies , but not before providing coordinates for the Xindi homeworld . When the ship reaches this position , there is nothing but a 100 @-@ year @-@ old field of space debris .
= = Production = =
The episode followed up on the plot introduced in the final instalment of the second season in which a probe from an unknown alien race attacks Earth . A number of new sets and costumes were required , with preparations beginning for some departments up to three weeks before filming began . One change which was made was a new outfit for T 'Pol , with costume tests taking place a week before filming began . The redesign was because of studio executives wanting the show to appeal more to the 18 – 49 male demographic . The production team looked to the mid @-@ series boost that the introduction of Seven of Nine provided on Star Trek : Voyager and sought for Enterprise to appeal to that demographic in the same manner . Kate O 'Hara of New York Magazine later joked in reference to the change , " Women of the future will certainly choose to wear tight , uncomfortable , skin @-@ tight catsuits ! "
" The Xindi " was seen as a new pilot by executive producers Brannon Braga and Rick Berman , who also wrote the episode . Braga said " We were re @-@ establishing an Enterprise that was going to be a little bit different this year , so we had to think of it in those terms . " They felt the best way to do this was to immediately reveal the Xindi to the audience , and to give the MACOs something to do in order to introduce them as well . He called it a " big episode " as they sought to set up the rest of season . The shoot began on June 26 , 2003 , with the expectation that it would take nine days ( as opposed to the usual seven ) to complete . One of the special effects on the episode used ground Styrofoam which had been painted blue and processed through a wood chipper . It was used to represent the mineral Trellium @-@ D within the mine . However , the ground Styrofoam stuck to the actors ' shoes and costumes and ended up being spread throughout the Paramount lot where the series was filmed . It would turn up in unexpected places on set for the rest of the series , and was found in among the sets as they were being dismantled after the end of season four .
= = = Guest cast = = =
" The Xindi " featured several actors who would go on to recur in their roles throughout the third season of Enterprise . These included the MACO marines under the command of Major Hayes , played by Steven Culp . At the time of his appearance in the " The Xindi " , he felt that he did not have any characterisation to work with . During the production of his second episode , " The Shipment " , Culp read an article in the Los Angeles Times about a troubled youth who joined the military and in serving in the Iraq War had found himself . After discussing it with the director , this became the basis for the character . Daniel Dae Kim made his first of three appearances in " The Xindi " as Corporal Chang ; he had previously appeared as Gotana @-@ Retz in the Voyager episode " Blink of an Eye " . Nathan Anderson had previously appeared as Namon in the Voyager episode " Nemesis " ; he made one further appearance as Sergeant Kemper in the following episode , " Anomaly " .
Other actors appearing in " The Xindi " included the members of the Xindi council . As with Kim and Anderson , Tucker Smallwood had already appeared on Voyager . In his case , it was as Admiral Bullock in the episode " In the Flesh " . He appeared as his Xindi character nine times during the third season of Enterprise . Randy Oglesby , who played Degra , was another Voyager alumnus . He had appeared as Kir in the episode " Counterpoint " . Rick Worthy had appeared as several different characters in the Star Trek franchise , including an appearance in the 1998 film Star Trek : Insurrection . As well as Kornan in the Star Trek : Deep Space Nine episode " Soldiers of the Empire " , he too had appeared in Voyager , but in two roles ; first as the androids 3947 and 122 in " Prototype " and then as Noah Lessing in " Equinox " . In addition , making a return to the Star Trek franchise was Stephen McHattie , who had previously appeared as the Romulan senator Vreenak in the Deep Space Nine episode " In the Pale Moonlight " .
= = Reception = =
" The Xindi " was first aired in the United States on UPN on September 10 , 2003 . According to Nielsen Media Research , it received a 2 @.@ 6 / 5 percent share among adults . This means that it was seen by 2 @.@ 6 percent of all households , and 5 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It was estimated that " The Xindi " was watched by 4 @.@ 1 million viewers . The following episode , " Anomaly " , received the same rating but the viewer number increased by 200 @,@ 000 .
Robert Bianco reviewed " The Xindi " for USA Today , giving it two out of four stars . He said that while the Xindi storyline " does promise to provide more action and excitement " , some of the alterations " smack [ ed ] of desperation " . He called T 'Pol " Seven of Vulcan " , and said the main issue with the series was the " subpar " writing . In this episode , he felt that Tucker was written so poorly that Trineer seemed like he was overacting to compensate for it .
A reviewer by the moniker KJB watched the episode for IGN , giving it one out of five stars . He said it was " like watching a television episode made up of all the things from the ' Stuff We 've Tried That Doesn 't Work on Star Trek ' list . " Criticism was directed at the introduction of the MACOs , which were described as Starship Troopers clones , and at the modification to the theme tune . The Xindi themselves were described as " bad Farscape knock offs " , and the reviewer said that they set a poor tone for the rest of the season . Michelle Erica Green said she was in a " double mind " about " The Xindi " in her review at TrekNation as there were both good and bad elements . She praised the action sequences , the make @-@ up and McHattie as the alien foreman . Green enjoyed the twist at the end with the Xindi homeworld being already destroyed , and felt that the Xindi races would be interesting . On the other hand , she thought that the MACO scenes were too dark and that the T 'Pol nude scenes were unnecessary .
= = Book adaptation and home media release = =
" The Xindi " was adapted as a novel in conjunction with the preceding episode , " The Expanse " , by J.M. Dillard . Entitled The Expanse , the book was published by Pocket Books in trade paperback format in October 2003 . The first home media release of " The Xindi " was as part of the season three DVD box set , released in the United States on September 27 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray release of Enterprise was released on January 7 , 2014 .
= Æthelhard =
Æthelhard ( also Ethelhard , Æthilheard , Aethelheard or Ethelheard ; died 12 May 805 ) was a Bishop of Winchester then an Archbishop of Canterbury in medieval England . Appointed by King Offa of Mercia , Æthelhard had difficulties with both the Kentish monarchs and with a rival archiepiscopate in southern England , and was deposed around 796 by King Eadberht III Præn of Kent . By 803 , Æthelhard , along with the Mercian King Coenwulf , had secured the demotion of the rival archbishopric , once more making Canterbury the only archbishopric south of the Humber in Britain . Æthelhard died in 805 , and was considered a saint until his cult was suppressed after the Norman Conquest in 1066 .
= = Early life = =
Nothing is known of Æthelhard 's family background or early life , however it is assumed that he was a native of Mercia . He first appears in the historical record as abbot of a monastery at Louth , Lincolnshire before being named to the diocese of Winchester . He was consecrated Bishop of Winchester sometime after 759 and before 778 .
= = Canterbury = =
Æthelhard was translated from the see of Winchester to the see of Canterbury in 792 and was enthroned as archbishop on 21 July 793 . Æthelhard owed his appointment to King Offa of Mercia , and the enthronement was presided over by the then @-@ senior bishop of the land : Hygberht , the Archbishop of Lichfield . King Offa consulted Alcuin of York over proper procedure , as the archbishopric of Lichfield was a new creation .
Around 796 , Æthelhard was deposed by King Eadberht III Præn of Kent because Æthelhard had been appointed by Offa . Offa had died in 796 , and Eadberht seized control of Kent , forcing Æthelhard to flee to the court of Offa 's son Ecgfrith of Mercia . Ecgfrith himself died before 796 , and a distant relative Coenwulf took the throne . Alcuin encouraged Æthelhard to return to Canterbury , and suggested a compromise over the status of Lichfield , which had been established by Offa in rivalry to Canterbury . Alcuin 's plan would have allowed Hygberht to retain archiepiscopal status during his lifetime , but it would be a purely ceremonial rank . In this proposal , Canterbury would regain its status as the only archbishopric south of the Humber and Æthelhard would return to Canterbury . However , Æthelhard was unable to do this while Eadberht was still in power . Alcuin had previously stated that Lichfield had been elevated because of a " lust for power " , presumably by Offa , and not through any consideration of the merits of the plan .
Although Alcuin had scorn for Æthelhard for fleeing Canterbury , the papacy saw it differently . Pope Leo III praised Æthelhard for fleeing and refusing to submit to Eadberht , whom Leo compared to the later Roman emperor Julian the Apostate . There are indications , though , that the Kentish community considered electing another archbishop while Æthelhard was in exile .
= = Troubles with Lichfield = =
Because Lichfield had been established by the papacy , any change in its status required papal assent . Coenwulf 's first embassy to Leo III in 797 about demoting Lichfield did not succeed , mainly because Leo seems to have resented the implied criticism of his predecessor Hadrian I , who had approved the elevation of Lichfield . Coenwulf 's embassy bore a letter to the pope that asked for papal advice on how to resolve the problems surrounding Lichfield and Canterbury . The letter reminded the papacy of Pope Gregory the Great 's old scheme to have two metropolitans in Britain , one in the north and one in the south , with the southern one being based in London . The letter implied that Coenwulf was asking for Æthelhard 's metropolitan see to be moved to London . The same embassy carried a letter from Æthelhard also , which has not survived . The pope , however , did not agree with the embassy . The papal reply to Coenwulf stated that the southern archbishopric must remain at Canterbury , as well as excommunicated Eadberht and authorised his expulsion from Kent if he persisted in keeping Æthelhard from Canterbury .
In 798 Coenwulf invaded Kent and captured Eadberht , whom he blinded and imprisoned . Æthelhard was restored to Canterbury , where he set about restoring the see 's possessions . He also managed to secure professions of obedience from a number of southern bishops , including Eadwulf of Lindsey and Tidferth of Dummoc . But , Hygberht was still being called archbishop in 799 . Because Pope Leo was involved in disputes in Rome during 799 and 800 , and was unable to spare attention for English affairs , no papal decisions could be made on the dispute .
Æthelhard resolved to go to Rome and consult with the pope about the decline in power of the see of Canterbury . The archbishop went to Rome along with Bishop Cyneberht of Winchester , and carried two letters from Coenwulf to the pope . After some discussions , Leo sided with Canterbury and demoted Lichfield back down to a bishopric . Besides these papal actions , there are indications that the cathedral clergy of Canterbury never recognised the elevation of Lichfield .
= = Return from exile = =
Æthelhard returned to England in 803 , and convened the Council of Clovesho , which decreed that no archiepiscopal see besides Canterbury should ever been established in the southern part of Britain . Hygberht attended the council , but as an abbot , which makes it apparent that he had resigned his see before the council met . At that same council , Æthelhard also presented a papal decision that asserted the freedom of churches from secular authority . While at the council , Æthelhard once more proclaimed that the papacy had been deceived into elevating Lichfield , and that it was a " tyranical power " that had been behind the effort . Æthelhard presided over at least eleven synods , and possibly one more .
Æthelhard died on 12 May 805 and was buried in Canterbury . He was later revered as a saint , with a feast day of 12 May , but his cult was suppressed by Archbishop Lanfranc in the late 11th century and never was revived .
= Darla ( Buffy the Vampire Slayer ) =
Darla is a recurring fictional character created by Joss Whedon and played by Julie Benz in the first , second , and fifth seasons of the American supernatural television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer . The character later appeared in the Buffy spin @-@ off series Angel , making at least one appearance in every season . She made her last television appearance in 2004 , appearing as a special guest star in the fifth and final season of Angel .
Darla is introduced in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " , the first episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , in 1997 . It is revealed early on that she is a vampire , initially in league with the Master , Buffy Summers ' primary antagonist in the first season . Darla 's backstory is disclosed in the episode " Angel " , where it is revealed that she is Angel 's sire ( the one who turned him into a vampire ) and former longtime lover . The character appears in numerous flashback episodes , until she receives a significantly expanded role in Angel . In Angel , she is resurrected by the evil law firm Wolfram & Hart in an attempt to weaken Angel . She later becomes intertwined in many of the story arcs in the second and third season . Darla becomes pregnant , a unique occurrence for a vampire . She sacrifices herself in order to give birth to her and Angel 's human son Connor , ending her run on the series . However , Darla continues to appear in flashback episodes during the next two seasons .
The character was well @-@ reviewed by television critics , with Eric Goldman of IGN saying " Not even dying ( twice ! ) could keep Darla from being an important part of the story behind Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the spinoff series Angel . "
= = Conception and casting = =
Julie Benz initially auditioned for the role of Buffy Summers , but that later went to Sarah Michelle Gellar , who had previously won the part of Cordelia Chase . Benz was offered the small role of the vampire Darla in the pilot episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Her performance was so well @-@ received that her character appeared in a few more episodes . In an interview with TheTVAddict.com , Benz said of her casting : " I was supposed to die in the pilot , but about halfway through the pilot Joss Whedon was like , ' We 're giving you a name and we 're not going to kill you . ' And he did that for a while until it finally came time to kill me , and kill me , and kill me and killed [ sic ] me . " She later went on to say :
For me , I was a new actor to Los Angeles , didn ’ t know the TV business very well so I was just excited to work and play a vampire . I had no clue what I was going to do or how I was going to be scary . Until that is , they put the vampire makeup on me and I went into the trailer and smiled , which I thought was creepy . Joss always said he was intrigued that someone who looked like me and talked like me was like the scariest vampire ever . That 's what he wanted , my sweet voice and demeanour until all of a sudden I 'm just this vicious vampire . "
Darla is first killed in the seventh episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer . In that episode , it is revealed that Darla was once romantically involved with Angel and that she made him a vampire . Angel stakes her through the heart . Benz was asked to return to the role three years later , but not on Buffy the Vampire Slayer . Joss Whedon wanted her to appear on the spin @-@ off Angel , which focused on Angel 's adventures in Los Angeles . Benz said in an interview :
I was shocked , really . When they sent me the script [ for Angel ] I kept asking , ' Where 's Darla ? ' I remember calling my agent asking , ' Are you sure they want me for this episode because I can 't seem to find me ? ' And then I get to the last page and there I am ... naked in a box . Awesome . It was exciting .
When asked in an interview with Robert Canning of IGN about how she felt about being asked to come on to Angel after previously being killed off , Benz commented :
I was shocked . I just thought once you poof 'd , you poof 'd ! I thought that was it . So when they threw it out to me that I was coming back ... They didn 't tell me they were bringing her back to life . They just sent me the script for the season finale for season one of Angel , when they rose me from the dead . I was reading the script , and half way through , Darla still hadn 't shown up .
Benz went on to add ,
I was like , ' Alright ... ' I get three quarters of the way through and I think , ' Maybe they sent me the wrong script ... ? ' And then I get to the last page , and I was like , ' Oh my god ! I can 't believe this ! This is so cool ! ' At that time I 'd been committed to another project too . We didn 't even know if I was going to be available or not . But it all ended up working out .
Darla appears in twenty Angel episodes , mainly as an evil antagonist . The character is known for dying the most in the Buffy The Vampire Slayer franchise . Benz later emphasized :
I just didn 't know how it was going to happen . So when they sent me the script [ for my last episode of Angel ] — which I basically had to sign my life away to read — I was sitting in my trailer and I just started to cry . I thought it was such a beautiful ending , it was the payoff and just really brought her whole life kind of to that one moment . So I was really upset my last day of filming because I really thought it was over to me .
= = Characterization = =
Darla is presented in the series as a wicked vampire with , as Benz put it , generally " pure " intentions . In an interview with TheTVAddict , Benz said :
Darla 's just misunderstood . Her intentions are pure , they 're just kind of warped . From her perspective — first she has to eat — she just happens to eat people ! Second , she was in love with Angel , and I always viewed Darla as the jilted ex @-@ wife that could never get over being dumped . If you really look at her , you can have sympathy and empathy for her . In the beginning of her life she was a prostitute , Joss and I actually talked about that a lot , that she was probably abused growing up . She did what she needed to do to survive , she just lacked the people skills .
Achieving Darla 's look was a struggle for Benz . She said : " Taking that makeup off , it was like having six layers of skin ripped off your face every time . It was miserable and the contact lenses were terrible . I don ’ t wear contacts and I don ’ t know how people do it , sticking things in their eyeballs all the time . " The character 's sense of fashion is vital to understanding her past . Benz says Darla is " dressed to the nines " in every time period in which she lives , and " she fully goes after a certain look . If she ’ s going to be living during the Boxer Rebellion time , she ’ s got the big Gibson Girl hair style and the beautiful kimono @-@ style clothes . " Benz points out that in the Buffy pilot episode , Darla — attempting to dress like a high school student — exaggerates it with a " little twist " , wearing a Catholic schoolgirl uniform instead . " I think I influenced Darla fashion @-@ wise in the second season of Angel where she was a little more classic @-@ looking and tailored , " Benz says , explaining she collaborated with the costume designer to transition Darla into a " hipper look " when she became a vampire again . Darla shockingly becomes pregnant in the third season of Angel . In an interview with the BBC , Benz admitted :
Yeah , I really felt at that point she was pretty strung out . Her whole world was rocked . She never thought she could get pregnant and then all of a sudden she 's carrying this child and she 's experiencing this soul for the first time in four hundred years . [ There 's ] the realisation that as soon as the baby 's born the soul 's going to go away , and it 's the first time she really experienced true love , so she was going through a lot emotionally . I just didn 't think that she would have time to really think about how she looked . I don 't think it was a priority , and so for me as an actor it was important that I reveal that . Not get caught up in my own vanity as an actress , and portray the character as where she really was .
In an interview with the BBC , Benz described Darla as strong : " I have an amazing stunt double , Lisa Hoyle who looks exactly like me . She ’ s just brilliant and fearless and she does about 90 per cent of the stunts . I think part of the element of Darla is how strong she is and how fierce she can be and Lisa definitely adds to that element . I would be a doing huge disservice to Darla if I didn ’ t allow her to do the work that she does and to help add to that element that ’ s so important to Darla , which is her strength . "
= = Storylines = =
Darla is born in the late 16th century in the British Isles . Her birth name is never revealed in either series , and Darla herself eventually forgets it . As a young prostitute , she emigrates to the Virginia Colony in North America and becomes independently wealthy but also contracts a fatal case of syphilis . By 1609 , Darla lies dying in the luxurious house she owns . She scoffs at a " priest " who comes to her deathbed before he reveals his true identity : the Master , leader of an elite cult of vampires known as the Order of Aurelius . Darla despises the clergy and religion , a trait that follows her as a vampire . The Master turns her into a vampire and renames her " Darla , " meaning " dear one " in early modern English ( " darling " ) .
Darla spends four centuries torturing innocent people , often accompanied by Angel ( until his soul is restored ) , before showing up in Sunnydale . Her first appearance is in " Welcome to the Hellmouth " , the first episode of Buffy the Vampire Slayer , which aired in 1997 . She breaks into Sunnydale High School with a student who goes there . Darla first toys with the youth , then her face morphs into that of a vampire and she bites the boy . Darla later appears in the episode " The Harvest " , where she participates in the ascension of the Master , a very old and powerful vampire . Darla 's role in the series is more prominent in the episode " Angel " , where it is revealed that she is Angel 's sire and former lover . Darla bites an unsuspecting Joyce Summers ( Buffy 's mother ) , making it look as if Angel did it . Angel eventually kills her . She later appears in numerous flashbacks , illuminating her involvement not only with Angel , but also with Spike .
Darla 's role in the franchise increased dramatically after her resurrection by the law firm Wolfram & Hart in the final episode of Angel 's first season , titled " To Shanshu in L.A. " In the second season opener , " Judgement " , Wolfram & Hart lawyers Lindsey McDonald and Lilah Morgan question Darla about her past . She talks of how she can feel Angel , and slowly her memory begins to return . In the episode " First Impressions " , Angel begins having romantic dreams about his maker . The dreams sap his strength . In " Dear Boy " , Angel is shocked to see Darla walking the streets . When he tells his partners , Wesley Wyndam @-@ Pryce and Cordelia Chase , they think he is starting to lose his sanity . During the course of a stakeout by Angel Investigations of a woman suspected of having an affair , Angel confronts the woman , who looks exactly like Darla . She claims she is DeEtta Kramer . When she runs away from him , she walks outside into the sunlight , meaning Darla has not only been resurrected , but is now human . However , Darla and Lindsey 's plan to convert Angel back to evil fails . In the end , Wolfram & Hart bring in Drusilla to make Darla a vampire again after her syphilis returns and she starts to die . Ironically , she is turned back into a vampire as she accepts her fate after a failed attempt by Angel to save her . Drusilla and Darla unsuccessfully attack Angel and leave Los Angeles .
Knowing that Angel has been cursed so that if he ever experiences pure happiness , he will once again lose his soul , Darla later returns and sleeps with him , but her plot fails ; being with her only brings Angel despair , as well as providing him with a new understanding of his role as a champion . Their one @-@ night stand leads to an unexpected development for the both of them : Darla reappears in season three , pregnant with Angel 's child , despite the fact that vampires cannot normally conceive . Her pregnancy allows Darla to experience emotions that had previously been lost to her in the presence of the human soul of her unborn child . Admitting that creating life with Angel was the only good thing they ever did together , Darla makes sure Angel will relay that to their child before she stakes herself through the heart , sacrificing her life so their son , Connor , can be born . Darla turns to dust , but the baby remains . Darla later appears as a spirit , trying to persuade her son in an effort to save him from the renegade deity Jasmine 's manipulations , as the latter 's actions are bringing Connor into the same dark path both Darla and Angel had taken .
= = Reception = =
The character of Darla was well @-@ received by Eric Goldman of IGN . He said : " As the very first character seen on Buffy the Vampire Slayer , Julie Benz instantly made an impression as the vampiress Darla . For the next 8 television seasons , she would get to show many different facets of the role , as not even dying ( twice ! ) could keep Darla from being an important part of the story and mythos behind Buffy the Vampire Slayer and the spinoff series Angel , the latter of which allowed Benz to greatly expand her character . "
= = Appearances = =
Buffy the Vampire Slayer
Darla appears as a guest in 5 episodes
Season 1 ( 1997 ) : " Welcome to the Hellmouth " , " The Harvest " , " Angel "
Season 2 ( 1997 – 98 ) : " Becoming ( Part 1 ) "
Season 5 ( 2000 – 01 ) : " Fool for Love "
Angel
Darla appears as a guest in 20 episodes
Season 1 ( 1999 – 2000 ) : " The Prodigal " , " Five by Five " , " To Shanshu in L.A. "
Season 2 ( 2000 – 01 ) : " Judgment " , " First Impressions " , " Untouched " , " Dear Boy " , " Darla " , " The Trial " , " Reunion " , " Redefinition " , " Reprise " , " Epiphany "
Season 3 ( 2001 – 02 ) : " Heartthrob " , " That Vision Thing " , " Offspring " , " Quickening " , " Lullaby "
Season 4 ( 2002 – 03 ) : " Inside Out "
Season 5 ( 2003 – 04 ) : " The Girl in Question "
= Delaware Route 48 =
Delaware Route 48 ( DE 48 ) is a state highway in New Castle County , Delaware . The route runs from DE 41 in Hockessin east to U.S. Route 13 Business ( US 13 Bus . ) in downtown Wilmington . The route passes through suburban areas of Wilmington such as Lancaster Pike , intersecting DE 100 and DE 141 . DE 48 continues into Wilmington as Lancaster Avenue and intersects DE 2 , where it splits into the one @-@ way pair of Lancaster Avenue eastbound and Second Street westbound . Upon reaching downtown Wilmington , the route intersects Interstate 95 ( I @-@ 95 ) / US 202 and DE 4 before continuing to the eastern terminus .
What is now DE 48 was originally built as the Lancaster Pike in 1817 , a turnpike that was to connect Wilmington to the Gap and Newport Turnpike . The turnpike became county maintained in 1877 . The Lancaster Pike became DE 48 by 1936 , with the route continuing east through Wilmington to the Wilmington @-@ Penns Grove Ferry across the Delaware River , where it connected to Route 48 in Penns Grove , New Jersey . The ferry was discontinued in 1949 and the eastern terminus of DE 48 was cut back to its current location by 1952 .
= = Route description = =
DE 48 begins at an intersection with DE 41 in Hockessin , heading southeast on Lancaster Pike , a two @-@ lane undivided road . The road runs through wooded areas and residential development , curving east and gaining a second westbound lane . The route widens into a four @-@ lane divided highway and crosses the Wilmington and Western Railroad and Red Clay Creek . DE 48 comes to an intersection with DE 100 / DE 141 , at which point DE 100 forms a concurrency with DE 48 . The two routes head southeast as a four @-@ lane undivided road , passing through residential and commercial areas . The road crosses an East Penn Railroad line and runs to the north of a cemetery , with DE 100 splitting from DE 48 by turning south on South Dupont Road as it passes south of the Cab Calloway School of the Arts and Charter School of Wilmington .
DE 48 continues into Wilmington as Lancaster Avenue and heads into areas of homes and businesses , with the eastbound direction narrowing to one lane at an intersection with Greenhill Avenue . Following this intersection , the route crosses over CSX 's Philadelphia Subdivision on a bridge . The road narrows to two lanes and passes to the north of another cemetery . The route intersects DE 2 , which follows the one @-@ way pair of Lincoln Street northbound and Union Street southbound , in the Union Park Gardens neighborhood .
At this point , DE 48 itself splits into a one @-@ way pair that follows Lancaster Avenue eastbound and West Second Street westbound , with westbound DE 48 using westbound DE 2 ( North Union Street ) to get from West Second Street to Lancaster Avenue . The one @-@ way pair carries two lanes in each direction . DE 48 continues into downtown Wilmington , where it crosses under a viaduct carrying I @-@ 95 / US 202 , with ramp connections to and from the southbound direction of I @-@ 95 / US 202 via Jackson Street , which parallels I @-@ 95 / US 202 to the west .
Upon crossing under I @-@ 95 / US 202 , a westbound ramp to I @-@ 95 / US 202 complements the eastbound direction of DE 48 , with the road becoming Martin Luther King , Jr . Boulevard , a six @-@ lane divided highway . Westbound DE 48 remains along one @-@ way West Second Street , which carries three lanes . DE 48 intersects the eastern terminus of DE 4 , which provides access to DE 48 from the northbound direction of I @-@ 95 / US 202 . The one @-@ way pair continues further into the downtown and runs a short distance to the north of Amtrak 's Northeast Corridor . The route intersects the southbound direction of US 13 Bus . , which shifts west from North King Street to South Market Street where it intersects DE 48 . Following the intersection with US 13 Bus. southbound , DE 48 follows the one @-@ way pair of East Front Street eastbound and East Second Street westbound , passing to the north of Wilmington Station along the Northeast Corridor that serves Amtrak and SEPTA 's Wilmington / Newark Line . DE 48 reaches its eastern terminus at an intersection with the northbound direction of US 13 Bus . , which follows Walnut Street .
DE 48 has an annual average daily traffic count ranging from a high of 30 @,@ 195 vehicles at the DE 4 intersection to a low of 13 @,@ 264 vehicles at the McKennans Church Road intersection near Hockessin . The entire length of DE 48 is part of the National Highway System .
= = History = =
The Wilmington Turnpike Company was founded on October 23 , 1809 to build a turnpike from Wilmington to the Pennsylvania border , connecting to the Gap and Newport Turnpike . The turnpike was completed in 1817 at a cost of $ 39 @,@ 549 @.@ 97 . The turnpike became known as the Lancaster Pike and was surfaced with stone . The Wilmington Turnpike Company operated the Lancaster Pike until 1877 when they abandoned the road . The turnpike 's charter was repealed and the road was then under the control of the county levy court . The road leading to the Wilmington @-@ Penns Grove Ferry across the Delaware River between Wilmington and Penns Grove , New Jersey was completed as a state highway by 1931 .
By 1936 , the Lancaster Pike became a part of DE 48 . In addition , the route continued through Wilmington on Lincoln Street , Fourth Street , and Christiana Avenue to the ferry across the Delaware River to Penns Grove , New Jersey , where it connected to Route 48 in New Jersey . In 1939 , DE 48 was rebuilt between DE 41 and Centre Road , eliminating curves and grades . In 1949 , the Wilmington @-@ Penns Grove Ferry was discontinued . DE 48 was realigned onto Lancaster Avenue to continue to US 13 / US 202 ( now US 13 Bus . ) , its current eastern terminus , by 1952 . By 1990 , DE 100 was realigned to follow a portion of DE 48 , bypassing a part of Dupont Road . DE 48 was widened into a divided highway at the DE 141 intersection by 1996 . The divided highway was extended west to Centerville Road a year later .
= = Major intersections = =
The entire route is in New Castle County .
= Ganting Grand Mosque =
The Ganting Grand Mosque ( Indonesian : Masjid Raya Ganting ; also written and pronounced Gantiang in Minang ) is a Sunni mosque located in Ganting , Padang , West Sumatra , Indonesia . Construction began in 1805 , making it the oldest in Padang and one of the oldest in Indonesia . It is a Cultural Property of Indonesia .
The building , which involved persons from various cultural backgrounds in its construction , was the centre of an Islamic reform in the area during the 19th century . Future president Sukarno spent a time of exile at the mosque in 1942 . It survived the tsunami which struck Padang following the 1833 Sumatra earthquake , but was severely damaged after earthquakes in 2005 and 2009 .
The one @-@ floor establishment continues to be used as a center for prayer , as well as religious education ; it also functions as a pesantren for the community . The mosque is also a tourist attraction .
= = Early history = =
According to Abdul Baqir Zein , the mosque was first built in 1700 at the foot of Mount Padang , then moved to the bank of Batang Arau , as the Dutch colonial government intended to use the previous location to build a road to Emma Haven Port . It was later moved to its present location . However , the Indonesian Department of Religion documents the mosque as having been constructed in 1790 with a wooden frame and a roof made from Sago palms . According to this documentation , a sturdier mosque was built in 1805 . Another history of the mosque , from the Culture and Tourism Department of the City of the Padang , suggests that the mosque was first constructed in 1805 . The small mosque had stone flooring , wood and dirt walls , and a pyramidal ceiling like the mosques in Java .
The construction of the mosque was spearheaded by three local figures , Angku Gapuak ( a rich merchant ) , Angku Syekh Haji Uma ( the village chief ) , and Angku Syekh Kapalo Koto ( an ulama ) , while the funds were provided by Minang businesspeople and ulamas throughout Sumatra . It was erected on waqf land donated by locals and located in the center of the city 's Minang district . Construction of the mosque finished in 1810 ; it measured 30 by 30 metres ( 98 ft × 98 ft ) and had a fence 4 metres ( 13 ft ) out from the mosque .
Since its establishment , the mosque has been used to counsel future hajj participants . It also served as the first point of departure for hajj participants from Central Sumatra , who left Sumatra via Emma Haven after the port was opened in 1895 . Before the end of the Padri War , in 1818 the Minang Ulamas held a meeting at Ganting to discuss the steps they would take to eliminate mysticism and superstition from Islam on the island .
In 1833 a large earthquake on the west coast of Sumatra struck up a tsunami which destroyed much of Padang . The mosque was one of several buildings which survived the tsunami . Its stone floor was later replaced by a mixture of clam shells and pumice .
= = Modern history = =
The floor had received work beginning in 1900 , when tiles from the Netherlands , ordered through Jacobson van den Berg . The tiles were installed by a company @-@ appointed worker ; installation was completed in 1910 . That year , the Dutch established a cement factory in Indarung , Padang . To transport the cement to the port at Emma Haven , the Dutch built a stone road in front of Ganting Grand Mosque ; this road took up roughly a third of the waqf land the mosque had been built on . As compensation , the Dutch sent the Genie Command Corps of West Sumatra ( an area that includes modern day West Sumatra and Tapanuli ) . The corps expanded the front chamber until it was 20 metres ( 66 ft ) in length ; they also built a Portuguese style façade . The mosque 's floor was replaced with cement imported from Germany . Meanwhile , ethnic Chinese under Captain Lo Chian Ko began working on an octagonal dome , resembling the top of a vihara . The mihrab for the imam to lead prayers and preach was given Chinese @-@ style carvings . In 1921 Abdul Karim Amrullah established the Thawalib Schools in Padang mosques , including Ganting , to better educate the local populace in Islam . The alumni later established the Persatuan Muslim Indonesia ( Permi ) , under the Masyumi Party . The mosque was the location of the first national jamboree of Muhammadiyah 's scouting organisation , Hizbul Wathan , in 1932 .
When the Japanese began occupying the Indies in 1942 , Sukarno – at the time a Dutch prisoner in Bengkulu – was evacuated to Kutacane . However , once they reached Painan they discovered that the Japanese forces had already occupied Bukittinggi ; this quashed hopes of bringing Sukarno to Barus in Tapanuli . The Dutch left Sukarno in Painan . Hizbul Wathan members , at the time based out of Ganting , went to retrieve Sukarno and bring him to Padang by cart . For several days after arriving in Padang , Sukarno slept at the mosque ; he also delivered a speech . During the three @-@ year Japanese occupation the mosque served as the military 's headquarters in central and western Sumatra . It also functioned as a training camp for Gyugun and Heiho soldiers , military units formed by the Japanese which consisted of native soldiers ; the Gyugun was formed by the ulamas , while the Heihos were taken from the santri .
After the Allies landed in Sumatra , many of the Muslim Indian soldiers brought by the English deserted and joined the native revolutionaries . They planned strategy in the mosque , including the assault on a British barracks . One of these Indian soldiers , who had died in the assault , was buried at the mosque . Since 1950 , after Indonesia 's independence was recognised , the Ganting Grand Mosque has hosted numerous statesmen from both Indonesia and abroad , including Vice President Mohammad Hatta , Minister of Defence Sultan Hamengkubuwana IX , and General Abdul Haris Nasution . Foreign dignitaries who have visited the mosque included people from Malaysia , Saudi Arabia , and Egypt .
Construction on the mosque has continued . In 1960 the mosque 's 25 columns , originally constructed from brick , were covered in ceramic tiles ; seven years later , this was followed seven years later by the construction of minarets on the left and right of the dome . In 1995 , the walls of the main chamber were covered in tile .
On 10 April 2005 an aftershock measuring 6 @.@ 7 on the Richter scale struck the west coast of Sumatra two weeks after a larger earthquake struck Nias . This caused crackage to the columns supporting the mosque 's roof . Three years later , the Ganting Grand Mosque was one of 608 places of worship severely damaged when another large earthquake struck the area on 30 September 2009 . The earthquake collapsed part of the mosque 's façade and caused severe structural damage to the interior columns ; as a result , the community feared that the mosque would collapse . Before renovations were completed in 2010 , prayers had to be held in the yard . In 2011 the Ganting Grand Mosque was listed as one of Indonesia 's 100 most beautiful mosques in a book compiled by Andalan Media . The only other mosque from West Sumatra included was Raya Bayur Mosque , Agam Regency .
= = Architecture = =
Ganting Grand Mosque is built on land measuring 102 by 95 @.@ 6 metres ( 335 ft × 314 ft ) ; the mosque itself is 42 by 39 metres ( 138 ft × 128 ft ) . The building has verandas on its front and sites , a mihrab , and a central area . The extra land can hold more people during the Eid prayers , on both Eid ul @-@ Fitr and Eid al @-@ Adha . The courtyard is surrounded by an iron fence , separating it from the busy streets on the eastern and northern sides of the mosque . On the southern side , as well as behind the mosque proper , there are numerous graves , including that of Angku Syekh Haji Uma , one of the mosque 's founders .
The architectural blend of numerous schools shows clearly because of the different cultural groups involved in the mosque 's construction , including the architecture of Europe , the Middle East , China , and the Minangkabau . The mosque 's roof goes upwards in five steps , with the dome at the top ; the first step is square , while the rest are octagonal . Each part of the roof has slits in it for lighting .
= = = Veranda = = =
The mosque proper has two main verandas , at the façade and its side . Both verandas measure 30 by 4 @.@ 5 metres ( 98 ft × 15 ft ) and have two doorways , one of which leads to the rooms for wudu located on the northern and southern sides of the mosque . On the western side of the mosque is a room ( ribat ) for its keeper , measuring 4 @.@ 5 by 3 metres ( 14 @.@ 8 ft × 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . The ribat has a 225 @-@ by @-@ 90 @-@ centimetre ( 89 in × 35 in ) door facing east and a window measuring 90 by 90 centimetres ( 35 in × 35 in ) .
The forward veranda measures 12 by 39 metres ( 39 ft × 128 ft ) and has six doorways to the east and two each to the north and south ; in each doorway hangs an iron grate door . Each of the east facing doorways is decorated with a pair of non @-@ supporting columns . In the center of the veranda is the 220 by 120 by 275 centimetres ( 87 in × 47 in × 108 in ) minbar , which juts out to the front and has an iron grate door . The minbar is only used during Eid prayers . Aside from the doors , the veranda has two windows with iron trellises , one each to the north and south .
On the eastern wall of the front veranda hangs a geometric carving created with square and rectangular panels . There are also arc designs which merge into ring and axehead shapes . The walls measure 34 centimetres ( 13 in ) thick and 320 centimetres ( 130 in ) high . Inside the veranda there are seven double iron @-@ wrought cylindrical columns with a diameter of 45 centimetres ( 18 in ) . These columns rest on concrete pedestals measuring 113 by 70 by 67 centimetres ( 44 in × 28 in × 26 in ) . There are also two square columns on the northern and southern sides , near a central , octagonal room which has one doorway from the east and one window .
= = = Main chamber = = =
The main chamber is a 30 @-@ by @-@ 30 @-@ metre ( 98 ft × 98 ft ) square , with eight entrances on the east and due each on the north and south . The doors measure 160 by 264 centimetres ( 63 in × 104 in ) and have wooden doors with spread fan carvings on the threshold above . There are two windows with wooden frames on the eastern wall , flanking the doors , as well as three windows on both the north and south walls and eight on the west . These windows measure 1 @.@ 6 by 2 metres ( 5 ft 3 in × 6 ft 7 in ) . As with the doors , the threshold above the windows is decorated with spread fan carvings . The walls are made of concrete covered in ceramic , while the floor is made of white tiles with a flower motif .
This main room includes 25 soko guru , or main columns . They are hexagonal in shape and with diameters ranging from 40 to 50 centimetres ( 16 to 20 in ) . These columns are made of red brick and bound with egg whites , lacking any iron framework . The 25 columns are arranged in 5 rows , representing the 25 prophets in Islam . Each column is covered in marble engraved with the names of the prophets , from Adam to Muhammad . These columns are the main supports for the octagonal roof above .
On the western side of the room is a mihrab flanked by two smaller rooms on its north and south . The mihrab measures 2 by 1 @.@ 5 metres ( 6 ft 7 in × 4 ft 11 in ) . It is 320 centimetres ( 130 in ) tall on the east side and 210 centimetres ( 83 in ) tall on the west side .
= = = Other areas = = =
The Ganting Grand Mosque Masjid has wudu chambers measuring 10 by 3 metres ( 32 @.@ 8 ft × 9 @.@ 8 ft ) on the north and south sides of the side verandas . These enclosed chambers were built as permanent structures in 1967 . The mosque 's library is in a structure on the northern side of the mosque , which is connected to the mosque proper . There are also three smaller structures on the grounds for the consultation of future hajj pilgrims . One of the structures was once part of the a Thawalib school .
= Ann Dunham =
Stanley Ann Dunham ( November 29 , 1942 – November 7 , 1995 ) was the mother of Barack Obama , the 44th President of the United States , and an American anthropologist who specialized in economic anthropology and rural development . Dunham was known as Stanley Dunham through high school , then as Ann Dunham , Ann Obama , Ann Soetoro , Ann Sutoro ( after her second divorce ) , and finally as Ann Dunham . Born in Wichita , Kansas , Dunham spent her childhood in California , Oklahoma , Texas and Kansas , her teenage years in Mercer Island , Washington , and most of her adult life in Hawaii and Indonesia .
Dunham studied at the East – West Center and at the University of Hawaii at Manoa in Honolulu , where she attained a bachelor 's of anthropology and master 's and PhD in anthropology . She also attended University of Washington at Seattle in 1961 – 1962 . Interested in craftsmanship , weaving and the role of women in cottage industries , Dunham 's research focused on women 's work on the island of Java and blacksmithing in Indonesia . To address the problem of poverty in rural villages , she created microcredit programs while working as a consultant for the United States Agency for International Development . Dunham was also employed by the Ford Foundation in Jakarta and she consulted with the Asian Development Bank in Gujranwala , Pakistan . Towards the latter part of her life , she worked with Bank Rakyat Indonesia , where she helped apply her research to the largest microfinance program in the world .
After her son was elected President , interest renewed in Dunham 's work : The University of Hawaii held a symposium about her research ; an exhibition of Dunham 's Indonesian batik textile collection toured the United States ; and in December 2009 , Duke University Press published Surviving against the Odds : Village Industry in Indonesia , a book based on Dunham 's original 1992 dissertation . Janny Scott , an author and former New York Times reporter , published a biography about Ann Dunham 's life titled A Singular Woman in 2011 . Posthumous interest has also led to the creation of The Ann Dunham Soetoro Endowment in the Anthropology Department at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa , as well as the Ann Dunham Soetoro Graduate Fellowships , intended to fund students associated with the East – West Center ( EWC ) in Honolulu , Hawaii .
In an interview , Barack Obama referred to his mother as " the dominant figure in my formative years ... The values she taught me continue to be my touchstone when it comes to how I go about the world of politics . "
= = Early life = =
Dunham was born on November 29 , 1942 at Saint Francis Hospital in Wichita , Kansas , the only child of Madelyn Lee Payne and Stanley Armour Dunham . She was of predominantly English ancestry , with some German , Swiss , Scottish , Irish , and Welsh ancestry . Wild Bill Hickok is her sixth cousin , five times removed .
Ancestry.com announced on July 30 , 2012 , after using a combination of old documents and yDNA analysis , that Dunham 's mother may have been descended from African John Punch , who was an indentured servant / slave in seventeenth @-@ century colonial Virginia .
Her parents were born in Kansas and met in Wichita , where they married on May 5 , 1940 . After the attack on Pearl Harbor , her father joined the United States Army and her mother worked at a Boeing plant in Wichita . According to Dunham , she was named after her father because he wanted a son , though her relatives doubt this story and her maternal uncle recalled that her mother named Dunham after her favorite actress Bette Davis ' character in the film In This Our Life because she thought Stanley , as a girl 's name , sounded sophisticated . As a child and teenager she was known as Stanley . Other children teased her about her name but she used it through high school , " apologizing for it each time she introduced herself in a new town " . By the time Dunham began attending college , she was known by her middle name , Ann , instead . After World War II , Dunham 's family moved from Wichita to California while her father attended the University of California , Berkeley . In 1948 , they moved to Ponca City , Oklahoma , and from there to Vernon , Texas , and then to El Dorado , Kansas . In 1955 , the family moved to Seattle , Washington , where her father was employed as a furniture salesman and her mother worked as vice president of a bank . They lived in an apartment complex in the Wedgwood neighborhood where she attended Nathan Eckstein Junior High School .
In 1956 , Dunham 's family moved to Mercer Island , an Eastside suburb of Seattle . Dunham 's parents wanted their 13 @-@ year @-@ old daughter to attend the newly opened Mercer Island High School . At the school , teachers Val Foubert and Jim Wichterman taught the importance of challenging social norms and questioning authority to the young Dunham , and she took the lessons to heart : " She felt she didn 't need to date or marry or have children . " One classmate remembered her as " intellectually way more mature than we were and a little bit ahead of her time , in an off @-@ center way " , and a high school friend described her as knowledgeable and progressive : " If you were concerned about something going wrong in the world , Stanley would know about it first . We were liberals before we knew what liberals were . " Another called her " the original feminist " .
= = Family life and marriages = =
On August 21 , 1959 , Hawaii became the 50th state to be admitted into the Union . Dunham 's parents sought business opportunities in the new state , and after graduating from high school in 1960 , Dunham and her family moved to Honolulu . Dunham soon enrolled at the University of Hawaii at Mānoa .
= = = First marriage = = =
While attending a Russian language class , Dunham met Barack Obama , Sr. , the school 's first African student . At the age of 23 , Obama Sr. had come to Hawaii to pursue his education , leaving behind a pregnant wife and infant son in his home town of Nyang 'oma Kogelo in Kenya . Dunham and Obama Sr. were married on the Hawaiian island of Maui on February 2 , 1961 , despite parental opposition from both families . Dunham was three months pregnant . Obama Sr. eventually informed Dunham about his first marriage in Kenya but claimed he was divorced . Years later , she would discover this was false . Obama Sr. ' s first wife , Kezia , later said she had granted her consent for him to marry a second wife , in keeping with Luo customs .
On August 4 , 1961 , at the age of 18 , Dunham gave birth to her first child , Barack Obama II . Friends in the state of Washington recall her visiting with her month @-@ old baby in 1961 . She took classes at the University of Washington from September 1961 to June 1962 , and lived as a single mother in the Capitol Hill neighborhood of Seattle with her son while her husband continued his studies in Hawaii . When Obama Sr. graduated from the University of Hawaii in June 1962 , he was offered a scholarship to study in New York City , but declined it , preferring to attend the more prestigious Harvard University . He left for Cambridge , Massachusetts , where he would begin graduate study at Harvard in the fall of 1962 . Dunham returned to Honolulu and resumed her undergraduate education at the University of Hawaii with the spring semester in January 1963 . During this time , her parents helped her raise the young Obama . Dunham filed for divorce in January 1964 , which Obama Sr. did not contest . In December 1964 , Obama Sr. married Ruth Baker , a Jewish American of Lithuanian heritage ; they were separated in 1971 and divorced in 1973 after having two sons . In 1965 , Obama Sr. received a MA in economics from Harvard . In 1971 , he came to Hawaii for a month and visited his son Barack , then 10 years old ; it was the last time he would see his son , and their only major personal interaction . In 1982 , Obama Sr. was killed in a car accident .
= = = Second marriage = = =
It was at the East – West Center that Dunham met Lolo Soetoro , a Javanese surveyor who had come to Honolulu in September 1962 on an East – West Center grant to study geography at the University of Hawaii . Soetoro graduated from the University of Hawaii with an M.A. in geography in June 1964 . In 1965 , Soetoro and Dunham were married in Hawaii , and in 1966 , Soetoro returned to Indonesia . Dunham graduated from the University of Hawaii with a B.A. in anthropology on August 6 , 1967 , and moved in October the same year with her six @-@ year @-@ old son to Jakarta , Indonesia , to rejoin her husband .
In Indonesia , Soetoro worked first as a low @-@ paid topographical surveyor for the Indonesian government , and later in the government relations office of Union Oil Company . The family first lived at 16 Kyai Haji Ramli Tengah Street in a newly built neighborhood in the Menteng Dalam administrative village of the Tebet subdistrict in South Jakarta for two and a half years , with her son attending the nearby Indonesian @-@ language Santo Fransiskus Asisi ( St. Francis of Assisi ) Catholic School for 1st , 2nd , and part of 3rd grade , then in 1970 moved two miles north to 22 Taman Amir Hamzah Street in the Matraman Dalam neighborhood in the Pegangsaan administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta , with her son attending the Indonesian @-@ language government @-@ run Besuki School one and half miles east in the exclusive Menteng administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict for part of 3rd grade and for 4th grade . On August 15 , 1970 , Soetoro and Dunham had a daughter , Maya Kassandra Soetoro .
In Indonesia , Dunham enriched her son 's education with correspondence courses in English , recordings of Mahalia Jackson , and speeches by Martin Luther King Jr . In 1971 , she sent the young Obama back to Hawaii to attend Punahou School starting in 5th grade rather than having him stay in Indonesia with her . Madelyn Dunham 's job at the Bank of Hawaii , where she had worked her way up over a decade from clerk to becoming one of its first two female vice presidents in 1970 , helped pay the steep tuition , with some assistance from a scholarship .
A year later , in August 1972 , Dunham and her daughter moved back to Hawaii to rejoin her son and begin graduate study in anthropology at the University of Hawaii at Manoa . Dunham 's graduate work was supported by an Asia Foundation grant from August 1972 to July 1973 and by an East – West Center Technology and Development Institute grant from August 1973 to December 1978 .
Dunham completed her coursework at the University of Hawaii for an M.A. in anthropology in December 1974 , and after having spent three years in Hawaii , Dunham , accompanied by her daughter Maya , returned to Indonesia in 1975 to do anthropological field work . Her son chose not to go with them back to Indonesia , preferring to finish high school at Punahou School in Honolulu while living with his grandparents . Lolo Soetoro and Dunham divorced on November 5 , 1980 ; Lolo Soetoro married Erna Kustina in 1980 and had two children , a son , Yusuf Aji Soetoro ( born 1981 ) , and daughter , Rahayu Nurmaida Soetoro ( born 1987 ) . Lolo Soetoro died , age 52 , on March 2 , 1987 , due to liver failure .
Dunham was not estranged from either ex @-@ husband and encouraged her children to feel connected to their fathers .
= = Professional life = =
From January 1968 to December 1969 , Dunham taught English and was an assistant director of the Lembaga Persahabatan Indonesia Amerika ( LIA ) – the Indonesia @-@ America Friendship Institute at 9 Teuku Umar Street in the Gondangdia administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta – which was subsidized by the U.S. government . From January 1970 to August 1972 , Dunham taught English and was a department head and a director of the Lembaga Pendidikan dan Pengembangan Manajemen ( LPPM ) – the Institute of Management Education and Development at 9 Menteng Raya Street in the Kebon Sirih administrative village of the Menteng subdistrict in Central Jakarta .
From 1968 to 1972 , Dunham was a co @-@ founder and active member of the Ganesha Volunteers ( Indonesian Heritage Society ) at the National Museum in Jakarta . From 1972 to 1975 , Dunham was crafts instructor ( in weaving , batik , and dye ) at the Bishop Museum in Honolulu .
Dunham then had a career in rural development , championing women 's work and microcredit for the world 's poor and worked with leaders
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Gravenstafel Switch . After digging @-@ in , a party from the 39th joined the 40th Battalion as it launched the final wave in the brigade 's attack . As the 40th came up against stiff opposition , more men from the 39th were pushed forward and the objective was finally secured around 11 : 00 am . After the battle , the 39th remained in the line until 6 October , when it was withdrawn back to Morbecque for reorganisation and rest . A couple of days later , the battalion was recommitted to the fighting and ordered to advance towards Passchendaele Ridge , attacking on the morning of 12 October despite heavy rain the previous evening . In the heavy fighting that followed , the battalion managed to secure its first objective , but was forced to withdraw when its flanks became threatened as neighbouring units had been unable to advance with them through the thick mud .
Over the course of the next five months , the 39th Battalion rotated between the front line and rear areas , holding the line in Belgium throughout winter . In the spring of 1918 , when the German Army launched its last effort at victory , known as the Spring Offensive , the 39th was among the many Australian battalions that were hurriedly moved south to France in order to stem the tide of the German onslaught towards Amiens ; fighting a series of defensive actions in the Somme between late March and early June . When the Allies launched their own offensive – the Hundred Days Offensive – on 8 August 1918 , the battalion along with the rest of the 10th Brigade , was serving as the divisional reserve and they did not participate in the advance that has since become known as one of the greatest days for the Allies on the Western Front . On 10 August , the battalion was committed to battle once more , undertaking an attack on the village of Proyart , but this attack was ill @-@ conceived and ultimately failed . Despite this , the battalion remained in the line throughout August and early September as the 3rd Division advanced through the Somme Valley .
The battalion undertook its last major action of the war at the end of September 1918 when , serving alongside the Americans , they breached parts of the Hindenburg Line along the St Quentin Canal . During this final battle , the battalion 's long serving commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel Robert Henderson , who had taken command in February 1917 before the battalion 's first major battle , was killed in action . Late on 2 October , while around Gillemont Crescent , the 39th was relieved and the battalion was removed from the line to undertake training and reorganisation . In the middle of October , the 39th was bolstered by a company of reinforcements from the 37th , which had been disbanded to help make up losses in the other 10th Brigade units . Nevertheless , the 39th did not see action again and they were still at the rear when the Armistice was declared on 11 November 1918 . With the fighting over , the process of demobilisation began and slowly the men began marching out for repatriation to Australia . Finally , in March 1919 , the 39th Battalion was disbanded . At this point , the battalion 's remaining personnel were amalgamated with other units to form the 10th Demobilisation Regiment , with the last of its soldiers returning to Australia in May .
During the course of the war the 39th Battalion suffered 405 men killed , while a further 1 @,@ 637 were wounded . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Member of the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire ( MBE ) , two Distinguished Service Orders ( DSOs ) , 14 Distinguished Conduct Medals ( DCMs ) , 14 Military Crosses ( MCs ) , 78 Military Medals ( MMs ) with three bars , and 22 Mentions in Dispatches ( MIDs ) . For their involvement in the fighting on the Western Front , the 39th Battalion were awarded 14 battle honours in 1927 .
= = = Inter @-@ war years = = =
At the end of World War I there was a wholesale disbandment of units of the Australian Army as the wartime Army was disbanded and its personnel demobilised . In 1921 , it was decided that there was a need to raise a part @-@ time military force , known as the Citizens Force , which would take responsibility for the defence of the Australian mainland . This force was organised along the same lines of the 1st AIF , and the units raised kept the same numerical designation as the 1st AIF battalions . The AIF ceased to exist officially on 1 April 1921 , and the Citizens Force was reorganised the following month on 1 May , adopting the numerical designations and structures of the AIF . As a part of this , the 39th Battalion was raised in 1921 in Melbourne . Upon formation , the battalion was attached to the 10th Brigade , 3rd Division , and the battalion drew personnel from the 22nd and 24th Infantry Regiments and the 29th Light Horse .
In 1927 , territorial designations were adopted and the battalion assumed the title of the " Hawthorn Regiment " . Three years later this was changed to the " Hawthorne – Kew Regiment " . It assumed the motto of Factis Non Verbis in 1927 . Initially , the battalion was kept up to strength with volunteers and men serving under the terms of the compulsory training scheme , but in 1929 the scheme was suspended by the newly elected Scullin Labor government and the Citizen Forces were renamed the Militia . The combination of the end to compulsory training and the financial hardships of the Great Depression meant that there were few volunteers available as men could not risk losing their jobs to undertake training and as a result throughout the 1930s a number of units were amalgamated or disbanded as the size of the Army was reduced . In 1937 , the 39th Battalion was merged with the 37th Battalion , before later being delinked with the 37th and being amalgamated with the 24th Battalion , becoming the 24th / 39th Battalion . An alliance with the Dorsetshire Regiment was approved in 1930 .
= = = World War II = = =
= = = = Formation = = = =
On 1 October 1941 , the Australian Military Board issued an order re @-@ raising the 39th Battalion as a single battalion of the Australian Military Forces , as Militiamen were called up for national service . The intent was to raise the battalion to relieve the Queensland @-@ based 49th Battalion , which was serving as a garrison force around Port Moresby , and from the outset the battalion was formed from men who were transferred from a variety of infantry and light horse units , including the 24th / 39th Battalion that had been deployed at Nagambie Road , in Seymour , Victoria , as well as elements from the Militia 2nd Cavalry and 3rd and 4th Infantry Divisions . Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Conran became the battalion 's new commanding officer , having previously served with the 23rd Battalion during World War I , and in the Citizens Military Force after the war .
The battalion headquarters was opened at Darley Camp , near Bacchus Marsh , and by 8 October 1941 , a nucleus of officers and senior non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) , many of whom had experience from World War I , had prepared the battalion for the arrival of the soldiers or other ranks ( ORs ) that would bring it up to its required establishment . On 10 October 1941 , the first draft of nine officers and 523 men from the 3rd Infantry Division assembled at Caulfield Racecourse Transit Camp and were transported by rail to Darley Camp . The following day numbers increased further with the arrival of another seven officers and 400 men from the 2nd Cavalry and 4th Infantry Divisions . Later , in June 1942 , after it had arrived in New Guinea , the battalion 's strength was bolstered with the transfer of 16 officers from the Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) , including a new commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel William Owen .
On 21 November 1941 , the 39th Battalion paraded through the streets of Melbourne with weapons . It had taken 52 days to form the battalion and while the battalion had still been understrength , they were declared ready for training . In the end , however , as events in the Pacific unfolded , this training was cut short and the battalion was only able to undertake one training exercise in this time . This exercise was code named the " Battle of Corangamite " , and was conducted in the Victorian Western District , at the end of October .
Two days after the Japanese attack on the US fleet at Pearl Harbor and the British in Malaya , on 9 December 1941 the battalion was ordered to " prepare to move " as it was mobilised for war service . The threat of invasion by the Japanese changed the strategic situation and with it the planning forecasts of the Australian high command . As such , instead of relieving the 49th Battalion , the 39th was combined with the 49th and the New South Wales @-@ based 53rd Battalion to form the 30th Brigade , and plans were made for the entire formation to deploy to New Guinea . Christmas Day 1941 was spent in camp , before the 39th Battalion was loaded onto two trains the following day for a rapid move north . One train went straight to Albury and the other departed from Spencer Street Station , Melbourne , two hours later . Both trains arrived in Sydney at 10 : 40 hours , on 27 December 1941 . The battalion then detrained and moved by ferry to Woolloomooloo Wharf where the 1 @,@ 068 officers , NCOs and men of the battalion boarded the passenger ship the Aquitania bound for New Guinea .
= = = = Kokoda Track = = = =
Initially upon their arrival in New Guinea in January 1942 the 39th Battalion was used to defend the airfield at Seven Mile Aerodrome near Port Moresby and to carry out various other garrison tasks such as building defences and unloading stores at the wharf . In May 1942 , the battalion 's commanding officer , Conran , was deemed medically unfit for service and on 24 May he relinquished command . In June 1942 , as the military situation in New Guinea deteriorated further , the battalion received orders to move up the Kokoda Track in order to act as a blocking force against the possibility of a Japanese advance overland from the north . In order to counter this threat , Maroubra Force composed of troops the 39th Battalion and the Papuan Infantry Battalion ( PIB ) were sent to Kokoda , arriving there on 15 July . This move proved prescient as a large Japanese force landed at Gona only a week later , and they quickly began to move inland towards Kokoda .
The first clash occurred at Awala on 23 July , when a platoon from ' B ' Company , under the command of Captain Sam Templeton , having destroyed the footbridge over the Kumusi River , engaged the Japanese on the far side of the river . The Australians were forced to withdraw , however , when hundreds of Japanese marines began crossing the river under a barrage of mortar and machine gun fire . They withdrew only a few miles , before Templeton set up a successful ambush for the advancing Japanese on the banks of the Gorari Creek . Nevertheless , they were forced back further towards the high ground at Oivi where they attempted to make a stand while Templeton tried to make contact with battalion headquarters and the rest of the battalion who were spread out further along the track , in order to get more reinforcements .
On the evening of 29 July the Japanese attacked the main position Kokoda . There were only 80 men from ' B ' Company left at that time , and armed only with small arms and a few Bren light machine guns , they were no match for the assaulting Japanese . Casualties on both sides were high as the Australians resorted to hand @-@ to @-@ hand combat , and the battalion 's commanding officer , Lieutenant Colonel William Owen , who had flown in to take over the battalion following Templeton 's death , was killed while organising the withdrawal . It became clear that Kokoda was lost and the following morning , under the cover of a dense mist , with the PIB 's commanding officer , Major William Watson , assuming temporary command , the survivors abandoned the position and fell back towards the village of Deniki , a mile or so back along the Kokoda Track towards Isurava .
The remnants of ' B ' Company regrouped at Deniki , but they were in a bad state and when on 4 August , Major Allan Cameron , brigade major of the 30th Brigade , arrived to take command of Maroubra Force , most of them were sent back to Isurava in disgrace as he was under the mistaken belief that they had run away from the fighting . Nevertheless , on 8 August the rest of the 39th Battalion , now without the only troops who had any experience fighting the Japanese , launched a counterattack at Kokoda . They managed to secure one side of the airfield , but due to the close proximity of the Japanese on the other side , relief aircraft were unable to land and short of food and ammunition , they were forced to fall back to Deniki once again after almost two days of fighting . They eventually managed to halt the Japanese advance and on 14 August Maroubra Force fell back to Isurava .
At this point the fighting ceased for almost two weeks and during this time the 39th was joined by the 53rd and the 30th Brigade headquarters ; and Lieutenant Colonel Ralph Honner arrived from Ilolo to take command . Reaching the battalion at Isurava on 16 August , he subsequently began organising the battalion 's defence of Isurava . On 23 August Brigadier Arnold Potts took over command of Maroubra Force and further reinforcements arrived as first the 2 / 14th , 2 / 16th and later the 2 / 27th Battalions from the 7th Division 's 21st Brigade also reached the area . Despite this , the situation remained bleak as the supply issue was becoming a serious problem for the Australians and the reinforcements that had arrived were also in a state of disarray having been committed to the battle in a piecemeal fashion and suffering badly from hunger and disease .
Although the Japanese were experiencing similar problems in relation to supplies , they began their advance once again on 26 August and despite several rugged defensive actions the Australians were forced back again , first to Eora Creek on 30 August , then Templeton 's Crossing on 2 September , and finally to Efogi three days later . Exhausted from their efforts and no longer able to be considered an effective fighting force , the 39th was relieved and sent down the track to Koitaki to rest . They had done the job that was required of them , having stalled the Japanese advance in order to allow reinforcements to be brought up . These reinforcements came in the shape of the 25th Brigade , comprising the 2 / 25th , 2 / 31st and 2 / 33rd Battalions . Bitter fighting ensued and the Australians withdrew once again on 17 September , this time to Imita Ridge ; however , the Japanese had reached their limit and on 24 September began to withdraw . By 2 November , Kokoda was back in Australian hands .
= = = = Fighting around Gona and disbandment = = = =
Following the 39th Battalion 's withdrawal from the line in September 1942 , they spent a month at Koitaki before being sent back to Port Moresby in mid @-@ October , where they were detailed to prepare defensive positions . In November , they were attached to the 21st Brigade , and throughout December the 39th Battalion was involved in further fighting as the brigade fought around Gona . During this time the 39th suffered heavy casualties , but the fighting continued and having captured the Gona Mission , the battalion moved to the Sanananda Track on 21 December , taking up a forward position at Huggins ' Road Block . In the New Year the battalion was withdrawn to Soputa and returned to the 30th Brigade . They had suffered heavy casualties and in January 1943 , when it was flown back to Port Moresby , it had a frontage of only seven officers and 25 men . In February , the 39th was ordered to prepare for operations in the Wau area , in anticipation of a further Japanese attack , but this attack did not eventuate and on 12 March the 39th Battalion embarked for the return journey to Australia .
Following the 39th Battalion 's return to Australia , the men were given a period of leave before 30th Brigade was reconstituted on the Atherton Tablelands in Queensland . Initially , the plan was to reorganise the brigade and rebuild it prior to returning it to New Guinea , but in July it was decided that the 30th Brigade , along with its component battalions — the 39th , 49th , and 3rd Battalions — would be disbanded and used to reinforce the 6th Division , with reinforcements being sent to the 16th and 19th Brigades . This came into effect on 3 July 1943 and as a result of this decision , the Militiamen that had been called up for service were transferred to the 36th Battalion , a Militia battalion from New South Wales , while those who had volunteered for overseas service were sent to the 2 / 2nd Battalion ; both of these units later saw further service in New Guinea .
At the end of the battalion 's involvement in the fighting in New Guinea , 1 @,@ 666 men had served in its ranks . The battalion suffered 403 combat casualties , which consisted of 118 killed in action , 13 died of wounds , five died other causes , and 266 wounded in action . Illness and disease also took a heavy toll and as a result , after six months of combat the 39th Battalion 's muster roll was only seven officers and 25 other ranks . For their service during World War II members of the 39th Battalion received the following decorations : two MBEs , one DSO , four DCMs , seven MCs , 10 MMs , one US Distinguished Service Cross and 11 MIDs . The 39th received eight battle honours for the war in 1961 ; it was the only Australian unit to receive the " Kokoda Trail " battle honour .
= = Battle honours = =
The 39th Battalion received the following battle honours :
World War I : Messines 1917 , Ypres 1917 , Polygon Wood , Broodseinde , Poelcappelle , Passchendaele , Somme 1918 , Ancre 1918 , Amiens , Albert 1918 , Mont St Quentin , Hindenburg Line , St Quentin Canal , France and Flanders 1916 – 18 .
World War II : South @-@ West Pacific 1942 – 43 , Kokoda Trail , Kokoda – Deniki , Isurava , Eora Creek – Templeton 's Crossing I , Buna – Gona , Sanananda Road , Amboga River .
= = Commanding Officers = =
World War I
Lieutenant Colonel Robert Rankine ;
Lieutenant Colonel Robert Henderson ;
Lieutenant Colonel Alexander Thomas Paterson .
World War II
Lieutenant Colonel Hugh Marcell Conran ;
Lieutenant Colonel William Taylor Owen ;
Lieutenant Colonel Ralph Hyacinth Honner .
= = Legacy = =
Since the end of the war , the 39th Battalion 's involvement in the fighting around Kokoda has become a significant part of the narrative surrounding the Anzac legend and Australia 's emergence as a modern nation . The battalion 's actions were first shown in Damien Parer 's 1942 film Kokoda Front Line , and more recently in the 2006 Australian movie Kokoda , which was based partly on Victor Austin 's To Kokoda and Beyond .
After the war when Australia 's part @-@ time military forces were reformed in 1948 , while many battalions that had been disbanded during the war were re @-@ raised , the 39th was not . On 8 August 2006 , the Australian Army raised the 39th ( Personnel Support ) Battalion ( later re @-@ designated the 39th Operational Support Battalion ) , adopting the 39th 's numerical designation in order to perpetuate them on the order of battle . During the ceremony that was held at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne , the Governor General , Major General Michael Jeffery , described the 39th Battalion as some of " Australia 's most gallant soldiers " , stating that the Australian nation was indebted to them for " their heroic service " .
= Killing Time ( Star Trek novel ) =
Killing Time is a Star Trek : The Original Series novel written by Della Van Hise and published by Pocket Books in 1985 . The original manuscript had Kirk / Spock slash fiction elements , and these were requested to be removed by Paramount . However , they were not removed , and 250 @,@ 000 copies were printed . These romantic undertones between Spock and James T. Kirk were brought to the attention of the office of the creator of Star Trek , Gene Roddenberry , who made Pocket Books recall the first edition . This edition subsequently became a collector 's item , with more than fifty changes made to a revised version .
= = Plot = =
The USS Enterprise is on patrol near the Romulan neutral zone and the crew is experiencing unusual dreams . Captain James T. Kirk and Science Officer Spock both confess that they are having dreams that Spock is Captain of the ship and Kirk is an Ensign . Kirk informs Spock that Starfleet intelligence has discovered that the Romulans are attempting to use time travel and are sending more ships to investigate . Captain Kirk goes to sleep , and awakes as Ensign Kirk on the VSS ShiKahr , which appears to otherwise be the Enterprise . The Ensign is a drug addled ex @-@ convict who has been on board for only a day .
The Romulans had attempted to travel back in time and destroy the Federation , but they instead created a Federation dominated by Vulcans . They shielded a ship from the changes and compare the differences , realising that it needs to be reversed . Meanwhile , Captain Spock begins to act protectively of Ensign Kirk , but the Captain is injured on an away mission . After Doctor McCoy conducts a series of mental scans , the crew of the ShiKahr realise that history has been altered . The Romulans plot to use Kirk to force Spock to impersonate their leader . Spock mindmelds with Kirk , each realising their personas from the main timeline .
Romulan agents board the ShiKahr and capture Kirk . Spock agrees to their demands and travels with them . Whilst en route , Spock enters pon farr and finds that he is linked to Kirk , but mates with the Romulan Thea to allow it to pass . They retrieve Kirk , and discover that taking Kirk and Spock was a ploy to have them both travel back in time to stop the Romulan agents from preventing the formation of the Federation . They travel back in time and disable the agents , but Spock is seriously injured and dying . Kirk and Spock mindmeld as reality shifts once more and restores the original timeline .
= = Development = =
The original manuscript of Killing Time included Kirk / Spock based slash fiction overtones . The foundation of this genre of writing dated back to the 1970s with fan created fiction about Kirk and Spock . This has since become a term typically used for same @-@ sex unofficial fiction . Author Della van Hise had previously written these types of stories about those characters . When that manuscript was sent by Pocket Books for approval by Paramount Studios , the pages with the slash fiction were marked to be edited out of the eventual novel . It was returned , but at the time Pocket Books were between editors as Mimi Panich had just left , and her replacement Karen Haas had not yet arrived . At some point , someone went through the manuscript and marked the pages which Paramount had asked to be removed with the letters " STET " , which is a Latin term used by proofreaders to tell the printer to disregard earlier changes .
Pocket Books published 250 @,@ 000 copies of Killing Time in the first print run . After the publishing , Gene Roddenberry 's assistant , Richard Arnold , received a letter from a reader stating that the book was suggesting a romantic link between Kirk and Spock . This was passed to Roddenberry , the creator of Star Trek , who reportedly " became livid " . Following his complaints to Pocket Books , the first print run of the novel was recalled and destroyed . Pocket Books had already shipped between 100 @,@ 000 to 150 @,@ 000 copies of the book to retailers . When the news broke , fans began purchasing the novels before they could be removed from the shelves as the first edition was expected to become a collector 's item . Van Hise later said of that version of the novel , " If someone went looking for ' questionable material ' , in Killing Time , they could find it ... Just as beauty is in supposedly in the mind of the beholder , so is questionable material . " More than fifty changes were made to the novel before it was republished as a second edition .
Following the issues with the publishing of Killing Time , there was increased oversight by Roddenberry 's staff regarding the novels published by Pocket Books . This was delegated to Arnold , and would later cause confusion for Pocket Books as comments would be sent back and it was sometimes unclear whether they were from Roddenberry or Arnold . These comments rejected plot developments in the novels where they were stepping out of the bounds set by the television series . Rumours subsequently spread that there was an alternative version of the manuscript with more explicit Kirk / Spock slash details , something that Van Hise later denied .
= = Critical reception = =
Ellen Cheeseman @-@ Meyer , writing for Tor.com in February 2013 , said that Killing Time was " incredibly romantic " . She stated that it reminded her of 18th century literary Romanticism , " which suggested that morality lay in nature and civilization was a corrupting influence " . She said that whilst it could be considered " a trivial piece of fluff tossed off by a fan writer and published when Pocket Books wasn ’ t paying much attention " , it could also be seen to be a " call to action that requires readers to examine their relationships and their actions " . In Elizabeth Woledge 's article for Extrapolation , entitled " From Slash to the Mainstream : Female Writers and Gender Blending Men " , she describes Killing Time as " erotic but not sexual " and said that Spock and Kirk both " combine masculine and feminine imagery " . She suggested that it was not the romantic overtones that caused the reaction , but rather that it was this gender @-@ blending that was the issue .
= Round Church , Preslav =
The Round Church ( Bulgarian : Кръгла църква , Kragla tsarkva ) , also known as the Golden Church ( Златна църква , Zlatna tsarkva ) or the Church of St John ( църква " Свети Йоан " , tsarkva " Sveti Yoan " ) , is a large partially preserved early medieval Eastern Orthodox church . It lies in Preslav , the former capital of the First Bulgarian Empire , today a town in northeastern Bulgaria . The church dates to the early 10th century , the time of Tsar Simeon I 's rule , and was unearthed and first archaeologically examined in 1927 – 1928 .
Considered to be one of the most impressive examples of medieval Bulgarian architecture , the Round Church takes its name from the distinctive shape of one of its three sections , the cella ( naos ) , which is a rotunda that serves as a place of liturgy . The church 's design also includes a wide atrium and a rectangular entrance area , or narthex , marked by two circular turrets .
The church has been likened to examples of religious architecture from the late Roman ( Early Christian ) period , the Caucasus , and the Carolingian Pre @-@ Romanesque of Charlemagne because of its characteristic plan , which is significantly different from contemporaneous Bulgarian or Byzantine buildings . The church 's alternative name , the Golden Church , stems from its possible and popular identification with a " new golden church " in Preslav referenced in a medieval literary source .
The Round Church 's rich interior decoration , which makes ample use of mosaics , ceramics and marble details , distinguishes it from other churches in Preslav . Its interior features hundreds of drawings depicting ships , fauna , and Christian figures . Medieval inscriptions on the walls range from names of saints in Byzantine Greek to separate letters and short texts in the Glagolitic and Cyrillic alphabets .
= = Background = =
Founded in 681 as a pagan state , Bulgaria was formally Christianised by Byzantine clergy in the 860s , under Prince Boris ( r . 852 – 889 ) . The right to convert Bulgaria to Christianity was the subject of a political dispute between Byzantium and the Papacy . With the conversion to Christianity , Boris hoped to solve internal ethnic issues and improve the foreign relations of his state , which was not treated equally by the Christian rulers of Europe .
The Round Church was constructed during the rule of Boris ' son and successor , Simeon ( r . 893 – 927 ) , whose successful campaigns established Bulgaria 's temporary superiority over Byzantium , at times threatening the Byzantine capital at Constantinople . He extended the territory of the First Bulgarian Empire over most of the Balkans , to the Adriatic and the Aegean . Simeon also conquered the lands of modern Serbia and Montenegro and efficiently eliminated the Magyar threat from the north . Counted among Bulgaria 's greatest leaders , Simeon was a benefactor of literature and the arts ; his reign is considered the " Golden Age " of medieval Bulgarian culture because of Bulgaria 's literary influence over contemporary Slavic Europe .
The city of Preslav was made the capital of Bulgaria early in Simeon 's reign , partly because of the former capital Pliska 's association with pre @-@ Christian paganism . Simeon turned Preslav into a cultural centre , a true rival to Constantinople . Some of the most eminent scholars of Bulgaria 's Golden Age worked at the Preslav Literary School . Intended more as a royal residence and a showcase of cultural power than a fortress , the city boasted impressive architecture , including a large number of characteristic palaces and dozens of churches . Among them the Round Church , regarded as " one of the most impressive monuments of medieval Bulgarian architecture " and an " expression of the highest achievements of Old Bulgarian culture " , stood out .
= = Identification and history = =
The Round Church is popularly identified with the " new golden church " referenced in a colophon to an Old Bulgarian translation of Athanasius of Alexandria 's Orations Against the Arians . The text says that the translation was done on the order of Prince Simeon by Constantine of Preslav and copied by Theodore Dox , " at the mouth of the Ticha in the [ Byzantine ] year 6415 indiction 14 [ 907 AD ] , where the same prince had the holy new golden church built " . It is uncertain whether the " mouth of the Ticha " refers to a narrow section of the river , to the Ustie pass near the city , or possibly to a certain location next to the outer city walls and in the direct vicinity of the Round Church ruins . This problem aside , if " golden " is to be taken literally , the source is also unclear as to whether the church is the new one among the city 's golden churches , or the single golden one among the new churches in Preslav . Scholar Stancho Vaklinov considers the identification of the Round Church as the " new golden church " from literature " incontestable " , while art historian Nikola Mavrodinov is of the opinion that it is probable . On the other hand , historian A. P. Vlasto believes this identification to be " not absolutely certain " .
If the church from the marginal note is equated with the Round Church , then it can be conclusively dated to no more than a few years before 907 . While the church can be ascribed to no later than the 10th century , some scholars have suggested that it may have been constructed directly on top of a much earlier late Roman basilica due to its antiquated plan . A possible donor ( ktetor ) of at least part of the church 's construction is a high @-@ ranking church official ( chartophylax ) named Paul , who is mentioned in an inscription inside the church . The main part of the work was likely funded by Simeon , who may have acted as a chief sponsor .
There is debate in Bulgarian academic circles as to whether the church was built as a monastery church or as a separate cathedral . If the buildings neighbouring the church are interpreted as the residential part of a monastery , it was most probably established after the construction of the Round Church , during the rule of Tsar Peter I ( r . 927 – 969 ) . The absence of entrances on these buildings on the sides facing the church and the presence of a large atrium make it unlikely . Another argument against the Round Church being a monastery church is its location , isolated from other buildings yet accessible to the public outside the inner city . Scholar Bistra Nikolova considers it a city cathedral and compares it in function to the Great Basilica in Pliska . Another researcher , Krastyu Miyatev , sees it as a royal church of Simeon , but art historian Nikola Mavrodinov and archaeologist Totyu Totev insist it belonged to a monastery from the beginning .
The earliest excavations of the site were carried out in 1927 – 1928 by archaeologists from the National Archaeological Museum in Sofia and the Bulgarian Antiquities Society under the direction of Yordan Gospodinov . A second effort headed by Krastyu Miyatev resulted in a much more in @-@ depth study , and archaeological research at the site is ongoing . In 1927 , the Round Church , along with the entirety of medieval Preslav , was proclaimed a historical and archaeological reserve and placed under state protection as a national antiquity . In 1970 , it was individually included in the list of monuments of culture of national importance with a publication in that year 's State Gazette , issue 46 . As part of the Veliki Preslav architectural reserve , the Round Church is listed as No. 98 among the 100 Tourist Sites of Bulgaria .
The Church of St Petka in Ruse , opened in 1944 , was built as a reconstruction of the Round Church in Preslav . The Round Church underwent partial restoration in the late 1990s and early 2000s . In December 2009 , plans were announced to reconstruct the church in its entirety , without demolishing or altering any of the original structural remains . A monument dedicated to Tsar Simeon was unveiled in the immediate vicinity of the Round Church on 27 May 2007 to honour the 1080th anniversary of his death . Despite not being an active church , it is regularly used for baptisms and weddings .
= = Architecture = =
= = = Location and style = = =
The Round Church was built outside Preslav 's inner city , which mostly included the royal palace and its associated buildings such as the Royal Basilica . It was still within the outer city limits , and lay in Preslav 's southeastern part , some 250 metres ( 820 ft ) from the South Gate of the inner city . It was situated on a high terrace . Today the Round Church , along with the other ruins of medieval Preslav , lie not far from the modern town of Veliki Preslav , which is the administrative centre of a municipality in Shumen Province , northeastern Bulgaria .
While no church from this age in the Slavic @-@ populated parts of the Balkans was up @-@ to @-@ date with contemporary Byzantine architecture , the Round Church differs markedly because of its centralized , circular plan , which is unique in medieval Bulgarian architecture . The rounded and dynamic nature of its shapes is in contrast with the sharp rectangular designs of that period . It is most likely based on the abundant examples of late Roman or early Byzantine buildings that lay ruined in the Bulgarian lands . The layout , particularly the rotunda , resembles churches from the time of Justinian I such as the Basilica of San Vitale in Ravenna , the Little Hagia Sophia in Constantinople ( today Istanbul ) , and the Rotunda of Galerius in Thessaloniki . Even if the plan is unusual , the technology and principles employed in its construction are contemporary to the 10th century and in accord with other monuments in Preslav .
Byzantine churches are not the only source of inspiration that researchers attribute to the Round Church . Some scholars link its design to an Armenian influence , perhaps brought to Bulgaria by craftsmen from the Caucasus . In general , churches with such an antiquated plan in the Balkans are associated with the migration of Cappadocian , Armenian , or Georgian monks . Another possible model for the Round Church in Preslav may well be found in Carolingian architecture from the time of Charlemagne , and particularly the Palatine Chapel in Aachen , western Germany , with which it shares some characteristics . At the time of the Round Church 's construction , Bulgaria was in direct contact with the Frankish Empire . One trait of the Round Church that is claimed by scholars to be a very recognisable Carolingian influence is the presence of a monumental westwork .
= = = Description = = =
The Round Church includes three sections : the wide atrium ( or courtyard ) , the narthex and the cella ( also naos or , due to its shape , rotunda ) , each serving as a premise to the other . The sections were not necessarily built at the same time , and it is generally accepted that a reconstruction of the church was carried out some time after its completion . Mavrodinov and archaeologist Karel Škorpil believe the narthex and cella comprised the first building period , while the atrium was added very shortly after that and by the same architect .
The church has a total length of 38 @.@ 5 m ( 126 ft ) , including the atrium . It was mostly built of rectangular limestone blocks sparingly joined with mortar . Inside the apse , the mortar is red @-@ coloured . The floor was covered by marble and stone tiles glued on top of red mortar in the narthex and white mortar elsewhere . Red and yellow bricks and pieces of bricks were used for the atrium , the arches , and possibly the dome ; some brick pieces were used to fill spaces between the stones on the walls .
= = = = Atrium = = = =
The outermost part of the Round Church is its atrium , the flanked open space leading into the narthex . It is accessed by means of three gates ( one on each wall ) , of which the entrance on the main west wall is the most elaborate and grandest in appearance . The atrium is almost square in shape and measures 12 @.@ 20 m × 14 @.@ 30 m ( 40 @.@ 0 ft × 46 @.@ 9 ft ) . A water well was constructed in the middle of the courtyard ; it was linked to a water conduit .
The sides of the atrium are decorated by a multitude of vaults with piers in between . In total , there are fourteen vaults : four on each of the courtyard 's three walls and one each where the west wall meets the sides . The atrium includes an equal number of round limestone columns each standing opposite one of the piers , 0 @.@ 60 m ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) apart .
= = = = Narthex = = = =
The rectangular narthex constitutes the middle part of the building , between the atrium and the cella , and serves as the lobby of the church . It lies directly east of the atrium , through a wide gate flanked by a couple of high circular turrets . Mavrodinov likens the narthex of the Round Church to similar structures in the churches of Mount Athos , because of its depth .
Together with the north and south wall , the entrance of the narthex effectively isolates two smaller parts of the atrium , similar in plan and accessible through doors . The north part includes a small necropolis , while the south part was probably a baptistery , as it features a square installation with a clay pipe that resembles a baptismal font . However , Nikolova considers its shape much too unusual and its depth unsuitable for baptism , and believes it may instead have been designed as a vessel for dispensing holy water .
Measuring 5 m × 9 @.@ 50 m ( 16 @.@ 4 ft × 31 @.@ 2 ft ) , the narthex is the part of the Round Church which has survived in best shape , as some of its walls reach 3 m ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) . Its two turrets have a diameter of 3 @.@ 20 m ( 10 @.@ 5 ft ) ; each has an entrance facing the interior of the narthex and three windows . The higher reaches of the towers were reached via spiral stairways , archaeological remains of which have been unearthed in the north turret . There are two pairs of columns inside the narthex , supporting its second floor , which is accessible from the north tower . The columns divide the narthex into three naves and mark the way from the narthex entrance to the gates of the rotunda .
= = = = Rotunda = = = =
The round cella is the easternmost and most important part of the church , as it was where the liturgy was performed . The diameter of the rotunda is 10 @.@ 50 m ( 34 @.@ 4 ft ) . It is accessed through three gates , all from the narthex . It was entirely covered by a dome . Twelve vaults , semicircular as seen from the inside and pentagonal on the outer wall , were constructed north and south of the rotunda 's eastern part , the apse , which itself fits into one of the vaults . Large buttresses reinforce the structure both inside and outside . A circle of ten or twelve white marble columns was inscribed inside the rotunda , 0 @.@ 55 m ( 1 @.@ 8 ft ) from the interior buttresses . The capitals of the columns are similar to those of the royal palace in Preslav . A copper @-@ plated wooden coffin lay in a burial chamber by one of the vaults near the apse .
The semicircular apse fits naturally with the other vaults of the rotunda despite being larger , and features vaults on its north and south walls . The marble ambon was situated in the middle of the circle of columns and of the whole rotunda , directly under the dome 's centre , as evidenced by a mortar padding . Stairs from the east and west , aligned with the apse , used to lead up to the ambon . The bishop 's throne or cathedra probably lay near one of the south vaults , which was likely enlarged for the purpose .
= = Decoration = =
The interior was lavishly decorated with colourful Byzantine @-@ style mosaics , cornices , and ceramics . With the exception of the Corinthian and Doric column capitals , which are of Roman or Byzantine origin , the rest of the decoration was created specifically for and during the church 's construction . Vlasto finds a Proto @-@ Bulgarian flavour in the church 's interior and a relationship with the art of Persia or Central Asia . Thus , he believes that it is not based on Byzantine examples of that age . Of a contrary opinion is Miyatev , who points out significant similarities between the decoration of the Round Church and that of the Church of the Mother of God ( now part of the Fenari Isa Mosque ) from 908 in Constantinople . Mavrodinov goes a step further to claim that the architect of the Round Church was directly inspired by ancient examples , citing in particular the rich sculptural decoration .
The Round Church was unmatched in its ceramic decoration by any church in Preslav , and was the only known building in the city to rely heavily on polychrome ceramic tiles . Ceramic and mosaic icons were a highlight of the interior ; they ranged in size from almost life @-@ sized to miniature . While the ceramic images were constructed out of clay tiles , the mosaic icons were more varied in their material , which included clay , glass , and stone of various shades on a gold @-@ coloured background . Among the portrayed saints and biblical figures are Charalampus and perhaps Joel . Some of the images were enclosed in ellipses .
The Round Church featured marble and limestone cornices . These included a large number of intertwined ornaments and details , such as palmettes , grape clusters , leaves , and chamfers . Besides classic ornamental shapes , the cornices feature some that are entirely new in character or well @-@ known yet redesigned motifs . Floral decoration dominates the cornices . Tiles found inside the church ruins depict birds and other animals in addition to geometric shapes and floral motifs , all glazed in either brown , yellow , green , blue , or blue @-@ green . The walls were covered in polished marble facing with encrusted shapes .
= = Epigraphy = =
The Round Church contains many medieval inscriptions , both official and scratched on its walls as graffiti . One study counted a total of 193 signs and 30 drawings , the vast majority bearing some kind of Christian symbolism . As a whole , the epigraphy of the Round Church dates from the 10th century , and three alphabets are represented : the Greek , the Glagolitic , and the Cyrillic , as well as two languages : Byzantine Greek and Old Bulgarian ( the eastern Bulgarian recension of Old Church Slavonic ) . The Glagolitic inscriptions of the Round Church bear evidence that the use of that alphabet in Preslav continued alongside Cyrillic .
Perhaps the most famous and valuable writing on the walls of the church is a Cyrillic inscription on the south wall of the premises south of the narthex , conventionally known as the baptistery . The inscription was clumsily written on top of a mortar putty and says in translation : " Church of Saint John , built by chartophylax Paul " . Despite being dated to the 10th century and its mention of the church 's dedication and its potential donor , it cannot be described a classic donor 's inscription because of its unnatural location and clumsy writing . Nikolova considers it more likely that the author of the inscription was a literate person who served under chartophylax Paul and desired to spread his fame . She believes the text may refer to the construction of the narthex only rather than the whole church , because she is of the opinion that the narthex may have been added after the building of the rotunda .
Other examples of the epigraphy of the Round Church include several short Glagolitic and Cyrillic texts and separate letters . Among the Glagolitic inscriptions is the Preslav Abecedarium , a liturgical text including the first thirteen letters of that alphabet ; some of the Cyrillic texts were written on ceramic tiles . The names and descriptions attached to the icons are in Greek , while there are also bilingual inscriptions in Greek and Bulgarian . Individual letters inscribed on the walls illustrate the way Greek and simplified Glagolitic letterforms were combined to form the early Cyrillic alphabet . On the walls of the church are graffiti of Christian crosses , animals , and up to 11 depictions of ships . At least one epitaph has been discovered , inscribed on the tombstone of a woman described as " God 's servant Tudora " .
= Music of the Final Fantasy Tactics series =
The music of the Final Fantasy Tactics series , composed of Final Fantasy Tactics , Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift , and Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions , was primarily composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto . He was assisted by Masaharu Iwata in composing the music for Final Fantasy Tactics . The Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by DigiCube in 1997 , and re @-@ released by Square Enix in 2006 . No separate soundtrack has been released for Final Fantasy Tactics : The War of the Lions . The soundtrack was well received by critics , who found it to be astounding and one of the best video game music soundtracks in existence at the time of its release .
The music of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance was again composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance from Nobuo Uematsu , Kaori Ohkoshi , and Ayako Saso . The Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack , a compilation of almost all of the music in the game , was released by DigiCube in 2003 . A new age arrangement album entitled White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance , a selection of musical tracks from the game arranged by Yo Yamazaki , Akira Sasaki , and Satoshi Henmi , was released by SME Visual Works in 2003 . Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack was well received by critics , who praised the album 's composition . Critics did not react as well to the White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance album , finding it to be a mediocre album with poor arrangements .
The music for Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift was also composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto , this time with the assistance of composers from his company Basiscape . The music was released as Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Original Soundtrack by Square Enix in 2007 . It was enjoyed by reviewers , who found it to be pleasant and rewarding .
= = Albums = =
= = = Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy Tactics , and was composed by Hitoshi Sakimoto and Masaharu Iwata . Sakimoto composed 46 tracks for the game , and Iwata composed the other 25 . The album was first released on two Compact Discs by DigiCube on June 21 , 1997 bearing the catalog number SSCX @-@ 10008 , and was re @-@ released by Square Enix on March 24 , 2006 with the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 10066 @-@ 7 . It spans two discs and 71 tracks , covering a duration of 2 : 31 : 03 .
The Final Fantasy Tactics Original Soundtrack reached # 62 on the Japan Oricon charts and received positive reviews from critics such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who says " It is the best soundtrack I own , and I don 't believe that any other soundtrack known to man surpasses it yet as a whole . " Ryan of Square Enix Music Online praised the way that the two composers ' pieces blended together , and termed the album " one of the greatest soundtracks ever made and a true work of inspiration . "
Track list
= = = Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of video game music from Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed mainly by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance from Nobuo Uematsu , Kaori Ohkoshi , and Ayako Saso . It spans 74 tracks and covers a duration of 2 : 05 : 27 . The first disk includes every piece of music from the game , as it sounds through the Game Boy Advance hardware . The second disk contains synthesized versions of 32 of the same 42 tracks . The album was released on February 19 , 2003 , by DigiCube . The release bears the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10083 @-@ 4 or SQEX @-@ 10070 @-@ 1 ( reprint ) .
The album reached # 130 and was received favorably by critics ; Richard Vardaro of RPGFan found it to be " beautifully composed " and compared it favorably to the soundtrack to Final Fantasy Tactics . However , he questioned the inclusion of the Game Boy Advance version of the soundtrack , finding it to be " tinny and raspy " . Chris of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the soundtrack , seeing it as " creative , appealing , and mature " and " a must @-@ have " .
Track list
= = = White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance = = =
White : Melodies of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance is an arranged album of music from Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed mainly by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance from Nobuo Uematsu , Kaori Ohkoshi , and Ayako Saso , and arranged by Yo Yamazaki , Akira Sasaki , and Satoshi Henmi . It spans 11 tracks and covers a duration of 46 : 10 . It was released on February 26 , 2003 , by SME Visual Works . The release bears the catalog number SVWC @-@ 7172 .
White was not received well by critics , with Patrick Gann finding it to be a mediocre album and saying that he felt " very disappointed " with it . He found the " new @-@ age " style to be poorly chosen and the arrangements to be sub @-@ par . Zeugma of Square Enix Music Online was more approving of the album , saying that it conveyed the " quiet mood " it promised , but finding it to sometimes be " dangerously close to muzak " with too many synthesized instruments and too little variation .
= = = Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Original Soundtrack = = =
Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack album of music from Final Fantasy Tactics A2 : Grimoire of the Rift . The album contains the musical tracks from the game , composed mainly by Hitoshi Sakimoto , with assistance of composers from Basiscape , his composing studio . Several compositions were also taken from the scores of Final Fantasy Tactics Advance and Final Fantasy XII . It spans 56 tracks across two disks and covers a duration of 2 : 13 : 10 . It was released on November 28 , 2007 by Square Enix . The release bears the catalog numbers SQEX @-@ 710102 @-@ 3 .
The album received positive reviews from critics , with Vincent Chorley of RPGFan terming it " one of the most rewardingly pleasant soundtracks this year . " Ovelia of Square Enix Music Online also enjoyed the soundtrack , saying that it was " mature yet still playful " , but worried that it hinted at a stagnation in Sakimoto 's musical style .
Track list
= = Legacy = =
A radio drama based on Final Fantasy Tactics Advance was broadcast starting in January 2003 , preceding the release of the game . The shows were compiled in a series of four of CDs entitled Final Fantasy Tactics Advance Radio Edition vol . 1 @-@ 4 . The CDs were released by DigiCube on February 26 , 2003 , March 26 , 2003 , April 23 , 2003 , and May 21 , 2003 , with the catalog numbers SSCX @-@ 10082 , SSCX @-@ 10088 , SSCX @-@ 10092 , and SSCX @-@ 10094 , respectively . Additionally , a single was released by Sony Records on November 27 , 2002 with the catalog number SRCL @-@ 5513 containing the song " Shiroi hana " , performed by Zone , which was used as an image song for commercials for Final Fantasy Tactics Advance . A medley of pieces from Final Fantasy Tactics A2 was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Selections of music from the Final Fantasy Tactics series have also appeared on Japanese remix albums , called dojin music , and on English remixing websites .
= 1995 Football League Cup Final =
The 1995 Football League Cup Final was a football match played between Liverpool and Bolton Wanderers on 2 April 1995 at Wembley Stadium , London . It was the final match of the 1994 – 95 Football League Cup , the 35th staging of the Football League Cup , a football competition for the 92 teams in the Premier League and The Football League . Liverpool were appearing in their seventh final , they had previously won four and lost twice . Bolton were appearing in their first final .
Both teams entered the competition in the second round . The majority of Liverpool 's matches were close affairs , with the exception of a 4 – 1 victory over Burnley in the second round . Otherwise , their biggest margin of victory was by two goals over Blackburn Rovers in the fourth round . Bolton 's matches were equally close . Their biggest margin of victory was three goals in the second round against Ipswich Town , while they beat Norwich City by a single goal in the quarter @-@ finals .
Watched by a crowd of 75 @,@ 595 , Bolton controlled the early exchanges in the match , but it was Liverpool who took the lead in the 37th minute when Steve McManaman scored . McManaman scored again in the 68th minute to extend Liverpool 's lead to two goals . However , a minute later , Alan Thompson scored for Bolton to reduce the deficit to one goal . Despite repeated attacks , Bolton did not score an equaliser and Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 .
Liverpool 's victory was their fifth in the competition . McManaman was named as man of the match and awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy . His performance was praised by both managers , as was the performance of both teams . Liverpool 's win qualified Liverpool to play in European competition the following season , while Bolton would win promotion to the Premier League following a 4 – 3 victory in the First Division play @-@ off final .
= = Route to the final = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Liverpool entered the competition in the second round , where they drawn against First Division team Burnley . The tie was played over two legs , with the first leg held at Liverpool 's home ground Anfield . Goals from defender John Scales and striker Robbie Fowler secured a 2 – 0 victory for Liverpool . The second leg was held at Burnley 's home ground Turf Moor , which Liverpool won 4 – 1 to progress to the third round courtesy of a 6 – 1 aggregate victory .
First Division team Stoke City were the opposition in the third round , with the match held at Anfield . Striker Ian Rush put Liverpool ahead in the fourth minute , but Stoke striker Paul Peschisolido equalised in the 40th minute . A further goal from Rush in the second half secured a 2 – 1 victory for Liverpool . Liverpool 's opposition in the fourth round were fellow Premier League team Blackburn Rovers , at whose ground , Ewood Park , the match was held at . Three goals from Rush gave Liverpool a 3 – 1 victory and progression to the quarter @-@ finals .
Fellow Premier League team Arsenal were the opposition in the quarter @-@ finals . A goal from Rush in the 59th minute secured a 1 – 0 victory . Liverpool 's opponents in the semi @-@ finals , which were held over two legs , was First Division team Crystal Palace . The first leg , held at Anfield , was goalless until the 90th minute when striker Fowler scored . The second leg was held at Palace 's home ground , Selhurst Park . A goal from Fowler in the 27th minute secured victory and a 2 – 0 aggregate win meant Liverpool progressed to the final .
= = = Bolton Wanderers = = =
Bolton entered the competition in the second round , where they faced Premier League team Ipswich Town . The first leg , held at Ipswich 's home ground Portman Road , was won 3 – 0 by Bolton . Bolton won the second leg 1 – 0 at their home ground , Burnden Park , to progress to the third round courtesy of a 4 – 0 aggregate victory . Fellow First Division team Sheffield United were the opposition in the third round . The march held at United 's home ground , Bramall Lane , was won 2 – 1 by Bolton .
Bolton were drawn against Premier League team West Ham United in the fourth round . The match held at West Ham 's home ground , The Boleyn Ground , was won 3 – 1 by Bolton as they progressed to the quarter @-@ finals . Their opposition were Norwich City of the Premier League . Bolton won 1 – 0 at Burnden Park to progress to the semi @-@ finals .
Fellow First Division side Swindon Town were the opposition in the semi @-@ finals . Swindon won the first leg at their home ground , the County Ground 2 – 1 . Bolton recovered in the second leg to win 3 – 1 , which meant they progressed to the final courtesy of a 4 – 3 aggregate victory .
= = = Results = = =
= = Match = =
= = = Background = = =
Liverpool were appearing in their seventh final . They had won four ( 1981 , 1982 , 1983 , 1984 ) and lost two ( 1978 , 1987 ) . Bolton were appearing in their first final , they had previously reached the semi @-@ finals during the 1976 – 77 Football League Cup . The last meeting between the two sides was on 13 January 1993 , in a replay of their third round tie in the 1992 – 93 FA Cup . Bolton won the match 2 – 0 .
Despite their history in the competition , Liverpool manager Roy Evans , felt this would not count for anything in the final : " Our players haven 't really got that much Wembley experience , certainly not in terms of finals . It will be good for us to have Ian Rush and John Barnes out there . " Striker Rush had picked up a hamstring injury while playing for the Welsh national team against Bulgaria , but was expected to be fit . Midfielder Mark Kennedy would not feature in the final as he was ineligible .
Bolton defender Alan Stubbs was confident Bolton could cause Liverpool problems : " I think if you look round the team we have got good quality everywhere and that 's why we are doing so well , we have also got good players in reserve who can come in and do a job . We have played together for a long time and we are strong both mentally and physically this year . And if the forwards have not been scoring , the midfield and wingers have . "
= = = First half = = =
Bolton had the best chances in the first part of the first @-@ half . Midfielder David Lee caused trouble for Liverpool defender Stig Inge Bjørnebye in the opening minutes , while fellow defender Phil Babb was shown a yellow card in the 20th minute for tripping Lee . The Bolton midfielder came close to opening the scoring in the 30th minute . A lofted pass by Jason McAteer sent him clear of the Liverpool defence , he subsequently beat Liverpool goalkeeper David James to the ball , but his shot 30 yards ( 27 m ) from goal went wide of the goal . Bolton had another chance four minutes later . Midfielder Alan Thompson received the ball from a Jimmy Phillips thrown in , but his volleyed shot 25 yards ( 23 m ) from goal was pushed onto the crossbar by James .
Despite their strong first half up to that point , Bolton went a goal behind in the 37th minute . Liverpool midfielder Steve McManaman received the ball from John Barnes , he ran past Bolton defender Alan Stubbs , then past Scott Green . His subsequent shot was not powerful , but Bolton goalkeeper Keith Branagan could not stop the ball from going into the goal , giving Liverpool a 1 – 0 lead .
= = = Second half = = =
Bolton started the second half on the attack . Bolton were awarded a free @-@ kick , following a foul on Thompson , by Liverpool defender Rob Jones , who was shown a yellow card . From the subsequent free @-@ kick , Bolton striker John McGinlay received the ball , keeping it from the onrushing James , his pass into the Liverpool penalty area found Mixu Paatelainen whose volleyed shot went wide of the Liverpool goal . Bolton had another attack almost immediately . A pass by McAteer found Thompson on the right side of the pitch , but his shot went across the face of the Liverpool goal . Liverpool began to assert more pressure following the attack . A pass by striker Ian Rush in the 52nd minute found Bjørnebye , whose subsequent shot hit the post . Another Liverpool attack was stopped by Bolton defender Mark Seagraves as he intercepted a cross from Bjørnebye to Rush , but his interception went towards the Bolton goal and was only stopped by Branagan .
Liverpool 's pressure paid off in the 68th minute as McManaman scored a second goal . From the left side of the pitch , McManaman went past Green , then McAteer , before he got in front of Seagraves and scored with a shot into the Bolton goal . Bolton replied immediately . Liverpool defender Neil Ruddock 's clearance was played back into the Liverpool penalty area by Guðni Bergsson who had replaced Green . Paatelainen headed the ball onto Thompson , whose shot went into the Liverpool goal . Bolton continued to pressure Liverpool in search of the equaliser but were unable to score and Liverpool won the match 2 – 1 to claim their fifth League Cup victory .
= = = Details = = =
= = Post match = =
Liverpool captain Rush collected the trophy from the Royal box at Wembley Stadium . Liverpool 's victory meant Rush won the competition for the fifth time in his career , which is a record . McManaman was awarded the Alan Hardaker Trophy as man of the match . McManaman praised the performance of the Bolton players : " Give Bolton their due , they battled back in the second half like we knew they would but it was a great team effort by our lads and I was just happy to get two goals like that . " Liverpool manager Roy Evans praised the performance of McManaman stating : " The two goals were fantastic . Sometimes he does need a kick up the backside , but they were really two great goals . " Evans was also delighted to have won his first trophy as Liverpool manager : " We believed that we 've always had a decent squad with players of outstanding ability . The way the lads have worked this season is outstanding . This cup is the first step . We are in Europe and we are delighted . "
Despite his team 's defeat , Bolton manager Bruce Rioch praised the performance of Liverpool : " I 'm delighted for Roy , if you 're going to lose in a cup final then the winner couldn 't have gone to a better club . " Rioch also stated that the final " was great for the town and great for the people . " Bolton would return to Wembley in May when they progressed to the First Division play @-@ off final . A 4 – 3 win secured promotion to the Premier League for the following season . Liverpool 's victory earned them qualification into European competition , the 1995 – 96 UEFA Cup . They would finish the 1994 – 95 season in fourth place in the Premier League , 15 points behind eventual winners Blackburn Rovers .
= John Lymburn =
John Farquhar Lymburn ( September 25 , 1880 – November 25 , 1969 ) was a Canadian politician who served as Attorney @-@ General of Alberta from 1926 until 1935 .
Born and educated in Scotland , he came to Canada in 1911 and practiced law in Edmonton . In 1925 , John Edward Brownlee became Premier of Alberta , and sought a lawyer without partisan affiliation to succeed him as attorney @-@ general . Lymburn accepted the position , and was elected to the Legislative Assembly of Alberta in the 1926 election .
As attorney @-@ general , Lymburn took part in negotiations between the Alberta and federal governments over natural resource rights , prepared Alberta 's submission in the Persons case , and played a minor role in the sex scandal that forced Brownlee from office .
In the 1935 provincial election , Lymburn and all other United Farmers of Alberta candidates were defeated , as William Aberhart led the Social Credit League to victory . Lymburn briefly returned to prominence during the Bankers ' Toadies incident , and made an strong but unsuccessful attempt to return to the legislature in 1942 , before dying in 1969 .
= = Early life = =
Lymburn was born in Ayr , Scotland to William and Margaret ( Farquhar ) Lymburn . He attended Ayr Grammar School and Ayr Academy before studying law at Glasgow University . After graduating , he apprenticed with Dougall , Gouldie , and Douglas ; he qualified as a solicitor in 1903 . In 1911 he emigrated to Canada , settling in Edmonton where he joined Short , Cross , and Biggar . Two years later , he co @-@ founded Lymburn , Mackenzie , and Cooke ( later renamed Lymburn , Reid , and Cobbledick ) . In the interim , he had married fellow Scot Isabella Marguerite Clark on July 19 , 1912 . The couple would have three daughters : Marguerite Dormer , Mary Doreen Farquhar , and Constance Clark . John Lymburn was made King 's Counsel in 1926 .
= = Attorney @-@ general = =
In 1925 , attorney @-@ general John Edward Brownlee succeeded Herbert Greenfield as the leader of the United Farmers of Alberta ( UFA ) ' s provincial caucus and Premier of Alberta . Brownlee was the only lawyer in the UFA caucus , which was dominated by farmers . In appointing an attorney @-@ general to replace himself , he looked outside his caucus and appointed Lymburn , in part because of his lack of affiliation with any provincial political party . By convention , cabinet ministers , including attorneys @-@ general , were expected to sit in the Legislative Assembly of Alberta . Accordingly , Lymburn ran in the 1926 provincial election in Edmonton as a UFA candidate . He finished first of eighteen candidates in Edmonton , and became one of Edmonton 's five Members of the Legislative Assembly ( MLAs ) .
As attorney @-@ general , Lymburn was involved in many of the Brownlee government 's most important initiatives . He was a major figure in securing the transfer of resource rights from the federal government to the Alberta government . Once the Great Depression proved fertile breeding ground for labour militancy , at Brownlee 's request he prepared a list of Communist leaders so that the government could take action to deport the non @-@ naturalized residents among them , ( although no deportations were ordered ) . Alberta was the only provincial government to support the appellants in the " Persons case " , and Lymburn was responsible for its submission .
He was also involved in scandal : the former head of the Liquor Investigation Bureau made allegations against him after Lymburn eliminated the Bureau to save money , though the charges had little effect either in the legal system or in the public eye . During the John Brownlee sex scandal , in which Brownlee was sued for the seduction of a family friend , Lymburn became the focus of controversy after his department hired a private investigator to look into claims that a Liberal lawyer had offered a young woman money to " put Mr. Brownlee in such a position that Mrs. Brownlee could get a divorce " . Taking the stand during the trial , Lymburn stated that the investigation had been initiated not to aid in the premier 's defense , but because the alleged solicitation was a criminal offense . He noted further that Brownlee had insisted on refunding to the government the cost of the investigator .
When the scandal forced Brownlee 's resignation as premier , Lymburn stayed on as attorney @-@ general in the short @-@ lived government of Richard Gavin Reid . The popularity of the Reid government faltered during the Great Depression due to its inability to take radical action to ensure employment and a reasonable standard of living for all Alberta residents , while radical economic theories , most notably the version of social credit espoused by Calgary evangelist William Aberhart , gained support among the public . The government 's position was that Aberhart 's proposals were beyond the legal authority of the provincial government , since they involved banking , which the Constitution of Canada makes a responsibility of the federal government . As attorney @-@ general , Lymburn played a major role in defending this position . When Lymburn 's UFA government brought Social Credit leader C. H. Douglas from the United Kingdom as an advisor , Lymburn provided him with a copy of one of Aberhart 's speeches and asked him to critique it ; Douglas concluded that Aberhart 's proposals did not align with " Douglasite " social credit , and that many of them would not have the desired effect .
= = Later life = =
In the 1935 provincial election , the UFA was wiped out of the legislature by Aberhart 's upstart Social Credit League . As historian Franklin Foster has noted , " it was an ironic footnote to the demise of the most politically successful farmers ' group in history that the one UFA candidate who came closest to re @-@ election was lawyer John Lymburn in the City of Edmonton . "
After defeat , Lymburn remained active in community life as an elder in Edmonton 's First Presbyterian Church , chairman of the Advisory Board of the Students ' Christian Movement , chairman of the Board of Directors of the Beulah Home for unmarried mothers , and president of the Edmonton Scottish Society . He was also a long @-@ standing member of the Mayfair Golf and Country Club . He was an aficionado of the work of fellow Ayrshire native Robbie Burns , whose poetry he could recite in Gaelic , and often spoke at Burns suppers .
Lymburn briefly re @-@ entered the public eye in 1937 , when he was named in a Social Credit @-@ produced pamphlet as one of eight " Bankers ' Toadies " who should be " exterminated " ; Social Credit whip Joseph Unwin was convicted of criminal libel in relation to the pamphlet .
In 1942 , Lymburn contested a by @-@ election in Edmonton ; In the initial vote count , he finished third of five candidates . After subsequent re @-@ distribution of the votes as per the STV system in use , he came in second in the final vote count , with Elmer Roper of the Cooperative Commonwealth Federation emerging victorious .
Marguerite Lymburn died in 1958 . John Lymburn died eleven years later , on November 25 , 1969 .
= = Electoral record = =
= The Apartment ( Seinfeld ) =
" The Apartment " is the fifth episode of the second season of the NBC sitcom Seinfeld and the show 's tenth episode overall . In the episode , protagonist Jerry Seinfeld ( Jerry Seinfeld ) gets his ex @-@ girlfriend Elaine Benes ( Julia Louis @-@ Dreyfus ) an apartment above his , but regrets this after realizing it might be uncomfortable living so close together . Meanwhile , Jerry 's friend George Costanza ( Jason Alexander ) wears a wedding ring to a party to see what effect this will have on women .
The episode was written by Peter Mehlman and directed by Tom Cherones . Series co @-@ creators Seinfeld and Larry David asked Mehlman to write an episode for the show after they read a few articles he wrote for newspapers and magazines . Mehlman originally had the idea of Elaine moving away from Jerry , but David and Seinfeld felt it would be funnier if Elaine moved closer to Jerry instead . " The Apartment " was first broadcast in the United States on April 4 , 1991 on NBC , and was watched in 15 @.@ 7 million homes , making it the ninth most @-@ watched program of the week it was broadcast . The episode gained mostly positive responses from critics .
= = Plot = =
While Elaine is depressed about the low quality of her apartment , Jerry overhears Harold ( Glenn Shadix ) and Manny ( Tony Plana ) , the managers of his apartment building , discussing a death that makes an apartment available . Shocked by the low rent , Jerry immediately tells Elaine that he will be able to get her the apartment above his . She is extremely excited to hear this , as she will be able to live near Jerry . Though excited at first , Jerry later realizes how intrusive Elaine might become , and that living with her might get annoying . He discusses his problem with George , but the topic of their conversation changes and they eventually talk about wearing a wedding ring to a party , to see how women will react . George dislikes the idea at first , but eventually borrows one from Jerry 's neighbour Kramer ( Michael Richards ) to experiment .
Jerry still worries about Elaine , but Harold and Manny inform him that someone else has bid higher than Elaine and will get the apartment unless Elaine is able to pay $ 5 @,@ 000 . Elaine is very disappointed when she hears the news . However , Kramer convinces Jerry to lend Elaine the money . When Elaine , Jerry and George go to a party of a friend of Elaine , Elaine asks Jerry if it would be uncomfortable for them to live so close to each other , but Jerry says he does not worry . George 's wedding ring plan backfires , as he discovers that wearing the ring is actually causing women who would otherwise date him to reject him . Jerry feels stupid for not telling Elaine the truth , but , the following day , Kramer informs him that he found somebody who is willing to pay $ 10 @,@ 000 for the apartment . However , Kramer 's friend , a musician , plays loud music all day long , and Jerry regrets not letting Elaine rent the apartment .
= = Production = =
" The Apartment " was written by Peter Mehlman and directed by Tom Cherones . Seinfeld and co @-@ creator Larry David contacted Mehlman and asked him to write an episode for the show after reading a few articles Mehlman had written for The New York Times and Esquire . Mehlman noted that , prior to Seinfeld , he had " barely written any dialogue in [ his ] life " . He first conceived the idea of an episode in which Elaine would move away from Manhattan and Jerry had to confront his feelings about her . He discussed the idea with Seinfeld , David and staff writer Larry Charles , who felt that it would be funnier if Elaine would move closer to Jerry instead . After their meeting , Mehlman was told to write the episode , which surprised him , describing it as " unlike any other show , where they would have given beat for beat for beat . " As Mehlman was writing the script , he came up with the idea of George wearing a wedding ring to a party to see how women would react . Though the wedding ring idea was not included in the approved script , Seinfeld and David decided to keep it as it suited George well .
The first table read of the episode was held on January 9 , 1991 . The episode was filmed in front of a live audience on January 15 , 1991 . Filming of the episode took place at the CBS Studio Center in Studio City , Los Angeles , California , where , starting with the season premiere " The Ex @-@ Girlfriend " , filming of all the show 's episodes took place . A few scenes were changed prior to the filming of the episode . The scene in which Jerry informs George he told Elaine about the apartment initially showed them standing in line for the movies , talking about sitting in the front of the theatre . George would tell Jerry that he once pretended to have a grotesque physical impairment while he was standing in line to get a ticket for The Exorcist ( 1973 ) , and people would let him go in front of them without saying anything . The location of this scene , however , was changed to Monk 's Cafe , a regular hangout for the show 's main characters , and George and Jerry 's dialogue was shortened . In the original script , Jerry , instead of George , proclaimed himself " lord of the idiots " , but this was changed during rehearsals .
" The Apartment " featured the only appearance of Harold and Manny , the two building superintendents . Veteran actors Glenn Shadix and Tony Plana portrayed Harold and Manny respectively . Their part in the episode was originally smaller , but they were written into the final scene of the episode . Harold was set to return in the season two episode " The Revenge " , in which he would tell the show 's central characters that Jerry 's suicidal neighbour Newman jumped from the building , but an awning broke his fall . However , the Newman sub plot in the episode was significantly reduced during production and Harold 's part was cut . Theresa Randle , Patricia Ayame Thomson and Leslie Neale guest starred as women George flirts with unsuccessfully when he is wearing his wedding ring . Louis @-@ Dreyfus ' half @-@ sister Lauren Bowles appeared as an extra at the party George , Jerry and Elaine attend . Bowles would continue to appear regularly throughout the series ' run , frequently as a waitress at Monk 's Cafe . Additionally , David Blackwood , who appeared as a guest at the party , would also continue to make small appearances on the show . Assistant director Joan Van Horn appeared as a woman feeding her baby at Monk 's Cafe .
The episode marks the first time Elaine does her trademark " Get Out ! " shove ; the catchphrase was not in the original script , but was added at Louis @-@ Dreyfus ' suggestion . It became one of the show 's popular catchphrases . " The Apartment " is the first episode in which Jerry 's apartment number is 5A ; it had been changed a few times prior to the broadcast of this episode , but would remain 5A until the end of the show . It is also contains one of the few references to Kramer 's father , who remained unseen throughout the show 's run .
= = Reception = =
The episode was first aired in the United States on NBC on April 4 , 1991 as part of a Thursday night line @-@ up that also included Cheers and L.A. Law . " The Apartment " gained a Nielsen rating of 16 @.@ 9 and an audience share of 28 , meaning that 16 @.@ 9 % of American households watched the episode , and that 28 % of all televisions in use at the time were tuned into it . Nielsen also estimated that 15 @.@ 7 million homes were tuned into the episode , making Seinfeld the ninth most @-@ watched show in the week the episode was broadcast , while 20 @.@ 5 million homes tuned into Cheers . Seinfeld 's ability to keep a large number of Cheers ' audience eventually helped the show get a third season order .
Ocala Star @-@ Banner critic Jon Burlingame praised the episode for its " smart humor " and stated the show could be a perfect fit between Cheers and L.A. Law . Mike Flaherty and Mary Kaye Schilling of Entertainment Weekly reacted very positively to the episode and praised Alexander 's performance in particular , stating " George 's profound self @-@ hatred is now in full bloom ( ' Please , a little respect , for I am Costanza , Lord of the Idiots ! ' ) . Kramer 's input , meanwhile , remains limited to off @-@ the @-@ wall , often annoying cameos . Which reminds us : Why in the world has Alexander been denied an Emmy , while Richards has scored two ? " Schilling and Flaherty graded the episode with a B + . However , The Kitchener @-@ Waterloo Record critic Bonnie Malleck gave the episode a particular negative review , comparing Seinfeld to It 's Garry Shandling 's Show , she stated " Seinfeld isn 't neurotic enough to be as funny as [ Garry Shandling ] . So , instead of being nervously funny , he 's just nervously dull " .
= The One with Ross 's Wedding =
" The One with Ross 's Wedding " is the two @-@ part fourth season finale of the American television sitcom Friends , comprising the 96th and 97th episodes of the series overall . Originally broadcast by NBC on May 7 , 1998 , the episode features Ross , Monica , Joey , Chandler and later Rachel travelling to England to attend the wedding of Ross Geller ( David Schwimmer ) to his fiancée Emily ( Helen Baxendale ) in London . Ross and Emily 's wedding vows are ruined when Ross accidentally says " I , Ross , take thee Rachel " ; as the registrar asks Emily if he should continue , the episode ends on a cliffhanger until the season 5 premiere " The One After Ross Says Rachel " .
The episode 's teleplay was written by Shana Goldberg @-@ Meehan & Scott Silveri from a story by Michael Borkow ( part one ) and Jill Condon & Amy Toomin ( part two ) . The episode 's genesis came during the break between seasons three and four , when Channel 4 , the British first @-@ run broadcaster of Friends proposed an episode set in the United Kingdom to the series producers . The proposal fitted neatly with a storyline already being planned , whereby the character of Ross would be married at the end of the fourth season . The episode was filmed in March 1998 under the direction of executive producer Kevin S. Bright on locations in London , and in front of a live studio audience at The Fountain Studios . Scenes featuring Lisa Kudrow 's character Phoebe Buffay were filmed on the show 's sets in Burbank , California , as Kudrow was too pregnant to fly to London with the rest of the cast . Kudrow gave birth to her son on the day of the episode 's original airing .
" The One with Ross 's Wedding " features supporting roles from Tom Conti , Jennifer Saunders , Elliott Gould , Christina Pickles and Olivia Williams , and cameos by Richard Branson , Sarah , Duchess of York , Hugh Laurie and June Whitfield . The episode received good critical feedback in the US on its first broadcast , and is often cited as one of the series ' best episodes ; however , when it aired in the United Kingdom it was poorly received , with criticism focused on the one @-@ dimensional portrayal of Britain and the British .
= = Plot = =
Part 1 begins as the group heads off to Ross 's wedding in London leaving behind a heavily @-@ pregnant Phoebe ( Lisa Kudrow ) , and Rachel ( Jennifer Aniston ) , who has declined the invitation . In London , Joey ( Matt LeBlanc ) and Chandler ( Matthew Perry ) go see the sights in a musical montage featuring The Clash 's song " London Calling " , with Joey filming everything on his camcorder . Chandler becomes embarrassed by his friend 's enthusiasm , and after Joey buys a large Union Flag hat from a vendor ( played by guest star Richard Branson ) , they part company . They reunite in their hotel room and Chandler apologizes . Joey impresses him with a video recording of Sarah , Duchess of York ( who played herself ) . Emily takes and Ross to the hall where the wedding will be , but they discover it is being demolished earlier than originally scheduled . Monica later suggests Emily postpone the wedding until everything is perfect . She passes the thought on to Ross , angering him ; he tells her people have flown from America to be there and that it is " now or never " ; she chooses " never " . Monica berates Ross for his insensitivity and Ross apologizes to Emily , showing her the ceremony can still take place in the half @-@ demolished hall that he has tidied up . She agrees . In New York , Rachel realizes she still loves Ross , and flies to London to tell him .
In Part 2 , Phoebe tries to contact someone by phone to warn them about Rachel , eventually getting through to Joey at the hotel and stirring up homesickness in him . At the rehearsal dinner , Ross introduces his parents , Jack and Judy ( Elliott Gould and Christina Pickles ) to Emily 's , Steven and Andrea ( Tom Conti and Jennifer Saunders ) . Jack and Judy have volunteered to pay for half of the wedding expenses but when they discover extravagant costs Ross spends much of the evening trying to bargain down his future in @-@ laws . Chandler makes a toast that is not well received by the guests and Monica is taken aback when a drunken guest mistakes her for Ross 's mother . She and Chandler console each other over alcohol and wake up in bed together the next morning . Rachel eventually boards a plane , after forgetting her passport , and annoys other passengers ( including guest star Hugh Laurie ) by telling them about her relationship with Ross . At the hall , she sees how happy Ross is with Emily and just wishes him luck . Phoebe phones Joey to hear the wedding , to the annoyance of Ross . As Ross says his vows , he accidentally says Rachel 's name rather than Emily 's , registrar to ask Emily if he should continue , while the camera shoots from character to character , settling on a shocked Rachel .
= = Production = =
During the summer hiatus of 1997 the producers were contacted by Channel 4 , the British first @-@ run broadcaster of Friends , with a proposal to film an episode in London . Producer Greg Malins is quoted as saying " We had to come up with a storyline that would cause all the Friends to go to London [ ... ] and that ended up being Ross getting married , because they would all have to go to his wedding " .
The episode featured numerous supporting roles from British actors . For her role as Andrea Waltham , Saunders " heard Joan Collins ' voice in [ her ] head " . Her Absolutely Fabulous co @-@ star June Whitfield appeared in cameo as the housekeeper . Felicity , the bridesmaid who Joey entices , is played by Olivia Williams . Further cameos were made by Sarah Ferguson as herself , Richard Branson as the vendor who sells Joey a hat , and Hugh Laurie as the man sitting next to Rachel on the plane . Lisa Kudrow did not join the others in London as she was too heavily pregnant to fly , like her character Phoebe . Elliott Gould inadvertently revealed to the public that Rachel was to turn up at the wedding , upsetting Marta Kauffman .
Scenes not involving the main apartments were all filmed in London during the week beginning March 30 , 1998 . Location shooting was done mostly for scenes featuring Joey and Chandler ; outside the London Marriott , Grosvenor Square , and the top of an open @-@ top London bus as it crosses Tower Bridge ( this scene was excised from the final cut but features in the opening titles of the next episode ) . Interiors , such as the restaurant , the Waltham 's hallway and the hotel rooms , were all filmed on purpose @-@ built sets at The Fountain Studios , Wembley . The reaction from the audience when Monica came out from under Chandler 's bed covers meant the actors had to hold their position for 27 seconds . When filming ran late one evening , the production team ordered pizzas for the audience .
The episode was a coup for Channel 4 , who erected crush barriers outside their building to hold back fans when the cast arrived for a press conference ( though no fans actually turned up ) . The broadcaster also commissioned a behind @-@ the @-@ scenes program from Princess Productions . Hosted by British television personality Johnny Vaughan , The One Where Johnny Makes Friends features comedic tongue @-@ in @-@ cheek interviews with all six main cast ( Vaughan contacted Kudrow by payphone , claiming that he couldn 't make international calls from his dressing room ) and was broadcast on Channel 4 on May 6 , 1998 .
Two brief behind @-@ the @-@ scenes featurettes were filmed , titled Friends Goes to London and Friends on Location in London , which were included on the DVD releases of seasons four and five . A tie @-@ in book , Making Friends in the UK ( ISBN 0752221949 ) was published by Channel 4 Books in November 1998 . Said book was bundled into a gift pack entitled " The One with the Whole London Wedding " , which featured an extended cut of this episode merged with the next episode .
Ross and Emily 's marriage was originally planned to last , but Helen Baxendale did not wish to remain in America while pregnant . The writers could not script a convincing story for why Emily would not be seen , despite being married to Ross , so Baxendale was written out in the next season , making only three cameo appearances after the season premiere .
= = Reception = =
In its original airing , " The One with Ross 's Wedding " finished third in ratings for the week of May 4 – 10 , 1998 , with a Nielsen rating of 21 @.@ 2 , equivalent to approximately 20 @.@ 6 million viewing households . It was the third highest @-@ rated show on NBC that week , following Seinfeld and ER – all of which aired on the network 's Thursday night Must See TV lineup . The episode aired in the Republic of Ireland on RTÉ on May 25 , 1998 , six days earlier than in the United Kingdom on Sky1 . It also aired on Channel 4 on December 11 , 1998 and was watched by 6 @.@ 49 million viewers , making Friends the highest rated show on the channel for the week ending December 13 , 1998 .
Entertainment Weekly gives the episode an A rating , calling it a " near @-@ perfect finale that finds everyone at the top of their game " with a " tantalizing cliff @-@ hanger , and , in Chandler and Monica , a relationship that will have reverberations for seasons to come " . The authors of Friends Like Us : The Unofficial Guide to Friends state there are " too many ' best moments ' to list in detail " , but single out Rachel describing the perfect wedding to Ross , and Sarah Ferguson 's cameo ( though they call Branson 's " embarrassing " ) . Following the broadcast of the episode in the UK , The Independent was critical , saying " Twice the length of a normal episode , last night 's offering was approximately half as funny " and suggested the cast were behaving out of character . Many British viewers regarded the episode as an ill @-@ informed and patronising caricature of the UK and its people , causing the episode to be labelled " The One Where They Insult the English " .
David Schwimmer has expressed dissatisfaction that Ross was married again , saying it was " a mistake " and that Ross was not given " enough credit " . He says that Ross 's " taking on the world would just be shattered " following the character 's and that he wouldn 't have risked another . David Crane has said that filming in front of a different audience " energized the actors and writers " . The hall where the wedding ceremony took place would inspire the location for the wedding of David and Victoria Beckham . The events of this episode are revisited in the seventh season episode " The One with the Truth About London " , where flashbacks reveal how Monica and Chandler ended up in bed together . The hotel room set was recreated for those scenes .
In 2013 , TV Guide ranked the beginning of the Monica @-@ Chandler affair as the third greatest twist of all time .
= Mantra @-@ Rock Dance =
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was a counterculture music event held on January 29 , 1967 , at the Avalon Ballroom in San Francisco . It was organized by followers of the International Society for Krishna Consciousness ( ISKCON ) as an opportunity for its founder , A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada , to address a wider public . It was also a promotional and fundraising effort for their first center on the West Coast of the United States .
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance featured some of the most prominent Californian rock groups of the time , such as the Grateful Dead and Big Brother and the Holding Company with Janis Joplin , as well as the then relatively unknown , Moby Grape . The bands agreed to appear with Prabhupada and to perform for free ; the proceeds were donated to the local Hare Krishna temple . The participation of countercultural leaders considerably boosted the event 's popularity ; among them were the poet Allen Ginsberg , who led the singing of the Hare Krishna mantra onstage along with Prabhupada , and LSD promoters Timothy Leary and Augustus Owsley Stanley III .
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance concert was later called " the ultimate high " and " the major spiritual event of the San Francisco hippie era . " It led to favorable media exposures for Prabhupada and his followers , and brought the Hare Krishna movement to the wider attention of the American public . The 40th anniversary of the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was commemorated in 2007 in Berkeley , California .
= = Background = =
A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami Prabhupada ( also referred to as " Bhaktivedanta Swami " or " Prabhupada " ) , a Gaudiya Vaishnava sannyasi and teacher , arrived in New York City from his native India in 1965 and " caught the powerful rising tide " of a counterculture that was fascinated with his homeland and open to new forms of " consciousness @-@ expanding spirituality . " After establishing his first American temple in New York City at 26 Second Avenue , Prabhupada requested his early follower Mukunda Das and his wife Janaki Dasi to open a similar ISKCON center on the West Coast of the United States .
Mukunda and Janaki met up with friends from college , who would later come to be known as Shyamasundar Das , Gurudas , Malati Dasi , and Yamuna Dasi . Teaming up with them , Mukunda rented a storefront in the San Francisco Haight @-@ Ashbury neighborhood , which at that time was turning into the hub of the hippie counterculture , and stayed to take care of the developing new center .
= = Preparation and promotion = =
To raise funds , gain supporters for the new temple , and to popularize Prabhupada 's teachings among the hippie and countercultural audience of the Haight @-@ Ashbury scene , the team decided to hold a charitable rock concert and invited Prabhupada to attend . Despite his position as a Vaishnava sannyasi and some of his New York followers objecting to what they saw as an inappropriate invitation of their guru to a place full of " amplified guitars , pounding drums , wild light shows , and hundreds of drugged hippies , " Prabhupada agreed to travel from New York to San Francisco and take part in the event . Using their acquaintance with Rock Scully , manager of the Grateful Dead , and Sam Andrew , founding member and guitarist of the Big Brother and the Holding Company – who were among the most prominent rock bands in California at the time – Shyamasundar and Gurudas secured their consent to perform for charity at the concert , charging only the " musicians ' union minimum " of $ 250 . Malati Dasi happened to hear Moby Grape , a relatively unknown group at the time , and she convinced the other team members to invite the band to play at the concert as well .
Another leading countercultural figure , the beatnik poet Allen Ginsberg , was a supporter of Prabhupada . He had met the swami earlier in New York and assisted him in extending his United States visa . Despite disagreeing with many of Prabhupada 's required prohibitions , especially the ones pertaining to drugs and promiscuity , Ginsberg often publicly sang the Hare Krishna mantra , which he had learned in India . He made the mantra part of his philosophy and declared that it " brings a state of ecstasy . " He was glad that Prabhupada , an authentic swami from India , was now trying to spread the chanting in America . Along with other countercultural ideologues like Timothy Leary , Gary Snyder , and Alan Watts , Ginsberg hoped to incorporate Prabhupada and the chanting of Hare Krishna into the hippie movement . Ginsberg agreed to take part in the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance concert and to introduce the swami to the Haight @-@ Ashbury hippie community .
As for the choice of venue , the team considered both the Fillmore Auditorium and the Avalon Ballroom , finally settling on the latter as its impresario , Chet Helms , appeared to be " more sympathetic to the spirit of the concert " and agreed to let it be used for a charity event . Artist Harvey Cohen , one of the first ISKCON followers , designed a Stanley Mouse @-@ inspired promotional poster with a picture of Prabhupada , details of the event , and a request to " bring cushions , drums , bells , cymbals . " To generate interest among members of the countercultural community of Haight @-@ Ashbury , Mukunda published an article entitled " The New Science " in the San Francisco Oracle , a local underground newspaper specializing in alternative spiritual and psychedelic topics . He wrote :
The Haight @-@ Ashbury district is soon to be honored by the presence of His Holiness , A. C. Bhaktivedanta Swami , who will conduct daily classes in the Bhagavad Gita , discussions , chanting , playing instruments , and devotional dancing in a small temple in the neighborhood . ... Swamiji 's use of the Hare Krishna Mantra is already known throughout the United States . Swamiji 's chanting and dancing is more effective than Hatha or Raja Yoga or listening to Ali Akbar Khan on acid or going to a mixed media rock dance .
Ginsberg helped plan and organize a reception for Prabhupada , who was scheduled to arrive from New York on January 17 , 1967 . When the swami arrived at the San Francisco Airport , 50 to 100 hippies chanting " Hare Krishna " greeted him in the airport lounge with flowers . A few days later the San Francisco Chronicle published an article entitled " Swami in the Hippie Land " in which Prabhupada answered the question , " Do you accept hippies in your temple ? " by saying , " Hippies or anyone – I make no distinctions . Everyone is welcome . "
= = Event = =
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was scheduled on Sunday evening , January 29 , 1967 – a day of the week that Chet Helms deemed odd and unlikely to generate substantial attendance . Admission was fixed at $ 2 @.@ 50 and limited to door sales . Despite the apprehensions of the organizers , by the beginning of the concert at 8 PM an audience of nearly 3 @,@ 000 had gathered at the Avalon Ballroom , filling the hall to its capacity . Latecomers had to wait outside for vacancies in order to enter . Participants were treated on prasad ( sanctified food ) consisting of orange slices and , regardless of the prohibition on drugs , many in the crowd were smoking marijuana and taking other intoxicants . However , the atmosphere in the hall was peaceful . Strobe lights and a psychedelic liquid light show , along with pictures of Krishna and the words of the Hare Krishna mantra , were projected onto the walls . A few Hells Angels were positioned in the back of the stage as the event 's security guards . Prabhupada 's biographer Satsvarupa Dasa Goswami thus describes the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance audience :
Almost everyone who came wore bright or unusual costumes : tribal robes , Mexican ponchos , Indian kurtas , " God 's @-@ eyes , " feathers , and beads . Some hippies brought their own flutes , lutes , gourds , drums , rattles , horns , and guitars . The Hell 's Angels , dirty @-@ haired , wearing jeans , boots , and denim jackets and accompanied by their women , made their entrance , carrying chains , smoking cigarettes , and displaying their regalia of German helmets , emblazoned emblems , and so on – everything but their motorcycles , which they had parked outside .
The evening opened with Prabhupada 's followers – men in " Merlin gowns " and women in saris – chanting Hare Krishna to an Indian tune , followed by Moby Grape . When the swami himself arrived at 10 PM , the crowd of hippies rose to their feet to greet him respectfully with applause and cheers . Gurudas , one of the event 's organizers , describes the effect that Prabhupada 's arrival had on the audience , " Then Swami Bhaktivedanta entered . He looked like a Vedic sage , exalted and otherworldly . As he advanced towards the stage , the crowd parted and made way for him , like the surfer riding a wave . He glided onto the stage , sat down and began playing the kartals . "
Ginsberg welcomed Prabhupada onto the stage and spoke of his own experiences chanting the Hare Krishna mantra . He translated the meaning of the Sanskrit term mantra as " mind deliverance " and recommended the early @-@ morning kirtans at the local Radha @-@ Krishna temple " for those coming down from LSD who want to stabilize their consciousness upon reentry , " calling the temple 's activity an " important community service . " He introduced Prabhupada and thanked him for leaving his peaceful life in India to bring the mantra to New York 's Lower East Side , " where it was probably most needed . "
After a short address by Prabhupada , Ginsberg sang " Hare Krishna " to the accompaniment of sitar , tambura , and drums , requesting the audience to " [ j ] ust sink into the sound vibration , and think of peace . " Then Prabhupada stood up and led the audience in dancing and singing , as the Grateful Dead , Big Brother and the Holding Company , and Moby Grape joined the chanting and accompanied the mantra with their musical instruments . The audience eagerly responded , playing their own instruments and dancing in circles . The group chanting continued for almost two hours , and concluded with the swami 's prayers in Sanskrit while the audience bowed down on the floor . After Prabhupada left , Janis Joplin took the stage , backed by Big Brother and the Holding Company , and continued the event with the songs " The House of the Rising Sun " and " Ball ' n ' Chain " late into the night .
= = Reaction and effect = =
The LSD pioneer Timothy Leary , who made an appearance at the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance along with Augustus Owsley Stanley III and even paid the entrance fee , pronounced the event a " beautiful night " . Later Ginsberg called the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance " the height of Haight @-@ Ashbury spiritual enthusiasm , the first time that there had been a music scene in San Francisco where everybody could be part of it and participate , " while historians referred to it as " the ultimate high " and " the major spiritual event of the San Francisco hippy era . "
Moby Grape 's performance at the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance catapulted the band onto the professional stage . They subsequently had gigs with The Doors at the Avalon Ballroom and at the " First Love Circus " at the Winterland Arena , and were soon signed to a contract with Columbia Records .
The Mantra @-@ Rock Dance helped raise around $ 2 @,@ 000 for the temple and resulted in a massive influx of visitors at the temple 's early morning services . Prabhupada 's appearance at the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance made such a deep impact on the Haight @-@ Ashbury community that he became a cult hero to most of its groups and members , regardless of their attitudes towards his philosophy or the life restrictions that he taught . The Hare Krishna mantra and dancing became adopted in some ways by all levels of the counterculture , including the Hells Angels , and provided it with a " loose commonality " and reconciliation , as well as with a viable alternative to drugs . As the Hare Krishna movement 's popularity with the Haight @-@ Ashbury community continued to increase , Prabhupada and followers chanting and distributing prasad became a customary sight at important events in the locale .
At the same time , as the core group of his followers continued to expand and become more serious about the spiritual discipline , Prabhupada conducted new Vaishnava initiations and named the San Francisco temple " New Jagannatha Puri " after introducing the worship of Jagannath deities of Krishna there . Small replicas of these deities immediately became a " psychedelic hit " worn by many hippies on strings around their necks .
Since the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance brought the Hare Krishna movement to the wider attention of the American public , Prabhupada 's increased popularity attracted the interest of the mainstream media . Most notably , he was interviewed on ABC 's The Les Crane Show and lectured on the philosophy of Krishna consciousness on a KPFK radio station program hosted by Peter Bergman . Prabhupada 's followers also spoke about their activities on the San Francisco radio station KFRC .
On August 18 , 2007 , a free commemorative event dedicated to the 40th anniversary of the Mantra @-@ Rock Dance was held at the People 's Park in Berkeley , California .
= The Yes Album =
The Yes Album is the third studio album by the English progressive rock band Yes , released on 19 February 1971 by Atlantic Records . It is their first album with guitarist Steve Howe who replaced Peter Banks in 1970 , and their last in the 1970s to feature keyboardist Tony Kaye .
The album was the first by the group not to feature any cover versions , which had been a staple of their material until that point . The band spent mid @-@ 1970 writing and rehearsing new material at a farmhouse in South Molton , Devon , and the new songs were recorded at Advision Studios in the autumn . While the album retained close harmony singing , Kaye 's Hammond organ and Chris Squire 's melodic bass , as heard on earlier releases , the new material also covered further styles including jazz piano , funk and acoustic music , with all band members contributing ideas , and tracks were extended in length to allow music to develop . Howe contributed a variety of guitar styles , including a Portuguese guitar , and recorded a solo acoustic guitar piece , " Clap " , live at the Lyceum Theatre , London .
The album was a critical success and a major commercial breakthrough for Yes , who had been at risk of being dropped by Atlantic Records due to the commercial failures of their first two albums . It reached # 4 in the UK and # 40 in the US , and was later certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over one million copies . The album has been reissued on CD several times , and in 2014 was given a Blu @-@ ray release , remixed by Steven Wilson .
= = Background = =
Yes had already recorded two albums for Atlantic by mid @-@ 1970 , but neither had been commercially successful and the label was considering dropping them . They had replaced founding member Banks with Howe , who enjoyed playing a wider variety of styles , including folk and country music , and played a mix of electric and acoustic guitars . Singer Jon Anderson later said that Howe could " jump from one thing to the other , very fast , very talented . " After some warm @-@ up gigs with Howe , the band moved to a farm in South Molton , Devon , to write and rehearse new material . Howe in particular enjoyed working on the farm , and eventually bought it . Following rehearsals , the band booked Advision Studios in London with producer Eddie Offord and spent the autumn recording . The band enjoyed the sessions , and soon had enough material ready for an album .
In November 1970 , the group were involved in a car accident returning from a gig in Basingstoke . The band all suffered shock , and Kaye broke a foot . He had to do the next few gigs , and the album cover 's photo shoot , with it in plaster .
Howe mostly used a Gibson ES @-@ 175 semi @-@ acoustic guitar and a Martin OO @-@ 18 acoustic for recording , though he did attempt to play a variety of styles with the two instruments . Kaye 's main instruments were the Hammond organ and piano , including a solo on " A Venture " . Kaye had previously played the Hammond M @-@ 100 , but for this album used the B @-@ 3 , a move which he saw as " a turning point " . He was not interested in playing electronic keyboards , which had started to appear on the market . This proved to be a problem with the other members of the band , and Kaye thought his style conflicted too much with Howe 's . He left the group during rehearsals for the follow @-@ up album in mid @-@ 1971 , to be replaced by Rick Wakeman .
= = Songs = =
Yes had started their career being a covers band , performing radical re @-@ arrangements of hit songs , and their first two albums included covers in this vein . However , The Yes Album was the first to feature group @-@ written material in its entirety . Some familiar elements remained ; Anderson , Howe and Squire sang three @-@ part vocal harmony throughout the record , while Squire 's melodic bass and Bill Bruford 's spacious drumming made up their unique rhythm section .
" Yours Is No Disgrace " originated from some lyrics written by Anderson with his friend David Foster . This was combined with other short segments of music written by the band in rehearsals . Howe worked out the opening guitar riff on his own while the rest of the band took a day 's holiday . The backing track was recorded by the group in sections , then edited together to make up the final piece .
Howe 's solo acoustic tune , " Clap " ( wrongly written as " The Clap " in original album pressings ) , was influenced by Chet Atkins and Mason Williams ' " Classical Gas " . The piece was written to celebrate the birth of Howe 's son Dylan on 4 August 1969 . The version that appears on the album was recorded live at the Lyceum Theatre in London on 17 July 1970 .
The spacey , electronic @-@ sounding effect in " Starship Trooper " was achieved by running the guitar backing track through a flanger . Anderson wrote the bulk of the song , while Squire wrote the " Disillusion " section in the middle . The closing section , " Würm " is a continuous cadenza of chords ( G @-@ E ♭ -C ) played ad lib . It evolved from a song called " Nether Street " by Howe 's earlier group , Bodast .
" I 've Seen All Good People " is a suite of two tunes . Anderson wanted the piece to start quietly and develop , leading into a large church organ sound , before moving into the funky second movement . The band had difficulty recording the initial " Your Move " section , which was resolved by making a tape loop of bass and drums , over which Howe overdubbed a Portuguese 12 @-@ string guitar , miscrediting it as a " vachalia " on the album 's credits . Gnidrolog 's Colin Goldring played recorder on the track .
Anderson wrote " A Venture " in the studio , which was arranged by the rest of the band . Kaye played piano on the track , contributing a jazzy solo towards the end . Howe played a guitar solo on the original recording , but it was left off the final mix , which faded out just as it started . The song was never played live by the original group , but an arrangement was worked out when Yes decided to play the whole album live in 2013 .
The lyrics for " Perpetual Change " were inspired by the view of the countryside from the farm in South Molton . The middle of the track features a polyrhythmic structure , where two pieces of music in different time signatures are playing simultaneously .
= = Cover = =
The front cover was shot by Phil Franks the day after the Basingstoke gig accident . Franks had already taken some photos from the Lyceum gig , but felt he needed something more for the front cover . The band showed up late having been in hospital earlier that day , and only 30 minutes were available for a shoot . Unable to get a satisfactory photo in the studio , Franks took the band round to his flat , grabbed a polystyrene mannequin head from a bin , put a 1000 watt bulb in the kitchen light fitting , and improvised the shot . Franks credited the sleeve designer , Rolling Stone art director Jon Goodchild , for making the cover a success . When Yes performed a live version of " Yours is No Disgrace " for the German television series Beat @-@ Club in April 1971 , footage of the band was combined with that of another mannequin head spinning over a chair , mimicking the cover 's concept .
The inside of the album 's gatefold sleeve shows Kaye playing a Hammond organ , while the front cover showed his leg in plaster , following the accident . Anderson is credited as " John Anderson " on the album but he had dropped the " h " from his first name by the next album , Fragile .
= = Release = =
The Yes Album was released in the UK in February 1971 . It was a commercial success and was the band 's breakthrough album , reaching No. 4 in the UK. and number 40 in the US . It has been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America for selling over one million copies .
Squire later said a key reason for the success was that there was a postal strike which prevented chart returns being sent , and reducing the available ones to a few retailers in London . Yes had the largest fanbase in these stores , and that allowed a good chart position . By the time the strike had ended , the album had started to sell well due to its initial apparent success .
The 1971 Italian issue of the album differs from the original UK issue in two respects . The title on the front cover is " The Yes " instead of " The Yes Album " , although the spine bears the correct title ; and the track " The Clap " appears as the third track on the second side .
= = = Reception = = =
The album had a positive reception from critics . John Koegel , writing for Rolling Stone , praised the instrumental unity between Squire , Howe and Kaye , but missed the cover versions present in earlier releases . The album is one of three by Yes to appear in the book 1 @,@ 000 Recordings to Hear Before You Die . Author Tom Moon preferred the group unity that he felt was missing on later releases and gave a positive impression of Anderson 's vocals , saying the melodies in " I 've Seen All Good People " were " instantly singable and still somehow deep . "
Anderson was worried about the initial response to the album , but after about a month noticed that fans started singing along at concerts , and concluded that this musical style could be developed and still remain popular . Kaye concluded that overall it was " quite a simple album , considering where Yes went onto from there . " Rush singer and bassist Geddy Lee included The Yes Album among his favourite albums . Genesis keyboardist Tony Banks has said it his favourite Yes album and preferred the band when Kaye was a member . " It was the addition of Steve Howe 's guitar pyrotechnics that finally allowed Yes to find their true identity . The Yes Album is a giant leap forward , " wrote J.D. Considine in The New Rolling Stone Album Guide
= = = Reissues = = =
The Yes Album was remastered and reissued in 2003 by Rhino Records with several bonus tracks , including a studio version of " Clap " , entitled as Howe intended . In 2014 , Steven Wilson of Porcupine Tree created a new stereo mix and a 5 @.@ 1 surround sound mix , available as either a DVD or Blu @-@ ray Disc . It was released on 21 April with bonus tracks including the studio version of " Clap " , an extended version of " A Venture " , and an alternate version of the album with live tracks , single edits , and an extended mix . The Blu @-@ ray version also features an instrumental version of the album , a needle drop sample of the original vinyl release , and additional live tracks .
= = Track listing = =
= = Personnel = =
Yes
John Anderson – lead vocals , percussion
Chris Squire – bass guitar , vocals
Steve Howe – electric and acoustic guitars , vachalia , vocals
Tony Kaye – piano , organ , Moog
Bill Bruford – drums , percussion
Additional musicians
Colin Goldring – recorders on " Your Move "
Production
Yes and Eddie Offord – production
Eddie Offord – engineering
Brian Lane – co @-@ ordination
Phil Franks – photography
Barry Wentzell – photography
Jon Goodchild – design
= Ethiopian Airlines =
Ethiopian Airlines ( Amharic : የኢትዮጵያ አየር መንገድ ( Yäitəyop ̣ əya äyärə mänəgädə ) ; የኢትዮጵያ ( Yäitəyop ̣ əya ) ? in short ) , formerly Ethiopian Air Lines ( EAL ) and often referred to as simply Ethiopian , is Ethiopia 's flag carrier and is wholly owned by the country 's government . EAL was founded on 21 December 1945 and commenced operations on 8 April 1946 , expanding to international flights in 1951 . The firm became a share company in 1965 , and changed its name from Ethiopian Air Lines to Ethiopian Airlines . The airline has been a member of the International Air Transport Association since 1959 , and of the African Airlines Association ( AFRAA ) since 1968 . Ethiopian is a Star Alliance member , having joined in December 2011 ( 2011 @-@ 12 ) .
Its hub and headquarters are at Bole International Airport in Addis Ababa , from where it serves a network of 82 passenger destinations — 19 of them domestic — and 23 freighter ones . Ethiopian flies to more destinations in Africa than any other carrier . It is one of the fastest @-@ growing companies in the industry , and is among the largest on the African continent . It is also one of the few profitable airlines in the Sub @-@ Saharan region . The airline 's cargo division was awarded The African Cargo Airline of the Year in early 2011 . Recently , Ethiopian won the Best Regional Airline of the Year award at the 41st Annual Airline Industry Achievement Awards by Air Transport World ( ATW ) , held in Washington , D.C. on 25 February 2015 .
= = History = =
= = = The 1940s : early years = = =
After the liberation of Ethiopia , Emperor Haile Selassie I asked the United States , the United Kingdom , and France to help him to establish an airline as part of his modernisation effort . According to the BBC News it is possible that the Emperor intended the creation of a quality national airline to help dispel impressions of Ethiopian poverty . In 1945 , the Ethiopian government began negotiations with both Transcontinental Air Transport and Western Air Express ( later merged into TWA ) . On 8 September 1945 , TWA signed an agreement with the American historian and foreign affairs advisor to Ethiopia John H. Spencer to establish a commercial aviation company in Ethiopia .
The carrier , originally called Ethiopian Air Lines ( EAL ) , was founded on 21 December 1945 , with an initial investment of ETB 2 @,@ 5 million , divided in 25 @,@ 000 shares that were entirely held by the government . The company was financed by the Ethiopian government but managed by TWA . At the beginning , it relied upon American pilots , technicians , administrators and accountants ; even its General Managers were from TWA . Minister of Works and Communications Fitawrari Tafasse Habte Mikael became EAL 's first president and chairman , whereas H. H. Holloway — who was American — was appointed by TWA as general manager . The board held the first meeting on 26 December 1945 ( 1945 @-@ 12 @-@ 26 ) , with a key point of the agenda being the deposit of E £ 75 @,@ 000 in a bank in Cairo for the acquisition of aircraft and spare parts . Shortly afterwards , the airline was in negotiations for landing rights with Aden , Egypt , French Somaliland , Saudi Arabia and Sudan , and five Douglas C @-@ 47s were bought ; these aircraft were flown to Addis Ababa in February 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 02 ) .
The new airline had its maiden flight to Nairobi carrying a shipment of East African currency equivalent to US $ 3 @.@ 7 million in February 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 02 ) , but it was on 8 April 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 04 @-@ 08 ) that the carrier had its first revenue scheduled service ; it travelled the Addis Ababa – Asmara – Cairo route using one of five Douglas C @-@ 47 Skytrains acquired from the US Government . This route later operated on a weekly basis . The Skytrains were initially intended for military use , although Ethiopian operated them in a mixed passenger @-@ cargo configuration . Soon afterwards , the carrier launched services to Aden and Djibouti , as well as a domestic flight to Jimma . The main five routes in the early years were Addis Ababa – Asmara , Addis Ababa – Djibouti – Aden , Addis Ababa – Khartoum , Addis Ababa – Cairo ( routed via Jeddah or Khartoum ) and Asmara – Khartoum .
Henry Bruce Obermiller replaced Holloway as a general manager in June 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 06 ) . In July the same year , four more Skytrains were incorporated into the fleet . New scheduled services to Sheikh Othman and Nairobi were launched in July 1946 ( 1946 @-@ 07 ) and June 1947 ( 1947 @-@ 06 ) , respectively . In 1947 , Waldon Gene Golien became the carrier 's general manager , and the company started operating charter flights to Jeddah during the Hajj season . That year in February , three more Douglas C @-@ 47s were acquired to operate new international routes . A service to Mukalla was inaugurated in June 1947 ( 1947 @-@ 06 ) . In September , Port Sudan was added to the route network — it had been previously served as a technical landing on the route to Cairo — , Lydda was incorporated as a scheduled destination in October and charter flights to Bombay were launched in November . Services to Lydda and Mukalla were discontinued in February and April 1948 ( 1948 @-@ 04 ) , respectively . In September , the route to Bombay started being flown on a scheduled basis in cooperation with BOAC , with EAL carrying passengers as far as Aden , and the British enterprise flying them on the Aden – Bombay sector . The route also included stops at Mesirah Island in Oman and Karachi . For a brief period until April 1948 ( 1948 @-@ 04 ) , Mesirah Island was used as a refuelling stop ; since then , services to French Somaliland and Aden started on a twice @-@ weekly basis . EAL was allowed to fly to Aden using Sheik ' Othman Airport , located 16 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 9 mi ) away from the city , whereas BOAC used the Khormaksar Airport facilities , just 3 miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) away from the city . Aden was under British rule at the time as also was Sudan , and the British empìre denied EAL landing rights at Khartoum , forcing the airline to move the refuelling stop on the Aden route to Port Sudan . The carrier recorded a £ 40 @,@ 000 profit for 1949 .
= = = The 1950s : start of long @-@ haul routes = = =
Services to Bombay were withdrawn in July 1950 ( 1950 @-@ 07 ) . Also this year , a US $ 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 9 @,@ 835 @,@ 408 in 2015 ) loan granted from the Ex @-@ Im Bank enabled the carrier to incorporate Convair CV @-@ 240s , aimed at operating international routes . Two CV @-@ 240s , named ″ Eagle of Ethiopia ″ and ″ Haile Selassie I ″ , entered the fleet in December 1950 ( 1950 @-@ 12 ) ; starting January 1951 ( 1951 @-@ 01 ) , these aircraft were subsequently deployed on the Addis Ababa – Cairo , Addis Ababa – Nairobi , and Addis Ababa – Jeddah – Dhahran – Karachi routes , with Dhahran and Sharjah being incorporated to the route network on 20 February . In April 1952 ( 1952 @-@ 04 ) , the airline was appointed general sales agent for TWA in Kenya , Tanganyka , Uganda and Zanzibar , and by May the same year the fleet consisted of two Convair @-@ Liner 240s and nine Douglas DC @-@ 3s or their subtypes , operating a route network that was 7 @,@ 000 miles ( 11 @,@ 000 km ) long . Services to India and Sharjah were discontinued in 1953 . On 14 Jul , a new agreement with TWA that succeeded the original one was signed . Unlike other companies , the airline 's preamble stated that it was ″ the ultimate aim that EAL shall eventually be operated entirely by Ethiopian personnel ″ .
A new service to Athens via Khartoum and Wadi Halfa was launched on 3 April 1954 ( 1954 @-@ 04 @-@ 03 ) . A third Convair CV @-@ 240 ( ″ The Spiritual Power ″ ) was purchased from Sabena in 1955 for US $ 560 @,@ 000 ( equivalent to $ 4 @,@ 946 @,@ 783 in 2015 ) . These aircraft were equipped with rocket @-@ assisted take @-@ off devices . This was a common practice for a small number of airlines in the World that EAL had abandoned by April 1956 ( 1956 @-@ 04 ) . Also in 1955 , Ethiopian inaugurated a self @-@ owned maintenance facility . That year , Vic Harrell succeeded Swede Golien as general manager of the company . The carrier was in need of newer and larger aircraft , and three different aircraft types — two from the Lockheed Corporation , the Constellation and the Electra , and the Douglas DC @-@ 6 — were considered for the fleet renewal programme . Two Douglas DC @-@ 6Bs were eventually ordered in 1956 for US $ 4 million , including spares ; an option for a third machine was also taken . Another loan obtained from the Ex @-@ Im Bank , a GB £ 8 @,@ 5 million one dating back to 1955 , was partly used to finance the two purchased aircraft .
Benghazi was briefly served between 7 November 1956 ( 1956 @-@ 11 @-@ 07 ) and 15 January 1957 ( 1957 @-@ 01 @-@ 15 ) . During 1957 , a third DC @-@ 6B was purchased . Likewise , that year the airline had been asked to take a Lockheed L @-@ 749 that had been given as a gift to the Emperor , who declined it . Ethiopian paid US $ 1 @.@ 6 million for this airframe , and it was incorporated into the fleet on 4 June ; the aircraft was destroyed by fire on 10 Jul in an accident in Sudan . Two Yemeni cities , Hodeida and Taiz were first served on 1 September 1957 ( 1957 @-@ 09 @-@ 01 ) . On 23 May 1958 ( 1958 @-@ 05 @-@ 23 ) , flights to Wadi Halfa were terminated . The incorporation of three Douglas DC @-@ 6Bs took place between May and July , and EAL started a new link between Addis Ababa and Athens , via Cairo , using these recently delivered aircraft . On 21 Jun , the route was extended both to the north and to the south so that Frankfurt and Nairobi became linked by the same corridor , operated with DC @-@ 6Bs . By this time , the Convairs were redeployed to serve domestic and regional routes . Given that radio operators were no longer required as part of flight crews , they were assigned other tasks with the airline . Swissair handled the pilot training for the DC @-@ 6B aircraft at Zurich . The suspension of fifth freedom rights between Djibouti and Aden prompted the discontinuance of the route that linked them . EAL joined the International Air Transport Association ( IATA ) on 1 January 1959 ( 1959 @-@ 01 @-@ 01 ) . During the year , two Boeing 720Bs were ordered and scheduled for delivery in December 1961 ( 1961 @-@ 12 ) , two more DC @-@ 6Bs entered the fleet , services to Nairobi were suspended once more and the airline 's list of domestic destinations saw the incorporation of Bulchi , Dodollo , Lalibela and Masawa .
= = = The 1960s and 1970s : the jet age = = =
Port Sudan was removed from the list of destinations on 1 March 1960 ( 1960 @-@ 03 @-@ 01 ) . The airline had its first fatal accident on 15 July when a DC @-@ 3 crashed en route from Bulchi to Jimma , killing the pilot . A Convair 240 was sold to Allied Stores of Israel on 18 July . On 12 August , an order with Boeing for two Boeing 720B aircraft was placed . EAL 's general manager had already brought the idea of acquiring two jet aircraft for long @-@ haul operations up already in February , suggesting the Boeing 720B . The Sud SE @-@ 210 Caravelle , the de Havilland D.H.106 Comet 4 and the Boeing 720B were all taken into account . Hot and high condition of some EAL operations made the Caravelle inappropriate , whereas the Comet was considered obsolete . The first East – West link made by an African airline started on 8 November , when the Addis Ababa – Accra – Lagos – Monrovia route was launched using DC @-@ 6B equipment .
The second fatal accident took place on 5 September 1961 when another DC @-@ 3 crashed shortly after takeoff from Sendafar ; a flight attendant and four passengers lost their lives in the accident . The event urged the Civil Aviation Department to investigate the accidents . It was found that the lack of infrastructure at many airfields , marginal even for DC @-@ 3 operations , was a major contribution . Landing sites at Gore , Mizan Teferi and Tippi were included in the list of airfields that would require closure . On 13 January 1962 , the crew and four passengers lost their lives in another accident involving a DC @-@ 3 — registration ET @-@ T @-@ 1 , EAL 's first aircraft of the type — , this time the crash taking place at Tippi while the aircraft was taking off . The event prompted the government to decide the closure of the airfields at both Mizan Teferi and Tippi . In March 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 03 ) , two more DC @-@ 3s were acquired , and registered ET @-@ ABE and ET @-@ ABF . During the year , the ″ ET @-@ T- ″ registration would change to simply ″ ET- ″ . Jack B. Asire became general manager in April 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 04 ) .
It was also decided to build a new airport to replace the Lideta Airfield , unable to accommodate the Boeing 720 jetliner the company intended to acquire . This was the birth of Bole International Airport , where the company set its headquarters . In December 1962 ( 1962 @-@ 12 ) , the arrival of two Boeing 720s ordered directly from Boeing marked the carrier 's entrance into the jet age . These two aircraft were registered ET @-@ AAG and ET @-@ AAH and were named ″ Blue Nile ″ and ″ White Nile ″ , respectively . The first jet service took place on 15 January 1963 ( 1963 @-@ 01 @-
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complemented by the Youngstown Playhouse on the city 's south side . The Youngstown Playhouse , Mahoning County 's primary community theater , has served the area for more than 80 years , despite intermittent financial problems . Well known theatrical personalities from the Youngstown area include comedic actor Joe Flynn , screen actress Elizabeth Hartman , singer and Broadway performer Maureen McGovern , and television and screen actor Ed O 'Neill .
= = = Museums = = =
The Butler Institute of American Art is on the northeastern edge of the Youngstown State University campus . This institution was established by industrialist Joseph G. Butler , Jr . , in 1919 as the first museum in the country dedicated to American art . Across the street from the Butler Institute stands the McDonough Museum of Art , YSU 's University Art Museum and the Mahoning Valley 's center for contemporary art . The McDonough , established in 1991 , features regular changing exhibitions by regional , national and international artists and provides public access to the work of students , faculty and alumni from the Department of Art . The Clarence R. Smith Mineral Museum , also on the YSU campus , is operated by the university 's geology department and housed in a campus building .
To the immediate north of YSU is the Arms Family Museum of Local History . The museum , housed in a 1905 Arts & Crafts style mansion on the main artery of Wick Avenue , is managed by the Mahoning Valley Historical Society . Once the estate of a local industrialist , the museum maintains period rooms that showcase the original contents of the household , including furnishings , art objects , and personal artifacts . The museum mounts rotating exhibits on topics related to local history . Recently , the museum opened the " Anne Kilcawley Christman Hands @-@ on History Room " . The MVHS Archival Library operates in the estate 's former carriage house , near the back of the site .
The Youngstown Historical Center of Industry and Labor sits south of the YSU campus on a grade overlooking the downtown area . This museum , owned and operated by the Ohio Historical Society , focuses on the Mahoning Valley 's history of steel production . Other museums include the Children 's Museum of the Valley , an interactive educational center in the downtown area , and the Davis Education and Recreation Center , a small museum that showcases the history of Youngstown 's Mill Creek Park . On the city 's north side the Youngstown Steel Heritage Foundation is constructing the Tod Engine Heritage Park , featuring a collection of steel industry equipment and artifacts . The main exhibit is a 1914 William Tod Co. rolling mill steam engine that was built in Youngstown and used at the Youngstown Sheet and Tube Brier Hill Works . The Tod Engine is one of three remaining rolling mill engines in the United States and is a Mechanical and Materials Engineering Landmark .
Youngstown 's most popular resource is Mill Creek Park , a five @-@ mile ( 8 km ) -long stretch of landscaped woodland reminiscent of Rock Creek Park in Washington , D.C. Mill Creek Park is the oldest park district in Ohio , established as a township park in 1891 . The park 's highlights include the restored 19th century Lanterman 's Mill , the rock formations of Bear 's Den , scores of nature trails , the Fellows Riverside Gardens and Education Center , the " Cinderella " iron link bridge , and two 18 hole Donald Ross golf courses .
Mill Creek Park encompasses approximately 2 @,@ 600 acres ( 1 @,@ 100 ha ) , 20 miles ( 32 km ) of drives and 15 miles ( 24 km ) of foot trails . Its attractions include gardens , streams , lakes , woodlands , meadows , and wildlife .
Fellows Riverside Gardens ' popular lookout point offers visitors contrasting views of the area . From the south side , the canopied woodlands overlooking Lake Glacier are visible ; from the north side , visitors are presented with a view of downtown Youngstown . The park features two 18 @-@ hole golf courses . The North Course is on rolling terrain , while the South Course features narrow , tree @-@ lined fairways . Other features include playgrounds , athletic fields , and picnic areas .
In 2005 , Mill Creek Park was placed on the National Register of Historic Places . A plaque commemorating this event is near a memorial statue of Volney Rogers , the Youngstown attorney who set aside land for the creation of Mill Creek Park .
A smaller recreational area called Wick Park is on the historic North side . Wick Park 's periphery is lined with early 20th @-@ century mansions built by the city 's industrialists , business leaders , and professionals during Youngstown 's " boom " years . Stambaugh Auditorium , a popular venue for concerts and other public events , is near the park 's southwestern edge . Another small recreational area called Crandall Park is also on the North side . Crandall Park offers well @-@ maintained and landscaped homes , tree @-@ lined streets , and walkable access to shopping and recreations . Several cemeteries ( notably historic Oak Hill Cemetery ) and small recreational spaces are scattered throughout the city . Some of those recreational spaces include Homestead Park , John White park , Lynn park , Borts Pool , and the Northside Pool .
= = Sports = =
Youngstown has enjoyed a long tradition of professional and semi @-@ professional sports . In earlier decades , the city produced scores of minor league baseball teams , including the Youngstown Ohio Works , Youngstown Champs , Youngstown Indians , Youngstown Steelmen , Youngstown Browns , Youngstown Gremlins , and Youngstown Athletics . Local enthusiasm for baseball was such that the community hosted championship games of the National Amateur Baseball Federation throughout the 1930s and 1940s . The area 's minor league baseball teams were supplemented by semi @-@ professional football teams , including the Youngstown Patricians , who won the 1915 championship of the informal " Ohio League " ( a direct predecessor to the National Football League ) , and the Youngstown Hardhats , who competed in the Middle Atlantic Football League in the 1970s and early 1980s . For three seasons , Youngstown was home to the Mahoning Valley Thunder of the now @-@ defunct af2 , the minor league for the Arena Football League until 2009 when the franchise ceased operations . Local minor league basketball teams included the Youngstown Pride of the WBA from 1987 to 1992 ) , the Youngstown Hawks of the IBA in 1999 , and the Mahoning Valley Wildcats of the IBL in 2005 . Covelli Centre ( known then as the Chevrolet Centre ) was the home of the Youngstown SteelHounds hockey team that played in the Central Hockey League until May 2008 .
The community has a lengthy tradition of collegiate sports . The Youngstown State University Penguins , a major regional draw , compete in the Missouri Valley Football Conference . The Penguins , noted participants in FCS ( I @-@ AA ) football , play their games at Stambaugh Stadium and enjoy one of the more supportive fan bases . All other YSU athletic teams compete in the Horizon League . The Youngstown State men and women 's basketball teams hold their games at Youngstown State 's Beeghly Center . The teams average about 2 @,@ 500 fans per game , a number that has been on the rise the past two seasons with a new style of play under Head Coach Jerry Slocum . In addition , the YSU baseball and softball teams have enjoyed local support and success . The baseball team reached the NCAA super @-@ regionals in 2005 , and the softball team did so in 2006 .
Youngstown has produced a significant number of boxing champions , including bantamweight Greg Richardson , lightweights Ray " Boom Boom " Mancini and Harry Arroyo , and middleweight Kelly Pavlik .
One of the city 's most recent sports @-@ related attractions is the Covelli Centre , which was funded primarily through a $ 26 million federal grant . Located on the site of an abandoned steel mill , the large , high @-@ tech facility opened in October 2005 . It was formerly called the Chevrolet Center , and during planning it was known as the Youngstown Convocation Center . The Centre 's main tenants are the Youngstown Phantoms , who play in the United States Hockey League . Previously , it was home to the Youngstown Steelhounds hockey team , who played in the CHL . The city plans to develop vacant land adjacent to the Centre for a park , a riverwalk ( the Mahoning River flows through the site ) , an amphitheater , or an athletic stadium for the city 's public and private high schools .
These investments reflect wide appreciation of Youngstown 's athletic tradition , which has produced noted figures in a variety of sports . Prominent athletes with connections to the city include former world boxing champions Greg Richardson , IBF lightweight champion Harry Arroyo , College Football Hall of Fame end Bob Dove , Hall of Fame umpire Billy Evans , major league pitcher Dave Dravecky , NFL quarterback Bernie Kosar , IBF cruiserweight champion Jeff Lampkin , WBA lightweight champion Ray " Boom Boom " Mancini , major league manager Jimmy McAleer , WBC and WBO middleweight champion Kelly Pavlik , legendary baseball trainer " Bonesetter " Reese , major league outfielder George Shuba , and Heisman Trophy recipient Frank Sinkwich .
= = Neighborhoods = =
= = Transportation = =
The Youngstown area is served by the Western Reserve Transit Authority ( WRTA ) bus system , which is supported through Mahoning County property and sales taxes . WRTA , whose main terminal is in the downtown area , provides service throughout the city and into surrounding Mahoning and Trumbull counties . The downtown terminal serves as the Youngstown area 's Greyhound terminal .
In the vicinity of the WRTA terminal is a former Baltimore and Ohio Railroad station . The historic terminal building has now been converted into a banquet hall , served Amtrak 's Three Rivers as a train station from 1995 to 2005 . The local railroads now serve freight trains exclusively .
The Youngstown @-@ Warren Regional Airport is currently served by three airlines ( Allegiant Air , Sun Country Airlines and Via Air , in order of market share ) , five rental car agencies Alamo , National , Enterprise , Budget , Avis , and has direct non @-@ stop flights to Orlando ( Allegiant ) , Fort Myers ( Allegiant ) , Tampa ( Allegiant ) , Atlantic City ( Via Air ) , Tunica ( Via Air , Sun Country ) , and Gulfport ( Sun Country ) . Additional seasonal service includes flights to Myrtle Beach , SC ( Allegiant ) .
On June 23 , 2016 , Uber launched its services in Youngstown , covering all of Mahoning County and most of Trumbull County . Before the launch , Youngstown had been the largest city in the United States that had never had Uber in some capacity .
= = Media = =
Youngstown features diverse media , including television , print and radio . Newspapers include The Buckeye Review ( bi @-@ monthly / African @-@ American ) , The Business Journal ( bi @-@ monthly / business ) , The Catholic Exponent ( bi @-@ monthly / religious ) , Daily Legal News ( daily / legal ) , The Jambar ( bi @-@ weekly / college ) , The Jewish Journal ( monthly / Jewish ) , The Metro Monthly ( monthly / news , features , calendar ) , Morning Journal ( daily / Columbiana County news ) , The Review ( weekly / news , features ) , Senior News ( monthly / seniors ) , The Journal ( weekly / Struthers , Campbell and Lowellville ) , Parent Magazine ( monthly / children 's ) , Peace Action Youngstown ( quarterly / peace activism ) , The Town Crier ( weekly / suburban news ) , Record Courier ( daily / Portage County news ) , Akron Beacon Journal ( daily / regional news ) , The Plain Dealer ( daily / regional news ) , Pittsburgh Post Gazette ( daily / regional news ) , Warren Tribune Chronicle ( daily / regional news ) , and the The Vindicator ( daily / regional news ) , The News Outlet ( university based media collaborative )
Youngstown is served by 10 television stations , three of which are repeaters of TV stations in other cities , and a fourth coming in the near future from Pittsburgh NBC affiliate WPXI in nearby New Castle , Pennsylvania , that would easily penetrate Youngstown pending FCC approval . This is unusual for a mid @-@ sized city near large metro areas such as Cleveland and Pittsburgh . Nearby Akron , with a larger population than Youngstown and Warren combined , has no local television stations and relies on Cleveland for its local news . The community 's 273 @,@ 480 television households make the Youngstown market the nation 's 106th largest , according to Nielsen Media Research .
The market is served by stations affiliated with major American networks including : WFMJ @-@ TV ( channel 21 , NBC ) , WYTV ( channel 33 , ABC ) , WYFX @-@ LD ( channel 17 / 62 & 27 @.@ 2 on WKBN @-@ DT2 , Fox ) , WKBN @-@ TV ( channel 27 , CBS ) , MY @-@ YTV ( channel 33 @.@ 2 , MNTV ) , and WBCB ( channel 21 @.@ 2 , The CW ) . WFMJ @-@ TV and its digital subchannel WBCB are both locally owned & operated by the Maag family , owners of The Vindicator . The rest of Youngstown 's commercial television stations are either owned and operated by Media General or operated by MG through a shared services agreement . Western Reserve Public Media airs on channel 45 ( WNEO ) from Alliance , Ohio , and channel 49 ( WEAO ) from Akron is a member of PBS .
Youngstown is served by 37 different radio stations in the metropolitan area making it the 119th largest radio market in the United States . Stations include 17 on the AM band and 20 on the FM band . The majority of the most powerful and popular radio stations in the Youngstown @-@ Warren market are divided between two national media companies : Clear Channel and Cumulus Media .
= = Sister cities = =
Spišská Nová Ves , Slovakia , since 1991
= 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico =
The 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico was the 50th edition of the Tirreno – Adriatico stage race . It took place from 11 to 17 March and was the third race of the 2015 UCI World Tour . The race is one of the most important races in the early part of the cycling season and is used by riders preparing both for the Grand Tours and for the classics season .
The route of the 2015 edition started and finished with individual time trials , one of which was rescheduled from a team time trial shortly before the race began . In between , the race consisted of two stages suitable for sprinters , one for puncheurs and two for climbers . The key stage of the race was stage 5 , which involved a summit finish on Monte Terminillo . The defending champion from the 2014 edition was Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who was expected to be challenged by three of the strongest stage racers in the world , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) , Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) and Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) . Froome , however , pulled out shortly before the race .
The first individual time trial was won by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , who kept the lead for the first two stages . Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) and Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) won the next two stages , each taking the race lead for one day . The queen stage to Monte Terminillo was won by Quintana , who took the overall lead and was able to defend it to the end of the race . Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) finished second , 18 seconds behind Quintana , with Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) third .
Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) won the points classification , after he won one stage and finished in the top ten on three others . The mountains classification was won by Carlos Quintero ( Colombia ) , while Nairo Quintana won the young riders classification as well as the overall race victory .
= = Teams = =
As Tirreno @-@ Adriatico is a UCI World Tour event , all 17 UCI WorldTeams were invited automatically and were obliged to send a squad . Five Professional Continental teams received wildcard invitations .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
The key stages on the general classification were expected to be the time trials and the summit finish . The race was originally expected to be the first contest of the season between the four riders expected to contest the Tour de France : the 2014 Tirreno – Adriatico champion Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , the 2013 Tirreno – Adriatico champion Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) and Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) . Shortly before the race , however , Froome withdrew on account of a chest infection ( he had also withdrawn at the last minute in 2013 ) . Following Froome 's withdrawal , Contador was seen as the main favourite for the race ; he had demonstrated his form when he and Froome fought a close battle in the Vuelta a Andalucía a weeks earlier . Nibali , however , had not yet shown good form in the 2015 season , while Quintana had not raced for several weeks following a crash . Other riders considered to have a chance in the general classification included Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Dan Martin ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Thibault Pinot ( FDJ ) .
As well as losing Froome from the general classification battle , the race also lost one of the riders expected to challenge for stage wins . Marcel Kittel ( Giant – Alpecin ) withdrew from the race with a virus . The principal sprinters left in the race were Mark Cavendish ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Elia Viviani ( Team Sky ) , Tyler Farrar ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) . The race was also notable as the first time when Peter Sagan raced alongside Contador in the Tinkoff – Saxo team ; Sagan was expected to feature both on the sprint stages and on the uphill finish on stage 3 .
= = Route = =
The Tirreno – Adriatico is an important race in the early part of the road cycling season . It is the third UCI World Tour race of the year , running at the same time as Paris – Nice . The two races are sometimes seen as being in competition for prestige and for the best riders . Tirreno – Adriatico is an important test as part of riders ' preparations both for the Grand Tours and for the classics races , such as Milan – San Remo . The race generally takes the riders east across central Italy , from the Tyrrhenian Sea to the Adriatic Sea ; the race is therefore sometimes known as the " race of the two seas " and the Italian names of the seas give the name Tirreno – Adriatico .
The race was originally intended to begin with a 22 kilometres ( 13 @.@ 7 mi ) team time trial around Lido di Camaiore . This was expected to be a difficult test and to result in significant gaps in the general classification . Heavy wind and rain in the week before the race , however , forced the race organisers , RCS Sport , to change this stage . Though the start and finish lines were unchanged , the stage was shortened , first to 5 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) , then to 5 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) ; it was also changed to be an individual time trial . This was expected to result in smaller gaps ; it was a particular blow to the Orica – GreenEDGE team , who had based most of their squad around the team time trial .
Stage 2 was a fairly flat stage , expected to suit the sprinters preparing for Milan – San Remo . Stage 3 was also unlikely to change the general classification , though it included a steep uphill finish . The key stages , however , came on the weekend . Stage 4 was a difficult , mountainous stage with a downhill finish . The following day 's route had a summit finish on the 16 km ( 10 mi ) climb of Monte Terminillo . Stage 6 was another fairly flat stage and the race ended on the Adriatic coast with another individual time trial in San Benedetto del Tronto .
= = Stages = =
= = = Stage 1 = = =
11 March 2015 – Lido di Camaiore , 5 @.@ 4 km ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) ( ITT )
Stage 1 was originally intended to be a 22 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 14 @.@ 1 mi ) team time trial , but bad weather ( high wind and torrential rain ) in the week leading up to the event made this impossible . The race organisers reduced the race to a 5 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 5 mi ) individual time trial ; on the day of the race , this was shortened by a further 300 metres ( 980 ft ) . The course was based in the Lido di Camaiore holiday resort on the Tyrrhenian coast and was entirely flat . The out @-@ and @-@ back course meant that the riders had a tailwind on the first half of the course and a headwind on the second .
The early benchmark time was set by Daniel Oss ( BMC Racing Team ) , who completed the course in 6 ' 08 " . A good time was also set by Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , whose time was 6 ' 10 " and who was the best young rider in the prologue . Sagan did well to set such a good time , since he hit a pavement early in his ride and nearly fell . Oss kept the lead for a long time , but was eventually overtaken by Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) . Brändle , however , was immediately overtaken by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , the Italian national time trial champion , who had two previous stage wins in Tirreno – Adriatico time trials . Malori 's time was 6 ' 04 " . Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , Steve Cummings ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Greg Van Avermaet ( BMC Racing Team ) all came close to Malori 's time , but were unable to beat it . The principal favourite for the stage , former world time trial champion Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , finished one second behind Malori , who therefore won the stage , winning both the blue jersey of the overall leader of the race and the red jersey of the points classification leader .
Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) was the fastest of the general classification contenders , finishing 19th on the stage , 10 " behind Malori . Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) was the first of the three major favourites for the race , one second behind Urán . Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) and Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) both lost time .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
12 March 2015 – Camaiore to Cascina , 153 km ( 95 @.@ 1 mi )
The second stage of the race was a 153 @-@ kilometre ( 95 mi ) route from Camaiore , the location of stage 1 , to Cascina . The course started with one and a half laps of a circuit around Camaiore , including the only two categorised climbs of the day , before heading south @-@ east towards the city of Lucca . After leaving Lucca , the course turned west , then headed north to enter Cascina . In Cascina , the riders completed two laps of a 20 @.@ 7 @-@ kilometre ( 12 @.@ 9 mi ) finishing circuit . Although the final circuit was flat , there were three roundabouts , a sharp turn and a bridge in the final 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) .
An early breakaway was formed on the circuit around Camaiore . This was made up of seven riders : Edoardo Zardini ( Bardiani – CSF ) , Danilo Wyss ( BMC Racing Team ) , Cristiano Salerno and Patrick Konrad ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Jorge Camilo Castiblanco , Carlos Quintero ( both Colombia ) and Martijn Keizer ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . The breakaway built up a lead of over six minutes and took all the mountains classification points . Wyss won the first ahead of Quintero ; Quintero beat Wyss on the second climb . Danilo Wyss went on to take the jersey for the leader of the mountains classification thanks to his better general classification standing after the stage . The breakaway was carefully controlled by the sprinters ' teams − principally Etixx – Quick @-@ Step and Tinkoff – Saxo − and with 91 kilometres ( 57 mi ) remaining the breakaway had less than three minutes ' lead . The gap was reduced to less than 90 seconds as the peloton entered the finishing circuit with 41 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 25 @.@ 7 mi ) remaining .
About 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) later , Zardini attacked and was followed by Quintero and Salerno . These three riders continued alone ; they had less than a minute 's lead as they entered the final lap of the circuit with 20 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 12 @.@ 9 mi ) remaining and were caught soon afterwards . There was a crash in the peloton 11 kilometres ( 7 mi ) from the finish , which eliminated Matteo Pelucchi ( Lampre – Merida ) from contention , as well as causing some delay for Orica – GreenEDGE 's general classification rider Adam Yates .
Going into the final kilometres of the race , several teams were competing at the front of the peloton . MTN – Qhubeka , Tinkoff – Saxo and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step all tried to set up their sprinters , with Zdeněk Štybar particularly prominent . MTN – Qhubeka led the group under the flamme rouge with 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) remaining , as Edvald Boasson Hagen attempted to lead out his teammate Tyler Farrar . In the final few hundred metres , however , there was a large crash . Mark Cavendish ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) suddenly moved right , clashing wheels with Elia Viviani ( Team Sky ) . Cavendish was unable to continue sprinting , while Viviani was thrown from his bike while riding at over 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) . Several other riders were brought down in the incident , including Sacha Modolo ( Lampre – Merida ) and Luka Mezgec ( Giant – Alpecin ) . This crash left a small group of 12 riders to contest the stage finish . Jens Debusschere ( Lotto – Soudal ) , riding in the colours of the Belgian national champion , outsprinted Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) on the line ; Sam Bennett ( Bora – Argon 18 ) finished third .
It was revealed after the stage that Cavendish 's sudden movement had been caused by his chain falling off the big chainring . The loss of power caused him to swerve right and Viviani was unable to avoid him . Viviani suffered cuts and abrasions from the crash , though he avoided any broken bones and was able to complete the stage . Etixx – Quick @-@ Step were keen to investigate the incident , as Tom Boonen had suffered a similar problem in the Tour of Qatar .
Thanks to the time bonus he won for coming second , Sagan moved up into second place overall , on the same time as Malori . Debusschere , meanwhile , moved into the lead of the points classification .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
13 March 2015 – Cascina to Arezzo , 203 km ( 126 @.@ 1 mi )
Stage 3 took the riders on a 203 @-@ kilometre ( 126 @.@ 1 mi ) route from Cascina to Arezzo . The route was very similar to stage 3 of the previous year 's race , with a long route east , including two categorised climbs , and a finishing circuit in Arezzo . In the 2015 edition , the riders did five laps of a 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) circuit . The final 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 6 mi ) of the circuit was difficult : it was uphill , with one section of 11 % , there was a narrow gate and one section of road was cobbled . On the previous year 's stage , Peter Sagan had beaten Michał Kwiatkowski ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) in the sprint .
The early breakaway was formed by Nicola Boem ( Bardiani – CSF ) , Carlos Quintero ( Colombia ) , Chad Haga ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Danilo Wyss ( BMC Racing Team ) and Rick Flens ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) . Wyss , the leader of the mountains classification , won both mountain sprints , with Quintero behind him both times . With 95 kilometres ( 59 mi ) left to race , the breakaway had a five @-@ minute lead . Sagan 's Tinkoff – Saxo team , however , controlled the race carefully : Matteo Tosatto and Christopher Juul @-@ Jensen both put in long efforts on the front of the peloton to bring the group back . The lead was less than a minute with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) left to race and the breakaway split . 18 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 11 @.@ 5 mi ) from the end , Boem and Haga were the last riders of the group to be caught .
Tinkoff – Saxo controlled the peloton in the following kilometres , with BMC Racing Team , Team Sky and IAM Cycling close behind . Sagan 's teammates , however , were quickly running out and , with 4 kilometres ( 2 mi ) remaining , he only had Maciej Bodnar left to support him . BMC , meanwhile , had several riders left to support Greg Van Avermaet . Van Avermaet was therefore perfectly positioned as the climb began and attacked towards the top . He won a small gap ahead of Zdeněk Štybar ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and was able to hold on to his lead to take the stage victory . Sagan was the quickest in the final metres , but he had started too far back ; although he was able to pass Stybar to finish second on the stage , he was unable to catch Van Avermaet . Sagan did , however , take the lead in the points classification . Van Avermaet took over the lead in the general classification thanks to the bonus seconds he won on the stage .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
14 March 2015 – Indicatore ( Arezzo ) to Castelraimondo , 226 km ( 140 @.@ 4 mi )
The fourth stage of the race was the longest stage of the race at 226 kilometres ( 140 @.@ 4 mi ) . The route took the riders from Arezzo east , with intermediate sprints in Gubbio and Fabriano and two classified climbs . The riders then entered a 11 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 7 @.@ 1 mi ) finishing circuit around the town of Castelraimondo . The riders did two laps of the circuit , each of which included the climb of the Crispiero , a 3 @.@ 0 @-@ kilometre ( 2 mi ) climb with an average gradient of over 9 % . Following the climb , there was a technical 6 @-@ kilometre ( 4 mi ) descent into the stage finish .
The early breakaway was formed by two riders from Orica – GreenEDGE , Mathew Hayman and Luke Durbridge . The two riders built up a lead of over seven minutes ahead of the main peloton , though it seemed that both riders had crashed at some point on the route , away from the view of the television cameras . Two separate chasing groups formed : one was made up of Nathan Haas ( Cannondale – Garmin ) and Carlos Quintero ( Colombia ) ; the other was formed by Walter Pedraza , Miguel Ángel Rubiano ( both Colombia ) and Manuel Quinziato ( BMC Racing Team ) . Neither of the chase groups was successful , however , and the lead pair stayed clear until Durbridge tired with 21 kilometres ( 13 mi ) remaining . Hayman was caught soon afterwards .
On the first climb of the Crispiero , Giovanni Visconti ( Movistar Team ) attacked along with Michele Scarponi ( Astana ) and Julián Arredondo ( Trek Factory Racing ) . Visconti was the first to cross the summit , with Daniel Moreno ( Team Katusha ) catching the group on the descent . The riders were caught , however , on the flat section between the two climbs , with approximately 10 kilometres ( 6 mi ) still to race . The peloton was led at this point by Tinkoff – Saxo .
After the group was caught , AG2R La Mondiale came forwards in support of Domenico Pozzovivo . Alexis Vuillermoz led the peloton into the foot of the final climb , dropping Van Avermaet , the race leader , with about 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) left . Giampaolo Caruso ( Team Katusha ) was the next to attack . As he was approaching the summit and looking at the group behind , Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) attacked and came past on Caruso 's left .
Poels therefore entered the descent off the Crispiero alone , with several seconds lead over the main group . The main favourites for the general classification hesitated before taking up the chase , allowing Poels to build a lead . Eventually , Katusha attempted to chase him down , but Poels was able to make the most of the difficult descent and built a 20 @-@ second lead . Although this was reduced on the way to the finish , Poels held on to take the win , his first for Team Sky . He also moved into the overall lead of the race , with a 17 @-@ second advantage over Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who had won the sprint for second place in the group behind .
Poels , who was leading Sky in the absence of Chris Froome , expressed hope after the stage that he would be able to defend his race lead on the summit finish the following day . In the other classifications , Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) moved into the lead of the young riders competition , as he moved up to fourth place in the general classification . Carlos Quintero , having been part of the breakaway for the third day running , took enough mountain points on the stage to move into the lead of the mountains classification .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
15 March 2015 – Esanatoglia to Monte Terminillo , 199 km ( 123 @.@ 7 mi )
Stage 5 was the queen stage of the 2015 Tirreno − Adriatico and the only summit finish of the race . It took the riders on a 199 @-@ kilometre ( 123 @.@ 7 mi ) course from Esanatoglia . The peloton first travelled south , crossing three significant climbs in the first 72 kilometres ( 45 mi ) . The middle of the stage was flat , as the riders travelled southwest towards Terni , but the final part of the stage was difficult . The route first passed through Rieti , then turned east towards the summit finish at a ski station on Monte Terminillo . The final climb was 16 @.@ 1 kilometres ( 10 @.@ 0 mi ) in length , with an average gradient of 7 @.@ 3 % and a total ascent of 1 @,@ 175 metres ( 3 @,@ 855 ft ) . The steepest sections were in the first part of the climb ( one section had a gradient of 12 % ) ; the rest of the climb had a steady incline , except for the final few hundred metres of false flat . The stage took place in cold , difficult conditions with temperatures below 0 ° C ( 32 ° F ) . There were rumours before the stage that it would have to be cancelled , but these were refuted by the race organisers and the stage took place as planned .
The day 's main breakaway was formed early on by Maxime Monfort ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Michele Scarponi , Andriy Hrivko ( both Astana ) , Alessandro De Marchi ( BMC Racing Team ) , Matteo Montaguti ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Paul Voss ( Bora – Argon 18 ) , Angel Vicioso ( Team Katusha ) and Jesus Herrada ( Movistar Team ) . They built up a lead of over seven minutes after 60 kilometres ( 37 mi ) of racing . Monteguti won both mountain sprints early in the stage , with Scarponi second on both occasions . After the two climbs , the main peloton made an effort to reduce the breakaway 's lead and the gap was reduced to two minutes at the base of the final climb of the day .
The breakaway disintegrated on the final climb , with Scarponi , De Marchi and Monfort forming a lead group . In the peloton , Vasil Kiryienka ( Team Sky ) and Ivan Basso ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) were setting the pace . Scarponi pulled clear of De Marchi and Monfort to lead the race solo , as Roman Kreuziger and Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) briefly pulled clear of the main pack . As the riders entered the final 5 kilometres ( 3 mi ) , snow began to fall . As Contador drifted back in the pack , Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) attacked and immediately broke clear of the pack . Contador tried to respond but was unable to take Quintana 's wheel . Contador ended up in a group of about 15 riders chasing Quintana . Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) was dropped at this point , while Quintana quickly caught up to Scarponi .
Contador twice made attacks on the chasing group , but on both occasions was unable to break free , although the race leader , Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) was dropped . Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) also made an unsuccessful attack . Finally , Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) put in a successful attack and dropped the group behind . Contador did most of the work in a group of five riders , including Urán , Joaquim Rodríguez ( Team Katusha ) , Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) and Adam Yates ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) . The group did not keep up a steady pace , however , and Quintana was able to reach the finish line with a lead of 41 seconds over Mollema and 55 seconds over Contador 's group . Quintana therefore moved into the lead of the overall classification , 39 seconds ahead of Mollema and over a minute ahead of Contador . Poels , meanwhile , finished 16th on the stage , 1 ' 37 " behind Quintana , and dropped to tenth in the general classification .
After the stage , several riders expressed displeasure with the extreme weather conditions . Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) was prominent among them , as he had been in a dispute over hot weather at the 2015 Tour of Oman , with Filippo Pozzato ( Lampre – Merida ) and Luca Paolini ( Team Katusha ) expressing similar concerns . The conditions were particularly difficult for the riders in the gruppetto , as the conditions they faced in the final kilometres were significantly worse than those faced by the race leaders . Cancellara and other riders called for an extreme @-@ weather policy to govern racing in such conditions .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
16 March 2015 – Rieti to Porto Sant 'Elpidio , 210 km ( 130 @.@ 5 mi )
The sixth stage was the final road stage of the race . It took the riders from the city of Rieti , at the foot of Monte Terminillo , northeast to finish on the Adriatic coast at Porto Sant 'Elpidio . The stage was 210 km ( 130 @.@ 5 mi ) in length . The first part was a 181 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 112 @.@ 6 mi ) route , which took the riders from the startline and across some medium mountains . The most difficult climb was at Montelparo and came 78 @.@ 8 kilometres ( 49 @.@ 0 mi ) from the finish line . Once the riders had reached Porto Sant 'Elpidio , they entered a 14 @.@ 4 kilometres ( 8 @.@ 9 mi ) finishing circuit . They first rode the final 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) of the circuit and crossed the finish line ; this was the final intermediate sprint of the day . They then completed two complete laps of the circuit . The final 1 @.@ 6 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 0 mi ) were entirely straight . The stage took place in rainy conditions .
An early breakaway formed at 15 kilometres ( 9 mi ) , involving Yukiya Arashiro ( Team Europcar ) , Stijn Devolder ( Trek Factory Racing ) and Alessandro Vanotti ( Astana ) . They were caught , however , on the climb at Montelparo , as Tinkoff – Saxo increased the pace in the peloton . Their team leader , Alberto Contador , was one of the riders to set the pace on behalf of Peter Sagan . On this climb , several of the race 's main sprinters were unable to stay with the peloton . These included Mark Cavendish ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) and Luka Mezgec ( Giant – Alpecin ) . The breakaway 's advantage had been reduced to 1 ' 30 " and , soon after the summit of the climb , Devolvder sat up and was caught . Arashiro and Vanotti were caught soon after , with 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) still to race .
Vanotti , however , attacked again and built a 40 @-@ second gap to the peloton , which was still led by Tinkoff – Saxo . He was joined in the lead by Alexis Vuillermoz ( AG2R La Mondiale ) . The two riders rode together until there were 12 kilometres ( 7 @.@ 5 mi ) remaining , when Vuillermoz attacked . Tinkoff – Saxo were joined by Lotto – Soudal at the front of the pack and Vuillermoz was caught with 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) remaining . Throughout this time , the group containing the main sprinters in the race had been unable to reduce the advantage , which was 4 ' with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) to race . Cavendish , along with his entire sprint train , pulled out of the race at they crossed the finish line for the first time in order to rest ahead of Milan – San Remo .
As the main peloton approached the finish line , it was led by MTN – Qhubeka , who still had several riders in the main pack . Tinkoff – Saxo had no riders left to support Sagan . He therefore positioned himself behind the final MTN – Qhubeka rider , Gerald Ciolek , who was being led out by Edvald Boasson Hagen . Sagan passed Ciolek in the final 150 metres ( 490 ft ) win the stage . Ciolek finished second , with Jens Debusschere ( Lotto – Soudal ) in third . This was Sagan 's first win in nine months , when he won a stage of the 2014 Tour de Suisse .
All the general classification riders finished in the main group , so the standings were unchanged .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
17 March 2015 – San Benedetto del Tronto to San Benedetto del Tronto , 10 @.@ 05 km ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) ( ITT )
The seventh and final stage of the 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico was another individual time trial . This stage was 10 @.@ 05 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) in length and took place entirely in the resort of San Benedetto del Tronto on the Adriatic seafront . The course was an out @-@ and @-@ back route . It first headed south , through an intermediate time check after 4 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 9 mi ) , to a pair of 90 @-@ degree right hand turns halfway through the course . The course then headed north on almost entirely straight roads . The stage was flat throughout with no significant climbs .
The early lead was taken by Maciej Bodnar ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , who set a time of 11 ' 39 " . His time was soon beaten , however , by Adriano Malori ( Movistar Team ) , the winner of stage 1 and the Italian national time trial champion . Malori 's time was 11 ' 27 " . Although Vasil Kiryienka ( Team Sky ) came close , he was five seconds behind at the finish . Fabian Cancellara ( Trek Factory Racing ) , who had come second to Malori on stage 1 , set off as Malori was finishing . Cancellara was a second off Malori 's time at the intermediate checkpoint , but he was five seconds quicker over the second part of the course and took the stage lead by four seconds . Cancellara 's time would not be beaten by any of the remaining riders and he won the stage , with Malori in second and Kiryienka in third .
Though the general classification riders did not have a chance of victory on the stage , there were still positions to be won and lost . The best time from the general classification riders was that of Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , 31 seconds behind Cancellara , and he stayed in fifth place overall . Wout Poels ( Team Sky ) , Steve Cummings ( MTN – Qhubeka ) and Thibaut Pinot ( FDJ ) all put in good times , with Poels and Cummings moving up in the top ten and Pinot defending his fourth place ahead of Contador . Bauke Mollema ( Trek Factory Racing ) also put in a strong ride , finishing ahead of Rigoberto Urán ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who was seen as the better time triallist of the two . Mollema therefore defended his second place overall . He was not , however , able to catch the race leader . Quintana finished 55 " behind Cancellara in 55th place ; he took the overall race victory ahead of Mollema by 18 " .
Peter Sagan ( Tinkoff – Saxo ) , the leader of the points competition , only had to finish the stage within the time limit to win the classification . He came very close to failing : he was the slowest rider in the stage , finishing 2 ' 59 " behind Cancellara . It was , however , just enough to prevent his exclusion and to allow him the classification victory .
= = Classifications = =
There were four main classifications in the 2015 Tirreno – Adriatico . The first and most important of these was the general classification . This was calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage . Time bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages ( stages 2 – 6 ) : the stage winner won a ten @-@ second bonus , with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively . Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints ( three seconds for the winner of the sprint , two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third . The leader of the general classification received a blue jersey and the winner of the classification was considered the overall winner of the race .
The second classification was the points classification . On each stage of the race , points were awarded to the top 10 riders . The winner won 12 points , with 10 for the second @-@ placed rider , 8 for the third @-@ placed rider and then one point fewer for each place down to tenth place . Points were also awarded to the top four riders at intermediate sprints , with five points for the winner of the sprint and three , two and one points for the riders in second , third and fourth places respectively . It was originally intended that points would not be awarded on stage 1 as it was a team time trial . After this was changed to an individual time trial , however , points were awarded on the stage , on the same scale as for an intermediate sprint . The winner of the points classification was awarded a red jersey .
The third classification was the mountains classification . On each of the road stages there were classified climbs on the route . The first riders to the top of the climb were awarded points in the mountains classification . For most of the climbs , the first four riders won points , with five , three , two and one points respectively . More points were awarded for the two most difficult climbs of the race . These were the summit finish to Monte Terminillo on stage 5 and the Poggio San Romualdo on stage 4 . On these climbs , the winner won 15 points in the classification , with the next six riders also winning points . The rider with the most points was awarded the green jersey .
The final classification was the young riders classification . This was based on the general classification : the highest placed rider born after 1 January 1990 was the leader of the classification and was awarded a white jersey .
= = Classification standings = =
= = = Team classification = = =
= Anky van Grunsven =
Theodora Elisabeth Gerarda " Anky " van Grunsven ( born 2 January 1968 ) is a Dutch dressage champion who holds the record for the most Olympic medals won by any equestrian athlete and is the only rider to record three successive Olympic wins in the same event . Along with her Olympic successes , she has won numerous medals at the World Equestrian Games ( WEG ) , and is the only rider to have competed at every WEG since they began in 1990 . Between 1990 and 2006 , she competed at the Games in dressage , but in 2010 she was named as part of the Dutch reining team , marking a major change in discipline .
In addition to her Olympic and World Equestrian Games successes , van Grunsven holds the record for the most wins at the Dressage World Cup , winning the event nine times between 1995 and 2008 . She has also competed numerous times at the European Dressage Championships , winning seven individual medals and eight team medals between 1991 and 2009 . Although van Grunsven has ridden many horses over her career , she won the majority of her top events on two horses : Bonfire and Salinero . Bonfire , upon whom she had many of her early successes , was retired in 2002 . Salinero quickly took over as van Grunsven 's top horse , and remained in that position until his retirement in 2013 , after making a major comeback to compete in the 2012 Olympic Games . Van Grunsven has been closely linked with the controversial training method rollkur , although she has moved to distance herself from the practice after it was banned from international competition .
= = Personal life = =
Van Grunsven was born in Erp , North Brabant . She began training in dressage at the age of 12 , after her horse Prisco ( who she would later ride at the Olympics and World Equestrian Games ) performed poorly in show jumping .
Van Grunsven is married to Dutch national equestrian coach Sjef Janssen , with whom she has two children . She was pregnant with her first child , Yannick , when she competed at the 2004 Olympic Games , and gave birth in November of that year . Van Grunsven and Janssen married in Las Vegas in late 2005 , and in March 2007 had her second child , Ava Eden .
In 1999 , van Grunsven , " frustrated by the lack of fashion in the equestrian world " , developed a line of equestrian clothing , now sold internationally .
= = Competitive career = =
= = = Olympics and World Equestrian Games = = =
Van Grunsven holds the record for winning the most Olympic medals by an equestrian , with nine medals , and is the only person to have won any equestrian event in three successive Olympics . She is also the only person to compete at seven successive Olympics in dressage . She has competed in every Olympic Games between 1988 and 2012 , winning a total of three gold medals , five silvers and one bronze . At the 1988 Summer Olympics , riding Prisco , she was eliminated in the qualifying rounds of the individual dressage , and was the lowest @-@ scoring member of the fifth @-@ place Dutch team , meaning her score was not used to determine the team 's standing . At the 1992 Summer Olympics , her performance improved , and riding Bonfire she took fourth individually and won her first silver medal in the team competition . At the 1996 Games , again riding Bonfire , she won double silver in the individual and team dressage competitions .
With her last Olympic ride on Bonfire , at the 2000 Summer Olympics , she won her first gold in the individual competition , while helping the Dutch team to their third consecutive silver . In 2004 in Athens , on her new mount , Salinero , she won her second gold in individual competition , while the Dutch team came in fourth . The 2008 Olympic Games , again riding Salinero , brought her her third consecutive individual gold , while the Dutch team returned to the medal podium with a silver . Riding Salinero in 2012 in London , van Grunsven slipped to sixth place individually , but helped the Dutch team to her first bronze medal . Van Grunsven was originally not expected to compete in the 2012 Olympics , as the horse she was riding at the beginning of 2012 , IPS Upido , was injured . However , in April , she announced that she planned to compete for a spot on the Dutch Olympic team with the then @-@ 18 @-@ year @-@ old Salinero , who had staged what the media called a " comeback " after previous injuries .
Along with her Olympic successes , van Grunsven has also won numerous medals at the World Equestrian Games . After competing in the 2010 World Equestrian Games , she became the only equestrian to have competed in every World Equestrian Games , which have been held every four years since 1990 , and which include three sections of dressage competition , two individual and one team . At the 1990 World Equestrian Games , riding Prisco , she finished 23rd individually . Van Grunsven rode Bonfire at the 1994 and 1998 World Equestrian Games , winning individual gold and team silver at the first and double silver ( one individual and one team ) at the second . She was unhappy with the judging at the 1998 Games , held in Rome , and said that she " thought [ she ] would quit dressage " , despite her high finish placement .
At the 2002 World Equestrian Games , riding Krack C , she finished 11th individually and rode to 5th place with the Dutch team . Her best finish was at the 2006 Games , riding Salinero , where she won an individual gold and two silvers , one individually and one team . At the 2010 Games , after her top horse Salinero was injured and second @-@ best horse Painted Black was sold , she competed as part of the Dutch reining team , marking a major change in discipline . Riding Whizashiningwalla BB , she was eliminated in the qualifying rounds . At the Games , she also performed a reining demonstration at the presentation of the team dressage medal and participated in an exhibition of freestyle reining . Van Grunsven began riding reining horses around 2000 , but only became a serious competitor in the sport after the 2008 Olympics .
= = = Other competition = = =
Van Grunsven has won the Dressage World Cup nine times , in 1995 , 1996 , 1997 , 1999 , 2000 , 2004 , 2005 , 2006 and 2008 . She took second in 1998 and third in 2009 . The World Cup features freestyle dressage ( also called Kur Grand Prix ) , and her record number of wins has won van Grunsven the nickname " Queen of the Kur " . She has also collected five gold medals , eight silver and two bronze at the European Dressage Championships . At the bi @-@ annual European Championships , there is one team competition and three individual events : Individual Dressage , Kur Grand Prix and Special Grand Prix . Van Grunsven took first in the Individual Dressage portion in 1999 and 2005 , and second in 1995 and 1997 . In the Kur competition , she took first in 2007 and third in 2009 . The Special Grand Prix has historically been her weakest event , only taking second in 2007 . She has taken the greatest number of medals in the team competition , with the Dutch team taking first in 2007 and 2009 ; second in 1995 , 1997 , 1999 , 2001 and 2005 ; and third in 1991 .
In 2002 , Bonfire was retired , after a nine @-@ year international career . The pair 's gold @-@ medal @-@ winning freestyle dressage performance at the 1994 World Equestrian Games marked the first the time event had been held at the Games , and " changed the world of dressage forever " , according to fellow Olympic gold medalist Carl Hester . A statue was erected in Erp to mark Bonfire 's achievements . In October 2013 , he was euthanized following illness . After Bonfire 's retirement , Van Grunsven stated that she never thought she would find another horse as good as he was ; however , his successor Salinero proved to be even more successful . In March 2013 , Salinero was retired . Van Grunsven and Salinero have been called the " pioneers of the modern freestyle test " , and were the first pair to have music written specifically for their performances . A horse known for his power and ability , he was also sensitive and , early in his career , prone to becoming tense , making him a more difficult horse to ride . Despite this , he was a star of the dressage world , winning numerous international competitions .
In January 2003 , van Grunsven sustained a fracture of a bone in her upper leg in a fall from a horse in training , and required surgery . A metal plate was embedded in her leg to immobilize the bone during the healing process , and van Grunsven recovered , winning the 2003 Dutch Dressage Championships in June . In September , she underwent a second surgery to have the plate removed . In 2004 , she became the first Dutch rider to win the CHIO Aachen dressage competition , a top international competition .
= = Rollkur = =
Van Grunsven was closely linked with the controversial training method rollkur , and advocated use of the method as recently as 2007 . She has since moved to distance herself with the method since the International Federation for Equestrian Sports ( FEI ) declared in February 2010 that this method " is seen as an aggressive way of a deep moving horse . This is forbidden as well as any head @-@ neck position which is obtained in an aggressive way . "
In a lawsuit announced on 24 August 2010 , van Grunsven claimed to have been defamed by journalist Astrid Appels on the website eurodressage.com. A release posted on that website announcing the lawsuit reported that " according to Anky , images of her horses can not be connected to the controversial rollkur training method . " The lawsuit was scheduled to begin 8 September 2010 in ' s @-@ Hertogenbosch but van Grunsven withdrew the case .
= 2016 Paris – Nice =
The 2016 Paris – Nice was a road cycling stage race that took place in France between 6 and 13 March 2016 . It was the 74th edition of the Paris – Nice and was the second event of the 2016 UCI World Tour .
The race took place over eight stages , travelling south from Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine to finish on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice , although one stage was cancelled due to weather conditions . After a prologue individual time trial , the first few stages were suited to sprinters . The decisive stages came on the final two days , with routes taking the riders through the Alps . The favourites for victory were therefore the climbers , including the defending champion Richie Porte ( BMC Racing Team ) , Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff ) and Geraint Thomas ( Team Sky ) .
Michael Matthews ( Orica – BikeExchange ) won the prologue and took the leader 's yellow jersey . He kept the jersey through the next five days , winning one more of the stages in a sprint . He lost the jersey on the summit finish on Stage 6 to Thomas , who in turn came close to losing it on the final day . After he was dropped by Contador on the final climb of the race , the Col d 'Èze , he had to chase back on . At the end of the race , Thomas beat Contador by four seconds , with Richie Porte third a further eight seconds back . Matthews won the points classification and Antoine Duchesne ( Direct Énergie ) the mountains classification ; Movistar won the team classification .
= = Route = =
The route of the 2016 Paris – Nice was announced on 17 December 2015 . The race began with a 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) prologue individual time trial in Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine , near Paris , on Sunday 6 March and continued for the following seven days . The remaining stages were all road stages , with no other time trials . Stage 1 included two dirt tracks in the final part of the stage , with exposed roads made a possibility . Stage 3 was scheduled to finish on Mont Brouilly , a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) climb at a 7 @.@ 7 % gradient . Stage 5 included part of the climb of Mont Ventoux , but this came towards the beginning of the stage and was followed by more than 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) of roads to the finish . The crucial stages were expected to be the final two : Stage 6 finished on the Madone d 'Utelle , a 15 @.@ 3 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 5 mi ) climb at 5 @.@ 7 % . The final stage included six categorised climbs , with the Col d 'Èze the final climb before the descent into Nice for the finish on the Promenade des Anglais .
While Stage 3 was underway , the weather conditions became very poor , with snow on the final climb . After attempting to restart the race , the race organisers cancelled the stage , with Amaury Sport Organisation 's Christian Prudhomme saying " The road was very slippery and safe conditions could not be assured . "
= = Participating teams = =
The race organisers invited 22 teams to participate . The 18 UCI WorldTeams were automatically invited and obliged to send a squad . The race organisers also invited four UCI Professional Continental teams as wildcards . These were all French teams : Cofidis , Direct Énergie , Delko – Marseille Provence KTM and Fortuneo – Vital Concept .
Each team could include up to eight riders . All the teams except Lotto – Soudal filled all eight slots ; Lotto – Soudal 's team of seven meant that the peloton at the start of the race included 167 riders . Lotto – Soudal also chose to compete under a different name from the rest of the season : they became Lotto – Fix ALL , taking the name of one of a product made by Soudal , their normal sponsor . They also wore grey and white jerseys in place of their normal red and white .
= = Pre @-@ race favourites = =
Stages 1 , 2 and 4 were expected to favour the sprinters , with the other stages likely to be decisive for the general classification . There were a large number of climbers present for Paris – Nice , but the overwhelming favourite was Alberto Contador ( Tinkoff ) , racing in what was possibly his final season in the peloton . Contador had won the race on two previous occasions , but this was his first participation since 2010 . Contador had shown some form with a stage win in the Volta ao Algarve . Contador was the only one of the top four Grand Tour contenders to start Paris – Nice : Vincenzo Nibali ( Astana ) was riding Tirreno – Adriatico , while Chris Froome ( Team Sky ) and Nairo Quintana ( Movistar Team ) opted to wait until the Volta a Catalunya to begin their European seasons .
The defending champion was Richie Porte ( BMC Racing Team ) who had won the 2015 Paris – Nice after winning the individual time trial on the final day ; he had also won the 2013 edition . Since his 2015 victory , Porte had moved from Team Sky to BMC . In the absence of the traditional Col d 'Èze time trial , the route was expected to favour him less than previous editions , but his strength in the mountains meant that he was still one of the major favourites . After a strong beginning to the season at the Tour Down Under , Porte had struggled in the Tour of Oman . Porte was replaced as Team Sky 's leader for the race by Geraint Thomas , who had finished fifth the previous year . Thomas had won the Volta ao Algarve and was expected to perform strongly in the prologue time trial .
The other major general classification riders included Tom Dumoulin ( Giant – Alpecin ) , Jon Izagirre ( Movistar Team ) , Andrew Talansky and Pierre Rolland ( both Cannondale – Drapac ) and Romain Bardet ( AG2R La Mondiale ) .
Among the sprinters , the biggest name was Marcel Kittel ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , who had won four stages so far in the season as well as the overall title in the Dubai Tour . Other prominent sprinters included André Greipel ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Alexander Kristoff ( Team Katusha ) , Arnaud Démare ( FDJ ) and Nacer Bouhanni ( Cofidis ) .
= = Stages = =
= = = Prologue = = =
6 March 2016 — Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine , 6 @.@ 1 km ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) individual time trial ( ITT )
The prologue was a 6 @.@ 1 @-@ kilometre ( 3 @.@ 8 mi ) individual time trial in Conflans @-@ Sainte @-@ Honorine . It began on the bank of the Seine with a 2 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) straight road . There was then a sharp left @-@ hand turn as the road turned away from the river ; there were then several more corners and two roundabouts before the end of the stage . The riders set off at one @-@ minute intervals with Porte , the defending champion , the last to set off .
The riders who started earlier in the day were affected by rain . As the final riders set off , Cannondale 's Patrick Bevin was in the lead , with a time of 7 ' 41 " . Tom Dumoulin beat this by one second , but was in turn beaten by one second by Michael Matthews , the seventh @-@ last rider to take to the course . The final riders , including Porte and Geraint Thomas , were unable to beat Matthews 's time . Thomas finished seventh , losing seven seconds to Matthews , with Porte eleventh , a further three seconds back . Contador finished 27th , sixteen seconds behind Matthews , with Talansky and Bardet finishing even further behind . Matthews described it as " very special " to beat Dumoulin , one of the best time @-@ triallists in the world , and said that he hoped to stay in the yellow jersey of the race leader " as long as possible " .
= = = Stage 1 = = =
7 March 2016 — Condé @-@ sur @-@ Vesgre to Vendôme , 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi )
Stage 1 was a broadly flat stage that covered a 198 @-@ kilometre ( 123 mi ) route from Condé @-@ sur @-@ Vesgre to Vendôme . There were no classified climbs in the first 173 kilometres ( 107 mi ) . The final 25 kilometres ( 16 mi ) , however , followed a circuit around Vendôme that included both climbs and gravel roads . The riders entered the circuit half @-@ way round . They crossed the first gravel sector , the Chemin de Tourteline , then the Chemin du Tertre de la Motte . The second sector included a third @-@ category climb . There were just over 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) to the finish line at the end of the second sector . The riders then rode a complete lap of the circuit , crossing both gravel roads and the climb a second time , before reaching the stage finish . The stage took place in difficult conditions , with snow , rain , wind and cold temperatures .
The stage began with a four @-@ man breakaway , formed by Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) , Steven Tronet ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) , Thierry Hupond ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) and Perrig Quéméneur ( Direct Énergie ) . With the peloton not trying hard to chase them , they built a ten @-@ minute lead by the middle of the stage . In the second half of the stage , there was some sunshine , but also strong crosswinds : with Sky , Tinkoff and Etixx – Quick @-@ Step working hard at the front of the peloton , there were splits in the group . Alexander Kristoff was in the second group on the road , but he was able to get back to the front as the groups came together .
On the first gravel section , the breakaway 's lead had been reduced to ten seconds and they were soon caught with Sky 's Luke Rowe working at the front of the peloton . Pierre @-@ Luc Périchon ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) attacked on the first time over the climb ; he was caught by work from Orica – GreenEDGE as the riders rode through Vendôme . On the second lap , Marcel Kittel was dropped on the final climb and , despite an attack from Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) that was followed by Geraint Thomas , a large group crossed the final climb together . Around 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) from the finish , Edward Theuns ( Trek – Segafredo ) attacked and went under the flamme rouge alone . He was caught , however , by Sky . Sky 's Ben Swift was the first to sprint and came close to taking the victory , but he was passed by Démare in the final metres , with Bouhanni finishing third .
Michael Matthews increased his lead by winning two bonus seconds at an intermediate sprint . After finishing fifth at the end of the stage , he retained the yellow jersey ; there were no significant changes to the general classification . Démare said that the stage victory was " an immense relief " after he had failed to win any races in 2015 .
= = = Stage 2 = = =
8 March 2016 — Contres to Commentry , 213 @.@ 5 km ( 132 @.@ 7 mi )
The second road stage was held on a 213 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 132 @.@ 7 mi ) route from Contres in Loir @-@ et @-@ Cher to Commentry in Allier . The route was flat for almost the entire stage , with only one third @-@ category climb that came 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) from the finish line . After the peloton reached Commentry , there was a lap of a 17 @-@ kilometre ( 11 mi ) circuit with a small , uncategorised climb . The final kilometres were slightly uphill , with a 90 @-@ degree turn at a roundabout 500 metres ( 550 yd ) from the finish line .
There was again a four @-@ main breakaway at the beginning of the stage , with Evaldas Šiškevičius ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) , Anthony Delaplace ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM Cycling ) and Tsgabu Grmay ( Lampre – Merida ) earning a 10 @-@ minute lead by the time they had raced 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) . This was quickly reduced to under four minutes , however , by Etixx – Quick @-@ Step and Orica – GreenEDGE . On the climb , Delaplace won the maximum points . Grmay dropped out of the break with 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) remaining and as the riders reached Commentry the breakaway had just a 40 @-@ second lead .
Šiškevičius and Brändle attacked at the start of the final lap , with Delaplace unable to follow , but with 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining they were caught by the peloton . In the final 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) , Cofidis came to the front on behalf of Bouhanni and gave him a good lead @-@ out . Bouhanni followed the wheel of Christophe Laporte and opened his sprint with 200 metres ( 220 yd ) remaining . He was on the right @-@ hand side of the road , with Michael Matthews coming up on his left . In the final 100 metres ( 330 ft ) , Bouhanni drifted to the left and leaned into Matthews ; the two riders nearly crashed . Bouhanni crossed the line first , with Matthews just beating Niccolò Bonifazio ( Trek – Segafredo ) for second place , but the result was changed shortly after the stage . Bouhanni was relegated to third place after the jury decided that he had driven the sprint dangerously , giving Matthews the stage victory and putting Bonifazio into second . Alexander Kristoff led the rest of the field home , one second behind . Marcel Kittel , one of the favourites for the stage victory , finished 65th .
= = = Stage 3 = = =
9 March 2016 — Cusset to Mont Brouilly , 168 km ( 104 @.@ 4 mi )
The third stage was scheduled to follow a 168 @-@ kilometre ( 104 mi ) route that took the riders east from Cusset in Allier to the climb of Mont Brouilly in Rhône . The route crossed five categorised climbs in the first 120 kilometres ( 75 mi ) , then entered a circuit that took the riders on two climbs of Mont Brouilly , a 3 @-@ kilometre ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) climb at 7 @.@ 7 % with the final 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) at 9 @.@ 3 % .
A group of sixteen riders escaped early in the stage . Alexis Gougeard ( AG2R La Mondiale ) attacked along with Laurent Didier ( Trek – Segafredo ) and Alexey Lutsenko ( Astana ) . They were joined by Jesús Herrada ( Movistar Team ) and Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) as the rest of the group was caught by the peloton . The stage took place in cold , wintry conditions , with increasing quantities of snow falling and temperatures as low as − 5 ° C ( 23 ° F ) recorded . At the top of the third climb of the day was the feedzone and the racing was suspended there . It was initially intended to restart some way down the road , but several minutes later the decision was taken to neutralise the stage . The results did not count for the general classification , but points were awarded for the intermediate sprints and mountains that had already been contested .
= = = Stage 4 = = =
10 March 2016 — Juliénas to Romans @-@ sur @-@ Isère , 195 @.@ 5 km ( 121 @.@ 5 mi )
Stage 4 took the peloton 195 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 121 @.@ 5 mi ) south from Juliénas in Rhône to Romans @-@ sur @-@ Isère in the Drôme department . There were three categorised climbs in the stage : two third @-@ category and one second @-@ category . The final climb came 22 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 14 @.@ 0 mi ) from the finish .
The early breakaway included four riders . These were Thomas Voeckler ( Direct Énergie ) , Matthew Brammeier ( Dimension Data ) , Florian Vachon ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) and Evaldas Siskevicius ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) . They were not allowed to build a large advantage , with the peloton keeping them just a few minutes ahead . The main action of the day came on the second @-@ category final climb . In the breakaway , now just a minute ahead , Voeckler attacked and dropped the other breakaway riders . Nathan Haas ( Dimension Data ) attacked the peloton at the top of the climb , but made a mistake on a corner and ended up in a field . On the climb , Marcel Kittel and Arnaud Démare were dropped , with Démare then pulling out of the race . Geraint Thomas was one of several riders to crash on the climb , but he was able to return to the peloton .
After the climb , with Voeckler being caught , Sylvain Chavanel ( Direct Énergie ) , Sep Vanmarcke ( LottoNL – Jumbo ) and Delio Fernández ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) attacked and built a lead ; with 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining they had a 15 @-@ second lead . Katusha and Cofidis rode very hard in the peloton to bring them back , but the breakaway was finally caught with less than 1 kilometre ( 0 @.@ 62 mi ) remaining . Cofidis again gave Bouhanni a strong lead @-@ out and he comfortably won the sprint . Edward Theuns ( Trek – Segafredo ) finished second , with Greipel third . Matthews finished fifth to retain his lead of both the general and points classifications . Bouhanni said after the stage that his victory made up for his disqualification on stage 3 .
= = = Stage 5 = = =
11 March 2016 — Saint @-@ Paul @-@ Trois @-@ Châteaux to Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence , 198 km ( 123 @.@ 0 mi )
The fifth road stage followed a 198 @-@ kilometre ( 123 mi ) route from Saint @-@ Paul @-@ Trois @-@ Châteaux to Salon @-@ de @-@ Provence in Bouches @-@ du @-@ Rhône . The stage included five climbs , the most significant of which was the partial climb of Mont Ventoux . This was a first @-@ category climb , taking the riders 9 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 9 mi ) at an average gradient of 9 @.@ 3 % . Rather than riding all the way to the summit , the riders descended after Chalet Reynard . This climb came with more than 125 kilometres ( 78 mi ) remaining in the stage . Before Mont Ventoux was a third @-@ category climb ; afterwards there were three second @-@ category climbs . The last of these came with 38 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 23 @.@ 9 mi ) to the finish line ; this last section was mostly flat , although there were two sharp left @-@ hand turns in the final 1 @,@ 000 metres ( 1 @,@ 100 yd ) .
The early breakaway included Stijn Vandenbergh ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Arnaud Courteille ( FDJ ) , Lars Boom ( Astana ) , Wouter Wippert ( Cannondale ) , Edward Theuns ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Matthias Brändle ( IAM ) , Antoine Duchesne ( Direct Énergie ) and Jesús Herrada ( Movistar ) . In the first 30 kilometres ( 19 mi ) , their lead extended to over eleven minutes . On the climb of Mont Ventoux , Brändle was dropped from the breakaway , while Bouhanni , Kittel and Greipel were among those dropped from the peloton . Greipel was among seven riders to drop out during the stage . Wippert and Theuns were next to be dropped from the breakaway ; Boom and Vandenbergh were also temporarily dropped but were able to rejoin the front group , although the group 's lead was reduced to just over three minutes by the third climb of the day . Herrada won the first two climbs of the day and came second on the following two to take the lead in the mountains classification , then dropped back to the peloton .
Duchesne attacked on the penultimate climb , the Côte de la Roque @-@ d 'Anthéron , and had a 33 @-@ second lead over the peloton . On the descent from the final climb , Alexey Lutsenko ( Astana ) attacked from the peloton and came across to Duchesne . Lutsenko quickly dropped him and , with 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining , had built a 39 @-@ second lead , putting him into the virtual lead of the race . The chase only began in earnest in the final 3 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 9 mi ) , with Katusha chasing on behalf of Alexander Kristoff , but the peloton were unable to catch Lutsenko and he crossed the line for a solo victory , 21 seconds ahead of the chasing group . Kristoff won the sprint for second , with Matthews finishing third . Lutsenko moved into second place overall , six seconds behind Matthews .
After the stage , Matthews said that he felt he could win the overall general classification . He said , " I think if I can survive Saturday [ Stage 5 ] , I can win . With the way I ’ ve been climbing , I think it ’ s possible . " Contador , meanwhile , said that the final climb of Stage 6 was not very steep and that it might be difficult to put significant time into Matthews .
= = = Stage 6 = = =
12 March 2016 — Nice to Madone d 'Utelle , 177 km ( 110 @.@ 0 mi )
The penultimate stage of the race took the riders 177 kilometres ( 110 mi ) through the Alpes @-@ Maritimes . The route started on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice , then left the city to the north for a course that included seven categorised climbs . The first 50 kilometres ( 31 mi ) of racing crossed two second @-@ category climbs , which were followed by a 35 @-@ kilometre ( 22 mi ) section of flat roads and descents . This was followed by another second @-@ category climb and a first @-@ category climb , the 8 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 5 @.@ 3 mi ) Côte d 'Ascros with its average gradient of 5 @.@ 4 % . After a long descent came two more second @-@ category climbs , bringing the riders to Utelle . They had a summit finish at the shrine of the Madone d 'Utelle above the city , with a 15 @.@ 3 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 5 mi ) climb at an average gradient of 5 @.@ 7 % . The climb was fairly regular , but had two sections above 9 % , including the final 300 metres ( 330 yd ) .
The day 's breakaway included nine riders . These were Antoine Duchesne ( Direct Énergie ) , Florian Vachon ( Fortuneo – Vital Concept ) , Niki Terpstra ( Etixx – Quick @-@ Step ) , Cyril Gautier ( AG2R La Mondiale ) , Grégory Rast ( Trek – Segafredo ) , Evaldas Šiškevičius ( Delko – Marseille Provence KTM ) , Tsgabu Grmay ( Lampre – Merida ) , Andrew Talansky ( Cannondale ) and Thomas De Gendt ( Lotto – Soudal ) . The gap never exceeded two and a half minutes , with Tinkoff chasing hard on behalf of Contador and , with 55 kilometres ( 34 mi ) remaining , was just one minute . De Gendt won the first four climbs to move into second in the mountains classification , while Rast and Šiškevičius were dropped . Talansky crashed on one of the descents and abandoned the race with a wrist injury . Vachon and Duchesne dropped the rest of the breakaway and continued alone , but with 35 kilometres ( 22 mi ) Duchesne was left alone , just over a minute ahead of the peloton . He won the fifth and sixth climbs of the day and moved into the lead of the mountains classification .
As the riders approached the final climb of the day , Sky came to the front of the peloton . With 15 kilometres ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) remaining , Duchesne was caught , and the peloton was reduced to 30 riders . Matthews , the race leader , was among those dropped from the leading group . With 10 kilometres ( 6 @.@ 2 mi ) remaining , Rafał Majka ( Tinkoff ) attacked , with Contador following ; this caused the group to halve in size and Sky were reduced to two riders , Thomas and Sergio Henao . Porte , Dumoulin , Izagirre , Bardet and Katusha 's Ilnur Zakarin were among those left in the group . With 5 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 4 mi ) remaining , Majka pulled off and a group of five leaders formed : Contador , Thomas , Henao , Porte and Zakarin . Contador and Porte attempted attacks but were unable to escape the group , with Henao supporting Thomas . In the final kilometre , Porte was dropped and Zakarin accelerated . Thomas and Contador followed , but Zakarin took the stage victory . Thomas finished second , on the same time as Zakarin , and Contador was a second back in third . Thomas therefore moved into the race lead , fifteen seconds ahead of Contador .
= = = Stage 7 = = =
13 March 2016 — Nice to Nice , 134 km ( 83 @.@ 3 mi )
The final stage was a 134 @-@ kilometre ( 83 mi ) loop that started and ended on the Promenade des Anglais in Nice . The route took the riders out of Nice to the north . They crossed two third @-@ category climbs , then came back south for two second @-@ category climbs . The final 64 kilometres ( 40 mi ) included two first @-@ category climbs . The first was the Côte de Peille , a 6 @.@ 5 @-@ kilometre ( 4 @.@ 0 mi ) climb at 6 @.@ 9 % . The riders then descended into the outskirts of Nice . Here they turned back inland for a final climb , the 7 @.@ 7 kilometres ( 4 @.@ 8 mi ) of the Col d 'Èze at an average gradient of 5 @.@ 7 % . They then descended back into Nice , where the final 2 kilometres ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) were fairly flat , before ended on the Promenade des Anglais at the Albert I Garden .
The stage began with an 18 @-@ rider breakaway within the first five minutes of racing . This included Contador 's teammate Robert Kišerlovski and this group was joined shortly afterwards by several more riders , including Yuri Trofimov , another Tinkoff rider , while others were dropped and returned to the peloton . Thomas De Gendt and Antoine Duchesne were again in the breakaway ; Duchesne won the first four climbs of the day , with De Gendt second on each occasion . Duchesne won enough points to secure victory in the mountains classification .
On the Côte de Peille , Contador attacked in the peloton . He quickly built an advantage , with Kiserlovski and Trofimov dropping back from the breakaway to assist him . They built a lead of around a minute , but Team Sky pulled the lead back and Contador 's group was caught by the foot of the Col d 'Èze , with only Tim Wellens ( Lotto – Soudal ) ahead . Romain Bardet attacked , but Contador chased him down . Contador himself attacked several times , with Sky 's Sergio Henao and the Orica – GreenEDGE team chasing him down ; Thomas appeared to be struggling . In the final part of the climb , Contador got away , initially with Majka and then with Richie Porte . At the top of the climb , they caught Wellens and had a 30 @-@ second advantage over the chasing group .
Thomas had been dropped not only by Contador but also by the first chasing group , which included Ilnur Zakarin . Thomas was joined , however , by Sergio Henao . The two Sky riders then joined up with Tony Gallopin ( Lotto – Soudal ) and chased hard throughout the 15 @-@ kilometre ( 9 @.@ 3 mi ) descent . They caught the first chasing group on the descent , forming a ten @-@ man group behind Contador , Porte and Wellens . The gap was gradually reduced and was just five seconds by the finish . Wellens won the three @-@ man sprint , with Contador second and Porte third . Gallopin won the sprint for fourth place . Thomas therefore won the overall general classification , beating Contador by four seconds .
= = Post @-@ race analysis = =
Thomas said after the race that his victory demonstrated that he could compete with the top stage racers in the world . He said that Henao 's presence had been crucial to his victory and that , before the stage , he had chosen a 54 @-@ tooth chainring to help him chase back on if he was dropped on the final climb . He also said that he owed Gallopin " a few beers " for his assistance in chasing back to the leading groups on the final stage . Gallopin , meanwhile said that he had been happy to contribute to the chase of the second group on the final stage in order to have both a man in the leading group and in the chasing group . He added that he was also glad to help Thomas as the two men were friends and exchanged text messages whenever Thomas 's Wales played Gallopin 's France at rugby .
Contador 's approach to Stage 7 was described by Cycling Weekly as a " tactical masterpiece " . Contador himself said that the team had executed their strategy perfectly . His directeur sportif , Sean Yates , said that the team were " nearly there " in their attempt to take the overall victory and suggested that the cancellation of Stage 3 may have prevented Contador from winning the race . Richie Porte said that his performance , especially in the final stage , had given him confidence going into the rest of the season . He said that he had not been sure of his form going into the stage and that it was a good sign for the future , as Paris – Nice had been very difficult .
= = = UCI World Tour standings = = =
Porte 's third @-@ place finish was his second consecutive podium place in the season @-@ long UCI World Tour competition , following his second @-@ place finish at the Tour Down Under . He moved up into first place overall , while Henao moved up from third to second , with the previous leader , Simon Gerrans ( Orica – GreenEDGE ) dropping to third . Thomas moved into fourth and Contador into fifth , with Zakarin and Izagirre also moving into the top ten . Australia remained top of the nations ' ranking , while Sky moved to the top of the teams ' ranking .
= = Classification leadership table = =
In the 2016 Paris – Nice , three jerseys were awarded . The general classification was calculated by adding each cyclist 's finishing times on each stage . Time
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bonuses were awarded to the first three finishers on road stages ( Stages 1 – 7 ) : the stage winner won a ten @-@ second bonus , with six and four seconds for the second and third riders respectively . Bonus seconds were also awarded to the first three riders at intermediate sprints ( three seconds for the winner of the sprint , two seconds for the rider in second and one second for the rider in third ) . The leader of the general classification received a yellow jersey .
The second classification was the points classification . Riders were awarded points for finishing in the top ten in a stage . Unlike in the points classification in the Tour de France , the winners of all stages were awarded the same number of points . Points were also won in intermediate sprints ; three points for crossing the sprint line first , two points for second place , and one for third . The leader of the points classification was awarded a green jersey .
There was also a mountains classification , in which points were awarded for reaching the top of a climb before other riders . Each climb was categorised as either first , second , or third @-@ category , with more points available for the more difficult , higher @-@ categorised climbs . For first @-@ category climbs , the top seven riders earned points ; on second @-@ category climbs , five riders won points ; on third @-@ category climbs , only the top three riders earned points . The leadership of the mountains classification was marked by a white jersey with red polka @-@ dots .
There was also a classification for teams , in which the times of the best three cyclists in a team on each stage were added together ; the leading team at the end of the race was the team with the lowest cumulative time .
= John Chrysostom =
John Chrysostom ( / ˈkrɪsəstəm , krɪˈsɒstəm / ; Greek : Ἰωάννης ὁ Χρυσόστομος ) , c . 349 – 407 , Archbishop of Constantinople , was an important Early Church Father . He is known for his preaching and public speaking , his denunciation of abuse of authority by both ecclesiastical and political leaders , the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom , and his ascetic sensibilities . The epithet Χρυσόστομος ( Chrysostomos , anglicized as Chrysostom ) means " golden @-@ mouthed " in Greek and denotes his celebrated eloquence .
He is honored as a saint in the Eastern Orthodox and Catholic churches , as well as in some others . The Eastern Orthodox , together with the Byzantine Catholics , hold him in special regard as one of the Three Holy Hierarchs ( alongside Basil the Great and Gregory of Nazianzus ) . The feast days of John Chrysostom in the Eastern Orthodox Church are 13 November and 27 January . In the Roman Catholic Church he is recognized as a Doctor of the Church and commemorated on 13 September . Other churches of the Western tradition , including some Anglican provinces and some Lutheran churches , also commemorate him on 13 September . However , certain Lutheran churches and Anglican provinces commemorate him on the traditional Eastern feast day of 27 January . The Coptic Church also recognizes him as a saint ( with feast days on 16 Thout and 17 Hathor ) .
= = Biography = =
= = = Early life and education = = =
John was born in Antioch in 349 to Greco @-@ Syrian parents . Different scholars describe his mother Anthusa as a pagan or as a Christian , and his father was a high @-@ ranking military officer . John 's father died soon after his birth and he was raised by his mother . He was baptised in 368 or 373 and tonsured as a reader ( one of the minor orders of the Church ) .
As a result of his mother 's influential connections in the city , John began his education under the pagan teacher Libanius . From Libanius , John acquired the skills for a career in rhetoric , as well as a love of the Greek language and literature .
As he grew older , however , John became more deeply committed to Christianity and went on to study theology under Diodore of Tarsus , founder of the re @-@ constituted School of Antioch . According to the Christian historian Sozomen , Libanius was supposed to have said on his deathbed that John would have been his successor " if the Christians had not taken him from us " .
John lived in extreme asceticism and became a hermit in about 375 ; he spent the next two years continually standing , scarcely sleeping , and committing the Bible to memory . As a consequence of these practices , his stomach and kidneys were permanently damaged and poor health forced him to return to Antioch .
= = = Diaconate and service in Antioch = = =
John was ordained as a deacon in 381 by Saint Meletius of Antioch who was not then in communion with Alexandria and Rome . After the death of Meletius , John separated himself from the followers of Meletius , without joining Paulinus , the rival of Meletius for the bishopric of Antioch . But after the death of Paulinus he was ordained a presbyter ( priest ) in 386 by Evagrius , the successor of Paulinus . He was destined later to bring about reconciliation between Flavian I of Antioch , Alexandria , and Rome , thus bringing those three sees into communion for the first time in nearly seventy years .
In Antioch , over the course of twelve years ( 386 – 397 ) , John gained popularity because of the eloquence of his public speaking at the Golden Church , Antioch 's cathedral , especially his insightful expositions of Bible passages and moral teaching . The most valuable of his works from this period are his Homilies on various books of the Bible . He emphasised charitable giving and was concerned with the spiritual and temporal needs of the poor . He spoke against abuse of wealth and personal property :
Do you wish to honour the body of Christ ? Do not ignore him when he is naked . Do not pay him homage in the temple clad in silk , only then to neglect him outside where he is cold and ill @-@ clad . He who said : " This is my body " is the same who said : " You saw me hungry and you gave me no food " , and " Whatever you did to the least of my brothers you did also to me " ... What good is it if the Eucharistic table is overloaded with golden chalices when your brother is dying of hunger ? Start by satisfying his hunger and then with what is left you may adorn the altar as well .
His straightforward understanding of the Scriptures – in contrast to the Alexandrian tendency towards allegorical interpretation – meant that the themes of his talks were practical , explaining the Bible 's application to everyday life . Such straightforward preaching helped Chrysostom to garner popular support . He founded a series of hospitals in Constantinople to care for the poor .
One incident that happened during his service in Antioch illustrates the influence of his homilies . When Chrysostom arrived in Antioch , Flavian , the bishop of the city had to intervene with Emperor Theodosius I on behalf of citizens who had gone on a rampage mutilating statues of the Emperor and his family . During the weeks of Lent in 387 , John preached more than twenty homilies in which he entreated the people to see the error of their ways . These made a lasting impression on the general population of the city : many pagans converted to Christianity as a result of the homilies . As a result , Theodosius ' vengeance was not as severe as it might have been .
= = = Archbishop of Constantinople = = =
In the autumn of 397 , John was appointed Archbishop of Constantinople , after having been nominated without his knowledge by the eunuch Eutropius . He had to leave Antioch in secret due to fears that the departure of such a popular figure would cause civil unrest .
During his time as Archbishop he adamantly refused to host lavish social gatherings , which made him popular with the common people , but unpopular with wealthy citizens and the clergy . His reforms of the clergy were also unpopular . He told visiting regional preachers to return to the churches they were meant to be serving — without any payout .
His time in Constantinople was more tumultuous than his time in Antioch . Theophilus , the Patriarch of Alexandria , wanted to bring Constantinople under his sway and opposed John 's appointment to Constantinople . Theophilus had disciplined four Egyptian monks ( known as " the Tall Brothers " ) over their support of Origen 's teachings . They fled to John and were welcomed by him . Theophilus therefore accused John of being too partial to the teaching of Origen . He made another enemy in Aelia Eudoxia , wife of Emperor Arcadius , who assumed that John 's denunciations of extravagance in feminine dress were aimed at herself . Eudoxia , Theophilus and other of his enemies held a synod in 403 ( the Synod of the Oak ) to charge John , in which his connection to Origen was used against him . It resulted in his deposition and banishment . He was called back by Arcadius almost immediately , as the people became " tumultuous " over his departure , even threatening to burn the royal palace . There was an earthquake the night of his arrest , which Eudoxia took for a sign of God 's anger , prompting her to ask Arcadius for John 's reinstatement .
Peace was short @-@ lived . A silver statue of Eudoxia was erected in the Augustaion , near his cathedral . John denounced the pagan dedication ceremonies . He spoke against her in harsh terms : " Again Herodias raves ; again she is troubled ; she dances again ; and again desires to receive John 's head in a charger " , an allusion to the events surrounding the death of John the Baptist . Once again he was banished , this time to the Caucasus in Abkhazia .
Around 405 , Chrysostom began to lend moral and financial support to Christian monks who were enforcing the emperors ' anti @-@ Pagan laws , by destroying temples and shrines in Phoenicia and nearby regions .
= = = Death and canonization = = =
Faced with exile , John Chrysostom wrote an appeal for help to three churchmen : Pope Innocent I , the Bishop of Milan , Venerius , and the third to the Bishop of Aquileia , Chromatius . In 1872 , church historian William Stephens wrote , " The Patriarch of the Eastern Rome appeals to the great bishops of the West , as the champions of an ecclesiastical discipline which he confesses himself unable to enforce , or to see any prospect of establishing . No jealousy is entertained of the Patriarch of the Old Rome by the Patriarch of the New Rome . The interference of Innocent is courted , a certain primacy is accorded him , but at the same time he is not addressed as a supreme arbitrator ; assistance and sympathy are solicited from him as from an elder brother , and two other prelates of Italy are joint recipients with him of the appeal . "
Pope Innocent I protested John 's banishment from Constantinople to the town of Cucusus in Cappadocia , but to no avail . Innocent sent a delegation to intercede on behalf of John in 405 . It was led by Gaudentius of Brescia ; Gaudentius and his companions , two bishops , encountered many difficulties and never reached their goal of entering Constantinople .
John wrote letters which still held great influence in Constantinople . As a result of this , he was further exiled from the Caucasus ( where he stayed from 404 to 407 ) to Pitiunt ( Pityus ) ( in modern Abkhazia ) where his tomb is a shrine for pilgrims . He never reached this destination , as he died at Comana Pontica on 14 September 407 during the journey . His last words are said to have been " δόξα τῷ θεῷ πάντων ἕνεκεν " ( Glory be to God for all things ) .
John came to be venerated as a saint soon after his death . Three decades later , some of his adherents in Constantinople remained in schism . Saint Proclus , Patriarch of Constantinople ( 434 – 446 ) , hoping to bring about the reconciliation of the Johannites , preached a homily praising his predecessor in the Church of Hagia Sophia . He said , " O John , your life was filled with sorrow , but your death was glorious . Your grave is blessed and reward is great , by the grace and mercy of our Lord Jesus Christ O graced one , having conquered the bounds of time and place ! Love has conquered space , unforgetting memory has annihilated the limits , and place does not hinder the miracles of the saint . "
These homilies helped to mobilize public opinion , and the patriarch received permission from the emperor to return Chrysostom 's relics to Constantinople , where they were enshrined in the Church of the Holy Apostles on 28 January 438 . The Eastern Orthodox Church commemorates him as a " Great Ecumenical Teacher " , with Basil the Great and Gregory the Theologian . These three saints , in addition to having their own individual commemorations throughout the year , are commemorated together on 30 January , a feast known as the Synaxis of the Three Hierarchs .
There are several feast days dedicated to him :
27 January , Translation of the relics of St John Chrysostom from Comana to Constantinople
30 January , Synaxis of the Three Great Hierarchs
14 September , Repose of St John Chrysostom
13 November , St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople
= = Writings = =
= = = Homilies = = =
= = = = Paschal Homily = = = =
The best known of his many homilies , the Paschal Homily ( Hieratikon ) , is rather brief . In the Eastern Orthodox Church it is traditionally read in full each year at the Paschal Divine Liturgy ( eucharistic ) service following the midnight Orthros ( or Matins ) .
= = = = General = = = =
Chrysostom 's extant homiletical works are vast , including many hundreds of exegetical homilies on both the New Testament ( especially the works of Saint Paul ) and the Old Testament ( particularly on Genesis ) . Among his extant exegetical works are sixty @-@ seven homilies on Genesis , fifty @-@ nine on the Psalms , ninety on the Gospel of Matthew , eighty @-@ eight on the Gospel of John , and fifty @-@ five on the Acts of the Apostles .
The homilies were written down by stenographers and subsequently circulated , revealing a style that tended to be direct and greatly personal , but formed by the rhetorical conventions of his time and place . In general , his homiletical theology displays much characteristic of the Antiochian school ( i.e. , somewhat more literal in interpreting Biblical events ) , but he also uses a good deal of the allegorical interpretation more associated with the Alexandrian school .
John 's social and religious world was formed by the continuing and pervasive presence of paganism in the life of the city . One of his regular topics was the paganism in the culture of Constantinople , and in his homilies he thunders against popular pagan amusements : the theatre , horseraces , and the revelry surrounding holidays . In particular , he criticized Christians for taking part in such activities :
" If you ask [ Christians ] who is Amos or Obadiah , how many apostles there were or prophets , they stand mute ; but if you ask them about the horses or drivers , they answer with more solemnity than sophists or rhetors " .
One of the recurring features of John 's homilies is his emphasis on care for the needy . Echoing themes found in the Gospel of Matthew , he calls upon the rich to lay aside materialism in favor of helping the poor , often employing all of his rhetorical skills to shame wealthy people to abandon conspicuous consumption :
" Do you pay such honor to your excrements as to receive them into a silver chamber @-@ pot when another man made in the image of God is perishing in the cold ? "
= = = = Homilies on Jews and Judaizing Christians = = = =
During his first two years as a presbyter in Antioch ( 386 – 387 ) , John denounced Jews and Judaizing Christians in a series of eight homilies delivered to Christians in his congregation who were taking part in Jewish festivals and other Jewish observances . It is disputed whether the main target were specifically Judaizers or Jews in general . His homilies were expressed in the conventional manner , utilizing the uncompromising rhetorical form known as the psogos ( Greek : blame , censure ) .
One of the purposes of these homilies was to prevent Christians from participating in Jewish customs , and thus prevent the perceived erosion of Chrysostom 's flock . In his homilies , John criticized those " Judaizing Christians " , who were participating in Jewish festivals and taking part in other Jewish observances , such as the shabbat , submitted to circumcision and made pilgrimage to Jewish holy places .
John claimed that synagogues were full of Christians on the shabbats and Jewish festivals , especially of Christian women , because they loved the solemnity of the Jewish liturgy and enjoyed listening to the shofar on Rosh Hashanah , and applauded famous preachers in accordance with the contemporary custom . A more recent theory is that he instead tried to persuade Jewish Christians , who for centuries had kept connections with Jews and Judaism , to choose between Judaism and Christianity .
In Greek the homilies are called Kata Ioudaiōn ( Κατὰ Ιουδαίων ) , which is translated as Adversus Judaeos in Latin and Against the Jews in English . The original Benedictine editor of the homilies , Bernard de Montfaucon , gives the following footnote to the title : " A discourse against the Jews ; but it was delivered against those who were Judaizing and keeping the fasts with them [ the Jews ] . "
According to Patristics scholars , opposition to any particular view during the late 4th century was conventionally expressed in a manner , utilizing the rhetorical form known as the psogos , whose literary conventions were to vilify opponents in an uncompromising manner ; thus , it has been argued that to call Chrysostom an " anti @-@ Semite " is to employ anachronistic terminology in a way incongruous with historical context and record . This does not preclude assertions that Chrysostom 's theology was a form of Anti @-@ Jewish supersessionism .
= = = Treatises = = =
Apart from his homilies , a number of John 's other treatises have had a lasting influence . One such work is John 's early treatise Against Those Who Oppose the Monastic Life , written while he was a deacon ( sometime before 386 ) , which was directed to parents , pagan as well as Christian , whose sons were contemplating a monastic vocation . Chrysostom wrote that , already in his day , it was customary for Antiochenes to send their sons to be educated by monks .
Other important treatises written by John include On the Priesthood ( written 390 / 391 , it contains in Book 1 an account of his early years and a defence of his flight from ordination by Bishop Meletios of Antioch , and then proceeds in later books to expound on his exalted understanding of the priesthood ) , Instructions to Catechumens , and On the Incomprehensibility of the Divine Nature . In addition , he wrote a series of letters to the deaconess Olympias , of which seventeen are extant .
= = = Liturgy = = =
Beyond his preaching , the other lasting legacy of John is his influence on Christian liturgy . Two of his writings are particularly notable . He harmonized the liturgical life of the Church by revising the prayers and rubrics of the Divine Liturgy , or celebration of the Holy Eucharist . To this day , Eastern Orthodox and Eastern Catholic Churches of the Byzantine Rite typically celebrate the Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom as the normal Eucharistic liturgy , although his exact connection with it remains a matter of debate among experts .
= = Legacy and influence = =
During a time when city clergy were subject to criticism for their high lifestyle , John was determined to reform his clergy in Constantinople . These efforts were met with resistance and limited success . He was an excellent preacher whose homilies and writings are still studied and quoted . As a theologian , he has been and continues to be very important in Eastern Christianity , and is generally considered the most prominent doctor of the Greek Church , but has been less important to Western Christianity . His writings have survived to the present day more so than any of the other Greek Fathers .
= = = Influence on the Catechism of the Catholic Church and clergy = = =
John 's influence on church teachings is interwoven throughout the current Catechism of the Catholic Church ( revised 1992 ) . The Catechism cites him in eighteen sections , particularly his reflections on the purpose of prayer and the meaning of the Lord 's Prayer :
Consider how [ Jesus Christ ] teaches us to be humble , by making us see that our virtue does not depend on our work alone but on grace from on high . He commands each of the faithful who prays to do so universally , for the whole world . For he did not say " thy will be done in me or in us " , but " on earth " , the whole earth , so that error may be banished from it , truth take root in it , all vice be destroyed on it , virtue flourish on it , and earth no longer differ from heaven .
Christian clerics , such as R.S. Storr , refer to him as " one of the most eloquent preachers who ever since apostolic times have brought to men the divine tidings of truth and love " , and the 19th @-@ century John Henry Newman described John as a " bright , cheerful , gentle soul ; a sensitive heart . "
= = = Music and literature = = =
John 's liturgical legacy has inspired several musical compositions . Particularly noteworthy are Sergei Rachmaninoff 's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom , Op. 31 , composed in 1910 , one of his two major unaccompanied choral works ; Pyotr Tchaikovsky 's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom , Op. 41 ; and Ukrainian composer Kyrylo Stetsenko 's Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom . Arvo Pärt 's Litany sets Chrysostom 's twenty @-@ four prayers , one for each hour of the day , for soli , mixed choir and orchestra .
James Joyce 's novel Ulysses includes a character named Mulligan who brings ' Chrysostomos ' into another character ( Stephen Dedalus ) ' s mind because Mulligan 's gold @-@ stopped teeth and his gift of the gab earn him the title which St. John Chrysostom 's preaching earned him , ' golden @-@ mouthed ' : " [ Mulligan ] peered sideways up and gave a long low whistle of call , then paused awhile in rapt attention , his even white teeth glistening here and there with gold points . Chrysostomos " .
= = = The legend of the penance of St. John Chrysostom = = =
A late medieval legend ( not included in the Golden Legend ) relates that , when John Chrysostom was a hermit in the desert , he was approached by a royal princess in distress . The Saint , thinking she was a demon , at first refused to help her , but the princess convinced him that she was a Christian and would be devoured by wild beasts if she were not allowed to enter his cave . He therefore admitted her , carefully dividing the cave in two parts , one for each of them . In spite of these precautions , the sin of fornication was committed , and in an attempt to hide it , the distraught saint took the princess and threw her over a precipice . He then went to Rome to beg absolution , which was refused . Realising the appalling nature of his crimes , Chrysostom made a vow that he would never rise from the ground until his sins were expiated , and for years he lived like a beast , crawling on all fours and feeding on wild grasses and roots . Subsequently the princess reappeared , alive , and suckling the saint 's baby , who miraculously pronounced his sins forgiven . This last scene was very popular from the late 15th century onwards as a subject for engravers and artists . The theme was depicted by Albrecht Dürer around 1496 , Hans Sebald Beham and Lucas Cranach the Elder , among others . Martin Luther mocked this same legend in his Die Lügend von S. Johanne Chrysostomo ( 1537 ) . The legend was recorded in Croatia in the 16th century .
= = = Relics = = =
John Chrysostom died in the city of Comana in the year 407 on his way to his place of exile . There his relics remained until 438 when , thirty years after his death , they were transferred to Constantinople during the reign of the Empress Eudoxia 's son , the Emperor Theodosius II ( 408 – 450 ) , under the guidance of John 's disciple , St. Proclus , who by that time had become Archbishop of Constantinople ( 434 – 447 ) .
Most of John 's relics were looted from Constantinople by Crusaders in 1204 and taken to Rome , but some of his bones were returned to the Orthodox Church on 27 November 2004 by Pope John Paul II . They are now enshrined in the Church of St. George , Istanbul .
The skull , however , having been kept at the monastery at Vatopedi on Mount Athos in northern Greece , was not among the relics that were taken by the crusaders in the 13th century . In 1655 , at the request of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich , the skull was taken to Russia , for which the monastery was compensated in the sum of 2000 rubles . In 1693 , having received a request from the Vatopedi Monastery for the return of St John 's skull , Tsar Peter the Great ordered that the skull remain in Russia but that the monastery was to be paid 500 rubles every four years . The Russian state archives document these payments up until 1735 . The skull was kept at the Moscow Kremlin , in the Cathedral of the Dormition of the Mother of God , until 1920 , when it was confiscated by the Soviets and placed in the Museum of Silver Antiquities . In 1988 , in connection with the 1000th Anniversary of the Baptism of Russia , the head , along with other important relics , was returned to the Russian Orthodox Church and kept at the Epiphany Cathedral , until being moved to the Cathedral of Christ the Saviour after its restoration .
Today , the monastery at Vatopedi posits a rival claim to possessing the skull of John Chrysostom , and there a skull is venerated by pilgrims to the monastery as that of St John . Two sites in Italy also claim to have the saint 's skull : the Basilica di Santa Maria del Fiore in Florence and the Dal Pozzo chapel in Pisa . The right hand of St. John is preserved on Mount Athos , and numerous smaller relics are scattered throughout the world .
= = = Collected works = = =
Widely used editions of Chrysostom 's works are available in Greek , Latin , English , and French . The Greek edition is edited by Sir Henry Savile ( eight volumes , Eton , 1613 ) ; the most complete Greek and Latin edition is edited by Bernard de Montfaucon ( thirteen volumes , Paris , 1718 – 38 , republished in 1834 – 40 , and reprinted in Migne 's " Patrologia Graeca " , volumes 47 – 64 ) . There is an English translation in the first series of the Nicene and Post @-@ Nicene Fathers ( London and New York , 1889 – 90 ) . A selection of his writings has been published more recently in the original with facing French translation in Sources Chrétiennes .
= = = Works = = =
Works by or about John Chrysostom at Internet Archive
Works by John Chrysostom at LibriVox ( public domain audiobooks )
The Divine Liturgy of St. John Chrysostom
Study Text of the Divine Liturgy of Saint John Chrysostom ( Ruthenian Edition , with Scriptural references )
Writings of Chrysostom in the Christian Classics Ethereal Library edition of the Nicene and Post @-@ Nicene Fathers :
On the Priesthood , Ascetic Treatises , Select Homilies and Letters , Homilies on the Statues
Homilies on the Gospel of St. Matthew '
Homilies on the Acts of the Apostles and the Epistle to the Romans
Homilies on First and Second Corinthians
Homilies on the Epistles to the Galatians , Ephesians , Philippians , Colossians , Thessalonians , Timothy , Titus , and Philemon
Homilies on the Gospel of St. John and the Epistle to the Hebrews
The Hieratikon Easter Sermon of St. John Chrysostom
Eight Homilies Against the Jews
Opera Omnia by Migne Patrologia Graeca with analytical indexes
The Auxiliary Resources page on the Electronic Manipulus florum Project Website provides digital transcriptions of the Latin translations of De laudibus sancti Pauli homeliae ( PG 50 , 473 – 514 ) , Dialogus de sacerdotio ( PG 48 , 623 – 91 ) , and In epistolam ad Hebraeos homeliae ( PG 63 , 9 – 236 ) , as well as the Latin text of the Pseudo @-@ Chrysostom Opus imperfectum in Mattheum ( PG 56 , 611 – 946 ) . It also provides digital transcriptions of Anianus of Celeda 's prologue on the homilies on Matthew and his Latin translations of the first eight homilies ( PG 58 , 975 – 1058 ) and also Anianus of Celeda 's prologue and his Latin translations of Chrysostom 's homelies 1 – 25 on Matthew from the editio princeps published in Venice in 1503 .
Ps.Chrysostom Homily 2 on Christmas at Tertullian.org and here at Archive.org.
= = = Orthodox feast days = = =
27 January , Translation of the relics of St John Chrysostom to Constantinople
30 January , Synaxis of the Three Great Hierarchs
14 September , Repose of St John Chrysostom
13 November , St John Chrysostom the Archbishop of Constantinople
= Clydesdale horse =
The Clydesdale is a breed of draught horse derived from the farm horses of Clydesdale , Scotland , and named after that region . Although originally one of the smaller breeds of draught horses , it is now a tall breed . Often bay in color , they show significant white markings due to the presence of sabino genetics . The breed was originally used for agriculture and haulage , and is still used for draught purposes today . The Budweiser Clydesdales are some of the most famous Clydesdales , and other members of the breed are used as drum horses by the British Household Cavalry . They have also been used to create and improve other draught breeds .
The breed was developed from Flemish stallions imported to Scotland and crossed with local mares . The first recorded use of the name " Clydesdale " for the breed was in 1826 , and by 1830 a system of hiring stallions had begun that resulted in the spread of Clydesdale horses throughout Scotland and into northern England . The first breed registry was formed in 1877 . In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , thousands of Clydesdales were exported from Scotland and sent throughout the world , including to Australia and New Zealand , where they became known as " the breed that built Australia " . However , during World War I population numbers began to decline due to increasing mechanization and war conscription . This decline continued , and by the 1970s , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust considered the breed vulnerable to extinction . Population numbers have increased slightly in the intervening time , but they are still thought to be vulnerable .
= = Breed characteristics = =
The conformation of the Clydesdale has changed greatly throughout its history . In the 1920s and 1930s , it was a compact horse smaller than the Shire , Percheron , and Belgian . Beginning in the 1940s , breeding animals were selected to produce taller horses that looked more impressive in parades and shows . Today , the Clydesdale stands 16 to 18 hands ( 64 to 72 inches , 163 to 183 cm ) high and weighs 1 @,@ 800 to 2 @,@ 000 pounds ( 820 to 910 kg ) . Some mature males are larger , standing taller than 18 hands and weighing up to 2 @,@ 200 pounds ( 1 @,@ 000 kg ) . The breed has a straight or slightly convex facial profile , broad forehead and wide muzzle . It is well muscled and strong , with an arched neck , high withers , and a sloped shoulder . Breed associations pay close attention to the quality of the hooves and legs , as well as the general movement . Their gaits are active , with clearly lifted hooves and a general impression of power and quality . Clydesdales are energetic , with a manner described by the Clydesdale Horse Society as a " gaiety of carriage and outlook " . Clydesdales have been identified to be at risk for chronic progressive lymphedema , a disease with clinical signs that include progressive swelling , hyperkeratosis , and fibrosis of distal limbs that is similar to chronic lymphedema in humans .
Clydesdales are usually bay in colour , but roan , black , grey , and chestnut also occur . Most have white markings , including white on the face , feet , legs and occasional body spotting ( generally on the lower belly ) . They also have extensive feathering on their lower legs . Roaning , body spotting and extensive white markings are thought to be the result of sabino genetics . Some Clydesdale breeders want white face and leg markings without the spotting on the body . To attempt getting the ideal set of markings , they often breed horses with only one white leg to horses with four white legs and sabino roaning on their bodies . On average , the result is a foal with the desired amount of white markings . Clydesdales do not have the SB1 ( Sabino 1 ) gene responsible for causing sabino expressions in many other breeds , and researchers theorise that several other genes are responsible for these patterns . Many buyers pay a premium for bay and black horses , especially those with four white legs and white facial markings . Specific colours are often preferred over other physical traits , and some buyers even choose horses with soundness problems if they have the desired colour and markings . Roan horses are not preferred by buyers , despite one draught @-@ breed writer theorizing that they are needed to keep the desired coat colours and texture . Breed associations , however , state that no colours are bad , and that horses with roaning and body spots are increasingly accepted .
= = History = =
The Clydesdale takes its name from Clydesdale , the old name for Lanarkshire , noted for the River Clyde . In the mid @-@ 18th century , Flemish stallions were imported to Scotland and bred to local mares , resulting in foals that were larger than the existing local stock . These included a black unnamed stallion imported from England by a John Paterson of Lochlyloch and an unnamed dark @-@ brown stallion owned by the Duke of Hamilton . Another prominent stallion was a 16 @.@ 1 hands ( 65 inches , 165 cm ) coach horse stallion of unknown lineage named Blaze . Written pedigrees were kept of these foals beginning in the early 19th century , and in 1806 a filly , later known as " Lampits mare " after the farm name of her owner , was born that traced her lineage to the black stallion . This mare is listed in the ancestry of almost every Clydesdale living today . One of her foals was Thompson 's Black Horse ( known as Glancer ) , who was to have a significant influence on the Clydesdale breed . The first recorded use of the name " Clydesdale " in reference to the breed was in 1826 at an exhibition in Glasgow . Another theory of their origin , that of them descending from Flemish horses brought to Scotland as early as the 15th century , was also promulgated in the late 18th century . However , even the author of that theory admitted that the common story of their ancestry is more likely .
A system of hiring stallions between districts existed in Scotland , with written records dating back to 1837 . This program consisted of local agriculture improvement societies holding breed shows to choose the best stallion , whose owner was then awarded a monetary prize . The owner was then required , in return for additional monies , to take the stallion throughout a designated area , breeding to the local mares . Through this system and by purchase , Clydesdale stallions were sent throughout Scotland and into northern England .
Through extensive crossbreeding with local mares , these stallions spread the Clydesdale type throughout the areas where they were placed , and by 1840 , Scottish draught horses and the Clydesdale were one and the same . In 1877 , the Clydesdale Horse Society of Scotland was formed , followed in 1879 by the American Clydesdale Association ( later renamed the Clydesdale Breeders of the USA ) , which served both U.S. and Canadian breed enthusiasts . The first American stud book was published in 1882 . In 1883 , the short @-@ lived Select Clydesdale Horse Society was founded to compete with the Clydesdale Horse Society . It was started by two breeders dedicated to improving the breed , who also were responsible in large part for the introduction of Shire blood into the Clydesdale .
Large numbers of Clydesdales were exported from Scotland in the late 19th and early 20th centuries , with 1 @,@ 617 stallions leaving the country in 1911 alone . Between 1884 and 1945 , export certificates were issued for 20 @,@ 183 horses . These horses were exported to other countries in the British Empire , as well as North and South America , continental Europe and Russia . World War I saw the conscription of thousands of horses for the war effort , and after the war breed numbers declined as farms became increasingly mechanised . This decline continued between the wars . Following World War II the number of Clydesdale breeding stallions in England dropped from more than 200 in 1946 to 80 in 1949 . By 1975 , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust considered them vulnerable to extinction , meaning there were fewer than 900 breeding females in the UK .
Many of the horses exported from Scotland in the 19th and 20th centuries went to Australia and New Zealand . In 1918 , the Commonwealth Clydesdale Horse Society was formed as the association for the breed in Australia . Between 1906 and 1936 , Clydesdales were bred so extensively in Australia that other draught breeds were almost unknown . By the late 1960s it was noted that " Excellent Clydesdale horses are bred in Victoria and New Zealand ; but , at least in the former place , it is considered advisable to keep up the type by frequent importations from England . " Over 25 @,@ 000 Clydesdales were registered in Australia between 1924 and 2008 . The popularity of the Clydesdale led to it being called " the breed that built Australia " .
In the 1990s , the breed 's popularity and numbers began to rise . By 2005 , the Rare Breeds Survival Trust had moved the breed to " at risk " status , meaning there were fewer than 1 @,@ 500 breeding females in the UK . However , by 2010 they had been moved back to vulnerable . The Clydesdale is considered to be at " watch " status by the American Livestock Breeds Conservancy , meaning that as of 2010 fewer than 2 @,@ 500 horses are registered annually in the USA and fewer than 10 @,@ 000 exist worldwide . As of 2010 , there are estimated to be around 5 @,@ 000 Clydesdales worldwide , with around 4 @,@ 000 in the US and Canada , 800 in the UK and the rest in other countries , including Russia , Japan , Germany and South Africa .
= = Uses = =
The Clydesdale was originally used for agriculture , hauling coal in Lanarkshire and heavy hauling in Glasgow . Today , Clydesdales are still used for draught purposes , including agriculture , logging and driving . They are also shown and ridden , as well as kept for pleasure . Some of the most famous members of the breed are the teams that make up the hitches of the Budweiser Clydesdales . These horses were first owned by the Budweiser Brewery at the end of Prohibition in the United States , and have since become an international symbol of both the breed and the brand . The Budweiser breeding program , with its strict standards of colour and conformation , have influenced the look of the breed in the United States to the point that many people believe that Clydesdales are always bay with white markings . As well as being driven , some Clydesdales are used for riding and can be shown under saddle . Clydesdales and Shires are used by the British Household Cavalry as drum horses , leading parades on ceremonial and state occasions . The horses are eye @-@ catching colours , including piebald , skewbald and roan . To be used for this purpose , a drum horse must stand a minimum of 17 hands ( 68 inches , 173 cm ) high . They carry the Musical Ride Officer and two silver drums weighing 56 kilograms ( 123 lb ) each .
In the late 19th century , Clydesdale blood was added to the Irish draught breed in an attempt to improve and reinvigorate that declining breed . However , these efforts were not seen as successful , as Irish Draught breeders thought the Clydesdale blood made their horses coarser and prone to lower leg defaults . The Clydesdale was instrumental in the creation of the Gypsy Vanner horse , developed in Great Britain . The Clydesdale , along with other draught breeds , was also used to create the Australian Draught Horse . In the early 20th century , they were often crossed with Dales ponies , creating mid @-@ sized draught horses useful for pulling commercial wagons and military artillery .
= Fort Jackson ( Virginia ) =
Fort Jackson was an American Civil War @-@ era fortification in Virginia that defended the southern end of the Long Bridge , near Washington , D.C. Long Bridge connected Washington , D.C. to Northern Virginia and served as a vital transportation artery for the Union Army during the war . Fort Jackson was named for Jackson City , a seedy suburb of Washington that had been established on the south side of the Long Bridge in 1835 . It was built in the days immediately following the Union Army 's occupation of Northern Virginia in May 1861 . The fort was initially armed with four cannon used to protect the bridge , but these were removed after the completion of the Arlington Line , a line of defenses built to the south . After 1862 , the fort lacked weapons except for small arms and consisted of a wooden palisade backed by earthworks . Two cannon were restored to the fort in 1864 following the Battle of Fort Stevens . The garrison consisted of a single company of Union soldiers who inspected traffic crossing the bridge and guarded it from potential saboteurs .
Following the final surrender of the Confederate States of America in 1865 , Fort Jackson was abandoned . The lumber used in its construction was promptly salvaged for firewood and construction materials and , due to its proximity to the Long Bridge , the earthworks were flattened in order to provide easier access to Long Bridge . In the early 20th century , the fort 's site was used for the footings and approaches to several bridges connecting Virginia and Washington . Today , no trace of the fort remains , though the site of the fort is contained within Arlington County 's Long Bridge Park , and a National Park Service 2004 survey of the site indicated some archaeological remnants may still remain beneath the park .
= = Occupation of Arlington = =
Before the outbreak of the Civil War , Alexandria County ( renamed Arlington County in 1920 ) , the county in Virginia closest to Washington , D.C. , was a predominantly rural area . Part of the original ten @-@ mile @-@ square District of Columbia , the land now comprising the county was retroceded to Virginia in a July 9 , 1846 , act of Congress that took effect in 1847 . Most of the county is hilly , and at the time , most of the county 's population was concentrated in the city of Alexandria , at the far southeastern corner of the county . In 1861 , the rest of the county largely consisted of scattered farms , the occasional house , fields for grazing livestock , and Arlington House , owned by Mary Custis , wife of Robert E. Lee . The county was connected to nearby Washington via the Long Bridge , which spanned the Potomac River . On the river flats of the Virginia side of the river was Jackson City , a seedy entertainment district named after President Andrew Jackson and home to several racetracks , gambling halls , and saloons .
Following the surrender of Fort Sumter in Charleston , South Carolina , on April 14 , 1861 , President Abraham Lincoln declared that " an insurrection existed " , and called for 75 @,@ 000 troops to be called up to quash the rebellion . The move sparked resentment in many other southern states , which promptly moved to convene discussions of secession . The Virginia State Convention passed " an ordinance of secession " and ordered a May 23 referendum to decide whether or not the state should secede from the Union . The U.S. Army responded by creating the Department of Washington , which united all Union troops in the District of Columbia and Maryland under one command .
Brigadier General J.F.K. Mansfield , commander of the Department of Washington , argued that Northern Virginia should be occupied as soon as possible in order to prevent the possibility of the Confederate Army mounting artillery on the hills of Arlington and shelling government buildings in Washington . He also urged the erection of fortifications on the Virginia side of the Potomac River to protect the southern terminuses of the Chain Bridge , Long Bridge , and Aqueduct Bridge . His superiors approved these recommendations , but decided to wait until after Virginia voted for or against secession .
On May 23 , 1861 , Virginia voted by a margin of 3 to 1 in favor of leaving the Union . That night , U.S. Army troops began crossing the bridges linking Washington , D.C. to Virginia . The march , which began at 10 p.m. on the night of the 23rd , was described in colorful terms by the New York Herald two days later :
There can be no more complaints of inactivity of the government . The forward march movement into Virginia , indicated in my despatches last night , took place at the precise time this morning that I named , but in much more imposing and powerful numbers .
About ten o 'clock last night four companies of picked men moved over the Long Bridge , as an advance guard . They were sent to reconnoitre , and if assailed were ordered to signal , when they would have been reinforced by a corps of regular infantry and a battery ....
At twelve o 'clock the infantry regiment , artillery and cavalry corps began to muster and assume marching order . As fast as the several regiments were ready they proceeded to the Long Bridge , those in Washington being directed to take that route .
The troops quartered at Georgetown , the Sixty @-@ ninth , Fifth , Eighth and Twenty @-@ eighth New York regiments , proceeded across what is known as the chain bridge , above the mouth of the Potomac Aqueduct , under the command of General McDowell . They took possession of the heights in that direction .
The imposing scene was at the Long Bridge , where the main body of the troops crossed . Eight thousand infantry , two regular cavalry companies and two sections of Sherman 's artillery battalion , consisting of two batteries , were in line this side of the Long Bridge at two o 'clock .
The occupation of Northern Virginia was peaceful , with the exception of the town of Alexandria . There , as Colonel Elmer E. Ellsworth , commander of the New York Fire Zouaves ( 11th New York Volunteer Infantry Regiment ) , entered a local hotel to remove the Confederate flag flying above it , he was shot and killed by James Jackson , the proprietor . Ellsworth was one of the first men killed in the American Civil War .
= = Planning and Construction = =
Over 13 @,@ 000 men marched into northern Virginia on May 25 , bringing with them " a long train of wagons filled with wheelbarrows , shovels , & c . " These implements were put to work even as thousands of men marched further into Virginia . Engineer officers under the command of then @-@ Colonel John G. Barnard accompanied the army and began building fortifications and entrenchments along the banks of the Potomac River in order to defend the bridges that crossed it . By sunrise on the morning of the 24th , ground had already been broken on the first two forts comprising the Civil War defenses of Washington — Fort Runyon and Fort Corcoran . Within a week , other , smaller forts had sprung up as supporting works . Fort Jackson , built to the northeast of Fort Runyon , and armed with four cannon , was one of these .
Owing to its large physical size and extensive armament , Fort Runyon was intended to be the primary fort defending the Long Bridge . Fort Jackson , located at the southern end of the bridge , received four cannon and was intended as a guard post for soldiers inspecting civilian traffic crossing the bridge and to detour any Confederate saboteurs that might attempt to destroy the bridge . To man the fort 's four guns , 60 artillerymen were assigned , bringing the total garrison to 200 men .
= = Wartime use = =
On July 14 , 1861 , Company E of the 21st New York Volunteer Infantry was assigned to garrison Fort Jackson . On August 31 , the 21st New York was ordered to Fort Cass , Virginia , and was later involved in the Second Battle of Bull Run . No information exists on the unit that replaced it in garrisoning Fort Jackson .
Following the completion of the Arlington Line , which was built several miles to the southwest of Fort Jackson , atop the heights of Arlington , the maintenance of Forts Jackson and Runyon was neglected . The two forts had largely been made redundant by the newer , stronger works atop the hills , and it was believed that neither played a crucial role any longer in the defenses of Washington . Fort Jackson was kept in service only as an inspection station for traffic crossing Long Bridge .
= = = Railroad and rebuilding = = =
In 1863 , a new railroad bridge was constructed adjacent to the Long Bridge as part of a plan to strengthen the logistics of the Army of the Potomac as it operated in northern Virginia . An extension of the Orange and Alexandria Railroad , the bridge would be used until the turn of the century before being replaced . Owing to the weight of the railroad and the weak strength of the bridge , no locomotives were allowed on the bridge . Prior to crossing the Potomac , the train would detach its locomotive and be pulled across the bridge by a team of horses .
In order to provide space for the railroad tracks , the gates of Fort Jackson had to be removed . These were eventually replaced , but the wide opening needed for the tracks proved to have a detrimental effect on the fort 's defensive ability . An 1864 report by Lt. Col. Barton S. Alexander , the aide de camp to Gen. John Gross Barnard , chief engineer of the defenses of Washington , described the way Fort Jackson had been allowed to fall into disrepair :
The defense of the bridge is very imperfect , owing to the dilapidation and decay of Fort Jackson . The railroad cuts through the parapet and there are no gates except at turnpike entrance . The railroad crosses the ditch of the fort on a bridge which is not floored , but an enemy could soon cover it so as to make it passable . Cavalry could also ride around to the lower side of the fort and come in on the bridge .
To fix the problems at Fort Jackson , Alexander recommended the addition of an artillery section , a second company of infantry , and various improvements to the fort itself . Spurred in part by the Confederate attack on Fort Stevens north of Washington , several improvements were made , including the restoration of gates that had been removed when the railroad line was constructed . Gen. Christopher Columbus Augur , commander of the Department of Washington , recommended that Fort Jackson be assigned two light guns as armament during the reconstruction .
= = Post @-@ war use = =
After the surrender of General Robert E. Lee 's Army of Northern Virginia on April 9 , 1865 , the primary reason for manned defenses protecting Washington ceased to exist . Initial recommendations by Colonel Barton S. Alexander , then @-@ chief engineer of the Washington defenses , were to divide the defenses into three classes : those that should be kept active ( first @-@ class ) , those that should be mothballed and kept in a reserve state ( second @-@ class ) , and those that should be abandoned entirely ( third @-@ class ) . Due to its rear @-@ area nature and the fact that inspections were no longer needed to protect the Long Bridge against sabotage , Fort Jackson fell into the third @-@ class category .
The lumber used in the construction of Fort Jackson was either sold for salvage or scavenged by squatters , most of whom were freed slaves traveling north in a search for new lives following the ending of slavery in the United States . Many settled in the area of the former Fort Runyon , and it seems likely that the lumber of Fort Jackson would have been a ready source of firewood .
All the forts around or overlooking the city are dismantled , the guns taken out of them , the land resigned to its owners . Needy negro squatters , living around the forts , have built themselves shanties of the officers ' quarters , pulled out the abatis for firewood , made cord wood or joists out of the log platforms for the guns , and sawed up the great flag @-@ staffs into quilting poles or bedstead posts ... The strolls out to these old forts are seedily picturesque . Freedmen , who exist by selling old horse @-@ shoes and iron spikes , live with their squatter families where , of old , the army sutler kept the canteen ; but the grass is drawing its parallels nearer and nearer the magazines . Some old clothes , a good deal of dirt , and forgotten graves , make now the local features of war . "
By the turn of the century , the site of Fort Jackson had become the footings for a new railroad bridge , constructed in 1903 . Three years later , a road bridge was constructed just to the west . A brickworks was also located nearby , sometimes utilizing the clay that formed the bastions of Fort Runyon as raw material for the bricks that would later go into the walls of Washington homes . These projects obliterated what little trace there was of Fort Jackson .
Today , a CSX Corporation railroad bridge runs through the site of Fort Jackson , and the Potomac shoreline just south of the bridge is being studied by the National Park Service as one possible site for an Arlington County boathouse . Just south of the federal George Washington Memorial Parkway , between the CSX tracks and I @-@ 395 , is Arlington County 's Long Bridge Park . The northern end of the park , not yet developed for recreational use , may include part of the site of Fort Jackson . A National Park Service study commissioned during the ongoing review of potential boathouse sites included an observation that historical artifacts from Fort Jackson may still be present at the site .
= Roadrunners ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Roadrunners " is the fourth episode of the eighth season and the 165th episode overall of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . " Roadrunners " is a " Monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ Week " story , unconnected to the series ' wider mythology . The episode first aired in the United States on November 26 , 2000 on Fox and on March 1 , 2001 on Sky1 in the United Kingdom and Ireland . It was written by Vince Gilligan and directed by Rod Hardy . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 and was watched by 13 @.@ 6 million households . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from television critics .
The series centers on FBI special agents Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) and her new partner John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) — following the alien abduction of her former partner , Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) — who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . In this episode , Scully , working alone , pursues a cult that worship a slug @-@ like organism and believe it to be the Second Coming of Jesus Christ ; but in her efforts to save an injured stranger , she discovers she is in over her head .
The episode was written by Gilligan to be intentionally " creepy " . Furthermore , Gilligan wanted to show the audience that John Doggett was a good person and an ally of Scully 's . The parasitic creature that was used in the episode was designed to look like a banana slug and was created via animatronics . Several of the scenes were so gruesome that producer Paul Rabwin later noted that some of the cameramen " start [ ed ] to lose it " during filming .
= = Plot = =
In the desert near Cedar City , Utah , a hitchhiker catches a ride from a passing bus , which soon stops without explanation . The hitchhiker watches a man with crutches leave the bus , joined by the other passengers . Following them , he sees them stone the man to death . They later surround the hitchhiker as he futilely tries to escape .
FBI special agent Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) goes to investigate the murder . The victim , a twenty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old backpacker , now shows signs of body decay usually associated with old age . Later , at a pay @-@ phone , she asks her partner , John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , to check the X @-@ Files for cases mentioning glycoproteins . While discussing the case with Doggett , the bus passes her , and she follows it to a gas station in the middle of the desert . A man with an injured hand learns that she is a medical doctor and fills her car with gasoline laced with water . Scully returns to the gas station and is told that rain got into the gas canisters .
The attendant tells Scully that Mr. Milsap is the only person with a working phone , but she discovers that the line is dead . Mr. Milsap offers Scully a room at the local boarding house , but Scully tries the rest of the town only to be ignored by everyone ; they are all too engrossed in Bible study groups . Disturbed by the turn of events , she keeps her gun close at hand . The next morning , Mr. Milsap tells Scully that there is a man who needs help downstairs . She goes with him and finds the hitchhiker from the teaser having a seizure . She advises them to take him to the hospital , but they pretend that they do not have any cars . While examining the man , Scully discovers a strange circular wound on his back . Meanwhile , Doggett calls the local sheriff and learns that Scully has not arrived yet , and so he sets out to find her .
The sick man begins to recover and Scully talks to him while the townspeople are gone . He does not seem to know who he is or how he arrived . She inspects his wound again and finds a lump moving along the man 's spine ; digging into the open wound , she pulls out a piece of a large worm . Scully talks with the hitchhiker , whose name is revealed to be Hank , about the creature and thinks she cannot get it out without killing him . Scully goes to find a car but , moments after leaving , Hank immediately tells the townspeople what she is up to and that " another swap " is needed . Concurrently , Doggett arrives in Utah and informs the Sheriff about a series X @-@ Files involving similar back wound and death by stoning .
Scully is eventually captured by the townspeople and the worm is inserted into her body . Eventually , Doggett finds Scully , cuts the worm out of her , and shoots the creature dead . Later , Scully is packing her things in the hospital when Doggett comes in to inform her about the trial of the cult members ; they are offering little defense except that they claim that they are being persecuted for their religious beliefs . Scully muses that they thought the worm was the Second Coming of Jesus Christ . She apologizes to Doggett for going out on the mission alone and promises to never do it again .
= = Production = =
= = = Writing = = =
" Roadrunners " was written by Vince Gilligan and was inspired by the 1955 thriller film Bad Day at Black Rock . The script , called " uncharacteristically brutal " for Gilligan — who had been noted for his comedic episodes like " Bad Blood " and " X @-@ Cops " — was written with the expressed intent to make , according to Gilligan , " a really all @-@ out scary , creepy , get under @-@ your @-@ skin — literally and figuratively — X @-@ File . " Furthermore , the episode was written to show the audience of The X @-@ Files that John Doggett was on the side of the heroes . Gilligan explained , " I wanted this gangbusters episode , one that showed Doggett was a good guy ; someone to be counted on . " Many fans were unhappy with Doggett 's condescension towards Scully during her apology . Robert Patrick , the actor who portrayed Doggett , however , had a different interpretation : " The whole essence of the scene was , ' Look , I 'm here for you . I 've got your back . We 're partners now . ' And you give that the weight of a marine saying to someone , ' I 'll jump on a grenade for you , so you can trust me . ' The idea was to really assure the fans that the show was continuing on . "
Several of the characters in the episode were named after real @-@ life individuals . The character of Hank was named after the brother of Vince Gilligan 's girlfriend , Holly . Mr. Milsap was named for famed singer @-@ songwriter Ronnie Milsap . Finally , Sheriff Ciolino was named after Gilligan 's mortgage broker .
= = = Directing = = =
The episode was directed by Rod Hardy , making it his first credit for the series . Hardy was offered the role after an unknown individual working at The X @-@ Files saw his TBS remake of the film High Noon . The parasitic creature that was used in the episode was created via animatronics and was designed to look like a banana slug . During the scene where the creature is inserted into Scully 's back , the production crew created a false fiberglass back for Gillian Anderson . To create the illusion that the creature was crawling up the body , the fiberglass was pressed against . Anderson later described the scene as " fun to shoot . " However , she did notice that the scene " was exhausting , though , struggling on that bed for so long . Not hogtied , but tied down , my arms to the headboard and my legs to the footboard . Paul Rabwin later noted that he had several cameramen " start to lose it " during the scene .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" Roadrunners " first aired in the United States on Fox on November 26 , 2000 . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 8 @.@ 3 , meaning that it was seen by 8 @.@ 3 % of the nation 's estimated households . The episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 37 million households , and 13 @.@ 6 million viewers . The episode ranked as the 38th most @-@ watched episode for the week ending November 26 . In the United Kingdom and Ireland , the episode made its first appearance on television on March 1 , 2001 on Sky1 . " Roadrunners " was the seventh most watched program that week and received 0 @.@ 67 million viewers . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " A desolate town . A bizarre cult . A horrifying ritual . And Scully may be the next victim . "
= = = Reviews = = =
" Roadrunners " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Den of Geek writer Juliette Harrisson named the episode the " finest stand @-@ alone episode " of the show 's eighth season . Harrisson praised the character development in " Roadrunners " and noted that the episode " effectively brings [ Scully and Doggett ] together as partners . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode four stars out of five . The two note that , " for the first half @-@ hour , this works as a slow burn horror story ... It 's the transition of Gillian Anderson 's performance from wry exasperation to outright paranoia ... which makes this so effective . " Shearman and Pearson did , however , slightly criticize the cutting of John Doggett 's role to a minimum . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " A – " and wrote that it " is an episode that ’ s dedicated to helping us move past the Mulder era . " He praised the creepiness of Gilligan 's script , as well as the characterization of Scully , writing that even though she is in a situation that is over her head , she is still smart in her attempts to escape ; he also praised Anderson 's acting . However , VanDerWerff was more critical of the final scene , noting that it made Doggett come across as " kind of an asshole " . Paul Spragg of Xposé wrote positively of the episode , saying it features a " return to the body horror stories that had worked so well in the early seasons " . Spragg added that " Roadrunners " is " certainly close " to the highly acclaimed first season episode " Ice " .
Not all reviews were positive . George Avalos and Michael Liedtke of the Knight Ridder Tribune wrote that the episode 's slug " continued the series ' fine tradition of monsters that made us queasy as we squirmed in our seats " . Despite enjoying the gore and the reality of Scully 's isolation , the two were critical of the cult 's motivations , writing that " we were given absolutely no clue as to why the Utah cult members believed the slug represented the Second Coming of Jesus Christ . " The two ultimately concluded that " Roadrunners " fell " well short of a classic . " Sarah Stegall highly criticized the episode , calling it " a bad mix of The Fly and The Kindred , with plenty of X @-@ Files classic paranoia but none of the finesse we 've seen before . " Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a scathing review and awarded it no stars out of four . She heavily derided the plot , sarcastically referring to Doggett as a " man 's man " and the parasite a " phallic @-@ shaped giant slug " . Furthermore , she criticized Scully 's actions to go off on an assignment without telling her partner . Dave Golder from SFX criticized the episode and called it a retread of the first season episode " Ice " .
= = = Work cited = = =
Hardy , Rod ( 2005 ) , " Vienen " : Commentary ( DVD ) , The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 4 – Super Soldiers : 20th Century Fox Home Entertainment
Hurwitz , Matt ; Knowles , Chris ( 2008 ) . The Complete X @-@ Files . Insight Editions . ISBN 1 @-@ 933784 @-@ 80 @-@ 6 .
Shearman , Robert ; Pearson , Lars ( 2009 ) . Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen . Mad Norwegian Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 9759446 @-@ 9 @-@ X.
= Christian Ramsay =
Christian Ramsay , Countess of Dalhousie informally Lady Dalhousie , née Broun ; 28 February 1786 – 22 January 1839 was a Scottish botanist and natural historian . She married the 9th Earl of Dalhousie and travelled with him when he was appointed Governor General of Canada and India . While travelling , she collected and catalogued many species of plants , presented scientific papers to societies and donated multiple collections to different botanical groups .
Lady Dalhousie was made an honorary member of the Botanical Society of Edinburgh and was its only female honorary member until her death . A genus of tropical plant , Dalhousiea , was named after her .
= = Family = =
Lady Dalhousie was born Christian Broun on 28 February 1786 at Coalstoun , the ancestral home of the Broun family near Haddington , East Lothian . She was the only child of Charles and Christian Broun . The Broun family had a history in the legal profession ; her father was an advocate and his father a judge , George Broun , Lord Coalstoun . On 14 May 1805 , she married the 9th Earl of Dalhousie and was styled Countess of Dalhousie .
Lady Dalhousie and her husband had three sons . Their eldest , George , was born 3 August 1806 , a captain in the 26th ( Cameronian ) Regiment of Foot , he died on 25 October 1832 . Their second son , Charles , died at nine years old . Their youngest , James , born 22 April 1812 , inherited his father 's title in 1838 and was created Marquess of Dalhousie in 1849 .
= = Scientific work = =
Lady Dalhousie was a keen botanist ; she catalogued plants on herbarium sheets , fully identified and complete with collection dates , notes on habitats and some with watercolour pictures she had painted . In 1824 , Lord Dalhousie co @-@ founded the Literary and Historical Society of Quebec . Lady Dalhousie 's catalogue of Canadian plants was included in the first issue of the society 's Transactions in 1829 . Lady Dalhousie presented a paper to them and donated her collection of Nova Scotian specimens as part of a herbarium in 1824 .
Lady Dalhousie donated her entire East Indian Herbarium to the Botanical Society of Edinburgh . The society noted its quality and made Lady Dalhousie an honorary member in 1837 ; at the time of her death she was the only female honorary member . Records of correspondence with Kew botanist , Sir William Hooker , include large collections of plants from Simla and Penang in 1831 . Her collections were included when Joseph Dalton Hooker compiled his Flora Indica .
= = Travels = =
When her husband was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Nova Scotia , she travelled with him and their three sons to Canada on the frigate HMS Forth . The family lived in Halifax , Nova Scotia for four years from 1816 to 1820 . Whilst there , Lady Dalhousie spent her time in the promotion of science . She toured the countryside with her husband , recommended improvements to farming and collected botanical items . She sent seeds to Dalhousie Castle for the gardens .
In 1820 , the family moved to Quebec , when her husband was appointed Governor General of British North America . Lady Dalhousie took on the traditional role of a governor 's wife , that of " Patron of literature and the arts " . She spent much time in high society and was known for her wit and satirical caricatures of society members . Once established , Lady Dalhousie and her friends started focusing on natural history and in particular cataloguing local botany .
In 1824 , the family returned to Dalhousie Castle and began plans for an extensive garden . Their gardener , Joseph Archibald , wrote of her that " few ... attained such proficiency as her ladyship in the science " . Plans for the garden were cut short as the family suffered severe financial losses when their agent went bankrupt . Although the garden was not completed , many of the North American plants had been planted and flowered for the first time in Great Britain . The family moved to a modest farm house in Sorel in 1826 and remained there until Lord Dalhousie was appointed Governor General and Commander @-@ in @-@ Chief of India in 1829 .
On the journey to India , the family stopped at Madeira , St. Helena and the Cape of Good Hope . At each place , Lady Dalhousie took time to collect plants and made a detailed catalogue of them . In 1831 she visited the foothills of Simla , along with Penang , near the Malay Peninsula .
= = Death and legacy = =
Lady Dalhousie died suddenly on 22 January 1839 in the home of Dean Ramsay aged 52 . One report mentions that she was so dedicated to her studies that she died with a list of plants in her hand . The collection that she and her husband had made was sold in 1985 ; parts went to the Nova Scotia Museum , the National Gallery of Canada , the Library and Archives Canada and the Provincial Archives of New Brunswick .
For her work in the classification of Indian botany , Robert Graham named a genus of Fabaceae , a flowering plant native to India , after her – Dalhousiea . One of the plants she sent to Graham was a new discovery , so he named the plant Asplenium dalhousiae after her . Sir William Hooker dedicated a volume of Curtis 's Botanical Magazine to her . Julia Catherine Beckwith , who is credited as Canada 's first writer of fiction , dedicated her first novel to her . Lady Dalhousie was the first owner of one of the " Philiadelphia " copies of Jane Austen 's Emma .
= Teresa Hsu Chih =
Teresa Hsu Chih ( 7 July 1898 – 7 December 2011 ) , or commonly known as Teresa Hsu ( Chinese : 许哲 ; pinyin : Xǔ Zhe ) was a Chinese @-@ born Singaporean social worker , known affectionately as " Singapore 's Mother Teresa " , in recognition for her active lifelong devotion in helping the aged sick and destitutes locally . The retired nurse was the founder of the non @-@ profit charities — Heart to Heart Service and the Home for the Aged Sick , one of the first homes for the aged sick in Singapore . She had been a social worker in China and Paraguay and a nurse in England , before coming to Singapore to start similar non @-@ profit charities since 1961 . As a supercentenarian , Hsu was still involved in charity work and was one of very few supercentenarians who were recognised for reasons other than their longevity . She had spent almost all her savings on feeding and housing the poor and the elderly , all of whom are younger than she was , but she herself led a simple and humble lifestyle . In 2005 , she received the Special Recognition Award from the Singapore government in recognition of her contribution to the country .
= = Early years = =
Hsu was reportedly born on 7 July 1898 , in Shantou prefecture of China , during the reign of the Manchu Qing Dynasty , although this has never been independently verified . When Hsu was young , her father walked out on the family for another woman . Her mother , who was illiterate , had to fend for the three girls and one brother singlehandedly . At 16 , her family moved to Penang in Malaya , where they worked as cleaners in a convent . As she did not want to be a cleaner all her life , Hsu asked the nuns there to allow her to study with the children , and they agreed . Combining study with work , she passed her Senior Cambridge examinations four years later . Equipped with a basic education , she ventured to Hongkong to work and , later , to Chongqing , China , where she became a secretary and bookkeeper at a German news agency in the 1930s . She quit her job to become a volunteer , helping the injured during the Sino @-@ Japanese War .
Recalling her inability to help the wounded people whom she saw during the Second World War , Hsu decided to become a nurse . As she was overaged at 47 , she wrote a request to the chief matron of the Nursing Council in London . Touched by Hsu 's sincerity and dedication , her application was accepted . She spent eight years in England doing nursing and another eight in Paraguay as a member of the German charity group Bruderhof , to start hospitals and homes for the aged there . In her mid @-@ 50s , she decided to return home to Penang to be with her mother . In Malaysia , she assisted her brother in starting the Assunta Foundation for the Poor in Ipoh . She also played a key role in the startup of three homes for the elderly and two homes for young girls and neglected children in Ipoh .
= = Home for the Aged Sick = =
In 1961 , she came to Singapore to live with her older sister , Ursula , late principal of the Convent of the Holy Infant Jesus in Bukit Timah . On seeing her dedication and commitment in helping the poor and sick , Ursula bought her a 0 @.@ 6 @-@ hectare piece of land at Jalan Payoh Lai in 1965 , so that Hsu could open the first home for the aged sick in Singapore . The two sisters ran the Home for the Aged Sick for five years . Ursula financed its operations with her pay , while Hsu managed it and made some extra cash by selling the harvest of 10 coconut trees and a dozen banana trees in the backyard .
The sisters converted a servants ' quarters and a bungalow into wards for their patients , but it became increasingly difficult to cope with the numbers . In 1970 , with about 100 patients , they approached the Rotary Club for funds . The Rotary Club agreed to finance the home on condition that the club take over the running of it . The sisters handed the deeds over to the Society for the Aged Sick , an association formed by the Rotary Club members . The society built three blocks to house the increasing number of residents and Hsu remained the home 's matron until 1980 , when she was asked to retire at 83 . Hsu moved into a three @-@ room apartment on the rooftop of the Home , built by the society . After her sister died , she left Hsu a sum of money which she was able to buy flats with — five in Singapore and two in Malaysia for those people who had no money and who were asked to move . When asked where all her compassion and deep caring came from , Hsu replied :
I must have got it from my mother because she was totally dedicated to the job she chose to do and that was looking after the family . I think that trait was passed down to us . I 've no family , so I look after everybody else . I choose to serve everybody else who comes to me — that is my job ... The world is my home , all living beings are my family , selfless service is my religion .
= = Heart to Heart Service = =
Shortly after she retired , Hsu set up the Heart to Heart Service with Sharana Yao , her co @-@ social worker , a non @-@ profit , non @-@ government aided welfare service which provides food , clothes and monthly cash contributions to those in need . With the help of volunteers who drive her around , she brought necessities to the homes of elderly women and destitutes in their 80s and 90s on public assistance , such as rice , sugar , biscuits , beverages and monthly cash allowances of between S $ 20 and S $ 180 . She got her rations and funds from various sources — merchants , people in the neighbourhood , church friends , and their friends . The needy get on Heart @-@ to @-@ Heart 's list based on good faith by word of mouth . In 2000 , a Straits Times reader wrote to comment on her selfless contributions to the society and urged the young to follow her example :
As we admire the grit , good humour and faith that Ms Hsu has , might we also ponder over a certain dilemma : Where are the Teresa Hsus of today ? Ms Hsu is at an age where most would have long retired , but she takes it upon herself to be of service to others , to those who are less fortunate than her . A society like Singapore requires a lot more individuals like this and we need them now ... We need to have more youths as volunteers or pursuing a career in social work as they will be the core of our society ... More publicity and attention must be drawn to volunteer opportunities and more must be done to recognise dedicated people like Ms Hsu . We cannot continue in our efforts of building a gracious society without strengthening volunteerism as a culture . There is little to be gained by being more cultured if we do not take the plight of the less fortunate into consideration .
= = Lifestyle = =
Hsu was still actively involved in charity work after turning 110 . An advocate of healthy living , Hsu often gave public talks at schools , welfare homes , and hospitals in Singapore and overseas about health and service to the needy . When asked about the secret of her good health and longevity , Hsu attributed her good health to a spartan lifestyle , vegetarian diet , and to her positive attitude towards life .
I prefer to laugh than to weep . Those people who cry to me , I always tell them it is better to laugh than to use tissue paper , as laughing is free but tissue paper still cost five @-@ cent . ' Ha ha ha ' cost no cents .
I saw fishes swimming happily in the water , and I ’ ve no rights to take their life to fill my stomach . When I was small , my parents said that fish was good to me . But they are already not around and I ’ m still here .
She would start her day at 4 am with calisthenics , meditation and an hour of yoga exercises . At night , she would do yoga again , then read until midnight . She picked up yoga at age 69 , when she bought a book titled Forever Young , Forever Healthy . She also taught yoga to the young and old at temples , associations , hospitals and schools . She ate sparely ; her breakfast was a glass of water or milk . Lunch was often milk and salad , unless " people bring me food " , and it was milk or yogurt for dinner . At home , she had a 2 @,@ 000 @-@ volume private library she called Prema , which in Sanskrit means " divine love " . Her final days were kept busy with trips to help needy senior citizens , reading and yoga practice at her sparsely @-@ furnished single @-@ storey house attached to the Society for the Aged Sick .
= = Death = =
Hsu died on Wednesday , 7 December 2011 , peacefully at home and was cremated on the same day without any rites , as instructed by her . She was probably the oldest living person in Singapore at the time of her death although the case of 114 years old Fadilah Noor Abbe appeared soon after the passing of Hsu .
= = Commendation = =
2009 aged 111 : Public Service Star
2006 aged 108 : Received the National Volunteer and Philanthropy Centre 's Special Recognition Award from Deputy Prime Minister S. Jayakumar .
2005 aged 107 : A photography exhibition was held to honour Hsu 's life and work at the Mica Building , from 6 July till 18 July , titled OneZeroSeven Photography Exhibition : Teresa Hsu Chih .
2004 aged 106 : Received the Sporting Singapore Inspiration Award from Dr Vivian Balakrishnan , Acting Minister for Community Development , Youth and Sports , for her devotion to the teaching of yoga .
2003 aged 105 : Honorary doctorate degree conferred by the University of Southern Queensland , Australia .
2003 aged 105 : Received the Active Senior Citizen of the Year Award from Chan Soo Sen , Minister of State ( Education , Community Development and Sports ) .
2002 aged 104 : Received a Honorary Doctorate Degree from the University of Southern Queensland , Australia .
1999 aged 101 : Received a one @-@ off Special Award at the Woman of the Year 1999 awards ceremony at the Raffles Hotel organised by Her World magazine .
1997 aged 99 : Named ' Hero for Today ' by the Chinese @-@ edition of the Reader 's Digest .
1994 aged 96 : Received the Community Service Award awarded by the Life Insurance Association for her contribution to community service .
1988 aged 90 : Guinness Stout Effort Award .
= October 2008 Central America floods =
The October 2008 Central America floods were caused by a series of low pressure areas including Tropical Depression Sixteen , a short @-@ lived tropical cyclone in the 2008 Atlantic hurricane season that made landfall in Honduras . Heavy rainfall began in early October 2008 while a tropical wave passed through the region . On October 14 , Tropical Depression Sixteen formed just off the northeast coast of Honduras , and at the same time a low pressure system was on the Pacific coast . Both systems increased rainfall across the region , although the depression dropped heavy rainfall close to its center when it moved ashore on October 15 . Although Tropical Depression Sixteen quickly dissipated over land , its remnants persisted for several days . Another low pressure area interacted with a cold front on October 21 , adding to the rainfall in the region .
Heavy rainfall extended from Costa Rica to southeastern Mexico , causing what was considered the worst natural disaster in the region since Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . In the former country , rainfall totaled 2 @,@ 100 mm ( 83 in ) over several weeks , making the week ending October 17 the wettest in San José since 1944 . Floods in Costa Rica damaged 32 bridges and roads in 174 locations , while 1 @,@ 396 homes were damaged , killing seven people . In Nicaragua to the north , weeks of heavy rainfall killed 16 people and damaged or destroyed 1 @,@ 333 houses . In Honduras where the tropical depression made landfall , rainfall reached 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) in some areas , although the highest official total there related to the depression was 360 mm ( 14 @.@ 19 in ) on the offshore Roatán over six days . About 40 % of municipalities in the country experienced flooding , forcing over 50 @,@ 000 people to leave their homes . The floods damaged about 50 % of roads in Honduras , and over 10 @,@ 000 houses were damaged or destroyed . Damage totaled about 3 billion lempiras ( HNL , $ 225 million USD ) , and there were 60 deaths .
In northern Guatemala , the floods damaged about 67 @,@ 000 ha ( 170 @,@ 000 acres ) of crop fields , accounting for Q128.9 million ( 2008 GTQ , $ 16 @.@ 8 million USD ) in crop damage . There were 17 deaths and about 4 @,@ 000 damaged houses in Guatemala . In neighboring El Salvador , the rains contributed to October 2008 being the third wettest month across the country , after Hurricane Stan in 2005 and Hurricane Mitch in 1998 . One person died , and hundreds were forced to evacuate their houses . In Belize , the rains flooded about 1 @,@ 000 homes , forcing the evacuation of one entire town due to health reasons . The rains caused additional flooding following Tropical Storm Arthur striking the country in May , damaging a bridge that was rebuilt after Arthur . Nationwide , the floods caused BZ $ 54 @.@ 1 million ( BZD , $ 27 @.@ 1 million USD ) in damage and two deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Widespread rainfall occurred throughout Central America in early October 2008 due to the passage of a tropical wave through the region . Later , another tropical wave approached the region , which was believed to have left the west coast of Africa on September 17 . The wave developed a low pressure area on October 10 in the southwestern Caribbean , with sporadic convection . On October 13 , the system consisted of a large area of convection drifting northward offshore eastern Central America , and Dvorak classifications began , indicating gradual organization . At that time , there was another low pressure area on the Pacific coast , and both systems were producing rainfall across Central America .
At 1200 UTC on October 14 , the National Hurricane Center ( NHC ) indicated that Tropical Depression Sixteen developed about 85 km ( 50 mi ) northeast of Cabo Gracias a Dios , a point where the border of Nicaragua and Honduras meet the Caribbean . In the hours after the depression 's formation , the convection decreased , and Hurricane Hunters indicated that the small low @-@ level circulation was rotating around a broader circulation . Shortly after 1200 UTC on October 15 , the weak tropical depression made landfall just west of Punta Patuca in northern Honduras , with a broad and ill @-@ defined circulation . Continuing west @-@ southwestward over land , the circulation dissipated on October 16 over the mountains of central Honduras , although the depression 's remnants continued to produce rainfall across the region for several days . On October 21 , a cold front was moving through the Yucatán peninsula , interacting with a newly formed low in the Gulf of Honduras to produce additional rainfall .
= = Preparations = =
Around the time when the NHC began issuing advisories on the depression , officials issued a tropical storm warning for northern Honduras that eventually covered the country 's entire coastline . A tropical storm warning was also issued for the coast of Belize . When the NHC began issuing advisories on the depression , the agency anticipated the depression would intensify into a strong tropical storm , based on low wind shear and warm sea surface temperatures ; however , the agency noted uncertainty in the track . A ridge to the north was expected to steer the nascent depression westward , and two tropical cyclone forecast models predicted the storm would continue west @-@ northwestward to strike Belize . Other models forecast a more immediate landfall , which would limit intensification . While the storm was active , officials in Honduras issued a yellow alert for seven departments where heavy rainfall had occurred . A nationwide yellow alert was also issued for El Salvador , meaning there was potential for flooding and landslides , although alerts were dropped on October 21 when the threat of rainfall diminished .
= = Impact = =
Although a weak tropical cyclone , the depression and its remnants dropped heavy rainfall across Central America for several days , spreading into Nicaragua , Honduras , Guatemala , and Belize . In Honduras where it made landfall , rainfall peaked at 360 mm ( 14 @.@ 19 in ) on the offshore Roatán over six days . A member from Mercy Corps estimated the rainfall in October to have totaled around 1 @.@ 2 m ( 4 ft ) in some areas . On the mainland , rainfall reached 266 mm ( 10 @.@ 47 in ) at El Empalme . In El Salvador , the depression dropped heavy rainfall , mainly in the southern coastal portion , with a 24 ‑ hour peak of 239 mm ( 9 @.@ 40 in ) in Puerto Parada en La Unión . Over a period of eight days , rainfall in Belize reached 547 mm ( 21 @.@ 52 in ) at Baldy Beacon . Rainfall extended as far north as southeastern Mexico . Throughout the region , the flooding destroyed about 10 @,@ 000 homes and left about 250 @,@ 000 people homeless . News agencies considered the flooding the worst in the region since Hurricane Mitch in 1998 .
According to Costa Rica 's National Meteorology Institute , the week ending on October 17 was the wettest in San José since 1944 . Over a period of several weeks , rainfall reached about 2 @,@ 100 mm ( 83 in ) . The influence between the precursor to the depression and a low pressure area in the eastern Pacific caused flooding in Costa Rica that killed seven people . In Guanacaste Province , a landslide covered three cars , and in Monteverde , another landslide knocked over a power line that killed
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